Class L A "^ I ^ Book JV\3 Copyright N" cocaouGHT oEPosur. LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS BY JAMES F. MCCULLOUGH THE ECONOMIC PRESS GENEVA ILLINOIS 1922 Printed in the United States of America Copyright. 1922, bt James F. McCuUough atlff Cdnllrgiatr iprtaa GEORGE BANTA PUBLISHING COMPANY MENASHA, WIS. To My Dear Wife Without Whose Aid and Encouragement This Book Could Not Have Been Written PREFACE The aim of the author of this book is to awaken the individual citizen to a keener reahzation of his right, and of his duty to participate in the organization, direction, and control of those of our organized activi- ties and institutions, — civic, political, philanthropic, financial, and educational, — which are so essential to the general welfare of the people. On account of its relative importance, more space has been devoted to subject of the public schools than to all the other institutions combined, I wish to thank all those who have aided me in my work by answering my inquiries, furnishing infor- mation, statistics, pamphlets, salary schedules, reports of expenditures, budget estimates, etc. I acknowledge my debt of gratitude to those who rendered substantial service by reading and criticizing the manuscript. Acknowledgment is due to the publishers of LIFE for permission to quote from Gluyas WiUiams' Senator Sounder article describing some of the inside workings of the senate committee on the tariff. In the preparation of "A Historical Sketch" of the schoolbook publishing business, the author has quoted freely from that scholarly pamphlet, "An Address Delivered before The School Book Publishers' Associa- tion, 1899" by the late Mr. D. C. Heath, a successful and highly respected school book publisher. b A word of explanation should be made with regard to those Chapters dealing with the "School Book VI LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Question." They, with others, were written with the intention of pubHshing them in a separate volume under the title, "The School Book Question." But when it was decided to include that subject in this book, it became necessary to eliminate substantially half of the original material to bring it within the available space. Much to the regret of the writer, he had to leave out a number of amusing incidents, stories, and personal tributes to some of those resourceful, talented, and lovable characters among the school book men. The author lays no claim to literary training. He is conscious of many crudities of diction, and of viola- tions of the simple rules of composition, for which he must ask the charitable indulgence of the reader. His one desire has been to deliver his message as forcefully and sincerely as he feels it. CONTENTS Chapter Page I. Introduction 1 Menacing Tendencies 1 II. Centralization of Control 15 Political Parties 15 Institutionalized Hospitals 20 Centralized Authority in Churches 33 Domination of Business Corporations ... 38 The Brightwood Hotel Project 39 Financing PubHc Service Corporations . . 52 Preferred Shares of Stock 66 III. The Administration of Public Schools ... 70 State Departments of Education 70 State and National Aid for Education ... 73 State Department of Education of Ala- bama 83 State Department of Education of New York 85 The University of the State of New York . 86 Pennsylvania's State School System 96 State School System of Massachusetts ... 103 The State School System of Connecticut. 104 State Department of Education of Wis- consin 105 State Department of Education of Min- nesota 106 State Department of Education of Texas . 107 State Department of Education of Cali- fornia 112 vTii CONTENTS Chapter Page IV. Political Domination of City School Sys- tem 135 Extravagant Dissipation of School Funds. 139 Some Random Items of Expenditures .... 149 An Urgent Plea for Economy 155 A Basis for Apportionment of School Funds 158 A Schedule of Items of School Budget Offered 160 V. The Salary Question 162 The Unjustifiable Disparity in Salaries. . 162 A Basis for the Equitable Adjustment of Salaries of Teachers, Principals, and Superintendents 184 VI. The Supreme Importance of the Class- room Teacher in any Scheme of Edu- cation 189 Two Hypothetical Cases 191 VII. The Social, Professional, and Economic Status of the School Teacher 203 A National Citizens Conference on Edu- cation 203 The Social Status of the Teacher 214 The Professional Status of the Teacher. . 221 The Economics Status of the Teacher . . . 233 VIII. The School Book Question 234 A Preliminary Historical Sketch 234 Three Typical State Schoolbook Adop- tions 239 The Missouri Schoolbook Adoption of 1897 239 The Indiana, and the Tennessee State Adoptions of 1899 248 CONTENTS IX Chapter Page Indiana State Adoption 248 Tennessee State Adoption 256 IX. County Uniformity Adoptions 266 Iowa County Adoptions 267 South Dakota County Adoptions 273 Illinois County Adoptions 279 X. City Schoolbook Adoptions 281 Chicago Schoolbook Adoptions 281 Minneapolis Adoptions 297 Cleveland Adoptions 307 XI. On State Uniformity of Schoolbooks .... 312 A State Uniformity School Shoe Law. . . 314 XII. The Futility of Schoolbook Legislation ... 334 Alabama State Adoption of 1918 351 Mississippi State Adoption of 1920 354 XIII. A Proposed Solution of the Schoolbook Question 360 CHAPTER I Introduction menacing tendencies The very foundations of our most cherished institu- tions — popular representative government, philan- thropic and religious organizations, social and economic justice, and the public schools — are threatened by the following menacing tendencies: Concentration of wealth, authority, domination, and control into the hands of fewer and fewer favored individuals. The assumption of sovereign governmental func- tions and authority by organized minorities of citizens, or citizens and foreigners. And, the seeming supine indifference of the average citizen to, and his acquies- cence in, the usurpation of his inalienable rights, privi- leges and responsibilities. Powerful organizations formed for the advancement and profit of their own members flout the rights of the public, and defy the authority of the government with seeming impunity. Any organization which assumes, and is permitted to exercise authority to operate, or to prohibit the operation of any railroad or any other means of com- munication of a country, is the de facto government of that country. In the same sense, any organization which through its officials assumes to dictate what man or class of men shall be permitted to work, and what man or class of men shall not be permitted to persue their usual lawful occupations in any nation, state. 2 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS city, county, township or village, is the de facto govern- ment of that nation, state, city, county, township or village ! That business agent who serves notice upon a private citizen that he must employ a man or any number of men from any particular class or organization, and that he shall not be permitted to employ another man of his own choosing, and who enforces his commands, exer- cises superior autocratic authority to that ever exercised by any State or Federal Court through the injunction, however arbitrary and "Sweeping" this court command may have seemed at the time. The Court's Injunction goes no further than to command the person or persons to whom directed, to refrain from doing some specified act which might interfere with the legal rights of another. This is as far as the Courts may go. But these ofiicials of ahove-the-law organizations issue and in most instances, to our shame, are per- mitted to enforce their mandates preventing law abiding citizens from exercising their undisputed legal privileges and duties! The great body of law abiding citizens who make up the vast majority of the American people, does not seem to possess sufficient class consciousness to enable it to defend itself from spoliation and civic humiliation. How common are the reports in the public press of any where from one to twenty men being held up, terror stricken, robbed and beaten by one lone high- wayman armed with an ordinary pistol! Why.'^ They have been taught to fear a man, or a boy with a gun ! The marauding and preying class understanding this timidity and group cowardice, takes advantage of it in the persuit of its criminal schemes. This is the pitiable condition of the people in Russia MENACING TENDENCIES 3 today. A comparatively small band of well organized adventurers, having seized the arms, ammunition, the food supply, and the rail-roads, dominates, coerces, and despoils eighty millions of people, all that are left of one hundred seventy millions. A peaceable, industrious, frugal, and home loving people are ruthlessly plundered of their savings, their food supplies, their seed grain, and left to all the horrors of starvation in their famine stricken land! There is no such thing left in Russia as individual and commu- nity initiative. The individual and the mass of individ- uals are cowed by their criminal dictators, supported by their plundering, mercenary armies. We seem to be drifting toward the same condition of affairs in this country. It is a fact, well understood by thoughtful men, that a small body of men with evil design organized and armed for the purpose could take physical possession of New York City, its police, ar- senals, railroad terminals, ferries, docks and ware- houses. Now let us suppose that the master mind of the dictators should offer the criminally inclined the privi- lege of unrestrained pillage and rapine on condition that they join their army; that the food supply is in their hands and none but their loyal followers may eat. You would have Petrograd and Moscow over again ! Any city of a million population or less might be taken, including its poHce force, its people over-awed and cowed by an armed force of less than one thousand men, placed at strategic points and acting in concert. The law abiding citizens are not armed, while the criminal class and the criminally inclined are always armed and amply supplied with ammunition. In most of our states they have laws patterned 4 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS after the iniquitous "Sullivan Law" of New York State. The practical effect of this law has been to disarm all law-abiding citizens, and to arm and outfit every vicious criminal for the safer pursuit of his nefarious business. It is safe to assume that this law, and similar laws in the other states, must have had the influential backing of the Ancient and Accepted Order of Footpads, Bur- glars and Yeggman, and of its criminal lawyers who thrive upon the loot and plunder of its active members ! These laws make it a criminal offense for a private citizen to own, possess or to carry any sort of a weapon of defense, or to use any such weapon either for defend- ing his family, his home, or his own person. Should a private citizen so far forget the "Sullivan Law" and its powerful backing as to attempt to defend himself with a good reliable automatic pistol, his assailant could have him arrested. The thug could appear, with his criminal lawyer, as the prosecuting witness ! It is a crime in New York for an honest citizen to resist suc- cessfully the demands of a duly authorized and recog- nized member of the A. A. O. F. B. & Y. It must have been under some similar stress of con- ditions that the Second Amendment to the Constitution of the United States was submitted to the States and ratified, which amendment clearly states that, — "the right of the people to bear arms shall not be infringed." The right to bear arms is a sacred right; and the laws should protect its citizens in that right. Our government should encourage the people to own fire arms and not only that, it should encourage the young men and women to learn to handle a rifle and a pistol, and to use them effectively! MENACING TENDENCIES 5 Every boy should be instructed and carefully trained in the manly art of self defense. What we need in this country more than any other one thing, is less individual and community timidity, and more men and women of intelligence, moral cour- age, and the physical prowess that will enable them to stand foursquare for the defense and maintenance of their political, civic, and economic rights and privi- leges. A community, county, city, state, or the Nation is no stronger than the sum total of its individual citizens. The great body of law-abiding, straightforward, self-supporting citizens give too little attention, time, thought, and money to the subject of practical politics. There is no other one subject of more immediate and vital importance to the liberty loving citizen than the question of good government. There is no greater impending calamity than the threatened destruction of our representive free government at the hands of weak and sordid minded officials, their subservient ap- pointees, and their masters, the professional political bosses, supported by their mercenary tax-consuming hordes of contractors, supply concerns, experts, political attorneys, investigators, and sundry others of their tribe, too numerous to specify. In its organization, intent, and purpose, this govern- ment of ours is supposed to be a Representative Repub- lic. Outside of the original Town Meeting, in those scattered communities where that "School of practical politics" has survived, it is a mistake to call our form of government a Democracy. According to the fundamental laws of the land, the source of all governmental authority is the expressed will of a majority of the people. But as a matter of fact, 6 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the people are governed, or misgoverned, by officials and representatives selected by a very small minority of the legal voters, and by an ever increasing army of officious officials for whose selection and appointment the people have no voice, theoretically nor actually. These officials, however or by whomsoever chosen and appointed, are clothed with authority to enact and to enforce laws, to sit in judgment over the property and civil rights, the personal liberty, and even the lives of the people; to levy and collect taxes, fees, penalties, and fines of all sorts and descriptions; to issue and to sell bonds; and to appropriate and spend all public funds! And yet, the great majority of the intelligent, industrious, self-supporting, and law-abiding citizens hardly gives a passing thought, and takes no active part, in the selection and choice of honest and capable persons to stand as candidates for these important positions of responsibility and trust. It is a well known fact that those people most inter- ested in the distribution of political favors and patron- age, are the most active and effective political workers; and that those men who are selfishly interested in the expenditure of public funds, dominate and control the nominations of candidates for public office. The party candidates are usually chosen at private caucus meetings of the party committee and the party leaders, or the dominant party faction leader. It is in these caucus meetings, that the question is settled as to who shall and who shall not be permitted to run for office, or at any rate, which candidates shall be given the support of the party organization, or of some par- ticular faction of that party. It is evident that the candidate must submit to all the demands of the caucus members, and satisfy these MENACING TENDENCIES 7 important personages that in return for the support of the "Organization," he will acknowledge his obligation to that "Organization" or to the particular faction of that "Organization." He must satisfy these party bosses as to his loyalty to the "Organization." This means, in practical politics, that the candidate, if elected to oflfice, will be "open to suggestions, and amenable to reason!" In other words, that in his official acts, appointments, and decisions he will be governed by the wishes of his political sponsors. Under these conditions, is it surprising that can- didates of doubtful ability, questionable integrity, and pliable civic scruples, are so frequently chosen by these political bosses ! Men of too strict integrity, civic honesty, moral force, and independence of thought and action are not favorites with political manipulators because they are less likely to submit to the dictation of selfishly inter- ested political bosses. As stated before, the candidates are usually chosen at more or less secret conferences, or caucuses of political party leaders and their henchmen, before the day of the primaries. The great body of the membership of the political parties have had no voice in the selection of any of the candidates on their tickets. The voters are solicited and urged to "Turn out and vote," and thus ratify the party nominations ! A typical illustration of this condition of political affairs, is furnished by the campaign for the choice of candidates at the Primary election in Illinois in the spring of 1922. On the Republican ticket, there were three factions each urging the voters to support their particular can- 8 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS didates, and all of these factional leaders working either to capture, or to hold the control of the party "Organi- zation": The Thonipson-Liindin faction, representing the mayor and his City Hall "Organization" in the city of Chicago and in Cook county ; and in the State, the same "Organization," known as the Thompson-Lundin-Small faction, was making a desperate fight to secure the nomination of its candidates for the State Legislature. It was apparent that this faction was concentrating its efforts upon this one object; the Crow-Brundage faction, headed and sponsored by the States attorney of Cook County, and the Attorney General of Illinois, had its candidates all down the line, — for city, county, and state offices; and, the Deneen faction, headed and sponsored by ex-Governor Deneen. It is beside our purpose to comment upon the issues and the rival claims of these three political factions, further than to direct the reader's attention to the sig- nificant fact that that great body of Republican voters who must earn their living outside of politics, and upon whose votes these party leaders must depend to elect their favored candidates had no voice in the choice of the candidates for the offices or for the party organization committees ! The conditions were substantially the same in the Democratic party. There were the "Regulars," and "The Citizens" factions in the City, and in the County. Another significant fact worthy of note is that all of these party factions are headed and dominated by office holders or professional politicians ! The original theory of our government, that its public officials are honored public servants, seems to have been lost sight of both by the people and their MENACING TENDENCIES 9 public servants. No sooner is a governor elected than he sets about building up a "Machine" or an "Organi- zation" to control the Legislature, an independent branch of the government. His excuse is that as gover- nor, he is the responsible head of his political party ! The same position is assumed by the mayors of the larger cities; and the presumption is not unheard of in National affairs ! It is a serious question whether or not all public officials and government employees should not be excluded from all participation in political party affairs. Certainly, no office holder or government appointee, or employee should be eligible to sit as a delegate in a political convention, and surely not as a member of a Constitutional Convention ! The organization and management of a political party should be free from the domination and control of office holders, and their appointees. Some students of politics and government go so far as to advocate the disfranchisement of all office holders, and their appointees and employees. Whether this is advisable or practicable or not, is a question; but there is no doubt but that some means will have to be found to curb the domination of political parties by office holders who have been raised to their positions of honor and trust by the favor of their political party. This separation of all office holders, their appointees, and political henchmen from participation in the affairs of the political party which elected them would tend to free the political parties from the domination and control of the office holding class and the office holders' personal organizations. This would be a long step toward the reinstatement of representative free, — "government of the people, by the people, and for the people !" 10 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS As deplorable and menacing as this tendency toward oflBcial usurpation of authority has become, the people have no one to blame but themselves. The people who should take the initiative in civic and politi- cal affairs, shun and neglect to perform their duty, and shift the responsibility to other shoulders. If those citizens who ought to take an active and aggressive part in the nomination and election of candidates for office would exercise their right and duty, there would soon be a noticeable improvement in our political affairs. The great obstacle to be overcome is the timidity of the majority of the law-abiding citizens who make their living outside of politics. They fail to show the requisite amount of moral courage and physical stamina to enable them to meet the arrogant opposition of or- ganized political strategists. Right here is where our boasted universal suffrage falls short in practice. Graft, under the cover of its many disguises and devices is the malignant canker gnawing at the vitals of our political, social, and economic life. Graft and insatiable greed for money are a growing menace to our civilization. It was graft that destroyed the great Russian Em- pire. It was graft in Russian official life that made it possible for Japan to defeat and humiliate that once powerful nation. The Russian people had been heavily taxed for years to build and equip modern dreadnaughts and other ships of war; to purchase and manufacture field and heavy artillery, rifles and equipment for large armies, and to build armories and army barracks; in short, to make every preparation for war. MENACING TENDENCIES 11 It is an open secret that the vast sums of appro- priated funds were spent and dissipated, and after war was declared the fact came to light that Russia had made very Httle preparation for war! The dreadnaughts that had been dearly purchased and paid for, named, equipped, and manned — on paper — had no material existence! In the great storage yards where the unmounted cannon were supposed to be kept in readiness for im- mediate mounting for use when needed, there were found acres covered with wooden cannon, turned from logs to look like real cannon! These dummy cannon had all passed inspection and all exacting vouchers were, "officially examined and found correct!" Similar conditions were found to exist in other military equip- ment and army supplies. This simply means that the appropriations of the hard earned tax money of the people were spent, presumably, for war ships, arms and munitions, army supplies of all sorts, in regular routine manner, the vouchers all properly examined, found correct, and officially signed ; but only a mere fractional part of the very essential materials were ever delivered ! The potentially great Russian Empire was defeated and doomed to destruction as the direct consequences of graft. It is generally known that in the late World War, the brave soldiers of the Russian armies were defeated, massacred, and practically annihilated by the German armies under the generalship of Hindenburg, partly because the Russian soldiers were practically without arms, ammunition, food, and other essential equipment; but mainly for the reason that these millions of men upon whom the destiny of Russia depended were 12 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS deliberately sent to the slaughter by grafting govern- ment high officials! Graft had honeycombed the whole Russian bureau- cratic official body politic. Graft had infinitely more to do with the downfall of the Russian Empire than czarism, anarchy, com- munism, and bolshevism combined ! The indescribably wretched conditions in Russia today are but the logical outcome of long years of despotic, centralized, bureaucratic rule in which the official life was permeated with insatiable greed for more power, and for larger opportunities for graft ! The Bolsheviki terrorist dictatorship is the ille- gitimate offspring of that old debauched official life. Graft has been done away with, but at what a fearful cost in money, human life, public and private property, and individual and national honor and honesty! There is no further excuse for the official grafter. The officials simply take private property with government approval, and human life as well whenever there is any slight pretext for doing so. The major crimes as listed in civilized countries are re- garded as practical morality by the Bolsheviki ! Graft is a much more serious menace to the people of this country than all the Emma Goldmans, Alexan- der Berkmans, "Bill" Heywoods, anarchists, commun- ists, I. W. W.'s and other destructive radical classes combined. The grafter, and this term includes the giver as well as the taker, is the most insidious and dangerous enemy of organized society. The word "graft" is used in its generally accepted meaning in this country as the "Acquisition of money, position, promotion, etc., by dishonest or unjust means MENACING TENDENCIES 13 as by actual theft or by taking advantage of public office or of position of trust or employment to obtain fees, perquisites, profits on contracts, or legislation, pay for work not done or service not performed etc. ; illegal or unfair practice for personal advantage; also any- thing thus gained." — Webster's New International Dictionary. The aim of the writer has been to direct the atten- tion of the public to some of the most insidious abuses and destructive tendencies that threaten to undermine the very foundations of our American Public Schools; and to suggest a possible line of action that would correct these abuses, and check these evil tendencies. In order to do this more effectively, it has seemed necessary to call attention to sunilar abuses and destructive tendencies in other departments of govern- ment, and in the management and control of other pub- lic and semi-public institutions. For after all, the abuses and the threatening tendencies in the manage- ment and control of the public schools, are only puny imitations of the more flagrant abuses and destructive tendencies that have grown up and become entrenched in the other departments of government; and in the management and control of other institutions. Criticism, however candid and well meant, should be constructive if its object is to prove helpful in the per- manent improvement of the administration of civic, political, and economic affairs. For this reason, criticism has been directed at abuses rather than at individuals, for after all is said and done, are not those in positions of trust and authority our chosen agents and representatives? And, considering our part in their nomination and election, do they not render as efficient service as we have any right to expect ! 14 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS There are a great many high minded, honest, devoted and unselfish men and women in the pubhc service. There are and have been many honorable and honored statesmen and public officials whose unselfish devotion to the service is above suspicion. These worthy men and women deserve and should be given the sincere gratitude of all friends of liberty and good government. The difference between a well-ordered and honest- ly-administered government, and a dishonestly and mal- administered government, is the difference between light and darkness; virtue and vice; and truth and a lie! The kind of government all depends upon the civic ideals, and the moral character of those chosen to administer that government! CHAPTER II CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL There is the ever present temptation in all organized human institutions gradually, but inevitably to cen- tralize the domination and control into the hands of fewer and fewer individuals. The plausible pretext used by those seeking to obtain authority, domination, and control is expressed in the well worn phrases, "Strengthening the organ- ization," and "Unifying and simplifying the organi- zation!" POLITICAL PARTIES A common and familiar illustration of the deadening effect of assumed authority by one or more leaders to dominate and control is furnished by the conduct and management of political parties. The mischief begins right at the foundation of the party organization, — the precinct committee. The precinct committeeman usually does not represent the voters of his party of his precinct, but a faction or the faction leader, or "boss" at the County seat, or at the City Hall. These committeemen delegate "power to act" to their chairman, the Town, the Village, the Ward, and city committees each to its chairman, the successive committees surrender their "power to act" to their chairman. These Chairmen of Committees assume the position of "bosses," or political dictators! They proceed to build up an Organization of favorites responsible to the Organization, and this means responsible to the "boss" or the "bosses" as the case may be. 15 16 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS This "ring" soon becomes so thoroughly entrenched and buttressed in authority through its control of the party Organization that it assumes to be the political party! It controls the election machinery, dictates the nomination of candidates for the oflSces, and the appointments by elected officials, assesses contributions from office holders and prospective candidates for office, and from public employees. It "solicits" contributions from bidders and prospective bidders for contracts for public work of every sort or for furnishing supplies and materials of all kinds. These vast sums of money levied and collected for the support of the Organization are accounted for only in a vague sort of way, — "Receipts" — so much; "Expenditures" so much; "Deficit" so much! The rise, formation, successes, and the overthrow of political parties may be traced from their formation, based upon fair and full representation, a frank and sincere statement of principles which appeals to the sympathies, ideals, and the intelligence of the voters, winning their approval and support, and the election of their candidates. This political victory is usually followed by a satisfactory administration, party pledges and principles are faithfully followed, and as a result of its clean record, the party's candidates are again successful at the polls and the party is "Indorsed by the people." At about this time in the history of the party the practical political schemers begin to lay their plans to gain control of the party Organization. Upon the specious pretext of the necessity for unifying and strengthening the Organization these schemers are permitted to "Perfect the Organization" so thoroughly that it is from now on an effective political machine. CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 17 directed and responsive only to "Machine politicians!" The machine is able to appease the opposition and criticism that its high-handed acts may have aroused by the leaders plea "for the good of the party." This party is again successful in the election. The machine claims the credit for that success, and the party is now controlled and dominated by a few practical politicians. Principle and principles are thrown to the winds, and platitudinous vote catching slogans invented to serve in their stead, such as, "A nickel car fare," "85 cent gas," "Subsidized Press," and "A dollar's worth of service from every dollar of taxes," and many others, none of which was intended to mean anything after the election. Paid and experienced workers are stationed at the polls to see to it that every name on the poll list is voted and recorded ! All the strength and resources of the machine are used to "Win the election" so that the machine may control the offices, the patronage, the contracts, the public funds, and the election machinery. The political power that was originally vested in the individual members of the party, and forfeited by them, was siezed upon and used in the selection of the precinct committeemen. These committeemen delegated their authority to the chairman, and so on up till it was lodged with the party bosses. Those worthy gentlemen assume and exercise autocratic domination and control, and nothing short of the disruption of the party and its over-whelming defeat can wrest that dommation and control from them. "Rule or Ruin" is the traditional policy of the professional politician. The life, usefulness and the continued existence of the political party means nothing to these professional 18 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS polititcians unless they can control the oflfices, the funds, the patronage, and the "boodle." The political principles and patriotic ideals upon which the party was founded has become as, "Sounding brass or a tinkling cymbal" for those zealous, unsophisticated supporters of those principles. The time inevitably comes when that political party degenerates into a highly organized political "machine" for pillage and graft for the personal benefit of a favored few who sit within the inner-most circle of the decadent political party. The history of all political parties teaches that, in spite of its "Perfect Organi- zation," control of patronage, its power to reward its loyal supporters and to punish its critics, its army of "hangers on," and employees, its control of the election machinery, and its organization of loyal party workers, that political party is doomed to inglorious defeat! The defeat is made certain by the opposition votes of many of its former friends and loyal supporters who have become disgusted with the selfish greed and irresponsible dictation of the party machine. The responsibility for the condition of affairs in this political party rests upon every member of it who either refused, or what amounts to the same thing, neglected to do his duty to his political party, to his country, to his family, and to himself by failing to take an active part in the organization of his party in his election precinct and right on up through the suc- cessive political units. Our country is essentially a government by politi- cal parties. The officials of the Legislative and the Executive departments are practically all responsible to their political party for their election to oflBce, and they must depend upon their political party for CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 19 reelection. The judges of the Federal courts, and more and more of the State courts, are supposed to be less responsible to political party dictation. There is a growing sentiment among the people that the judges of the courts should be freed in so far as possible from the influence of party politics. A recent illustration of this growing sentiment for an independent judiciary, was the overwhelming defeat in 1921 of the Thompson-Lundin "Machine picked slate" of candidates for Circuit Judges in Cook County, including the city of Chicago, Illinois, by a Non- partisan Coalition ticket of candidates for the judge- ships. When we come to consider the tremendous power and influence wielded by political parties upon the direction, management, and administration of our government, for good or ill, we realize how necessary it is that every good citizen should shoulder his load of responsibility in the direction and management of the affairs of his chosen political party. There is no other means whereby one may hope to make his influence felt in a constructive way in the interest of good government. The place to begin is right in one's local voting unit, precinct, district, or ward. One should get acquainted with the local party committeeman, and let him understand that he wishes to take an active part in the affairs of the party. He should insist upon being notified of all meetings of the party or party leaders. Every self-respecting member of a political party should assume and maintain his right to a voice in the initial plans and action of his party. It may be necessary to take a militant stand for his rights. The 20 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS "spoils" politicians and their henchmen are apt to be a boisterous and bullying bunch organized and armed to brook no opposition to their selfish schemes. INSTITUTIONALIZED HOSPITALS The same tendency toward institutionalization, crystalization, and perfunctory "Red Tape" is notice- able in the conduct and management of many of the large public and private hospitals. The humanitarian sentiment that underlies the establishment of hospitals for the treatment, care, and comfort of the sick and injured is highly commendable. The public has been liberal and in some instances lavish with its appropriations, donations, and bequests for the construction, support and maintenance of public and semi-public hospitals, and for the continuous founding and endowment of new and specially equipped ones. There can be no doubt as to the charitable motives and benificent intentions of those who thus contribute so generously. But, as it is likely to be with other charities and philanthropies, the public is inclined to be more liberal in its gifts of money and property than it is in its ordinary care and precaution necessary to safeguard that money, and make sure that it is faithfully used for the purposes for which it was solicited and donated. Hospitals are a generally recognized benevolent institution of our civilization, which are coming to be ever more of a necessity in our very complex life and manner of living. While it is an open question whether a public hospital is a better place for the treatment and care of patients who might be treated and cared for in their own homes, there can be no question but that a benefi- CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 21 cently managed and conducted hospital is a necessity for that great class of persons who live in temporary makeshift homes, and for those who have no homes. A hospital is usually started to meet an immediate need in a particular locality, and while it is passing through its earlier stages the governing thought of its management is usually to render efficient service and to see that each patient shall receive individual attention and tender care. The personal needs and requests of the patient are given sympathetic consideration, and the most natural solicitude of friends and relatives is respected, and their reasonable requests granted. So long as a hospital is managed and conducted along these lines it is fulfilling the purpose for which hospitals are supposed to be founded. It earns a good name and its reputation attracts patients from an ever widening circle. It is at about this stage in its development that the temptation comes to modify the ideals of the manage- ment, from that of a benevolent to that of a commercial enterprise. The management finds that it can begin to select its patients, and thereby increase its income by increasing its charges and fees, after the manner of other enterprises conducted for profit! The management resolves to enlarge the plant, there-by increasing the number of private rooms, equipping new and more elaborate operating rooms, laboratories, and nurses' dormitories. The usual appeals are made to the public for donations of money to pay for these extensions and improvements. In its prospectus the management lays stress upon the fact that the hospital does a large amount of charity 22 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS work; and that it proposes to enlarge this department of its work! As usual the campaign for funds is successful. The amount asked for is raised. The new buildings, additions, and improvements are constructed as planned, and the new equipment installed. At this stage earnest and heated discussions begin among the members of the hospital board as to whether the new and enlarged hospital shall continue to be conducted along benevolent and philanthropic lines or shall be reorganized along modern business efficiency lines. As there has been some "new blood" injected into the board of managers by the addition of new members, the "progressives" win in the final decision. It is decided that the new hospital shall be conducted on "modern business principles." This means, of course, that sentimental ideals shall be discarded, and business methods introduced. The modern business efficiency motto is, — "You can't mix sentiment with business." An efficiency expert is employed at a fanciful salary as superintendent and placed in charge. He proceeds to put his efficiency ideas into effect at once. All expenses, except his own, are "cut" in all directions, and the receipts increased by increasing the charges, fees, etc., to enable the expert superintendent to make a financial showing to justify his salary and policies. He suggests that the number of graduate nurses be reduced, and their responsibilities put upon the student nurses; that the quantity and the quality of food be reduced for the ordinary patients, at any rate; and that other "economies" be rigidly enforced. Upon his recommendation, the services of a Bureau are engaged to investigate the financial standing of CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 23 patients and of those responsible for their expenses, and to make confidential reports that will enable the management, the attending physicians, and the surgeon to determine how much to charge the patient for the services rendered! Obviously that hospital is no longer purely a humanitarian institution for the amelioration of human suffering and the sympathetic treatment and care of the sick. With all due deference to the religious denomina- tion, society, noteworthy personage or place whose name that hospital bears, it has become "reorganized" and systematized into a mere soulless business enter- prise. Patients are assigned to rooms after the manner that guests are assigned in the large hotels, not according to their necessities, but according to the amount of money they can be induced to pay. All of the less expensive rooms are usually "occupied," and the helpless patient is induced to take a more expensive room than his circumstances justify. There was a meeting of an association of superin- tendents of hospitals held in one of our large cities recently. The newspapers published an interview with one of these superintendents. Among the statements credited to him, was one to the effect that the public must expect to have to pay first class hotel prices for room and attendance at a first class hospital. The impression received from reading the interview was that this statement was intended as the "Key note" of the hospital superintendents' convention! If this worthy gentleman were speaking for the many privately owned and privately financed hospitals, sanitariums, and sanatorlums that are organized and operated as private business enterprises, and advertised as such, no exception can be taken to his statement. 24 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS But if his statement is intended as an expression of the thought of the expert superintendents of general pubhc and semi-pubhe hospitals supported wholly or in part by donations from the public, the gentleman and those for whom he made the statement credited to him, should be set right in their thinking. These gentlemen need to be reminded that a hospital that depends upon solicited donations and private bequests for its support is, or should be, a benevolent institution founded, operated and managed for the single purpose of providing an asylum for the treatment and care of the sick and injured; it is a humanitarian enterprise. A first class hotel, on the other hand, is a straight- out commercial enterprise, and is conducted primarily for profit! The men and women who subscribe for shares of stock, and purchase the bonds do so with the thought that they are making an investment from which they expect to receive returns in the form of dividends and interest. If the hotel is honestly and eflficiently managed, the stockholders expect the management to earn profits large enough each year to pay all fixed charges, including interest on the bonds and an installment toward the sinking fund provided for their redemption, a liberal amount for depreciation of the building with its fixtures and furnishings; and to to pay the promised dividends on the shares of common stock. Every patron and guest of the hotel is charged for the accommodations and service he receives, an amount estimated to fully cover the cost of that accommodation and service and a gross profit sufficient to provide for all overhead charges. And, when not over done, that CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 25 is the scientific and fair method of fixing, — "prices for room and attendance" at first class hotels. Not only does a first class hotel provide for "room and attendance" of its guests but it provides lavishly for their comfort, convenience, sumptuously furnished parlors, ladies' waiting rooms with attendants, spacious lobby and lounge rooms, sanitary washrooms and toilets, telephone and telegraph booths with service, news and cigar stands, page service, and many other conveniences which are not provided nor expected in a first class hospital. This is not intended as a justification nor an apology for the gross profiteering practiced upon the public by many of the hotels of all classes and sizes. It is well understood that their charges in many instances are extortionate. The management of these hotels takes advantage of extraordinary conditions, and urgent necessities of their patrons, to demand extortionate rates for curtailed accommodations. This brings up the question whether or not the State ought to regulate the prices that hotels may charge. There can be no doubt as to the need for some effectual remedy for the spoliation of the traveling public by the greedy landlords of transient hotels. Many think that Government control and regu- lation has proven a dangerous expedient in so far as railroads, street car lines, and public utilities are concerned; and that the public has paid dearly for all the "Regulation and Adjustment" of passenger and freight rates, and public utility charges of all sorts thus far. A law that would compel the manager of a hotel to publish conspicuously a tariff of his rate of charges, furnish each guest at the time of his assignment to a 26 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS room a copy of that tariff with his rate of charge officially checked on it; and that would prohibit any manager from increasing his rates without first pub- lishing his new schedule of rates for at least sixty days before the new rates could lawfully be made effective; and that would prohibit the manager of a hotel from temporarily increasing his rates for extraordinary occasions such as conventions, festivals or other large gatherings, would do much toward curbing the rapa- cious practices of these gentry. A State Commission clothed with authority to hear and to investigate complaints against hotels, and to adjust rates that hotels could charge as, — "fair and reasonable" would be what "spoils" politicians aptly term, "Puddin' with brandy sauce" for both the members of the commission, and the proprietors of the hotels as well! After this digression let us return to the consider- ation of the "room and attendance one receives at a first class hospital." A room with its furnishings in a hospital is not to be compared with that in a first class hotel. The attend- ance and service varies so widely that it is rather difficult to make a fair comparison. The major part of the service and attendance one receives in a first class hospital is that rendered by those over worked and under paid student nurses, and the young internes who are serving their time for experience. But this service, costs the management little or nothing. As a matter of fact it is a source of income to the hospital. No other class of students or apprentices pays so dearly for their training as student nurses. They do the heft of the rough work, and furnish the most part of the care and attention that the patient receives so far as the hospital CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 27 is concerned. Of course, one has the privilege of hiring the services of a graduate nurse, or two of them, for that matter; but so has one at a first class hotel, or at his home. These efficiency expert superintendents of first class hospitals would better offer some other excuse for their charges than, — "room and attendance at a first class hotel!" An efficiency expert superintendent evidently needs to be gently reminded that he is not expected to earn from the patients of his first class hospital dividends on common and preferred stock, interest and sinking fund allowance for bonds, taxes, and other overhead expenses which the management of first class hotels must include when determining prices for room and service. Another noticeable abuse in the highly organized commercial hospitals is the autocratic or oligarchic domination by some one head surgeon, or a little clique of physicans and specialists. They do great team work by working to each others interests by suggesting the services of one another to their "fat" patients, and thus keeping other physicians out. These favored physicians regard their particular public hospital as their private preserve. A chief surgeon will perform anywhere from three to ten operations in a forenoon, when business is good, at private fees ranging from the minimum of one hundred (100) dollars up to two thousand (2000) dollars, depending upon the financial rating furnished by the service bureau. The ordinary ward, and the little or no pay cases, are likely to be turned over to the assistants to practice upon, unless there should chance to be an unusually 28 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS "pretty" case that the chief might wish to perform at a cHnic for pubhcity. It is not very apparent to the lay mind that there is much if any charity work on the part of a surgeon who may perform an operation upon some poor patient at the request of the hospital authorities, when that hospital assembles, prepares, and turns over to that surgeon from three to ten "fat" fee patients in one forenoon ! One might fill a good sized book with well authen- ticated cases of neglect, callous indifference to intense suffering that might have been relieved by proper attention, misleading and false reports to relatives and friends of dying patients; but as these are the natural results of the fetish worship of highly organized routine system, and the relative nonimportance of the in- dividual patient, it would not be worth while to go into that phase of the subject here. The point that needs to be emphasized is that the individual patient is often lost sight of as an individual in an institutionalized, and commercialized hospital, unless that patient is a favored patient who occupies a high priced room and pays liberally for special service and care. The average patient is "tagged" in the receiving room, and is the victim of impersonal routine until he has the good fortune to be discharged "cured" or suffers a worse fate! There is a wide gap maintained between the favored patients in the private rooms, and those unfortunate patients who are consigned to the wards. The contrast in the kind of food served to the two classes of patients is a fair indication of the relative care and attention meted out to the two classes! It does not seem to occur to the management of this type of hospital that CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 29 the reluctant appetite of a weakened patient in a ward might be tempted by the sight and scent of the deH- cately prepared food served in that same hospital to a less enfeebled patient in a private room! In like manner a patient who needs the seclusion and rest that only a private room can afford must take his chances in a large ward simply because he can not afford the expense of a private room; while another favored patient who is merely a guest of the hospital for observation to see if there might possibly be something the matter with him, occupies a private room in the hospital. It would seem that it should be considered not unreasonable for the public to expect that all patients admitted to a hospital supported in part by donations, bequests, and contributions should be given accom- modations, care and treatment based upon their neces- sities rather upon their social or financial rating. It is a questionable policy, to express it mildly, that allows a physician, surgeon, or other person to demand special accommodations and care and attention for a patient simply for the reason that the patient is socially or professionally prominent, or wealthy, or the protege of such an one. It all comes right back to the question of the ideals of the management of a hospital. There is all the difference in the world between a hospital conducted upon sincere humanitarian principles, and another hospital that has forsaken its benificent ideals for the more alluring highway of, "Modern business efficiency methods," "Standardization," "Systemi- zation," and "Commercialization." The size of a hospital is not the determining factor as to which of these two classes a particular hospital may belong so 30 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS much as it is the ideals and personal character of the men and women who bear the responsibility for its conduct and management. The tendency and the temptation is for the administration of a hospital to subside into impersonal routine in the care of patients as it grows in size and reputation. Another phase of this subject has a direct bearing upon the public welfare from the standpoint of soci- ology; and that is the outrageously excessive charges, fees, and attendant expenses in obstetrical cases. The following incident related by one young married man in a letter to one of his intimate friends states the case frankly and fairly: "A friend of mine in the office became a father recently, at a cost of approximately five hundred dollars, with hospital bills, trained nurse and doctor bills. This friend earns forty dollars a week! It will take all this young man can possibly save in a whole year to pay the expenses of this one child's birth, and yet they blame the present generation for having race suicidal tendencies ! No, *** we are not thinking of children just now ! It is too bad as we are both anxious to have children, and don't like to wait; if we want a baby these days we do not consult our desires but our bank balance, and our bank balance is such that it can't be done, so there is an end of it. ******* Birth control! We don't need birth control; what we need is a radical reduction of the high cost of births!" This is a forceful indictment of our present day social and unjust economic conditions. The two young married couples referred to are fairly representitive of that great class of young couples, educated, self respecting, practical thinking, struggling to "get a start" in life, own a home, and rear a family. They are CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 31 the type of citizens that should have large families of children. They could and would do their best to provide for their children, educate them, and give them a fair start in life; and best of all, give to their offspring the priceless heritage of intelligent and healthy parentage. Society, for its own protection and preservation, should see to it that every encouragement is offered to such young couples to realize their laudable ambitions. In the countries of the old world, and in this country until comparatively recent years, the midwife was regarded as the proper person to officiate at births, and the physician was rarely called in except at the request of the midwife when the mother or infant needed medical or surgical attention. In this country, so called health laws have prac- tically eliminated the old time midwife who formerly officiated at child birth, and intentionally created a monopoly of their serviceable occupation for the medical profession. The widespread popular notion that child birth must be attended by all the accompaniments of high priced professional skill, expensive surroundings, and exclusive care and attention is the result of subtly laid propaganda. Both socially and professionally the thought is conveyed to the prospective mother that, — "really the thmg to do is to go to a hospital where you can have proper care and attention." As a result the young couple is loaded down with a long string of "Standardized" hospital charges, phy- sician's fees, salary and board of a special nurse, amount- ing everywhere from one hundred fifty to five hundred dollars ! 32 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Is it to be wondered at that so many parents do not respond with enthusiasm to the suggestion that they should have more children! The appropriate and normal place for this important domestic event is in the home, attended by the family physician, the mother and child cared for by a com- petent nurse. The total expense in normal cases should not exceed seventy -five dollars. This should be the maximum expense where the family income is under thirty six hundred dollars a year. This is but one illustration of the social and economic injustice of the "Standardization" of fees and practice by physicians, and the "EflSciency expert management" of modern first class hospitals. Those who contribute toward the foundation, maintenance, and support of hospitals could if they would do more than any other class of individuals to start these institutions out on the right track, and to bring them back when they are found yielding to temp- tation to stray from it. If every one before he consents to donate money to a hospital, or any other public or semi-public charity, for that matter, would take the pains to satisfy himself that such particular hospital or other charity is worthy of his support and encouragement, it would go a long ways towards the elimination of many of these offending institutions, and a radical reformation in the conduct and management of others. There would seem to be every good reason why hospitals of all kinds should be rigidly inspected in a thorough going manner at frequent and irregular intervals by committees representing the patrons, the donors, and the community in which the hospital is located. CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 33 In the interest of the public, even our banks which assume responsibility only for the safe keeping of our money, are compelled to submit to frequent and thorough examinations by government experts, and in the event that an inspector finds any irregularity, that irregularity must be corrected immediately, or the inspector takes physical possession of the bank and closes its doors. There certainly could be no objection on the part of the management of those hospitals which are being conducted upon strictly humanitarian lines; and those that are not, most assuredly ought to be inspected and the findings given the widest publicity ! The basic fact should ever be kept in mind that the individual patient, whether rich or poor, is the unit for whose shelter, treatment and welfare hospitals are supposed to be founded and supported. The efficiency superintendent, the Board of Control, the Staff of physicians and surgeons, the head nurse, the Training school for nurses, the student nurses, the employees, the buildings with their equipment and furnishings, the spacious grounds with their walks, lawns, flowers, shrubbery and shade trees, are all provided for the sole purpose of contributing all that human intelligence, skill, sympathetic nursing, and pleasant surroundings can contribute toward restoring the most lowly patient to health. CENTRALIZED AUTHORITY IN CHURCHES The effect of this very human tendency toward centralization of domination and control may be seen in the history and growth of most any large local church. In the beginning of the movement for the organiza- 34 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS tion of a local church, when a few families feel the urgent need for a church in their community, and band together to establish one, there are manifested earnest- ness of purpose and individual enthusiasm in win- ning converts, and in securing new members and friends of the movement. There is good fellowship among earnest workers and sincere believers in any righteous cause so long as the individual members are accorded an active part and a personal responsibility in it. In the early history of the little church, there are many obstacles to be met and overcome, and many personal sacrifices to be made to keep the little church going. It takes much planning and much individual effort on the part of all the members to get enough money together to purchase the lot that they have agreed upon for the site for their proposed church building. Then there follows the problem of ways and means of building a suitable building for its present and prospective needs, the mortgage, the interest, and the instalhnents on the principal. But through it all the spiritual purposes of a church are uppermost in the minds and hearts of the pastor and his little band of active church members. There are many converts, new members admitted, and the activities of the church enthusiastically active. It is recognized as a live, active, and purposeful church. The church grows in membership and it is a vitalizing spirit-force in the community. Too soon the fateful day arrives when the last installment on the last note is paid off, and the mortgage cancelled and burned, amid great rejoicing and thanks- giving. The membership has grown and the congregation has increased in numbers, and in aggregate wealth. CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 35 The collections amount to more than this spiritually functioning church requires to meet its needs. Then it is that the more prominent and wealthy members begin to take a more active interest in the management of church affairs. The faithful, earnest, and more modest christian workers who organized the little band of believers, carried forward the religious work, built the building, and raised the money to pay for it, must stand aside and turn over the management and control of church affairs to men and women of "larger vision" and more up-to-date ideas! First of all a new pastor must be called. A special "hand picked" committee is proposed and duly ap- pointed and commissioned to look the whole field over and to choose the biggest preacher it can find to recom- mend for the position of preacher and pastor. This committee, after months of search, recom- mends a great man, a scholar, a Reverend D.D., LL.D, to the congregation to be called at a salary more than twice as large as this church has ever before paid to its pastor. The new preacher-pastor is formally called; and following much publicity in the public press in the two cities interested, the one from which and the one to which he is called, he accepts the call. He is formally installed with high ceremonial; intro- duced at a formal reception; and enters at once upon his formal duties. The position of the dearly beloved, but displaced pastor at these, various formal functions is pathetic to say the least. There are many beautifully worded complimentary allusions to his splendid achievement, and prayers and best wishes for his continued labor in 36 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the "Master's vineyard," with not a hint or a suggestion of where in that vineyard he is to find work ! There is nothing for the displaced pastor to do, whose only fault is that he has been instrumental in building up too prosperous a church, but to go forth and seek another pastorate where there is need for a community church, souls to be saved, and religious service to be rendered. Along with the new pastor, other club features were added. A paid quartette choir displaces the chorus choir of zealous church workers. The members of this professional choir were "hired and fired" by the music committee, ostensibly, but actually by the chairman of that committee, who assumes this privilege of choice on account of his being the largest supporter of the church. Under the new regime mo^t of the business of the church is transacted by committees. The affairs of the church are put upon a business basis in imitation of big business with scientific budgets, assessments, and collections. The church services grow more formalized and monotonous. The club attractions are suflSciently attractive to hold the men and to allure the young people. The church gradually loses its religious atmos- phere as it grows more and more into a community recreational center. It is not essentially irreligious; it has simply become a religious social club. It grows and prospers partly because of a prevailing impression that the quickest and surest way of, "Meeting the very best people" is by either joining or attending that church! From a virile, active, soul-saving religious body, the church assumes the status of a popular social club with a religious title and moral atmosphere. CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 37 One needs to attend but three of the meetings of one of these institutionalized churches in any commun- ity to find the counterpart of the church outHned above; the Sunday morning service with sermon, the men's club, or a church social, and the midweek devotional service. Whenever a few rich and influential individuals as- sume the domination and control of church activities, and the majority of the membership acquiesces in that dictation and domination, it is an unmistakable symp- tom of dry rot ! This tendency toward centralization, institutional- ization, and crystalization of power and authority is even more marked in the general governing bodies of churches. A select few church dignitaries assume or acquire authority to act and to speak for the member- ship of their church upon all ecclesiastical questions. These exalted dignitaries sit within the inner circle of the Council chamber, next to the throne as it were, in the very presence of the Most High, receiving the divine will and purposes, deliver them to the ordinary membership of their church bodies with all the author- ity of, "Thus saith the Lord!" There have been all down the ages the few who assume to be the guardians of the "Holy of Holies" and whose office it is to keep the sacred lamp burning. This is true not only of the Christian and of the Jewish religions, but of all other religions. The world old question, — Who should be greatest.'^" is the rock in the channel of all movements of organized human effort. It has split and disrupted not only churches and other religious and philanthropic move- ments, but families, corporations, political parties, and nations as well. 38 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Even in religious organizations, worldly ambition for power and greed for gain pay scant heed to the Master's admonition, — "If any man desire to be first, the same shall be last of all and a servant of all." DOMINATION OF BUSINESS CORPORATIONS One of the most vicious examples of centralization of authority of domination and control into fewer and fewer individuals, is that furnished by practically all corporations. Not only do these corporations deprive their members of their voice in the manage- ment but they contrive in most instances to relieve them of their property rights as well ! The corporation laws of the various states legalize the wholesale robbery of small investors in a high- handed manner. The "Articles of Incorporation" of most "corporations organized for gain," and the laws governing them disfranchise men and brains and enfranchise shades of stock! Fifty one (51) per cent of the total number of shares of stock of any corporation or cooperative enter- prise absolutely dominates and controls that corpo- ration, company, or cooperative association legally. If one individual owns, or acquires the right to vote, a majority of the shares of stock of any company, he thereby acquires the legal right to dominate and control the policies of that corporation, borrow money on the credit of the company, elect all officers and fix their salaries, including his own, and determine all other expenditures except taxes, and make such returns and reports to his associate stock holders as he may de- termine is for their good ! The favorite and common scheme for raising the money for all considerable undertakings organized for CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 39 gain, is for a small group of men to organize a company, incorporate under the law, determine the amount for which the company will be capitalized, divide the amount into shares of one hundred dollars each, take at least fifty one per cent of these shares for themselves, and offer the remainder of the shares to the gullible public ! The story of the promotion, organization, financing, control and management of THE BRIGHTWOOD HOTEL PROJECT will serve to illustrate the financing schemes of these promoters fairly well. In all probability the reader will find right in his own community similarly financed enterprises, past, present and contemplated. A successful promoter came into the town, looked over the ground, and decided that the town needed a new up-to-date hotel. He had faith in his scheme and in his ability to work it, so much so that he chose a site, and took an option on the property. He interested two local capitalists, the president of one of the banks and a silent partner and close friend of the banker. The local papers published a glowing account of the new project for a new modern hotel. The location for the hotel was announced, and a highly colored sketch of the proposed building, "As it will appear" was drawn by a well known architect, and was con- spicuously displayed in a show window. A tentative plan of organization was drawn up, and an application was made to the Secretary of State for incorporation papers for the "Brightwood Hotel Company, Capital stock — $150,000.00, divided into shares of the par value of $100.00 each." 40 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS A Prospectus was issued and mailed to a carefully selected list of everyone in town likely to have as much as one hundred dollars to invest. The bank may not have furnished the "Selected list," but there were very few mistakes made in the guesses! The pros- pectus set forth in nicely worded phrases the urgent need for a new modern first class hotel in the town, the many advantages that such a hotel would add to the place, and expressed the firm conviction that the enterprising business men and citizens could be depended upon to see the project for a new up-to-date hotel successfully financed and carried through to completion. "Enough of the stock has already been spoken for to assure the success of the enterprise!" "A limited number of shares of stock are offered at par. Applications for this stock will be filed in the order of the receipt and allotment will be made until the shares are all sold." The usual bargain sale warning: "Come early and avoid the rush!" Now this was the scheme as it unfolded: The agreement among the three schemers was that the promoter was to be given ten per cent of the shares of stock for his services in promoting the scheme, and these one hundred fifty shares were to be divided equally among the three men, — fifty shares each; and in addition the promoter was to be given fifty shares for his option on the property of the proposed hotel site. Thus it will be seen that the promoter would get one hundred shares of the stock in the New Brightwood Hotel Company as his part of the scheme for his initiative, time and trouble. To be sure there was an element of risk in it, for if the scheme had failed he might have lost the amount of his deposit on the option. And had he been one of those Chicago real CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 41 estate experts, he might easily have missed a milHon or so dollars in expert fees! The banker agreed to purchase for himself and his "clients" five hundred sixty-five shares. This disposed of seven hundred sixty-five shares, a majority of the total number of shares, or the controlling interest. A private agreement was drawn and signed which provided that no one of the three parties would sell, assign, nor dispose of any or all of his shares of stock without first offering his shares to the other parties to the agreement. This precaution was taken to prevent the possibility of the controlling interest pass- ing from the banker and his "clients." The remaining seven hundred thirty-five shares of the capital stock were to be sold, and were sold to the "sucker" investors in the Brightwood Hotel Company at one hundred dollars a share! These shares were bought mainly by people of limited means out of their scanty savings as an "Invest- m.ent." Some of the more public spirited business men of the town bought a few shares each with the idea of boosting the town along. The stock all sold and the money collected from the small investors, a meeting of all the stockholders was called for the election of a board of directors of five members, and "for the transaction of such other business as may properly come before the meeting." The promoter and the banker, with the aid of his "client's" shares elected themselves, the silent partner capitalist, and two other stockholders satisfactory to the three. There were a number of talks all praising the public spirit of the citizens of the town; and all the stock- holders were urged to pull together for the new hotel. 42 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The business of the stockholders' meeting being finished, the meeting adjourned for one year, unless called sooner by the secretary ! Minority stocldiolders in any corporation, company, or cooperative association, have three important duties to perform, named in the order of their relative importance: viz. First, paying for their stock. Second, voting their shares directly, or by "proxy," at an election of directors; and. Third, patiently waiting for the arrival of a dividend check. The appearance of dividend checks is very like angels' visits, — "Few and far between!" The average number of shares purchased by each of the one hundred five (105) minority stockholders was seven shares, and the total amount paid into the Brightwood Hotel scheme by those 105 "suckers" was the tidy sum of seventy-three thousand five hundred (73,500) dollars. The three majority stockliolders, the financiers of the scheme, paid in but fifty-six thousand five hundred (56,500) dollars for 765 shares, thirty shares more than the one hundred five minority stockholders purchased ! It is both interesting and instructive to note the fact that none of the one hundred five minority stock- holders, unless possibly the two dummy directors, had any voice in the choice of the site for the hotel, in deciding the price to be paid for it, in the agreement to pay the promoter's fifteen thousand dollars of the stock for his share for promoting the scheme, nor his allotment of five thousand dollars of stock for his option on the property for the hotel site! These minor details were all looked after for them by the CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 43 three majority stock holders. That is what majority stockholders are there for!! From this stage of the unfolding of the scheme, the majority stockholders take over the control and man- agement of all the affairs of the Brightwood Hotel Company officially, and to our shame be it said, legally. The Board of Directors held their first oflBcial meeting immediately following the adjournment of the stockholders' meeting. The local capitalist, the friend of the banker, was elected president; the promoter of the scheme, vice president and general manager; the banker, treasurer; and an employee of the bank, one of the dummy directors, secretary. The promoter-vice president-general manager was voted a good stiff salary to enable him to devote his whole time and attention to the active affairs of the Brightwood Hotel Company. The property for the site of the hotel was promptly purchased and paid for outright at the option price. The buildings on the property were disposed of and the ground cleared ready for the new building; the plans of the architect were approved, and the board of directors advertised for bids for the construction of the building. It was not until after the bids were opened, ex- amined, and tabulated for comparison that it was discovered (?) that the construction of the building alone, at the lowest estimate, would cost not less than One hundred seventy -five thousand (175000) dollars! The members of the board of directors pretended to be astonished and disappointed at the amount of the bids from the numerous bidders. The banker and his associate capitalist knew right along about how much the building was likely to cost. The treasurer's report showed that there was but 44 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS about ninety -five thousand (95,000) dollars left avail- able for the building fund ! There was much discussion in the news papers, among the stockholders, and in the meetings of the board of directors regarding the predicament the stockholders and the board of directors found them- selves in; and there were numerous suggestions offered as a way out of the difficulty. After considering all of these suggestions more or less seriously, it was decided to issue bonds for one hundred thousand (100,000) dollars at an attractive rate of interest to run for twenty years, and secured by a first mortgage on the Brightwood property and its furnishings. The bank of which the treasurer was president proposed to underwrite the whole issue of the bonds for a syndicate of its customers at a slight discount. The truth of the matter is that the president, and the treasurer of the Brightwood Hotel Company were the only members of the "syndicate!" Now that the project was successfully financed, the contracts were let for the construction of the building; but the payments of money on these contracts were not made except upon the approval of the bank acting for and in behalf of the syndicate of bond holders. It is evident that the Brightwood Hotel Company was now mortgaged for two thirds of the original capital which meant that each share that the holder had paid one hundred dollars in cash for was mortgaged for sixty-six dollars and sixty-six cents, and that the nominal or book value of each share was reduced to thirty -three dollars and thirty -three cents; and the significant fact is that the president, and the CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 45 treasurer mortgaged the property, hold the mortgage, and own the bonds ! As the building progressed these deluded minority- stockholders naturally felt a sense of proprietorship and they would mention with pride the fact that they were stockholders in the new hotel! It was not long however before first one then another of these enterprising citizens felt the need for the money they had been induced to invest (?) in the shares of the Brightwood Hotel Company. As their needs became more pressing, they began to offer their stock for sale, but they soon came to realize the sad fact that their shares of stock were much more difficult to dispose of than they had been to get. They found out also that their shares were not rated very high at the bank when offered as security for a loan. As a result of so many shares being offered for sale, and there being little demand for them, they soon began to be offered at very low prices. As the scheme worked out, those who were able to sell at any price were, comparatively speaking, less unfortunate than those who did not sell. It was rather significant that the promoter-vice president and general manager was the first stock- holder to decide that it was high time to "unload his holdings" of stock in the project that he had so success- fully promoted. It is known that he disposed of his one hundred shares to his two associates in the deal even before the bonds were issued. How much he received for his shares was never given out; it would appear that as a part of the consideration, it was agreed that he should retain his position of vice pres- ident and general manager, and as such, continue to work for and with the controlling interests. It came 46 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS out later that but one share of stock was listed in his name, the least amount that would make him eligible to hold office in a corporation. In due time the building was completed; it was admirably planned for a hotel and well built. As part of the scheme for keepmg control, the board of directors decided not to lease the building but furnish and operate it. The vice president and general manager was made manager of the hotel. The splendor of the grand opening was dazzling. At the banquet there were toasts by the guests of honor praising the public spirit and civic enterprise of the citizens of the town who through their generous support had made the project a success. When the promoter-manager was introduced, he was given an ovation. The preceeding speakers had complimented him for originating and pushing the project through to completion. He modestly disclaimed the credit, giving it to his public spirited associates who had so generously supported the enterprise. Now that the hotel was complete in all its appointments, he assured the citizens that the management would spare no pains nor expense to make the New Brightwood Hotel the best hotel in the country, and the pride of the town. The promoter manager was voted an excessive salary by the board of directors, just about double the salary usually paid to experienced managers of other hotels of that size. The inside facts of the agreement between the manager and his employers, serves to throw some light upon the high salary paid to the manager, and most likely, upon the excessive salaries paid to the executives of so many other struggling corporations. CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 47 The private understanding was that the manager was to receive ten thousand dollars a year salary, but he was to pay back to the banker, privately, the sum of three hundred eighty-two dollars and fifty cents each month for the use of the majority stockholders, the treasurer and the president of the company ! Thus it will be seen that these two local, public spirited capitalists were able to so manipulate, legally, the financial affairs of a supposedly local cooperative public enterprise through the centralization of power and authority as to secure for themselves the sum of four thousand five hundred ninety (4590) dollars; and it is significant that this snug sum of all the stock- holders' money amounts to six per cent on the total par value of the shares of stock owned by these two worthy financiers! In addition to this, these gentlemen had secured to themselves seven thousand dollars a year in interest on the one hundred thousand dollars of bonds they owned. These majority stockholders — two men — with the connivance of the promoter schemed from the beginning to control, and, eventually, to own the New Bright- wood Hotel property. The manager was instructed that he was to so manage the affairs of the hotel as to barely make running expenses including "up keep" and fixed charges; and by the end of the second year, there should be a default in the payment of interest on the bonds ! This scheme was carried out faithfully. Within three years, the affairs of the Brightwood Hotel Company were thrown into the hands of a receiver by the court upon the petition of an attorney for the bondholders. The promoter-manager was appointed receiver by the court upon the suggestion of the 48 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS attorney that he would be satisfactory both to the Brightwood Hotel Company, and to the bondholders! As the net earnings of the hotel under the receivership did not give promise of improvement, the court ordered that the property be sold to satisfy the claims of the creditors. The property and good will of the Bright- wood Hotel was sold at auction; and "Bid in" by a gentleman representing the syndicate of the bond- holders! This meant, of course, that the minority stockholders were sold out and had no further property interest in the Brightwood Hotel Company. Their Stock Certificates henceforth would have no value except as pathetic reminders of an unfortunate invest- ment, — for them. The "Holding syndicate representing the bond- holders" proceeded to "Reorganize" the affairs of the now defunct Brightwood Hotel Company. The title of the new company was The New Brightwood Hotel Holding Company. The same members of the board of directors, and the same officers were elected. The promoter-manager who had made so satisfactory a financial success of the scheme, was continued in his lucrative position of vice president and manager of the hotel at the same salary, and the same private arrange- ment as to his refund of a substantial part of his salary. The board of directors of the New Brightwood Hotel Holding Company decided, as a part of its reorgani- zation scheme, to issue one hundred fifty thousand (150000) dollars of capital stock divided into fifteen hundred (1500) shares of the par value of one hundred (100) dollars each. It was further decided to offer, "A limited number of these shares of stock to the public at par!" "Preference will be given to stock- CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 49 holders of the original Brightwood Hotel Company in the allotment of the new shares." The pathetic part of the story is that as many of the "suckers" as could raise the money to do so "bit" again at the same old "bait!" The gullible public contributed seventy -three thousand five hundred (73,500) dollars again to the treasury of the Brightwood Hotel scheme! This substantial amount was put into the "Working capital" fund. The majority stock, seven hundred sixty-five shares, were placed in the strong boxes of the two public spirited financiers, and, so far as it could be found out from the records, these two worthy gentle- men never paid into the treasury a dollar for those shares! They were brought forth on the occasion of each and every Annual Meeting of the Stockholders to be voted for the election of directors! It will be seen that these two gentlemen now owned the New Brightwood Hotel property. They owned outright the one hundred thousand (100,000) dollars of seven (7) per cent gold bonds, the majority of the shares of the capital stock and the seventy-three thousand five hundred (73,500) dollars of working capital invested (?) by the minority stockholders. It is interesting to relate the fact that after the completion of the reorganization of the affairs of the Brightwood Hotel Company, and the sale of the new series of capital stock, the management was enabled to make an increasingly better financial showing from month to month. From that time the hotel has been a paying business proposition, the stockholders, all of them, received their dividends regularly, and the hotel soon gained the reputation of being a "gold mine!" 50 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS It was but a little over a year after the reorgani- zation was completed, that the newspapers announced that a hotel syndicate had bought the controlling interest in the New Brightwood Hotel, and would take immediate possession as soon as the formality of the transfer was completed. It came out later, that the banker and his associate capitalist were paid one hundred thousand (100,000) dollars for their seven hundred sixty -five shares of stock! They kept their one hundred thousand dollars of bonds that were a lien on the hotel property with fifteen j^ears to run before they would mature. Thus it will be seen that these two financiers of this little city had invested about one hundred sixty-five thousand (165,000) dollars in this local cooperative enterprise for the benefit of the town. After they had closed out their controlling interest, they figured that they had received from first to last, including rebates from the salary of the manager, dividends for one year, the selling price of their interests, and the par value of their bonds two hu idred twenty-seven thousand five hundred (227,500) dollars. In this same town one hundred fifty citizens, men, women, and children, any number of widows and elderly maiden ladies were induced to invest their savings in this local enterprise largely on the strength of the faith that the banker had manifested in the project. These one hundred fifty well meaning but deluded people contributed the sum of one hundred forty-seven thousand (147,000) dollars altogether, of which seventy-three thousand five hundred (73,500) dollars so invested (?) was a total loss to the 105 individual minority stockholders! CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 51 The purchasers of the 735 minority shares of stock in the reorganized New Brightwood Hotel Hold- ing Company made an investment of about an average security as investments in minority stock investments go. The banker who knows all there is to know about this Brightwood Hotel Holding Company, will not accept this stock as collateral security for a loan to exceed 40% of its par value! This picture of the financing of the Brightwood Hotel is not overdrawn in the least. It is the history of a comparatively conservatively promoted and financed local cooperative company. When one realizes that there are thousands of corporations, large and small, promoted and financed along similar lines all over the country, one may vaguely comprehend the vast sums of money which are taken in by promoters and majority stockholders from small investors (?) of their savings! Think of the number of corporations all over the country local, general, national, and international, from country creameries and cooperative stores to ocean steamship lines, all financed on lines similar to the Brightwood Hotel Company. The "Chicago and Alton Railroad," the "Rock Island," the Chicago, and the New York Transportation lines, surface, elevated and subway lines, are familiar illustrations of financial manipulations, "reorganizations" and of the kindly consideration of the controlling interests of public corporations for the interests of their (minority) stockholders ! The fact is that our whole financial structure is founded and built upon the minority stockholders' investments in stock certificates, preferred stocks and "junior" securities of all sorts and descriptions. 52 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS FINANCING PUBLIC SERVICE CORPORATIONS There is every present indication that the financiers have still further designs upon the savings of the small investors. At the last annual banquet of the Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Banking, held in the La Salle Hotel, Mr. Samuel Insull, President of the Peoples Gas, Light and Coke Company; the Public Service Company'' of Northern Illinois; the Common- wealth Edison Company; Receiver for Chicago and Oak Park Elevated R. R.; Trustee, on Governing Committee, and Executive Committee Chicago Ele- vated Railways Collateral Trust; Chairman of the Board, Metropolitan West Side Elevated Railway, the South Side Elevated Railway, and the Northwestern Elevated Railroad Company; and operator of public utility properties in fourteen other states, was one of the speakers. Mr. Insull was explaining to the bankers and their guests how he had solved, and proposed to solve the problem of financing the properties he is operating. Among his other interesting and significant remarks, he was reported to have spoken as follows : "It is perfectlj^ natural that during a period such as we have gone through taking really from 1914 up to the last six months, that institutions like those I am connected with should suffer during the general uprise in prices of all commodities and labor. But it has taught us one very important thing." "Heretofore it has been a very hard thing to raise money. A man who has to raise a million dollars a week, has found it very hard, especially during the war period. But during the war we learned that we CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 53 had to go to our customers and ask them to take our junior securities, and it turns out that it was the very best thing that ever happened to us." "We have increased the stockholders of the Common- wealth-Edison Company from 5000 to 6000 on Armis- tice day to between 25,000 and 26,000 today. We are doing that all the way through, and of the $40,000,000 or $50,000,000 new money that is needed by the growth of the properties I am operating around here and in fourteen other states we expect to get somewhere between 40 and 50 per cent of that money from our customers each year." "What I am deliberately after is public ownership. Not Municipal ownership, but public ownership, that will result in a vast army of stockholders, and we have 500,000 of them in the state of Illinois today, to stand guard over their own property." "There is nobody more alive to the fact that we are after it than the politicians. That is what we are going to get, and when the junior securities of all these local public utilities are owned by the people themselves as individuals you will hear less about municipal ownership, you will hear less about attacks upon public utility interests, and you will find that the senior securities we have put out will be very desirable collateral whenever they come over your counters." These very frank statements are indeed most interesting and instructive, especially to prospective investors in minority shares of stock, and in "junior" securities ! In the first place, note his statement that, — " ** of the $40,000,000 or $50,000,000 new money that is needed *** we expect to get somewhere between 40 and 50 per cent of that money from our customers each 54 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS year"! These are large sums of money Mr. InsuU expects to get from small investors, thousands of them. What does he propose to give "our customers" in return for their little hoards of "new money"? A finelly lithographed "junior" security certificate! Speaking to these hard headed bankers, it is equally significent that he did not intimate that those "junior" securities " — we have put out will be very desirable collateral whenever they come over your counters"! Again Mr. Insull acknowledges what these bankers very well knew, "Heretofore it has been a very hard thing to raise money." Why? The answer is simple enough. The professional money lenders, those indi- viduals, partnerships, and syndicates whose business it is to lend money, banks, trust companies, insurance companies, and commercial paper brokers, demand ample and tangible security for loans. It seems reasonable to assume that it was not so much, " ** a very hard thing to raise money" as it was to raise acceptable collateral security. Evidently the "anny of (minority) stockholders, and we have 500,000 of them in the state of Illmois today to stand guard over their own property" was less critical in its scrutiny of the security offered for the advancement of its "new money" ! There is another pertment viewpoint worthy of consideration, viz, — the statement that these 500,000 stockholders in Illmois today, " ** stand guard over their own property"! It would be interesting to have Mr. Insull tell his customers, from whom, "of the $40,000,000 to $50,000,000 new money ********* we ex- pect to get somewhere between 40 and 50 percent from our customers each year" just to what extent these stockholders, and his holders of "junior" securities own "their own property"! Who are the owners of the CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 55 controlling interest, the majority of the common stock in the"** properties I am operating around here and in fourteen other states"? How many individuals own the controlling interest in the properties, "I am oper- ating"? How many individuals own the balance, or the minority shares of stock? What voice, if any, has this "vast army of stockholders" in the management, and in the determining of the policies of " ** the prop- erties I am operating around here and in fourteen other states"? Does this "army of stockholders" have any means of checking up to determine for its members how their 40 to 50 per cent of, " ** $40,000,000 to $50,000,000 new money that is needed by the growth of the properties I am operating around here and in fourteen other states," is appro- priated and used? Is it not a fact that " ** the prop- erties I am operating" are owned, controlled, and dominated by a little clique of capitalists whom Mr. Insull represents? Do not the votes of the majority shares owned by this little clique, elect the directors, governing board members, and executive committee members, who m turn elect the executive officers? Does not the board of directors fix the amount of the salary and perquisites of each of the officials, and principal attorney or attorneys? Ownership, "over their own property" would imply that the owners would be allowed a voice in the management and direction of the essential affairs of the property owned ! Whoever has the authority to collect, to hold, and to spend the money of a property or business owns and controls that property or business. Reduced to its lowest terms, Mr. Insull's declaration 56 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS that, "What I am deliberately after is public owner- ship," really means that he would like to sell 40 to 49 per cent of the common stock to his scattered customers, and the more scattered the better, and as many of the "junior" securities in, " ** the properties I am operating" as these customers can be induced to carry; but he, and those whose interests he is supposed to represent, will hold on to the controlling interest. In other words if the public will furnish the "new money that is needed" he and his controlling interests will control and manage "their own property" for them! As a wag we knew was accustomed to remark dryly when an absurd proposition was presented to him, "That seems fair and reasonable!" Mr. Insull expresses the hope, and makes the prediction that, " *** when the junior securities of all these local public utilities are owned by the people themselves as individuals you will hear less about municipal ownership, you will hear less about attacks upon the public utility interests," etc. Is it not barely possible that if the people who have invested their money in minority stocks, "junior" securities, and bonds of public utilities had been more fairly and honestly treated by the controlling interests of those corporations, and the public had been given more satisfactory service in return for what it was forced to pay for that service, that "you would hear less about municipal ownership, you will hear less about attacks upon public utility interests".'' The financing of the properties Mr. Insull is "operating around here and in fourteen other states" may be taken as fairly typical of the financing of the general run of corporations of all sorts. The usual and favorite scheme is for the promoters CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 57 and the organizers of the project to get the control of the corporation by issuing and selling stock, and retaining fifty-one (51) per cent of it for themselves. It is a common practice to turn in franchises, patents, copy rights, promotive services or almost any thing except cash for the controlling majority of the shares of stock. As was shown in the history of the financing of the Brightwood Hotel scheme, the promoter and the two financial backers actually paid into the treasury $56,500 for 765 of the 1500 shares in that conservatively financed enterprise, while the 105 other stockholders paid $73,500 in cash for 735 shares; and before the financing was completed most of the same people with a few others who did not bite the first time, actually paid in another $73,500 for the 735 minority shares in the reorganized New Brightwood Hotel Holding Company ! In the organization of many of the public service properties, such as our street railways, elevated and subway railways, telephone, electric light and power companies, and gas companies, the promoters and controlling interests usually turned in their franchises for their part of the capitahzation of their project. These franchises are simply legal permission to use the streets and alleys for laying tracks, stringing wires, laying water and gas pipes, and conduits for cables and wires, which permission usually carries with it the monopoly of the streets and alleys for the operation of that particular utihty for a definite term. Most of these valuable franchises, as the word indicates, are in so far as the public is concerned, free gifts, costing the promoters nothing but the "Contingent expenses" necessary to get the franchises "voted" through the 58 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS council or other representative body chosen by the voters to look after their civic interests. The pubKc furnishes the franchises, most of the capital required to build, equip, and to start the business of the utility, and in many, maay instances fully as much again actual cash as ever is expended upon the properties. What ever becomes of this over plus of "new money" raised from the sale of minority shares of stocks, numerous issues of bonds, and "junior" securities of all names and descriptions, no one knows except those who control and "operate" the inside financial affairs, under sanction of law, mind you, and they never are called upon to explain ! This one fact should be kept clearly in mind : That great army of stockholders and investors who furnish the money with which most public utilities are built, equipped, and operated have no voice in the manage- ment and control of "their own property," and of course, in the expenditure of their money! The holders of the majority shares of stock, elect the directors. The directors elect the officials, fix their salaries, determine the policies, and what disposition shall be made of the net earnings, or whether or not there shall be any "net earnings available for divi- dends!" The laws that grant authority to the possessors of fifty -one (51) per cent of the shares of common stock of any cooperative undertaking or corporation to manage, dominate, and control the affairs of that enterprise as completely as though it were their private property, and deliberately against the interests of the holders of the minority stock, and of the owners of the so called "preferred" stock, bonds, "minor" securities, and notes, work a flagrant economic injustice CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 59 and are clearly against public policy ! Such laws place in the hands of greedy and unscrupulous financiers the legal weapon with which to plunder their less prosperous fellow men, women, orphans and dependent wards! There are instances of where the controlling interests of a corporation have issued a whole series of bonds, secured by a first mortgage on the property, divided the bonds up among themselves, and held them in their own safety deposit boxes, clipping the coupons regularly and collecting them from their own treasury and pocketing the money. Not a dollar was paid into the treasury of the corporation for those bonds, and yet, they stand as legal liens against the corporations! There are any number of instances in comparatively recent years of marauding interests managing to secure a majority of the shares of stock of honestly financed, and ably managed railroads which had been and were paying dividends to their stockholders regularly; no sooner had these interests taken possession, than they began their schemes for "Reorganization and financing." The properties of these railroads were bonded to their limits upon the pretext of "For betterments and improvements!" The total amount actually expended for better- ments and improvements was an infintismal portion of the proceeds of the huge bond issue. These fine first class railroad properties weighted dowQ with legalized debts and heavy interest charges, have sunken from their enviable positions of first class rail- roads to the depths of debt burdened properties. The unfortunate holders of the minority shares in these fine properties, and the "gilt edge securities" of the original 60 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS properties were ruthlessly plundered of their rightful incomes. One favorite device of these marauding financiers that is used to dispoil the minority stockholders of their rightful share of their earnings is the very common practice of the controlling interests of paying inordinate salaries to their officials, presidents, vice presidents and general managers, managers, treasurers, attorneys, etc. These salaries are often anywhere from five to ten times the salary that the recipient of it ever did earn, or could get in any other similar position. The secret of these abnormal salaries in many cases, it would probably be safe to say in most cases, is that the greater portion of these salaries is paid over to the controlling interest, or interests, of the property. A board of directors, for instance will vote a salary of $25,000 to its president and general manager; the business does not justify the payment of to exceed $10,000, and the incumbent would be fortunate to find another position where he could earn $6,000, and by all prudent business considerations, $10,000 a year would be a most liberal salary. But he draws $25,000 from the treasury, and this amount is charged to "overhead control;" this amount added to one or more other inordinate salaries, eats quite a hole in the earnings of the little business. But, if he pays to the holders of the majority of the shares of stock $15,000, this amount alone is the equivalent of six per cent on $250,000 of common stock ! But this is typical of comparatively small business concerns. Any number of the big interests vote their executives fabulous sums and charge these sums against the business as "Overhead management and control." These salaries range all the way from $25,000 to CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 61 $125,000 a year! In a few instances where a specially astute and versatile executive is chosen to look after the interests of a little financial clique dominating and controlling a number of extensive enterprises, he will be paid salaries by each of these separate corporations amounting in the aggregate to not less than $150,000 a year. Granting in a spirit of fairness, that one of these executives is permitted to retain as much as $30,000, and that he returns but $120,000, this one official's rebate amounts to six per cent on $2,000,000 par value of capital stock! But he is but one of the favored and dependable executives, there are the vice presidents and general managers, the managers, attorneys, comptrollers, auditors, treasurers, chairmen of the boards, etc. If an attorney is paid $30,000, who would feel that he was fortunate indeed to get $12,000, it is safe to assume that he "rebates" at least $18,000 to the controlling interests he represents. Eighteen thousand dollars, is the equivalent of six per cent on $300,000 more of the common stock. Thus it will be seen that the controlling interests, the majority stockholders, "get theirs," regardless of whether the properties earn "Net profits available for dividends" or not. It is obvious that if the control- ling interests can manage to get six per cent on their holdings of common stock, that they could, were the property managed fairly and honestly, pay at least three per cent on all the common stock! The difficulty is that while the laws protect the money interests as against the rights of men, women, and children, most corporate affairs are likely to be so manipulated that bona fide investors in shares of stock, the preferred shares, and the minor securities in cooperative under- 62 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS takings, will bear the heft of the financial burdens, and receive small if any returns. Even those comparatively few corporations, in- cluding the banks and trust companies, that make some pretense of paying dividends to their stock- holders, rarely ever pay their minority share holders more than a fair rate of interest for their money. In the event that the earnings begin to increase to the point that would warrant an increase in the dividend rate, the salaries of the executives are likely to be substantially increased, or one or more high salaried officials added. That part of the increased earnings that may not be distributed by the usual devices is added to "Undivided profits" or to "Surplus," — any pretext to keep minority stockholders from being paid more than their normally limited dividends. For the week ending May 6, 1922, the newspapers' report of the price range of stocks traded in, listed on the New York Stock Exchange, lists 360 Common, or voting, stocks. Of these 138 were reported as having paid dividends. This would indicate that out of every 100 selected and listed stocks on the New York Stock Exchange, 62 make no pretensions of paying dividends to their minority stockliolders ! Only 41 of the 360 listed stocks quoted, were traded in at or near par; and but 16 out of a hundred paid a dividend of six per cent or more! These figures convey a startling lesson for the person of moderate means who feels that he should invest a portion of his savings for his wife and children to meet their unmediate necessities when he cannot otherwise provide for them. They forcast the prospect that if he should invest, or had invested his savings in common stocks, the chances are 16 out of 100 that his CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 63 investment will yield an annual income for his de- pendent ones of six per cent or over, and the chances that his investment will yield nothing are 62 out of 100!! Yet it is fair to presume that in 325 of the 360 of the properties quoted as having been bought and sold during the week, the majority stockholders "got theirs" either as salaries and perquisites, or by "re- organization" financing! As long as the laws protect these professional financiers in their right to plunder small investors, by clothing them with the privilege and authority to dominate, control, and manage a stock company, to collect and handle all receipts, determine all ex- penditures, to fix all salaries, including their own, most naturally, they will see to it that the, — "Net earnings available for dividends" are kept at a low ebb! The minority stockholders have no one to blame but themselves! They are greatly in the majority as men and women, individuals, voters! The 500,000 minority stockholders in Illinois for instance clauned by one operator of properties, provided they could be awakened to the urgent necessity of looking out for their own economic interests, might wield an influence that would bring about the necessary legis- lation to protect them and all future investors in their personal and corporate rights. The remedy for this wasting canker that is absorbing the financial lifeblood of the people, is the substitution of a democracy of men, women, and brains for the established democracy of one hundred dollar ($100) shares of stock! Why not? Surely each individual who invests his money in any sort of a money making corporation, is just as vitally interested in the financial 64 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS success of that corporation as the capitah'st who invests a portion of his capital in the same corporation although the capitalist may have invested a hundred times more than any other individual, or possibly more than all the other individuals together! In the financing of the Brightwood Hotel, for example, is it not reasonable to assume that the 105 men and women of that little city who purchased an average of seven shares each of the original issue of stock in that local community undertaking were as sincerely and unselfishly interested in the financial success of the enterprise as the other three men who were legally empowered to dominate, and mismanage the affairs, and plunder the 105 well meaning neighbors and fellow townsmen of their $73,500 simply because the three had acquired a majority of 30 shares of the voting stock! The first step towards a semblance of economic justice in the organization, financing, conducting, and manage- ment of all corporations, and cooperative undertakings is to secure the enactment of laws which will give to each shareholder one vote, and no share holder more than one vote in the conduct of the affairs of that corporation. All members of boards of directors, and the principal executive oflScers should be chosen on account of their honesty, ability, and demonstrated fitness for the respective positions of responsibility and trust, by the direct vote of the individual stockliolders, or in the case of "an army of stockholders" by delegates chosen by, and representing a predetermined number of share holders, each and every stockholder whether holding one share or ten thousand shares having the l^al right to one vote, and but one vote! When the individual citizen asserts his rights, and CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 65 comes into possession of himself and of his own, there is likely to be a precipitate descension to the private financial ranks of many a fat exploiting financier who has garnered great store of riches from his depredations on the accumulated savings of minority stock pur- chasers ! Again returning to the analogous example of the financing of the Brightwood Hotel Company, the probabiHty is that the board of directors would have been made up of other members than of the ones chosen by the majority shares of stock, if each share holder had had but one vote; and that a more capable lot of officials would have been elected; that the hotel would have been built and furnished at a much less cost; that the hotel would have been a financial and business success from the opening; that the second series of shares would never have been issued; that the bonds would have been purchased by the stock- holders; that all the stockholders would have received dividends on their holdings of the original stock, the majority stockholders along with the rest; and that when the hotel was sold the purchasers would have had to purchase all the shares of stock that were for sale at the price offered for the controlling interest, for there would have been no controlling interest except a majority of the individual stockholders! Let us have democratic government in the control and management of all corporate enterprises, wherein each individual shareholder shall be accorded the same rights and privileges as any other individual stock- holder! This plea is for civic, economic, and political rights and privileges as well as the weighty responsibilities of the individual. 66 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Every citizen should be educated to demand, and he should be urged to assume a voice in the manage- ment of every institution of which he is a member, or of which he is called upon to support, whether it be a church, a lodge, a bank, a business or a charity. In the mean time while waiting and working for the enactment of laws legalizing democracy of men and brains in the place of the unjust democracy of $100 shares of stock, prudence would seem to dictate that one who has money to invest should be particular to place it only where the investment is amply secured, and where there is a reasonable certainty that one may get his principal returned when he needs it. Let those who own, control, and manage corporations for the sole benefit of themselves provide the "new money" needed to keep their moneymaking schemes going. Individuals would better keep their savings in their savings bank until they have accumulated enough to purchase a first mortgage on approved real estate, or a guaranteed first mortgage bond, a government, state, county, city or school bond, even though the rate of interest may not be so enticing as offered by more promising but much less secure securities! There is always a large element of risk involved in intrusting ones money with impersonal organizations to use, manage, and control without a definite assurance of the return of the money when it may be needed. PREFERRED SHARES OF STOCK A recent decision handed down by the Illinois Supreme Court deals a severe blow to the control and domination of corporations by intriguing cliques of majority holders of common stock. CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 67 The court decided that the state constitution pro- vided that no corporate stock shall be denied the right to vote. Heretofore, it has been the practice for small cliques, and in many instances for a single individual, to control a corporation by the simple device of voting a majority of the common shares of stock. The holders of shares of preferred stock being denied the privilege and right of voting. The scheme of financing and controlling a corpora- tion usually worked was to issue both common and "pref erred stock. For illustration $325,000 of common stock divided into shares of $100 each; and $650,000 of preferred stock divided into shares of $100 each. The organizers of the corporation would scheme to retain for themselves 1657 shares of the common stock, paying themselves for these shares by turning in a little struggling business or expert service, good name, or good will, most anything except "new money"! The 1593 minority shares were offered for sale to "suckers," usually to employees with the alluring bait of "owning an interest in the business!" The preferred shares were offered and sold to any one who could be induced to purchase them. The minority stockholders are counted on to pay into the treasury $159,300 in cash; the preferred share holders, $650,000. The minority common stockholders, and the preferred are expected to fur'nish $809,300 of the new money needed to run the business, and the holders of these stocks would have no voice in the management and control of that business. The controlling interests actually paid in but little, how much need not be revealed; but the holders of the 1657 shares of common stock take possession of the $809,300 in cash, elect all officials, fix their salaries. 68 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS determine all expenditures, and manage the business as though it were their very own ! The decision of the Supreme Court of Illinois means that the holders of the 6500 shares of 'preferred stock shall have the same voting privilege as the holders of common stock! The effect of this decision will be to upset and disarrange the smug organizations of many of the corporations in Illinois; and hereafter these manipulators will find it necessary to control a majority of the shares of both common and preferred stock, and this is likely to enlarge the charmed circle of these con- trolling interests. But while this is a step in the direc- tion of economic justice, it leaves the fundamental wrong just where it was. The holders of a majority of shares of stock will continue to dominate and control these corporation enterprises; shares of stock are made superior to men and intelligence ! The constitutional provision on which the court based its decision reads: — "The general assembly shall provide by law that in all elections for directors or man- agers of incorporated companies every stockholder shall have the right to vote in person or by proxy for the number of shares of stock owned by him for as many persons as there are directors or managers to be elected * * * and such directors or managers shall not be elected in any other manner." This provision of the constitution furnishes a strik- ing illustration of the power and influence wielded over representative bodies elected to represent the people, by the moneyed power and its corporation attorneys; and it portends the obstinacy of the resistance that this powerful influence will marshal when any attempt is made to enfranchise that great "army of stockholders" CENTRALIZATION OF CONTROL 69 whose, "new money is needed" to finance the cor- porations of the country ! But the fight will have to be made and the battle won or it will not be many years before all of the sur- plus wealth of the country will be owned by a very few men. The only reason these few do not own it all now instead of the bulk of it, is that the people as fast as they are stripped of their savings, go to work and produce some more; and it is this "new money" that is being earned and saved that the operators," * * * expect to get * * * from our customers each year" ! These corporation manipulators follow practically the same code of ethics as do the professional gamblers. When the player has lost all his money, the gambler is through with him; but he advises him to go out and raise some new money, and expresses the hope that "You may have better luck next time!" This much in all fairness should be said for the gambler, that so long as his money lasted the player had a gambler's chance, and he was permitted to play the game ! It must be apparent that all these flagrant abuses are the direct result of the centralization of domination and control of the financial affairs of corporations into the hands of fewer and fewer individuals. This self appointed few take it upon themselves to look after the best interests of the many, with the usual disastrous results that befell the 105 minority stock holders in the Brightwood Hotel scheme! CHAPTER III The Administration of Public Schools state departments of education Let US turn to the consideration of the subject of the tendency toward centraHzation of control in the administration of pubhc education. Nowhere is this menacing tendency more noticeable than in the organization and reorganizations of State Departments of Education. There is a persistent and aggressive movement all over the country towards the centralization of management and control in the State Departments of Education. Along with this, and a part of the same propaganda, is the movement toward the centralizing of educational control in the United States Bureau of Education or in an independ- ent Department of Education. This growing tendency manifested in the states and in the National government to assume authority to direct, supervise, and control public education, is vicious. It is manifestly against public policy, and threatens the safety of the foundation of our public schools. We must keep clearly in our minds the fact that in their origin, and in their intent and purpose, the public schools, and the private and parochial schools, are essentially local institutions. They belong, primarily, to the people of the community for the education of their children. The public schools belong legally to the people of the school districts in which they are located. The 70 THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 71 title to the public school property is vested in the local school boards, trustees, or boards of education of the school districts. The taxpayers, and every self sup- porting man and woman is a taxpayer, pay for the build- ings, their furnishings and equipment, maintenance, and in the main, the running expenses of their schools. As it has been stated before, the inherent responsi- bility and obligation for the education of the child rests upon the shoulders of the pal'ents of the child, or of those placed in parental relation to the child. It was in response to this obligation and responsibility that the people of pioneer communities first organized their school districts, started their schools, and have continued to maintain and to support them. The legal voters of the school districts elect their representatives, trustees, directors, or members of boards of education, except in those places where they have been deprived of their inherent right by state enactment, to manage and maintain their schools for them. This inherent obligation of the people of the com- munity carries with it the right to determine the kind of a school they will have for the education of their children; and the state should move cautiously before it attempts to interfere with, or limit the inalienable right to local self government in their school affairs. We know and fully appreciate the fact that there is a wide range of diversity among schools in different communities within the same county, in the different counties of the same state, and in the different states of the United States; but this is as it should be. It is quite likely that the people of Brookline, Massachusetts would protest vigorously against any attempt to transplant the many excellent features 72 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS of the school system of Fort Smith, Arkansas, into the public schools of Brookline; and one may readily imagine the consequences were an attempt made by the State Department of Education to transplant Brook- line's finely organized school system to Fort Smith ! The people in each of these small cities have built up a system of schools adapted to their respective ideals and requirements. It would be the height of folly for any outside authority to assume to undertake to impose even what educational experts, so called, might agree were the superior features of one of these widely separated school systems, upon the other. While these two systems of schools are character- istically different, essentially there is little difference after all. A pupil who may have completed the work of a particular grade in one of these systems of schools, in the event of his transfer to the schools of the other, will enter the school of that system and keep right along in his studies with little if any interruption. The school in each community is, or should be, an expression of the educational sentiment of the people of that community. Even in the large cities where all the schools are under one uniform system of control and supervision, there is as great difference between two schools in different localities as there would be between a school in Brookline and another school in Fort Smith. The general educational tone and character of a school or a system of schools exhibit the level of the general average educational sentiment of the people of the community. It is a tactical blunder for a state to undertake to superimpose an all "ready to wear" school system upon a community that has not asked for it, and that is not prepared for it, although theoreti- THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 73 cally it may be just the kind of a school system that community needs. This brings up the question of what should be done with regard to those parents who are indifferent to or negligent of their duty of providing for the educa- tion of their children, and those scattering communi- ties which fail to make adequate provision for a school worthy of the name. And what should be done with those poorer sections of a state, whole counties in some states, where tlie assessed value of all the taxable prop- erty even when taxed to the legal limit, does not provide sufficient revenue to support schools for the minimum number of days required by law. The con- sideration of these unfortunate cases brings us to that very important subject of, STATE AND NATIONAL AID FOR EDUCATION The only justification of public free schools sup- ported by the taxation of private property, is based upon the theory that it is for the public welfare, the safety of society, and for the security of public and private property that the people be educated. For these reasons private property is taxed for the support of free public schools. The majority of parents and guardians accepts the obligation and responsibility for the education of their children, and willingly provides for them and sends them to school. There can be no reasonable doubt but that those parents who are financially able to send their children to school and neglect or refuse to do so, should be compelled to do so; and that those parents who are too poor to provide for their children and to send them 74 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS to school should be helped in so far as necessary to enable them to do so. It seems only fair and reasonable when those citi- zens who have property but no children to be educated are required to pay taxes for the support of public free schools, that the state is morally bound to enact laws by which those who fail to send their children to school can be forced to do so. But the authority for the en- forcement of these compulsory attendance laws should be vested in the school authorities of the school dis- tricts where the offending parents or guardians reside. The state legislature enacts the laws to enable the people of the school districts through their chosen school officials to carry out the purposes for which the schools were established and are supported. For this reason, any provision for state attendance officials, is a presumptuous usurpation of authority which rightfully belongs to the people of the local school districts. The same principle seems to hold in regard to the money raised from the tax levied on the property of the school districts for the support of the schools. While the state legislature enacts the necessary laws providing authority for raising money for the support of schools, it should be left to the people of the several school districts to levy the tax subject to the require- ments and restrictions of law. The point we wish to emphasize is that the schools belong, of right, to the people, not en viasse in the sense of the State, but to the men and women living in a legally prescribed district, the men and women one meets on the street, in the stores and shops, in the factories, on and from the farms, in the oflSces and in the homes. These people have the inherent right to THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 75 select the site for the school building, to decide how much money shall be appropriated for the school build- ing, the kind of a building it shall be, to elect their school officers to represent them in the management and conduct of their school, to determine how many days their schools shall remain in session beyond the minimum number of days provided by law, and to have a governing voice in school affairs generally. In fact, the school is or should be a strictly local com- munity institution, and it should not be permitted under any pretext whatsoever to become a State nor a National Institution ! With regard to what should be done about the school districts and the counties in a state which need financial assistance, the answer seems simple enough. In any school district where, based upon an honest assessment of property, the maximum of revenue derived from the tax levy is not sufficient to support a good school for the required length of term, the state should furnish the amount of additional money necessary to comple- ment the local fund, from a state wide school tax levied and collected for that purpose. There should be provision made in every state for a state wide tax that would yield sufficient revenue to supplement the school funds raised by those school districts which, after having levied the maximum rate provided by law, find that they have not enough money to maintain a good school. But this state school fund should be collected and appropriated for the sole use of those school districts in the state, which are are not financially able to maintain their schools with- out state aid; and it should not be apportioned back to the wealthy and populous centers, as it is now so generally done, that need no assistance. 76 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS But this financial assistance from the pubHc funds of the state should not be seized upon as a pretext for state officials to assume authority to inspect those schools, nor to prescribe nor impose restrictions upon the local school officials, beyond such rules and regu- lations as might be found necessary to enable the state auditor to decide whether or not the amount of assist- ance requested is actually needed, and that it will be expended for the purpose for which it is appropriated. It should not be assumed nor implied even that the amount of money apportioned to any school district is in any sense a gratuity, but a legitimate part of the school funds of the district. This would enable each state to provide adequately for, — "A thorough system of free schools whereby all children of the state may receive a good common school education." A number of the states have made provision for a state school fund, but unfortunately that fund is usually distributed on the basis of the number of children in the districts without regard to the financial needs of the districts. There are inequalities and inconsistencies in the practical working out of any plan for tlie support of local district schools from a local tax on the property of the school district that have come about by the rapid growth of cities in the great industrial and commercial centers. It is not uncommon to find the great bulk of taxable property located in an industrial school dis- trict in which there are but few children, while in an adjoining residential district, there are many children and but little taxable property. Under the local school district taxing system this valuable property of the industrial district, does not pay its fair proportion of the school taxes. THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 77 It hardly seems fair for a village or a small country town dependent upon the surrounding farming com- munity for its support, to be permitted to form a school district of its corporate limits, and to support a graded school and a high school from the taxes levied upon the banks, stores, elevators, mills, creameries, blacksmith and wagon shops, garages and railroad property, and to exclude the children of that surrounding country from its superior school privileges. And there are the cities in which a large portion of the wealth of each state is centralized. Should not these wealthy cities and their immediate environs be made to contribute to the support of public schools in the many sparsely settled and poorer school districts of the state? The financing of education is without doubt a mat- ter of national concern. The Government of the United States has done much to encourage education in the past and it is to be hoped that it will do much more in the future. In its appropriations of money it should apply the same principle in its distribution that was suggested for the basis of apportionment of state funds among the school districts. The money should be apportioned to those states or sections of the country m need of financial assistance. To specify, one of the objections to the Federal Vocational Education Act is that the apportionment of the scanty appropriation of Federal vocational educa- tion funds is made, — first, upon the basis of the popula- tion of the states, and second, within the states, on the "matching dollars" basis! The result of this political distribution is that the money goes to the centers where federal and state aid is least needed. 78 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Of the $4,000,000 allotted to the states for voca- tional education for the year ending June 30, 1922, the States of New York, Pennsylvania, and Illinois were allotted $1,074,990.21! The lion's share of this allotment to these three States went to the cities of New York, Buffalo, Philadelphia, Pittsburg, and Chicago! For illustration, take Illinois for the year ending June 30, 1921. The federal allotment to the State of Illinois for that year was the munificent sum of $157,519.37! The State "matched" this amount and added $82,971.05 to it, making a grand total amourft of $398,009.79 to be apportioned to those schools that were fortunate enough to be able to "match" the amount of the combined federal and state appropriations for the aid and encouragement of vocational education in the state of Illinois. Of this total amount, the city of Chicago was awarded $137,729.34, or more than 34 per cent; and the Town of Cicero in the same county managed to get $18,972.34, or 4.76 per cent of the total federal and state funds, and more than the cities of Peoria, Rockford, Moline, Rock Island, and East St. Louis combined ! The basis of apportionment, and the conditions and restrictions imposed combine to preclude those boys and girls most in need of vocational training and guidance from the benefits of the appropriations, and the great bulk of the money goes to those populous centers which are abundantly able to provide vocational training without financial assistance. Another objection to the Vocational Education Act is the elaborate over head machinery it provides for the direction and control of vocational education. The government assumes that it is vitally interested in vocational education, and that the people and their THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 79 school oflScials are but remotely interested, and that it can be carried on effectively only when administered after a federal formula. How did the men and women manage to get their vocational training before the federal government decided to take over the direction and control of that branch of education in 1917? The great industries of this country were pretty well developed and they seemed to be fairly efficiently managed even before 1917. There must have been some degree of technical and vocational training neces- sary to design and construct the steam engine, gas engine, except the government's widely advertised but little used Liberty Motor, the telegraph, the telephone, the electric light, the labor saving farm machinery, the printing press, and the thousands of intricate and delicate instruments and tools in daily use in the arts and the trades. If the Federal government and the State really desire to aid and encourage industrial and vocational education they should make it possible for the boys and girls from those more remote rural communities that offer no opportunities for getting vocational training, and where the local school authorities can not possibly meet the conditions and limitations laid down by the Federal Board of Education to have the benefit of it. The federal government might appro- priate a fund providing for scholarships in standard technical and trade schools for talented and deserving boys and girls to be chosen from the school districts and counties of the various states by some fair competi- tive method. This or some similar plan based upon the same principle would insure a wider distribution of 80 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS vocationally trained young men and women over the whole country. There is a persistent and growing tendency on the part of the school politicians to centralize wider powers of supervision and control of public education in the officials of State Departments of Education; and thereby to relieve the people, their school directors of the school districts, the school boards of the cities, and the County Supermtendents of much of their responsibility, authority, and rights. There has been an active and aggressive campaign conducted, and some definite movements made to enlarge the scope of activity and the authority of the National Bureau of Education over the public schools of the country. But up to this time these advocates of the Nationalization of education happily have not been able to convince a majority of the members of congress that public education is a National question rather than a State and local community question. The "stock" argument for state domination and control of the public schools is that the state through its State Department of Education knows better than the parents of the children what a good school is and what the standards of their school should be! It is the "stock" argument in favor of centralization of authority the world over. It was not so long ago that the highly centralized and autocratic government of the German Empire was cited and praised as a fine example of an efficient and beneficent govermnent! Parents have an abiding faith in their ability to choose a desirable husband for their daughter, or the right sort of a wife for their son more wisely than their offspring is likely to do; but the fond and over officious parents experiejice unsurmountable difficulties in con- THE ADMINISTItATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 81 sumating their favorable matches. The sons and daughters in this country, at any rate, assert their inahenable right of deciding this one question for them- selves. The normal adult individual is the best judge of what is best for his own interests, and should be left to make his own choice for himself and for his minor children ! Whether or not some one else might choose more wisely for him, is not the question. The responsibility and the inherent right rests within him, and he must be conceded the right and the liberty of exercising his prerogative. In educational matters, the opportunity for him to make his choices and to decide wisely, is right in the school affairs of his own school district. The Bureau of Education at Washington has pre- pared and distributed an official Bulletin on the subject of the "Organization of State Departments of Educa- tion," Bulletin, 1920 No. 46, for which the Commissioner of Education, P. P. Claxton wrote the "Introduction." As this Bulletin treats this subject officially and authoritatively, we shall take the liberty of quoting from it, and of making comment upon its recommenda- tions. The Commissioner of Education recommends, "For the effective application of these principles. States departments of education should be organized somewhat as follows: — 1. "A State Board of Education, non-partisan, non- professional, made up of men and women of affairs, selected from the state at large because of their fitness for this position rather than for their fitness for some other" etc. 82 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS "The State Board of Education should have general control of all educational interests of the State as embodied in the public elementary and secondary schools for normal children, in the schools for special classes of children, as the deaf, the blind, the crippled, subnormal and incorrigible children and in schools for special kinds and phases of education, etc. 2. "A State commissioner of Education elected by the State Board of Education from the country at large and only because of professional preparation and administrative ability. * * * The term of office should have no reference to the change of officers con- nected with the partisan government of the State. It should be indefinite or for a period of years long enough to make possible the consistent development of ad- ministrative policies." "The commissioner of education should be the execu- tive officer of the State board of education, and under its general control, should have charge of the entire public school system of the State and should be given such freedom of action as is necessary for executive efficiency." (Italics ours.) 3. "A competent Staff of expert deputies, assis- tants, and clerks, appointed by the state board of edu- cation upon the recommendation of the commissioner of education. * * * " "The organization of the department of education of the State of Alabama, which follows closely recom- mendations made by the United States Bureau of Education, illustrates fairly well what is needed for states of average size." "In Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts the departments of education approach the ideal for the larger States." (Italics ours.) THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 83 Here we have the question of the Nationah'zing, Centralizing, and Institutionah'zing of the public school in a nut shell. By one fell swoop the public schools that have been organized, built up and sup- ported by the people of the local communities for the education of the children of the communities are to be taken over bodily and placed under the "control" of, "A State Board of Education of seven to nine members, and in charge of a commissioner of education elected from the country at large"! Fathers and mothers are you sleeping! Think what this means, and what it portends! STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF ALABAMA As the United States Commissioner of Education has cited the State Department of Education of Ala- bama as having been organized following recommenda- tions made by the United States Bureau of Education, and "In Pemisylvania, New York, and Massachusetts the departments of education approach the ideal for the larger states," it may not be out of place to com- ment upon some of the conditions resulting from the organization of state public school systems "following recommendations made by the United States Bureau of Education, and in those States that "approach the ideal." From the Digest of laws relating to State Boards of Education we find that Alabama has a State Board of Education composed of the "Governor and State Superintendent of Schools, ex officio, six members appointed by the Governor from persons not subject to board's authority." "Appointed members, 12 years." 84 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS "Powers and duties. General control and super- vision over public schools except 3 institutions of higher education r adopts rules and regulations for the sanita- tion of schools, physical examination of school children, and enforces, in conjunction with other State authori- ties, rules relating to school health, compulsory edu- cation, and child conservation; prescribe minimum contents of courses of study for public elementary and high schools except in cities of 2000 or more inhabitants ; prescribe rules for the certification of teachers and for biennial school census; prescribes forms and blanks for use of all local boards; requires all private, denomina- tional, and parochial schools to submit annual reports; conducts investigations into educational needs of the State; administers vocational education; general super- vision of educational work of all charitable, penal, reformatory, and child-caring institutions maintained in whole or in part by the State; equalizes public school facilities." Thus it will be seen that under the plan of "Organi- zation of the Department of Education of the State of Alabama, which follows closely recommendations made by the United States Bureau of Education" about all the people of the local school districts and of the counties have left for them to do m the matter of education, is to vote for the Governor, and State Superintendent of schools, pay their school taxes, and provide the chil- dren! Incidentally this new "Organization," centraliza- tion, and crystalization of authority adds about twenty, "Members of Staffs of State Department of Education," and more than doubles the amount of salaries paid to members of the staff of the State Department of Education of Alabama. The additional THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 85 $45,000 absorbed by this new "Organization" would far better have been spent upon the poorer rural schools. But Alabama took the hook, line, and sinker along with the alluring bait, and she is hooked for fair! It will doubtless be of interest to the school patrons and to the politicians to watch the salary budget of the "Organization" of the State department of education grow. It has made a good healthy start already. The official Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Educa- tion gives the, "Membership of Staffs" and "Salaries paid each," presumably for the year 1920, totaling $83,010. According to the same official Bulletin, the State of Indiana's total salary list for the same period was but $41,900, and the State Department of Education of Indiana has never appeared to be seriously hampered in its activities for the want of competent and efficient members of its staff. There was a definite movement made in Indiana to "Reorganize" the State Department of Education so as to make that department, "Approach the ideal for the larger States" by making the State Superintendent of Instruction a creature of the State Board of Educa- tion; but the voters of that State much to their credit defeated the proposed amendment to their State Con- stitution. STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF NEW YORK. THE UNIVERSITY OF THE STATE OF NEW YORK The most glittering specimen of a perfectly central- ized, crystallized, and fossilized State System of Educa- tion is that arranged and displayed in that magnificent five million dollar marble mausoleum, the State Educa- 86 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS tion Building at Albany. The official title of this per- fect specimen is, "The University of the State of New York." In order to see this glittering specimen at its best one should secure a ticket of admission to one of those annual memorial pageants heralded as the "Convoca- tion of the University of the State of New York," held in the marble mausoleum at Albany at that season of the year when the autumn foliage in Northern New York is most gorgeous and impressive. There are pomp and high ceremonial in cap and gown. Provision seems to be made before hand for caps and gowns for most everyone having a part in the pageant. Those who may not be so fortunate as to be provided with a degree of the regular sort are likely to be honored with an LL.D., and provided with appro- priate regalia. There being no students, there are no graduation exercises of course. The exercises of the Convocation of the University of the State of New York following the customary course of memorial exercises, are largely lauditory. There is usually a liberal sprinkling of honorary degrees among the dependable adherents who are gathered from all over the State, and a number of distinguished guests from beyond the borders of the State. The participants in these annual pageants, and especially those who have been rewarded and sig- nally honored with a degree, scatter to their home towns feeling that they have been pennitted to partici- pate prominently in a great achievement for public education, not only for the great State of New York, but for the world. To them, and to all who may have been honored at previous annual convocations, the University of the State of New York, with its State THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 87 Department of Education is regarded as one of the great educational institutions of the country. The University of the State of New York is unique. It owns no buildings other than its five million dollar State Education Building at Albany, no student's dormitories, no college campus, and no athletic field; and it does not have a football team. Most ordinarily intelligent persons are able to form some sort of an idea of what the word, University means when it is used in its ordinary sense outside the State of New York, as University of Pennsylvania, Columbia University, University of Chicago, Univer- sity of California, University of Michigan, Illinois State Normal University, and Valparaiso University of In- diana. These are tangible educational institutions, each has a physical location, a campus, school buildings, a student body, faculty members, and it functions as an educational institution. There is a Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York made up of twelve members, most of them LL.D.'s, elected practically for life by the joint action of the two houses of the State Legislature, one member elected each year. This Board of Regents with its appointees would seem to be the University of the State of New York. The regents exercise the general management and supervision of all the public schools and all the other educational interests of the State. They confer certifi- cates, diplomas and degrees of all sorts upon those persons who meet their requirements. The regents register both domestic and foreign institutions in terms of New York standards, fix the value of degrees, diplomas, and certificates issued by institutions of other states and countries, such as Yale, 88 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Harvard, Boston School of Technology, Johns Hop- kins, University of California, Oxford, Cambridge, and Heidleberg. The regents' examination questions furnish the standards of instruction in the schools of the state from the elementary schools to the colleges. The regents incorporate, or refuse to incorporate, institutions or associations for the promotion of science, literature, art, history, or other departments of knowl- ledge or of education in any way, associations of teach- ers, students, graduates of educational institutions, and other associations whose approved purposes are in whole or in part of educational or cultural value deemed worthy of recognition and encouragement by the Board of Regents! Besides its restrictive powers of limitation upon all educational effort and initiative in the State of New York, the Board of Regents assumes to extend to the people at large increased educational opportunities, facilities, to stimulate interest therein, to recommend methods, designate suitable teachers and lecturers, conduct examinations, — the regents make a fetish of examinations — , to grant or refuse credentials, and to otherwise organize, aid, and conduct such work. A highly altruistic and beneficent labor of love for which "the people at large" should be duly appreciative and fervently grateful. All the remuneration these capable regents are vouchsafed for all they do to public educa- tion in the great State of New York, over and beyond the honor and the dignity that go with the power and authority of the position, is their, "Necessary ex- penses," — a sort of "cost plus" proposition. r ^ The regents elect the Commissioner of Education who by virtue of his office becomes the executive officer THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 89 of the Board of Regents, and President of the Univer- sity of the State of New York. His salary is ten thousand (10,000) dollars a year and a liberal allowance for traveling expenses. He is the recognized "Chief executive officer of the State System of Education and of the University." It is not necessary to enumerate his responsibihties and duties, beyond stating that they are manifold. There have been a number of prominent men who have graced the position of Commissioner of Education of the State of New York, among them Hon. Andrew S. Draper, of revered memory, and Dr. John J. Finley. Dr. Finley is regarded as one of the most brilhant and influential champions of broad and liberal scholarship. He stands preeminent among educators. It would be of interest to his many friends and admirers to know why he gave up the presidency of the University of the State of New York for a position on the staff of the New York Times. The whole State System of Education is a State System in fact as well as m name. By the time any bit of the responsibihty for the education of their chil- dren, or of initiative in local educational affairs trickles down through the meshes of the organization of the State System to "the people at large," about all that is left for them besides the tax receipts are the "Do's" and "Dont's" of the State Department of Education in the marble mausoleum at Albany. This brings us to the consideration of the luxurious expense to the taxpayers of one of the United States Commissioner's "approach the ideal" State Depart- ments of Education. The annual payroll of the staff of the Department of Education housed in the memorial Education Building 90 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS at Albany, amounted to the nominal sum of Eight hundred twenty two thousand nine hundred (822,900) dollars according to the Bulletin, 1920, No. 46 of the Bureau of Education, and this amount evidently did not include the "Necessary expenses" of the members of the Board of Regents. This amount exceeds by over forty four thousand (44,000) dollars, the totals of the amounts expended for the same period for the salaries of "Staffs of State Departments of Education" in the States of Massa- chusetts, Vermont, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Indiana, and Illinois!! This will serve to show what one of these "approach the ideal" organizations of a State System of Education may be depended upon to absorb of the money raised by taxation for "Educational purposes." The greater part of this money is spent for what the corporations call, "Non productive overhead." So far as the tabulation of the Staff of the Depart- ment of Education shows, there were only twenty- three teachers employed, eighteen teachers of physical education, and five teachers of Americanization. There are 431 names on the pay roll, and of this number 98 were employed in and about the marble mausoleum, their duties grading from Supervising Engineer to, "30 cleaners." There were 343 names on the staff who seem to have been employed in the Department of Education proper. A fair example of the manner in which the educa- tional funds are apportioned and spent in one of these ideal organizations of State Departments of Education is furnished by the salary list of the Americanization Bureau of the New York State Department of Educa- ion. One specialist and twenty -seven assistants were THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 91 paid $70,050, while the 5 teachers received but $7,500 of the $77,550 spent for Americanization ! Teachmg foreigners to speak, read and write Enghsh is the foundation of all work in Americanization. The Americanization Bureau of the New York State De- partment of Education might have functioned more effectively, and might have accomplished vastly more in the way of practical Americanization with one specialist and forty-three teachers, the number that the amount of money paid to the twenty-seven assis- tant specialists would have provided. One live, cap- able teacher will accomplish more practical results in Americanization than a half dozen specialists. One of the State Superintendents quoted in the Bulletin, made the statement that a state department of education can reach a high degree of efficiency with a force of about forty persons, including stenographers and clerks. And the writer of the Bulletin comments as follows: "It is evident, therefore, that no hard and fast rule as to the personnel of State departments can be laid down, but it is a fact that very few of the depart- ments, even in the larger States, have as many as forty persons on their staffs." The Department of Education of the State of New York at the time of the compilation of the Bulletin employed 343 persons, exclusive of the 98 employed in caring for the marble mausoleum Education Build- ing at Albany ! At the least estimate, seven hundred thousand (700,000) dollars of the eight hundred twenty-two thousand nine hundred (822,900) dollars of the school tax money appropriated for salaries of the occupants of the Education Building at Albany, might far better have been spent for the support and encouragement of 92 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS education in the State, for the improvement of rural and elementary schools in the poorer and more remote and sparsely settled districts, for supplementing the school funds raised by local taxation, thus enabling such districts to pay adequate salaries and to secure better teachers, and to lengthen the school term. If this extravagant dissipation of the school tax money of the "people at large" might be taken as an index of the superior excellency and efficiency of the public schools of New York State, the "people at large" and their children might be congratulated, and the State Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York might be accorded high praise for its per- fect specimen of a crystalized State System of Education. The regrettable fact is according to the concensus of public opinion of school people outside of New York as well as the belief of many students of education within the State, that the schools of New York do not take as high rank as the schools of some of the other progressive States in many of those recognized essentials that go to make for good schools. The whole educational scheme of organization, and the methods of instruction are hampered by and con- fined to the narrow limitations of the "Regents' require- ments" and the "Regents' Examinations." The lack of incentive, inspiration, and initiative on the part of superintendents, principals, and teachers is apparent to even the casual observer. The net result of all discussion of better methods of instruction and of better things for the pupils in the schools is the all absorbing question: "Will it help our students to pass the Regents' Exams.?" "If it will help our students to pass, we are for it; but if not, we will have none of it." THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 93 All education worthy of the name has for its pur- pose the growth and development of the student. The subject studied is a means to that end, and a mastery of the facts of the subject is not the chief end. The educational ideal the teacher may hold deter- mines the kind and the quality of his teaching. If he is inspired with the ideals of an educator, his best thought and effort is directed toward the mental development of his students. Each particular subject he teaches is utilized as a means to that end. He will endeavor to so present the subject as to lead his students to understand the successive steps involved, to appre- ciate the signijBcance of each step, and to test his mental grasp of the subject. His interest is centered on his students' mental reaction to the content of the subject. But the teacher whose task is set for him by the "experts" or the "Assistant experts" seated at their desks at the State Capital, must of necessity put aside the ideals and aims of an educator, and assume the duties and the methods of the tutor, coach, and drill- master. He understands that he must bend his efforts to the coaching of his students to pass the Regents' examination. He knows full well that his professional standing with the powers that be, depends upon the percentage of his pupils who "pass," and the average per cent of the pupils on the Regents' examination. The temptation and tendency is for the teacher to degenerate into a mere coach . Every high school and college student knows the difference in the methods of instruction of the teacher and the coach. The coach aims to prepare his pupils to answer seventy-five per cent of the questions which he knows from his experience are most likely to be asked by the 94 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS examiners. He collects all the sets of examination questions he can lay his hands upon, and he drills his pupils upon the answers to those questions. He insists upon his pupils memorizing answers to questions. It is a 'cramming' and memorizing process from beginning to end. The New York State System of Education is funda- mentally wrong in principle. The State, through its elaborately and extravagantly organized State system of education hands down to the "people at large" a ready made system of education. It should be the other way round; the "people at large" should be pennitted to provide, manage, control, and conduct their own schools. The initiative should be left with the "people at large" where it rightfully belongs. All kinds of State inspection and supervision of public elementary and high schools by State inspectors, supervisors, directors, and specialists should be given up by the State Department of Education, and the duty and responsibility for inspection and supervision left to the city and school district authorities. The pretext that the local school boards, their superintendents, principals, and teachers who are directly in contact with the people can not be depended upon to provide and maintain efficient schools for their own children; but that State officials, political appoint- ees and employees far removed from responsibility and accountability to the people must be relied upon to provide, maintain, inspect, supervise, manage, and approve their schools for them is an absurd assumption ! The citizens of the great State of New York should rise in their might and rescue their schools from the bur- densome and deadening domination of the Board of Regents of the University of the State of New York. THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 95 The people of every local school district should demand their birthright of the liberty to direct and control their own public school affairs witliout outside official interference so long as they keep within the requirements of the school laws. One thing is reasonably certain, the people through their local school trustees, school directors, or school boards would not be likely to make the schools any worse than the recent elaborate and expensive survey has shown them to be. It might take a little while for the parents, teachers, principals, and school officials to find themselves and to assume and exercise their new found freedom, of thought and action, once it was granted, but when they did realize their responsibility and freedom, there would be such a revival of local interest and reconstructive activity in school affairs in that State as it never experienced before in its educa- tional history. To be sure it would take an upheaval akin to a political revolution to accomplish it. It makes but little difference to the "people at large" in so far as their responsibility is concerned, how much the State Board of Regents of the University of New York meddles with, limits and restricts the training of lawyers, doctors, chiropodists, odontologists, optomerists, stenographers, and bookkeepers, and other highly specialized kinds of education. This may possibly be desirable. But it should be forced to relin- quish its strangle hold upon the elementary and second- ary public schools. There is little likliliood that this desirable reforma- tion will be brought about. The "Organization" of the State School System is too strongly intrenched in the deep recesses of the $5,000,000 marble mausoleum at Albany, and too well provisioned for a long siege 96 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS with its million dollars a year appropriation for its sustenance to be expected to relinquish any of its authority, prerogatives, and patronage without stub- born resistance. There is enough political patronage to allay any opposition on the part of the political leaders to its continued domination and control of the public schools. It is the history of the human race, that whenever the people or any portion of the people acquiesce in or voluntarily surrender their inherent rights and respon- sibilities to those anxious and more willing to assume and to exercise them, that they are legally forfeited, and may not be regained without a revolutionary up- heaval. The hopelessness of the situation comes from the fact that the people have been led to believe that because their children are coached to pass the Regents' examinations, while those children who have been so unfortunate as to be instructed in the schools outside of New York usually fail to pass creditably the same examination, and because they have the most expen- sive and officious State Department of Education, housed in the finest Education Building in the land, that therefore they must have the best schools in the country. Pennsylvania's state school system The United States Commissioner of Education, Dr. Claxton, mentions Pennsylvania first among the three States in which the centralized Departments of Education "approach the ideal" for the larger states. But as the State of Pennsylvania has only recently determined to reorganize, centralize, and devitalize her public schools into a State domination and control THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 97 System along the lines of New York State's perfected model, and as this reorganization is only fairly under way, and the process of crystalization is not nearly complete, it seems more appropriate to comment upon it after New York. The author of the Bulletin 1920, No. 46, on the subject of "Organization of State Departments of Edu- cation" in commenting on the "Members of Staffs of State Departments of Education and Salaries Paid Each," says, "Conditions have improved considerably in most of the States during the past five years, both in the number of employees and the salaries paid." "The State department which has made the most thorough reorganization in that time is undoubtedly that of Pennsylvania, which has been completely reorganized and greatly enlarged with more adequate salaries under the Superintendency of Dr. Finegan." "In Pennsylvania and New York most of the principal members of staffs receive between $4,000 and $5,500 per annum"! The Hon. W. C. Sproul, Governor of Pennsylvania, could not have chosen and appointed a more adept and politic gentleman to superintend the delicate and dubious task of taking from the people their authority and inherent right to manage and control their own local school affairs, and to centralize and crystalize that authority and domination in an extravagant educa- tional political State Department of Education at Harrisburg than Dr. T. E. Finegan. Dr. Finegan, as deputy Commissioner of Education of the State of New York, had the requisite training and experience to fit him for the work Governor Sproul wished to have done in Pennsylvania. Dr. Finegan is credited with having the master mind that planned 98 LOOKING TO OLH FOUNDATIONS and carried through the necessary legislation which has enlarged and entrenched the authority of the Board of Regents and its University of tlie State of New York beyond the possibility of being dislodged by any politi- cal means the people of that State might attempt. If given time enough to complete his machine, he is likely to put the public schools of Pennsylvania beyond the reach of interference on the part of the people, their school officials, and the teachers of that grand old State. It is said of Dr. Finegan, and believed by his friends, that he will soon build up a million dollar organization, and through it will dominate and regulate the school affairs of every local school district, academj^ and private school in the State; and that he will actually make the staid old citizens of that State like it! One wonders how those thrifty Pennsylvania "Dutch" managed to worry along for nearly one hundred and fifty years organizing their own neigh- borhood school districts, building their own school houses, furnishing and equipping them, employing their own school teachers, electing their school officials, district, county and State, and through them managing and directing their school affairs, when they might have sent over to their more progressive neighboring State of New York for an expert centralizer of school authority who would gladly and willingly have relieved them of all worry and responsibility for the education of their children except, of course, the paying of the bills, and feeding and clothing the children. Those who have been in touch with the progress of educational affairs for the past thirty years, do not need to be reminded that Pennsylvania has held a high place among the States educationally; that the public schools have been truly democratic in their manage- THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 99 ment; that local self control and management of their public schools, and innate individual pride and interest in the education of their children, are the very founda- tion stones upon which the public schools have been built up, maintained and supported. Pennsylvania has been regarded all along as a pro- gressive state educationally. Under the leadership of that great, sane, nationally recognized educational leader, Nathan C. Schaeffer, that State won, and held the reputation of being conservately progressive. The best and foremost instructors, lecturers, and teachers of special subjects were engaged and assigned to teach- ers' institutes. There have been very few prominent educators, institute instructors, and public lecturers in this country who have not been chosen and engaged at one time or another to either conduct or to teach in one or more Teachers' Institutes in Pennsylvania; and these teachers and lecturers with one accord bore testimony of the progressiveness, and professional en- thusiasm of the teachers of Pennsylvania. This great leader built up the schools by the direct and effective method of bringmg the best available instruction and inspiration directly to the teachers right in their local environment. He knew and understood the people and how to reach them. He understood and appreciated the well established educational prin- ciple that all educational improvement and progress must grow from a rich subsoil of individual and com- munity interest and desire, and that it cannot be grown in a State Department of Education hothouse and transplanted to the local communities of the State and expected to thrive. Pennsylvania had one of the best working school systems in the country long before the politicians de- 100 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS cided that the pubhc school system should be "Reor- ganized on broader lines" after the more attractive cut and style of the State School System of New York, which supported a patronage salary list of nearly a million dollars while the great State of Pennsylvania did not dispense over one-ninth of that amount! So the public schools were turned over to the "Reorgani- zation forces" to dominate and control, and the right of local management passed from the fathers and mothers. It is a sad commentary upon the work of the educa- tional institutions of Pennsylvania that Governor Sproul could not find a man in the State capable of building up a strong educational political organization for him. The reorganization plans were but fairly under way when the Bulletin referred to was published. It was enabled however to exhibit a staff of appointees and employees of the State Department of Education, and salaries of each amounting to the encouraging total of two hundred fifty-four thousand three hundred fifty (254,350) dollars, exclusive of salaries of stenographers, clerks and messengers! A careful survey of this list of the staff and the salary of each shows not less than sixty-one needless positions absorbing a grand total of the State school funds amounting to two hundred sixteen thousand seven hundred fifty (216,750) dollars; and an average salary of three thousand five hundred fifty-three (3,553) dollars. The elimination of these sixty-one super- numerary appointees from the payroll of the State Department of Education, would not interfere with the performance of the proper functions of the State Department of Education in the least. It would leave THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 101 an executive staff of nine high salaried oflScials, a secre- tary to the Superintendent of PubHc Instruction, a bookkeeper, and the full complement of stenographers, clerks, messengers, etc. This is an ample working force to care for all the administrative agencies which properly belong to the province of the State in the administration of public school affairs. Any attempt on the part of the State Department of Education to undertake to do more becomes a direct interference with the purposeful work of other school officials, and of the school teachers. This is in no sense intended as a personal criticism of any of the men and women who are holding these lucrative and needless positions which have been created for them. No doubt they are all competent and efficient workers in their respective lines. The more competent and forceful these extraneous overhead people are, the more harm they are likely to do by their unwarranted interference with the duties of the regular workers. There is grave danger too that friendship and favor- itism are likely to influence appointments to these lucrative jobs in a great irresponsible State Organiza- tion. It is not beyond the pale of possibility that a director of a special subject might be inclined to favor a friendly specialist in his subject, who may have been instrumental in introducing his books in a goodly sized city at a strategic moment, and might recommend the appointment of this friendly person to a position on his staff at a fine salary. If so, similar motives might possibly influence appointments all down the line. With the momentum the reorganization forces have acquired, it should not take long for the salary list of 102 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the State Centralized School System to absorb $500,000 of the school funds for these extraneous positions, in addition to that required for the salaries of those who are performing the duties which properly belong to the educational department of the State. From a reliable source comes the infonnation that for the year 1921-1922 the "Organization and Pay Roll" of the Department of Education of the Common- wealth of Pennsylvania had crept up to 153 officials, appointees and employees, and the total amount of the salaries to the tidy sum of $381,840 ! The total number of employees of the Department for the school year 1918-1919 was 59; and the total amount of the pay roll was $112,000!! The State of Pennsylvania has made the same mis- take that a number of the other States have made, and that the spoils politicians are attempting to have other States make. The public schools are made a part of the political patronage of the Governor. The Governor appoints the six members of the State Board of Education. He appoints the Superintendent of Pubhc Instruction. Naturally, the State Superintend- ent being the creature of the Governor, is likely to appoint whomever the Governor may desire to have appointed, and he and the State Board of Education must carry out the policies of the Governor. This makes the public schools of the people the political foot ball of the State poHtical Organization of the dominant party. The administration of the public schools should be as far removed from the domination of the Governor as the State Judicial Department is, and just as inde- pendent of his authority. The people are fully as com- petent to choose wisely in the nomination and election THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 103 of the State Superintendent as they are of the governor. The people have the inherent right to a direct voice in all matters pertaining to the educational interests of their children, and they should be accorded that right. THE CENTRALIZED STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF MASSACHUSETTS Massachusetts is the third of those states cited by Dr. Claxton which, "approach the ideal for the larger States." The Governor appoints the members of the State Board of Education; and he appoints the State Commissioner of Education. That tells the whole story ! The State department of education expended for salaries including stenographers, clerks, and book- keepers, one hundred seventy three thousand four hundred ten (173,410) dollars for the year the report was made to the United States Bureau of Education for the Bulletin, 1920, No. 46. This sum of money is easily $115,000 in excess of what it should have been. If this amount could have been spent for the aid of the more needy schools of the state, it would have done the cause of public education great good at a time when many school districts were in dire need of financial help, and the usefulness of the State Department of Education would not have been crippled in the least. A top-heavy and extravagantly organized State Department of Education serves about the same purpose in public school education that the guilded dome of the State House does to good government. The stately dome does keep in its place, and interferes in no way with the orderly management of local governmental affairs; and it does not have to be regilded every year. 104 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS There are some indications of a movement among the people of Massachusetts towards decentralization of domination and control of public school affairs, and the return of the right of initiative, management, and control to the people of the local school districts. The State Board of Education of Massachusetts so it has been reported, has been shorn of much of its arbitrary authority, and it has subsided into more of an advisory body. Since it was in Massachusetts Bay Colony that our public schools had their beginning, and in their begin- ning were managed, controlled, and supported by the people of the local towns, it seems but natural and appropriate that the people of that State should lead in the movement for the return of the right to local self- government in tlieir public school affairs. The Cradle of Liberty surely has not ceased to rock ! THE STATE SCHOOL SYSTEM OF CONNECTICUT While on this subject of the centralization and crystalization of the domination and control of public education in State Departments of Education, let us not overlook the little conservative State of Connecti- cut with her eight counties and a total population of less than the city of Philadelphia, and with her total school enrollment in both pubhc and private elemen- tary and secondary schools of less than 300,000. Yet in the face of these seeming handicaps, her State Organ- ization can point to a political patronage staff of appointees, employees, and officials of the State Depart- ment of Education numbering nearly one hundred, and a salary list of two hundred thirty three thousand eight hundred seventy-five (233,875) dollars! THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 105 As mentioned before, the State of Indiana with a population of 3,000,000, and a school enrollment of 600,000, and with probably the best uniformly good schools in this country, has to worry along with a staff of officials, appointees, and employees of 19 members, and a total payroll of only forty-one thousand nine hundred (41,900) dollars! If the people of Connecticut would but arouse them- selves and smash their encrusted political patronage machine, take possession of their school affairs, and take $200,000 of the $233,875 absorbed by the State Department of Education, and apportion it to those school districts most in need of assistance in paying adequate salaries to teachers, and for the better equip- ment of school buildings, the schools would be toned up and greatly improved in efficiency. The public schools of Connecticut have the life directed, supervised, investigated, and inspected out of them! The state depaetment of education of Wiscon- sin has been heading toward State domination and control of public education. The salary list of the State department of Education as reported in the Bulletin amounted to eighty two thousand eight hundred eighty (82,880) dollars. The State Legislature could save fully forty thousand (40,000) dollars by withholding the appro- priation for the salaries of 12 or thirteen appointees who are attempting to perform the duties which belong to the county and the city superintendents. This would leave sufficient funds to increase the salary of the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and to provide for one more competent deputy. There is a tendency in Wisconsin as in a number of the other States, for the State University to assume to 106 LOOKING TO OUK FOUNDATIONS exercise a sort of supervisory direction over public school affairs, and especially with regard to courses of study, and teachers in the high schools. The people and their school boards should set them- selves firmly against any such interference from that source. STATE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF MINNESOTA Minnesota is tending strongly toward State domina- tion and political control of the public schools. The Governor appoints the members of the State Board of Education; the State Board of Education appoints the State Commissioner of Education, appoints and defines the duties of all appointees and employees, and makes complete organization of the State depart- ment of Education! The people elect the governor. To the governor belongs the patronage. The salary list of the staff of appointees and employees of the State Department of Education, exclusive of the per diem and expenses of the members of the State Board of Education, for the year 1920 amounted to eighty-seven thousand two hundred ten (87,210) dollars. This amount could have been reduced at least $47,000 without interfering in any way with the eflBciency of the State Department of Education, and to the material advantage of the schools. The States of Texas and California have gone one step further towards State political domination and control of the public schools than have any of the other states. Not only have these states taken over the domina- tion and control of the public schools through their State Boards of Education and their State Depart- ments of Education, but they have each placed the THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 107 politically powerful weapon of providing the school books that the school children must use, and of fur- nishing them to all the children of the state free of cost, in the hands of the State Organization ! While this chimera of the State furnishing free school books to all the school children of the State is a cleverly conceived political expedient for gaining domination and control of the public schools with the immense patronage and tempting perquisites that go with it, it is at the fearful cost of the surrender of the individual right of the people to initiate, manage, and control their own local school affairs. We shall comment upon this phase of this subject further when we come to a discussion of the abuses in the methods of the sale, distribution and purchase of school books. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION OF TEXAS The State of Texas, according to the Bulletin of the United States Bureau of Education, has built up a salary list of "Members of Staffs of State Departments of Education and Salaries Paid Each" of one hundred thirteen thousand five hundred ninety (113,590) dollars including auditors, clerks, stenographers and porters; and the amount of the salaries paid to individuals is comparatively small. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction has a salary of but $4,000. In the State Department of Education of Pennsyl- vania there are 39 "Members of Staffs" who draw salaries of $4,000 or over up to $12,000! In the New York State Department of Education there are 16 "Members of Staffs" drawing salaries ranging from $4,000 to $10,000! Thus it will be seen that in the matter of "salaries 108 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS paid" to the "Members of Staffs of Departments of Education," Texas does not nearly "Approach the ideal for the larger States." It is in the number of extraneous appointees and the aggregate amount of salaries paid to them that the criticism is made. There are about twenty positions which might well be eliminated from the organization of the department, saving something like $75,000 of the public school funds for educational purposes. These worthy people could be of infinitely more service to the betterment of the schools by getting out into the schools and wielding their good influence as superintendents, principals, and teachers. The sum of seventy-five thousand dollars, or so much of it as might be needed, might well be spent in strengthening the State Department of Education for performing the proper functions of a State Depart- ment of Education. The State Superintendent of public Instruction should be paid a salary of not less than $7,500. The first assistant Superintendent should com- mand a salary of at least $4,000, and the other assistants in proportion. The supervisory work now attempted to be done by the State Department, except possibly, the voca- tional work under the aid of the Federal Board for Vocational Education, would better be done by the city superintendents, and the county superintendents whose duty it is. The State of Texas is spread over a superficial area of 265,895 square miles. This is greater by 4,826 square miles than the combined areas of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, and Indiana. THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 109 The distances one must travel in traversing the State are practically the same as from Boston to Chi- cago, and from New York to Indianapolis ! Our official Bulletin 1920, No. 46 gives ten supervi- sors of rural schools, one chief supervisor and nine super- visors. It must be assmned that these rural supervisors were selected and appointed on account of their peculiar qualifications for that important work. However com.petent and eflScient any supervisor of any sort of school work may be, he will not accom- plish much in the way of improvement of a school unless he visits that school in person. He will probably stay in the school long enough to enable him to form an intelligent estimate of the teacher's work and of the community conditions in which the school is located in order that he may see wherein he may make helpful suggestions to that teacher. He will meet with the school directors, and make his suggestions and recom- mendations to them as to the immediate needs of the school. A rural supervisor will do his best work when he spends one day to a school — five schools a week. He might visit two or three in a day if he used a Ford, but there is a vast difference between visiting and super- vising a school. t But assuming that each of the nine supervisors of rural schools of Texas visits two schools a day for every school day in the school year, what a small fraction of the total number of the rural schools of the State of Texas would receive one visit from a state supervisor of rural schools! The absurdity and futility of the State Department of Education assuming to supervise the schools of the state is apparent on the face of it. There is another inconsistency in the effort of the 110 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS state to supervise and manage the public schools. There are over a million children enrolled in the elementary schools of Texas, and one chief supervisor, and nine supervisors are employed to supervise the teachers who teach these million children scattered over 265,895 square miles of territory! There were but one hundred twelve thousand pupils enrolled in the high schools of the State, yet it required one chief supervisor and seven supervisors of high schools according to the Bulletin to supervise the work of the teachers of the high schools! It must be that the elementary school teachers were specially well qualified and self reliant, or that there must have been some doubt in the State Department of Education as to the capability of the high school teach- ers, and of the high school principals and the city superintendents to manage and supervise their own high school organizations. The people of Texas are a keen, clever, proud, liberty loving people. How can they be induced to swallow such pretentions to State supervision of their public schools? They may be depended upon to see the humor of the situation. The duty and responsibility for the supervision of the rural schools should be placed where it rightfully belongs, upon the shoulders of the one hundred seventy four county superintendents of schools in the state of Texas. The county superintendent of schools is the school official who should be entrusted with the respon- sibility of looking after the school affairs of the county. He should visit and supervise the rural and village schools, or that duty should be performed under his direction by assistants chosen by him ! THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 111 In the larger towns and cities where a superintend- ent is employed, the superintendent should be the oflBcial supervisor. As an illustration, take the city of Palestine as an example. The people of that little city have built up a fairly representative local system of schools. They have taxed themselves to build, furnish and equip their school buildings. They support both elementary schools and a high school. The legal voters elect their members of a Board of Education to look after their school affairs. The Board of Education levies taxes for the support of the schools, and employs a superin- tendent, principals, and a corps of teachers. It employs a high school principal and a corps of high school teachers. The high school principal is responsible for the organization and management of the high school. The superintendent of schools exercises general super- vision over the high school as he does over the grade schools. He is the executive of the Board of Education and its official adviser. Under these conditions, what possible function is there for a high school supervisor to perform.'* What qualifications have these supervisors of high schools for judging the quality of the instruction, the equip- ment, discipline and the other school activities of the high school, that the principal of the school and the city superintendent do not possess .f* It is not that the occasional visits of these state supervisors are necessarily objectionable, on the contrary they may be most welcome for teachers and principals enjoy the visits of most any agreeable person who is familiar with what is being done in other schools in other places, but the criticism is that the position is unnecessary. The mere fact that there are state high 112 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS school supervisors indicates that the state intends to control, and supervise the high schools. As in some of the other states, the fact that the state appropriates a sum of money in aid of public school education, is seized upon by the politicians as a pretext for state domination and control of the public schools through the state political machinery. The voters should keep the truth clearly in mind that the state does not spend a dollar in aid of public school education that it has not previously taken from the people for that purpose, and it is quite likely that the state collects a dollar and a quarter for every dollar it returns to the schools! The schools are local institutions of the people, and the people should insist upon their inherent right to local self-government in their schools without inter- ference, supervision, or dictation from the State Department of Education. The four million dollar school book deal ought to open the eyes of the people of the State of Texas to the danger of state political management of school funds. But more on that subject later on ! CALIFORNIA STATE BOARD OF EDUCATION The State of California is encumbered with a State Board of Education of seven members, appointed by the Governor for four year terms each; "no salaried educational officer may be appointed," this insures a board of lay members responsible to the Governor. This State Board of Education, "Adopts rules for the government of day and evening elementary schools, day and evening secondary (high schools), technical and vocational schools. Normal schools, and all other schools, except the State University, receiving financial THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 113 aid from the State; appoints 3 assistant State Superin- tendents; makes plans for the improvement of the administration and efficiency of the schools; makes recommendations concerning changes in school legis- lation" (presumably for increasing its grip upon public school affairs) ; "compiles and adopts uniform textbooks for elementary schools which are printed by the State and distributed free; grants credentials for teachers; accredits Normal Schools and Universities for certifica- tion purposes; administers Vocational Education; enforces provisions for establishment of courses in physical education and appoints supervisor; adopts minimum requirements for graduation from State Normal Schools ; prescribes list of textbooks from which local high schools must select, etc." Thus it will be seen that no powers that could be thought of would seem to have been overlooked by the Centralization forces in the State of California. One is reminded of Gluyas Williams' humorous description of the inside workings of the committee of the United States Senate on the Tariff Bill as published in Life, in which Senator Sounder is made to say: — "As a member of the Committee, I can truthfully say that we were absolutely tireless in thinking up things to protect. We even offered a prize of five dol- lars to the man who could give the longest list of names at meeting, I am sorry to say that this gave rise to certain questionable practices. After Senator Smoot had won the prize six times running, we found that he had been cribbing from a Sears Roebuck catalogue held under the table. And certain others tried to fatten their records by handing in names they had made up." The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, a Constitutional State executive official, elected by the 114 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS people, is made by State law, subservient to the State Board of Education appointed by the Governor, another State Executive official! "The superintendent of public instruction shall be the secretary and shall act as executive officer of the board; he shall have charge of all its correspondence and shall keep a record of its proceedings. (A sort of chief clerk.) It shall be the duty of the state board of education to determine all questions of policy; it shall be the duty of the superintendent of public instruction to execute, under the direction of the board, the policies which have been decided upon, and to direct, under such general rules and regulations as the state board of education may adopt, the work of all assistant superin- tendents of public instruction, and such other appointees and employees of the board as may be provided by law." — School Law of California, 1921. Just think what this means. The State Superintend- ent of Public Instruction, (by the last session of the Legislature was made ex officio Director of Education), a constitutional, executive, administrative official of the state government as much so as the Governor, Secretary of State, Attorney General, or any other state official provided for by the state constitution, and chosen and elected by the legal voters of the state, has been shorn of all initiative and the right- ful prerogatives of his office, even to the choice of his assistants and the employees of his office, and the assignment of their respective duties ! The governor appoints seven members of a State Board of Education and this body, the governor's body, shall "determine all questions of policy"; and "it shall be the duty of the superintendent of public instruction (the people's elective constitutional official) to execute. THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 115 under the direction of the board (the governor's board), the poh'cies which have been decided upon," etc. As we have pointed out before, this usurpation of the authority to "determine all questions of policy" pertaining to public education is going on all over the country. The propaganda originated with the "pro- fessional educators," the Teachers' Colleges, Schools of Education of the great Universities, and the Educa- tional foundations; and the movement is favored by the professional politicians on account of the political power and patronage it places in the hands of the political organization. The amount of money collected and spent each year for public schools is greater than for any one one public purpose. The right and privilege "to determine all questions of policy" in the disbursement of the state educational funds, and the dispensing of the immense patronage that goes with it, explains the eagerness of the political "Powers that be" to centralize, crystalize, and fossilize all domination and control of public schools in an appointive board responsible to the governor. The educational institutions, before mentioned naturally favor centralization of domination and con- trol for the reason that it makes it easier for them to exert their influence through highly centralized bodies clothed with "power to act!" One of these high professional institutions makes a specialty of placing its students and graduates in com- manding positions of influence. So successful has this institution been in this practical phase of its work, that it has succeeded in spreading the thought over the country that for one to hope to reach a prominent position in school work, or recognition in the Depart- ment of Superintendence of the National Education 116 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Association it is necessary to spend at least a summer term at that influential institution, and thereby to "get in touch" with the "fellows who do things" educationally. Ambitious school men and women and those who have "lost out" hie themselves to this particular institution and thereby gain the open sesame to a commanding position, and to fellowship in this educational guild. The whole educational trend is to remove the right to control and manage the public schools as far from the people as practicable, and it is interesting, though pathetic, to hear the specious arguments and political slogans used to induce the voters to yield up their birthright to manage, direct, and control their schools for the education of their own children. One of these pretexts is that as the public schools, "Receiving financial aid from the State" must there- fore be governed, supervised, inspected, approved, controlled, and "efficiently administered" by the governor through his appointees. Another pretext advanced by these educational "Imperiahsts" in favor of having the members of the State Board of Education, and in some states the State Superintendent of Public Instruction as well, appointed by the governor, is to "Keep the manage- ment and control of the schools out of politics." Ye gods and little fishes! The stock argument of the educational experts is that the people of the local school districts may not be trusted to manage and direct their school affairs. That a State Board of Education made up of men and women "of large vision," selected by the governor "because of their fitness for the position rather than their fitness for some other" is more likely to know what THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 117 is best for the children of a local community than the parents of the children and their teachers. There could not be a greater economic fallacy than that because the State levies a tax upon all the property of the State and apportions the proceeds of that tax to the school districts of the State for the partial support of the public school or schools of that district, that therefore the Governor of the State, the State Board of Education, or the State Department of Edu- cation should take over the administration of those schools! The State as a sovereign entity apart from the people of the state does not contribute a penny to the support of the public schools of the school districts of the state. The school districts of the state pay into the State treasury all the money that is collected from property taxes; a great many districts pay in more than they received in return from the apportionment, and some, of course, receive more than they paid in. The latest available statistics, for the school year 1917-18, shows that the State of California appro- priated 22.3%, and the County and Local School Districts the balance, 77.7%! The averages for the United States for the same year were, — from permanent funds and lands, 2.9%; State taxes, 13.7%; local school district taxes, 78.8%; and all other sources, 4.6%. From these exhibits, it would not appear that either the States, or the Federal Government may justify taking over the management of the public schools on the pretext of financial support. The voters of California at the general election on November 2, 1920, adopted an Amendment to the State Constitution that should prove to be a wise and beneficent move toward the solution of the difficult 118 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS problem of providing adequate revenues for the support of efficient schools in all the school districts of the state, and at the same time guaranteeing those teach- ers in the sparsely settled rural districts fairly adequate salaries. The Amendment provides : First, that the State shall provide each year "an amount not less than thirty dollars per pupil in average attendance in the day and evening elementary schools in the public school system during the next preceding year." Second, that it, "shall provide an amount not less than thirty dollars per pupil in average attendance in the day and evening secondary and technical schools * * * " Third, that the board of supervisors of each county, and city and county shall levy a tax for the support of the public day and evening elementary schools of the county, or city and county of "not less than thirty dollars per pupil * * * ." Fourth, that the board of supervisors of each county, and city and county shall levy a tax "sufficient in amount to produce a sum of money not less than twice the amount of money to be received during the current school year from the state for the support of the public day and evening secondary and technical schools of the county, or city and county; provided, that the high school tax levied * * * shall produce not less than sixty dollars per pupil in average daily attendance. * * * s> Fifth, "The legislature shall provide for the levy- ing of school district taxes * * * for the support of public elementary' schools, secondary schools, technical THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 119 schools, and kindergarten schools, or for any public school purpose authorized by the legislature." Sixth, "The entire amount of money provided by the state, and not less than sixty percent of the amount of money provided by county, or city and county, school taxes shall be applied exclusively to the payment of public school teachers' salaries." The apportionment of school funds is provided for by law. The money for the elementary schools is apportioned, (1) on the number of teachers to which a school district is entitled, based upon, "one teacher for the first thirty-five or a less number of pupils in average daily attendance and one additional teacher for each additional thirty-five pupils or fraction of thirty-five in average attendance, in the district, and one addi- tional teacher for each three hundred pupils in average daily attendance in the district * * * ; and in each school district wherein a separate class is established for the instruction of the deaf, or the blind, or crippled children, * * * , an additional teacher for each nine deaf, or blind, or crippled children, or fraction of such number not less than five * * * ; and in addition to the teachers herein before provided * * * , * * * one additional teacher for the county or city and county for each five hundred pupils or major fraction thereof in average attendance in the aggregate in those school districts * * *, in each one of which there were less than three hundred pupils in average attend- ance * * * ." "One thousand four hundred dollars shall be appor- tioned to each school district for each and every teacher allowed it; provided, that one thousand four hundred dollars shall be apportioned to each county or city and county for each teacher allowed on the aggregate 120 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS average daily attendance * * * in * * * school dis- tricts, each of which had less than three hundred pupils in average daily attendance * * * and the funds so apportioned shall constitute an emergency and super- vision fund under the control of the superintendent of schools of the county or city and county." "All school moneys remaining on hand after appor- tioning school moneys as provided * * * , must be apportioned to the several districts in proportion to the number of pupils in average attendance * * * ." This is a progressive and sincere attempt to equalize educational opportunity for all the children of the state of California whether they live in the cities, towns, villages, or the rural districts. It is encouraging to know that the most remote, sparsely settled mountain school district receives the same amount from the state and county school funds to pay its teacher that the city school district gets for each of its teachers ! The other states might do well to follow the exam- ple of California in her liberal plan of raising the necessary funds, and in so apportioning those funds as to assure well paid teachers and good school advantages to all the children of the state. The potent factor is that every teacher knows that there has been fourteen hundred dollars appropriated to pay her as salary for teaching school, and the school trustees or school boards can not very well fritter it away on phonograph deals, limousines, sponges, trick clocks, etc. But this bit of beneficent school legislation must not be permitted to dazzle the clear vision of the citizens of California and to hide the fundamental fact that in so far as the Governor of the State through his State Board of Education is given authority to do the things THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 121 enumerated in the School Law of California 1921, except to compile and adopt uniform textbooks, is a direct infringement upon the rightful prerogatives of the State Superintendent of Public Instruction who is "elected by the qualified electors of the state." It is evident that the framers of the State Constitu- tion did not intend that the State Board of Education should, "Adopts rules for the government of day and evening schools, day and evening secondary schools, technical and vocational schools. Normal schools, and all other schools, except the State University, (Why except it?), receiving financial aid from the State"; and all the other numerous and officious duties and respon- sibilities enumerated. The title of Sec. 7 of the State Constitution of California is, "State Board of Education — Textbooks — County boards of Education." The section itself devotes sixteen and a half lines to the duties of the state board of education, fifteen of these are devoted to its duty to, "provide, compile, or cause to be compiled, and adopt, a uniform series of textbooks" etc., and on the tail end of the last sentence, "and said board shall perform such other duties as may be prescribed by law." And this is the gossamer constitutional foundation upon which the political organization has builded its powerful political-educational domination of public school affairs, and this in the face of the official ruling of the Attorney- general's office, "That all the functions of the State educational system devolved upon the superintendent of public instruction, as the educational representative of the people" ! ! The lawmakers of the last session of the legislature seem to have felt that there might be some basis for the Attorney-general's legal opinion for a new school 122 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS law was enacted, (Approved June 1, 1921) creating^ "A department of the government of the State of Cah'fornia to be known as the department of educa- tion." "The department shall be conducted under the control of an executive officer to be known as the director of education, which office is hereby created. The state superintendent of public instruction shall be ex officio director of education." "The work of the department is hereby divided into at least two divisions to be known as : "1. Division of textbooks, (In California Textbooks is the first subject mentioned among educational sub- jects) certification and trust funds, to be in charge of the state board of education, which board is hereby con- tinued in force with all the powers and functions hereto- fore conferred upon it by law and the members thereof shall receive the compensation now allowed by law. In addition, said board is hereby vested with certain pow- ers and functions, * * * , in respect to the conduct of normal school or teachers' colleges and special schools." "2. Division of normal and special schools, to per- form the functions heretofore conferred by law upon boards of trustees of the several state nonnal schools or teachers' colleges, the California Polytechnic School and the California School for the Deaf and the Blind, to be in charge of the director of education for the pur- poses of administration; provided, however, that the principal or president of the faculty of each such school ("The other members of the teaching staff of each such school and all officers and employees thereof") shall be appointed by the director of education subject to the approval of the state hoard of education * * * ." (Italics ours.) THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 123 This looks like a cleverly conceived sclieme pre- tending to enlarge the functions of the state superin- tendent of public instruction by giving him a high sounding title with some duties and functions to per- form that do not properly belong to his office, and at the same time continuing to deprive hmi of the powers and duties that do belong to his official position. The State Teachers' Colleges, the California Poly- technic School, the California School for the Deaf and the Blind, and the State University as well should be placed under the control of one State Board of Trustees either "elected by the qualified electors of the state," or appointed by the State Superintendent of Public Instruction and confirmed by the State Senate. It is proper and right for the state schools to be under the management and control of a state board or boards. These schools are in their very nature state schools, they draw their students from all parts of the state, they are supported by the people of the state, and being educational institutions, they should be under the general control of the State Department of Educa- tion. The State Department of Education should be as free from the dictation of the Governor as the Depart- ment of State, the Department of Justice and the State Treasury. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction of California remains shorn of the rightful authority and prerogative of his oflfice. He must work under the direction and domination of the Governor's state board of education. The political situation in California is fairly typical of what the educational politicians have, or are en- deavoring to have brought about. 124 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS An amendment to the Constitution of the State of Indiana making the State Superintendent of Public Instruction an appointee of the State Board of Educa- tion instead of being elected by the people, was sub- mitted to the voters of that state at the last election. It was defeated. All Hail to the voters of Indiana! It is a fundamental principle that all public school officials, school district, county, and state should be elected by the people. While these officials are, "elected by the qualified electors of the state," many of their powers and duties are taken from them and given to the Governor's appointive State Board of Educa- tion. The designs of such encroachment upon the rights and responsibilities of the peoples representatives in all school affairs, are apparent. The one absorbing educational question in California politically ever since the "sand lot politics" agitations of the early '80 's has been the schoolbook question. Political parties, and candidates for office as well as official appointees have, " * * * rolled under the tongue as a sweet morsel" the political slogan of, "State Compulsory Uniformity of Schoolbooks, Com- piled and Printed by the State, and Furnished to the People at Cost," (And at what a fearful cost!) until it had become worn smooth and threadbare as a vote catching device. In 1910-1912, an amendment to the State Consti- tution was proposed, submitted and adopted which provides for a State uniform series of schoolbooks to be compiled, printed and published, furnished and distributed by the Stale free of cost or any charge what- ever to all the children attending the elementary public schools ! The next advanced step will most likely be to submit an Amendment to the Constitution providing THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 125 for the designing, manufacture, and distribution of a State Uniform Series of schoolshoes free of cost or any charge whatever to all the children attending the public schools. It should prove to be a vote getter! Now the Governor's State Board of Education, in addition to its other numerous and extraneous duties and obligations, "Compiles and adopts uniform text- books for elementary schools which are printed by the State and distributed free; and prescribes a list of textbooks from which local high schools must select their books! This question of the blighting influence of com- pulsory uniform schoolbooks is discussed in another place. Reasons are given as to why a certain class of politicians are so active in their efforts to bring about compulsory uniformity of schoolbooks. The States of California and Kansas have gone the other compulsory uniformity schoolbook states "one better" in that those states print and furnish the school books at cost. But California and Texas provide the compulsory uniform schoolbooks and furnish and distribute them to all the school children free of all cost ! This is the apotheosis of demagogism! Whatever specious arguments and excuses may be offered as pretexts for compulsory state uniformity of textbooks vanish into thin air as soon as free textbooks are furnished. If the Governor's State Board of Education has the authority to compile and adopt a compulsory uniform series of schoolbooks and to compel their exclusive use by all the children in all the public schools of California, it has the legal authority to modify the contents of those books and to insert any peculiar ideas or sentiments that the Governor or the members of his 126 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Board of Education might wish to inculcate in the minds of the children attending the public schools of California. It is generally understood that the educational affairs of California are dominated by a little coterie of the "elect," partly educational, but mainly political, with the school book fetish as the loadstone that draws and holds it together. One wonders after reading the School Law of California whether the compulsory use of the State school books was not considered as the chief purpose of the public schools of that state. It is given more space and emphasis than elementary schools, high schools, school teachers, school buildings or school children ! Even the Constitution of the State, — Article IX, Section 7, gives less than two lines to the provision for the State Board of Education, and fifteen lines to a uniform series of school books; and Sec. 5, devotes only four lines providing for "a system of common schools!" The school law provides that, — "When a book has been adopted, the state board of education shall enforce the uniform use of such book." "Any teacher, or city, county, city and county superintendent of schools, or any board of education, refusing or neglecting to use said series of state text- books * * * shall be guilty of a misdemeanor * * * and shall be subject to a fine not exceeding one hundred dollars for each offense." "If any city or district refuse or neglect to use the books that may be prescribed, or use any other text- book in any of the prescribed studies the superintendent of public instruction must withhold from such city, THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 127 town or district twenty-five per cent of all school moneys to which it may be entitled until it comply * * ." "The commissioner of elementary schools shall visit the elementary day and evening schools of the several counties of the State (some six thousand five hundred of them) and investigate the course of study adopted in the schools. He shall enforce the use of the State textbooks." "The commissioner of secondary schools shall visit and investigate the secondary schools of the several counties of the state. He may recommend changes in the course of study (discretionary) and shall investi- gate all contracts with textbook companies and see that they comply with the law." (mandatory.) The state superintendent of public instruction must serve as order clerk for the State Board of Edu- cation's school book business! Section 1534 of the Political Code which defines his duties as the responsible distributor of the com- pulsory uniform state series of textbooks is longer and much more explicit than any other of his seventeen duties pertaining to a system of public schools, and it seems to have been regarded by the law makers, or their advisers, as his chief official duty. "Boards of Education in cities. Powers and duties. To enforce in the schools the course of study and the textbooks prescribed and adopted by the proper authority." "County Boards of Education. Powers and duties. Enforce in the public schools a course of study and the use of a uniform series of textbooks." "High School Boards of Education shall adopt textbooks from a list prepared by the State Board of Education." 128 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS "State Board of Education. Powers and duties. The compiling and publishing of a list of textbooks for the use by the students of the several normal schools of the state ; provided, that the state series of textbooks shall be used * * *, and that all other regular textbooks shall be selected by the various normal school authori- ties from said list." "Normal schools or Teachers Colleges." There seems to be some uncertainty as to whether the normal schools or teachers colleges shall be under the control of boards of trustees or the state department of education, the Governor having signed two bills, one, providing for a board of trustees, and the other for the super- vision and management by the newly (?) created department of education. But so far as textbooks to be used it makes no material difference, for the governing body of the state schools for the training of teachers in the public schools of California does not have authority to choose a textbook for use in those schools except from a list framed up by the governor's state board of education ! ! Even the future teachers in the public schools of California must be limited and restricted in their academic trainmg to the meagre treatment of subject matter contamed in the state series of uniform text- books or some one of the books on each subject pre- scribed by the state board of education ! Why this insatiable desire to have all the subject matter to be contained in school books to be used for the instruction of the children in the elementary and rural schools, the students in the high schools, and the student teachers in the normal schools filtered through the political hopper of the Governor's State Board of Education .f* Politics! THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 129 Another Section, 1527, of the school laws shows how the politicians have used the public schools for vote catching slogans: "It shall he the duty of any board of education, school board, board of trustees, official, officer or any other person, elected or appointed to carry out the provisions of the laws of the state of California relating to the public schools of said state and vested with the power of designating textbooks to be used in the said public schools, in so designating such textbooks, unless otherwise provided by general law, to give preference to any textbook on any given subject of public instruction which is entirely written, compiled, printed and published in the state of California, to the exclusion of any such textbook entirely or partly written, compiled, printed and published outside the state of California." The whole educational system of California, as it seems, is based, in so far as the State's part in it is concerned, on the political principle that the public schools afford a rich harvest of political patronage; and that is stating it conservatively. It is clearly apparent that all of these obnoxious mandatory limitations and restrictions were dictated by designing self interests from motives other than those advanced for vote catching purposes, — and that to accomplish their designs and purposes they dis- regarded all educational considerations of the children of the state for whose education and training schools are established and supported. The wonder is that the intelligent and progressive people of California could be deceived by such designing sophistry. It had not been our intention to mention the text- book question in connection with the Centralization of 1.30 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS domination and control of the public schools of Cali- fornia in the Governor's appointive State Board of Education, but as the whole educational fabric of the State educational system is so inextricably enmeshed with the compulsory uniformity, state printing, free of all cost, textbook question, the two topics could not be separated. We shall now return to the practical workings of the state management and control of the public schools. The Hst of "Members of Staffs of State Depart- ments of Education and Salaries Paid Each," credits California's State Department with a total salary list amounting to eighty-nine thousand seven hundred eighty (89,780) dollars, and a staff numbering forty- five people. In addition to this the expenditures of the state board of education amounted to fifty-seven thousand five hundred seventy-six (57,576) dollars, of which amount fifty-one thousand six hundred fifty-five (51,655) dollars went for salaries of appomtees and em- ployees of the State Board of Education and for paying the traveling expenses and the jper diem of the members of the State Board of Education. This swells the grand total expenditures of the State Department of Edu- cation to something like one hundred forty thousand (140,000) dollars. This amount might easily be reduced at least one half. The salary of the State Superin- tendent should be increased to at least $7,500; he should be allowed at least three deputies of his own choosing whose services should be worth $4,000 a year each, and his office should be reorganized into a State Department of Education in fact. The futility of the State Department of Education and the State Board of Education attempting to THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 131 supervise and direct the elementary schools and the high schools, and such special subjects as physical training, Americanization, must be apparent to any one who has given it a passing thought. There were enrolled in the elementary and high schools of California in 1918-19, 602,758 pupils. Of these 347,443 pupils were enrolled in the city schools already provided with adequate supervision and con- trol. The remaining 255,315 pupils were enrolled in the rural and village schools scattered over 158,397 square miles of territory. This vast state is a little larger than Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, the South one-half of New York, New Jersey, the East one-half of Pennsylvania, Delaware, the East one-half of the States of Virginia and North Carolina, and the whole of South Carolina combined ! For the State commissioners and supervisors to visit and supervise these scattered rural and village schools would oblige them to travel distances practically the same as the distances from Boston via New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, Richmond, and Raleigh to Charleston, South Carolina; and East and West from Washington, D. C. to Indianapolis! There are probably more than 6,555 rural and village schools in California. No school official except the county superintendents of the fifty-eight counties would be able to locate many of the schools or to find them. Yet the teachers in these rural and village schools are the ones most in need of supervision. The State Board of Education appoints and directs one supervisor and three assistant supervisors of physical education. Leaving out of consideration the city schools which are most likely provided with supervisors of 132 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS physical training, and dividing the 6,555 village and rural schools among the four State supervisors of phys- ical education, each one would have something like 1640 schools to visit and supervise in 173 days the schools are in session. Over nine widely scattered schools a day ! State inspection, supervision, regulation and con- trol of public elementary and high schools is a farce even under the most favorable conditions, where the territory is compact, the means of transportation good, and the supervisory force ample, for the reason that it is unnecessary, and does not rightfully belong to the "Sphere of Influence" of the State Department of Education. California has fine public schools, and her citizens are justly proud of their local schools. The political schemers take advantage of this local public spirit and make their appeals to the voters on the plea of strengthening the organization of our public schools by voting more power and authority to the State Board of Education ! The public schools of California are as good as they are because of the enlightened public sentiment of the local communities. The many beautiful and artistic school buildings attest the local educational sentiment and liberality of the people. The rural and village schools are the result of the combined efforts of the local communities and their local school officers and teachers. California has good schools in spite of State political interference domination and control, and of her perni- cious textbook legislation. The people of California will have to give more thought and attention to public school politics, and especially to school legislation. THE ADMINISTRATION OF PUBLIC SCHOOLS 133 The people of the local school districts and the counties should give their representatives in the state legislature no rest nor political peace of mind until the right of the people to direct, manage and control their public schools is restored to them. The hardest fight will be to break the hold of the strongly entrenched State school book political ring. It will mean the repeal of Section 7 of the State Con- stitution. The repeal of this section would not only free the schools of the blighting mfluences of the compulsory uniform textbooks printed, furnished and distributed free of cost, and the political pap that goes with them, but with the same stroke the props would be knocked from under the Governor's State Board of Education! A State Board of Education should be created to take its place to have general direction and control of the strictly State educational institutions; but this State Board of Education should be given no authority over the State Department of Education, nor over the public elementary and high schools of the state. The authority of the local school boards should be ample under the necessary restrictions of school laws. It is fundamentally important for the safety and progress of the public schools that the local school districts shall be permitted to manage their own school affairs. The authority to organize, manage and to sup- port their schools must be granted by the state, but people of all the school districts of the State are the State. Unless the fight is made and the victory won, it will not take many years for the public schools of California to become as hide bound and institution- alized as those of New York and Massachusetts. 134 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The writer disclaims any criticism of individual members of the State Board of Education. Without doubt they are all worthy individuals interested and untiring in their efforts to serve the State. Nor does he wish to be understood as intimating that the State Board of Education arrogates to itself power and authority not in conformity with law. Our criticism is based upon the principle that the authority granted by law to the State Board of Education is an infringe- ment upon the inherent rights of the people and their duly elected representatives, the local school trustees, the city boards of education, the county superin- tendents, and the State Superintendent of Public Instruction. CHAPTER IV Political Domination in City School Systems The domination and control of public school affairs by political, bureaucratic influences are even more vicious in many of our cities than in most of the states. The tendency in the States, as has been pointed out, is to place the domination and control of the public schools in the hands of the Governor; the tendency in the cities is to place the domination and control in the hands of the mayor. In New York City and in Chicago, the mayor appoints the members of the Board of Education. This is true in a number of other cities. There is a dispo- sition to remove the responsibility for the management and control of the public schools as far from the fathers and mothers of the children as possible. The people of these two cities have no voice in the selection of the members of the Board of Education. The members of the Boards of Education appointed by the mayor are responsible to hun and the political machine back of him. In New York City the power behind the throne is understood to be that altruistic and benevolent associ- ation, Tammany Hall; and in Chicago the so-called Thompson-Lundin political organization. The political conditions would in all probability be just as bad in either city under any mayor likely to be elected to that oflSce. It is beyond belief that the people would elect members of the Board of Education less competent 135 136 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS and less interested in education than the average of the appointments by a mayor of a city. If the citizens of New York, Chicago, and any other city cannot be trusted with the responsibihty of electing the members of their school boards, it might as well be frankly admitted that our boasted republican form of government is a failure. The worst Board of Education that could be elected by popular vote of the people, although nominated by a partisan primary and elected on a partisan ticket, will be a better Board of Education than one appointed by any mayor that is likely to be elected in any of these cities ! There is no doubt that those cities have better average Boards of Education where they have compara- tively small boards elected at large by popular vote. But leaving out of consideration the question of the fitness of mayor's appointees on Boards of Educa- tion, the fundamental fact remains that if there is one department of our popular free government to which the people should be accorded the right to elect their oflScials, and to detennine their policies, that depart- ment is their public schools. If the people of a local school district cannot be trusted to manage their public school affairs there certainly are no other depart- ments of our government that should be intrusted to them. There is no other one department of government in which every citizen should be more vitally and per- sonally interested than in the public schools. The usual argument advanced by the educational bureaucrats who favor the appointment of members of school boards by the governor or the mayor, is that in many school districts there is a large majority of POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 137 foreigners who are not in sympathy with the pubHc schools, and in many instances openly hostile to them. An answer to that argument is that if the naturali- zation laws have admitted those people to citizenship, they are just as competent to choose wisely members of the Board of Education as they are to choose their alderman, mayor, sheriff, members of the State Legisla- ture, judges, and Governor! There is no doubt but that there are wide differences to be found in the public school sentiment in different communities, and likewise in political and civic ideals. These differences are reflected in the types of men elected to represent the different wards in a city, and members of the legislature from the different legis- lative districts of a state. But that is just what a representative republican fonn of government means, and it is right and proper that the representives chosen shall represent the political ideals of the people who elect them. The important point is, that the right and responsibility of making the public schools efficient for the training of their children, rests upon the shoulders of the citizens. In those backward communities where the civic and educational ideals are low, public senti- ment will have to be built up before there can be sub- stantial improvement in the schools. Therein lies one of the principal functions of the County Superintendent of Schools and the State Department of Education. The citizens of those back- ward communities should be instructed, encouraged and helped to help themselves to support better schools and to demand as good schools for their children as the children of the more favored communities. The tendency toward bureaucratic and autocratic management of the public schools in the cities following 138 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the tendencies of the states as we have pointed out, is even more marked than in the states. In whatever manner the members of school boards may be chosen the tendency is to build up a bureau- cratic system with an autocratic superintendent at its head. School Boards seem to lose sight of the fact that they are representing the people, and that the superin- tendent of schools is a public servant of the people of the school district. As that popular writer, publicist and historian, Mr. H. G. Wells, so tersely expresses it, — "But it is the universal weakness of mankind that what we are given to administer we presently imagine we own." Too many members of school boards forget that they are appointed, or elected to administer school affairs in the interest of the taxpayers and school patrons. They are apt to assume in the expenditure of public school funds, the election of teachers, principals, superin- tendents and other school officials and employees, that they are dispensing personal patronage. That the recipient of these favors should be under personal obligation to the members of the board for his appoint- ment, award of contract, purchase of supplies, etc. Too frequently school board members display unbecoming zeal in seeking promising opportunities for expending public school funds, and in making plausible pretexts for voting for these expenditures. It is pretty generally understood that even well intentioned and personally honest men are apt to be much more reckless in the expenditure of public funds than they are m the expenditure of their private business funds. Is it to be wondered at that men and women who have never had the opportunity of spend- ing little more than enough to meet their current POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 139 expenses, sometimes become profligate in the expendi- ture of millions of public funds when through political favor they are given authority and discretion in the expenditure of, what must seem to them, inexhaustible sums of money ! There is also the temptation to seek personal and political popularity by providing profitable employment for political and personal friends at public expense. This in large measure accounts for the excessively large numbers of employees in the various departments. It may prove both interesting and instructive to look into this subject of the tendency and the temp- tation of city school boards to grow extravagant and wasteful in the expenditure of school funds. EXTRAVAGANT DISSIPATION OF SCHOOL FUNDS There are six general headings under which the current running expenses are tabulated in the reports to the National Bureau of Education, namely, — (1) General Control, this item is sub-divided into Business Administration, and Educational Adminis- tration, (2) Expenses of Instruction, divided into Salaries and expenses of supervisors. Salaries and expenses of principals, Salaries of teachers. Textbooks, Stationery, supplies, and other expenses of instruction and night schools; (3) Expenses of operation of school plant, this item is subdivided into, wages of janitors and other employees, fuel, water, light, power, janitors' supplies, etc. (4) Maintenance of plant, including repairs, re- placements of equipment, etc; (5) Expenses of auxiliary agencies, such as com- munity centers, bathhouses, lunch rooms, free lectures, 140 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS play grounds, school gardens, Americanization classes, etc; and (6) Fixed charges, such as rents, taxes, pension allowances, etc. It will be seen that the item, Current expenses, does not include Capital outlay — the purchase of school sites, the construction of new buildings, permanent improvements and additions to old buildings, nor interest for borrowed money. It is self-evident that that system of schools which spends the highest rate percent of the total expenditures for Expenses of Instruction reflects the highest effi- ciency in management. For the object of the public schools, and all other schools for that matter, is to provide instruction; all the other items of outlay are subordinate and contributary to that one purpose. The disposition of and the temptation to inefficient or ill advised management, and of politically dominated management and control, is to divert as much as possible of the appropriations for Current running expenses to other uses than Expenses of Instruction. Let us take the Summaries of Current Expenses of our two largest school systems in this country, — New York City and Chicago, for the fiscal year 1921, and examine them. New York City's Budget Estimate provided for $91,904,114.93 for Current Running Expenses. The Annual Report of the Receipts and Expendi- tures of the Board of Education of the City of Chicago for the year ending June 30, 1921, shows an Expendi- ture of $29,600,047.33 for Current Running Expenses. New York City paid for General Control, 3 . 55%; Chicago, 4 . 25%. New York City paid for Salaries of Principals, Supervisors and Teachers, 76.43%; Chicago 66. 3%. POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 141 New York City paid for Books and Educational Supplies 4.67%; Chicago 2.25%. New York City paid for Operation of Plant 5.74%; Chicago 13.8%! New York City paid for Maintenance of Plant, 7.43%; Chicago 10.55%. New York City paid for Auxiliary Agencies 1.56%; Chicago, 2.25%. New York City paid for Wages and Salaries of Janitors 3.65%; Chicago 8.24%! New York City paid for Expenses of Instruction 82. 17%; Chicago 68.55%. Thus it will be seen that Mayor Thompson's Political School Board managed to divert to other channels than Expenses of Instruction 13,62% more of the total Expenditures for Current Running Expenses for the public schools than Mayor Hyland's School Board in New York City; and in the language of the street, "That's going some!" There is a growing drift toward diverting an in- creased rate per cent for General Control, Operation of Plant, Maintenance of Plant, and Auxiliary Agencies, and to reduce the proportion or the rate per cent for Expenses of Instruction. Taking the cities of 100,000 and over for the year 1917-1918, our latest available statistics, we find the rate per cent expended for General Control ranging from 1.54 per cent in Washington D. C. to 9.5 in Cleveland! And Cleveland paid for the Expenses of Instruction, to those who do all the teaching that the children receive in the schools, 63 . 1 per cent, while in Washington D. C. there was expended 72.77 per cent for Instruction ! The item of General Control is divided into two general headings. Business Administration, and Educa- tional Administration, two Bureaus! One would naturally suppose that in the administration of a sys- tem of public schools that The Educational Adminis- 142 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS stration would be the more important of the two Bureaus, but, on the contrary, we find that in most of the city pubhc school systems the item of Expenses of Business Administration is greater than that for Educational Administration. Chicago's Business Administration expense for 1921 amounted to $702,279.81; and the total of the Educa- tional Administration expense was $545,894.70! The Budget Estimate of the Board of Education of the City of New York for the same year called for $1,062,576.01 for Business Administration, and $2,199,163.85 for Educational Administration! Both of these amounts are, to say the least, about as extrav- agantly large expenditures as could well be devised, but New York City's Board of Education does manifest a keener appreciation of the relative importance of the business and the educational administrations. One would get the impression from studying the items of expenditure of these Business Administrations and the grand totals, that the Business Administration was organized to earn the money to pay for the Current Running Expenses of the public schools of their respec- tive cities, instead of merely expending very liberal appropriations of public school funds collected from the people for educational purposes and turned over to the treasurers ready for the Business Administration to disburse. What an opportunity for a General Dawes to show the Boards of Education in New York and Chicago, and most other cities how to eliminate waste of time and money, and to increase efiiciency in the bureaucratic administration of city school systems! There is no valid excuse for any budget of a city school system allowing more than 2 percent of the total POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 143 appropriation for Current Expenses for General Con- trol. That General Control department is the most effective, that is the most simple and direct in its organization. In Chicago for instance, the Business Administra- tion occupies one building, and the Educational Administration another building. This arrangement encourages and facilitates the building up of two separate bureaus vying with each other in the elaboration of its organization, and for increasing appropriations for sustaining it! The result is that there are too many high salaried functionaries, too many finely furnished private offices, and too many secretaries required to keep charge of them. If the whole business and educational administration could be reorganized and unified on the basis of not to exceed two per cent of the total expenditures for Current Running Expenses the Administration would be more efficient, and one fair sized building would house the Administra- tion Department. It was a great mistake to create another tax con- suming bureau to have charge of the Business Adminis- tration independent of the Educational Administration. The business of the Board of Education is educational business, and the Business Administration should have remained a department of the Educational Adminis- tration ! The secretary of the Board of Education is the logical oflScial to be instrusted with the business man- agement, under the general supervision of the superin- tendent of schools as the executive official of the Board of Education. The Educational Administration of city school systems could be strengthened, simplified and improved 144 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS in efficiency by abolishing the supernumerary positions of district superintendents. There is no place for an administrative position between the principal of a school and the superintendent of schools. The princi- pal of a school district is logically and should be made officially the district superintendent of schools of his school district. It should not be necessary for a child nor the parent to have to go to any school office other than the office of the principal of his home school district, except in cases of a possible appeal. And as far as the supervision of the work of the teachers by a district superintendent is concerned, it is simply a duplication of the supervision by the school principal. There is no more reason why the supervision of the principal should be supervised, than that the supervision of the district supermtendent should be supervised. The superintendent of schools should have the assistance of a strong executive secretary of his own choosing who may be trusted to speak and act for him in most matters of routine occurrence, to make appointments, and to take care of the many details of his office. He should have one or more strong deputies or assistant superintendents to work under his direc- tion. The supermtendents should visit schools as often as their other duties will permit, or when occasion requires. These occasional visits, and those of super- visors of special subjects, and not to many of them, are all the outside supervision the teachers need. The danger lies in too much supervision ! In due deference to the many good people who are holding positions as district superintendents, and some of the finest school men and women the writer has known have been district superintendents, this is not to be taken as a criticism of individuals filling these POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 145 positions. It is the position that the writer is criticizing. There is simply no place m a city school system for both a school principal and a district superintendent. Another item of expense that offers temptation to reckless expenditure of school funds is that of the Operation of the Plant. This item includes, salaries of janitors and other employees about the buildings and grounds, fuel, water, light, power, janitors' supplies, etc. As we have pointed out, this item varies greatly in the different cities. New York, 5.74 per cent; Chicago, 13.8 per cent! For the School year 1917-1918 the average for the city school systems of the country of 100,000 and over, was 10.8 per cent, other cities varied from 9.3 per cent in Philadelphia, to 14.7 per cent in Pittsburg. There are two explanations for this. The janitors are generally unionized and they manage to use political pressure in presenting their tenns and condi- tions of service; and the appointment of janitors, and the purchase of fuel and janitors' supplies, are regarded by political boards as belonging to the Business Admin- istration and therefore subject to political influences. There is no question but that the operation of the school plant is a most essential part of the educational functioning of the schools, and that it has a direct bearing upon the comfort and health of the pupils and their teachers. It is equally true that to get good janitor service it is necessary to employ competent people, and that they should be paid well for the work they do. But when the largest city school system in the United States pays its janitors 3.65 per cent of its Current Running Expenses, and the next largest city school system pays its janitors or engineer-custodians 8.24 per cent for the same service, the matter should 146 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS be investigated by those responsible for the apportion- ment of the educational funds. It is notorious that the engineer-custodians are the aristocrats of the Chicago school system. They are reported to look with contempt upon the positions of principals and school teachers because of their compara- tively small salaries! Some of them, so it is currently reported, claim to have more influence at headquarters than the principal of the school and all his teachers. The whole system of the manner of employment of janitors, and their compensation is wrong. The janitor work is "farmed out" to the school engineers on a basis of the number of square feet of floor space in the building or buildings under their charge. They employ their helpers, and pay them. Naturally they employ the cheapest help they can get to do the janitor work. While this arrangement is a paying prop- osition for the engineers, the janitor work is likely to be slighted. These engineers are in no way responsible to the principals of the schools either for their appoint- ment or for the tenure of their positions. They are responsible to the chief engineer, and the chief engineer is responsible to the Business Administration ! The janitor should have charge of all janitor work anrd the care and custody of the buildings and grounds, and he should be directly responsible to the principal. The persons who do the janitor work should be paid by the Board of Education as all other employees are paid. The purchase of fuel has always been a matter of much active interest. It has been regarded as one of the political perquisites. This interest of course is mamly centered in who gets the contract for furnishing the fuel. But fuel is an illusive commodity. All sorts of POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 147 devices have been tried to beat the game, such as heat producing tests, weight checks, and school scales for check-weighing. Experience has demonstrated that with fuel as it is with lumber and other movable commodities, it is even more necessary to find out what is done with it after it is weighed, measured, or counted than it is to check-weight, measure or count it. Where Janitor service is costing more than 4.5 per cent, and the cost of operation of the plant is more than 8 per cent these items should be carefully scanned. The item of Maintenance of the plant offers a rich field for profligate waste, political favoritism, and jobbery. The Maintenance of plant is intended to include the items of expense for repair of buildings, repairs of heating, lighting, and plumbing equipment, repair and replacements of furniture and school room equipment, alterations and betterments which do not amount to additions to buildings or grounds or to permanent improvements and the necessary technical and administration expenses in carrying on that depart- ment of that work. Unfortunately, in the Chicago school system this item is inextricably bound up with the Building Fund account and cannot be segregated accurately for the purposes of comparison. With the assistance of the comptroller, and the auditor an approximate total was reached. The Business Manager's Annual Report simply lumps General Repairs under Building Fund Expenditures as $1,579,163.45. But for the purpose of comparison with other cities on the basis of the reports of other cities to the United States Bureau of Education we have had to add the following items : 148 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Other Educational Equipment $183,042. 18 Factory and Repair Divisions 1,188,767 . 84 Garage 23,770.61 Inspection and Administration 135,171 .35 $1,530,751 .98 Adding to this sum General Repairs 1,579,163.45 The total for Maintenance of Plant was found to be 3,109,915.43 instead of $1,579,163.45 This amount is not exact, but it is approximately correct, and as nearly so as the system of bookkeeping would permit. The only difference between the Business Adminis- tration and the writer was over the item of $1,188,767.84 for Factory and Repair Divisions which the Business Manager reported as Deferred Charges and Adjust- ments. The Business Department was looking at it from the standpoint of bookkeeping, while we were trying to find out the total amounts appropriated for the different items grouped under the same headings as in other cities for purposes of comparison. The Auditor agreed with us that the amount of $1,188,- 767.84 for Factory and Repair Division belonged to the appropriation, and that the amount was being spent, but that the items had not been audited when the report was made. Notwithstanding his position for the pur- pose of a just comparison with other cities, and espe- cially New York City, we added the amount to Maintenance of Plant, and to the total amount for Current Running Expenses of the Chicago Public Schools for 1921. Chicago's Board of Education spent 10.55 per cent of its total amount of Current Running Expenses for Maintenance of Plant; while New York City's Board of POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 149 Education Budget Estimate for the same year called for but 7.43 per cent! As mentioned before, the Repairs Department is so intertwined with the Building Department that they should be considered together. It is foreign to our purpose to discuss the Building Department. Some significant phases of that Department have but recently come to light through reports in the newspapers from the State's Attorney's office. There is no question but that if some system could be devised whereby the Maintenance of Plant could be put under efficient business management, freed from the influences of political patronage, that the school buildings and grounds would be kept in better repair on 4 per cent of the total Current Running Expenses than they are under the present slipshod political control methods on 10.55 per cent! SOME RANDOM ITEMS OF EXPENDITURES By way of example as an index to the extravagant expenditures of the Board of Education of the City of Chicago, the following random items of expenditures are taken from the Official Proceedings of the Board of Education of the City of Chicago: Superintendent of Schools recommends purchase of an automobile at an estimated cost of not to exceed $3,000 for use of Assistant Superintendent of Schools. September 28, 1921. The Business Manager recommends that authority be granted to purchase a Studebaker car for the use of the General Superintendent of Construction. November 21, 1921. Bill for one Packard Sedan Motor Car ordered paid August 31, 1921, said to be for use of the Superin- 150 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS tendent of schools, $7,130!! Bill of South side Sales Company for Buick Sedan, $2,500! Committee concurs in report to purchase Ford cars referred to it September 14, 1921, Report #3484. Bill for Ford Roadsters amounting to $2,174.87 Approved September 28, 1921. Bill of H. H. Rosenberg, Sponges $18,000!!! How many "Sponges" does it take to absorb $18,000 of Maintenance of Plant funds? The Superintendent of Schools recommended that phonographs be purchased for each building in the city at a cost not to exceed $100 for elementary schools, and $200 for high schools, and that the same be paid for out of the Building Funds! Referred to Building and Grounds Committee! Board Report #2590 Dec. 29, 1920. On February 23, 1921, the Supermtendent recom- mended that the original recommendation as to price of phonographs be amended to read not to exceed $160! No further record of this deal appears until April 15, 1921 when the amount of $42,982.50 split into four bills in amounts as follows: $15,750; $7,717.50; $16,065; and $3,450 in favor of the Hiawatha Phonograph Company was ordered paid. On November 21, 1921, another bill for $1,732.50 was reported, authorized and ordered paid to the same company. The grand total so far as the record showed was found to be $44,715.00. For some unaccountable reason the Business Department would not give out the information as to the price paid for each phonograph nor the number of phonographs purchased, and as the OflBcial Proceedings fail to give these minor business details, we were left to assume that substantially the authorized, "not to exceed $160 for elementary schools and $200 for high POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 151 schools" were the prices paid. It would seem to be reasonable to assume that the business of a Board of Education is public business, and if so the public has the right to know what articles are purchased and the price paid, but evidently this is not true in all cases. On May 9, 1922, a report was published in the newspapers that Mr. Free Moynihan, treasurer of Hiawatha Phonograph Company had been called in by Assistant State's Attorney Hodges who was investi- gating some of the School Board expenditures. He was reported to have said that the company of which his brother, P. H. Moynihan, eighth ward politician, is president, had sold 298 phonographs to the board of education at $157 each. The bills amounted to $48,704.56. Forty per cent of $48,704.56 is $19,481.82. It may be of interest for the reader to know that the Boards of Educations in other cities have made pro- vision for the purchase and repair of phonographs, and for educational phonograph records for their schools. Some of the leading phonograph companies maintain educational departments with field musical experts to travel over the country and demonstrate the uses of the phonograph in the schools, they have also prepared sets of carefully selected, and graded educational records to be used with their phonographs classified and cata- logued for the guidance of teachers and parents in their choice of suitable records. These companies have developed specially designed school machines for school use. These machines have all the tone producing mechanism of their respective high priced commercial instruments, but they are stripped of all nonessential and expensive furniture making them simple and lighter for moving from floor to floor, and from room to 152 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS room as needed. These school phonographs may be purchased at prices ranging from $75 to $115. No better phonographs, so it is claimed, can be purchased at any price for school purposes. The following is taken from the Budget Estimate of the Board of education of the city of New York for the year 1921. "Auxiliary Agencies (Other than salaries) Purchase and Repairs of Phonographs and Records 100 Phonographs at $75 $7,500.00 3,500 Records 3,720.00 Repairs to machines 600 . 00 Total, Phonographs and Repairs of $11,820* *It was subsequently decided to request $5,000 for this item." It would be illuminating and instructive to have all the details of this phonograph deal brought out into the light, but there is not much liklihood that that will ever be done. The phonograph is generally recognized as being a valuable aid in the teaching of music appreciation, and for furnishing music for calisthenic exercises and folk dancing both indoors and outdoors. Many of the schools in Chicago had contrived to purchase some one of the well known and generally recognized makes of phonographs out of funds raised by the schools in one way and another, so that many of the schools were provided with a standard phonograph. There is no doubt about the propriety of the Board of Education purchasing a phonograph for a school building that is not already provided with one, and that may not be able to raise the money to purchase one, provided there is money in the budget fund for that specific purpose. But, the judgment and advice of the principal of the POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 153 school, the teachers, and certainly of the music depart- ment, should be taken in the choice of a musical instrument, and this should apply to pianos as well as phonographs. It does not look right to say the least for the building and grounds committee to bargain for musical instruments as it would for sponges, limousines, lumber, and garbage cans. A few other items of expenditure taken from the Business Manager's Annual Report for June 30, 1921 : Garage $23,770 . 61 Community centers 129,549 . 43 Bath rooms 118,079.73 Transportation of pupils 144,957.91, and Penny lunches 119,426.09 It seems that the Chicago Board of Education owns and keeps in operation a fleet of automobiles of all sorts and makes. Two of the finer ones are for the use of the members of the Board of Education. The $7,130 Packard Sedan is for the use of the superin- tendent of schools. The assistant superintendents and district superintendents, have automobiles fur- nished them. Automobiles are also furnished to the various and sundry superintendents, inspectors and foremen of the different departments of the Business Administration. There seems no way of finding out even approxi- mately how much of the educational funds are actually dissipated for the purchase and maintenance of this fleet of luxurious automobiles. The salaries of chauf- fers, garage rental allowances, and most of the items for the upkeep of the luxury fleet are so distributed as to elude detection. Possibly some of them might be found lurking in the deep recesses of account, "Z," Contingent and Miscellaneous Expenses of the Business Administration, amounting to $34,352.70. 154 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS It makes little material difference where these expenses are charged or how successfully concealed from the public, the fact remains that these expenses, with few exceptions are unnecessary and for that reason not a proper charge against the public educational funds of the schools. It is reasonable and proper for certain superin- tendents of construction and foremen, and for the bureau of supplies to be provided with trucks for the transportation of materials from building to building, but it is a heavy strain upon the right of "wide power of discretion" on the part of the Board of Education to appropriate school funds for the purchase and upkeep of passenger automobiles for the use of any of its members, officials or employees. The transportation facilities of the city provide the principal means for the great majority of taxpayers of the city to travel from their homes to their work and from place to place in the pursuit of their occupations while earning the money with which to pay their school taxes. Those who prefer to ride in an automobile own or rent a car, and pay for its care and upkeep out of their own pockets. The superintendent of schools can reach the most remote school building in the city from his office by public conveyance in one hour and fifteen minutes, and he probably would pass a number of school buildings on the way. It would be much more reasonable to provide private transportation for the supervisors, principals, and teachers who have to make the round trip daily to the remote schools, than to furnish a superintendent or a school board member a sedan and chauffer for an occasional call. Most of the school buildings in the city may be reached from the down town offices of the POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 155 Board of Education by elevated train in less time than by automobile. In case of immediate emergency a taxi could be summoned. The whole scheme of Board of Education owned automobiles is an index of a school board's extravagance in the expenditure of public school funds for other than educational purposes. In the first place, it sets a bad example to the children in the schools whom the teachers are instruct- ing in habits of thrift and high ideals of civic virtue; and, in the second place, it displays a blunted sense of civic responsibility in the spending of public money raised by taxation. At a time when the President of the United States was urging upon the spending agencies of the federal government the curtailing of all unnecessary expendi- tures, many school boards were seeking pretexts for even more lavish expenditures of school funds. They were increasing their Budget Estimates inordinately by playing upon the sentiments of the people for the improvement of our public school facilities, and the urgent necessity of doing so. AN URGENT PLEA FOR ECONOMY On Tuesday, July 11, 1922, President Harding, addressing several hundred bureau chiefs who had met to congratulate him upon the extraordinary economies effected by the federal budget system set in operation by General Charles G. Dawes, was reported to have made these significent statements reflecting the best economic thought and judgment of these troublesome financial times: "The report of the bureau for the budget for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1922, is a record of real 156 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS achievment of which you may all be proud, for without your intelligent cooperation this gratifying result would not have been possible. Last August it was estimated, on information supplied by the spending agencies of the government, that withdrawals from the treasury for the fiscal year just terminated would be $4,554,000,000. The last treasury estimate shows this figure was reduced to $3,795,000,000, a reduction of $759,000,000." (A net saving from the budget estimate of 16%%!) "Last year, in the annual report on the budget, a deficit of $24,000,000 was forecast; instead, we closed that fiscal year with a surplus of receipts over expen- ditures of $313,000,000 — this despite the government's receipts fell off $1,515,000,000. That is the government reduced by $1,515,000,000 the amount which is collected from the people, and yet, because it was able to prune its expenditures by $1,743,000,000, it pro- duced an actual surplus." He further stated that there was no other menace to the nation today equal to the "mounting state and municipal debts." He said, these debts were piling up so fast, that there was "no way of knowing the present obligations of the American people." He called upon the federal executives for their cooperation in practicing economy, "as an example to the nation"!! "We must here resolve," he said, "that through our efforts expenses will be kept within income. There must be utmost economy. There have been established these business principles and proceedures which are capable of bringing further economy and I look to the government's executives for still closer scrutiny of their activities and attendant expenditures. If you find activities and expenditures that can properly be POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 157 curtailed or eliminated, I admonish you to do it." How significant, prophetic, and timely ! President Harding voices here the growing public sentiment of protest against the reckless and wanton waste of public funds by irresponsible and selfish "spending agencies," national, state, municipal, school district, and boards and commissions of all sorts. Business of all kinds is having to readjust its affairs to more normal demands. Wages and salaries of all classes of employees are undergoing gradual reductions, and millions of men and women have been without employment with families to provide for, payments on mortgages on their homes to meet, and greatly increased taxes to pay. Land values and real estate values are shrinking, and the assessed value of almost all kinds of other property is becoming lower. Taxes upon all kinds of property are increasing enormously, while the ability of the people to pay taxes is correspondingly less! It is certainly an inopportune time for the "spend- ing agencies" and their self interested spell-binders to be agitating the necessity for greatly increased budgets for public school expenditures. What is urgently needed is a more economical and purposeful expenditure of public school funds. So much for the extravagant and wasteful tenden- cies and practices of bureaucratic school boards in many of our city school systems. There is little pros- pect for improvement so long as the domination and control of the schools are permitted to remain under the influence of political organizations of those cities. The political greed expressed in the sentiment, "To the victor belongs the spoils" is as prevalent as it was when that sentiment was first voiced. 158 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The only ray of hope for improvement of these con- ditions lies in the awakened public sentiment of the people to the importance of efficient and trustworthy financial management of public school affairs. The individual citizen must be aroused to an appreciation of the urgent necessity of his active interest in the manner in which public school affairs are conducted in his own school district, in his county and in his state. He should insist upon his right to a voice in the choice of members of the board of education whether his State legislature has disfranchised him or not. If the mayor of his city has been given the power of appointing the members of the board of education, he should be all the more careful as to his choice of mayor! He should join with other good people in securing the nomination of persons of undoubted personal and civic honesty for election or appointment on boards of education. BASIS FOR APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS In regard to Expenditures for Current Running Expenses, school boards seem to be at sea, "Without rudder or compass" when it comes to making up their budget estimate, if they are so fortunate as to have one. There are changes in the membership of school boards from year to year, and also frequent changes of super- intendents of schools, so that when it comes to making up the budget, it is not unusual for all the members of the committee to be new members. They usually depend upon the last year's budget, the recommenda- tions of their superintendent, and the reports as to what is being done in other cities and towns. If some city has increased the salary of its superintendent, the board members are sure to be informed of that fact. POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 159 New superintendents are prone to recommend new projects, and radical and expensive ihnovations to make a favorable impression of being right up to the minute with the very latest thing in modern education. There seems to be little to guide boards of education, and their finance and budget committees, except the tax levy limit imposed by law. It is manifest that there is need for a carefully worked out basis for the guidance of those school offi- cials who are responsible for making up the budget estimates for the school year, and for apportioning the school funds scientifically to the different classified items. It is the purpose of the writer to offer such a per- centage basis for the apportionment of the total amount of school funds available in any city school system to the six general items under Expenditures for Current Running Expenses. These general items with the rate per cent of each item of the total appropriation for Current Running Expenses are respectfully submitted for the considera- tion of those who are or may be interested in the eco- nomical and justifiable expenditure of public school funds. The percent of each item named in the following schedule was arrived at after careful and painstaking investigation and study of budget estimates and sta- tistical reports, and of school conditions in many cities. They represent the best judgment of thewriter, but he would not presume to claim that they are unalterable and final, nor that the different items may not have to be varied to fit unusual conditions in some cities. Experience may prove that they will have to be modi- fied to meet changing conditions the country over. But 160 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS A SCHEDULE OF GENERAL ITEMS INCLUDED UNDER CURRENT EXPENSES, WITH THE PER CENT OF THE TOTAL AMOUNT AVAILABLE FOR CURRENT EXPENSES APPORTIONED TO EACH ITEM 1. General Control: a. Business Administration 75 per cent This item should include only that part of busi- ness administration that has to do with Current Run- ning Expenses, and should exclude administration ex- pense pertaining Capital Outlay, — Acquisition of sites and Construction of Buildings, and also Expenses of Debt Service. b. Educational Control 1 . 25 per cent Salaries of Superintendents, Assistants, adminis- trative supervisors, oflBce employees, stationery, office supplies, and contingent expenses of the Superintend- ent's office, and the outside activities of the members of his department. 2. Expenses of Instruction: a. Salaries and expenses of supervisors of special subjects, salaries and expenses of principals of schools, and sala- ries of teachers 79 . 50 per cent b. Textbooks, reference books, stationery, strictly educa- tional supplies, and other expenses of instruction, — Free textbook cities 4 .00 per cent 3. Operation of Plant: a. Salaries of Janitors and Janitor's helpers in and about the school buildings 4 . 50 per cent b. Fuel, light, water, power, and janitor's supplies 3 . 50 per cent 4. Maintenance of Plant 4 . 00 per cent Repairs and Betterments to buildings. Repairs to and Replacements of Apparatus and Equipment, Nec- essary Administration and Inspection expense. 5. Auxiliary Agencies 1 . 75 per cent Libraries, Community Centers, Lectures and En- tertainments, Lunch room losses. Transportation of crippled Children, and School gardens, etc. 6. Fixed Charges 75 per cent Rentals, Pensions for teachers and employees. Total 100.00 per cent POLITICAL DOMINATION IN CITY SCHOOL SYSTEMS 161 the writer does claim that when the schedule rates are applied to the reports of expenditures of most of the cities, and to their budget estmiates for the school year 1921-22, they yield more equitable and reason- able results than the reports of expenditures, and the official budget estimates exhibit as the prevailing practice. Of one thing the writer feels confident, and that is that the taxpaying public is justly entitled to know how their tax money is spent, and what relative por- tions are spent for the different items of Current Run- ning Expenses. The one item of expense regarding which the writer has some misgivings is that of Salaries of supervisors of special subjects, principals, and teachers. The per cent given may be too low. If, however, a more equitable and reasonable adjustment of the relative salaries paid to high school principals and high school teachers, and to elementary school teachers can be brought about, the per cent indicated should prove to be reasonable and fair. CHAPTER V The Salary Question ^ We shall now take up the vexed question of the salaries of teachers and the unjustifiable disparity in the salaries paid to teachers, and to those who do not teach in the same system of schools. In order to pre- sent this important and, as it seems to us, fundamental subject, it is necessary to go into some considerable detail. The latest available statistics on the subject of teachers' salaries in the State of Illinois has been chosen for analysis and comparison for the reason that the school conditions and school problems in Illinois are fairly typical of the other States. The writer be- lieves that a counterpart of some of the conditions found to exist in regard to salaries paid to school teachers in Illinois, may be found in nearly all the other States. The December 1921 number of the Educational Press Bulletin issued by the State Department of Public Instruction of Illinois, gives, "A Comparison of the Average Annual Salaries of Teachers of Seventy-six Illinois Counties," out of the total of one hundred two counties of the .state. The average salaries are given for the three school years, 1918-19, 1919-20, and 1920-21. Among the comments found in a note are these: "It is interesting to note a rise in teacher's salaries during the two year period, 1919 to 1921 ranging from 14 . 1 per cent in County to 87 . 3 per cent in County." 162 THE SALARY QUESTION 163 *' County paid an average annual salary of $624 to its school teachers for the year 1920-21!" " County paid its teachers an annual sal- ary of $1006, this amount bemg an increase over the $537 annual average salary paid its teachers for the school year 1918-19!" Of the 76 counties, County paid the lowest average annual salary for the school year 1920-21, viz. $496!" "Cook County, including the city of Chicago, paid the highest average annual salary, viz. $1942." It is our purpose to show that these reports of the "Average annual salaries- paid to school teachers" do not throw much light upon the subject of the actual salaries or wages paid to school teachers. In so far as they show a tendency to give school teachers a better wage, they are encouraging, but we shall endea- vor to show that the "Average annual salary paid to school teachers" is far short of being adequate for holding out hope for immediate improvement in the supply of competent teachers. Let us analyze these encouraging statistics for such light as they may throw upon the teacher salary question. The "Average annual salary paid to school teachers in Cook County as we have seen was $1954, the highest in the State of Illinois! On the face of it, that looks pretty good. Cook County includes the great city of Chicago with its highly organized and expensive school system of superintendents, managers, directors, princi- pals, supervisors, and about 8,000 school teachers. The report of the Superintendent of Chicago schools, to the County Superintendent of Schools for the year 1920-21 gives 827 men, and 1339 women employed in 164 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the high schools including principals, assistant princi- pals, supervisors and teachers. Of this number, 739 men, and 1091 women received $1900 or over, most of them considerably over; and 302 men and 311 women received $3000 or over. There were only 90 men and 248 women employed in the high schools who received less than $1900! In the grade or elementary schools the report gives 230 men and 7124 women employed as superintendents, principals, head assistants, supervisors and teachers. Of these 152 men, and 3183 women received $1900 or more; and 108 men and 141 women received $3000 or more! And there were 78 men, and 3183 women who received less than $1900. The minimum salary was $1200 and the maximum $12,000! In Cook County outside the city limits of Chicago there is a large area of rich farming country thickly settled, and a number of thriving suburban cities and villages. In these suburban cities and villages there were 182 men, and 286 women employed in the high schools; of these 164 men, and 182 women received $1900 or more, and 54 men, and 8 women received $3,000 or over. And only 18 men, and 104 women received less than $1900. In the elementary schools in Cook County outside of Chicago, there were 101 men, and 1429 women employed as superintendents, principals, supervisors, and teachers. Of these, 55 men, and 22 women received $1900 or more; and there were 46 men, and 1407 women who received less than $1900; and the average salary for Cook County was $1942! But the Report of the County Superintendent of Cook County for the school year 1920-21 to the State Department of Education THE SALARY QUESTION 165 shows that the "Average annual salary paid to the men school teachers" in Cook County outside of the city of Chicago including superintendents, principals of high schools and grammar schools, teachers in high schools and elementary schools was only $2,405.25; while that paid to all women teachers was but $1358 . 65 ! It would be both interesting and instructive to know what the average annual salary paid to elementary school teachers for the same year actually was. This is an item of expense that school authorities are most reluctant to have set out in their statistical reports. Following the example of the employers of labor in the great industries, they like to deal in average wages paid! The city of Evanston is one of the suburban places. There were but 230 teachers, supervisors, principals, and superintendents employed in Evanston. This city enjoys the distinction of employing three superinten- dents at salaries totahng $19,000! This amount when divided by the number of teachers, supervisors, and principals employed in the city of Evanston is found to reduce any average annual salary paid school teachers in that city by the snug sum of $83.70! For the school year 1917-18, one of the school dis- tricts of Evanston, District No. 75, paid its principals, supervisors, and teachers only 55.4 per cent of the total amount of its Current Running Expenses, and 9 . 6 per cent for General Control ! The average amount of Current Running Expenses paid to principals, super- visors, and teachers in city school systems in the United States for the same school year, was 69.61 per cent, and for General Control but 4 . 62 per cent! It is shown by the statistics that in those cities which spend 166 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the least for Expenses of Instruction, it is necessary to spend the most for General Control! Evansville, Ind., for the same year paid 2.2 per cent for General Control, and paid its principals, super- visors, and teachers 75.7 per cent! Oak Park, and River Forest taken together makes nearly as unfavorable a financial showing. This com- munity employs three superintendents; two grade school superintendents, one at a salary of $6,500, and one at $3,000; and a high school superintendent at $7,000 ! There are employed altogether in these schools but 294 principals, supervisors and teachers in addition to the three superintendents. The salaries of these three superintendents reduce the average annual salary of the principals, supervisors, and teachers by $57. 15. The salary of the high school superintendent reduces the "Average annual salary paid school teachers" in the Oak Park-River Forest High School by $82.35; but that is not the whole story for the high school district paid for General Control for that one school, housed in one building on one city block, the sum of $18,537 . 41 for the school year 1920-21, which averages $218 per teacher for General Control; and an increase of 84 per cent in three years ! The management of Township high schools in Illinois, and in Cook county particularly seems to be unrestrained in expenditure. The "Cost per pupil enrolled" ranges from $91 . 54 in the Palatine Township High School to $195.93 in the Riverside Township High School! Cicero Township high school costs $175.92 per pupil enrolled; Evanston $146.63; Kenil- worth, $150.45; LaGrange, $116.77; and Oak Park- River Forest, $108.99. These statistics are for the year ending June 30, 1919. What do the reports for THE SALARY QUESTION 167 the year ending June 30, 1922 show for each of these schools? All of these places spend too much money on their high schools, and too little proportionately on their elementary schools. Not one of these communities pays too much school tax. The trouble is that the school funds are not sanely and fairly distributed. As a concrete example, the average salary paid to the 191 teachers in the Oak Park grade school district for the school year ending June 30, 1922, was $1467; while in the Oak Park-River Forest High School district, the average salary paid to the 88 teachers was $2722 . 50 ! Kane County is reported as having paid next to the highest "Average annual salary to school teachers," viz. $1379 this being an increase of 61.3 per cent in three years. Good! But when this average wage is analyzed it is found that the women principals, super- visors, and teachers received an average annual wage of but $1316.17; and that the men, including superin- tendents, principals, supervisors, high school and grade school teachers, received $1,825.85! Seven men in the county were paid salaries amount- ing to $24,257 . 57, or an average of $3,465 ! There were 277 superintendents, principals, super- visors, and teachers who received $1400 or over; but there were 370 principals, supervisors, and teachers, 16 men, and 354 women who received less than $1400! Note: the average for the county was $1379, but as the statistics were in even hundreds we had to take the nearest hundred to the average, $1400. It should be kept in mind that these two counties are exceptional, that they head the list of the 102 counties in Illinois for "Average annual salaries paid 168 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS to school teachers" for the school year ending June 30, 1921. From the State Superintendent's table of, ''A com- parison of the average annual salaries paid to school teachers in seventy-six Illinois Counties," we have selected fifteen fairly representive counties in the better farming sections of Illinois, — McDonough, Pike, Moul- trie, Ford, Shelby, Lee, Cass, Clinton, Kendall, Marshall, Menard, Iroquois, Kankakee, Fulton, and Henderson. These counties are chosen because they represent not only fairly average social and economic conditions in Illinois, but in the whole country generally where the people live in the smaller cities, country towns, villages and on the farms. Kankakee is the largest city with a population of 16,753, and four thousand (4000) dollars was the highest salary paid to a superintendent or principal in the fifteen counties. The "Average annual salary paid to school teach- ers" in these fifteen counties as shown by the report was but $854! "When we consider that the salaries of all superin- tendents, principals of high schools, principals of elementary schools and of village schools are included in finding the average salary, we may begin to reahze how meager the wages are that are paid to that great body of school teachers who do all the teaching that most of the children ever receive in the rural, village, town and small city schools. There were all told 1857 teachers employed in these fifteen counties. There were 37 superintendents, and high school principals, who received $87,375 in salaries, or an average of $2,361, a comparatively small salary; and yet it was sufficient to reduce the average annual salary of the other 1820 principals, supervisors, THE SALARY QUESTION 169 and teachers $48 ! Thus we see that the average annual salary paid to the 1820 school teachers in these fifteen counties in the prosperous agricultural sections of Illi- nois was only $806 instead of $854 ! We are familiar with the usual comment of those who enjoy the higher salaries, that there are so many more of the common school teachers that even when the salaries of the superintendents, high school princi- pals, high school teachers and special teachers are counted in when finding the average, that they do not change the average much. Well, to that self-respecting teacher who is struggling to make a presentable appear- ance, to pay off her school debts, to help educate younger brothers and sisters, and in many, many instances to help to support dependent parents on less than $806 annual salary, $48 goes a long way. Taking the whole state of Illinois for the school year ending June 30, 1921, as published in the Educa- tional Press Bulletin's "Summary of Statistical Tables 1921)," there were 6,064 men, and 32,215 women, or a total of 38,279 teachers employed in the public schools of the state. "Average annual salaries paid teachers — Men $1,501 . 15 Women 1,246.60 All 1,286.93" When we remember that the average annual salary paid to all teachers in the 15 agricultural counties was but $854, it is evident that the larger cities in Illinois and in all other states as well, serve to swell the average annual salary paid school teachers out of all reasonable proportions; in this instance from $854 to $1,286.93! More than fifty percent! 170 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS An analysis of these statistics shows that: There were 1 ,934 men in the elementary schools, and 53 men in the high schools, or 1,987 men whose annual salaries were less than $1,000, There were 12,829 women in the elementary schools, and 210 women in the high schools, or 13,139 women whose salaries were less than $1,000. There were 1,318 men in the elementary schools, and 2,756 men in the high schools or 4,074 men whose salaries were $1,000 or more; and There were 14,720 women teaching in the elementary schools, arid 4,660 women teaching in the high schools, or 19,380 women whose salaries were $1,000 or more. There were 355 men teaching in the elementary schools, and 1,646 men teaching in the high schools, or 2,001 men whose annual salaries were $2,000 or more; and There were 2,274 women in the elementary grades, and 1,288 women in the high schools, or 3,562 women whose annual salaries were $2,000 or more. There were 172 men credited to the elementary schools, and 462 men credited to the high schools, or 634 men whose annual salaries were $3,000 or over; and There were 142 women credited to the elementary schools, and 319 women credited to the high schools or 461 women whose annual salaries were $3,000 or over, but 410 of the men, and 452 of the women whose salaries were $3,000 or over were in the public schools of the city of Chicago. We shall now leave these rather dreary Statistical Tables that tell us so much, and conceal so much, concerning those humble folk who instruct the children enrolled in the public schools of the great State of THE SALARY QUESTION 171 Illinois, where the fact is made so much of that the "Average amiual salary paid school teachers" has increased so fast in the last three years that it has reached the high pinnacle of $1,286.93; the average salary of all the school teachers in 15 of the rich farming counties was but $806; and the 1987 men, and 13,138 women teachers whose annual salaries were less than $1,000, and consider for a while those favored few individuals who are fed the cream of the public school funds by our well meaning but misguided Boards of Education. The Board of Education of the city of Chicago pays the superintendent of schools $12,000; the first assistant superintendent, $8,100; three assistant superintendents, $7,200 each; secretary of the teachers examining board $7,200, and an examiner, $6,600; ten district superintendents, $6,000 each; supervisors, directors, principal, and superintendent of this and that, $3,500 to $5,000; principal of Normal College, $6,000; teachers in Normal College, from $1,800 to $3,600; principals of high schools, $4,300 to $5,700; teachers in high schools, $2,000 to $3800; elementary school principals $3,000 to $4,800; and elementary grade teachers $1,500 to $2,500! It was late in 1922 before the increase in the salaries of teachers, and principals became effective long after the high salaried executives had been granted their increases. The business manager has a salary of $10,000; superintendent of buildings $8,000; and there are the attorney, two assistant business managers, secretary of the Board of Education, comptroller, auditor, chief engineer, superintendent of construction and repairs, efficiency engineer, supervisor of transportation, super- 172 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS intendent of bureau of supplies, and superintendent of repairs none of whose salaries is made public. Closely following Chicago's increase of the salary of the superintendent to $12,000, New York City, Phila- delphia and Pittsburg raised the salaries of their superintendents to $12,000! Jersey City pays her superintendent of Schools $10,500; and Boston, Buffalo, Cincinnati, Cleveland, Newark, N. J., Oakland, Cal,, Omaha, Seattle, and Gary each pays $10,000! The cities of the United States of 100,000 or over paid to their superintendents of schools an average salary of $7,336 for the school year 1921-22 according to the Bulletin, 1921, No. 30 of The United States Bureau of Education, a public document which every person who is interested in our public schools, and certainly every taxpayer, should, get hold of and thoughtfully study. It is most interesting to observe the baneful effect of the lavish generosity of Boards of Education of the large cities in voting exorbitant salaries to all those individuals employed to exercise General Control, upon the Boards of Education of the smaller cities and towns. The largest city in Illinois, except Chicago, has a population of but 76,121; there are sixteen cities in the state with a population of 25,000 or over outside of Chicago. Joliet, population 38,406, pays her superintendent of schools a salary of $7,000 and the principal of the Town- ship high school $6,500; but to the principals of elementary schools salaries of from $1,175 to $2,325! Rockford, 65,651, superintendent's salary, $7,000, principals of elementary schools, from $1,850 to $2,250, THE SALARY QUESTION 173 and to elementary school teachers, $1,000 to $1,475, and only 39 teachers out of the total 437 teachers received the maximum salary ! Cicero, 44,995, superintendent's salary, $7,100; principal Township high school, $6,000; principals of elementary schools, $1,750 to $2,150! Rock Island, 35,177, superintendent's salary, $6,000; elementary school principals, $1,350 to $1,800! Springfield, 59,183, superintendent's salary $6,000; principals of elementary schools, from $1,700 to $3,000, only two received $3,000; $2,300 seems to be the regular salary ! East St. Louis, 66,740, superintendent's salary, $6,000; elementary school principals, $2,000 to $3,000. Evanston, 37,215, two districts: District #75, superintendent's salary, $6,500, one assistant superintendent, $4,000; and elementary school principals $1,500 to $2,500! District #76, superintendent's salary, $6,000; one assistant superintendent, $3,500 ! Principal of Evanston Township High School, salary $7,000! Oak Park, 39,830, superintendent's salary, $6,500; principal Township high school, $7,000; principals of elementary schools, $2,400 to $3,240; elementary teachers, $1,100 to $1,800, but there were no teachers getting $1,800, and only 9 teachers getting $1,680, next to the highest salary ! Danville, 33,750, superintendent's salary, $6,000; one assistant superintendent, $4,000; principal of the high school $4,000; principals of elementary schools, $1,350 to $1,700, and but one principal received that salary. This most efficient and dependable woman has been a principal for twenty-fiive years. Her 174 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS building is the largest in the city, and yet she is paid but $1,700 annual salary! The maximum annual salary of elementary school teachers in Danville for the school year 1921-22 was $1,200 and but 41 teachers out of the 137 received that salary ! In another town "down state," having a school enrollment of between 1300 and 1400 pupils, the super- intendent of schools is paid a salary of $3,600; the principal of the largest elementary school has a wage of $1,500; but the principal of the little high school with an enrollment of 460 pupils and employing 20 teachers was paid a salary of $6,000 ! A nearby town employs 40 grade teachers in its elementary schools. The superintendent had a salary of $3,500; and the principal of its largest elementary school $1,375 ! In that same town, there is a high school having an enrollment of about 475 pupils, and 26 teachers are employed. The principal of that little high school has the same annual salary as the State Superintendent of Public Instruction of Illinois!! Verily, verily. Truth is stranger than fiction! The two last mentioned towns are near the center of the fifteen counties of Illinois in which it was found that the average annual salary of all the principals, super- visors, and high school and elementary school teachers was $806. These are not exceptional cases, and the cities and towns of Illinois are not the only offenders. Of the 183 cities of the United States of from 25,000 to 100,000 both inclusive, 56 of them paid their Super- intendents of schools $6,000 or more. The minimum salary was $3,600 and the maximum, $10,000! THE SALARY QUESTION 175 Tulsa, Oklahoma paid its Superintendent of Schools $9,600, and the secretary of the school board $4,500. Any number of country towns employing from twenty to thirty teachers, and enrolling from 600 to 700 pupils are paying their principal-superintendents from $3,600 to $4,300! There are many little country high schools en- rolling from 100 to 185 pupils, employing from eight to ten teachers that are paying their high school princi- pals from $3,250 to $3,600! In one of these towns the principal of the elementary school with an enrollment of 340 pupils, employing nine teachers, has a wage of $1,500! It is only a short time since the highest salary paid to any superintendent of schools in any city in Illinois outside of Cook County was $2,500! It requires no argument to establish the fact that the salaries of city school superintendents, and principals of high schools are inordinately excessive when compared with the wages paid to elementary school principals, teachers and supervising teachers of all kinds. There is neither rhyme nor reason to justify them. There has been a marked tendency in large cities towards the introduction of so called "modern business efficiency methods of organization and administration" into the school systems by Boards of Education in imitation in a small way of the business methods of the large commercial, industrial, and public service cor- porations. It was from this source that the notion came that it is necessary to have a high salaried busi- ness manager, comptroller, auditor, and all the other functionaries of a business administration, independent of the educational administration. 176 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Not so very long ago the Chicago Board of Educa- tion ill-advisedly appointed a committee of prominent business and professional men, possibly a woman or two, to canvass the situation and the educational field, and to nominate a candidate for the position of Superin- tendent of Schools. This committee selected a man of recognized ability and recommended that its candidate be elected at a salary of $18,000! The board of educa- tion duly elected the committees' candidate at the salary recommended, which was the same salary as that of the Mayor! It was a foregone conclusion that neither the Superintendent nor the members of that Board of Education could last very long. The new superintendent's position was made unten- able from the start by political opposition of the mayor, and the obstructive tactics of the new appointees of the school board. He was shorn of most of the impor- tant responsibilities and duties of his office, and the members of the board of education that had elected him were displaced, not legally, but in fact. The excessive salary voted to the superintendent was the prime cause of the disgraceful turmoil in school board politics that ensued. There are many of the finely financially manipulated business corporations that do pay certain of their execu- tives exorbitant salaries. The controlling interests have their own good reasons for doing so, and it is not for the purpose of earning and paying dividends to their minority stockholders. It came out in a public hearing a little while ago before a state utilities board that the salary of the president of a certain street car company was $60,000 a year, and the attorney for the same company was paid $30,000 a year. THE SALARY QUESTION 177 Let us assume that the services of these two worthy officials are actually worth $12,000 each to a corpora- tion, then they would actually earn $24,000 a year; but they are paid $90,000! This amount is charged against the earnings of the corporation, and it is $66,000 more than the two officials are supposed to earn; and $66,000 is the equivalent of 8% dividend upon $825,000 of the capital stock of the corporation. In fact it is much better than the uncertainty of dividends for the reason that it is paid regardless of whether dividends are declared or not. Returns in the form of excessive salaries are about all the dividends many of these utility corporations ever pay. There are those who are at the head of honestly and efficiently managed business concerns who receive large salaries, and according to the laws of trade, and sound business principles, earn them, and are entitled to them. Their occupation is the earning of money, and they must earn the money with which their large sala- ries are paid. But money making business enterprises are one thing; and public institutions supported by taxation quite another sort of enterprise having altogether different ideals and purposes. The public schools are not intended to be a money making enterprise. The school executives are not looking after the interests of majority stockholders. The only possible dividends the taxpayers can hope to receive m return for their investment is in terms of the education of the children, and in a more enlightened citizenship. It is the height of folly for a Board of Education to try to imitate the practices and policies of money making business concerns in the fixing of salaries. 178 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Let us consider this question of salaries from another angle. The government does not attempt to compete with commercial, industrial, transportation, nor public utili- ties corporations in the amount of salaries paid to its officials and other public servants. This is and has been the policy of the federal government, and of most of the state governments as well. "Salary grabbing" has been consistently discouraged and frowned upon by honest public servants and by the people. "Public office is a public trust"; and the honor that goes with a public trust has been regarded as a large share of the compensation for the service rendered. Many of our great men worthy of the honor bestowed upon them have willingly made great financial sacrifices for the civic duty of performing public service. The salary of the president of the United States of America, the greatest and wealthiest Nation, is only $75,000 a year! Our Ambassador Extraordinary and Minister Pleni- potentiary to the Coiu't of St. James lias a salary of $17,500. Chief Justice of the United States Supreme Court, Howard G. Taft, has a salary of $15,000; the eight Associate Justices, $14,500 each. The United States Circuit Judges, $8,500 each; and the District Judges, $7,500 ! The members of the President's Cabinet, the Vice President, and the Speaker of the House of Representa- tives are paid a salary of $12,000 each. General John G. Pershing, Chief of Staff of the United States Army; and the Solicitor General of the Department of Justice each has a salary of $10,000. THE SALARY QUESTION 179 The Senators, and the members of the House of Representatives of the Congress of the United States of America have fixed their own salaries at $7,500 a year ! The salary of the Commissioner of Education of the United States Bureau of Education is $5,000! The Governor of the State of Illinois is paid a salary of $12,000; and no other state pays its Governor as high a salary as Illinois. The Attorney General, and the Justices of the Supreme Court of Illinois are paid a salary of $10,000. The State Superintendent of Public Instruction, $7,500! The Judges of the State Circuit Courts outside of Cook County are paid salaries of $6,500 each; and the Presidents of the State Normal Colleges, $5000 each! The mayor of the City of Chicago draws a salary of $18,000; and his executive secretary, $5,500. The Chief Justice of the Municipal Court, $12,000; and the Associate Justices, $9,000 each. The Corporation Counsel, $10,000; the Superintend- ent of Police, $8,000; and the Librarian of the Chicago Public Library, $7,500! The Aldermen from the thirty-five city wards, $5,000 each. The tendency of the governments of all large cities is toward the payment of excessive salaries to their elective, and appointive oflScials, and to the multiplica- tion of sinecure patronage positions. How absurdly prepostrous to pay the mayor of a city a salary of $18,000, and an alderman of the City Council, $5,000 where the Governor of the State has only $12,000, and a United States Senator, $7,500! And the sum total of all salaries paid in some of our cities is a mere "Bag o' shells" when compared with 180 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the sum total of the wastefully extravagant expendi- tures of public funds in other directions, — Attorneys', and expert property value guessers' fees, for illustra- tion. The self government of large cities is an anomaly in representative government which was not thought of by the founders of our Government. The population and the bulk of the wealth of the country are becoming centralized in the cities, and the consequent amazing sums of money collected from taxes, special assess- ments, licenses of all sorts, from fees of the various departments, and from the sale of bonds, are a tempta- tion to selfish and designing politicians for reckless and dishonest practices in the expenditure of these funds. The salaries paid to the elective and appointive oflBcials of a city are a fairly good indication, of the civic ideals of a city government. The question comes right back to the civic respon- sibility of the individual citizen. The great majority of people are honest, and they would like to have an honest, sane, and efficient administration of their city affairs. But these people permit themselves to become so absorbed in their private business affairs and occupa- tions that they give little, or belated heed to the seemingly complex political affairs of their city govern- ment. This wide spread indifference of honest and straight thinking citizens to the question of city politics, leaves a clear field for those who make their living by practical politics, to organize, manipulate, and control their city governments for their own selfish ends. There is but one remedy for a corrupt and wasteful government of a city, and that is the nomination and election of men and women of undoubted personal and civic honesty to public office. Until the time comes THE SALARY QUESTION 181 when a majority of the citizens of a city reah'ze this fact, and are ready to lay aside their personal prejudices and pet theories of government, and unite upon the platform of personal moral integrity of all candidates for office, the "Organizations" of practical politicians will continue to dominate and control our city govern- ments, and the taxpayers will have to pay the bills. The problem of the honest, sane and efficient administration of cities is one of the serious problems that the people will have to solve, and the people will have to solve it. The worst possible city government the people might choose will be better than the best city govern- ment that might be imposed upon it from the outside. The citizens of our great cities must work out their solutions to their own serious problems, and they may be depended upon to find their solutions in their own way. The people who pay the bills are primarily to blame for permitting a few worthies to skim the cream off of the educational funds and to leave the watered skim milk to be apportioned among principals, supervisors, and teachers through elaborately worked out "Salary Schedules for Teachers." The people and their Boards of Education have allowed themselves to be carried away by concerted and inspired propaganda. The Teachers' Colleges, Departments of Education of the Universities, Educational Foundations, State Departments of Education, and the Department of Superintendence of the National Educational Associa- tion all magnify the crying need for "Expert Super- vision" of school systems. 182 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The misguided people have been persuaded that the only way they can hope to improve their schools and to keep abreast of the times is to vote their super- intendent, and high school principal a great big salary, the bigger the better! Big men, and educational experts have sprung up like toad stools after a June rain. Many of these big men were formerly in charge of some of the city school systems later found to be so sadly in need of "expert supervision." How absurd the proposition is must appear to any one who takes the trouble to think it through. The first forward step toward the improvement of any weak spot in any school system from the kinder- garten or rural school through the university, is to place a strong, capable, tactful and efiicient teacher in that weak spot ! The biggest, wisest, and highest salaried superin- tendent or university president in the land could do no more to strengthen the weakest spot than to do that one simple act! But we are informed that there are not enough strong, capable, tactful, and efficient teachers to be had to man the weak spots in the public schools! That's the "milk in the cocoanut!" Why is it that with all our State supported normal schools, city normal schools, and county teachers' training schools, there is a dearth of well trained, capable and efficient teachers.'' We shall undertake to answer that question in another place so simply that every mother, father, voter, and school board member will understand it. This vexed question of the relative amount of salary to be paid to the several classes of those engaged in the THE SALARY QUESTION 18.S different kinds of educational work ought to be reduced to something like a scientific, just and reasonable basis. As we have seen, the wages paid to elementary teachers are out of all proportion to the fanciful salaries paid to superintendents, and high school princi- pals. There is also too wide a disparity between the salaries paid to elementary school teachers, and to high school teachers in the same system of schools. We shall give our reasons for making this statement when we take up the subject of the social, professional, and economic status of the school teacher. The question of the amount of salary to be paid to superintendents, high school principals, and to some of the favored high school teachers is too frequently settled upon sentimental grounds, sometimes upon the spur of the impulse of competition. An individual is personally popular and satisfactory to the school pa- trons, and to members of the board, and naturally they do not wish to lose him. He has an offer from another school board at an advance in salary, and too often the school board disregarding all precedents and salary schedules, pays him an unwarranted advance in salary to remain. Should one of their very best grade teachers notify her superintendent that she had received an offer of a position from another superintendent at a sub- stantial increase in salary he would most likely try to induce her to remain at her same salary, failing in this, he would probably inform her that the school board could not pay her an increase on account of the fixed salary schedule. The fixing of relative amounts of salary is too much of a "hit or miss" proposition. The result, as we have seen, is an unjust and unwarranted disparity in the salaries paid giving rise to discontent 184 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS and demoralization of the teaching body in many instances. After giving considerable time and thought to the consideration of this subject from every standpoint, the writer ventures to submit for the consideration of those interested. A BASIS FOR THE EQUITABLE ADJUSTMENT OF SALARIES OF TEACHERS, PRINCIPALS AND SUPERINTENDENTS The plan is a simple one. This fact should commend it to favorable consideration. The average salary paid to the highest paid group of one-fourth of the elementary grade teachers in any given city school system shall be taken as the basis for determining the amount of the maximum salary to be paid to the superintendent of schools. The maximum salary of the superintendent of schools shall not be more than three times the average annual salary paid the highest paid group of one- fourth of the elementary grade teachers in the system. The schedule of regular class room teachers in the high schools shall not exceed by more than ten per cent the regular salary schedule of elementary grade teachers in the same system of schools, or in the same town where the high school and the elementary schools are under separate school boards; and under no pretext shall the salary paid to any high school teacher, instruc- tor, or coach out of the public school funds, exceed by more than five hundred dollars the maximum salary schedule for regular class room instructors in the same high school. The maximum salary of a high school principal shall not exceed by more than ten per cent the maximum BASIS FOR ADJUSTMENT OF RELATIVE SALARIES 185 salary paid to elementary or grade principals in the same school system, or in the high school district where the high school and the elementary schools are under separate boards of education. The salary schedule for directors, and head super- visors of special subjects or departments of instruction, shall be the same as that of elementary or grade prin- cipals in the same school system. Whenever the superintendent of schools is elected and acts as principal of a high school whether by one school board or by separate boards, the rule for fixing the salary for the dual position shall be that for super- intendent of the elementary or grade schools. The salary shall be apportioned between the districts in proportion to the relative salaries of superintendent and principal of the high school in the same school system. This schedule for determining the relative amounts of salary to be paid to the various grades of public school employees engaged in the work of instruction and educational administration has been worked out upon strictly professional and economic considerations. Economic justice is the urgent need in the readjust- ments of our disturbed conditions and social unrest. Some similar schedule might be worked out for the readjustment of salaries and fees that should be allowed to the executive managers, and to their attor- neys appointed by the controlling interests of corpora- tions. There should be a provision inserted in the Charter of every stock company incorporated under the laws of any state which would make it unlawful for the board of directors of any corporation to vote or otherwise authorize or to pay more than a fixed minimum salary 186 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS to any of its executive officials or managers until after all the stockholders had been paid a dividend of a speci- fied rate out of the actual earnings of the corporation. This is the usual practice of individuals who form a co-partnership for the conduct of a business enterprise. The partners agree among themselves to draw a certain minimum amount out of the business for actual living expenses until such time as the earnings of the business shall justify them in drawing out a larger amount. They could not do otherwise without impairment of the working capital of the business. Why should not the same fair and reasonable safe- guards be applied to the cooperative undertakings of a corporation ! Let us take some concrete examples for illustration of the practical working out of the suggested plan of basing all other salaries of those employed in the educational department of the public schools upon the average salary paid to not less than one-fourth of the elementary teachers in city school system. In New York City for instance, the salary of ele- mentary teachers ranges from $1,500 for beginners to $3,250 for teachers of "7A and higher classes." Let us assume that the annual average salary of the upper group of at least one-fourth of the total number of elementary teachers is as high as $3,000. If our assumption is correct, then $3,000 would be taken as the basis for determining the salary to be paid to the superintendent of schools. Three times $3,000 are $9,000. The present salary of the superintendent of the New York City Public Schools is $12,000! Salaries of high school teachers. As mentioned above, the schedule for elementary teachers ranges BASIS FOR ADJUSTMENT OF RELATIVE SALARIES 187 from $1,500 to $3,250, and according to the suggested plan of adjusting salaries, the schedule of salaries for high school teachers should not be higher than $1,650 to $3,575, and the maximum salary for heads of departments would be $4,075. The present salary schedule for high school teachers is from $1,900 to $3,700; and for head assistants, the maximum is $4,200. The salaries of high school principals. The salary schedule of elementary school principals in New York City is $3,750 to $4,750. By increasing the salaries of the elementary school principals by ten percent, it gives the proposed schedule of salaries of high school principals, $4,125 to $5,^^5. The present schedule gives the high school principals from $5,000 to $6,500. For illustration of how the proposed plan would work out in the smaller cities, let us take a hypothetical case of a city school system employing anywhere from 400 to 500 teachers. The salary schedule of this city let us say, gives the elementary teachers from $1,000 to $1,475; the high school teachers, from $1,400 to $3,000; elementary school principals $1,850 to $2,250; the high school principal, $4,200; and the superintend- ent, $7,000. The average annual salary of the highest paid one- fourth of the total number of elementary teachers employed in this city is $1,400. This amount when taken as the basis for determining the salary of the superintendent fixes his maximum salary at $4,200, so long as the basing salary remains at $1,400! The schedule of high school teachers would be from $1,100 to $1,622.50, and the maximum salary paid to any teacher, or head of department $2,122.50. The salary of the high school principal would be $2,475 so long as the maximum salary of elementary 188 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS school principals remained at $2,250. If the salary of the superintendent is to remain at $7,000, the average salary of the highest paid group of not less than one- fourth of the teachers should be increased to $2,333 . 33; and if the salary of the high school principal is to remain at $4,200, the maximum salary of elementary school principals should be raised to $3,818! CHAPTER VI THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS ROOM TEACHER IN ANY SCHEME OF EDUCATION The school teacher is the one most essential per- sonage in any school system from the one room rural school and the lowest elementary grade up through all the grades and gradations of schools through the college and university. One cannot visualize a school without a teacher. One cannot imagine a good school without the presence of a good teacher in it, nor a poor school without the spectre of a poor weak teacher. As a matter of fact a school reduced to its lowest terms is a class of children assembled under the control and direction of a teacher. The old time worn saying "As is the teacher so is the school" is not a mere plati- tude; it states a great and eternal truth! The schools are good schools wherever they are taught by good, strong, and inspiring teachers and poor schools wherever there is a poor, weak, or indifferent teacher, whether the particular school be in a highly organized city school system, or in a one-room school house in a backwoods settlement of Arkansas. The responsibility for the kind of schools in any community rests primarily upon the people of the com- munity, settlement, or school district in which the schools are located; and the people, particularly the parents and guardians of the children, cannot shirk that responsibility. There can be no substantial improvement in public school education wherever that improvement is most 189 190 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS needed without first arousing the public sentiment of those communities to a reahzation of the urgent need for better schools, better teachers, better school facili- ties, longer school terms and stronger moral and finan- cial support of the schools. The individual citizen must be brought to under- stand and to appreciate the fundamental fact that the teacher of his child and his neighbor's child is the most important factor in our whole scheme of education. We wish that this statement could be permanently lodged in the mind and heart of every citizen in this great Republic! The marked tendency is to think of a System of Public Schools, a fine high school building, and a high salaried superintendent as the first essentials of good schools. Fine school buildings frequently shelter the poorest kind of schools; and old style and unattractive school buildings sometimes house the very best schools. The importance of "highly specialized" school supervision by persons "technically trained" is being overstressed by those engaged in it, and by those institutions which make a business of giving this "highly technical" training, Teacher's Colleges, De- partments of Education of Universities: and by Educational Foundations, and Departments of Super- intendence. "It is one of the great problems of the American public school to secure adequate supervision" (at $12,000 a year presumably), to quote a prominent authority, seems to summarize the advanced thinking that has been inspired by persistent propaganda. Without in anywise minimizing the importance of sane and efficient administration of a system of public THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 191 schools, and wise and inspiring leadership of the teach- ing force, it may not be considered impertinent to paraphrase the above quotation and have it read, "It is the one great problem of the American public school to secure adequate teaching." TWO HYPOTHETICAL CASES In order to press the point of the importance of the well trained and technically skilled class room teacher, let us take two fancifully hypothetical cases. First, for illustration, we will suppose that the Board of Education of some one of the highly organized large city school systems decided at one time, no material difference when, to make a bold experiment in the educational administration of their system of schools for the purpose of getting some first hand data as to the relative values of highly technical and expert supervision, and of every day thorough going class room teaching and voluntary team work of the teachers and their principal, with a minimum of inspection and supervision from bureau headquarters. Without indicating in any manner the purpose back of its unprecedented action, the Board of Education adopted a carefully prepared resolution granting to the superintendents, assistant superintendents, asso- ciate superintendents, district superintendents, direc- tors and supervisors, an indefinite leave of absence to become effective on and after the passage of the resolution. The resolution outlined a detailed plan for the conduct and management of the schools. The plan provided that the names of all elementary, and high school principals were to be placed in a hat and after being shaken, the stenographer of the secre- 192 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS tary of the board blindfolded, should draw three names, one at a time. The first name drawn should be declared acting superintendent of schools with all the authority and the prerogatives of Superintendent of Schools to take effect immediately. The second name, assistant superintendent, and the third name drawn, assistant superintendent. The resolution further provided for filling the vacancies made by the election of the three superintend- ents. In the event that a principal of a high school should be drawn and elected to one of the positions, the assistant principal of the school would be chosen acting principal of the school; and,, if an elementary school principal should be drawn, the head assistant of that school would be promoted to the position of acting principal. The acting superintendent would nominate satis- factory candidates for all other vacancies in the regular way. The retiring superintendents, directors, and super- visors were requested to turn over to the newly chosen superintendents their keys, records, books and papers, and all property belonging to the Board of Education, and to vacate their oflSces. The acting superintendents were directed to assume possession of their respective offices, and to enter upon the discharge of the duties of educational administration. One of the leading elementary school principals was drawn and duly elected acting superintendent. A popular lady, principal of one of the largest elementary schools was chosen an assistant superintend- ent, and a principal of one of the high schools the other assistant superintendent. THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 193 After the excitement and astonishment following the announcement of the upheaval had quieted down, it was generally conceded that a fairly representative board of superintendents had been chosen, and general satisfaction was expressed by teachers and principals. The formal official announcement of the Board of Education of its action addressed to the principals, and through them to the teachers asked for the active cooperation and support of all principals, teachers, and other appointees and employees with the acting super- intendent and his assistants. The order went forth that all school work, and the established activities of the schools should be carried on without interruption on account of the changes in administration. This radical action was taken at the last regular meeting in December, just as the schools were closing for the holiday vacation. Advantage was taken of the vacation days for making adjustments and changes in administration in preparation for the opening of the schools on the first Monday morning in January. The schools opened as usual, and so far as the pupils, the teachers, and the principals were concerned there was no perceptible change in the administration of the schools. The official letter from the superintendent's office to the principals gave instructions that the work in the special subjects should be carried on by the teachers as it had been between the occasional visits of the directors and supervisors of those special subjects. At the first meeting of the principals' association, the acting superintendent submitted a plan whereby the principals should assume the duties that had been performed by the district superintendents. The princi- 194 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS pals in each of the districts of each former district superintendent should hold two meetings a month at a designated time and place. They should elect one of their number chairman, and the chairmen from the sev- eral districts should meet with the Board of Superin- tendents twice a month for conference, discussion, and decision of questions of general policy on all matters pertaining to the schools of the whole city. The high school principals constituted a high school district. The assistant superintendents were assigned the responsibility for the administration of specified phases of executive administration, by the acting superintendent. Without going further into the details of the prac- tical administration of the schools, it was the concensus of opinion that the schools ran along smoothly. The semester promotions were made as usual, the classes were organized and the work of the second semester started off in full swing. Those members of the school board who had felt some misgivings of the practical workings of the experi- ment, were frank to admit that the business of the superintendent's department was carried on efficiently. The reports of the acting superintendent showed that he was fully informed as to the work of all the depart- ments, and his recommendations made to the Board of Education were plain and convincing. The routine business of the Board of Education moved along smoothly. A proposal was made by the acting superintendent that some plan should be devised whereby the teachers should be given a voice in the discussions of all subjects pertaining to the important work the teachers were doing such as the course of study, the textbooks, the THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 195 amount of work assigned to the pupils in the different subjects taught in each grade, the promotion of pupils, and kindred subjects; also all subjects pertaining to the working conditions of the teacher, such as the number of pupils in a class, the number of recitations in the day, the necessity for a relief period of at least once a day, the need for an extra teacher in each large building for assisting backward pupils and to relieve teachers whenever temporary relief may be needed, and kindred subjects. It was made known to the teachers that any teacher might feel free to express her views upon any subject under discussion, either with the principal or at a meeting of teachers and the principal, without in any way prejudicing her standing as a teacher or endanger- ing her position, provided she keep within the ordinary rules observed in orderly discussion. While a definite plan of teacher representation had not been worked out at our latest report, the teachers felt that they were receiving most considerate and sympathetic treatment. Their suggestions were treated with due respect, and as a natural result, the teachers felt kindly toward their superiors in the school organi- zation. The school year began to draw near the close. There were all the usual problems attending the graduation of pupils from the high schools and from the grammar schools. In addition there were all the administration plans for the next school year. New buildings must be built, additions to buildings, additional teachers to be selected and assigned, changes in the courses of study to be decided upon, books and educational supplies to be chosen and purchased. Would the acting superin- 196 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS tendent prove equal to the task of initiating and carry- ing through the larger plans for a new school year? The friends of the former executives were heard to remark that the schools were so thoroughly organized that any one could run them. The fact that the schools had run so smoothly simply demonstrated the value of the former technically expert supervision. But the plans went right forward. Changes in the course of study were reported from the committees of principals and teachers, discussed, amended, accepted and adopted. Textbooks recommended by committees adopted and ordered purchased, and supplies and equipment of all sorts. The closing days of the schools passed without unusual incident, the promotions were formally made, and the different classes in all the schools organized for the beginning of the regular work in September. During the summer vacation, the regular vacation school activities were carried on, the usual, as well as the unusual routine matters of school administration were brought before the Board of Education and its committees in a thoroughly systematic manner, indi- cating that they had been thoughtfully considered. There were the ordinary number of changes in the membership of the Board of Education, a reorganiza- tion of the board, and of its committees, but this made little perceptible difference in policy or practice. The schools opened as usual on Tuesday after Labor Day with a largely increased attendance. With the opening of school, there were new buildings and addi- tions to older buildings opened, requiring readjust- ments of district boundaries and the wholesale transfer of pupils. But these problems had been worked out THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 197 by committees of principals of the districts affected, and one of the assistant superintendents. Once organized, the regular school work proceeded as it had done in former years. In so far as the members of the Board of Education, the principals of the schools, the school teachers, the pupils and their parents were concerned they could detect no "let down" in the school work, in the organi- zation, or in the effectiveness of the educational administration. There were heard frequent comments from both teachers and principals that they had felt freer in their work to go ahead and to carry out their regular program than ever before; that they had been thrown on their own initiative more, and as a result they felt the stimulus of personal responsibility urging them to do their best. At the last regular meeting in December, the Board of Education voted to recall the regular supervisory force from its extended leave. Each member was notified to report for duty on January 2, and to take up the work he was doing at the time he was relieved. The acting superintendents were instructed to turn over their respective desks, keys, and papers to the regular appointee, and each to return to his former position. The superintendents, directors, and supervisors after picking up the threads of their work, and making their rounds of inspection admitted that the schools were in good order, and that the progress of the pupils had been satisfactory. At the first meeting of the Board of Education in January, one of the members who had a pretty keen insight into the fitness of things and was blessed with a sense of humor, offered a resolution the pith of which 198 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS was that whereas the teachers of our schools have served the pubHc faithfully at salaries anywhere from fourteen, to sixteen and two-thirds per cent less than the salaries to which they were justly entitled, that therefore be it resolved that any and every elementary school teacher who had taught consecutively for a period of seven years or more was justly entitled to a sabatical year's leave of absence at full pay, and that all such teachers who wished to avail themselves of the leave of absence would be granted that leave beginning at the close of the present semester. He called for the adoption of the resolution. It was promptly seconded, but a motion was made that so important a resolution should be referred to the committee on teachers and school affairs. It was so referred. What consternation that simple resolution caused, and with what expressions of satisfaction on the part of those teachers! The superintendents said that it would not be pos- sible to fill the places of so many experienced teachers from their available list of applicants. The principals, with one accord, stated that it would take the most dependable and eflBcient teachers out of their forces. At the committee meeting all the statistics were mar- shalled to show that the schools could not possibly be continued without these experienced teachers. The School Board member who had offered the resolution remarked naively that he did not recall any vigorous protest on the part of the principals or the teachers when the educational administration depart- ment was given an indefinite leave of absence. The members of the finance committee were brought into the meeting and into the discussion. The chairman of that committee stated emphatically that there THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 199 were no funds available nor in sight with which to meet the added expense involved in the plan proposed in the resolution. The question of the legality of the proposi- tion was brought up and it was decided to refer the matter to the attorney of the Board of Education for his opinion. At this point the member who had proposed the resolution, asked the superintendent whether in his opinion the regular work of instruction in the schools would suffer in the event that the plans proposed in his resolution were carried out.'' The superintendent answered the question frankly. He stated that in his opinion not only would the regular work of the schools suffer, but that it would be physically impossible to secure teachers to take the places of so large a number for temporary positions on so short notice. The member of the Board remarked dryly that he was convinced that the superintendent had stated the situation as it actually existed! The decision of the attorney was that in his opinion the Board of Education would exceed its authority if it should grant a year's absence to a large body of teachers on full pay. This decision "killed" the resolution, and disap- pointed the teachers whose hopes had been raised at the prospects of a well earned vacation. But, there was an idea lodged in the minds of those teachers that is likely to influence their thinking, and possible action in the near future. There have been many instances where for one rea- son or another, a principal of one of the schools in a city school system has been appointed acting superintend- ent. The appointments are usually accepted with cordial approval by the other principals, and by the 200 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS teachers. The schools have gone forward harmoniously under their administration, and the school board mem- bers have admitted that their schools had never run along more satisfactorily and efficiently than under the administration of the acting superintendent; and yet these same members of Boards of Education have voted to employ a peripatetic candidate for the superin- tendency oft times from a much smaller school system, a stranger to their system, their teachers and principals, and to the ideals and policies under which their schools had been built up and satisfactorily conducted. In a few instances these same board members have voted the new and untried superintendent a salary much in advance of the salary ever before paid, and more than double the salary that the new encumbent had pre- viously received. The elementary school principal in most cities is required to possess the same educational qualifications as a high school principal, an assistant superintendent, or a superintendent of schools. He must furnish evidence of successful experience as a teacher, and in most instances as a school principal. If he is qualified for the position of principal, he is fully qualified to superintend, direct, and supervise a school in all of its departments and activities. Each teacher classifies her pupils, assigns their lessons, furnishes each of her pupils with a list of books needed, registers their names, grades, ages, attendance and absences, supervises their movements into and out of the buildings, looks after their sanitary welfare, keeps them in order, conducts their recitations, in- structs and inspires them in so far as they are instructed and inspired, and she cooperates with the other teach- ers and the principal in the general control and conduct THE IMPORTANCE OF THE CLASS-ROOM TEACHER 201 of all the pupils both inside and about the school building. In other words, the responsibility for the care, custody, conduct, moral and physical welfare, instruc- tion and training of pupils, rests upon the teacher and the principal. These facts not only explain why it was that the schools of the city described went forward for a whole year without the regular educational administrators, but it accounts for the fact that some of our politically dominated city school systems maintain fairly good schools in spite of political upheavals in their school boards, interference in school affairs by the mayors, dissipation of school funds as personal patronage and frequent changes of superintendents. The school principals, the supervisors and the school teachers are found right on the job teaching the children. "School keeps" regardless of the warring factions at the City Hall and at the Board of Education building. There can be no room for reasonable doubt that this would be the result in any public school system in any large city. . Why? For the simple reason that the principals of the schools and their teachers carry on all the essential lines of school work, day in and day out, throughout the whole school year. With most rare exceptions, any one of the elemen- tary or high schools of a city school system would be found to have done as creditable work, to have pro- moted as large a per cent of its pupils, to have kept up as high a community and school spirit without a single visit from a member of the educational administration 202 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS force all year, as the average school in the same city system which had been regularly and systematically visited and supervised. Another point seemed to be brought out as the result of these experiments, and the discussions aroused by them. A city school system can be successfully and efficiently administered with a substantially reduced force of high salaried General Control Executives; and that the same school system cannot function efficiently in the absence of a substantial portion of its corps of regular experienced teachers. We feel quite safe in making the statement that a vacancy in the personnel of the Educational Adminis- tration of any city school system could be filled bythe school board from its corps of supervisors, principals, and teachers, without lowering the standards of abihty and efficiency of that department. If it finds that it cannot do so, there is something radically wrong with the organization of that particular school system. As a general rule it is the safer policy for a Board of Education to chose some one of the capable assistant superintendents, principals, or supervisors for a vacancy in the superintendency than to go outside their school system. It is better for the admmistration of the system and it certainly is more satisfactory to the members of the teaching body. There is nothing more dis- couraging to the personnel of any school organization than the feeling that the door of opportunity in that organization is closed to its members. CHAPTER VII The Social, Pkofessional, and Economic Status OF THE School Teacher a national citizens' conference on education In the Spring of 1920, there was held in the city of Washington in response to the urgent call of the United States Commissioner of Education, A National Citizens' Conference on Education to which the Secretary of the Interior had invited the governors of the States to attend. The governors were asked to select as delegates men and women of affairs, ministers, lawyers, publicists, business men, merchants, captains of industry, farmers, representatives of labor unions, women's clubs, and others. Mayors of cities were invited; chambers of commerce, farmers' organizations, rotary clubs, kiwanis clubs and other organization? were invited to send representatives. In addition to these, the State superintendents of public instruction, members of State boards of educa- tion, city superintendents, county superintendents, members of city, and county boards of education, and presidents of colleges, universities, and normal schools were invited. The response was large, something over 500 were in attendance. A Report of the Proceedings has been published by the Bureau of Education, The National Crisis in Education : An Appeal to the People^ —Bulletin, 1920, No. 29. This Bulletin is replete with valuable infonnation and suggestions and should be read by every citizen who 203 204 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS is interested in the great questions confronting the American people, and especially the question of the maintenance of an efficient system of public schools. It was a notable gathering of representative leaders of many different civic, social, industrial, political, and educational organizations and groups. Many phases of the educational problem were discussed by able speakers, A number of significant and startling facts were brought out by these different speakers. It is not practicable to give even a summary of these facts, nor the conclusions drawn from them, but we shall give some of them. Dr. Lenord P. Ayers, Director of Departments of Education and Statistics, Russel Sage Foundation, "who probably knows more accurately the statistics of education than any other" gave the opening paper, Some Facts about the Schools and their Teachers. He brought out the following facts: First, The average school of the country is in session for 160 days of the year. Second, The average attendance for children of school age for the whole country is 90 days of schooling in the year! Third, Dr. Ayers' comments on the above conditions are as follows: "Now, if our schools are not open as many days during the year as they ought to be, and if our attendence falls below what it ought be, it is clear that our children do not get as much education as they ought, nor, indeed, as much as we actually pay for!" "Now if we think of our elementary school course as consisting of eight years of schooling, of 200 days each, then it means that the average attendance of the average school child is such that it would take that child thirteen years to get through the course. And STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 205 it means that in some of our states the attendance is so poor and the school year so short that to complete eight years of schooling of 200 days each would take the pupil 22 years!" "These are the conditions affecting not simply a few of the children of our country, here and there, but the average child on the thirteen year basis, and many children on the 22 year basis." Other authorities tell us that the average pupil enrolled in the public schools leaves school for good before completing the work of the sixth year grade! When speaking of averages, as we have seen in our discussion of the average salaries of school teachers, means that fully one half of the children drop out of school all along the way from the first year grade up through the sixth year grade. In introducing Dr. Wilham C. Bagley, the Com- missioner of Education, Dr. P. P. Claxton said, in part: "After all, the teacher is the school, and the handle that we take hold of first in this conference is the teacher. We have never had an adequate number of well- prepared teachers for the schools of the United States. * * *This year there are 45,000 to 50,000 schools taught by teachers who are below the minimum legal standards of the States in which they are located. There are over 300,000 teachers whose attainments or qualifications are below any reasonable standard that ought to be accepted for the schools of a great democ- racy like ours. Furthermore, not enough teachers have ever been prepared at any time to fill our vacancies. Next fall approximately 120,000 new teachers will be needed in the elementary schools of this country. All of the 206 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS normal schools together are graduating only about 20,000; other schools will graduate, with some profes- sional training, about 10,000 young men and young women who will enter teaching; thus we may expect to have 30,000 prepared teachers to fill 120,000 places, leaving 90,000 to be filled by those who have had no professional preparation, and most of them have had no adequate general education, even." Dr. Bagley's subject was, Adequate Pre/paration for an Adequate Number of Teachers to Fill the Schools of the United States. His introductory statement was, "The present status of the public school teacher constitutes the most serious problem in American education. The great bulk of our teachers are immature, transient, and ill- trained. * * *I believe we should set before the people the need of a mature, well-prepared, and relatively permanent teacher for every classroom in the land. I place this ideal first, because even its approximate realization would do more to solve the educational problem than any other one step that could be taken. Teaching at its best is a fine art, which is to say that it is the personal and human elements that are funda- mental." "The fundamental ideal I have proposed carries with it by way of corollary a second standard, namely, the recognition of rural-school teaching as at least equal in its significance to any other branch of public-school service. * * * "How severely the Nation suft'ers because of the neglect of the isolated schools of the open country and the small villages may be somewhat dimly compre- hended when we remember that these schools enroll in the aggregate nearly 60 per cent of our boys and STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 207 girls, and that a clear majority of the voters of the next generation will be limited in their educational oppor- tunities to what these schools can provide." Dr. David Felmley, president of Illinois Normal University spoke on the subject, The Source of Supply of Teachers. In summing up his arguments, he said, "If we are to have a well-equipped teacher for every child in the country, it is through the development of our normal school system, by increasing the extent of the work, by multiplying normal schools, by extending their cur- ricula, by lengthening their courses for such teachers as can find it expedient to continue their work, and by preparing for every phase of the public-school system." Dr. Albert Shaw, Editor of The Review of Reviews, spoke, in part, as follows : "Education is the vital process by virtue of which the Nation renews itself and advances upon the lines of its higher destiny. Education, therefore, is the essential phase of all statesmanship in a democracy, and not a separate and distinct interest." "There was a period within the memory of men and women now living when, in the United States, the average conditions of country life were more favorable than those of town life. These conditions have changed with the great progress of industry and commerce and the massing of wealth in urban communities. There has been a steady increase in educational plant and opportunities, because the great town has been permitted, by the policy of the State, to draw upon its resources of wealth, to provide school facilities of a superior kind. Meanwhile the prevailing type of school in the country has remained the one-room, one- 208 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS teacher establishment, far less effective in its relation to the rural community than the country schools of 50 or 75 years ago." "To bring about the needed improvement will require a considerable period of time, and the careful adoption of a series of stimulating measures and policies. But the first and foremost of policies should grow out of the principle that the farmer's children are not to be penalized for sticking to the farm.'" "I do not believe in meeting the crisis caused by the shortage of teachers with mere palliatives and with pitiable, temporizing measures. I believe that we should turn the tables completely and meet the crisis by the adoption of bold policies." "The profession of teaching is not destined to decline, but, on the contrary, has ahead of it, in a future not long distant, such opportunities as should invite thousands of young men and women to train themselves for what is to be decidedly the foremost of the professions." "The further continuance of our American insti- tutions now depends upon universal training for citizen- ship and upon the prosperity and success of our social and economic life, rural as well as urban." Hon. William L. Harding, Governor of Iowa, one of the most aggressively active governors in the country in the interest of public schools of his State, presided over the general sessions of the Citizens Conference on Education and delivered the opening address. The governor of Iowa has less authority over the manage- ment and control of the public schools of that state than the governors of many of the other states. The organi- zation of the State Department of Education is most simple and effective. The state superintendent is elected by the people and he exercises the general STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 209 direction and management of the State's functions in public school education without let or hindrance of the governor, a state board of education, or a state board of regents. The personnel of his office force numbered but 29, and the total of salaries paid was but $44,420 as reported in Bulletin, 1920 No. 46, and yet, the State of Iowa ranked 7 in efficiency by the Ayers' test. Governor Harding is therefore interested in the subject of schools as a leading citizen of his State and as governor of the State. The following statements are from his most practical and inspiring address: "The new slogan is, 'AH must be educated.' " "Education must do two things: It must see to it that the individual becomes self-sup- porting, and it must enable the individual to contribute something to and enjoy the benefits of the higher life. It is not enough for him to live; he must contribute something to civilization. That education which does not enlarge the faculties of the individual to enjoy the good and noble things of life and make for contentment is a failure." "The rural school should be made the community center. The old-time lyceum or debating society should be revived. Father and mother and the children went to the schoolhouse together in the old days under that institution, a wonderful institution." "The schoolhouse should be used six days and evenings in the week, and 12 months in the year. We have too much money invested in school property to have the door locked so much of the time. In my State alone, according to the last estimate I had, we have over $50,000,000 invested in school property. And then, think of using it only 3, 4, 5, or 6 hours a 210 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS day, 5 days in the week, and 8 or 9 months in the year! No banking institution, manufacturing institution, could prosper under those conditions." "One thing absohitely essential to a good school system is interested, active parents. They are the folk that make the schools. We need a campaign of education to arouse the parents of America to the fact that the schools are their property; that they are in their care and keeping; and that they need their every- day care and attention." "The teacher should be employed and paid for 12 months out of the year, and contracts should run for a period of not less than five years. And the school district should, out of its own pocket, see to it that the teacher is decently housed." "Teaching should be made a profession. The standards for admission should be high and inflexible. A man can not practice law until he meets the require- ments of the State. It makes no difference how scarce lawyers are; he can not get in. The lawyer represents your property in court; the teacher represents the constitutional rights of boys and girls. Which of the two are the most sacred.^ Shame on America for having been asleep!" "Make of teaching a profession, so that men and women can enter it for a life's work and be in a position to say, — T am a teacher, and proud of the profession!" Dr. Frank E. Spaulding, Dean, School of Education, Yale University, read a strong and vigorous paper on the subject An Adequate Program of Public Education. "It is high time to take the offensive in the struggle for education," he said. "W^e have been on the defen- sive long enough, trying merely to retain the ideals, STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 211 the standards, the types, the quantity, and the qiiaHty of education that prevailed up to three years ago." "The occupation of teaching — as a whole, we are not justified in calling it a profession — is being deserted in the present and shunned for the future." "An adequate program of public education for the present day and age must set for its achievement three definite, but closely related, objectives. Stated in simplest terms, these are: First. Essential elementary knowledge, training, and discipline. Second. Civic intelligence and responsibility. Third. Occupational-economic intelligence and efficiency. This program must seek the achievement of every one of these objectives, not with a selected few or even with a majority, but with every one of the children and the youth of the land, native born and immigrant." "The educational crisis that confronts us is, indeed, serious, alarming. It can be adequately met only by prolonged devotion of the best, the most statesman-like intelligence the country affords; only by the resolute determination of the most enlightened public senti- ment; only by the adoption of the profession of teach- ing, making it in reality a profession, by hundreds of thousands of thoroughly educated, professionally trained, professionally minded men and women; only by the annual expenditure of unprecedented sums of money. But all these conditions are pos- sible, indeed eminently practicable. The wealth of the Nation is equal to the burden. Should it necessitate the radical curtailment of gross wastes and extrava- gances, public and private, flagrantly rampant on every hand, so much the better." 212 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Dr. Charles H. Judd, Director of the School of Education, University of Chicago, spoke on the sub- ject, — Economies in Education "The origin of the present crisis in American educa- tion bears date not of 1917 nor yet of 1914. The crisis has been in the making since colonial days. If there had been no war we should shortly have had to face practi- cally every one of the problems which now confront us." "Within the last 10 years the number of high-school teachers has more than doubled. From 1909 to 1916 the number of high schools increased from 5,920 to 8,906. Each of these high schools, it should be borne in mind, represents a unit of equipment and upkeep. These figures present a picture of one of the boldest experiments in civilization that has ever been tried." "Our Nation launched this great experiment with- out any serious counting of the cost." "We are confronted to-day by a mathematical fact. Our high schools are crowded. They cost per capita about twice as much as the elementary schools. They have not reached the limits of their growth. They stand as one of our gravest financial problems," "The fact is that in all our great cities education is becoming at the present time an intolerable burden on property. The property tax in most cities, at least in the form in which it is now administered, will not provide for the schools in the future without destroying property values." "There is no need of obscuring the facts; cities can not support schools by the present methods of collecting revenue." "The schools depend for their life on a new plan of collecting and distributing revenue." STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 213 "This paper is a plea for economies in organization. If we are wise, we shall eliminate waste by coordinating educational institutions and by finding the true method of adjusting schools to other public interests." There was but one other speaker, so far as we recall, who spoke of the urgent need of wise expenditure of public school funds. In a statement by Mr. H. E. Miles, of the National Association of Manufacturers, he said: "The remedy. America has always her one cure-all, the one you are emphasizing in this conference — more money. The chart I now present shows what more money, and then more, has done for public education in fifty years. Spend all we have under the present system and we get nowhere." The chart to which Mr. Miles referred is, Trends of average daily attendance and expenditures in public schools in the United States from 1870 to 1918 in per cent of the figures for 1870. From "Trends of School Costs,'' by W. Randolph Burgess, published by the Russel Sage Foundation. It indicates that while the per cent of expenditures for public education increased eleven fold in 48 years, the per cent of average daily attend- ance in the schools increased but two and about one- third fold! Mr. Miles's plea was for caring for the education and training of the boys and girls after they are through or have left the elementary grades, as his statement, "We must understand that education comes after children leave the elementary schools, if it ever comes," shows. From the Report of the General Committee on State- ment of Principles, we quote those bearing upon the status of the teachers: 214 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS "Teachers throughout the educational system are now laboring under economic conditions much less favorable than before the war. The dignity of the teaching profession has in consequence suffered a lam- entable loss in social recognition." "Comparatively few men remain in the teaching profession, and the widening opportunities in business and in industry are constantly tempting an increasing number of women from the schoolroom." "Larger and larger numbers of trained teachers are urgently demanded, but appreciating the inadequate salaries, students carefully avoid the normal schools and teacher training schools and flock to other fields." ^''Remedies. — There must be a reconstruction and respiritualization of many of those in the teaching profession." "The teacher's calling must be elevated in public esteem to the dignity of other professions." "Above all and transcending in importance all other remedies, however, is the imperative demand for competent and well-trained teachers." "The teacher always has been and always will be the keystone of a good school." With these authoritative statements from such representative men upon the educational conditions of the country, the urgent needs of the public schools and the remedies proposed as a background let us consider, THE SOCIAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER It is our purpose to discuss this subject from the standpoint of the school teacher, and of those young people who are considering the important question of the choice of an occupation or profession. STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 215 What of the noble profession of teachmg? School teachers have become saturated with and inured to the customary rhetorical praises of their exalted profession. "Educators of America, no class of people in this great Republic have more important duties, or more serious responsibilities, than those that devolve upon you, unless it be the mothers of the land. Next to the mother the teacher is the one to watch carefully over the young children, to develop properly their minds and morals, to train them in the way that they should go in all things — not alone the head but the heart also. Are you doing that, my teacher friends? Are you really training these boys and girls submitted to your care in the way they should go? Are you making them better men and better women because of your training? I hope so." "Teachers of America, in your schools and colleges, your elementary institutions and those of higher learning let me entreat that you never forget to incul- cate good morals among your pupils; teach them to love home; teach them the beauties of family life; make them understand that they should love their neighbor as themselves and God as their creator and best friend; teach them patriotism, devotion to their coun- try, strict obedience to all its laws; and never permit in your class rooms anything bordering on disloyalty to State or Nation. You have a wonderful opportunity. I hope and believe you will exercise it." [From the peroration in his Opening Remarks by the Presiding Officer, Senator Joseph E. Ransdell, United States Senator from Louisiana, Department, Relation of Education to Material Wealth and National Defense, of the National Citizens Conference on Education.] 216 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS It would be well worth the price of admission including the war tax, to hear the comments of a group of school teachers upon this eloquent peroration of the the senator from Louisiana to the teachers of America, School teachers hear these lofty sentiments at al- most every public gathering of teachers, and when they do one may see them nudge one another and exchange significant glances. They have come to feel that these finely worded encomiums are but empty oratorical flights. But every word expressed by the senator is true. Teachers do have this sublime work of incul- cating a love of the true, the beautiful, and the good in the minds and hearts of their pupils, and in the main they are faithful to their trust. But while doing this exalted work, they are entitled to feel that they have the social recognition of the people of the com- munity where they are employed, especially the teach- ers from out of town. Are they accorded this social recognition.'^ Teachers who are fortunate enough to be employed in their home towns fare better socially than the other teachers as a rule; they retain the social position of their family, but the fact that they are school teachers does not seem to improve their social status. School teachers as a class are not accorded the social recognition that the dignity of their calling deserves, neither by the parents nor by the young people of the community. These fairly well educated young women who have been chosen with discriminating care to assume that most intimate relation to the children "next to mother," are left to shift for themselves in the very important and necessary task of finding refined, congenial, and comfortable homes, or living quarters even. About STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 217 all the courtesy and assistance given them usually, is that of the "Rooms for rent" columns of the news- papers, and possibly a list of rooming houses, and private families that might accommodate school teach- ers, handed them by the superintendent or by his office clerk. These young women are from comfortable homes. They are accustomed to the ordinary conveniences, comforts, and refinements of a home, where they may receive their guests in the family parlor or sitting room. These teachers are put to all manner of makeshifts to obtain even endurable living quarters in communities which pride themselves and even boast of their homes, churches, and fine schools. This question of providing suitable homes for school teachers is a vital question that must be faced and solved, and it will have to be solved in most places by admitting teachers into private homes. School teachers naturally resent the tendency to set them apart, or to herd them, in teachers' boarding houses, or homes for teachers; and wisely so, for the very good reason that school teachers, as well as those in other occupations, Hke to leave the cares and responsi- bilities of the daily routine occupation behind, and to find rest and change in the environment of their home life. Here is a commendable activity for the Parent- Teacher Association, the Mothers' club, and the civics committee of the Women's club, among their many other splendid activities, to add a home-finding com- mittee for their school teachers. After necessary publicity and investigation, the committee might com- pile a list of desirable homes that would take one or two teachers, providing a well furnished room with heat. 218 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS suitable for a bed room and study, and with the privi- lege of using either the reception room, living room, library or parlor to receive guests. In at least one city, a committee of representative women, in response to what the women felt was a civic duty, undertook to render this much needed service in behalf of the many out of town teachers for whom it was necessary to find suitable living quarters. The chairman of this committee was a capable, and tactful woman who devoted all the time and effort necessary. Through the good oflSces of this committee many de- sirable homes were opened to the teachers that would not have been in any other way. This committee drew up its minimum specifications of accommodations that would be acceptable for listing a boarding place for teachers. Through the work of this committee, the new teachers were enabled to secure better living conditions at reasonable rates; they were assigned to congenial homes in respect to church affiliations, and other social or personal preferences. The best part of it all is that the teachers felt that the women of that city were genuinely interested in their comfort and social welfare, and that there was a warm hearted reception committee to meet them at the threshold of their new environment. It is the exception rather than the rule for the school authorities, the people of the community, or any of the social organizations or clubs to extend any sort of social recognition to the teachers who are to occupy so intimate and important a part in the com- munity life. Sometimes we hear of a Parent-Teacher Association holding a reception and inviting the parents to meet STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 219 the teachers, but even with this favorable opportunity, comparatively few of the parents attend these recep- tions. The churches usually show more interest. The pastors and the visiting committees are prompt in seeking out the teachers of their respective denomina- tions, and in welcoming them to their church home. The superintendent of the Sunday school not infre- quently drafts the new teachers to teach a class. The teachers who accept the responsibility, and other teachers who attend that church, and in most places they are expected to attend church, are privileged to attend the church socials, church suppers, and the young people's meetings. But how many of the parents include the teacher of their children when they are entertaining other guests at their home functions for the purpose of introducing her to their friends. Why not? Let it be understood that the teacher out of her home environment, a stranger in a strange city, is not seeking the social recognition ot the so-called "smart set" that every fair sized community includes and endures; it is from the substantial, refined, home- loving families that she craves hospitality and recog- nition. School boards, and the mothers and fathers, set up artificial standards of conduct for school teachers which are not regarded as necessary or desirable for their own sons and daughters. In other words, school teachers are expected to conform to rules of conduct made for and imposed upon them by common consent of the social lawgivers of the community as models and examples for the rising generation, and yet the 220 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS framers of these drastic rules of conduct do not think of enforcing their code upon their own sons and daugh- ters, nor upon young people engaged in other occupa- tions. As a result of this ''setting apart" of school teachers, there has grown up a popular notion that a school teacher is a prim, precise personality, inclined to didac- tic opinions, severe, unsociable, austere. This mistaken popular estimation in which school teachers are re- garded is not discouraged by the other young women and their fond mothers. The boys and girls understand and appreciate this social limitation placed upon school teachers, and they accept it and share in it, and seeing it and sensing it as they do, is it any wonder that they are so frequently overheard to remark: "I never want to be a school teacher." And, "I would never think of marrying a school teacher." School teachers are not inately different from other women. They are just as socially inclined as other women who do not teach school. They naturally feel that they would like to meet and mingle with people of good social standing on their personal merits as women of education, good breeding and culture. And who shall say that they do not deserve and merit this social status ! There have been, and there are exceptions to the rule. Some teachers have been welcomed to the homes of good families; and there are instances where school teachers have made desirable matrimonial alliances. Their good fortune did not come through social recog- nition, but in spite of it. While we appreciate fully that this question of the social status of the school teacher is a delicate subject STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 221 to handle, and that there is much to be said on both sides of the subject, the fact remains that these social handicaps do deter many young women from entering upon the occupation of teaching, and they are among the reasons why, "students avoid the normal schools and flock to other fields." Truly, "the teacher's calling must be elevated in public esteem" before we can hope to have an adequate supply of "competent and well trained teachers" recruited from the higher grade of young men and women. THE PROFESSIONAL STATUS OF THE TEACHER What may be said of the professional status of the public school teacher? School teaching is not generally recognized as a profession in the sense that law, medicine, theology, dentistry, optometry, professional nursing, and chirop- ody are recognized. Teachers themselves do not generally regard their vocation, and with too many of them, their avocation, as a profession. There are those who would like to see their occupation "elevated in public esteem to the dignity of other professions." Dr. Frank E. Spaulding, dean of the School of Education, Yale University, says: "The occupation of teaching — as a whole we are not justified in calling it a profession — is being deserted in the present and shunned for the future." As we have read before, Governor Harding of Iowa, pleads that, "Teaching should be made a profes- sion. Make of teaching a profession, so that men and women can enter it for a life's work and be able to say, — T am a teacher, and proud of the profession.' " 2£2 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Teaching may not lay claim to the dignity and recognition of a profession until it is so recognized by law. In the first place, there will have to be definite prescribed preliminary educational and technical stand- ards of preparation required before one may be ad- mitted to the profession of teaching. These standards should be high and they should be strictly and impar- tially maintained. No one should be permitted to teach, except as a cadet or student under the immediate supervision of a professional teacher, until after receiv- ing the diploma or license of a professional teacher. This license should be valid for life, or until revoked in a legal manner for unprofessional conduct, and it should be valid in any school district in the state in which granted, as are the licenses in all the professions. In all the professions when a candidate has once complied with all the requirements, and has been granted his license to practice his chosen profession, he is never again required to be examined as to his quali- fications for continuing to practice his profession. While with school teachers it is assumed by school authorities generally that a teacher is not qualified to teach school until she takes an examination and successfully passes it, notwithstanding the fact that she furnishes evidence of having taught successfully in an adjoining city or county in the same state; and not only that, she is frequently required to take peri- odical examinations in the city or county where she has taught successfully right along, to determine whether she is qualified to continue to teach ! It does seem ridiculous to expect a school teacher at regular and frequent intervals to answer sets of STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 223 questions upon all the studies of a school curriculum, any number of the subjects she does not teach and never expects to teach, while a lawyer, a physician, or a preacher is not required to answer a "knotty" ques- tion pertaining to their respective professions without first "taking it under advisement." But if a school teacher fails to locate Mount Kenia from memory, and to give its altitude, it counts 10 against her qualifica- tion as a teacher. In all the professions the fact that one continues to practice his profession, is accepted as prima facie evidence that he is legally qualified to practice that profession. Taking the country over, the great majority of school teachers have little or no professional prepara- tion for leaching, but they are licensed to teach school, and so far as the legal restrictions go, they enjoy all the rights and privileges enjoyed by those who have gone to the time and expense of making adequate prep- aration for the profession of teaching. For illustration let us take the educational qualifica- tions of the teachers in Illinois for the school year ending June 30, 1921. There were 38,279 teachers, supervisors, principals, and superintendents employed in the public elementary and high schools of the State. Of this number 5,052 were graduates of college; 1,171 were graduates of both normal school and college; and 9,146 were graduates from normal school; a total of 15,369 or 40 out of 100, who have had the minimum educational training that is regarded requisite for a professional teacher; and but 10,317, or 27 out of every 100, who have had professional training for teaching. This leaves a grand total of 22,910, or 60 out of every 100, teachers who had been licensed, and 224 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS employed to teach in the pubhc schools of Illinois who had had little or no preparation; and of this number only 9,925 were even graduates of a four year high school. Illinois may be taken as fairly representative of the whole country. In any profession, successful experience, and a de- gree of maturity of mind are regarded as essential for the highest proficiency in that profession. In Illinois of the 38,279 teachers employed, 9,822, or 26 out of every 100, were beginners without previous experience; and of these, only 911, or less than one out of ten, were graduates of a normal school or college. Of the total number of teachers, 38,279, 18,353, or 43 out of every 100, had taught two years or less; and 65 out of every 100 had been teaching five years or less; and only 35 out of every 100 who had taught 5 years or over, and who may be classed as mature teachers of experience. Again, of the 38,279 teachers, 14,950 had taught but one year in the same district; 26,596 teachers, or 70 out of every 100, had taught 5 years or less in the same school district, and only 11,683, or 30% had taught in the same district for 5 years or more. When it is remembered that a city large or small constitutes a school district, and that the tenure of the teacher's position in the cities is more stable than in the small towns, villages, and rural districts, it reveals the transient tendency of teachers in those districts. Thus it is shown that Dr. Bagley's statement, "The great bulk of our teachers are immature, transient, and ill-trained," is based upon a knowledge of the facts. One reason why we have only about 40% of an ade- quate supply of well-educated and well-trained teach- STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 225 ers to man our schools, is that the various states recognize and license immature, ill-trained, and ill- educated persons to teach school, and the mature, well-trained and well-educated teacher is thereby placed in competition with the "immature, transient, and ill-trained," and in many instances forced out of the occupation of teaching. These "immature, transient, and ill-trained," yet legally licensed teachers, lower the standard of salaries, and thereby crowd out the "mature, well-trained, and relatively permanent teachers" who surely are so needed in the schools. There is another restriction placed upon the occupa- tion of teaching that has its effect in causing young women "students to avoid the normal schools and teacher-training schools," and that is that a woman teacher may not marry without forfeiting her right to continue her career as a teacher. In most places a woman teacher automatically forfeits her position when she marries, in many places married women are not eligible to a position in the public schools. This unjust and unreasonable discrimmation against mar- ried women comes from the mistaken notion that the position of teacher is in the nature of pubhc patronage, and that the positions in the schools belong of right to the dependent unmarried women of the community; and the further feeling that if a teacher has a husband, he should support her. The qualifications of the teacher, her ability to render efficient service, and the interest of the children, are not taken into the account. In the professions a woman may marry, raise a family, continue in the practice of her profession, discontinue it for a time, and return to it at her con- venience or pleasure without losing her status in her 226 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS profession. There is not a single valid professional reason why the same rights and privileges should not be accorded the woman teacher. There is a hopeful indi- cation that this unjust limitation upon the natural rights of women teachers will be removed. The supreme court of Wisconsin has rendered a decision that a school board in that State can not discriminate against a married woman teacher. This decision is not only just and right, but it is clearly in the interest of public policy. There is nothing gained by trying to cover up the fact that every normal minded woman innately hopes sooner or later to marry the man of her choice and to have a home of her own. It is but natural that a young woman should be reluctant to choose a vocation which she feels may lessen the probability of realizing her cherished hope. It is quite likely that a school teacher may not wish to teach after she marries but she has the right to know that should she ever wish to teach, she may return to her vocation and start right in where she left off without her eligibility being called in question. Many of the positions now occupied by "immature, transient, and ill-trained teachers," might just as well be filled by "mature, well prepared, and relatively permanent teachers" if this arbitrary and unreason- able limitation were removed. During the period of the shortage of teachers result- ing from the demands of the war, married women and ex-teachers were urged to take positions in the schools. Superintendents and patrons were glad to avail them- selves of the services of these experienced teachers, and there was no complaint of their lack of educational qualifications or teaching skill. But, these experienced STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 227 teachers were granted temporary, or emergency certifi- cates, and they were employed as substitutes. These worthy women, many of them having received their education and technical training in the art of teaching in the state normal schools, were not professionally recognized by the school authorities of their own state. Even in those cases where a woman teacher's 'disability' has been removed by death, or by a divorce court, she will find it necessary to go to school and brush up in her studies, and pass an examination for another license before she may qualify as a teacher. This humiliation is not imposed upon married women in any other profession. And, no doubt, this one restriction deters many young women from choosing teaching as a career who might otherwise do so. Verily, "Teaching should be made a profession!" The states should raise the standards for entering the profession to the dignity of a profession. Promising young men and women should be encouraged to enter the vocation of teaching as a career, and every reason- able inducement should be offered to successful teach- ers to remain in it. If more consideration were given to the question of why "The occupation of teaching is being deserted in the present and shunned for the future," it might not be necessary to multiply normal schools in the vain hope of training new teachers in sufficient numbers to take the places of those who leave the ranks every year. So long as school teaching is permitted to be looked upon as a convenient, tem- porary makeshift avocation, just so long will the great bulk of our teachers continue to be "immature, tran- sient, and ill-prepared." There is another reason why "students carefully avoid the normal schools and teacher training schools and 228 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS flock to other fields." And that is the normal schools. The normal school does not appeal to high school students strongly in comparison with other institutions; practically none of the boys, and but few of the girls from four year high schools choose, voluntarily, to go to normal school. The average normal school is located on the outskirts of some "Main Street" country town which offers little or no attraction to the imagination of youth. These vigorous young people naturally feel that when they have the opportunity to go away to school, they prefer to go where there are some advan- tages outside the school. Then again the traditional course of study, and the peculiar type and character of the instruction, do not appeal strongly to ambitious youth. The impression prevails that the major part of the work in a normal school is a critical and "twaddling" review of the subjects they have studied in the elementary and high schools; the filling of volumes of note books and plan books; tedious hours of practice teaching under critic teachers, where the conditions are more like "playing school" than actual school room conditions; and that there is very little progress made in broader scholarship. The result of this feehng is that the normal schools are attended mainly by young women whose homes are in the vicinity of the school, and from the rural districts and the country high schools. This would be a good thing for those communities if the graduates of the normal schools returned to their home sections to teach; but unfortunately, the majority of the grad- uates of these country normal schools go to recruit the places of those teachers who drop out of teaching in the cities and larger towns. STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 229 Thus far we have considered some of the conditions that tend to hinder young people from choosing the vocation of teaching as a career. What about the professional status of those who are regularly engaged in teaching? Most city school systems are organized in imitation of large industrial enterprises. The Board of Educa- tion corresponds to the board of directors of the cor- poration; the superintendent, to the general manager; the principal, to a foreman; and the teachers, to the operators of the machines, or the ordinary workmen in the various plants ! If public school teachers are consigned by those who are responsible for the organization of our public school systems, to running lathes turning out finished materials, for a definite number of hours a week at a uniform wage scale, why in the name of common sense should not these skilled pattern workers join a union of other pattern workers in the same industry .f^ It has become quite common to think and to speak of school teachers in about the same terms that are used by executives, superintendents, and foremen of industrial enterprises in discussing labor, help, and employees. Unfortunately, the fathers and mothers, and the public generally have come to share in this organization and systemization estimate of the teach- ers' humble position in the scheme of education. One of the most serious objections that teachers have to their calling is the lack of professional recogni- tion by the school authorities. They must perform the one service the schools were organized and are sup- ported to render, — teach the children everything they are taught in school, bear the responsibility for their conduct, their health and moral training, and yet, 230 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS they are accorded no voice in making the course of study which thej^ must follow, in the choice of the schoolbooks they must use, in the formulation of the rules and regulations they are required to obey, in determining the working conditions, and in planning the organization of the school system of which they are so large and vital a part. In many of these bureaucratic school systems a school teacher has about as much voice and initiative in framing the educational policies, and the rules and regulations of the school system as a "buck" private soldier has in the organization and movements of his brigade. If she has ideas of her own in regard to teaching, the course of study, or the management of the schools, and has the temerity to give voice to them, she is likely to receive a rebuke, and if repeated, a reprimand with the admonition that she is hired to teach school and to attend strictly to her own busi- ness; and that whenever her suggestions and advice are desired, she will be asked to give them. Instances are known where some of the most competent and satisfactory teachers to pupils and patrons, have "failed of re-election" for no other reason than that they had too many ideas of their own; and these ideas proved "troublesome" to the autocratic management. One school board in a well known school district has followed the policy for years of employing no teacher living in the school district, or who might have friends or relatives living in the district. The board of education has spent a great deal of money, public school funds, for traveling expenses of its superintend- ent when skirmishing over a wide area to find teachers to fill the vacancies in its corps of teachers, and to keep from filling any of these vacancies with teachers STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 231 who had been educated in their own schools, and had gone to college or normal school and prepared them- selves for teaching. This particular school district prides itself upon its superior schools and the high character of its families, and yet, it refuses to avail itself of the services of the sons and daughters of its families and the product of its own schools. Why.f^ All the excuse or pretext given, so far as learned, is that the school board and its superintendent wished to be relieved of the embarrassment of any local influence that might be brought to bear in the interest of a local teacher or of a candidate for a position of teacher. The school officials admit that it is for their own comfort and peace of mind, and not for the interest of the children or of the community that this unjust and expensive discrimination has been practiced. There is a latent suspicion that the real reason is that the teachers may have no influential friends or relatives to protect them from arbitrary and whimsical treatment, and that a teacher may be "fired" by the superin- tendent and his teachers' committee and nothing further heard of it. This arbitrary power has a sub- duing disciplinary effect upon the teachers. In a high school district a number of the popular and efficient teachers were no tfied just before the end of the school year, that they would not be re-elected for the following school year This arbitrary action seemed so flagrantly unjust that the pupils and their parents took the part of the wronged teachers, and demanded an explanation. The principal of the school and the members of the high school board assumed the attitude that their arbitrary action was no concern of the patrons. That these teachers being employees of the high school 232 LOOKING TO OUK FOUNDATIONS board, and their time of employment having expired, the board was at hberty to hire other teachers to take their places, and that neither the patrons nor the dis- missed teachers were entitled to any explanation. These most competent and successful teachers were forced to leave the positions, in which they had served the community so long and so satisfactorily, under a professional cloud from which a frank statement of the facts would have cleared them. There was much feeling wrought up over the affair. Public meetings were held and largely attended by influential and liberal minded citizens, and a number of fair and reasonable proposals were made to try to induce the members of the board to give their reason for their summary action, all to no purpose. The belief prevails among those in a position to sense the situation that there were no valid reasons for the board's action; not even a plausible pretext. These are not extreme nor rare examples of arbi- trary exercise of autocratic authority. They serve to illustrate the professional status of the school teacher in two representative systems of schools. Is it any wonder that "The occupation of teaching — as a whole, we are not justified in calling it a pro- fession — is being deserted in the present and shunned for the future!" The notion of the factory or army organization of public school systems will have to be abandoned, and the teacher raised to her rightful place in a mutual co- operative organization. This question of the social and professional recog- nition of school teachers is not a matter of sentiment. It goes to the very foundations of our public schools. It has a far-reaching effect in determining whether or STATUS OF THE SCHOOL TEACHER 233 not we are to have an adequate supply of competent, well-trained teachers of high ideals of their calling to fill the positions in the public schools. It is, therefore, a most important economic question. "Teaching at its best is a fine art, which is to say that it is the personal and human elements that are fundamental." Professional recognition of the teacher's rightful place in the school organization, will do much to bring out those "personal and human elements that are fundamental." Personal pride in ones calling, and the feeling that one's services are recognized and appreciated, are the most potent incentives to eflficient effort. It had been our intention to discuss the economic status of the school teacher, but this subject has been so fully covered under the heading of "Teachers' Salaries" that it hardly seems necessary to go into it again. It has been our purpose to emphasize the fact that while inadequate salaries paid school teachers was one reason, it was not the only reason why the occupation of teaching is "being deserted in the present and shunned for the future." CHAPTER VIII The School Book Question a preliminary historical sketch The school book question has been and is the most mischievous unsettled educational question before the people today. A way back in 1837, Horace Mann, in a lecture said: "A great mischief — I use the word mischief, because it implies a certain degree of wickedness — a great mischief is suffered in the diversity and multiplicity of our school books. . . .All manner of devices are daily used to displace the old books, and to foist the new ones. * * * Publishers often employ agents to hawk their books about the country, and I have known several instances where such a peddlar — or picaroon — has taken all the old books of a whole class in school, in exchange for his new ones, book for book, — looking, of course, to his chance of making sales after the book has been established in the school for reimbursement and profits, so that at last the children have to pay for what they supposed was given them." Mr. D. C. Heath in his carefully prepared "Address Delivered before the School Book Publishers' Associ- ation, 1899" says: "For three years following our Civil War the demand for school books created active rivalry in the trade, and new houses grew up rapidly. * * * The inevitable result of the rapid augmentation of new houses and new publications was that all the older and 234 THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 235 larger publishing houses increased their field agency force, until in 1868 there were at least 300 traveling agents, with a competent house force, and these agents, both traveling and resident, were in continual conflict at every point where an introduction of new books was even contemplated." "The system of 'even exchange' was launched, and gifts of money and donations of all kinds promised in order to secure a favorable consideration of the books offered by each of a dozen or more houses through their respective agents. This made 'book-fights' and 'book- fights' made victory costly to the successful publisher, and even more costly to the unsuccessful one." In 1871 the School Book Publishers' Board of Trade, with a constitution and By-Laws was formed. "The Board was organized," says the American Publisher's Circular of 1873, "to deal with the system of introductions." "Contrary to general expectations, at the time of the organization of the School Book Publishers' Board of Trade, the first year's result proved the scheme a complete failure." "General suspicion of dishonesty of purpose and of practice prevailed among the members. * * * Members wanted agents to watch their interests in the field. Territory was being stolen from them, they said, and they must have adequate means of defense. As the work developed, suspicions and jealousy grew apace." The Publishers Weekly, in one of its numbers of 1877, says: "When the Board of Trade was organized, the agents and their consequences must have been costing the publishers and the public between two and three millions a year — and this was not the worst of it. By forcing unnecessary 'introductions,' they compelled 236 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS changes so frequent as to seriously interfere with the education of the children; all sorts of means were used to corrupt the teachers and school officers into permitting these introductions; politicians utterly ignorant of the school needs went into school boards 'on the make'; and publishers, feverish to introduce their books at any cost, were swindled by sharp directors, (school board members) and virtually by the agents themselves." Between 1877 and 1884 there were other organi- zations of the school book publishers — The Syndicate, the Four House Agreement and The School Book Publishers Association all having for their object the control and regulation of the introductory part of the school book business — "The School-book Publishers' Association of 1884, lasted until 1890. The abuses it was intended to correct became as active as before, and "finally," as Mr. Whitney says, "all of the inventive genius of the publishers failed to find a way out of their troubles. The field became more demoralized than ever." "General Barnes said that the firm of A. S. Barnes and Company spent $50,000 in the Nebraska fight, and had less holding there at the end than at the beginning of the contest. These experiences doubtless led to the union of school-book houses known as the American Book Co." The modern development of the school book pub- lishing business may be considered as dating from the organization of the American Book Company in 1890. It was the evident intentions of the master minds of the competing school book publishing houses who merged their respective companies to form this great corporation, thus to put an end to the destructive THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 237 competition that had become so conscienceless and predatory, and, what meant much more to these gentle- men, so expensive. Unfortunately, however, the American Book Com- pany was made up mainly of the men from these principal competing school book companies who brought into the new organization all the traditions of the destructive competitive methods of those old warring interests. From the beginning, however, it seemed evident that the American Book Company, intended to dominate and control the school book business of the country. In addition to the publishing houses formally announced as entering into the consolidation, there remained outside for some time, some other school book houses operating as "independent" houses which were suspected and openly accused of being sub- sidiary companies of the American Book Company, — Butler Sheldon and Company, and later the Werner School Book Company among others. It soon became apparent that the American Book Company proposed to keep up the same tactics that had been followed by the individual houses before the consolidation against the independent outside com- peting school book houses. The agents of the American Book Company served notice upon the agents of out- side houses that the American Book Company was entitled to 85% of the business, and unless this pro- portion of the business in any school book adoption was given to the American Book Company, it would fight for it. It continued the practice of making it so expensive to any competing company that undertook to displace its books, that that company would not be likely to attempt to do it again. 238 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS For the first few years the agents of the American Book Company boasted of a "clean" list in many of the states, counties, and cities of the country, meaning by this that all the books in use were of their own publication. The outside companies had to scramble among themselves and with the so called "independent" companies for the "crumbs from the rich man's table." About 1895 the Werner Company of Akron, Ohio, threw down the gauntlet to this strident giant! This little company started a war on the "trust" as it called it, and upon all school men who were suspected of being friends of the American Book Company. It was a "merry war" while it lasted. The agents of the Werner Company, for the most part experienced agents of one or another of the old houses, who had been left out when the American Book Company was formed, went from city to city and from town to town and "even exchanged" its books for the American Book Company's books on as many subjects as it had to offer. This company tried to induce other houses to join with it in its warfare so they together might have a complete list of books to offer. In the autumn of 1895 this "Werner— A. B. C." even exchange warfare ended as suddenly as it began. Announcement was made that the American Book Company and the Werner Company had reached an agreement to cease their warfare on each other's hold- ings. The Werner Company's school book department was organized into a separate corporation under the title of the Werner School Book Company and was operated as an "independent" school book company until formally taken over by the American Book Company. THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 239 During this time the outside competing school book houses were trying to find themselves. The agents of the American Book Company were aggressive and alert both in offensive and defensive warfare. Three Typical State Adoptions the missouri state school book adoption — 1897 This was the situation up to about the time of the approaching notorious state adoption of a uniform list of school books for use by all the school children of Missouri, except in the cities of St. Louis, Kansas City, and St. Joseph, for five years, in the spring of 1897. There had been a state adoption in 1892 in Missouri. In anticipation of this adoption there was an organ- ized plan evolved to make a contest against the Amer- ican Book Company and its so-called "satellites" for the five-year monopoly of furnishing school books to the State of Missouri. The following four school book publishing houses joined their forces for this contest: D. C. Heath & Company, Ginn & Company, Silver, Burdett and Company, and Allyn and Bacon. These four houses and their agents, attorneys and other helpers were de- signated as the "Boston Bunch" by their competitors. Through the good offices of a prominent attorney, the Hon. William J. Stone, ex-governor, and later United States Senator, was approached and engaged to use his influence to secure the adoption of the list of books popularly designated a slate, prepared and agreed upon among the principals of the four houses mentioned. Some idea of the strategic importance of this adop- tion is afforded by the fact that each of the houses was 1240 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS represented by one or more of its principal owners or managers who remained on the ground throughout the long dreary weeks the campaign dragged along. Mr. Edgar O. Silver, president of Silver Burdett & Company; Mr. W. S. Smythe, Western Manager of D. C. Heath and Company; Mr. T. W. Gilson of Ginn & Company; and Dr. Geo. W. Bacon of Allyn and Bacon. Opposed to these were the American Book Com- pany, the Werner School Book Company and Butler, Sheldon and Company, generally designated by their competitors as the "Trust." Mr. L. M. Dillman, then assistant manager of the Chicago field of the American Book Company was in charge of this campaign. Mr. W. J. Button repre- sented the Werner School Book Company and Mr. J. N. Hunt did valiant service for Butler Sheldon and Company. The members of the State Text Book Commission were, Mr. John R. Kirk, State Superintendent of Schools; Mr. James M. Seibert, State Auditor; Mr. Edward C. Crow, Attorney General; Mr. W. D. Dob- son, President of the State Normal School at Kirks- ville; and Mr. T. E. Spencer, Superintendent of Schools at Marshall. There were quite a number of other school book houses with their numerous agents on the ground to push their claims for their respective books. In addition to the principals and their accredited agents, there were a numerous company of more or less prominent educators of the state who took a more lively interest in the campaign than mere educational zeal would have demanded of them ! THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 241 Jefferson City was the place where the stage was set for the playing of this farce of a school book adop- tion, or as a wit termed it, a school book "auction." The call had been made for bids in compliance with the conditions prescribed by the Missouri school book law, and the contending hosts were assembled. There probably never was a more tedious or tire- some school book adoption than the Missouri adoption of 1897! Jefferson City was as dull and uninteresting a town as one can imagine; the hotels were as common-place as the town, there was nothing in the way of recreation, and no places of interest to visit except the peniten- tiary and the State Capitol. The school book men had little to do beyond keeping an eye on the maneuvers of one another. Three of the five members of the Text Book Commission were in Jefferson City, there was little or no incentive to see Mr. Dobson, and it was but a day's trip to see Mr. Spencer who was the only member of the commission who manifested interest in considering the comparative merits of books offered for adoption. Some of these agents early discovered that Mr. Sei- bert might be found at a pretty regular hour at a certain quaint old barrel house where the hospitable German proprietor mixed a concoction which soon became known as a "Seibert" punch. That school book man regarded the day well spent when he en- joyed the privilege of buying a round of "Seibert" punches, with Mr. Seibert as the honored guest. Two baseball nines were chosen from among the school book men and some lively games were played with no time limit for the games; and there was an occasional raffle of a gun, a camera, or other article by way of diversion. 242 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The school book houses not m on either poHtieal "deal" kept their men working like Trojans. They were talking their books industriously and bringing all the influences to bear on any situation that offered a possible opening for the favorable consideration of their respective books. It was confidently believed by the "Boston Bunch" that the triumvirate, Stone, Seibert, and Crow would dominate the adoption and that their slate would win. It was equally well understood that the American Book Co. and its allies would put up a stiff fight, and that they had two votes to start with, — and needed but one more but that they regarded that one as doubtful. The first intimation that there was a "fly in the oint- ment" was brought home to the "Boston Bunch" when the Text Book Commission announced that "all bids had been rejected, and new bids were called for!" This move was regarded by the wise men of the "Boston Bunch" as ominous of impending danger — for up to this time they had felt that they had the advan- tage of lower prices. The movement was thought to be for the purpose of giving the American Book Com- pany and its so called "satellites" an opportunity to revise their prices. While it gave to tliem the same opportunity, they did not like this turn in affairs. One of the most prominent gentlemen of the "Bos- ton Bunch" was said to have fainted following the announcement . From this time on the contest grew more and more tense. Both sides had their intelligence departments. Every move of the opposition was noted and promptly reported. THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 243 All the publishers submitted new bids at revised prices after which the contest developed rapidly. The nervous tension was exhausting. The weather was hot by day and sultry at night. Some of the men became quite ill as the weeks dragged along. The day set for the adoption was drawing near, and the "Bos- ton Bunch" was feeling confident of the outcome as all reports for more than a week had been most favorable. All at once, there came a clap from a clear sky. It was reported that Mr. Seibert had sent word to the principals of the "Boston Bunch" that it would be necessary for political reasons to take care of "Bill" Phelps, known as the powerful lobbyist for the Mis- souri Pacific Railroad and a leader in the Democratic party in Missouri; and that it would take a sub- stantial consideration to secure him and his influence. They were told plainly, so it was reported, that unless this additional amount was raised or guaranteed their proposed slate could not be "put over." A council was called late at night in the sleeping room of two of the principals in the old McCarty House. It happened to be the hottest night of all the hot nights in Jefferson City! It was claimed that at least three of these dignified gentlemen were practically devoid of clothing. While the meeting was a memorable one it was most informal. These gentlemen sat on the floor in the dark and carried on their solemn deliberations in whispers. After having entered into a solemn and definite agreement with Hon. William J. Stone for a specified amount of money, and according to reports, the sum was expected to run into five figures, that he would carry through the slate of the reform {?) publishers, and after this agreement had been made they were 244 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS called upon to reduce the prices of their books, it was now demanded, not by Mr. Stone but by a member of the Text Book Commission, that they raise and turn over an additional sum to "take care of Bill Phelps." The amount demanded was reported to have been substantially the same as Mr. Stone was to receive! Be that as it may, the result of the deliberations of the gentlemen of the so-called "Boston Bunch" was that they declined to pay any more than the amounts agreed upon, and if it was necessary to take care of Mr. Phelps, it was up to Mr. Stone and his lieutenants to do it. They were willing to carry out in good faith their part of the agreement but that was as far as they would go. This decision was conveyed by the messenger who had brought the ultimatum. Of course, these impor- tant doings were reported to Mr. Stone and an appeal was made to him to come to Jefferson City at once and to carry out his part of the agreement. Here the scene shifted from Jefferson City to St. Louis. Word had been passed around to the efiFect that the officials of the American Book Company had declined to furnish any more money for the Missouri campaign. This report served to raise the hopes of the "Boston Bunch." It was good news if true. But just a day or two before the day of the adoption, the report came from St. Louis that there had been a meeting of officials of the American Book Company at St. Louis; and that Mr. Dillman had boarded the nine o'clock train for Jefferson City. This news was startling. It was surmised that fol- lowing their refusal to furnish money, that a similar proposition had been conveyed to Mr. Dillman and that he had called a meeting of the officials, and that THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 245 he had laid the case before them and urged that they "see the game through." The fact that Mr. Dilhnan was on his way to Jefferson City, seemed to indicate that probably he had not pleaded in vain. A trusted watcher was sent to the depot to "cover" Mr. Dill- man's movements. Sure enough, Mr. Dilhnan was on the train, but he did not get off at Jefferson City. He remained on the train when it pulled out for Kansas City ! At that time, the night train from Kansas City for St. Louis reached Jefferson City about three o'clock in the morning. The train from St. Louis for Kansas City, on which Mr. Dilhnan was, left Jefferson City about midnight. Watchers were stationed to keep an eye on the train for St. Louis, — possibly Mr. Dilhnan would return on that train. In response to the appeal of his clients, Mr. Stone was in Jefferson City looking after his fences. Evi- dently he had found everything to his liking for when it was about time for the train for St. Louis to pull in, he was seen walking toward the station accompanied by Attorney General Crow! He evidently was expect- ing to take the train for St. Louis. When the train pulled in, who should get off but Mr. Wm. H. Phelps of Carthage! He was met and greeted by Attorney General Crow. Mr. Dillman was reported to have been on the train but he did not get off, but continued his journey toward St. Louis. Mr. Stone who had left Mr. Crow and started for- ward to board the train, saw Mr. Phelps alight, and walk off with Attorney General Crow. Mr. Stone, thereupon, decided that he would not go to St. Louis on that train. He sensed important business in Jefferson City, that morning. 246 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The watchers followed Mr. Phelps and Attorney General Crow. They were reported to have gone dh'ectly to the home of State Auditor Seibert. Mr. Seibert met them on the front porch, where they entered into earnest conversation. This fact was reported to Mr. Stone. He, scenting trouble, went to the house and joined the group. It was reported, that he called Attorney General Crow to task for accompanying him to the train to see him off, and there meeting and greeting "Bill" Phelps and walking away with him. To which Attor- ney General Crow was reported to have replied that he would just as soon be seen walking with Bill Phelps as with Bill Stone! The outcome of this early morning conference on the porch of State Auditor Seibert was the announce- ment by a messenger from Hon. William J. Stone that the fight was lost. Phelps had defeated Stone! There immediately began a scramble among the different houses for the salvage from the wreck. The American Book Company having two votes from the beginning — with Auditor Seibert and Attor- ney General Crow — the "Trust," so called, had four votes, and its slate was adopted. There is no way of knowing the actual amount of money paid for this adoption, or how it was divided. The only basis the losers had for estimating approxi- mately was from the amount demanded of them for which they were assured their list of school books would be adopted. Of this there can be no doubt, the amount was sub- stantial enough to cause a political scandal in the state. THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 247 It was over this adoption of a uniform series of school books for the pubHc schools of Missouri that the political and personal quarrel started between Mr. Stone and Mr. Phelps; and was the occasion of "Bill" Phelps's oft quoted recrimination, "Yes, Bill Stone and me both suck eggs, but Stone is mighty careful to hide his shells." This scandalous school book "auction" was so thoroughly aired at the time that the State Uniformity School Book Law was repealed before the adoptions under it expired. One outstanding fact revealed by the skeleton sketch of the Missouri school book "Auction" of 1897 is that the educational interests of the children, the financial interests of the parents or the comparative merits of school books, received scant, if any, consider- ation. This Missouri State adoption of 1897 was a pivotal adoption. The question whether or not the destructive competitive abuses which had grown up with the school book business, and which the organization of the American Book Company was hoped would cor- rect, would be abandoned, or continued. The Missouri State adoption determined that all the known policies and practices were to be continued, and new ones invented in the prosecution of the school book business. It has been claimed that one of the prominent school book publishing houses as a result of that adop- tion in Missouri completely changed its promotive policy; that it determined henceforth to enter no alliances with any other school book publisher; that it would "play a lone hand"; and that it proposed to "fight the devil with fire." 248 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS This publishing house is said to have grown and prospered enormously from that day to this. While clinging outwardly to its early traditions, it bears the reputation of systematically and covertly using every known device for winning school book adoptions. It is believed that all the known abuses of the school book business might with propriety be named in a "thesis" and "nailed on the door" of this school book publishing house. The Indiana, and the Tennessee State Adoptions of 1899 The school book adoptions in these two states have a peculiar interest in the development of policies of the schoolbook publishers for the reason that they may be regarded as an aftermath of the Missouri book fight of two years before. As mentioned before, there was at least one of the schoolbook publishers that had been so keenly disap- pointed with the fiasco in Missouri that it was resolved never to permit itself to be beaten by the same tactics again. In the meantime, some of the other independent publishers had assumed a more militant attitude. As the time drew near for the Indiana state schoolbook adoption, these more aggressive publishers prepared for the contest in that state. It may be of interest to explain how an otherwise progressively educational state came to be handicapped with a state compulsory uniformity schoolbook law ! It is claimed that the American Book Company had held sway over the schoolbook business of Indiana mainly through the energetic efforts, and personal popularity of one of its agents in that state. For some THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 249 reason there was a break between this popular and influential agent and his employers, and he was dis- charged, or quit. In a spirit of retaliation, so it is reported, this agent turned his energies and personal influence toward securing the passage of a most drastic state compulsory uniformity schoolbook bill with very low fixed prices for all elementary school books. He is said to have furnished the ammunition for the fiery speeches in the legislature emphasizing the outrageous prices paid to the schoolbook "Trust" by the poor people of Indiana, etc. The State Compulsory Uniformity School Book Bill was passed and became a law, and with some changes and modifications has remained the schoolbook law of Indiana. The prices fixed by this retaliatory measure were so low that practically all of the schoolbook publishers declined to offer their books for consideration. It was under this contingency that the Indiana School Book Company came into existence. It was made up mainly of men of local influence, and its financial backing was somewhat conjectural. Be that as it may, it man- aged to collect a miscellaneous list of school books, and to secure the contract for most of them for use in the public schools of Indiana for five years. It was just before the contracts on some of these books expired that the call for bids for furnishing arithmetics, geog- raphies, and writing books, was sent out early in 1899. The contest was understood to be between the "field" which meant all the outside schoolbook bid- ders, and the Indiana School Book Company. The members of the State School Book Commission at that time were: 250 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Governor, J. A. Mount; State Superintendent of Public Instruction, D. M. Geeting, but before the day of the adoption of schoolbooks, Frank L. Jones who had been elected to succeed Mr. Geeting; W. E. Stone, Vice President of Perdue University; Joseph Swain, President of Indiana State University; W. W. Parsons, President State Normal school; W. H. Hester, Super- intendent of schools, Evansville; J. N. Study, Superin- tendent of Schools, Fort Wayne; and David K. Goss, Superintendent of schools, Indianapolis, These gentlemen were all ex-qfficio members of the School-Book Commission, and of the State Board of Education as well, and were not appointees of the governor. It would be difficult to suggest a fairer method of selecting the members of a state school book commission that would insure the choice of capable men whose single interest would be the educational interests of the children of the state. In reviewing some of the incidents of that particular state schoolbook adoption, it is far from the intention of the writer to question the motives or the conduct of any member of the school book commission; there is no question but they did the best they could do under the conditions. The schoolbook campaign had not progressed far before the school book men became convinced that the choice of books would not be based upon the compara- tive merits of the books offered in competition alone. An experienced book agent could sense the situation better than he could describe it. Two of these schoolbook agents were canvassing the situation one evening in a room at their hotel. They represented the same publishers, and they had made the rounds of all the members of the commission, THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 251 and had made what was supposed to be their final presentation of the merits of their books to each member. They were both inclined to the opinion that they had been accorded sympathetic hearings, that they had made convincing talks for their books, and that they noted some favorable comments and inti- mations on the part of each member of the commission. In short, they felt that their chances were to say the least, not unfavorable. Late that night, so the story goes, one of these gentlemen rather startled his companion with the cold statement that he was fully convinced that they were not within a mile of the real situation in that school- book adoption. He said that he did not believe that as valuable a contract as this one was would be per- mitted to be awarded without more of a contest than had come to the surface; that he was convinced that there were influences outside the commission that would dictate that adoption, and that the merits of the books would be a secondary consideration in the final adoption of books. The gentleman stated further that there was one man that he believed could tell him where to find the key to the situation and that he proposed to undertake to get that information if possible, before he took another step in the campaign. He left the next morning on an early train, and did not return till late that night. But when he found his friend and associate, he reported to him that he had found the key that would unlock the situation; that on the following evening at 8 o'clock an unnamed gentleman would rap three times on their door; that he must admit him before speaking to him; that he had the assurance from a source that he could not 252 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS reveal that this gentleman could put them on the right track; and that if they would only follow his directions he would secure the adoption of their books for them. The prominent and influential gentleman called at the appointed time and was admitted in the manner agreed upon. It did not take but a few minutes for this visitor to convince these schoolbook men that he held the key to the schoolbook adoption in Indiana at that time. The visitor's proposition went far beyond the limit of authority usually granted to an agent of a corporation, and for this reason the proposition had to be referred to the executive head of the company. After some necessary negotiations and conferences the deal was consumated, and as this publishing house did not have a series of books on another subject called for in the advertisement for bids, another prominent publisher was taken in on the deal, "just to help along." The understanding at the time was that there was a stipulated amoimt to be paid over to meet immediate and contingent expenses, and a commission of 10% on the net sales of the books in the State of Indiana for the full period of the adoption. After this arrangement was entered into, these schoolbook men had a comparatively comfortable time of it. They, of course, had to do some clever acting, and to keep up a show of anxious activity, but their appetites were good and they rested well at night. They were as certain that their books would be adopted as one can be sure of "a sure thing" in business or poli- tics. On the night before the adoption, these schoolbook men were called upon by appointment at their room THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 253 at the hotel by the influential gentleman, and one of his powerful associates, a politician and banker. They stated that they were rather uneasy over the way matters had developed; that there was a prominent man in Indianapolis who controlled one vote on the textbook board, or was in a position to control it and that vote was the only one of their fellows that they were not quite confident of "lining up." They stated further that for fifteen hundred dollars, they could take this man in on the deal, and by doing so settle the matter beyond the shadow of a doubt; that while they did not demand that it be done, they did feel that there was an element of risk in not doing it; and that they thought that it was worth fifteen hundred dollars to feel assured that the deal would go through the next day without a hitch. It was agreed that the Indianapo- lis gentleman should be taken care of. The callers thanked their host, and assured him that he and his companion could go to bed and sleep as late as they cared to for their books would surely be adopted in the morning, — and they were adopted. Another interesting move on the part of these influential advisers, served to confirm the faith of these schoolbook men that these gentlemen had the situation well in hand. Mr. Geeting was a member of the State School Book Commission at the time the bids were opened, but his term of office as State Superintendent of Public Instruction was nearing its close. Mr. Frank L. Jones had been elected to that position, and by vir- tue of his office he would succeed Mr. Geeting on the School Book Commission. There had been some little doubt expressed as to how Mr. Geeting might vote on the adoption of schoolbooks and whether these gentle- men could hold him in line. While they felt that he 254 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS would vote with them, yet they were forced to admit that he had never committed himself. They did feel confident that Mr. Jones would vote right if he should have the opportunity to do so. For this reason, it was agreed that the safest thing to do, was to postpone the adoption of schoolbooks until after Mr. Jones was installed in office, and was seated as a member of the Textbook board. Accordingly, after the bids had been opened and read, a motion was made, seconded and carried, that the adoption of schoolbooks be postponed. It was explained in support of the motion that it would take considerable time to examine all the books that had been submitted for consideration with sufficient care to enable the members of the commission to vote in- telligently (?) on the merits of the books. The date for the adoption was postponed from some time in the winter until the 12th of April, on which date the adop- tions were made according to schedule. The books adopted were the Cook — Cropsey series of Arithme- tics, and the Frye Geographies; the New Era Copy- books were adopted on the same day, but that adoption was understood at the time to be a separate transaction and backed by another influential politician. It is significant that the Arithmetics and the Geog- raphies in this adoption went to two of the pubhshing companies that had gone down to defeat with the "Boston Bunch" in Missouri two years before; and that the name of their formidable competitor did not receive honorable mention even in a state where formerly it had held practically undisputed sway. As a little sidelight upon the amount of pressure that may be exerted from outside influences in a State Compulsory Uniformity schoolbook adoption, this one incident is given: THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 255 A prominent gentleman, who while not officially connected with the Text Book Commission at the time of that adoption, was familiar with what was going on, in speaking of that adoption years afterward, made the statement that while that schoolbook adoption may not have been the direct cause, he felt confident that it was the beginning of the physical breakdown of one of the members of that Commission. He related the fact that he had called at the home of this member of the Commission at his home on the evening of the day of the schoolbook adoption. He found that gentle- man walking the floor, wringing his hands, and uttering distressed exclamations. Through his kindly ministra- tions he finally succeeded in quieting his mentally dis- turbed host, and in reply to the visitor's solicitous inquiry as to his disturbed state of mind, he is said to have replied, "Mr. , how can I ever explain or justify my vote of today!" This is but an intimate glimpse behind the scenes of a normal State Compulsory Uniformity Schoolbook adoption under the most favorable conditions. There could not be found a higher average type of men in official life anywhere than the men on the State Board of School Book Commissioners of Indiana in 1899. The root of the evil is inherent in the State Compul- sory Uniformity Law. There never was, nor never can be, such a thing as a fair and just State Compulsory Uniformity School Book adoption. It makes not a particle of difference how the schoolbooks are selected and adopted, the adoption of the schoolbooks, and the enforcement of their use, is unfair to the children in the schools, and to the parents of the children. The successful bidders for the five year contracts and their 256 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS local influential "Kiboshes" are the only beneficiaries of a State Compulsory Uniformity Adoption of school- books. The people of the State of Indiana ought to repeal their infamous State Compulsory Uniformity School Book Law; and while they are about it, they should abolish the State Board of Education in so far as its authority over the rural, elementary, and high schools is concerned. The public elementary and high schools should be placed under the general management and direction, so far as the state is concerned, of the State Department of Education; of which the State Superintendent of Public Instruction is the duly elected representative of the people, and the official head. The State Board of Education, if there is one, should be restricted in its authority and its activity, to looking after the various state educational institutions, the Universities, Normal Schools, Schools for the Blind, the Deaf, etc. Keep the control, direction, and management of the public schools in the hands of the people and their duly elected representatives where they of right belong. The Tennessee Adoption, 1899 As mentioned before, the future policy of one of the self styled independent school book publishers was settled upon as one of the results of that notorious Missouri State School book "Auction" of 1897. This 'determination to "Fight the devil with fire," settled the future policy of the school book business, especially in State and County uniformity adoptions. This meant that the American Book Company would continue to follow the same mercenary exploita- tion practices that had been used by the several school THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 257 book publishers which had combined to form the American Book Company. It was the avowed purpose of the principals of the old publishing houses most active in the formation of the American Book Company, to correct the abuses that had so demoralized the school book business and that had put it on about the same ethical plane, in the public mind, as the lightning rod business. But it made the tactical blunder of claiming that the bulk of school book business of the country belonged to it by right of possession. The combined "holdings" of the several school book pubhshers forming the American Book Company, together with the "holdings" of those companies whose business was purchased outright, and its subsidiaries, gave it a practical monopoly. It made it known to all competitors that it was its purpose to retain and maintain by militant methods its bulk of the school book business. This manifest determination to brook no interfer- ence with its purpose and plans in the way of competi- tion from the "little fellows" outside of the combine, led up to the decision of the principals of the four school book publishers called in derision the "Boston Bunch" to throw down the gauntlet before this haughty giant. The Missouri State adoption fight of 1897 was the out- come of this challenge. It was evident to those familiar with the inner workings that that first battle between the so-called "Trust" with its subsidiaries, and the independent houses was lost because a majority of the principals did not have the nerve to "back up" their winning hand. 258 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS One of these houses determmed upon an aggressive poh'cy. In the Tennessee campaign of 1898-9, this school book pubHsher avenged his "drubbing" in the Missouri adoption by signally defeating his powerful adversary. The generally credited report of that school book adoption is about as follows: — There were two brainy and aggressive school book men active in the promotive work of this particular outside school book publishing house in those days. One of them had taken an active part in the Missouri State compulsory school book "Auction" of 1897. He and his associates gained some expensive but valuable experience in that Missouri Campaign. They learned how an exclusive compulsory school book adop- tion may be lost, and profited by that lesson. They found out how that State exclusive Uniformity School book adoption was won. Incidentally, in the Tennessee campaign, they made practical application of what he had learned. While he went down to defeat with his fellows of the "Boston Bunch" in Missouri in the bidding for the grade list, he "went it alone" in that State, in the "Auction" for high school books. That he had gotten hold of the right "system" was demon- strated by the fact that he secured the adoption of a goodly number of the high school books in Missouri for his school book publishing Company. But the adoption of high school books was not all he got out of it. He is reported to have made some acquaintances and to have established some political connections that proved helpful to him and his com- pany as time went on. In casting about for fresh fields where they might practice their newly acquired art, this school book man THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 259 and his talented associate found out that the poor old State of Tennessee was sorely in need of a state-wide exclusive compulsory school book law. He and his associates decided that Tennessee must be rescued from her wretched plight; and it was agreed that his talented and ambitious associate should go down into darkest Tennessee as a benificent missionary to procure the passage of a state-wide exclusive Compulsory School Book Law providing for the machinery for the systematic pillaging of all the patrons of the public schools of Tennessee. This "Mission" was a complete success, and most satisfactory to this resourceful gentle- man and his self complacent associates. The State Uniformity School Book Law was enacted and heralded all over the State as an administration measure. It is a significant and interesting fact that this Text Book Law provided for both a Text Book Commission and a Text Book Sub-Commission. The Governor was ex-officio chairman of the Text Book Commission, the State Superintendent, Secretary, but all other members of both Commissions were appointed by the Governor ! The Sub-Commission was made up of educators, and was a sop to the school people who were practically a unit in opposition to the passage of the bill. The duty of these educational experts of the Sub-Commis- sion was to "examine" and to "recommend" books to the Text Book Commission. The handiwork of the designing, sinister school book exploiter is evident in this political spoils make up of the Text Book Commissions responsible to the Governor. Whoever gets the Governor gets the spoils! It was generally commented upon at the time and beheved since that both the Text Book Commission 260 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS and the Sub-Commission were appointed and expected to recommend and to adopt the majority of the books from one favored publisher's list of books. The Text Book Commission carried out its part of the program fully. The school men on the sub-commission were not so subservient and manifested a disposition to perform their sworn duty. The sub-commission submitted a carefully prepared report recommending a list of books and giving its reasons for recommending each book or series of books. Mr. Wharton S. Jones, a prominent and highly respected school man, was chairman of the Text Book Sub-Commission. He and his associates declined to be dictated to against their better judgment. For this reason the Text Book Commission paid little or no attention to the recommendations of the Sub-Commis- sion. Only eight (8) of the thirty-five (35) recom- mendations of the sub-commission were adopted by the Governor and his Text Book Commission. The sub-commission's first choice recommendations of books were ignored on readers, advanced speller, geog- raphies, language lessons, English grammar. United States history, physiologies, algebra, writing books, rhetoric, agriculture and civil government. The members of the Text Book Commission were, Governor Benton McMillin, President; State Super- intendent Morgan C. Fitzpaterick, Secretary; Captain Thomas H. Paine, Jackson; Captain C. S. Douglas, Gallatin and A. D. Wharton, Nashville. The members of the Sub-Commission were: — Wharton S. Jones, Memphis, Chairman; Charles Mason, Morristown, Secretary; W. N. Billingsley, Spencer; F. M. Bowling, Christiana, and J. C. Stinson, Lewisberg. THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 261 The books adopted by Governor McMillan's Text Book Commission : Stickney Spellers, Stickney Readers, Frye Geog- raphies, and Wentworth Arithmetics (about 80% of the total list!) ; and McGee's History of Tennessee, Metcalf . Grammars, Lee's United States History, and Lippin- cotts, Physiologies. It is worthy of note that none of the winning com- pany's former associates in the "Boston Bunch" in the Missouri Campaign got a single book adopted in Tennessee ! The generally credited story of the signal defeat of the American Book Company by the stripling David, is quite sunple. There lived in Missouri a popular and astute politi- cian who had been in Congress for a number of years and who later became Governor of Missouri. The Governor of Tennessee had been in Congress with the gentleman from Missouri, and they were credited with being close friends. By means of the intimate political connections established in Missouri late in the campaign in Missouri in 1897, the business associates of the resourceful gentleman who was sent as missionary to Tennessee were favorably introduced to the Congressman from Missouri who was the intimate friend of the former Congressman from Tennessee and at that time Gover- nor of Tennessee. From this Missouri politician the "missionary" was said to have procured a most favorable introduc- tion to the Governor of Tennessee ! The Text Book bill was evidently written or dic- tated by this talented school book missionary providing 262 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS for a State-wide compulsory Uniformity school book adoption by a Text Book Commission composed of the Governor and his appointees ! The bill was duly passed notwithstanding the united opposition of the school men of the State. The Gover- nor was said to have taken an active interest in the passage of the bill. The members of the Text Book Commission, and the Text Book Sub-Commission were duly appointed. The Text Book Commission was ready and waiting to adopt the list of books; but the Sub-Commission had failed to recommend the books it was expected to recommend ! This made the situation rather embarrassing for the Governor and his commission and somewhat com- plicated for the campaign manager of the to be favored school book publishing company. But his strategic wit came to his rescue and served to relieve the em- barrassment of the Governor and his Text Book Com- mission. This school book man proposed that the governor and the members of his Text Book Commission ad- journ to Castalian Springs, a quiet and secluded spot, where they might meditate and deliberate undisturbed by other book agents, or by the observation of too critical eyes. Of course the Text Book Commission adjourned to meet at Castalian Springs ! Notice was solemnly served upon all school book publishers, their agents and representatives that none of them must attempt to invade the sacred precincts of Castalian Springs, nor to communicate directly or indirectly with the governor, nor any other member of the Text Book Commission upon penalty of having his books excluded from possible consideration. THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 263 It was announced that should the Text Book Com- mission in the course of its examination of books find it at all likely that a school book man could enlighten the governor or anj^ member of his Text Book Commission on the merits of his book, that school book man would be invited to Castalian Springs. Whether or not any other school book man was summoned to appear before the governor and his Text Book Commission was not reported, but it was generally believed that the campaign manager for the company who was destined to win the bulk of the business, was in Castalian Springs or in close com- munication with the Governor and his Commission during their sessions. The announcement of the list of adoptions was made from Castalian Springs ! There was a noticeable difference between the Missouri school book "Auction" and the Tennessee adoption. In Missouri the principal contenders for the monopoly were given a chance to win the adoption. In Tennessee, the deal was sewed up so tight, that the opposition could not find one little loose end of a thread to work on to get in on it, or at it, even. As stated before the deal was sewed up so tight that it baffled the skill of the veteran fine workers of that day. Naturally, there was a great deal of criticism of the Text Book Law and those responsible for it. The action of the Text Book Commission was generally regarded as a public scandal. Governor McMillan's reputed active part in that Compulsory Uniform State School Book adoption is claimed to have injured him politically, and to have been a factor in keeping him from going to the United States Senate. 264 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Otber Governors have felt the bHghting conse- quences of their too active participation in school book adoptions. The Missouri Compulsory Uniformity State School Book "Auction" of 1897, detennined the means and methods to be employed in school book adoptions there- after. All the old abuses and destructive competitive practices were to remain in full force and effect as our lawyer friends would say. The Tennessee Text Book Law and the school book adoption under it at Castalian Springs in 1899, and the Indiana compulsory Uniformity school book adoption of the same year were the beginning of a new epoch in the school book exploiting business. The arrogant American Book Company with all its resources and its traditional devices had been defeated on its own ground and with its own weapons wielded by stronger arms and bolder strategic maneu- vers than the old veterans had ever before encountered. A powerful competitor had arisen directed and managed by vigorous and ambitious young men acquainted with all the traditional methods and devices of the older school book agents. The fact that one of their number had fought a finish fight with their dreaded competitor and had won a decisive victory, gave to the other struggling inde- pendent school book publishers more confidence in their ability to meet the American Book Company in open competition. This young giant waxed strong and has grown and prospered in the land. It has been and is the most formidable competitor of the American Book Com- pany. The phenominal growth of this company is due to its virile organization. It has followed a consis- THE SCHOOL BOOK QUESTION 265 tent policy of rewarding brains and demonstrated ability of the men of its field force. These men of suc- cessful exploiting experience and ability bring into their organization new ideas, and new ideas add to the resourcefulness of the organization. On the other hand, it has been said of the American Book Company organization that it did not pennit a new idea to enter its official cranium for twenty years after its formation. It continued to rely upon its traditional methods and campaign tactics. Its competitors understanding its tactics, were enabled to compete with it with increasing success. There are today not less than thirty schoolbook pub- lishers in open and active competition for something like twenty million dollars of school and college text- book business. CHAPTER IX County Uniformity Adoptions We have undertaken to give an insight into the motives that seem to dominate the choice of books in state adoptions. It may seem strange but neverthe- less the statement is not likely to be questioned, that these abuses become even more vicious in the smaller adoption units. This is certainly true of the county uniformity adoptions in those states where this pernicious expedi- ent has been chosen in the place of state adoptions. The county adoptions in Iowa and South Dakota have been in the main a disgrace to the fair name of those states. After the scandalous state adoption in Missouri, the Legislature repealed the Text Book law providing for state uniformity of school books, but it passed a law providing for county uniformity. All the evils arising out of state uniformity were passed on down to the counties. The only difference being that the stakes being relatively smaller the "expense accounts" of those bidding for the county monopoly of furnishing the school books are necessarily less, but not relatively so. A county uniformity adoption requires about the same amount of agency time and effort as a state uniformity adoption. The only noticeable difference is that in a state adoption, the principals or the part- ners of the publishing houses, usually direct the cam- paign, while the regular agents with local agents, a 266 COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 267 local attorney, county central committeeman of the dominant party, or some county official, conducts the county campaign. This working force must be multi- plied by the number of counties up for adoption. The larger text-book campaigns, usually have one of their experienced county adoption men stationed at a con- venient steam heated hotel either in the state or just across the line in an adjoining state to manage or direct the several county campaigns. These campaign mana- ger's principal function is to see to it that the agent does all that can be done to get the votes needed to win the adoption; and that he does not pay more than the adoption is worth. Iowa county adoptions have had the reputation for years of being the "rottenest" school book adoptions in the whole country. Up to 1919, the County Boards of Education were made up of the following educational experts: "The County Superintendent, the County Auditor, and the members of the Board of Supervisors, shall constitute a County Board of Education." We take the precaution of quoting the School Laws of Iowa, published in 1915, so that our statement may not be questioned outside of Iowa. The law provided that upon petition signed by one third of the directors in any County, other than those in Cities and towns, and filed in the office of the County Superintendent, asking for a uniform series of Text- Books in the County, it became the duty of the County Board of Education to provide for submitting to the electors at the next annual meeting, the question of County Uniformity of Text-Books. r- About fifty-five (55) out of a total of ninety-nine (99) counties in Iowa have voted for county uniformity. 268 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS This leaves forty-four (44) counties as open counties in which the school directors of each school district adopts the school books for their school district. Of the Forty-four (44) so called open counties, the most of them have county uniformity practically, as the larger exploiting houses have put their agents into them and secured the adoption of a list of books made up of their own publications, or have combined with one or more houses and made up a "slate" usually with the assistance of the County Superintendent or the assent of that official. There are reported to be about thirty-eight (38) counties in Iowa up for adoption this year, 1921. It is a forgone conclusion that substantially all the books will be changed in more than one third of the counties of Iowa this year. It may be worthwhile to describe a county adoption, which may be taken as fairly representative. Those school book publishers who make a specialty of exploiting their books in the counties keep a record of all these counties, the dates of the last adoption, the books adopted, the publishers represented on the lists, when the adoption expires, and the personnel of the County Board of education, their friends on the board and those members whom they were unable to control. They have kept in close touch with their local influential friend who has come to be styled a "Kibosh," by competing agents. Through their agent and their "Kibosh," they have kept in touch with the situation ever since the last adoption. If the publisher failed, or was not as suc- cessful as he felt he should have been, his agent, his friends and his "Kibosh," have worked to undermine the books of his competitors, and also to cidtivate the COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 269 County Board of Education. If he had won out at the last adoption, these same producers have kept a sharp eye upon the situation to keep their organization intact. The "Kingpin" on the County Board of Education, up to March 18, 1919, when the new law went into effect, was usually the county auditor. In a few instances, the county superintendent would be strong enough or daring enough to assume leadership on the Board of Education. At any rate, the County Board of Education was political in its make up and organization. ^ The exploiters always prefer to deal with a political, rather than an educational board, text-book commis- sion, or text-book committee. The members are more amenable to influence ! With this in mind it is easy to surmise what in- fluences dictated the make up of the County Boards of Education. The leading companies contending for the Iowa county uniformity business, have had experienced, forceful, and resourceful men, capable of handling these county situations, however delicate or complicated they might be. Some of the smaller houses that feature county adoptions, make their preliminary arrangements through their managers, who gained their experience while serving as agents of some of the older and larger publishing houses. The practice has been for the state agent to arrange for a meeting between the county auditor or some other leader, and one of his company's big men, usually in Chicago. 270 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The preliminary approach to these prospects was to provide entertainment of any nature that a large city offers and that was likely to appeal to the inclina- tions and tastes of the visitor. This unusual entertainment served to break down any conventional barriers that may have existed between the host and his guest, and to make them feel more free to discuss the subject of the coming adoption in the visitor's county. The experienced, versatile school book representative, at the opportune time, opens up negotiations by calling attention to that school book adoption in "your county." He diplomatically states that "Our agent informs me that you are in a position to control that adoption and we want to win that adoption this time; last time the county superintendent thought that she could swing it and we made the mistake of depending upon her, and our competitors beat us. We want readers, arithmetics and geographies. Can't you "put them over" for us? You, of course, will need to have some help and we shall expect to pay for that and whatever is left, you can keep for yourself." He states the sum he thinks each of these subjects is worth and the total amount for all of them. This member of the County Board of Education, not specially interested in education, interested in politics, kindly disposed toward his host and not in politics for his health, after satisfactory terms are agreed upon, enters into a deal by which he undertakes to deliver a majority of the votes of the County Board of Education for this buccaneer publisher's books. When he returns to his home county seat, he car- ries in his vest pocket a list of the books he will work for and vote for, for use in the schools of his county for the next five (5) years ! COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 271 Mr. versatile and experienced school book man has some friends who are pretty decent fellows, and he proposes to let them in on the deal. He will ask one, how much he would be willing to give for language books in County, lowa.^^ Another one, United States history .f* Physiologies? Spellers.'^ Copy books.'' It would not be unusual for this gentleman to carry home a complete slate. This is what is popularly called the "line up," which the "field," meaning the agents of all the other companies not in on the deal, must meet. It not infre- quently transpires that brains triumphs over boodle and the slate is broken ! The County Superintendent possibly was prevailed upon to make a stand for a "square deal" and under the direction of some keen aggressive book agent, he springs a surprise upon the auditor and his "line up" by proposing and putting through a list of books chosen upon their merits as best suited to the schools of the County. Sometimes the "square deal" and "Trust" plaint is worked by a super-righteous rival company, as a smoke screen to hide an even more vicious deal made and entered into long before the other one, and with powerful influences that have to be reckoned with, before an adoption can be made. In the earlier days, these contending companies would "fight to the finish," but a disposition to get together has been manifested in later years. A com- promise is arranged between the opposing "Kiboshes" by which the big houses divide the list, leaving a few crumbs for the little fellows to fight over. After one of these County adoption book fights, the manager of one of the competing school book 272 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS publishers was reported to have complained to the head of another publishing house, that he thought that he ought to know that his agent had used unfair means of competition out in County, Iowa. Naturally this gentleman did not wish his agent, who had been successful in this particular adoption, to be under suspicion of using any undue influence in securing adoptions for his books, "Tell me all about it," requested this head of the publishing house. "Your agent is reported to have had a bottle of whisky up in his room at the hotel and to have served drinks to certain members of the county board at frequent intervals during the campaign." "Do you mean to tell me that my agent had a bottle of whisky.?" "Yes, Sir!" "Well, I don't know why he had but a bottle, for I sent him six bottles myself!" It is needless to remark that this was long before the Volstead Act went into effect. There are one or two of the smaller school book houses that specialize on Iowa counties and with fairly good success. Their agents are as shrewd and smooth as the best of them. There are no fine scruples in their methods; their schemes are planned with cold blooded calculation, and everything goes up to the limit of the price fixed for each adoption. If these houses or either of them had a complete list they would be formidable competitors of larger houses. While the new law in Iowa changes the member- ship of the County Board of Education from a political to an educational make up, there is not much likelihood that the results will be any more satisfactory. COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 273 The same temptation remains and the same preda- tory interests will compete for the business. The parents of the children who attend the schools will be pillaged just as systematically and ruthlessly by the publishers through the educational County Boards of Education as by the old political line up arrangement. It is the unnecessary, artificial monopoly of fur- nishing the school books for five years to all of the schools of the county that is the root of the evil. South Dakota is another State that has been ruth- lessly pillaged and in the main by one of the big publishing houses. The State representative of this house is a unique personality. He has practically dommated the school book adoptions in that State for years. The state poli- ticians, the county politicians and the school politicians are his friends, and they are the constructively active- in-his-interest sort of friends. The make up of the County Text Book Committee is unique. If this particular state representative had had it made to measure it could not have fitted his purpose better. The county superintendent of schools, the president of the board of education of all independent districts, the county auditor, states attorney, county commissioners and one person from each commission- er's district, who shall be selected by the members of the school board of such commissioner's district present at a meeting to be called by the county superintendent, shall constitute the County Text-Book Committee for the purpose of selecting and adopting all the text- books needed for use in the public schools in the county. The county superintendent of schools shall be the chairman of such committee. The county auditor shall be secretary, and a majority of such committee shall 274 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS constitute a quorum for the transaction of business. In South Dakota, the law makers in their wisdom, or more likely at the suggestion of some school book man or his "Kibosh," made the county superintendent of schools, the only member of the County Text-Book Committee, likely to champion the cause of the school children and their teachers for whose sole use the books are to be selected and adopted, chairman of the com- mittee thus "bottling him up" by parliamentary usage. The mere size of these County Text Book Commit- tees in South Dakota, is staggering. The meeting of the committee assumes the dignity of an assemblage. The largest room in the Court house is requisitioned for its meetings. The number of members on one of these County Text Book Committees discourages the attempt of any but the two or three favored school book houses from competing for this county business. The number of free sample copies required and the time required to canvass each member of the committee excludes most all of the school book publishers, except the largest of them, and this was the evident intention of the law and those responsible for it. Another provision of the law reveals the fine handi- work of the friends of these wily school book publishers. The next section of this law protecting and perpetuating the pillaging of the people, provides that all the County Text Book Committee meetings in the state, shall be held on the same day, June 22! This simple provision means that all school book houses that cannot afford or that do not have enough agents to put a force in each of the counties of the state would better "stay out." This was the purpose of the Law. The practical result is that the people COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 275 of South Dakota are left a prey to the larger and more voracious school book houses. The method of these houses is simple. They have their local "Kiboshes" in each county who see to it that the predetermined "slate" of books has a champion with a dependable "floor manager," on each county committee. This is called in book agency exploitation organization. This little group of picked leaders all of one mind with a definite object to accomplish, directs the thought of the members of the big political Text- Book Committee into "practical channels." One good experienced floor manager, having the ear and eye of the sympathetic chairman, is all that is necessary to "put over" the slate! It must be apparent to any business man that the method of selling school books is very expensive, and the worst of it is that the managers of these school book publishers can not "check up" very well to deter- mine just how much these county adoptions actually cost. They do know to a penny how much is charged up to expenses, and what the cost is to them. If the agent reports to his manager that it will take one thousand dollars to carry a specifically named county, he has no means of determining whether that agent pays one thousand dollars or seven hundred or any less amount. It is not beyond the pale of possi- bility for the agent and the "Kibosh," while framing up a deal whereby the "Kibosh" undertakes to land the adoption of the books slated for the agent's pub- lishing house, to make a little private deal to split the expense money in a manner satisfactory to both! And why shouldn't he.^^ If his employer sends him to secure an adoption by shady methods and furnishes him the money necessary to secure the votes, there 276 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS should be no scruples on his part, so he may reason, why he should not get his share of it. The employer is placing an unjustifiable temptation before his agent. It has long been a matter of open comment and wonder among school book men as to how well fixed financially some of these fine workers in county adop- tions are, owning fine farms, bank stock, breeding cattle and swine, and enjoying the reputation of being substantial men of affairs, on the meagre salaries of ordinary school book men. A little side light upon the methods of these "expert workers" is shed by the following incident as related by one of the substantial members of one of these South Dakota County Text- Book Boards. There had developed pretty keen opposition to the established order of things as planned in this particular county. There was a manifest disposition of some of the members to vote for the best books. This situation was quite disturbing to the campaign manager. There was one of these deft workers in emergency situations, in a state not far distant in the employ of the large publishing house whose holdings were threatened, and the campaign manager had him brought in to secure the votes necessary to carry the adoption. He arrived upon the scene of action promptly as the day of adop- tion was near at hand. Probably acting upon the advice of one of the "loyal" members of the County Text Book Committee, he "approached" this substan- tial but doubtful member of the Committee in the manner related by this member afterward. This mem- ber lived on his farm but a short distance from the county seat. The deft worker found this member of the Text Book Committee up about the barn or possibly over COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 277 at the sheep sheds. He was soon located and the caller introduced hunseK and stated his business. He had little to say, regarding his company or the merits of the books it was offering, but he did say that he did wish to make sure of his vote. This deft worker's attention was attracted by a flock of sheep and he became enthusiastically inter- ested in them. He did not try to hide the fact that he was a farmer himself and that he was a breeder of fine sheep. He said that he wanted one of those lambs and inquired whether this Text Book Committee member would sell him one of them. Upon this farmer Comittee member's reply that he might sell him one or more of them if he wished, he was reported to have said, "Well, I'll tell you what I'll do. I'll give you a hundred dollars for one of the lambs crated and delivered at the express office." The farmer member did not bite. He did say that it was a big price to pay for a lamb, and suggested that he wait until after the school book adoption and then if he wanted a lamb he would sell him one. The farmer member in relating the incident afterward, said that he might have had his "pick" of his lambs for nine dollars! But he never called for his lamb after the adoption. Of course, in this particular instance the proposition did not work, but it might be astounding if it were known how many of these and similar offers were and are accepted. Had this particular offer been accepted the deft worker's expense account would have shown at least one hundred dollars for special agency services and the farmer agent would have been ahead at least one lamb ! This fellow was active for years as the recognized accredited agent of one of the largest school book 278 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS publishers. He made no pretentions of ability to dis- cuss the merits of his books. It was generally under- stood that he bought and paid liberally for most of the business he got, and furthermore he would talk openly about his experiences and what he was forced to pay certain fellows. Yet so far as reported he was never indicted or arrested. One of the best known school book men in the country and one of the knowing ones, who stands high in his company, has made the statement again and again that notwithstanding the fact that his company has been singularly successful in working county adoptions, and has managed to secure and to hold the most of the county uniformity business in Iowa and South Dakota, his company had not made a dollar out of that business. This is accounted for by the enormous expense incurred in building and maintaining the necessary organizations in the counties, and the agency expense, sample copies, and exchanges at every five year adop- tion. If his company had enjoyed the monopoly for five years, it had just about recovered from the expense of securing the adoption when the five year period was up, and it had the expense of another campaign to meet. His company must meet all comers in competition, and be ready to pay as much to hold its business as its strongest competitors are willing to pay for it, or run the risk of losing its holdings. Unless the books are changed the re-adoption is not nearly so profitable as the first five year adoption, for the reason that the pupils are all practically supplied with books, counting those used books passed on from pupils who have com- pleted a book to one who will begin it. The company can count upon receiving replenishing orders only. COUNTY UNIFORMITY ADOPTIONS 279 Whenever a new adoption of books is made for a period of five years, the pubHsher sells as many books the first year of the adoption as he does in the four remaining years of the monopoly, and the longer the books remain in use, the less the number of new copies purchased each year, on account of the old copies of the books handed down and passed on from pupil to pupil. This explains why the publishers are willing to offer liberal terms of exchange for these old books. They wish to gather them up and get rid of them, and sell a new one in the place of each. Illinois does not have a County Uniformity School book law, but there has been an independent move- ment in the state fostered by the school book agents for county uniformity by agreement among the inde- pendent school districts. Early in this movement there were some disgraceful county "fights" because the American Book Company through its agents, demanded eighty-five per cent of the business. Unless this fair proportion of the school books were adopted from its list, it threatened to put a "wrecking crew" into the county and canvass the districts and "secure" the adoption of its books in as many school districts as possible. Monroe County was the battle ground for one of these disgraceful school book fights. This braggadocio attitude deterred the more timid publishers from favoring county uniformity for awhile, but later under the leadership of Ginn & Company, the independent publishers began to accept the chal- lenge and after one or two finish fights, that arrogant company began to show a disposition to enter the county adoption contests under agreement to abide by the decision of the Text Book Committee. 280 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS These county uniformity adoptions in Illinois are as bad as county adoptions under legal sanction. The prime motive is the systematic pillage of the school patrons. The specious pretext given out is that uniformity makes it easier to systematize the work and to outline a course of study. Anyone who knows anything about teaching school, or about school books, and the school book business, knows that there is no basis of fact for this pretext. The scheme is initiated and promoted by a book agent or a combination of agents working through the county superintendent of schools. The books to be adopted for county uniformity are usually agreed upon before the call is made for a county meeting of school directors to vote on the question of a uniform series of books for the whole County. La Salle County's first uniform school book adop- tion was a fair example of these illegitimate adoptions. There is much that could be said regarding county adoptions in other states: Wisconsin, Missouri, and Washington but all that need be said is that the same temptation exists and the same conditions obtain wherever there are county adoptions, and there is no prospect of any improvement in these periodical plunderings, so long as these plunderings are legalized. CHAPTER X City School Book Adoptions Chicago. — Probably there is no other city that has been more sordidly pillaged in school books than Chicago. It would take a good sized volume to even sketch in outline the exploiters and their exploitations in school books for twenty-five years. Bankers, lawyers, city oflScials, school board members and school officials have had their parts to play. The school book agent who manipulated the deal by which a series of music books, and a series of copy books were adopted in 1894, established influential connections by means of which he has changed the music books three times, and each time he has had a new series of books, and a new publisher. A characteristic and typical Chicago adoption of "A Uniform Series of School Books," for all the children in the second city of the United States, was the adop- tion of the Series in English, on June 11th., 1911. About three weeks before this adoption, the super- intendent of schools requested the district superintend- ents to make a careful and critical examination and comparison of all the different series of textbooks on English, for use in the elementary schools, to deter- mine which series was best adapted for use in the schools of Chicago, and to report their findings to the super- intendent. This was the busiest season of the year for these assistant supermtendents, as it was nearing the close of schools, with all the extra school activities that always come at this season. Notice had been received by all the publishers asking that not less than ten sets of each series offered 281 282 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS for examination, be delivered at the office of the super- intendent immediately. Something like twenty sets of samples of different and sundry language books and grammars, new and old, were submitted. A number of these eliminated themselves from the competition, but about fourteen different series were found worthy of consideration in the opinion of these ten district superintendents. It was decided to make a comparison of all these fourteen series of language books, by examining their treatment of a series of topics agreed upon, and to estimate and to score the points. The weather was hot, and there were many oflScial school duties pressing for attention; but this work was pushed right through to completion by the date their report was requested to be presented. To the surprise of all interested in the result of this critical exami- nation, the superintendent of schools, announced that the time for the examination would be extended for two weeks! These district superintendents could not surmise and certainly could not understand why the time was extended, when they had completed their examination, and made their decision and recommendation. There remained nothing further for the district superintend- ents to do in the matter, but to go about their several duties and await developments. On the evening before the day set, and on which day there would be a meeting of the school manage- ment committee of the Board of Education, a set of the books of a new Series in English was laid on the desk of each district supermtendent. This was after they had gone home, and they would not return in CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 283 time to examine this new series of books before the meeting of the school management committee. Not one of these district superintendents, so it was said, had seen this series of books before, or had any inti- mation that it was to be offered for consideration. The recommendation of the committee of the board of district superintendents was unanimous for the series of books entitled "The New Webster-Cooley Course in English," published by Houghton Mif- flin & Company. The publishers of the other thirteen series of Language books, notwithstanding their keen indi- vidual disappointments, acquiesced in this recom- mendation because they felt that the board of district superintendents had given a conscientious and honest decision. It was believed that each competitor had been given a "square deal." What was their astonishment and dismay the next day, when the superintendent of schools reported to the school management committee that the committee of district superintendents had made two recom- mendations for language books in English: — The Webster-Cooley Course in English, and the Cabell-Freeman Series in English published by Wm. F. Roberts! None of the competing publishers had ever heard of Wm. F. Roberts as a publisher, and his books had not been examined, so it was claimed by the board of district superintendents. Naturally, objection was made by members of the school management committee, to the recommendation of two series, when there was no intention of adopting but one. A motion was made to return the report to the committee of district superintendents, with 284 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS instructions to submit a report at the next meeting of the school management committee for one series of language books. The superintendent stated that that action was not necessary. If the committee wished a recommen- dation of one series of English books the superintendent was as well prepared to make it then, as two weeks from then. When informed that that was what the committee wished, this superintendent stated "I recommend the adoption of the Cabell-Freeman Series in English Books One and Two." The motion was made and seconded that the school management committee recommend to the Board of Education, the adoption of the Cabell-Freeman Series in English. The books were adopted on June 11, 1911, for uniform and exclusive use in all the ele- mentary public schools of Chicago, for a period of five years ! Here was a series of text books adopted over fourteen generally and favorably known series of books on the subject of English; over a series chosen and recommended by the full board of district super- intentendents; a Series in English that had not been tested nor tried; that had not been out of the bindery a week; and that had no sponsors except the superin- tendent of schools and the reputed authors ! Slowly, and bit by bit, the story was unfolded. It would seem that this superintendent had evinced more than passing interest in the manuscript of this partic- ular Series in English, even before becoming superin- tendent of schools. It was an open secret that the manuscript was urged upon a preceding superintendent of schools to be examined as to its special merits as a CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 285 Series in English, for use in the Chicago schools. It was returned, so it was reported, with an unfavorable report as to its suitability for that purpose. It was currently reported that the same later-to-be superintendent of schools, submitted the manuscript of this Series in English, to at least one reputable school book publisher for exammation with a view to its publication. It was examined and declined. It soon developed that this successful publisher of the Series in English, was boastful and quite talk- ative and he seemed to be flattered by the number of his interested listeners. His alleged story was that he met the superintendent of the Chicago schools at the meeting of the Department of Superintendence of the National Education Association at Mobile, in February. That an agreement was entered into, between the superintendent of schools and Mr. Roberts, whereby he was to publish the Cabell-Freeman Series in Eng- lish. One of the terms of this alleged agreement was that in consideration of his publishing the Series in English, the superintendent promised that the Cabell- Freeman Series in English would be adopted for exclusive use in the Chicago Schools. This fact would seem to explain the seemingly inexplicable extension of the time limit set by the superintendent of schools, for the committee of district Superintendents to report the result of its critical examination and comparison of text books in English. Being a novice in the publishing business, this gentleman had failed to appreciate the task he had undertaken. He soon found that from March to June was a short time in which to get out a Series in English from the manuscript to the bound copies of 286 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS the books! The samples bore evidence of having been hastily prepared. Let us not be too ready to criticise that high handed action. May it not have been possible that this super- intendent's intimate acquaintance with the reputed authors of the Series in English and with their work would justify the superintendent of schools in dis- crediting the former superintendent of school's exam- ination and rejection of the Series in English, the editors of the publishing house or houses, credited with examing and rejecting the manuscript of this Series in English, and of the superintendent's own committee of district superintendents who had spent many a tedious hour in critically examinmg and comparing the treatments of topics in English teaching in all competing books. After all, "The test of the pudding is in the eating." The books of the Series in English were no sooner introduced than complaints began to come in to the superintendent's oflSce from the teachers and principals from all over the city, of dissatisfaction with the new language books. This complaint became so insistent, that the superintendent intimated that the teachers did not know how to use the books. Whereupon, the superintendent had meetings called of teachers using the books and assigned one of the authors to explain and elucidate the scheme and method contained in these books. It was currently reported, that some of these teachers were pretty outspoken in their criticisms of the books, and their unsuitability for school use. This became so embarrassing and annoying to this author that the superintendent issued orders to the principals so it was reported, that they should instruct their teachers that they were not to "heckel" the CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 287 instructor in English, who was detailed to help them to understand and to use the "Essentials in English" successfully. It would naturally be supposed that the books in "Essentials of English" adopted for exclusive use in all the elementary schools of the great City of Chicago, would go like wild fire into schools of the cities and towns within a radius of five hundred miles of Chicago. So far as was reported. Rock Island was the only other important city school system to adopt these "First choice" Essentials of English books for exclusive and uniform use in all the elementary schools. There was another interesting developement tend- ing to let the light in on this, alleged. Mobile deal. This nondescript publisher of "Essentials of Eng- lish" soon found that, after he had completed his introduction of "Essentials in English" for exclusive and uniform use into all the elementary schools of Chicago; and had gathered and salvaged all the displaced books in Language and Grammar; paid his printer for the composition, electro plates, printing and binding; and had paid the agreed extraordinary royalties to the authors, his oflSce expenses and his own, reputed, rather extravagant "Expenses"; there was little if any profit left. He still had great expec- tations of profitable adoptions of "Essentials in Eng- lish," from the cities and towns within the circle of influence of Chicago. But as time went on and Indiana did not adopt "Essentials in English," neither did Milwaukee, nor Minneapolis, nor Omaha nor Kansas City, nor St. Louis, nor East St. Louis, nor Springfield, nor Joliet, nor Aurora, nor Elgin, nor Evanston, nor Oak Park, nor Blue Island, nor Hinsdale, and he estimated that 288 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Chicago had taken enough of "Essentials in English," to supply one half her requirements for five years, it began to dawn upon him that there was not enough profit in his five year contract, with the Chicago Board of Education to support him in the position and style set for himself. With this condition of affairs staring him in the face, he was reported to be offering his business for sale, consisting of the publisher's rights, plates, stock on hand, and his contract with the Board of Education of the City of Chicago, and the adoption in Rock Island. Ordinarily the opportunity to purchase a new series of basal school books with important initial adoptions in two cities like Chicago and Rock Island, would be favorably entertained by most any publishing house. And it was rumored "along the street" that at least one publisher was considering the proposition. And this was where the significant discovery was reported to have been made that this would be pub- lisher, had contracted to pay the authors as royality an amount approximating double the amount custo- marily paid to authors of well-established reputation for their books on their particular subjects. For this reason, and presumably for the further reason that the books themselves, were not up to the standards set for English books in open competition for adoptions generally, the publishers declined to purchase the business. It would be profitless to go further into this matter of the extraordinary high amount of royalty pre- sumably paid to the authors. The outstanding fact would seem to be that the authors whose names appear on the title pages of "Es- CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 289 sentials in English," had Httle to do with the business arrangements either in securing a pubHsher or in getting the books adopted for use in the Chicago schools, but they were fortunate in having a most effective business manager! What became of the publisher is not known. His printer, it was understood, took over the publisher's rights, and carried out the terms of the contracts in a business-like manner. The "Essentials in English," were used exclusively and uniformly in all the elementary schools of the City of Chicago, until the expiration of the adoption, when they were displaced by another series of "Good Eng- lish." Leaving out of the consideration all questions of the motives of those responsible for these changes of the textbooks in English, and the outside pressure brought to bear to bring about the changes, the fact remains that twice within five years the parents of the children in the elementary schools of Chicago were forced to discard a full supply of perfectly good English books, and to purchase a complete supply of new books on the same subject; and that two full supplies of English books had been consigned to the junk heap which had been the first choice of all the English books on the market, by the expert experience and judgment of the superintendent of schools, and the same expert judg- ment in both cases was that neither series of language books was worthy of continued use ! Those children who had taken up the study of English in the third year grade the year before the first of these changes in English books was made, had to be provided with English books of three series, and to make two exchanges and pay "exchange prices" for 290 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS new English books of "the same subject and grade" as the book exchanged. In other words no pupil who began his study of English in one of the books of a series, was permitted to complete his elementary stud- ies in English in that series of books. Standards of "Good English" change so rapidly that what is con- sidered first choice English when a child begins to study English, is outlawed twice before he can possibly finish his elementary studies in that essential subject! This same superintendent of schools, following a summer vacation said to have been spent in the east presumably working on a series of school books which would be published later, by a certain schoolbook pub- lisher, sprang a surprise on all the other publishers by recommending the adoption of a Hygiene Series of books by another author of the same publisher. Here- tofore it had been the custom before a contemplated change in schoolbooks, to give notice to publishers of the contemplated change and by so doing give them an opportunity to enter into competition for the pros- pective business. When the attention of this superintendent was called to this fact, and the suggestion made that the superintendent's high-handed action was likely to result in severe and just criticism, the superintendent withdrew the recommendation for the two books of the Hygiene Series; and, ostensibly, opened up the subject of the adoption of books on the subject of physiology and hygiene to open competition by notifying all })ublishers to send to the ofiice of the superintendent of schools sample sets of any modern textbooks on those subjects. The publishers responded in good faith by sending sample copies of their books. CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 291 After a seemly time, the superintendent re-recom- mended the adoption of the favored Hygiene Series of books ! There was a general adoption of high school books during this superintendent's administration which illustrates fairly well the business ethics of the managers of at least one of the school book publishers. In this instance, it was an open secret that there was to be a general reorganization of the course of study by committees selected for that purpose; and as a revision of the course of study usually portends a change in textbooks, the publishers had their agents on the ground pushing the claims of their respective textbooks for favorable consideration. As the campaign drew near to its culmination, the managers began to prepare to submit their proposals for furnishing such of their books as they decided to offer. At that time, the practice had become a custom for the successful bidder to take up all the so-called fund books, books owned by the Board of Education and loaned to indigent (?) pupils, giving in even ex- change an equal number of new books of the adoj^ted series; in fact, this condition had been incorporated as a paragraph in the printed blank proposals fur- nished to publishers, and upon which they were required to make their bids; on this particular blank form, this objectionable paragraph was numbered and known as paragraph, "4." One of the best known schoolbook publishing companies which assumes to conduct its business upon a higher ethical plane than any of its competitors, became imbued with the notion that if it could get 292 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS its competitors to agree to cross out paragraph "4" in their proposals, it would be a clever move on its part. The eminently respectable and self-esteemed gentle- men condescended to call the managers of the different competing publishers by telephone and to ask them if they did not think it about time for the good of the schoolbook business that the practice of even exchang- ing the fund books belonging to the board of education should be stopped? They suggested that while it had become a matter of custom to even exchange the fund books in the elementary grades, they felt that the same concession should not be extended to the introduction of books in the high schools. Each manager was asked to indicate how he felt in regard to the proposition; and was told that regardless of what the other pub- lishers might do, the objectionable paragraph "4" would be stricken out from their company's bid when it was submitted. Most of the competing companies did cross out paragraph "4," so the story goes, before submitting their bids to the superintendent of schools. But the self-esteemed gentleman, manager of this eminently respectable schoolbook publishing company, waited until within a very few minutes of the time of meeting of the school management committee before filing his bid. He appeared at the oflSce of his friend, the superintendent of schools, and handed to that oflBcial his proposal for furnishing high school books to the pupils of the high schools of Chicago for five years; but through some oversight of someone in the oflBce, the objectionable paragraph "4" had not been crossed out in red ink! Whether this oversight was pre-arranged or not will probably never be known. CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 293 The superintendent took the gentleman's proposal with those of the other competing publishers, and proceeded to the very important meeting of the school management committee at which meeting, the reports of the committees were to be received, the proposals read, and the recommendations of high school books made by the superintendent of schools. It was found that the bids of a number of the pub- lishers of high school books favored by the several committees were "irregular" because they had para- graph "4" crossed out; and for this reason their books were ruled out of the competition. The proposal of this eminently respectable business gentlemen's publishing house was found regular in all particulars. As a result of this clever business expedient, this manager had the satisfaction of hearing the superin- tendent of schools recommend something like 18 of his high school books for adoption that day, while his formidable competitors sat discomfitted and helpless. It was openly boasted that this was the largest and most important adoption of high school books that this publisher had ever secured before, and was regarded as a clever "scoop." When brought to task by some of his misled competitors, this gentleman's only excuse was said to have been that there was too much at stake for him to keep faith with his competitors ! Practically all the schoolbooks in both the ele- mentary schools and in the high schools were changed during the administration of this prominent and efficient superintendent of Chicago's public schools. This worthy superintendent in every instance did only what the superintendent of schools had the authority and legal right to do. 294 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS There have been any number of cleverly conceived schoolbook adoptions in Chicago since those mentioned above, and the changes and "exchanges" go merrily on, and they will continue to do so until the laws granting authority to adopt a uniform series of books for exclusive basic use are repealed. The three books of the Gordy Series of United States History were adopted for exclusive basic use in all the elementary schools of the City of Chicago in 1917. These books were introduced, and a clean sweep change made from another popular series of books. The supply of books of the history which had been in use were traded in and the exchange price was paid in each case, for a copy of the new Gordy. How infinitely much cheaper it would have been, if the books had to be changed, to have required those pupils who had to have a new history buy one of the new books, and to have permitted those who were provided with a book to continue to use it; and how much such an arrangement would have added to the interest of the students of history. But not so; the discarded books had to be gathered up, assorted and gotten out of the way. It would be interesting to know just what became of those discarded books, and who "bought" them. One of the cleverest of the many clever schoolbook transactions was the precipitate adoption of a two book series of geographies for "exclusive basic use in the Chicago Public Schools for a Period of Five Years" by the Board of Education on February 23, 1921. It was the evident intention of all parties concerned to consumate this profitable transaction before the question of free textbooks should be decided at the approaching election. CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 295 Free textbooks carried at the election, but the new geographies were saddled upon the pupils of the public schools for exclusive basic use for a period of five years at least! By the adoption of free textbooks by the people, the last pretext for a uniform series of textbooks was removed. There is no educational reason why the children should not have the benefit of all the infor- mation on the subject of geography to be found in all the textbooks in geography. This, no doubt, is one reason for the precipitate haste in putting the transaction "over" in February, before the adoptions of all the other books under the free textbook law the following summer. But after these books were adopted, there might have been a great saving of the people's tax money in the manner of introducing the new books if those interested had had that object in mind. The great majority of the children who study geog- raphy were provided with books in geography. A book in geography is planned for two year's work in that subject. There was no educational reason why those pupils who had begun in a book in geography should not be permitted to finish it with their class. This would have made it unnecessary for the School Board to purchase a supply of new books for those pupils before they were promoted to the higher book, and none at all for all those who were using the higher book! By this method of introduction, it would have taken two years to complete the introduction of the new books. There was another method of saving well known to the school authorities if they had cared to take ad- vantage of it. Each book of a two -book series of geog- 296 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS raphy is bound in One Volume, and in Two Parts. Each book contains two years work. If the books are purchased bound in Parts, each book will serve two pupils, one in a grade, and the other in the next higher grade. It is evident that by purchasing the geographies bound in Parts that it would require but one half as many geographies as it takes when the books are bound two Parts in one volume; and in addition to the economy in expense, there is the ele- ment of convenience to the user,^ — the pupil only has to carry and handle the Part he is using, and another pupil carries and uses the other Part! But possibly, that was not the understanding, nor the intention. Following the adoption of geographies, but not until after the election at which the proposition authorizing the Board of Education to purchase and to furnish free textbooks was carried, there was a neatly prepared little slate of sundry schoolbooks brought forward and recommended for adoption for exclusive and basic use in all the public schools of the City of Chicago. This slate reached the Board of Education for final adoption where it, for some reason, was ruthlessly smashed by majority vote of the Board of Education. It is rather significant that the rumpus in the Board of Education which has been followed by the long line of exposures of irregularities, started over the proposed adoption of a neatly prepared list of school books! Verily, the authority to adopt a compulsory exclusive uniformity series of schoolbooks for use in all the schools of a city, county or state, is the root of most evils! It is claimed that there is one member of the Board of Education of Chicago who is a dealer in second hand schoolbooks, and is interested in buying and CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 297 selling what is known as "exchange stock." At the time of his appointment, the fact that he was familiar with the schoolbook business was given out as one reason for his appointment on the Board of Education ; and that he would be able to cope with the schoolbook publishers, and protect the interests of the people! It is claimed that there is no doubt of this gentle- man's ability to appraise an "exchange stock" of old books and set a value upon it. The "exchange stocks" of discarded schoolbooks resulting from the numerous and needless sweeping changes of schoolbooks in the public schools of Chicago alone, amounts to a tidy sum in the aggregate each year. It must not be assumed that the Chicago manner of deciding schoolbook matters has been so much worse than in other cities. The same exploiting methods have been practiced in most of the cities large and small. Cleveland, Toledo, Columbus, Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Milwaukee, St. Paul, Minneapolis, Des Moines, Omaha, Salt Lake City, Seattle, Portland, San Francisco, New Orleans, Atlanta, Memphis, Washing- ton, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and Boston, have all had their share of marauding school book adoptions. Minneapolis has been for years storm swept and a storm center for the schoolbook exploiters. This city, being the headquarters of the agents and representa- tives for that region of the most active exploiting school- book houses, has furnished the stage and the setting for many an interesting schoolbook adoption. For- tunately, since Minnesota has become a free textbook state, the patrons have not felt the effects of frequent changes in schoolbooks directly, as the purchases 298 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS are paid for out of the school treasury, but the expense was there just the same. Just a few years ago, so the story is related, a nice little quiet scheme was worked up, whereby a new series of music books which was just being published, was to be slipped in to the Minneapolis schools. There had been no previous discussion of a change in music books. In fact, the music supervisor's regular requisition for the books in use had been handed in, and the regular order for the next year's supply of the regularly adopted books had been made up, and was ready to mail to the publishers. When instructions came to hold it up as there might be a change in music books. The author of the new series of music books made it convenient to visit Minneapolis about this time. The publishers of these new music books had as their resident agent at Minneapolis one of its most versatile and experienced schoolbook men, and one of the most effective "workers" along the old traditional methods known to the business. His clever handi- work was evident in this well-laid scheme. The author was so elated over the prospect of having Minneapolis public schools adopt his music books right off the press, that he just could not keep it. He was said to have told some of his students that Min- neapolis was going to adopt his music books at the next meeting of the school board. This interesting bit of news soon reached the ears of the one interested in the music books that had been in use in the Minneapolis schools; and the interesting tip was passed on to the resident agent for these books at Minneapolis. CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 299 This agent sought an interview with the supervisor of music and found that it was true that the author of the new music series had been in Minneapolis; had called on her and had talked to her of his books and their merits but that she had not intimated to this author that there was any intention upon her part to recommend a change of music books at this time, nor did the author ask her to recommend a change. The music supervisor did intimate that she felt that something was in the air, and suggested that he, the agent, had better be alert to the situation. This agent made diligent inquiry among all those who were in positions to know what was going on in schoolbook matters, but all the light he could get on the situation was that the supply clerk had been instructed to hold his order for music books until after the meeting of the textbook committee. Notwithstanding the fact that he had word from Chicago that there would be a meeting of the textbook committee with the superintendent of schools on Mon- day, he could find no one who would admit that there would be a meeting of the committee on Monday, so adroitly was the scheme managed. On Monday forenoon, a gentleman of some con- siderable prominence in business and political affairs in Minnesota telephoned the president of the school board; and in answer to his questions, he learned that the subject of a change in music books was under discussion; that there would be a meeting of the text- book committee at four o'clock that afternoon; and that if this committee reported in favor of a change, the school board would be likely to adopt the report. When asked if he knew upon whose initiative this change of books was to be made, he replied that he 300 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS understood that it was upon the recommendation of the supervisor of music! Asked whether he was sure of that, he rephed, that he was so informed. The agent told this gentleman that he could assure him that the supervisor had made no such report. Whereupon this gentleman called for the members of the textbook com- mittee. These were named to him. After thinking for a minute he was reported to have said that there is one man on that committee who, you may rest assured, if there is anything shady or underhanded going on is not a party to it; and that he felt quite certain that this member had not been con- sulted; and therefore he is not aware of what is going on; and that he would advise that he be seen at once. The agent lost no time in making his way to the office of the member of the committee whose reputa- tion for integrity would not admit of his being a party to a secret and underhanded transaction. When this honorable gentleman was told what was going on, he stated frankly that he did not believe it possible; that he was a member of that committee; that the members were furnished copies of all items of business to come before the committee; and that the only schoolbook business was a recommendation for a change of a high school book ; and he felt sure that the superintendent and the other member or members of the committee would not take up and discuss so impor- tant a subject without consulting him. Having been reminded of what the president of the Board had stated over the telephone; and assured that the supervisor of music had said that she had not recom- mended nor did she contemplate recommending a change in music books ; and that the proposed change to the new music books had been given out in Chicago, CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 301 he made the emphatic statement that there would be no change in music books recommended by the text- book committee that day! He suggested that the agent go to the superintend- ent's office and make formal request to be heard when the question of music books came up at the committee meeting. He remarked dryly "You be right there and I will see that you are called in if the question comes up." Acting upon this suggestion, the agent called upon the superintendent of schools and made his statement that there was to be a meeting of himself and his text- book committee at four o'clock at which meeting the proposition to introduce a new series of music books would be considered; and as the representative of a party at interest, he presented his formal request to be permitted to have a hearing when the question came up for action. The superintendent turned upon his caller and savagely demanded, "Who told you that there was to be a meeting of any committee.'^" His caller quietly replied, "The president of your school board, and a member of your textbook commit- tee!" This answer seemed to quiet him, but it was evident that he was uneasy for he was reported to have said that if any question of music books was to come up he did not know of it. The superintendent did not say whether the agent would be granted a hearing, but he did promise to lay the agents request before the committee. At any rate, this agent decided that he would be on hand early, so he reached the superintendent's waiting room promptly at 3 o'clock, and took his place on the bench where so many book men have 302 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS "cooled their heels" waitmg for the superintendent of schools to grant them audience. He had been there but a few minutes, as he relates the story, before the officious chairman of the com- mittee blustered out into the outer office, and in a commanding voice that everybody could hear asked where the supervisor of music was; saying that she had promised to be on hand at three o'clock and here it was quarter past three. In a few minutes the super- visor appeared and was immediately ushered into the superintendent's office. As the meeting was called for four o'clock, the other member or members of the committee had not arrived. The supervisor of music was closeted with the chairman of the committee and the superintendent, and came out seemingly very much perturbed before the time for the meeting of the committee. It was reported afterwards that the supervisor was given to understand that it was high time that there was a change in music books and that the change would be made "today, and upon the recommendation of the supervisor of music!" On his way to the committee meeting, the gentle- man of integrity who would not be a party to a shady or underhand scheme, purchased a copy of the Journal. His eye was attracted to an editorial which he read with more than passing interest. It was this: "Not as Plain as A. B. C." "We learn that a change is meditated in the series of music books used in the Minneapolis schools. Ap- parently the change was to have been brought about, if at all, rather quietly and unobtrusively. It has been the wise rule of the Minneapolis school board to notify all schoolbook publishers in plenty of season before CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 303 such changes were made, so that they could appear and enter the competition. This rule appears to have been overlooked in the present instance." "Another curious circumstance is that the new series, which it is proposed to adopt, is still in press. There has been little or no opportunity to examine the books which the board is now asked to adopt." "Naturally, a change of this sort means a consider- able additional expenditure, and it would seem that before supplanting the present series, which seems to have been quite satisfactory, it would be well not only to have an open hearing, but to give any new series the test of close, expert examination." "It would be interesting to know just what the source and motive of the initiative in this rather singular affair may be!" This gentleman is said to have walked into the superintendent's office and after greeting the superin- tendent and other member or members of the com- mittee, nonchalantly asked whether they had seen today's Journal? Of course they had not, for they had been too much occupied with the business that was to come before the committee. He suggested dryly, that they would better read the editorial before beginning the committee meeting. The textbook committee meeting was short. It did not seem to the agent m.ore than fifteen minutes until he was called for, and he entered the superintend- ent's office. He found the officious chairman busily engaged gathering up his belongings for a hasty de- parture. The gentleman of the strictest integrity was sitting at ease, with a most quisicial and comical expression of countenance which seemed to indicate that he had enjoyed the discomfiture of his fellow members of the textbook committee. 304 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The superintendent of schools acting as spokesman for the committee said "Mr. , the committee has decided not to take up the question of music books at this time. If you will call on the supply clerk he will give you the order for your music books." The agent for the music books in use, glanced at the honest gentleman sitting on the opposite side of the big table, who returned a knowing look with a drooping of the left eyelid as much as to say : — "The best laid schemes o'mice an' men Gang aft a-gley, An' lea's us naught but grief and pain, For promis'd joy." It came out afterwards that that little opportune editorial "scared them stiff," A school board election was coming on, and it seemed to these gentlemen to portend trouble. The superintendent expressed his disapproval emphatically of anyone who would resort to the newspapers in a "schoolbook fight." It did lead to one of the civic organizations taking up the subject of school board matters. A detective was employed, who succeeded, so he reported, in making a deal with this same chairman of the textbook com- mittee member for a "cash" consideration to purchase certain school supplies. He was indicted and arrested, but the prosecution was never pushed, for the reason that the laws of Minnesota makes the giver of a bribe equally guilty with the taker \ About 1912, there was another "book fight" in Minneapolis. There was a committee appointed by the superintendent of schools, or the Board of Educa- tion or both, consisting of something like twenty-one principals on Course of Study and Textbooks. CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 305 This committee was to make a thorough study of the course of study and to make its recommendation of changes to the superintendent of schools. It was appointed in the autumn and was requested to report in the spring. It was not long before this committee seemed to lose sight of the subject of the course of study and, through the manipulations of schoolbook agents, to center its interest on schoolbooks. Everything seemed to run along pretty smoothly, regarding the books on all the subjects except primary reading. On this subject, for some reason, the report of the com- mittee on reading did not fit in with the slate of the committee of the whole. Every other subject was reported upon to the "satisfaction" of the whole com- mittee, but the committee on reading persisted in recommending a series of readers other than the series of readers it was expected to recommend ! There was much bitter feeling engendered. One of the members of the committee on reading, expired suddenly. While the agitation over this subject may not have been the cause of her sudden demise, it was known to her friends that she felt keenly the bitter comments of her associates on the general committee, because she recommended and championed the Pro- gressive Road to Reading when she was expected to recommend the Aldine Series. The committee on reading stood by its guns. The general committee substituted the Aldine readers for the Progressive Road readers. By this act, it sought to discredit its own committee on reading and it did "put over" its slate unbroken, so far as the recommendation of the committee was concerned. Much might be written about the activities of the opposing friends and advocates of these two reading 306 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS systems that would be interesting enough in its recital, but not profitable for this discussion. The Board of Education adopted the Progressive Road to Reading, accepting and approving the recom- mendation of the committee on reading. The books were duly ordered and introduced in all the schools and everything was running along smoothly and satisfactorily when a new and unexpected incident came into the situation. One of the authors of the Aldine series of readers was elected superintendent of schools of Minneapolis! Following his appointment, his associate author was appointed assistant superintendent of schools ! Imagine the predicament of the former superintend- ent's assistant who had visited some of the cities in the East, where the Aldine series was in use, and other cities where the Progressive Road to Reading series was in use, and had recommended the adoption of the Progressive Road to Reading in the Minneapolis schools, and had been enthusiastic in commendation of the results from its use in the schools ! It was but a short time, so it was reported, before this assistant superintendent was "assigned" to differ- ent work, presumably so that she might not interfere with plans to remedy any defects in the established scheme for teaching reading in the schools of Minne- apolis. It did not take long for a spontaneous sentiment to develop among the teachers and principals favorable to the introduction and use of the system of reading books whose authors were their superintendent and assistant superintendent of schools. The taxpayers of Minneapolis, so it is reported, had to foot the bills for a supply of the books, Reading CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 307 and Phonic Charts, Sight word cards, Phonic Cards, Rhyme Charts, Word and Phrase Cards, Phonic Drill Cards, and Seat Work Cards for all the schools in addition to paying the salaries of the authors of all this paraphernalia. In addition to the system of teaching reading this meteoric superintendent and his assistant, were asso- ciated in the authorship of a Language Series. There soon grew up a spontaneous and irresistible sentiment among the teachers and principals for this new Language series. And it was not long, so it is said before the Board of Education adopted the Lan- guage series for basic and exclusive textbooks for use in all the elementary schools of Minneapohs. What would you do if you were a mere teacher or a mere principal in a school system, where your superin- tendent assumed autocratic power of reassignment, promotion, demotion, or dismissal of all members of the teaching and supervisory force, and he and his assistant were associated in the authorship of a system of reading, and of a Language series. Would you not be quite favorably inclined to the introduction of those books into your classes? If you were not so inclined, you might find yourself in the position of one of Mr. Briggs' familiar charac- ters, "When a feller needs a friend." Soon after these authors' system of Teaching Reading was supposed to be well "planted" in the schools of Minneapolis, they were casting about for greener fields. The superintendent of Minneapolis received a "call" from the Board of Education of Cleveland, and he was elected to the position of superintendent of schools of that city. 308 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS It was generally understood that the Cleveland school board granted to the new superintendent near autocratic powers governing all matters pertaining to teachers, course of study, schoolbooks, principals, assis- tant and district superintendents and supervisors. He chose for his assistant his co-author and assis- tant superintendent at Minneapolis. The newspapers reported a visit of the superintend- ent elect to Cleveland sometime before he was to assume his duties as superintendent of schools. After looking the assistant superintendents and supervisors over, he was reported to have given out the information through the newspapers that the services of certain ones would not be continued, and that certain others might be retained. One of the assistant superintendents thus so sum- marily dismissed was the veteran and highly respected Henry C. Muckley who had served the public schools of Cleveland faithfully and efficiently thirty-two years. During the later years of this long term of service, he was generally regarded as the "right hand man" of the different superintendents of schools as they came and went. He was the best known, and the most beloved man in the school service of Cleveland. It does seem that he deserved more considerate treatment at the hands of this autocratic schoolbook author superintendent who had not as yet taken his chair as superintendent. These summary dismissals of those in prominent positions were supposed to have been made to impress the great body of the supervising and teaching force of the city with the authority of this new dictator of the public schools of Cleveland. It is almost unbe- lievable that any Board of Education anywhere could CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 309 be found that would weakly acquiesce in so discour- teous treatment of so deserving a man who had given so many years of his life to the public schools under its management and control. It is rather significant that there had been a pretty keen "schoolbook fight" in Cleveland between the agents of these author superintendents' System of Teaching Reading, and the agents of the same pub- lishers who had assumed to contest the adoption of their books in Minneapolis. The settlement of this "book fight" was some- thing like the treaty of Versailles, about all it settled was the fight. It was decided that the "System of Teaching Read- ing" should be used in the primary grades of one-half of the schools, and the opposing "Method in Reading" in the other one-half. This was the situation regarding reading books in the primary grades of the Cleveland schools when the authors of the System of Teaching Reading assumed the domination of educational matters in the Cleveland public schools. The thought of the former superintendent of schools, at the time that this arrangement was made, was that the inevitable rivalry between the partisans of these two series of books would have the effect of securing better teaching of each of these "Special methods" than would result if either one had the field to itself. Not a bad idea, only it should be carried far enough to in- clude all of the different methods. It does not require a free play of fancy to appreciate the embarrassing posi- tion in which this action of the school board placed those assistant superintendents, principals, and teach- 310 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS ers who had exercised their preference for the Rational Method in Reading. The seeming autocratic powers of the new superin- tendent regarding assignment, promotion and demo- tion of teachers did not tend to make their positions any less embarrassing. As might be expected, many of these erstwhile proponents of the Rational Method and of the "dual plan," now that they had been privileged to see the authors of the System of Teaching Reading at closer range, began to see much of merit in the System of Teaching Reading that they had not been enabled to see before. The outcome of this spontaneous outburst of admiration for the new superintendents' System of Teaching Reading was practically unanimous. Teacher after teacher and school after school sought permission to introduce the books, word and phonic charts, seat cards, and word and phrase cards of the System of Teaching Reading. There were no reports of refusal of any of these spontaneous requests by the superintendent's office. It should be remembered that these same author superintendents were associate authors of the Aldine Language Series; and the assistant superintendent was joint author of the Aldine Spellers. The books of this Language Series were adopted for use in the elementary schools of Cleveland. Following the declaration of war, the superintend- ent of the Cleveland schools was appointed a member of the Army Educational Commission; and a member of the Commission appointed by the War Department to establish public schools in war industry centers. CITY SCHOOL BOOK ADOPTIONS 311 The plan for the school systems at these industry centers was drawn by him. Among the schoolbooks prescribed for basic use in these government schools on industrial reservations were the Primer, Teachers' Manual and all the Read- ers, both pupils' and teachers' editions. Seat Work Cards, Primer Rhyme Cards, Book One Rhyme Cards, Reading Chart, Phonic Cards, Sight Work Cards, Word and Phrase Cards, Rhyme Charts, and Pupils' Phonic Drill Cards of the Aldine System of Teaching Reading; the Aldine First Language Book, and Teach- ers' Manual, and Second Language Book, and Teachers' Manual; and Aldine Speller, Books, I, II, III, and IV. It is significant that the books and paraphernalia of this prominent, meteoric superintendent were intro- duced into the systems of schools one after another after he took charge of them, and that he did not remain in charge very long after his books were introduced. There are those who believe that the superintendent of schools should be given authority to choose and to recommend textbooks for exclusive use in the schools without check or hindrance from the Board of Educa- tion. There should be no authority lodged anywhere in any individual or body to choose, adopt, or contract for a uniform series of schoolbooks for use in a class, city, county, or state. CHAPTER XI On State Uniformity of School Books The foundation of all the excesses and abuses in the school-book business, is the legal provision for the "Adoption of a uniform series of text books for use in all the public schools," whether of a state, county, city, township, or school district. The idea of a "uniform series of school books," has been insisted upon by the school book publishers from the beginning in their own interests, for therein lay their only opportunity for the exploitation of the schools in a wholesale manner. It affords them an artificial monopoly of supplying all the books to be used in a state, county, city, town or school district for a definite period, usually for five years. These contracts are valuable enough to repay the publisher who secures them for the outlay necessary to secure them. These abuses and suspicious prac- tices are not inherent in the school book publishing business. They are found in all lines of business where there is competition for contracts for a monopoly. Think of the scandals in most of our cities over the granting of franchises for the exclusive use of the streets and alleys for various public service corpora- tions, such as gas, electric light, telephone, and street car corporations. In many instances, these plundering promoters who secured these franchises were enabled to sell their bare franchises for fabulous sums. 312 STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 313 All through the years there have been these scram- bles for the monopoly of furnishing uniforms for policeman and firemen. Even when our country was in the stress of war and there was urgent need for the prompt and adequate equipment of an army, this same question of "uniform and exclusive" equipment led to serious delays and to near disastrous results. Not only was this true of articles of clothing, shoes, hats, socks, blankets, etc., but in the more vital mat- ters of arms and munitions. Powerful influences prevented the manufacture of field guns until a particular type could be perfected, with the result that the new guns never reached the firing line. This was equally true in regard to machine guns. Notwithstanding the urgent need for this essential equipment, some powerful mfluence prevented action until after a special "make" of machine gun could be perfected. Practically none of these favored uniform machine guns reached our armies over seas before the armistice. The delay in providing aeroplanes for our army, awaiting the designing, experimenting and building of a uniform and exclusive "Liberty" engine, is a matter of bitter recollection. Wherever and whenever the opportunity is offered for a great "fat" contract for supplying a uniform and exclusive material or equipment of any sort for pubhc use, you will find "designers" and designing men using any and every influence and questionable method to secure the proffered monopoly. 314 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS A STATE UNIFOEMITY SCHOOL SHOE LAW Let US suppose, for illustration, that a "Uniform and exclusive school shoe law" should be enacted in any one or any number of states. This law provides for the creation of a "State School Shoe Commission of five members," consisting of the governor, and state auditor, exofficio members, and three members to be appointed by the governor. This law provides that no member shall have been engaged in the manufacture of shoes for at least two years prior to his appointment, and that no relative of himself or his wife shall be engaged in the shoe business. It is made the duty of the said State School Shoe Commission to advertise for bids for the monopoly of supplying shoes for "uniform and exclusive" wear of all the children attending the public schools in the state for five years. The form of bid and the specifications provide that bidders shall submit samples of the shoes upon which bids are submitted. The bidder must give three prices, first, net contract; second, net retail; and third, net exchange. The net contract price is the price at which the shoes will be supplied to authorized dealers in school shoes at a central depository in the state. The net retail price is the price at which the shoe dealer is authorized to sell the adopted school shoes to school pupils, when said pupil has no old pair of shoes to offer in exchange. The exchange price is the price the pupil must pay for a new pair of shoes in addition to his used shoes which are in wearable condition. Bidders are advised that they may submit briefs setting forth the excellent qualities of their shoes, and that arrangement will be made for hearings by appoint- STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 315 ment by members of the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission with representatives of the shoe manu- facturers. A day is set for receiving bids from manufacturers of shoes on which day the bids will be opened, read and tabulated. While this clerical work of tabulating the bids is being done, the State Uniform School Shoe Commission decides to give each bidder or his agent fifteen minutes for an oral presentation of the merits of his particular make of school shoes. This proceding goes on solemnly until all have been heard. Much interest is shown in these presentation speeches, and each speaker is complimented and thanked for the valuable assistance he has given the State Uniform School Shoe Commission, in arriving at a wise choice in the selection of the very best school shoes for the children of the state. In all probability, the uniform school shoe to be adopted, had been settled upon by a majority of the members of the State Uniform School Shoe Commis- sion, at a private meeting with the governor long before these hearings were held. Quite likely, the campaign manager of the governor was the attorney for the "Excelsior Paper Insole School Shoe Company," a local industry whose oflBcials subscribed liberally to the campaign "war chest" of the governor and his party, and quite as likely, just as liberally to that of his opponent. Numerous delegations appeared before the com- mission to present their claims and protests. The Labor delegates, demanding that the bids of no shoe manufacturer "unfair to union labor" shall be con- sidered; and that the uniform school shoe adopted shall bear the union label in a conspicuous place. 316 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS This delegation leaves a list of all school shoe manu- facturers, "unfair to union labor" with the governor. The delegations representing the "Anti-high heel association"; the "Flat heel and common sense society"; and the "sandal and moccasin propaganda association," each demanded a hearing. These delega- tions are patiently listened to and each is assured that sympathetic consideration will be given to its ex- pressed wishes and demands. The public hearings having ended, the governor on behalf of the State Uniform School Shoe Commis- sion, announces that the commission, in order to have time to examine carefully the many samples of shoes submitted, and to consider the bids on each shoe, "workmanship and quality of materials considered" will adjourn for thirty days. The bidders and their agents are notified that all hearings, public or private, are closed and that it is the desire of the commission that all bidders and their agents leave town, and that they make no efforts to see or communicate with any member of the State Uniform School Shoe Commission, on pain of forfeiting consideration of their bid. If the commission should wish further information from any bidder or his agent, he would be sent for and invited to appear. The experienced "Uniform school shoe contract" man understands this familiar "gag." He knows well enough that unless he is "in" on the deal, he might just as well go home and remain there, for he will never be called. On the day set for the meeting of the governor and his State Uniform School Shoe Commission to adopt their Uniform State School Shoes, two other influential delegations were on hand demanding a public hearing. STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 317 The Amalgamated State Journeyman Shoe Workers urged that the state uniform school shoes adopted must be manufactured in the state. A group of public spirited political agitators in- sisted that the state must lease the lasts, designs, patterns and trade brand of most any shoe, buy a shoe factory, and manufacture all the school shoes for all the school children and sell them at cost. (This accomplished, the next step was to move to have the state uniform school shoes manufactured, distributed, and furnished to all the school children in the state "free of all cost.") They argued that if the State Uniform School Commission would purchase, equip, maintain and operate a factory, they stood ready to guarantee that the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission could manufacture and distribute, school shoes cheaper than private ''capitalistic" corporations, and at the same time give employment to a select number of politician ne'r do wells, and as their salaries would be paid out of the state treasury, their valuable services would be "free of all cost." After careful consideration of these disinterested propositions, the governor on behalf of his State School Shoe Commission gave out a statement to the effect that while the commission found much to commend in these several recommendations, and that sooner or later some of them should receive favorable con- sideration, that for the present it seemed to the com- mission that in the interest of all concerned it would be best to proceed with the adoption of the proposition of some one of the regular bidders in accord with the advertisement for bids. 318 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS In order to give out the impression that the mem- bers of the commission were going into the comparative merits of the many samples of school shoes, representa- tives of a number of the competing shoe manufacturers were sent for to appear before the commission. These were questioned regarding the wearing qualities of parts of their shoes. These agents were astonished to find how much these members of the State Uni- formity School Shoe Commission knew about the technology of shoe making. Each shoe representative was asked whether his house, in the event of the adoption of his shoe for exclu- sive wear by all the school children in the state, would agree to make such changes in the shoe as the com- mission should recommend. These various representa- tives all left the private audience with the commission feeling that the commission was certainly interested in his shoe, and each wired his house that the "situation looks favorable to me." Finally, word is given out that at a public meeting of the State Uniform School Shoe Commission the result of the adoption would be announced. When the meeting is called to order, every school shoe manufacturer, and his agent is present. After some preliminaries, the governor rises and announces the purpose of the meeting. He makes a speech in which he emphasizes the painstaking and impartial care the members of the commission have given to this matter of so great importance to every child attending the public schools and to the parents and teachers of the children. He wished to thank the members of the State Uni- form School Shoe Commission, in behalf of the people of the state, for their patriotic services to the state. STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 319 He addresses a few complimentary words to the bidders and their representatives, thanking them for their helpfulness to him and the other members of the commission. He states that he is sorry that the com- mission could not adopt all of their school shoes, and that some of them will have to be disappointed. The secretary of the commission is asked to read the result of the commission's action. This official announced the adoption of the "Every Day School Shoe," manufactured and offered by the Excelsior Paper Insole Shoe Company. After this announcement, the governor, as chair- man, states that as the commission had considerable unfinished business to clean up, he would ask the gentle- men to retire. The next morning's issue of the administration newspaper contains a two column interview with the governor, in which he expatiated upon the very favor- able contract he had succeeded in making with the manufacturers of the Every Day School Shoe. What a satisfaction it will be to him and to every parent in this great state to see every child in the state at the opening of school in September, walking proudly to school wearing a new pair of Every Day School Shoes ! It must be a matter of personal satisfaction to every voter and taxpayer to know that the estimated saving to the people of the state, by the adoption of the Every Day School Shoe, as the uniform state school shoe, will not be less than one million dollars for the five year period ! The editorial in the administration newspaper "volunteered" the prediction that the governor would stump the state that fall making the State Uniformity School Shoe Law his chief slogan. 320 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The following week all the administration news- papers in the state came out with the same interview with the governor and laudatory editorials. The chief entertainer of the Paper Insole Shoe Company arranged for a quiet but rather elaborate little dinner at the big hotel. The governor, his cam- paign manager, the editor of the administration news- paper, and the members of the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission were honored guests. The principals of the Excelsior Paper Insole Shoe Company and their fine worker were the hosts. The entertainment was a most congenial affair, and it was the unanimous judgment of the guests that their hosts had given them a royal good time. In due time, the official State Uniformity School Shoe Bulletin was issued and distributed to all the school officials and school shoe dealers in the state. The usual instructions and directions were specifically set out. 1. "The Every Day School Shoes, adopted as the uniform school shoes shall be introduced and worn to the exclusion of all other shoes by all the school children of the state and continue to be worn for five years from September, 1st., except that nothing in this act shall be construed to prevent the wearing of rubbers or over- shoes as "Supplementary shoes," but such "Supple- mentary shoes," shall not be worn to the exclusion of the regularly adopted school shoes under the pro- visions of this act." 2. "Any person violating the provisions of the law relating to a uniform series of school shoes, shall be deemed guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction, shall be punished by fine of not less than twenty-five STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 321 ($25) dollars, nor more than five-hundred ($500.00) dollars. 3. "Any teacher who shall wear or permit to be worn in his or her school any shoe other than the one adopted by the said State Uniformity School Shoe Commission, after said shoes have been supplied by the contractor, shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be punished as provided for in the preceding section, and said conviction shall operate as a cancellation of said teacher's license, and contract with the school district, and said person shall not again be licensed to teach in the public schools of the state." 4. "If any local agent, clerk or dealer or other person handling or selling the shoes adopted under the provisions of this act shall demand, or receive, more than the retail or contract price for any of the shoes herein provided for, he shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction, shall for each offense be punished by a fine of not less than fifty ($50) dollars nor more than five hundred ($500.00) dollars." The State Uniformity Compulsory School Shoe law contains a drastic article providing heavy penalties for any person "convicted of bribing or attempting to bribe" any member of the State Uniform School Commission. The Bulletin further set forth the details for supply- ing the authorized Every Day School Shoes. A list of the authorized local dealers where the Every Day School Shoes must be purchased. The contract prices of the various sizes of shoes are given and purchasers are instructed to see that the prices are stamped on each shoe, and that under no 322 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS circumstances must more than the contract price be paid. The exchange price is explained to be the amount in cash to be paid when an old pair of shoes worn by the school pupil and in good wearable condition is offered in exchange as part payment for a pair of Every Day School Shoes. The exchange price is also stamped on the soles of the shoes. The allowance for the pupil's worn shoes would be about one-third of the retail price. The exchange privilege is extended to but one exchange for any one school pupil, and to one year from October 1st. Notwithstanding the statements in the governor's speeches and in the administration newspaper and the country weeklies praising the State Uniformity School Shoe Law, there are many complaints from the school patrons when the time comes to purchase a complete outfit of the adopted and authorized school shoes. They find little comfort in the liberal exchange price offered in the face of the fact that the shoes they are required to exchange, meet the school pupil's needs fully as well as the new ones, and would last fully as long. They ask, "What is the sense of requiring one to purchase a new pair of shoes when he has a perfectly good pair that answers every purpose.^" These hard headed parents can see no sense in the answer that, "It is very important that all the children in the schools of the state wear uniform shoes." And furthermore, "It is the law!" After considerable confusion and delay, occasioned by the misjudgment of the county depositories in ordering the various sizes in lengths and widths of shoes STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 323 and the quantity necessary to "supply all the children in the public schools," and the inability of the Excelsior Paper Insole Shoe Company, on account of "Labor troubles" to manufacture enough shoes in the short time allowed to supply all the dealers in the state, the situation eased up and most of the school pupils were fitted out with State Uniformity Every Day School Shoes. It is not long, however, before there are complaints from all over the state that the Every Day School Shoes are not "well made," that the inner soles are paper, and that the State Uniformity School Shoes are not up to the standard of quality of shoes they had been purchasing from their regular shoe dealers. These complaints become so numerous and ominous that the governor finds it necessary to call the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission into extra session to consider these complaints. The Excelsior Paper Insole Company is represented both by the oflScials of that corporation and by at- torney, the governor's campaign manager. After a day's executive session the commission adjourned. Announcement was formally made that the governor and the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission had made a full investigation of the com- plaints regarding the State Uniformity School Shoe adopted and introduced for wear in all the public schools of the state. It finds that these complaints, what there are of them, have been "worked up" by the agents of disap- pointed shoe manufacturers to discredit the State Uniformity School Shoe Law, and the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission! While it is true that the Every Day School Shoe does have a moisture absorbing 324 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS paper inner sole, this fact was explained to the com- mission by the representative of the Excelsior Paper Insole School Shoe Company, and was considered a strong point in favor of the adoption of this shoe! The samples of shoes sent in for examination show "unusual wear and rough usage," but are in every case found to be made according to the standard of the oflScial sample filed with the bid. The contractors proved to the satisfaction of the commission, that they were using every precaution to fulfill every condition of their contract with the state fully and liberally. That every pair of shoes is carefully inspected before being "passed" for packing, and every precaution taken that every shoe is perfect. "It will be gratifying to all friends to know that the governor has received literally hundreds of letters and newspaper clippings from all over the state praising the State Uniformity School Shoe Law, and the action of the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission in choosing so good a shoe." Patrons are warned against paying attention to any of this malicious propaganda. This formal announcement goes the rounds of the newspapers of the state. The patrons who had been "indiscreet" enough to protest asked themselves "What's the use?" The State Uniformity School Shoes are introduced; all of the "second hand" shoes are gathered up and shipped out of the state so there are no other school shoes left with which comparisons can be made. The public settles down with the consolation that it is only for five years and by that time it may be given relief. The announcement that the governor had purchased a beautiful town site and that he planned to build a STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 325 great house upon it, ground for which would probably be broken early in April, is received by those who know him best as a most interesting and significant news item. It is currently reported, although not published in the newspapers, that the state auditor is making many substantial improvements down on his country home place, in the way of buildings, blooded live stock, etc. It is generally noted that his wife and daughter enter much more actively into the social life of the city, and that they make frequent shopping trips in preparation for the activities of the approaching social season. The governor's spokesman on the State Uniformity School Shoe Commission, in recognition of his executive ability is appointed superintendent of the State Insti- tution for the Blind, a lucrative and so far as political appointments go, a fairly permanent position. The two remaining members who, while looked upon as good loyal administration men, are merely "minority" members, little further was heard of them. Now that we have stated this suppositional State Compulsory Uniform School Shoe proposition, let us analyze it and its workings from a purely dollar and cents stand point. The pretexts and subterfuge used by the lobbyists in their arguments for the passage of the Compulsory State Uniformity School Shoe Law, were that the people were being swindled and over- charged for every pair of shoes purchased for the pupils attending the public schools; that by the adoption of a uniform standard school shoe the state would be able to make a wholesale saving to the patrons of the public schools; that by putting the manufacturers of compulsory uniform State School Shoes under heavy 326 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS bonds and binding them up in an iron clad contract, the people would be guaranteed a uniform standard quality and an ample supply of shoes; and that it would greatly simplify the work of teachers and super- visors to have all the children in all the schools wearing uniform shoes. First of all, we must not forget that all the children attending school were wearing shoes at the time this law was passed and signed by the governor in "response to a state wide demand on the part of the people for relief from the school shoe trust"; that not less than seventy-five (75) per cent of all the school children in the state were supplied with one or more pairs of shoes that would serve them until they needed larger sized shoes, and for that reason, were not in need of new shoes. The remaining twenty -five (25) per cent would need new shoes before starting to school. The simple proposition is that three-fourths of all the school children who are well supplied with good wearing shoes chosen and purchased by their parents from their regular family shoe dealer, must discard their perfectly good shoes and exchange them for a pair of the legally adopted compulsory State Uniform Paper Insole School Shoes, and pay the exchange price in cash. For the purpose of demonstration, let us take a concrete case. There are four children of a family in school, one, in the first grade, or year; one, in the third grade; one, in the fifth grade; and one, in the eighth grade. Let us suppose that the contract prices of the sizes of the Every Day School Shoes for the cor- responding grades as published in the Compulsory Uniformity State School Shoe Bulletin, were as follows: STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 327 First Third Fifth Eighth Grade Grade Grade Grade Retail price $2.50 $3.00 $4.00 $5.00 Exchange price 1.66 2.00 2.66 3.33 Allowance for old shoes .84 1.00 1.34 1.68 Regular wholesale price of same shoes outside of this state 1.65 2.00 2.65 3.30 By comparing these regular wholesale prices with the exchange prices stamped on the soles of the shoes, it will be seen that they are practically the same. In other words, the manufacturer of the Every Day School Shoes gets substantially his usual wholesale price at which he sells shoes to regular shoe dealers everywhere, and a perfectly good pair of used shoes in addition. The favored shoe contractor gets his full price for every pair of shoes sold under contract in the state whether exchanged or sold outright. The only apparent saving on the retail price of the compulsory Uniform State School shoes is about 10% which the state school shoe law takes from the retail shoe dealers of the state. These local business men, taxpayers and patrons of the public schools are compelled by law to sell school shoes at a gross profit of not to exceed 15% above the net contract price. He commits a misdemeanor if he does. Any business man knows that a retail business can not be done on a 15% margin of profit. The parents of these school children had made an inventory of the school shoes of their children. They found that three of the children had perfectly good shoes, the ones in the first, the third, and eighth grades; and that the one in the fifth grade must have a new pair. If there had been no "change in school shoes" and the pupils had been permitted to go right on with the shoes they had, but one new pair of shoes would have 328 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS been needed to "outfit" these four children for school. The parents would have paid something like four dollars and twenty-five cents for this new pair at their regular shoe dealer. They would have had the privi- lege and the inherent personal right of choosing a pair of shoes for their child to wear. But because of the Compulsory Uniform State School Shoe Law, that had been enacted through the manipulation of the Excelsior Paper Insole School Shoe lobby, these parents must discard their three children's shoes in good wearable condition, and in addition to buying one pair of school shoes for the child who needed a pair of shoes, they must purchase three additional pairs of the state adopted Every Day School Shoes. By reference to the prices as published in the Com- pulsory Uniform State School Shoe OflScial Bulletin, the prices paid for re-outfitting the children of this fairly typical family with the authorized school shoes follows : — The youngest child surrenders her unauthorized pair of shoes in "good wearable condition" and is charged the contract exchange price for a new pair, $1.66. The third grade boy, exchanges his perfectly good shoes and $2.00 in cash for a new pair of shoes for his grade. The little girl in the fifth grade buys a new pair and having no shoes in good wearable condition to exchange, she pays the contract retail price, $4.00. The daughter in the eighth grade has school shoes "as good as new," but as they are outlawed, her parents must exchange them and purchase a pair of the state artificial monopoly school shoes and pay $3 . 33. STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 329 This family's school shoe bill is $10 . 99 and three good pairs of shoes in "usuable condition," The Compulsory Uniform State school shoe law created a market for the Excelsior Paper Insole School Shoe Company for jour pairs of shoes where the eco- nomic law of supply and demand would have required but one pair! Had the parents and the daughter been permitted to purchase her shoes from a regular stock at their own shoe dealer's, they probably would have paid anywhere from four-fifty to five dollars for a pair of shoes of their own choosing. Let us say that they purchase a pair for four dol- lars and fifty cents. In this particular case, the father's shoe bill was increased just 144 2-9%; and the outfit of three pairs of new shoes which were not needed will serve only the same purpose as the three pairs dis- carded. The Compulsory Uniformity state monopoly advo- cate asks if it is not true that this father left to his own responsibility and the influence of his wife and daughter, did not pay fifty cents more than he would have paid for the corresponding compulsory uniformity school shoe "adopted" for him by the Compulsory Uniform State School Shoe Commission? Let the parent, the only person who has a right to a hearing on the subject answer the question. "First of all, my daughter would not choose the Every Day School Shoe at any price, I agree with her. The pair of shoes of our own choice suits our purpose better and I am willing to pay the extra price for the privilege of choosing for myself." "In the second place, my shoe dealer is my friend. We have traded with him for years. We have found 330 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS him reliable and dependable. In the few instances where a pair of shoes has not proved satisfactory, we have found him ready to "make it right." He is one of the substantial business men of our town, a tax payer, and a good citizen. I believe in the old fashioned policy, 'Live and let live.' " As the contract for school shoes expires in June, and there is a new governor and he has appointed a new Compulsory Uniform State School Shoe Commission, the administration political paper has stated editorially that there has been wide spread dissatisfaction with the Every Day School Shoes. The general complaint seems to be that these shoes are rather "stiff and heavy", the sizes and weights are not suited to the ages (poorly graded) of the children, and everybody seems sick and tired of the Every Day School Shoes and wants a change ! Doubtless the reader has thought and is thinking, "How absurd and ridiculous this idea of a Compul- sory Uniform State School Shoe Law is!" On the contrary, it is a perfectly sane and practica- ble economic proposition, when compared with the Com- pulsory Uniformity School Book Laws foisted upon the people of at least twenty-four states of the United States ! There has not been a single argument used by the school book publishers and their political lobyists in favor of the passage by the various state legislatures of compulsory state uniformity schoolbook laws; that might not have been urged in favor of the passage of compulsory state uniform school shoe laws. As a matter of fact, there are more plausible argu- ments that might be advanced in favor of compulsory state uniformity in school shoes, than the stock argu- ments in favor of state uniformity in schoolbooks. STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 331 School shoes are necessary for the physical comfort of the wearer and as an article of dress for the feet. Any sordid political graft that might interfere with the natural laws of demand and supply, while it might seem to be an officious interference with the inherent responsibility and rights of those of us who must provide their children with school shoes, nevertheless all the harm that it could do would have to do with the children's /ee^. On the other hand, school books are the repositories of the material and method so essential in the training of the mind! "Of the three factors in every school, building and equipment, teachers and text books, it can hardly be said that text books constitute the factor of least importance. Frequently the text book is the teacher, while the man or woman called the teacher is only a kind of taskmaster driving the children through the pages of the books," so says Dr. P. P. Claxton, U. S. Commissioner of Education, in Bulletin 1915 number 36, United States Bureau of Education. There is another very potent factor of vital import to thousands of boys and girls most in need of the "Elements of a common school education", and that is the time element! There are comparatively few favored boys and girls who have the time or the means to enable them to dawdle along for eight years in the grades, four years in high school and four years in college. Our ideals are all right as laid out in our elaborate education system, but the facts are that the great majority of our boys and girls cannot and do not attend school long enough or regularly enough to get beyond the sixth grade. How precious are the short "school days" to this large 332 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS majority of boys and girls, and how vital to the welfare of the Nation! How dare we allow scheming, selfish interests to cheapen, curtail and limit a free distribution and sale of the best school books obtainable for the use of these boys and girls whose time for getting the little education they are to get is so short ! What moral right have our law-makers, under the influence of a conscienceless lobby, topass a law making it a criminal offense for "Any teacher who shall use or permit to be used in his or her school any book other than the one adopted by the said State Uniformity School Book Commission, after said books have been supplied by the contractor, shall be guilty of a mis- demeanor and upon conviction shall be punished as provided for in the preceding section, and such conviction shall operate as a cancellation of said teacher's license, and contract with the school district, and said person shall not again be licensed to teach in the public schools of the state!" A half grown country boy is struggling along as best he can, between the seasons when his services are required on the farm, for an education. It is probably his last term of school. He has the same grammar, arithmetic, geography and United States history he bought and studied the year before. As he expresses it, "I'm pretty well along in my books and I would like to keep on in school and finish them up this term. I got as far as percentage in my arithmetic, syntax in my grammar, Asia, in my geography, and the Civil War in my history and was getting on fine when I had to quit school last spring." But after the fall work is done and he presents himself at school with his last year's school books, the STATE UNIFORMITY OF SCHOOL BOOKS 333 teacher is forced to tell this ambitious young man that his good friends and teachers have been outlawed and that it is now a criminal offense for her to permit him to continue his studies in arithmetic, grammar, geog- raphy and United States history from his school books on those subjects. The young man, being of a practical turn of mind, and possessed of his share of that every day common good sense, the very foundation of our institutions, demurred. The teacher can offer no sensible answer to his arguments that he be permitted to finish his studies in the books he has been using and with which he has become familiar. All she can say is that it is against the law, and that she would commit a criminal act if she "permitted to be used" any of his books. That he will have to provide himself with the newly adopted uniform books before she can admit him to school. "Ah! well," says this perfectly normal American boy, nearing manhood with all the responsibilities of an American citizen, "If I can't use my perfectly good books, I won't go to the trouble and the expense of buying new books. I will go to work and give up school." The school book publishers "got" their contracts for furnishing for exclusive and uniform use a new series of school books, the go between "Kibosh" poli- ticians "got theirs," but our American boy never got beyond 'percentage in Arithmetic, Syntax in grammar, Asia in Geography, and the Civil War in United States history, and he never reached the Constitution of the United States!! CHAPTER XII The Futility of Schoolbook Legislation As stated before, the root of all the ills and abuses in the exploitation of schoolbooks, is in the legal pro- vision for a compulsory uniform series of schoolbooks, whether it be for a school, school district, township, town, county, city or state. Every state has passed laws of some sort, pre- scribing the method of selecting schoolbooks, and regulating their introduction and use. These laws were ostensibly passed to protect the school patrons from too frequent changes in schoolbooks, and from paying excessive prices. On account of the riot of excesses, and abuses practiced by the schoolbook publishers in the 80's and 90's, there was much dissatisfaction and complaint among the people over the frequent changes and the methods of the schoolbook publishers and their agents in bringing about these changes. There was more dissatisfaction, and unrest over the frequent changes than over the matter of expense. The fact being that most of the changes complained of, were made on an even exchange basis. An agent of one of these sordid exploiters would drive up to a schoolbuilding with a wagon load of his schoolbooks and blandly inform the teacher that he had to come to "take up" all the old schoolbooks and to leave new ones in place of them. He would ask the teacher to have the pupils gather up all their old books and place them on their desks. 334 FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 335 Then he and his driver would proceed to exchange book for book, subject for subject, regardless of the condi- tion of the used books. They would see to it that the teacher had new desk copies, and they were as careful to see to it that the desk copies of their competitor's books were taken up. The old books were all gathered up and packed away in the empty boxes in the wagon. The exchange completed, and another school added to the "holdings" of this publisher, the agent drove on to the next school building. The children of course, were delighted with their new books and as they had "cost them nothing," the parents had no objection to the transaction, following the old adage: — "Even exchange is no robbery!" These "Wrecking crews" were systematically organized. The agent in charge would hire all the available rigs at all the livery stables in the county, regardless of whether he would need to use them or not, as a defensive measure in the event that his "hated rival" should "get wind" of what he was doing, and should undertake to start a defensive campaign. So well were these predatory campaigns planned and executed, that a whole county would be "cleaned up" before the agent of the injured competitor would find it out, although he and his "wrecking crews" might be carrying on a similar campaign in an adjoining county. It was no uncommon occurrence for the schoolbooks to be even exchanged three and four times during one school term, and at the end of the term the same books, except that they were new copies, were in the hands of the children and the teacher that they had at the beginning ! 336 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS As might be expected with each change of books there was a disarrangement of the regular work causing confusion in the minds of the children. This interference with the regular continuity of school work was the basis for vigorous protests on the part of the parents and teachers. These even exchange book fights like most fights were short if not decisive. They ended in a truce or an armistice. Like all war, the even exchange schoolbook fights, proved to be disastrously expensive to the schoolbook publishers, especially to the smaller ones who usually lost more holdings than they gained. The larger and stronger predatory houses usually started these even exchange fights upon some flimsy pretext against some smaller active competitor who was getting more business away from it than it cared to lose. The agents of the largest predatory publisher held the threat of "lifting their books" out of a few good places as a club over the heads of competing agents, unless they would promise to "let up" on their promotive activities. It is evident that these truces and agreements were not entered into in the interest of the purchasers and users of schoolbooks. The sinister exploitations were pushed as vigorously as before. The difference being that whenever a change of books was made, the victims were required to trade in their old books and to pay an "exchange price" in addition for the new books. This "exchange price" of books is what the schoolbook trade calls "Regular introductory terms." FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 837 Here we have the milk in the cocoanut: — "Com- pulsory uniformity of schoolbooks," at "Regular Introductory Terms!" Any proposition of "exchange of schoolbooks," is a delusion and a snare from the standpoint of the pupils and their parents . The sole purpose of ' 'exchange of schoolbooks" is to gather up all the competing books and get them "out of the way," as one of the partners of probably the most ruthless exploiting schoolbook publisher expressed it. For illustration, let us examine the "even exchange" transaction out- lined above. The pupils in a school are all provided with books for their present needs. In every family there are any number of surplus schoolbooks all of the particular "series" that have been in regular use; and all of them for all practicable purposes, as good as new. Some of these may be loaned to a neighbor's children, or they may be awaiting the needs of younger children. The "even exchange" only took the old books then in actual use of the "same subject and grade"; but it put all the other surplus books "out of commission," and out of competition because another series of books is in use, and the school textbook law prohibits the use of any other than the adopted schoolbook. When these pupils have completed their books, they must all be provided with new books of the next higher grade. There are no surplus books of the new series in the family or the neighborhood awaiting to serve their needs. New books must be purchased for all the pupils to supply their advancing needs. 338 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Where the change in books is made at "Regular Introductory Terms," the awakening from the delusion is in the nature of a shock! The parent has to exchange each of the books his children were using, and to pay the "exchange prices" in addition, so he has to give a book, and buy a book of the same subject and grade, and the new book will only serve the same purpose as the discarded book. The pupils have to be provided with two books on the same subject and grade, where either one would have served better than two ! The publisher is assured a large sale at the begin- ning of the new term, because there are no old books to be passed on, and all those promoted will have to purchase new books. This will be found to be true for each succeeding promotion of classes for three or four years. By this time there will begin to be an accumulation of used books in the community. These books will begin to find their way in increasing numbers into the hands of the pupils of each new class formed by promotion. The sales of new books are correspondingly less in number. The schoolbook publisher who has enjoyed the monopoly of supplying all the schoolbooks, finds his sales of books gradually decreasing after the third year of his contract. This fact explains why all these compulsory uniform schoolbook laws provide for a change of schoolbooks not oftener than every five or six years. The school- book publishers have seen to it that provision was made in these laws for a change of books at about the time the schools, and the community become well stocked with the authorized and adopted books. FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 339 The dissatisfaction and complaints of the patrons of the schools over the "frequent and unnecessary changes of books" were seized upon by wily and self- seeking politicians as campaign issues. These fellows made their appeal for votes upon the schoolbook ques- tion. They waxed eloquent in their recital of the evil practices of the gigantic schoolbook "trust." They explained in detail how thousands upon thousands, yes, millions of dollars were wrested from the pockets of the people. They promised, if elected, to introduce bills and work for their enactment into laws which would regulate and control the introduction and sale of schoolbooks, and protect the school patrons against the burdens of changes of books and extortionate prices. These demagogs vied with one another in their extravagant and irresponsible statements. Some of these statements promised to save their constituents more money than they had ever paid for schoolbooks. The schoolbook plank in the platforms served the purpose intended. These fellows were elected, and of course, they must do something to fulfil their promises to the people. The result was that schoolbook bills were introduced into the legislatures of most of the states providing for all sorts of regulation and control of the schoolbook business. The proposed schoolbook laws provided for: — 1. State adoption of a compulsory uniform series of schoolbooks with fixed maximum prices. 2. State adoption of a compulsory uniform series of schoolbooks at prices as low as the same books were sold or offered for sale to any other state, county, school district or individual. 340 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS 3. State manufacture of sehoolbooks to be sold to pupils at cost. 4. State manufacture, the work to be done by con- vict labor and the books sold at cost. 5. County uniformity of sehoolbooks. 6. Boards of Education, and school directors, or trustees required to adopt a uniform series of sehoolbooks for use in all the schools of the dis- trict. 7. Requiring all schoolbook publishers before offer- ing their books for sale to any schools of the state, to file samples of their books with the state superintendent of schools together with the prices at which they proposed to sell the books to schools or to dealers, and to furnish an aflSdavit that the prices are the usual prices and that they are as low as the prices of the same books sold elsewhere in the United States, and to fur- nish a heavy bond to the state obligating the publisher to sell the books at those prices for a stipulated period of years. 8. Authorizing school boards, school trustees, or county or state boards to adopt and purchase sehoolbooks and furnish them free to the pupils. While these bills were introduced and championed ostensibly to give relief to the plundered school patrons and to fulfill pre-election promises, the real motive, in the majority of cases was to "shake down" the school- book publishers. Much of the radical and vicious schoolbook legisla- tion came through bills introduced for "sand bagging" purposes with no thought that they would be enacted into laws. The professional lawyer politicians, paid FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 341 lobbyists, and the "grey wolves," members of the legislatures not in politics "for their health," had these bills introduced to "start something." This "some- thing" was to alarm the schoolbook publishers and thus create a demand for political influence to kill these vicious bills in committee. Schoolbook bills were but a small part of the "sand bagging" bills introduced through the same channels. There were a full "grist" of proposed legislation pertaining to railroad regulation, grain inspection, Pullman car rates, street car franchises, gas, electric light and power, telegraph, and telephone rates, life insurance, fire and marine insurance, banks and bank- ing. These different "interests" were supposed to maintain an influential lobby and to provide it with well stuffed wallets. Some of these bills would be so ridiculous and preposterous in their provisions that the "interest" at which they were aimed was inclined to treat them as a joke and would pay little attention to them. When these statesmen (?) felt that there was a lack of interest in their "sand bagging" bills, they would promptly have the obnoxious bill or bills advanced a stage nearer final passage. If this did not have the desired effect, these legislative high binders would decide that "those fellows will have to be taught a lesson," and they would decide to pass the obnoxious bills. It has been an open secret all these years that the first compulsory state uniformity schoolbook laws in Kansas and in Indiana with their ridiculously low fixed prices, were passed as retaliatory measures against certain schoolbook publishers who failed to show 342 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS sufficient concern over the passage of these obnoxious measures. One of the outstanding anomalies in the working of our civic opportunities and responsibihties is the lethergy and indifference of the people to the character and political fitness of candidates for the two houses of the state legislature. Our own state laws and their enforcement have a more direct bearing upon the every day life and material welfare of the people of the state, than those of our national government. This story is told and generally credited, which may not be out of place here. At the session of the Illinois legislature which passed the notorious Allen bill providing for ninety-nine (99) year leases of the streets of Chicago to the Yerkes interests, a group of twelve (12) members, so the story goes, came into possession of five thousand ($5,000.00) dollars in cash each. It is the custom of the legislature to adjourn on Friday mornings in time to take the noon trains for the homes of the members. These members were uneasy with the thought of carrying so much money home with them, and they did not think it best to deposit it in a bank. One of the more experienced of the numbers had taken the precaution to rent a safety deposit box at one of the banks in Springfield for the safe-keeping of his valuables. He offered to permit his friends to put their money in his safety deposit box over the week end, which they were all pleased to do. They departed for their several homes much relieved in mind. The member who owned the safety deposit box never returned. He was taken sick at his home and died. FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 343 His widow came into legal possession of the key to the safety deposit box, and of course, the sixty- thousand ($60,000.00) dollars found in it. No one of the eleven who had left his five thousand ($5,000.00) dollars in the box for safe-keeping, ever came forward to lay claim to his roll. They no doubt felt that their friend and fellow member played a mean trick on them by dying during that particular week end recess. The state laws have to do with our moral and social relations, our property, education, institutions for the education and care of the blind, the deaf, the defective children, and for the treatment, care, and comfort of the insane; the courts of justice, our reformatory and penal institutions, the public highways, mines and mining, personal and property taxes, and the powers and limitation of powers granted to cities, towns, townships and villages. Every question pertaining to state government is of vital importance to the every day life and welfare of the people. The highest types of men and women should be chosen for seats in the state legislatures. As a result of the general apathy and indifference of the voters, too many of the seats in the legislative halls are occupied by self-seeking "practical" politicians; "N'er do well" lawyers whom no one who knew them, would entrust with an important case; and by callow lawyers anxious to gain experience and prestige. How many of these young men have had their prospects and hopes blasted through their associations for a term in the State Legislature! About the first thing these well enough meaning new members hear from the "wise" ones is, "If you expect to accomplish anything and to make a reputa- S44 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS tion for yourself, you will have to 'line up with the fellows who do things.' " It requires a high order of moral courage as well as physical courage for an ambitious young man to stand four square for his ideals through a session of a State Legislature. Theodore Roosevelt did it at Albany, when he was but twenty-two! There are many high minded able men in every state legislature. Fortunate for the welfare of the people of that state when these honest men are in a working majority. After this digression, let us return to our consider- ation of these various schoolbook laws to see just how much they have accomplished in correcting the abuses in the exploitation of the school patrons. They all agree in providing for, and perpetuating that artificial monopoly so sacred to the exploiting schoolbook publishers, a compulsory uniform series of schoolbooks adopted for a definite period. These schoolbook laws all make definite provisions for making "clean sweep" changes of schoolbooks at stated times, and provides the machinery for making these changes. They all agree in containing the compulsory pro- vision, making it a misdemeanor punishable by penal- ties ranging all the way from a fine to loss of position, teacher's certificate, and the right to teach again in the state, for a teacher to use or permit to be used any other book than the monopoly book. To secure the schoolbook publisher enjoying the artificial monopoly the utmost limit of sale of his book, the teacher must exclude a pupil from school who does not provide himself with the full quota of these adopted and authorized books. FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 345 The schoolbook publishers, or some of them are responsible for the enactment of most of these obnoxious schoolbook laws. In a number of states, the agents of one or another of the exploiting schoolbook publishers were credited with writing the bills! Be that as it may, there were none of the "saving clauses" omitted from the laws that would have been in them had the attorney of the most rapacious of the schoolbook publishers written the bill. The stock argument advanced by those favoring compulsory state uniformity in schoolbooks is the great saving of money for the patrons and taxpayers. Admitting that there is a slight saving on each copy of book purchased, this saving is only apparent, not real. The schoolbook publisher, who secures the artificial monopoly gets substantially his regular net whole- sale prices for his books. The difference in the pub- lishers regular list, or retail price at which single copies may be purchased at any retail book store anywhere, or at which the publisher will send it postage paid to anyone anywhere in the United States, and the contract retail price is substantially the difference between the book dealer's usual normal profit, and the low margin of profit, the law permits the authorized dealer to charge. In some of the states, the law allows the retail dealer to "add not exceeding 10% to the net contract whole- sale price," in other states, he is permitted to add 15%! The dealer's normal gross profit on schoolbooks is 25%, and when compared with the usual normal profit on all other staple articles of merchandise, the profit on schoolbooks is found to be below the average. 346 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS The fact is that 10% margm yields no profit at all. It does not pay expenses. The law makers of the state brazenly vote to take away from these neighborhood dealers more than one- half of their fair normal profits of doing business. Another fact that we must not lose sight of, if the representatives of the people do, is that these dealers scattered at convenient places in all the counties of the state are citizens and taxpayers of the state, and that they support in a substantial manner the schools they are forced by law to serve as an accommodation. The sum total saved to each purchaser of a First Reader, with all the machinery provided for in the Compulsory State Uniform Schoolbook Law is usually about five cents ! Two and eight-tenths cents is legislated out of the till of the dealer, and two and two-tenths cents from the publisher, ostensibly. The gross profit on a five cent package of chewing gum is one and a half cents; and yet governors, state superintendents of schools, and members of state legislatures have made the great saving of the people on schoolbooks their campaign slogan before election! But these wiley politicians neglected to explain to the plain people, that they would have to purchase four times as many schoolbooks after the enactment of their compulsory state uniformity schoolbook law as they would have been called upon to purchase had the monopolistic schoolbook law not been enacted. In a state, county, city, village, or rural school district, where the uniform series of books has been in use long enough to become normally stocked with the books in use, there will be nearly as many copies of discarded schoolbooks in the homes of the people as FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 347 are in actual use in the hands of the pupils. Every family that has had children in school, has a number of discarded schoolbooks. These books are in as good average physical condition as the average public library book in circulation. The great expenditure for schoolbooks of which the patrons complain is not the high prices paid for books, but the fact that so large a number of schoolbooks are used by but one or at most two children. Very few schoolbooks are used until they are worn out. Under any compulsory uniformity scheme, books are changed to prevent the use of these available surplus books with which the pupils and teachers have become accustomed. Let us illustrate the practical working of a change in schoolbooks. Under normal school conditions where there is no state law creating and protecting a monopoly in schoolbooks, or where the monopoly has been in full swing for over four years, a new class of twenty-four pupils which has been promoted to an advanced book in arithmetic for instance, and these pupils have been notified before hand to provide them- selves with the advanced book, at least eighteen will inherit books from an older brother or sister, or will have purchased or borrowed books from neighbors. Six pupils probably from preference, will purchase new books. Any teacher will substantiate the state- ment that six new books out of twenty-four is a fair proportion. But it is evident that if a "clean sweep" change has been made at this time or a year before even, twenty- four new arithmetics will have been purchased instead of six. 348 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS This is the way it works in one class in one school. Extend the illustration to include all the schools in a state, and one can imagine that the boast of a school- book publisher that he shipped a train load of arith- metics for first introduction into a certain state, was justified. This favored publisher has an exclusive monopoly of all the schoolbooks used in all the schools of the state for five years. He can manufacture his books in large editions, ship them in car load lots, and he is at no expense for salaries and travelling expenses of sales- men. To be sure, it may not be known exactly what share of the amount received from his sales of books he may have to pay as "commissions" to the political influence through whom the monopoly contract was secured ! We do know for a certainty that all the school- books that the people of the state had purchased and in their possession at the time of the adoption of the Compulsory State Uniform schoolbooks were out- lawed; that all the school children in the state were compelled to trade in the books they had at the time, and their parents had to pay the exchange prices for the monopoly books; that the year following when the children were promoted every one of them had to purchase new books as all the available used books that they might have used were outlawed; that the •people were forced to purchase fully four times the number of books; and that there were gathered up and shipped out of the state a "train load" of perfectly good schoolbooks; and we may be morally certain that the books adopted and introduced will all be changed again at the end of the adoption period. FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 349 The history of Compulsory Uniformity State adop- tions has shown that state textbook commissions are ever ready and wilHng to change books. This was the intent and object of those who had the schoolbook laws passed. The State Textbook Board of Indiana has the reputation of being about as stable and conservative as any of the state textbook committees of the Compul- sory State Uniformity monopoly schoolbook states. That august body has made "clean sweep" changes of arithmetics four times in twenty years ; and of books in other subjects in about the same proportion. The action of the state textbook commission of Alabama in 1918 serves as a good illustration of the absence of any consideration of the people and the educational interests of the state when seized by the urge to change schoolbooks. At that time we were in the midst of the world war. The odds along the Hindenburg line were against our allies. Haig was fighting with his back to the wall. Our government backed by the patriotic men and women of the country, yes, and by the school children, was putting forth gigantic efforts in transporting men and provisions, supplies and equipment, besides food, munitions, and fuel for our allies and their people. The railroads, the factories, the farms, the mines and the forests were working under the strain of urgent necessity to meet the demands upon us to help win the war. The Government Director of Conservation of the Fuel Administration was summoning the officials of many different lines of essential industry to Washing- ton in conference "to consider ways of eliminating 350 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS wastes and curtailing the consumption of fuel and paper." The schoolbook publishers were summoned in conference on April 30. The seriousness of the critical situation was set forth in detail. The railroads were over burdened with freight; there was a serious shortage of coal, mainly because the railroads were unable to haul it; every locomotive and every freight car, flat car, and coal car was needed for the transportation of war materials and food for transport across the seas. These gentlemen were told the amount of coal it took to make a ton of paper. The coal had to be hauled from the mines to the paper mills. The pub- lishers were asked, "What can you gentlemen do to eliminate wastes and curtail the consumption of coal and paper?" It was suggested that the Fuel Administration, or other proper Federal authority, request the governors of all the states to instruct Boards of Education of their respective states to permit no changes of text- books nor the exchange of books then in use for other books on the same subjects during the period of the war. It was urged that the standards of instruction in no subject taught in the schools would be lowered by continuing the use of the adopted textbooks for another five years if necessary; that any change in methods of teaching, special stress upon any topic, or additional data or material could be supplied by supplementary books, or through bulletins that could be issued from time to time. These suggestions were not received kindly by a number of the predatory publishers. They were FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 351 unwilling to forego any prospect of mercenary exploita- tion even to help win the war. Alabama State Adoption in 1918 Under these distressing and pressing conditions, the State Board of Education of Alabama decided that the time was propitious for making sweeping changes of schoolbooks. It proceeded to adopt a two book series of geographies, and a two book series of spelling books ! Keeping in mind the fact that the children in all the schools of the state were supplied with copies of a standard series of geographies, kept up to date by the publishers, and that every pupil in the state could have been supplied at the opening of schools in the fall of that eventful year with both geographies and spelling books from "stock on hand" in the state without the necessity of having but few new books shipped into the state, let us consider what actually did take place. First of all, the publishers of both the geographies and the spellers had to order a "train load" of paper from the paper mills from which to make a "train load" of geographies and spellers to displace a whole "train load" of perfectly good and so far as the children and their teachers were concerned, who were the actual parties at interest, perfectly satisfactory books. The paper mills had to order extra coal, the railroads had to release cars to transport the coal to the paper mills, the "train load" of paper had to be transported to the printers, and many car loads of binding board had to be transported to the book bindery. In September, at the very time when our boys were pushing their deadly and vigorous oifensive against their desperate enemies, and they were falling by thousands, and every agency of our Government was 352 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS working night and day to get munitions, food, war materials, hospital supplies and men to the seaboard and over sea to our soldiers and their brave comrades in arms, the "train load" of superfluous schoolbooks was on its way from New York to Alabama. At every siding along the way, this train met and passed great trains loaded with army supplies working their way to New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, New Port News and Norfolk, patriotically intent on helping to "win the war.!" The other train was loaded with superfluous school- books on its way to feed the insatiable greed of the artificial monopoly created by the representatives of the people of Alabama in the interest of schoolbook pub- lishers and for the despoiling of their own people. It would hardly be claimed that there were any educa- tional or economic conditions justifying these ill-timed sweeping changes. The pretext offered at the time, so it was generally reported, was that the publishers who had enjoyed the monopoly of furnishing the books during the compul- sory state uniformity period then ending, declined to continue to furnish their geographies and spelling books at the old contract prices. That this was but a flimsy excuse is exposed by the fact that the State Board of Education contracted to pay higher prices for the new geographies than the publishers of the books with which the pupils of Alabama were supplied, asked for the few new books that might be required to continue those books in use for another five year period. Now the question of price had very little to do with it. The state of Alabama was "stocked up" with geographies and spelling books. There were substanti- ally enough books on these subjects to supply the needs FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 353 of each new class formed without the necessity of pur- chasing new ones except in small orders. As a result the sales of new books had "dwindled to almost nothing" and they would continue at a low ebb so long as these books were permitted to be used. The monopo- ly had ceased to be more than normally profitable, and therefore not worth putting the money and effort into it necessary to defend it, unless it could be allowed to substitute other books, or a different edition of the same books, necessitating a "clean sweep" exchange of the old books in the hands of the children. There are millions of dollars worth of perfectly good schoolbooks "exchanged" gathered up and destroyed every year to get them out of the way, and as many more, in the store rooms, closets and attics of families, outlawed every year. Every one of these books so wantonly destroyed contains the same lessons presented and explained in the same way as the new book pur- chased to take its place. The sole reason for the taking up and the distruction of these books is to artificially create a larger market for new books. All these new books, in their turn, will be displaced, gathered up and destroyed to make a worthwhile market for other favored publishers' books. We hear and read so much about the conservation of our natural resources in this country ! It is far from our intention to impugn the motives of the members of the State Board of Education of Alabama. Our criticisms are wholly impersonal. In all probability the results would have been similar had the personnel of the board been changed. The membership of these Statet Text Book Commis- sions, County Text Book Boards and City School 354 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS Boards changes right along, but the actions of these boards remain practically the same. The conditions will not improve as long as human nature is a factor and the temptation remains. Mississippi Adoption of 1920 Mississippi is another compulsory uniformity schoolbook ridden state. There was a schoolbook adoption in that state in 1920. Through some beneficent, presumably, influence the legislature of the state of Mississippi passed an amendment to their compidsory state uniformity schoolbook law, permitting the State Textbook Com- mission to contract for state monopoly schoolbooks at higher prices. This legal sanction made the "stakes" in the approaching textbook event worth while. The Text Book Commission proceeded to respond liberally to the insistent demands for a change of schoolbooks. They changed and introduced three books in geography, one in advanced arithmetic, two in agriculture, one in civics, three in United States history, three in language and grammar, three in physiology and hygiene, nine in Readers (basal) and eight in readers (supplemental). They were considerate enough of the school patrons, to re-contract for one Algebra, three arithmetics, four books and practice paper in drawing, one book in be- ginners history, two spelling books, one dictionary and the copy books. It is interesting to compare the prices in these two sister states whose textbook boards just had to change the schoolbooks while the changing was good. It so happens, accidents will happen, that the same arithmetics are used in both Alabama and Mississippi. The elementary arithmetic is 24 cents FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 355 in Alabama but 55 cents in Mississippi. The practical arithmetic is 42 cents in Alabama but 68 cents in Mississippi ! There would seem to be a wider range of difference in geographies. In Alabama the First Book in Geography costs fifty- five cents, while in Mississippi, Book One costs $1 . 16 retail, $1.11 exchange and an old geography in "usable condition," to boot. The Second Book in Geog- raphy sells for $1 . 00 in Alabama, and Book Two in Geography at $1 . 80 in Mississippi ! Where the pupil is fortunate enough to own a perfectly good Second Book in Geography, he may save nine pennies by giving his Second Book in geography and $1 .71 in cash for a new Book Two in Geography. The essential difference between these two series of geographies is, that the Alabama Series distinguishes between the two books as First Book and Second Book, while in Mississippi the distinction between the two books of the series is that one is Book One, and the other is Book Two. It would be interesting to know all the inside work- ings of this extraordinary schoolbook adoption. The reports all agree that the adoption went off like well- oiled clockwork. Here again the people of the state of Mississippi, struggling with this great financial problem of provid- ing "ways and means" for the education of their children, and after all their efforts to improve their schools and school facilities, find their state school system at or near the foot of the educational lad- der. They are forced by the machinery provided by law to surrender all their schoolbooks and accept any- where from five to twenty -three cents a copy for them, and to purchase new books on the same "subject and 856 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS grade" at prices ranging from fifty -five cents for a Primer to one dollar and eighty cents for a Geography ! That the people of Mississippi are struggling bravely with the problem of popular education is shown by the fact that Mississippi stands at the head of the list of all the states in the "Percentage of total population enrolled in the Elementary and High Schools," 27H%. The average for the United States being only 21 3^%. New York state with its highly crystalized and luxuriously expensive school system, enrolls but 18% of her total population in her Elementary and High Schools, public and private. But in everything that goes toward the support and maintenance of good schools, Mississippi finds herself at or near the foot of the list. She spends but ten dollars per pupil per year on her rural schools, and only eight cents a day for each day the pupil is in school. It costs the people in New York state fifty -five dol- lars a pupil per year attending her rural schools, and thirty cents a day for each pupil attending her rural schools. Too much of this cost however is absorbed before it ever reaches the rural schools. The average value of rural school property in Mis- sissippi per pupil enrolled is less than five dollars. The average for the United States is fifty -five dollars. The average annual salaries paid to rural teachers in Mississippi is about two hundred and sixty dollars, while the average for the whole country is about four hundred seventy -five dollars. In the average length of the school term Mississippi stands nearly up to the average for the whole country, eleven states, including Massachusetts and Illinois sup- porting a shorter school term. The average number of FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 357 school days in the term for the whole country being about 144 days, while Mississippi, maintains an average rural school term of 133 days! It is evident from the above showing that the good people of Mississippi are in favor of good schools, but they are working against great odds. They have a very large colored rural population, the land in large areas is poor and its assessed valuation is low, yielding but small revenue. There is every indication that if Mississippi had more money she would build more and better school buildings, provide better equipment, and pay her teachers better salaries. Under these discouraging conditions, it is little short of an economic crime for the political machinery of that state to outlaw all of the geographies, elementary civics. United States histories, language and grammars, physiology and hygienes, and readers purchased during seven years of struggle to keep their children in school, and to saddle the expense of purchasing a new outfit of schoolbooks at the highest prices ever paid for corre- sponding schoolbooks up to that time, upon the heavily burdened parents. For all practical purposes the outlawed books would have served the same purpose as the more costly new ones. There can be no valid reason neither from an educational nor an economic standpoint, for discarding a book or a series of schoolbooks on a given subject and substituting another book or series of books on the same subject. The children will get along just as well in the sub- ject of arithmetic with the series of books that has been in use seven years, and which has been re-adopted 358 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS for five years longer as they would have done had another higher priced series been adopted. It is far from our intention to single out certain city, county, or state adoptions as being any worse than other city, county, or state adoptions. Our purpose has been to describe fairly typical cases. A recital of the history of state compulsory uni- formity schoolbook adoptions in Kentucky, West Virginia, Florida, Louisiana, Oklahoma and Kansas might be interesting and instructive if space permitted. An adequate account of the state adoptions in Texas, including the latest adoption and the purchase of a complete supply of free books for all the children of the public schools by the State Text Book Commis- sion, would require a whole chapter. This is what is known as the $4,000,000 . 00 school- book deal. It cost the taxpayers approaching that amount of money to purchase a new outfit of school- books. There probably was not more than $21,000,000 spent in the whole United States for schoolbooks, including Texas for the school year 1921-22! The pathetic part of it is that the free textbooks might have been introduced at a saving of at least one half of that enormous amount of money. This story is told on a certain native up in the hill country of Kentucky. He bore the unsavory repu- tation of using the most profanely expressive language of any other man in the whole settlement. One day as he was driving up a steep hill with a wagon load of loose apples, giving his undivided attention to urging his uncertain team of horses by swearing at, and whip- ping them, the tail gate of the wagon fell out. Away rolled his apples. FUTILITY OF SCHOOLBOOK LEGISLATION 359 The native felt the absence of his load, and glancing backward, saw his apples bouncing and rolling down the hill in every direction. He yelled "Whoa" with an oath, set his brake pole, turned round, and stood up in his wagon. He watched his precious apples rolling down the ravine, into the brush and briars, and laying scattered by the roadside. Some "razor back" hogs, scenting the fruit from afar, came grunting from the underbrush to the feast. This redoubtable char- acter felt his loss and chagrin keenly. He took a few deep breaths in preparation for a violent outburst of pent up rage. But to the astonishment, and relief, of the only "on looker," he quietly picked up his lines, resumed his seat, and was heard to mutter in a quiet voice, "What's the use-f^ I kane't do hit jestice! Giddap!" But after all it makes but little difference to the public how the monopoly is secured whether by honor- able or disreputable means, the results are the same. These flagrant abuses in the adoption, distribution, and introduction of schoolbooks will never be cor- rected until the conditions which invite them are removed. So long as whole states, counties, cities, and towns offer a monopoly of furnishing a book or a series of books to one company for a period of years, we may rest assured that schoolbook companies will go just as far as necessary to secure the monopoly. CHAPTER XIII A Solution of the Schoolbook Problem We have cited a sufficient number of school-book adoptions in states, counties, cities and school dis- tricts, it is hoped, to establish the fact that school-book adoptions are vicious proceedings, and that they are made principally in the interest of mercenary exploiters. The interests of the pupils, their parents and teachers, are but a pretext for these marauding raids upon the pocket books of the parents of the school children, or the public school funds. The mere recital of these flagrant abuses would serve no worthy purpose, unless some practicable con- structive suggestions may be offered looking to a correction of these abuses. It is the sole purpose of the writer to offer a solution to this vexed question in the interest of the better education of the pupils, better teaching on the part of the teachers, and a more single-hearted purpose on the part of those responsible for school administration. It must be remembered that these abuses have come to be regarded by school officials, parents and teachers, as a necessary evil and an established custom from which there is no escape. The schoolbook publishers have felt the burden of the abuses in the conduct of the school book business as keenly as the public, and numerous attempts have been made to correct the more flagrant ones by mutual agreement. 860 SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 361 These have all ended in failure for the simple reason that some of the most rapacious of the school book pub- lishers would not agree to give up any of their preda- tory practices. The schoolbook publishers are practically agreed that they are powerless to change their reprehensible methods so long as the temptation to secure valuable contracts by such methods remains. As we have shown the root of the evil in the school- book business is the legal provision for compulsory uniformity of schoolbooks, whether for a school district, county, or state. A simple and effective remedy for correcting the many evils resulting from the exploitation of the schools, and the school patrons, by the artificial mono- poly created hy law for supplying a uniform series of schoolbooks for exclusive use in the public schools, would be: First, — To repeal all laws granting authority to, and making it the duty of textbook commissions, and boards of education, whether of a state, county, city, or school district, to choose, adopt and to en- force the uniform and exclusive use of any school- book or series of schoolbooks in the public schools. Second, — To make it unlawful for any principal, super- intendent, school committee, board of directors, or board of education to select, adopt, prescribe or to enforce the uniform and exclusive use of any text- book or series of textbooks in any school supported by public funds. Third, — To unify the work of instruction in the schools, and to supply the advantages claimed for a uniform and exclusive series of schoolbooks, the law should make provision for the preparation, 362 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS adoption, printing, distribution, and enforcing the use of a syllabus, or course of study, for each sub- ject prescribed to be taught in the public schools. The repeal of these schoolbook laws would auto- matically do away with uniformity of schoolbooks. There would be no authority for enforcing even class uniformity. A variety of different schoolbooks on the same subject in the hands of the pupils of the same class, would insure better instruction in that subject than results where all the members of a class are provided with a copy of the same schoolbook on that subject. We have been seduced into thinking of the textbook on a subject, rather than the subject itself. Take the subject of arithmetic for example. "The science of numbers and the art of computation" exists outside of any and all of the textbooks on arithmetic. Destroy all the textbooks on arithmetic in the world, and the subject of arithmetic would remam, and the daily applications of it in the world's calculations would go merrily on. Even the teaching of the subject in the schools would go right along with but slight inconvenience to the teachers, and no loss or regret on the part of the pupils. Much thought and investigation have been given to this subject by education experts especially the reaction of the child mind to number ideas. As a re- sult, there is a fairly definite agreement among teachers as to the subject matter that should be taught in each grade and the method of presenting it. All that is necessary in order to unify and standard- ize the work in this subject, as in the other subjects, whether in a city system of schools, a county or a SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 363 state, is for the proper school officials to prepare or to have prepared, and adopt a syllabus, or course of study in arithmetic based upon the subject of arithmetic and not upon any particular textbook. This syllabus should be more than an "Outline course of study." It should state definitely the subject matter to be taught in each grade by terms or semesters, their order of presentation, limitations as to types of problems and the numbers involved in them, the definitions, nomenclature, and approved forms for written work. The directions to the teacher for testing her pupils should be just as definite as the subject-matter assigned to her grade to enable her and her pupils to know when the work assigned has been accomplished. This uniform course of study is all the compulsory state, county, township, city or school district uni- formity necessary or desirable. What about textbooks in arithmetic.'^ With such a course of study in the hands of the teacher a textbook is not essential especially below about the sixth grade. As a matter of convenience if a textbook is desirable, the pupil may be directed to provide himself with a primary arithmetic or a gram- mar school arithmetic, depending upon the pupils age and requirements. It makes not the slightest difference what author's or publisher's arithmetic he brings. Let him bring any book he may have or that he and his parents may choose for him. If no other pupil in his class has the same kind of a book so much the better for him. Let us keep in mind the fact that it is the subject of arithmetic that the children are to study and not some particular textbook on arithmetic; and let us 364 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS remember that we have been led to beheve that it is essential and necessary for all the pupils in the same class to have the same kind of a book, to have the same lesson assigned on the same page of that book. If we could but know the amount of time, thought and money that has been expended to establish this belief in the necessity for compulsory uniformity of schoolbooks by and for those who profit by it, we could appreciate how we have come to believe in it. There are not less than eighteen "sets" or "series" of arithmetics in active competition on the market. These eighteen different arithmetics are published by fifteen different schoolbook publishers. That there are no essential differences in the con- tents and treatment of the topics of the subject of arithmetic, is evidenced by the fact that the books are used interchangeably without apparent inconvenience. States, cities, counties and school districts "exchange" some one of these eighteen arithmetics for another one of the eighteen and the work goes right along without any appreciable change in the class assignments, and frequently with no change in the course of study. Every dollar levied upon the parents as "exchange price" is nothing less than reckless, criminal waste. How preposterous the proposition that a textbook on any subject that was standard and satisfactory for students to use from January to June, becomes so out-of-date and unsatisfactory that it is made by law a "misemeanor" to permit a pupil to continue to use it in September of the same year! The wonder is that the American people have allowed themselves to be duped for so long by this specious pretense of the necessity of getting more modern methods by changing the schoolbooks. SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 365 The writer had occasion recently to examine a two book series of arithmetics. The titles of the books are THE NATIONAL ARITHMETIC On the Inductive System THE COMMON SCHOOL ARITHMETIC An Introduction to the National Arithmetic. These books bear the copyright date, 1857, and they were printed in 1862. The author of this inductive series was none other than that famous scholar and teacher, Benjamin Green- leaf, A.M. In those two books the same topics are treated in practically the same order that they are in the eighteen series of arithmetics in general use today. The explana- tions, definitions and statements of principles are models of simplicity, clearness and accuracy, and the problems and examples carefully chosen and well graded. The remark was made at the time that if a student or class of students were permitted to use these books in their study of arithmetic, he or it would suffer no disadvantage in comparison with those pupils who had had the advantage of pursuing their studies in any one of the eighteen current series of arithmetics. Aside from a few terms in measurements such as "rood," "furlong," "tierce," and "scruple" not found in the more modern books, the treatment of the subject of arithmetic compares most favorably with that found in current books on the subject. If this is true of a series of arithmetics prepared as far back as 1857, what might we find from a careful examination and comparison of those well-known series 866 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS that served later generations of students, Ray, Robin- son, Fish, White, Werner, Cook-Cropsey and the Walsh arithmetics, with the more modern books? The fact is that there is a serious question whether any of the eighteen series of arithmetics on the market today contains enough original material to justify a copyright. Each succeeding series of "new" arithmetics is a more or less artful compilation from those preced- ing it. There have been but two series of arithmetics pub- lished in the last thirty years that could justly lay claim to originality in content and method. These were the Werner arithmetics by Frank H. Hall, and the Speer arithmetics by William W. Speer. With these two exceptions, it may truthfully be stated that there is not enough difference in the treat- ments of the subject of arithmetic in any widely -used arithmetic published within the last twenty-five years, and any other arithmetic published within the last ten years, to justify any teacher, principal, superin- tendent, city, county, or state board of education in "outlawing" any one series, adopting any other series, and introducing the books at regular introductory and exchange rates. The teaching of arithmetic would have kept right up to present day standards if not a single one of the eighteen current series of arithmetics had been com- piled, collaborated, and published. Far be it from our purpose or intentions to say or do anything that would tend to discourage any one who thinks he has something worth while to contribute to the better teaching of any subject, from writing a book or series of books on that subject, or that might tend to make his publisher hesitate to publish it. SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 367 There is no possible danger that we shall ever have too many good textbooks on any subject. Our plea is that every boy and girl shall be assured of the advantage of all the light and side lights possible for helping him to see and to understand the subjects he may be studying. This is the principal reason for our opposition to any legalized scheme of uniform textbooks in any subject. Our discussion thus far, has dealt with the economic phases of this pernicious idea of compulsory uniform schoolbooks which has such a strangle hold on our thought and traditions. If our main purpose had been to merely expose the plunderings of the patrons of the public schools in the name and under the guise of the education of their children, we should have considered the game not worth the candle. The American people are systematically plundered in so many other ways and for amounts of money which in the aggregate make their schoolbook bills look like petty exactions in comparison, that the mere dollars and cents phase of the subject is not of itself of so great consequence. Let us look at the subject from another and more important point of view, — the educational side. A good textbook on arithmetic, or on any other subject for that matter, contains some author's best thought upon that subject and his methods of teaching it. It contains an orderly arrangement of the subject by topics under sequential headings. There are defini- tions of terms, explanation of principles with illustra- tive examples, followed by questions to test the 368 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS learner's understanding of explanations and principles, and problems designed to test the pupils ability to ap- ply the principles explained and illustrated in the solution of problems. Whatever differences may be found in different textbooks are simply the differences in the thinking of the various authors as expressed in the arrangement of material, explanations of principles, illustrative exam- ples, questions and problems. There may be found differences in the choice of material. One author may omit certain topics that another retains. One author treats some topics more fully than another. It is equally true that the same author may treat some of his topics clearly and lucidly and others indif- ferently and hazily. It is a quite common comment heard among teach- ers that a certain author's treatment of a certain topic is the best that they had seen. It is for this very reason that there has never been anything like an agreement among the teachers of a subject as to the best standard textbook on that subject. Left to themselves to decide upon the comparative merits of textbooks on their subject, there are quite likely to be as many first choices as there are books under consideration. It is for this very reason that it so frequently happens that a textbook committee in one city, after careful examination and comparison of the merits of all the different available arithmetics for instance, chooses and decides to recommend for adoption a series of textbooks on arithmetic, which another text- book committee of teachers in an adjoining city, after using the books for five years, had voted unanimously to discard, and recommend for adoption still another SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 369 series of books which had been tried in another city and found unsatisfactory! Beyond the mere question of a slight preference on the part of the teacher, the fact remains that if the pupils are to be restricted to one particular textbook, it is really immaterial which particular text book is chosen. The opinion is frequently expressed that if all the textbooks on a subject were placed in a row on a table the books of the same series in a pile, and a child blind- folded, was requested to pick out a book or a series of books, he would make as discriminating a choice as the average textbook committee usually makes. If we could but unsaddle ourselves of this burden- some belief in the necessity, or the desirability even, of all the pupils in a class having the same publisher's textbook, the children and the teachers would be free indeed to study the subject unfettered by artificial limitations. Given the teacher, the vital and essential force of any educational system; a fair average class of pupils, they for whose instruction and training schools are established and supported; a definite pedagogical course of study, a basic and authoritative guide for both teacher and pupils; a school room with fair aver- age equipment; and a community of parents actively interested in their children's teacher and in the educa- tional welfare of their children, and you have the five essentials of a good school. We wish to emphasize this fact. Textbooks, reference books, maps, charts, black- boards, crayon, pointer, magazines, pictures and useful and usable pieces of apparatus, while desirable and helpful are not indispensable. 370 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS A good school could get along with a scant supply of any of these things, while a very poor school might be fully outfitted with all of them. Textbooks serve to economize time and unneces- sary effort on the part of the teacher, and they may be used by the pupils to supplement and to complement the instructions of the teacher. It is quite possible for an earnest and eager student to master a subject by the aid of a good textbook on that subject without the help of any other teacher. A textbook should be prepared with that thought always in mind. Let us suppose that all textbook laws had been repealed and that no school official nor any board of officials had any authority to adopt, prescribe, or dic- tate what textbook shall be used; and that the teacher and parents of the child were free to choose the school- book the child will use. The teacher's instruction to her pupils would be to bring any textbooks they may have on arithmetic, reading, geography, United States History, etc. The teacher with the requirements of the Course of Study for her grade and class and with her acquaint- ance with the mental characteristics of each child in mind, would begin an examination of each child's equipment in the waj^ of needed books. With the fetich of uniformity out of her way, this teacher concerns herself with an examination of the content of each book to determine whether or not this book will enable the pupil to meet the requirements of the Course of Study for her grade, regardless of the name of the publisher, the title of the books or the date of its copyright. Each case is thus decided upon its merits. SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 371 If the teacher beheves that a particular book is not best for the child, or that the child would be placed at a disadvantage by attempting to use it, she will be at liberty to say so. But her reasons for saying so should be based upon the requirements of the Course of Study, the ability of the child and the treatment of the topics found in the book. If the subject is arithmetic, for example, she would probably say, "Tell your father that the teacher thinks that this arithmetic is too advanced for you. It is a Practical Arithmetic and you should have an Ele- mentary Arithmetic or First Book." Suppose the class to be a 5B, the first half year of the fifth year, and that the work for this class laid out in the Course of Study called for a review of reading and writing numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplica- tion and division, and emphasized common fractions as the specific topic for this class. In order that our suggestion may be tested to the limit, let us suppose that at least one each of the eighteen current arithmetics is represented by either the First Book of the Two Book Course, or Book Two of the Three Book Course. Then suppose that the remaining members of this class have brought with them the corresponding books from that miscellaneous assortment of now discarded arithmetics all the way down from Greenleaf to Frank Hall. In this particular class, each pupil has a different book. This would be the ideal arrangement. If there is such a thing as a best treatment of the topic of com- mon fractions in anyone book, this class will have the benefit of that treatment; if on the other hand, there is a poor treatment in any of the books, the unfortunate Sli LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS user of that book will be set right by the better treat- ment in the recitations of the more favored pupils. How much better off this class is than another class in an adjoining state, where all the pupils and the teacher must use the book that gives the poorest treat- ment of common fractions. This teacher and her pupils have the benefit of all the light that has been shed upon the presentation and development of common fractions since 1857! There may be those who forsee possible confusion in the minds of the pupils. The object of the study of arithmetic is to enable the pupil to understand the principles and facts of the subject and to train him in applying his facts in the solution of problems. It is evident that the more light he has thrown upon any principle the clearer he will see it, and the more practice he has in applying that principle the more skill he will acquire. How often the teacher when explaining what seems to her a simple problem, finds it necessary to change her wording of her explanation, and to choose a num- ber of different illustrations before all her pupils under- stand the problem. Lawyers, preachers and salesmen as well as teachers understand the necessity for stating and restating the same principle or proposition from as manj' view points as they can marshall with the object of leaving no room for a shadow of doubt in the mind of the judge, juror, congregation or prospective customer as the case may be. The individual pupil has all the assistance from his book in the preparation of his lesson that he could possibly have if all the other members of his class, or SOLUTION OF SCHOOLBOOK PROBLEM 373 all the pupils in his grade in the whole state had the same kind of a book as he has. But just imagine the difference in the interest in the recitation on the part of both teacher and pupils awakened by the fact that no two pupils had prepared their lesson from the same author's book. They all had the same lesson assigned from the same authorized Course of Study, but each pupil has had the rare ex- perience of looking up, reading and learning for himself what his book has for him on the topics assigned. He has solved his "ten problems" of the kind assigned from the Course of Study, and he is ready to contribute what he and his author have to contribute to the recitation, and he is eager to hear what his class mates have to say. Here is the ideal setting for a live and profitable recitation. The teacher must have her subject well in hand for from this recitation she is likely to hear about all that has been contributed in the last fifty years to this topic or sub-topic in arithmetic! Each pupil's book is his authority; he will offer what his book has to say whether it be a definition, a statement of principle, an explanation of a process or the solution of a problem. The teacher is raised to the position of a discriminat- ing judge. She must listen with the pupils to the recital of authorities, hold her pupils to the topic under consideration, frame and ask her questions, the answers to which may serve to harmonize apparent differences, assign problems for oral solution, and listen to dif- ferent "pupils read their problems and explain their solutions of them. Neither the teacher, nor any of the other pupils may know beforehand the "answer" to the problem the pupil is explaining. 374 LOOKING TO OUR FOUNDATIONS We have gone into the subject of Arithmetic some- what in detail in order to show how much better that subject could be taught from a variety of textbooks than from some one textbook. Practically all the other elementary and high school subjects lend themselves to this topical method of in- struction. Take Reading for example. By this plan, it would be possible for a class to have the benefit of all the school readers published, and at no additional ex- pense over that required to provide each pupil with a copy of the one adopted book, and there would be no need for supplementary reading books ! The subject of History is another example of the artificial limitation of instruction to the meager con- tents of some one adopted textbook. There are no less than 21 different textbooks on United States History, published and exploited by thirteen enter- prising publishers. The prevailing practice is for school boards to adopt some one school history for uniform and exclusive use. The result of this limita- tion of instruction to one author's particular textbook, is that the students are taught to remember and to believe rather than to think! It gives to school authorities the right to determine the particular view- point they wish the students to be taught to believe; the so-called "Southern," and "Northern" texts on school history will serve as an illustration. By the simple act of doing away with compulsory uniformity in schoolbooks, the one continuous scandal that has been a disturbing factor in the schools almost from the beginning would be eliminatd. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 019 886 576 A