Ii!', Hi'' I, III' : iimmmmmimjiHim^^ <. THE UNIVERSITY 0? CHI<3A60 ^'' ' THE HISTORY OF GEOGRAPHY AS A SUBJECT IN THE CURRICULUM OF THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOL FROM 1776 TO 1860 A DISSERTATION Submitted to the l^aculty of the Graduate School of Arts and Literature In Candidacy for the Degree of Master of Arts DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION By WILLARD PRESSLY BOYLE CHICAGO JUNE 19 2 1 >'■ / I It 5«3 ;^t« "^■^'^^.Wv "^"tft-cii^jA 625409-^ OUTLIKE CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION PART I, THE INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT lilTO THE CURRICULUM. CHAPTER II, EARLY BEGINNINGS 1, In England 2, In the Colonies 3, In the United States previous to 1820 a. Examples of the movement in North Carolina and Virginia h« Purpose of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences c. In Phillips Andover Academy, d. In the schools of Dedham, Massachusetts e. In various schools in New York State f. In Connecticut and Rhode Island. Connecticut Lawof 1799, g. Required for entrance to Harvard, 1814 h. Taught in Boston schools, 1817 i. In private schools of St, Louis j. Development in North Carolina after 1800 CHAPTER III. THE PERIOD FROF 1820 TO 1860 1, The westward movement a. Effect upon geography in schools 2, Growth of foreign trade and its effect 3, In Massachusetts a. Law of 1827 b. In Boston schools in 1834 0, Law of 1839 -2- 4, In Connecticut a. Law of 1841 T3« In Horwich c. In Hartford and East Bridgeport 5. In Rhode Island a. In Providence b. In the academies 0. Law of 1845 6, In Kew York State a. In primary schools of New York City, 1832 t. Textbooks used in Hew York, 1833 o. Laws of 1841 and 1847 d. Examination in geography required of teachers, 7. Opposition to subject in Rhode Island, Connecticut, and Massachusetts 8, The subject in Virginia schools a. In the early academies b. Legalized by statute, 1846 c. riequired by statute, 1849 9. In north Carolina a. Proposed legislation b. School act did not require geography 10. In Ohio a. Private schools of Akron b. Taught in Cincinnati 1840 c. In schools of smaller cities d» Educational legislation Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from The Library of Congress http://www.archive.org/details/historyafgeograpOOboyl -3- 11, In Missouri a. Act of 1835 12, In Illinois a. Provided for in Alton "by statute, 1837 "b. Not required in Illinois as a state c. Teachers to be examined in geography, 1849 13, In Wisconsin a. Taught at Green Bay, 1828 "bt District trustees to determine course of study, 1838 0. Required hy str^tute, 1849 14, Claims made for geography at various times a« Special and general functions mentioned by Woodbridge b. Value as mental discipline c. Summer's claim PART II, TEXTBOOKS .WD METHODS O? INSTRUCTION CHAPTER IV. EARLY TEXTBOOKS 1, Gordon's Geograpgiy Anstorai zed 2, The first American textbook a. Contents b. Characteristics of early books 3, Other textbooks a. Dwight b. Parish c, Willets, Atlas introduced d, Morse and I'orse -4- 4, Suinmary of contents of books "before 1824 a. Table showing principal subjects treated 5, Some later books a, Worcester; new topics b, Goodrich; illustrations c, Olney d, Smiley e, Mitchell; maps in textbook f, Woodbridge; better methods g, Smith; gre-?ter detail h. Cornell; thin, flat volume 1, Van Jaters; rhymes 6, Topics included under descriptive geography a. Method of analysis and tabulation b. Changes in type of topics discussed and reasons for change 7, Other textbooks in use CHAPTER V. Iffl-^HODS MD DEVICES USED IK TEACHING GEOGRi\PHY, 1776-1860. 1, Phillips' divisions of the period up to the present a. Difficulty of dividing into definite periods 2, Geographies probably used as reading books before 1800 3, Both re ding and memorizing about 1820,Fowle -5- 4, Memorizing inoreasing in popularity, a. Willets* method b. Devices suggested "by florae and Morse c. CummingPi on memorizing 5, Keriorizing in connection with map study a. Ideas of texthook^ writers "b, ITovrle introduces map drawing c. More modern methodfj of v»'oodbridge and others d. Outline maps and tlieir use 6, Memorizing still important, 1845 a. Report of Boston school visitors h. Similar reports from New York state 7, Later period of memorisation continuous with that of early part of century 8, Improvement in met'iod a. Better apparatus "b. Change in metliod advocated, 1826 c. Begin ntudy with home, Shattuclc d. Other advocatea of same method e. Fowle introduces motivation 9, Foreign influence a. American writers influenceal by Pestalozzi and Ritter "b. Stowe's Report c. Mannas Seventh Report d. Peatalozzian methods not all improved e. The influence of fruvot -6- CHAPTER VI. CONCLUSION 1, Status in 1860 a, Sumnary of legislation "b. Reason for increaoed demand (1) the later westward movement (2) coi.'imercial expansion (3) economic and social changes e. Stmmiary of texfbook changes d. The changes in method -7- GHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION In our colonial schools reading and writing seem to have been universally tau^ht^ Spelling was also taught in most schools. The Bihle was used as a reader, and such emphasis was placed upon moral and religious aims of educa- tion as to indicate that the more practical aims were ac- corded little consideration. Such subjects as English grammar, geography, and history are mentioned only occasionally in discussions of the curriauliim of the colonial schools, in the boys' schools reading, writing, and spelling were often taught during the d-^y, w?dle arithmetic was left to be 2 studlSd in the evening, Geogr-^-phy v^as usu?lly taught in connection with mathematics and astronomy. At the close of the Revolutionary V/ar arithmetic had not yet won an entirely undisputed place in the curriculum, and geography, English grammar, and history were facing a long, determined struggle for the places 7/hi oh tliey now hold in the curriculum of the elementary school. It is the purpoao of this thesis to trace the hi story of the subject of geography throu^jh the period in which it won for itself the place whicli it now occupies. The early history of the subject in the English and colonial schools will be merely touched iipon by 'vay of furnishing a background 1. ITerri wether: Our Col. Currie . pp. 25-40. 2. Ibid, p. 160 3. Ibid, p. 141. -8- for the novement which "began shortly after the Revolutionary War, For the period previous to 1800 we have little in- disputahle evidence, but after that d^te the evidence is sufficient to enahle one to trsce in considerahle detail the gradual gain made by the subject until it was firmly established as a part of the elementary school curriculum. It was not possible in a thesis of as limited ocope as this to trace this development in the schools of all the atatea, instead, a limited number of states representing New England, the Middle Atlantic States, the fJoijth Atlantic States, and the North Central States were chosen. Of course the West was omitted because of the fact that geography was well established in the curriculuin before the state?? of that section had organized school systems. The states included in the list are Maaaachusetta, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, Virginia, ITorth Carolina, Ohio, Illinois, Wisconsin, and T'iasouri, It is felt by the writer that these stfitea are representative of the country at large, New England mey appear to have nore than her share of representation, but the N ew England States were leaders in educational affairs and were among the first to include geography in the elementary school curriculum, A fair account of the introduction of the subject into our schools must therefore include an account of what took place in those states. The actual introiuction of the subject into the ourriculiun has been treated in two periods, that preceding 1820, and that extending from 1820 to 1060. The first of these two periods was one of gradual gain, but the necond period included a wave of fenthuaiasn in favor of the new subject which finally resulted in its being required in the schools of some ststes and being included in the list of 3\ibject3 in which prospective teachers were to be examined in a number of others, "Pollowing the discussion of the introduction of the subject to the curriculijmi there is a.n analysis of the early geography textbooks, 3ixteeji books have been included in the list of those examined, beginning with Jedidiah I.'orse'a Geography i:ade Kaay , the tenth edition of whicli was published in 1806, The choice of tlie books to be included in ths tables was determined by the popularity and use of the books as shown by articles in educational journals, advertisements ' and reviews in the same journals, and lists of books in use in various nttrtea as reported by pttate superintendents of public iii-3truo!:ion. The availability of the books was also a determining factor, 1^'inally the methods and devices used in teaching geography during the period have been discussed. The eir.phaiis has been placed on the manner of presentation of the material, but the content and the influencea back of the change in content have been discussed insofar aa they affect the manner of presentation. In a nhort concluding chapter the wtiter -10- haa endeavored to aet forth the ststus of the sutject in 1860 and to sum up the influences which finally resulted in its inclusion in the elementary school curriculi;iin. -11- PART I THE IlTTOODTJCflON Oj? ffSOGRAPHY IlITO THPI CURRICULUTf 01? '^HS EIJiUffiNTARY SCHOOL -12- CHAPTSR II: EARLY ESGIimiNGG Although geogvHohy waa taught in r fe^v Tllngliah private schoola 'before 1549 we have no positive i^now- ledge that the subject was "systematicslly taught in any 2 English schoola until the eighteenth century^. There is little douht that it wao incidentally taught long be- fore that ti)i;e, ?l-'.ere were a number of books dealing with the gubjects of cosmography, geography, hydrography, navi- gation, riapa, and globes published previous to 1660. iTot a great deal of geography was taught in i\jnericR previous to the Revolutionaiy War although America was in large measure the cause of the increased interest in the subject in England. Some geof^taphy was taught as mathematics and as astronomy, and there are many textbooks in American libraries which were used during that period. These text- books were all published in England, since at that time the first American geography had not been written. Consider- able ingenuity was shoim in devising orreries, planetariuma, and other instruments used in teaching astronomy, navigation, geogr-^'phy, and related subjects, but there is some doubt as to the regularity with which these instruments were used after they had been placed in the laboratories. 1. Watson: T he Berin. o f the Teach, o f l'o,l., 3ub. in Eng .p.l05. 2. Ibi i, p. 105 3. Ibi 5, pp. 115-118. 4. TJeriwether: pp. 140-145. 5. Ibid. -13- An examination of the prof^rpns of some of the schools in the middle of the eighteenth century gives one a clearer conception of just what was included in geography at that time. We find It merely a minor part of a corn- "bi nation pf auhjects degir;ned for the special benefit of the seafaring mEn. According to advertisement g in nev/apapers of that period "the use of the globes" was taught in the Kent County School at Chesterton, T'aryland as early as 1745, In 1776 Peter Hobinson taught "cosmography, celestial or astronomical, and terrestrial or geographical" and also "the description and use of sea charts, maps, quadrants, forestpffs, nocturnal protractor, scales, Coggershall»^8 rule, sector, gauging rod, universal ring dial, globes, and 2 other mathematic.l instruments" at Tjpper Karlboro, J'aryland, These two illustrations serve to show what was meant "by geography at that time. Sometimes it was mentioned specif- ically under the name geography , and at such times it meant the use of globes, mathematical geography, and place geography. The trader, the sailor, the merchant needed to know some geography, as did also the scientist, but it was of little value to the average person in the American Colonies "before the Revolutionary Vfer, ^or that reason we find that it was usually taught in a school of a more or less specialized 1, nteiner: Hi at. Of. :?A. In I'a, p. 33. 3, Ibid. -14- type, a school designed to prepare boys to become sailors or occasionally in some private school where the sons of the wealthy traders and raerchants of the coast towns received their education. Smith quotes an advertisement from the ITorth Carolina Gazette of July 24, 1778 as follows: ♦•Mr. Joseph Blyth has opened school in the public school- house, and rrill teach Latin, English, arithmetic, geography, geonetry, trigonometry, and several other of the most useful branches of the rnathenatics, according to the best and raost approved methods. Gentlemen and ladies who favor him with their children may depend that he will be diligent and pay proper attention to their education, Uewbern, July 24" Considerable interest was sliown in education in most of the st':te3 dizring the last two decades cf the eighteenth century. As early aa 1779 a coinmittee, one of whose members wag '^omac Jefferson, reported to the assenbly of Virginia a plan for a Bystem of partially stste-supported schools. Each county was to be divided into districts or hundreds for the establishment of schools in which reading, writing, and arithmetic were to be tauftht, fhere were also to be more advanced schools, twenty in each county, and geography was 2 one of the Rubjectg to be included in the curriculum, ' Although 1, Smith, TTist. of Ed, in IS.C , p, 42, 2, Worrison: Bep-Jn, of Tub. ?.d. in Va. pp, 17-18. -15- nothing was done to carry out the recoimnendations of this committee, the very fact that the subject of geography was one of those recommended shows that it was receiTing serious consideration and was probably becoming fairly common in the more advanced private schools. The act incorporating the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, passed by the Massachusetts legislature during dtt-8 session of 1779-1780, names among other objects of the society the encouragement of "astronomical, rieterologicai, and geographical observations". The act was passed I'ay 4, 1780, In October of the same year Phillips Andover Academy was incorporated, and again geography was named as one of 2 the subjects to be taught. The subject was introduced into the schoo la of Dedhem, I-assachusettb "soon after Jedidiah Morse published a work on that subject in 1784", The Minutes of the Trustees of llewburg, Hew York are quoted by T^uttenber to show that in 1790 it was "Agreed that the Reverend George H, Hperin shall be entitled to receive the whole of the rents and benefits arising from the Gl&be lands, while he continues to officiate as minister, and teaching the cliildren of the inhabitants of the German patent on the following terms, viz, : Reading, '.vriting. Arithmetic, Geography, History and iinglish Grammar at 12 S, per quarter, Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic 4 at 8 shillings per quarter," It is not clear whether this 1, The Acts and Resolves of the Pro vince o f the I 'a ss. lay, 1769- 1780 , pp. 1194-1196. Vol.'V, Oh, 46, 3eo, 7. 2, Ibid, p. 1418. Gh. 15, Year 1760. 3, olafter: '""he School s ;?_nd •^e acher ? of D e dhaBT ,r'a_3_s .pp. 170-171. 4, Ruttenber: Hist, of the Town of I'ew'b'ur'gh,p. 245, -16- school waa an academy or an elementary achool, ON March 4, 1801 Pererend Seth Hart advertised that he "was disposed to take 6 or 8 boys to board and lo Ige in hi 3 family and be in- structed in reading, writing, arit?imetic, geography, Enf^lish grammar and the Latin and Greek languages." The law of 1795 in Hew York St^ite appropriates the sum of twenty thousand pounds annually for a period of five years for aiaintaining schools in which "the children of the inliabitanta residing in this state shall "be instructed in the iingiisli language or be taught English grarmiar, arithmetic, raetheiaatics and such other branches of knowled/^e ao are most useful and necessary to com- plete a good English education; -----•«■' This law is typical of many of the early laws relating to education. It names certain subjects which are to be taught and leaves those in charge of individual systems or schools to decide what other subjects, if any others, are to be included in the curriculuK., Connecticut and Rhode Island also have representatives among the schools teaching geography before IBOO, The regulations for the schools in Tarmington, Connecticut, adopt- ed April 4, 1796 state that the object of the schools ia "to perfect the youth admitted therein in reading and in the grammar of the English tongue, and to instruct them in geography, 1, ?itzpatriclc: The ]t!iuc;;t ion al Vie-rs and Influence of De'/itt ClintQn],r pp. 11-12, 2. laws o ^ the iU-^te of rerr York, 1789-1796, p. 626. -17- 1 arithmetio, composition, and speaking, or any of them." Stockwell quotes from an interview with Mr. John TTowland in 1847 in which Ho. viand, an energetic and progressive member of the Providence Aaaociation of ?'^e chanics and Manuf acturers , tells of the influence of that association in the agitation for the establishment of free schools in Frovi deuce. "The introduction of grainir.ar was quite an advance in the system of education, as it was not taught at all except in thP hetter class of private schcols. The same was true of geography, which had never been taught before. Geographies could riot be boiifrht in this town, so I sent to Boston ana pur- chased as many as were wanted for our schools. Dr. irorse of Charleston had published the first vol.ime of his geography, and that was the work we adopted, iAany thought it an un- necessary study, and in private objected to it because it would trike their attention from arithmetic. But it net ivith 2 no pubiich opposition,'* Aocordint? to J'r, Howland the events mentioned took place in 180C, The st^te of Connecticut in 17'j9 took a very definite step toward t>n2 recognition of geof^raphy as a part of the curriculum of "schools of a higher order". These sch.ools probably correuponded to our upper grades. The law passed in ray, 1799, is entitled An Act for appointing, regulating, and en couraging schools. It provides by a vote of two thirds -'•• Conn. R eT:)Q rt of t he Guot. o.f .Conr). Sch. , X8.'35, Vol. 8, p. 113, 2, Stockwell: A ITict, of Publ. 3d. in K.I. ,1636-1876. pp. 150-155. -18- of the inhalDitants of « acViOol society present in a legal meeting for the entablishinent of "schools of a higher order, for the oononon benefit of the 3oci ety, the object of which shall be to perfect the Youth admitted therein in Reading and Penmfinahip, to instruct them in the rudiments of finpilish graronar, Conpo^ition, Arithmetic and Geography, or, on particu- 5.ar defjire in the Latin and CreeV: lanpuares; .?l3P in thf first principler3 of P.elifcion and morality, and in general to form them for uaefulne^g in society." Woah Webster, in an account of the United States in 1806, anys of the acadenies and grammar schools of Connecticut: •»In these are taught not only the prinarv branches of Reaming, but geography, gr-unrcar, the languages, and higher beanches of raathenatics, "2 Fron IBOO <-o 1820 geography slowly but 'i'urely -von for itself a place in the courses of ?tudy of raany schools. In . 1814 Harvard announced that after 1815 geography would be required fcr entrance. This re^Miirement no doubt had a stimulating effect wpon the novenent to include geography among the subjects studied ir the better class of preparatory schools, but we Rve not 3ure that it had any marlced effect upon the curriculum in any great nur^.ber of schools of any sort. It is interesting to note, >^o^.7eTer, that in the report of e subcomnittee appointed in 1817 for considering the ad- Tisability of establishing schools for children under seven i- Act. -I :iitd Lawa of the 'Itateof CQjjn. ,_179G-18Q2, pp. 502-006. 2. ^^a-^na'^d: Schools as they "?e re "LTixty Yfti-irs ago. In Barnard' s ADer. Jour, o"" Id., Vol. 26, 1876, p. 202. 7,. T'pVf.Vn' >'Vip "i-'vnT . o-f the Ta s s . Put. 3ch. Hysterj. p. 127. -19- yeara, there ia a 3tr;tement that "In the pu1)lic Schools in this town (Boston), the clilliiren are tau^^ht the principles cf the Snsliah lanpua^^e, and likewise the elements of ,7ritir.g, Arithraetic, and Geography. •' It is probahle that geography was? taught in Boston "before tliis tii-e, hut this is the first reference we have to the bub.iect actually being tauf'iht in the Boston town schools. During this aaxue period p;eography was taupht in a number of pi-ivate schools in St, Louis, 3charf quotes an adrertiaemfent from the l^igs q uri gaz ette of January 11, 1809 to 'ihoir that a lir. schewe aivertised that he would teach 2 geography, as well as otlier subjects, at that tine. . On Hovewber 16, 1809 Isaac Septliveres advertised that he would 3 teach drawing, geography, matneinatics, and French gramriar. In the year 1816 Timothy nUint and James Sawyer "associated for the mirpoHe of continuin,^ to teach the first principles of education upon the Lancagtri.?n eyatem, and the higher branches, as gramiaar, geography, with the use of naps and globes, cpriiponition, rhetoiic, the Latin and Greek languages, mathemetics and philosophy.""* The aubject had gained a fcotbold in the acadetiies of Korth- Caroliiia alao et the beginning of the nineteenth century. As early as 1806 it -.vas included in the course of 1 , Wi gh trtian : Atin. of th e Boston Pria. r > ch. Con . ,1818-1655, p. 25. 2, Hcherf ;Tj^t.ojf^ sT; jJ)uTF end County,' p. 624. 3, Ibid. 4, Ibid, p. 22b. -2C- study of the Bo er ding S cht ool for yem ale Education at osl ei". North Carolina, and fin editorial in the RaleJKh B tar of March 15, 1810 lists geoerHnl'iy as one of the suhj ects taur;ht 2 in tho En{?:li!3h departiyiont of lialeigh Academy at that d^te. We know thtit the firsjt of theae two schools was not in reality a necondury school, "because £-irls were admitted at the agea of eight and twelve years and vrere iiot allowed to reneir after they were fifteen," As early as 1803 a man neroed 0' barrel had introduced a bill in the lc;i:islature providing for the ef?tRbli3hrnent of an -acadewy in each county in the state. The hill Iticl-uded a statement as to what should "be taU'-^ht in theae aoadenie^, and geography wsa included in the lint. The hill tail- ed to pfj.gs.'* Ag'iin in 1917 the r.spoi*t of a comriattee appoint- ed for the consideration of the governor's ^cesaa^^e on education outlined a pl.-?.n for the establishj?ient of free schools in the 8t''te. Readimr, wa'itiru:, and aritlwietic were to be tau.rht in zhe primary schools, and geography was included in the coursse of study of the acaderriiei. This proposal was referred to a Goinreittee and finally ir.oorpor.^ted i>ito a bill w'^ich failed to pass, Althou:->^ none of these proposals were made law they show a decided tendency to include geography in the academy curriculum. It ^lust bfi renemtered th^t nany of the?!e academies 1» Raper: The C hurch pn' l priv;vt-.e ■3o}toolr, of I'ortTi C£.rolina,p ,89, 2, Goon: The Befrin. of Ih-'b_j_ j^.iools of a particularly ad- vanced type. The suhject tf.ught usually included Latin and Boroetirr.ea Greek, "but the other antjects were the name as hQve been taujrht in the aixth, seventh and eighth gr^.des aince the ffiidille of the last contury. Sorae wore certainly genuine secondary schools, hut /uore were i.ot far enough advanced to "be so rfinlced. -22- CJLAPTER III: TIIE PERIOD FROM 1820 TO 1860 Beginning with the second decado of the ninetdenth century there 'vas launched a laovexnent which was probably more influential th.-in any other one thing in finally placing geog- raphy nnong the otudiea puraued in practically every element- ary Bchool in the United States J do jiot refer to any great educp.tionfil reform but merely to the movement of settlers into the Went, Of course there vrere nany settlements in the West before 1810, and the r.ovement had been froinii on for many ye-vrs, but the i. umber of pernono orouainR the Alleo;heny Mountain-^ into the v.^lleyo of the Oiio and other western rivers in any one year before 1B12 was relative J^' insignificant as cninpare 1 with the numbers who poured iuto the west during the nucceeding ye^^rs. The folloving quotation illustrates the magnitude of this movement: "The growth of the 't7est, to which we have already re* ferred, was phenomenal in the early AeoeAe:^ of the centiiry. There had long been av interrnittent citream of Dicration over the mountains fron the see-coast ritrtea, '.lihenever tines were bad or the oce?3n f^omnerce tss serioiir.ly intei^f erred with, many turned tlieir fHces wentward ^nd '30U(Tht new hones, expect- ing to bep-ir lif** over again in the irilderness. Between 1810 and 1816 the population of Ohio increased frorr two hunired snd thirty thousf^nfi to about four hundred thousand. In the same period the number of people in Indiana leaped fror. -23- twenty-four thousand to nearly three tlrjea that number. The Southern sea-coaat States poured their citizens iiito Illiuoia and the territories of the Southwest. After 1816 the tide of migration tc the West hecawie a mighty current. *\7e nre', aaid Calhoun at that tine, 'greatly and rapi^ily, - I was ahout to s^y fearfully growirip', Steam- boats plied up and down the western riyerr: and travelers thronged the roadn to the interior." Tl-iia great movement had eti effe(5t upon the curriculum of the Ar.ierican schools rsirdlRr to that exerted hy the period of exploration and settlement upon that of the English schools. There was an increased demand for geogr'^.phy. People wished to know rore about tViis ne;v region to •■ffhir.h their friends and relatives were going. Trade across the mountains increased in volume, and the demand for more icnowledf^e of the region with which this tr^ide was being carried on was a naturf^i one. There was no great leader w>io w?>«s particularly influential in the moTeriont to include f^eogr^phy in the curriculum of the elementary schools. '^he demand simply grew 'dth the country. It was a demand for a greater knowledfre of the newly settled parts of thi3 r:'pidly p:rovriy\(r^ country, Dixring this same period j'imerican trade -nth foreif^n countries was increasing rapidly. Our increasing Importance as a commercial nation was another factor in the introduction 1. McLaughlin: viot. of the Aaer. V.ni, pp. 253-265, of geography into the curriculUTn, The exchariRe of .f^ooig with foreign peoplea naturally resulted in exchrinf^e of idefia as well. There frrew up a denand to know more of the pro duct a which other people had for exchRnfce and rxlso of the habits aud custoiaa of the varioua nationalities, of their government, and of their manner of living. Of course the;5e demands had tegun to hear fruit be- fore 1830, but t>)ft deraand seems to have increp.aed much r,''Ore rapidly from that tirae forward, if we can judge by the results, A contenporary account in 1834 rives us the courne of studies in the frrarnmar schools of Boston at that time. It is as follows: •♦Clasa IV, 3pellinfr, "Reeding, CIsbr III, Spelling and Heading, coutinued. P}np:lirih C-raiiinar, Glaeo II, Spelling, Reading, and lingliah ('rratn;;ar , continued, (reopiraphy, Perning, Class I, Spell infr, f^eadine;, GrPirPiSir , and C-eoPirapV^y, continued. History of the United Stater. , Coppooition, Declamation." The writer of tlie article then T^roceeds to enumerate the conditiora under which arithmetic and other studies are tauRht, We see that geogr&phy was tsu/^ht in the two highest grades of the elementary school. JOven before that tiTie, as early as 1827 there was a law in IZassachusetts requiring each town or di .strict in the state contnining fifty fanilie;^ or householders to "provide itself -^ith a teacher or teachers 1, \7oodb3*idg8: Boston Public 3chools. In Amer. .-jin, of ad. and Instruct. Vol. 4,, 1.?.'4, o. boii. -^5- of good raorala, to instruct cyilldren in orthography, reading, writing, "Bn^^lis^i grammar, geography, aritlimetic, ,"nd good ■behavior, for such tern of ti>ae aB ahfill he equivalent to a term of aix montha for orie pichool ii\ each year: " This law was approved hy the. governor on Mercli 10, 1C27, it §Uy9 nothing ahout schools in digtricte or towns of leas than flftr fawilii^.s; no we carrot yet say that geography wan required in the cichools of Ma8Bfiuh\i9ett3, Ho;vever, ell uncertainty was removed twelve ye-'T'i l?ter. In 1839 another lew dealing with the nnhject of sduc-tion was passed, and part of the first section of this law reads tiP. follows: "In every town in th.ig Com onwealth, there shall be kept, in each year, at the charf^e of the to^T. , by a te=icher or teachers of competent ability, and t;ood ji'oraln, one school for the instructicm of children in ort^ogsaphy, reading, writing, English pran-iar, geogr^^phy, arithmetic, and good behavior, for the term of six mon^hJi, or t\TO or ir.ore schools for terns of time which shall top:ether be sqiivRl3nt to six 2 months; , " Although thi^3 law does not specify, as did the law of 18-17, that t-ier» is to be a school in districts in which there is no town, there seerns tj be no uncertainty whatever as to ^.yhat is to be tau-^^ht in tfie schools, and geography had undoubtedly won it -3 place in the school <=» of '^Massachusetts in 1839. •^» Law s of the ConrRonivealth _ Qf I'a es. .T nn.5»?'i ?r uhl0,i837 , Gh. GXLIIIC, Sec. I, 2 • Acts a nd Regolv es Pa ssed y/ t he Legislature of ?:a3s.,1839, Ch. 26, oec. I, -26- Many states heaitated to prescribe the studies which should "be teught in the 3C>iool3. Awong rmc}i 3tatea are Connecticut, Rhode I aland, and Kew York, v/e have already seen that the state of Connecticut had prescrihed certain studies to "be tpjAfiht in "ochools of e highv^r order", l»itt thR lEws of later yearn make no refcxf-rice to the require- ments eTcent in the case of certification of teachers. An POt passed in 1841 provides that the toard of visitors shall prescrilDe the studies in the sc^oola, but it also pro- vide? that this f5nTae board "Shall t}ii^mnelvef3, or by a com- nit-^ee ny there appointed for t^iri purpose, exarine all candidates as teachern in the coiciion school of nuch f.ociety, and shall /t^ive to those persons -.rith whose moral character, lit'^rary attaiiininta, and ability to teach they are satis- fied, a certificate setting; forth the "branches he or she is "^ound capable of teaching: Provided that no certificate shall be given to any per.-on not found viuaiified to teach reading, writinf!;, arithmetio and grarnar thoroughly, and the rudiments of geography and l-istory." This requirement is a foir indication that the subject was usually taaght in the oor^.on schools of Connecticut, i'.ention has already been made of its havinfr been tair-^ht in "^ermington, Connecticut before IBsOO, Caulkins also st-teo that geography was taw?:lit in "an institution of hif^her grade than elementary" at ■^» J-":'-|b*, ^i\;Cta of _the_^ '^A'--"'"'^. , 9^ Conn. , May Session, 1841, p. 47, -27- Horwlch in 1783, An academy waa e3tablished in this aame town in 1782 and at p. somewhat Inter date, we are not told exactly when, Morse's Geogra phy T/ade Hasy was used as a text- book, Jedidiah T/orse is said to have "been an instructor in this academy at one time,^ A pamphlet issued in Connecticut in 1838 says that "Gcorr^phy ad. grr^raaar have M'ithin a few years "been introduced extensively, ----.•• y/e know that 4 ^eof^rnphy was taii^ht in Hartford in 1856 and in East pridge- port'^ during the years 181)9 and 1660, amce tlte ruleis and regulations of the sc'iools in t?ieBe toi'*7is for tlie years mentioned prescribe it. Phy?3icai geograi)hy was taupht during the last year of the ^;rnmmar school ir jiaot Bridgeport, and the subject was tauf!:?;t i)i 3orie forra in the three preceding years of the gramar school and in the last year of tlie primary scl-iool. Physical geography was tauf;ht in the high school in Harfford, Conditions in P.hode Island were aiiollar to thotie in Connecticut. In 1B20 in Providence a cociroittee on rules and reprulations reque:^ted the schoolMoahers for sugf,'er.tions as to FiethodB of conducting and i irprovirg tV;e schools. The results at that time show that emphasis wan placed or read- ing, writing, arit^-'n.etic and spellin, ,. C-eography was dropped 1, Caullrins; Hist, of ITorwloh. Conn, p. b41. 2, Ibii. p. 542. 3, 'jiTiJ.ll: liic.iriy Hew "'-in,':'. Sch. p. 372. 4, Conn. Re-o ' t of t he? 3 apt, of Com. Scho ol 13b6-lB67 , pp. 120- 5, 'Cljid, 1859-^aGSO, pp. i06"-103. -28- froTTi the course of atudy in 1820 but was restored in 1822. In the Providence "writing school a", the grade of schooln higher than the primary, v/oodhridge ' 3 Small Geogr.'jphy was used in 1828, Some geography was also taught during the first year in the "i!i/arren Ladies' Seminary Bt Warren, Rhode Island in 1834,' and in the English department of Kij;g3ton Academy at South Kingston in ±«54,'''' "he lefjislntion delaing with educf?.ti.^n in R^o Je Island was similar to that In Connecticut, In 1645 a hill was P9.ssed proTiding that neither of the authorities with power to FJign tssichere' certificates (the cliairmaTi of the school comrnit-'-.eQ of irny to^^n or the inspector for the county) "shall sign s.ny certificnte of qualification unless the person mmed in the n'^me s'-'ell T^rocluce ex''ider.ce of good ohp.rpcter, and "be found on examination, or by experisrice, qualified to teach the English I'-jntisuage, arithmstic, perucanahlp, and the rudir.entr3 of -Teography and history, ;ind to govern a 3c?iOol."5 Here we ncrnxn have evidence that tlic subject had established iteelf in the course of stuly tut that the teachers were not expected to Icnow a great deal about it. In 1B7-2 a l^few York City school oorir.jittee seems to have visited Boston for the purpo;^e of studying their prinary 1. Carroll: P ub. Jli. in H.J- , "JJP. Gfj-ofj* 2. Ibid, P. 67. 3. "olTi-jn: 'Tis_t. of| ^Tl.-'hor ICd. in ~.I. .PP. 84-5. 4. Ibid, p."<>=0. *" ^« '^iLil'^® '^gl-'">nc^ .AcVb,. Hos olves and Rep orts, 1845-4G, (June 3ess, i645T~Act T^elating to Put. 3ch. Sec". XX, Par. 2." -29- aoViool syatem. The New York syotem was finally modelled after that in Boston \vith some changes. "The course of study enhraced reRdinp, spellin^r, and writinr., with the oltRple elements of arithmetic and geoRraphy, to be tnuf^ht orally and aa far as possible, with visible iliustrationa by merxna of a map of the herniapheretj, nuneral frame, and blROkboard," '^hc city had been late in eatabiiahinj; a ay stem of ,>uhlio schools and for that reason date is difficult to obtain. The Kew York i5t;?te Superintendent of Public Instruc- tion reported that in 1833 /oodbridge'o, Wiilets', oieny'a, J^Torae's, Cupping's, Goodrich's, Hart » a, Dwipht's, Dillard's, Clark's, Peter Pnrley's, 3paf ford's, Worcester' a, and Hilli?ird'a geographies' were in use in different schoolB in 3 thfi etrrte. The years iramediately followint; show liota which increase steadily in length fron year to yecr and in which nome of the books natied ere grnduaiiydiaplaced by others. In 1834 Buperirtendent ^lagr saya that "the stu'iy of arithmetic and geogr-iphy may not, perhaps, be carried farther than is necessary." He apparently was unwilli»jg to place therae t>?o subjects on a par with the othem, and yet later in the BaiT, (Ih. 4L3C, Art. 4, Sec. :^5, ' -31- able to write a ^ood and plain h-^nd and to make pens, and to "be TTell versed in the definitions of rvorda, in arithmetic, ipsital and irritten, in geography, in the hiatorv of the United 3taten, in English ferairiniar, and in the use of globes. This is the third of the states to ps33 legislation reiuirin? an exarciration in ge ogr-vphy fo- ? teacher's certific^ite although the subject itself ?'ao not required in the schools "by law, Neither was sny other sutject required }:2B a pamphlet issued in Connecticut states: 'Spelling, yeaiin;?, writing and arlthrnetic sfe taught in nearly eyery school. Geography and prammar have within p few yat-.Ts "been introduced vp.ry extensively, l/ut in many placea not without gre^t opposition. ISfren arithrnetic until within s. few years \TOS e^ccluded fron many nchoola during the day, and only per- mitted to ho taup-ht in thd evening achools, GrEmmar and geography were opposed but with legs vioierce • . ""^ Wightman quotes froir the report of a aubcorrimittee appointed in 1333 to ij-jvestig-^te charges tliat gor.-je of tlie schools had departed froTi the prescriTsed course of instruction: "In 3chool 1:0. 8 Peter Parley's Geofjraphy, -fith ■''aps and a frlohe, had "been introduced; also geometrical cards and wodels of various fifi^ures. The geography was used as an occasional readinf' book "by the chillr^n; and the other things were also used hy the teacher. In three other schools more or less of the Bv.vre things had be^^n introduced. It appeared furt'-ier, that, all of them had been riven to the schools, though, in gorae canes, the parents had "been requested to pur- chase the geography for the children," 1, Small; .'^larly Hew Tilng. SOioola, p. 37 -2, 2, '.7ightnan: \nn. of the Eoston Prim. 3ch. Com., pn.irS8-139. Such quot-^tiona give one a rather clear conception of the strength of the opposition to the introduction of any new ouhjeot into the curriculum. It is safe to aay t)iat oonditiona were much as they are tod.^y. There was a growing demand for a fuller, richer curriculum, hut there was also a very decided, though decreasing, opposition to anything new and untried. The Kioveraent to iiicludc geography in the eienontary school curriculum in the 3outh and West is ro further hehind the movement in the j)^ eiv England States and Hew York than conditions would lead one to expect. The economic and social conditions ^srere different in these two regions frorii the condi- tions existing in the nortyi-eaatern states. The simple fact that the Sout:^ was to a great extent a region cf slave lahor and of aristocratic land ov>r.ers '-dth large plantations re- tarded the develor^ment of a free schiooi system. There was a caste eysteta v/hich practically deinanded ttiat the wealthy plantation owner's son be educated in a school apart from that in which the poor roan's son receiTed his education. The first state-aided schools established in the South were charity achools to which & child could he sent in case the parent was unahie to pay for 'nis education. It is natui-ai to suppose that such suhjeots as geography, history, and grammar found a plcice in the better class of private scJiools at a conipar.r-.ively eorly date hut that the extensionof tne curriculum lagf^ed in the primary ochoola provideci for the poor cliildren. Thl3 appears? to "be whab happened. The gubgcriptlon papers for Charleston Academy in Jefferson County, Virgiiiia had named geography as one of the guhjecta to ha taught in the school a3 early as 1795. Shepherds town Acadevay, in the aane oountv'', included "the use of glohea' in its cour=ie of -^t'ldy ii 1813.^ In 1824 T^eography wag included in the coarge^ of both Tlampden 3i dney College and in tr.e prRoarntory achool of the same oolles^e.*^ The sub- ject wae taurht in t;ie ■\rir)!?:inia Bp.ptist Seminary at the 4 openinp" of school in 18r>3, ITot until 1846 was even a partial public school i=!y3tem provided for by law in Virginia, On F.orch 5 of that year a law 'vas p*?gi?ed which not onl.7 provided for the c^tabli ahnent of p school in each district but aloo specified srertain sub- jects wViieh were to be taught in the schools, A portion of tViifl act is as follows: "Be it further enacted ?hat in each ii strict a ichool ahall be e^^tehl i shed in the manner here-in-after provided, in w>iinh shall be t>iorouc:hly taugint reading, vrritinf? and arithmetic, and (where it is practicable) .Hlnnli3h granmar, f^Roeraphy, history, (especiall;?' of the atnte cf Yirfrinia and of the TTnitsd States) and the elements of phy^icrl science, and such other hi^^her branches bp. the school conmisoionera 3fnay direct," 1. IJorriqon: Th e T?egi! i. of Pu b. Sd . in Va., p, 13S. 3. Ibid, 3. Ibid. p. 105. 4. Ibid, p. 150. 5. ActiB of th«-; Cen. Assem. of 'Ta. .1045-46, p. 35. Gh. 41, Sec. 5. -35- It should be noticed t>iat according to the provisiona of t]ie law of 1046 geography was riOt required but was to be taurht merely "where it iu practicable*' to do ao. TTowever, the gchool law vnB chfmged all^htiy aa published in the Code of 1849, and geography r/as included snong the aubjecto apeoified, as was also English gr m.-imx?? , "The aaid board ahall eBtablia}i e ychool ir. o^nh dis- trict, in which qV)-.,]! i-^h t.-^ufrht reading, writirr, arithmetic, English grPuTiinar, and KtoKraphy, aiid, ivhen it i'3 pr:jctisable, history, the elcicents of phy^icfi acionce and such other br-mche;-^ oT learning ar. the said board may r.an Reedinf.', Writing, EnglinJ* Craraiua- and Arithmetic''.^ The bill fsilcd of passage but it illustrf-.tefs the oppo^-dtion to the inclusion of such subjects as history cUid geography'- in the cour.se offv-.rei in any i^c^iool r^ceivint; eveii partial 1' '^i.e /^>'ie of 7a. 1849, pp. '57 5-;S81, Oh. LAA:ai, 3ec. 11. 8, Coon: The re^in,' of "pub. Ed . in IT.O . Vol. I, p. 425-426. -re- state support. The bill Thich wars finally passed did not specify what subjects sVoiird bs t^uf^iht in the achoolg. ITaither did it li^t f';eo,'^r;^phy as r» nub.ieot in ^rhich a teacher must be examined. Of the 3tate?i 'Vhlch were orijrirv^Hy p. part of the ?:Tr2rth've3t Teirritoiy Ohio wars th'^ flrf^t to be 3ettled and was ?.lao ri leader in thp. i "Tnrnvf>mert of her 3chool3, Advertiai- m(=)nt3 of private schools in A\:ron in the ysar? 1836 to 18S8, Inclusive, f=;hDw geography to hevo "been tawrht in several o of thera,*' The Ci n cl n nr. t i ^ 'ritiv;,", and nrity-,actic ahould be tau^^ht in the 5 G English lanf^najre. The? lav: passed ev-?.riy in i«49, ainen.iing the act of IPoB, provided that whenever tliree or Tiore houae- holderg in p.ny district ii: the stfvte ghouid rnake known in T^itine- to fhf^ directors of the district thair desire that En^ligh gr.-?jrmip.r snd f^eogrsphy "be taup;ht in any sc]-ool of the disstrict, it should be the lut^; of the directcin to v-rovide for irgtructlon in thoae 3U>^ject;^, i;o law v^aa paased before 1P,60 which nntie j!eo{^rnphy an absolute requirement, TJiaaouri wfts ;nie of the ^c}i. of th e IJtatu of Ohio, "(pages not nximberedr) ^« ^^«^». :^nd Loo. Lawa of 0., IS-'^jO. Vol. XC-C/I, pp. 21-27. 6, roid, 1P748-1G49, p. 4;5. -SB- was passed: "In all schools establiahed according.' to the pro- viainna of this act, there shall he taught, reading, writing, arithjTietic, geography, iSnglish grammar, and such other ■branches of education (theology excepted) as the funds may Justify."^ Illinois, on the other hand, failed to psss any legis- lation requiring the inclusion of geography in the curriculum of the elementary schools of the state. ^Tovever, the act incorporating the city of Alton in 1037 enpowers the coTr,inon council of the oity "to eitahlish elenf>ntary or common schools, wherein reading, writin,^, arithraetic, geography, gr.-iin::;c;r and 2 other useful branches of lilnglish education may be ta.uK>it." On the ot>ier hand, as late as 1859, an act for the astablish- inent of a syatem cf graded scTiools in Gale.3burg ga/tj the board of education power to prescribe the studies to be taa.':-ht and the books to be used. AIhio in the case of tVie Lee Centre Union frraded School the director^^ ivere givenpower "to regulate 4 tiie course of studies to be pursued in said ins-'itutioM. " Illinois followed in the patVi of 3o,"e of the eastpec. 3es3 .1857, p. 22. 3. Ibid, 1859, p. 164. 4. Ibid, p. 170. -39- proposing to teach a common school in any township in his ounty, in relation to Viis or her moral character and touch- iri'^ his or her qualifications properly to te;ich ortV'ography, reading in iilngllah, penmenship , arithmotlc, llngiish gr-immar, modern geography, and the history of the United otates." In Wisconnin conditions were much the same as in the other states except that the introduction of {geography into the curriculiiin wag rather late, or, one night more properly say, the organization of a school sjystem itself did nor, occur at an early date. The following quotation hrings out this fact rather strikingly: "By 1828 many schools were heinit erjtahli 3hed, .^Li supported by private !5ub3cri ption an i tuition foes. Oreen Bay seems to have heen most progressive for at Shanty Town Fiss Russel and later T'iss Gears taught re-jdiric-, writi;:.', arithmetic, grammar and geography, the latter two studies "being looked upon as quite unusujl and certainly "beyond the 2 po-'.-er of rnof^t teachers to manage,""" The law of 1658 estallisfed a syctem of corimon sjchools, hut according to the provisions of this law the trustees of f»noh district were to deterrdrn- v:hrJ: subjects ^3]lOul^ be taug?it in the 5choo].« of the district. This provi-^i/n remained in force until 1849 when a new school law provided thpt "In every district nc>ool there sh^ 11 be taught 1. Ibid, First Jess. 1849, n, 156. 2. Pray: Jilariy IM. in Kd. ^^ist. of Yis. . p. 25. 3. '3tat. o^ the Terr, of '/is., 18:5&-39," pp. 137-139. -40- orthogrnphy, reading, writing, English grHicmar, geography and aritlimetic, durinfr the time which such school shall be kept, and such other branches of education as shall he dcterrminffdl upon by the board. "■*• In 1854 the -wording of the section remained the same excopt that a provision had been inserted requirint*; thai-, the 2 teaching be done in the Enf^lisb language. In su^i'iiarizing the movement for the intro^iucti ' n of geography into the curriculum between the dates of 18pr) and 1040 it nay be said that this was a period characterized more by a const r^nt gain in the popularity of the subject and by 1 gradual addition of geography to the courses of f>tudy of schools througViout the states considered than by legisla- tion requiring that it be tautiiht. It is true that sucli legislation was enacted in I.fisaouri and T'asiiachusettn in 183i3 and 18:59, respectively, but such legislation was not char?:'.cteristic of the period from 1820 to 1040, I'he +'ollow- ing decade, however, is certainly '.«-ell represented by c luca- tionnl legislation which either named geography as :i p^rt of the courrje of stuii;^-- in the elementary schools or li^^ted it as one of the subjects in »vhich nrospective teachera were to be examined, Wisconsin and Virginia passed laws re-iuiring the teaching of geogra-o}iy in the elementary schools of those states, and Ohio passed a law which made the require- l-^- Rev. i;tat. of jtcte of .li>5 , . 164y, p. 195. 2. ^-Offj Laws Sta-^e of /is.. 1854. Ch.80, 3ec. 41. -41- ment dependent upon the demand, Connecticut, Rhode Island, !!ew vork, and Illinois school laws required teachers to paas an examination in the subject, and llorth Carolina alone failed to make either of the requirements mentioned. This to^iy of legislation proves beyond a doubt that "by 1850 geogfaphy had won the approval of the people of the country as a whole for its ciain to a place in the curriculura of the ele'^entsry cchool. Ilo doubt there were still oections of the country where it had not won an undisputed place, but such places vvevQ not typical of the country as a whole, "hey were the backward sections which were tnakin^i slow pro^;ress in educational mattera of all sorts. In the early part of this chapter some attenticr^ was devoted to the influences which led to the rapid gro-^th of the novement to include geography in the curricuiun.. The tvfOt influences discussed \7ere the westward laovement an.i the r^rowth of foreign corninerce. At aifferent tiices during the poriod fror; 177C to 186C various claims were made for the subject of ceography. It is riifiicult to nieasurs the actual influence exerted by these variious cluirub, but it is urobable t>ipt eac>! of them was to aome degree iristrai/ientai in ^jic^cing the subject in the position it occupied at the end of the period. One of the no st enthurjiastic of the onar'pions of geof;raphy ua^ V.C. '-voodbridge, the author of one of trit? -42- most popular textbooks of the lecond quarter of the nine- teenth century. In a lecture before tl-ie Aroerican in3titut£ o_f Jn 'it rii£t i^)j2 in 1853 Mr. Woodbridfie mentions both special and >;eneral object 3 of the stu^iy. Among the forifier he mentions "the superior skill it gives to the sailor, the soldier, the missionary, and the traveler in their expeditions to vario'iia parts of the earth" and to the "merG)iant and politicians in their calculation of private oi national affairs". Among what he calls gener.;l objects }ie mentions 1, Broadening of the mind. 2, The elevation of the mind to God. 3, Knowledge of the locati .n of places. 4, Knowledfre as to ho-v to ir.terpret a jriap, Woodbridge lays special emphasis on the fourth of these fiinctions, and in thic he has anticipated a problem which ia still of outstanding importance in the teacliiufi of geography. He says that the child should begin with -'the observation of the objects in nature around him.-" Tie stresses the necessity o+' having eliildreii see in iwagii.ation •yhat the map represents, and as a method of aocoypii3hi<-.g this jmrpoae he advocates having the c'nildren construct maps from v>iat they see, beginning witli plans or luaps of a desk, room, playground, or nsighborliood.^ In introducing '7oodbridge's ideas on this subject at this particular point the wtter has in reality iutro iuced sonefhiug which properly belongs in a ■^ • - '- tZ2.'-112.«- ~'^- ''^ "^ ouries and Lect, .Deiivered ijefore Am er , Ir.iti-' :, of" Instruct. ,1355, pp. 209-240. 2. Ibid, p, 213. -43- later chapter, that dealing with the rethoda of teaching ^eor.Tfivhy; TDut it aeemed proper to give it aojne attention Bt t^i<5 point in order to ahoiv .jujt what "oodhridge had in mind when he npolce of tlno ir)terpretation of tiiaps aa being one of t>ie objects of the study, lie aeema to hnve had a renarkably «lo?.r imif'-ht tnto this problem v^hen one cjii- Ftj. ders the rolrtive ne'Tneaa of the r,ubject in the curricui'.im at r--t tine. The second of the objects which he mentions is :.;.■ inter- estin,^ one, one ■^hich is typical of that peiiod rather t>ian o"^ the nore modern scientific period, A quotation fror.^ an- other article by 7oodbrid<:?e illustrates adr.iirably the ^'esitancy of the part of rriany geofjraphera of t]iat period to discusa ph^r-sical phenorcena without reference to rnliRious belief 3 or theories: "But this study, like every other vjliich is concerned wi^h the r;orlrs of the Creator, ougit to be so jiurt-ued arj to elevate no rrell as exi^and the nind - to lift the heert to «od throuf'h the rnediurc of his worxs and K'i3 unceaoing provi- dence,- as well ag to 'h/nrir: it tcwai-do oar reilovvr>en. It inu'jt ever be rci:Gtabfired, that the noro kijowied^e .ve acquire of phy.Tical science, of mere viaihie tliings, without astu ciat- in'T f^v^.m '.rith the invisible author, the piore do re ueccir.e att^.oh'Jd to eartVi, and tht leut liVtlj to rite toward 1 e'ven. To this cnusG it is ;;nd not to the natui'fe of tlieir satucies, that v:e oucht to cccribe the frequent infidelity of natarc?lists; ana the teficher of geography should tpke care not to ler^I his -44- pupil into error," ■Toodbridge nakes little effort to jusjtify Viis st.ite- ment* that geography broadens the mind, Neither does he devote particular attention to the location of places as an object of ■reography. This latter was probably no corimonly accepted as the most important aim ^t that ti./.ie that dis- cussion was deemed unnecessary. This particular aim '.7ill be ■3iBcugsed riore fiilly in the cJiapter dealinfr with nethc 1.3, Ko list of cls-iins set forth of the values of a jjubject would seem oonplete without the clain that it afforded excellent mor.tal discipline; bo we present a quotation from c lecture by a f'r. Jomea G. Carter, T>il s lecture was delivered uefore T he /^er ica n Inst itute of Inatructior ii: August, 1G150, *'It affords, w'-en studied in the nanner i have ,ju'3t described, the best of (Jinnipline for several of the powers eariieit developed in t}ie infant siind. And, t erefore, t)iey should be enployed upon it, i He not vno-.v th?;t I chould go toe far, if I i^hould elay that,- if the vast ariOunt of gporraphical knowledge they will ^^Cvquirs, ?ferc entirely use- less in itsc-^lf, and if every fr-ct, doTcripti-jn and i:itt.j'est- Irn event learned, Tu'ere utterly obli terc hed froir rain :1, tv s mcne^'t t>iey close t^eir boo:<-,- I ■^ould never- the-iess put thorn upon the stuiy for the dincipline it uflords the '.aind alone, I know of no one elementary 3tU'3y within^ th»2 rjip;© 1, oodbfidge: objects to toe Attained in Teaching Geof r: phy. In Aner. A.nnunl3 of I^d. 'ind In-jtruot. Vol, 4, 1334, p. 71. -45- of 3ubjeotr; adaptod to the oapacitlija of childron, which ciilitj into oxorciuo &o ro-i of lurtjQ oiticw, the x'elRtivo position of the different .-i&tiojis alSih rcapect to each olhor, together with their ijt./Al,i»ti.-jt; ujkv rfacipcocal cobiEiercxal itii'la«nce, is int«reEit;in,5: ani ir/:»tructive. :vit'n thia branch ahouid be oun- niitcT;ed fi ijufficient ^taioale h^-u of aatroiiot!./, to enalle the pupil to knorf aofuethinj:, of the ponition that uur earth au3- tails s to the yoliir »vstoia, •*■ w« do r.ot doutt that th& outjtjot WciU iiitcroatiuu:; yet, aftfir iin>i..aideriii /^y^», in^^tlt. 61: iniitriot. ,^.lJi.K ,jjir.l>2-93. ■4€' PART II TiiiXTBOOKS AliD ]^ETH0D3 01? H'oTRUGTlOK -48- CH.^PTITR IV EARLY TEXTBOOKS IK GEOGRAPHY One of the most popular of the EngliBh texthooks used in the schools of the American Coloniep and also to a conBiderable extent even after the Pevolutionary .Ves was that of Patrick Gordon. The twentieth edition of thin hook was published in London in 1754. It cor,t.?ij;ed frou>^hun;lre.d sixteen pages and twenty- two maps. All of the mtps v»ere fairly complete except that of North Americr. The r'lr.p of Forth Arcerico is very inaccurate, and the legior nort^ cf a line extending west fropi Lake ;iuperior and "ve'^t of ^udoon IBsy is rrarked "Parts Undiscovered". The source of the Ric Crande is shown in what is now eastern I'Dntana. 'Kie mspE are vmcolored and are on douhle-;u?.ed sheets v/hich fold back into the hook. The b'.;ok is divided into two prrt;^ the; fir;;t ooniist- ing of definitions of tern;s used ir physical and rathev.atical geography, geographical theorems, p;eog'raphlcal problems, and geographical parrdoxes; and the oeoor.d of the descriptive geoKi^'^phy of Europe, Asia, Africr. , and AnneriGa, Some of the probiams and paradoxes are interest! nj and also rather arnuaint?;. The foliowiufi problem is typical: "Prob. 11. To know by the niche when the Great logul of India, and the Enperor of Russia, sit do">n to dinner. This bein;; only to kntrw when it is Moon -'.t Jjelhi and -49- Peteraturg, those two Iiuperial :-3eat3, which we may easily do, at whatever time it may "be, or whatever place we be at: For findin/i^, by the foregoing Problem, the present hour of the day in the said Cities, and aupposing that IJoon is their Dimmer Time, we may readily determine how near it la to the time aeaired." The following illustrate the paradoxes: "Par. 5. There is a certain Place on the Globe, of a oorirjid:5r.:ible gout^ ej-n Latitude, that hatVi both the greater.t and least Degree of Longitude. P-ir. 6. There are thrae remarkable Places on the Globe, that differ both in Lonr;itude and Latitude, and o yet all lye under one and the saiae Meridian."*" The 33cond part of the booK contains much material of ;3uch a n^starfi as to siiow now xittle was known about foreign countrie:3 and foreign peojiles by the geographers of that porioJ. '"v/o quotations wiii iiuffice to prove that thr? rcc^ion we;^t oC the J,Ti ssi osippi was alKOst unVc!,o>vn. The firrjt of theso is a description of what is now Lower California, "'■'hiB 13 t>ie moot northern Land of Ainerica, wl-iich is in any Degree settled upon or poeaest by the Spr^niards, Tia a Sort cf Peninniila, exteniing frorr Latitude 37 North, and 1, (rordor, : Ceogra-n hyAna to prized or '""he Geogrnpl ij cal r .-■i.trnar , -^Cth Jfid.: o, 17". ~ ■" 2. Ibid, p. :^5. -50- teriTiinating with Cape Lucas at the Tropic, On the East it has tho Ca.Lifornian TrUlf, and on the "/est the Pacific Ocean. The chief Rivers are Camel, Color^ido, and AkuI; Mfhich lant called the Blue River faxl3 into the Bottom of the Oali^ornian lUlf, The Ilorth Part is iniiabited hy the Teguaiii i':^-!-: .u-i; and t)ie few tisittlementB jaade by the Spaniards art.- all to the South." The folicitving i '5 app.^rojitiy .-5 deaoription of tlie bison: "Karitiefi. ) Aocordinr; to nanson'B account, the black Cattel hore have auiell HornB and Vidr like Wool, very lont-; about tVie Jianea, On t>it-ir backs they have a greet launch; their '''•orelegs are sViort, with a great Beard hanging fron'i the I'eok; ana their Tail a ^^-re long and hairy t(39?atcis tv f ■ ''ri'.;; go that they partake of the Deer, tne 2 Lion, and the 3hoep," In t}i|:3, as in th'^ e.trly i^znerican textbooks, the niani^u'rrn of* the vj.riou^ •peoples received a great deal of at 'c'inti.ja, i'jHldoni '*as this topic omitted in the discussion of any ■"jountrvr. uazer booic^ secin '^o have copied tiieir d©scriot'i...ri:i or* t}ie Iri'ih fron the folio -ving: "Kan.icrs} The Character oT the Iri-ih by ;)r. Ucyiin is tills, 'Vliey nre a people gcj.er.illy strong and nimble of 1. Ibia, p. M7. 2, Ibid, p. 346, -51- Body, generous of Heart, crrelesn of their Lives, patient i)i Cold and Hunger, inplacatle in Enmity, constant in Love, lii^ht of Belief, pjres-iy of Cilory. In a .Vor'-i, if they arg T^adf, you shall no ^here finJ worse; if they be frood, you can hardly rreet with "better," PGoause of th>! fact that many lln'Uish neorir-.'ihies were uned in America even after the .^evolutionary v/ar, some .-jpaoo >iE3 been devoted to tiis book ty 'Jordon. It iH tvT>iC'^.i 01 the T;eof^r:;phie3 us^d iuriivt- the c:i,Thtee.nth century. Our early American textbooka QOiopare n;ore favor- ably with this book by ■'Morion than ono Aiould expect, in f'jct, in zoii-e. respects th6:y are aeciiedly auj-erior, a^- thoup;h, on the vFhole, they are of a very similar nature. The author of.' the first i^jmsrican scr.ooi geoiJiraphy wan .Tedidiah orse, ndnister of tr e Cor.grepatio7-tsi CViurch in CharlGtston, ^'assachuEetts, This took -hhb piillished in 17 PA in JJear Haven, Connectinut" and was entitled C3eo;?raphy 7-ade iiiasy. ?or a nuaiber oi ytars ijorije'D boolc was the -inly .American geography textbook in use, but before t}u^ end of thn century a few oth&r geoj^raphie^ wore Luib- liwhad. It wad a litcle IS iw. isat!;cr- bound book dedicated """o the Young ''astoT" and ^'isseo Throu/^hout The ijnttsd States", The vtI irrje contained four hundred thirty-tvvo pages a!3 pri.itod in th3 tent! editio). In lii06.- Tt contained two 1, Ibid, p. 21'd, . 2, Johnson: Oli-Tiine 3o ha. and .i ch, Eook^ . p.j. .^16-319. '6, I'orse: Geor, Kade a^Iasy, 10th Ed. -52- araall maps, one of the world, and one of North AraeriCH, These maps were merely plain, uncolored out-lines siiowinif^ fairly accurately the rrmin outlines of the larger land raaaaea and tracing more or lesb ttccurateiy t^ie couraeu of the principal rivera, T>ie larger towns were also aiiown. The map of ]:orth /InericH proves t}ie author to }iave >iad very little knowledi^e of the couroea of the rivera weat of the FisDigaipni and only a freneral idea as to the aliaoe of the Great Lakoa and their connectio?;o 'ifith eaoJi otJier, The TRap s>'0ws no outlet frrr-' Lake Huron to Erie, the vrqterg of the three upp«;r l^A'es "beinc discharged nortliWciru throuj^h ft hr;-nr;i'; of the Churchill irto Hudson Eay, There '^re no illustratioria. The ef:rly pa^Tssi are occupied ty niaterial dealing vdtli astronomy, mathematical geography, the use of the glohes, latitude f^nd lori;d. tude, the uae of reaps, and a a' ort account- of tna discovery of 'Unerica liy Ooiuiribus, After a "fieneral Description of America" the author diticuaaes North i\aerica as a \7hol« and then deals \Tith each of iti3 separate political diTiu.)n'? in tiArn. The material ia arrani';ed in paragraphs of a fev sentences each, and t>ie paraf.'iraph neadinfcs are 5U0h as the foiior/irii';; nituation and boundaries; climate and diae-i '«!!; :'ace of the country, mountaini^, rivers, produc- tio.i)3, population and character, history, towns, literstrre, educf.'tion, hridctis. canals, curio :;i ties. In this and the -53- other early texts we find a great deal of attention devoted to varioua subjects under the ineadinp of curiosities. The follo'vii;,"; deacription of a waterfall in Potucket Piver, near Providence, io typical: '.•Aoout 4 .7,ile3 northeast of Providence, lies e small viil-age, caliei Patuclcet, a place of some tr;3de, snd famous for lanr-jr^y eela, Throuf;h t)ii s viiiarr;e ning Pr-tucket river, which empties into 3eehonk river at this place. In t'-iia rivnr i.i3 a be<;.utiful f?-ll of v-;at.yr, directly over which a ■bridi diviias the c-'mmon-vvealth of Kasaachu^etta from the state of Rriode-Island. Th« fpll, in its .vnole lenj^th is upwards of fifty feet. The wtter pRBseo through several chaaniS in b rock v?Mch runs diPTietricai ly across the bed of the atreaj'., and serves aa a dcT. to tVe v/ater, levc ral lailla 3iave "been erected upon theje fnlla; aiju the iHpoutK' and channels wracK ]iave beon constructed to conduct the strearsa to their respective wheels, and the ur'..V-rj, "i;.ive tair«jn -rery rnuch froiri the beauty and p:r?;ndou:r of t]\e. 30C'ne, w}iich would otherwins have neen ind«aoriV.j?bly 1 chariiiinj? and rornantick." Gui;}) dfiivcrip'-.ions of naturel phenomena under t>ie titlf^ of ourJLositifcu rre coi.Mon throuphout the books of th'3 fc-p-rly Tiir.etecnth century. "he larger part of the n;aterial if', ^ ovr ver, of p nf tare P-ore nearly like th'.t foMr.'l ir rnany 1, Tbid, p. 152. -54- of our present-day geof?;rnphy texts. ?>>e followin^j degcription of the trade find nar.ufactureg of the people of Vermont '!*\»rni ?hey a fair sarnple of this type of ir.a Serial : "The inhabitanta of tliia state trade principally with Eoaton, TTew "'"orlc, nnd TTartford,'' and pearl aahes chiefly; "beef, borBP-j, (?rain, florae "butter and choeoo, lumber, etc. "he inhabitants generally nanufactijre their ov.'i-! cloi.hing in the fcmilj' v/ny. Vast niiftntities of pot and P'?''-! aahea are ijade in eysry part aT the jstate. But one of the r.out inportant manu- f-?.cture3 of t>d3 Mt'to i:=! that of riaple :iU(Tar. ''"^ "^ho parrig^^Hpyi iir:;;edi-itely' foiioving tlio o/ie Juat quoted \'^ hoadoil "Population, !?elj.t.\on and Gharncter'' and i si as follo-wa: "In 1790, acccrdir't to t>ie cenraus ther. taken, this Rtp.te contJ^aneo 813, o6Q ir;>!gbi tsrty , corsiating chiefly of eiiiifr'^nts fror Connecticut and '■'aaaachugetta, and their desceridantn, ^'or tht; nmrbt3r o.r iiihabitantu in 1300, see Table. Two to\vn«hi. -^s ir. Orangs country are nettled prinoipallv by icotch people. T'le body of fue people are Cc.-i,':re.-;atior. vli ■-'■-•■^. '^^z vTthor ,ieno;»iim-' '' ^ -^/is are prcabyteriana, BaptiTta nnn li'pj. Bcopaliara, The irih^;bit«nt3 of tl i .5 ..;tate are {.-.li aoaemblage of people frori v?:r?.c.u'^i ylaoe'^, of ..liffeit-nt sentinicnts, i:ianr.ers 1, Ibil, p. 116, -55- and habits. They have not lived together long enough to n3s"indlote and form a general character. Assemble together, in imafrination, a number of iij dividual a of different nationn, consider tliem as living together araicably, and assisting each other through the toils and difficulties of life; and yet rigorously opposed inparticular religions and political tfmfetg; jealous of their rulera, and tenacious of tVieir liberties; dispositions which originate naturally fror: the dre.^d of experienced nppresision anj tjie habit of iivin;^ under a free goverrunent -- and you have a pretty Just idea of the cliarscfjr of the peoi>le of Yerraont," After dGaiint>; -.fitli each of the atatea in turn I orae turns to the '*Spaniah Doiainiona In North-<\jiieriCci" conaisting of Ifest and /ent Florida and L^exico, Next he discusses the ??parish a);eaking countries of Uouth .XmeriC'i and then "Portuguese jtoerica", the .Ve:3t Indies, Europe, Asia, Africa, and the ne^'ly dii^covered continent of V.ev ■'■Holland, now known ftjj Australia. The last ni)ieteen pat-:e:3 .'?re occupied by a ohronclogioal table niving the dates of ircportant events in the wo-"ld's history. ThiP book has been discusaed sonewhat r>.0TC full./ than will be done with those following. Space will not allow much pore than mere liention and an occasior.al quotation. "Tie 1. Ibid, pp. 115-117. -56- gradual changes in the character of the books .•;nd the topics discussed will he taken up in connection with the tablon p.regen'f.ed on pp.-ios 60 rnd 70 to 71 , inolu'jive. •The hooka will he conaidered in the order of th'eir pubiica- tion, and attention will he civbii to det;iils not bTjowii in the tnhi^'r:' aa v;cll as to thoise w)iioh ar« tabulated. Krtot of the curly geograpViieg were boiond in leather, hut hy 18S0 flome xvere beinif^ bound with card hoard p.nd wood, covered with narbled paper, Ticyt of tv.-f^.m vie-t: 12 no, hut souie ^ere aa sratli as 32 no, 'i'he fmrlieRt Yjoc.'ku usually contained one or two uncolored rncpB, but befe:,inning Bhortl.v after IBIiO the authorn of the fZ^o^rriphy t^xt 3 in- eu)crur??ted the austori of puhlifihing Gepprv-tf? atlases with each vniurae. Only a oomparatively few volumes were pub- lished previcuM to the Civil \Var pf-.^iod withou.t the &ccoiq>any- inR Rtlfir;. At that tir-e, howevnr, the eld 12 I'lO. boci: and the aeparp.te atirs Turere being d.inplpced by the hi/*, flat vrlur.e with widch v/e aro ell fenilirr f.nd tvhich cor.tf.ins it" ovrr rrrn. ?/orsP's earliest rjvsl wnr^ IT-tht-riel "Dvripiht, Dwifht puhiirhed s. G-eo^rrrhy of the World by ^Muy of Oueet j on &nd Ai-!fmpr in 17^5. It was ^isde t>p entirrly cf cjuesticnn and answers and was der.irned tc he "ncrc easily understood hy children, tbe.n any cf the ?.ninll ^eogrspbies which have beer, heretofore deiirined for their". Th«; following material 1, ])wi:;ht: Geof;^^ of th fi '^orli, IBIO, 'lee Preface, -57- deslinp; with the county of ',7aies is typical of the organiza- tion: •♦(i, vVhat are tJie producti ona of V/ales? A. The vegetable productions are like those of Enaiaud, and the aniraala differ only in siae from those of England; those of Wales beinji; siueiler and less vp.luable, {j^, vVhat number of inhsibitants is there in Wales? A, There are about three hundred thouHand. Q,. ^lat are the cuatona and msnnerg of the W'eloh? Ai. 'xhey are a ,ie.7lcu3 penpie, but eanily pwoil'if^d, and Tory sincere in t/ieir friend^hipe. ?}i.ey are fond of trscin*?; bf?.ok thoir nedlFrreea, and r-ire very much attached to tlie inannern o*" their forefather j, ",CT;;e cf the 'Velch gentle- ;tien, ■'•lo^/ever are fond of imitBtinc the Ti^rsgiish node of living, "-^ A Kew 3y stein__0f Modern G3o,'jr.:: p hy , 1810, by "51 i J ah parish, another Ifew :^ngland isinister, tss very ^^irilar \d content to Morse's book. It dealt with practicsily the naw.e topics, con- tained the same two mapg, "' and wan arrani-'ed 3irnil-irly 'vith reference to paragraphing rt :31scuoriion of /nap -jrawing, it coMtaired no KspD, Tliere i^aei one i.^portsnt chnrt,:je in connection vi'it]' this geogfaphy, t}-ou£.h not in t'*' e bock itself? A Separate alias conttiiun/r i..ap?! re bu vscd ir coiinoction vith 1. Ibid, p. ?5. 2. A lit'.le book by Benjairdn "trki-'ian entitled Llenientp of Ge og raphy , the t;7elfth euitioi: of -AV.icVi wrn publiched in 1607, con'- tairiGd seven sjti:=11. uncolored !?.ar>s. Thev are rafter in- -58- the text was piilDliahed at the rir.ne tino, end thia waa one of a lonf^ liBt of atlases publinhed with tho texthooke up to the time follcvlnf? the Civil ';7r.r, Few of thece ctlasea seem to he in «:.xi?ter?ce et vveRcnt, A texthoolc entitled A }7ew oyijterp Of QQcgraphy, /uic ient and fiTo d,ern , _?or^ thp. TJge Of 3G'ior)l3 "by Jedidiah Korse and 3idney Edwards Tiorae ^raa very popular during the firat quarter of the nineteenth century. The tv/«nty-tHlr'3. edition -^iis published in 1822. Thi3 hook wa3 diffor«nt froM thoae pre- cedint'; in t}i/;t It contained a t'.venty- seven page diacuoaion of "iincient Gec^raphy", n. sjuhjoct coriunon to tiic- textbooks until after the Civil Met, i'ot ail textn tc<-r^- ;-pf-oe to tr.i*: particu- lar fsulgoct, ho-wever, ss oen 'ae readily neoii l^ rcferei.ufe to th6 tablen mentionfed above. The r-iRterip.l included v/aa a study of "/hat would no'v he celled the ^eogr^^pTiy F.ncL hisjtory of Palestine, E>xypt, Carthage, and the Grecian and Hoo:an States, CuraHiings''^' texthook, firnt ou'^-liislied in 1014, ir'.ade no clifinj^e of iT^ortafjce except th?it it save -slif^htly more apace to the c j.MraeroiHl phnae 6f the suhiect. A hoo}<: "by './iilcts^ designed eapecinlly for elewontary ^cho'-.l use er^jitains ir.uny que.jtion? based on the nape in the r-t.l-?y aco'^Tiiianyint^ the tQAthook. r'/ie t«nt}i edition of thir; hoo]: c;b.'i pu'LliJhed in 1823. A 3hort aiimxnery of the cont^nte of the tejcthooKS up to 1« ¥or9e & Morae: Ee g Sys t . of GfeQe;_.__ A,"g. and .::su. *3rd iid, 2, CujTBoiings: Ari Intro duct. To Anc. ond Fod. _Geof. $ a yi 1 i e 1 3 : ^■'ii-^Y nrara . pf ^ o^s o£ , -59- ie?4 "by nr-.-no of T.-jble I on psf-re 60 will be of value at this point. "he first 3ix boo>cs li'-'ted ii^ the table have "boeri discussed. Of tiie s-.ix «ii devoted apace to deccri:)tive geofjraphy, An ^vnich political uniti pre de-ilt with in turn; to physical geography in wh.ich therf? irs an introdiiotory or sunnjary disoussioi) of l?jnd and ^ater form^, climate, and ::oil, without r^fernrics to any particLilar politio-^l iiivisinri; 3jnd to MP.thenatical f--*eoo:riohy, iu which guch f:-.iV.,ji-ctt'. «9 Ir'titufle and longitM-?, th3 zoT-.n^i, (toclj r;?>.tj.ou of thtj earth 'n axig, E.'iJ chr'na;e o*-" -^e^^viona ri:r;; td hju ^rjei. T-ortjs? and Horse, and Wxllol"s ir. I'is more ulc-.w.ntHTy text, ^H.vf> ^p,;'.oe to aiicient g*; 0{?r.';vh;/ . T'^ir' r'^ari.-ijr nriy question the R<5p?iration of mfi^riemntic-^i r:eoj';rn;;}iy and ;>Btunor!y. The circimatancey .jUHtify thi'3, hO'TGve-". Tf!ach o? th;:-orr six nooks devotee a v'.uuhf^r of pages to a fliBcuaslon n" aatfonor.i.y ivi t;i practic£iiiy ro r<--fererce to itf; relati'vn to geography. In huc>( cf-'Bew the Faterirl waa lir.tod under tltc , cad of astrorjoriy. Three of the- six take up the aue&tlori of map xriRkiup- as a seperete topic, and Morwe devot.ei: threr. pages tn a separate dificussion of the ▼ariouG rficoc cf hwaun Vind. T.oJ-ae f.nd Pari f'h ef?r:h included maps of thf- ,%o:ad an-l of Forth iorierlca in their hookn, f^nd th.t; othrv fcur hftve BOTiavote RtXaees. >ione of the six rrake use of illustrr::.tions« •60» «B n a o » ^ OOOOOOOC4(4)HwtihOOt4 c fl c o d o • •«•«•* I * 4 '< *4 '^ --^ i ••* •-•< '^ -^ "' ^ **^ • I n. a ■•^. ex Qi fx Q. fi. cs. li- o. o. c^ .^ ..,0 " 'Ji t* "■ t? ui c/5 en t.'- tt ^ o 9* Pi ^ w 1 OOOOOO OiH tOOMiHOOi lOOOOOO HHWHOCOrH H JM W A O £*► O O ■* lO O O ootooc^oo OWr^«)(?<<0e'}WOO'«l««>OC»OO CM •-» O00t*0'!l"^00000f-}«0 00 I 0) C4 0) 01 t- •$• to r^ H to uo o o tH CM t- to 5* C^ JO to to STi « H f-4 iH C'J Ci CJ .-^ C-i t-J 01 W NOU>»oinO'^oa)'<> a' CD CSj O^ CO CJ lO OrHWtO^HtO iH CJ 10 ^ lO to D» CO 0> r-« fH iH H 1-4 f-l a o o » O O o a n I « 8 •a OS o t. o CO CO o SB u .o IS! OS O GO iy, Ar .'Cient _an d _ro derr. ,_ 3 1 e r o - type ISd. pp7T7-18.~ 2. Goodrich: A 3yst. of ochorl Coog. title par;e. discussed in the text, T^ost of thece are atiff and un-life- like and, accordine to present standarda, would be considered crude, "but nevfc;r-the-leo8 they are a decided improvement over the utter ahaence of any illut'trationa, Clrxey • s Iractical 3 y8t em of ?/oder r' ncQ ^ ^;rai)hy was another populfa- work as is shown hy the fsct that the 3eventeent]i edition was published in 1834, juHt Bix yepr-? after t}i3 i;ublioal.iw/i of the fir^t edition. This little book wao wade up partly of descriptive and partly of question and ansf/er nateriai. It cont«ined long lintB of iT-ap querjtiona and nuiucrous iliuatratxone. The inadequate way in which th«-'3e early textV;ookB dealt witli the geography of fi coimtry or region la shuvvn by the following treatrert of Wales, "V/al%s How iE V/&le9 bounded? Wales is a niountainous country, generally resenbling; England in clini';te, ^oil and productions. Wales wag conquered and uiiited to Ji;n;!jland in 128^", by Edward I, Th« el^etU 3on of the Kingof England ia styled friuet of Wales, Character .- Tiie Welch are the dosoendantrt of the ancient BritonR. T-ey nre a passionate, but honeat, brave and hoapi table people.. -64- In what direction from us is Wales? \iVhat Channel S, of "Yalea? .Yhst Channel "between walea and Ireland? What I aland near the northern part of felea, diatin^ui shed for its THineg of copper? ,V?iat 2 Towns in WgIc^j?" The Knc ;yclo p aedia Of aeogruphy " by Thorjio ". Snilsy was publifshed in Cincinnati in 1839, Its orfjcnl action -^aa not different frOiH that of t?;e earlier texthook'.^. The hook did not treftt r^ap raakint ad a ^cparct-c su'-^ject. GoodricJi and Olney hnd axso omitted thi a oi.ce popular ^.utjcct, and it fails to reappear in any o± Die later booics. The illus- trations ,ive miifieroua but show little iiaprovenont in quiiity. Swiiey publiahef) a ueparaue alias a.; wati done by his predecessors for rany yer^ra, ?he next volur.ie listed ii. the tables nhowa a Qhnntre in tVii s reapeot. This boolt is "Ji t jhoil ' u I'.i-.ay Intro- duct ion To the Study of rreo^rap l xy , puba.i33ied i/i lt343. The ides of our present big, fiat volome seens to have occured to ii'itchell. This priirary j7eogr;-iphy is 3jri.all, ir.Ga:3uri:ui five by Bix inches, but the significant thing is that it lacJcs only one inch of being as wide as it ia hirth. This extra wiflth provifies arr.ple apace for fourteen r.mall, colored .vapiSf ranch like those we have today. They ahow a fairly accurate knowledge of the phygical featuies of t}iu various continents. 1, Clney, A Pract. 3yst. Of i:od. UecHi. i7th Ed, ,p,i80. -65- Pew cities are ahowii, Arother fppti.!re of tVij s little "book is the introfluotion of rur.'bereti parap;r«ph3 without the topio hoadin.TS no fan.ilifir in the earlier books, Qn- pecially before 1830, The nRterinl ia simple and readable "but is not alw?iya accurate, "1. South America, the southern division of the Western Continent, ir* ?n «»xtenstve P«ninr,ula, united to Forth America by the Inthnue of l^arien, 2, It is fimoust for it^ Isr^rc river?, high niountaina, and the nbundance of its .'^old, silver, ?nd 'Jiaronrts, 3* Ths Ande-3 is the 'Doit extensive ranpe of mountains in 3ov.th j'ViQeric?^* Sorato i3 the hlrjhe^t oe^V of the Andeo, Cotopaxi ia the moet elevr^ted volcino on the ftiobe. 4, The A*na%on, La Platr., Orinoo, an-i ot. l?rinoifico, are the chief riverg of this rec-;inn. ""he A'Tiazon i?, next to the yi33i33i7)ni , th'3 lar.'»ent rivf?r in th ? worll, ind ia navigntlf? for tliree thousand miles.** The txTre had not yet arrived lyhen ail geographers were re^.iy to accept the hip flat volurae and include the maps in the textbook. In fact very few wore ready to dn so, WoodTaridf^e' n elementary textbook, the second edition of which wea published in 1845, was of the old type ^rith tht3 '3eparat8 atlas, Tlovrover, t'ds book nag a nirnb^^r n^ interesting and prot^reaaive featuroa. The first five pages are devoted to 1, Mitohlrawn in t}ie familiar trianpilea and that of Africa in an eg^s-shaped oval, A third interesting feature of the book also deserve^s mention. Profiles or cross sections of the various continents and countries have been included. This rSpreaents a very con- siderable advance and corresponds with the euix^hs'.si r, placed by V7oodbridge on the interpretati '^n of mapB. Smi th ♦ (3 freog::^ aphy Of The P rodu ct_^i ve ■>y8t em^ publi shed in 1861, is also of the old type with the 8epa:"ate atlas, "mitVi uses t h? numbered pararr-^phs end supplies vors details in his descriptions t>fin do the earlier writern. ris book also oont^njis fewer inacouraCien than the books Df the •fir^t half of the cenlury. The foLio"?i.n~ desoription of Kngland in t:rpic?.l: "1, England, anciently called Ubion, in the largest and uio 3t populous division of r*.feat Brit-in. It has an 1, .Voodbri d^e ; I'.q d. 3ch, Geog. , p. XI, -67- agreeable variety of hills and plains, with no very high mountaina, and its scenery is exceedingly beautiful, 2, The soil is fertile and under a hi^h atnte of cmltivation, producing whea' , barley, rye, oats, beans, peas, etc. The /lorses, cattle, and various kindo of sheep of England are much celebrated, o. The o.lircate, though fror. itn cituation inclined to moisture and chilliness, is healtViy ana leas subject to the disagreeabifi extreii:es of heat and cold than other places in the earae latitude on tluv continent, 4, The mineral prociucti oj^t; of Enf^land are nuireroiis and valuable, such aa coal, copper, tin, iron, fsilvpr, n;ino, and le£.;i, iingland it; the ir.c ^tt commercial country or. the globe and has fror.i itc numerous cenriiti an ext£K^iys i.-tlcnd rsviga- tion. It is also nuch fjimed for t>ie extent and variety of i%^ Manufactures," ^he aut>icr thun devotes fro.':, tiiree lines to half a yage to each cf the foliovring cities: London, Liverpool, }iunche.Qter , Bi^^un^.hayL^, 'Jhefiield, Bri-^tol, Leeri», Bath, Portarr^outh, I'll^^lnu^}^, Ohaiham, '.?hi'j bouT: it; iiituniea for acadeii.ieu as well as for gr.snrr.ar scliools but e^ven the diiferenoe in purpos^e doe?^ not account for the wnoie diifereuce in the nu/nber of deti-ilR given. It is a deciusd iiiiproveraent oie.r enrlxfir y.'orva, "^he 1, Smith: Geop;, Of the Productive Sytt., P. 219. -68- one hundred fifth edition of Olney's "book, published in 1866, 3how3 little improvement, "but Mitchell's A Syste m of ? odern (> eography published in 1869 ia similar to Smith's hook. Of the books included in the table there remains to be mentioned one voluifie, Thi a is Cornell's Internee diate Geo{Tr jphy . Thig book was flrnt. publiished in 1855, b^it the date of 'jublioation of the edition exo.rainod by the writer was not .liven. The dste r!!U3t hrjve been betviref-;n 186b and 1369 because in a lint of the Pre ?idei).ti3 of the 'Jaitei'.i States Andrews Johnaon's ad.Tiini strati vm ia dated i86f>— ■, end that ends the ii3t. The book is the fa^^iiliar large, thin, flat yoiune which me i:T!>iedit?.teiy reoo^rrize &;? a geoaT;?phy, It contains f'irty- seven mapa of various, sorts. They 7ary in siTie of the ar-a re-ores-inted fro^n s city and it3 i/nniediate vicinity t-) the vholQ world. 'Che riapa are colored and are reasonably aocurate. The i liu3tration3 ■;re fairly nanierouis and are not eo fitiff a!3 were those of the earlier period. Another booit of a sli^'itly e^irlier period iesoz-ves raentron, althou.':^h it haa. not been included in the tables. This book by 7^n wntera is co.-ipoaed almost entirely of short rhymes. A sound iii defined thus: "A Strait !?o shallow that it8 depth is found, By lead or anchor, oft is caixed a eoand. " 1, Van Waters; Po ft,t i oal ■'re o^ n phy , p, 9, -69- The follo'Yinc description of the state of liaaouri is also typical. "Arid Jefferaon City on a hinli "bluff smiles. Up the T'issouri tide t^vice sixty rrdles, On the sjune tide, just twenty from its mouth, St, Charles is on the north hank, not on the south. And Independence, west of all hath laid lier, Prom whence for Janta Vc, leaves many a trader, St, Louia, on the riaslaaippi ' a aeom, Down from Missouri's mouth miles seventeen, Prom New Orleans, tvirelve hundred mj the tide, IfSssouri's larf^oat town, Missouri's prid;;. And from 3t, Louis, seventy miles laoutlmeat, Potosi lives, jages -±±^ to -iJr©T inoiiu s iva ., a.re devoted to the tahulation of the topics discuased by varioma authors under descriptive geography. The same sixteen textbooks are need in this study as in the previous one. The raaterini selected from each of the textbooks for the pur-pose of .making this study was the descriptive material used in the discussion of the United States as a wnole and also of tlit .=iix Few iCngiand states. This material was carefully analyzed and tJ-e jr.?ln topic diacussed in each paragraph or t;roup of paragraphs selected. In this way a list of the topics discuased in each 1. Ibid, p, 26, -70- of the fifteen aeleoti one was compiled. A coraporiite list waa then n.ide, cor.taininK nil of the topica diacuased in any one of the fifteen BClections, and theae were arran ed as in Teolc II. The croasea indicate that the topic named in the laft-hand column in the position corresponding to that of the cross was diecusaed by the author Khotje niiniber i3 at the top of the column in v-hich the croea iu locstea. If a parti cx^lar topic lies i.ot been aiscuased by an autnor the appropriate apace iu left blank. For inetartce, -orcevster in his I^lements of Geop^rcphy, Ancient and !;.ocern devotes uorae attention to the situation and extent of the country, but he says nothing about t}ie coastline and horbora. Of courae there ia rauch which such a table cannot show. Ao an illus- tration the bcok by Goodrich laay be mentioned. iU.thouf;h no more topics receive attentio)i tli.m in the eG5j.i83" booka many »r:ore detailo are given, ana the aeacr^ptions arc of an easy, flowing type which are entirely different from the earj-ier, scrappy variety. An exai,:x nation of the table showa a definite trond or tendency. One outot 'jnainti fact to be noted is that fev/er topica are incj.uded m the later cextbooka. This tendency to diacuas f5-<-^er itfiraa but to f^ive ir.ore detailed ir.fonaatio.n about each of those diacuased haa already been mei;taoned in connection wit}i soue of the later booka, such ao t^'osje of Srcith and I.!:itchell, ^-u.cther peci^liar feature is the ii.cluaicn of internal ir-prcveirients in .'geography. The terro is farr^iliar i -70- TABLE II TOPICS DISCUSSED IK THE DB3CRIPTIVK GEOGRAPHY OF THE UNITED STATES BY VARIOUS AUTHORS, 1806-1869. Fopios Text ^0. and Dat e of Pub • : . 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 '06 •10 '19 ♦22 4- '23 •23 124 •30 '34 •39 _^4_3 -L^A '61 •66 •67 '69 ■ituation + + + + + + ■♦■ ■»• Bxtent + + + + + + + •♦• + Bhape + boundaries + + + + + + + Bivil division a + + + + + + + + latural " •♦• ♦ -¥ •f + Bounties + + Importance ■»■ ■ •♦■ •♦• surface + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + Bountains + + + + + + ■ir + + + + + + + soastline + + + + + + , larbors + + ■ + sapes + + + Days + + + + + + + Islands + + + + + + + peninsulas + Irainage + + + + fivers + + + + + + + + + + + Lakes + •f + + + + + + + + }limate + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 16 il + + + + + + ■t + + + + + + + + agricultural + + ■ir + + + + + + + + + + + + + products industries + + + + + joramerce + T ■♦- + + ■f + + + + + + + + + janks + + + + lanufactures + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + + linerals + + + + + + + + + liner al waters + ■¥ + ■¥ 'iahing + •¥ + + + + ■»■ slants + + l*oreat« + + + animals + + lirda + t eptiles + Ish + + iharacter of people + + + + + + + + lationality o f people •opulation ♦ + + + + + + + - + + + + + + joverninent + + + + ■*■ + + + + + + + + + + residents + + + rmy + + + + + lavy + •t + + -7i. 'opios ?ext Vo, nnd T)!\t e of Pub • — -—— - •— — 1' 2 3 % h 6 i 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ib £ »()() •10 •19 '22 •23 ♦^33 ♦24 •30 •34 •39 •43 •45 •61 •66 •67 ♦® rerenue ♦ + d«bt ♦ + + ♦ Conatitution + + practice of law •f Bank of U.S. + state prlaona + ♦ mint * + ?08t-office * ^ii story •* + ♦ ♦ + + + + + "I- + ♦ settlement (1 ♦ ♦ Intornal im- provementa ♦ bridge a + ■t ♦ oanals ♦ + + + ♦ ■♦• + ♦ 4 ■♦• turnplkea + + lighthouses ♦ roada + ■»■ railroads ♦ + •♦" steara'boats + + trade routes ♦ + + + •♦• towns + + + + + •f + ^ + + + + ■t- + •♦■ + education ♦ + + ■♦• + + + + + + •♦• + + literature + ♦ ♦ ♦ schools -f ♦ t + ♦ colleges •♦• + + + •»• aeadeinlea + aooietiea + + curioaitioa + + + + f t public inatitu - t tions religion -♦• + + + + t + + + t ir •♦■ + For textbooka oorreiponding to text numbera see bibliography, p. 136, -72- enough in our present-day history texts but not in our geographies. Just how can wrt account for the attention given to canaln, turnpikes, bridges, steaniboats and railroads? Bridges and canals were favorites with the very early writers; '^ then turnpike3, railroads and ste^-imboats becciiae popular, and after 1822 bridges have little place in the discussion of internal improvements. Shortly after this date tur'npikes and roads lose their place, but canals continue a strong favorite on down to 1860, A perusal of the pages of any good American History deali)ig with the first half of the nineteenth century will give the answer. Roads, b idges, and canals had not received very serious consideration in the eighteenth century "but early in the nineteenth they became the subject of much legislation in addition to the advantage of ranking high as a topic for discussion. A big bridge was something unusual and inspired not a little awe, as is shown by some of the discussions in the vorks of I^orse and Parish. Of course canals gained in importance after the completion of the Erie Canal in 1825, Turnpikes leading into the West held a strong place in the discussions of the day, and after 1830 the r&ilrord became inorensingly important. In brief, there? was something here which people needed to know in order to keep abreast of the times, There was no place for it in any other sutject of the curriculum; so it found its way into the geographies. Put why was such material not included in history rather than in i -73- geoRraphy? mntory did not win its place in the curriculum until a later date. In fact, we find that the history which wag tauftht early in the nineteenth century was presented in connection with geography, Shortly after 1840 a number of Massachusetts to^ms began to introduce hintory as a subject in the curricul'.ira. This seems to have been the first real beginning made toward including the subject in the curriculum, ?ifany other tOTjics with which we are faniliar in our present-day history texts are also included in the early geofcraphies. Among these are the Constitution, the United States Bank, public debt, the army and navy, the United otates Mint, revenue and expenditures, the post-office, state prisons, and practice of the law, T'any of the geographies also con- tained an account of the history of the country from the dis- covery of America in 1492 through the period of settlement and the Revolutionary War, Less of this historical material is found in the Geography tSxts published from 1660 to 1870, SmilPy's book, published in 1859 contained a great deal of such inatorial, but it aeems to have been transferred to the history textbooks between that date and 1860, If one I'ooks t>irough the table with the terns situation, extent , and boundaries in aiind, he will make another interest- ing discovery. The early geographies seldom failed to say soraethin,'; about the boundaries of a political unit, and if the 1, TTatfield: Hist, of the iJ]lem,3ch, Gurric. In Fass, , pp. 51-55, -74- "boundariGB were not made the principal topic of one or two paragrjiphs, then the term situation was substituted, C^uite often location was substituted for the more familiar terms. About 1830 the word extent became common aa a paragraph heading, and the other terms appeared less often. After 1830 the extent of t}ie country was a popular topic with the geographies, Tliis change must have been due to a growing realization of the size or extent of the coiontry. The west- ward noveraent wa0 on in full force, and the people were just beginning to realize that this grent western country was a very important part of the United States. They were learning itsr bigness and to be proud of the fact that it was so big. Curiosities were popular early in the century but fell into disuse about 1830, crowded out by more valuable sub- jects. One quotation dealing with the subject has already been given from ITorae, A second from Parish is of a slif^htiy different nature. "Curiosities.- On the bank of the Ohio, 22 n.iles below the mouth of the Wabash, is a stupendous cave. The entrance la 90 feet wide, the top arched, 45 feet in height. The cave ia 'JOO feet long, 40 feet high. The walls are ^rnooth, the bottom level, excepting the sides, -.vhich are raised in steps like the seats in a gallery. An orifice, through the roof of this cave, as large as a chimney, leads to another cavern as large as the lower. At Big Bone Lick, 3^ miles -75- below the Gre-^t Miami, bones of an enornoua size have been recently dug up, AmonR these were 2 horns, 16 feet long, 18 inches in circumference, weighing 150 pounds each; also grinders, weighing from 3 to 10 and a half pounds each. The whole weighed about five tons.""^ A peculiar feature of the enrly texts is the fact that not one of the writers seeras to have made any attempt to explain the formation of the strange caverns which t>!ey described or to test the truth of some of the odd stories which they quoted. Neither was any attempt made to show the relation between the climate of a region and itfs products or its surface and its climate. There were pages and pages of descrixition but no attempt to reason, Much space was devoted by the early writers to the character of the various peoples. Dwight gives us an interest- ing description of the Irish: '•^, \7hat are the cheracteri sties of the Irish? A. They are impatient of injuries, implacable in their resentments and vehement in all their affections. They are of quick apprehension; courteous to strangers and patient of fatigue. The higher classes and some of the lower, are well educated and as respectable as their neighbors in like circumstrinces."^ 1. Parish: A Hew Syste m of j odern _G eog r;iphy, p. 102. 2. Dvright: A.S hcr't b'at Comprehensivfe tjyg t . of the Geo^. of the World, p. 37. I -7G- Toward the middle of the century thla topic also declined in importance. Other topico, auch as those, dealing with corcmcrcial and physical geography, with education end literature 7?ere demanding; the space, and with increasing travel people were becominR "better acquainted virith t^ie charac- teristics of other peoples. Such topics aa religion, educa- tion, and literature v/ere retaitied in the textbooks even through the Civil War period, A lirrdted amount of history also remained as did the many iteus of physical and coioraercial geography. The terms bay , cape , i sthnius , p;eninnula, and island are not quite eo numerous in the later booka, but this ia Merely because tJiey appear wore often in the map questions and so are left out of the descriptive material to a certain extent. At the close of the period terms dealing with cora- r'ercial geography are the most numerous and receive the most attention. There are indications that the subject is beginning to feel the influence of husiness and coinmerce an.; to become practical, Tfie boolcs rtiSGussed were by no means all those m use in tlie United ;>tateo before the Civil V/ar, In 1833 books by the foliowinji authors were in une in i ew York state: Woodbridge, Olney, v/illets, X'orse, Guimraings, aoodrieh, Clark, Peter Parley, Spafford, -i/orcester, and "illiard. An anonjnrtious vrriter in Ayaerican Annala of Education in 1832 says 1, :?lagf-: liew York Ann, Kepor t of the oupt, of Com. Schools, 1 835, pp. 60-73;^ ~~^ ■ -77- that books by the following were in uae in the United States in 1832: ]?or9e, CumninGs, vyorcestor, VoodbridU^e, /illard, Goodrich, Malte-T^run, Willeta, Olney, .:>firi{;ht, Worcestor, Drury, Davie, 7oT7le, Smiley, Hall, J31ake, InKraham, Keith, Adana, 3nit.h, Butler, Field, Peter Parley, Tfart, and Hale,* Not all of these "books were in great denand at any one tirae, but there were several favoritea at any given time throughout the entire period. The favorite of one decade ^TO'jild gradually decline in popularity and be displaced by a newer book. Books coBt considerable nior.ey, however, and money wan not plentiful during those years, as a result there was great complaint about the lack of uniforEiity.of texthookn. Often the teachers were co;cpelied to hear sesreral recitations in geography, the pupils using one book conprising one class and those using another book a second class. The follo'vin-T account by the county superintendent of Cayuga County, Ke\r York gives some inaicrht into the extent of the difficulty. '"^he whole number stud^/ing geogr.iphy in all the scViools, was 1507, Avera -e nuinber in each school, about 7; the winter and summer terns vary but little. The gret^tesfc draw- back on the improvement in this br^inch is the diveruity of books, {fensrslly reciting, particularly in suwmer schools. 1. Anon, 3ch. -5k3. in the United States in Amer. .Uinals of Ed . Vol. II, 18327 p.~'375. '^i'or'' a wore "oonplete list of text- books in use betv,'een 1'776 and 1860 see appendix. -78- separp^tely. The aclioola where they were well claaaed were very rare, "^here is nucb room for iraprovement. The teac'iers arc not familiar -vith the practice of exercising the claflses on t>ie hi a ck- board, which, luidoubtedly is a very advantageous mode of irapreaaing on the memory the "boundaries of countries, the situation of places, &c, Hovirever, in the ifialn, tlie achoola ^Tere gonerally making pretty good improvement."^ r>uch ci)raplaintr5 were very corimon in the educational journals of the first half of the nineteenth century, hut there is no account of any particular effort having been made to relieve the situation. 1, Young: V,Y, Ann. Rep »t. o f the 'Jup t. of Gom.Sch. ,1845. ,p.l02. i -79- CHAPTER V ¥STF0D3 AND DlilVICKS UfiSD IJJ TEAGHIiJG G^IOGRAPIIY, 1776-1660. In two LTticlea in Yhe lillfiruentgry bc'ool Teacher during the ye^irs of 1909 and 191C Mr. G. A. Phillipa dis- cus seat thH rcethoda uaed in teaching geography from the period juat preceding 1800 xip to tlie tine hi a article was urritten. TTe oaya of the procedure "before 1800 that it was unorj^aniaed and unacientific. According to Mr. Phillipa' view physiography is the important factor underlying the Boonjraphy of the f?econie t;,q}e'3 of suh.iect matter taught and the metliodi? uf teaching overlap and intertwine to such an extent that all of the laot century and up to the present tiae may "be con- sidered as one continuous period during which a slow but 1, Phillips: '""he 'oevelopnient of . etViods in Teaching .'odern Eler'entn.ry Geography, In the El em. Sch. Teach. Vol. 10, p.42'i -80- conntnnt change was ever going forward. iTi this chapter it in fhe nur^o'^e of the writer to atreo3 eBy)f5olnlly fhe raethodf. of presenting the nateirial rather tV.p-r. tho tvpe of naterial presented. An effort will be pifsde to tr-ce the chanj^es in the methods of presenting thl'.T material and to wee wViat prorres!;, if any, is made "be- tween 1776 and 1960, Incidentally the content of the material taught Tn\J3t he f.:iverj attention in-sjo-far as it aft'ecte the method ox presentation, Phillips c>iaraoteriaed the early geography teaching well when Vie aaid that it was unorganized and unscientific. One i3 not jui-tiried, !iow67er, in liKitinK thia period of lack of organ! aati. in and scientific procedure to the yeerr. "before IBOO, Aooorline' to the teatimony of both 'vehater' and Oliver"" t.he aubjoct i?aa not ooinrrionly taught before that, date. The latter a-.'.ys that, the hooks were "very defective and mostly without naps", Neither mentions the exact method of present- ing the Material, whether it '*'a3 memorised or Merely read, Johnson*^ atates thrit textbooks were firat used aa readers 'cut cite? no authority for the statement, ^e car. accept this etBterr.enz, V'Owever, in view of the fact th.at 're h:-jve evidence to prove t-bat such was t))e case when .Villiain 3. V'owle web 1, Barnv^rd: Schools Aa They '^ere Sixty Yearg Atjo, In Barnard's iVner, Tour, of Sd. , Vol. XXVI, 1876, pp. 195-195. I'^uotea frovr letTeV .vritten by Foah .'/ehster in 184C, 2, Oliver: How I was Educated fro-n 3ix to •fourteen. In papers R ead Bef o re Ainei-, In a tit. of In:i: tru ct. , July 36,1871 , p . 58 , 3, Johnson: 01 '1^ Time t^ch^'s and Bch,*-Bo"oT<:3, p. 318. -81- in school, "^owle waa "born in 1795 and was cert-iinly in school duririf: the e;~riy years of the ninetennth century. Of geography teaching at that tine he sjiya, "■yi-iile I vras in soliool, j^eography was firut intro«luced as a regular exerciae, and on the whole, tiie rnet>io<3 of instruction rraa wore rational than that whxch haa nince pre- vailei, although its result was rery oiirdlar, 'Hie chief book U:;ed ran v.n abrid^jeuont of I>r. l^or;?ae'f3 Univeri'-Hi •>'Ography» but it was read only, and not committed to memory. It vrao never explained to the pupiln, and being qxute unintelligible, was, of course, very 'unintere-.ting. 'I'he only portion that was tolerable, was a description of the aninals of ti>is country; and this was to thf? desert a sort of oasis, which we visited, in the coarse of our readint^, Oiily about onoa a yesr. The book contained one or two maps, but re were never required to examine them, and, in niost cases, they were soon torn out and t-brown av/ay as the most useless things in the world. To beguile the tedious hourn of idleness, which then, as no'.v, constituted the larger part of school ti'/ie, such of U8 as retained the naps were accustomed to play "hunt for placej*' on them. This was a standing gfme for yeare., and to thia I an indebted for all the knowledge of geocrapl-y that I brou;rht away from school, although whenever I v/as detected in this forbidden exorcise I was severely punished," 1, I^owlo: The licst T^ethod of Teaching Geography, In Lcct. i^eli vt^red ?e "c ^re the i^juuir, Xru-ti t, of I n otruct. , Au^ .1545, pp. 226-2r^7, "' -82- In 1852 in an article in Th e Conunon Sc hool Journal the saice writer gives us evidence to show that memorizing was also a part of the method of procedure, "When we were at school, thia branch of study was not introduced into the public schoola of Boston, The Astrononi- icftl and Geographical Catechiam of Caleb BinRham was com- mitted ti) memory but never exolaired, TMa -^rtr; a thin par37>hlet, and we learned it in a few weeVg, but it was the textbook for several years, and we said it throw;h, hundreds of tines, without looking at map or globe, and '7it>'.out see- ing ayjy illustrRtio' or e.xi^lariation, We then used the Abrid{;;er'ent of lIorsse'H Geofr'-^phy as a r e fid i ri£ "bo ok , ITo ICReonf? were ^tur^ied and no Kaps examined, The book contained a map of t,?ie ^-'emi spheres, and, we believe, one of the United St^^tes, but they were never used, and f^eneraliy torn out as incunbrri-nceB. One of our aKiusementB was to play hunt plscea on these laarr, ~.ne boy yutti?)'/ out a uaHie for the other to fird. This ^^a^s for- bidden by the tef.chey, but it w«« frequently/ attempted, and many is the b;,oir we received for pl-iyinf^ thia r.^.ine, althouf;h the only koowledf^e we ever ,^ot of /reogr^.phy at school was obtained in this way, Ve di i not ander3t^?.nd the reading, and yet we read tVie booJc through niary tintes during our school career-, ^•'■ 1. ii'oiirle: Geography, In The Com. 3ch, .Tour, , Vol. 14, 1852, pp. -83- To what extent ia one justified in ascuming that the two quotations describe the methods of teaching during the two .iooades inmodiateiy preceding 1800 ao well aa during the years irwtsediately following? S'owle was not in school froin 1780 to ISOO, hecause he was not torn until 1795; ao we cannot say viie;hly iniorctahle that there was tny meterial difference irj. procedure in 1790 and 1610, It will l>e shown later that (nei-r'orizi.[ig viras ■becomins *<;ore popular and that iuere reading was decreasing in popularity. Of course it is possible that the method of r.eniorizing was in ro^cue Lefore IBOO end tyiat the rnet}iod t'ivej^* moat attention hy i''ovrie displaced it oidy to be displaced again by niemoriaing, but. this is highly iiu- probable, We oanr.ot, however, be absolutely certain as to the wethod pursued be 'ore 1800, The second quotation from 'bwle is open to several interpretations. Just what is meant by tTie firnt sentence in the quotation is difficult to decide. He says that tnis branch of study was not introduced into the puh±ic sc>!Ools of Boston vfhcn he was at school, and trien he proceeds to tell how it v/as taught. It is possible that i'"ovle did not receive lii s education in the public schools, or it i";ay be that he did not include the material frop: Bingham's pamphlet -84- under the term geography. This reference to inemorizing Hhows that it WRH bocominc: popular. It seena to huve been used only with the auestion and answer materiel, however, and of course such material wes not suitable for mere readi np:. The fact that question and answer msteri."! wae published, however, shows that there was a demand for sor'ething which could giiT-ply be Tnemwrized, T^inp'hajn's Cntecliism was not the t^nly oo.'>>c rrorisi.^'ting of question and answer material sftSr 1795, During that year there was published a bock by i;iathaniel Dwi-^nt, entitled A Short Sljt_Cojfigre-^_Qri3i_Te 375/0 e)r of the Geogr;^phy of the V/orld, By Way of 7^a e3/o L3n and ..^ s-ffenr. The preface to the f irat edition of this hook, as repro.luned in the edition of 1002, giver. u?i ROiue i)?3ight i)ito Dwig'-ifa views on thotuachin/:: of geoftrpphy, Jle advances two ob.-jections to the geograp?'ie3 then in uge. One ob,iectiori wfig t>;at they were *oo expensive and the second that they were liot of such a type as to to eanily cor.-prehended by small childrexi, Fe feeia tiiat he has solved the probleraa as shovn by the follo-^inj?: •*! think tbat both the objections are obviated in this treatise. The expense of Vain Loolc Lb ?o sspall thRt it Taay be easily afforded, and the forai of a catechisr" adi-iitB of its beinfr aiuoh rssore comprehensive and iuore easily understood by ohildron than any of the small geo^rt'phiea which liave beon hf3r3tofcpre designedfor theji, it will enable them vse- -35- fully to ii-iproYe 7r.nn2r hnurcj of their OMrly y9<5rs, which for want of gomething of thir' kind, arc entirely loat: "^ Althouph he atptefl that his purpone in orgnidninE hia book in the forin of a cptechicm ie to niHkt it norc easily understock, a second reason seeing to "b^e touched upou iu the last aentence of the quotation, vrowwere these chillri'ii "usefully to improve rrany ^I'jriri? of t^eir early yRjri", ty rifjrely reading over and over a li3t of quentioija witn tits answers printed "below thcci? This does uot appeur to "b'^ ti-iu rpopt reafsoi^ahle interpretation. Ho eefens to have tutenaed thst t}-'", c'dl.iron fshoul. d r-ii^'iaorize the anavrsra to tVia quet^tions. It was said ciclier in the chapter t^iat ar. effort would "be j.-iFde to 'ihow ttiat me-.jorlzing was incT^aulnp; in popularity, A quotation froii. v/iiiets' inore cieni^nta/ry t<--xt\vjok yubliahea in 18'?3, oervep the purpose admirably, T7illeta» "book waa "based on the plr?.n used by Goldsmth, an Fingli3h geography, arid v/iiletg frankly quotes from Guldsunith as to the proper met^ioi of using the book: "The proper node of Udin,? this little book to ao- vant'-v.fv3, will, it irs .apprehended, be to let f-.>:.e ;:upil co;;r:iit the whole of the f^'otu to a^e'cory, ax. the r^te, perhs.pa of one, tv;o or three a day, accordinf: to hiy c/^e and capacity; taking ca/e at the end of each, oection to r.ake hiM repe:-jt the whole of vfhat he har before learnt."*' 1, D^Yi^'ht: A pho_rt but Cor^rehennivo ^yst. of Crco^r^ of the 3, WiiletB: ,\n Kasy Grhaa. of Creog. 10th >:d. , Preface, pp. 11-12 -86- The quotation is taken frori the edition putlished in 1B23, "but, from the foot that it -vras merely copied from Goldsirdth, BBfins also to have "been ircluded in the fir^t edition in 1814, Here we have nemorization at the heif-^ht of its popularity. The writer of a book deliherately recoirjnends that the children merorize ?ill t}\p f^ctT ir « whole book, a few nt a tine. Each tine the c'-ild recited nexp factB he was to repeat thoae whio^ Ye h-^A lef^rned pre- vioT.(^ly, Morse and Forae in the twenty-third edition cf a hook puhiiahed in 1823 are r:?ii(^htly less positive hut p:o to eren gr(iater extremes in eugf:ei3tin{' spscific devicea to aid the memory. In tho prafnce we find the follo\?irjg: '•Another inode of aiding the nornory ia by nv ingenious comhination of the initials -f r^iraeu, Vho wrd VI3UY0R con- tains the initials of the seven primery colours, in the order in w^'ich they appear in the rrjinbow. Tills method nay in sojne innt.vnces be riuccesi'.fully apjplied to aeotjr-'phy. ,?or exanplc: the tliree large to^vns, Boston, .'Xlbany and i;etroit aro YiQP.r the aaiue parallel o" latitude, and the initials sipell PAD. flontrnal, .Ubany and Vavr Yoi^lc ere near the aame meridian, ^^mi the initials spell KAU. Tliese six towns, taken together, forLn a croas, on u}ii c}-i BAD M.'^Ij is extended. -87- Expedienta of this kind may "be profitirule in ,?ome CRses, yet if they are pursued very far they wili bacoiiiQ perilous, and rather 'burdensontie than useful. The same rer.arks are applicable to rhymes. Tliere are varioun other raethods of aldinio- the nemary, but the noat valuable, where the subject, adr'its of then, are clasaificatioi" and a lucid order, The.iCi are the n.^tlioda adopted in all the aciences. They are the metliods t>je memory loves, and wnich make the acquisition of 'kinowledgQ easy and deli t^ht fill.**-'' Cummings in 1823 says that "when two or three particulars have been anomi or explained, the learnere ahould be iinrnediately required to ejive tiiem; and the questions and answers should be repeated so often and in so quick sucoeasion, that it will appear aljaoat like trifling; and not loore then two, three, or four ne.f questicna should be asked before the^ be put with proviuuts oriey, always observing to astc those most fre- 2 queatly, which appear most difficult to be remembered.'* >;''either was map study exei-pt fron; neu-orizatior. It h&s been aaid in an earlier chapter th'?t ear ^y in the nine- teenth century there was introduced the custotn of publishing separate atlasea with the geo'irapriie.-;. The quotatir^na from Fowle aif30 ahov.' that praotioally no use wea made of the two 1, Horse and i^orae: A he\7 ^3 ^st. of Geog, , A nc.and Jiod , , 24d Ed,, Preface, p, IV. " ' 3 . GumTf d ng 3 : to Intr oduc t. _to_^ Anc. and ' I'od. Cr eof*. ,9th Ed,, Preface, p. VI, -SB- maps in Horge'n "book early in the century. The atlaa pub- lished with .billets* hook oontaineci seven inapy, ./illets advocatea having the child, answer in writing the questi-^na baaed on the maps and alao having hira gpend half an hour each day reading the naraea of places in the vocabulary in the back of the booV: and finding the places on the raapa.i CuniLiings laaken an Interenting !iug,;;©stim aa to the proper way uo have «he child study the latitude of piacea. lie v/ouli tell the child that latitude nean.i nide and that a place in north latitude i :t on the north rside of the equator and one in south latitude ira on the south Bide of the equator? T'fap drawing; did not hecone cnvnr'ion during the first two deoRdeg of the century although a nurr.ber of atlases were in use before 1B??0, It -vns the custom to merely rr.emorize these maps by findinp- places repro-sented on them and by anstrering questions in the textbooks taaed on the maps. In 1821 -""owle introduced an innovation in the Monitorial 3cbool in Boston as is Rjicvn 'iry the following: "iaoon after we left school Cuinr.ing.3' Geography and Kaps oane into gener^il m^h, but as the r.apa -A^ere examined slightly, and no attenpt wan nade to fix t'cir outlines in the nind, the lessons 'vere soon forgotten. !le never a^le undoubtedly developed rnuvp rirawing far heyoud ariything we knov novr. With ,;owlo imp dra'ffing waa an art. In 1B60 Gedeon Thayer, principal of th« chcuncey- Hall ochonl in j^oaton, ^apeeka of "^ov/le'a sn]-(Ool having been f:?mou3 for the beautiful wap oolorin^j, printing and cbirography (3on<3 "by the pupila, (-realer emphasis v.as placed on this phanc of n/ap dravifing acout liiob vi^ien it ■/•■hh cuatoruary to 3end ppeciinena to e:4hibit3 at fains in tne larger cities, Eofore proceeaing vdti th'3 later changea in nethod it may be well to sum up at thin point tho trend of procedure up until ahout 1S25 or 1850, \'e havel reason to believe tnat befora inOG the geoi^raphy texts ^^ere usually used merely as readera, hut we have no abaolute proof of the truth, of a st-tcrrient that such was the case. Memorising was also ^^ain- in;=r ^ fo'ithold. By 1810 it was the comujon custori to use Ifonc'T "jook as a reader and to .neir.orifie the quejtiun and 1, •^o-7le: Geography. In the Co la. ^ch . Jour. 1852, p. 324. 2, ""heyer: Letters to 'a I'oung" Teacher, In "[e nrv I ar jiard ' s Anor. Tour, of lid., Vol. 8, 1860, p. 34. -90- answer material in Bin.cchara's CGte c'iiiatm. raps were uie>l pr?,ctically rot at all "before 1810, "but during the next decp-de they c^me to be used ratv-.od of alrr'oat absolute rneftioriaati on of factrs Tvns charaoteri Stic of the years fron 1815 to 1830. After 1830 the subjects of raaps, wap drawi nr, s^nd t37.e interpretation of maps were piuch lUnnuaoed. One of tlie early reformers is W, G. v/oodbri dgje. In an article in /orie riCRn Annal 3 o^ J^i'duQRt i on and X'^ '^.*J!}'£* l2Il ^" 1834 Mr, i7oodb ridge shows that he was conniderally in sdv^nce of the cjther geo,'^r=?T)hers of the day aa fsr as the quention of maps wa.B concerned, Tfewtion has been made in an earlier cJaoter of his idea a, but his in Quence raB oT such irportance ?o to merit even further conniderati -^n. fTi= ideaa are best ^.re- pressed in hi 3 o'vn ^vorda: ""'he pupil mufst therefore be flrr^t prspf:red to lAnder- stand the true nature of a nap, as a rainiature representation of the jnere outlines? of objects, on tlte eartVi, He iuuBt learn to conceive of a sheet of paper, aa containing r ounti^inr., rivers, and lcingdor,i3, to realize the isperfections of the representation, and to use it only as an ai li to his imagina- tion, ""^ 1, "A'oodlb ridge: IslQKentary Iiustruction in Geography, In . Axner. An n air ,, of Ed. , Vol, 4, 18:54, p. 115, I -91- On the next page in the same article he aayg, "nut let ur.aak again - ia it tru.i line? and t^tjotq of a ranp, or the gre-^t objects they roprsaent, w>iii-;h tue yupil i:3 tn learn? If the latter, in v/hat way in he to effect it? By KTiaing at tUeae mystical marka, and cormittiug to meinary 811 the naiaen attached tc theiu? 'Ye 'ave no patience vith those who thus teach their pvipils a science, whioh rnny "be C'flle:^ '"hartology, out has no ;aOre title to the nane of Geography, than the giving names to an equ-il nur,l-,ej- of Chinese chf-iraotor ;3. '•" Wrt then deaeri'bes a method of having the child r.ake a plan or nap o.' ''ia d-ild ia to Tcegin ^d th hid oftn iTr!;,;edi.:'t8lrj(^ neir;hbor"iood -nd to dra.v --.aos of the re^'ion, locating rivers, town-T, ind other feaiuref^ of 1. Ihid, p. 116, 3. Xann: aeogr^^phy. In The Co m. 3ch. Jour. Vol. 8, 1^46, -.J. 33-41. ISxt r i-c t a'Troi'T" a lecture by "]?oVie, I -92- int^^rest. Tie is then to draw mapa of his county, at te, of the United States, and of each country in the world aeparpitely. Later he is to learn to draw tl-e countrieT or states in groups, i^owle exprer.sed these i ieas in a lecture, part of which vraa p'jtliahed in The Com ri on Sch oq l Jour nal in 1646. Horace Mann, at that time editor of that journal, supports Powle very forcibly in the foliowinji' note '"^hich is nuDliQhed W-th i^ovvle'e ad'lrees; »'Ail that Oerriosthenea ciaiiued for action, m delivery, map drawin;'. i3, ir th« ytudy of geography. If there i rj s. blackboard i^j the schoolroom, let the classes ut' it; let them keep it at work, Tf there ia no blackboard, let one be providRd fcrthv?it>i. In default of ^roo.iriri.-; one, let them usn a glate; use paper; use the wnlla of the schoclroom; use the floor; use the outside of the schoui-house. If nothing else car- be used take charcoal pno. dravr map!> or ■^he plaist.ering, till it is >-lPPV'enP<^-, and th^n tyke chalk, and -v^Jten the charcoal, and so alternately. Draw n;eps, or oomething, some- whore."-^ A -very interestinp; device for ntxidyinr latitude nnd longitude ia sugpesteti jn the aarrse article, '^he child was to imagine hiinself suspended in t}'<: air with the eart)-; rotating below him while he remained stationary. He T?an to 1. Ibid, p. o9. -93- iraap;ine himself atove a certain parallel and was to name the cities on the parallel passing under him. The racing of trade routes was also mentioned as a device to be used in map study, and the computation of the tine of day in various places was a third, Tliayer in 1860 advocates teaching a fe^v facts about the iTse pf the fjlobo to tha school as a -.T^-ole and thf^n teaching the definitions of such phynioal features as islands, bays, capeg, rivers, peninsulas, etc, '''he child 77aa to learn to draw theTe vr^riou^! feelure'^ and then tako up .mape draw- in/7. He deBcrihe^ the sarrie Tnet'iod of procedure a3 is aescribed by Voodbridjre and '^owle, berijinning with the neii^hborhood, then dr-^win,ioell'3 Outline ilapv=i are com~ 1, ?>tayer: OT).cit. pp. 81-91 -94- mon in the journals of th?t period and they are often men- tioned in reports made "by State Superintendents of Public Instruction, i^apecially is this true inthe New York Reports. In one of theie reports there is published a report nade ty a county superintendent in which he describea the proper raethoi of using the outline naps: "i.et every ao'-iolar vino can read be nuppiied "i ■•>. a 'key to the maps'. In addition to this, I v/ouid say that every scholar in sc'-ool shoulc) be {.iloiired a >3late. In the iriorninri ^oon after the coiriinenceiiient of the school, let the teacher nxve c\it the rfKography lesson for tlie d^^y, .ind sus- pend the r^ap before the school. Suppoae the Icason to "be a geogrsphicrl description of ?r---nco. Let thp r-iRp of 'France be hung nut before them, 7^ov/ let every acihol^r in school sketch upon their al?.te3 the outline of thrt country, ea nearly accurate as tliey are .?>ble to io, Rea.bixs their' toraark down the boundaries upon their slates, and trice the principal riverQ, laount-^ina, ,'-:>ilfs, baya, fee, and nark down the char-jcter3 for the ])rincipal cities, towns and viilageu. They meiy now turn to the V:fcy and ascertain their nanes, and mark them also upon the slate, Half an hour may be spent iv the i,'-orning in t"-l?. manner by bepinnero, (le^s tine will be required for advancad scholars) when thv-^ le33Gi-i may be suspended till the afternoon, A review of a fe^ minutes in the after part of the day will prepare their, for reci+.ing I -95- the lesson correctly; and vihcn the hour for recitation arrives, require uvery sc^iolar to suspend all oMier atutiieo and give their attention. Be oure and let the scV.ols.rs "be aeated, ao that all inay have a fslr vier of the maps. The teacher then with a rod, ^30Ine three or four feet in length, points to the map and asks the follcving, %lth other questions; '"iThat country does tViat represent?' The ocViOol in 'joucsrt ann^/er , ♦ 1?T inc e ' . '" There follow a lonp, s*^"ies of que-stiona as to boundaries, inountriinB, hayn, riveru, citlesa, and a'';h<-r features rei)reRent«d en PuupB, DoGfi the knowledf^e of her then© outline napo wero \;3ed give us a hetter vievs" aa tc wlrere the emphu^csi.'j was hoinfi placed? The v^riter bolieveG it doer). It Ghoivc that pltce geography was receiving a very great de;ii of attention. The emphasis was on the location of .places. There -wda little effort to shov/ the relation between cliifif:tc and noil o,i the one hand and producta on the other, aa hae already heers shown in a previous chapter dealing rfith texthooka. The child used ■-'ia metnoTy rathor than hi a roagoninrr po\"ers. This is well illustrated by a nULiher of cjuentiunn arslced hy the visitors in the Boston schools in 1845, iv few unseleoted quantiona from the list are as followo: 1, Young: AJjrn. JIe|)' t . of the Supt, of Com. ;>chH, ,]iew YoVk State, 1B45, p. 2^7.' '■ " ' " I -96- "19, On «rV,.ich riinj^e of I'jDUnt.-iina is the line of per- petual snow moat elevated above the ocean, on the Rocky Mountains oi" l^orth Amerio.i, or the Cordilleras of "exico? 20, The oity of rcyico is in 20O of M. latitude; the oity of Eew Orleans is in 30o of M, latitude, vVhich has the warmest cliniate? 21, Kuin'? the rivt,3-3, ijuifti, oceana, weab £.na. str .its, through which a veaaei luuat paao in going froi^i x'ittsburg in Pennsylvania to Vienna in Austria, 22, On vvhici) bank of the Ohio in Cinci)i)iati , on thti right or left? 21"), '.Vhat are the principal natural and artificial productions of ITew }?ngland? 24, Over what continents and islands ioea the lir.-? of the equator pass? 25, VVhat parts of the f-;lobe have tii£ lont;:c:t o da^ s? 26, If a merchant in idoacow dines at o o'cloci: r.iu, and a merchant in Boston at 2 o'clock, which dine a first-? 2V , Utitae the countries wj-iich lie arounw the * editerranean Sea, 2d, ,Vhac CO untried lie; around the luacl-; iieaV^ Of the ten questions five, i;o. 2i,2:j,24,<^7 , and P,'3 are strictly place geography queationj, one, L'o. 2'6t involves only raernory, and the other four require only a 3lit;>it atitjunt 1, Bo st on _ 'ic ho ox Rep or 1 3 ,^ 134 j. i -97- of reaaoning. The inerabera of the coimnittee saw the weakness, however, snd criticized the achoola in th'? folio^Tin;-': terias; "The verbal examixiatinn which followed in geography confimed the opinion which would lae irawn fror the answers to the printed questions. In a few schools the children seem to have heen tau'^ht or-Hy, and upon correct principle;?; but gener;illy they were taktin out of the conraon routine of cjue^tions. They could hovmd states end countries; narae capit^.ls, caj>e9, and mountains; enumerate rivers, lakes, and haya; and answer a series of question 3 put by the roaster, of ha:lf an notir's duration; but, questioried as to t}ie drainage of countries, their capacities for coirjnarce, the causes which airect streams and determine the force of the water,- their want of corriprehension oi* these and similar suhjectcr-, showed plainly, , in a-lnost every school, that they had learned geography as if it were oiilv a catalogue of names of all the divisions of water, frc^nponds up to oceans; of land, frora towns to anpires.""^ Later in the same report we find a still nore adverse criticism, "laome of our sciioiars could coEimence with ; aine, and name every river runriing into the oce«n, without misfjing a navigable ntreain; but if you ask them why the l^ississippi flows southvrard with slugfjish current, and unvaryin.T width for a thousand miles, while the northern waters run in a !• Ibi'"., p. 11. -98- different direction, spread out into ynst expansea, rush through narrow paai^afj and over ataep precipices, to seek the ocean throuF^h the St. Lawrence,- if aisked, we aay, the reasons for rsuch phenomena, they vyill stand in mute amaze- laen^, and their mastera will perhapa complain of fHe unvronted seyerity of the exnrainatlona, " Such critici siaa were; untioubtedly iTieri tei, '"or f/.e que?3tion3 presented hy the 'A^riter ahors conti:in more questions demandinfr po',7er to ryaaon th-ip do any other ten conjecuoiTe qtieatiorjf? i^- th'' ertirr? lir't, Asion^ the ot'ic-r^ \ve fird ?aore oue3tic^n3 deaiin{j with plsce iKeogr-.p^'^j*, There v/ere a nujriber of questions asifir,? tho directicn of thPcoi;,rsec of rivers. These aeem to have cnufjed a great de^.l of trouTlfr. it ia clear th?,t the puoiis vore entirely frrcilier ii^ith only the 11 8t"? o-f itena that tlM?y co'iLd repeat froi:; neinory and the places v'.-i'i.ch t Y'^y oouli loc-:.te oi\ maps, Boston WH.? r;ot differ^vnt fron other placea in this particular oaae, Cne coMntiy superintendent in rexv "'orlr ^jtate says that in X84i3 "it hac lorj.^ heen the practice to put a eeopr;?phy and atlas early into the V-nds of young pupils, and to require them to learn 'all the course print the firHt tiiae throup:h' in the geogr-phy, a/ii to search the naps for all answers to t^>e quentln.a laid down ir; the book -dthout at all bavinp any correct notions as to the s^h-ipe or forv.< of the 1, Ihid, pp. 24- '^5. -99- earth, or the laws '<7>'ich govern it, in itB revolutions, or scarcely jiny of the fii'at prinoipieo of the science, "^ A aeoond county superintendent in tha same state growa aarcHstio and eaya that he has heard several clauses in geoKr'^phy oound atate/^ and nountiea v'ith a. coriiiidcraolt: degree of HOcurHoy, w>ien none of thorn 3ould point to the north, south, eaat, or wesit. He adds, "Indeed, p. wortion of thf^ir; ncra not av?yr(,' that these tnrriis relate to tne four cardinal point.y of tiie cojapasy, Still moro; <7orv; of tJu-rfi e.-iy th.ut •fjeo/.^raphy i b a description of the eart}i • , hu^ .lo )\nt krn\i iiq they ever nnv tiio earth,, They hayn no ide? t}j>t t}xfjy live u ?on i1:."'' ■Thin diso-asioio)- of Taet'tod? o-^ proacntxng material and the sort of ruatf^'i?;! preaerited iurinr, the :.an-L >:oc.;dn in the first ^alf of the century prew out of the Jiscuasicri of the use of cicline mnps, it w'i'.I hf^ recalled. Iv';.'tur;?lly one aaks if thi-.^ pnrj. r>.,l of '•f-r/iri'^i^r '-r.d. fact j.n.vrninK i ■'- con- tinttou.s ■si\,'-\ '•.:-.'■! ear.Ly perio';' di.'jouased in the first part of t}Te Gi.?.Tjter« "I'u-s tliere no hrea}- betvreen the tv. o? A fev? exa;iples serve to ?' ov t:h;;t thci*e was n-o r,i;ci'' treak. In 1827 ?An aiaor^ymouis vrriter Ir 'fy-e ;\jr:ericg. n .T ourric;! o f Hlduca- tioin^ writer tliut '^A hock cont-.ining a concinc xi.r.t of toAns, rivr.rs, 1, Young: \nn, ^Hep ' t of ,.3upt.^ of Co m. 5 3 cha . , Few fork 'Jt -te, 1845, \-)p. r-iOb-POf'I 2, i Liu, 184.:., p. 21. -100- end mountPirjB, tosrpther with a o'jr.'.ensed account of the com- merce, profluctior.is, end clinfyte of various countries, is placed, in the h.?-nfls of the pupil; and cy, unconscious of &ny other merner of 'becorrtlnfr acquainted with i\ , corjr.erce?? the Bame toileotne, tedious efforts to coi^itnit pri^^e .-^fter p.'^.'^e, to woTnory, "' In lf^i2 sn otserver ir. thlP of Coa^octicut writes that children might be found who >'.ad c:>!^ iT.it ted tr. n?raory their f^r'^TriTpar , thpiir .fteof^rpipi-ty and the ir'.tro;lucti en to the spellin?: booic, hf?if a doser. tlraen e-:ch, and vj-io yet vtre r:0 wiser for prfictlopl T>t.'rt>oReK thnn 'before.''' Gr?mir.ar and geOf'^rar/h^'' were cria to be oopiritted to nemory rather thsn taught. ^ Trtufii it c-AT, be ;"een tvat thlfi fft'.'-orite method of learn- ing the fr-cts of p;ooe'f'>?T)h;'" hPd iict been diaoarded. 'During the Tierlori when out'iin*^ WRpfi were in vosue the .vsteriF^l rt.em- orizeA r??P different th^r in the esrlier period, but th.^.t -jfas the ntoRt 3ifni^io?nt p^-rt of the chsnpe, A. ne^; wsy of using the pupil's tine hai been discovered. A.t sn earlier drte he had mo^orir.ed his textbook. STow he (>'fer-ori''.ed b^re foots presented by Tne??.n:=: of r>. r*jap. But had tho*'-'' been no adv-'?nce? '.7e have -Jlready 9hosm that '^'oodbrldge' f5 ider.3 about nfips 'vore a decided advance over Mirhgt had preceded, and r^n effort wi.Ll be rriade to show 1, /uio.T, 0, o:uiV. on >;; ■i;''^ C/"*- ^^.'-'tj. Pr c vJ-an t ;)efacti3 and Pruponed Rene die's. ~ In " Arft er . Jo ur . " "o f liid. ""lFo 1". *2 ,""182'?'", pT'lbP-ieO . 2, An Obnorver." Cci ^i-.jq n "■■jc'iord'n o /* "n n e o t i cu t . In .''jrinr.^ . ^uals of Ed. \Aol. 2riB32, p. "2477 3, Ibid, n. 'MB. -101- th«?t prygresa was feeing made along other lines as well. The outlirf r^R'P'^ were oorti-ir.ly cr> ir:^TOvev..cnt as a ..ethod of oouducting f^rlll work in place ^-eogrf-phj', "but their use wp.g orerdone. Too r.iuch attention ws.8 ijlveti to wern on r>cp-druv/ini.; fro.a ''Tor'ice Iliinn. "''.-.ro ugh cut the'je t^?o decides VQ find r/my ndvertisenont:' o*^ "hlnclc- Irosrcia In the mohool jonrn''l3, end Rtcjte 'jv^^O'-iritcndcrtn often i*econn:(5nd the Ufje oJ" hlaclcho^-'rd'S iu cinncot..;. ur; ,-.'ith p.rithimytj. c and KeofTT'^ph^r, enpecio?.ly th^j Intter. In «n itein in "-fhe 0(mnectic.ut_Cowrf!on ^c>lool_Journr.l__for in?9 \5-e fir-d that tho to-ri of Leoni.n-ster haa 3'eportod "puttioK in olack- hoard? -^o t'-'.'^t i^upiln n?.y ^'<^ requirod to drcvv •-.ap3 laore often. "■'■ iTTj^roT'Sd n;'.o*bO'i; w<^rre ^^Iso advex'ti."!ed oxtcunY-jly p.n<^ g minher of leotnrr^. sr.'). -jrticie? on their us': as"e to he ""ovn-i iii th"? .lournsls of the tipit;!, irtielcf! in thf» school journals '^rove that prorrt'ea TVMQ heinp jBftde ^n more wsys thsn ip the irtroducti "in i-)f ne-r ppparstus. In a review of a textbook in the .\ rnericnn ,■ o;zrnal of Kduc ^'tior .".rd T n-^^truction in 1026 the editor says, •'It is prnfifyinc to ol.piprvw in r.odern schoclhooks 1, A.btstr&ct of the I'aasaohuaetts 3chooi Return.-;. In H onn. C om. 3c h. - f-inr, , Vol. II, 1&59, p. IGx. ^, TleTOin';: The Tjge of niohea in Teachirs-^ Gsohy and Astro-.i'niir, In Lect. 3e.! :'orf-- .^r.;:r. In^so:. tute of Int^tr uct., Boston, 1841, p^.l£3-18r~. -102- on geography that authors nnd teachers are abandoning the useless and inconsistent method of conducting a child to the centre of the aystero, for his first lesson in a science which professes to be a description of the earth. We wish this rational spirit of irt'provement "were permitted to find its way into the study of geography as now pursued, and abolish the unmeaning practice of commencing with the form and coinpositi on of 'the terraqueous globe', inctead of with that portion of the earth's surface which fells under tine young learner's daily notice -, We confess that we should like to see the met>iod of alternate printed question and answer abandoned, and re- course wore generally had to the 3i«?)le form of consecutive paragraphs, to be enlivened by the oral ejcplanations and questions of the teacher. That is the most efficient kind of instruction in w'"^ ich the manual furnished by the author is used Merely as a book of outlines to be filled up by the teacher's own mind. The writer of a school book should not go before the instructor, and, by a limited nvimber of questions, preclude a wide range of thought, on the part of the pupil.""'' This is merely the beginning of a determined camijaign for better geogr-phy teaching. in 1830 Lemuel 3hattuck 1. Reviews of textbooks. Amer. ^ Jp"^« °^ ^4* '^°1« I» 1826, p. 176, -103- writea that the child ahoxild get his beginnings in geography by beinp: s'lown a plan of his own dwelling house. He advocates beginning the study of geography with one's o\m neighborhood and condeinns the practice of requiring a child to begin with the definitions of astronomical and geographical terms, •*■ Tfe advocsten the use of blackboarda and paper for maps and plans. The idea of beginning with the hoae seems to have taken a strong grip on the writers of the ticie. One anojiymous writer in The Common 3chpol Journal in 1842 suggests calling the attention of a two-year-aid child to the arrangement of the rooms in his home and teachiiig it which directijn is east, we-Tt, north, or aouth. The child vas to te tausi^h- to tell the parent in which room was the stove, the clock, or ether article of furniture, IJext it was to learn the geography of the surrounding fields and was to learn to locate 2 trees, woods, stones, etc. In the sartie journal for t}ie preceding year we find a series of nineteen articles purport- ing to have been written by an experier.ced te;.c},er in a large systeir. in a series of letters to a young girl just about to begin teaching geography. Again the erriphasi:3 is 3 placed on beginning with the c}!ild'8 iramBdi',te aurroundings, Horace !«'ann expressed similar ideas in t' is conxiectioji, f{e makes a good point when he oriticizes severely the textbook 1* Shattuck: Improveuent in Our Gorm-xOii ochooia. In jiTier. Annals of Ed ,. Vol. I, 1830, p. 138. 2, Anon, Be^inninf: to Teacli Geograp>iy, In The Jora. uOi, Journal , Vol. 4, 184?., p. ?,C>2. 3, Letters ,?rom a Teacher to her Young Female j"riend. Just About OonunencinF; to Keep )C>iool, In '"he Cora. 3ch. Tour. Vol. 3, 1841, -104- ' writers for treating the nsturai features of the earth under the head of ciTil or political diviaiana andthua breaking 1 the natural units into artificial parts, 7roiTi 1849 until 1852 7/illiam ^owle was editor of The Common 3chool Journal , It is natural to expect aomethi ng new and orip;inal from this old geographer, and he doesn't disappoint. It was just previous to this time that 3ir John 'iTri-Jnlciin tried in vain to find a Horthwedt Passage, "H^owle prints in his iournal the story of hi3 loss and also 2 the story of other earlier efforts to find the sane paaaage, clippinp-a He putliahea/froffi newspapers telling of the efforts of searching parti ea to find Tranklin, of the first voyage of a whaler from BerinI; Sea into the ,\rtic, of the efforts to find both north and south polen, and of other explorations. With each of these little article;? there is a recomTTidndation that it be used as the baais for a geography lesson dealing with thena little-known regions, Powle apparently recog- nized the value of motivation. In a series of articles under the title of p imn * 8 3ch ool Tea ch er » g Fan ug.l in the Oonnecti cut Corn:".or) School J our na l for 1339 there is a gre.^t deal of material dealing with methods of teaching. One of the articles deal a with 1 . Ifann : Fifth nnn. Rep ' t_ o f^ Se c . _ of Bo ar d of Ed., 1642, p, 46, 2. In .?b£ Goto. Sch. Tnur', Vprjll, 1S49', ppV"oV7-379. 3. Ihii, Vol, 13, 1851, up. 133-137, 330, -105- geof»r8phy teaching and calls for training of the cViild in observation. He is to learn the name of every object of import -^nce which he sees and ia 'o be taught to observe objects froi.i various point?^ of view, and is to have pointed out tc him t^)e varying poaitiona of the sun. The writer in defending' his position says that what he advocates ia not mere thf^ory but t'-iat it "has been done, and still is done, in the schools of Pestilozzi and his fcTlO'^ers in ■Europe," H^re we hnve a direct referance to the mettiods of PeFjtnlozzi, Other articles also show traces of his influence, BernaB flBfirs, Secretary of t>ie State Board of I'ducat ■ on for Masaachuuetts in iSn^J rirrites in hio F iftee n th Annua l peport , "In geography, as taught in the schools, there i^ ^r-'^at Ci'^nfusinn, arising psrtly from the w?.nt of clear views of what can and of what cannot be well tau.-ht to the young, end partly froti a want of correct ideas in respect to the order in whic>i the aever-^l f ;c'. s and principles of this course o.f atudy should be taught. The .;-reat iinportance attached to political geography and to statistics, for ehllir^n, 3hov/s that neither the nurture of the youthful mind, no- th'i -joir'prtriit-.ive utility of different parts of geography, nor the dependence of politicr.-l upon physical r^eography, has 1, Dunn' 8 School Te;?cher's I'lanuai. In Conn. Coiu. 3ch. jour. . Vol. 2, 1839, p. 32. -106- "been duly considered. Has the child any comprehensiorj of the political intertsts and civil inatitutions of the rations of the earth? Can x.Ue study of them, in very early child- hood, "be Hnything hut a mere work of inerjory?" wlisther thin oa the ini'luence o:' jrestalozzi or of Hitter, it had its orirtin across the ocean. It waa rot a native iuilufmce tlict causred Sears thua to study the needs nnd capaoitieu of little children. Still another writer in K-i! r-ngrd';t A,merican ■Tou'-nfal of iCducabion in 1859 in ouoting trovi the inatructions of the school coT'imittee of V/altham, Faasachusetts shows the influence of Pestalozzi or Bosaibly of Ritter« The following is & portion of the quotation: "Take your e'iiildrer. occasiorally to vs.llc; go to the hills; shou them how the presence o-^ a brook or river can be foretold from the extent of a valley, the nature of the Kojl, end the kind, of vogetationsj, whether forests or grass; 8}.ow ther; the roundness of the earth from the increasing dip of the i-;oriaon, as you ascend; make them perceive how beautiful t}>*^ iliUi^fi aii by which we alweyrs exag,'?erffte vertical heights au'avo tne ieataloz7.ian training in ohservr^tlon 1, vSfifr?': Pift&f'TttV Ann. Rep't o f " ^'ho Sec, o f the Boa rd of iSd. , Haee!??chuFief t, Fi, 1"^'?, p. 65. 2, Fill: "he Truo Order of iJtudiea, In liarnard's .toier.Jour. o f 2d.. Vol. 7, 1359, p. S'.75. -107- and the emphasis upon phyaioal geography as in the school of Hitter, But why should we call this a foreicn influence? 'ffhat reason have we for saying that geography teaching in America was affected >.y what went on in Europe? A quotation fron De Guimpb Peatelozai, TTis Life and 'fork ia strikingly similar to several of those which have just been presented, Pestalo25zi and Rousseau both believed in teaching froiTi nature, De Guiiaps says of his first lessons in geography, "The first elersentB of {?eo;?raphy were taught us from the land itself, "STe were first t;"^''ner:5l -riew of the valley, v7ie cnurne of the next few days, STiore walks and wore exploratiois, epch (\.p.y or hii'her /ground, and each time with a further extension of o^r 'vor'-. Oni.y when our relief was finished were we sVsorrn t^** ^ep, which lay this -mep.na «"« dt'^J not see till y^e rQve in a "io^ition to un der s t an d i t , •♦ -^ 1, De Guinpa' Per.tc^ozai, t^ 9 tJife nriv^or^. ^y.^f/.. -108- The objection may be made that no instance has "been cited of work in clay or gand by i\inerioan geography toachers. This la true, but. w«3 were tha learners, and were not yet ready to accept all of the liluropean innovations, Tliat caine later, 'Y« do aeeti to >mve accepted Peatalozzi'a ideas as to observation, or perliaps we received tViern tkrougti Ritter, the pupil of PentRlozzi, and the great advocate of physical freorrraphy. But how did we ^et the ideaa of the European peof!;raphernV i-jeverfl persons appe^i-r to have been irifiuential ir introduoinfr TSuropean TwethodH and ideas in the teac>iiiig of f?eogr«phy, Araong theye are Calvin E, Btowe, iiorace i ann, and Victor Cruyot, otowe waa a 'Cincinnati man who viaited Prussia in 18^7 and submitted a report on the iruusiazi uchool SYster! zo the Ohio iegisdature after his return, li&nn visited a nixmber of .^iluropean countries xn 1843 and devoted a large part of his report to a deacriptiou of the iPruaoian schools, Stowe bringa to our attention the manner in which the Prussians rolsted tjie natural sciences, geography, and history in discussin^T the needs of man. The material was ao organized as to answer certiiin questions about tne needs of man and the satisfactior. of thoje needs, ''(c) ^SHiere and how do loen find the means to supply their want.j, asvi make theruselves cojafortabie and happy in this life? -109- "^le vcRctfi'ble, the lainernl, and the aniraal kinfrdoma are here "broMi-^^ht to view, for materl ^l8; together with agriculture and maiiufMcturea, as the raeann of onnvorting these materitila to our une. Geography, with (special reference to the productions of countrioci, and t>ieir civil, 3iterary, and relif^ious inotitutiong; to-wH, their orfianization and eBiplovmenta, Geography is soneti'.ies t'^.u;';>it by "blanV- charts, to T7hich the stadcnt?? are reqtured to af:"ix tlu- ruA.it:-. o " the several countries, river.-., inountaim, principal to-"ii.3,&c. , and then st.-^.te th^j prolxiotiona and inati tutior)3 for which they ".re renar^faliie, SonietirueB the naiiies of countrie.3, rivers, &o. are ,:;::iven, and the pupil i'.: "squired to ooj-;3tr-.Jct 'in outlins chart of their localitiev:. In respect to all the alove points, the nntlve country i~ parti cilarly atuiiod; ito capabilitio-^, it- pro- ductions, its law3, it? institatiONS, its history, (xc, are investi/^.-vted, v«'ith especial reference to its ability of Bupplyin?; the phyaic.9.1, aoci'^l, and moral -r-^v •- ? of ihJ inhahitants. Under thia head the pupils .ire t&viich they are not perfectly able to conprehend, reproduce, and express. -lli- I found geography taught almost wholly froin large HJapo suspended ag-^.inot the walls, and by delineations on the blacli-'board. And here, this skill of teachers and pupils in drawing did admirable service. The teaclier traced the outline of a county on the suspended map, or drew one upon the blaclfboard, accompanying the exhibition by an oral lectiire, and, at the next recitation, the x^upils \iere e7..)ected to repeat what they bad seen and heard. Arid, iii re(-ard to the natural divisions of the earth, or the political roindaries of coiintr-ieo, a pupil was not considerea an "oavino eivc any proof tVmt he had a correct image in iiis mind, until he could go to th« blackboard, and reproduce it rrui;i the ends of his fingera, I witnessed no lessoiio unctccoxipaidod oy these testa, '*^ Tliis part of I'ann's report appeared iiot only ir. Vne official pubii cation but also in Eartiard'a itfierioan Journal o f iS ducat i on in i860. It connects the Aiaerican ..iovenient to hfi^ln thi3 3tudy o f geography with the home rather definitely '>vith Ritcer's idea3 on that subject, fhe ideas of Patter nre identical with those expressed by American i-Titers. Map ^•irawinfr ;ihowg the same popularity as in the American schools. According to feann the Prussian schools were further ar^v::nced than were our own in the methods of teaching t'^ograpJiy; so it v/oiiLd Beem that they had been acting as teacher ana we as pupil. 1* Mann: '^eveactji ;\nn. Rep't of the :;ec. of the Board ox" £d. ,p.ll5 -112- '»'he argument may be advanced thr.t If we yrerf^- so rendy to accept the ideas of iT.VLVpsBn tesohera we should not have been so willing to retrjin our old meti-od" of peinorization. The answer is that all of ISurope'a iieaa were rot of the type of those Just described, Pestalozzi , for exnrple, had some peculiar devicea for memorizing t?ie loontionq of places as evidevieed in an article in 3ar/i^rd ' i3 /j'erj.^crn .To urrial of E di-cation in 1859, ]:o device ever rt^cojimen ^ed by an Arierican ^;eogrr-:pher could Veve derserved inuoh p;reatrr oonc'pr'rK'-' -^ no than that described in the following quot'o.tion: ♦'Thus, for insoHnce, one of the wuhdi virions of Europe Is 'Jerfnany, Let t^ie child first b^coipe acquainted, boy.Tnd the power of forgetting them, with the aubdi vision;? of Gerciany into ten circles, So-v let th.6 n^neo of the cities of Germany be laid before hin in alp'fabet.i. c;! ord'^r , t;; be read; there bein*^, at the name of each city, the number of i/hfj circle xi> v.hic}i it lies. As soon, as >e can read these name!} of oitic-d fluently, let hi/a bo ^^o^7n }i.ow trie numbers annexed to 'ohom refer to the head above, and t}>e child will after a few iesaoiia be iioj.e to J-jc-rittt all the citi'^s of Ger/aany according.: to the hea-dd tlraa eet up above tlien. Let there be put Before him, for inatr>nce thie followinr n?mea of f'erman places jrith fi^^ures:- \ —113- Ac Chen 8 All en do rf 5 Altona 10 Aaien 3 Allersperg 2 Aitorf 1 Abendturjc: 4 Alachaucen 3 Altranatadt 9 Aberthan 11 Alaieben 10 Altwaaser 13 Aclcen 10 Altena 8 Alksrdiasen 8 Ai.-i^reraont 3 Altensn 10 Amberg 2 AlP- 1 Altenburg 9 AjabTP.Q 1 Allen'oach 5 Alteri"berg 9 ABcneburg 6 He may then read as foliowa: Accheri is in the WeBtphaiian circle, Abendberg is in ths j7rancoriian circle, Aac'ken in in the Lower osjcon circle; Ac.''^ Thia ia a case of pure memory and of a device orif;inated expressly a,3 an aid to the irerriory. Europe was I'ot yet clear of the i.ibthod of inejiorization; so, if we were Ifcii.-ning fron her, there was no reason why we sliould JiaYe been Tree frorr? this riethod, Phiilipt'. cites another channel t)irou{rh A'>;ich tl:*-; 2 methods of Hitter probably made themeelvon r«it in iUicrioa, He pives Arnold (ruyot nore credit for introducing Hitter's ideas and metiiods into t^^e school3 of t-.is coi-Citry tjian he itives to ^Torace Mann, Cuyot was a pupil of Ritttr'e *■:■ o came to this country in 1648, Pror 18A8 to 1854 he wca in the employ of the Kassaohusetta Board of Education ati an inspector and institute lectur*^r, Tn 1854 he v^ent to Princeton 1, Pe.st.wlo2!zi-i:!Ktliod.-i of 'jle^o. Inotruction. In^ j^^arnar d' s . 'jner. Jour. of Bd. Vol. 7, 1859, p. 684. 2. Phillips, (Op.cit.) pp. 508-509. -114- nfl an instructor in physical geography and geology, His firsit worlr pubiiahed in this country waa entitled 'fhe Earth and ran and ims publishfld in Poaton in 1Q49, 7he influence of }?itter \73B undoubtedly f«lt in the United states before the arrival of Guyot, hut it id reasonable to auppose that a truly great geographer so intimately connected with the public achool system of jjKipnatjV'uaetts for six yeara and later « profesaor in one of our leading universities would i;reatly ir.oreaae the influence of ^ds foriGar teacher, especially since he hir.self believed i:: the yame principles as .lid Hitter, aa is sho«m by the following quotation fror. 'T'>!.e jjarth ••' i ■* '^f » • '•Jlo, fjeography - and I ref.ret that usage forbid :i me to eirploy the mostauit-^tble A-ord, Geo lo.^y, to denignate the general Rcience of which I sperik, - Geography our-ht to be raoinething different from a mere desoripti.in. It 3hoi.tiurinF; the foilo'ving decade, ^B4C to 1850, th« states of Connecticut, H"ode lijlcind, hcw Yorj^, Virginia, Ohio, Illinnis, and ,7iacanrfin enact laws Either re- quiring the teaching of geogr?;phy in tfie achoois or liuting it aa one of the aubjcota in which a teacher znus-i; be examined. This may be said to be the status of the -.nibject in 1860 as far as legislation is concerned. At that time it -,vas clearly accepted sa a part of the curriculiun. il8- In an earlier chapter mention waa made of tVie in- fluence of the 'vestward movement e.nd of our increasing foreign coramerce upon the position occupied by f;eof;raphy in the curriculum. These influences were discussed especially in connection "vlth the gain made fron 18?,0 to 1R30, Of course both of these influences continued to exert fjre-.t pressure throughout the period* No sooner i^as the Ohio ▼alley settled than the pioneer moved on to the r^pir^r beyond the Hiasissiwpi, Pirst the states just weot of t})e 'iaaissippi were settled, and after the annexation of ?cx-s in 184r) settlera poured into that stftc, Th^re had also been a steady inovement of settlern across the plains to 'asbir-Tton and Ore^-on. The Mexican Var opened up va^t ne^r territories to settlement, and firially there o^me the Galiforni?? (T'^lti rush. There vras created a deir.«nd for knoivledge as tn tie character of all this fref^t exp'^npf of country. L'any v;i=3hed to move to the '//er;t, and even t>iose who did r'Ot lesve their old homes east of the 'isaipaippi were intererted in a region which was to be the bone of friends and relf. tives. Aa the country rrew national pride glpo Pive-vr, nni. r^tur-lly the man Trho was so proud of the vsst extent of his n-stive country iri ?ihed his chiliJren to Vnow jurt as rauc'i as possible about thnt country, "During this pian::e period 'Vmerican coiora'jrce i.icrev.3ed very rapidly, Ainerican ships, manned by y^ericnn sailors, ■ 1 -119- were to be found in every port of importance in the world. American sailing vessels were the fastest in existence at that time, and we held our giipremacy on the seas until after the Civil 'Var, As a resxJilt of our increased commerce there grew up a demand for foreign commo fix tier?. Things which had once been luxuries becarae necessities. Our needs increased, and at the saiie time the deiaand for oar agricultural x>-oductB caused our xStilth to incresse. We wanted the product'3 of forei"'? '^fJoplH th;3mii5eive.^3, Knowladr^e of foreiji-n oountriea ^.nd foreiftn peoples^ led to a .leia'^.nd for more such kno'rle:Ve, "^l-io ienc.nd for foreictn pro>hir;tH led to a demand for 1aic^rity. The changes in the textbooks yre axBo clearly due to changes in denand, £arly in t'ne c'^^oary there was s te-idency to fill the geographies with inaterial dealing vfii th curious physical phenomar.a, the peculiar laannerd and customa oi peoples iii li^rioas partw of tVie i-orid, the locationo of citie£5, r.iountaina, ri\rer.'5, bayo, oap«3, ialanda, und other physic^"! feahurea, the bouudariess of politixil divisio/is, and a acore of little deti^.ila Yi&viuQ to do Ait'n tVie adirunistra- tion of our nfitionai government. In a word, it ivaa the geography 3uited to a aaiior or trader, with some more or less useful odda anu ends thrown i.n because tKiere -waa no other place in tne otirriculuxu for fnem. The great space devoted to curiosities is attributable to the interest in auch a subject which *iil invtivie.\>ly be si-ioah by an untravelled I -121- and comparatively ignorant people. At a slightly later date the numerouf^ refererceo to brilpes, turnpikes, and cannla reflect the interest of the people in internal iriproveroenta. The turnpikes snd "bridges i^ive way to railroads and gteara"boat8 at a Ister date, hut the canals ret?.in their place throughout tha period, During the decades follcifin'T 1830 more attention in given to both the physical and coirimercial phases of the suhject. The texthooka deal in greater detail with the^e two pha«e^ of geography and omit much of the useless raaterial of an earlier date, 'Tovfever, it is just at the close of the period that coiBmerciaX geography hegiria fco forge ahead of phynical geog- raphy in importance. The change in method corresponds to the content of the textbooks. The material in the early textbook was suitable for little other than memoriaation, and consequently it was laeiooriaed. Later, under the influence of Pe'^talozaJ, Ritter, and others, the iiiethod of presentation ch?inges. The little child begiae his atudy of geography with his ijr.neiis rep-soninK powers in connection with geography. The erTjhasia on phyHical geogr'-.phy affords an exfiellent opportunit:/ of tiiia sort, and it iti in the works of Gayot thet we see triia best illustrated. -123- .APPEUDIX -124- APPENDIX GEOGRAPHY '■'KXTB00K3 IL' USE B^T'WilEK 1776 .'Un) 186C. 1, Ad?ir!S, Alexander §H'^.l:g:^Z of _f>^06 ';r^--P>^y and ^ Tl ".torj , London, 1754. 2, Adams, TTenry W» geographic Ags^ii qtant , ?.:iddletown, 1B40, 3, Andr&vyg, G.O, Lan ca a tcri an Geof^ raphy , K.Y. lat >fid. 1B20, 4, .Ansted, !>.T. l-'hy qj cal Gfco^n. ap^hy , I.nndor', 185?. 5 4 Aiithon, Chr.rles An cient and Med iaeval aeography, H.Y. 184G. e, Arnold, T.K. Putz'B iii.imuB.l of Ancient 0?of; r--'phy fi nd vu^tory, K.Y. 1849. 7, BalM, Adrian Abri (igcm fint of Univerg gl ("Teog;raph y, l^rt i^d., Boston, 1835. 8, Barrington, A. Treatise on Physical "eofj-j:pV'.y;, V-.Y., 1850. 9, Be van, W, L, M£.^Ji?A„.°^..A"_?i5A\J^-?°.S.?f'P^V' London, lti52. 10, Biot, J.B. Ana 1 y t i c a 1 Geography, li.Y. 1846. -125- 11. make, ,T,L. Geo^_ r';-ph.v f or C^ildre?," ''.Y. 1045 Textbook in Geography an d Chronolo.-?y . Providence, 1814 Am gr icpn UniverBal deograrihy ,}} ,Y , 183.^, K e ff ^ ^\m ff r i c ar JJn j vf? r g a 1 n en{T,r:>ph^r , Poston, 3.B35, ]^ew American School G eotT^r -^phy , Boston, .1837, 12. 31ia3, Sylvester ^jna lyrsis of CGO(rraphy , Boston, 1847. 15, iolMjjj - Geography , 17115. 14, Sutler, i-'rederick is:ietneijt3 of Geog ragJrjy eiad Hi st ory , i/e th er s f i si d, 1825 . 15, Butler, Sacmel Anoidiit Geography , Boston, r.d, Geogra&hlca Claasica. Philadelphip, 1B47. 10, Criiiicjatt, T.c, Fan-Jboak of Universal Geo;yr .:iphy. r.Y. 1854. Cyjy^oyo^sole. ot' v'eography , ?'.Y. 18b 4. 17. Camp, J. ii. Primary C. e ggr.-.pjiy , Hartford, 1861. Geo^^rap^iy . Kartfora, 185}. IB. Carpenter, Lant Intro i vucti on to the Ueagr aphy ^^of^jbhe y.eyr T eatanient . Ciinbridge, 1st lid., 1811. 19, Carter,J,K. and W, H, liroolca Geogra]jhy of laaoachua etts, Boston, 1850. -126- Geo g raph y of WQrce3tor County , Boston, .1830 Geography of Esaex C ou nty , Boaton, 1830, 20, Carter, Cornelius i3. Elemfenta of Phyaical and political Geography , Boston, 1855. ITew 3erie^3 of G eO(i;r?^phy Q,ue3tiona, Providence, 1832, 21, Dwiglit, Kathaniel Ggo^rap hy of t^ie forld , IT.Y. 1795. 2a, Gordon, Patriclc Ge o graphy Anatoxriged , London, 1754, 23, TTRie, Knthan Epito nie of TTni versa! Ge ogr: ?.phy , Boston, 1830, 24, Hall, 3.R, Geography for Children. 3pri rif^field, 183iii, '^5, Hallworth, Thoinan q utli le/r of Geogr aphy, ^.Y, 1846. 26, Hart, Jo-i^ph C. Popul ;?"" '"yat 'im of Practl caj. j Gep.gr».PJiy,>, N.Y.1851, Geog r:.p hy for IJ ' ^e of ocho.Tlg , }T,Y. 1825, 27. Fawkes, p. A."erican Cn'-iprri 3o__n ; flkstch of G_eogr?p>iy. Philadelphia, 1887, 23, TTo garth, G. Outline.: of Geograph y, Loridon, 26 3£d. 1850, 29, "olmoa, .Tohn The Gr-^qnsrian'g Geoig;r aphy and Astronomy, Lo n do n , 1851, -127- 30, Hubbard, John RudiFjenta of Geogr.-^phy , \7alpole, 1805, 31 , ^Tughe 3 , lildward On tllrir;:; of Phy aical Oeogr-^hy, London, 1853. 32, TTunti'.ngton, IT'O-, Systei:! o f Joder n Geogr-^phy, Hartford, 1B34, 33, Koepper, A. L, The 'yorid i ii the ¥i ddle Afres ; A Hi atori cal geography , H.Y. 1854. 34, Leavitt, "Oiidley Juvenile Geography . Concord, 1829. 35, Lyon, S.M, I'usi c«l g e g^'Tir :::phy , Troy, 1849. 36, !'ulto-}";rmi, Conrad. ''^'/.^''i^J'-^.Ji.'^. V}Ay^''''-^ ^^- '^.^PI^'^-^\ ?^7 : * Boaton, 1836. 37, !5atho^, -T.H. ?fanual o f G g 3gr -vp^ v/ . Hartford. Revised i'id.l850, 38, Koyo, Robert Yie.r of Anciept GPOE rpphy and n iutory, F hi la del phi a, iai3, 39, Ti:eli3h, John Geoi^r- ^riic Descri iition of the V/orid. Philadelphia, III '^' * ' ■■ .. _, — -- ■ ■ ■ . .. I - ibi«. Geogr p}iic Pegcription of_jthjs_J7njjeji_^tMvt^ Philadelphia, 1816. -128- \ 40, Mitlahell, S. Augustus ?irat Leasong In Geography . Philadelpbin, 1860. Primary Geography , PhiladelpViia, 1840. Few Prin^ry Qeogrnph/ . Philadelphia, 1860. Internedigte Geogri°.phy . Philadel hia, 1853. Kew Interneiiqte Geogrp.phy . Philadelphia, 1860. 3 ynten of rodern Trf n^:r.'::'?hy . Philadelphia, 1860. Hi^h 3chool GeotTr^?phv . rhlladelv.hia, 1854. Ancient ffeo^raphy . PMladolphia, 1045. ^^w An lent fTeorr-q phy, Philadelphia, 1860. mblioal BaTjhath-School Geogrtapliy . Philadel,.hia,1855. '^l^og.^ ^P^io ? ;ie' ^itlo n •"-'■)o ^;. riiila>lelphia, 1854. Gepg rpphj c al ;nfiarlor. Ph.iladelphiji, 1840. 41, T'onteith, Tames l^ir^t Legq ona in ^S.v.^ry^ph^. IJ.Y. i-dbJ, Intro juatl an to VulmiI -jT G eo^T:.'phy . N.Y.1857, Yout h *B Manual of .Ifeograph y, K.Y. 1853. 42, TToroe, Jedldiah 4g'*^-^o^Q''i^"'"- l ""''' ^^eof^rapli.ical Cat;jouiai-i .Eodx>u, 1792. jtoericnn rrazetfeer , Boston, 1797. Araeriean UniVGrB.-il CrOQ,c:r^^ph^' . Bo a t ^n , fi th i; d. 1312. Am eT\cifr\ naQ^^f 'ovhy . E.uisahethtown, 1789. Coropendious Syster of 'odervi Geogy'aphy . Boston, 1814. BleTPerta of C?eog-T->^.]-hy . ro-:5toji, 4f x i<;d. irjOa. I Geogr'^phy T'ade I^auy . Hew Havun, 1784. -129- 43, ^orae, Jedidie-h and Sidney E, T:'orse Geofcraphy rade iilasy . 22nd Ed. Boston, 1820, Ne w ijyatem of Geogrr.phjy, .Ancient and I.odern , Boston, 23rd Ed. ,1822. 44, ?orse, Sidney Hew System of ' clern C-eogrrphy , Boston, 1822. SygteTTi of geogrr.phy for Use of ^'^cjioola^ .li .Y. 1844. 45, Muenacher, Joseph outlines of PracMcal ge ngrcphy. .l^rooicfi eld, 1827, 4o, Murr?iy, Hugh Ency clopaedia of^jQGojtrapn^ Philadelphia, 1843, 47, ri'ichol?., V. Sl>?m rttai-y Tre ati -a e^ on G e o g r aph jT , Pb i 1 5 d ei phi a , ■'Jew jid. 1B13, 48. O'Brien, l'^. iLHtheirur.iop.l GeoKX..:jh y. Loiidosi, 105^, 49, Olney, J, Prpc;tic?l Geoiirophy for IJse ii; Gchools. l'ajctrord,1827 7irst >.feOfr.raphv. 1, . Y , 1 B 4 9 . Pra ctical Introductioi. to GeO f rraphy, Ji.Y. 1849. Practical Hyi-terr. of .o:.Lern Geography. H -r t f o r J , 1 8 28 . ',j.uar 1 '.reo^;rc ^h y , 1 . Y . u.d, Sy3te:-a of Ueographica l Q ^aebtioua . Hertford, 1S28. ISl ejr e CI t ?iry G eograpJiy , i-, .Y. 1847, 50. Parish, Eli j eh Compen di ou 9 3y at eim o f .ffeoA'^j^-Piry.* 15er7"buryport,}Je.l807. yew Syatem of Fodern Ge of^rriph y. lTewburyport,1810. 51, Percival, J.G, ITalte-Brun*3 TTniversal geography . "RoatorijlSSe, 52, Pieraon, David, H, Syatem of Q.uent io ns in Geogrephy , V,Y. 1054, 53, Pinkerton, John lAodern G'eogrr-phy . Philadelphia, ieC4. 54, Pimioek, >?. Cs t ech i 3/Ti_ _o f Ge ogr aphy , I' . y . n.d. 55, Bobbina, rJoyal VVoria Jlaplsyed in itn ju story _ ;'nd/^eogr-> .p\>y. H.Y. ia^S4, 5{i« Robinson, A.J, Outlines of Phyaicol Ge ography , r.V, 10 th Sd. 1869, 57, Ftowsori, 'Jusannah Yout h* a iJ^ir st St eps i n C^eo^rv.p h^, Boston, 1818, Abrid ger.'ent to Uniyerea l Geof^rLiphy . Beaton, 18(;5, 58, Rudd, J.C. Comp end! im o f Geo^r'^-iJhy . Elizabethtowri, lt.'i6, 59, 33lP)r»n, Thorns Modern (^azeteer . London, 8th Kd, 17 69. Modern Universal rra;,'.etee r. Lojidon, 10th Ef1.l782. Key Oeo^raphjc and ^ ^'j. otoricp.! Crat r ima r. Lo n do n , 1 2 th >;d. 1772. Geographical and A-atronorucal Grqmtnar,_ London , loth jsa. 17 Ob, -131- 60, Banborn, Dyer H. G^eo|^-? phi ca l M anu al . Concord, 185fi, 61, 3chjni(U, r.L. Co urge of Ancient i.v_eog^r?.phy. K . Y . n . d , 62, Shea, I.Q. 11 events of Geog^r-^plty ^Conbi ned .'jyj t h H istory cnd^ C'hronolo r:y . F.v. n.d, 63, flinilej'-, ThoTnaa L"", ■Kagy I ntroduction to Googrr.phjr, PMladelphia.1824, Satire d Qeofrrj-tPhy. pviile.del-ohia, 1824. Ent!yclo9G_edi£ o£ p e o pr--? phy , ^Tr^rtford, 1829. 64 , ShI t h , Gha rl e o LLl^ T£r gg-l CTeofrr r-phy ' g.de Kaay, f- . Y . 17^5, 65, Smith, Rofnfell C. Iji t r due t ipji to Si'^piV^p^:y^t N.Y. 1st tfid. 1846. Q.uarto Oeo^raphy. ;!::.¥. 7th Ed. 1847. Geos^iviphy _of the J;ro due t i ve ^^Y p_t e^. ^^.rtford.lSSS. l\le\N\f}eoj^rjy3hy, Philadelphia, 1960, 66, 3rith, R.M, Child ' D Book of Geography, Philadeir-hla, 1R49. Wodern CTeograPhy. Philadelphia, 1840, 67, ,3ruth, .7. W. and C. B. .^tout The You np: ,'^.^'^r .v' -„P-"T,» -'.'^. 1S58, 68, SoTTserville, Fary Phy s i 3 1 G e Q fr :r aphy . Philadeiphia, 1B48. -132- 69, Stout, C. B, Hart » a G eographi cal l^xeroi r^em. ]].v, 1857. 70, Sullivan, Rotert Introductio n to Jie_0£rnpjiy. ^^ublin. 13 ]'Jd. 18F>0. Geog^raphy rrenernlized« Dublir, 12t^' Sd. 1849. 71, Turner, H, Intro duct i or; to .Un iJi;?r^'^J:.^'lS°iyi^iPiiZ* ^'^^i i n , 1 1 h Ed, 1810. 7 2. Van Wat ere, Georj^e, Po^ eMoal pJ>p^rS'pJ^/.> -'^ "*^''- ""^■'■'^ • I'iSl • 73, '/arren, ■!, '". Pririary ^reop.Tf^jphy, Pliilfldeiphi^;, 18C0. CoT omon School C e n g: r p.p hy . Philarfeiphia, ifib?, Syatem of Fhysio sl Ceogr ephy, Philadelphia, 1856. 74, Willard, Smrra GjeogrHphy f c r _^'B_e gi nri era. Hertford, 1826, Rudinient 3jof_G_eoj^rKjih;^,_ Ji.nf^^ Tjart- ford, 2n'\. ^d. IB"^?. 75, lilletT, Taoo'b Kfmy Gr iririav of Oenjr y.iphy . -"nuf-hVeepoie , 1B14. r. en|5;r;_-i t)h-"' for Use q_r_ Bchool_B, Pou{:>iheepi33 o,13th Ed, lS2o. Coi- 'pendi uus 3y.-'jl-ein oi\ Geo^rsjih^. rou-hice'?psi e , 1819, 76, Woodlsridre, V.C. First Steps to Gecj£rgphy._JTart ford, 1S32, LRudi:a ent3 of Geography , R^>rtford, 2nd Kd. 1522, -133- ?! od le r n 3ohool C-'='Of . ;r'^pV iy. Hartford, 1844, ■jystflin of '" odern Geograph y, H rtford. Improved Kd. 1852. WoodTDridf^B and \7illard'n 3y ^it cui o f 'Jnivv-^raal Geography, rnrtford, 1B24, 77, 7oroo^;tor, "^OMtiph IS, syHt ch Pn of th(^ E^rth a m; Itn _Tnh Gbltrntn .?p!3ton,1822C F ler.cTj ^tr c^ ..Cj ^o>T P:P^?'',. M '.ci.t'n t _g-n d Modern , Po s t on, 1819 . Spitone of Toderrj Georrcphi', Bo-.toj;,' ir.?X', Ancient ClnriBiop.l _a}irl__3orlpt ur:\3. (J ^eo^jr f.ph^ ^ , Bo at on . n . d. 78, Worce^tor, 3airiucl IflTzt ZlooV. cf Creogr-^pby. l^cston, IB 31. 79, WnrSiaaa, :??cnjar:j.n Kleiie nt-: ■.•.:" "':c^ri-p^' ;; , ]Ouladej.j)hia, i2th Kd.ia07, 60, Zcrniiri, Hoaina ?K^cre£.t4 : V.!-: in Di yt.icfc.l CtiOcrr-pViy, Lor. don, 4th Ed, l«bl. Outline " of Phy.'ic?.! ^'■^/■!-;^"" •T' . ^^.f . ^ London, 1?51, Additional V.ithorr; of 'Jeogr'ipyry Te:;ttc>o':8: 81, BrinnTiade,- 82, 3^lRir, - 8:>, Ji.urritt., - 84. Drur:/ , - 85. Davie, - 86. ^CTfle, William 87. Field, — "I'M" 1 1. The foregoing list hna been corpilod from the following aourcos: 8. Amorioan Textbooks. In :garnard*o / ^.er Jour, of Kd. Vol. 13, pp. 209-222. Vol. 14, pp. ^iJi-77'^ Vol. lb. pp. 5:S9-&75, b. Anon, School-lBooka in the unitod fJtMteo. In Amor. An nals of M . . Vol. 2, pp. 573-375. c. nagi^! Ann. Bep H of the au p«t of Got a. acho. Kew York, 1833. pp. C6-73. d. Books found in librHrie.'j. The writer foiand the aoinea liated undui iHu.i'iKr.^ 61 to 87 in listg of rjuthor«< of {?:eof?raT)hy texthoolcs, but the titles were rot liateid. -135- BIBLIOGRAPTTY -136- OEOanAPHY TEXTBOOKS IIIGLIJDED IK TABLES I AND II 1, Morse, Jedidiah, Geography T.'ade F.aay . 10th Ed., 1806. 2, Parish, Elijah, A New System of fodern Geography, 1810. 3, "Villeta, Jacob, A Compendious System of Geography , lat 3d. 1819. 4, Morae, Jedidiah and Horse, Sidney Edwards, A New System of Geogr-'phy, Ancient a.nd Fodern, for the Use of schools . 23rd 35d. 1822. 6, Willets, Jacob, An Sasy Gr^usmar of Geography , 10th Ed., 1823, 6, Gumming 3, J, A. An _ Introduction to Ancient and Ko dern Geography , 9th Ed,, 1823, 7e Woroefitor, J.S, Elenents of Geography, Ancient and i:odern . Stereotype Ed, 1824, 8, Goodrich, Griswald, A System of School Geography, Chiefly Derived fron ?!alte-Brun, Ist ']d. , 1830, 9, Olney, J, A, A Practical System of Jodern Geograph y, 17th Ed. 1834, 10, Smiley, Thomas T?, The Encyclopae d ia of G e ography , 1839, ll«Mitchell, 3. Augustus, An Easy Introdu ction Into the Study of Geography , 1st Ed., 1843, 12,\7oodbridge, William C, I^odern School Geography, 2nd Ed. 1845, 13, Smith, Roswell C, Geof^raphy of the Proiuctive System, for Schools, Academies and ?aiailie3, 1861. 14,01ney, J. A, A Practical and Complete .-Jyatem of Geography for Schools , 105th Ed., 1366. 15, Cornell, S,S, I ntermediate Geogr-phy , 1865-1869? -137- BIBLIOGRAPfrf Primary Sources I, Legislative Documents 1. Acts and Resolves of the Province of the l^assachuaetts Bay , 1769-1780 . (Boston, .7right and Potter Printing Co. 1886) 2. Laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, 1827 (Boston, Button and Wentworth, 1828) 3. A.cts and Resolves Passed By the Legislature of T'asnachuaette , 1859 . (Boston, Dutton and 'fentworth, 1839). 4. Lews of the St^^te of Hew York . 17 89-1796. (Albany, Yeed, Parsons, and Co., 1C87), 5. Laws of the Btate of Hew York. 1841 . (Albany, Thurlow ,7eed, 1841). 6. Laws of the State of K6w York. 1847 (Albany, Charles Van Bonthuysen, 1847). 7. Acts and Laws of the State of Conne cticut^ 1796-1802, (Hartford, Hudson and Goodwin). 8. Public Acta of th^ 3t vte o f Corir.e cticut , 1841 (Hartford, J, HolTirook, 1841). 9. Rhode Island Acts, Resolves, and Reports , 1845-1846. 10, Acts of the general AsseBbly of Virginia. 1845-46 , (Richmond, Samuel Shepherd, 1846). 11, The Code of Virgi rda, 1849 (Richmond, William F. Ritchie, 1849). 12, Generrq and Local Laws of Ohio, 1858^t_ (Coluir.bus, Samuel Hedary, 1838). -138- 13, Ao t8 of a C?enerql Hature, State of Ohio. 1848-1849 . (Columbua, Cb.a3. Scott, 1849), 14, ^e Revised f>tatut e 3 of the -itate of !'isf3ouri, 1835. (3t, Loui3, 3upt. PulDlic Printing, 1835). 15* Laws of the State of Illinojg, .^ ^p e ci^al !L?ession, 1857 . (Vandalia, v/illiam ^Vultera, 1837). 16 » Laws of the state of lllinoia, 1859 . (Springfield, Bailhache and Baker, 1(31)9 ). 17. LewB of the State of Illinois. Ifirut Se gaion, 1849 . (Spring- field, Charles it. Laiaphier, 184S), 18, Statutes of the territory of Alsconain, 1858-1859, (Mil- waukee, 1839). 19 • The Revised Statutes of the Strte of yisconsin, 1849 . (Southport, Latharft Sholes, 1849), II, TQxfoookp 1, Morae, Jedidiah, Geot/rnphy I'ade ..■^sg.y, iOth ^d . , (Boston, J, T, Suckingham, 1306). 2, Workn^n, Benjamiri. ^«aerGent g o f .Geography , 12th Ed, (Phil- adelphia, l!lbenezer Mcculloch, 1807). 3, Dwight, Nathaniel. Geograpy\y of the ..orld . (New York, Kvert Duyckiricl:, 1810). 4, Parish, Elijah. A ITew Sygten of Kodern Geography , 1st Sd. Hewburyport, Vermont, Tho.mau and Vv'Viipple, 1810). 5, Willeta, Jacol;. A CoBpendioua System of Geography, Idt Ed. (Philadelphia, P. Potter, 1819), -139- 6, Morse, Jedidiah and Morse, Sidney Edwards: A New Syatem o f fleo£;ra]3hy. Ancient and > ou er n , 23rd Kd. (Boston, Hiohardaon and Lord, 1822), 7. Willets, Jacob, An Easy Gracmar of Geography , 10th jid, (Philadelphia, P raclete Potter, 1823). 8. dimming i3, ,T,A, An Introduction to Ancient and :.odern Geography , 9th Ed, (Boston, Cunnings and Hilliard, 1823). 9, Worcegtor, .T,.B. Blementa of Oeography, Ancient and Lodern , Stereotype Ed. (Boston, Cumminf^s , Hilliard, and Co,1824), 10, Goodrich, Griswald, A System of School Geography, Chiefly Peri ve d _f r o^ni TAa l t e - Jirxin , Ist iid, (Booton, Carter and Hendee, 1830), 11, Sniley, Thonas F. Th e ancy e lopaedia of Geography ;, lat Ed, (Cincinnati, Ely and Strong, 1839), 12, I'itchftll, 3, Augui'tua, An :ij!eay Introduction into the Study of Geography. 1st Ed, (Philadelphia, Thonaa, Cowperthwait ana Oonipany, 1043), 13, v/oodhridge, William C, Modern School Geography , :ind 3d, (Hartford, Belknap and Hairteraiey, 1845), 14, V^n Waters, George. Th e Poetical Geography , 1st Ed, (Cincinnati, 1B53). 15, flmith, RosTrell, 0. Geography of the Productive Syst em, for Schools, Adadenies and_yamilie^^ (P>'iladelphia, J, B, Lippincott and Company, 1861.) 16, Olney, J. A, A P ractical System of 1 ode rn Geography , 17th Ed, (Hartford, Rohison and Pratt, 1834). -140- 17, Olney, J. \, A Practical and Conplete System o f Geography for School rj . 105th 33d. (Few York, Sheldon and Company, 1866) 18, ^Cornell, 3.S, I nterne diate Geo/rraph y (New York, j), Apple ton and Company, 1865-1869?) 19, Kitchell, n, Aw;;u9tua, A Systeni o f "'To dern Geo(;rap?i[y, (Philadelphia, E. H. Butler and Company, 1869). Ill, Artioles in Educational 'ournals 1, Anon. Sohool-Booka in the United Statea. In American Annals of EduGation edited by J, C, -'oodhridge. Vol. XI, 1B32, p. 375. 2, iVnon, CoTOnon Sduoatioa, Prevalent Defects and Proposed Reicedies, In Americ an .Tounml of Education, Vol. 2, 1827, pp. 159-160. 3, Anon, Beginning to Teach Geography. In Th e O ommon School Journal edited by Horace k'ann. Vol, 4, 184-'!, p. 262, 4, An Ohtserver, Comnon Schools of Connecticut, In American Annals of .liliucation and Ingtpuotion, edited hy ^m, C. Woodhrii.7e, /ol. 3, 1832, pp. ii47-248. 6« Dunn'y School Teacher 'u ¥.e.n\XRl, In Z o nnec 1 1 c ut C oLmo n School .Journal . edited by Henry Barnard, Vol. 2, 1839, p. 32. 6, Fowie, .Villiam. geography. In The Goiiin^n /3chool Journal , edited by William ]?owle. 1852, p. 324. 1, Cornell's Intermediate G eography contains no date of publica- tion. It contains a list of the presidents to Andrew {Jphnson^ It oraita .Johnson's last date, thus, "Andrew Johnson, 1865 ." «141- 7, ^owle, William. r>uggeatian3 as to basing geography lAoaona on clippings from newapupera. In The Common Huhool jJourrjp.l, edited by '/iliittia ''owle. Vol. 11, 1849, pp. 377-379. Vol. 13. 1«51, pp. 133-137,330, 8, TTlll, Thomas, "^he True Order of Studies. In l^arnerd'a Aner i can Journal of itlduoat 1 on . Vol. 7, 1859, p. 2''5. 9, Lettern frori r Toaoher to ro^- Youns Ifernalo l?riend Juet Aljout Oorunencing TO Keep School. In Thfe CoraHOii "ichool Journal, edited by ^Tor?.ce rann. Vol, 3, 1841. aee Index. 10, Kann, ^''oraoe, Geography. In The (jowmon iSohOQl Journal , edited "by Horace liann. Vol. a, 184(*), pp. 33-41, 11, Keriews of" Tfixtbooka. In iV rterioan Jourma of Educ;rtion .^ Vol. 1. Ib26, p. 176. 13, Shattuck, Lemuel. Ir.provemont in our OoKinon Schools, in Ainericiin Annf-la of JWucntion and Inntru ction, V ol. 1, ■ ■■MM ii iM iiMMi n a i w wii 1111 n m m !■■■ p w WM -i»- H Mi > mim ■■» w iw mw ii^i-^Mi^— . - 1830, p. 138, 13, Thayer, Gedeon F. Letters to a ''oung Tpnoher. In Barnardfa An nr ioan Journal of Bduc^.tio n, edited by 'Tenry Barnard. Vol. 8, 1860, p. 84. 14. ^''oodbridi^e, V/illinm. Boston Public Schools. In iXmerioan AKn al B of >■! JUcrAti op and Instruction, edited by v/. C. 1?ffodbridF:e, Vo3.. 4, 1854. P. S58. 11, tyoodbridfce, William. Jilementriry Instruction in Geography. I n AmciTicr^n Annala of :Mucation and IriBtruotion , edited "by ^-Z. 0. voodbridfre. Vol. 4, 1834, pp. 115-116. -14^.- IV, State Peports 1, J?Iagf, A. C. Annua l Report of the Superintendent of Com - mon Schools . ITew York, 1833, 2, Flapg, A, G, Annual H e pjrt of the 3 -perintendent of Co m- mon So hoola. Ke^v York, 1854, 3, Mann, fTorace, Mf th Ann ual ]?_epo rt of the S ecreta ry ^of the Board of Education, Maaaaohuaetts, 1842. (Eoaton, Button and Wentworth, 1S42), 4, Jfann, Horace, Sev enth Annual Report of th e Secratary of th e Bo ar d o^f ^ .^il'^.^?.t.--.^Jl». -"•'^asachuoctts, 1844. (Bontou, Dutton and 'Ventvorth, 1844), 5 • Hep ort o f_ the Su perintendert of CoTrj''.cn Gchools, Connecticut , 1856-1B57, (HewHaven, Carrington and notchkiss, 1057). ®» Report of the Superin t endent of Gonimcn schools, Connecticut , 1859-1860. (Hartford, Dsy and Clark, 186C). 7, Youns S, .Vrinual Report of the Superiatenaent of CQTjr.on School a. I'evT '^'^r'v>, 1845 (Uliariy, Carroll and Cook, 1845), V, City Reports !• Be at on School _R ep or t a , 1845, (jioston, J.^T. Eas churn, 1845). 2» Tvrc Yi t y- T?o u r t h^ iknnual Rep ort ^f the '"r u^teea and Viait ora o / the Common Scho ols of Cincinn ati. (City TJublication, 1853), 3, T/ifchtrcan, Joseph K. Annala of t he Ponton PriBtary Scho ol Gomr. i 1 1 e e , 1 818 -1855. (Boston, Geo. C. Rand and Avery, 1860). -143- VI, Leoturetj Before the Amerio?in Tiintituto of Instruction. 1, Garter, Jaiiiea. On the Bereloptnent of the Intellectual Faoulties and on Teaching Geogrriphy, In P ro see di iig 3 of the American Inv i_ti tute of In3turc t ion,1 850(Bo3ton, TTilliar'd, Hray, Little, and -nikinn, 1831.). 2, l?leniinrt, A. Tho Use of Glol->e3ln Teachinf; "TeoRraphy and AstroroHiy. Ir Proc eeding-; of the American Tmt i tute ^f Ingtru olioM, 13-41. (T?03ton, 1S41). 3, ^'owle, '^illiaK, The Be^t Fethod of Teaching (Teogr^phy I" Pr oceediPc^3 o f t he Atagrican Insti^tjjte of Imbrue" ti on, 18 45. (loaton, Tililam D. Ticknor and Company, 1846). 4>, Oliver, TTenry K, T^ow I Was Educated from Six to fourteen. In l^ro ceodings o f Anier i can Institute of I natructio n, 1871. (Boston, 1872). VII. ?^iscellr.ne::us ■'•• '^^^' . Cincinnati A lirisre c , 1840, 2. De Guiinps, Roper. restplo7.gi.l ^ ^Is Life a nd -Vork . (New York D, Ap'letor and Corrpany, 1892.) 3, Guyot, Arnold. The EPTih and I'an^ fBoflton, Gould, Kendell, f^m^ l.,incoln, 1549), « r -144- aecondary 3ource8 I, Hiatoriea of Kducntion 1, Poeae, Thornaa, PublAc Tgducat iQ n i n the City of New York . (New York, ^'arper and Brotherfj, 1B69>. 2, Carroll, Charlft!*, Publ ic j^Mucotion i n r;ho de It ^lajtd. (Providence, St.vtc T^onrd of Kducrtion, 1918), 3, Coon, Charlea L, The BefrinniuK^ of i^'u biic K ducntiot. iri__ T^o rth C arol i na, _^ A BociutxtintB.r.y -'i t^tory , l?90-ia40 . (Uf-'.leirh, North Carolina ^^iotcricnl Aor5ociation,1908). 4, ■'itzgorald, '"dward A» The iilduontiorRi ViowB and Influence of l)e fitt Clintojfi. (irew York, ?eanh«3r3» Colie/;e, 1911). 5, Hatfiold, ^/illiaei Conrey, ttj story of the jqeflentsry 3ohool Curriculuct i n i.'a n:^achuaettn fr oio 1789 to 191 ,5. ( Ma a t e r ♦ s Thesis, TTnivergity of Ci.icaso, 1919). 6, •'^iatoric a]^ Sket ch ba of the Public iichoola of the F^tate of Ohio. (State Centennial Piducation Corr.Kittee, 1H76). 7, Johnaon, Clifton, Old-Time iJchools ?^nd 3chool Books. (Hew York, The KaoMiilan Coifjpany, 1904 K 8, ''artin, Oeorge v, jftp .J^^vol^^tl ".r. o f the J!. .'x93KC-u.3'.^tta Public S choo l Sygtem . ( ; ew York, ■?. Apple ton and Corpnny, 1894). 9, 7''orri;rether, Colyer. our _Colonial_Carri culura, ir>07-1776, (♦faahington. Capital Puoliahing Con))miy, 1907). 10, Forrirjon, A. J. TItr Beginrjnga of P ublic j Muo»ti o n in ViTf^d", 1776-1860. ('J'iciniyiond, t)h-/4 n -'ottom, 1917). ¥ -145- 11, Pray, Cirl E, Early Education. In The Educational ITl atory of V»'igoorn^iri, edited by Charlea L'oKenny. (Chicago, DelT"ont Company, 191Ji), 12, Randall, Kiunuel S, The Corarr.on School oy litem Of the 3t-^.te of Vow '^ork. (Troy, .Tohn^on and jjevin, Ibbl), 13« Raper, Charles Lee, The Church and Private Schools of No rt h Ca ro lina . (Greensboro, Janes 3. Stone, 1898.) 14, Small, ./r'lter Tlerhert. I'Jarly Ivew y.nrjard ichools . (Boston, Ginn and Co»';pany, 1914). 15, Snrdth, Charles Lee, Ki story of 5duoati?r in llorth Carolina . (Bureau of i'ducation, Oirciil?ir of Inforjuation, :^o. 2, 1888). 16, Steinor, Perrard C, 'Tj story o f >3ducgtiop iv I'gryland . (TJnited 3tRte!- Bureau cf Inforiration, Kc. 2, 1894). 17, Stock^rell, Thoinas B. A History of ru ol i c r3(:uGati3n in Rhode Island, 163 6-1076 . (providence, PrcTidence Press Company, 1876), 18, Summer, T^'finry, Sug /^e'jtions Relative to thfc ?ree School 3y3te-n in . SoutJ-i Car olin a. (Coluv.hip, a. .T. Summer, 1847 ) . 19, Tolman, '^S-lli.'rTn Howe, The '^Ti story of Higher ^■^ducation in Rhode I gla nd _ (-doctor's Thcaia, Johns Fopkins Tfnivcr- sity, 1SQ4). 20, "^atson, Foster. The Beginn ings of the Tej -.c-hix.;;. o f r odern 3ul),iecta in . jni-lau d. (^..oiiJon, Sir I anno Pitman tind Sons, Ltd. 19C9) -146- II, Town Hiatories 1« Caulkins, It'r.'nicea Kanwaring, History of ITorwich, Connecticut, ^om Ita Posseaainn by the Indiana to the Yenr 1866, (Published by the author, 1866). 2, Davis, Churlen Henry ijtc.nely, TTi r:;tory of Wallingford , IferTden, Connectioi'.t and Keriden{/ Connecticut, Pub, by the the author, 1870.) 3, Lane, Samuel A. Tlft^'- Jer-.rs and Over o f Ak r or' and '3un?nit County . (Alcron, Ohio, 1C92, ) 4, Ruttmiber, 13. I^. JJijr't or y o f the ?o-.ni of ITeTrburgh (in !^ew York State), (ilewburgh, rev^f ^'oDc, K.F. Rutterber a.nd Ooi-npany, 185;)}. 5, ^cherf, J, ?"nn.':nf^, ^^i _ctor;y' of •^t:r ^2"-V'^ ^^'"-.^'^ '" ^^'^ Coun try^ (Philadelphia, louic '!. verts eud Corvpany, 1B63), III, ^ticles ill Educatiniial Jour.iuai 1, Barnard, Fenry, Schoolcas They v;t?i-e Sixty Y^.^r^-! aTo, In TTenry Barnard 'o .AKorican .Toarnal of "RMucatx -^r- , Vol. 26, 1876, -pv". 195-196, This is an editorial in which Barnard prj.blishe3 a letter froiTj roah ".'fibster, written in 1840, 2, Farrard, T^enry, Courses of ir.atructio.u in the rri)n?.ry Schools of Cfjrraany. In Bar nard's A'^e rjnp n .Tournal of Edu cr-^tion, Vol. B, pp. 37i"40?;, ConJi«t« largely of f-ro Trt 1^ ^ - - extracts ''prip's and ntowc'D reports vr^ tne ^^russian Schools, 3, Pegtaloas/d - rethods of Elener.ts'^v Instructior. In Barnard* a .^'"-■■j. '-an Tourrrg of lliAccX j. ov.^, 'rol. 7, 1839, p. 684, l47- 4» Peck, Ellen Brainerd, Early Textbooks in Connecticut, In The Conrccticu t I'agaaine , Vol. 4, l(i98, pp. 61-7 2, IV, MiscellareouB 1, IvTcLsuglraiii, Andrew C, A History of the At- er i ca n ITa tion, (Chicar^o, D. Appleton r.nd Go'^rnany, 1913), I BEWARE .' LOSS REPLAC::' -"'^ PRICE OVER " GSNTS Receipt for retur'. given it requests :.. I lllMMimi °'' ^°^'^^^ 021 731 895 6 mi i i ii.:i( ■'■I n,i' I h ■:! '1 I il' m IP;' I 'I' '.mi'^^i iiiiiiii I iiflrafliioiiiaiHiwiinininn