s A95 ll|ll«»IIIIIUIJIIIIIIIIIII[lllllliraiirirTi»ilil!i>illllli»lirHWgWS«aaMMBBBBIM*BMaMMW^^ ■ tll l nitflii l l H III HWWI»HM M MIilB MIWM>B«1—i FAR KATHARINE - ATHERTON - G .=^>v. THE'SOUTHERN ..<^ PUBLISHING' CO MP ANY ' TEXAS rins^ 5 ¥ i 5^ Book. ^QSS Copight^i". COPYRIGHT DEPOSm October FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS A TEXT-BOOK FOR THE GRADED SCHOOLS BY KATHARINE ATHERTON GRIMES Associate Editor of Southern Agriculturist EDITED BY W. L. HUTCHINSON Professor of Agronomy, Clemson Agricultural College DALLAS, TEXAS THE SOUTHERN PUBLISHING COMPANY 1917 Copyright 1917 By the southern PUBLISHING COMPANY m W /9I7 ^^CI.A467454 To every boy and girl who loves the fields, the woods and the open skies, this little volume is sent forth by a comrade whose delight in these things is as great as their own. FOREWORD The most healthful indication in present-day educa- tional systems is the tendency to look toward Nature as the base of all essential culture. Nor is this a new phase. There were days when the natural world was made the foundation -for the most elaborate and delicate mythological and religious systems history knows — when "rays of twisted rain" were deemed fit weapons for a god, and heaven was a Grecian mountain. The world grew gradually out of this childhood, but always there remained with it a sense of the pulsating harmonies of nature. This became educationally submerged for a period in artificialities of more or less cultural value, but its undercurrent still ran powerfully beneath. It remained for the acumen of twentieth century science to find true balances, and to reread the pages of the physical world's great book with new insight. Greater than myth or fable, lovelier than the most graceful pagan imagery could delineate, truer than the most acute sym- bolism could represent are these new meanings of star and clod, of cloud and flower. And greater than all is the conception of life as a unit — a manifold interpreta- tion of one universal vitality that from a single heart viii Foreword sends its rich current through the veins of every living thing. In this conception of Nature there is a buoyant grandeur that no statement of mere facts can possess. It is urged upon the teachers who shaU make use of the material in this little volume that its garment of detail shall be made to clothe this vital body of unified anima- tion; that through all the lessons shall beat the pulse of the Universal Mother. With this hope it is sent out to make its fellowship among those who hear infinite voices in the whispering of winds and waters and the soft up- rush of growing things. Acknowledgment is made with grateful pleasure of the aid given by L. R. Neel, editor of the Southern Agri- culturist, who read the first draft of the book and made many helpful suggestions; to Prof. H. A. Morgan, of the University of Tennessee, whose statements on some discussed points have been especially valuable; Rufus J. Nelson, editor of Farm and Ranch; David N. Barrow, editor of Progressive Farmer; President H. F. Estill, Sam Houston State Normal Institute; Professor S. C. Wilson, Department of Agriculture, Sam Houston Nor- mal; Professor C. W. Davis, Department of Agricul- ture, North Texas State Normal;. Professor F. W. Katz- meier, Texas Agricultural and Mechanical College; and Professor W. K. Tate, Peabody College. CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I Nature's Workshop i II The Soil 7 III Plant Food — What It Is and Where It Comes From 14 IV Two Ways of Growing 19 V The Right Plant in the Right Place ... 26 VI Rotation of Crops • 36 VII Handling Difficult Soils 44 VIII Getting Ready for Planting 51 IX Planting 58 X Taking Care of the Crop 65 XI Cotton 73 XII Friexnds and Enemies — Weeds 82 XIII Friends and Enemies — Birds and Insects . . 88 XIV Plant Diseases 96 XV How TO Get Good Seed 103 XVI Plant Bodies no XVII The Life Work of the Plant 115 XVIII The Plant's Storehouse 124 XIX How Seeds Travel _ . . 130 XX In Mother Nature's Garden — ^The Farm Wood Lot 137 ix X Contents CHAPTER PAGE XXI The Home Garden 144 XXII Making Home yVnuACTivE 150 XXIII Making a School Garden 157 XXIV "To Make the Best Better" 165 XXV Chickens 171 XXVI The Hen and Her Place upon the Farm . . 183 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS CHAPTER I nature's workshop Some Familiar Workshops. — Some of you may have watched a blacksmith at work in his shop and hstened to the music of his hammer upon the anvil. Others have visited a carpenter's shop or a harness shop. Some of you may have seen a cotton factory or an iron foundry — great workshops in which cotton or iron is the ma- terial with which the workmen deal. You all know, then, that a workshop is a place where materials are worked or made into things we use; iron, for instance, is turned into horseshoes, nails, stoves and machinery; timber is made into tables and chairs ; leather is cut and sewed into shoes and harness ; and cotton and wool are spun and woven into the cloth of which our clothes are made. You can think of hundreds of things made from these and other materials in the great workshops of the world. An Automobile Workshop. — If you were to visit a great automobile factory you would probably think it the 2 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS most wonderful place in the world. You would see hun- dreds of articles, of every shape and size, made of brass, steel, copper, leather, iron, glass, rubber, wood, and even of silk, wool and cotton, all waiting to be used in the mak- ing of the beautiful machine. As you watch these pieces being put together, a bolt here and a screw there, yonder a piece of polished brass and in another place a bit of sturdy steel, all fitting so perfectly and making such a wonderful, powerful machine when done, you are amazed that any one could plan and carry out such a marvelous piece of work. The Most W onderfiil Workshop. — Yet you live in the midst of a workshop far more wonderful than the auto- mobile factory. It is hard to realize it because you hear no noise of hammers or saws, no hurry and bustle of workmen, no puffing of mammoth engines or swinging of great doors as people hasten in and out. Yet a force many times greater than all the engines in all the world is constantly busy all around us, getting the materials ready for our own mills, to make our food, clothing and all other necessities and luxuries of life. This workshop is the Natural World, and the mighty power at work in it we call Nature, which is another name for God. Just how God's power works in Nature's work- shop no one has ever been able to find out exactly, but we know it is there, tireless and silent, never pausing for rest, and, more wonderful still, never making a single mistake. NATURE'S WORKSHOP 3 Materials for Human Workshops. — Neither in Na- ture's workshops nor in our own can anything be made without materials. The materials for our workshops — such as iron, timber, leather, cotton and wool — are ob- tained from the forests, fields and mines of many coun- tries. Animals furnish some of our most valuable ma- terials; from the hides of cattle we get leather; sheep give us wool. But before any of these materials are ready for the workshops of man, they must be formed in the great workshop of Nature. A log on its way to the mill looks to us at first very much like "raw material" ; but if we stop to think of the many years it took to grow the tree from which it was cut and the many forces that were at work upon it all that time, it begins to look like a "finished product" after all, — formed and finished in Nature's workshop. Materials for Nature's Workshop. — Where, then, does Nature get the materials for her workshop? She has to do just as we have done and gather them up wher- ever she can find them. They are scattered here and there and everywhere, in the soil, the air and the water, sometimes in one form, sometimes in another ; and usu- ally no one of these materials is found by itself, but two or more are found together. Nature's Materials Classified. — There are over sev- enty of these natural materials, or elements, as we must learn to call them. Five of them are gases, two are liquids, and all the rest are solids. When Nature wishes 4 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS to make a tree, or a flower, or an animal, she finds the elements she needs and puts them together in just the right proportions to make whatever she wishes. As you think of the countless number of things she has made, and is making all the time, all dilferent, even down to the very blades of grass, you see that Nature is a very skillful worker indeed — a very genius for invention. Elements and Compounds. — When Nature puts two elements together before she uses them we call it a com- pound. Although the numl)er of elements never varies, being always just exactly so many, the numl)er of com- pounds that may be made from them could never be counted. Nature seems to prefer compounds, and she combines elements in all sorts of ways. For instance, two gases, hydrogen and oxygen, are combined to form water. Water, therefore, is not an clement, but a com- pound, since it is made up of tw^o different things. It can be separated again into hydrogen and oxygen, but these, being elements, could never be anything but hydro- gen and oxygen, no matter how many times they were divided, unless they were mixed with each other or with some other elements. This difference between a com- pound and an element nuist be kept in mind, as we will have to deal with both and must understand what each term stands for. We may say, therefore, that Nature's raw materials are elements, while those used in the workshops of men are the finished products of the natural world. With- NATURE'S WORKSHOP 5 out Nature to begin the work, human power could do very Httle. Assisting in Nature's Workshop. — Would you not like to be a helper in Nature's wonderful workshop? W^ould you not like to experiment with these more than seventy elements and see what you could make with them? That is just what every farmer is — an experi- menter and an assistant. As an assistant he has to obey orders, of course; the orders, we call the "Laws of Na- ture." What these laws are we can learn only l)y keep- ing close watch of natural processes and following them as nearly as we can. Fortunately, many generations have been studying these things before us, and we may learn from their experiences many things we could not find out for ourselves. SOME THINGS TO DO 1. Learn this verse : Out in the fields and forests, Sweet in the sun and air, The fair, green things are growing So quietly everywhere. What is the power that blesses With beauty the common sod ? We know, though we name it Nature, The hand is the hand of God. 2. Questions to think about : Name five of the finished products of Nature that are used as raw materials in the mills of man. 6 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS j Name five products that we use just as Nature leaves them. Explain the difference between an element and a compound. Milk is a compound. Where did the cow get the elements from which it is made? ; For how many of the things you have worn, eaten or used this week are you indebted to Nature? Can you think of anything for < which you are not so indebted? 3. Try this experiment : \ Fill a bottle or a glass fruit jar with moist soil and in it plant ; four white beans, putting the first down one inch from the top, ; the second one and one-half inches, the third two inches and the : fourth three inches. Push them down next the glass where you . can see them, but not so one will be directly over the other. Watch "1 them and see if there is any difference in their sprouting and i growth. Keep the soil moist and set the bottle in a warm, light j place. See what you can find out. 4. Go to a tree and find two small limbs about as thick as your thumb. Cut both off smoothly without injuring the tree, ; cutting one close to the bark of the tree and the other about an j inch from the tree. Go and look at these about once in two ! weeks and see how the cut places "heal up." '■ "Nature Set the Water to Work." CHAPTER II THE SOIL Different Kinds of Soil. — When you become a work- man in Natm-e's workshop the first thing you will need to understand will be the soil. There it is, spread out before you, of many kinds, dififering in color and quality. Here is a strip of yellowish sand, there a patch of black loam, and yonder a stretch of stiff, red or grayish clay. This hillside is rough and covered with stones; in the valley the ground is smooth as a carpet, with a beautiful, deep, soft, dark brown soil known as silt. You will no- tice, too, that the plants growing on the different soils vary greatly as to size, color and even kind. . It is plain 7 8 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS Stratification — to a Depth of Twenty Feet that the first thing you will need to know will be about the soil. Beneath the Soil — What? — If you will dig down a little way you will find that the soil is arranged in lay- =-^^^A^r-^ ^^'^- ^^^^ ^°p ^^y^"^ ^^ darker ni color, but lighter in weight, than that below it. This top soil is us- ually but a few inches deep, while the subsoil ("suiy means "under") extends to a consideral)le depth before the rock is reached. If you go deep enough, however, you will be sure to find a rock bed underlying the finely divided earth particles that we call soil. Earth's First Covering. — The fact is, that rock bed was at first the earth's outer surface. It took many thousands of years — yes, millions of them — to build this fine covering upon it. Until it was built, or at least started, there could not be any life, either of plants or animals. What a world it must have been — nothing but great, bare stretches of rock, or vast expanses of rest- less water; no trees, no grass, no birds, no animals; a world of loneliness and silence, except for the roar of the winds and the waves. You could not have lived in such a place, even if you had been there, for there was nothing to support life. THE SOIL 9 Yet, desolate and unpromising as the world looked in those days, Nature took heart and went busily to work to make a world that people could live in. She had the sun, the water and the wind as helpers, and more than that, locked up in those forbidding walls of rock, were the seventy-odd elements. She knew what could be done with those elements if she had patience enough, and took time enough, to unchain their prison doors. The Beginning of Soil Making. — First, Nature set the water to work to roughen up the hard, unyielding rock surfaces. We do not know how long that faithful serv- ant had to work before any impression was made, but we know it was a long, long time. And it would have taken much longer but for other helpers that came along and went to work at the same task. These were mul- titudes of light, invisi])le particles, not seeds, yet with the same power of growth that seeds have. They were the "spores" of a strange, rootless plant called lichen. These spores were sticky, and when once they settled upon the rock they could neither be washed away by the water nor blown away by the wind. Hozv Lichens Help. — You probal)ly have seen lichens many times, perhaps without knowing what they were. They are the grayish or greenish stain-like growths found on old tombstones or on bare stretches of rock. As larger, scale-like bodies you may see them on old walls or tree trunks. They lie flat against the surface where they grow, and are with difficulty pulled loose, ^;- , ■.- ■ : ,' .. -- :■.■/' "'] ; 1 M 'i-'- Stone Lichen lo FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS even where they are large enough to get hold of. They look harmless enough, but nothing else will cause a sur- face to decay so quickly as \ ; .'/ , to let it become the prey of these strange plants. (iii;;^, \ , ^ , 7 The first lichens to ap- pear on the bare rock sur- faces were mere stains in appearance. They spread till they looked like patches of l)rown dust. By the help of the water these dull, stain-like bodies l)egan to dissolve the rock below them and in time a much larger growth of lichens appeared. These in turn died, making a very thin layer of dust as their remains mingled with the worn particles of rock. Plants and TJicir Part in Soil-Making. — At last enough of this kind of soil was built up to give a foothold lo a few tiny seeds. After that the work went on a little faster, for every plant that grew and died fur- nished a little more soil for the plants that came after it. The roots helped, too, by thrusting themselves into every tiny crack and crevice, where they swelled as they grew, breaking off tiny flakes of rock and letting in the water and the air. Other Helpers. — So, after ages and ages of time, the soil that we know was built, deep enough to support the giant forest trees and rich enough to furnish food for all the living things on all the earth. As time went on THE SOIL II other helpers appeared in the form of worms and ani- mals, which, by l)urrowing down into the soil, helped to keep it loose and light enough for the growth of plants. It is hard to say to just which of these servants of Na- ture we owe the most, but as none of the rest could have Gravel and Soil at the Foot of the Glacier worked without its help we must probably thank the water for the greater part of the work of soil-making. What Water Does Toward Soil-Building. — Water has many ways of working and is able to work under almost any conditions. It gets into the tiniest fissures and freezes there, breaking off pieces and even bursting great 12 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS bodies of rock. It carries these fragments down the hills and across valleys, scraping and wearing and grind- ing them to powder. As ice, in the great glaciers of mountain regions, it imbeds great rocks thrown down from the mountain sides, holding them firmly as it proceeds on its slow, grim way to the plains, and break- ing them into bits against the sides and bottom of its rocky bed. It even carries mammoth boulders from place to place, rounding and smoothing them by fric- tion on the way. In many places may now be seen these giant rocks which scientists tell us were carried for long distances during the ''glacial period," an epoch of time before our history begins, during which most of northern and central North America was covered by an ice sheet. Since that time enough soil has formed on top of these boulders to support large trees. Soil-Bnilding To-day. — So we can understand a little of how what was once solid rock came to be the fertile ground we know. Soil-building is still going on, much faster than it did in those early days because many more forces are at work at it. It is a wonderful work, and one in which we may well be proud to help. SOME THINGS TO DO 1. Learn this quotation from Haskell: "Time should never be counted by years, but by deeds," 2. Questions to tbink about: Why were the first trees much smaller than the ones coming later ? THE SOIL 13 Why can none of the other soil-builders work without water? Why is surface soil richer than subsoil? How do common earthworms help in soil-building? How does it happen that soils of different kinds may be found in the same field? Name the different ways you think of in which water has helped in the work of soil-building. CHAPTER III PLANT FOOD WHAT IT IS AND WHERE IT COMES FROM Hoiv Plant Food in the Soil Increases. — As the earth's covering became deep and soft vast quantities of mate- rial were stored away in it to be used as plant food. Each bit of rock that was turned to dust, each plant that died and decayed, each animal or insect whose dead body went back to earth, added a little to this store of nourishment. Even the rain as it fell gathered up cer- tain elements from the air and brought them down to the ground to add to its richness. Elements Necessary to Plant Grozvth. — We have learned that there are over seventy of the natural ele- ments. Only about ten of these, however, are really necessary for plant growth. There are a few others that plants sometimes use, but these ten they must have or they will die. Combustible and Non-Combustible Elements. — There are two classes of elements that make up plant food. If you will try an experiment with some grains of corn vou can see how these are divided. Select ten large kernels and weigh them carefully. Now burn them in some way so that you can save every particle of the 14 PLANT FOOD 15 ashes, and weigh the ashes. What has become of the rest of it? You will say that it has burned. It has not been destroyed, however, but has gone otT into the air as gas. The part that thus escapes we call the combustible or burnable part. That which is left is called the non- combustible part. All the elements in the corn belong to one class or the other. The combustible part of a plant is about 95 per cent, of the dry part of it — that is, of all the elements in it except water. But as water makes up a large part of a growing plant the combusti- ble portion of such a plant would not be nearly so great as that of dry grains. Names of the Necessary Elements. — There are five of these elements which disappear into the air. They are: carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen and sulphur. There are five others which are left in the ashes ; phos- phorus, potassium, calcium, magnesium and iron. These ten things are what a plant must have to live and grow, and what it furnishes us, in other forms, for our food. Hoiv the Plant Gets Its Food. — How does the plant manage to get all these elements together? It has only two sources from which to draw its food, the soil and the air. Through its stem and leaves it obtains its whole supply of carbon and a part of its oxygen and water from the atmosphere. All the rest comes from the soil and is taken up by the roots. Why Plants Wither. — A plant can not use anything i6 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS that is not in the form of either a gas or a Hquid. So before it can take its food from the soil the elements must be "in solution"; that is, well dissolved in water. That is the reason plants wither and die during a long dry season. Without water a plant must starve to death even in the midst of plenty of food. That is why there are no plants on the deserts. There is plenty of food there for them and whenever a little shower falls, as sometimes happens even on the desert, tiny green things spring up and grow rapidly until the hot sun dries them up. Cake Making and Plant Making. — You have watched your mother make a cake, no doubt. She mixes a num- ber of things, just so much of each, and when she has stirred them together and baked them you enjoy the product very much. You would not like so well to eat each part separately. Perhaps she can take the very same things and, by putting in more of one article and less of some other, turn out something very different from what she first made. That is the way the plant does with the ten elements it gets from the air and the soil. It combines them in all sorts of ways and when it is through with them it stores them up in its roots, its fruit, its leaves or its stem until it needs them for itself, or until they are taken to be used by man. Substances Made by the Grooving Plants. — These are the most important of the substances which the plant forms by combining elements: PLANT FOOD 17 Cellulose, the fibrous,- woody part of plants. Starch, which forms a large part of potatoes, corn, wheat, etc. Sugar, which is found in all plants, and which exists in large quantities in the sugar cane, the beet, all kinds of fruits and the sap of the maple tree. Gum, a sticky substance, of which gum arabic is a good example. Fat, a solid, greasy matter, most abundant in such seeds as those of the palm, myrtle and laurel. Oil, a liquid fat, such as olive or linseed oil, cotton seed oil, almond oil and castor oil. Acids, the sour part of the juices of plants, very evi- dent in green apples, lemons, cherries and the like. Why Fertilisers Are Needed. — It is in these forms that we get what the plant first drew from the soil. If the ground has not in it all the elements the plant needs they must be supplied or the plant can not thrive. A farmer who sows his fields year after year must expect to put back some of the food the plants are continually taking from the ground or he will finally have his land entirely "worn out" — that is, devoid of available plant food. That is why fertilizers are needed, and why all dead leaves and other waste plant matter should be left to decay on the ground. Each decaying plant returns to the soil most of the elements it took from it. It is a poor plan, anywhere, to try to get something for nothing. The plant can not give us our food if it i8 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS does not have plenty of material to make it. So before planting our seeds we should be sure the soil has food enough in it for the growing plants, and that it is in the right form for them to use. SOME THINGS TO DO 1. Learn this quotation from Dr. Knapp: "If you would have your field feed you, feed your field." 2. Some questions to think about : Why is rainfall a better source of moisture than irrigation? Why can the same crop not be raised on the same land for many years without fertilizing? Why can the plant not use all the food elements in the soil? Suggest two ways in which soil fertility can be renewed. CHAPTER IV TWO WAYS OF GROWING THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN A CORNSTALK AND AN OAK TREE ( I ) First Difference, the Leaves. — What is the differ- ence between a cornstalk and an oak tree ? That sounds Hke a conundrum, doesn't it ? But it is not. It is a very serious question, and when you can answer it fully you will know the difference between the two great groups into which all flowering plants are divided. The first difference you will notice is in the leaves. Usually an oak leaf and a corn blade are very unlike in shape and size; but even if they were alike in those respects there would still remain one way in which they would differ greatly from each other. How do the veins of the corn blade run ? They do not 19 Typical Oak Tree 20 FIEJ.D LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS branch and cross like those in the oak leaf, but ero straight, or almost straight, from the base of the blade to its tip. No matter how close they may come to each other, they never touch or cross, but remain side by side, or parallel, all the way. Parallel Vkined Leaf (Grain Leaf) lUit in the oak leaf the veins make a delicate network that covers the whole leaf. Have you ever picked up a "skeleton" leaf in the woods — a dry, brown leaf from which every part but the veins had de- cayed? Do you remember how much it .looked like a dainty, crisp bit of brown lace? Nothing in the world of Nature is more beautiful and wonderful than this complex tracery of veins in such k'a\es as those of the oaks, maples, and hundreds of others of our trees and plants. 1m )r all tlic plants in the world, or very nearly all of them, belong, as we said before, to one or the other of these two great groups, the net-veined or parallel-veined plants. Which kind do you think you could find the most of in your own woods ? Net Veinki) Leaf (ALnplc Leaf) TWO WAYS OF GROWING 21 Second Difference, the Seeds. — But there are many other differences between the plants of these two great classes besides the difference in their leaves. Their seeds are not all alike, for one thing. Examine care- fully an acorn and a grain of corn. The acorn splits readily into two similar halves, while the grain of corn does not divide at all unless you cut it. So the oak may be said to have a two-parted seed, while the corn seed is one-parted. People who have studied these things very carefully tell us that nearly all of the plants with parallel-veined leaves have one- parted seeds, while plants hav- ing net-veined leaves have two- parted seeds. Third Difference, the Stem and Branches. — But the great- est difference of all is in the way the stems of these plants grow. Both may bear leaves, flowers and fruit, but while those hav- ing one-parted seeds and paral- lel-veined leaves usually have most of their foliage at or near the top, with very few branches, ^^™ ^^^^ ^''''^ if any at all, on the rest of the stem or trunk ; those hav- ing two-parted seeds and net-veined leaves may have 1)ranches all the way up, and have their foliage dis- tributed quite evenly over their whole structure. 1^ ^ 1 W'> I^J i 1 ^^^r^JH i§ 22 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS Transverse Section of Oak Tree Whai Jl'c Find Beneath the Bark of an Oak Tree. — If you cut an oak branch straight across you will find in the center a circle of pith, and around this a number of rings of woody fiber, the whole being sur- rounded by an outer circle of l)ark. You have counted the rings on the end of a log many times, no doubt, to see how old the tree was when it was cut, and know that a new ring of woody fiber is added every year that the tree stands and grows. Between the bark and the wood, although you can not distinguish it with the naked eye, is a circle of young cells which through all the growing season are at work making the new growth of the tree. These young cells increase and multiply, most of them being changed into the woody fiber that makes the new annual ring, while some of them make the new, tender bark which you see under the old, rough layer on the outside. This is called the "growing point" of the stem, and because it is outside of the solid cylinder that forms the main part of the stem, plants that grow in this way are called "outside grow- ers." The growth continues from the time it begins in the spring until it is checked by frost in the fall. Then the cells lie dormant until warm weather comes again, TWO WAYS OF GROWING 23 when they immediately begin work once more, making another ring to mark another season. They always be- gin right where they left off, so the stem keeps get- ting larger in diameter year by year. What We Find Be- neath the Rind of a Corn- stalk. — When you cut the cornstalk across, however, you find something very different. Instead of the pithy center, with its regular, surrounding rings of woody fiber, you find the whole stalk inside the thin, outer rind filled with pith, and the woody fiber scattered through it in long threads that run up and down the whole length of the stalk. These threads of woody fiber are very small, and the ends of them where you cut them off in cutting across the stalk look like little dots scattered through the pith. If you examine the thin, outside covering of the stalk you will find that it is full of these little thread-like fibers, too, set much more closely together than those on the inside of the plant. These fibers are really little bundles of cells that carry the sap up through the plant. They grow for only one Dormant Elm (This grand old elm stands in front of the National capitol at Washing- ton.) 24 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS season, then stop ; and as there is no "growing point" hke that in the oak stem they can not go on when spring comes again. So when these cells stop growing at the end of the sea- son we say the bundle is "closed." And as the new season opens, the stem can never increase in diameter as the stems of the outside growers can. Inside Grozvers and Outside ^™ mvER ""''"^ Grozvers.— Because the growth takes place inside the stem, plants of this kind are called "inside growers." Most grasses — and these include the small grains — the palms, bamboos, canes and similar plants belong to the inside growers. They have one-parted seeds, parallel-veined leaves, and usually bear three-parted flowers. Their stems do not enlarge in diameter after a few seasons' growth, but where they live on year after year, like the palms, they grow in height. Most of our forest trees, many of our field crops, such as beans, peas and clovers, and by far the greater part of our wild flowers and shrubs, belong to the outside growers. They have stems that resemble a cylinder in shape, leaves that have netted veins, two-parted seeds — sometimes more than two, but never less — trees and shrubs increase both in height and diameter from year to year. There are annuals, biennials and perennials. TWO WAYS OF GROWING 25 There are about twenty thousand kinds of plants that belong to the inside growers, while more than eighty thousand belong to the outside growers. So by far the greater part of the earth's vegetation belongs to the latter class. SOME THINGS TO DO Cut off the tip of an oak branch and find out how many woody rings it has. Then cut off the branch close to the trunk and count the rings. Is there a difference in number? Examine the bark of a tree and the rind of a cornstalk and see if you can tell why one needs to be so much thicker and heavier than the other. Plant some grains of corn and wheat in one box and some beans and squash seeds in another. In a little notebook write down everything you observe about their growth for the first ten days. What differences do you find ? Go to the woods and find five plants having net-veined leaves and five having parallel-veined leaves. How do their stems dif- fer ? In what way would you expect the seeds to differ ? What are the names of the plants found in the woods ? CHAPTER V THE RIGHT PLANT IN THE RIGHT PLACE JVhy Each Crop SJiould be Studied. — The struggle for existence has developed plants suited to different con- ditions. The conditions that suit one plant best may not do at all for another. Therefore if we want to make our various crops thrive we must study each one by itself and find out all we can as to the conditions and sur- roundings that suit it best. Otherwise we may plant crops on that part of the farm least suited to them and we may waste our efforts trying to grow crops not adapted to our soils or climate. ~ Difference in the Plant Food Needed. — Although all plants nuist have the ten elements spoken of before, they do not use them in the same proportion. A field of oats uses more potash than is used by the same amount of corn, while potatoes, or beets, or any of the root crops, take more than either oats or corn. Wheat requires perhaps less potash than the root crops but requires more nitrogen, and so on. Elements Most Important for Plant Food. — The most important soil constituents or soil elements whose supply we have to consider when we are studying our soils with 26 RIGHT PLANT IN THE RIGHT PLACE 27 regard to the plant food in them are nitrogen, potash and phosphorus, or phosphoric acid. The other seven ele- ments are usually present in sufficient quantities. Car- bon comes from the air, so there is always plenty of that. Oxygen and hydrogen come from water, and the rest are supplied about as fast as needed by the solution and decay of soil grains. So our work of supplying plant food is usually confined to the three elements named. Importance of an Element not Dependent upon Quan- tity Used by the Plant. — Of these three the question of the nitrogen supply is probably the most serious one. But for all that we can not say that nitrogen is the most important element, as each has a place of its own which no other can fill. Thus, while only a very small per cent, of iron is required to make a wheat stalk, yet the wheat could not grow without that tiny bit any more than it could without its much larger supply of nitrogen. You do not eat nearly as much salt as potatoes for your dinner, yet the little you do eat is just as important as the much greater bulk of potatoes. If you had no salt in your food it would be neither so palatable nor so digestible, and would do you little good. Hozv Nitrogen Differs from Other Food Elements. — So, though nitrogen is not properly more important than other elements which are used in smaller cjuantities, yet it must be more carefully considered than any other, for two reasons. One is, of course, because so much of it is needed ; the other is because so much of it is wasted. It 28 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS differs in this way from the other two important ele- ments named, potash and phosphorus. These are not so easily lost as nitrogen. The soil keeps such firm hold of them that they can not be taken out of it to any great extent except by the roots of plants as these use them. But nitrogen escapes in several ways. A great deal is washed out of the soil by rains and carried off in surface water; it seeps down into the subsoil so far that plants can not reach it ; in some forms it escapes quickly into the air. It is, in fact, a very sprite of an element, and objects strongly to being harnessed down to do the work of man. The only way to be sure of losing as little of it as possible is to have a growing crop on the ground all the time, waiting to take it up whenever it is ready to use. Hozv Legumes Catch and Hold the Nitrogen. — Our best servants for catching and holding nitrogen are those plants called legumes. These are the plants whose seeds are borne in little pods, like the clovers, peas, beans, vetches and peanuts. They have the power of taking nitrogen from the air in much larger quantities than other common plants can. And the legumes would be as helpless as other plants if it were not for tiny organ- isms called bacteria which like to live in the tissues of these plants. These bacteria are so very, very small that it takes a strong microscope to see them, yet they are very busy, helpful little servants for all that. In a strange way which no one exactly understands they are RIGHT PLANT IN THE RIGHT PLACE 29 able to take nitrogen from the air, especially from the air which fills the spaces between the soil particles. It is then carried through all the tissues of the plant, and in this way the plant itself is enabled to make use of the valuable element which these tiny servants have been busily gathering up/ Where the Bacteria Live. — If you pull up a cow pea or clover plant you can see the little homes where the bacteria live. They are the little balls on the roots, and are called "nodules." Millions of bacteria make their homes in the nodules on the roots of leguminous plants, and as they die the tiny bodies, which are very rich in nitrogen, are left in the nodules to decay and thus furnish more nitro- gen for the use of the plant. ' How Legumes Make the Soil Richer. — When the plant is cut down, and the root, with its nod- ules full of bacteria is left in the soil, you can see that some nitrogen is thus stored up for the use of the next plant which 1 To live and thrive the plant needs the nitrogen gathered by the bacteria, and for the same reason the bacteria must have the starch and sugar manu- factured by the plant. Each organism is necessary to the other and the exchange between them is symbiotic. Dcpt. of Agriculture Young Red Clover Show- ing Nodules 30 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS grows in the same soil. If the whole plant is turned under, very much more nitrogen is left in the soil, of course. So farmers have found that one of the best and cheapest ways to supply their soils with nitrogen is to grow legumes to turn under. You can see, however, why it is a mistake to think that simply growing legumes and taking them off the fields will make the soil richer, for in that w^ay no more nitrogen is left than the plant has consumed in its growth, and often not as much. OfJicr Sources of Nitrogen. — The greatest natural source of nitrogen for all plants besides legumes is that part of the soil called humus. This is made up of decay- ing vegetable matter, such as roots, stalks and leaves of plants which have lain and rotted where they grew. It is also supplied in large quantities by stable manure. Value of Hmmis. — Humus not only supplies nitrogen but saves it as well. The more humus there is in the soil the less it will wash, and therefore the less of this valuable plant food is lost. Soils containing plenty of humus do not dry out so quickly as those having little or none, and can stand a drought better on that account. Every boy who has worked on a farm knows that a dark soil is richer than one that is light colored, and that in a dry season the crops grow much better on it. He also knows that the soil in the wood lot stays moist much longer than that in the cultivated field. This is partly because the trees prevent evaporation, but it is due even more to the greater quantity of decaying vegetable mat- RIGHT PLANT IN THE RIGHT PLACE 31 ter in the soil. Humus also helps a great deal by making more of the phosphoric acid in the soil available. Soils that have little humus can not furnish nearly so much phosphoric acid for the use of plants as those which have plenty of humus, not because they do not have it, but because the action of the decaying vegetable matter is needed to put it into shape so the plants can take it up. For these reasons, and because it makes a heavy soil lighter and easier to handle, and a light soil richer and more productive, great care should be taken to keep our soils v^ell supplied with humus. When the ground begins to look light in color, and to become cloddy and sticky and hard to work, it is a sure sign that humus is needed ; and we must begin at once to supply it by using plenty of manure, planting crops to turn under, and in every way possible putting back the used-up vegetable matter that our crops must have if they are to do well. Hoiu Humus Soils Were Made. — It took Nature thou- sands of years to build up her humus soils. Just think how many, many times the plants and trees had to grow and die and decay to make the fine, rich, dark soil which all farmers know to be the best. We can not hope in a single year, or in five or ten years, to put back enough humus to last a great while. The right way to do is to keep putting back every year as much as our crops take out of the soil, and as much more as we can. Whether our soils grow richer or poorer depends altogether on how much more humus we give them than our crops 32 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS take out. The warmer the cHmate the more rapid is the decay of the vegetable matter in the soil, and the more rapidly is it used up. So in warm climates the humus in the soil must be looked after more closely than in colder latitudes, or the first we know it is nearly all gone and our soils have grown very poor. Generous Plants and Selfish Plants. — As some plants take more from the soil than others do, so some give back to it more than others. We have seen that leguminous plants leave more nitrogen in the ground than they take from it provided they have been plowed under. And a little thought will show that a crop like grass, which leaves a large amount of roots and stubble to form humus, does not exhaust the land so quickly as one which leaves little or nothing behind it, as beets or potatoes. Grains, such as oats and wheat, though they belong to the grass family, do not make as thick a mat of roots in the soil as those plants which are commonly called grasses, such as blue-grass, bermuda grass or timothy. Therefore they do not leave as much humus in the soil when they are cut. Another advantage which the heavier sod of the latter plants gives the soil is that it keeps the ground shaded more, and thus favors the development of another very useful form of bacteria, which are very active agents in taking up nitrogen from the air. These organisms will not work except in ground that has a considerable supply of humus, because ground that does not have it dries out too quickly. So RIGHT PLANT IN THE RIGHT PLACE 33 this is another reason for keeping plenty of humus in the soil. Results of Continually Planting the Same Crop. — The difference in the structure and growth of dift'erent plants makes it possible, as in the case of legumes which are plowed under, for one crop to replace some of the materials that are taken out by another. Crops requir- ing clean culture, such as cotton and corn, favor the rapid exhaustion or "wearing out" of the organic matter in the soil and the yields finally become so small as to be un- profitable. The effect on the soil is not the same for all crops. Alfalfa may occupy the land for many years without any decrease in the yields. Land grown con- tinuously in red clover may become "clover sick." Grass sometimes occupies the land for centuries without injury to the soil. Some crops maintain the supply of organic matter in the soil much better than others and if the. land is to remain productive the supply of organic matter must not run too low. It is the perishable part of a soil and the farmer, from time to time, must plow more or- ganic matter into his fields in order to keep up the supply. Weeds, insects and plant diseases are often worse where one crop is grown continuously. Reasons for Alternating Crops. — The farmer natu- rally prefers to grow cash or "money crops" but the enemies of these crops must be controlled and the land kept productive if they are to be profitable. A change to some other crop is often the best control for weeds, 34 FTKT.D LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS insects and diseases. Cotton, for example, is the only crop injured by the cotton boll weevil. Most insects that injure corn do not attack cotton or clover. Plowing un- der crop residues is one of the cheapest ways of putting organic matter in the land while some inexpensive crops are grown solely to be plowed under to aid in keeping up the supply of organic matter. If there were no enemies to injure the crops and if it were not necessary to add organic matter and nitrogen to the soil to keep it i)roduc- tive farmers would grow only the most valual)le crops. They grow more than one crop to prevent total failure and to provide a year's business. They may l)e able to save more by growing feed crops rather than buy them. Many things must be considered in planning the best cropping system. Another thing that makes it advisable to raise differ- ent crops in turn is that weeds are more easily subdued by doing so. A held of grass or small grain can not be cultivated while it is growing, and weeds would in time overrun the land if it were continually sown to those crops. By putting in an occasional crop that needs hoe- ing and cultivating, such as corn, cotton or sugar beets, the weeds can be kept in check. In handling a hoed crop, too, a great many insects are turned out for the birds and weather to destroy. Crop Rotation not a New Plan. — This practice of alternating crops is called rotation. It is said to have been practiced for many ages, in different forms, accord- RIGHT PLANT IN THE RIGHT PLACE 35 ing to the difference in soils and climates. The next chapter will show something of how it is carried on in our country, although of course the rotations differ greatly in dift'erent parts of our great land. The princi- ples remain the same, and can be applied everywhere. SOME THINGS TO DO 1. Examine the roots of all the crops that grow on your home farm. Compare those of wheat, corn, garden beet, clover. 2. How many of these questions can you answer? Write your answers. ( i ) In using a commercial fertilizer containing a readily available nitrogenous substance, such as nitrate of soda, it should not be applied until the plant roots are ready to take it up. Why? (2) It is not usually considered profitable to follow corn with a root crop. Why? (3) A steep hillside is not likely to be as fertile as the bottom land at its foot. Why? (4) A field that is badly infested with weeds should not be sown to wheat or any similar crop. Why? (5) Humus is called the most valuable part of the soil. Why? CHAPTER VI ROTATION OF CROPS Six Essentials to Good Crop Rotation. — There are six things to consider in planning a series of crops that will make a good rotation : first, to have a nitrogen-gathering crop, such as clover, peas, or beans; second, to plan an occasional crop requiring hoeing, to keep the weeds down; third, to keep up the su])ply of humus by means of crops which leave considerable residue in the way of roots and stubble; fourth, to keep something growing on the ground all the time, so as to prevent the waste of food elements; fifth, to alternate deep-rooted and shal- low-rooted plants; sixth, to follow a crop using much potash or ash, such as cotton or corn, with a legume or nitrogen-gatherer. First Steps in a Suggested Crop Rotation — Treat- ment of the Soil. — Let us see if we can plan a rotation that will meet all these requirements. Suppose we have to start with a piece of ground that has a good sod on it, like a hay field or pasture. When it is plowed we shall find that the ground is full of roots and stubble that will decay in it and make a fine supply of humus. But it will need time to do this before much of the plant food which 36 ROTATION OF CROPS 37 it holds will be ready for use. So it should be plowed some time before the crop is to be planted in order that the grass roots shall be given a chance to decay as quickly as possible.' A sod should be plowed in the fall or early winter if corn or cotton is to be planted the following- spring, as then the frost and moisture and air have a chance to s^et in their work of makinof the soil fine and mellow and ready for the crop to feed upon. ing early the food elements are made ready for use a1)out as soon as the crop is ready to use them, while if left until just before planting time none of this work of decomposition has been done, and the little plants will have hard work finding food to keep them alive. First Crop. — If we plant for our first crop something that has Ion By plow- g,, deep-feeding roots, they will use material that is some dis- tance below the surface as well as that near the top of the ground, and give our new supply of hu- mus still more time to get ready for use before it is needed. A crop that needs frequent working will be better, too, than one that can not be hoed, as then the sods can be more thoroughly l)roken up, and Dept. of Agriculture Corn Roots (S% feet from the top of the "stool" to the end of the roots.) 38 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS any weeds that have Ijcconie established in the pasture may be killed. In a sodded soil there are also likely to be grubs, wireworms and other injurious insects which fre- quent cultivation helps to destroy. The ])lants that best fill these re(|uirenicnts are corn, cotton or tobacco. They have moderately deep-feed- ing roots and need frequent cultivation. No other crops will do so well on sod ground. So we will put one of these first on our rotation when we begin with a sodded soil. A "Coiuc Between" Crop to Benefit the Soil. — We must not forget that we should keep something growing '?'' - . / Feathered Friends and Helpers CHAPTER XIII FRIENDS AND ENEMIES BIRDS AND INSECTS Good and Bad Birds and Bugs. — There are both friends and enemies among birds and insects. In this respect they differ from the weeds, which are all on the unfriendly list. Some birds and bugs do a great deal of good and only a little harm, others do much good and no harm at all, while still others may be classed as en- tirely harmful. As a whole our bird neighbors are our friends, while the insects that find homes in our fields and gardens are likely to cause us trouble. The Quail. — The greatest blame laid upon the birds is their injury to crops. Rut while people are talking about that they should not forget to mention that every 88 BIRDS AND INSECTS 89 bird destroys insects that might have damaged the crop far more than the bird has done. Then, too, while many birds Hke corn and wheat, they Hke weed seeds just about as well and eat great quantities of those that would otherwise take root and grow. This is espe- cially true of the quail, which more than pays for the grain it eats by ridding us of weeds, to say noth- ing of the potato bugs and other destructive insects that it consumes in enorm- ous numbers. The an- nual slaughter of these beautiful and friendly lit- tle birds is paving the way for much trou1)le with the foes they would destroy for us, and every thoughtful farmer will do his best to check it. The Blue Jay. — One of the most heartily disliked of our birds is the blue jay. He is accused of nearly every crime in the catalogue, from the pilfering of grain and fruit to housebreaking and rank cannibalism. Perhaps his impudent noisiness has been taken as a mark of his character, and this may be true to a great extent; but it is certain that he has been accused of much that he never Dc[>t. of /Igruiiltiirc Quail (Destroys insects in summ weed seed in winter.) and 90 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS thought of doing-. Like all other chatterers who make themselves conspicuous by loud, unmannerly ways, he has lain himself liable to be slandered. Among other crimes, he has been accused of breaking up the nests of other birds and eating both eggs and young. But out of 292 stomachs of blue jays examined only three held any traces of eggs and barely two showed any re- mains of young birds. This proves that at least one of the blue jay's crimes is not so prevalent as it has been made to ap- pear. iUit he does steal corn, and that annoying habit, together with the e(|ually annoying one of pecking holes in our finest apples and pears and helping him- self freely to our most delicious grapes and berries, puts him on the farmer's black list of thieves and mis- chief-makers. Yet a close study of his habits dis- closes the fact that "the greater part of the corn was eaten during the first five months of the year, little being taken after May, even in harvest time, when it is abund- ant." This indicates that most of the corn is gleaned Ui'l^t. of .Igriculture Blue Jay BIRDS AND INSECTS Qi in the fields long after harvest, and is waste grain, except what is stolen from cribs or gathered in May at planting time. For all his mischief the jay does the farmer some good service that he seldom gets credit for. He is very fond of wire-worms and caterpillars, as well as of grass- hoppers, and saves far more corn than he eats by killing thousands of these pests every season. What would happen to our grain fields if there were none of these bold hunters to keep such foes in check it is not easy to imagine. Yet when the little soldier takes pay for his services he is called a rascal and is hunted relentlessly. Some of his ways are pro- voking, but after all he does far more good than harm and should be given credit for his good deeds as well as charged with his evil ones. The Crozv. — What has been said about the jay ap- plies with equal truth to a number of other birds usually called harmful. Even that ebony rascal, the crow, is far from being as black as he is painted. He pays well for the young corn he pulls by destroying thousands of wire-worms and cut-worms, as well as grubs, mice and caterpillars. His Dept. of Agiiculture The Crow 92 FIELD LORE FOR YOUNG FARMERS mischief is done for a short time early in the season, as he is partial only to the softened grain he finds soon after planting, lie does not eat dry grain at all, so his corn- stealing does not last long, while his bug-catching goes on all summer. Blackbirds. — Rlackbirds, too, with the exception of 1 the crow blackbird, or pur- ple grackle, are usually blamed far more than they deserve. The crow black- bird, however, seems to be an unmitigated villain, and does perhaps more harm than p-ood. lie does not \l \Ij0^9^'^.J3^^\. confine his thievery to the soft kernels of. sprouting corn, but steals great quan- tities of wheat and other grains and pays his bills very scantily in the number of bugs he eats. Hawks and Sparrows. — Of our other common birds, only some hawks and the English sparrow seem to have no claims upon our gratitude. The hawk does some small service in the way of catching mice and weasels, but he also preys heavily upon our friendly birds, killing them or driving them away. The English sparrow does this, too, besides being an incorrigible little grain thief £)clH. of Agricnlliirc The Meadow Lark BIRDS AND INSECTS 93 and an all-round scamp. If he so far forgets himself as to do a decent deed or two he immediately forfeits our thanks by a series of small meannesses that we can hardly forgive. He is a regular little feathered tramp and should receive very little favorable consideration. The Birds Our Friends. — With these few exceptions we are safe in considering the birds as our friends. It is far greater wisdom to protect them and let them do police work among the bugs than to kill or drive them away and then have to fight the bugs ourselves. A single bird will kill more bugs in a season than half a dozen boys, and what do his small wages amount to beside what the boys would charge? We could not ex- pect boys to work for nothing — is it fair to expect the birds to do so? Insects. — When we come to consider insects we do not find so many friends, although there are some that are very helpful. Fortunately, most helpful insects are not much harmed by the birds. Most prominent among our friendly insects are the little spotted lady-bird, the Dept. of Agriculture The English Sparrow (A foreign bird without redeeming virtues.) <^V,v ,■;>'' (j.| |<|ia.l) \A)\