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ESSAYS 
 POFf JLAR EDUCATION, 
 
 CONTAINING A 
 
 PARTICULAR EXAMINATION 
 
 
 SCHOOLS OF MASSACHUSETTS, 
 
 AN OUTLINE 
 
 INSTITUTION FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS. 
 
 i. JJ. -M(X)UB 
 
 BY JAMES G. CARTER. 
 
 liOWLES & DEARBORN....N0. 72 WASHINGTON-ST. 
 
 BUTTON AND AVENTWORTII PRINTERS. 
 
 I82r.. 
 
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 X ftd 
 
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ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 Oefore the publication of " Letters on the Free Schools of New 
 England," in the autumn of 1824, it formed a part of the original 
 design of the author to pursue the subject in a series of papers of a 
 more popular character. Accordingly, duringthewinterof 18'24-5, the 
 following Essays were pubhshed in nnmbersinthe " Boston Patriot" 
 with the signature of" Franklin." Apart from the great faults in the 
 government and instruction of the common schools, arising chiefly 
 from the ignorance and inexperience of the teachers employed in them, 
 many intelhgent and patriotic citizens had come to regard with deep 
 regret the course of legislation, in this state, upon the subject of popu- 
 lar education generally. The free schools, strange as it may seem, 
 had received almost no legislative attention, protection, or bounty, 
 for nearly forty years. Of course, instead of taking the lead in im- 
 provement, as they should have done, they remained as nearly sta- 
 tionary, as any institution can remain, in such an age and such a state 
 of society, as those in which we live. Some men of longer foresight, 
 and many, whose interest in the subject, was quickened by their 
 having families to educate, saw and lamented this state of things ; 
 but as it was less trouble, on the whole, to build up schools of their 
 own, than to reform those already in existence, they sent in their pe- 
 titions to the Legislature in great profusion for acts of incorporation, 
 and for pecuniary assistance to enable them to establish Academies 
 under their own direction. These petitions were usually granted ; 
 and donations, small ones to be sure, were made to further their ob- 
 jects. But tlie obvious tendency of this course of legislation was to 
 help directly those citizens who least needed help, and to encourage 
 precisely that class of schools, which, if they were necessary, would 
 spring up spontaneously without the aid of legislative bounty. 
 
 Within a few years, even these higher schools, from their unwieldy 
 organization, have ceased to afford such instruction as the public 
 require ; and private establishments begin now to take the lead of 
 them. Thus have we departed more and more widely from the princi 
 pie assumed by our fathers in the establishment of the Free School.^, 
 viz. to provide as good instruction in all elementary and common 
 
IV 
 
 branches of knowledge tor the poorest citizen in the coaniionweahh, 
 as the richest could buy with all his wealth. Advancenient upon ad- 
 vancement has been made by a few, while the mass, who are less vigi- 
 lant remain as tliey were, with only the unconsoling advantage of a 
 little reflected light sent back by those, who have gone before them. 
 
 It was the main object of these essays to expose the pernicious 
 tendency of the above pohcy in the provisions for popular education, 
 in a political point of view ; and in pursuance of that object, the 
 author strove to fix the public attention upon those parts of the sys- 
 tem, which seemed, most imperiously, to demand reform. Among 
 the most glaring defects, w=^hich long experience and pretty wide ob- 
 servation had ])ointed out in the schools, was, the incompetency of 
 the teachers. And among the most obvious means of remedying 
 this capital defect, was, the establishment of an institution for the ed- 
 ucation and direct preparation of those teachers for their difficult and 
 important employment. An outline was, therefore, thrown out to- 
 wards the close of these essays, of an institution for such a purpose. 
 Though no legislative steps have yet been taken to carry this or any 
 similar plan into effect, the necessity of something of tlic kind is so 
 obvious, and the design has found so great favour with the public, 
 that an institution is about to be establisjied for the purpose on pri- 
 vate responsibility, with such aid and encouragement from the legis- 
 lature, as they may be pleased to bestow. Matm-er reflection, and 
 the changing the institution from a public to a private seminary, 
 will of course suggest and require some modifications in the plan 
 but the essential features must remain the same as here stated. 
 
 In regard to these essays, it seems but justice to observe, that, 
 although the facts and general course of reasoning contamed in 
 them were the result of previous research and reflection, they were 
 written out from loose materials, most of them, from day to day as 
 they were printed, without the thought at that time of their ever ap- 
 pearing in another form. They can, therefore, have no pretension to 
 literary merit. But the subject of them has since become so much a 
 topic of public interest and discussion, that it has frequently, and from 
 different quarters, been suggested to the author, that if collected and 
 put in a form more convenient and accessible, they might still further 
 promote the cause, which they were originally designed to subserve. 
 With the flattering hope that this may be in some degree the case, 
 they have been subjected to a very hasty revision, and are now offered 
 to the public in a pamphlet form. The author will not regret his la- 
 bour, if they win but a few more friends to tlie cause of popular 
 education. 
 
 Boston,'aSth October, 1826 
 
ESSAY I. 
 
 EXTENT OF THE SUBJECT. 
 
 The education of youth has excited, within tiiese i'ew 
 years, particularly in our own country, an unusual degree 
 of interest ; yet, not so much as its importance demands. 
 It has engaged the attention of some discriminating minds, 
 and enlisted the feelings of some ardent hearts ; yet, these, 
 too, are much fewer than the pu])lic good requires. In ap- 
 proaching a subject so comprehensive in its details as that 
 of education, it cannot be expected, that I should be zeal- 
 ous and rash enough to attempt, here, a very minute dis- 
 cussion of it. Especially, when the zeal and ardour, which 
 the importance of the subject naturally inspires, are con- 
 stantly allayed by the doubts, which hang around and ap- 
 prize me, that all my efforts may result in no good either 
 to myself or the public. It is a hope of some successful 
 influence, far enough from assurance, which encourages 
 me to discuss, briefly, a few only of the topics connected 
 with, and involved in it. This it will be my endeavour to 
 do plainly. I shall confine my remarks, more particularly, 
 to political views of the subject, and enforce the conside- 
 ration of them, more strongly, from political motives. 1 
 shall state some facts connected with our system of Free 
 Schools, which I think are not so generally known, or 
 whose importance is not so deeply felt as they ought to be. 
 And if I should find it necessary to point out a few faults 
 and defects in their organization, and also in the appropri- 
 ations of money for their support, it will not be with the 
 intention of impeaching the motives, or undervaluing the 
 efforts of those, who have laboured, however unsuccessful- 
 ly, to perfect the system, and bring from it the greatest 
 public good. But, if upon careful examination, defects 
 
6 
 
 shall be found to exist, and abuses be detected ; it is cer- 
 tainly desirable, that the former should be, forthwith, sup- 
 plied, and the latter corrected. I have not, however, even 
 in my own mind, reduced to such system, my ideas on the 
 subject of discussion, as to justify a more explicit state- 
 ment of what I propose to do. I must, therefore, leave my 
 subsequent essays to explain their own meaning and ob- 
 jects ; feeling perfectly assured that, if they cannot do that, 
 they will be of but little use. 
 
 The influence of education on our character and happi- 
 ness is not duly estimated, even by those, who seem to pay 
 most attention to it. The meaning of the term, even, in 
 its general acceptation, is much too narrow. It is thought 
 to comprehend a little instruction in the art of talking, 
 and reading over words, without any definite ideas attach- 
 ed to them — a few moral lessons in the form of maxims, 
 which are not understood, or arc constantly contradicted 
 by every example — and all enforced by the salutary discip- 
 line of the rod, agreeably to the injunction of the " Wisest 
 Man ;" who, with reverence be it spoken, made many wiser 
 maxims, than " spare the rod and spoil the child." Edu- 
 cation means more than this. It embraces all that series 
 of means, by which the human understanding is gradually 
 enlightened, and the dispositions of the heart are formed 
 and called forth, between earliest infoncy and the period, 
 when we consider ourselves as qualified to take a part in 
 active life. Though a consistent system fully developed, 
 with constant reference to the above definition, and tho- 
 roughly carried into practice, would be a great improve- 
 ment on all systems of education, wliich have hitherto pre- 
 vailed ; yet that definition would be much better if it 
 were more general still. It should embrace the develope- 
 ment of the powers of our bodies. This is as much a 
 branch of education, as the intellectual and moral devel- 
 opement of our heads and hearts. In fact, all that a man 
 is when grown to maturity, more than he is ai his birth, is 
 the result of education in its widest sense. 
 
 All its branches, in this general acceptation of the term, 
 are not equally within the reach of means, or subject to 
 our control, even when those means are applied with the 
 utmost human skill. The powers of the body, for instance, 
 will be, in some good degree, developed by the natural 
 course of things, without any direct efforts of our own. 
 
with reference to them. This circumstance is, perhaps, 
 one reason why this branch of education has been hitherto 
 neglected entirely, or never considered a part of it. Our 
 animal wants oblige us to make some use of our limbs, 
 whether we are willing or unwilling, in order to supply 
 those wants. And this necessary exercise of the powers 
 of our bodies, develops them, and constitutes all the edu- 
 cation, we have in one branch of the great subject. But 
 though the natural course of things, does more for our 
 education in this respect, than in any other, it is still ap- 
 prehended, that human means may be applied to this part 
 of education with a most happy effect. In the application 
 of our means, however, nature must not be contradicted in 
 her operations ; but followed and aided. With a thorough 
 knowledge of the physiology of our bodies, occasions and 
 opportunities may be arranged and presented for calling 
 into exercise all the various functions of the different parts, 
 without contradicting or forcing nature. But such a course 
 of discipline must be of incalculable utility in strengthen- 
 ing the power and quickening the energy of those parts of 
 the body, which are seldom, in the ordinary avocations of 
 life, called into action. The remark applies with pecu- 
 liar pertinency to those, who are destined from their cradle 
 to the life and sedentary habits of a student. Placed by 
 circumstances, they can hardly be called favorable circum- 
 stances, above the necessity of bodily exertions, they usu- 
 ally grow up a puny race, liable to be completely discom- 
 posed by every flake of snow and flaw of wind, which as- 
 sails them. The evils of such a defective education are 
 not learned till it is too late to apply a remedy. The ha- 
 bits of the body are formed, and cannot be changed with- 
 out violence to what has now become nature. And the 
 hold on life, of some of our most valuable men, is rendered 
 so feeble that it is to them, hardly worth possessing. One 
 would think it was a law of nature, that the powers of the 
 body must decline, precisely as those of the mind ad- 
 vance, till the unfortunate student finds himself all spiritu- 
 alized before his time. So much has this come to be the 
 fashion in our times, that it would be considered evidence 
 of great intellectual attainments to be occasionally sick of 
 dyspepsia, and to require now and then a journey or a tour 
 in Europe for the recovery of the health. And it would 
 be no less an evidence of stupidity and downright vul- 
 
 rr. ^ 
 
8 
 
 garity to be able to look a north-west wind in the face, to 
 toss a " fifty-six" in the air, and leap a five-barred gate. It 
 is submitted to an intelligent and reflecting community, 
 whether there be any thing inconsistent in the development 
 of the powers of the body, in connexion with the men- 
 tal and moral discipline, which have hitherto made up the 
 whole definition of education ; and whether some improve- 
 ment may not be made in our systems of education, which 
 shall make us physically stronger as well as intellectually 
 wiser. 
 
 But M"ho shall reform the theory and the practice of our 
 discipline for the young, so as to make its influence the 
 greatest and the best upon individuals and uj)on the pub- 
 lic ? All. Every member of the community. For every 
 one has a common and almost an equal interest in the result. 
 The older are the natural guardians of the younger. Upon 
 the former, therefore, devolves the responsibility of the edu- 
 cation of the latter. Itisbytheircare, that we are enabled to 
 survive the helplessness of infancy. It is by their larger 
 experience, that we are taught to moderate, or supply for 
 ourselves, the wants of childhood. It is by their aftec- 
 tionate counsels, by their uniform and consistent examples 
 of kindness and justice, of piety and devotion, we are won 
 to the cause of truth and virtue. In a word, it is by the 
 influence of all these, their care, their experience, their 
 counsel, and their example, that the young are allured from 
 one degree of moral and intellectual excellence to another, 
 till they approach the highest dignity of human nature. 
 Or it is by their neglect and indift'erence that the young- 
 are suffered ; and by their pernicious example, they are 
 taught, to grow up in ignorance and vice, distinguished 
 from the brutes, only, by the atrocity and malignity of their 
 crimes. 
 
 I have said that the older are the natural guardians 
 of the younger. This relation subsists generally, and is 
 independent of the forms and organization of civil society. 
 And by virtue of it, we are bound to lend the influence ol' 
 our example ; and, as far as is consistent with other duties, 
 to afford the light of our experience to warn them of ap- 
 proaching danger, to apprize them of happiness within 
 their reach ; and, by all the means in our power, to prepare 
 them to discharge, faithfully and successfully, similar duties 
 to those, who mav come after them, and be in like manner 
 
9 
 
 dependent upon them. This obhgation, though a general 
 one, is nevertheless a strong one. The duty it imposes is the 
 dictate of natural and unsophisticated feeling; and it results 
 directly from its obvious tendency to produce the greatest 
 degree of individual and public happiness. But, assuming 
 it to be granted, for it must be granted, that all, who have 
 arrived at greater maturity, and made larger attainments, 
 in what it concerns men most to know, are morally obliged 
 to do something for the benefit of the less experienced, 
 how will this obligation affect our own actions and practice i^ 
 As the obligation rests upon all, and exists prior to, and in- 
 dependently of, any of the nearer relations, in which we 
 may be placed to the young ; it must necessarily be so gen- 
 eral and indeterminate, as sometimes to admit a doubt of 
 its applicability to our particular case. And under doubt- 
 ful circumstances, and such will always exist, <»r be easily 
 created, we shall be quite likely to explain the obligation, 
 so as in a pretty good degree, to suit our own selfish and 
 short-sighted convenience. Fortunately for our happiness, 
 as well as for that of those who must be guided by our 
 experience, we are not left with so vague a rule for the 
 discharge of our obligations in this respect. The duty is 
 of the highest importance, involving in itself both tempo- 
 ral and eternal consequences ; the obligation is strong, and 
 the rule explicit. If we faulter in the discharge of that 
 duty, either through perversity or indifi'erence, the respon- 
 sibility, is surely and entirely our own. 
 
 Laws, where laws exist upon the subject, custom, and 
 the forms of civil society, have subdivided the labour of 
 instructing the young ; and narrowed the sphere of indi- 
 vidual responsibility almost to a point under our immedi- 
 ate inspection. None can, here, plead in mitigation of 
 their neglect of or indifference to the subject, ignorance of 
 where their duty lies, or who are the peculiar objects of it. 
 Though, perhaps, many acknowledging the duty, seeing 
 the objects of it, and being resolved to do every thing in 
 their power to discharge it, may be ignorant of what it 
 consists in. But when we have circumscribed the spiiere 
 of our responsibilities to the young, and brought them under 
 our own eyes ; when we clearly comprehend what we wish, 
 or what we may expect to accomplish by our eflbrts ; it will 
 then be seasonable to investigate or invent the means to 
 be used for giving to our exertions their greatest efficacy. 
 
 ^rr. 
 
ESSAY II. 
 
 INFLUENCE OF EARLY EDUCATION, 
 
 The earliest years of infancy are committed to maternal 
 tenderness by indications which can hardly be mistaken. 
 No mother who knows that her children require the par- 
 ticular care and protection of any one, can doubt that the 
 first stages of that care devolve, principally, upon her ; 
 though many who acknowledge the duty, and are devoted 
 to the discharge of it, may not know the best means of ac- 
 complishing their object. Timid in adopting any systema- 
 tic course of early education lest it should be wrong, and 
 anxious to do something lest their children should suffer 
 from their neglect, they commonly adopt and revoke, trace 
 and retrace, do and undo ; till, amidst all these contradic- 
 tions and conflicting principles, the whole period of life, 
 ^vhich is committed almost exclusively to their care, is 
 wasted in doing nothing effectually. Yet, however inef- 
 ficient this fluctuating and often entirely wrong course of 
 discipline may be, the infancy and childhood of compara- 
 tively few of any generation are blessed \vith even mater- 
 nal solicitude as to their education. By far the greater 
 part of the children of every age and of almost every na- 
 tion grow up without any instruction from their parents, 
 except a little aid in the development of such instincts as 
 serve to preserve their existence. Their whole education, 
 if it may be called by that name, is drawn from parental 
 examples, which are not always the best, and are often- 
 times the most corrupt ; and derived from the influence of 
 surrounding society, which, all will acknowledge, contains 
 abundantly enough of depravity to corrupt the propensi- 
 ties and pervert the tender principles of a child. The 
 character of each generation, whatever it may be, is thus 
 
11 
 
 entailed with but slight modifications, upon its successor. 
 And human reason and discretion have but little to do 
 about it. All the appetites and passions, which we possess 
 in common with the other animals, come into exercise with- 
 out our efforts, and often in spite of them. While reason and 
 the class of powers, which form man's distinguishing attri- 
 butes, are developed but slowly and with the greatest care. 
 The former, moreover, arrive at full maturity and strength, 
 long before we can raise up the counteracting power of 
 the latter to direct and control them. What wonder, then, 
 that mankind make slow progress in improvement, when 
 the current of strong influences sets so steadily against 
 them ! 
 
 But the state of society, in which we happen to live, is, 
 perhaps, as favourably constituted as any on earth, for de- 
 riving the full advantage from a judicious well directed 
 system of domestic education. For almost all have intel- 
 ligence enough to understand its influence on the future 
 character of children, and wisdom enough to appreciate 
 its importance to them. Few, too, are here so depressed 
 with poverty and want as not to have some opportunities 
 to be improved for this purpose. And comparatively few 
 have yet run so wild in dissipation and pleasure — that other 
 barbarism — as not to leave some interstices of time for re- 
 flection upon a subject ; which, one would suppose, must 
 be more important to them than any other. Systems of 
 domestic education, however, can only be improved by an 
 enlightened public opinion, and well informed heads of 
 families devoted to the subject. To them, particularly to 
 the mother, pertain the duty and the privilege of conduct- 
 ing the first stages of the education of their family. And both 
 the Church and the State, in modern times, must be con- 
 tent to leave their future pillars in these hands. 
 
 Neither lawgivers, nor the forms of civil society have of- 
 ten interrupted what seems to be so plain a law of nature, 
 instances are to be found, indeed, far back in the history 
 of the world, of a violation of it. But they are found 
 in ages, and amidst institutions, in other respects, very 
 different from our own. The Persian women, for example, 
 were so far awed by power or influenced by the institu- 
 tions and customs of their country, as to yield their child- 
 ren at a very early age, to the care of the public schools 
 provided for their education. It was not merely to give 
 
 /,. 
 
them up, for a lew hours in a day, to the care of instruct- 
 crs appointed by themselves and subject to their direction 
 and control. But they were no longer the children of their 
 mothers. The state or the public adopted them, and as- 
 sumed the whole business of their future instruction. The 
 institutions of the Persians, for early education were ex- 
 ceedingly simple in their organization, and perfectly adapt- 
 ed, as all institutions for similar purposes should be, to the 
 object, for which they are intended. They seem to have 
 been formed, too, under a strong conviction of the influ- 
 ence of early discipline. And they were so conducted as 
 to prepare the children and youth for a faithful and suc- 
 cessful discharge of the duties, which would devolve upon 
 them in the capacity of men. In one respect, certainly, 
 if no more, hints may be derived from them, useful even 
 to more modern and enlightened ages. I allude to the at- 
 tention which they paid to the developement of the physi- 
 cal as well as of the intellectual and moral powers. As a 
 great part of the lives of the men were employed in war, in 
 repelling the aggressions of their neighbours, and in mak- 
 ing aggressions upon them ; so a great part of their child- 
 hood and youth was taken up in athletic exercises or 
 the appropriate discipline of their bodies Of course, 
 where the influence of early education is in any degree, 
 understood, the discipline of the young will have a refer- 
 ence, to what they are to practice when older. And in 
 those states of society, where muscular force and agility 
 constitute the principal accomplishments of age, they will 
 be inculcated with the greatest assiduity upon youth. 
 
 But of all the ancient lawgivers, Lycurgus seems most 
 thoroughly to have understood the influence of early edu- 
 cation. And he most successfully turned its influence to 
 account in accomplishing his designs. " What he thought 
 most conducive to the virtue and happiness of a city," says 
 his biographer, " was, principles interwoven with the man- 
 ners and breeding of the people. These would remain im- 
 moveable,as founded in inclination, and be the strongest and 
 most lasting tie ; and the habits, which education produced 
 in youth, would answer in each the purpose of a lawgiver. 
 As for smaller matters, contracts about property, and what- 
 G\'er occasionally varied, it was better not to reduce these 
 to a written form and unalterable method, but to suffer 
 them to change with the times, and to admit of additions 
 
13 
 
 01- retrenchments at the pleasure of persons so well edur 
 cated. For he resolved the whole business of lio'is/ation into 
 the bringing up of youth.'' The Spartan children, therefore, 
 Were not under tutors, purchased or hired with money, nor 
 were the parents at liberty to educate them as they pleased 5 
 but as soon as they were seven years old, Lycurgus order- 
 ed them to be enrolled in companies, where they were 
 all kept under the same order and discipline, and had their 
 exercises and recreations in common. He, who showed 
 the most conduct and courage amongst them, was made 
 captain of the company, the rest kept their eyes on him, 
 obeyed his orders, and bore, with patience, the punish- 
 ments he inflicted ; so that their whole education was an 
 exercise of obedience. The old men were present at their 
 diversions, and often suggested some occasions of dispute 
 or quarrel, that they might observe with exactness, the 
 spirit of each, and their fimness in battle. 
 
 From this brief account of the institutions of Lycurgus 
 for the education of youth it will be seen, that it " was not 
 so much his object to give a knowledge of a great variety 
 of things, as to form the passions, sentiments, and ideas, 
 to that tone which might best assimilate with the constitu- 
 tions of the state; and so to exercise the abilities of both 
 body and mind, as to lead them to the highest possible ca- 
 pacity for the performance of every thing useful ; particu- 
 larly of every thing useful to the commonwealth."* By 
 the wisdom and energy of such a policy, he in a few years, 
 completely transformed the manners, customs, and charac- 
 ters of the Spartans. From an indolent, luxurious and de- 
 bauched people, he rendered them active, temperate and 
 virtuous, according to his ideas of those terms. So firmly, 
 too, had he established his institutions, and so intimately 
 had he blended their principles with the very characters 
 and nature of his people, by his system of education ; that, 
 by their own strength, they sustained themselves in healtliy 
 and vigorous action, for nearly five hundred years, after his 
 death. But " the beautiful pile of justice reared by the 
 pious Numa," says Plutarch, " presently fell to the ground, 
 being without the cement of education. For Numa left 
 it to the option or convenience of parents, to bring up 
 their sons to agriculture, to ship-building, to the business 
 
 *Mitfordv 
 
14 
 
 of a brazier, or the art of musician ; as if it were not ne- 
 cessary for one design to run through the education of 
 them all, and for each individual to have the same bias 
 given him ; but as if they were all like passengers in a 
 ship, who coming, each from a dift'erent employment and 
 with a difl'erent intent, stand upon their common defence 
 in time of danger, merely out of fear for themselves, or 
 their property, and on other occasions are attentive only 
 to their private ends." 
 
 Fisher Ames, indeed, in his essays upon the institutions, 
 of Lycurgus supposes that the number, who received their 
 education in the public schools, above described, consti- 
 tuted but a very small part of the whole Spartan youth, 
 and that the rest went at large, like the youth of the other 
 Grecian States with almost no instruction at all But 
 whether this theory be true or false is not important to my 
 present purpose to determine. 
 
 No one, I think, who has examined those institutions, in 
 connexion with the history of Sparta and the other cotem- 
 porary Grecian states, can doubt, that, it was by controlling 
 more perfectly the education of the youth, some or all of 
 them, he gave to her the distinctive national character, 
 which she preserved for so long a time after him. Whether 
 the Spartan or the Athenian character was the most per- 
 fect according to our notions of the perfection of national 
 character, is quite another question. The Spartan Law- 
 giver made his nation what he wished it to be. He desir- 
 ed age to be respected at Sparta. He taught the youth 
 this virtue ; and age was respected there. He wished to 
 banish luxury. He taught the youth to despise it ; and 
 luxury was unknown in Sparta. He wished to correct ef- 
 feminacy. He taught the youth to value themselves for 
 something else, to emulate each other in acts of hardship; 
 and who could endure suffering like the Lacedemonians ? 
 
 This overwhelming influence upon the character of a 
 people, was not acquired and exercised, by giving to the 
 young, now and then, a moral lecture upon the respect due 
 to age, upon " the uselessness of luxury," or " the advant- 
 ages" of a healthy constitution ;" while all these good max- 
 ims were constantly contradicted, and their influence coun- 
 teracted by every thing seen, and heard, and felt in the 
 examples of those about them. The young were taught 
 by all they saw to practice the virtues of the age, with- 
 
15 
 
 out being able to talk of their moral excellence, and 
 perhaps without even knowing them by a name. Man was 
 then imitative ; and he is now imitative. He will, there- 
 fore, copy what he sees in the examples of others much 
 sooner, than he will practice what he hears in their pre- 
 cepts. The abstract standard of excellence, too, with the 
 ancients, was not so far removed from the concrete stand- 
 ard exhibited in the conduct of men, as it is in modern 
 times ; and, of course, the moral lessons founded upon, and 
 drawn from that standard, were not so liable to be totally 
 wasted, as similar ones are at the present day. Every 
 thing around, which could be seized upon by the youthful 
 mind as an example, was then in more perfect keeping, 
 with what was taught them by precept. This circumstance 
 will account, in some degree, for the greater influence, 
 which the attention bestowed upon the education of the 
 young seemed then to have, than the same attention seems 
 now to have. I'he Spartan Lawgiver influenced his peo- 
 ple by means of early education, more than his cotempo- 
 raries, only, because he controlled more perfectly all the 
 associations of childhood and youth. He, and he alone, 
 seemed thoroughly to understand, and skilfully to turn to 
 his use, that principle of our nature, which has since been 
 so happily described by Dugald Stewart. " Whoever" says 
 he, " has the regulation of the associations of another, 
 from earliest infancy, is, to a great degree, the arbiter of 
 his happiness." 
 
 But the associations of the young, in a country, like our 
 own, cannot be so readily controlled as they could be with 
 the ancients. What could with them be affected by the 
 decree of a Lawgiver, must now be done by the slower, 
 though not less powerful influence of public opinion. 
 Where each individual constitutes a part of the sovereignty 
 of the State, each one must of course be addressed, di- 
 rectly or indirectly, and convinced of the utility of pub- 
 lic measures for improvement. WHien all this has been 
 done, steps are taken aftecting the interests of society, 
 with as great firmness, and with as rational a hope of suc- 
 cess, as if the process of making up the sovereign will were 
 more summary. 
 
 I have referred to these instances of attention paid to 
 early education among the ancients, not because I suppose 
 that their institutions are at all suited to our times, or fit 
 
16 
 
 to be adopted in our state of society ; but in order to show 
 by history and example — the safest teachers of human wis- 
 dom — the influence of early education, in a political point 
 of view. Human nature, it is presumed, is not essentially 
 changed since the empire of the Persians or the days of 
 Lycurgus. And if the Spartan could mould and transform 
 a nation to suit his own taste, by means of early education, 
 why may not the same be done at the present day ? The 
 children of modern times are as helpless and as ignorant 
 at birth as were the chddren of Sparta. If they have dif- 
 ferent characters when men, education has made them so. 
 And it may make another generation as different from the 
 present, as the present one is from the cruel though heroic 
 Spartans. The silence of history upon the subject, leaves 
 us to infer that they had five senses ; and we, of a more en- 
 lightened age, have no more. The wide diversity in our 
 characters, therefore, has been produced, by what those 
 senses have let into our minds and hearts, and the various 
 modifications of it, which ditlerentcircumstanceshave made. 
 The education which we receive from the society in 
 which we live, is partly beyond, and partly within our own 
 control. The influence of it is much more important to us, 
 than we commonly suppose. Indeed it makes up far the 
 greater part of our characters in manhood. We begin to 
 teel its power at birth, and continue to feel it till death. 
 How, think you, would a christian teacher succeed in mak- 
 ing a good christian character of a pupil, if that pupil were 
 surrounded from its cradle by JMussulmen only, and saw 
 and heard nothing, but what came from them, save the so- 
 litary lectures of his instructor.'* This view of the subject 
 will enable us, in some degree, to estimate the extent of 
 the influence of the education of example. Precepts nev- 
 er can, essentially, counteract the influence of examples ; 
 but the latter may and often do, as our daily observations 
 teach us, counteract the influence of the former. It is not 
 the instructions of the mother, though she next has the 
 greatest influence, it is not the maxims of the school- 
 inaster, though he were as wise as Socrates, it is not the 
 sermons and the exhortations of tlie pious minister, though 
 he were a perfect saint, which form the character of the 
 man in any country or in any age. The examples of the so- 
 ciety, in which he grows up, these form his character, and 
 make him what he is when matured in manhood. 
 
17 
 
 If then it is by the power of the examples which we 
 see, more than by the influence of any and of all other 
 means together, that our characters are what they are in 
 manhood ; if it depends upon these, whether we become 
 Pagan, Mahometan, or Christian ; if it depends upon these, 
 whether we grow up men of principle, or men without 
 principle ; men discharging all our duties to God, our 
 neighbour, and ourselves, or men neglecting and despising 
 them all ; it would seem to be a matter of some conse- 
 quence that the subject have a little consideration in this 
 aspect of it. It ought to arrest the attention of every man, 
 who is interested in the happiness of his fellow men, of 
 every one who is interested in the character, condition, and 
 prospects of his country, and above all, of every parent, 
 who is interested in the formation of that character of his 
 children, which is to abide by them here, and upon which 
 depends their destiny hereafter. 
 
 Although we cannot control the examples which may 
 be set before us, we may in a great degree, control those, 
 which v^e set before others, who will never fail to follow 
 them. And, if my readers will indulge me in a little more 
 preaching, there is no responsibility, which rests upon us, 
 as parents loving our children, as patriots loving our 
 country, as philanthropists loving mankind, or as ration- 
 al and immortal beings adoring our Creator, more solemn 
 to us or important to society, than that of yielding our in- 
 fluence, whatever it may be, for the improvement and the 
 advancement of the rising generation. Let the path of 
 virtue be cleared of the asperities with which the ignor- 
 ance and the wiles of men have obstructed it, and let it be 
 illumined by the bright and steady example of all, whom 
 children from their infancy most love and respect; and 
 there need be no fear but it will be followed by many, who 
 are now allured or driven from it. Though parents may 
 look with occasional concern upon the gambols of their 
 little ones by the side of the way, they may be assured 
 that they will always be within call. And when the exu- 
 berance of their life and spirits have subsided and less 
 embarrassed reason succeeds, they will be ready to take 
 up the undeviating course of their fathers and turn as 
 anxious an eye upon those who may come after them. 
 
 But he who has corrupted one youth whose examples 
 \yill again corrupt otJier vouths and so forward, the mora! 
 3 
 
18 
 
 Uiint s|>ieadiiig wider and wider at each remove from its 
 original source, while society continues its organization, 
 has inflicted an evil on an individual, which he can never 
 repair; he has injured society in a manner, which he can 
 never hope to remedy, though he should set over against 
 it a whole life of good instructions ; he has fixed a deep 
 stain upon the character of the community, which he can 
 never wipe out ; and he has destroyed, as far as his influ- 
 ence could destroy, capacities for happiness, which ema- 
 nate only from the goodness of God. 
 
 If such then be the influence of the state of society, in 
 which we grow up, on our characters; and if such will be 
 that of the society, which we constitute and must transmit 
 to posterity, on their characters ; it is important, that 
 those, who contribute more than others to give a form to 
 that society, whose larger acquirements and stronger 
 powers, whether of good or evil, go far to stamp with glory 
 or with infamy the character of their age, should consider 
 well, whether they do not counteract, by the instruction 
 of their example, what they take so much pains to incul- 
 cate, by their precepts. And if they do, though they 
 should cheat posterity into a belief that they have been 
 their greatest benefactors, they may rest assured that they 
 have entailed upon them their greatest curses. 
 
ESSAY III. 
 
 EXAMINATION OF THE SCHOOLS OF MASSACHUSETTS. 
 
 Enough has been said, to show the wide field, \vhich 
 the subject of education opens ; that it embraces tlie de- 
 velopment of the physical, as well as of the moral and in- 
 tellectual powers of man ; that many of its departments 
 have been, hitherto, wholly neglected, or committed to 
 chance ; and that many more are attempted under such 
 disadvantages, as to place a tolerably successful result be- 
 yond our reasonable expectations. That is, we exercise 
 opposite influences over the young ; counteracting by one, 
 the very purpose which we expect to attain by another. 
 And though I have done but little more than to glance at 
 the unbounded prospect which spreads itself before me, 
 and allures me by its freshness and its interest in every 
 direction ; it is, perhaps, more than time to turn away from 
 these general views of the subject, and attend to nearer 
 objects. There is enough under our own eyes, and within 
 our own doors, to engross all the time and attention which 
 we have to bestow. What have the people of Massachu- 
 setts done, what are they doing, and what will they do, in 
 the business of education ? These seem to me to be ques- 
 tions of the deepest interest to this whole community. 
 
 We can recur with no small degree of pleasure to our 
 history, and see what has been done. The pilgrims of 
 Plymouth set the first example not only to our own coun- 
 try, but to the civilized world, of a system of Free Schools, 
 at which were educated together, not by compulsion but 
 from mutual choice, all classes of the community, — the 
 high, the low, the rich, and the poor. A system, by which 
 the state so far assumed the education of the youth, as to 
 make all property responsible for the support of common 
 
2U 
 
 schools lor the instruction of all children. This institu- 
 tion was indeed the foster child, and has justly been the 
 pride of Massachusetts and of New England. Its influences 
 were strong and they still are strong upon the moral and 
 political character of the people. 
 
 If our ancestors were stern republicans, this institution 
 did more than any and all others, to make them so, and to 
 keep them so. While the best schools in the land are free 
 all the classes of society are blended. The rich and the 
 poor meet and are educated together. And if educated 
 together, nature is so even handed in the distribution of her 
 favors that no fear need be entertained, that a monopoly 
 of talent, of industry and consequently of acquirements 
 will follow a monopoly of property. The principle, upon 
 which our free schools are established, is in itself, a stern 
 leveler of factitious distinctions. Every generation, while 
 the system is executed according to the true spirit of it, 
 as conceived by our ancestors, will bring its quota of neu> men 
 to fill the public ])laces of distinction, — men who owe 
 nothing to the fortunes or the crimes of their fathers, but 
 all, under the blessing of God, to their own industry and 
 the common schools. I say the principle in itself, because 
 it has never been carried into full operation, and probably 
 never will be. 
 
 Its tendency, however, is not to level by debasing the ex- 
 alted ; but by exalting the debased. And it is a more 
 effectual check against an aristocracy of wealth, and 
 consequently of political influence, than would be a na- 
 tional jubilee and the equal distribution of property once 
 in fifty-years, without such a principle at the foundation of 
 our system of public instruction. " Knowledge is power," 
 says Lord Bacon ; and so is property power, because it will 
 procure knowledge. If we suppose society divided into 
 two classes, the rich and the poor, the property of the for- 
 mer class, if there were no such institution as the free 
 schools, would procure such immense advantages of edu- 
 cation, as to bring second, third, and any rate talents, 
 into successful competition with those of the first order, 
 without such advantages. 
 
 This use of property puts upon it its highest value. And 
 it would not be politic, if it were possible to destroy it. 
 But, it should seem that this use ought to be limited ; and 
 that some of our institutions, at least, ought to have the 
 
21 
 
 tendency to put all upon the footing, on which nature and 
 the God of nature left them. And just in proportion as . 
 you lose sight of, or abandon the true principle of the free 
 schools ; you lose sight of, and abandon all the moral, po- 
 litical, and religious blessings which result from them. 
 You check the diffusion of knowledge through all classes 
 of people. You stop the circulation through the extremi- 
 ties of the body politic of the very life-blood, which must 
 nourish and sustain them. You may preserve and amuse , 
 yourselves with the name of free institutions, and of a re- 
 publican government, but you will not be blessed with the 
 reality. You may incorporate in your constitution, if you 
 like, the articles, " that all men are born free and equal," 
 and " that all are eligible to the highest offices ;" but this 
 is not freedom, while ninety-nine hundredths of the com- 
 munity have not the means of fitting themselves or their 
 children, for discharging the duties of those high offices. 
 As well might you tie the legs, and pinion the arms of a 
 man, and tell him he has as fair a chance to win the race, 
 as one who is free and trained to the course. Something 
 like this our ancestors must have felt, who established the 
 free schools ; and something like tiiis, their posterity must 
 feel, if they would cherish and preserve ihem. 
 
 Tiie first organization of the schools under the Colony 
 Charter did not, probably, yield so good instruction, as was 
 afforded afterwards, or as is afforded now in them. But it 
 gave to all the best elementary education, which could be 
 procured in the country. The next organization under 
 the Province Charter gave better instruction to be sure ; 
 but its excellence was more the result of the progress ot 
 society in other respects, than of any improvements in the 
 discipline of the schools themselves. Though somewhat 
 advanced, they did not so much take the lead of society, as 
 they had done before ; and individuals began to look about 
 them and to supply for themselves and their families better 
 instruction than they afforded. Under our present con- 
 stitution, or for the last forty years, the schools have no 
 doubt been vastly improved. But they have, most certain- 
 ly, not kept up with the progress of society, in other re- 
 spects. Although their absolute motion must be acknowl- 
 edged to have been onward, their relative motion has, for 
 many years, been retrograde. And there never was a 
 time, since the settlement of the conntrv, when the com- 
 
22 
 
 mon schools were farther in the rear of the improvements of 
 the age in ahnost every thing else affecting our condition 
 and happiness, than they are at the present moment. 
 
 We impose upon ourselves in examining our literary in- 
 stitutions, and in estimating the efliciency of our means of 
 popular education somewhat in this manner. We see six 
 schools supported now, where there were once but three ; 
 and, therefore, conclude that just twice as much attention is 
 paid to education as there formerly was. But there are 
 probably four times as many scholars and inhabitants, up- 
 on the same territory as then supported the three schools, 
 and more than four times the amount of wealth. So that 
 instead of six, they ought at the same rate, to support 
 more than twelve schools. We see, indeed, many new 
 branches of learning introduced into all our lower semi- 
 naries, and hastily conclude, that all this is advancement in 
 their character and condition. True, it may be so ; but 
 how many new arts and sciences have sprung up within 
 these few years; and assumed the dignity of separate and 
 important departments of education.^ And what sort of 
 a figure in the world would your pupil make if desti- 
 tute of instruction in them ? Does a common school 
 education prepare those, who have that only, better for dis- 
 charging all the duties, which society requires of its best 
 and highest citizens, than it did forty years ago ? This is 
 the correct method of estimating the condition of the 
 schools. We must compare them with the altered state of 
 society in other respects. 
 
 Our instructors of the present day, would, no doubt, ap- 
 pear to good advantage when contrasted with those of the 
 last century. But compare them with the first men in the 
 community. What is their standing there ? By these 
 means, and by these only, can we decide correctly, whether 
 they are likely to take the lead in the improvements of the 
 age ; or whether they will, more probably fall lazily into 
 the wake of those improvements, which have gone far be- 
 fore them. Examine the amount of your appropriations 
 for the support of free schools, in connexion with the num- 
 ber of youth, who must be educated in them, and also in 
 connexion with the present wealth of the country ; exam- 
 ine rvhat is taught in connexion with what is required, in 
 order to discharge successfully, all the duties of a citizen 
 of the republic ; examine how it is taught in connexion 
 
23 
 
 vvitli the present improved state of science and tlie arts ; 
 and above all, examine the acquirements, the experience, 
 and tiie skill of your teachers, in connexion with the im- 
 portant duty which you assign to them ; and there can be 
 no doubt, that you will come to the conclusion, that the 
 condition of the free schools is far behind, what the im- 
 proved and improving state of society among us requires, 
 i^nd while you pass loud praises to the memory of your 
 ancestors, for the establishment of an institution, which 
 has contributed so much to your own happiness, prosperi- 
 ty, and glory, you stand convicted of perverting it in your 
 hands, and "defrauding posterity of an inheritance, which 
 was designed for them. 
 
 Having thus stated the principles upon which an exami- 
 nation mto our means of popular education should be 
 conducted, then briefly alluded to the principal points to 
 which inquiries should be first directed, and lastly inti- 
 mated the result, at which I have arrived, and at which 1 
 think all must arrive, in regard to the present condition of 
 the free schools, I now hasten forward to take a similar 
 view of other parts of the system. The decline of popular 
 education among us, or rather the comparatively retro- 
 grade motion of the principal means of it, has been more 
 perceptible, during the last twenty or thirty years, than it 
 ever was at any former period. And in the mean time, 
 there has sprung up another class of schools, more res- 
 pectable, indeed, in their character, and better answering 
 the demands of a portion of the public, but not free. The 
 academies are public, but not free schools. They are open 
 to the whole community, under certain conditions. But 
 those conditions exclude nineteen twentieths of the peo- 
 ple, from participating in the advantages, which they are 
 designed to afford. Leaving behind, then, nineteen twen- 
 tieths of the whole population of the state, the academies 
 have generally been so well conducted, as to meet the 
 wants and expectations of the other twentieth. This last 
 small fraction embraces that part of the community, who 
 set the highest value upon the influence of early educa- 
 tion, and are able to defray the expenses necessary to 
 provide for it. But in the rapid progress of knowledge, 
 and the consequent demand for instruction of all kinds,even 
 this class of schools has ceased to be adequate to supply 
 the wants of all. And private establishments begin to 
 take the lead of them. 
 
24 
 
 Now I rejoice at the establishment of every institution 
 for the education of youth, whether it be for the benefit 
 of one or a thousand, if it can be conducted upon better 
 principles of government and instruction than those which 
 generally prevail. It is matter of congratulation that there 
 are some among us, who feel the need of better schools; and 
 I am one of the most hearty admirers of the private enter- 
 prize, which would endeavour to supply so important a 
 public demand. I appreciate fully, too, the eflbrts of 
 those who have founded and conducted our public Acade- 
 mies. But, it is most deeply to be regretted, that their 
 plans are quite so much tinctured with the notions of the 
 last century, and, that the systems of instruction and go- 
 vernment, which they adopt, do not partake more largely 
 of the modern and improved ideas of education. The en- 
 ergy of their boards of directors, too, is frequently much 
 impaired by the struggles among individuals to adjust oppo- 
 site views and conflicting interests. And the fear of inno- 
 vation hangs like an incubus upon many, and paralizes the 
 eflTorts of all, even of those who have thrown it off. 
 
 Better schools and better instruction are demanded, 
 than the academies in their present state afford. And 
 they must soon be supplied. It is certainly to be regret- 
 ted, that these public demands exist to so great an extent, 
 and that they are every day increasing. It may here, 
 without impertinence, be suggested to those who control 
 the public academies, that if those establishments were 
 put in the condition in which it should seem they might 
 easily be put, they would meet the wants of even the 
 most discriminating, and anticipate the opening of private 
 schools of a higher character. If those wants exist, it is 
 certainly better that they should be supplied by private 
 schools, than not at all. But it would be much more for 
 the interest of the community, if they could be supplied 
 or anticipated by public ones. Not because it is any 
 evil, that a few scholars are withheld from the public 
 schools, and better provided for in private ones. But 
 every private establishment, which is so far superior to 
 the public ones, as to draw off a portion of the patronage 
 which would otherwise be bestowed upon them, detaches 
 a portion of the community from the great mass, and 
 weakens or destroys their interest in those means of edu- 
 cation which are common to the whole people. 
 
25 
 
 The character and influence of this enlightened and 
 efficient part of the community, who thus secede from the 
 whole, will be found in the end, when, })erhaps, it is too 
 late to remedy the evil, to be a loss, which has not yet 
 been duly estimated. Their property may be, cheerfully, 
 yielded to support the public schools, but their wisdom is 
 needed to direct them. The remote good of an improved 
 state of society, and the security and happiness of being 
 surrounded by more intelligent neighbours, may, for a time, 
 be sufficient to control the purses of people, but their 
 hearts will most surely follow and abide with their own 
 children. Now if the public academies, or at least some 
 of them, be not new modelled and improved so as to meet 
 the demands of even those, who demand the most, there 
 must inevitably a portion of interest in them, soon secede 
 from their support. And by the by, (may it be at some 
 very distant day) when our population comes to be crowd- 
 ed ; when our numbers have become so great as to press 
 hard upon the means of subsistence ; when property comes 
 to be more unequally distributed than it now is ; when the 
 rich become more insolent and the poor more depressed, 
 'more hungry, and more factious ; then will jealousies arise, 
 and grow strong, between the different classes of the com- 
 munity ; then will the children of the higher classes be 
 contaminated by contact with those of the lower ; then will 
 general and public interest yield to particular and private 
 interest; then will a large portion of the property be with- 
 held from the means of popular education, or be extorted 
 from unwilling owners ; then will the several classes, being 
 educated differently and without a knowledge of each 
 other, imbibe mutual prejudices and hatreds, and entail 
 them upon posterity from generation to generation. This 
 may be reffiiing a little too much, or looking a little too 
 deeply into futurity, but it is the natural tendency of things, 
 upon sound principles of political reasoning. Circum- 
 stances may conspire to hasten or retard the time, but the 
 time will come, when those who hold most property, will 
 not be so zealous, as they now are, to urge it u{)on others 
 for their better education. Charity between individuals, 
 is soon tired, when it begins to be abused. And a policy 
 in government, however generous and nobfe it may be, o})c- 
 rating in favour of the more ignorant and the weaker part oi 
 tiie communitv at the expense of the wiser and the stronger. 
 4 
 
26 
 
 will soon be abandoned, when it begins to be perverted. 
 May our rulers look to this natural and powerful tendency 
 of things, and check it while it may be checked ; or coun- 
 teract its influence as far as it may be counteracted. And 
 what means are there so likely to do this as an efficient 
 system of popular education, which shall bring ©ut and 
 put in vigorous action and keep in constant and struggling 
 competition the greatest amount of intellect among all 
 classes ! 
 
ESSAY IV. 
 
 ACADEMIES AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON THE FREE SCHOOLS, 
 
 The academies were unknown in Massachusetts before 
 the revolution. The oldest of these institutions is PhiHips" 
 Academy at Andover, the date of whose charter is 1780. 
 Before this time, all public schools, it should seem, were 
 also free. The number of these seminaries or high schools 
 did not much increase for many years after the close of the 
 revolutionary war. But, during a short period, about ten or 
 fifteenyears since, they were multiplied toaverygreatextent. 
 The people of Massachusetts, always desirous of following 
 the policy of the pilgrims of Plymouth in regard to schools, 
 seemed for a time absurdly to suppose, that they had but 
 to get an academy incorporated and established in their 
 neighbourhood, and that their children would be educated 
 without farther trouble. But in this too sanguine expecta- 
 tion, they have been most of them somewhat disappointed. 
 An act of incorporation has not been found, on experi- 
 ment, to be quite so efficacious as was, at first, anticipated. 
 And many of these institutions, which, in the imagination 
 of their projectors, rose at once almost to the dignity of 
 colleges, are now found in a very inefficient, indeed, in a 
 most wretched condition. 
 
 The legislature of the State, then willing and anxious 
 to encourage " learning and good morals " among the peo- 
 ple| — a duty, which the constitution solemnly enjoins upon 
 them, — by all means in their power, granted as many acts of 
 incorporation as were petitioned for ; and to many of these 
 corporations, in token of their good will, they appropriated 
 townships of land in the interiour and northerly part of 
 Maine, which then formed a part of Massachusetts. Some 
 of these townsliips of land, by the way, it i? to be feared 
 
28 
 
 uiuy be found on the wrong side of the boundary line to be 
 drawn between Maine and the British Provinces. So far 
 ' us this policy evinced a desire to encourage the diflusion 
 of knowledge, it should receive the commendation, which 
 good intentions always deserve ; but, for all practical pur- 
 poses for perhaps fifty years from the date of these charters 
 and appropriations, the legislature might about as well have 
 assigned to thic petitioners for them a tract of the Moon. 
 When these hungry corporate beings had been created 
 by the legislature, and their first cries for sustenance had 
 been soothed by the unsavoury dish of eastern lands, they 
 were then abandoned to the charity of their friends ; or, if 
 they proved cold, to a lingering death by starvation. The 
 eastern lands, which constituted the patrimony of the State, 
 were in most cases utterly unavailable. The benevolence 
 of Iriends was, generally, exhausted in accumulating the 
 means to erect suitable buildings. And the corporation 
 were left to relj upon their own sagacity for procuring other 
 resources to put their institution in operation. The more 
 essential, indeed, almost the oidy essential part of a good 
 academy, viz : a good instructer, was left unprovided for. 
 The only expedient which remained, was, to support the 
 teacher by a tax upon the scholars. It seemed but reasonable 
 that those, who enjoyed the exclusive benefit of the institu- 
 tion, should pay lor their own instruction. But this condi- 
 tion, though perhaps but a small sum was required of each 
 pupil in order to produce an adequate salary for an instruc- 
 ter, removed the advantages of the academies, at once, be- 
 yond the reach of a large proportion of the inhabitants. The 
 appropriations of the State, therefore, for the support of 
 these schools, if they benefitted any body in particular, 
 surely benefitted not the poor, but the rich and middling 
 classes of the community. At least, these enjoyed the 
 chief advantage of them, the direct rays of the State's favour; 
 while the poor could feel only a dim reflection of them. 
 >^ That the academies, at least, those of them wiiich have 
 
 been put and sustained in a tolerably respectable condi- 
 tion, have been a great accommodation to a few of our 
 inhabitants, cannot be doubted. And how few are thos'e, 
 who have received any advantages from them, may be 
 easily estimated by comparing the small number of children 
 instructed in tiiem, with the whole number in the Com- 
 monwealth. Still these are, or may be, useful institutions. 
 
1 have certainly no desire to lessen the high repute, in 
 which they seem to be held. On the contrary, I wish they 
 were in higher estimation than they really are. And, 
 what is more, I wish they were more worthy of that estima- 
 tion. But they should be appreciated tor the character 
 which they possess, and never for that which they do not 
 possess. And they are not establishments for the instruc- 
 tion of the poor. Neither can they be relied upon as effi- 
 cient means for the education of the mass or even a ma- 
 jority of the people ; because as has been before inti- 
 mated, their conditions exclude nineteen twentieths of the 
 whole population of the State from a participation of their 
 advantages. If they are sustained, therefore, it must bo 
 upon some other ground. What that ground is, it is not 
 my purpose now to inquire. But what has been their influ- 
 ence uDon the free or town schools ? 
 
 One influence, which they undoubtedly have had, lias 
 been to prepare young instructers some better than they 
 could be prepared in the town schools themselves. This 
 is a good influence. x\nd if the same object could not be 
 attained much better by other means, it would deserve 
 great consideration in estimating the utility, which we 
 are to expect from those establishments for the future. 
 But tl'.e 'preparation of instructers for the free schools, 
 never formed a part of the original design of the acade- 
 mies. They were intended to aiford instruction in other 
 and higlicr branches of education, than those usually 
 taught in the free schools ; and not merely to give better 
 instruction in the same branches. Much less did it come 
 within the wide scope of their purposes to give instruction 
 in the science of teaching generally. So that the little 
 good derived from them in this respect is only incidental. 
 
 The preparation of instructors for free schools is a subject 
 of such moment to this community, that it will hardly be 
 thought expedient, on reflection, to trust it to chance 
 or to incidents. Experience and observation have con- 
 vinced those, who have attended to the subject, that ade- 
 quate instructers for the free schools are not prepared b} 
 these incidental means. In order to be efiicient and effec- 
 tual in attaining that desirable object, means must be ap- 
 plied directly to it. But of the education of instructers. 
 more by and by. I wish merely now to say, and I trust 1 
 have shown, tliat the academies cannot be relied upon for 
 
30 
 
 accomplishing that object, so as in any good degree to 
 meet the demands and answer the reasonable expectations 
 of the community. 
 
 But the academies have had another influence upon 
 the public town schools, which has much impaired their 
 usefulness, and, if not soon checked, it will ultimately de- 
 stroy them. This influence, operating for a series of years, 
 has led, already, to the abandonment of a part of the free 
 school system, and to a depreciation in the character and 
 prospects of the remaining part. And it is working, not 
 slowly, the destruction of the vital principle of the institu- 
 tion, more valuable to us than any other, for the preserva- 
 tion of enlightened freedom. The pernicious influence, to 
 which I allude, will be better understood, by taking an 
 example of its operation on a small scale ; and then ex- 
 tending the same principle of examination to the whole 
 State, or to New England. 
 
 Take any ten contiguous towns in the interiour of this 
 Commonwealth, and suppose an academy to be placed in 
 the centre of them. An academy, as 1 have before ob- 
 served, commonly means a corporation, with a township of 
 land in Maine, given them by the State, and a pretty con- 
 venient house, built generally by the patriotic subscriptions 
 of those who expect to use it ; the instructer being support- 
 ed, chiefly or altogether, by a separate tax on t!ic scholars. 
 In each of these ten towns, select the six individuals, who 
 have families to educate, who set the highest value on early 
 education, and who are able to defray the expenses of the 
 best which can be had, either in a private school among 
 themselves, or at the academy, which, by the supposition, is 
 in their neighbourhood. Now of what immediate conse- 
 quence can it be to the six families of each town, or to the 
 sixty families of the ten towns, whether there be such a 
 thing as a free school in the Commonwealth or not ! Ihey 
 have a general interest in them, to be sure, because they 
 have themselves been there instructed, and the early asso- 
 ciations of childhood and youth are strong ; and they have 
 a sort of speculative belief, if it be not rather an innate sen- 
 timent, that free schools make a free people. But how are 
 their own particular, personal, and immediate interests af- 
 fected .^ Without any libel upon good nature, these are 
 the main springs to human actions. These are the motives, 
 which find their wav soonest to the human heart, and influ- 
 
31 
 
 eiice most powerfully and steadily the opinions of men. 
 and the conduct founded upon and resulting from them. 
 
 As soon as difficulties and disagreements, in regard to 
 the free schools, arise, as they necessarily must, upon vari- 
 ous topics ; such as, the amount of money to be raised, the 
 distribution of it among the several districts, the manner of 
 appropriation, whether it be to the " summer schools " or to 
 the " winter schools," to pay an instructor from this family or 
 from that family, of higher qualifications or of lower qua- 
 lifications, of this or that political or religious creed, or a 
 thousand other questions which are constantly occurring ; 
 if any of our six families happen to be dissatisfied or dis- 
 gusted with any course which may be adopted, they will, 
 immediately, abandon the free schools, and provide for the 
 education of their children in their own way. They may 
 organize a private school, for their own convenience, upon 
 such principles as they most approve. Or, they may send 
 their scholars, at an expense trifling to them, to the acade- 
 my in their neighbourhood. Well, what if they do ? The 
 free schools remain, all taxes are paid, cheerfully, for their 
 support, and the number of scholars is lessened. What is the 
 evil of their sending their children somewhere else to be 
 educated ? We should, at first, suppose that it would be 
 an advantage ; inasmuch as the amount of money to be 
 expended would be left the same, and the number of pupils 
 to receive the benefit of it would be considerably dimin- 
 ished. 
 
 But the evils of this course, and of the general policy 
 of the State government, which has led to it, are very se- 
 rious ones. When the six individuals of any country 
 town, who are, by the supposition, first in point of wealth 
 and interest in the subject, and who will generally be also 
 first in point of intelligence and influence in town affairs, 
 withdraw their children from the common schools ; there 
 are, at the same time, withdrawn a portion of intelligence 
 from their direction and heartfelt interest from their sup- 
 port. This intelligence is needed, to manage the delicate 
 and important concerns of the schools. And this heartfelt 
 interest is needed, to lead the way to improvements, to 
 stimulate and encourage larger and larger appropriations, 
 and to ensure vigilance in their expenditure. Patriotism 
 and philanthropy are dull motives to exertions for the im- 
 provement of common schools compared with parental 
 
32 
 
 ufiectioii. And tliis quickening power has gone oti" to the 
 academies or somewhere else with the children, who are 
 the objects of it. 
 
 Look at the operation of this influence of the academies 
 upon the free schools, on a still smaller scale. Examine 
 the condition of the latter in the very towns, where 
 academies are placed ; and where, if their influence be a 
 happy one, we should expect to find the conmion schools 
 in the best condition. What is the fact.^ From observa- 
 tion and from information collected from authentic sources, 
 the assertion may be hazarded that the condition of the 
 free schools will be found, on examination, to be worse, far 
 Avorse, in those towns than in any others. And it is for this 
 plain reason: because those, who can barely a ftbrd^the ex- 
 pense of tuition, will send their children to the academy, 
 which the state or benevolent individuals have built up for 
 their accommodation, and give themselves no farther trou- 
 ble about the free schools, but to pay the tax-bill for their 
 support when it is presented. 
 
 Thus the men, who would have the most interest in the 
 subject, the most intelligence and the most leisure to con- 
 duct the concerns of the town schools, secede from them, 
 and join themselves to other institutions. Abolish the 
 academy and leave these six families of each town to the free 
 schools alone, and you would find all their powers assidu- 
 ously employed to put them in the best condition possible. 
 Or rather put the free schools in a state to aflbrd as good in- 
 struction as the academies now do, and you would supersede 
 in a great degree the necessity of them. And it is appre- 
 hended, that it would be quite easy to place them upon a 
 footing to give even better instruction, at least, in all the 
 elementary branches of a common education, than the 
 academies now give or ever have given. If the princi- 
 ples suggested above for the examination of our means of 
 popular education be correct, and if the influence of the 
 private establishments upon the academies, and of the 
 academies upon the free schools be really such as it has 
 been described to be, my readers, by following out the 
 inquiries which those principles lead to, in all their rela- 
 tions and bearings, cannot fail to convince themselves, that 
 something may be done, as well as much said upon this 
 subject. 
 
ESSAY V. 
 
 FAULTS OF THE FREE SCHOOLS. 
 
 Towards the close of my third essay, a comparison was 
 instituted between the rcademies and those private estab- 
 lishments, which begin and will continue to grow up, 
 while the former do not aftbrd as good instruction, as can 
 be procured in this or in any country. The conclusion 
 was, that as a means of public instruction, the academies 
 are, decidedly, the most to be relied upon ; because their 
 conditions do not exclude more than nineteen twentieths of 
 the people, from the free enjoyment of their advantages ; 
 whereas, the private establishments of high character, are 
 beyond the reach of at least ninety-nine hundredths. In my 
 last essay, a comparison, upon the same principles, was 
 drawn between the academies and the free schools. And 
 the conclusion was, that we cannot safely rely upon the for- 
 mer, either for directly instructing the mass of the people, 
 who are found only in the free schools, or for preparing in- 
 structers for them, and thus, indirectly, accomplishing the 
 same object. Our only reliance, therefore, is upon the town 
 schools; because access to them is open to all. Whereas, 
 certainly not more than one twentieth, and probably not more 
 than one fiftieth of the whole population can gain admittance 
 to the academies at all. Hence, if any measures are to be 
 taken, or any appropriations to be made by the legislature 
 for the diffusion of knowledge generally, it should seem 
 that the free schools demand their first attention. They are 
 the foundation not only of our whole system of public instruc- 
 tion, but of all our free institutions. Let our rulers take 
 care, then, that this basis be not allowed to crumble away 
 on any pretence. If it do so, there will be wrenching in 
 the political fabric, \vhcn it will be too late to apply a 
 5 
 
34 
 
 brace, — disorder and confusion, when it will be too late to 
 take the alarm, — and impending ruin when it will be too 
 late to escape it. But let this foundation be laid deep and 
 firm, not only in the constitution and the laws of our coun- 
 try ; but also in the heads and the hearts of our country- 
 men. The care of the higher seminaries of learning, the 
 ornaments of our system of popular education, will more 
 appropriately follow. 
 
 Before we attempt, however, to take a single step to- 
 wards reform let us see what we have to amend. Unless 
 faults can be shown to exist in the organization of our sys- 
 tem of popular education, and great ones ; it will do but 
 little good to recommend improvements. For it is with 
 communities as with individuals ; and " no one," says Fish- 
 er Ames, " is less likely to improve, than the coxcomb, 
 who fancies he has already learned out." The pride, 
 which we of New England have been accustomed to feel 
 and, perhaps, to manifest, in our free schools, as the best in 
 the country, and in the world, has not improved their con- 
 dition. But, on the contrary, the great complacency with 
 which we contemplate this institution is a most effectual 
 bar to all improvements in it. The time has come, when 
 we owe it to our country and ourselves to speak the whole 
 truth in this matter, even though it disturb our self-satis- 
 faction a little. 
 
 It will be convenient to point out the faults of the pub- 
 lic provisions for popular education under the two follow- 
 ing heads ; first, the " Summer Free Schools," which are, 
 generally, taught in the country towns for a few months in 
 the warm season of the year by females ; and second, the 
 " Winter Free Schools," which are taught by men, com- 
 monly, for a shorter period, during the cold season. 
 Children of both sexes of from four to ten or twelve years, 
 usually attend these primary summer schools, and females 
 often to a much later age.* This is a very interesting peri- 
 od of human life. No one, who has reflected much upon 
 the subject of early discipline ; no one, 1 trust, who has 
 even followed me through the preceding essays, can doubt, 
 that it is one of the most important parts, if not the very most 
 important part of our lives, as it regards the influence of 
 education in its widest sense. It is important as it re- 
 
 * See Letters on the Free Schools of New England, pp. 29 — 32. 
 
36 
 
 gards the developemcnt of the powers of the body, or 
 physical education. Because the parts of the body, the 
 limbs, the muscles, the organs, or whatever are the techni- 
 cal names for them, now assume a firmness and consistency 
 in discharging their proper functions, or they become dis- 
 torted and enfeebled ; and these habits, thus early con- 
 tracted, become a part of ourselves and are as abiding as our 
 lives. Yet what has been done in this branch of edu- 
 cation ? Nothing at all, absolutely nothing at all, even in 
 our best schools. This period is vitally important as it 
 regards the cultivation of the heart and its affections. 
 What has been done here ? Chance and ill-directed eftbrts 
 make up all the education, which we have received or are 
 giving to our children in the schools in this department. 
 Finally, it is important to us, as it regards the discipline of 
 the head, the developemcnt of the understanding and its 
 faculties. What have we done in this department? We 
 have done something, indeed, and think that we have done 
 much. We have done, and we continue to do, more than we 
 do ivcll. We resort to many expedients and apply many 
 means, without distinctly understanding, either what we 
 wish to attain, whether it be possible to attain it, or if so, 
 the adaptation of our means to its attainment. Success 
 here, therefore, if the best possible results have ever been 
 gained in any instance, has been more the result of 
 chance than of skill. 
 
 To wliom do we assign the business of governing and 
 instructing our children from four to twelve years of age ? 
 Who take upon themselves the trust of forming those prin- 
 ciples and habits, which are to be strengthened and con- 
 firmed in manhood, and make our innocent little ones 
 through life, happy or miserable in themselves, and the 
 blessings or the curses of society ? To analyze, in detail, 
 the habits, which are formed and confirmed in these first 
 schools, to trace the abiding influence of good ones, or to 
 describe the inveteracy of bad ones, would lead me 
 from my present purpose. But are these interesting 
 years of life and these important branches of education 
 committed to those, who understand their importance or 
 their influence upon the future character? Are thev com- 
 mitted to those, who would know what to do, to discharge 
 their high trust successfully if they did, indeed, understand 
 their importance r 1 think not. And I am persuaded, that all, 
 
36 
 
 who have reflected but for a moment upon the age, the 
 acquirements, and the experience of those who assume to 
 conduct this branch of education, must have come to the 
 same conchision. 
 
 The teachers of the primary summer schools have rarely 
 had any education beyond what they have acquired in the 
 very schools where they begin to teach. Their attain- 
 ments, therefore, to say the least, are usually vcnj irwderate. 
 But this is not the worst of it. They are often very young, 
 they are constantly changing their employment, and con- 
 sequently can have but little experience ; and what is 
 worse than all, they never have had any direct preparation 
 for their profession. This is the only service, in which we 
 venture to employ young, and often, ignorant persons, with- 
 out some previous instruction in their appropriate duties. 
 We require experience in all those, whom we employ to 
 perform the slightest mechanical labour for us. We would 
 not buy a coat or a hat of one, who should undertake to 
 make them without a previous apprenticeship. Nor M'ould 
 any one have the hardihood to otier to us the result of his 
 first essay in manufacturing either of these articles. We 
 do not even send an old shoe to be mended, except it be 
 to a workman of whose skill we have had ample proof. 
 Yet we commit our children to be educated to those, who 
 know notliing, absolutely nothing, of the complicated and 
 diflicult duties assigned to them. Shall we trust the de- 
 velopement of the delicate bodies, the susceptible hearts, 
 and the tender minds of our little children to those who 
 have no knowledge of their nature ? Can they, can these 
 rude hands finish the workmanship of the Almighty ^ No 
 language can express the astonishment, which a moments 
 reflection on this subject excites in me. 
 
 But I must return to the examination of the qualifications 
 of the female teachers of the primary summer schools, from 
 which purpose I have unconsciously a little departed to in- 
 dulge in a general remark. They are a class of teachers 
 unknown in our laws regulating the schools unless it be by 
 some latitude of construction. No standard of attainments 
 is fixed, at which they must arrive before they assume the 
 business of instruction. So that any one keeps school, w hich 
 is a very diflerent thing from teaching school, who wishes to do 
 it, and can persuade, by herself, or her friends, a small dis- 
 trict to employ her. And this is not a very difficult mat- 
 
37 
 
 tcr, especially when the remuneration for the employ- 
 ment is so very trifling. The farce of an examination and 
 a certificate from the minister of the town, for it is a per- 
 fect farce, amounts to no efficient check upon the obtru- 
 sions of ignorance and inexperience. As no standard is 
 fixed by law, each minister makes a standard for himself, 
 and alters it as often as the peculiar circumstances of the 
 case require. And there will always be enough of peculiar 
 circumstances to render a refusal inexpedient. 
 
 Let those, who are conversant with the manner in 
 which these schools are managed, say, whether this de- 
 scription of them undervalues their character and efficacy. 
 Let those, who conduct them, pause and consider whether 
 all is well, and whether there are not abuses and perver- 
 sions in them, which call loudly for attention and reforma- 
 tion. Compare the acquirements, the experience, the 
 knowledge of teaching possessed by these instructers, 
 not one with another, for the standard is much too low ; 
 but with what they might be, under more favourable cir- 
 cumstances and with proper jireparation. Compare the 
 improvement made in these little nurseries of piety and 
 religion, of knowledge and rational liberty, not one 
 with another, for the progress in all of them is much 
 too slow ; but with what the infant mind and heart are 
 capable of, at this early age, under the most favourable 
 auspices. And there can be no doubt, that all will arrive 
 at the same conclusions ; a dissatisfaction with the condi- 
 tion of these schools ; and an astonishment, that the pub- 
 lic have been so lonsj contented with so small results from 
 means, which all will acknowledge capable of doing so 
 much. 
 
 The faults of the primary summer schools, then, are, 
 a want of adequate acquirements, a want of experience, 
 and a total want of any direct preparation of their teachers 
 for their employment. These must be acknowledged to 
 be great faults ; and they have affected and will continue to 
 •affect, essentially, the usefulness of the schools. Neither 
 reason, observation, nor experience leaves reffecting men 
 any consoling probability, that these defects will be reme- 
 died, or the condition of the schools be essentially improv- 
 ed, under their present organization. As to the acquire- 
 ments of female teachers; there is no standard, to which 
 they must be brought for decision, except on moral quali- 
 
68 
 
 fications. As to experience, they have usually none, and 
 they can never have but little ; because they are con- 
 stantly leaving their employment and new teachers assum- 
 ing it, without any system of their own, or any plan laid down 
 for their direction. As to direct preparation for the busi- 
 ness of teaching ; such a thing was never heard of. But 
 cannot some system or arrangement be devised, by which 
 the experience or the results of the experience of those, 
 who have gone successfully over the ground, may be com- 
 municated to the younger teachers, without the necessity 
 of their going over the same ground, and under precisely 
 the same disadvantages, all at the expense of the pupils. 
 
 Many of the above remarks upon the character and 
 qualifications of the teachers of the summer schools apply 
 with equal force to the young men, who undertake the in- 
 struction of the primary winter scliools, which now consti- 
 tute the highest class of schools, to which the whole pop- 
 ulation of the state have free access. My remarks upon 
 this class of instructers must also be general ; and as all 
 general rules have their exceptions, every individual will, 
 of course, consider himself as particularly excused. What 
 are the acquirements of these young men, who assume the 
 delicate and responsible duty of governing and instructing 
 a school of fifty or a hundred children. We have a cata- 
 logue, perhaps an ample one, of branches of knowledge, 
 which the laws suppose the candidates for the place of 
 teacher to be possessed of. But who knows that they come 
 up to established standard f And who knows that they 
 are fully possessed of the knowledge, which the laws re- 
 quire f And who knows, if they do possess it, that they 
 will be able to communicate it to their pupils f This is no 
 triflin<T consideration in estimating the value and usefulness 
 of an instructer .'' The laws provide that the minister and 
 the selectmen of each town shall assure themselves, that 
 their teachers possess the prescribed qualifications. The 
 minister. Which minister."^ There may be, and not unfre- 
 quently are, at the present day, half a dozen in the town. 
 Wiien the school-law was enacted, in 1TS9, our towns were 
 not broken up as they now are, and are likely to be for the 
 future, into small parishes. 
 
 Here, then, are six ministers in the same town, of ditfer- 
 cnt denominations, of different characters, of different dis- 
 crimination, and of ditierent qualifications, some of them. 
 
39 
 
 perhaps, hardly qualified to teach school themselves. Now 
 which one or two among them all shall decide on the quali- 
 fications of teachers ? Why let every one decide on the 
 qualifications of the instructors employed in his own parish. 
 This is very plausible, but not at all practicable. The dif- 
 ferent parishes are made up of families from every part of 
 the town ; whereas the several school districts are, and 
 necessarily must be, laid out without any reference to 
 them. The same school district, therefore, may, and prob- 
 ably will, contain families, many or few, from every parish 
 in the town. Then some one of the six ministers may de- 
 cide upon the qualifications of instructors for the whole 
 town, which those belonging to other parishes than his 
 own would certainly not agree to ; or each must be cloth- 
 ed with that power for the whole. What ! will yon allow 
 the itinerant preacher, who has only stopped for a few sab- 
 baths, or for a few months, to license instructors for the 
 whole town ? This is a result, which it seems must follow. 
 
 But the minister must be " settled." Then comes the 
 question what is a " settled" minister.'' When we are not 
 in the heat of controversy, we can understand such ambig- 
 uous language. But the laws do not define what constitutes 
 a settled minister. The " Cambridge Platform" is not the 
 acknowledged law of the land, upon this subject. The 
 parish, and any thing is now a parish, may define the mode, 
 in which the relation between them and their preacher 
 shall be solemnized. And who can interfere, and say that 
 a preacher " settled" only by a vote of uplifted hands is 
 not a minister within the intention of the school-law ot 
 1789. The looseness of this law has, already, led to difii- 
 culties in some places, and the only reason it has not in 
 more, is, that there is too much indifference to the subject 
 of schools and teachers generally, to induce men to quar- 
 rel about them. We have a law indeed and a bench for 
 justice ; but we have no judge, or rather any one judges, 
 who chooses to do so. 
 
 Other considerations readily suggest themselves to all, 
 who are acquainted with the relation subsisting betw^een 
 country clergymen and their parishes, why they should be 
 relieved of the responsibility of deciding upon the qualifica- 
 tions of teachers. Experience has long since proved, that 
 their decision does not ensure to the public competent in- 
 structers, which alone is sufficient reason why the duty of 
 
40 
 
 selecting them should be imposed upon others. The cler- 
 gy were once the only learned profession and almost the 
 only learned men in New England. Now, there are others. 
 The task of deciding upon the qualifications of teachers 
 is invidious, and those should perform it, whose usefulness 
 depends least on popular favour. 
 
 The young man, who lays down his axe and aspires to 
 take up the " rod" and rule in a village school, has, usually, 
 in common with other young men, a degree of dignity and 
 self-complacency, which it is dangerous to the extent of 
 his power to disturb. And when he comes to his minister, 
 sustained by his own influence in the parish, and that of a 
 respectable fatiier and perhaps a large family of friends, 
 and asks of him the legal approbation for a teacher, it is 
 a pretty delicate matter to refuse it. A firm and conscien- 
 tious refusal of approbation to a school-master, has led, in 
 more instances than one, to a firm and conscientious refusal 
 to hear the minister preacii. And. by the parish difficulties 
 growing out of so small an aftliir, he has found himself at 
 last " unsettled" and thrown witli his family, perhaps in his 
 old age, upon the world to seek and gain his subsistence 
 as he may. This is truly martyrdom. And martyrs in or- 
 dinary times are rare. Even good men can make peace 
 with their consc nces on better terms. So much tor the 
 literary qualifications of instructers.* 
 
 It is the intention of the school-law to secure good, 
 moral characters in the public instructers by requiring the 
 approbation, as to this qualification, of the selectmen of 
 the town, where the school is to be taught. No doubt 
 selectmen are as good judges of morality as any body of 
 men, which could readily be appealed to. But either we 
 are a very moral people, or they are not very discriminat- 
 ing ; for instances are rare, indeed, of refusal of their ap- 
 probation on tftis ground. Jf a young man be moral 
 enough to keep out of the State-Prison, he will find no 
 difficulty in getting approbation for a school-master. These 
 
 * Since the original publication of these essays, in 1824, an act has 
 passed the legislature of Massachusetts, which provides among other 
 things that a committee of not less than five persons shall be chosen 
 annually to superintend the schools ot'each town, and decide upon the 
 qualications of teachers. So tliat the clergy, whetlier they happen to 
 be of the connnittee or not, are now virtually relieved from the embar- 
 rassing duty which they have hitherto been obliged to iJerforrn. 
 
41 
 
 tilings ought not to be so. Both the moral and the intel- 
 lectual character of the rising generation are influenced 
 more by their instructers, during the period of from four to 
 twelve years of age, than by any cause so entirely withni 
 our control. It becomes then of momentous concern to 
 the community, in a moral and religious, as well as in poli- 
 tical point of view, that this influence should be the great- 
 est and the best possible. That it is not now so, every one, 
 I trust, who has followed me through my preceding essays, 
 is convinced. And if something be not done, and that 
 speedily, to improve the condition of the free schools, and 
 especially the primary snmmcr schools, they will not only 
 fail of their happiest influence, but in a short time of all 
 influence which will be worth estimating. 
 
 If the policy of the legislature, in regard to free schools, for 
 the last twenty years be not changed, the institution, which 
 has been the glory of New England will, in twenty years 
 more, be extinct, if the State continue to relieve themselves 
 of the trouble of providing for the instruction of the whole 
 people, and to shift the responsibility upon the towns, and 
 the towns upon the districts, and the districts upon indi- 
 viduals, each will take care of himself and his own family 
 as he is able, and as he appreciates the blessing of a good 
 education. The rich will, as a class,; '^ave much better 
 instruction than they now have, while the poor will have 
 much worse or none at all. T|ve academies and private 
 schools will be carried to much greater perfection than 
 they have been, while the public free schools will become 
 stationary or retrograde ; till at length, they will be tin-own 
 for support upon the gratuitous, and of course capricious 
 and uncertain eftorts of individuals ; and then, lilve the 
 lower schools of the crowded cities of Europe, they will 
 soon degenerate into mere mechanical establishments, 
 such as the famous seminaries of London, Birmingham, and 
 Manchester of which we hear so much lately, not for ra- 
 tional, moral and intellectual instruction of human beings, 
 but for training young animals to march, sing, and draw 
 figures in sand, — establishments, in which the power of one 
 man is so prodigiously multiplied, that he can overlook, 
 direct and control the intellectual exercises of a thousand ! 
 And this wretched mockery of education, they must be 
 right glad to accept as a charity, instead of inheriting as 
 their birthright as good instructioji as the country alfords. 
 
ESSAY VI. 
 
 OUTLINE OF AN INSTITUTION FOR THE EDUCATION OF TEACHERS 
 
 I HAVE now pointed to a few of the defects in our sys- 
 tem of popular education. I have remarked upon the poh- 
 cy of the legislature of the State, in regard to it, as having 
 the obvious tendency to depreciate the character of the 
 free schools. I have also shown the looseness and confu- 
 sion of our lavts upon the subject, in a manner, which I 
 trust has produced conviction, that they are now perfectly 
 nugatory ; both as it regards the literary and the moral 
 qualifications of the teachers. We have outgrown them 
 as we outgrow the garments of our childhood. They 
 might have fitted very well forty years ago, but they cer- 
 tainly look very awkwardly now. And it is high time they 
 were thrown off, and something adopted, which may be 
 more suited to the taste and character of the age. J have 
 made some remarks upon the teachers of the free schools, 
 both male and female, and it was my original purpose to 
 go more fully into detail in the examination of their char- 
 acters and qualifications in connexion with their duties. 
 But I must now forbear, and take for granted, what it will be 
 very easy to show if it should be necessary, their incom- 
 petency to govern and instruct the schools, so as to bring 
 from them the happy results, which these same schools 
 under better management are capable of producing. With 
 these remarks I leave the business of fault-finding, which 
 is sometimes a necessary, though always an invidious task. 
 
 The more agreeable, though perhaps more difficult part 
 of my plan, remains, viz : to suggest remedies for supplying 
 some of the defects, and correcting some of the abuses, 
 which have been already pointed out. This part of the 
 subject, too, " branches out into an infinity," which puts it 
 
43 
 
 ((uite beyond my power to go into detail. But, it is appre- 
 hended, this is not now necessary. It was necessary, how- 
 ever, todwell at some length upon a few of the moral and poli- 
 tical advantages of a correct system of education; and it was 
 necessary to point out, somewhat in detail, the defects and 
 abuses of our schools, in order to show that a reform was 
 required, — a ihorongh and radical reform. But I am not 
 visionary enough to suppose for a moment, that a change 
 involving such important interests and consequences, — a 
 change requiring such bold innovations upon established 
 Usages, as a new organization of our system of public in- 
 struction, however desirable it may be in inself, can be 
 affected suddenly. I know that it cannot. It is a sound 
 maxim, that reforms on all moral and religious subjects 
 are slow and progressive. Political changes, too, unless 
 they are at^ected by violence and revolution, are also slow. 
 And there is no reason to suppose, that a reform in the 
 organization of our schools, or in the principles of govern- 
 ment and instruction adopted in them, is an exception to 
 the general rule. But I am persuaded, that some changes 
 and improvements in our schools are most necessary ; and 
 1 trust they have been proved to be so. In order, there- 
 fore to complete the design, which I proposed to myself to 
 accomplish in these essays, it only remains, to sk(Uch in 
 a very concise manner, how and where, as it seems to me, 
 we should begin a reformation ; the future being left to 
 take care of itself. There will, no doubt, be opportunities 
 to pursue the subject more at length, hereafter. 
 
 In this view of the general subject of popular education, 
 all that immediately concerns us, is reduced to a very small 
 compass. Two objects embrace the whole. First, to pro- 
 vide competent teachers ; and second, to secure to the pub- 
 lic their employment as such. Indeed, the latter of these 
 objects is so entirely subsequent to the former, that we may 
 fairly say, that we have, at present, to attend to but one 
 single object, and that is, to provide competent teachers. 
 
 1"he character of the schools, and ofcourse their political, 
 moral, and religious influence upon the community, depend, 
 almost solely, upon the character of the teachers. Their 
 influence is strong or weak, just in proportion as the in- 
 structers are skilful or ignorant — energetic or feeble ; it is 
 in this direction or that direction, just as they are imbued 
 with one or another principle. So that whatever is done 
 
44 
 
 to elevate the character of teachers, elevates, at the same 
 time, and in the same degree, the character of the schools 
 which they teach, and enlarges and strengthens their influ- 
 ence upon the community. And whatever is done or suf- 
 fered to lower the character of the teachers, nuist sink, at 
 the same time and in the same degree, the character of the 
 schools, and destroy or pervert their influence upon soci- 
 ety. Many other considerations must be taken into ac- 
 count in organizing a perfect and an energetic system of 
 public instruction. These are some of them ; a generous 
 appropriation of money to the purpose, a proper classifica- 
 tion of scholars, an efficient and independent tribunal to 
 ensure competency in teachers and to overlook, examine, 
 and report to the public whether their duties have been 
 faithfully performed, and lastly, good books. But all of 
 these objects though highly important, are subsequent in 
 their nature to the preparation of teachers. And no one 
 of them can be attempted with a reasonable expectation 
 of accomplishing it to the greatest advantage, till good 
 teachers are provided and ready for the work. 
 
 It will do but little good, for example, for the legislature 
 of the State to make large appropriations directly for the 
 support of schools, till a judicious expenditure of them 
 can be ensured. And in order to this, we must have skil- 
 ful teachers at hand. It will do but little good to class the 
 children till we have instructers properly prepared to take 
 charge of the classes. It will do absolutely no good to 
 constitute an independent tribunal to decide on the quali- 
 fiications of teachers, while they have not had the opportu- 
 nities necessary for coming up to the proper standard. 
 And it will do no good to overlook and report upon their 
 success, when we know beforehand, that they have not the 
 ^ means of success. It would be beginning wrong, too, to 
 build houses and to tell your young and inexperienced in- 
 structers to teach this or to teach that subject ; however 
 desirable a knowledge of such subjects might be, while it 
 is obvious that they cannot know how properly, to teach 
 any subject. The science of teaching, for it must be made a 
 science, is first, in the order of nature, to be inculcated. 
 And it is to this point that the public attention must first be 
 turned, to aflect any essential improvement. 
 
 And here let me remark upon a distinction in the quali- 
 fications of teachers, which has never been practicall} 
 
45 
 
 made ; though it seems astonishing that it has so long 
 escaped notice. I allude to the distinction between the 
 possession of knowledge, and the ability to communicate 
 it to other minds. When we are looking for a teach- 
 er, we inquire how much he knows, not how much he can 
 communicate ; as if the latter qualification were of no con- 
 sequence to us. Now it seems to me, that parents and 
 children, to say the least, are as much interested in the 
 latter qualification of their instructer as in the former. 
 
 Though a teacher cannot communicate more knowledge 
 than he possesses ; yet he may possess much, and still be 
 able to impart but little. And the knowledge of Sir Isaac 
 Newton could be of but trifling use to a school, while 
 it was locked up safely in the liead of a country school- 
 master. So far as the object of a school or of instruction, 
 therefore, is the acquisition of knowledge, novel as the 
 opinion may seem, it does appear to me, that both parents 
 and pupils are even more interested in the part of their 
 teacher's knowledge, which they will be likely to get, than 
 in the part which they certainly caimot get. 
 
 One great object in the education of teachers which it 
 is so desirable on every account to attain, is, to establish 
 an intelligible language of communication between the in- 
 structer and his pupil, and enable the former to open his 
 head and his heart, and infuse into the other, some of the 
 thoughts and feelings, which lie hid there. Instructers and 
 pupils do not understand each other. They do not speak the 
 same language. They may use the same words ; but this 
 can hardly be called the same language, while they attach 
 to them such very diilcrent meanings. We must either, by 
 some magic or supernatural power, bring children, at once, 
 to comprehend all our abstract and diflicult terms ; or our 
 teachers must unlearn themselves, and come down to the 
 comprehension of children. One of these alternatives is 
 only diflicult, while the other is impossible. 
 
 The direct, careful preparation of instructers for the 
 profession of teaching must surmoutit this difficulty ; and 
 I doubt if there be any other way, in which it can be sur- 
 mounted. When instructers understand their profession : 
 that is, in a word, when they understand the philosophy of 
 the infant mind, what powers are earliest developed, and 
 what studies are best adapted to their developement ; then 
 it will be time to lay out and subdivide their work into an 
 
 /. 
 
46 
 
 energetic system of public instruction. Till this step 
 towards a reform, which is preliminary in its very nature, 
 be taken, every other measure must be adopted in the 
 dark ; and, therefore, be liable to fail utterly of its intend- 
 ed result. Houses and funds and books are all, indeed, 
 important ; but they are only the means of enabling the 
 minds of the teachers to act upon the minds of the pupils. 
 And they must, inevitably, fail of their happiest eifects, 
 till the minds of the teachers have been prepared to act 
 upon those of their pupils to the greatest advantage. 
 
 If, then, the first step towards a reform in our system of 
 popular education be the scientific preparation of teach- 
 ers for the free schools ; our next inquiry becomes, how 
 can we soonest and most perfectly achieve an object on 
 every account so desirable ? Tlie ready and obvious answer 
 is, establish an institution for the very purpose. To my 
 mind, this seems to be the only measure, which will ensure 
 to the public the attainment of the object. Jt will be cal- 
 led a new project. Be it so. The concession does not 
 prove, that the project is a bad one, or a visionary, or an 
 impracticable one. Our ancestors ventured to do what the 
 world had never done before, in so perfect a manner, when 
 they establised the free schools. Let us also do what they 
 have never so well done yet, and establish an institution 
 for the exclusive purpose of preparing instructors for them. 
 This is only a second part, a developement or consummation 
 of the plan of our fathers. They foresaw the effect of 
 universal intelligence upon national virtue and happiness ; 
 and they projected the means of securing to themselves 
 and to us universal education. They wisely did a new 
 thing under the sun. It has proved to be a good thing. 
 We now enjoy the results of their labours, and we are 
 sensible of the enjoyment. Their posterity have praised 
 them, loudly praised them, for the wisdom of their efforts. 
 Let us, then, with hints from them, project and accomplish 
 another new thing, and confer as great a blessing on those 
 who may come after us. Let us finish the work of our 
 fathers, in regard to popular education, and give to it its 
 full effect. Let us double, for we easily may, the happy 
 influences of an institution, which has already attracted 
 so much notice from every part of our country, and drawn 
 after it so many imitations ; and send it, thus improved, down 
 to posterity for their admiration. 
 
47 
 
 If a seminary for llic purpose of educating teachers sci- 
 entifically be essential in order to give the greatest effica- 
 cy to our system of popular education; then, in the pro- 
 gress of the discussion, the three following questions arise 
 in the order in which they are stated. By whom should 
 the proposed institution be established ? What would be 
 its leading features ? And what would be some of the pe- 
 culiar advantages to the public, which would result from 
 it. To answer these several questions at length would re- 
 quire a book ; v»'hile 1 have, at present, only leisure to pre- 
 pare one or two newspaper-essays. A few hints, thererefore, 
 upon the above three topics are all that I dare profess to 
 give, and more than I fear I can give, either to my own sa- 
 tisfaction or that of those readers, who may have become 
 interested in the subject. 
 
 The institution from its peculiar purpose must necessarily 
 be both literary and scientific in its character. And al- 
 though, with its design constantly in view, we could not 
 reasonably expect it to add, directly, much to the stock of 
 what is now called literature, or to enlarge much the 
 boundaries of what is now called science ; yet, from the 
 very nature of the subject to which it would be devoted, 
 and upon which it would be employed, it must in its pro- 
 gress create a kind of literature of its own, and open a new 
 science somewhat peculiar to itself — the science of the de- 
 velopement of the infant mind, and the science of com- 
 municating knowledge from one mind to another while in 
 a different stage of maturity. The tendency of the m- 
 quiries which must be carried on, and the discoveries which 
 would be constantly made, in a seminary for this new pur- 
 pose, would be to give efficacy to the pursuits of other lit- 
 erary and scientific institutions. Its influence, therefore, 
 though indirect, would be not the less powerful upon the 
 cause of literature and the sciences generally. These re- 
 marks may seem to anticipate another part of my subject; 
 but they are introduced here, to show, that a seminary for 
 the education of teachers, would stand, at least, on as fa- 
 vourable a footing in relation to the public as other lite- 
 rary and scientific institutions. It seems now to be believed 
 that the Legislature of the State are the rightful i)roprietors [ 
 of all public institutions for the diffusion of knowledge. 
 And if they are of any, they certainly ought to be of one 
 for such a purpose. Because there are none in which the 
 
48 
 
 public would be more deeply interested. There are none, 
 which would tend so much to ditTuse knowledge among 
 the whole mass of the people. And this, as has been be- 
 fore remarked, is a solemn duty enjoined upon our govern- 
 ment by the constitution, under which they are organized, 
 and from which they derive their authority. Besides it is 
 the first impulse of every government, operating as quickly 
 and as steadily as instinct, to provide for its own preser- 
 vation. And it seems to be conceded on all hands, by the 
 friends as well as the enemies of freedom, that a govern- 
 ment like our own can only exist among a people gener- 
 ally enlightened ; the only question as to the permanency 
 of free institutions being, whether it be possible to make 
 and to keep the ivhole population of a nation so well edu- 
 cated as the existence of such institutions supposes and 
 requires. 
 
 Our government, therefore, are urged by every motive, 
 which the constitution can enjoin or self-preservation sug- 
 gest to see to it, that knowledge is generally diffused among 
 the people. Upon this subject of popular education, a/ree 
 government must be arbitrary. For its existence depends 
 upon it. The more ignorant and degraded people are, the 
 less do they feel the want of instruction, and the less will 
 they seek it. And these are the classes of a community, 
 which always increase the fastest up to the very point, 
 where the means of subsistence fail. So that if any one 
 class of men, however small, be suffered as a body, to re- 
 main in ignorance, and to allow their families to grow up 
 without instruction, they will increase in a greater ratio 
 compared with their numbers, than the more enlightened 
 classes, till they have a preponderance of physical power. 
 And when this preponderance becomes overwhelming, what 
 hinders a revolution, and an arbitrary government, by 
 which the mind of a few can control the physical strength 
 of the many. 
 
 If this reasoning be correct, a free government must look 
 to it betimes, that popular ignorance does not gain upon 
 them. If it do, there is a thistle in the vineyard of the re- 
 public, which will grow and spread itself in every direction, 
 till it cannot be eradicated. The ignorant must be allur- 
 ed to learn, by every motive which can be offered to them. 
 And if they will not thus be allured, they must be taken 
 by the strong arm of government and brought out, willing 
 
49 
 
 or unwilling, and mado to learn, at least, enough to make 
 them peaceable and good citizens. It would be well, in- 
 deed, if the possibility could be held out to all of success- 
 fully aspiring to responsible stations in society. A faint 
 hope is better than despair. And though only one chance 
 in a thousand be favourable, even that is worth something 
 to stimulate the young to greater etlbrtsto become worthy 
 of distinction. The i^ew, who under all the disadvantages, 
 which adverse circumstances impose, can find their way by 
 untired perseverance to places of trust and influence in 
 the republic, serve to give identity of feeling, of purpose 
 and pursuit to the whole. They harmonise and bind to- 
 gether all those different and distant classes of the com- 
 munity, between which fretful jealousies naturally subsist. 
 
 These are hints, only, at an argument, perhaps unintelligi- 
 ble ones, to establish the principle, that free governments 
 are the proprietors of all literary and scientific institutions 
 so far as they have the tendency to diftuse knowledge gen- 
 erally among the people. The free schools of iMassachu- 
 setts, as the most efficient means of accomplishing that ob-' 
 ject, should therefore be the property and the peculiar care' 
 of government. An argument will, at once, be drawn from' 
 these principles why they should assume the direction of 
 the schools, so far as to ensure to the people over whom 
 they are appointed to preside, competent teachers of them. 
 And as this is the main purpose of the proposed institu- 
 tion, the reasoning seems to be conclusive, why they 
 should be its proprietor, or, at least, its patron and protec- 
 tor. 
 
 An institution for the education of teachers, as has been 
 before intimated, would form a part, and a very important 
 part of the free school system. It would be, moreover, 
 precisely that portion of the system, which should be un- 
 der the direction of the State whether the others are or 
 not. Because we should thus secure at once, an uniform, 
 intelligent and independent tribunal for decisions on the 
 qualifications of teachers. Because we should thus relieve 
 the clergy of an invidious task, and ensure to the public 
 competent teachers, if such could be found or prepared. 
 An mstitution for this purpose would become by its influ- 
 ence on society, and particularly on the young, an engine 
 to sway the public sentiment, the public morals, and the 
 public religion, more powerful than any other in the pos- 
 7 
 
^0 
 
 session of government. It should, therefore, be responsi- 
 ble immediately to them. And they should, carefully, 
 overlook it ; and prevent its being perverted to other 
 purposes, directly or indirectly, than those for which it is 
 designed. It should be emphatically the State's insti- 
 tution. And its results would soon make it the State's fa- 
 vourite and pride, among other literary and scientific in- 
 stitutions. The Legislature of the State should, therefore, 
 establish and build it up, without waiting for individuals at 
 great private sacrifices to accomplish the work. Such 
 would be the influence of an institution for the education 
 of teachers ; and such is the growing conviction of the 
 strength of early associations and habits, that it cannot be 
 long before the work will be begun in some form. If it be 
 not undertaken by the public and for public purposes, it 
 will be undertaken by individuals for private purposes. 
 
 The people of Massachusetts are able and willing, yea, 
 more than willing, they are anxious to do something more 
 for popular education, for the diffiision of knowledge gen- 
 erally. The only questions with them are how and where 
 can means be applied to the purpose to the greatest ad- 
 vantage. It may safely be submitted, by the friends of 
 the free schools, to a republican people and their republi- 
 can government, which institutions on comparison most 
 deserve the public bounty; those whose advantages can 
 be enjoyed but by a few, or those which are open to the 
 whole population ; those which have for their main objects 
 good that is remote, or those, whose happy influences are 
 felt, at once, through the whole community. Which insti- 
 tutions deserve the first consideration, and the most anxious 
 attention of a popular government, those, which will place 
 a few scholars and philologists upon a level with the Ger- 
 mans in a knowledge of Greek accents ; or those which 
 will put our whole people upon the level of enlightened 
 men in their practical knowledge of common things. These 
 objects may all be important to us. But the former will be 
 provided for by individuals ; the latter are the peculiar care 
 of government. 
 
 The next question, mentioned above, as arising in the 
 progress of this discussion, was, what would be the leading 
 features of an institution for the education of teachers. 
 If the institution were to be founded by the State, upon a 
 large scale, the following parts would seem to be obvious- 
 ly essential. ]. An appropriate library with a philosophi- 
 
51 
 
 cal apparatus. 2. A Principal and assistant Professors ia 
 the different departments. 3. A school for children of 
 different ages, embracing both those desiring a general 
 education, and those designed particularly for teachers. 
 4. A Board of Commissioners, or an enlightened body of 
 men representing the interests and the wishes of the pub- 
 lic.* 
 
 1. A library should of course be selected with particular 
 reference to the objects of the institution. It would natu- 
 rally and necessarily, contain the approved authors on 
 the science of education in its widest sense. It wouUl 
 embrace works of acknowledged merit in the various 
 branches of literature and science intimately connected 
 with education ; such as anatomy and physiology, the phi- 
 losophy of the human mind and heart, and the philosophy 
 of language. 
 
 Physical educationf forms a very essential part of the 
 subject and should be thoroughly understood. This branch 
 includes the development of all the organs of the body. 
 And works upon the physiology of cliildren should be 
 added to tiie library. Books on gymnastics, containing 
 directions for particular exercises adapted to the develop- 
 ment of the several organs, belong to the library of the ac- 
 complished instructor as well as to that of the surgeon. 
 Indeed, if the former properly use them, they will enable 
 him to give a firmness to the parts of the body, which 
 may, perhaps, supersede the necessity of the interference 
 of the latter to set them right in manhood. 
 
 The philosophy of the infant mind must be understood 
 by the instructer, before much progress can be made in 
 the science of education ; for a principal branch of the 
 science consists in forming the mind. And the skill of 
 the teacher in this department is chiefly to be seen in his 
 judicious adaptation of means to the development of the 
 
 * In clianging this institution, proi)osed two years ago, from a pub- 
 lic to a private establishment, the aliove plan will i-er jitire some slight 
 modifications. As soon as a suitable place can be .selected and the 
 necessary arrangements be made for opening the seminary, a pros- 
 pectus will be published stating its means and piu-poses more iu 
 detail. 
 
 f This topic had not when these essays were originally written 
 excited so much attention as has since been paid to the subject, or it 
 would, probably have been spoken of. here, more technically and at 
 
 length. 
 
intellectual iaculties. Every book, therefore, which would 
 aid in an analysis of the youthful mind should be plac- 
 ed in the library of the proposed institution. 
 
 The human heart, the philosophy of its passions and its 
 affections must be studied by those who expect to influ- 
 ence those passions and form those aftections. This branch 
 of the subject includes the government of children, espe- 
 cially in the earliest stages of their discipline. The success 
 of the teacher here depends upon the good judgment with 
 which he arranges and presents to his pupils the motives 
 that will soonest move them, and most permanently in- 
 fluence their actions. The mistaken or wicked princi- 
 ples of parents and instructors, in this department of edu- 
 cation, have, no doubt, perverted the dispositions of many 
 hopeful children. If successful experience has been re- 
 corded, it should be brought to the assistance of those, who 
 must otherwise act without experience. 
 
 Lastly, the study of the philosophy of language would be 
 essential to the scientific teacher. The term, language, 
 is not here understood to mean a class of words called 
 Greek, or another class of words called Latin, or even that 
 class of words which we call English. It means something 
 more general, and something which can hardly be defined. 
 It embraces all the means we use to excite in the minds of 
 others the ideas, which we have already in our own minds. 
 These, whatever they are, are included in the general defini- 
 tion of language. This is a great desideratum in our systems 
 of education. We do not possess a language by which we 
 can produce precisely the idea in a pupil, which we have in 
 our own mind and which we wish to excite in his. And 
 impatient and precipitate teachers quite often quarrel with 
 their pupils, because they do not arrive at the same con- 
 clusions with themselves, when if they could but look into 
 their minds, they would find, that the ideas with which 
 they begin to reason, or which enter into their processes of 
 reasoning, are altogether different. Every book or fact, 
 therefore, which would do any thing to supply this deside- 
 ratum, or enable the teacher better to understand precise- 
 ly the idea which he excites in the mind of his pupils, 
 should be collected in the instructor's library. 
 2. The institution should have its Principal and its assistant 
 Professors. The government and instruction of a semina- 
 ry for the education of teachers would be among the most 
 
53 
 
 responsible situations, which could be assigned to men in 
 literary or scientific pursuits. As many of the objects of" 
 the institution would be new, so the duties of its instruc- 
 ters would also be new. No commanding minds have gone 
 before precisely in the proposed course and struck out 
 a path, which others may easily follow. There are no 
 rules laid down for the direction of those, who will not 
 think upon, or who cannot understand the subject. Men 
 must, therefore, be brought to the task who have the abili- 
 ty to observe accurately and to discriminate nicely. They 
 nmst also collect the results of what experience they can 
 from books and from others, in order to enable themselves 
 to form some general principles for the direction of their 
 pupils, who will go abroad to carry their improvements to 
 others. It is not supposed for a moment that all, who may 
 receive instruction at the proposed institution with the in- 
 tention of becoming teachers, will necessarily be made 
 thereby adepts in the science ; any more than it is believ- 
 ed that all, who happen to reside four years within the 
 walls of a college are necessarily made expert in the mys- 
 teries of syllogisms and the calculus. But having seen 
 correct general principles of education successfully reduced 
 to practice, they may, at least, become artists in the 
 profession, and be able to teach pretty well upon a system, 
 the philosophy of which they cannot thoroughly compre- 
 hend. 
 
 3. A school of children and youth of different ages and 
 pursuing different branches of study would form an essen- 
 tial part of the institution. In the early stages of the ed- 
 ucation of children, the discipline should consist almost 
 wholly of such exercises as serve to develop the difiercnt 
 faculties and strengthen all the powers of the mind. And 
 in the subsequent education of youth, when the discipline 
 comes to consist partly in the development of the mind, 
 and partly in the communication of knowledge, the course 
 of instruction would be the same, whether the pupil were 
 destined to be a teacher or not. The objects of the insti- 
 tution do not, therefore, become peculiar, till after the pu- 
 pil has acquired a certain degree of freedom and strength 
 of mind ; nor till after he has made the acquisition of 
 the requisite amount of knowledge for the profession of 
 teacher. Though a pupil would necessarily imbibe a good 
 deal of clearness and method in his intellectual exercises. 
 
54 
 
 ,by submitting the direction of them to a skilful instrucici- ; 
 the study of the science of teaching can not properly be- 
 gin, till he changes relations with those about him ; and, in- 
 stead of following a course prescribed by another, and ex- 
 hibiting the powers of his own mind without an ctiort to 
 take cognizance of them, he assumes to look down upon 
 humbler minds, to direct their movements, and to detect 
 and classify the phenomena of their subtle workings. 
 
 After the young candidate for an instructor, therefore, 
 has acquired sufficient knowledge for directing those ex- 
 ercises and teaching those branches, which he wishes to 
 profess, he must then begin his labours under the scrutiniz- 
 ing eyes of one who will note his mistakes of government 
 and faults of instruction and correct them. The experi- 
 enced and skilful professor of the science will observe how 
 the mind of the young teacher acts upon that of the learn- 
 ner. He will see how far and how perfectly they under- 
 stand each other, and which is at fault if they do not un- 
 derstand each other at all. If the more inexperienced 
 teacher should attempt to force upon the mind of a child 
 an idea or a process of reasoning, for which it was not in 
 a proper state, he would be checked, at once, and told of 
 his fault ; and thus, perhaps, the pupil would be spared a 
 disgust for a particular study or an aversion to all study. 
 As our earliest experience would in this manner be under 
 the direction of those wiser than ourselves, it would the 
 more easily be classed under general principles for our 
 direction afterwards. This part of the necessary course 
 in an institution for the education of t'^achers might be 
 much aided by lectures. Children exhibit such and such 
 intellectual phenomena ; the scientific professor of educa- 
 tion can explain those phenomena and tell from what they 
 arise. If they are favourable, he can direct how they are 
 to be encouraged and turned to account in the develop- 
 ment and formation of the mind. If they are unfavour- 
 able, he can explain by what means they are to be over- 
 come or corrected. Seeing intellectual results he can 
 trace them, even through complicated circumstances, to 
 their causes ; or, knowing the causes and circumstances, he 
 can predict the result that will follow them. Thus every 
 day's experience would be carefully examined, and made 
 to limit or extend the comprehension of the general prin- 
 ciples of the science. Is there any other process or method 
 
55 
 
 than this to arrive at a philosophical system of education? If 
 any occurs to other minds, it is to be hoped that the ()ub- 
 lic may soon have the benefit of it. 
 
 4. The fourth branch, which I mentioned above as con- 
 stituting an important part of an institution forthe education 
 of teachers, was, a board of commissioners.* Although 
 they would, probably, have but little to do with the mime- 
 diate government and instruction of the institution, they 
 would be valuable to it by representing the w^ishes of the 
 community, and by bringing it more perfectly in contact 
 with the public interests. Besides, it must occur to every 
 one, that in the general management of such an establish- 
 ment, many of the transactions would require characters 
 and talents very different from those that would, generally, 
 be found in the principal or professors. Men might easily, 
 be found who would lecture to admiration, and yet be 
 wholly incompetent to assume the general direction of the 
 establishment. The professors, too, would always want 
 assistance and authority in determining what acquisitions, 
 should be required for admission into the institution, and 
 what proficiency should be deemed essential in the can- 
 didates before leaving it to assume the, business of teach- 
 ing. Upon what principles shall the school be col- 
 lected i' How shall the privilege of attending as new- 
 learners in the science of education be settled upon appli- 
 cations from difJerent parts cf the State or country ? These 
 and many similar questions would render a body of men 
 distinct from the professors important to the institution. 
 Many decisions, too, must necessarily be made affecting 
 individual and private interests. This would be an invidi- 
 ous duty, and the instructors should be relieved from it, 
 as far as possible. It is confidently believed, that the 
 peculiar advantages to be enjoyed at such an institution 
 by children and youth generally as well as by those designed 
 for teachers, would command a price sufficient to defray 
 nearly the whole expenses of the establishment. If not 
 so, then might not each town send one or more young 
 men to the institution to be properly educated for in- 
 tructers, and require them in return to teach their public 
 
 *In changing the plan of the institution from that of a public to u 
 private seminary this part of it must of course be dropped ; and its 
 connnunion with and adaptation to the' public interests be sustained 
 Tty other means. 
 
56 
 
 schools to liquidate the expense ? All these means, how- 
 ever, are subjects for future consideration, and are to be 
 devised, after the utility of the institution has been demon- 
 strated. 
 
 The peculiar advantages of an institution for the educa- 
 tion of teachers would be far too numerous and too im- 
 portant to be either embraced or enforced in the space, 
 which remains for this topic. A few, therefore, of the 
 most obvious ones are all, that can here be allured to. One 
 advaiitage and a very certain one, would be to raise the 
 character of teachers generally ; and consequently, in 
 the same degree, the character of the schools, which they 
 teach. Let us pause for a moment, to consider to what an 
 extent we are interested in every thing, which affects our 
 system of public instruction ; and hence derive a motive, 
 before we pass on, to enforce attention to every suggestion 
 for improvement in it. 
 
 There were in the district of Massachusetts, according 
 to the census of 1820, five hundred and twenty-three 
 thousand one hundred and fifty-nine souls. Of this num- 
 ber, two hundred and forty-one thousand seven hundred 
 and eleven were under the age of eighteen years. The 
 numbers have since been much augmented. If the popu- 
 lation has increased only as fast since the last census, as it 
 did between the census of 1810 and that of 1820, there 
 are now, in round numbers, about two hundred and fifty 
 thousand children and youth in Massachusetts, under the 
 age of eighteen years. This it will be perceived, amounts 
 to almost one half of the whole number of souls. If v.e 
 take from the older, those between the ages of eighteen and 
 twenty-one, and add them to the younger part of the popu- 
 lation, we shall find at least half, and probably more than 
 half of the whole, under twenty-one years. 
 
 These are all flexible subjects of education, in its most 
 comprehensive sense ; though they are not all within the 
 influence of that part of it, which can be easily controlled 
 by legislation, or indeed by any means except by an en- 
 lightened public opinion. A few of this great number 
 have left the schools and all direct means of education, 
 and entered upon the active business of life. And a portion 
 of the younger part of them are yet subjects only for do- 
 mestic education. But after these deductions from the 
 two extremes, it will not be extravagant to state, that one 
 
bt 
 
 third of the whole population are of a suitable age, have 
 opportunity, and do actually attend school some portion of 
 the year. In Massachusetts, we have not the means of 
 knowing, accurately, the numbers of children and youth, 
 who attend our schools ; because we have no system of 
 returns to any [)ublic authority, by which such facts can be 
 ascertained.* But I am confirmed in the belief, that the 
 above is not an extravagant estimate, by two circumstan- 
 ces. One of them is, several towns have been carefully 
 examined, and this is about the proportion of the popula- 
 tion found in their schools. And the other is, official do- 
 cuments and acknowledged authorities from the neigh- 
 bouring state of Connecticut, inform us, that one third of 
 the population attend their free schools a part of the year. 
 And probably the same would be found to be true of New 
 York as well as of the remainder of the New England 
 states. 
 
 These are statistical facts. Others may reason upon 
 them and draw what conclusions they can, about emigra- 
 tion, the future prospects of New England, her comparative 
 influence in the Union, and the facilities she aftords for a 
 manufacturing district. They have been introduced, here, 
 because they suggest motives stronger than any others, to 
 enforce attention to our means of popular education. One 
 third of our whole population are now at that period of 
 life, when their principles and characters are rapidly form- 
 ing. Habits, both moral and intellectual, are taking 
 their direction and acciuiring the strength of age. In all 
 this, the schools must have a deep influence. Both the 
 degree and the kind of influence arc, to a certain extent, 
 within our control and consequently depend upon our ef- 
 forts. In twenty years, and surely twenty years are not 
 
 * An act passed the Iesri:^latiire, last March, requiring returus to be 
 made to the Secretary of State, from the School Cominittees of the 
 several towns touching tlie number of free and private schools, the 
 amount of money expended upon them, the number and ages of the 
 pupils attending them, and some other particulars. In partial obedi- 
 ence to this law, returns, many of them loose and impertect, have 
 been made from 127 towns oidy ; an abstract of which has been as 
 carefully and intelligibly prepared by the Secretary of State, as the 
 nature of the materials would admit, and published by order of the 
 General Court. When these returns are made accurate and com- 
 plete from every town in the Commonwealth, they will enable the 
 public to acquire a more thorough knowledge of the subject and 
 consequently to act upon it with greater energy and precision. 
 8 
 
58 
 
 beyond the ken of a tolerably clear-sighted politician, this 
 part of our population will succeed to most of the respon- 
 sible places and relations of their fathers. They must 
 receive all that we have to leave for them. They must 
 take our names and attach to them honour or infamy. 
 They must possess our fortunes to preserve or disperse 
 them. And they must inherit our free institutions to im- 
 prove, pervert, or destroy them. Here then, are the 
 strongest political motives as well as paternal affection urg- 
 ing upon us attention to all the means of forming, ^correct- 
 ly, the characters of those, who are to receive from us our 
 choicest blessings. And what means within our control 
 can be devised more efficient for this purpose, tiian those 
 primary seminaries for instruction, where the mass of the 
 people must receive several years of their education. 
 Find, if they are to be found, or create, if they are not now 
 to be found, a class of teachers well skilled in their profession, 
 and put them into all our free schools. What an effect 
 would soon be produced in their condition ! And what a 
 renovating influence these same schools would soon have 
 upon the character of the whole people, who have access 
 to them. 
 
 But these are general advantages of a good class of 
 teachers. I promised to speak of the peculiar advantages 
 of the proposed institution to produce them. The library 
 collected with particular reference to the objects of the in- 
 stitution, would contain the facts of the science of educa- 
 tion scattered along in the history of the world. Facts 
 are the materials of philosophy. x\nd we cannot philoso- 
 phize, safely, till we have an extensive stock before us. 
 The library would naturally collect, not only those phe- 
 nomena relating to the subject, which have already 
 been observed ; but also the records of those, which must 
 be daily passing before our eyes. Books connected with 
 and collateral to the science will be as important to the 
 purposes of the institution as those professedly written up- 
 on the subject. And frequently they will be found to be 
 much more so. Because the former contain the facts and 
 the phenomena, while the latter have only an author's rea- 
 soning and conclusions upon them. And the authors, who 
 have written upon education, with very few exceptions, 
 have reasoned speciously, but from very limited and im- 
 perfect inductions. So that their conclusions, though they 
 may be correct, as far as they had the necessary means of 
 
39 
 
 making them so, are liable to fail, totally, when reduced to 
 practice under circumstances a little different from those 
 from which the principles have been formed. We want more 
 experience before we begin to reason at large and to draw 
 sweeping conclusions on the subject. And our library 
 would be chiefly valuable, as containing that experience 
 or the results of it accurately and authentically recorded. 
 
 But the conclusions of writers on the subject, though 
 received and repeated by every body, are not binding and 
 beyond question, till we know, that the facts from which 
 they reasoned, are all which can affect the principles that 
 they deduce from them. And to believe, that the experi- 
 ence of two thousand years, embracing the present age, 
 which is so full of phenomena of all kinds, has not added 
 something to our means of a copious and safe induction to 
 principles of education, requires a stretch of credulity, with 
 which my mind is not gifted. It will be safer as a general 
 rule to assume, that they teach us what to avoid, rather 
 than what to imitate. 
 
 When we have collected the means of reasoning correct- 
 ly, which books can afford, and added to them the living 
 materials of philosophy, which will be constantly exhibited 
 in the school, which is to form a part of the institution, we 
 are to place all these before instructors of discriminating 
 minds, who are able and willing to observe as well as to 
 reason. We are then to turn the public attention towards 
 them in good earnest, and let them see that something is 
 expected from them. There is a moral certainty, under 
 such circumstances, that the expectation will be gratified. 
 When the public attention is turned towards any subject, 
 all the ardent and discriminating minds act in concert. 
 And like the rays of the sun converged to a point by a lens, 
 they act with an intensity, which must produce an effect. 
 
 It would be a natural result of the proposed institution, to 
 organize the teachers into a more distinct profession, and to 
 raise the general standard of their intellectual attainments. 
 It would therefore concentrate anrl give energy and direc- 
 tion to exertions and inquiries, whicii are now compara- 
 tively wasted for want of such direction. No one, indeed, 
 can now foresee, precisely, what effect would be produced 
 upon our systems of education and principles of instruc- 
 tion, by subjecting them to such an ordeal. To foretel 
 the improvements that would be made, would be to make 
 them, and supersede the necessity of an institution for the 
 
purpose. Though the necessity would still remain for 
 some similar means to propagate them among the people. 
 But if our principles of education, and particularly our 
 principles of government and instruction, are not already 
 perfect, we may, confidently, expect improvements ; though 
 we may not know, precisely, in what they will consist. 
 * Many persons knew twenty years ago, that steam was 
 expansive. But who foresaw the degree, to which its ex- 
 pansion could be raised, or the purposes to which it could 
 be applied ? Public attention was turned to the subject in 
 earnest, and we now see vessels moving in every direction 
 by its power. It was known long since, that light wood 
 would tloat, and water run down hill. But who foresaw, 
 twenty years ago, the present state of our internal im- 
 provement by means of canals .^ Public attention and 
 powerful minds were directed to the subject, and we now 
 see boats ascending and descending our mountains and 
 traversing our continent in every direction. Those, who 
 were before almost our antipodes, have now, by the facili- 
 ties of communication, become our neighbours. The most 
 intrepid prophet would hardly have dared, even ten years 
 ago, to predict the present state of our manufactories. 
 This has all been done, because it could be done, and 
 many minds were turned to the subject and resolved, that 
 it should be done. All these are in many respects anala- 
 gous cases, and go to show that we do not always know- 
 how near to us important improvements are ; and that it is" 
 only necessary to direct the public attention to a subject 
 in order to ensure some inventions in it. 
 
 A great variety of other peculiar advantages to the pub-, , 
 lie, it occurs to me, must arise from an institution for the 
 education of teachers. But I have confined myself to 
 those only, which seemed to be the most striking and im- 
 portant. All others will be found to be involved, in a great 
 degree or wholly, in those which I have stated. And al- 
 though to enumerate them might add some new motives 
 for attention to the subject ; they could not strengthen 
 much the argument in favour of an institution somewhat 
 like that, which has been above described. 1 must now 
 take my leave of the subject for the present ; my only 
 regrets being, that I have not had ability to do more jus- 
 tice to the several topics which I have discussed, nor time 
 to do more justice to my own views of them. 
 
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