i immum it mt » **m*wr*M m m ii> n *ind>nm*+i l l.i l ii l i li i i il ln i l lllji liw ORATORY AL OF ICULTURE SCHAFER A LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS -9 &&fe THE MACMILLAN COMPANY NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO MACMILLAN & CO., Limited LONDON • BOMBAY • CALCUTTA MELBOURNE THE MACMILLAN CO. OF CANADA, Ltd. TORONTO A LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS BY LELAND E. CALL, M.S. ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SOILS IN THE KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE AND E. G. SCHAFER, M.S. INSTRUCTOR IN FARM CROPS IN THE KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 1912 All rights reserved &\ V COPYRIGHT, 1912, By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published October, 1912. Noruxooti $regg J. 8. Cushing- Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. *? PREFACE As population increases, society is demanding greater efficiency on the part of the producers — the men and women who feed, clothe, and shelter society. This demand can be met only by giving the producers an education that will function in greater social and vocational efficiency. During the last decade there has been an increasing interest in agri- cultural education for the secondary schools. The greatest danger to agriculture as a subject for a course of study in high schools has resulted from attempting to make it conform to the organizing ideas of that kind of education that has for its controlling motive formal discipline, instead of making it strictly vocational. The result is that agri- culture is being taught as a textbook subject in too many of the high schools. This is due largely, no doubt, to the fact that there have been no laboratory and field guides in agri- culture adapted to high schools. The controlling motive in the organization of a course in agriculture should be vo- cational efficiency. The authors of this manual are experts in agriculture. Both of them have spent much time in studying how agri- culture can be adapted to the needs of secondary education. Their training and experience in teaching the subject have admirably fitted them to prepare a workable manual for Vi PREFACE the high schools. I have examined carefully every lesson in the manual and have seen many of them worked out in the laboratory and field, and I am firmly convinced that it meets an urgent need in the high schools to-day. It is scientific, systematic, and, above everything else, it is a workable manual. It can be adapted to the needs of the small and the large high schools. In writing this valuable manual the authors have done credit to themselves and have rendered a great service to the high schools. Edwin L. Holton. Department of Rural Education, Kansas State Agricultural College. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS In the preparation of this manual the authors have used freely every available source of information. They are in- debted to Pres. H. J. Waters, Prof. E. L. Holton, Prof. Albert Dickens, Prof. J. W. Searson, Prof. H. L. Kent, Prof. G. H. Hine, Mr. C. F. Chase, and Mr. W. T. McCampbell, of Kansas State Agriculture College, for suggestions and assistance in the preparation of this manual. They are also indebted to the Animal Husbandry Depart- ment of Purdue University for illustrations Nos. 15, 21, 22, and 23 ; to the Animal Husbandry Department of Kansas State Agricultural College for illustrations Nos. 18 and 20; to the Dairy Department of Kansas State Agricultural Col- lege for illustration No. 19; and to Mr. H. Yuasa for assist- ance in the preparation of drawings. Material taken from other sources has been properly credited where it appears in the manual. vn CONTENTS EXERCISES FOR SEPTEMBER EXEKCI8E PAGE 1. Distribution op Seeds 1 2. A Eield Lesson on the Study of Corn .... 5 3. A Study of Soil Particles ....... 8 4. A Field Lesson in Soils 14 5. The Influence of Vegetation on Soil Temperature . 19 6. A Soil Moisture Study 23 EXERCISES FOR OCTOBER 7. A Soil Moisture Study {Continued) 23 8. The Rise of Capillary Water in Soils .... 30 9. The Percolation of Water in Soils . . . .34 10. The Weight of Soil per Cubic Foot ..... 40 11. Capacity of Soils to hold Moisture 44 12. Soil Drainage 49 13. Soil Mulches , 53 14. The Effect of Undecayed Organic Matter on the Rise of Soil Moisture 59 15. Collecting Material for Starting Plants (Field Lesson). 63 EXERCISES FOR NOVEMBER 16. The Early Development of the Wheat Plant 66 17. The Early Development of the Rye Plant ... 71 18. The Early Development of the Corn Plant ... 75 19. The Corn Kernel 79 ix X CONTENTS EXERCISE PAGE 20. The Ear of Corn 83 21-23. Corn Judging 88 EXERCISES FOR DECEMBER 24. A Study of Shelled Corn 100 25. A Study of the Wheat Head ...... 105 26. A Study of the Rye Head ....... Ill 27-28. A Study of Wheat 116 29. A Study of Rye . . . 121 30. A Study of the Barley Head 124 EXERCISES FOR JANUARY 31. A Study of the Oat Head . 32. A Study of Barley 33. A Study of Oats 34. A Study of the Sorghum Head 35. A Study of Sorghum Seed 36. A Study of Cowpeas or Soy Beans 37. The Capacity of Grain to absorb Moisture 38. Factors affecting the Germination of Seeds 129 133 137 141 144 148 151 154 EXERCISES FOR FEBRUARY 39. A Germination Test of Clover or Grass Seed . . . 159 40. A Study of Grass Seed 162 41. A Study of Alfalfa Seed ....... 165 42. A Study of the Plow ........ 168 43. A Study of the Grain Grader or Fanning Mill . . 171 44. The Corn Grader 175 45. The Corn Planter 178 46. Accuracy of Drop of the Corn Planter .... 182 CONTENTS XI EXERCISES FOR MARCH EXERCISE PAGE 47. Treatment of Seed Oats for Smut 185 48. The Irish Potato 189 49-50. Planning the Home Garden ...... 193 51. Pruning 197 52-53. Babcock Test 200 54. Mixing Sfray Material 205 55. Grafting 209 EXERCISES FOR APRIL 56-57. Germination Test of Seed Corn 213 58. The Early Development of the Barley Plant . . 218 59. The Early Development of the Oat Plant . . . 222 60. Judging Draft Horses 226 61. Judging Light Horses ........ 236 62. Comparative Judging of Horses 244 63. Judging Dairy Cattle 249 EXERCISES FOR MAY 64. Judging Beef Cattle . . . . . ' . . . 257 65. Comparative Judging of Cattle ...... 263 66. Judging Fat Hogs 268 67. Judging Mutton Sheep 274 68-69. Judging a Farm 280 70. Planning the Home Farm .... . . 287 71. The Arrangement of Farm Buildings and Plantings . 291 EXTRA EXERCISES 72. The Geographical Distribution of Corn .... 295 73. The Geographical Distribution of Wheat . . . 299 xii CONTENTS EXERCISE PAGE 74. The Geographical Distribution or Oats . 303 75. The Geographical Distribution of Potatoes . . . 307 76. Tree Identification ........ 311 77. Starting Plants by Cuttings 315 78. Potting Plants 317 79. The Dairy Herd Record 320 80. A Study of the Egg 325 81. A Study of the Rice Head 330 EXTRA FOR ARBOR DAY 82. Tree Planting 334 APPENDIX Section I. Equipment ......... 337 Section II. Suggestions to Teachers ..... 341 ILLUSTRATIONS FIGUEE PAGE 1. A Soil Auger 15 2. A Torsion Balance 24 3. Equipment Suitable for demonstrating Percolation of Water in Soils 35 4. A Soil Mulch Cylinder 54 5. Young Wheat Plants 67 6. A Corn Kernel 79 7. Ears of Corn that approach the Ideal Type . . 89 8. A Head of Wheat and its Parts 106 9. A Head of Rye 112 10. A Head of Six-rowed Barley 125 11. A Head of Oats . 130 12. Root Grafting . 210 13. Cleft Grafting 210 14. A Seed Corn Tester 214 15. A Draft Horse, showing Location of Parts . . 228 16. Rear View of Hind Legs of Horses .... 230 17. Side View of Hind Legs of Horses .... 231 18. A Driving Horse, showing Location of Parts . . 238 19. A Dairy Cow, showing Location of Parts . . 251 20. A Beef Steer, showing Location of Parts . . 259 21. A Fat Hog, showing Location of Parts . . . 269 xiii XIV ILL US TRA TIONS FIGURE PAGE 22-23. A Mutton Sheep, showing Location of Parts . 276 24. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- tion of Corn 298 25. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- tion of Wheat 302 26. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- tion of Oats 306 27. Map of the United States, showing the Distribu- tion of Potatoes 310 28. Section of an Egg 326 29. A Head of Rice 330 A LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE FOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE EXERCISE 1 DISTRIBUTION OF SEEDS Object. — To study natural methods of seed distribution. Explanation. — It is an advantage for plants to have their seeds distributed as widely as possible. There is severe competition among plants for existence. Only a few of the many seeds produced from year to year find favorable conditions for growth. There are four important common methods by which the seeds of plants are distributed : distribution by wind ; distribution by birds ; forceful expulsion from the pod ; distribution by animals other than birds. There are two general kinds of seed transported by the wind. Some have wings, as the ash and maple. Others have feathery pro- jections and float long distances in the air. The dandelion and thistle are examples of these. Seeds of berries and small fruits are often carried long distances by birds. The pulp of the fruit is digested, but the seed is uninjured and may be dropped along fence rows or other places where it may grow. The fleshy part of the fruit is the attraction that favors distribution. B 1 2 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Some seeds produced in pods are thrown out with consider- able violence when the pods burst open. The common pea and locust are examples of this method of distribution. Many seeds, known as burrs, bear small hooks or spines which adhere to the hair of animals and to the clothing of man. Such seeds are sometimes carried long distances before they are removed. The sand burr and cockle burr afford good illustrations of this method of distribution. Directions. — Make a journey into the fields, visiting, if possible, a cultivated field, a pasture, a hillside, a wood lot, a creek bank, and a roadside. Collect as many kinds of seeds as can be found growing in these places. Make a list of the names of the seeds that have been gathered. Record in the accompanying outline form the name, the locality where collected, and the means that the plant uses for dis- tributing its seeds. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT ro ll s i (n O 03 & gj < "o3 'S (« 1=1 73 73 ^ tn 73 O 8 GO O O is CD CD o 4 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 2 A FIELD LESSON ON THE STUDY OF CORN Object. — To observe field conditions that affect yield of corn. Explanation. — There is a wide range in the yield of corn to the acre, not only in different states and counties, but in fields adjacent to each other. Close observation in the field shows that in many case the stand of corn is not good; that is, there are many vacant places, and the corn is unevenly distributed. If corn is planted in drills, — one kernel to the place, — the plants should be from twelve to thirty inches apart in the row. If checkrowed, two to four kernels of corn should be planted to the hill, depending upon the richness of the soil, rainfall, and other climatic conditions, and the variety of corn. The ears on the different stalks vary in size. Some are large and well-shaped, others, commonly known as nubbins, are smaller, and many stalks fail to produce ears at all. It will be easily understood that the number of plants for a given area, the per cent of stalks producing ears, and the size of the ears are all important factors influencing the acre yield. In this exercise one stalk for each twenty-one inches will be considered a perfect stand when drilled, and three stalks to the hill when checkrowed. 5 6 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Equipment. — 1. A hundred-foot tape line. 2. Spring balance. 3. Half bushel basket. Directions. — Go to a neighboring field or patch of corn. Select an area representing the average of the field. Meas- ure off a row one hundreth of an acre in area. (A row 125 feet long and 3| feet wide is one hundreth part of an acre.) Determine the number of stalks that should be in the row if the stand were perfect. Count the number of stalks actually in the row. Count the number of stalks producing ears. Husk and weigh the corn in the row. Count the total number of ears. Determine the average weight of the ears. Record all results in the accompanying outline form. Make the calculations necessary to fill in the form. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 7 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Number of stalks for perfect stand Actual number of stalks Number of ear-producing stalks Weight of corn for the plot Total number of ears Average weight of ears From the above determine the following : The per cent of a perfect stand The per cent of stalk-producing ears The plot yield in bushels The acre yield in bushels . The possible acre yield for a perfect stand, each stalk to produce an average-size ear The possible acre yield for a perfect stand, each stalk to produce a twelve-ounce ear (In reducing pounds to bushels count seventy pounds equivalent to one bushel.) EXERCISE 3 A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES Object. — To study the size, shape, color, and character of the soil particles in different types of soil. Explanation. — The earth is supposed at one time to have been solid rock. The soil that now covers the earth was formed by the breaking up of this rock material. Mixed with the rock material of the soil is a small amount of plant material or organic matter. In the beginning of soil formation the rocks that com- posed the earth were undoubtedly not all of one kind ; some were soft and others were hard. The soft rocks gave way easily to the forces of nature and were soon ground into very small particles. The hard rocks have resisted this action, consequently they have been broken up very slowly, and they form the larger particles of the soil. Some of these particles are so large that they hinder plowing and cultivating. These are called stones. Other particles smaller than these are called gravel, and still smaller particles are called sand. Thus it is possible to take a soil, and, by examining it closely, see that it is made up of a countless number of particles of many different sizes. These particles representing different sizes have been given different names, as follows: 8 A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES 9 1. Stones: particles of soil so large that they interfere with tillage operations. 2. Gravel: particles smaller than stones but larger than one twenty-fifth of an inch in diameter. 3. Coarse sand: one twenty -fifth to one fiftieth of an inch in diameter. 4. Medium sand : one fiftieth to one hundredth of an inch in diameter. 5. Fine sand: one hundredth to one two hundredth of an inch in diameter. 6. Very fine sand: one two-hundredth to one five-hundredth of an inch in diameter. 7. Silt: one five-hundredth to one five-thousandth of an inch in diameter. 8. Clay: one five-thousandth to one two-hundred-fifty- thousandth of an inch in diameter. These different-sized particles of soil are spoken of as soil components or physical soil constituents. All soils do not contain all of these components. Some of the most fertile soils do not contain stones or gravel, yet all of the fertile soils contain the three other constituents, sand, silt, and clay. While all soils contain most of the different soil constit- uents, very few soils contain these constituents in exactly the same amount. One soil will have the sand particles predominating, another soil the silt particles, and a third soil the clay particles. Thus there will be different types of farm soils produced as the amounts of these different soil constituents vary. The leading types of farm soils formed by varying amounts of these different soil constit- uents are given in the following list: 10 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 1. Sandy soils. — Made up chiefly of the soil constituents of the sand size. 2. Clay soils. — Soils that contain over one third clay and a large amount of silt. 3. Loam soils. — Soils made up of about one half sand of the various grades and the other half silt and clay. The soil particles vary in color and shape as well as in size. The color of the soil particles has but little influence on the color of the soil. The color is clue to organic matter and other coloring material found in the soil. Equipment. — 1. Microscope magnifying to low power. 2. Microscope slides. 3. Four large test tubes. 4. A few grams of the following soils : gravel, sand, loam, clay. Directions. — Place a few grains of the gravel on a piece of white paper and examine with reference to color. Estimate the per cent of particles that are white, gray, brown, black. Record your results in the accompanying outline form. Study the shape of the particles and determine the per cent that are angular and rounded. Record your obser- vations. Study the condition of the particles. Are they single or compound? Record the percentage of each. Divide the particles into groups as to size. Record the per cent that are coarse, medium, and fine. Place a few grains of sand on a microscope slide and study under the microscope, making the observations required in studying gravel. Study in the same way the sample of A STUDY OF SOIL PARTICLES ll loam and clay. Record all observations in the outline form. Wet a small amount of each of the soils and compare them as to stickiness; as to feel, whether gritty or smooth when rubbed between the fingers. Record your observa- tions. Examine the different soils as to color. Is the color the same as the color of the largest per cent of the soil particles? Record your observations. Put a small amount of each kind of soil in a test tube, fill the tube two thirds full of water, and shake thoroughly. Set aside and observe the rapidity with which the particles in each soil settle. Which settles the most rapidly? the most slowly? Is there any relation between the size of the particles and the rapidity with which they settle? Record your observations. 12 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE QQ CO w J o H « o H a U « w Ph a 3 ■5 03 o U o 3 O o w J (J 1 Ph O H W U « w Oh a 3 o a a o "Si a Ph H m 02 W o E Ph o H W O M H Ph T3 a o O i-l o Q CC ta J o H (S . «2 H > &H o o >> 5 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 13 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 4 A FIELD LESSON IN SOILS Object. — To study the formation of soils and the effect of location and cultivation upon their depth and value. Explanation. — A soil can usually be separated into three distinct layers : first, the surface soil ; second, the subsur- face ; and third, the subsoil. The surface soil is the top soil and varies in depth with location and manner of forma- tion. It is distinguished from the subsurface soil by color, the subsurface soil being lighter in color. The subsoil lies immediately below the subsurface soil and is also distin- guished from the subsurface soil by having a lighter color. The subsurface soil is intermediate between the soil and subsoil in both location and color. The different layers of the soil differ in texture, that is, in the size of the soil particles. Usually the surface soil has a slightly coarser texture than the subsurface or subsoil. Equipment. — 1. A soil auger. 2. A piece of oilcloth eighteen inches square. Directions. — Go to a near-by field in which there is a hill. Examine the soil on the level land at the top of the hill, on a steep slope, and in the valley at the bottom of the slope. Make an examination of the soil in each place as follows : 14 A FIELD LESSON IN SOILS 15 Select the exact spot to be examined and clear the surface of the ground of grass and other vegetation. Place the auger over the spot to be examined and give it a few turns, forcing it into the ground four or five inches. Remove the auger with the soil. In pulling the auger a slight backward turn will enable the auger to be pulled with greater ease, and prevent the cav- ing in of the soil around the auger hole. Remove the soil from the auger and place it in a pile on the oilcloth provided for the purpose. Repeat this operation, forcing the auger down a few inches at a time until the subsurface is reached. This may be determined by the change in color. Determine the depth of the surface soil by the distance the auger was sunk into the ground at the time the subsur- face soil was struck. Remove a sample of the subsurface soil in the same way that the surface soil was obtained and pile it on the oilcloth by itself. Determine the depth of the subsurface soil. Remove a sample of the subsoil to a depth of three feet. Place the subsoil in a pile on the oilcloth beside the surface and subsurface soil. Examine carefully each layer of soil and record the differ- Fig. 1. — A soil auger made by welding a f-inch gas pipe to a l|-inch wood auger. 16 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE ence in color, texture, stickiness, and amount of moisture and organic matter present. Record your observations in the accompanying outline. Examine the soil on a steep slope and in the valley in the same manner, recording depth of surface, subsurface and subsoil. Also record difference in color, texture, stickiness, and amount of moisture and organic matter present. Record the data in the outline form. Examine the surface soil of an old cultivated field and the surface soil of the adjoining fence row. Make careful notes of any differences observed. QUESTIONS 1. How do you account for the difference in color between the surface, subsurface, and subsoil at the top of the hill? How do you account for the difference in stickiness ? For the difference in amount of organic matter present ? 2. Explain the cause of the difference in depth of the surface soil on the hilltop, the hill slope, and in the valley. 3. Explain the difference in color as found in the three places. 4. Which do you think would grow the better crop, the hillside or the bottom ? Why ? Can you state from your knowledge of crops whether this is generally true ? 5. What differences did you observe between the soil in the cul- tivated field and the soil in the fence row ? How do you account for these differences ? 6. Was the soil all over the cultivated field originally like the soil in the fence row ? What has been the cause of the change brought about by cultivating the soil ? 7. What can the farmer do to make his cultivated land as mellow and black as the soil in the fence row ? 8. What are the uses of humus or organic matter in the soil ? REFERENCES 1. Elements of Agriculture, Warren, pp. 95-96, 109-110. 2. First Principles of Soil Fertility, Vivian, pp. 98-104. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 17 hP-i ,5 a O K c3 ^h -2 ° 3 02 CO © CO S CN O O TO CU CO TO 03 J CO B g +3 m «1 VI CP p p 1 to 7— t m CP P P i o co CP -f-3 p p 1 LO en CP P P 1 O o c ( J D o H a O CP c3 p CD bjO cp > ojO p o O CD PQ %-= c3 -^> CP bJO CP > fcuo P o O CP u PQ p .2 -4-3 cd +3 CP fcfl CP > '? O o CP u PQ p .2 c3 +3 CP bJO CP > bo P o u o CP pq p # o c3 +3 CP bn CP P> bJO p o o 22 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISES 6 AND 7 A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY Object. — To determine the amount of capillary water in a cultivated and in an uncultivated soil. Explanation. — Capillary soil water is the water in the soil that may be used by plants. It is held in the soil as a thin film surrounding the soil particles. It is free to move by the force of capillarity from a moist to a drier portion of the soil. All capillary water evaporates from the soil when it is thoroughly dried in the air. Equipment. — 1. Soil auger 3 feet in length. 2. Six one-quart mason jars. 3. A piece of oilcloth 18 inches square. 4. Twelve tin pie pans 6 inches in diameter. 5. Balances weighing to half a gram. Directions. — Secure a sample of soil from a garden or field where the ground has been kept cultivated all summer, and another sample from the edge of the garden or edge of the field where the ground has not been cultivated, and where the weeds and grass have been allowed to grow. Clear the surface soil of all trash and vegetation, and where the ground has been cultivated, brush back the loosest of the surface soil so that it will not roll down into the auger hole while removing the sample. 23 24 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY 25 Force the auger into the soil by turning until it has en- tered three or four inches. Remove the auger by pulling with a backward twisting motion. This enables the auger to be pulled more easily and prevents the breaking off of the soil around the sample hole. When the auger has been withdrawn, remove the soil to the oilcloth provided for this purpose and transfer it immediately to a quart mason jar. Repeat this operation, forcing the auger into the ground three or four inches at a time, until the sample is secured to a depth of twelve inches. Cap the mason jar tightly and mark with a label that gives the treatment of the soil, its character, and depth, and the date. Place the auger in the hole and move it up and down several times, turning it slightly for the purpose of cleaning the walls of the hole so that the samples of the second and third feet may be removed without coming in contact with the surface soil. Remove the soil loosened in enlarging the hole by sinking the auger just to the depth reached in taking the first foot sample. Discard the soil removed in this operation. Secure a sample of the soil of the second foot (12 to 24 inches) in the same manner as described for the first foot. Care should be taken to remove any surface soil that may adhere to the second foot sample as it is removed from the hole. After the second foot sample has been placed in a mason jar and properly labeled, secure a sample of the third foot (24 to 36 inches) by sinking the auger an additional 12 26 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE inches in the same manner as that described in taking the first and the second foot samples. Samples from at least three holes on both the cultivated and the uncultivated fields should be secured. The soil from each of the three holes for the first foot of the cultivated field should be placed in the same mason jar. A second mason jar should be used for the three samples from the second foot, and a third mason jar for the three samples from the third foot. On the uncultivated field three samples from the first foot should be placed in one mason jar, three samples from the second foot in another jar, and the three samples from the third foot in a third jar. Thus for the two fields six jars will be required, and each jar will contain a composite of three soil samples. See that all jars are properly labeled, and that the tops are screwed on tightly, so that no soil moisture can escape by evaporation. Take the samples into the laboratory and set them aside for the next laboratory period. At the next laboratory period determine the moisture in duplicate for each sample of soil secured. Before the jars are opened to take the samples for the moisture determina- tions, the contents should be thoroughly mixed by shaking. The shaking cannot be done too thoroughly. Number a drying pan to correspond with the sample of soil to be studied. Weigh this pan and record the weight. Weigh into the pan 200 grams of the soil. In the same manner weigh out another 200-gram sample of the same soil as a duplicate. A SOIL MOISTURE STUDY 27 Weigh out two 200-gram lots of each of the other samples to be studied. Spread the soil out over the bottom of the weighing pan in a thin layer and put in some convenient place to dry. After four days drying weigh each sample and record weight. Repeat the drying and weighing each day until a constant weight is obtained. The loss in weight represents the capil- lary water content of the soil. Determine the percentage of capillary moisture computed on the weight of the air-dry soil. Tabulate the results in the accompanying outline. QUESTIONS 1 . Which foot contains the largest amount of water ? 2. Which soil contains the most water, the cultivated or the uncultivated ? 3. Discuss the reasons for the difference in moisture formerly in the two soils. 4. From the moisture determination, figure the number of pounds of water there would be in the acre three feet of soil in the cultiva- ted and uncultivated field, weight of soil the acre foot 3,500,000 pounds. 28 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE w a H 2 ^ S III H W ^ £coQ m 1 . M « ^ Weight of Pan « fc pa i— i oo 05 o i— i rH w o S f 3 .a o T3 rt -g o o o o 0} «(-C CO •a ° ° 2 © o 2* H 6 " Eh w d S o H02 td h So c 4 - 3 D > < 4 1 - c 3 > < 4 1 H i 3 > T C 4 1 -1 ( ( 3 3 3 c 4 c < i t- 3 > 3 3 > ;> 3 c 4 c 4 c s 3 ) 3 > 3 5 3 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 29 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 8 THE RISE OF CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS Object. — To compare the rate of the rise of capillary water in soils of different texture. Explanation. — Capillary water is held in the soil as a thin film surrounding the soil particles. It moves by the force of capillarity from a moist to a drier part of the soil. Capillary water will move upward through the soil if the soil above is drier than the soil below. The height to which capillary water will rise in the soil depends upon the soil texture. In a coarse-grained soil it rises very rapidly, but for only a short distance. In a fine-grained soil it rises slowly, but to a greater height. Capillary water rises in the soil until the force of capillarity is overcome by the force of gravity. Equipment. — 1. Four glass tubes 3 feet long and 1 inch in diameter. 2. A tube rack for holding the tubes. 3. A pan for water in which to immerse the bottom of the tubes. 4. Cheesecloth. 5. String. 6. One-foot rule. 7. Air-dry soil : gravel, sand, loam, and clay. 30 THE RISE OF CAPILLARY WATER IN SOILS 31 Directions. — Tie pieces of cheesecloth over one end of each of the four glass tubes. Fill each tube with a different type of air-dry soil. In filling, the tubes should be placed upon the floor with the end tied with cheesecloth down. The soil may be poured into the tube, using a tin funnel or a paper funnel made from a sheet of paper. Place the tubes in the tube rack in such a manner that the ends are in the pan. When all the tubes are in position, fill the pan with water to a depth of two inches. Take the exact time when the water is added. Make readings of the height to which the water has risen in the soil at the end of 5 minutes, 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 45 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, and 6 days. Record your measurements in the accompanying outline form. QUESTIONS 1. In which soil was the rise of water the most rapid? 2. In which soil was the rise of water the highest ? 3. Is the fact that water can rise from a wetter to a drier soil of any value to growing crops ? When ? 4. Which of the soils used would make the best subsoil ? Why ? 5. What effect would a layer of gravel two feet in thickness in the upper subsoil have upon growing crops in a period of dry weather ? Why ? 32 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 03 Q CD >> S3 Q U5 EQ >> el P ■* > 03 m g CO HI i>i ia a Eh w A P5 Ph w CM o Cm W ft K V o fc « o o J ffl «! Eh 10 . . J o 02 fa , , o l . 2 CD > r-J a >> M c3 c c3 c3 Fh o3 O o QQ 1-3 G STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 33 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 9 THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS Object. — To compare the rate of percolation of water through soils of different texture. Explanation. — The capacity of soils to absorb water that falls as rain depends upon its texture, or the size of the soil particles. A coarse-textured soil absorbs moisture rapidly, but in such a soil the water percolates through it quickly, and thus a large part of the rain that is absorbed is lost from the soil as percolating water. A fine-grained soil absorbs rain water slowly, but holds in the soil a larger portion of the water that is absorbed. An ideal soil is one that is coarse enough to absorb moisture with fair rapidity, yet fine enough to retain a large portion of the moisture absorbed. The condition of the surface of the soil also affects the capacity of a soil to absorb moisture. A soil that is hard and compact at the surface will absorb moisture much more slowly than one that is loose and open. Thus, plowing the ground when it is compact or cultivating it when it is crusted, favors the absorption and percolation of moisture into the soil. Equipment. — 1. Six percolation cylinders with rack and supply tank. 2. Six beakers 400 or 500 c.c. 34 THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS 35 Fig. 3. — Equipment suitable for demonstrating percolation of water in 36 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 3. Graduated cylinders 100 c.c. 4. Cheesecloth. 5. Shears. 6. Eighteen inches rubber tubing }-inch diameter. 7. Three soils: sand, loam, and clay. Directions. — Cut a disk of cheesecloth just large enough to cover the bottom of each tube. Place the cheesecloth in the bottom of each tube. Fill with soil the tubes provided for the purpose within one inch of the overflow pipes. Fill two tubes with sand, two with loam, and two with clay. Place a half-inch layer of gravel on the surface of each to prevent displacement of the soil by running water. Place the tubes in the rack and connect the overflow pipes with short pieces of rubber tubing. Fill the supply tank with water and invert it in place over the soil tubes. The supply tank will maintain a water level automatically. Note the time at which water was applied. Place beakers under each tube to catch the drip water. Note the time at which the water starts to flow from each tube. When the flow becomes constant, which will be ten or fifteen minutes after the flow starts, collect the water which percolates through each soil in fifteen minutes. Measure the water carefully and record the amount in the accompany- ing outline form. Repeat the process of percolation and measurements twice. Record the amount of water percolating for each fifteen- minute period in the outline form. THE PERCOLATION OF WATER IN SOILS 37 QUESTIONS 1. In which soil was percolation the most rapid ? The slowest ? 2. Will a soil that is coarse and sandy absorb rain rapidly? Will it hold the water well ? 3. Which soil would be the best farm soil ? Give your reasons. 4. Would plant roots, earthworms, molds, and other animals help water to percolate in loam and clay soil ? 5. Would alfalfa be a good crop to plant on loam or clay soil to assist percolation ? 38 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT The Percolation of Water in Soils Tube Kind of Soil Time Per- colation Starts Water Percolating in 15 Minutes Number 1st Period 2d Period 3d Period Average 1 Sand 2 Sand 3 Loam 4 Loam 5 Clay 6 Clay STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 39 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 10 THE WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT Object. — To determine the weight of soil per cubic foot. Explanation. — The weight of soil depends upon the weight of the material of which the soil is composed and the amount of open space or pore space in the soil. If a cubic foot of soil contained no pore space and were composed entirely of rock particles, it would weigh a little more than two and one half times as much as a cubic foot of water, or about 165 pounds per cubic foot. A cubic foot of soil never weighs this much. A soil always contains some pore space, and this reduces its weight. A soil also contains some organic matter, and since organic matter is lighter than the rock particles, the more organic matter it contains the less it weighs. Thus the weight of soil per cubic foot varies with its organic matter content and the amount of pore space in the soil. Equipment. — 1. Four soil tubes, like those used in Ex. 9. 2. Cheesecloth. 3. Shears. 4. Torsion balances weighing to half a gram. 5. Four soils: gravel, sand, loam, and clay. 40 THE WEIGHT OF SOIL PER CUBIC FOOT 41 Directions. — Cut disks of cheesecloth to cover the open- ings in the bottom of the tubes. Place the cheesecloth in position in the tubes. Number and weigh the tubes. Record weight in accompanying outline form. Fill the four tubes level full with air-dried gravel, sand, loam, and clay, respectively. Compact the soils in each tube by holding the filled tube three inches above a book and letting the tube drop bottom downward on the book. Compact the contents of each tube by letting it drop from a height of three inches three times. After compacting, again fill the tubes level full and stroke with a straight edge. Weigh and record weight of tube and soil. Empty the tubes, refill with the same soil, and weigh again as a duplicate determination. Record duplicate weighings. Measure the diameter and height of the tubes and com- pute the number of cubic inches of soil contained in each. Calculate the weight of the soil per cubic foot. Calculate the weight of an acre of the different soils to a depth of one foot. Tabulate all weighings and calculations in the following outline form. 42 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Ph o s s o H w o 3 H K O W O o J o 3 o « ►COQ P £ o s a p h ffl j op r > FH & o leg w 43 -^ b£ M fe 5 3 » H 43 ^ MM 43 o 1 » Kind of Soil o T3 O >> a p 1—1 PL, o S * fc PS H ^ Q O g H ^ Q £p;» H oo o Hi PS w H < b O H a O 3 CO Q CO CO < Q m Q m CO CO Q Q o CO 48 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 12 SOIL DRAINAGE Object. — To study the effect of standing water in the soil upon the growth of plants. Explanation. — A plant, to develop properly, must be grown in a soil supplied with both air and water in proper proportions. When the soil contains too much water, all the spaces between the soil particles are filled, and there is no room for air. A plant growing in a soil in this condition will not thrive because its roots will not receive sufficient air. The water must be removed from a saturated soil so that air can enter before crops will grow well. This can best be accomplished by means of tile drainage. Equipment. — 1. Two chemical thermometers. 2. Two one-gallon flower pots. 3. A pound of paraffin. 4. A two-quart saucepan in which to melt paraffin. 5. A one-foot rule. 6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c. 7. A few grains of corn. 8. Loam soil, and a small amount of gravel. Directions. — Melt the paraffin and dip one flower pot so that it is covered with a thin coating of paraffin. Allow the paraffin to cool and solidify slightly. While e 49 50 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE the paraffin is still soft, plug up the hole in the bottom of the pot. Place an inch of gravel in the bottom of the second pot to insure good drainage and see that the hole in the bottom of the pot remains open. Fill both pots to within one inch of the top with loam soil. Add water slowly by means of the graduated measure to the soil in the paraffined pot until it has absorbed all that it will. This will require twenty or thirty minutes. Record the amount of water added. Add the same amount of water to the unparaffined pot, allowing any water that will to escape at the bottom of the pot through the drain. Place the two pots in the window of the laboratory where they will receive sunlight. Let the pots stand two days. At the end of two days plant three grains of corn in each pot at a depth of two inches. Place a thermometer in each pot with the bulb two inches below the surface soil and record the temperature of the soil at the time the corn was planted. Take the temperature every two days for thirty days. Record data in the accom- panying outline form. Add enough water every three days to the pot with good drainage to keep the corn growing well. Add the same amount of water to the poorly drained paraffined pot. Measure the height of growth of plants when temperature of the soil is taken. At the end of thirty days remove the plants from both pots and examine the root growth. SOIL DRAINAGE 51 QUESTIONS 1. In which pot did the plants make the best growth ? 2. How do you account for the difference in growth ? 3. Was there any difference in the color of the plants in the two pots ? How do you account for this difference ? 4. What was the difference in temperature of the soil in the two pots ? How do you account for this difference ? 5. Would this difference in temperature have any effect on the growth of the plants ? 6. In which pot did the roots go the deeper ? Why ? 7. Can a farmer expect the best growth of corn on a field poorly drained ? 8. How can the farmer improve the drainage of a poorly drained field? STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Table for Recording Temperature of Soil and Growth of Plants in Poor and Well Drained Soil Soil Observation Temperature of Soil in Degrees F. Growth of Plants in Inches 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 Well Temperature Drained Plant growth Poorly Temperature Drained Plant growth 52 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 13 SOIL MULCHES Object. — To determine the amount of water that evap- orates from the soil when cultivated at different depths and when covered with different material. Explanation. — A soil mulch is any covering placed upon the soil that prevents the evaporation of moisture. There are two kinds of soil mulches, natural soil mulches and arti- ficial soil mulches. An artificial soil mulch is any material such as straw, sawdust, or stones placed upon the soil to pre- vent evaporation, while a natural soil mulch is the loosened surface of the soil itself produced by cultivation. Natural soil mulches are the most practical because they can usually be produced at the smallest cost. Any implement of culti- vation that leaves the surface soil loose and mellow will produce a good natural soil mulch. Equipment. — 1 . Four evaporation cylinders. 2. A wash pan. 3. A long-bladed knife or spatula. 4. Scales weighing to one quarter of a pound and having a capacity of fifty pounds. 5. A small amount of cut straw. Directions. — Fill the four evaporation cylinders to within one inch of the top with fine air-dried loam soil. Fill the water-supply tubes on the cylinders with water. 53 FlG> 4._a cylinder suitable for demonstrating the effect of mulches on evaporation of water from soils. Made of galvanized iron. Dimensions of cylinder eighteen inches long and four in diameter. The bottom of the cylinder is incased in a water jacket. The water in the jacket enters the soil by means of perforations near the bottom of cylinder. 54 SOIL MULCHES 55 Let the cylinders- stand until the soil appears damp at the surface in all the cylinders. This may require several hours, and it may be necessary to replenish the water in the supply tubes during this period of time. After capillary water appears at the top of the soil on all the cylinders they should be treated as follows : l No. 1. No treatment. No. 2. Cultivated one inch deep. No. 3. Cultivated three inches deep. No. 4. Covered with two inches of cut straw. Cylinders 2 and 3 should be cultivated by removing the soil to the required depth into a wash pan by means of a long-bladed knife. Thoroughly mix the soil and return it in a loose condition to the cylinder. Just sufficient soil should be returned to the cylinder to bring it to within one inch of the surface. Discard any surplus soil. Cylinder 4, on which the cut straw is used as a mulch, should be prepared by removing two inches of the soil and replacing the soil with two inches of finely cut straw. When the mulches are in place, fill the supply tubes to the same level with water. Cork the tubes to prevent evapora- tion. Weigh the cylinders and record the weight in the accompanying outline form. Repeat the weighings each day for six days. Determine the surface area of the cylinders and compute the number of tons of water evaporated per acre in each case during a period of one week. Tabulate your results in the accompanying outline form. 1 The cylinders may be filled at one laboratory period and the mulches placed in the cylinders at the next period. 56 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE QUESTIONS 1. Which was the best mulch? 2. Which depth of cultivation saved the most moisture? 3. Was there any difference in the amount of water evaporated from day to day ? Can you account for this difference ? 4. Does the farmer ever use soil mulches ? When ? 5. How often should the farmer cultivate his fields to keep a good soil mulch ? STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 57 o CO ft c « « k: « H £ W t> « ,00 H > « h^ a Q w H < O > H M w H < h O H ft u *5 cop +3 >> Weight of Cylinder and Soil at Start H « s 5 go Id e3 d 1—1 ^ ft Cultivated 3 inches deep ■S Si 6 C < H W 5 Q . ft ; <5 i— 1 (M co rtn 58 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 14 THE EFFECT OF UNDECAYED ORGANIC MATTER ON THE RISE OF SOIL MOISTURE Object. ' — To study the effect of plowing under undecayed organic matter on the rise of soil moisture. Explanation — Moisture moves from a wetter to a drier portion of the soil by means of capillarity. In order that capillary movement of moisture may take place the soil particles must be in close contact. If the soil particles are not in close contact, capillary movement of moisture cannot take place. When large amounts of barnyard manure or rank growths of green plant material are plowed under in the soil, the soil particles are held apart by this layer of material and the capillary rise of water cannot take place in the surface soil. If a crop is planted on a soil in this condition, it will be unable to secure moisture from the lower soil in its early stages of growth, and if the season is dry, will suffer greatly for water. It is, therefore, undesirable to plow under barnyard manure, straw, or green manure just before plant- ing a crop. If manure is to be used just before planting, it should be applied lightly as a top dressing. Equipment. — 1. Three glass tubes, rack, and pan, like those used in Ex. 8. 2. Cheesecloth. 59 60 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 3. Shears. 4. String. 5. Loam soil. 6. A small amount of green grass. 7. A small amount of manure. Directions. — Tie a piece of cheesecloth over the end of each of the glass tubes. Fill the tubes with soil to a height of twelve inches. In filling, the tubes may be placed on the desk or floor with the end tied with cheesecloth down. Place the tubes in the tube rack in such a manner that the lower ends are in the pan which is to be used later as a container for water. Number the tubes. Treat the tubes as follows : No. 1. Place two inches of green grass cut into small pieces in the tube over the top of the soil and fill the tube to the top with loam soil. No. 2. Place two inches of finely pulverized barnyard manure in the tube over the top of the soil and fill the tube to the top with loam soil. No. 3. Fill with loam soil as a check. When all the tubes are filled and in position, fill the pan with water to a depth of two inches. Take the exact time of adding the water. Make readings of the height to which the water has risen in each tube at the end of 15 minutes, 30 minutes, 1 hour, 1 day, 2 days, 3 days, 4 days, 5 days, and 6 days. Record your measurements in the accompanying outline form. Describe fully the lesson that you have learned from conducting this exercise. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 61 00 S b g K H O w 2 W CO Q 00 p 00 00 Q 00 Q d ^ d § a a -a s-h d a d W d id o o w o Q ►5 O a ci O a O >-3 62 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICLUTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 15 COLLECTING MATERIAL FOR STARTING PLANTS Object. — To collect and store material to be used for grafting and making cuttings. Explanation. — Twigs and branches for grafting and cut- tings must, be collected when they are in a dormant stage. This can usually be best accomplished in the fall soon after the leaves have fallen. They should be stored in a cellar where they will not freeze and where they will remain moist. Equipment. — 1. A sharp knife. 2. A barrel or box for storing cuttings. Directions. — Go into an orchard where the variety of the trees and quality of the apples are known. Collect twigs only from trees that are thrifty and that produce a good quality of apples. Use wood of the previous season's growth. Collect two hundred twigs, ranging in length from four to ten inches. Tie them in bundles of twenty-five each. Label each bundle with the name of the variety. Go into a vineyard and select twigs from grapevines. Col- lect fifty twigs from grapevines that produce a good quality of grapes. These twigs should be from five to ten inches long. Label them with the name of the variety and tie them in bundles of twenty-five each. Go into a wood lot and select twigs from willow or cotton- 63 64 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE wood trees. Collect one hundred twigs of the previous season's growth. Tie them in bundles of twenty-five each. Partly fill the barrel or box with sawdust, sand, or moss. Carefully place the bundles of twigs in the barrel or box and cover completely, filling in with the sawdust, sand, or moss. The material should be moistened and not allowed to dry out. The apple twigs collected in this exercise will be used in Ex. 55 for grafting, and the other material will be used in Ex. 77 for making cuttings. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 65 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 16 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE WHEAT PLANT Object. — To study the germination of the wheat kernel and the early growth and development of the plant. Explanation. — The kernel of wheat incloses a living plant in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of the kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When the kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper condi- tions of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and begins to grow. The food for the young plantlet is furnished by the endosperm. When the kernel of wheat germinates, it sends out three temporary roots. As the plant continues to grow it sends out permanent roots. The depth at which the permanent roots occur depends upon the condition of the soil. If the wheat is seeded at a medium depth, the temporary and per- manent root systems will develop at about the same place. If the wheat is seeded very deeply, the permanent roots will develop above the temporary roots and near the surface of the soil. Equipment. — 1. Plants of wheat one, two, three, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 2. Plants of wheat two and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. 66 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OP THE WHEAT PLANT 67 Directions. — Dig up a number of small wheat plants for this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing the plants from the soil. Remove the dirt which clings to the roots, by wash- ing. Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. Also make a study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. (In determining age of plant count time from date of seed- ing.) Make drawings of the plants at the different stages of growth and at the different depths of seeding indicated. Show in the drawings the three temporary roots which develop first, and in other drawings show the permanent roots which develop somewhat later and are sent out in Fig. 5. — Young wheat plants. A, two days after planting; B, five days after planting; C, three plants the same age planted at dif- ferent depths. 68 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE whorls from the nodes. Show how the distance between the temporary roots and the whorl of permanent roots depends upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants begin to tiller, by sending up new stems. The drawings should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their arrangement. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 69 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 70 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 17 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE RYE PLANT Object. — To study the germination of the rye kernel and the early growth and development of the rye plant. Explanation. — The kernel of rye incloses a living plant in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of the kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When the kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper conditions of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and begins to grow. The food for the young plantlet is furnished by the endosperm. When the kernel of rye germinates, it sends out four tem- porary roots. As the plant continues to grow it sends out permanent roots. The depth at which the permanent roots occur depends upon the condition of the soil. If the rye is seeded at a medium depth, the temporary and per- manent root system will develop at about the same place. If the rye is seeded very deeply, the permanent roots will develop above the temporary roots and near the surface of the soil. Equipment. — 1. Plants of rye one, two, three, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 2. Plants of rye two and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. 71 72 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Directions. — Dig up a number of small rye plants for this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing the plants from the soil. Remove the dirt which clings to the roots, by washing. Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. Also make a study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. (In determining age of plant count time from date of seeding.) Make drawings of the plants at the different stages of growth and at the different depths of seeding indicated. Show in the drawings the four temporary roots which develop first, and in other drawings show the permanent roots which develop somewhat later and are sent out in whorls from the nodes. Show how the distance between the tem- porary roots and the whorl of permanent roots depends upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants begin to tiller, by sending up new stems. The drawings should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their arrangement. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 73 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 74 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 18 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE CORN PLANT Object. — To study the germination of the corn kernel and the early growth and development of the corn plant. Explanation. — The kernel of corn incloses a living plant in the dormant stage. The germ is the living part of the kernel from which the shoot and roots develop. When the kernel or seed is placed in the soil under proper con- ditions of moisture and temperature, it absorbs moisture and begins to grow. The food for the young plantlet is fur- nished by the endosperm until the root system becomes established. When the kernel of corn germinates, it sends out four temporary roots. The largest of the four roots grows directly out from the tip end of the germ. The other three roots grow out where the main root and shoot are attached to the kernel. Just above these three roots a little swelling appears, and from this point the permanent root system develops. The permanent root system develops about the same distance from the surface of the soil regardless of the depth of planting. Equipment. — 1. Corn plants one, two, three, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 75 76 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 2. Corn plants two and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. Directions. — Dig up a number of small corn plants for this study. Be careful not to break the roots in removing the plant from the soil. Remove the dirt which clings to the roots, by washing. Make a study of plants seeded one inch deep, one week old, two weeks old, three weeks old, and four weeks old. Also plants seeded three inches deep two weeks old and four weeks old. (In determining age of plant count time from date of seeding.) Make drawings of the plants at different stages of growth and at the different depths of seeding indicated. Show in the first drawing the four temporary roots which develop first, and in drawings of older plants the permanent root system which develops later. Show how the distance be- tween the temporary roots and the permanent root system depends upon the depth of planting. The drawings should include the root system, stalk, and leaves and their arrangement. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 77 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 78 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 19 THE CORN KERNEL Object. — To make a study of the physical parts of corn kernels. To show the differences in texture in the different parts of the same kernel. To show the location of color in yellow, white, and red kernels of dent corn. Explanation. — There are six distinct types of corn: dent, flint, soft, sweet, pop, and pod. Dent corn is the type most generally grown. There are four distinct parts of the corn kernel. They are the seed coat, aleurone layer, endosperm, and embryo. The seed coat or hull is a thin outer layer covering the entire kernel. It serves as a protection for other parts of the kernel and constitutes about 7 per cent of the kernel. The aleurone layer lies just under the seed coat and serves as a second covering for the kernel. It constitutes about 10 per cent of the corn kernel. The endosperm comprises the greatest part of the corn kernel. It is composed largely of starch and is a source of food supply for the young plant just after 79 Fig - A corn ker- nel, a, crown 6tarch ; b, hull ; c, horny- starch; d, shoot of embryo ; e, germ ; /, root of embryo ; g, tip cup. 80 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE germination. The endosperm is composed of two distinct classes of material : the hard, corneous, and the white, starchy endosperm. About 73 per cent of the entire kernel is endo- sperm. The embryo, also called the germ, is the living part of the corn kernel. It is located near the center and upper side of the kernel. It contains a large percentage of protein and oil. About 10 per cent of the kernel is embryo. Equipment. — 1. A wash basin. 2. Kernels of white, yellow, and red corn. Directions. — Make a drawing showing the germ side of a kernel of corn. Make a drawing of a cross section and a longitudinal section of a kernel of corn. Show in the draw- ings the difference in structure of the different parts of the endosperm. Remove the hulls of white, yellow, and red kernels of dent corn that have been soaked in water for one day. Observe the location of color. Where is the white color located in white corn ? Where is the yellow color located in yellow corn ? Where is the red color located in red corn ? What is the color of the endosperm in red corn ? STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 81 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 82 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 20 THE EAR OF CORN Object. — To make a study in detail of an ear of corn. Explanation. — Ears of corn vary in size, shape, number of rows, number of kernels per ear, and in their general appearance. This variation occurs in different types of corn, in different varieties of corn, and in different ears of corn of the same variety. Equipment. — 1. Two ten-ear samples of corn of different varieties. 2. A foot rule. 3. A yard tape line. 4. A torsion balance, weighing to half a gram. Directions. — Number the ears from one to ten. Use the blank outline below and fill in the following data for the two samples of corn. Record the length and circum- ference of each ear in inches. Record the weight of each ear in grams. Record the number of rows per ear, the number of kernels per row, and the number of kernels for each ear. Record the measurements for each individual ear and the average for the sample. 83 84 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE H O < > < o OS oo t^ co ■o -* co Ol c3 © o '© 03 O CD « H H 3 ejH o bjO CD o B © B CD ft . DD r CD CD O £ • o o u S-i • CD ft . w '© • CD * M ° £S O CD J? Counting seventy pounds to the bushel, how many average ears of the above sample are required for a bushel? STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 85 a « > < © 03 GO o © lO Tf< co CM - « K n g P « o Tt< co CM - R O H Hqq O 10 10 10 O O Ph a • i-H 03 S ,£5 LI 5 wi +2 7) tn O ^ a> 11 g 15 Ph cu> c o-S fl IK *c3 | .2 M ■ . to is £ O Eh £ ^3 I - a Q c3 s - O J ° > fl O 3 O W 96 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 6 < o o GO t^ CO "O ■* CO > .-B \ I 3 "3 C o S * 03 3 ! § 1 , 33 _;, 1 1^ a H s '3 3 33 "3 C & M ■M O 03 a 03 43 en 03 M 03 X! M '3 IB 03 a -a 33 03 bO 73 43 STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 97 o O « o P PS Q H « C u 6 o Ci 00 t^ «o LO Tt< co cn - is O LO lO O O lO c o a E- 1 a S-H a; "o x: a 0> Q o c > .8 5 a S3 .2 M *§ § a S a - o o a • £ .. > flj bo " .. o >> ° .•S S3 (4 o c 4) ■ p "53 ~ a TS 3 0) — s § o-S S3 0) s "E o a, S3 O o gq C h 98 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE g* o O o GO 6 o o» GO t^ CO id ■>* CO CM - E- & o O o l O l O l O»O l OO t ] 1 p 1 5 3 '5 "d o T3 >> o CO M C3 0) *£ T O gc oj c ft >- 03 43 CO a ri CO O 1 o o DO 53 0J O £ 1 M fi 0) Hi o o c* k" 03 "o 03 a 03 a I 1 i 3 * o c : e B ■J c -1- e "o 5 "a; • • CD m "3 0) CO 3 C3 J D M : "0 3 03 fj§ : m ! "3 j£ 3 03 ! & : -a " M 3 T3 3 2 STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 99 o I ct> 00 t^ 6 CD « < W iO tJ< co » T3 fl t3 a cu g S ^ o ~u CO ** CJ CD e.a el cu g O Of "a o a CJ cu CI CU M a o CD CD O ^ CD (0 .2 a .. O o H -C j£ rQ o £? a 3 .13 d p CJ p u c3 a qq o O 1 ° el o p o OQ EXERCISE 24 A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN Object. — To study corn with reference to its quality and commercial grade ; and to become familiar with different classes and grades of corn. Explanation. — Practically two thirds of the corn crop of the United States is produced in eight states: Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, Indiana, Ohio, and Texas. Within these same eight states the live-stock in- dustry has been developed to the greatest extent. While corn is used almost exclusively as a food for live stock, large quantities are sold on the commercial market before reaching final destination. For the proper classification of corn of varying quality it is necessary to have a system of grading. In determining quality it is necessary to consider purity, condition, color, and size of kernels. Equipment. — 1. Four ten to twelve pound samples of corn representing different grades. 2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 3. A balance weighing to a half gram. Directions. — Weigh out fifty grams of corn from one of the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use the out- line form " A Study of Shelled Corn " to record the results of the examination. Classify the sample of corn under ob- 100 A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN 101 servation as yellow, white, or mixed, according to the rules governing the inspection and grading of corn that are in- cluded in this exercise. Record the class name in the col- umn for that sample number for classification. Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a detailed study for each of the divisions given below. Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample into the following groups : corn, other grains, foreign matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and percentage in the blank form in the column of the sample number. Weigh to one half of one gram. Quantities less than one half of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups of the division should total 100 per cent for purity. For the remainder of the determinations in the study of this exercise use twenty-five grams of the corn from which other grain and foreign matter have been removed. Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating this sample into the following groups : sound kernels ; cracked or broken kernels; rotten, decayed, or otherwise injured kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per cent of each group. The total for condition should be 100 per cent. Color. — The predominating colors in corn are white and yellow. Other common colors are red, speckled, and blue. Corn of the latter colors are less likely to be pure in color in large lots, and are usually designated as mixed. Make a study of color by separating the sample into the following groups : white, yellow, and mixed. Weigh and record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for color should be 100 per cent. 102 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups for size : large kernels ; medium-size kernels ; small kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per cent of each group. The total for size should be 100 per cent. Separate from the sample one hundred average-size ker- nels. Weigh them and record their weight. Compare the weight of one hundred average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The weight per bushel may be determined by using the weight-per-bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the sample by pouring the corn in very lightly over the top or side of the tester and without shaking or packing. Draw the bar or straight edge once across the top of the tester so that it will be filled just level with the top. Adjust the tester by moving the weight out on the bar until it just bal- ances. The scale on the bar by the weight indicates the weight per bushel. Record weight per bushel of sample. The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the sample. The grain inspection departments of the various states provide rules for the inspection and grading of corn. The following rules govern the inspection of corn in Kansas : White Corn No. 1. White Corn. — Shall be pure white corn and sweet. No. 2. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white and sweet. No. 3. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white and sweet. A STUDY OF SHELLED CORN 103 No. 4. White Corn. — Shall be fifteen-sixteenths white, but shall include tough, musty, and damaged corn. (Mixed corn and yellow corn have separate rules, but the rules are the same other than color. In yellow, seven- eighths is used instead of fifteen-sixteenths, as in white.) The per cent of moisture contained in corn affects its quality. Corn with a high per cent of moisture is usually tough and is given a lower grade. Corn to grade No. 1 is not allowed to have over 15 per cent of moisture ; to grade No. 2 not over 16 per cent ; to grade No. 3 not over 19 per cent ; to grade No. 4 not over 22 per cent. Make a study of as many samples as the time given per- mits. 104 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Shelled Corn Sample Number 1 2 3 4 Classification Wt. Per Cent wt. Per Cent wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent fCorn .... Purity < Other grains [Foreign matter . 100 100 100 100 'Sound corn . Cracked or broken . . . Rotten, decayed, or injured . . Con- dition 100 = 100 100 100 [White .... Color I Yellow [Other colors . 100 100 100 100 fLarge .... Size < Medium . . . [Small .... 100 100 100 100 Weight size k Weight Commei of 100 average- ernels .... of one bushel *cial grade Date Student's name EXERCISE 25 A STUDY OF THE WHEAT HEAD Object. — To examine the head of wheat and become familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different parts. Explanation. — The head of wheat is commonly called a spike. It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is the most important. The head is composed of a single rachis and several spikelets. The spikelets are attached to the rachis. A fully developed spikelet has two or more kernels, usually only two. There is an outer glume, flowering glume, and a palea for each kernel, except when a third kernel de- velops. The third kernel of a spikelet does not have an outer glume. There is an undeveloped flower for each spikelet. Sometimes the spikelets near the base of the head fail to develop. The two divisions of a spikelet are similar in ar- rangement of parts. There is an outer glume on each side of the spikelet, and they partly inclose the flowering glumes. The uppermost part of the outer glume is called the beak. The notch just below the beak forms the shoulder, and the heavy line running from the beak to the base is called the keel. The flowering glume is just within the outer glume and bears the beard or awn. The kernel is inclosed by the flower- ing glume on the outside and by another husk called the palea 105 106 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE A STUDY OF THE WHEAT HEAD 107 on the inside. The germ of the kernel is at the base and it faces toward the outside. The crease is on the inside next to the palea. The brush end of the kernel extends upward. There is an undeveloped flower between the two divisions of the spikelet. The attachment of the spikelet to the rachis is called the rachilla. Figure 8 shows all the different parts of the spike. Equipment. — Heads of wheat sufficient to supply all members of the class. Directions. — Make two drawings of the entire head of wheat, one showing the side and one showing the edge view. Remove a single well-developed spikelet and make a drawing of it. Draw a single outer glume ; a single flowering glume; and the palea. Make a drawing of the kernel showing the crease side, one showing the germ side, and one showing the cross section. Remove all the spikelets from the head and make a drawing of the rachis. Make all drawings at least four times the natural size except the head and rachis. Make them in careful detail and name all the different parts. Fill out the following description for five average-size heads of wheat. 108 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE U5 -# a < H X ta co O d Z 0> M a CO rd 43 o a CD CD 03 y O 5M 03 -^ S-i a -c ft V -4- a "a a c d a E i ^ c * 1 a ± C3 a C +: ix a 1 c a 6 «4- c s. c C «4_ o > ^H a c CD c t a : 1 c c c CD > > £ £ £ <1 C 5 3 STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 109 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 110 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 26 A STUDY OF THE RYE HEAD Object. — To examine the head of rye and become familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different parts. Explanation. — The head of rye is commonly called a spike. It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is the most important. The head is composed of a single rachis and several spikelets. The spikelets are attached to both sides of the rachis. There are two divisions of the spikelet, each division containing one kernel. There is an outer glume, a flowering glume, and a palea for each kernel. The kernel is inclosed by the flowering glume on the outside and the palea on the inside. The flowering glume does not entirely inclose the kernel, and a small portion of it is exposed. The outer glume is small and does not inclose the flowering glume. The rye kernel is similar to the kernel of wheat, though it is some- what more slender, more pointed at the germ end, and the crease is not so deep. There are only two flowers in a spike- let, and both of them develop. Equipment. — Heads of rye sufficient to supply all the members of the class. Directions. — Make two drawings of the entire head of rye. Make a drawing showing the side view, then turn the head 111 112 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 9. — A, a head of rye; B, a single spikelet ; C, a kernel of rye showing germ side. one fourth way around and make the second drawing. Remove a single well- developed spikelet and make a drawing of it. Draw a single outer glume, a single flowering glume, and the palea. Make a drawing showing the crease side, one showing the germ side, and one showing the cross section of the kernel. Remove all the spikelets from the head and make drawing of the rachis. Make all drawings at least four times their natural size, except those of the head and rachis. Make them in careful detail and name all the different parts. A STUDY OF THE RYE HEAD 113 Fill out the accompanying outline for five average-size heads of rye. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT No. of Head 1 2 3 4 5 Length of head No. of spikelets No. of kernels for the head . . Average no. of kernels for each spikelet Give length of awns .... Give color of glumes .... 114 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 115 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISES 27 AND 28 A STUDY OF WHEAT Object. — To study samples of wheat with reference to their quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar with different classes and grades of wheat. Explanation. — The principal use of wheat is for the pro- duction of flour. Wheats differ in their milling value, de- pending largely upon the quality. In determining quality it is necessary to consider purity, soundness, color, texture, size, and other conditions of the kernel. The student should become familiar with the quality of different classes of wheat, such as hard winter, soft winter, hard spring, durum, etc. Representative samples of different classes and grades of wheat are used in this study. Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of wheat. 2. Type samples of wheat, showing color and class. 3. Balances weighing to one half of one gram. 4. A weight-per-bushel tester. Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of wheat from one of the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use the outline form " A Study of Wheat" to record the results of the examination. Compare the sample of wheat under observa- tion with named type sample for identification. Record the type name in the column for that sample number for classi- fication. 116 A STUDY OF WHEAT 117 Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample into the following groups : wheat of class ; other wheats ; other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and per cent of the sample in the blank form in the column of that sample number. Weigh to one half of one gram. Quantities less than one half gram may be indicated as "trace." All the groups of the division should total 100 per cent for purity. For the remainder of the determinations in this exercise use ten grams of the wheat from which other grains and for- eign matter have been removed. This includes " wheat of class " and " other wheats/' as obtained by the first separa- tion. Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating the kernels of this sample into the following groups : sound ; broken ; shriveled ; sprouted ; heat damaged. Weigh and record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent. Color. — Color in wheat is represented by different colors and shades, as amber, dark amber, yellowish, and white. Kernels subjected to adverse weather conditions are likely to be discolored, and are known as bleached. The kernels should be compared with type samples representing the dif- ferent colors found in wheat. Light amber is represented by durum wheat ; amber by the common hard winter wheats ; dark amber by hard winter wheats of a very dark color; yellowish includes those kernels which are yellow or have yellow sides, and are often found in the hard winter wheats. 118 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE White wheats are represented by the very light colored wheats grown largely on the Pacific coast. Bleached wheat may be kernels of any color which have been badly discolored by adverse weather conditions. Make a study of the color by separating the sample into the following groups : light amber, amber, dark amber, yellow, white, and bleached. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for color should be 100 per cent. Texture. — Texture in wheat may be classed as hard, medium, and soft. Texture is closely associated with color. Amber-colored wheats are usually hard in texture. Wheats that have a tendency to become yellowish are usually of a medium texture. Wheats that are yellow or white are likely to be soft. Texture may also be determined by crushing typical kernels. Make a study of the texture by separating the sample into the following groups : hard, medium, soft. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for tex- ture should be 100 per cent. Size. — Divide the sample into the following groups : large kernels, medium kernels, and small kernels. Weigh and determine per cent of each group. Record weight and per cent in the blank form. The total for size should be 100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh and record weight. Compare the weight of 100 average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The size of kernels differs in different classes of wheat. The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight- per-bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the A STUDY OF WHEAT 119 sample by pouring the wheat in lightly over the top or sides of the tester without shaking or packing. Draw the bar or straightedge once across the top of the tester so that it will be filled just level to the top. Adjust the tester by moving the weight out on the bar until it just balances. The scale on the bar by the weight indicates the weight per bushel. Record weight per bushel of the sample. The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the sample. The grain inspection departments of the various states provide rules for the inspection and grading of wheat. The following rules govern the inspection of hard winter wheat for Kansas : Hard Winter Wheat No. 1. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the dark variety, sound, sweet, dry, plump, and clean, and shall weigh not less than sixty-one pounds to the bushel. No. 2. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the dark variety, sound, sweet, dry, plump, and clean, and shall weigh not less than fifty-nine pounds to the bushel. No. 3. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the dark variety, sound, sweet, dry; some grains may be bleached ; not clean or plump enough for No. 2 ; shall weigh not less than fifty-six pounds to the bushel. No. 4. Dark Hard. — Shall be hard winter wheat of the dark variety, tough, sprouted, or from other causes so badly damaged as to render it unfit for No. 3. Other classes of wheat are graded in a similar manner. Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits. 120 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Wheat Sample Number 1 2 3 4 Classification Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wheat of class . . Purity Other wheat . . Other grains . . Foreign matter . Total . . . 100 100 100 100 Sound kernels . Broken kernels Shriveled kernels Sprouted kernels Heat-damaged ker nels Total . . . 100 100 100 100 Light amber . . Amber .... Dark amber . . Yellowish . . . White .... Bleached . Color Total . . . 100 100 100 100 t Hard (flinty) . . Texture \ Medium . . . 1 Soft (starchy) . Total . . . 100 100 100 100 (• Large .... Size \ Medium . . . i Small .... Total .... 100 100 100 100 Weight of 100 average-size ker- Commercial grade Date Student's Name EXERCISE 29 A STUDY OF RYE Object. — To study samples of rye with reference to their quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar with different grades of rye. Explanation. — Rye is used for the production of flour for bread, for malting purposes, and to some extent for feed for live stock. Rye is not extensively grown in the United States. There are not as many varieties of rye as of wheat. There is a variation in texture and color, but it is not as im- portant as in wheat. There is usually but one class of rye recognized on the commercial market. Different grades of rye are recognized, and the commercial grade given depends upon the quality. The student should become familiar with the different factors that affect the quality of rye. Repre- sentative samples of different grades of rye are used in this study. Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of rye. 2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 3. A balance weighing to one half gram. Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of rye from one of the samples and make a careful study of it. Use the ac- companying outline form "A Study of Rye," to record the results of the examination. 121 122 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sam- ple into the following groups : rye ; other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record the weight and per cent. For the remainder of the determinations in this study use ten grams of rye from which other grains and foreign matter have been removed. Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating the kernels of the sample into the following groups : sound, broken, shriveled ; sprouted ; heat damaged, or otherwise injured. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent. Size. — Separate the sample into kernels of the following groups : large, medium, small. Weigh, and record weight and per cent of each group on the blank form. The total for size should be 100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh and record the weight of the sample on the blank form in the column for that sample number. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight per bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the sample as described in Ex. 27. All samples of rye are placed in the same class for commercial grading and given a commercial grade similar to wheat. Designate the com- mercial grade of the sample. A STUDY OF RYE 123 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Rye Sample Number 1 2 3 4 Classification Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent rRye Purity . 1 Other grains . . v Foreign matter . . Total too 100 100 100 'Sound .... Broken .... Shriveled .... Sprouted .... Heat damaged, or Soundness Total 100 100 100 100 Size . . < Medium .... Umall Total 100 100 100 100 Weight of 100 average-size ker- nels Weight per bushel ..... Commercia grade Date Student's Name EXERCISE 30 A STUDY OF THE BARLEY HEAD Object. — To examine the head of barley and become familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different parts. Explanation. — The head of barley is commonly called a spike. It is made up of several parts, of which the grain is the most important. The head of barley is composed of a single rachis and several spikelets. The spikelets bear the grain and are attached to the rachis. A spikelet of barley is made up of two outer glumes, a flowering glume, a kernel, and palea. The outer glumes are small and awl-shaped and do not inclose the flowering glume as in wheat and oats. The flowering glume bears the beard or awn when present and incloses the greater part of the kernel. The palea incloses the inner side of the kernel. In most barleys the flower- ing glume and palea adhere to the kernel when threshed. Some varieties of barley, however, are hull-less. In hull-less barleys the flowering glume and palea do not adhere to the kernel. The germ is at the base of the kernel, as in wheat, and faces outward. The crease is on the inside next to the palea. There are both two-rowed and six-rowed barleys. In the six-rowed barleys the spikelets develop in groups of 124 A STUDY OF THE BARLEY HEAD 125 three on opposite sides of the rachis. In two-rowed barleys there is a single row of spikelets on each side of the rachis. There is an undeveloped spikelet on either side of the devel- oped spikelet. Each de- veloped spikelet contains but one kernel of barley. Figure 10 shows the differ- ent parts of the barley spike. Equipment. — Heads of barley for each member of the class. Directions. — Make" two drawings of the entire head of a six-rowed barley, one showing the side and one showing the edge view. Make a drawing of a group of three spikelets. Make a drawing of a single spike- let, showing the flowering and outer glume. Make drawings of the kernel, one showing the germ side and one showing the cross sec- tion. Remove all the spikelets and make a draw- ing of the rachis. Make all drawings at least four times the natural size, except the head and rachis. Make them in careful detail and name all the different parts. Fig. 10. — A, a head of six-rowed barley ; B, a single spikelet of barley ; C, a kernel of barley with glumes and palea removed. 126 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Fill out the following description for four heads of barley Number of Head l 2 3 4 Kind of barley Length of head Number of kernels the head .... Length of awns if present STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 127 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 128 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 31 A STUDY OF THE OAT HEAD Object. — To examine the oat head and become familiar with the shape and arrangement of its different parts. Explanation. — The head of oats is commonly called a panicle. It is made up of several parts, of which the oat grain is the most important. The head is composed of a branching stem and spikelets containing the grain. The branches of the panicle are attached in groups to the main stem. The spikelets are attached to these branches. Each spikelet has two or more kernels, usually only two. Each kernel is inclosed within a flowering glume and palea. The kernel, together with the flowering glume and palea, is known as the grain, and is inclosed within the outer glume. When the oat grain has an awn or beard, it grows out from the back of the flowering glume. A sterile flower often de- velops near the base of the second kernel. The flowering glume and palea adhere tightly to the kernel and are not removed by threshing. One kernel is a little larger than the other. The smaller kernel develops near the base of the larger kernel and is sometimes almost inclosed within the flowering glume of the larger kernel. Figure 11 shows the parts of the oat panicle. k 129 130 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Equipment. — Heads of oats for each member of the class. Directions. — Make a drawing of the entire head of oats, showing the arrangement of the spikelets. Remove a single well-developed spikelet and make a drawing of it. Draw a single outer glume, a single flowering glume, and the palea. Fig. 11. — A, a head of oats; B, a single spikelet; C, the oat kernel with glumes and palea removed, showing the germ side. Make a drawing of the kernel, showing the crease side, one showing the germ side, and one showing the cross section. Make all the drawings at least four times the natural size, except the one of the panicle. Make them in careful detail and name the different parts. A STUDY OF THE OAT HEAD 131 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 132 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 32 A STUDY OF BARLEY Object. — To study samples of barley with reference to their quality and commercial grade ; and to become familiar with different classes and grades of barley. Explanation. — A large amount of barley is used as a grain feed for live stock on farms where it is produced. Approximately one half of the barley produced is sold on the commercial market, where it is finally used either for brewing or feeding purposes. The value of barley depends largely upon the quality of the grain. In determining quality it is necessary to consider purity, soundness, color, texture, size, and other conditions of the grain. The student should become familiar with different classes and grades of barley. Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of barley. 2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 3. A balance weighing to one half of one gram. Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of barley from one of the samples, and make a detailed study of it. Use the outline form "A Study of Barley" to record the results of the examination. Compare the sample of barley under observation with named type samples for identification. Record type name in the column for that sample number for classification. 133 134 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample into the following groups : barley of class ; other barleys ; other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record the weight and per cent of the sample in the blank form in the column of the sample number. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups of the division should total 100 per cent for purity. For the remainder of the determinations in this study use ten grams of the barley from which other grains and foreign matter have been removed. This includes " barley of class " and " other barleys," as obtained by the first separation. Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating the sample into the following groups : sound kernels ; broken kernels ; shriveled kernels ; sprouted kernels ; other damaged kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per cent of each group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent. Color. — The color of barley may be inj ured by adverse weather conditions during harvesting. A bright light color is desirable. Make a study of color by separating the sample into the following groups : good color ; slightly bleached ; discolored. Weigh and record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for color should be 100 per cent. Texture. — Texture in barley may be classed as hard and soft. The barleys of hard texture are more vitreous and contain a higher per cent of protein than others. The A STUDY OF BARLEY 135 barleys that are soft are usually higher in starch content. Crush typical kernels and observe their hardness. Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups for size : large, medium, small. Weigh and record the per cent of each group. The total for size should be 100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh them and record their weight. Compare the weight of 100 average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The size of kernels differs in different classes of barley. The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight-per- bushel tester. Determine the weight per bushel of the sample. The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing factors, and a grade is given according to the quality of the sample. The grain inspection departments of the various states provide rules for the inspection and grading of barley. The following rules govern the inspection of barley in Kansas : Barley No. 1. Barley. — Shall be sound, bright, sweet, clean, and free from other grain. No. 2. Barley. — Shall be sound, dry, and of good color. No. 3. Barley. — Shall include shrunken, stained, dry barley, unfit to grade No. 2. No. 4. Barley. — Shall include tough, musty, dirty barley. Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits. 136 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Barley Sample Number 1 2 3 4 Classification Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent ' Barley of class . . Other barleys . . Other grains . . . l Foreign matter . . Total .... Sound kernels . . Broken kernels . . Shriveled kernels Sprouted kernels Purity . 100 100 100 100 Total .... 100 100 100 100 Color . . Slightly bleached Total .... 100 100 100 100 Large Medium .... Small Total .... Size . ■ 100 100 100 100 Weight of 100 average-size kernels Weight of one bushel .... Commercial trrade Date Student's Name EXERCISE 33 A STUDY OF OATS Object. — To study samples of oats with reference to their quality and commercial grade, and to become familiar with different classes and grades of oats. Explanation. — A large proportion of the oats produced in the United States is used as grain for live stock on farms where grown. Some oats is sold on the commercial market, a part of it being used for cereal foods and for feeding purposes. The value of oats depends largely upon the quality of the grain. In determining value it is necessary to con- sider purity, soundness, color, size, and other conditions of the grain. The student should become familiar with dif- ferent classes and grades of oats. Equipment. — 1. Four ten-pound samples of oats. 2. Weight-per-bushel tester. 3. Balance weighing to one half gram. 4. Named type sample of oats. Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of oats from one of the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the accompanying outline form " A Study of Oats" to record the results of the examination. Compare the sample of oats under observation with named type samples for identifica- tion. Record the type name in the column for that sample 137 138 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE number under classification in the accompanying outline form. Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a detailed study of each of the divisions given below : Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample into the following groups : oats of class ; other oats ; other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record the weight and per cent of the sample in the blank form in the column of that sample number. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups of the division should total 100 per cent for purity. For the remaining determinations in this study use ten grams of the oats from which other grains and foreign matter have been removed. Soundness. — Make a study of soundness by separating this sample into the following groups : sound kernels ; in- jured kernels. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent of each group. The total for soundness should be 100 per cent. Color. — There is considerable variation in the color of oats, as white, yellowish, brownish, red, and black. Oats is sometimes discolored by adverse weather conditions, and the original color is obscure. Separate the sample into the different colors named above. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent in each group. The total for color should be 100 per cent. Size. — Separate the sample into the following groups for size : large, medium, small. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent of each group. The total for size should be 100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average-size kernels. Weigh A STUDY OF OATS 139 them and record their weight. Compare the weight of 100 average-size kernels in the different samples studied. The size of kernels differs in the different classes of oats. The weight per bushel is determined by using the weight- per-bushel tester, as has been described in Ex. 27. Deter- mine the weight per bushel of the sample. The commercial grade is determined by the foregoing factors, and the grade is given according to the quality of the sample. The grain inspection department of the various states provide rules for the grading of oats. The following rules govern the inspection and grading of white oats in Kansas : No. 1. White Oats. — Shall be pure white oats, dry, sweet, sound, clean, and free from other grain. No. 2. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, sound, dry, and contain not more than 1 per cent each of dirt and foreign matter or 3 per cent of other grain. No. 3. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, sound, dry, and not more than 3 per cent of dirt or foreign matter nor 5 per cent of other grain. No. 4. White Oats. — Shall be seven-eighths white, tough, musty, or from any cause unfit for No. 3. Make a study of as many other samples as the time permits. 140 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Oats Sample Number 1 2 3 4 Classification Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent 'Oats of class . . Other oats . . . Other grains . . Purity. . i Total . . . . 100 100 100 100 f Sound kernels . . Soundness 4 I Injured kernels Total . . . . 100 100 100 100 White Yellowish . . . Brownish .... Red Black Color . . • Total . . . . 100 100 100 100 Large Medium .... .Small Size . . < Total .... 100 100 100 100 Weight of 100 average-size ker- nels Weight per bushel Commercial grade .... Date Student's Name EXERCISE 34 THE SORGHUM HEAD Object. — To study the shape and structure of the sorghum head. Explanation. — Sorghum resembles corn somewhat in its method of growth, but unlike corn the seed is produced in heads on the top of the plants. The heads of different types of sorghum vary in shape and appearance. Some are oval and compact ; some are long and compact ; and others are open and branching. The variety or kind of sorghum is most easily determined by a study of the head characters. The head of sorghum is called a panicle. Equipment. — Typical heads of at least three types of sorghum, one each of kafir, milo, and a sweet sorghum for each member of the class. Directions. — Make an outline drawing of a typical head of kafir. Split the head longitudinally through the center, so that the method of branching may be more easily observed. Study the branches of the panicle and their arrangement and make a drawing of the panicle. Make a similar study and drawings of the head of milo and of the head of sweet sorghums. Fill in the detail of these drawings as far as time permits. 141 142 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 143 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 35 A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED Object. — To study the purity and worth of sorghum seed. Explanation. — There are two general classes of sorghum, saccharine and nonsaccharine. Saccharine sorghum is used extensively for forage and for the production of sorghum sirup. The seed of saccharine sorghum has a bitter taste and is not generally used as feed for live stock. However, it has a commercial value as it is used extensively for planting. The nonsaccharine sorghums are used extensively for forage and their seed is used for feed. Sorghum seed is more easily injured in handling than most of the other small grain cereals. The kernels crack easily in threshing, and their vitality is often reduced by improper storing. Sorghum seed of different varieties is often some- what mixed. Equipment. — 1. Four ten to twelve pound samples of sorghum seed representing the different types of sorghum. 2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 3. A balance weighing to one half gram. 4. Type samples of sorghum seed. Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of sorghum seed from one of the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the outline form " A Study of Sorghum Seed " to record 144 A STUDY OF SORGHUM SEED 145 the results of the examination. Compare the sample under observation with named type samples for identification. Record the name in the column of that sample number for classification. Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a detailed study of each of the divisions given below. Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample into the following groups : sorghum of class ; other sorghums ; other grains ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column of that sample number. Weigh accurately to one half of one gram. Quantities less than one half of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups of this division should total 100 per cent for purity. For the remainder of the determinations in the study of this exercise use ten grams of sorghum seed which have been separated from other grains and foreign matter. Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating the ten-grams sample into the following group : sound kernels ; cracked or broken kernels ; rotten, decayed, or otherwise injured kernels. Weigh and record the weight and per cent of each group. The total for condition should be 100 per cent. Color. — The color of sorghum seed depends largely upon the type and variety. In a pure variety there should be little variation in color. Make a study of color by separat- ing the sample into the following groups : white, yellow, red, brown, and tan. Use named type samples of color in deter- mining color of sample. Weigh and record the weight and per cent of each color. The total for color should be 146 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average- size sound kernels. Weigh them and record their weight. Determine weight per bushel of sample as described in Ex. 27. Record the weight per bushel on blank form. From the data recorded on blank form, compute the per cent of the sample that is sound seed. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 147 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Sorghum Seed Sample Number 1 2 3 4 Classification Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Sorghum of class Other sorghum . . Other grains . . . , Foreign matter . . Total Purity . 100 100 100 100 1 Cracked or broken . Rotten, decayed, in- Condition Total 100 100 100 100 [ White . yellow . Red . . Color . Brown . Tan . . . Total . 100 100 100 100 Weight of 100 average-size ker- nels Percentage of termination . . Weight per Per cent of Date Student's Name EXERCISE 36 A STUDY OF COWPEAS* Object. — To study the purity, condition, and worth of cowpea seed. Explanation. — Cowpeas make nutritious feed for live stock, but the value of the seed is greater for planting than for feed. The seed is seldom used for feed unless it is badly cracked or broken. Cowpeas are very easily broken by threshing, and commercial samples usually contain broken seed. The worth of cowpea seed depends largely upon its purity and condition. Equipment. — 1. Two five to six pound samples repre- senting different types of cowpeas. 2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 3. A balance weighing to one half of one gram. 4. Type samples of cowpea seed. Directions. — Weigh out twenty grams of cowpeas from one of the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the outline form " A Study of Cowpeas " to record the results of the examination. Compare the sample under observation with named type samples for identification. Record the name in the column of that sample number for classification. * If soy beans are more commonly grown in your community than cowpeas, substitute soy beans for cowpeas in this exercise. 148 A STUDY OF COWPEAS 149 Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a detailed study of it for each of the divisions given below. Purity. — Make a study of purity by separating the sample into the following groups : cowpeas of variety class ; cow- peas of other varieties ; other seeds ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column of that sample number. Weigh ac- curately to one half of one gram. Quantities less than one half of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups for this division should total 100 per cent for purity. For the remainder of the determinations of this study use ten grams of cowpea seed which has been separated from other grain and foreign matter. Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating the ten-gram sample into the following groups : sound seed ; cracked or broken seed ; moldy and otherwise injured seed. Weigh, and record the weight and per cent of each group. The total for condition should be 100 per cent. Color. — The color of cowpea seed depends largely upon the type and variety. There is little variation in color in a pure variety. Make a study of color by separating the sample into the following groups : white, light brown, dark brown, mottled, gray, black, white with black eye. Use named type samples of color in determining color of sample. Weigh, and record weight and per cent of each color. The total for color should be 100 per cent. Separate from the sample 100 average-size seeds. Weigh, and record their weight. Determine the weight per bushel of sample as described in Ex. 27. Record all data on blank form. 150 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Cowpeas Sample Number Classification 1 2 Weight Per Cent Weight Per Cent Cowpeas of variety class . C«vpeas of other varieties Other seeds Foreign matter Purity . Total 100 100 Sound seeds Broken seeds Moldy and otherwise injured seeds Total ' White Light brown to tan . . . Dark brown Mottled gray Black White with black eye . . Total Condition ■ 100 100 Color . . 1 100 100 Weight of 100 average-size seeds of class Weight per bushel - Date Student's N; EXERCISE 37 THE CAPACITY OF GRAIN TO ABSORB MOISTURE Object. — To determine the amount of moisture that corn and other grains will absorb when submerged in water; also the rate at which such absorption takes place. Explanation. — The outside covering of the corn kernel and other grains is called the hull. It presents a smooth and somewhat glossy surface. The hull serves as a pro- tection for the main portion of the kernel. Because of its smooth surface it is not likely to adhere to other material or absorb moisture readily from the atmosphere. When placed in water or damp earth, it immediately absorbs moisture. It is necessary for the kernel to absorb mois- ture before it will germinate. Equipment. — 1. Four washpans. 2. A balance weighing accurately to one half of one gram. 3. A large blotter. 4. A small sample each of dent corn, sweet corn, wheat, and beans. Directions. — Weigh out twenty-five grams each of dent corn, sweet corn, wheat, and beans. Place each sample in a washpan and pour in enough water to submerge the grain completely. Weigh each sample after it has soaked for 30 minutes, 1 hour, 2 hours, 1 day, and 2 days, respectively, 151 152 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE and record the weights on the accompanying outline form. Before weighing, drain the water off and place the grain on the blotter for a few seconds to absorb excess moisture clinging to it. After each weighing replace sample in wash- pan and again submerge in water. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 153 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Table for Recording the Moisture absorbed by Different Grains Kind of Grain 1st Weight Weight after 30 Min. Weight after 1 Hr. Weight after 2 Hrs. Weight AFTER 1 Day Weight AFTER 2 Days Dent corn . . 25 gms. Sweet corn . . 25 gms. Wheat .... 25 gms. Beans .... 25 gms. EXERCISE 38 FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS Object. — To study the factors affecting the germination of seeds. Explanation. — In order that a seed may grow it must be supplied with the proper amount of moisture, air, and heat. It is well known that seeds will not germinate if planted when the soil is too cold. The proper temperature for seeds to grow varies with the seed of different plants. Some seed, like oats and clover, will germinate when the soil is very cool, while other seeds, like pumpkin and tomato, require much higher temperatures for germinating. A temperature of 70° to 80° F. is sufficiently high to germinate the seeds of most farm crops. Seeds will not germinate unless supplied with moisture in proper amounts. If the soil is too dry, the seeds will not germinate, while if it is too wet, the soil is often too cool for germination to take place. Oxygen or air is also necessary for germination. Seeds will not germinate well when the soil is badly crusted because they do not receive sufficient air. Equipment. — 1. Six washpans. 2. A stick with blunt end for compacting the soil. 3. Two soils, sand and clay. 154 FACTORS AFFECTING THE GERMINATION OF SEEDS 155 4. One hundred and twenty kernels of corn of uniform size and known to be of strong vitality. 5. Balances weighing to one half gram. 6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c. Directions. — Number the washpans from one to six. Put into the first three pans equal amounts by weight of air- dry sand and into the last three equal amounts by weight of air-dry clay. The pans should be about two thirds full. Add^ water slowly by measure to one pan containing sand until the soil, when thoroughly mixed, appears to contain the proper moisture content for the best growth of seeds. Add the same quantity of water to the second and third pan, mixing it well with the soil. In the same way determine the proper amount of water to add to the clay soil for the best growth of plants. Make up all three pans containing clay to the same moisture content. Smooth the surface of the soil in all the pans and plant twenty kernels of corn in each pan. Plant the kernels at a depth of one inch. Treat the pans as follows : 1. Sand. No treatment. Set in a warm place to ger- minate. 2. Sand. Thoroughly saturate with water. Set in a warm place to germinate. 3. Sand. No treatment. Place where the temperature is cool, but not cold enough to freeze. 4. Clay. No treatment. Set in a warm place to ger- minate. 156 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 5. Clay. Thoroughly pack the surface of the soil by compacting. Set in a warm place to germinate. 6. Clay. Thoroughly pack the surface of the soil by compacting and thoroughly saturate the soil. Set in a warm place to germinate. It will usually be sufficiently warm behind the stove or in the furnace room of the school building to maintain the proper temperature for germination. Pans 1, 3, 4, and 5 should be watered to maintain the proper moisture for the best growth of the seeds. Pans 2 and 6 should be wet until water just stands on the surface and should be maintained in this condition by adding additional water each day. Examine the pans each day for two weeks and count the number of seeds that have germinated. Record your count in the following outline form. Dis- cuss fully the cause for the difference in germination observed. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 157 Eh QQ n « H o PL, H fe « o & A o £ «l no § W M Eh O o fc a c73 H Eh o ft fc W M Q O & u H « c£ o w pq > >, o a a a 03 03 02 OQ u O o 9°* - CM co 1 lO CO II 158 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 39 A GERMINATION TEST OF CLOVER OR GRASS SEED Object. — To test the vitality of clover or grass seed. Explanation. — There are many factors affecting the quality of seed, and many commercial samples of clover and grass seed are low in vitality. The vitality of these seeds is more easily injured than the vitality of the seed of the common cereals. It is essential, therefore, before sowing clover or grass seed to make a germination test to determine its vitality. In making germination tests the seeds should be kept moist and at a proper growing temperature. The most fa- vorable temperature differs with different seeds. The clovers should germinate well at 60° to 80° F. Equipment. — 1. A pound of red clover seed. 2. Two paper plates or pieces of blotting paper for each student. 3. A pair of forceps for each student. Directions. — Count out 100 sound seeds. Place them between the paper plates or blotters, and moisten well. Keep at a temperature of 60° to 80° F. Examine the seed at the end of four days. Count and record the number of 159 160 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE seeds that have produced sprouts. Carefully remove the sprouted seeds so that they will not interfere with later countings. Count and remove the additional seeds that germinate each second day for eight days. Record data in the outline form. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 161 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Record of Germination Name of Sample No. OF Seedb in Sample Number of Seeds Sprouted Total Per Cent of Seeds Sprouted 4 Days 6 Days 8 Days 10 Days 12 Days EXERCISE 40 A STUDY OF GRASS SEED Object. — To study the purity and worth of grass seed. Explanation. — The perennial grasses include such grasses as timothy, Kentucky bluegrass, orchard grass, brome grass, and redtop. The seeds of different kinds of perennial grasses are not as generally known as are the seeds of cereal grains. They are not produced in such large quantities, commercial samples often contain seeds of other grasses, weed seeds, and foreign matter, and their vitality is often low because of unfavorable conditions during harvesting and storing. To insure good results in seeding grasses it is essential that the seed be free from other seed and foreign matter, and that its vitality be reasonably strong. Equipment. — 1. A one-pound sample of timothy seed or other grass such as has been named under explanation. 2. A balance weighing to one tenth of one gram. 3. A pair of forceps. 4. A hand lens. 5. Type sample of grasses. Directions. — Weigh out two grams of grass seed from the samples and make a detailed study of it. Use the outline form " A Study of Grass Seed " to record the results of the 162 A STUDY OF GRASS SEED 163 examination. Record the name of the grass in the column of that sample number for classification. Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a study of it for purity. Separate the sample into the follow- ing groups : grass seed true to name ; seed of other grasses ; weed seeds ; foreign matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column for that sample number. Weigh accurately to one tenth of one gram. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups under purity should total 100 per cent. Separate from the sample one hundred seeds true to name and make a germination test as described in Ex. 39. Record the data of the germination test in Ex. 39. Record the per cent of germination on the blank form. From the data recorded on the blank form compute the per cent of the sample that will grow and that is true to name. 164 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Grass Seed Sample Number 1 2 3 4 Classification Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Wt. Per Cent Seed true to name . Grass seed of other classes Weed seeds Foreign matter .... Total 100 100 100 100 Per cent of germination . Per cent of seed of sample that will grow . . . Date Student's Name EXERCISE 41 A STUDY OF ALFALFA SEED Object. — To study the purity and worth of alfalfa seed. Explanation. — Alfalfa is more likely to be adulterated with other material than the seed of cereals. Very often samples of alfalfa contain seed of obnoxious weeds, im- mature alfalfa seed, and trash. Such samples are of an inferior quality, and the man who procures alfalfa seed should guard against such impurities. To insure good re- sults in seeding alfalfa, it is essential that the seed be free from other seeds and foreign matter and that its vitality be reasonably strong. Equipment. — 1. A one-pound sample of alfalfa seed. 2. A balance weighing to one tenth of one gram. 3. A pair of forceps. 4. A hand lens. Directions. — Weigh out two grams of alfalfa seed from the sample and make a detailed study of it. Use the out- line form "A Study of Alfalfa Seed" to record the results of the examination. Record the sample, name, and source of the seed at the top of the vertical column for classification. Spread the sample out on a blank piece of paper and make a study of it for purity. Separate the sample into the follow- ing groups : sound alfalfa seed ; broken and immature alfalfa seed ; seed of clover and grasses ; weed seeds ; foreign 165 166 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE matter. Weigh each group and record its weight and per cent on the blank form in the column for that sample number. Weigh accurately to one tenth of one gram. Quantities less than one tenth of one gram may be indicated as " trace." All the groups of the sample should total 100 per cent. Separate from the sample one hundred sound seeds and make a germination test as described in Ex. 39. Record the data of the germination test in Ex. 39. Record the per cent of germination on the blank form. From the data recorded on the blank form compute the per cent of the sample that will grow and that is true to name. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 167 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of Alfalfa Seed Sample Number Classification i 2 Weight Per Cent Weight Per Cent Sound alfalfa seed Broken and immature alfalfa seed . . . Seed of clover and grasses Weed seeds Foreign matter Per cent of germination Per cent of seed of sample that will grow Date Student's Name. EXERCISE 42 A STUDY OF THE PLOW Object. — To study the structure of the plow and to be- come familiar with the different parts and their purpose. Explanation. — The plow is the most generally used of all farm implements. The purpose of the plow is to invert and pulverize the soil and to turn under weeds and other vegetation. Its construction is not complex, and when prop- erly adjusted, it is easy to operate. If improperly adjusted, the plow is often difficult to operate, and it does an inferior grade of work. The principal parts of a plow are the share, landside, and the moldboard. Equipment. — 1. A walking plow. 2. A riding plow. 3. A three-foot rule. 4. A three-foot tape. Directions. — Make the necessary measurements and ob- servations to answer the following questions. Record answers in the following outline form : 168 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 169 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Walking Plow 1. Give name of plow. 2. Give the manufacturer's name. 3. Give location of manufacturer. 4. Is the plow a stubble, sod, or landside plow ? 5. Give size of plow. 6. Measure and record distance from point of share to center of hitch. 7. Measure and record distance from floor to highest point under beam. (Clearance.) 8. Measure and record distance from point of share to point on plow just below end of beam. 9. Measure and record distance that the end of beam extends outside of the line of the landside. 10. Why is the plow made with the end of the beam extending outside of the line of the landside ? 11. Measure and record the suction of the plow. 12. What is the purpose of the suction of the plow ? 13. What is the purpose of the high polish on the moldboard ? 170 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 14. How should the moldboard be protected when not in use so as to retain this high polish ? Riding Plow 1. Give the name of plow. 2. Give the manufacturer's name. 3. Give location of manufacturer. 4. Is the plow a single or a gang plow? 5. Give the size of plow. 6. Is the plow drawn from the beam or the frame ? 7. Has the plow a foot lift ? 8. Have the wheels hard oilers ? 9. Are the wheels difficult to oil ? 10. Place a straightedge along landside and measure and record distance from this line to furrow wheel. 11. Measure and record the height of hitch above plow with plow resting on the floor. EXERCISE 43 A STUDY OF THE GRAIN GRADER OR FANNING MILL Object. — To study the structure of the grain grader, and test its efficiency for grading grain for planting. Explanation. — Small grain as it comes from the thresh- ing machine is usually unfit for planting. It contains small pieces of straw and chaff, which obstruct the grain drill in seeding, and make uniform seeding impossible. Besides straw and chaff, grain as it is threshed contains broken, shriveled, and small kernels. This material is unfit for planting, but will make valuable feed if separated from the seed grain. It is estimated that twenty per cent of the grain as it comes from the thresher is unfit for planting, but suitable for feeding. By using the grain grader in preparing grain for seed, a more uniform stand of vigorous plants is obtained, and the broken and small kernels may be saved for feed. Apparatus. — 1. A fanning mill. 2. A weight-per-bushel tester. 3. One bushel of uncleaned wheat as it comes from the thresher. 171 172 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 4. Scales weighing one hundred pounds or more and weigh- ing accurately to one half pound. Directions. — Part I. Structure of Grain Grader. — Make the necessary measurements and observations to an- swer the following questions. Record answers in the outline form on the following page. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 173 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 1. Give name of grader. 2. Give the manufacturer's name. 3. Give location of manufacturer. 4. Does the mill depend upon specific gravity or size of grain or both for separation ? 5. Does the grader have sieves ? 6. Are the sieves horizontal or sloping ? 7. When the machine is in motion, do the sieves move verti- cally, horizontally, or lengthwise with the machine ? 8. Can the length of the stroke of the sieves be varied ? 9. How many sieves has the machine ? 10. Give the purpose of each sieve. 11. Give size of mesh of each sieve (the number of holes for inch of length) . 12. Does the grader have a bagger attachment ? 13. What is the rated capacity of the grader ? 174 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Part II. Test of Grain Grader. — Weigh out sixty pounds of uncleaned wheat. Use scales for weighing. Determine weight per bushel of wheat by using weight-per-bushel tester. Adjust the grain grader properly for grading wheat. Run the bushel of wheat through the grader, making three grades if possible. Weigh the amount of wheat in first grade and determine per cent. Determine the weight per bushel with weight-per-bushel tester. Determine per cent and weight per bushel of the second and third grades. Ob- serve the difference in quality of the different grades of wheat. Record data in the following outline : STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Table showing Wheat as graded by the Grain Grader Weight Per Cent of Sample Wt. per Bushel Bushel sample 60 pounds 100% Best grade Second grade . Third grade . EXERCISE 44 THE CORN GRADER Object. — To study the construction of the corn grader and test its efficiency for grading corn. Explanation — Even though seed corn is selected with considerable care, the ears will not be uniform and the kernels will not be of the same shape and size when shelled. It is necessary for seed corn to be uniform in shape and size for uniform distribution in planting. A good corn grader will remove those kernels that are very large, very small, or ir- regular in shape. Equipment. — 1. A corn grader. 2. One half bushel of shelled corn. 3. A scale weighing one hundred pounds or more and weighing accurately to one half pound. Directions. — Part I. Structure of the Grain Grader. — Make the necessary measurements and observations to answer the following questions. Record answers in the following outline form : 175 176 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT The Corn Grader 1. Give name of grader. 2. Give manufacturer's name. 3. Give location of manufacturer. 4. How is the corn separated into different grades ? 5. Into how many grades is the corn separated ? 6. How many sieves has the grader ? 7. What is the method of agitating the corn on the sieve ? 8. What is the capacity of the grader ? THE CORN GRADER 111 Part II. Test of Corn Grader. — Weigh out twenty- five pounds of corn. Adjust the grader properly for grading corn. Run the corn through the grader and separate into three grades, if possible. Weigh the amount of corn in the first grade and determine its per cent. Weigh and determine the per cent of both the corn that is too large and the corn that is too small. Record data on following outline : Table showing Grade of Corn as separated by the Corn Grader Weight Per Cent of Sample Entire sample .... 25 100 First grade Large kernels Small kernels .... EXERCISE 45 THE CORN PLANTER Object. — To study the structure of the corn planter, and become familiar with its different parts and their purpose. Explanation. — The corn crop is the most valuable crop grown in the United States. More acres of land are planted to corn in the Central United States than to any other cul- tivated crop. It would be impossible to plant this vast acreage of corn without the aid of the corn planter. The corn planter, therefore, is absolutely necessary upon nearly all farms in the corn belt. Equipment. — 1. A two-row corn planter. 2. A one hundred foot tape line. Directions. — Make the necessary observations to answer the following questions. Record the answers in the follow- ing outline form. 17 STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 179 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT The Corn Planter 1. Give name of planter. 2. Give the manufacturer's name. 3. Give the location of manufacturer. 4. What kind of furrow opener has the planter — stub or curved runner, single or double disk ? 5. What kind of wheel has the planter — open, solid, or double? 6. Are the wheels high or low ? 7. Has the planter a drill or full hill drop ? 8. Has it an edge selection or flat plate ? 9. Will the seed box tip over ? 10. How many valves has each planter shank ? 11. Trace the path of the corn from the seed box to the ground. 12. What is the object of the upper valve 180 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 13. Of the lower valve ? 14. Does the lower valve counteract the speed of the team ? 15. Can the width of the row be varied ? 16. What is its greatest width ? 17. What is its least width ? 18. How is the reel attached and driven ? 19. How is the number of kernels in each hill determined ? 20. Do the plates rotate continuously in accumulating a hill ? 21. Do the plates revolve vertically or horizontally? 22. Has the planter sight feed ? 23. Can the planter be arranged to drill the corn? 24. Adjust the planter for drilling and to drop one kernel every eighteen inches. After properly adjusting the planter for this rate of drop, measure off a stretch of one hundred feet on the bare ground and pull the planter over this distance to determine the accuracy of drop. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 181 25. If you were to buy a planter, what kind would you buy? What kind of wheels and furrow openers would you select ? Give fully the reasons for your answer. EXERCISE 46 ACCURACY OF DROP OF THE CORN PLANTER Object. — To test the accuracy with which the corn planter drops the kernels of corn. Explanation. — Nearly every corn planter is equipped both to drill the corn in the row and to plant it in the hill. When the corn planter is set to drill the corn in rows, the dis- tance apart at which the kernels are dropped may be varied by changing the plates in the hopper and by varying the size of the drive wheel that governs the speed of the planter plates. When planting in hills, the planter maybe adjusted in the same way to drop from two to six or seven kernels in the hill. Since the yield of corn on a given area of ground is greatly influenced by the stand secured, it is very de- sirable to use a planter that will plant accurately at the proper rate. Before using the planter in the field it should be adjusted to plant at the rate desired and thoroughly tested to make sure that it is planting accurately. Equipment. — 1. A two-row corn planter. 2. Four quarts of shelled corn. Directions. — Adjust the corn planter with the proper plates to drop two kernels in a hill. Place a few handfuls of corn in the hopper. Jack up the planter so that the wheels turn free from the ground. Run the planter slowly by hand 182 ACCURACY OF DROP OF THE CORN PLANTER 183 and count the number of kernels dropped in each hill until one hundred hills have been dropped. Record in the accompanying outline form the number of hills in which no kernels were dropped, one kernel, two ker- nels, three kernels, four kernels, five or more kernels. Repeat the count for another hundred hills and record results as before. Adjust the corn planter to drop three kernels in a hill. In the same manner as before count the number of kernels dropped in each hill until one hundred hills have been dropped. Record in the outline form the number of hills in which no kernel was dropped, one kernel, two kernels, three ker- nels, four kernels, five or more kernels. Repeat the count for another hundred hills and record the results as before. 184 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Accuracy of Drop of Corn Planter Adjustment of Planter Hills Receiving the Following Kernels To Drop 2 Kernels To Drop 3 Kernels 1st Count 2d Count Average 1st Count 2d Count Average No kernels . . . One kernel . . . Two kernels . . Three kernels . . Four kernels . . Five or more ker- nels .... EXERCISE 47 TREATMENT OF SEED OATS FOR SMUT Object. — To demonstrate a practical method of treating seed oats for smut. Explanation. — Smut in grain is caused by a parasitic plant growing through the tissue of the grain plant. Smut usually appears as a black, powdery mass of spores, and may destroy the entire head of grain. Smut is produced from smut spores as other plants are produced from seeds. Smut frequently appears in oats and often greatly reduces the yield. A solution made of one pint of formaldehyde added to fifty gallons of water is effective in treating oat smut. The smut spores become ripe soon after the oats head out and are then blown about through the field by the wind. Many of the smut spores cling to other heads and kernels. When the seed is planted the next year, the fungus grows up within the young seedling. At flowering time the smut becomes visible and the head develops into a mass of smut spores. Equipment. — 1. One half bushel of oats. 2. 50 c.c. of 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde. 3. A four-gallon crock. 185 186 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE 4. Paper plates or blotters for making germination test. 5. A cotton sack. Directions. — Reserve twenty grams of the sample for study and germination test. Pour four liters of water into the crock. Add to the water 30 c.c. of the formaldehyde solution. Put four pounds of oats into a cotton sack large enough to hold ten pounds, and submerge it in the prepared solution. Move the sack around in the solution so that all the grain may become thoroughly wet. Remove after thirty seconds. Empty the sack and spread the grain out on a clean surface to dry. Submerge another four-pound sample in a similar manner and remove after two minutes. Spread it out on a clean surface to dry. Submerge a third four- pound sample for five minutes and place it out to dry. Make a germination test of the untreated sample and each of the treated samples. Use one hundred grains of each for the germination test as shown in Ex. 39. Record the vitality of each sample on the outline form. Seed oats should be thoroughly treated, but not left in the solution long enough to injure their vitality. Treatment Vitality No treatment % Submerged 30 seconds % Submerged 2 minutes % Submerged 5 minutes % After oats are treated for smut they should not be put in bins or sacks that have smut in them. TREATMENT OF SEED OATS FOR SMUT 187 The loose smut of oats, the stinking smut of wheat, the covered smut of barley, and the sorghum grain smut may all be treated effectively in a similar manner. The loose smut of wheat cannot be successfully combated by the above treatment. 188 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 48 THE IRISH POTATO Object. — To become familiar with the structure of the potato and to determine the qualities that affect its value. Explanation. — The potato is an underground enlarge- ment of the potato plant. It is commonly called a tuber. The tuber serves as a means of storing reserve plant food to be used later in the development of new plants. The eye of the potato is a dormant bud from which the new plant develops. The interior of the potato is filled with starch and serves as food for the new plant. The potato is used as one of the principal foods of man. Its value for food is affected by its freedom from injury and disease, smoothness, depth of eyes, and size. A good potato should be smooth, free from disease, of medium size, and have medium shallow eyes. Equipment. — 1. Twenty pounds of potatoes of various shapes and sizes, and if possible of different varieties. 2. Balance weighing to one half of one gram. 3. A paring knife. , Directions. — Weigh out fifteen pounds of potatoes and make a detailed study of them. Use the outline form "A Study of the Potato" to record the results of the examina- tion. Shape. — Make a study of the shape of the potatoes by 189 190 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE separating the sample into the following classes : round, cylindrical, oval, flat oval. Count and record the number of potatoes in each group. Size. — Separate the potatoes into groups of large, me- dium, and small size. Count and record the number in each group. Color of Skin. — Separate the potatoes into the following groups : yellowish, white, pink, russet, red, and other colors. Count and record the number of potatoes in each group. Texture of Skin. — Separate the sample into the following groups based upon the texture of the skin : corky, netted, medium smooth, very smooth. Count and record the num- ber in each group. Depth of Eyes. — Separate the sample into the following groups, based upon depth of eyes : deep, medium, and shallow. Count and record the number in each group. Condition. — Make a study of condition by separating the sample of potatoes into the following groups : clean, broken or cracked, and diseased. Count and record the number of potatoes in each group. Select from the sample five large, five small, and five very rough and knotty potatoes. Weigh each group of five sep- arately and record weight. Peel the potatoes in each group, removing as nearly as possible the same thickness of peeling in each case. Weigh, and record the weight of the peeled potatoes of each group. Subtract these weights from the first weights to determine the weight of peeling in each group. Determine the per cent of waste in each group. Record the data in the accompanying outline form. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 191 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT A Study of the Irish Potato Sample Number ' 2 Round Cylindrical Oval Flat oval Large Medium Small Yellowish white .... Pink Russet Red Othpr p.nlnrs Shape .... Size .... Color of skin . f Corky m „ , . 1 Netted Texture of skin <,.-,. ,, Medium smooth .... 1 Vprv smooth . • . [ Deep | Medium [ Shallow Depth of eyes . f Clean Condition . . \ Cracked or broken Disfifl.sfid Date Student's name. 192 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Group No. Weight of Whole Potatoes Weight of Peeled Potatoes Weight of Peeling Per Cent of Waste Large potatoes . . Small potatoes . . . Rough potatoes . . EXERCISES 49 AND 50 PLANNING THE HOME GARDEN Object. — To plan the arrangement and succession of crops in the home garden. Explanation. — It is practically impossible for the farmer to have fresh vegetables during the summer unless he pro- duces them in his own garden. There should be a small plot of ground set aside on every farm for the home garden. A garden well planned and growing a succession of vegetable crops will be a great convenience in furnishing fresh vege- tables in the summer time. The home garden should afford pleasure and reduce the cost of living expenses. The garden should be large enough to make cultivation with horses possible. The rows will have to be further apart and more ground will be needed for the same amount of crops, but much hand labor will be saved. A home garden might well occupy a space of one half to one acre of land. Where this much space is not available the rows may be placed closer together, and hand cultivation resorted to. The site for the garden should be conveniently arranged close to the house, on a plot of land of good texture and fertility. It is advisable to apply a dressing of well-rotted manure to the garden each year. Cultivation should be frequent to prevent the growth of weeds. o 193 194 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Garden crops are more valuable than field crops consider- ing the space they occupy, and the grower can afford to give them more cultivation. The garden should be fenced with a woven wire fence to protect it from rabbits, chickens, and " live stock." The home garden may include annual and perennial vege- table crops and small fruit crops. The following are some of the annual crops that may be grown successfully : radishes, lettuce, peas, beans, onions, carrots, parsley, turnips, toma- toes, cabbage, sweet corn, celery, and cucumbers. Radishes, lettuce, peas, and beans are often ready for use in early summer, and the space they occupied may be reseeded with other vegetables, as cucumbers, celery, and turnips. Perennial plants, such as horseradish, rhubarb, asparagus, blackberries, raspberries, currants, and grapes, may well oc- cupy a permanent place in the garden. If the entire garden is not occupied by the above crops, the remainder of it may well be planted with more sweet corn and potatoes. Directions. — Take the measurements of your home gar- den. Plan what portion of it should be devoted to each of the crops given. Figure the area to be occupied by each crop. If the garden is not already properly planned, make such changes as you think advisable. Draw a plan for the garden and show where all the crops are to be located. Estimate the amount of seed needed for each. crop. Go to your seed dealer and ascertain the price required to purchase the seed. Give the quantity and approximate cost of each kind of seed to be used in the garden. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 195 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 196 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 51 PRUNING Object. — To study methods of pruning, and the benefits derived from removing undesirable branches from trees. Explanation. — It is often necessary to remove branches from trees in order to promote their best development. There are two important objects to be secured by pruning. One is to beautify the tree by giving it a better shape ; the other is to make it more fruitful or increase its vigor. Prun- ing may be performed at various times during the year, and the best time depends largely upon the purpose for which it is done. Pruning in the winter tends to promote growth of wood, while pruning during the growing season tends to promote the production of fruit buds. It is usually well to prune orchard trees late in the winter or early in the spring while they are in dormant condition. Pruning may be done successfully almost any time of year except when the buds are starting. Pruning is a means of thinning out undesirable branches. Very severe pruning tends toward the production of a new growth of wood and a light production of fruit. For the best results an orchard should be pruned a little every year. When a limb is cut off, it should be re- moved as near its main branch as possible, and parallel to it. The wound will heal much more rapidly if the limb is re- 197 198 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE moved close to the main branch than if the stub is left longer. The healing of the wound takes place at the cam- bium layer. The hard wood itself at the center of the limb never heals, but is partly covered over by the growth of the cambium layer. When large limbs are removed, the wound is often covered with paint to protect it during the process of healing. Equipment. — 1. Pruning shears. 2. Pruning saw. 3. Pruning knife. Directions. — Go to a near-by orchard of mature apple trees. Other fruit trees may be chosen, or even forest trees may answer the purpose if orchard trees are not accessible. Select a tree in need of pruning. Remove all broken, injured, or diseased limbs. Remove limbs that are likely to rub or injure other portions of the tree. Remove all water sprouts. Remove a sufficient number of the least desirable limbs so that the light may penetrate to the center of the tree. STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 199 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISES 52 AND 53 THE BABCOCK TEST 1 Object. — To determine the per cent of butter fat in milk. Explanation. — The value of a cow as a milk producer de- pends not only on the quantity of milk produced, but also on the per cent of butter fat in the milk. The amount of butter fat in milk may be determined by the Babcock test. Equipment. — 1. One or more pint samples of milk. 2. A Babcock testing outfit. Directions. — Bring the acid and milk to be used to a tem- perature of 70° F. This can best be done by placing them in the hot-water bath. Mix the milk thoroughly by pouring it from one vessel to another no less than five times. Take pipette between thumb and second and third fingers, leaving the index finger free, draw milk into pipette immedi- ately after stirring and place index finger over the tip of pipette ; now release the finger very slightly until top of the milk column is even with the mark of the pipette. Hold the milk bottle on a slant and place the end of the pipette in the neck of the bottle, leaving an opening for air so that air bubbles cannot form and throw milk out of the neck ; 1 Adapted from O. E. Reed in the Dairy Primer, Chapters in Elements of Agriculture, Extension Department, Kansas State Agricultural College. 200 THE BABCOCK TEST 201 then release finger and allow the milk to flow into the bottle, blowing the last drop from the pipette. A second sample of the milk should be taken in the same way as a duplicate. Fill acid measure to the mark (never draw acid into pipette) . The acid is very strong and should be handled with the great- est caution. Water should be at hand to remove quickly any acid coming in contact with the hands or other parts of the body. Take the milk bottle by the neck between thumb and fingers of the left hand so that the bottle can be turned ; now bring the lip of the acid measure to the mouth of the bottle and pour the acid into the bottle so that all of the milk will be washed from the neck into the bottle. Hold the bottle at a slant while doing this so that the acid will not fall directly on the milk and form pieces of charred curd. Give the bottle a rotary motion in order to cause a gradual mixture of milk and acid; sudden mixing will cause large amounts of heat and gas and will throw the material out of the bottle. After the bottle has been stirred thoroughly and the curd is dissolved, place the bottle in the Babcock tester and whirl five minutes. Place the bottles in the water bath of 180° F. for five minutes and fill with hot water to the neck. Whirl for two minutes. Place in water bath for five minutes and fill with hot water to within one half inch of the top of the bottle. Whirl for two minutes. Place in water bath, 130° F., for five minutes. Measure the fat column by placing one point of the dividers at the bottom and the other at the top, then keeping dividers 202 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE at this spread, place one point on the zero mark and note where the other point falls on the scale. The reading on the scale at this point indicates the per cent of butter fat in the milk. Record the per cent of butter fat of both the first and second determinations. Additional tests should be made as time will permit. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 203 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 204 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 54 MIXING SPRAY MATERIALS Object. — To prepare Bordeaux mixture for spraying apples. Explanation. — Apple trees are sprayed to destroy fungi or insects which may injure or completely destroy the crop if their growth and development are not checked. In order that spraying may be effective it is necessary to apply a sub- stance that will destroy the fungi or insects without injury to the apple tree or fruit. The spray material known as Bordeaux mixture has been found to be effective in destroying fungi such as apple scab, apple blotch, and bitter rot, usually without injury to the tree or fruit. Lime sulphur, another spray material, is less likely to injure some varieties of apples, but does not effectively destroy the apple blotch. Where the apple blotch is not present, lime sulphur may be used instead of Bordeaux mixture. Lead arsenate is effective in controlling the cod- ling moth, one of the insects most destructive to the apple crop. A strong solution of lead arsenate will destroy the cankerworm and other insects that feed upon the foliage and fruit. A strong solution of lime sulphur is used to com- bat the San Jose scale. A common formula for making Bordeaux mixture is : 205 206 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Three pounds of copper sulphate. Four pounds of fresh lime. Fifty gallons of water. The proportion of lime is sometimes increased if there is danger of spray burn. The lime is slacked by pouring water over it, and the copper sulphate is dissolved in water. Both the copper sulphate solution and the lime solution should be diluted to twenty-five gallons and then poured together. The entire solution should be poured through a strainer to remove coarse material. Lime sulphur can be purchased on the market as such. Commercial brands usually test 32° or 33° Baume. Material of this strength should be diluted about thirty to thirty- five times with water before using on trees that are in leaf. Lead arsenate spray may be prepared by dissolving two to four pounds of lead arsenate in fifty gallons of spray material. Lead arsenate may be used in the same spray with Bordeaux mixture or lime sulphur. Spray burn sometimes results from the use of Bordeaux mixture in wet weather, and from the use of lime sulphur in dry weather. When both sprays are used together, one application will be effective in combating both the codling moth and fungous diseases. Spraying must be done at various periods to protect the apple crop successfully. Equipment. — 1. Thirty grams of copper sulphate. 2. Fifty grams of fresh lime. 3. Two two-gallon crocks. 4. One four-gallon crock. 5. Ten grams of potassium ferrocyanide. MIXING SPRAY MATERIALS 207 6. Graduated cylinder, 100 c.c. 7. Balance weighing to one half gram. Directions. — Dissolve thirty grams of copper sulphate in two liters of water, in a two-gallon crock. Slack forty grams of fresh lime by pouring water over it and mixing. Pour in water to bring the solution up to two liters. Pour the two solutions together into the large crock. The resulting solu- tion is the Bordeaux mixture. The Bordeaux mixture should be alkaline in reaction. Dissolve the ten grams of potassium ferrocyanide in 50 c.c. of water. Pour a drop of potassium ferrocyanide solution into the spray material. If it turns brown on striking the liquid, the reaction is acid, and more limewater must be added to make it alkaline. If the reaction is acid, add 50 c.c. of lime- water and test again with a drop of potassium ferrocyanide solution. Continue adding limewater and testing until the solution no longer gives the brown color when potassium ferrocyanide is added. 208 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 55 GRAFTING Object. — To study the principal simple methods of grafting. Explanation. — Grafting is the operation of inserting a small branch or twig (called a cion) into an incision of another branch (called the stock). The cion must bear one or more buds, and its cambium layer must be placed next to the cam- bium layer of the stock so that the wood of the two may unite and grow. The main object of grafting is to propagate plants that do not readily reproduce themselves in desired forms from the seed. There are several methods of grafting. Two important ones are root and top grafting. Root grafting is practiced with apples in starting young trees. The fruit produced from a seedling apple tree is uncertain in kind and value. One-year-old seedlings are used for the root stock. Twigs of the previous summer's growth taken from good apple trees are used for the cions. Top grafting is employed to change the character of fruit of an older tree by replacing the branches of the tree with small twigs of a desirable variety. Equipment. — 1. Grafting knife. 2. Saw. 3. Grafting wax. 1 4. Ten one-year-old apple seedlings. 2 1 Grafting wax may be made by melting together four parts, by weight, of resin, two parts of beeswax, and one part of tallow. When thoroughly melted, pour the mixture into a pail of cold water. After it hardens it should be pulled and worked until it becomes tough. The hands should be greased with tallow when handling grafting wax. 2 Apple seedlings may be secured from nurseries in lots of one hundred. p 209 210 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Fig. 12. — Root grafting. A, cion shaped ready for insertion ; B, por- tion of seedling root shaped to receive the cion ; C, the cion and portion of root put together; D, the same as C, wrapped with grafting paper. (After Goff .) B Fig. 13. — Cleft-grafting. A, cion shaped ready for insertion in cleft (after Bailey) ; B, cions in- serted in cleft ready for waxing. (After Goff.) GRAFTING 211 Directions for Root Grafting. — Select a proper root stock and cion for grafting. Cut both the stock and the cion across diagonally, so that the cut surface will extend from one to two inches. Make a vertical slit in each cut surface and press the tongue of the cion into the cleft of the stock. (See illus- tration.) Wrap the graft firmly with a bandage and apply grafting wax over the bandage for protection. Directions for Top Grafting. — Select an apple tree which is barren or produces an inferior variety of apples. Remove with a saw a branch that is one half inch to one inch in diameter. Make a split down the center of the stock. Pre- pare two cions four to five inches in length and wedge- shaped at the base. Place the cions in the split, one on each side, so that the cambium layer of the outside of each cion comes into exact contact with the cambium layer of the stock. Cover all the wounds carefully with grafting wax. 212 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISES 56 AND 57 GERMINATION TEST OF SEED CORN Object. — To test the vitality of seed corn. Explanation. — If the field of corn examined in Exercise 2 shows a poor stand, the largest possible yield was not secured. A poor stand of corn may be due to a poorly prepared seed bed, but is very often due to the low vitality of the seed corn. Early in the winter corn usually contains an abnormally high per cent of moisture. If a severe freeze occurs while it is in this condition, the vitality is likely to be impaired or destroyed. If seed corn contains a high per cent of moisture at husking time, it should be properly dried out to keep it from molding, and placed under shelter to keep if from freezing. A man experienced in corn selection may be able to deter- mine with some accuracy by inspection whether or not corn will grow. But often an ear that will not grow has no out- ward indication of reduced vitality. It is impossible to determine definitely which ears of corn will not grow without making a germination test. Equipment. — 1. One hundred ears of corn. 2. A germination tester or box as shown in Fig. 14. 3. Sand. Directions. — Lay the ears of corn that are to be tested in a long row, side by side, where they will be undisturbed 213 214 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE ^ tsD ft M» GERMINATION TEST OF SEED CORN 215 until after the test is completed. Number the ears from one to one hundred. Commencing at the left end of the row, remove six kernels from each ear — two near the butt, two near the middle, and two near the tip. These kernels may be pulled out with the aid of a penknife and without injury to the kernels. Place the six kernels from ear No. 1 in the sand of the germinator tip downward in square No. 1. Place the six kernels from ear No. 2 in square No. 2 in a similar manner. Place the kernels from all other ears which are to be tested in a like manner in the germinating tester in squares assigned to them. Keep the germinating tester moist and at a temperature of from 70° to 85° F. In five or six days the test should be complete. If the temperature has been below 70° F. much of the time, a longer period for the test will be required. Remove the kernels from the tester and count the number that germinated from each ear. Record on the squares of the diagram on the next page the number of kernels that germinated from each ear. QUESTIONS 1. What per cent of ears shows perfect germination? 2. What per cent of the kernels tested shows perfect germination? 3. How many acres of corn will one hundred ears plant after the ears have been tipped, butted, and graded, assuming that one fourth of each ear is rejected for seed, if the rows are planted forty- two inches apart and the kernels twenty-one inches apart in the row? (Use figures determined in Ex. 20 for size of ear.) 4. How many ears are necessary to plant sixty acres of corn ? 5. How many bushels are necessary to plant sixty acres of corn, counting seventy pounds of ear corn to the bushel? 6. How much time is actually required to perform the work of the germination test for one hundred ears ? 7. How much time is required to perform the work of the ger- mination test for sixty acres? 216 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Diagram of Squares showing Record of Germination Number of tester Date of starting test Date of completing test. Name of variety Source of seed 123456 789 10 a. b. c. d. e. f. • g- h. '■ ]• STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 217 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 58 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE BARLEY PLANT Object. — To study the germination of the barley kernel and the early growth and development of the plant. Explanation. — The kernel of barley is not like the kernel of wheat, though it is somewhat similar. It is inclosed within a hull. The hull adheres to the kernel as in oats, and with it comprises the grain. The germ of the barley kernel occupies a small place at one end of the kernel, as in wheat and oats. When the kernel of barley germinates, it usually sends out five temporary roots. These five roots help supply the small plant with food until the permanent root system develops. Equipment. — 1. Plants of barley, one, two, three, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 2. Plants of barley two and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. Directions. — Dig up a number of small barley plants for this study. Observe the same precautions in preparing the plants for study as were observed with wheat. (See Ex. 16.) Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch. Also make a study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old, seeded three inches. (In determining age of plant count time from 218 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE BARLEY PLANT 219 date of seeding.) Make drawings of the plants at the differ- ent stages of growth and from the different depths of planting. Show in drawings the five temporary roots which develop first, and in other drawings the permanent roots which de- velop somewhat later, and are sent out in whorls from the nodes. Show how the distance between the temporary roots and the whorl of permanent roots depends upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants, by sending out new stems, begin to tiller. Group the drawings so that they will appear well on the page. The drawings should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their arrangement. 220 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 221 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 59 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE OAT PLANT Object. — To study the germination of the oat kernel and the early growth and development of the plant. Explanation. — The kernel of oats is not like the kernel of wheat, though it is somewhat similar. It is inclosed within a hull. The hull adheres to the oat kernel and with it com- prises the oat grain. The germ of the oat kernel occupies a small place at one end of the kernel, as in wheat. When the kernel of oats germinates, it sends out three temporary roots. These three roots help supply the small plant with food until the permanent root system develops. Equipment. — 1. Plants of oats one, two, three, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. 2. Plants of oats two and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. Directions. — Dig up a number of small oat plants for this study. Observe the same precaution in preparing these plants for study as was observed with wheat. Make a study of plants one week old, two weeks old, three weeks old, and four weeks old, seeded one inch deep. Also make a study of plants two weeks old and four weeks old, seeded three inches deep. (In determining age of plant count time from date of seeding.) 222 THE EARLY DEVELOPMENT OF THE OAT PLANT 223 Make drawings of the plants at the different stages of growth and from the different depths of planting. Show in drawings the three temporary roots that develop first, and in other drawings the permanent roots that develop some- what later and are sent out in whorls from the nodes. Show how the distance between the temporary roots and the whorl of permanent roots depends upon the depth of planting. Show how the older plants begin to tiller by sending out new stems. Group the drawings so that they will appear well on the page. The drawings should include the root system, stems, and leaves and their arrangement. 224 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 225 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 60 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES Object. — To study the draft horse and observe those factors that affect its quality and worth. Explanation. — The draft horse is used principally for hauling heavy loads. In order to perform its work success- fully it must be large of frame, well muscled, and heavy in weight. It is not necessary for the draft horse to be a rapid mover, yet freedom of action and good move- ment, when associated with weight and good muscular development, are always desirable. In judging draft horses care should be taken not to mistake fat for muscle. It is often difficult to observe defects in a fat draft horse that would be perfectly evident in an animal of thin flesh. Equipment. — A good draft horse. Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate the value of each point given in the accompanying score card. While judging the animal by the score card, have in mind an ideal draft horse. You can obtain an idea of an ideal draft horse from the best individuals seen at fairs or stock shows, and from pictures of prize-winning animals that appear in every good farm paper. With the picture of an ideal animal in mind compare each point of the animal you are scoring with 226 JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 227 the ideal. The standard score on the score card refers to an ideal animal. In judging each point record the number of points that the animal falls below the ideal. The accom- panying photograph, Fig. 15, shows the location of the points described on the score card that should be observed in judging a draft horse. General Appearance 19 Per Cent. — The height, weight, form, quality, and temperament are the most important factors to consider in the general appearance of the draft horse. Estimate the height of the horse. The height of a horse is taken by measuring from the ground to the top of the withers, and is usually expressed in hands. A hand is four inches. After recording the estimated height, measure the horse and record its actual height. A draft horse must weigh 1600 pounds. If a draft horse weighs less than this and is of draft type, it is called a " wagon horse/' or " chunk." The best draft horse weighs a ton or over. The heavy weight of the draft horse should be due to its massiveness and great muscular development rather than to fat. Great weight is desirable in a draft horse because it holds him on the ground and enables him to secure a foot- hold when starting heavy loads. Estimate the weight of the horse and record the estimate. If possible, take the horse to a scale and weigh it and record its actual weight. In form the draft horse should be blocky , well proportioned, and symmetrical. It should have good quality, as indicated by clean bone, fine hair, and loose skin. The temperament should be energetic and the disposition good. 228 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE =3 3 3 J3 V5 «3 © HWO'HteG K bfi 2 M a. tf &^ 1 a t_ rayu,3lJ3D.O .-H io co t^-' o6 a> d »h ei -£ CN>' HN TO't iO ON JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 229 Head and Neck 9 Per Cent. — The head and neck of the draft horse should be of such form and shape as to give the horse a stylish and pleasing appearance. The face should be straight; the eyes large, clear, and bright; the ears erect and of medium size, and the neck well muscled and arched. Note the teeth and eyes to see that they are good. Forequarters 24 Per Cent. — The shoulder furnishes the surface against which the collar rests. It should be smooth and strong. If rough and uneven, continual pulling against the collar will develop sores and unsoundness. See that the shoulders are not sweenied. This is a sinking of the muscles of the shoulder, making it appear flat and bare of muscle. The slope of the shoulder should be about forty-five degrees as this affords the greatest comfort under the collar. The forearm should be clean and strongly muscled. The cannon should be short, wide, and clean. Examine the cannon for splints. Splints may occur on any part of the region and appear as hard, rough protrusions on the bone. Do not mistake the two small bones associated with the cannon for splints. These bones occur in the same location on both legs and may be recognized in this way. The pasterns should have an angle of about forty-five or fifty degrees when viewed from the side. This affords spring to the gait and tends to pre- vent foot and leg troubles. The feet of the draft horse should be large, even sized, and sound. The foot should be attached to the leg so that the toe is straight ahead. If the horse toes in, it will " wing," or throw its feet out when it brings them forward. If the horse toes out, it will " paddle," or throw its feet in when it brings them forward. The toe should slope at an angle of 230 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE about forty-five or fifty degrees, thus harmonizing with the slope of the pastern. Body 9 Per Cent. — The chest should be deep and wide, and the ribs should be long and well sprung. This affords plenty of room for the development of the heart and lungs and thus indicates a good strong constitution. The back and loin Fig. 16. — Rear view of hind legs of horses. A vertical line drawn down- ward from the point of the buttock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. Cut A represents the right conforma- tion. B and C are common defects. (After John A. Craig.) should be straight, short, broad, thickly and strongly muscled. The underline should be low and flanks full. Hindquarters 30 Per Cent. — The hindquarters of the draft horse should be heavy and well muscled, for it is irj this part of the animal that the greatest force is exerted when pulling. The hips of the draft horse should be broad but smooth, and in proportion to the rest of the body. The croup should be level, wide, and fairly long. The quarters and thighs should be broad and heavily muscled. JUDGING DRAFT HORSES 231 Examine the hock from the front of the horse and observe its outline. It should be large, clean, strong, and well set. See Figs. 16 and 17. Examine the hocks for bone spavins. This is the most common trouble of the hocks, and when Fig. 17. — Side view of hind legs of horses. A vertical line drawn downward from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle ; and a vertical line drawn from the point of the buttock should coincide with the angle of the hock and pastern joints. Cut A represents the right conformation. B and C are common defects. (After John A. Craig.) visible, appears as a bony enlargement on the lower inner side of the hock joint. The fetlocks should be wide, strong, and clean, and the pas- terns strong and springy. The feet should be large, even sized, and clean. Action 9 Per Cent. — Walk the horse and observe its action. Its movement should be fast for a heavy horse, elastic, and regular, and the feet should move in a straight line. Trot the horse and see that its movement is free, springy, straight, and balanced. See that it does not " wing " or " paddle." Examine the horse for unsoundness of wind after trotting. 232 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE SCORE CARD Draft Horses Stand- ard Points Deficient Scale of Points Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score General Appearance — 19 per cent 1. Height, estimated, hands ; actual, 2. Weight, over 1600 lb., estimated, lb.; actual, lb., according to 6 3. Form, broad, massive, well propor- tioned, blocky, symmetrical . . . 4 4. Quality, refined ; bone, clean, hard, large, strong ; tendons, clean, de- fined ; skin and hair fine .... 6 5. Temperament, energetic; disposition, good 3 Head and Neck — 9 per cent 6. Head, lean, proportionate size ; pro- file, straight 1 7. Ears, medium size, well carried, alert 1 8. Forehead, broad, full 1 9. Eyes, full, bright, clear, same color 2 1 11. Muzzle, neat; nostrils, large, open, free from discharge ; lips, thin, even, firm 1 12. Neck, well muscled, arched ; throat- latch, clean ; windpipe, large . Carried forward 2 STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 233 Draft Horses — Continued Stand- ard Points Deficient Scale of Points Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Brought forward Forequarters — 24 per cent 13. Shoulders, moderately sloping, smooth, snug, extending into back . . . 3 14. Arm, short, strongly muscled, thrown back, well set 1 15. Forearm, strongly muscled, wide, clean 2 16. Knees, deep, straight, wide, strongly supported 2 17. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons, defined, set back 2 18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 1 19. Pasterns, moderate length, sloping, strong, clean 2 20. Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn, dense, waxy ; sole, concave ; bars, strong; frog, laige, elastic; heel, wide, and one fourth to one half the lineal length of toe .... 8 21. Legs, viewed in front, a perpendicular line from the point of the shoulder should fall upon the center of the knee cannon, pastern, and foot. From the side, a perpendicular line dropping from the center of the elbow joint should fall upon the cen- ter of the knee and pastern joints and back of the hoof 3 234 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Draft Horses — Continued Stand- ard Points Deficient Scale of Points Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Brought forward Body — 9 per cent 22. Chest, deep, wide, large girth . . . 2 23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close ; coupling, 2 24. Back, straight, broad, strongly muscled 2 25. Loins, wide, short, thickly muscled 2 26. Underline, low ; flanks, full .... 1 Hindquarters — 30 per cent 27. Hips, broad, smooth, level, well mus- 2 28. Croup, not markedly drooping, wide, heavily muscled 2 29. Tail, stylishly set and carried . . . 1 3 30. Quarters, deep, broad, heavily mus- cled ; thighs, strong 31. Gaskins, long, wide, heavily muscled . 2 32. Hocks, large, clean, strong, wide, well 6 Carried forward STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT Draft Horses — Continued 235 Stand- ard Points Deficient Scale of Points Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Brought forward 33. Cannons, short, wide, clean ; tendons, 2 34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean . 1 35. Pasterns, moderately sloping, strong, clean 2 36. Feet, large, even size, sound ; horn, dense, waxy ; sole, concave ; bars, strong ; frog, large, elastic ; heel, wide, and one fourth to one half the lineal length of toe G 37. Legs, viewed from behind, a perpen- dicular line from the point of the but- tock should fall upon the center of the hock, cannon, pastern, and foot. From the side, a perpendicular line from the hip joint should fall upon the center of the foot and divide the gaskin in the middle, and a perpen- dicular line from the point of the buttock should run parallel with the line of the cannon 3 Action — 9 per cent 38. Walk, fast, elastic, regular, straight . 6 39. Trot, free, springy, balanced, straight . 3 Total 100 EXERCISE 61 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES Object. — To study the light horse and observe those factors that affect its quality and worth. Explanation. — There are three general types of light horses ; namely, the coach or carriage horse, the saddle horse, and the roadster horse. The coach or carriage horse is distinguished by its plumpness, symmetry, and action. It is well muscled over all parts of the body. Its head is small, lean, and attractive ; neck long and graceful ; limbs clean, and body plump and round. It is valued for its graceful carriage and stylish action. In the roadster horse style and graceful movement have been sacrificed somewhat for speed and endurance. Besides having speed and endurance the roadster must be well mannered and safe. In conformation this type lacks the fullness and symmetry of the coach horse, is lighter in weight, and is more rangey in appearance. In conformation the saddle horse is intermediate between the coach and roadster horse. It resembles the roadster more than the coach horse. The saddle horse is prized for its graceful movement and comfortable gait under the saddle. Equipment. — A good driving or riding horse. Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate the value of each point given on the accompanying score 236 JUDGING LIGHT HORSES 237 card. Have in your mind a picture of the ideal light horse. An idea of a good light horse may be obtained by studying the pictures of the best animals as they appear in good farm papers, and by observing good light horses at fairs and stock shows. The standard score on the score card refers to an ideal animal. In judging each point record the number of points that the animal falls below the ideal. The accom- panying photograph, Fig. 18, shows the location of the points described on the score card that should be observed in judging a light horse. General Appearance 12 Per Cent. — In general appearance the light horse should have a smooth, symmetrical form and stylish appearance. The quality of the animal should be good, as shown by a firm, clean bone and fine skin and hair. In temperament it should be energetic and active, but gentle and kind in disposition. Head and Neck 6 Per Cent. — The shape of the head and neck of the horse adds greatly to its appearance. It is chiefly from this standpoint that they are important. The head should be straight and thin, the features of the face distinct and broad enough between the eyes to give a pleasing appear- ance. The nostrils should be large and open ; eyes large, bright, and indicating vigor ; ears erect and somewhat pointed, and neck well muscled, arched, and joined smoothly to the body. Forequarters 23 Per Cent. — The shoulders should be long and oblique to give the action desired, and to add strength to the back and length to the underline. The forelegs should present a clean-cut appearance, should be broad, cordy, straight, and free from coarseness. The cannon should be 238 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE c ^^■^ C to g ■- tjO Mow t-^ coos' cococo co oa -M u _ O 0) D< o t^ja 3_ -^ S u> WOEHMah i-h cn c6 ■* id co coco coco coco m jS -*> J4 53 .SS M o3 bn a <& a ±>£ & 1 §^.s g= o 5 O S O "^ 9) •2 KOPQi-ltfPQ '■+3 >d cd t^ oo oa o o3 O CM (M CM CM CM CO bO -P a o r£1 s -a M _ » fl o «^ a, B 5j 0) d O O «2 Fh MUfel^hfe O ^3 OS O* --< CN CO ■* M ,-H CM -5 sl a • « O « gjfl g 1 ^^m^Sfe 00 CO in id CD t^ 00 I-H T— 1 rH fH <-l i-l 6 r^ ^a b « P-g ffl e3j5 a Slits «n is £.g 35 1 >>a3 OfPja.,* t> oo os d *-* > 03 >e3J3 « >cdi>o6 03 T3 <*! -d 1 CO g as *» ,,,-a 6 fa Hfiri't 252 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE beefy neck does not denote high milk production. The neck should be joined smoothly to the shoulders, which should be sloping. It should be smooth and have a light brisket. The withers should be narrow and sharp, not broad and flat, as this indicates beefiness. The forelegs should be straight, clean, set well under the body, and well apart. Legs set too close together indicate lack of room for the development of lungs and heart, and therefore a poor constitution. Body 25 Per Cent. — The chest of the dairy cow should be deep and roomy, and have a broad floor, as these charac- teristics all indicate more room for the heart and lungs,, and consequently a strong constitution. The back should be straight and strong. A weak, sunken back is a common de- fect in dairy cows. It indicates insufficient strength to carry a heavy barrel. The vertebra or spinal processes along the spinal column should be prominent and open. The lateral nerves pass out between the vertebra, and plenty of room for these nerves is desirable. The barrel of the dairy cow is her storehouse for food. The dairy animal, to be profitable, must consume a large quantity of food and she must have a large barrel in which to store it. The ribs should be well sprung and wide apart, thus making' a large barrel possible. The loin should be broad and strong, especially broad to avoid trouble at time of parturition. Hindquarters 12 Per Cent. — The hips of the dairy cow should be prominent and wide apart, as this indicates both capacity in the barrel and room in the pelvic region. The rump should be long, and high at the tail head. A long rump is associated with plenty of room for udder attachment. JUDGING DAIRY CATTLE 253 The tail should be thin, tapering, and long, the tail bone ex- tending at least to the hocks, as a long tail is associated with a high nervous development, much desired in a dairy cow. The hind legs should set well apart, especially at the hocks, thus allowing plenty of room for the development of the udder. Mammary Development 30 Per Cent. — The udder is the most important part of the dairy cow. It should be attached high behind and carried well forward, thus affording the maximum amount of room for its development. It should be flexible, and when empty, drop into folds. A fleshy udder is not desirable, as there is not sufficient room for the secre- tory glands. The quarters should be even and not cut up. The teats should be wide apart, uniformly placed, and of convenient size, which qualities aid in milking and insure greater capacity in the udder. A thorough examination should be made to see that all teats are perfect. A stream of milk should be drawn from each teat. The milk veins should be large and twisting, and should extend well forward. The size of the milk veins indicates the amount of blood that can pass through the circulation to the udder. The milk wells or cavities where the milk veins pass into the body should be large and numerous. Examine the cow and de- termine the number of milk wells. Every cow has two milk wells, and some cows have as many as fourteen. General Appearance 15 Per Cent. — The disposition of the dairy cow should be quiet and gentle, yet she should show indications of a high nervous development well under con- trol, since this characteristic indicates milk production. Health and vigor will be determined by her wide-awake 254 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE appearance and by the quality of her hair and hide. A strong constitution is shown by a deep, broad chest. Quality is indicated by a soft, thin, mellow hide. Determine this by gathering up a handful of hide over the last two or three ribs. The hair should be fine and the secretions oily and abundant, as this indicates a healthy condition. Temperament, or the tendency to dairy performance, is indicated by the general appearance of the animal. She should give the impression of being an individual capable of converting food into milk. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 255 THE SCORE CARD Dairy Cattle — Cow Scale of Points Stand- ard 1 Points De- ficient 2 Points De- ficient Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Head — 8 per cent 1. Muzzle, broad 2. Jaw, strong, firmly joined .... 3. Face, medium length, clean .... 4. Forehead, broad between eyes, dishing 5. Eyes, large, full, mild, bright .... 2 6. Ears, medium size, fine texture, secre- tions oily and abundant, yellow color 2 Forequarlers — 10 per cent 7. Throat, clean i 8. Neck, long, spare, smoothly joined to shoulders, free from dewlap . . . 2 9. Withers, narrow, sharp 3 10. Shoulders, sloping, smooth, brisket, light 3 11. Forelegs, straight, clean, well set under body 1 Body — 25 per cent 12. Crops, free from fleshiness .... 1 ~ 13. Chest, deep, roomy ; floor, broad . . 6 14. Back, straight, strong, vertebra open . 3 15. Ribs, long, deep, sprung, wide apart . 3 16. Barrel, deep, long, capacious .... 10 17. Loin, broad, strong 2 Carried forward 256 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Dairy Cattle — Cow — Continued Scale of Points Stand- ard 1 Points De- ficient 2 Points De- ficient Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Hindquarters — 12 per cent 18. Hips, prominent, wide apart .... 1 19. Rump, long, level, not sloping . . . 4 20. Pin bones, wide apart 1 21. Tail, neatly set on, long, tapering . . 1 22. Thighs, spare, not fleshy 3 23. Hind legs, well apart, giving ample room for udder 2 Mammary Development — 30 per cent 24. Udder, large, very flexible, attached high behind, carrying well forward ; quarters, even, not cut up ... . 15 25. Teats, wide apart, uniformly placed, convenient size 5 26. Milk veins, large, tortuous, extending well forward 4 27. Milk wells, large 6 General Appearances — 15 per cent 28. Disposition, quiet, gentle 2 29. Health, thrifty, vigorous 3 30. Quality, free from coarseness through- out ; skin, soft, pliable ; secretions, abundant ; hair, fine 4 31. Temperament, inherent tendency to dairy performance 6 Total 100 EXERCISE 64 JUDGING BEEF CATTLE Object. — To study the beef animal and observe those factors that affect its quality and worth. Explanation. — The principal purpose of beef cattle is the production of meat. The beef animal that most nearly meets the demands of the butcher is the one that the farmer should produce. The animal that brings the highest price on the market is the one that will dress the highest per cent of salable meat and will have a maximum amount of this meat located in those parts of the body from which the most valu- able cuts are secured. Equipment — 1. A good beef steer. Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate the value of each point given on the accompanying score card. While judging the animal by the score card, have in mind an ideal animal. You can obtain an idea of an ideal animal from the best individuals that you have seen at stock shows and fairs, or from pictures of the winners at the In- ternational Live Stock Show. With the picture of an ideal animal in mind compare each point of the animal you are scoring with the ideal. The standard score on the score card refers to an ideal animal. In judging each point record the per cent that the animal falls below the ideal. The s 257 258 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE accompanying photograph, Fig. 20, shows the location of the points described on the score card that should be ob- served in judging a beef animal. General Appearance 40 Per Cent. — The value of an animal as a meat producer depends upon its form, quality, condition, and weight. Form has reference to the shape of the animal. The shape of the animal should be such that it will carry the maximum amount of the most valuable cuts of meat. Quality is determined by the condition of the bone, hair, skin, and flesh. Good quality means that the animal has clean bone, soft, mellow skin, general refinement of features and appearance, and all parts of the body covered thickly and evenly with firm, mellow flesh. Condition refers to the finish of the animal. The animal is said to be finished when it is fat. A fat animal will produce a higher per cent of dressed meat, and the meat is more valuable because it is more tender and palatable. In addition to these factors the weight of the animal for its age should also be considered. Estimate the weight of the animal before weighing and record your estimate on the blank in the score card. Take the animal to stock scales if possible and determine its actual weight. Head and Neck 7 Per Cent. — Examine the general appear- ance of the head and neck. Note the size of muzzle; the muzzle should be broad, the mouth large, and the nostrils large and open, for these qualities denote a good feeder. The neck should be short, broad, and refined, and in correct proportion to the rest of the body. Forequarters 9 Per Cent. — The shoulder should fit smoothly into the body without too much prominence of shoulder JUDGING BEEF CATTLE 259 260 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE blades. The lower part of the shoulder should be smooth, well covered with flesh, and not too heavy. The forelegs should be short, standing well apart, and the foreflank should be full. Body 30 Per Cent. — Observe the body from the side ; it should present the general outlines of a rectangle. The top line should be straight from head to tail. The bottom line should be low, straight, and parallel to the top line. The chest should be deep and full, and the hind flank should be full and even with the underline. Hindquarters 14 Per Cent. — Observe the animal from the rear. The hindquarters should be deep and as broad as the shoulders. The rump should be long and wide, and the tail head smooth. The twist should be deep and plump. The legs should be wide apart, straight, and short. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 261 THE SCORE CARD Beef Cattle — Fat Stand- ard Points Deficient Scale of Points Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dent's Score Cor- rected Score General Appearance — 40 per cent 1. Weight, estimated, lb. ; actual, lb., — according to age 10 2. Form, straight top and underline, deep, broad, low set, stylish, smooth, compact, symmetrical 10 3. Quality, fine, soft hair; loose, pliable skin of medium thickness ; dense, clean, medium-sized bone .... 8 4. Condition, deep, even covering of firm, mellow flesh ; free from patches, ties, lumps, and rolls ; full cod and flank indicating finish 12 Head and Neck — 7 per cent 5. Muzzle, broad; mouth, large; nostrils, large and open 6. Eyes, large, clear, placid 7. Face, short; jaw, strong 8. Forehead, broad, full 9. Ears, medium size ; fine texture . . . 10. Neck, short, thick, blending smoothly with shoulder ; throat, clean with light dewlap 2 Forequarters — 9 per cent 11. Shoulder vein, full 1 12. Shoulders, smoothly covered, compact, snug, neat 4 Carried forward 262 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Beef Cattle — Fat — Continued Stand- ard Points Deficient Scale of Points Stu- dents Score Cor- rected Score Stu- dents Score Cor- rected Score Brought forward 13. Brisket, trim, neat ; breast, full . . . 52 2 14. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; arm, full; shank, wide 2 Body — 30 per cent 15. Chest, full, deep, wide ; girth, large ; 4 16. Ribs, long, arched, thickly and smoothly fleshed 8 17. Back, broad, straight, thickly and smoothly fleshed 8 8 IS. Loin, thick, broad 19. Flank, full, even with underline . . . 2 Hindquarters — 14 per cent 20. Hips, smooth 1 21. Rump, long, wide, level; tail head, smooth ; pinbones, wide apart, not prominent 3 22. Thighs, deep, full 4 23. Twist, deep, plump 4 24. Legs, wide apart, straight, short ; shanks, fine, smooth 2 Total 100 EXERCISE 65 COMPARATIVE JUDGING OF CATTLE Object. — To place the animals of a class of cattle accord- ing to their worth. Explanation. — When a stockman goes into a herd of cattle, or when a judge goes into a show ring, he has in mind the type of animal that he desires for his purpose. If the judge is placing a class of beef cattle, he examines the entire class, keeping in mind the ideal beef animal, and chooses that individual for first which most nearly meets this ideal. In the same way he places in the order of their merit the other animals of the class. In a similar manner the judge of dairy cattle, keeping in mind the ideal dairy cow, awards the places in the dairy cattle class. It is necessary for the beginner who wants to become pro- ficient in judging cattle to study the characteristics of the individuals of the class and to become familiar with the char- acteristics that affect value. After becoming familiar with each animal the beginner can place it according to its merits. Equipment. — A class of four good dairy cows, or a class of four good beef steers, all the animals of the class to be of about the same age and same condition of flesh. 1 1 In selecting a class of animals for this exercise the instructor should be governed by the relative importance of the two classes of 263 264 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE Directions. — Number the animals from one to four and place them side by side. Examine thoroughly and systemati- cally all the animals in the class. Keep in mind the relative value of the points discussed in the score card. After this thorough examination decide which animal is best. This can be done by balancing the good and bad points of one animal against those of another. When the best animal is selected, record its rank in the space opposite its number. In like manner choose the second-best animal of the class and record its rank in the space opposite its number. The third and fourth animals in the class are placed in the same manner. Record their placings. Discuss fully under Student's Notes and Report the good and bad points of each animal in the class. Discuss them in the order of your placing. Give in detail the reasons for placing each animal as you did. animals in the community. If the dairy industry is of greater importance, a dairy class should be selected If not, a beef class should be selected. STUDENTS NOTES AND REPORT 265 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT Order of Numbering Order of Student's Placing Correct Placing 1 2 3 4 266 LABORATORY MANUAL OF AGRICULTURE STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT 267 STUDENT'S NOTES AND REPORT EXERCISE 66 JUDGING FAT HOGS Object. — To study the hog and observe those factors that affect its quality and worth. Explanation. — There are two general classes of hogs, commonly sold on the market, the fat or lard hog and the bacon hog. The lard or fat hog is short legged, broad, and of medium length. It fattens easily and is used on the market for making lard, supplying hams and shoulders, and furnishing cheap side meat. The bacon hog is long, deep, and narrow in body, has long legs, and is used chiefly for the production of bacon. The fat hog is best suited to the north central United States because of the abundance of corn in this region and the ability of the fat hog to fatten rapidly on this food. In some of the northern states of the United States and in Canada the bacon hog is generally produced. The fat hog that is in greatest demand is the one that will dress the largest percentage of good salable meat. It sup- plies the demand for good hams and shoulders, and furnishes a large amount of lard. Equipment. — A good fat hog. Directions. — Examine the animal carefully and estimate the value of each point given on the accompanying score 268 JUDGING FAT HOGS 269 \ 0) o , » I o 03 « O ffi &0 ffi o 00 00 oi © i— I i— I (M '5 T3 '5 o fa GO H fa CO Tji irf CO 1- - c) CO Ofa r 1 oioH O o t* ££«2fa 10 co t> 06 5 0) o «- § >> cj