H 
 
 \mlHttlli 
 ]IMiSmH 
 
 Ml All'. I Mm 
 
 mill 
 H 
 
 ifk?uwi 
 
 Ja 
 
 tit 
 
 
 
 MhhIIb 
 
 HtttHilltKt 
 
 illflH 
 
 fifllll 
 
 Bill § 
 
 Hill ■;'.' 
 
 i p . H 
 
 1 1 ■ ■ ' ' ' ; ' : 1 ' 1 IS - I • ' • • ! I 11 ■ : ' ' ' V 
 
ClassI DE 59 
 Book JEL J 
 
CLASSICAL 
 ANTIQUITIES; 
 
 Tyv 
 
 BEING 
 PART OF THE "MANUAL OP CLASSICAL LITERATURE." 
 
 FROM THE GERMAN OF 
 
 J. J. ESCHENBURG, 
 
 PROFESSOR IN THE CAROLINUM, AT BRUNSWICK. 
 
 EMBRACING TREATISES ON THE"FOi,LO"WI«0 SUBJECTS.: 
 
 I. CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRA- 
 PHY. 
 
 III. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 IV. GREEK ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 II. CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. V. ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 BY 
 
 N. W. FISKE, 
 
 PROFESSOR IN AMHERST COLLEGE. 
 
 FOURTH EDITION. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA : 
 
 E. C. & J. BIDDLE, 6 SOUTH FIFTH STREET. 
 
 STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON. 
 
 18 50. 
 
Entered according to act of Congress, in the year ?843, by Edward C. Biddle, 
 in the Clerk's OfSce of tlie" District Court for the Eastern District of Pennsylvania. 
 
 Printed by T. K. & P. G. Collins. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 For an account of the origin and design of the Manual of Classical 
 Literature, the reader is respectfully referred to the Preface to that 
 work. The present volume is a portion of the Manual, including 
 but three of its five Parts. These three, viz. : Classical Geography 
 and Chronology, Greek and Roman Mythology, and Greek and Ro- 
 man Antiquities, are published separately, from a regard to the 
 wishes of some teachers, especially in the primary classical schools. 
 
 The reasons for a separate publication of these parts will appear, 
 when it is considered, that the scholar, in the very commencement 
 of his classical studies, needs some guide and help in each of these 
 branches, while it is not so essential that he should attend particu- 
 larly at first to the branches with which the two other parts of the 
 Manual are occupied. The whole ground embraced in the Manual, 
 the student must, indeed, go over before completing his classical 
 course ; but the Archaeology of Literature and Art, and the System- 
 atic History and Criticism of the Classical Authors, are not often 
 included in the studies at the Academy. In consequence of sug- 
 gestions of this kind, a thousand copies of the three parts contained 
 in this volume were printed in connection with the first and second 
 editions of the Manual, and the demand for them has been such as 
 to induce the publisher to issue another impression. 
 
 This new edition of the volume styled Classical Antiquities is 
 much more valuable than the former, as it corresponds to the fourth 
 edition of the Manual, and is illustrated by numerous engravings. 
 
 A peculiarity of this volume, which has greatly recommended it 
 in the estimation of teachers, is its comprehensiveness united with a 
 fullness of detail sufficient for all the common purposes of elementary 
 instruction. Ancient Geography with the Topography of Rome 
 and Athens, Classical Chronology, Mythology, Greek Antiquities, 
 and Roman Antiquities, are here presented within the compass of 
 304 pages. There is not in the English language, it is believed, 
 another work in which these topics, all so essential to the young 
 classical scholar, are brought into one volume and thus adapted for 
 daily use. If, because the work comprehends so much, any one 
 should be disposed to infer that each part must be defective, he is 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 requested to examine and compare. The Epitome of Classical 
 Geography will be found to comprise every thing of special import- 
 ance in Butler's work on the subject, with much improvement in 
 several points of arrangement, and an account far more complete 
 of the remains of Rome, Athens, and other cities. The Introduction 
 to Chronology contains what is most essential in the Treatise of 
 Hegewisch, with many things of great importance not found in that, 
 nor in any of the works on Antiquities now in use. The Treatise 
 on Greek Antiquities is by no means intended to exclude such a 
 work as Potter's, which is more minute on some points ; but the 
 competent teacher will discover that this condensed treatise contains 
 important information for which his pupil will search in vain in 
 Potter ; and he will on comparison find it as full on every essential 
 point as any other treatise used in our country, while the Greek 
 Mythology and Topography are given separately and with much 
 greater fullness. In the Roman Antiquities the plan of the work 
 did not allow that frequent citation of the Latin authors which marks 
 the pages of Adam ; and the treatise is not expected wholly to super- 
 sede the use of that or some larger work ; but a comparison of the 
 treatise in this volume with any other used in American schools, will 
 satisfy the teacher that it is more full and complete, independently of 
 the Roman Mythology, Geography and Topography introduced 
 separately; and some persons of experience in teaching have 
 expressed their conviction, that the scholar is likely to obtain from 
 the study of a treatise like this, a better general knowledge of Roman 
 Antiquities than from the study of such a work as that of Adam ; on 
 this point, however, the translator ought perhaps to be silent. 
 
 There is another peculiarity, which distinguishes this work, viz. : 
 that it presents numerous references to authors treating of the 
 general subjects, and also, in many cases, to works on particular 
 topics introduced. These references are given in such a manner as 
 not to delay or embarrass the youngest student, and yet they may 
 help the more advanced scholar and the teacher to find readily further 
 information, if they wish and have the time and means at command. 
 
 In offering to American teachers and scholars this new edition, 
 the author may be allowed to express his hope that it may subserve 
 in some degree the highly important cause of classical and libera; 
 education ; from an ardent desire to promote which he originally 
 prepared the Translation of Eschenburg's Manual. 
 
 Amherst College, July, 1843. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 PART I. 
 
 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 Introduction, p. 3, 4. 
 §§ 1-5. = § 1-3 Portion of earth known 
 to ancients. § 4, 5 Ancient divisions. 
 
 I. Of Europe, p. 4-43. 
 
 §§ 6-148. = § 6, 7 Extent and bounda- 
 ries. § S General subdivisions. § 9-15 
 Northern countries of Europe ; Scandina- 
 via, Cimbrica, Sarmatia, Germania, &c. 
 § 16-26 Middle countries of Europe ; Gal- 
 lia, Rhaetia, Noricum, Pannonia, Iliyri- 
 cum, Moesia, Dacia. § 27-129 Southern 
 countries of Europe. § 29-31 v Hispania. 
 § 32-50 Italia. § 51-71 Topography of 
 Rome. § 51, 52 Gates and roads. § 53 
 Bridges and hills. § 54 Districts. Re- 
 ferences to writers on the topography of 
 the city. § 55 Campi. § 56 Streets. §57 
 Fora. § 58-60 Temples and groves. 
 §61-63 Curia?, basilicas, circuses ; theatres, 
 &c. § 64 Baths. § 65-67 Schools, por- 
 ticos, columns, trophies, &c. § 68 Aque- 
 ducts. Sewers. § 69 Monuments to the 
 dead. § 70 Dwellings. § 71 Villas. Sub- 
 urbs. § 72-75 Thracia. § 76 Four na- 
 tural divisions of Graecia. § 77-81 Mace- 
 donia. § 82-85 Thessalia. § 86-88 Epirus. 
 § 89-103 Hellas. § 104-116 Topography 
 of Athens. § 104, 105 Its situation. § 106 
 The Acropolis. § 107 Parthenon and 
 other buildings of the citadel. § 108-110 
 The lower city and its temples. § 111 
 Porches. Odea. Ceramicus. § 112, 113 
 Forums. Aqueducts. Stadium. § 114 
 Areopagus. Pnyx. § 115 Theatres. Cho- 
 ragic monuments. § 116 Harbors. Re- 
 ferences to writers on the topography of 
 Athens. § 117-125 Peloponnesus. .§126- 
 129 Topography of Sparta. § 126 Form 
 and situation. § 127 Forum. § 128 Co- 
 lumns and statues. § 129 Hippodrome. 
 Harbor. References to writers. §130-148 
 European Islands. § 130-136 Britannia 
 and adjoining islands. § 137 BalearicEe. 
 Corsica and Sardinia. § 138-140 Sicilia, 
 § 141, 142 Ionian islands. § 143-148 
 JEgean islands. 
 
 II. Of Asia, p. 43-53. 
 
 §§ 149-172. = § 149, 150 Extent and 
 general division of Asia. § 151-155 Coun- 
 tries of the Eastern division. Scythia, 
 Sinae, India, Persia, Media, Parthia. 
 § 156-171 Countries of the Western divi- 
 sion. § 156 Sarmatia, Colchis, Albania, 
 
 a 
 
 Iberia. § 157 Armenia. § 158-165 Asia 
 Minor. § 166 Syria. Phoenicia. § 167-169 
 Palasstina. §168b. Topography of Jeru- 
 salem. § 170 Mesopotamia, Babylonia 
 and Assyria. § 171 Arabia. § 172 Asia- 
 tic islands. 
 
 III. Of Africa, p. 53-57. 
 §§ 173-183. = § 173 Extent and divisions 
 of Africa. § 174-176 Egypt. § 177 An- 
 cient ruins and remains of Egypt. Works 
 on the subject. § 178 ^Ethiopia. § 179 
 Libya. § 180 Africa Propria. § 181 Nu- 
 midia. § 182 Mauritania. § 183 Africa 
 Interior. Atlantis. 
 
 INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONO- 
 LOGY. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks, p. 59. 
 § 184. Importance of the subject. De- 
 sign of present sketch. Two parts. 
 
 I. Of measuring time and adjusting its 
 divisio?is, p. 59-63. 
 
 §§ 185-196. = § 185 The three natural 
 divisions of time ; day, month, and year. 
 § 186, 187 Ancient customs as to be- 
 ginning and dividing the day. § 188 De- 
 vices for marking and making known the 
 parts of the day. Dial, Clepsydra. §189, 
 190 The month. The Grecian system. 
 § 191 a, 191 b. Roman method of reckoning 
 the months, and the days of the month. 
 The week. Names of the days. § 192 
 The year. The Grecian; Roman; Ju- 
 lian. The Gregorian Calendar. Old and 
 new style. § 193 Cycles. § 194 The 
 lunar cycle. § 195 The solar. § 196 The 
 cycle of indiction. Julian Period. 
 
 II. Of fixing the dates of historical 
 events and arranging them in order, 
 p. 63-79. 
 
 §§ 197-215. = § 197 Topics noticed in 
 this part. § 198-201 Methods of ascertain- 
 ing dates. 1. Successive generations; and 
 successive reigns of kings. 2. Celestial 
 appearances. 3. Coins, inscriptions, &c. 
 4. Historical testimony. § 202, 203 Epochs 
 and eras. Era of Olympiads; of Rome ; 
 the Christian; the Mahometan; of the 
 French Republic. § 204-207 Systems and 
 tables. § 204 Claims of the Egyptians and 
 Babylonians. § 205 The Hebrew and 
 the Septuagint chronology. Newton's. 
 Usher's. § 206, 207 Various plans for 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 charts. The best. $ 208-215 Actual dates 
 of most prominent events. $ 208 Common 
 complaint of students. Remedy. § 209 
 Brief outline of General Chronology. $ 210 
 Systems of artificial memory. § 211 Chro- 
 nology of ancient states ; eight principal 
 
 states of Asia ; references to works on their 
 history ; Assyrian ; Jewish ; Trojan ; Ly- 
 dian; Persian; Syrian; Parthian. §212 
 Of the two principal in Africa ; Egyptian ; 
 Carthaginian. $ 213 Of Greece. $ 214, 
 215 Of Rome. 
 
 PART II. 
 
 MYTHOLOGY OF THE GREEKS AND ROMANS. 
 
 Introduction, p. 83-90. 
 $$ 1-12. = $ 1 Circumstances calculated 
 to give a fabulous character to early tradi- 
 tions. $ 2 Mythology in the Greek, and 
 in the modern sense of the term. $ 3 Dif- 
 ferent points of view in contemplating my- 
 thological fables. $ 4 Changes and addi- 
 tions in mythological stories. $ 5 Different 
 sources of mythological fabrications. § 6 
 Advantages of an acquaintance with my- 
 thology. $ 7 Eastern origin of the Gre- 
 cian deities. $ 8 The Roman gods bor- 
 rowed from the Greeks. $ 9 The Greek 
 and Roman system of classifying their gods. 
 $ 10 The four classes under which they 
 are arranged in this work. $11 The no- 
 lions of deity entertained by the Greeks 
 and Romans. Abode of the gods. $ 12 
 References to works treating on the subject. 
 
 I. Mythological History of the Superior 
 gods, p. 91-113. 
 
 $$ 13t67. = $ 13 Gods included in this 
 class. $ 14-17 Saturn. § 18 Janus. 
 § 19-21 Cybele or Rhea. $ 22-25 Jupiter. 
 $ 26-28 Juno. § 29-31 Neptune. $ 32-34 
 Pluto. § 35-37 Apollo. $ 38-40 Diana. 
 $ 41-43 Minerva. $ 44-16 Mars. $ 47-50 
 Venus. Cupid. § 51-54 Vulcan. $ 55-56 
 Mercury. § 57-60 Bacchus. Silenus. 
 $ 61-64 Ceres. $ 65-67 Vesta. 
 
 II. Mythological History of the Inferior 
 gods, p. 113-124. 
 
 $$ 68-96. = $ 68 Gods included in this 
 class. $ 69, 70 Ccelus. $71,72 Sol or He- 
 lius. $ 73 Luna. $74, 75 Aurora. $76Nox. 
 $ 77 Iris. $ 78 ^Eolus. $ 79, SO Pan. 
 $ 81, 82 Latona. $ 83 Themis. Astroea. 
 Nemesis. $ 84 iEsculapius. $ 85 Plutus. 
 $ 86 Fortune. $ 87 Fame. $ 88 Deities 
 
 peculiar to the Greeks. $ 89-95 Deities 
 peculiar to the Romans. $ 90 Tiber. 
 Roma. $ 91. Terminus. Priapus. Ver- 
 tumnus. Flora. Feronia. Pales. $ 92 
 Gods presiding over various conditions or 
 pursuits of men. Bellona, Juturna, &c. 
 $ 93 Victoria. $ 94 Deified Roman em- 
 perors. $ 95 Virtues and Vices. $ 96 
 Egyptian deities worshiped among the 
 Romans. 
 
 III. Mythical beings, whose history is 
 intimately connected with that of the gods, 
 p. 124-132. 
 
 $$ 97-117. = $ 97 Titans. $ 98 Giants. 
 Pygmies. $ 99 Tritons. $ 100 Sirens. 
 $ 101 Nymphs. $ 102, 103 Muses. $ 104 
 Graces. $105 Hours. $106 Fates. $107 
 Furies. $ 108 a. Harpies. $ 108 b. Venti 
 or Winds. $ 109 Daemons. $110 Manes. 
 $ 111 Lares. $ 112 Penates. $ 113 Sleep, 
 Dreams, and Death. $ 114 Satyrs and 
 Fauns. $115Gorgons. $116 Amazons. 
 $117 Minotaur, Chimaera, and various 
 other monsters. 
 
 IV. Mythical History of Heroes, p. 
 132-137. 
 
 $$ 118-133. = $ 118 Three periods of 
 Grecian story. $ 119 General cause of the 
 deification of heroes. $ 120 Two classes 
 of venerated heroes. $ 121 Inachus, Ox- 
 gyges, Cecrops, and several others, ho- 
 nored specially among their own people. 
 $ 122 Perseus. Atlas. $ 123, 124 Her- 
 cules. $ 125, 126 Theseus. $ 127, 128 
 Jason and the Argonauts. $ 129 Castor 
 and Pollux. $ 130 Heroes of the Theban 
 war. $ 131 Pelops and his descendants. 
 $ 132 Heroes of the Trojan war. $ 133 
 Deified Roman emperors. 
 
 PART III. 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 Introduction, p. 140-145. 
 $$ 1-14. = $ 1 Origin of the name 
 Graecia. $ 2 Countries included under it. 
 $ 3 Most important Grecian cities. §4 Po- 
 litical changes. $ 5 First inhabitants. $ 6 
 Their early intercourse. $ 7 Early forms 
 
 of government. $ 8 The Spartan system. 
 $ 9 Athens. $ 10 Causes of Grecian im- 
 provement. $ 11 Utility of study of An- 
 tiquities, and of Grecian in particular. $ 12 
 Original sources of knowledge on the sub- 
 ject. $ 13 References to authors. $ 14 
 Defects in the common treatises on Greek 
 antiquities. Early and later ages distinct. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 VH 
 
 I. Of the Earlier and less cultivated 
 Ages, p. 145-160. 
 
 § 15 The period included, Subject di- 
 vided into four branches. 
 
 I. Religious Affairs. 
 §§ 16-32. = § 16 First traces of the reli- 
 gion of the Greeks. § 17 Form and mode 
 of religious instruction. § 18 Influence of 
 the poets. § 19 Number and character of 
 the gods. § 20 Temples and sacred places. 
 § 21 Images and statues. § 22 Priests 
 and Priestesses; § 23 Rites; ablutions. 
 § 24 Prayers. § 25 Sacrifices ; the ma- 
 terials ; the origin. § 26 Altars. § 27 
 Sacrifices ; the ceremonies. § 28 Gifts and 
 offerings. § 29 Worship rendered to he- 
 roes. § 30 Funeral solemnities. § 31 
 Burning of corpse ; monuments. § 32 
 Oracles and divination. 
 
 II. Civil Affairs. 
 §§ 33-41. == § 33 Early rudeness. § 34 
 Power of the kings. § 35 Their retinue 
 and councillors. § 36 Courts of justice. 
 § 37 Laws and punishment. § 38 The 
 Cretan laws. § 39 Successive forms of 
 government at Athens. § 40 At Sparta. 
 5 41 Commerce and Navigation. 
 
 III. Military Affairs. 
 §§42-51. =$42 Early Greeks warlike. 
 
 § 43 Their armies, how composed. § 44 
 Weapons; Defensive. § 45 Offensive. 
 § 46 The materials of which made. § 47 
 War-galleys. § 48 Camps. § 49 Order 
 of Battle. § 50 Division of Spoils. Bar- 
 barous stripping of the slain. Combat of 
 chiefs. § 51 Treaties. 
 
 IV. Domestic Affairs. 
 
 §§ 52-63 = § 52 Common food. Daily 
 meals. § 53 Social repasts. § 54 Dress. 
 § 55 Practice of bathing. Cultivation of 
 the Hair. § 56 Houses. § 57 Hospitality. 
 § 58 Employments ; agriculture ; hunting. 
 §59 Employments of women. § 60 Amuse- 
 ments. § 61 Marriage. §62 Education 
 of children. § 63 Slaves. 
 
 II. Of the Later and more flourishing 
 Ages, p. 160-223. 
 
 I. Religious Affairs. 
 §§ 64-90. = § 64 Number of gods in- 
 creased. § 65 a. Temples more splendid. 
 § 65 b. Altars. § 66 Sacred groves. Asyla. 
 § 67 Classes of priests. Purification. §68 
 Sacrifices and attendant ceremonies. § 69 
 Oaths. Leagues. § 70 Oracles. Im- 
 posture at Argos. § 71 Oracles of Jupi- 
 ter; atDodona; in Crete ; African desert. 
 § 72, 73 Of Apollo at Delphi. § 74 Of 
 Trophonius ; of iEsculapius, and others. 
 § 75 Arts and methods of divination. § 76, 
 77 Festivals ; notice of the principal ; of 
 Adonis, of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Minerva. 
 § 78 Games. § 79 The race. § 80 Leap- 
 ing. §81 Wrestling. § 82 The discus. 
 § 83 Boxing. § 84 Four sacred games. 
 
 Olympic. § 85 Pythian. § 86 Nemean. 
 § 87 Isthmian. § 88 System of athletics. 
 § 89 Theatres, and dramatic representa- 
 tions. Masks. Chorus. § 90 Theoric 
 money at Athens. 
 
 II. Civil Affairs. 
 
 §§ 91-134. = §91 Athens and Sparta 
 distinguished by peculiarities. § 92 Draco 
 and Solon at Athens. § 93 The tribes and 
 classes at Athens. § 94 Pisistratus, and 
 his sons. § 95 The thirty tyrants. Form 
 of government after them until death of 
 Alexander. § 96 Buildings of Athens. 
 § 97 The free citizens of Athens. § 98 
 The foreign residents. § 99 The slaves. 
 § 100 Magistrates. § 101 The Archons. 
 §102 The Eleven; Orators; Ambassa- 
 dors ; Notaries, &c. § 103 Athenian re- 
 venues. § 104 Officers of the revenue and 
 treasury. Expenditures. § 105 Amphic- 
 tyonic council. § 106 Assemblies of the 
 people. § 107 Athenian senate. §108 Areo- 
 pagus. § 109 Athenian courts of justice. 
 The Epheta?. § 110 The Helicea. § 111 
 The Forty. The Diaetetae. § 112 Dif- 
 ferent kinds of actions. §113 Punishments. 
 § 114 The Ostracism. § 115 Modes of in- 
 flicting death. § 116 Public rewards and 
 honors. § 117 Attic laws. § 118 Natural 
 situation of Sparta. § 119 Spartan tribes. 
 § 120 Treatment of children at Sparta. 
 § 121 Spartan slaves. § 122 The kings of 
 Sparta. § 123 The Senate. Ephori. § 124 
 Nomophulakes and other magistrates. 
 § 125 Assemblies of the people. § 126 Pub- 
 lic repasts. § 127 Judicial affairs. § 128 
 Punishments. § 129 Laws of Sparta. 
 § 130 Cretan constitution. § 131 Cretan 
 laws; public meals; slaves. § 132 Con- 
 stitution of Thebes. § 133 Constitutions 
 of Corinth and Syracuse. § 134 Of Argos, 
 of iEtolia, and Achaia. 
 
 III. Military Affairs. 
 
 § 135-160. = § 135 The warlike character 
 retained; especially by the Spartans. § 136 
 Persons liable to military duty. Their 
 support. § 137 Classes of troops. The 
 infantry. §138 Cavalry. Use of Elephants. 
 § 139 Armor. § 140 Various officers. 
 § 141 The divisions of the army. § 142 
 Forms of Battle-array. Manoeuvres. §143 
 Declaration of war. Treaties. § 144 
 Camps. § 145 Standards and ensigns. 
 Signals for battle. § 146 Art of besieging. 
 § 147 Military engines. § 148 Defence of 
 cities. § 149 Treatmentof captured places. 
 § 150 Division of spoils. § 151 Military 
 rewards and punishments. § 152 Means 
 of conveying intelligence. § 153 Crossing 
 of rivers. § 154, 155 Ships; Names of 
 their principal parts ; Vessels of war. §156 
 Rowers, sailors and marines ; Manner of 
 placing the seats of rowers. § 157 Instru- 
 ments employed in naval battle. § 158 
 Naval officers. § 159 Manner of naval 
 battle. § 160 Naval victories and monu- 
 ments. Naval punishments. 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 IV. Affairs of Private Life. 
 §§161-187. = §161 Food. Use of wines. 
 § 162 The different meals. Manner c-f 
 spending the day at Athens. § 163 Enter- 
 tainments or feasts. § 164 Customs at 
 table. § 165 Substances eaten at the prin- 
 cipal meal. § 166 Officers and attendants 
 at an entertainment. § 167 Drinking ves- 
 sels. Customs in drinking. Amusements 
 accompanying a feast. § 168 Customs of 
 hospitality. Officers called Proxeni. Inns. 
 § 169 Dress, for the body, head, and feet. 
 Use of silk. Adorning of the person. §170 
 Bathing and anointing. § 171 Houses. 
 § 172 Commerce and Agriculture. § 173, 
 174 Grecian money and coins. Ratio of 
 Gold and silver. § 175 Greek system of 
 notation. § 176 Grecian weights. § 177 
 Measures. § 178 Social amusements. 
 § 179, 180 Music and musical instruments. 
 § 181 Condition of females. § 182 Laws 
 and customs respecting marriage. §§ 183 
 -186 Funeral rites. Anniversaries held in 
 honor of the dead, with orations and games. 
 § 187 Sepulchral monuments. 
 
 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Introduction, p. 225-229. 
 §§ 188-198. = § 188 Origin of Rome. 
 § 189 Principal events which affected the 
 appearance of the city. Comparative 
 splendor of ancient and modern Rome. 
 § 190 Population of Rome. § 191 Extent 
 of the Roman empire. § 192 Proportion 
 of soldiers and other citizens. § 193 The 
 time of the regal government. § 194 Most 
 brilliant era of Roman history. § 195 Con- 
 dition under the emperors. § 196 Utility 
 of studying Roman antiquities. Original 
 sources of information on the subject. § 197 
 References to modern works and authors. 
 $ 198 Division of the subject. 
 
 I. Religious Affairs, p. 229-248. 
 §§ 199-239. =§ 199 Use of the term re- 
 ligio. § 200 Origin of the religion of the 
 Romans. § 201 Its connection with poli- 
 tics. § 202 Design of Romulus and Numa. 
 Gods of the Romans. § 203 Temples. 
 § 204 Statues and offerings. Groves. § 205 
 Altars. § 206 Vessels employed in sacri- 
 fices. § 207 Several orders of priests. § 208 
 Pontifices. § 209 Augurs. Various me- 
 thods of augury. § 210 Haruspices. §211 
 Epulones. § 212 Feciales. § 213 Rex 
 sacrorum. § 214 Flamines. § 215 Salii. 
 § 216 Luperci. § 217 Galli and others. 
 § 218 Vestal virgins. § 219 Fratres Arva- 
 les, Curiones, and others. § 220 Customs 
 in offering prayers. § 221 Sacrifices and 
 attendant rites. § 222 Vows. § 223 De- 
 dication of sacred buildings. § 224 Expia- 
 tions. The lustrum. § 225 Oaths. § 226 
 Oracles. § 227 Lots. § 228 Divisions of 
 time. § 229, 230 Festivals. § 231 Public 
 games. § 232, 233 Ludi Circenses. Nau- 
 macbia. § 234 Ludi Seculares. § 235 
 Ludi Gladiatorii. § 236 Ludi Florales. 
 § 237 Ludi Megalenses, Cereales, and 
 
 others. § 238 Theatres, Masks, &c, 
 § 239 Amphitheatres. 
 
 II. Civil Affairs, p. 248-270. 
 §§ 240-274. = § 240 Regal government. 
 §241 Consuls. §242 Imperial government. 
 § 243 Praetors. § 244 jEdiles. § 245 Tri- 
 bunes. § 246 Quasstors. . § 247 Censors. 
 § 248, 249 Extraordinary magistrates; 
 Dictator; Decemviri; Military Tribunes ; 
 Prefects. Interrex, &c. § 250 Procon- 
 suls, and other provincial magistrates. §251 
 Tribes. § 252 Six classes of citizens. Cen- 
 turies. § 253 Patricians and plebeians. 
 § 254 The populace. Patrons and clients. 
 § 255 Roman nobility. Right of images. 
 Curule office. § 256 The Equites or 
 Knights. § 257_ The Senate. § 258, 259 
 The Comitia. § 260 Right of citizenship 
 Government of conquered cities and na- 
 tions. § 261 Judicial proceedings. Public 
 actions and trials. § 262 Private actions. 
 § 263 Penal offences. § 264 Punishments. 
 § 265 System of laws. Body of Roman 
 civil law. § 266 Regulations respecting 
 grain. § 267 Revenue. Saltworks. Mines. 
 § 268 Various Pursuits. Commerce. Me- 
 chanic arts. § 269 Agriculture. Carriages. 
 § 270 Money. Coins. § 271 System of 
 reckoning and notation. § 272 Modes oi 
 acquiring property. § 273 Auctions. Con- 
 fiscations. § 274 Measures of extent, &c. 
 Modes of determining the Roman foot. 
 
 III. Affairs of War, p. 270-285. 
 §§275-309. = §275 Authorities on the 
 subject. § 276 Military establishment of 
 the kings. § 277 Persons liable to duty. 
 Time of service. § 278 Consular army. 
 Exempts. § 279 System of levy. § 280 
 Classes of troops. § 281 Subdivision into 
 maniples, &c. § 282 Standards. Music. 
 § 283 Weapons. § 284 Wages. Rewards. 
 § 285 Punishments. § 286 Order of battle. 
 § 287 Modes of attack. § 288 Light troops. 
 § 289, 290 Cavalry. § 291 Cohorts. § 292 
 Auxiliaries. § 293 Attendants upon the 
 army. §294 Order of march. §295 Forms 
 of array. § 296, 297 The Camp. § 298 
 Watches. Exercises of soldiers. § 299 
 Sieges. Engines. Mounds and towers. 
 Battering ram and other engines. § 300 
 Modes of defence in a siege. § 301 The 
 fleets. § 302 Method of naval battle. §303 
 Construction and parts of Roman ships. 
 § 304 Different kinds of vessels. § 305 
 Rewards of generals. § 306 Laws on the 
 subject. § 307 The triumph. § 308 The 
 ovation. § 309 Military system under the 
 emperors. 
 
 IV. Affairs of Private Life, p. 2S5-304. 
 §§ 310-343. =§310 The free-horn and 
 the free-made discriminated. § 311 System 
 of applying proper names. § 312 Regula- 
 tions respecting marriage. § 313, 314 
 Marriage contracts. § 315 Nuptial cere- 
 monies. § 316 Divorces. § 317 The right 
 and power of the father over his children. 
 § 318 Emancipation of sons. § 319 Adop- 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 tion. § 320 Legitimation. § 321 Educa- 
 tion of youth. $ 322 Slaves. § 323 Slave 
 trade. § 324 Emancipation of slaves. 
 § 325 Dwellings. Parts and ornaments of 
 a Roman house. § 326 Country seats or 
 villas. § 327 Manner of life. Morals. 
 § 328 Daily routine of employment. Bath- 
 ing. § 329 Food and meals. Furniture 
 for eating. § 330 Different courses at 
 supper. Roman hospitality. § 331 a. 
 Drinking and games at banquets. Dice. 
 § 3316. Wines. $ 332 Dress. The toga. 
 
 $ 333 The tunic. Badges. § 334 The 
 stola and other garments of women. 
 § 335 Various outer garments. Use of silk. 
 $ 336 Coverings for the head and feet. 
 § 337, 338 Dress of the hair. Personal 
 ornaments. § 339 Funeral customs. Ex- 
 posure of the corpse. § 340 Funeral pro- 
 cessions. Eulogy. § 341 Burning. Place 
 of burial. Tombs. Phials of tears. § 342 
 Mourning for the deceased. Games and 
 sacrifices. § 343 Consecration, or deifica- 
 tion of deceased emperors. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF THE PLATES. 
 
 I. Reverse of Title. (Facing Page v.) 
 Representation of the Oracle of Apollo. Cf. P. 
 III. H 72, 73. 
 
 ■ 2. Map of Ancient Would. (Page 2.) The 
 World according to Ptolemy, as given in Mur- 
 ray'' s Encyclopedia of Geography. Cf P. I. J 3. 
 
 3. Plate I (Page 14.) Plans of Athem and 
 Rome. See P. I. ti 51-71, 104-116. 
 
 4. Plate II. (Page 16.) The Tiber, and the 
 City of Home, symbolized. Cf. P. II. i 90; P. IV. 
 i 226. 1. 
 
 •5 Plate III. (Page 18.) The Pantheon. Cf. 
 P. I. i 59. 
 
 6. Plate IV. (Page 23.) Plain and Acropo- 
 lis ofPhilippi. Cf. P. I. i 80. 
 
 .7. Plate IV a. (Page 30.) Ruins at Athens 
 of the Temple of Neptune and that of Minerva 
 Pandrosos. Cf. P. I. i 107 ; P. III. t 98. 
 
 6. Plate IV b. (Page 35.) Ruins at Corinth. 
 Ct. P. I. i 120. 
 
 9. Plate IV c. (Page 37.) Village of Mis- 
 tra ; near the ancient Sparta. Cf. P. I. i 126- 
 129. 
 
 10. Plate V. (Page .39.) Cabirian Temple 
 at Thessalonica. Cf. P. I. $ 80; P. II. i 129. 2. 
 
 II. Plate VI. {Page 42.) Colossal Statue 
 of the Sun. Cf. P. I. i 147; P. II. § 72; P. IV. 
 i 180. 1. 
 
 12. Plate Via. (Page 45.) Valley of the 
 ancient Thebarma. Cf. P. I. i 154 4. 
 
 13. Plate VI 6. (Page 49.) View of Broosa, 
 the ancient Brusa. Cf. P. I. t 160. 
 
 14. Plate VII. (Page 50.) Temple of Janus 
 at Rome, and that of the Sun at Heliopolis. Cf. 
 P. I. i 166, { 60 ; P. IV. i 234. 3. 
 
 15. Plate VIII. (Page 55.) The Egyptian 
 Sphinx, &c. Cf. P. I. i 177 ; P. II. J 117, § 96. 
 
 16. Plate VIII a. (Page 58.) A Portion of the 
 Peutingerian Table. Cf. P. V. i 497. It is pre- 
 sented here as given in H. Murray's Encyclo- 
 paedia of Geography (Phil. 1838, 3 vols. 4), from 
 which is taken the following explanation of the 
 figures and letters on the Plate; with no change 
 except that of adding in parentheses the com- 
 mon Latin form of some of the names. 
 
 North Part. 
 
 Cities. 
 
 32. Bononia. 
 
 33. Clusio (Clusium). 
 
 34. Volsini (Vulsinii), 
 
 35. Aquas-Passaris. 
 
 36. Ravenna. 
 
 37. Ari 
 
 Cities. 
 
 1. Siscia. 
 
 2. Sardona. 
 
 3. Aquinco (Aquincum). 
 
 4. Rriuantio (Bregetio). 
 
 5. Jadira. 
 
 6. Ragadone (Ragondo). 
 
 7. Sabarie. 38. Graoisca. 
 
 8. Carnunto (Carnuntum). 39. Centum Celte. 
 
 9. Celeia. 40. Aquas-Tuari. 
 
 10. Vindobona. 41. Ancone (Ancona). 
 
 1 1 . Tarsatica. 42. Castro-Novo (Castrum No- 
 
 12. iEmona. vum). 
 
 13. Pola. 43. Aquas-Apollinaris. 
 
 14. Silvo (Silvium). 44. Soleto. 
 
 15. Pareutio (Parentium). 45. Pollentia. 
 
 16. Fonte-Tumaia. 46. Reate. 
 
 17. Aquileia. 47. CastelloFirmani (Castrum 
 
 18. Ovilia. Firmanum). 
 
 19. Alt i no (Altinum). 48. Ad Sem. Petrum. 
 
 20. Regino (Regina). 49. Roma. 
 
 21. Tndente (Tridentum). 50. Hostis (Ostia). 
 
 22. Placentia. 51. Chartagioe (Carthago). 
 
 23. Aquse Populoniae. 52. TJtica Colonia. 
 
 24. Florentia Tuscorum. 53. Aquis. 
 
 25. Sena Julia. 54. Ipponte Diarito. 
 
 26. Bituriba. 65. Capsa Colonia. 
 
 27. Verona. 56. Ad Medera. 
 
 28. Mantua. 57. Theleote Col. 
 
 29. Mutina. 5S. Theneste, 
 
 30. Cosa. 59. Sicca-Veria. 
 
 jl. Adretio (Arretium). 60. AH Aquas Csesaris. 
 
 Rivers. Rivers. 
 
 a. Danubius. n. Umbra. 
 
 b. Drinum. o. Pallia. 
 
 X 
 
 c. Savum. 
 
 d. Arsia. 
 
 e. Frigido. 
 
 f. Licenna. 
 
 g. Afesia. 
 h. Cleusis. 
 i. Umatia. 
 j. Padus. 
 k. Paala. 
 1. Aninio. 
 
 p. Annenita. 
 q. Marta. 
 r. Tiberis. 
 s. Rubicon, 
 t Nelurum. 
 u. Malana. 
 v. Miso. 
 w. Flosis. 
 •x Tuma. 
 y Nerninum. 
 z. Amo. 
 
 Sodth Part. 
 
 Cities. Cities. 
 
 1. Ad Pretorum (Praetorium 54. Febralerie. 
 
 in Pannonia). 55. Istonum. 
 
 2. Servitium. 56. Corfinio (Corfinium). 
 
 3. Ad Pretorum (Prcetorium 67. Marrubio (Marrubium), 
 
 in Dalmatia). 58. Tres Tabernffi. 
 
 4. Mursa Major. 59. Carsulis (Carseoli?). 
 
 5. lndenea. 60. Ostia iEterni. 
 
 6. Tittoburgo. 61. Pinna. 
 
 7. Ragurio. 62. Castro-Novo (Castrum No- 
 
 8. Siclis. vum, on the Hadriatic). 
 
 9. Salona. 63. Praneste. 
 
 10. Epetio (Epetium). 64. Roma. 
 
 11. Marona. 65. Hostis (Ostia). 
 
 12. Sirmium. 66. Chartagine (Carthago). 
 
 13. Narona. 67. Maxula. 
 
 14. Tauruno (Taurunum). 68. Ad Aquas. 
 
 15. Ad Matricem. 69. Misua Clipeis. 
 
 16. Singiduna (Singidunum). 70. Gurra. 
 
 17. Epitauro (Epidaurus). 71. Ad Horrea. 
 
 18. Stanedi. 72. Lepreminus(LeptisMlnor) 
 
 19. Lissus. 73. Thiforo Col. 
 
 20. Viminatio. 74. Ad Aquas. 
 
 21. Dyrratio (Dvrrachium). 75. Tsparura (Taphrura). 
 
 22. Aulnnia (Apollonia). 76. Tacape. 
 
 23. Osa Col. 77. Drepanis (Drepanum). 
 
 24. Sabrata. 78. Lilybeo (Lilybceum). 
 
 25. Regio(RbegiumcrRegium). 79. Agfigento (Agrigentum). 
 
 26. Caulon. SO. Siracusis (Syracusae). 
 
 27. Lacenium. 81. J2tna Mods. 
 
 28. Castra Minervse. 82. Messana. 
 
 29. VibonaValentia. Rivers. 
 
 30. Temsa (Tempsa). a. Danubius. 
 
 31. Tarento (Tarentum). b. Drinum. 
 
 32. Brindisi (Bruodusium). c. Savum. 
 
 33. Gratie. d. Margum. 
 
 34. Nerulos (Nerulum). e. Genesis (Genusns). 
 
 35. Salerno (Salernum). f. Hapsum (Apsus). 
 
 36. Nuceria. g. Tanco. 
 
 37. Oplontis. b. Crater. 
 
 38. Benevento (Beneventam). i. Silarum. 
 
 39. Venusia. j. Color. 
 
 40. Neapoli (Neapolis). k. Aveldium. 
 
 41. Capua. 1. Aufidenus. 
 
 42. Cumas (Cumae). m. Larinum. 
 
 43. Sylla. n. Clocoris. 
 
 44. Aeras. o. Sannum. 
 
 45. Pretonium Laucrianum. p. Cremera. 
 
 46. Siponto (Sipontum). q. Nernum. 
 
 47. Esernie. r. Arno. 
 
 48. TeanoScediciuo(Teanun) s. Tiberis. 
 
 Sidicinum). t. Safo. 
 
 49. Sinuessa. u. Vullurnus. 
 
 50. Minturnis (Minturnse). v. Himera. 
 
 51. Fundis (Fundi). w. Niranus. 
 
 52. Terracina. x. Ausere. 
 
 53. Ferentinum. y. Gerin. 
 
 t> 18. Plate IX. (Page 62.) Symbolic Repre- 
 sentations of the Seasons. Cf. P. I. i 191a; P. 
 IV. i 188. 2; P. II. i 105. 
 
 19. Plate IX a. (Page 80.) View of Athens, 
 from the foot of Mt. Anchesmus ; reduced from 
 Hobhouse's Albania. Cf. P. I. i 105. 
 
 20. Plate X. (Page 82.) Mythological Illus- 
 trations.— Fig. 1. Saturn ; cf. P. II. i 14-17.— 
 Fig. 2. Cybele ; cf. P. II. i 19-21.— Fig. 3. Pluto; 
 cf. P. II. i 32-34.— Fig. 4. Vulcan ; cf. P. II. 
 i 51-54.— Fig. 5. Neptune : cf. P. II. i 29-31.— 
 Fig. 6. Venus, with attendants ; cf. P. II. i 47- 
 49— Fig. 7. Diana ; cf. P. II. § 38-40.— Fig. 8. 
 Bacchus ; cf. P. II. i 57-60. 
 
 21. Plate XI. (Page 92.) Mythological Il- 
 lustrations. — Fig. 1. Juno; cf. P. II. i 26-28. — 
 Fig. 2. Mercnrv; cf. P. II. i 55, 56.— Fig. 3. Ju- 
 piter ; cf. P. II. i 22-25— Fig. 4. Apollo; cf. P. 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 XI 
 
 II. $ 35-37.— Fig. 5. Ceres ; cf. P. II. $ 61-64 — 
 Fig. 6. Minerva; cf. P. II. $ 41-43.— Fig. 7. Mars; 
 cf. P. II. $ 44-46.— Fig. 8. Janus ; cf. P. II. $ 18. 
 —Fig. 9. Cupid ; cf. P. II. $ 50— Fig. 10. Vesta; 
 cf. P. II. $ 65-67. 
 
 22. Plate XII. (Page 97.) The Hindoo 
 Triad. Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4. 
 
 23. Plate XIII. (Page 103.) The Avatars 
 of Vishnu. Cf. P. II. $ 25. 4; $ 37. 2. 
 
 24. Plate XIII a. (Page 111.) Festival of 
 Juggernaut. Cf. P. II. $ 59. 4. 
 
 25. Plate XIV. (Page 121.) Mythological 
 Illustrations.— Fig. 1. Sol, as represented on a 
 coin of the Rhodians ; cf. P. II. $ 71-72— Fig. 2. 
 Nox, as represented on a gem ; cf. P. II. $ 76. 
 —Fig. 3. Luna; cf. P. II. $ 73.— Fig. 4. Hebe; 
 P. II. $ 27.— Fig. 5. Flora; cf. P. II. $ 90. 4a — 
 Fig. 6. ^sculapius; cf. P. II. $ 84.— Fig. 7. 
 Pan ; cf. P. II. $ 79.— Fig. 8. Spes, or Hope ; 
 cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 9. Fortuna; cf. P. II. 
 $ 86.— Fig. 10. Victoria; cf. P. II. $ 93.— Fig. 11. 
 Concordia; cf. P. II. $ 95.— Fig. 12. Pax, or 
 Peace ; cf. P. II. $ 95. 
 
 26. Plate XV. (Page 124.) Representations 
 from the Isiac Table. Cf. P. II. $ 96. 
 
 27. Plate XV a. (Page 138.) Table of Greek 
 and Roman Deities classified. Cf. P. II. $ 9, 10. 
 
 28. Plate XVI. (Page 140.) Crowns, Gar- 
 lands, Sec. — Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 Roman crowns or 
 wreaths, bestowed as military rewards. Fig. 
 
 6. Imperial crown. Cf. P. III. $ 284. 1.— Figs. 
 
 7, 8, 9, 10. Crowns or garlands received by vic- 
 tors in the games ; cf. P. III. $ 84-87, $ 233.— 
 Fig. A. Plan of a Gymnasium or Palsestra after 
 Vitruvius, as given in Barlhelemy's Anachar- 
 sis : cf. P. IV. $ 236.— Fig. B. Victorious cha- 
 rioteer; cf. P. III. $ 233.— Fig C. A golden 
 crown found in Ireland ; cf. P. III. $ 34. 
 
 29. Plate XVII. (Page 155.) Military Wea- 
 pons, Sec. For particulars, see P. III. $$ 45, 137, 
 283. 
 
 30. Plate XVIII. (Page 161.) Tombs and 
 Sepulchral Remains.— Tigs. 1, 2, 3. Tomb of Cy- 
 rus, Absalom's pillar, and Pyramid of Cestius; 
 cf. P. III. $ 187. 5.— Fig. 4. Gales of a tomb; cf. 
 P. III. $ 187. 5. — Figs, a and dd. Lachrymatory 
 and ungiientary vases; cf. P. III. $ 341. 7. — 
 Fig. B. Egyptian Psychostasy, or weighing of 
 the soul; cf. P. II. $ 34b. 4.— Fig. e. Funeral 
 couch; cf. P. III. $ 340. 1.— Fig. hh. Coffin and 
 urns, &c; cf. P. III. {341.6. 
 
 31. Plate XIX. (Page 166.) Oracle of Tro- 
 phonius. Cf. P. III. $ 74. 
 
 32. Plate XX. (Page 168.) Representa- 
 tions of Priests and Priestesses presenting Liba- 
 tions and Sacrifices. Cf. P. III. $ 24, $ 221. 
 
 33. Plate XXI (Page 179.) Temples.— 
 Fig. 1. Parthenon; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. IV. 
 $ 234. 3, P. I. $ 107.— Fig. 2. Temple of the 
 Winds; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. I. $ 110— Fig. 3. 
 Temple of Theseus; cf. P. III. $ 96, P. 1. $ 109. 
 — Fies. a, b, c, d, e,f,g, h, Ground-plans of the 
 different kinds of temples ; cf. P. IV. $ 234. 2. 
 
 34. Plate XXII. (Page 195.) Various Arti- 
 cles of Armor. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Helmets; cf. 
 P. III. $ 45. — Figs, r, s. Mail and breastplate ; 
 cf. P. III. $ 45, 139.— Fig. u. Greaves; cf. P. 
 
 III. $ 44, 45.— Figs. 1, 2, 7. Grecian warriors ; 
 cf. P. III. $ 45.— Fig. 3. Persian warrior; cf. 
 P. III. $ 45— Fig. 4. Trophy ; cf. P. III. $ 150 — 
 Fig. 5. Warrior in mail, with an armor-bearer; 
 cf. P. HI. $ 283.— Fig. 6. Egyptian archer ; cf. 
 P. HI. $ 45, $ 288. 1.— Fig. 8. Soldier in com- 
 plete mail; cf. P. III. J 283. 
 
 35. Plate XXIII. (Page 201.) JVaval Illus- 
 trations.— Fig. 1. Pinnace or light boat for rapid 
 moving; cf. P. HI. $304.— Fig. 2. Vessel from a 
 painting at Pompeii; cf. P. III. $ 304.— Fig. 3. 
 Liburnian galley; cf. P. III. $ 304.— Fig. 4. 
 Merchant vessel; cf. P. HI. $ 155.— Fig. 5. 
 War-galley; cf. P. III. $ 155— Fig. A. Hexi- 
 reme as explained by Holwell ; cf. P. HI. $ 155, 
 156.— Fig. B. Views of the relative position of 
 the rowers, according to the explanations of 
 
 some ; cf. P. HI. $ 156.— Figs, a, b, c. Different 
 forms of prows : cf. P. III. $ 155. 3, 4. 
 
 36. Plate XXIV. (Page 205.) Pertaining 
 to Household Affairs.— Fig. 1. Plan of a Grecian 
 house; cf. P. HI. $171. 1.— Fig. 2. A Grecian 
 key; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 3. Young man 
 wearing the petasus ; cf. P. HI. 169. 3. — Fig. 4. 
 A bride sitting with a mirror held before her; 
 cf. P. HI. $ 169. 6. $ 171. 2.— Figs. 5 and 10. 
 Grecian sofas; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2.— Fig. 6. Pe- 
 culiar head-ornament, worn in oriental coun- 
 tries; cf. P. III. $ 34.— Fig. 7. Grecian lady, 
 from Boyd's Potter; cf. P. III. $ 169. 5 ; $ 171. 2. 
 -Figs. 8, 9. Chairs; cf. P. III. $ 171. 2. $ 52.— 
 Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various forms of coverings for 
 the feet; cf. P. III. $ 169. 2; $ 336. 
 
 37. Plate XXV. (Page 211.) Costume.— 
 Figs, a, b, c, d, Modern Egyptian and oriental 
 dresses; e, /, Greek Bacchantes, g, an Egyp- 
 tian spinner; h, i, Grecian female fluters ; k, 
 Grecian lady in the more ancient costume; m, 
 peculiar head-dress ; n, o, Egyptian princess 
 and priestess in transparent garments ; y, w, 
 veils and head-dresses. See P. HI. $ 169. 5. — 
 Fig. 1. A box worn on the neck; cf. P. III. 
 $ 337.— Fig. 2. A lady's purse, from Egyptian 
 monuments ; figs. 3, 4, toilet-table and mirror; 
 cf. P. III. $ 338. 
 
 38. Plate XXV a. (Page 215.) Tables of 
 Grecian Moneys, &c. Cf. P. III. $$ 173-177. 
 
 39. Plate XXVI. (Page 219.) Musical In- 
 struments. For particulars see P. III. $ 180. 
 
 40. Plate XXVI a. (Page 224.) Tabular 
 view of Civil Institutions of Athens. Cf. P. III. 
 $$97-116. 
 
 41. Plate XXVII. (Page 231.) Altars and 
 Sacrificial Apparatus. — Figs, a, b, c, &c. Various 
 articles as given in Montfaucon ; rig. A. including 
 1, 2, &c, articles drawn from sculpture at Pom- 
 peii; fig. B, representation of a sacrifice, from 
 the same source; cf. P. HI. $ 206. — Fig. C. Sa- 
 crifice to Bacchus ; cf. P. HI. $ 205. 1 ; $ 67.— 
 Fig. D. Sacred utensils from Egyptian re- 
 mains ; cf. P. III. $ 206. 2.— Figs. E, H, Altars : 
 cf. P. HI. $ 205. 1. 
 
 42. Plate XXVIII. (Page 236.) Priests and 
 Priestesses. Cf. P. III. $ 219; P. II. $ 67 m; 
 P. V. $ 16. 
 
 43. Plate XXIX. (Page 240.) The Suove- 
 taurilia, from an ancient bas-relief. Cf. P. HI. 
 $ 224. 2. 
 
 44. Plate XXX. (Page 245.) Gladiatorial 
 Contests.— Fig. 1, two andabata or horsemen ; 
 fig. 2, a horseman and footman (cf. P. III. 
 $ 283); figs. 3, 4, two gladiators on toot; fig. 5, 
 wounded bull; fig. 6, two secutores and two 
 retiarii: see P. III. $ 235. 2, 3— Fig. 7. Plan of an 
 amphitheatre at Pompeii; cf. P. HI. $ 239. — 
 Fiff. n. A Dacian horseman in scale-armor; cf. 
 P. III. $ 283. 
 
 . 45. Plate XXXI. (Page 255.) Pertaining 
 to topics noticed under the head of Roman Civil 
 Affairs. — Figs. 1 and 3. Roman fasces, and 
 Egyptian scepters; cf. P. III. $ 240. 1. — Figs. 2 
 and 9. Roman official chairs; cf. P. III. $255. 
 2.— Figs. 4, 5, 6. Chariots ; cf. P. III. $ 269. 3.— 
 Figs. 7 and 8. Steelyard and weight ; cf. P. III. 
 $ 270. 1.— Fig. 10. Sedan; cf. P. III. $ 255. 2.— 
 Fig. A, a kind of stocks ; fig. B, the Mamertine 
 prison at Rome ; cf. P. HI. $ 264. 1. 
 
 46. Plate XXXII. (Page 265.) Pertaining 
 to Household and Agricultural Affairs. — Fig. 1, 
 plan of a Roman house; figs, a and b, a key 
 and bolt from Pompeii; cf. P. HI. $ 325. 6.— 
 Fig. c, Egyptian door; cf. P. IV. $ 231. 1.— Fig. 
 d, Couch ; fig. E (including 1, 2, 3, &c), Lamps ; 
 cf. P. IH. $ 325. 7.— Fig. ii. Roman plow; fig. 
 iii. Syrian plows; figs. iv. 6, 7, instruments 
 for threshing; figs. 5, 8, sickle, pruning-knife, 
 &x. See P. III. $ 269. 2. 
 
 47. Plate XXXlIa. (Page 269.) Tables of 
 Roman Moneys, Src. Cf. V. III. $ 271, $ 274. 
 
 48. Plate XXXIII. (Page 273.) Armor, Mi- 
 litary Standards. Src. — Figs. 1 and 2. Legionary 
 
DESCRIPTION OF PLATES. 
 
 soldiers with shield and sword, baggage, &c. 
 cf. P. III. } 283.— Fig. 3. A Medo-Persian, from 
 sculptures at Persepolis ; bearing a sort of ham- 
 mer, or battle-ax, probably a token of some 
 military rank, perhaps however of some civil 
 office ; the two hands of another are seen bear- 
 ing the same token ; fig. 4, another from the 
 sculptures at Persepolis, with a sword and 
 other accouterments. Cf. P. IV. $ 171. — Figs. 
 A, B, C, &c. A variety of standards and flags; 
 cf. P. III. $ 282. 1— Fig. E. Part of the tri- 
 umphal procession represented on the Arch of 
 Titus ; cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2. 
 
 49. Plate XXXIV. (Page 279.) War-en- 
 gines, Roman Camp, fyc. — Fig. 1, testudo ; fig. 2, 
 vinem ; 3, movable tower; 4, 5, 10, battering- 
 ram; 6, scorpio ; 7, balista; 8, pluteus; 9,falx 
 muralis ; see P. III. } 299. — Figs, a, b. Archer 
 and slinger; cf. P. III. } 288. 1— Fig. P, plan 
 
 of a consular camp; R, sectional view of the 
 aga-er and fossa ; see P. III. J 297 1. 
 
 50. Plate XXXV. (Page 301.) Pertaining 
 to Feasts and the use of Wine. — Fig. 1. Plan 
 and view of a triclinium found at Pompeii; cf. 
 P. III. $ 329. 2.— Fig. 2, carriage and vessel for 
 transporting wine ; fig. 3, a patera, used in 
 libations ; cf. P. III. J 331 b.— Fig. 4. Two per- 
 sons interchanging the pledge of hospitality ; 
 cf. P. III. $ 330. 3— Fig. 5, a Bacchanal revel- 
 ing alone, taken from remains at Pompeii ; fig. 
 6, a wine press, from Egyptian monuments ; 
 fig. 7, two glass cups elegantly cut or cast ; figs, 
 a, b, c, d, e, f, &c, various cups and vessels ; 
 cf. P. III. J 331 b. 
 
 51. Plate XXXVI. (Page 302.) Monumen- 
 tal Structure, dedicated to the Dii Manes ,* Re- 
 presentations of Death, S^c. Cf. P. II. $$ 76, 83, 
 110, 113. 
 
 EXPLANATIONS. 
 
 The following statement will enable the reader to know in general what is from 
 the author and what from the translator. A star annexed to the number of a section 
 always indicates that the section is added by the translator. The Italic letter t always 
 denotes that the section or paragraph to whose number it may be annexed is altered 
 so as to differ more or less from the original. All the matter in the largest of the 
 four sizes of type is translated directly from Eschenburg, excepting such sections as 
 may have one or the other of those marks. All the matter in the smaller type is added 
 by the translator, with the following exceptions: (1) sections or paragraphs having 
 the Italic letter u annexed to their number, which are all translated from Eschen- 
 burg; and (2) part of the mere references to books and authors, a majority perhaps 
 of which are taken from him. As to these references, it did not seem of much con- 
 sequence to discriminate carefully between those given by the author and those 
 introduced by the translator; if any one should find some of them irrelevant or un- 
 important, he may safely charge such upon the translator rather than Eschenburg. 
 
 In using this book, the student will find that he is frequently referred from one 
 place to another ; and the division into Parts, sections, and sub-sections, all sepa- 
 rately numbered, makes the reference very easy; thus, e. g. the abbreviations cf. P. III. 
 § 182. 4. direct the reader to the paragraph numbered 4, under section 182, in Part 
 III. Instead of the word see, or the abbreviation v. (for the Latin vide), the abbre- 
 viation cf. (for the Latin confer) is commonly used. In order to facilitate the turn- 
 ing to any passage, the number of the Part is continued as a sort of running title 
 oh the top of the even or right-hand page ; in following the reference above given, 
 e. g. the reader will first turn to Part III., denoted by P. III. seen at the top of the 
 right-hand page; then, under that Part, will look for § 182; then, under that sec- 
 tion, look for the paragraph numbered 4. Whenever the section to which a reference 
 is made belongs to the same Part with the section in which the reference is made, 
 the abbreviation for the Part is omitted ; thus, e. g. the abbreviation cf. § 3, occurs 
 on p. 40 in § 136 of Part I., and it directs the student to § 3 of the same PaTt I. In 
 some instances, a subsection is itself divided ; thus, cf. P. III. § 268. 4. (c), directs to 
 the paragraph marked (c), under the subsection 4. in § 268, of P. III. The references 
 made to the Plates need no explanation, except the remark that the abbreviation Sup. 
 always indicates one of the Supplemental Plates, contained in a separate volume. 
 
 A copious Index was essential to accomplish the design of this book; and in order 
 to secure greater copiousness, and at the same time give the student the advantage 
 of a very obvious and useful classification, four distinct Indexes are furnished at the 
 close of the work : an Index of Greek Words ,• an Index of Latin Words ; a Geo- 
 graphical Index ; and a General Index ; besides which, the Contents (in a systema- 
 tic view prefixed to the body of the work) are exhibited so fully, that the inquirer 
 may easily ascertain in what section any topic is noticed. When one seeks informa- 
 tion on a particular point from this volume, he is requested not to conclude that it 
 contains nothing on the subject, until he has carefully examined the Indexes, the 
 Statement of Contents, and the Description of Plates. 
 
PART I. 
 
 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND CHRONOLOGY. 
 
EPITOME OE CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 § 1. The earlier Greeks must have been very ignorant of the neighboring coun- 
 tries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of the Odyssey were within a few 
 hours sail of Greece. The account of the Argonautic expedition furnishes a still 
 stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are described as having departed by the 
 Hellespont and Euxine sea, and as having returned through the straits of Hercules ; 
 whence it manifestly appears, that at that time the Greeks believed that there was a 
 connection between the Palus Maeotis (sea of Azof) and the Ocean. In those early 
 ages the earth was supposed to be a great plain, and the ocean an immense stream, 
 which flowed around it and thus returned back into itself {axpop'pooi). 
 
 In later times, however, the commercial enterprise of the Athenians corrected these errors. 
 Their ships sailed through the seas to the east of Europe and brought home such accurate infor- 
 mation, that we find the description of these seas and the neighboring coasts nearly as perfect in 
 ancient as in modern writers. — The expedition of Clearchus into Asia, related in the Anabasis 
 of Xenophon (cf. P.V. $243), and still more that of Alexander, gave the Greeks opportunities of 
 becoming acquainted with the distant regions of the east. — The west of Europe was visited and 
 described by the Phoenicians, who had penetrated even to the British Islands. 
 
 § 2. All the astronomical and geographical knowledge of the ancients was embodied, 
 in the second century after Christ, in two principal works by Claudius Ptolemy ; one 
 styled MeyaXn Swrafis, and the other Teoiypa^iKfi '¥<j>fiyn<ns. From the latter we de- 
 rive our chief information respecting the limits of the ancient world, and the attain- 
 ments of the Greeks and Romans in geography. (Cf. P. V. % 206, 207, 216, 218, 
 480—483.) 
 
 § 3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name ; an imperfect 
 sketch of India limits their eastward progress ; the dry and parched deserts of Africa 
 prevented their advance to the south ; and the Atlantic ocean limited the known 
 world on the west. It must not be supposed that all the countries within these limits 
 were perfectly known ; we find, that even within these narrow boundaries, there 
 were several nations, of whom the ancient geographers knew nothing but the name. 
 
 Let us attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the earth 
 that was known in the time of Ptolemy. We will begin at Perm, one of the Insula Fortunate 
 (Canary Islands), which, because it was the most westerly land known, was taken by Ptolemy 
 for his fixed meridian. Our line extending hence northerly would include the British Isles and 
 the Shetland Isles; the latter are probably designated by the Thule of the ancients, according 
 to d'Anville, although some have supposed it was applied to Iceland. From the Shetland Isles 
 the line would pass through Sweden and Norway probably: perhaps around the North Cape, as 
 it has been thought that this must be the Rubeas Promontorinm of Ptolemy. The line would, in 
 either case, be continued to the White Sea at the mouth of the river Dwina, which seems to be 
 described by Ptolemy under the name Carambucis. Thence it would extend to the Ural Moun- 
 tains, which were partially known by the name of Hyperborei ; near which the poets located a 
 people of the same name {Virg. Georg. i. 240), said to live in all possible felicity. From these 
 mountains the line would pass along through Scythia to the northern part of the Belur Tag 
 mountains, the ancient Imaus. Crossing these, it enters the region of Kashgar (in Chinese Tar- 
 tary), called by Ptolemy Casio Regio ; a region of which, however, he evidently knew little. 
 Our line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients Sera; which is most pro- 
 bably the modern Kan or Kan-tcheou, near the north-west corner of China and the termination 
 of the immense wall separating China and Tartary. From Sera or Kan, it must be carried over 
 a region, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place called Thynm in the country of 
 the Sinm; this place was on the Cotiaris, a river uniting with the Senus, which is supposed to 
 be the modern Gamboge. On the coast, which we now approach with our line, the most easterly 
 point (that is particularly mentioned) is thought to be Point Condor, the southern extremity 
 of Cambodia; this was called the Promontorinm Satyrorum, and some small isles adjacent In- 
 sults Satyrorum, because monkeys were found here, whose appearance resembled the fabled 
 Satyrs. The general ignorance respecting this region is obvious from the fact, that it was ima- 
 gined, that beyond the Promontory of Satyrs the coast turned first to the south, and then com- 
 pletely to the west, and thus proceeded until it joined Africa. From the point or cape just 
 named, the boundary we are tracing would run around the Aurea Chersonesus, or peninsula of 
 Malaya or Malacca, take in the coast of Sumatra, anciently called Jabadii Insula, and pass to 
 Taprobana or Salice, the modern Ceylon. Thence sweeping around the Maldives, called by Pto 
 
4 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 lemy Insula ante Taprolanam, and crossing the equator, it would strike Africa at Cape Delgrado, 
 supposed to correspond to the Prasum Promonturium, being about 10 degrees S. latitude. The 
 boundary would exclude Madagascar, as the ancient Menuthias designates, not Madagascar aa 
 has been conjectured, but most probably the modern Zanzibar. It may be impossible to trace 
 the line across Africa; of the interior of which the ancients knew more than one would suppose, 
 judging from the ignorance of the moderns on the subject. The line would pass south of the 
 Mountains of the Moon, Luna Montes, which are mentioned by Ptolemy; and also, in part, of 
 the river Niger, which, as d'.lnmlle remarks, was known even in the time of Herodotus. On 
 the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra Leone at Cape St. Ann's, about 
 10 degrees N. latitude; this point answering to the ancient JVuii Cornu, Southern Horn, oft' 
 against which lay the islands called Insula Hesperidum. From this cape our line passes up the 
 shore of the Atlantic to the Insula Fortunate. ' 
 
 From this it is obvious, that the portion of the earth known to the ancients was small in pro- 
 portion to the whole. It has been said, with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one-third 
 of the land, now known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square miles : and of 
 the 155 millions of square miles of water, covering the rest of the globe, they knew almost no- 
 thing. 
 
 On the knowledge of the ancients respecting the earth, Class. Jaum. v. 103. ix. 133. For the principal helps in studying Clas- 
 sical Geography, consult the references given in P. V. § 7. 7 (4) ; see also P. V. §§ 206-208, 371 *s. — On the history of Geography, 
 cf. P. IV. § 27. 
 
 § 4. The division of the earth into the large portions, Europe, Asia, and Africa, is 
 of very ancient date ; but although the names have been preserved, the boundaries 
 in several particulars differed. Egypt was formerly reckoned among the Asiatic 
 kingdoms : at present it is esteemed part of Africa : Sarmatia was esteemed part of 
 Europe : a great part of it now forms one of the divisions of Asia. 
 
 § 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered ; but the ancients 
 believed that the Temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the extreme heat 
 of the Torrid and the extreme cold of the Frigid zones were destructive of animal life. 
 
 Another division, introduced by Hipparchus, was that of climates. A climate is a space in- 
 cluded between two parallels of latitude, so that the longest days of the inhabitants at one 
 extremity exceeds that of the inhabitants of the other by half an hour. Of these, eight were 
 known. The parallels pass successively through Meroe on the Nile, Sienne, Alexandria in 
 Egypt, Carthage, Alexandria in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine Sea, Mount Caucasus, and 
 the British Islands. 
 
 NOTE. — In studying this Epitome, it is indispensable to success that some Atlas should be used. That of Butler is very suitable 
 for the purpose. The editor of this Manual has it in contemplation to prepare an Atlas adapted to the Epitome of Geography here 
 presented. — The student need not commit to memory in the usual way. Let him first learn the general divisions and names of the 
 countries or provinces included in the lesson, and next carefully read over the whole lesson, fracing every thing, as far as possible, 
 on his maps. For recitation, let the Teacher question him on the maps of the Atlas, or on large maps in mere outline, prepared for 
 the purpose, which will be far better. 
 
 I. OF EUROPE. 
 
 § 6. Europe, though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most import- 
 ant division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority in arts and 
 sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants have long possessed 
 over degraded Asia and barbarous Africa. — It derives its name from Europa, the 
 daughter of Agenor, a Phoenician king, who being carried away, according to the 
 mythological tales (P. II. § 23), by Jupiter under the disguise of a bull, gave her 
 name to this quarter of the globe. 
 
 § 7. The boundaries of ancient Europe were nearly the same as those of modern 
 Europe ; but we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of 
 Europe. The northern ocean, called by the ancients the Icy or Saturnian, bounds it 
 on the north ; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is 
 traced by ancient writers ; the remainder of its eastern boundaries are the Palus 
 Meeotis, Cimmerian Bosphorus, Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, Propontis, Helles- 
 pont, and iEgean sea ; the Mediterranean sea is the southern and the Atlantic ocean 
 the western boundary. 
 
 § 8. The countries of the mainland of Europe may be arranged, for convenience, 
 in the present geographical sketch, in threo divisions ; the northern, middle, and 
 
 southern. The islands may be considered m a separate division. The north of 
 
 Europe can scarcely be said to have been known to the ancients until the unwearied 
 ambition of the Romans stimulated them to seek for new conquests in lands previously 
 unnoticed. From these countries, in after times, came the barbarian hordes who 
 overran Europe, and punished severely the excesses of Roman ambition. — The 
 southern division contains the countries, which, in ancient times, were the most dis-. 
 tinguished in Europe for their civilization and refinement. 
 
 The Northern countries, with their ancient and modern names, were the follow- 
 ing • Scandinavia, Norway and Sweden ; Chersonesus Cimbrica, Jutland, or Den- 
 
P.I. EUROPE. NORTHERN COUNTRIES. ~ 5 
 
 mark; Sarmatia, Russia; Gekmania, Germany. — 'The Middle countries were 
 the following: Gallia, France and Switzerland ; Vindelicia, Suabia ; Rh-ETIA, 
 country of Hie Grisons ; Noricum, Austria ; Pannonia, Hungary ; Illyricum, 
 Croatia and Dalmatia ; M^sia, Bosnia, Servia, and Bulgaria ; Dacia, Transylvania 
 and Walachia. — In the Southern division we include Hispania, Spain and Portu- 
 gal; Italia, Italy ; Thkacia, Macedonia, and GRiEciA, all lately comprehended 
 under the Turkish Empire. 
 
 I. THE NORTHERN COUNTRIES OF EUROPE. 
 
 § 9. Scandinavia, or Scandia, by the Celts called Lochlin, was falsely supposed 
 to be a large island. The inhabitants were remarkable for their number and ferocity ; 
 they subsisted chiefly by piracy and plunder. From this country came the Goths, 
 the Heruli, the Vandals, and at a later period, the Normans, who subjugated the 
 south of Europe. 
 
 § 10. The Chersonesus Cimbrica, a large peninsula at the entrance of the Baltic, 
 was the native country of the Cimbri and the Teutones, who after devastating Gaul 
 invaded the northern part of Italy, and made the Romans tremble for the safety of 
 their capital. They defeated the consuls Manlius and Servilius with dreadful slaugh- 
 ter, but were eventually destroyed by Marius. 
 
 § 11. Sarmatia included the greater part of Russia and Poland, and is frequently 
 confounded with Scythia. This immense territory was possessed by several inde- 
 pendent tribes, who led a wandering life like the savages of North America. The 
 names of the principal tribes were the Sauromatae, near the mouth of the Tanais, 
 and the Geloni and Agathyrsi, between the Tanais and the Borysthenes. The latter 
 were called Hamaxobii from their living in wagons. Virgil gives them the epithet 
 picli, because they, like the savages of America, painted their bodies to give them- 
 selves a formidable appearance. — From these districts came the Huns, the Alans and 
 Roxolanians, who aided the barbarians formerly mentioned (§ 8) in overthrowing the 
 Roman empire. 
 
 The peninsula, now known by the name of the Crimea, or dim Tartary, was 
 anciently called the Chersonesus Taurica. - Its inhabitants, called Tauri, were 
 remarkable for their cruelty to strangers, whom they sacrificed on the altar of Diana. 
 From their cruelty the Euxine sea received its name ; it was called Euxine (favorable 
 to strangers) by antiphrasis, or euphemism. — The principal towns of the Tauric 
 Chersonese were Panticapmum (Kerche), where Mithridates the Great died ; Saphrm 
 (Procop), and Theodosia (Kaffa). — At the south of this peninsula, was a large pro- 
 montory, called from its shape Criu-Metopon, or the Ram's Forehead. 
 
 § 12. Ancient Germany, Germania, is, in many respects, the most singular and 
 interesting of the northern nations. In the remains of its early language, and the 
 accounts of its civil government, that have been handed down to us, the origin of the 
 English language and constitution may be distinctly traced. The inhabitants called 
 themselves IFer-men, which in their language signifies War-men, and from this 
 boasting designation the Romans named them, with a slight change, Ger-men. 
 The boundaries of ancient Germany were not accurately ascertained, but the name is 
 generally applied to the territories lying between the Rhine and the Vistula, the 
 Baltic Sea and the Danube. 
 
 § 13. These countries were, like Sarmatia, possessed by several tribes, of whom 
 the principal were the Hermiones and Suevi, who possessed the middle of Germany. 
 
 :■ The tribes on the banks of the Rhine were most known to the Romans. The 
 
 chief of these were the Frisii, through whose country a canal was cut by Drusus, 
 which being increased in the course of time formed the present Zuyder Zee ; the 
 Cherusci, who under the command of Arminius destroyed the legions of Quintilius 
 Varus ; the Sicamhri, who were driven across the Rhine by the Catti, in the time of 
 Augustus ; the Catti, the most warlike of the German nations, and most irreconcila- 
 ble to Rome ; the Marcomanni, who were driven afterwards into Bohemia by the 
 Allemanni, from which latter people Germany is, by the French, called Allemagne. 
 
 Near the Elbe were the Angli and Saxones, progenitors of the English, and the 
 
 Longobardi, who founded the kingdom of Lombardy, in the north of Italy. The 
 nations on the Danube were the Hermundurii, steadfast allies of the Romans ; the Mar- 
 comanni, who retired hither after their expulsion from the Rhine ; the Narisci 
 and Quadi, who waged a dreadful war with the Romans during the reign of Marcus 
 Aurelius. 
 
 $ 14. The Germans had no regular towns, and indeed a continuity of houses was 
 forbidden by their laws. The only places of note were, consequently, forts built by 
 
 the Romans, to repress the incursions of the natives A great part of Germany 
 
 was occupied by the Hercynian forest, which extended, as was said, nine days' jour- 
 ney from south to north, and more than sixty from west to east. A portion of the 
 Sylva Hercynia is now called the Black Forest, which still has its fabled terrors. 
 
 § 15. The largest river in the northern division of Europe was the Eha, now Wolgu. 
 It was called Atel or Etel by the Byzantine writers (P. V. § 239a) and others in tho 
 
 a2 
 
b CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 middle ages. It had 70 mouths discharging, and with more water formerly than now, 
 into the Mare Caspium. It was in part the eastern boundary of Europe, separating 
 Sarmatia from Scythia. 1 — The river next in size was the Borysthenes, called in the 
 middle ages Danapris, whence its modern name Dnieper. Just at its entrance into 
 the Ponlus Euxinus, it was joined by the Hypanis, calledin the middle ages Bogus, and 
 now the Bog. The long narrow beach at the mouth of the Borysthenes was called 
 Dromus Achillei. — Between the Borysthenes and the Rha was the Tanais, the 
 present Don, which separated Sarmatia Europea from Sarmatia Asiatica, and flowed 
 into the Palus Masotis or modern sea of Azof ; near its mouth was a city of extensive 
 commerce, called Tanais Emporium. The strait connecting the Palus Masotis with 
 the Euxine was called Bospkorus Cimmerius. — Another river discharging into the 
 Pontus Euxinus, was the Tyras, the modern Dniester: it, flowed between Sarmatia 
 and Dacia, and formed in part the southern boundary of what is included in our 
 northern division of Europe. — Two rivers, from sources near those of the Tyras, 
 flowed in a northerly course to the Baltic, the ancient Sinus' Codanus ; they were the 
 Vistula, still so called, and the Viader or Oder. The principal streams discharging 
 into the Oceanus Germanicus were the Albis, Elbe, and the R^enus, Rhine, which 
 formed the western boundary of the division of Eurooe now under notice, dividing 
 Germania and Gallia. 
 
 II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE MIDDLE OF EUROPE. 
 
 $ 16. We will begin with Gaklia, which is at the western extremity of the division. 
 The Romans called this extensive country Gallia Transalpina, to distinguish it from 
 the province of Gallia Cisalpina in the north of Italy. The Greeks gave it the name 
 of Galatia, and subsequently western Galatia, to distinguish it from Galatia in Asia 
 Minor, where the Gauls had planted a colony. 
 
 Ancient Gaul comprehended, in addition to France, the territories of Flanders, Hol- 
 land, Switzerland, and part of the south-west of Germany. Its boundaries were the 
 Atlantic ocean, the British sea, the Rhine, the Alps, the Mediterranean, and the 
 Pyrenees. — The country,in the time of Julius Cassar, was possessed by three great 
 nations, divided into a number of subordinate tribes. Of these the Celtas were the 
 most numerous and powerful ; their territory reached from the Sequana, Seine, to the 
 Garumna, Garonne ; the Beiges lay between the Sequana and lower Rhine, where 
 they united with the German tribes ; the Aquitani possessed the country between 
 the Garumna and the Pyrenees. 
 
 § 17. Augustus Csesar divided Gaul into four provinces ; Gallia Narbonensis, Aqui 
 tania, Gallia Celtica, and Belgica. 
 
 Gallia Narbonensis, called also the Roman province, extended along the sea 
 coast from the Pyrenees to the Alps ; including the territory of the modern provinces, 
 Languedoc, Provence, Dauphine, and Savoy. It contained several nations, the prin- 
 cipal of which were the Allobroges, Salyes, and Volcae. The principal cities were 
 Narbo Martius, the capital, (Narbonne); Massilice (Marseilles), founded by an Ionian 
 colony, from Phocsea, in Asia Minor ; Forum Jtdii (Frejus) ; Aqua Sextim (Aix) ; and 
 Nemausus (Nismes), whose importance is manifest in the grandeur of its still existing 
 remains. 
 
 Among the interesting monuments at Nismes are, the Square House, and the Arena; the latter being an amphitheatre, or circus, 
 of the Doric order, with walls composed of enormous masses of stone united with wonderful skill, 1200 feet in circumference, capable 
 of holding;, it is said, 16,000 or 17,000 persons ; the former, a temple, 76 feet long, 38 broad, and 42 high ; adorned with 30 beautiful 
 Corinthian columns. (Cf. Seynes and Menard, cited P. IV. § 243. 3. — Millin, Voyage dans les Departements du Midi.) 
 
 Aquitani a extended from the Pyrenees to the Liger (Loire). The principal 
 nations were the Tarbelli, south of the Garumna, and the Santones, Pictones, and 
 Lemovices, north of that river. The chief towns were Mediolanum (Saintes) ; 
 Porlus Santonum (Rochelle) ; and TJxellodunum. 
 
 Gallia Celtica, or Lugdunensis, lay between the Liger and Sequana. — The 
 country along the coast was called Armorica, the inhabitants of which were very fierce 
 and warlike. — The principal nations were the Segusiani, iEdui, Mandubii, Parish, and 
 Rhedones. The principal cities were Lugdunum (Lyons), founded by Munatius 
 Plancus after the death of Julius Caesar ; Bibracte, called afterwards Augustodunum 
 (Autun) ; Alesia (Alise), the last city of Gaul that resisted the arms of Csesar ; and 
 Portus Brivates (Brest), near the Promonlorium Gobasum (Cape St. Malo). 
 
 Lutelia Parisiorum (Paris) was built by the Parisii, on a swampy island, before the time of Christ, but was of no importance 
 until A. D. 360, when the Emperor Julian went into winter quarters there, and erected a palace for himself. 
 
 The remainder of Gaul was included in the province Belgica. This contained 
 a great number of powerful states ; the Helvelii occupying that part of modern Swit- 
 zerland included between Lacus Lemanus (the lake of Geneva) and Lacus Briganti- 
 ">.us (the lake of Constance) ; the Sequani, possessing the present province of Franche 
 Comte ; and the Batavi, who inhabited Holland. — 'That part of Belgic Gaul adjoining 
 the Rhine below Helvetia was called Germania, from the number of German tribes 
 
P. I. EUROPE. MIDDLE COUNTRIES. 7 
 
 who had settled there, and was divided into Superior or Upper, the part nearer the 
 sources of the Rhine, and Inferior or Lower, the part nearer its mouth. The principal 
 of these tribes were the Treveri, Ubii, Menapii, and Nervii. In the country of the 
 Treveri was the extensive forest Arduenna (Ardennes), traces of which still remain. 
 
 § 18. The principal mountains of Gaul were Gehenna (the Cevennes), in Langue- 
 doc; Vogesus (the Vauge), in Lorraine; and Alpes (the Alps). — The Alps were 
 subdivided into Alpes Marilimce, joining the Etruscan sea ; Collide, over which Han- 
 nibal is supposed to have passed ; Graces, so called from the passage of Hercules ; 
 Fennina, so called from the appearance of their tops (from perina, awing) ; Ehceticw, 
 joining Rhastia ; Noricas, bordering Noricum ; Pannonica ; and Julia, the eastern 
 extremity, terminating in the Si7ms Flanaticus (Bay of Carnero), in Liburnia. 
 
 The chief rivers of Gaul were Ehenus (the Rhine) ; this river, near its mouth, at 
 present divides itself into three streams, the Waal, the Leek, and the Newlssel ; the 
 last was formed by a great ditch cut by the army of Drusus ; the ancient mouth of 
 the Rhine, which passed by Leyden, has been choked up by some concussion of 
 nature not mentioned in history ; Bhodanus (the Rhone), joined by the Arar (Saone) ; 
 Garumna (Garonne), which united with the Duranius (Dordogne) ; Liger (the Loire), 
 joined by the Elaver (Allier) ; and Sequana (the Seine). 
 
 The principal islands on the coast of Gaul were Uxantos (Ushant) ; TJliarus (Oleron) ; 
 Ccesarea (Jersey) ; Samia (Guernsey) ; and Eiduna (Alderney) ; on the south coast 
 were the Stmchades or Ligustides insula (isles of Hieras). 
 
 1> 19. The government of ancient Gaul, previous to the Roman invasion, was aristocratical, 
 and so great was their hatred of royalty, that those who were even suspected of aiming at sove- 
 reign power, were instantly put to death. The priests and nobles, whom they called Druids 
 and knights, possessed the whole authority of the state ; the peasantry were esteemed as slaves ; 
 in most of the states an annual magistrate was elected with powers similar to those of the Ro- 
 man consul, but it was ordained that both the magistrate and the electors should be of noble birth. — 
 In person, the Gauls are said to have been generally fair-complexioned, with long and ruddy 
 hair, whence their country is sometimes called Gallia Comata, or Hairy Gaul. In disposition 
 they are described as irascible, and of ungovernable fury when provoked; their first onset was 
 very impetuous, but if vigorously resisted they did not sustain the fight with equal steadiness. 
 
 $ 20. The history of Gallia before the invasion of the Romans is involved in obscurity; we 
 only know that it must have been very populous from the numerous hordes who at different times 
 emigrated from Gaul in search of new settlements. They seized on the north of Italy, which 
 was from them called Cisalpine Gaul ; they colonized part of Germany ; they invaded Greece; 
 and one tribe penetrated even to Asia, where, mingling with the Greeks, they seized on a pro- 
 vince, from thence called Galatia or Gallo-Gr;ecia.— Another body of Gauls, under the command 
 of Brennus, seized and burned Rome itself; and though they were subsequently routed by Camil- 
 kis, the Romans ever looked on the Gauls as their most formidable opponents, and designated a 
 Gallic war by the word Tumultus, implying that it was as dangerous as a civil war. 
 
 J 21. The alliance between the people of Massilia; (Marseilles) and the Romans furnished the 
 latter people with a pretext for intermeddling in the affairs of Gaul, which they eagerly embraced. 
 The first nation whom they attacked was the Salyes, who had refused them a passage into Spain; 
 the Salyes were subdued by Caius Sextius, who planted a colony called after his name, Aqua? 
 Sextise; about four years after, the greater part of Gallia Karbonensis was subdued by Uuintus 
 Martius Rex, who founded the colony Narbo Marlius, and made it the capital of the Roman 
 province. — After the subjugation of Gallia Narbonensis, the Gauls remained unmolested until 
 the time of Caesar, who after innumerable difficulties conquered the entire country, and annexed 
 it to the Roman dominions. 
 
 Though grievously oppressed by the Roman governors, the Gauls under the emperors made rapid advances in civilization ; they 
 are particularly noticed for their success in eloquence and law. A curious circumstance of the mode in which these studies were 
 pursued is recorded by many historians; an annual contest in eloquence took place at Lugdunum, and the vanquished were com- 
 pelled to blot out their own compositions, and write new orations in praise of the victors, or else be whipped and plunged into the 
 Arar.— See Thierry, Histoire des Gaulois. Par. 1828. 3 vols. 8. 
 
 $22. The country called V in de lici a was situated between the sources of the 
 Ehenus (Rhine), and the Danubius or Ister (Danube). Its chief town was Augusta 
 Vindelieorum (Augsburg, celebrated for the confession of the protestant faith, pre- 
 sented by Melancthon to the Diet assembled there at the commencement of the 
 Reformation). — Between Vindelicia and the Alps was Rhjetia, containing rather 
 more than the present territory of the Grisons. Its chief towns were Curia (Coire), 
 and Tridentum (Trent), where the last general council was assembled. — 'Vindelicia 
 and Rhaetia were originally colonized by the Tuscans, and for a long time bravely 
 maintained their independence. They were eventually subdued during the reign of 
 Augustus Cagsar, by Drusus the brother of Tiberius. 
 
 § 23. Noricum lay to the east of Vindelicia, from which it is separated by the rive 
 JEnus (Inn). Its savage inhabitants made frequent incursions upon the Roman terri 
 tories, and were, after a severe struggle, reduced by Tiberius Caesar. The iron of 
 Noricum was very celebrated, and swords made in that country were highly valued. 
 — East of Noricum was Pannonta, also subdued by Tiberius. It was divided into 
 Superior, the chief town of which was Vindohona (Vienna); and Inferior, whose 
 capital was Sirmium, a town of great importance in the later ages of the empire. — ■ 
 Noricum is now called Austria, and Pannonia. Hungary. 
 
 § 24. The boundaries of Illyricum have not been precisely ascertained ; it occu 
 
8 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 pied the north- eastern shores of the Adriatic, and was subdivided into the three 
 provinces of Japydii, Liburnia, and Dalmalia. It included the modern provinces, 
 Croatia, Bosnia, and Sclavonia. — The chief towns were Salona, near Spalalro, where 
 the emperor Dioclesian retired after his resignation of the imperial power; Epidaurus 
 or Dioclea (Ragusi Vecchio), and Bagxisa. 
 
 The Illyrians were infamous for their piracy and the cruelty with which they treated their 
 captives; they possessed great skill in ship-building, and the light galleys of the Libuntians con- 
 tributed not a little to Augustus's victory at Actium. — The Romans declared war against the 
 Illyrians, in consequence of the murder of their ambassadors, who had been basely massacred by 
 Teula, qiseen of that country. The Illyrians were obliged to beg a peace on the most humiliating 
 conditions, but having again attempted to recover their former power, they were finally subdued 
 by the pra?tor Anicius, who slew their kingGentius, and made the country a Roman province. 
 
 § 25. Mcesia lay between Mount Hmmus (the Balkan)and the Danube, whichafter its 
 junction with the Savus was usually called Ister. It was divided into Superior, the 
 present province of Servia, and Inferior, now cal'ed Bulgaria. Part of Mcesia Supe- 
 rior was possessed by the Scordisci, a Thracian tribe ; next to which was a district 
 called Dardania ; that part of Mcesia Inferior near the mouth of the Danube was 
 called Poittus, which is frequently confounded with Pontus, a division of Asia Minor. 
 — The principal cities in Mvesia Superior were Singidunum (Belgrade), at the conflu- 
 ence of the Save and Danube ; Nicopolis, built by Trajan to commemorate his victory 
 over the Dacians; and Naissus (Nissa), the birthplace of Constantine the Great. — 
 In 3Iresia Inferior were Marcianopolis, the capital; Tomi, the place of Ovid's banish- 
 ment ; Odessus, south of Tomi, and JEgissus, near which was the bridge built by 
 Darius in his expedition against the Scythians. 
 
 § 26. Dacia lay between the Danube and the Carpates, or Alpes Bastamicce (Carpa- 
 thian or Krapack mountains) ; including the territory of the modern provinces, Tran- 
 sylvania. Moldavia, and Wallachia. The celebrated Hercynian Forest, Sylva Hercy?iia 
 (cf. § 14) , stretched over the north and west part of it. Dacia was inhabited by two 
 Scythian tribes, the Daci and Geta, who for a long time resisted every effort to deprive 
 them of their freedom ; they were at length subdued by Trajan. 
 
 After having conquered the cour.try, Trajan joined it to Mcesia by a magnificent bridge over the Danube, traces of which still 
 exist. His successor, Adrian, influenced either by jealousy of his predecessors glory, or believing il more expedient to contract than 
 to extend the bounds of the empire, broke down the bridge, and left Dacia to i!s fale. — This country was of considerable importance 
 to the Romans on account of its gold and silver mines. In 1S07, an interesting monument of Roman writing was found in one of 
 these mines. (Cf. P. IV. § 1 18. 3.) 
 
 A people has been found among the Wallachians, that now speak a language very similar to the Latin, and are therefore supposed 
 to be descended from the Roman colonists. — Mr. Brewer says he found so many words common to the Latin and the Wall-chian, 
 that by means of the Latin he could converse on common subjects with a Wallachiao merchant at Constantinople.— J. Brewer, Resi- 
 dence at Constantinople in 1S27, &c New Haven, 1830. 12. — Cf. IVahU's Journey from Constantinople. 
 
 III. THE COUNTRIES INCLUDED IN THE SOUTHERN DIVISION OF EUROPE. 
 
 % 27. In treating of this division we will also commence with the most western 
 country, which was Hispania. This name included the modern kingdoms of Spain 
 and Portugal. The country was also called Iberia, Hesperia, and (to distinguish it 
 from Italy, sometimes termed Hesperia, from its western situation.) Hesperia Ultima. 
 The Romans at first divided it into Hispania Citerior, or Spain at the eastern side of 
 the fberus, and Hispania Ulterior, at the western side ; but by Augustus Caesar, the 
 country was divided into three provinces; Tarraconesis. Bcetira, and Lusilania. Like 
 the provinces of Gaul, these were inhabited by several distinct tribes. 
 
 § 28. Tar raconensis exceeded the other two provinces together, both in size and 
 importance. It extended from the Pyrenees to the mouth of the D urius, on the Atlantic, 
 and to the Orospeda. Mons separating it from Ba?tica, on the Mediterranean ; and re- 
 ceived its name from its capital, Tarraco (Tarragona), in the district of the Cosetani. 
 
 The other principal towns were Saguntum, on the Mediterranean, whose siege by 
 Hannibal caused the second Punic war; some remains of ihis city still exist, and are 
 called Murviedro, a corruption of Muri veteres (old walls) ; Carthago Nova (Carthagena), 
 built by Asdrubal, the brother of Hannibal, also on the Mediterranean : in the interior, 
 north-east of the capital, Ilerda (Lerida) , the capital of the Ilergetes, where Cossar 
 defeated Pompey's lieutenants, Afranius and Petreius ; Numantia, near the sources of 
 the Durius, whose inhabitants made a desperate resistance to the Roman invaders, and, 
 when unable to hold out longer, burned themselves and the city sooner than yield to 
 the conquerors; Bilbilis, the birthplace of Martial, among the Celtiberi; Ccesarea 
 Augusta (Saragossa) , capital of the Edetani ; Toletum (Toledo); Comphdum (Alcala), 
 and Kibora (Talavera) ,in the same district ; Calagurris, in the territory of the Vascones. 
 whose inhabitants suffered dreadfully from famine in the Sertorian war, being reduced 
 to such straits, that the inhabitants (as Juvenal says) actually devoured each other. 
 Near the modern town of Segovia, retaining the name and site of Segovia among the 
 Arevaci. are the remains of a splendid aqueduct, built by Trajan. Calle (Oporto) , at 
 the mouth of the Durius, was also called Portus Gallorum, from some Gauls who 
 settled there, and hence the name of the present kingdom of Portugal. The north 
 
P. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 9 
 
 of Tarraconensis was possessed by the Cantabri, a fierce tribe, who for a long time 
 resisted the utmost efforts of the Romans ; their territory is the modern province of 
 Biscay. 
 
 § 29. The southern part of Spain, between the Anas and Mediterranean, was called 
 Baetica, from the river Baetis. Its chief towns were Corduba (Cordova), at first 
 called Colonia Patricia, the birthplace of the two Senecas, and the poet Lucan ; in 
 this town are the remains of a splendid mosque, built by the Moorish king, Almanzor; 
 it is more than 500 feet long, and 400 wide ; the roof is richly ornamented, and supported 
 by 800 columns of alabaster, jasper, and black marble : Hispalis (Seville) ; Italica, the 
 native city of Trajan, Adrian, and the poet Silius Italicus ; Cuslulo, called also Parnassia, 
 because it was founded by a Phocian colony; all on the Baetis. — The south-western 
 extremity of Baetica was possessed by a Phoenician colony, called the Bastuli Poem, to 
 distinguish them from the Libyan Pceni, or Carthaginians; their capital was Gades 
 (Cadiz) , on an island at the mouth of the Baetis ; near it were the little island Tartes- 
 sus, now part of the continent, and Junonis Promontorium (Cape Trafalgar) . — At 
 the entrance of the straits of Hercules or Gades, stood Carteia, on mount Calpe, which 
 is now called Gibraltar, a corruption of Gebel Tank, i. e. the mountain of Tarik, the 
 first Moorish invader of Spain. Mount Calpe and mount Abyla (on the opposite coast 
 of Africa) were named the pillars of Hercules, and supposed to have been the bounda- 
 ries of that hero's western conquests. North of this was Munda, where Caesar fought 
 his last battle with Labienus, and the sons of Pompey. 
 
 Lusitania, which occupied the greatest part of the present kingdom of Portugal, 
 contained but few places of note ; the most remarkable were Augusta Emerita (Merida) 
 and Olisippo (Lisbon), said to have been founded by Ulysses. 
 
 § 30. The principal Spanish rivers were, Iberus (Ebro) ; Tagus (Tajo) ; Durius 
 (Douro) ; Bcetis (Guadalquiver) ; Anas (Guadiana). — The promontory at the north- 
 western extremity of the peninsula was named Artabrum or Celticum (Finisterre); that 
 at the south-western, Sacrum, because the chariot of the sun was supposed to rest there ; 
 it is now called Cape St. Vincent. 
 
 $ 31. Spain was first made known to the ancients by the conquests of Hercules. In later times 
 the Carthaginians became masters of the greater part of the country; they were in their turn 
 expelled by the Romans, who kept possession of the peninsula for several centuries. — Dur- 
 ing the civil wars of Rome, Spain was frequently devastated by the contending parties. Here 
 Sertorius, after the death of Marius, assembled the fugitives of the popular party, and for a long 
 time resisted the arms of Sylla: here, Afranius and Petreius, the lieutenants of Poinpey, made 
 a gallant stand against Julius Caesar; and here, after the death of Pompey, his sons made a 
 fruitless effort to vindicate their own rights, and avenge their father's misfortunes. — Upon the 
 overthrow of the Roman empire, Spain was conquered by the Vandals, who gave to one of the 
 provinces the name Vandalusia, now corrupted into Andalusia. 
 
 § 32. Italy, Italia, has justly been denominated the garden of Europe both by 
 ancient and modern writers, from the beauty of its climate and the fertility of its soil. 
 The Italian boundaries, like those of Spain, have remained unaltered ; on the north are 
 the Alps, on the east the Adriatic, or upper sea, on the South the Sicilian strait, and 
 on the west the Tuscan, or lower sea. By the poets the country was called Saturnia, 
 Ausonia, and CEnotria ; by the Greeks it was named Hesperia, because it lay to the 
 west of their country. 
 
 Italy has always been subdivided into a number of petty states, more or less independent of 
 each other. We shall treat it as comprehended in two parts, denominated the northern and 
 southern; and as the chief city and capital of the country is of such celebrity, shall enter into a 
 more particular description of Rome ; adopting the following arrangement; 1. The Geography 
 of the northern portion of Italy ; 2. The Geography of the southern portion; 3. The Topography 
 of the city of Rome. 
 
 §33. (1) Geography of the Northern portion of It alt a. The principal ancient divi 
 sions of this part, were Gallia Cisalpina, Etruria, Umbria, Picenum, and Latium. 
 
 Gallia Cisalpina, called also Togata, from the inhabitants adopting, after the 
 Social war, the toga, or distinctive dress of the Romans, lay between the Alps and the 
 river Rubicon. It was divided by the river Eridanus, or Padus, into Transpadana, at 
 the north side of the river, and Cispadana at the south ; these were subdivided into 
 several smaller districts. 
 
 North of the Padus, or Po, was the territory of the Taurini, whose chief town, 
 Augusta Taurinorum, is now called Turin ; next to these were the Insubres, whoso 
 principal towns were Mediolanum (Milan) ; and Ticinum (Pavia), on the river Ticinus, 
 where Hannibal first defeated the Romans, after his passage over the Alps ; the Ceno- 
 inanni, possessing the towns of Brixia (Brescia); Crsmona; and Mantua, the birth- 
 place of Virgil ; and the Euganei, whose chief towns were Tridenlum (Trent) ; and 
 Verona, the birthplace of Catullus. — 'Next to these were the Veneli and Carni ; their 
 chief towns were Palamum (Padua), the birthplace of Livy, built by the Trojan Ante 
 nor, after the destruction of Troy; and Aquileia, retaining its former name but noi 
 2 
 
10 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 former consequence ; it is celebrated for its desperate resistance to Attila king of the 
 Huns. Next to these was the province Histria, or Istria; chief town, Tergeste 
 (Trieste). 
 
 South of the Po where the territories of the Ligures ; chief towns, Genua (Genoa) , 
 on the Sinus Ligusticus (Gulf of Genoa) ; Portus Herculis Mornzci (Monaco), and 
 Niccea (Nice); the territory of the Boii, containing Bononia (Bologna); Mutina 
 (Modena), where Brutus was besieged by Antony ; Parma, and Placenlia; and the 
 country of the Lingones, whose chief town was Ravenna, where the emperors of the west 
 held their court, when Rome was possessed by the barbarians.- 
 
 § 34. Cisalpine Gaul contained the beautiful lakes Verbanus (Maggiore) ; Benacus 
 (Di Gardi), and Larius, the celebrated lake of Como, deriving its modern name from 
 the village Comum, near Pliny's villa. 
 
 The rivers of this province were the Eridanus or Padus (Po), called by Virgil the 
 king of livers, which rises in the Cottian Alps, and receiving several tributary streams, 
 especially the Ticinus (Tesino) and Mincius (Mincio), falls into the Adriatic; the 
 Athesis (Adige), rising in the Rhaetian Alps ; and the Rubicon (Rugone), deriving its 
 source from the Apennines, and falling into the Adriatic. 
 
 5 35. The inhabitants of Cisalpine Gaul were, of all the Italian states, the most hostile to the 
 power of Rome; they joined Hannibal with alacrity when lie invaded Italy, and in the Social 
 war they were the most inveterate of the allied states in their hostility. — When the empire of 
 the west fell before the northern tribes, this province was seized by the Longobardi, from whom 
 the greater part of it is now called Lombardy. In the middle ages it was divided into a number 
 of independent republics, which preserved some sparks of liberty, when freedom was banished 
 from the rest of Europe. 
 
 § 36. Etruria extended along the coast of the lowej or Tuscan sea, from the small 
 river Macra, to the mouth of the Tiber. 
 
 The most remarkable towns and places in Etruria were : the town and port of Luna, 
 at the mouth of the river Macra ; Pisce (Pisa) ; Florentia (Florence) ; Portus Herculis 
 Leburni (Leghorn); Pistoria, near which Catiline was defeated ; Perusia, near the 
 lake Thrasymene, where Hannibal obtained his .third victory over the Romans; Clusium, 
 the city of Porsenna; Vohinii (Bolsena), where Sejanus, the infamous minister of 
 Tiberius, was born ; Falerii (Palari), near mount Soracte, the capital of the Falisci, 
 memorable for the generous conduct of Camillus while besieging it ; Veii, the ancient 
 rival of Rome, captured by Camillus after a siege of ten years; Care, or Agylla (Cer 
 Veteri), whose inhabitants hospitably received the Vestal virgins, when they fled from 
 the Gauls, in reward for which they were made Roman citizens, but not allowed the 
 privilege of voting, whence, any Roman citizen who lost the privilege of voting was 
 said to be enrolled among the Cmrites; Centum Cellce (Civita Vecchia), at the mouth of 
 the Tiber, the port of modern Rome. 
 
 § 37. The principal rivers of Etruria were the Arnus ( Arno) , rising in the Apennines 
 and falling into the sea near Pisa ; and the Tiber, which issuing from the Umbrian 
 Apennines, and joined by the Nar (Nera) and Anio (Teverone) , running in a south- 
 westerly direction, falls into the sea below Rome. 
 
 The Etrurians were called by the Greeks, Tyrrheni; they are said to have come originally 
 from Lydia in Asia Minor, and to have preserved traces of their eastern origin, to a very late 
 period. From them the Romans borrowed their ensigns of regal dignity, and many of thei« 
 superstitious observances, for this people were remarkably addicted to auguries and soothsaying. 
 They attained distinguished excellence in art (cf. P. IV. $ 109, 110); interesting monuments of 
 which still exist (cf. P. IV. $ 173). 
 
 § 38. Umbria was situated east of Etruria, and south of Cisalpine Gaul, from which 
 it was separated by the Rubicon. The principal river of Umbria was the Metaurus 
 (Metro) , where Asdrubal was cut off by the consuls Livius and Nero while advancing 
 to the support of his brother Hannibal. Its chief towns ; Ariminum (Rimini) , the first 
 town taken by Caesar, at the commencement of the civil war ; Pesaurum (Pesaro) ; 
 Senna Gallica (Senigaglia), built by the Galli Senones ; Camerinum; Spoletium (Spo- 
 letto), where Hannibal was repulsed after his victory at Thrasymene. 
 
 The memory of this repulse is still preserved in an inscription over one of the gates, thence called Porta di Fuga. " Here also is 
 a beautiful aqueduct carried across a valley, three hundred feet high." W. Fishe, p. 343, as cited P. IV. § 186. 6. 
 
 § 39. Picenum lay to the east of Umbria, on the coast of the Adriatic. Its principal 
 towns were, Asculum vAscoli), the capital of the province, which must not be confound- 
 ed with Asculum in Apulia, near which Pyrrhus was defeated ; Corfinium (San Ferino), 
 the chief town of the Peligni ; Sulmo, the birthplace of Ovid ; and Ancona, retaining its 
 ancient name, founded by a Grecian colony. 
 
 Close to the harbor of Ancona is a beautiful triumphal arch erected in honor of Trajan ; the pillars are of Parian marble, and still 
 retain their pure whiteness and exquisite polish, as if fresh from the workmen's hands. The celebrated chapel of Loretto is near 
 Ancona. 
 
 South of Picenum and Umbria, were the territories of the Marsi and Sabini. The for 
 mer were a rude and warlike people ; their capital was Marrubium, on the Lacus Fucinus. 
 This lake Julius Csesar vainly attempted to drain. It was afterwards partially effected 
 by Claudius Caesar, who employed thirty thousand men for eleven years, in cutting a 
 passage for the waters through the mountains, from the lake to the river Liris ; when 
 
P.I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 11 
 
 every thing was prepared for letting off the waters, he exhibited several splendid naval 
 games, shows, &c.; but the work did not answer his expectations, and the canal, being 
 neglected, was soon choked up-, and the lake recovered its ancient dimensions. — The 
 Sabine towns were Cures, whence the name Quirites is by some derived (cf. § 53); 
 Reate, near which Vespasian was born; Amitemum, the birthplace of Sallust; Crus- 
 tumerium, and Fidence. Mons Sacer, whither the plebeians of Rome retired in their 
 contest with the patricians, was in the territory of the Sabines. Tin these countries were 
 the first enemies of the Romans, but about the time of Camillus the several small states 
 in this part of Italy were subjugated. 
 
 § 40. Latium, the most important division of Italy, lay on the coast of the Tuscan 
 sea, between the river Tiber and Liris ; it was called Latium, from lateo, to lie hid, 
 because Saturn is said to have concealed himself there, when dethroned by Jupiter. 
 
 The chief town was Rome (see § 51 ss). Above Rome on the 'fiber, stood Tibur 
 (Tivoli), built by an Argive colony, a favorite summer residence of the Roman 
 nobility, near which was Horace's favorite country seat (P. III. § 326) : south of Rome, 
 Tusculum (Frescati), remarkable both in ancient and modern times, for the salubrity 
 of the air and beauty of the surrounding scenery ; it is said to have been built by Tele- 
 gonus, the son of Ulysses; near it was Cicero's celebrated Tusculan villa: east of 
 Tusculum, Prcenesle (Palestrina), a place of great strength both by nature and art, 
 where the younger Marias perished in a subterranean passage, while attempting to 
 escape, when the town was besieged by Sylla : south of Tusculum, Longa Alba, the 
 parent of Rome, and near it the small towns Algidum, Psedum, and Gabii, betrayed to 
 the Romans by the well-known artifice of the younger Tarqnin. — On the coast, at the 
 mouth of the Tiber, stood Qstia, the port of ancient Rome, built by Ancus Martius; 
 south of this were Laurenlum, Lavinium (built by iEneas and called after his wife La- 
 vinia), and Ardea, the capital of the Rutuli, where Camillus resided during his exile. 
 South of these were the territories of the Volsci, early opponents of the Romans ; their 
 chief cities were Antium, where there was a celebrated temple of Fortune ; Suessa 
 Pometia, the capital of the Volsci, totally destroyed by the Romans; and Corioli, from 
 the capture of which Caius Marcius was named Coriolanus. 
 
 South of the Volsci, were the town and promontory of Circeii, the fabled residence 
 of Circe ; Anxur (Terracina), on the Appian Way ; the town and promontory Caieta, 
 deriving its name from the nurse of iEneas, who was there interred ; Formice, near 
 which Cicero was assassinated by command of Antony ; and, at the mouth of the 
 Liris, Minturnm, near which are the Pontine or Pomptine Marshes, in which the elder 
 Marius endeavored to conceal himself when pursued by his enemies. The Pontine 
 Marshes extended through a great part of Latium, and several ineffectual efforts have 
 been made to drain them. The exhalations from the stagnant water have always made 
 the surrounding country very unhealthy. — On the confines of Campania were Arpinum, 
 the birthplace of Marius and Cicero, the rude soldier and the polished statesman; 
 Aquinum, the birthplace of Juvenal ; and Siiiuessa, celebrated for its mineral waters, 
 originally called Sinope. 
 
 § 41. The principal rivers of Latium were the Anio (Teverone) ; the Allia, on the 
 banks of which the Gauls defeated the Romans with dreadful slaughter ; and the 
 Cremera, where the family of the Fabii, to the number of three hundred, were de- 
 stroyed by an ambuscade, while carrying on war at their own expense against the 
 Veientes ; these three rivers fall into the Tiber ; the Liris (Garigliano), which divided 
 Latium from Campania, falls into the Tuscan sea. — The principal lakes were named 
 Lacus Albulus (Solfatara), remarkable for its sulphurous exhalations, and the adjoin- 
 ing grove and oracle of Faunus ; Lacus Regillus, near which Posthumius defeated 
 the Latins, by the assistance of Castor and Pollux as the Romans believed ; and La- 
 cus Albanus, near which was Mount Albanus where the solemn sacrifices called 
 Ferias Latinas were celebrated. 
 
 The capital of Latium, in the reign of King Latinus, was Laurentum ; in the reign of Mne&s, 
 Lavinium; in the reign of Ascanius, Longa Alba; but all these were eclipsed by the superior 
 grandeur of Rome. The several independent states were subdued by the Romans in the earlier 
 ages of the republic. 
 
 § 42. (2) Geography of the Southern portion of Italia. The southern part of Italy 
 was named Magna Greecia, from the number of Greek colonies that at different periods 
 settled there. It was divided into Campania, Samnium, Apulia, Calabria, Lucania, 
 and Bruttium. 
 
 C a m p a n i a, the richest and most fertile of the divisions of Italy, extended along 
 the shores of the Tuscan sea, from the river Liris to the river Silarus, which divided 
 it from Lucania. 
 
 The chief city was Capua, so named from its founder Capys, celebrated for its riches 
 and luxury, by which the veteran soldiers of Hannibal were enervated and corrupted. 
 North of it were Teanum, celebrated for the mineral waters in its vicinity, and Vena- 
 frum, famous for olives. — South of Capua was Casilinum, where a garrison of Pre- 
 nestines, after having made a most gallant resistance, and protracted the siege till 
 they had endured the utmost extremity of famine, were at last compelled to surrender ; 
 
12 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 next to this was Liternum, at the mouth of the little river Clanius, where Scipio Afri- 
 canus for a long time lived in voluntary exile. — Farther south was Cumce, founded by 
 a colony from Chalcis in Eubcea, the residence of the celebrated Cumean Sibyl, and 
 near it the town and promontory Misenum, so named from Misenus, the trumpeter of 
 JEneas, who was buried there. — Below the cape were Bairn, famous for its mineral 
 Waters ; Puleoli (Puzzoli) , near which were the Phlegreei-campi, where Jupiter is said 
 to have vanquished the giants ; Cimmerium, whose early inhabitants are said, by Ho- 
 mer, to have lived in caves. After these we come to Parlhenopc or Neapolis (Naples). 
 This beautiful city was founded by a colony from Cumse, and for a long time retained 
 the traces of a Grecian original; it was called Parthenope from one of the Sirens said 
 to have been buried there. Close to the town is the mountain Pausilypus (Pausilippo), 
 through which a subterranean passage has been cut, half a mile in length and twenty- 
 two feet wide ; neither the time of making nor the maker is known ; a tomb, said to 
 be that of Virgil, is shown on the hill Pausilippo ; here also are ruins called the villa 
 of Lucullus. — At the southern extremity of the Sinus Puteolanus (bay of Naples), 
 were Stabice, remarkable for its mineral waters, and Surrentum, celebrated for its 
 wines ; near the latter was the Promontorium Surrentinum or Athenmum (Capo della 
 Minerva); east of Naples was Nola, where Hannibal was first defeated, and where 
 Augustus died. In the south of Campania was Salenu'm (Sale r no), the capital of the 
 Piccntini.— Between Naples and Mount Vesuvius were Herculaneum and Pompeii, 
 destroyed by a tremendous eruption of that volcano, A. D. 79. 
 
 The remains of these towns were accidentally discovered in tbe beginning of tbe last century, and tbe numerous and valuable 
 remains of antiquity give us a greater sight into the domestic habits of the Romans than could previously be obtained. "Above thirty 
 streets of Pompeii are now (1S40) restored to light. The walls which formed its ancient enclosures have been recognized ; a mag- 
 nificent amphitheatre, a theatre, a forum, the temple of Isis, that of Venus, and a number of other buildings, have been cleared." 
 Houses, shops, cellars, with all their various furniture, are found just as they were when buried under the volcanic mass. — See the 
 worts on Herculaneum and Pompeii cited P. IV. § 243. 2.— Cf. P.' III. § 329. 
 
 § 43. The principal Campanian rivers were the Vulturnus (Vulturno) ; Stbethus 
 (Sebeto), now an inconsiderable stream, its springs being dried up by the eruptions of 
 Mount Vesuvius ; and the Sarnus (Sarno). — The principal lakes were the Lucrinus, 
 which by a violent earthquake, A. D. 1538, was changed into a muddy marsh, with 
 a volcanic mountain, Monte Nuovo de Cinere, in the centre ; and the Avernus, near 
 which is a cave represented by Virgil as the entrance of the infernal regions. It was 
 said that no birds could pass over this lake on account of the poisonous exhalations ; 
 whence its name, from a (not) and opvU (a bird). 
 
 Upon the invasion of the northern nations, Campania became the alternate prey of different 
 barbarous tribes ; at length it was seized by the Saracens in the tenth century. These were ex- 
 pelled by the Normans, under Tancred, who founded tbe kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 § 44. East of Latium and Campania was Samnium, including the country of the 
 Hirpini. — The chief towns were Samnis, the capital ; Be?ievenlum (Benevento), at 
 first called Maleventum, from the severity of the winds, but when the Romans sent 
 a colony here they changed the name, from motives of superstition ;_near this town 
 Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, who had come to the assistance of the Samnites, was totally 
 defeated by the Roman army, commanded by Curius Dentatus ; Caudium, near which 
 are the Caudina Furculm (Forchia d'Arpaia), a narrow and dangerous defile, in which 
 the Roman army, being blocked up by the Samnite general, Pontius, were obliged to 
 surrender on disgraceful conditions ; and Alfenice, remarkable for its manufactory 
 of earthenware. — Among the Hirpini, were Equotulicum, whose unpoetical name is 
 celebrated by Horace ; Trixicum and Herdonia (Ordonia), on the borders of Apulia.' — 
 Near Herdonia was the celebrated valley of Amsanctus, surrounded by hills, and re- 
 markable for its sulphurous exhalations and mineral springs ; on a neighboring hill 
 stood the temple of Mephitis, the goddess who presided over noxious vapors, whence 
 the valley is now called Muffeta. 
 
 % 45. The principal rivers of Samnium were the Sabatus (Sabato), and Color (Ga- 
 lore), both tributary to the Vulturnus. 
 
 The Samnites were descended from the same parent stock as the Sabines, and for many years 
 contended with the Romans for the empire of Italy ; at length, after a war of more than seventy 
 years, during which the Romans were frequently reduced to great extremities, the fortune of 
 Rome prevailed, and the Samnites were almost totally extirpated, B. C. 272. 
 
 § 46. Apulia, called also Daunia and Japygia, but now La Puglia, occupied the 
 greater part of the east of Italy, extending from the river Frento to the Bay of Ta- 
 rentum. 
 
 Its chief towns : Teanum, named Apulum to distinguish it from a town of the same 
 name in Campania; Arpi, said to have been built by Diomede, after his return from 
 the Trojan war ; north of Arpi is Mount Garganus ' (Saint Angelo) , in the spur of the 
 boot to which Italy is commonly compared ; "east of Arpi were Uria, which gave the 
 ancient name to the Simis Urius, and Sipontum (Manfredonia, which gave tothe Sinus 
 TJrius its modern name, Gulf of Manfredonia) ; on the borders of Samnium stood 
 Jbacerii, celebrated for its wool; Salapia (Salpe) ; and Asculum, called Apulum, to 
 distinguish it from a town of the same name in Picenum. — Near the river Aufidus 
 
P. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. ITALIA. 13 
 
 stood the village of Cannae, where Hannibal almost annihilated the power of Rome ; 
 through the fields of Cannae runs the small stream Vergellus, which is said to have 
 been so choked with the carcasses of the Romans, that the dead bodies served as a 
 bridge to Hannibal and his soldiers; Canusitim, a Greek colony, where the remains of 
 the Roman army were received after their defeat. — Venusia (Venosa), near Mount 
 Vultur, the birthplace of Horace; Barium (Bari), where excellent fish were caught in 
 great abundance ; and Egnatia, on the Matinian shore, famous for bad water and good 
 honey. 
 
 The principal Apulian rivers were Cerbalus (Cerbaro), and Aujidus (Ofanto), remark- 
 able for the rapidity of its waters ; both falling into the Adriatic. 
 
 §47. Calabria, called also Messapia, lay to the south of Apulia, forming what is 
 
 called the heel of the boot. Its chief towns on the eastern or Adriatic side, were 
 
 Brundusium (Brindisi), once remarkable for its excellent harbor, which was destroyed 
 in the fifteenth century; from this the Italians who wished to pass into Greece gene- 
 rally sailed ; Hydruntum (Otranto), where Italy makes the nearest approach to Greece ; 
 Castrum Minerva (Castro), near which is the celebrated Japygian cape, now called 
 Capo Santa Maria de Luca. On the west side of Calabria were Tarentum (Tarento), 
 built by the Spartan Phalanthus, which gives name to the Tarentine bay ; Rudiee, the 
 birthplace of the poet Ennius ; and Callipolis (Callipoli), built on an island and joined 
 to the continent by a splendid causeway. 
 
 The principal river of Calabria was the Galesus (Galeso), which falls into the bay of 
 Tarentum. 
 
 § 48. Lucania lay south of Campania, extending from the Tuscan sea to the bay of 
 Tarentum ; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basilicata, from the empe- 
 ror Basil ; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra by the Greek emperors, to 
 perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they had lost. 
 
 The principal towns on the Mare Tyrrhenum (Tuscan sea), were, Laus, on the 
 river of the same name flowing into the Sinus Laus (Gulf of Policastro) ; Buxentum, 
 called by the Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay ; Velia or Elea, the birthplace of Zeno, 
 the inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, that built Marseilles 
 (cf. § 17) : in the vicinity of Elea, near Mount Alburnus (Postiglione, or Alburno), 
 Posslum, called by the Greeks Posidonia, celebrated in ancient time for its roses, in 
 modern far its beautiful ruins. 
 
 On the ruins of Pactum, cf. Evstace, as cited P. IV. § 190. 1.— WincMmann, Histoire, &c, vol. iii. as cited P. IV. 5 32. 4 De- 
 
 lagardette, Les Ruines de Pa-stum, cited P. IV. §243. I. 
 
 In the interior of Lucania, were Atinum, on the Tenagrus ; Aternum, on the Silarus ; 
 Grumentum, on the Aciris ; and Lagaria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the 
 framer of the Trojan horse. — On the shore of the Si7ius Tarentinus (Tarentine bay), 
 were Metapontum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and 
 the head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters ; Heraclea, where the congress of 
 the Italo-Grecian states used to assemble ; Sybaris, on a small peninsula, infamous for 
 its luxury ; and Thurium, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their own 
 city was destroyed by the people of Crotona. The plains where these once flourishing 
 cities stood are now desolate ; the rivers constantly overflow their banks, and leave 
 behind them muddy pools and unwholesome swamps, while the few architectural re- 
 mains contribute to the melancholy of the scene, by recalling to memory the days of 
 former greatness. 
 
 The principal rivers of Lucania were the Tanagrus (Negri), which, after sinking 
 in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and uniting with 
 the Silarus falls into the Sinus Pcestanus (Gulf of Salerno) ; Melpus (Melfa), which 
 empties itself into the Laus Sinus (Gulf of Policastro, so called from the number of 
 ruins on its shores) ; the Bradanvs, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into 
 the Tarentine bay; the Aciris (Agri), and the Sybaris (Coscile), small streams on the 
 Tarentine coast. 
 
 § 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttia-tellus or 
 B r u 1 1 i u m, but is now called Calabria-ultra. — 'The principal cities of the Bruttii, on 
 the Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epirus, who waged war in 
 Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, died ; Consentia (Cosenza), 
 the capital of the Bruttii; Terina, on the Sinus Terinceus (Gulf of St. Euphemia) ; 
 and Vibo, or Hippo, called by the Romans Valentia (Monte Leone). — On the Sicilian 
 feirait, were the town and promontory Scyllceum (Scylla), whose dangerous rocks gave 
 rise to the fable of the sea-monster Scylla (cf. P. II. % 117); opposite to the celebrated 
 whirlpool Charybdis on the coast of Sicily : Rhegium (Reggio), so named by the Greeks, 
 because they believed that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy, and 
 broken off here by some violent natural concussion ; it was founded by a colony from 
 Chalcis, in the island of Eubcea, and the surrounding country was celebrated for its 
 fertility ; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape Leucopetra, so named from 
 the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo dell' Arnai. 
 
 On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctete? Crotona, founded by 
 some Aohasans on their return from the Trojan war, where Pythagoras established hia 
 
 B 
 
PLATE I- 
 
 PLAN OF ANCIENT ATHENS. 
 (According to that given in Barthelemy's Anacharsis.) 
 
 h. 
 
 Temple 
 
 pitoli 
 
 Capitol 
 
 of Jupiter Ca 
 
 k 
 
 Temple 
 
 of Apollo. 
 
 1. 
 
 Temple 
 
 of Diana. 
 
 m 
 
 Forum 
 
 Boarium. 
 
 PLAN OF ANCIENT ROME. 
 
 (As published by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge.) 
 
P. I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 15 
 
 celebrated school of philosophy ; the people were so famous for their skill in athletic 
 exercisey, that it was commonly said *' the last of the Crotoniates is the first of the 
 Greeks"; south of this was the Promonlorium Lacinium, where a very celebrated 
 temple of Juno stood, whence she is frequently called the Lacinian goddess ; from the 
 remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Calonne ; Scylacceum 
 (Squillace), founded by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name ; Caulon 
 (Costel Vetere), an Achaean colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus ; south 
 of it, Neryx (Gerace), near the Promontorium Zephyrium (Burzano), the capital of the 
 Locrians, who at a very early period settled in this part of Italy. — 'The cape at the 
 southern extremity of Italy was named Promonlorium Herculis, now Spartivento. 
 
 The principal rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathes (Crati), and Neceihes <Neti), which 
 received its name from the Achaean women having burned their husbands' ships to 
 prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement. 
 
 $ 50. A great proportion of the Greeks who colonized the south of Italy, were generals, who, 
 on their return from the Trojan wars, found that they had been forgotten by their subjects, 
 and that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost continually 
 devastated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at different times, and under various 
 leaders, sought to obtain, in a foreign country, that tranquillity and liberty that had been denied 
 them at home. — These different states were internally regulated by their own laws ; but an 
 annual congress similar to the Amphictyonic council of Greece, assembled at Heraclea, and 
 united the several communities in one great confederacy. 
 
 Sybaris seems to have been, at first, the leading state, but after a bloody war, it was destroyed 
 by the jealousy of the people of Crotona ; the Sybarites did not yield to despair ; five limes they 
 rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabitants, forced 
 to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thurium. — The Crotoniates did not long 
 preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into their city, and 
 they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians. — To secure their superiority, the Locrians 
 entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means obtained considerable 
 influence in the south of Italy, until the attempt of the elder Dionysius to secure to himself a part 
 of the country by building a wall from the Terina;an gulf to the Ionian sea, and still more the in- 
 gratitude of the younger Dionysius, gave them a distaste for the connection. — After breaking 
 off their alliance with the Sicilians, the Locrians united themselves to the Romans ; during the 
 war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the most unshaken fidelity ; 
 but afterwards becoming justly alarmed at the restless ambition of their allies, they readily joined 
 Hannibal. — It is remarkable, that in all the other Italo-Grecian states the people embraced the 
 Carthaginian side, while* the nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians the division 
 of parties was directly the contrary. 
 
 The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but being enervated by riches and 
 luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to 
 secure their city from the Romans. After the disgraceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian 
 campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tareilfum, under the command 
 of Milo, who betrayed the city to the Romans. 
 
 After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the su- 
 periority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdiction, even to the latest periods 
 of the Roman empire. 
 
 § 51. (3) The Topography of Rome. This city was originally, it is stated, nearly in 
 the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one mile. In the time of 
 Pliny the walls were said to have been nearly 20 miles in circuit. The wall built by 
 Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in circumference. — The 
 Gales (Porta) of Rome were originally four; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were 
 thirty-seven ; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most 
 noted; Porta Carmentalis, Collina, Tiburtina, Ccelimontana, Lalina, Capena, Fla- 
 minia, Ostiensis. 
 
 For a plan of ancient Rome, see our Plate I., from which the reader may learn the position of many of the important objects 
 about to be noticed. 
 
 § 52. Thirty-one great Eoads centered in Rome. Some of the principal were Via 
 Sacra, Appia, JEmilia, Valeria, Flaminia. These public roads "issuing from the 
 Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the fron- 
 tiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called 
 Milliarium aureum{Tac. Hist. i. 27), from which distances on the various roads were 
 reckoned. " This curious monument was discovered in 1823." Butler's Geogr. Class. 
 p. 39.) 
 
 " They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and proceeded 
 in as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign contempt for all 
 the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materials ; the lowest, 
 stones, mixed with cement, stalumen ; the middle, gravel or small stones, rudera, to prepare a 
 level and unyielding surface to receive the upper and most important structure, which consisted 
 of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially in the neighborhood of 
 cities, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, margines, protected by curb-stones, which defined 
 the extent of the central part, av<rer, for carriages. The latter was barrelled, that, no water 
 might lie upon it." — "The public roads were accurately divided by mile-stones. They united 
 the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy intercourse; but their primary object bad 
 been to facilitate the march of the legions. The advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence, 
 and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their 
 extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses were every where erected only 
 at the distance of five or six miles; each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, 
 and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred miles in a day along the Roman 
 
16 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 roads. The use of the posts was allowed to those who claimed it by an imperial mandate ; but 
 though originally intended fur the public service, it was sometimes indulged to the business 01 
 conveniency of private citizens." — Dr. Robinson noticed three' Roman mile-stones on his route 
 (in 1838) from Tyre to Beirut in Syria; one of them, "a large column with a Latin inscription 
 containing the names of Septimius Severus and Pertinax." Traces still exist of a Roman 
 road leading from Damascus to Petra, arid thence even to Ailah. The most ancient and cele- 
 brated of all the Roman Vis was the Appian way, called Regina Viarum, the Queen of Roads. 
 It was constructed by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and extended 
 from Rome to Capua. Afterwards it was continued to Brundusium, 360 miles. A.t Sinuessa it 
 threw off a branch called the Domitian way, which ran along the coast to JBaiK, Neapolis, Her- 
 culaneum, and Pompeii. 
 
 A r . Bergier, Hist, des grands chemins des Romains. Par. 1792. 2 vols. 4. — D'AnvilU, on the extent of ancient Rome and the grand 
 roads leading from it, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxx. p. 198. — E. Robinson, Bibl. Res. vol. iii. p. 415, 432 ; vol. ii. p. 562, as 
 cited §117. 
 
 § 53. There were eight principal bridges over the Tiber, which flowed through the 
 city from the north ; Pons Milvius ; JElius, still standing ; Fubricius ; Ceslius ; Pa- 
 latinus or Senalorius, some arches of it still remaining ; Sublicius or JEmilius ; Jani- 
 cularis, still existing ; Triumphalis or Vaticanus. 
 
 Rome was called Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or hills. 
 These were Mons Palatinus, Capitolinus, Esquili?ius, Ccelius, Aventinus, Quirinalis, 
 Viminalis. 
 
 The foundation or commencement of the city was made, according to the common accounts, 
 on the Mons Palatinus or Palatium. Here Romulus had his residence. Here the emperors 
 usually abode, and hence the term Palatium, palace, applied to designate a royal or princely 
 dwelling. The hill first added was probably the Quirinalis, on which it has been supposed was 
 a Sabine settlement called Quirium; this addition being made when the union was formed be- 
 tween the Romans and Sabines, before the death of Romulus, and the Romans took the name 
 of Quirites. The double Janus on the earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this union. 
 Next was added the hill Cwlius, on which a Tuscan settlement is supposed to have been planted. 
 The other four hills were successively added, at least before the close of the reign of Serviua 
 Tullius, sixth king of Rome. Two hills on the north of the Tiber were also connected with the 
 city. The Janicalum was fortified by Ancus Martius, fourth king of Rome, as a sort of out-post, 
 and joined to the city by a bridge. The other, the Vaticanus, so called perhaps from the predic- 
 tions uttered there by soothsayers, vates, was added at a later period ; it was rather disliked by 
 the ancients, but is now the principal place in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's palace, St. 
 Peter's church, and the celebrated Vatican library. A tenth hill, Collis hortulorum, called also 
 Pincius, was taken into the city by Aurelian. 
 
 On the side of the Capitoline hill towards the Tiber was the Tarpeian Rock. Johnson says, (in his Philos. of Travel, cited P. IV 
 § 190), "of all that tremendous precipice, painted in such terrific colors by Seneca, immensx altiludinis aspectus, only thirty fee 
 of its summit now overlook the consolidated dust of ancient temples and the accumulated filth of modern hovels." — The spot wa 
 visited in 1829 by two American gentlemen, eminent scholars, one of whom writes, " after very cautious estimates we both judged 
 the original height to have been about SO feet, of which about twenty may be filled up, leaving about 60 for its present altitude. " 
 
 § 54. Rome was originally divided into four districts. From the time of Augustus 
 there were fourteen. The last division is followed by most topographers, and affords 
 the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy of notice in the city. The 
 names of the districts were as follows; 1. Porta Capena ; 2. Ccdimontium ; 3. Isis and 
 Serapis or IS'Ioneta ; 4. Templum Pads or Via Sacra ; 5. Esquilina cum turri et colle 
 Viminali ; 6. Alta Semita ; 7. Via Lata; 8. Forum Romanum ; 9. Circus Flaminius ; 
 10. Palatium ; 11. Circus Maximus ; 12. Piscina Publica ; 13. Aventinus ; 14. Trans 
 Txberim. To describe only the most remarkableobjectsin each region or district would 
 trespass on our designed limits, and we must be content with merely naming some of 
 them. 
 
 A tabular statement of the objects included in the fourteen regions is given in KennetVs Antiquities, ch. ii. as cited P. III. § 197. 2. 
 
 See G. C. Adler's ausfurliche Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Altona, 1781. 4. with engravings. The basis, mainly, is the 
 
 arrangement of Sextus Rufus and Publius Victor with the additions of Nardini and others. fCf. Grscvii Thesaurus, vols. 3 and 4.^ 
 NardinVs Italian original was published anew by .3. Nibby, Rome, 1S20, 4 vols. 8. with plates. — Descrizione di Roma Antica forma 
 novamente con le Autorita di Bart, Marliani, Onof. Panvinio, &c. with plates. Rom. 1697. 2 vols. 4. — C. Fea, Nuova descrizione 
 di Roma antica e moderna. Rom. 1820. 3 vols 8. with plates. — C. Burton, Monuments and Curiosities of Rome. Oxf. 1821. Transl 
 into German by Sickler, Weim. 1S23. 8.— Venuti, Descrizione topografia delle antichita di Roma. ed. by Visconti, 1S03, with Piali's 
 Notes. Rom. 1824. 2 vols. 4.— Burgess, Topography and Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. S.—Ficoroni, Vestigia di Roma 
 —Plainer, Bunsen, Gerhard, and Rcstell, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Tubing, and Stuttg. 1829-37. 3 vols, with a Bilderheft (or 
 
 Number of plates).— F. Blume, Iter Italicum, Halle, 1836. 4 vols. 8. On the remaining monuments of ancient Rome, cf. P. IV. 
 
 §§ 186, 188, 191, 226, 243. Rome in the Nineteenth Century. N. Yk. 1827. 2 vols. 12. 
 
 § 55. There were large open places in the citv, designed for assemblies of the peo- 
 ple, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi. Of the nineteen 
 which are mentioned, the Campus Martius was the largest and most famous. It was 
 near the Tiber ; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but usually Martius, as conse- 
 crated to Mars. It was originally the property of Tarquin the Proud, and confiscated 
 after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded by several magnificent struc- 
 tures ; and porticos were erected, under which the citizens could exercise in rainy 
 weather. It was also adorned with statues and arches. Comitia were held here ; 
 and there were Septa or Ovilia (P. III. § 259), constructed for the purpose. 
 
 § 56. The main streets of the city were termed vice. On each side were connected 
 blocks o f houses and buildings : these being separated by intervening streets and by 
 
ill 
 
P. I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OF ROME. 17 
 
 lanes, or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of squares ; the portions occu- 
 pied by buildings and thus separated were called Vici; of these there were, it is said, 
 424. They had particular names; e. g. Vicus albus,jugarius, lanarius, Tibertinus, 
 Junouis, Minerva, &c. 
 
 § 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled for the 
 transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was probably trans- 
 acted in the same place, yet with the, increase of wealth, it became convenient to 
 make a sep^r^tion ; and the Fora vere divided into two sorts, Civilia and Venalia. 
 The Roman Fora were not like the ayapai of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong ; 
 the breadth not more than two-third3 of the length ; the difference between the length 
 and breadth of the chief Forum discoveied at Pompeii is greater. 
 
 Until the time of Julius Csesar there was but one Forum of the first mentioned 
 class ; that generally called Forum Romanum, or Forum simply, by way of eminence. 
 This gave name to the 8th region (§ 54), and was between the Capitoline and Palatine 
 hills ; it was 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on all sides, by Tarquinius 
 Priscus, with porticos, shops, and other buildings. On the public buildings around 
 the Forum great sums were expended in the architecture and ornaments, so that it 
 presented a very splendid and imposing spectacle : here were the Basilica, Curia, 
 and Tabularia ; temples, prisons, and public granaries : here too were placed nume- 
 rous statues (cf. P. IV. § 182. 2), with other monuments. In the centre of the Forum 
 was the place called the Curlian Lake, where Curtius is said to have plunged into a 
 mysterious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one side 
 were the elevated seats (or suggestus, a sort of pulpits), from which magistrates and 
 orators addressed the people ; usually called the Rostra, because adorned with the 
 beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the 
 part of the Forum called the Corhitiurn, where some of the legislative assemblies were 
 held, particularly the Comitia Curiata. , In or near the Comitium was the Puteal 
 Attn ; a puteal was a little space surrounded by a wall in the form of a square, and 
 roofed over : such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck 
 with lightning. Not far from the Puteal Attii was the Praetor's Tribunal, for hold- 
 ing courts. There was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, another structure 
 marking a place struck with lightning, the Puteal Libonis, near which usurers and 
 bankers were accustomed to meet iFLor. Sat. ii. vi. 35). The milliarium in the Forum 
 has already been mentioned (§ 52). 
 
 Besides this ancient Forum, there were four others built by different emperors, and designed 
 for civil purposes ; the Forum Julium, built by Julius Caesar, with spoils taken in the Gallic war; 
 the Forum Jlugusti, by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the kings of Latium on one side and 
 the kings of Rome on the other; the Forum Nervte, begun by Domitian and finished by Nerva, 
 having statues of all the emperors; and the Forum Trajani, by Trajan, the most splendid of all. 
 
 The Fora Venalia were fourteen in number ; among them the Forum Boarium, ox 
 and cow market, adorned with a brazen bull ; Piscarium, fish market ; Olitorium, 
 vegetable market ; Suarium, swine market, &c. 
 
 § 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place belongs to the Capitolium. 
 The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest, and most grand edifices in the city. It 
 was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards from time to time enlarged 
 and embellished. Its gates were brass, and it was adorned with costly gilding ; 
 hence the epithets aurea and fulgens, applied to it. It was on the Capitoline hill, in 
 the highest part, of the city, and was sometimes called arx. The ascent from the 
 forum to it was by 100 steps. It was in the form of a square, extending about 200 
 feet on each side. Its front was decorated with three rows of pillars, the other sides 
 with two. — Three temples were included in this structure ; that of Jupiter Capitolinus 
 in the centre, one sacred to Minerva on the right, and one to Juno on the left. The 
 Capitol also comprehended some minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or 
 cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. Near the ascent to the Capitol was also 
 the asylum, or place of refuge. 
 
 This cplebrated structure was destroyed, or nearly so, by fire, three times ; first, in the Marian 
 war, B. C. 83, but rebuilt by Sylla ; secondly, in the Vitellian war, A. D. 70, and rebuilt by Ves- 
 pasian ; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, after which it was rebuilt by Domitian 
 with greater masnificence than ever. A few vestiges only now remain ; respecting which there 
 has been much discussion. 
 
 See Smith's Diet, of Antiquities, art. Capitolium, and works there cited. 
 
 § 59. The temple next in rank was the Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa, son-in- 
 law of Augustus, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor, or, as its name imports, to all the 
 gods (navrav detov). It is circular in form, and said to be 150 feet high, and of about 
 the same breadth within the walls, which are 18 feet thick. The walls on the inside 
 are either solid marble or incrusted. The front on the outside was covered with 
 brazen plates gilt, and the top with silver plates ; but now it is covered with lead. 
 The gate was of brass, of extraordinary size and work. It has no windows, but only 
 an opening in the top, of about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof ia 
 curiously vaulted, void spaces being left here and there for the greater strength. 
 3 b2 
 
18 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 " The vestibule is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circum- 
 ference, and thirty-nine feet in height, each shaft being an entire block of red oriental 
 granite, having bases and capitals of white marble." The Pantheon is one of the 
 most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now called the Botunda, 
 having been consecrated by Pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to the Virgin Mary and 
 all the Saints. 
 
 Dr. Adam, in his account of the Pantheon, says, "they used to ascend to it by 12 steps, but 
 now they go down as many." On this point the gentleman mentioned in $ 53, writes, "the 
 statement that it was originally entered by seven steps is doubtless correct. At present one 
 ascends two steps to enter it. The statement of twelve steps of descent can only have been true 
 four centuries ago, before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleansed. This took place 
 under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in 1431." — For a view of the Pantheon, see Plate III. 
 
 § 60. There were many other temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. III. § 203), which 
 cannot here be described. The temple of Saturn was famous particularly as serving 
 for the public treasury; perhaps thus - used because one of the strongest places in the 
 city ; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the golden age, under Saturn, 
 fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the public registers and records, 
 among them the Libri Elephantini, or ivory tablets containing lists of the tribes. 
 
 The temple of Janus was built, or finished at least, by Numa; a square edifice, 
 with two gates of brass, one on each side ; which were to be kept open in time of 
 war, and shut in time of peace. 
 
 So continually was the city engaged in wars, that the gates of Janus were seldom shut ; first, 
 in the reign of Numa; secondly, at the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241; three times in the 
 reign of Augustus; the last time near the epoch of Christ's birth; and three times afterwards, 
 once under Nero, once under Vespasian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350. The 
 gates were opened with formal ceremony (Kirg. JEn. vii. 707). — For a view of the temple of Ja- 
 nus, see Plate VII. 
 Sainte Croix, Sur la cloture.du temple de Janus, m the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlix. p. 385. 
 
 The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its library, 
 (P. IV. § 126). — The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, on the side 
 of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber. — 'Besides these, we may name the temple of 
 Concord ; of the goddess of Peace {Pact ceternce) ; of Castor and Pollux; of Valor, 
 built by Marcellus. 
 
 The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations, to consecrate groves 
 and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves {luci) are enumerated, chiefly 
 within the city of Rome. 
 
 §61. The Curim were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appropriated, 
 some of them for assemblies of the senate and civil councils, others for meetings of 
 the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious rites. To the former 
 class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The following were among the Curiae ; 
 viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilla, Vallensis, Pompeii, &c. 
 
 The term Curia, as designating an edifice or apartment, seems to have been originally applied to the halls or places where the 
 citizens of the respective Curix (cf. P. III. § 219 a. § 251) assembled for religious and other purposes; each of the thirty had its com- 
 mon hall or place of meeting. 
 
 The Basilica were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate, 
 and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers 
 also had rooms for transacting then business. There were fourteen (according to 
 some, twenty or twenty-one) of these buildings ; among them, Basilica vetus, Con- 
 stanliniana, Siciniana, Julia, &c. — Both the Basilicae and the Curiae were chiefly 
 around the Forum. 
 
 It should be remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian churches, because they so much 
 resembled the Basilicx just described. The earliest churches bearing this name were erected under Constantine. He gave his own 
 palace on the Ccelian hill to construct on its site a church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian Basilica. Next was 
 that of St. Peter on the Vatican hill, erected A. D. 324, on the site and with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars ; it stood 
 about twelve centuries, and was then pulled down by Pope Julius 2d, and on its site has arisen the modern church of the same name. 
 —On the structure of the early Christian churches, see L. Coleman, Antiquities of the Christian Church. And. 1841. 8. chap. \x. 
 
 % 62. The Circi were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, and to 
 fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end at right 
 angles with the sides, and the other curved, and so forming nearly the shape of an 
 ox-bow. A wall extended quite round, with ranges of seats for the spectators. There 
 were eight of these buildings, besides the Circus Maximus, described in another place, 
 situated in the vicinity of the Forum. For an account of these, see P. III. § 232. 
 
 The Stadia were structures of a similar form, designed for contests in racing, but 
 less in size and cost (cf. P. IV. § 236.) — Hippodromi were of the same character, and 
 seem to have been sometimes built for private use. 
 
 § 63. Ancient Rome had also a number of large edifices constructed for the purpose 
 of dramatic exhibitions, and for gladiatorial shows. Those for the former use were 
 termed theatra (cf. P. III. § 238). The first, permanent, was that erected by Pom- 
 pey, of hewn stone, capable of accomodating 40,000 persons ; near this, in the vici- 
 nity of the river, were two others, that of Marcellus and that of Balbus; hence the 
 
mn 
 
 ■ 
 
p. I. EUROPE. ITALIA. TOPOGRAPHY OP ROME. 19 
 
 phrase applied to them, irla thealra. — The structures designed for the gladiatorial shows 
 were termed Amphithealra (P. III. § 239), of which the most remarkable was the 
 Coliseum, still remaining, a most stupendous ruin. — The Odea were buildings circular 
 in form, and ornamented with numerous seats, pillars, and statues, where trials of 
 musical skill were held, and poetical and other literary compositions were exhibited, 
 after the manner of the Greeks (P. IV. § 65). Those established by Domitian and 
 Trajan were the most celebrated. 
 
 § 64. The buildings constructed for the purpose of bathing (bahiea) were very 
 numerous ; such as were of a more public character were called lherm.ee. In the time 
 of the republic, the baths were usually cold. Maecenas is said to have been the first 
 to erect warm and hot ones for public use. They were then called thermce,, and 
 placed under the direction of the cediles. Agrippa, while he was sedile, increased ihe 
 number of thermce to 170, and in the course of two centuries there were no less than 
 800 in imperial Rome. The thermce JDiocletiani were especially distinguished for their 
 extent and magnificence (cf. P. IV. § 241. b). Those of Nero, Titus, Domitian, and 
 especially Caracalla, were also of celebrated splendor. 
 
 § 65. The name of Ludi or schools was given to those structures in which the 
 various athletic exercises were taught and practiced ; those most frequently mentioned 
 are the Ludus Magnus, Sadttinus, Dacicus, and JEmilius. There were also several 
 structures for exhibiting naval engagements, called Naumachice ; as Naumachia Au- 
 gusli, Domiiiani. (Cf. P. III. § 233.) 
 
 Finally, there were large edifices sacred to the nymphs, and called Nymphce.a; one 
 particularly noted, which contained artificial fountains and water-falls, and was adorned 
 with numerous statues of these imaginary beings. Cf. P. II. § 101. 
 
 § 66. The Porticos or Piazzas (porticus) were very numerous. These were covered 
 colonnades, adorned with statues, and designed as places for meeting and walking for 
 pleasure. They were sometimes separate structures ; sometimes connected with other 
 large buildings, such as basilica?, theatres, and the like. The most splendid was that 
 of Apollo's temple, on Mount Palatine; and the largest, the one called Milliaria or 
 Milliarensis (i.e. of the 1000 columns). Courts were sometimes held in porticos; 
 and goods also of some kinds were exposed for sale in them. Cf. P. IV. § 237. 
 
 The city was adorned with Triumphal arches (circus triumphales), to the number of 
 36, having statues and various ornaments in bas-relief (P. IV. % 188). Some of them 
 were very magnificent ; as e. g. those of Nero, Titus, Trajan, Septimius Severus, 
 and Constantine. These were of the finest marble, and of a square figure, with a 
 large arched gate in the middle, and a small one at the sides. 
 
 § 67. There were single pillars or columns, columnce, also erected to commemorate 
 particular victories, e. g. those of Duillius, Trajan, and Antoninus. Ruins of the 
 first, as has been supposed, were discovered in 1560 (cf. P. IV. § 133. 1). The last 
 two are still standing, and are reckoned among the most precious remains of anti 
 quity (cf. F. IV. % 188. 2). — With great labor, obelisks were removed from Egypt, 
 of which those still existing, having been conveyed there by Augustus, Caligula, and 
 Constantius the second, are the most remarkable. 
 
 Innumerable also were the statues, which were found not only in the temples, but 
 also in many public places, in and upon large edifices. More than eighty of a colossal 
 size are mentioned. 
 
 There were likewise erected at Rome a few trophies, tropcea. These were trunks 
 of marble, sometimes of wood, on which were hung the spoils taken from the enemy, 
 especially the weapons of war. There are two trunks of marble decorated like tro- 
 phies still remaining at Rome, and supposed to have been erected by Marius for his 
 victories over Jugurtha, and over the Cimbri. 
 
 § 68. Among the memorable things of Rome, the Aqueducts, aqucp.ditctus, should 
 be mentioned. Their design was to furnish the city with a constant supply of water, 
 and trreat expense was laid out in constructing and adorning them. There were 14 of 
 the larger sort, besides others of less importance; the Aqua Appia, Marcia, Virg". 
 Claudia, Scptimia, and Alsielina, are the most known. The smaller reservoirs [lacus) 
 were commonly ornamented with statues and carver's work. 
 
 Some of the aqueducts hronght water more than 60 miles, through rocks and mountain!!, 
 and over valleys, supported on arches, sometimes above 100 feet high. The care of these origi- 
 nally belonged to the tediles ; under the emperors, particular officers were appointed for it, calicd 
 enratnres aquarian. 
 
 R. Fal'yclti.Ve Af|ua*ductibus veteris Roma?. Rnm. 1680. 4. — /. Rovdclet, French Translation of Frontinus on (he Aqueducts of 
 Rome. Cf.P. V.549I.— F. B. Tower, The Crolon Aqueduct ; with an Account of similar Works Ancient and Modern. N. Y. 184J. 
 
 The Cloaca; were also works of great cost and of very durable structure. They were a sort of 
 sewers or drains, some of them very large, passing under the whole city, and discharging its 
 various impurities into the Tiber. Many private houses stood directly upon the cloacte. These 
 were under the charge of officers styled curatores cloacarum. The principal was the Cloaca, 
 Maxima, built by Tarquinius Priscus, cleansed and repaired by M. Agrippa; it was 16 feet broad 
 and 30 feet high, formed of blocks of hewn stone. The Pantheon ($ 59) was over it. 
 
 See Stuart's I) ict. of Architecture, cited P. IV. $ 238. 3 NUblthrh Hist, of Rome, Eng. Trans!. Phil. 1835. vol. i. p. 299. 
 
 ■J 69. Splendid tombs and monuments to the dead were sometimes erected (cf. P. III. 
 
20 
 
 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 § 341). vVe may name here particularly the Mausoleum of Augustus, of a pyramidical 
 form, 385 feet high, with two obelisks standing near it; the Moles Hadriani ; and the 
 Tomb ox Pyramid of Cestius (cf. P. IV. § 226, P. III. § 187. 4). 
 
 § 70. The number of private buildings amounted, in the reign of Theodosius, to 
 48,382, including the domus and the insidce ; the former of which classes comprised, 
 according to Gibbon, the " great houses," and the latter the "plebeian habitations" (cf. 
 P. III. §325). Among these buildings were some of great splendor, partly of marble, 
 and adorned with statues and colonnades. 
 
 I. The more celebrated were the palaces of Julius Caesar, Mamurra, Junius Verus, Cicero, and Augustus, the golden house of Nero, 
 the pabce of Licioius Crassus, Aquilius, Catulus, .aEmilius Scaurus. Trajan, Hadrian, &c— " The Imperial palace (Palatium) was 
 the most distinguished. It was built by Augustus upon the Palatine hill, and gave name to the tenth region of the city. The front 
 was on the Via Sacra, and before it were planted oaks. Within the palace lay the temple of Vesta, and also that of Apollo, which 
 Augustus endeavored to make the chief temple in Rome. The succeeding emperors extended and beautified this palace. Nero. "jurat 
 it, but rebuilt it of such extent that it not only embraced all the Palatine hill, but also the plain between that and the Coelian and 
 Esquiline, and even a part of these hills, in its limits. He ornamented it so richly with precious stones, gold, silver, statues, paint- 
 ings, and treasures of every description, that it received the name of domus aurea. The following emperors stripped it of its orna- 
 ments ; Vespasian and Titus caused some parts of it to be pulled down. Domitian afterwards destroyed the main building. In the 
 reign of Commodus, a great part of it was burnt ; but it was restored by him and his successors. In the time of Theodoric it needed 
 still further repairs ; but this huge edifice subsequently became a ruin, and on its site now stand the Farnese palace and gardens, and 
 the Villa Spada." » 
 
 2. Before the conflagration of the city under Nero, the streets were narrow and irregular, and the private houses were incom- 
 modious, and some even dangerous from their imperfect architecture and the height of three lofty stories. In the time of Nero, 
 more than two-thirds of the city was burnt Of the fourteen districts, only four remained entire. The city was rebuilt with more 
 regularity, with streets broader and less crooked (cf. Tac. Ann. xv. 43) ; the areas for houses were measured out, and the height 
 restricted to seventy feet. 
 
 $ 71. The suburbs of ancient Rome were so extensive that its neighborhood was almost one 
 immense village ; but at present, the vicinity of Rome called Campagna di Roma, is a complete 
 desert. Modem Rome is built chiefly on the ancient Campus Martius. The accumulation of ruins 
 has raised very sensibly the soil of the city, as is evident from what has been said respecting the 
 entrance of the Pantheon ($59), and the height of the Tarpeian rock ($53). 
 
 For notices of Modern Rome, see Piranesi, Vedute di Roma, 2 vols. fol. (Cf. P. IV. § 243. 2)— Rome, in the Nineteenth Century. 
 —W. Fish, as cited P. IV. § 186. 6.— Encyclop. Americana, under Mod. Some, and under Travels in Italy ; and the works there 
 cited 
 
 § 72. We proceed now to what remains to be described in the south of Europe (cf. 
 § 27) ; and we might include the whole under the term Grcecia., taken in a very com- 
 prehensive sense, in which it has sometimes been used. For it has been made to cover 
 not only the Peloponnesus and Greece Proper, but also Epirus, Thessalia, Macedonia, 
 and even Thracia. The victories of Philip having procured him a vote in the Amphic- 
 tyonic council, his Thessalian and Macedonian dominions were consequently ranked 
 among the Grecian states. The valor and policy of the Epirote kings procured the 
 same honor for Epirus not long after; and finally, Thrace was raised to the same dig-i 
 nity, when it became the habitation of the Roman emperors. But Graecia is rarely 
 used in so large a sense : and we shall first consider ancient Thrace separately, and 
 include the other countries under Grmcia. 
 
 Thracia was bounded on the north by the chain of mount Haemus, which separated 
 it from Mcesia ; on the east by the Euxine sea, Thracian Bosphorus, and Hellespont, 
 which divided it from Asia ; on the south by the iEgean sea ; and on the west by the 
 river Strymon, dividing it from Macedon. In consequence of the conquests of Philip, 
 the river Nessus became the mutual boundary of Thrace and Macedon, the interme- 
 diate district being annexed to the latter country. — The peninsula contained between 
 the Bay of Melas and the Hellespont was called Thracia. Chersonesus ; celebrated in 
 the wars between Philip and the Athenians. 
 
 § 73. The capital of Thrace, and at one time of the civilized world, was Byzantium, 
 or Constantinopolis, built on the north-eastern extremity of the Chersonese, called from 
 its beauty Chrysoceras, or the golden horn. By whom this city was founded is a mat- 
 ter of dispute ; but it was greatly enlarged and beautified by Constantine the Great, 
 who, in the fourth century of the Christian era, transferred the seat of government 
 hither from Rome. On the division of the Roman empire, this city became the capital 
 of the Greek or eastern part ; it retained this distinction for many years, until from 
 the vices of the inhabitants, and the imbecility of their rulers, it was captured by the 
 Turks on the 29th of May, A. D. 1453. 
 
 On the topography of Byzantium and the changes made by Constantine, see Ducange, Histor. Byzantina. Par. 16S0. fol. — G. Co- 
 dinus, De Antiquitatibus Constantinop. Par. 1655. — Ans. Banduri, Imper. Orient, seu Antiquitates Constantinopolilanee. Par. 1711. 
 1 vols, fol.— These works are included in the Corpus of Byzantine History, noticed P- V. § 239 a — Cf. Gibbon, ch. xvii.— James 
 Dallaway, Constantinople, ancient and modern.— Lond. 1797. 4. North Amer. Rett. 16th vol. or 7th of New Series, p. 433. 
 
 The other principal towns were, Salmydessus (Midijeh), celebrated for shipwrecks ; 
 Tht/nia, a town and promontory, whence came the Thyni, who colonized Bithynia in 
 Asia Minor ; Apollonia, called afterwards Sizopolis (Sizeboli), and Mesembr^a, built by 
 
1. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GR^CIA. 21 
 
 a colony of Megarensians ; all on the Euxine sea. — Selymbria (Selibria), and Penntlms, 
 or Heraclea (Erekli), on the Propontis. — Callipolis (Gallipoli), at the junction of the 
 Propontis and Hellespont ; the small towns Madytos and Cissa, near where the little 
 river JEgos Polamos joins the Hellespont, the scene of the battle in which Lysander de- 
 stroyed the naval power of the Athenians ; and Seslos (Zenunie), where Xerxes built 
 his bridge of boats across the Hellespont. — Sestos and Abydos on the Asiatic side are 
 also celebrated for the loves of Hero and Leander. 
 
 The possibility of swimming across the Hellespont was for a long time doubted, but it was performed by the late Lord Byron. — 
 On the doubts here alluded to, see Be la Name, and Mahvdel, as cited P. V. § 49. 4. 
 
 On the bay of Melas, so named from the river Melas, that empties itself into it, were 
 Cardia^ destroyed by Lysimachus, to procure inhabitants for a new town ; Lysimachia, 
 that he had built a little farther south ; and Eiou, which was burned by its governor, 
 Boges. — 'In the interior were Trajanopolis, built by Trajan ; and Adrianopolis, its suc- 
 cessful rival, built by Adrian, and now the second city of the Turkish empire. — At the 
 east mouth of the Hebrus, stood JEnos, said to have been founded by iEneas, near the 
 territory of the Cicones; on the west side, Doriscus, where Xerxes reviewed his im- 
 mense armament after passing the Hellespont, and it is said that his army were so nu- 
 
 erous as completely to drain the neighboring river Lessus. At the mouth of the Nes- 
 sus was Abdera, the birthplace of the philosopher Democritus, near which were the 
 stables of Diomede, who is said to have fed his horses on human flesh. 
 
 §74. The principal rivers of Thrace were the Hebrus (Maritza), celebrated for the 
 clearness and rapidity of its waters ; Nessus (Nissar), and Strymon (Jamboli.) — The 
 principal mountains were Mount Hcemus, extending from the Euxine sea in a western 
 direction between Mcesia and Thrace ; Rhodope, extending from the Euxine sea to the 
 sources of the Nessus ; and Pangaus, extending thence to the north of Macedon. It 
 was on the Pangceus that the wonders ascribed to the lyre of Orpheus were said to have 
 been performed (P. V. $ 48). Two precipices of this mountain, now called Castagnas, 
 approach to the sea nearly opposite to the island Thasus, and form very narrow passages, 
 which were defended by walls. 1 — The principal seas and bays adjoining this extensive 
 maritime country were, Pontus Euxinus, Bosphorus Thracius, Propontis, Hellesponlus, 
 Melanis Sinus (Gulf of Saros), and Strymonicus Sinus (Gulf of Contessa). 
 
 J 75. Thrace was anciently possessed by several independent tribes ; one of these, the Dolonei, 
 being hard pressed by the Absynthi, their neighbors, sent to Delphi- to consult the oracle about 
 the event of the war. The ambassadors were directed to choose as leader the person who should 
 first invite them to his house. While passing through Athens they were hospitably entertained 
 by Miltiades, the son of Cypselus; they immediately requested him to accompany them to the 
 Chersonesus, and Miltiades, having consulted the oracle at Delphi, accepted the invitation. — On 
 his arrival he was immediately created king, and the Absynthians were soon after defeated. He 
 fortified the Chersonesus by building the long walls across the Isthmus, and after a prosperous 
 reign bequeathed the crown to his nephew Stesagoras. — Stesagoras dying after a short reign, 
 his brother Miltiades was sent from Athens by the Pisistratidae as his successor. He had not 
 reigned long, when Darius, king of Persia, sent a fleet of Phoenicians against the Chersonese, 
 and Miltiades, unable to make any effective resistance, retired to Athens. — The Chersonese, after 
 the defeat of the Persians, was principally possessed by the Athenians, who colonized all the 
 coast. The interior of Thrace remained subject to the native princes, until the whole country 
 was united to Macedon by Philip and Alexander. 
 
 76. What remains to be described in Europe we shall include, as already remarked 
 ({ 72), under Gr-ECia, using this name in what is commonly considered its most 
 comprehensive sense (cf. P. III. $ 2). The extensive region thus included in Greecia 
 presents four general divisions, which are obviously suggested by the natural face of 
 the country. The 1st is that part which lies north of -"the chain of mountains called 
 Cambunii, which are connected by the Stymphcei Montes with the Aero Ceraunii . the 
 2d is the part between the Cambunii on the north, and another line of highlands and 
 mountains on the south, which may be traced from the Sinus Maliacus on the east, to 
 the Sinus Ambracius on the west ; in its eastern extremity it forms the pass of Ther- 
 mopylae, and the chain is in this portion of it called CEt.a ; as it stretches back in a 
 northerly and then westerly direction, it is called Pindus; this sends down a spur from 
 the sources of the river Achelous to the Sinus Ambracius, where it forms another pass 
 corresponding to that of Thermopylae on the east : the 3d is the part between the 
 mountains just traced and the gulfs on each side of the isthmus of Corinth, Sinus Co- 
 rinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus : and the 4th is the peninsula connected to the main 
 by that isthmus. The first is Macedonia; the second, Epirus and Thessalia; the 
 third, Hellas; the fourth, Peloponnesus. 
 
 § 77. (1) Macedonia, considered as including the first of the natural divisions above 
 described, was bounded W. by -the Mare Hadriaticum ; N. by Illyricum and Mce- 
 sia; E. by Thracia, from which it was separated by Mt. Rhodope and the river Nes- 
 tus flowing fromRhodope ; S. by the iEgasum Mare, the Cambunii Montes and the 
 other mountains 'forming the chain already mentir;ed, which terminates in the Aero 
 Ceraunii on the western extremity. 
 
22 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 In noticing the physical features of Macedonia, it will be observed that Mt. Ilcemus 
 and Mt. Rhodope, meeting on its N. E. corner, stretch along on its north in a single 
 chain; this was called Orbelus Mons ; a spur from Orbelus will be noticed running 
 down south through Macedonia, and forming a connection wiih the Stymphcei, or Mons 
 Stympha, already named, between the Cambunii and Aero Ceraunii. The waters east 
 of this spur flow to the iEgean ; those west of it, to the Hadriatic. 
 
 § 78. The principal river of the west was the Drilo (Drino), which runs through 
 Lake Lychnidus, and empties into a bay of the Hadriatic, north of the point called 
 Nymphaum Pronxontorium. — One of the most important places in this western por- 
 tion was Apollonia, on the Hadriatic coast, celebrated in the Roman age of Greek 
 literature (P. V. § 9) for its cultivation, and said to be the place where Augustus ac- 
 quired his knowledge of Greek, and finished his education. Another place is worthy 
 of notice, Epidamnus, further north, called Dyrrachium by the Romans, the place 
 where travelers from Italy to Greece generally landed. This portion, west of the 
 spur, was taken from Illyricum by Philip (Rollin, B. 14. § 1). 
 
 § 79. The country east of the spur is principally champaign. We notice three most 
 considerable rivers; the Haliacmon (Platemone), in the southern part, flowing east to 
 the Sinus Thermaicus (Gulf of Thessalonica, or Salonichi) ; the Axius (Vardari), rising 
 in the heights between Macedonia and Moesia, and running S. to the head of the same 
 gulf, receiving on its way many tributaries, and uniting with the Erigon on the west 
 before its discharge ; the Strymon, rising in Mt. Rhodope, and flowing to the Sinus 
 Strymo?iicus (Gulf of Contessa). — Between the two gulfs or bays just named, was the 
 peninsula sometimes called Chalcidice, and presenting peculiar features, having a 
 cluster of mountains on its neck, and being split into three smaller peninsulas by two 
 bays, the Toronaicus (G. of Cassandra), and the Singeticus (G. of Monte Sancto). The 
 western of these smaller peninsulas was Pallene or Phlegra, the fabled scene of the 
 battle between Jupiter and the Giants (Ov. x. 151); the eastern was marked by Ml. 
 Aihos, extending several leagues upon and projecting into the sea, and was celebrated 
 for a canal said to be cut across its neck by Xerxes to avoid the passage around Mt. 
 Athos, that passage having proved so fatal to the fleet of D arias. 
 
 § 80. This portion of Macedonia had numerous subdivisions, many of which are 
 not important, even if they Could be accurately traced. Paonia was in the northern 
 part. The part between the Strymon and Nestus was called Edonis. The southern 
 part on the west of the Sinus Thermaicus was Pieria. Emathia was north of Pieria, 
 and of the same gulf. 
 
 Emathia was the most important province: In this was situated Edessa, the ori- 
 ginal capital of the country, on the Erigon; also Pella, on the Lydias, subsequentlj 
 made the capital by Amyntas, the father of Philip. Further east, on the Sinus Ther 
 maicus, was Thermce, afterwards called Thessalonica, the place of Cicero's banishment 
 and the capital of the country as a Roman province. 
 
 At Thessalonica there still remains an ancient structure which is supposed by some to have been a Cabirian temple (cf. P. II 
 § 129. 2) ; a view of it is given in our Plate V. 
 
 On the peninsula which has been described (§ 79) were Fotidcea, or Cassandria, on the 
 neck of Pallene, celebrated for its splendor under kingCassander ; Olynthus, memorable 
 for its siege by Philip, who after much labor captured it by treachery ; Chalcis, which 
 gave name to the region; Stagira (Stagros), on the eastern coast, the birthplace of Aris- 
 totle. — In Pieria, one of the most memorable places was Pydna (Kitra), where Olym- 
 pias was murdered by Cassander, and where the Roman general Paulus iEmilius made 
 a prisoner of Perseus the last king of Macedonia, B.-C. 168. North of this, on the 
 coast, was Methane, at the seige of which Philip lost his right eye. — In Edonis were 
 two important towns ; Amphipolis, originally on an island in the river Strymon, an 
 Athenian colony; Philippi, further east, near Mons Panga?us, a branch from Rho- 
 dope. 
 
 The latter was built by Philip, for the same purpose for which the Athenians built Amphipolis ; 
 to secure the valuable gold and silver mines found in this region. It is celebrated for the battle 
 in which Brutus and Cassius were defeated by Augustus and Antony, B. C. 42; and memorable 
 as the place where Paul and Silas, having been "thrust into the inner prison, with their feet 
 fast in the stocks, (.Ads xvi. 25) at midnight sang praises unto God." 
 
 The site of Philippi is still marked by ruins (Miss. Herald, Sept. 1836, p. 334).— Like most of the Grecian cities, it was at the foo. 
 of a hill or mount on which was its Acropolis. A view of the Acropolis and of the plain below is given in our Plate IV. A traveler 
 on horseback is advancing on the road from Neapolis to Philippi ; he is just passing a modern Turkish burying-ground on his right 
 hand under a near hill ; the Acropolis, with its ruins, appears on the eminence beyond at the right ; at the base of this eminence, was 
 the lower city, on the south and south-west j farther to the south is an open plain ; the mountain on the left is the southern extremity 
 of Pan^mus. 
 
 J 81. The kingdom of Macedonia was said to be founded by Caranus, a descendant of Her- 
 cules, B. O. 814; but it did not acquire consequence until the reign of Philip, who ascended the 
 throne B. C. 360. It has been stated, that 150 different nations or tribes were finally included 
 Within its limits. 
 
 % 82 (2) Epieus and Thessalia, embraced in the second natural division pointed 
 out (§ 7b), are next to be noticed. 
 
 Thessalia is described by. Herodotus as a very extensive plain, embosomed in 
 
PLATE TV. 
 
24 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 mountains. The Cambunii and Olympus were on the north ; Pelion and Ossa on the 
 east ; Pindus on the west ; and CEta on the south : so that only the small portion of 
 coast between the Sinus Pelasgicus and the Sinus 3Ialiacus is without the guard of 
 mountains ; and even this has a guard a little in the interior, by Ml. Othrys, which 
 strikes across from Pindus to Pelion. 
 
 The extensive plains of Thessaly were peculiarly favorable to the breeding of horses ; and the 
 Thessalians were the first who introduced the use of cavalry, horses having been, at first, only 
 used for draught. Hence, perhaps, arose the fable of the Centaurs, a people of Thessaly, who 
 were supposed to have been half man and half horse. The Thessalian cavalry maintained 
 their superiority to a very late period, and to them Philip was indebted for many of his victories. 
 
 § 83. The northern part of Thessaly was called Pelasgiotis, from the Pelasgi, an 
 Asiatic wandering tribe, who are supposed to have been the first inhabitants of Greece 
 (P. IV. § 33). The principal cities in Pelasgiotis were Larissa, the capital of the 
 province ; Gompki, destroyed by Caesar ; Gonnus and Gyrtona, near the entrance of 
 the vale of Tempe, so celebrated for its natural beauties; Scotussa, near which are 
 some hills, called, from their shape, Cynos Cephale, where Philip was defeated by 
 Quintus Flaminius ; and Pharsalus, near which, in a plain called Pharsalia, Pompey 
 
 was overthrown by Caesar. The eastern part of Thessaly was named Magnesia; 
 
 the most remarkable places were Sepias, a small village on a promontory of the same 
 name, where the fleet of Xerxes received an omen of their final overthrow, being 
 shattered in a storm; Demelrias (Vloo), built by Demetrius Poliorcetes, and which, 
 from the commercial advantages of its situation, almost depopulated the neighboring 
 towns ; Melibcea, the city of Philoctetes ; Iolcos, the residence of Jason and Medea ; 
 Pagasce, where the ship Argo was built, from which the Sinus Pelasgicus is some- 
 times called Pagasceus: Aphetce (Fetio), whence the Argonautic expedition sailed; 
 Pherce, the residence of the tyrant Alexander ; and Thebce, near the river Amphrysus, 
 
 where Apollo fed the herds of king Admetus. In the southern parts of Thessaly 
 
 were Malia, which gives name to the Maliac bay; Larissa, called Cremast.e from its 
 sloping situation, the capital of the kingdom of Achilles ; Alos, at the foot of mount 
 Othrys, near which the combat between the Centaurs and Lapithae took place ; Phy- 
 lace on the sea coast, the residence of Protesilaus ; Dorion, where the musical con- 
 test between Thamyris and the Muses took place ; Hypata, famous for the magical 
 arts of its women (Hor. Ep. 5) ; Lamia, where Antipater was fruitlessly besieged by 
 the Athenians; and Trachis (Zeiton), celebrated for its desperate resistance when be- 
 seiged by the Romans. 
 
 § 84. The mountains have been mentioned above (§ 82) . The most remarkable 
 river was the Peneus, which flows through the vale of Tempe into the iEgean sea. This 
 river is said to have overflowed Thessaly, until Hercules opened a passage for the waters 
 between mounts Olympus and Ossa. The principal inlets of the iEgean sea, on the 
 Thessalian coast, were Sinus Pelasgicus or Pagascsus (Gulf of Volo), and Sinus Ma- 
 liacus (Gulf of Zeiton). 
 
 $ 85. The inundation of Thessaly, during the reign of Deucalion, is one of the first events 
 recorded in profane history; all the inhabitants, except Deucalion, and his wife Pyrrha,are said 
 to have been destroyed. Perplexed to discover by what means the human race might be re- 
 stored they consulted the oracle of Themis, and were ordered to throw stones behind them ; 
 those thrown by Deucalion became men and those by Pyrrtaa women. In this fable the history 
 of some partial inundation seems to be confounded with the tradition of the universal deluge. 
 
 The next remarkable occurrence was the Argonautic expedition under Jason, aided by the 
 bravest heroes of Greece, in the ship Argo (P. II. } 127).— Achilles was the most remarkable 
 Thessalian prince after Jason ; he was the son of Peleus and the sea-nymph Thetis ; an oracle 
 had foretold that he would perish if he accompanied the Greeks to Troy; to prevent this, his 
 mother concealed him at the court of Lycomedes, king of Scyros, by one of whose daughters he 
 begat Pyrrhus, or Neoptolemus, afterwards king of Epirus. Achilles was at last discovered by 
 Ulysses and brought to Troy, where he was slain by Paris, one of the sons of Priam. 
 
 During the supremacy of Athens and Sparta, Thessaly seems to have been of little importance. 
 The greater part of it was annexed to Macedon by Philip and his successors. It was cruelly 
 devastated in the wars between the Romans and the Macedonian and Syrian kings; it also suf- 
 fered very severely in the civil wars between Caesar and Pompey. 
 
 § 86. Under Episus a greater extent than we have assigned to it is often included. 
 We have suggested as its natural boundaries on the north the mountains Cambunii and 
 Aero Ceraunii, and on the south, the Sinus Ambracius ; but the region called Orestis 
 between the Aero Ceraunii and the river Aous is commonly termed a province of Epi- 
 rus ; and Acamania, within the proper limits of Hellas, is also often considered as 
 'nother province. In all descriptions, it is separated from Thessaly by Mt. Pindus; 
 while the Mare Ionium bounds it on the west. Within the compass here given, it included 
 the provinces Chaonia, Thesprotia, and Molossis. 
 
 $ 87. Chaonia was the portion under the Aero Ceraunii on the south, said to be 
 named from Cbaon, the brother of Helenus son of Priam. These mountains were so 
 called from their summits (&Kpa) being often struck with lightning (xcpawos) ; they were 
 remarkable for attracting storms, and were dreaded by mariners ; the rocks at the west- 
 ern extremity of their southern branch, Acro-Ceraunia, were called infamous {infames). 
 —The principal *<?wns were Oricum in the extreme north, on the coast between the 
 
P. I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. GRiECIA. 25 
 
 branches of the mountains just mentioned ; and Anchesmus also on the coast and in the 
 extreme south of the province. 
 
 Thesprotia extended on the coast from Chaonia to the Sinus Ambracius (Gulf 
 of Arta). Its principal places v/ere,Buthrotum on the river Xanthus, near which iEneas 
 is said to have landed on his flight from Troy to Italy ; and Ephyra^, on the river Acne- 
 ron, flowing to the harbor called Glycys Limen (yXvicvs Xiji-nv). The river Acheron is 
 joined at its mouth by the Cocytus. — These two streams were ranked in the ancient 
 .mythology among the flumina inferorum, or infernal rivers; three others had the same 
 rank ; the Styx, in Arcadia ; the Lethe, in Boeotia probably ; and the Phlegelhon, the 
 location of which, as an actual river, is unknown, although it is represented sometimes 
 as uniting with the Acheron. 
 
 1 Ephyra was subsequently railed Cichyrus ; the ruins of its walls are said to be still visible.— Hughes, Travels in Greece, and 
 Albania. Lond. 1S20. 2 vols. 4. 
 
 M o 1 o s s i s was east of Thesprotia,, and north of the Sinus Ambracius. The Mo- 
 lossian dogs were highly esteemed by the ancients. Among the principal towns were 
 Ambracia, the residence of the Epirote kings, on the river Araclhus or Arethon ; and 
 Passaro, where the kings of Epirus took the coronation oath. 
 
 Dodona, famous for its oracle and temple of Jupiter (cf. P. III. § 71), at the foot of 
 Mount Tomarus, is placed by some in Molossis ; by others in Thesprotia ; it was in the 
 Hellopia, not far from the river Thyamis, which rises in Mt. Stymphe and flows through 
 Thesprotia to the Mare Ionium. 
 
 The French traveler Pouqueville found in Hellopia, in the modern district of Janina, near the village Gardiki, westerly from 
 the lake of Janina, some ruins of Cyclopean character, which he judged to be the ruins of Dodona j including remains of the temple 
 of the Dodonean Jupiter and the sacred enclosure of the Selli. — Cf. Pouqueville, Voyage de la Grece. Par. IS26. 6 vols. 8. vol. i. 
 p. 125-197.— Hughes, above cited, vol. i. p. 511. 
 
 $ 88. We meet but casual mention of the Epirotes in history until the Macedonian Empire 
 was divided after Alexander's death. It was then that this people, who had hitherto been 
 looked on as barbarians, and held in subjection by the Macedonians, began to take a lead in the 
 affairs of Greece. — The folly of Pyrrhus, who hoped by his victories in the west, to rival the 
 
 conquests of Alexander in the east, weakened their forces and diminished their authority. 
 
 On the invasion of the Romans, the Epirotes adhered to the cause of Grecian liberty with a 
 desperate fidelity, worthy of better success. When the conquest of their country had been 
 achieved by Paulus JEmilius, enraeed at their resistance, he ordered seventy of their cities to 
 be destroyed, and 150,000 of the inhabitants to be sold as slaves ; an instance of atrocious re- 
 ven L n scarcely to be parallelled in history. 
 
 When the empire of Constantinople fell before the victorious arms of the Mahometans, the remnants of the Christian forces 
 retreated to the fastnesses of the mountains of Suli and the town of Parga in this territory.— The Suliotes, after performing feats of 
 valor only to be parallelled in the brighter days of Grecian freedom, were duped by Ali Pacha and treacherously massacred ; and 
 Parga, after many vicissitudes, fell under the power of Turkey.— Por an account of Parga, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. p. 111. 
 
 § 89. (3) Our third division of Greece includes the portion between Mt. ffita and 
 the large gulfs, Sinus Corinthiacus and Sinus Saronicus. It is what is properly termed 
 Hellas, and is also called Gr_ecia Propria. 
 
 This division is washed on every side but the north by the sea. On the east are first 
 the waters of the Sinus Maliacus, then of the Sinus Opuntius and those between the 
 mainland and Euboea, which are called in the narrowest place Euripus. Leaving these 
 and drawing near the southern point of the country, you enter the Myrtoum Mare, and 
 having passed that point, Sunium Promontorium, with the splendid temple of Minerva 
 in sight, you proceed up the Sinus Saronicus (Gulf of Egina) ; at the end of which you 
 must take a land carriage, but of 5 miles only, over the isthmus of Corinth (Hexa-Mili), 
 when you reach the Sinus Corinthiacus (Gulf of Lepanto). — This opens into Hellas 
 several bays, one at its eastern extremity called Halcyonium Mare, and another central 
 and opening to the north called Sinus Crissceus (Bay of Salona). — Continuing the sur- 
 vey of the coast of Hellas, you pass out of the Sinus Corinthiacus through the strait 
 called Dardanelles of Lepanto between Bhium on the Peloponnesus, where is the tomb 
 of Hesiod, and Antirrhium on the opposite side. Issuing from this strait you enter and 
 continue in the Mare Ionium, till having gone through the artificial channel separating 
 Leucas from the mainland, you turn round the Promontorium Actium and enter the 
 Sinus Ambracius, which ends the tour, and the eastern extremity of which is not more 
 than 70 miles distant, across the mountains, from the Sinus Maliacus, where the ima- 
 ginary tour began. 
 
 § 90. If an observer could take an elevated station in the air, and thence look down 
 npon Hellas, his eye would rest upon an almost countless number of hills and moun- 
 tains, with rich vales, and small pure streams. At first its summits might seem to rise 
 up over the country in disorder and confusion, but soon he would trace some obvious 
 lines of connection. He would perceive one fine of summits stretching from Mt. CEta 
 at Thermopylae down parallel to the eastern coast and to the island Eubcea as far as 
 to the strait Euripus. — He would observe another of more lofty and attractive summits 
 proceeding from Pindus (in about the centre between the Sinus Maliacus and Sinus 
 Ambracius) running quite southerly a short distance, and then sending off on its right a 
 line of minor summits down to the western extremity of the Sinus Corinthiacus, but 
 itself bending to the south-east, and at length verging along the shore of that gulf to 
 4 C 
 
26 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 its eastern extremity, and there connecting with the Geranii Monies and Mons Oncius 
 on the isthmus, and with Mons Cithceron, which proceeds directly east to the sea south 
 of the straits of Euripus. — The part of this line joining Pindus includes probably the 
 mountains in which the ancient Dryopes dwelt. The first part of the branch which 
 it sends off to the west, is the Coras chain, and the termination of this branch at the 
 gulf is in the summits called Taphiassus and Chalcis. — In the main line bending to the 
 south-east occur first Parnassus, which although of barren soil was celebrated for its 
 green valleys and shady groves suited for meditation ; then Helicon, with its fountain 
 Hippocrene, which started into existence (according to fable) from the stamping of Pe- 
 gasus (cf. P. II. § 117./). — After this, as you turn eastward, appears Citharon, which 
 has a summit in the eastern part, called Fames. — In the territory south of these, were 
 several summits, particularly Pentelicus, famous for its marble, north-east from Athens ; 
 Hymett.us, celebrated for its honey, east and south-east of Athens ; Laurius, containing 
 the silver mines, in the southern extreme of Attica. — Aracynthus was a chain in 
 iEtolia. 
 
 § 91. Hellas contained eight small, but independent provinces or districts. These 
 were, beginning on the west, Acarnania, JEtolia, Boris, Locris, Fhocis, Baotia, Me- 
 garis, Attica. 
 
 The two western districts Acarnania and JEtolia were very inferior to the rest in 
 fame, although nature presented herself in a grander and sublimer aspect than in some 
 other districts. 
 
 §92. Acarnania was marked for its woods and forests, and its inhabitants were 
 noted for their attachment to sensual pleasures. We have alluded (§ 76) to the natural 
 boundaries between this district and Epirus, viz., the Sinus A.mbracius and the spur of 
 mountains running from Pindus down to that bay. This line of highlands is now 
 called Mahrinoros , . which name is also given to the narrow pass under their abrupt and 
 steep termination near the bay, a pass similar to that of Thermopylae. The boundary 
 between Acarnania and the next district of Hellas, iEtolia, is the river Achelous, rising 
 among the valleys of Mt. Pindus and flowing to the Mare Ionium. 
 
 Of the places in Acarnania, we mention Argos Amphilochius , on the river Inachus 
 emptying at the eastern extremity of the Sinus Ambracius; Anactorium, on a peninsula 
 forming the north-western corner of the district ; Actium, a little further to the east, on 
 the Promontory of the same name. At this place Augustus gained his great naval 
 victory over Antony and Cleopatra, and to commemorate it, built a town called Nico- 
 polis, and instituted games celebrated every third year, called Actia. — Leucas was on 
 the northern point of the island Leucadia, which was a peninsula before the Pelopon- 
 nesian war, but after that separated by an artificial channel. On the south part was a 
 temple of Apollo on the Promontory Leucale, from which the despairing Sappho is said 
 to have thrown herself (cf. P. V. § 54). — Stratus, once its metropolis, was on the 
 Achelous which is now called Aspro-potamo. 
 
 % 93. iE t o 1 i a was east of Acarnania, separated by the river Achelous ; it is now 
 called Vlakia, from a tribe of barbarians to whom the Greek emperors gave this pro- 
 vince. Its other chief river was the Evenus (Fideri), falling into the Corinthian bay , 
 this and the Achelous are the largest rivers of Hellas. 
 
 The following are the chief places ; Calydon on the Evenus, under Mt. Chalcis , 
 associated with the story of the Caledonian boar (destroyed by the son of the king of 
 iEtolia), whose tusks were said to have been preserved in Greece until Augustus carried 
 them to Rome as curiosities ; Thermits, the ancient capital, in the interior, or between 
 the Evenus and Lake Trichonis. — Naupactus, on the Sinus Corinlhiacus, under Mt. 
 Taphiassus, was not included in the proper limits of iEtolia, but was given to this pro- 
 vince by Philip of Macedon; it was said to have its name from vavs and irfiyvvyn, be- 
 cause the Heraclidas built here their first ship to invade Peloponnesus. 
 
 § 94. D oris, a very small district, lay under Mt. Pindus, between OEta on the east 
 and the mountains of the Dryopes on the west, having Parnassus on the south-west and 
 being separated from Phocis by elevated hills on the south-east ; thus wholly sur- 
 rounded by mountains. It was called Doris from Dorus, son of Deucalion, ancient 
 monarch of Thessaly. It was a rocky, mountainous region. Its towns were situated 
 on the river Pindus, a branch of the Cephissus, which also rises in the hills of Doris. 
 From its four towns Pindus, Erineum, Boium, and Cytinium, it was called Tetrapolis ; 
 and sometimes Hexapolis, the two places Lilceum and Carphia being added. 
 
 § 95. Locris consisted of two parts separated from each other.— The larger part, 
 was on the Sinus Corinthiacus , having iEtolia on the west, and Phocis on the east 
 (partly separated from it by the Sinus Crissceus). The inhabitants of this part were 
 called Western Locri, or Locri Hesperii and Locri Ozolce. Of the origin of the latter 
 name, different accounts are given; the people are said to have disliked the name 
 
 exceedingly. One of their principal places was Amphissa, in the interior, where 
 
 was a temple to Minerva. — Naupactus (§ 93) originally belonged to them. 
 
 % 96. The other and smaller part of Locris was on the opposite coast of Hellas, on 
 the waters separating it from Eubcea. It was north-east of Phocis and Boeotia, divided 
 from them by a chain of mountains, and extending from Mount (Eta on the north to 
 
P.I. EUROPE. SOUTHERN COUNTRIES. HELLAS. 27 
 
 the Platanius, a small river flowing to the channel of Eubcea, and separating Locris 
 
 from Bcsotia, on the south. This part was inhabited by two tribes. — The Opuntii 
 
 were in the southern region, so called from their principal city Opus, which gave 
 name also to the bay adjacent, Sinus OpunLius, containing a small island, Atalanta. 
 The port of Opus, called Cynos, was north of it, on the bay. — The other tribe or 
 people were the Epicnemidii, so named from Mount Cnemis. On this there was a 
 small town of the same name : other places of note were Naryx, the city of Ajax, 
 son of Oileus ; Thronium ; and Antkela, where the Amphictyonic council assembled 
 annually in a temple of Ceres or Thesmophora {the lawgiver) as she was here called, 
 in allusion to" the council. 
 
 Close to Anthela were the ever-memorable straits of Thermopylce, deriving their 
 name from some hot springs and fortified gates that were there. This celebrated 
 pass, usually reckoned the key of Greece, is about sixty paces wide, and is situated 
 between the ridge of Mount (Eta and the Malian gulf, at the junction of the three 
 countries, Locris, Phocis, and Thessaly. Here Leonidas, with a handful of men, 
 bravely resisted the countless myriads of Persia, and died rather' than violate the 
 Spartan law, which forbade flight to the citizens. In the same place Antiochus, king 
 of Syria, was defeated by the consul Acilius. 
 
 During the struggles of the modern Greek, revolution (of. P. IV. § 85. 2), two signal triumphs were obtained by the Greeks over 
 their Turkish oppressors on the same inspiring spot.— A plan of the pass, illustrating the contest between Leonidas and the Persians, 
 is given in Barthelemy's Anacharsis, cited P. V. § 153. 2. 
 
 §97. Phocis extended between the two parts of Locris, from the Corinthian 
 gulf to the borders of Thessaly. 
 
 The capital was Elatea, on the river Cephissus, the capture of which by Philip first 
 awakened the attention of the Greeks to the dangerous ambition of the Macedonian 
 monarch. West of Elatea was Delphi, on mount Parnassus, celebrated for the oracle 
 of Apollo (P. III. § 72), and for the annual meetings of the Amphictyonic council 
 (P. III. § 105) held in the temple. It is now a mean village called Castri. Parnas- 
 sus (Haliocoro) had two summits, one sacred to Apollo, and one to Bacchus ; the 
 town stood at the foot of the mountain, and the temple was built on a neighboring 
 eminence^, close to the fountain Castalia. Near the town, the Pythian games were 
 celebrated, in memory of Apollo's victory over the serpent Python. — Cirrha, on the 
 small river Plistus, falling into the Corinthian gulf, was esteemed the port of Delphi ; 
 near this was Crissa, from which an inlet of the Corinthian gulf, and sometimes the 
 whole gulf, was called Crisseeus ; and Anticyra, celebrated for the production of hel- 
 lebore. — The principal river of Phocis was the Cephissus, which is sometimes con- 
 founded with a river of the same name in Attica. 
 
 a A view of Delphi and the heights of Parnassus is presented in the Frontispiece of this Manual, as given by Socage, in Barthe* 
 lemy's Anacharsis. — A plan of Delphi, with explanations, is found in Dissen's Pindar, vol. ii. p. 628, as cited P. V. § 60. 4. 
 
 $ 98. At the time of the Persian invasion, the Phocians strenuously exerted themselves for the 
 common liberties of Greece ; in revenge, Xerxes despatched a large army to lay waste the 
 country and plunder the temple of Delphi. The greater part of the men were destroyed by 
 earthquakes and lightning; the inhabitants, encouraged by these appearances of a divine assist- 
 ance, rose en masse, and completely destroyed the remainder. About 280 B. 0., a large body 
 
 of Gauls, under the command of Brennus, invaded their country, and were defeated under cir- 
 cumstances similar to the defeat of Xerxes. 
 
 §99. Bceotia occupied the north-east of Grsecia Propria, on the shores of the 
 Eiiripus, a narrow strait between the island of Eubcea and the continent. 
 
 The capital was Thebes, built by Cadmus, the Phoenician, who first introduced let- 
 ters into Greece (cf. P. IV. § 45). The city stood on the river Ismenus, and was 
 ornamented with seven gates, whence it is called Heptapulos. It was the birthplace 
 of the demi-gods Hercules and Bacchus, of the poet Pindar, and of those illustrious 
 warriors and statesmen, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. The citadel was, from its founder, 
 called Cadmea. — South of this was Platma, where the Persian army were totally 
 destroyed by the united valor of the Athenians, Spartans, and Plateans : it was after- 
 wards destroyed by the Spartans in the Peloponnesian war. We mention also Leuc- 
 tra, near lake Copais, where the Spartans were defeated by Epaminondas ; Coronea, 
 near mount Helicon ; Chwronea, where Philip, having defeated the Athenians and 
 Thebans, became absolute master of Greece ; Lebadea, remarkable for the temple 
 of Trophonius ; and Orchomenus, near which was the Acidalian fountain, sacred to 
 Venus. — Near the Corinthian gulf was Thespice, sacred to the Muses, having a port 
 named Creusa ; and Ascra, the birthplace of the poet Hesiod. — On the Euripus were 
 Aulis, the rendezvous of the Grecian fleet in the Trojan expedition, and the scene of 
 Iphigenia's sacrifice ; Tanagra, where the celebrated poetess Corinna was born ; and 
 Belium, a village which derived its name from the temple of Apollo, built in imitation 
 of that at Delos, and was the place where Socrates, in the Peloponnesian war, saved 
 the life of his pupil Alcibiades. 
 
 § 100. The chief mountains of Bceotia were Helicon, with the fountains Aganippe 
 and Hippocrene, sacred to the Muses ; Pimpla, on the borders of Phocis, dedicated 
 
28 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 to the same divinities ; Dirce, near Thebes ; and Cith&ron, on the borders of Mega- 
 ris, sacred to Bacchus. 
 
 The people of Boeotia were usually described as naturally stupid, but wilh apparently little 
 justice ; for it gave birth to many men of superior talents, and the barbarous custom of ex- 
 posing children, common in the rest of Greece, was here totally prohibited. They have been 
 accused of nourishing a deadly hatred for trifling causes. In the heroic ages, Thebes seem9 to 
 have been one of the most powerful of the Grecian states, but its history is so involved, that the 
 discovery of the truth is very difficult. It certainly declined in after times; probably the misfor- 
 tunes and civil discords of the posterity of Cadmus had weakened the power and destroyed the 
 spirit of the people. 
 
 "S 101. M e g aris was a small territory, said not to be more than eight miles square, 
 south of mount Cithaeron, near the isthmus of Corinth. Its chief city was Megara, 
 situated midway between Corinth and Athens, built on two cliffs not far from the 
 Sinus Saronicus; its port was Nisaa, taken and destroyed by Pericles. The only 
 other place of note was Crommyon, near the Scironian rocks : these were said to be 
 very dangerous, and to have derived their name from Sciron, a notorious pirate and 
 robber. 
 
 § 102. The remaining province of Hellas was Attica, east of Megaris, and south 
 of Cithaeron. The district so named was of a triangular shape, not 30 miles wide at 
 its base on the north, and tapering until it terminates in the point called Sunium, pro- 
 jecting into the Myrtoum ISIare, east of the Sinus Saronicus (gulf of Engia). It was 
 also called Acte (d/cri?) from its maritime situation. The capital was Athens, a more 
 i lull description of which we shall give below. 
 
 § 103. About ten miles north of Athens is Marathon, where the first Persian in- 
 vaders, under the command of Dads and Artaphernes, were completely routed by 
 the Athenians, commanded by Miltiades. North of this was the village Bhamnus, 
 where a statue, formed of the marble that the Persians had brought to raise a trophy 
 of their anticipated victory, was erected to the goddess Nemesis : a little to the east 
 was Phyle, a strong fort, which was occupied by Thrasybulus, in his expedition 
 against the thirty tyrants. On the Euripus was Delphinum, and Oropus, where there 
 was a celebrated temple of Amphiaraus. Nearer to Athens, on the north side, was 
 AcharncB, where the Lacedemonians encamped when they invaded Attica ; and De- 
 celia, which they fortified by the advice of Alcibiades. — East of Athens was Brauron, 
 where the statue of Diana, brought from Taurus by Orestes, was preserved until 
 taken away by Xerxes ; and Stmium, a town and promontory at the south-eastern 
 extremity of Attica, celebrated for a splendid temple of Minerva (from the ruins of 
 which it is now called Cape Colonna), and is in modern times remarkable as the scene 
 of the shipwreck beautifully described by Falconer. — West of Athens was Eleusis, 
 where the Eleusinian mysteries in honor of Ceres were celebrated. There are two 
 remarkable temples at Eleusis ; that of Ceres and that of Triptolemus. 
 
 §104. Topography of Athens. The city of Athens was founded by Cecrops, an 
 Egyptian, who led thither a colony from the banks of the Nile. At first it was called 
 Cecropia, from the name of its founder ; and afterwards 'ASijvai, Athens, in honor 
 of the goddess Minerva (whom the Greeks called 'A^f/vn), because she was the pro- 
 tectress of the city. In its most flourishing state, it was one of the largest and most 
 beautiful cities of Greece, and is said by Aristides to have been a day's journey in 
 going around it ; according to other and more exact computations, it was about one 
 hundred and seventy-eight stadia, or rather more than twenty-two Roman miles ; and " 
 Dion Chrysostom reckons it to haye been two hundred stadia, about twenty-five Ro- 
 man miles in circumference. — Col. Leake considers the ancient city to have been much 
 larger than the modern, and estimates the circumference as not less than 19 miles at 
 least, reckoning the sinuosities of the coasts and walls. — The number of gates is not 
 known ; thirteen are named by Eobinson ; the largest was called MnvXov, and was near 
 the Ceramicus; the 'Itpa was that leading to Eleusis. 
 
 For a plan of Athens, see our Plate I., by which the reader may learn the situation cf the principal parts and buildings. — The 
 description here given, is drawn chiefly from Robinson's Archseologia Graca. 
 
 § 105. Athens lies in a valley, extending from mount Pentelicus on the east to the 
 Sinus Saronicus on the west, between mount Fames on the north, and Hymettus on 
 the south. In the plain of this beautiful valley thus surrounded by natural ramparts, we 
 behold the very singular geological feature of six insular mountain rocks standing in regu- 
 lar succession, and gradually diminishing as you descend from Pentelicuswestward to 
 the sea. The one nearest the sea is called the hill of Musmus. On the next is the Acro- 
 polis of Athens. The one next to this on the east is Mt. Anchesmus, on the smnrnit 
 of which was a temple and statue in honor of Jupiter; from this eminence an observer 
 could survey the whole of Athens and its environs. — Two streams furnished their 
 waters to the city. One was the Ilissus, which flowed to the east and south of the 
 city, and which is supposed, from the appearance of its channel and from the allusions 
 of the poets, to have been anciently much larger than it has been seen in modern 
 
 times. The other, Cephissus, was still smaller and ran on the other side. Athens 
 
 may be described in two parts ; the Cecropia, built by Cecrops on the summit of the 
 
P. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 29 
 
 hill termed Acropolis (dicpfaoXi;), and called the upper city, f) aVco 7n5Xi? ; and the part 
 built afterward, h koVoj iroXig, or the lower city. 
 
 The hill or Acropolis, as distinguished from the lower part, is distinctly seen in the View of Athens given in onr Plate IX a, on 
 page 80 ; which is taken from J. C. Hobhousets Journey through Albania and other provinces of Turkey, &c. Lond. 1S13. 
 
 2 vols. 4. — The Grecian method of thus connecting an Acropolis with their towns, is also illustrated by our Plate IV. cf. § SO. 
 
 % 106. The citadel, or upper city, was sixty stadia in circumference, and was fenced 
 with wooden pales, or, as some say, was surrounded with olive-trees. It was fortified 
 on the south side by a strong wall, which was built by Cimon, the son of Miltiades, 
 from the spoils taken in the Persian war, and which was called Ki^toi/tov rzTxos. The 
 north wall was built many ages before by Agrolas, or according to some, by Euryalus 
 and Hyperbius, two brothers, who first taught the Athenians the art of building houses. 
 This wall was denominated IleXaayiKdv or TleXapyiKdv, from the Pelasgi, the name of 
 its founders. This wall was beautified with nine gates, from which it is sometimes 
 called 'Evvedirv'Xov ; but though there were several lesser gates, there was one grand en- 
 trance into the citadel, the IIpoTriiAa/a, to which the Athenians ascended by steps covered 
 with white marble, and which was built by Pericles at great expense. Over this en- 
 trance is one of those enormous slabs of marble called "marble beams" by Wheeler, 
 and to which Pausanias particularly alluded when, in describing the Propylasa, he 
 says that, even in his time, nothing surpassing the beauty of the workmanship or the 
 magnitude of the stones used in the building had ever been seen. 
 
 The inside of the citadel was ornamented with innumerable edifices, statues, and 
 monuments, on which the ancient stories were fully described. The noble statues of 
 Pericles, Phormio, Iphicrates, Timotheus, and other Athenian generals, were here 
 intermingled with those of the gods. 
 
 Here was the temple of Minerva, called N«ij or Victory, constructed of white mar- 
 ble, and placed on the right of the entrance into the citadel. 
 
 § 107. About the middle of the citadel was the stately temple of Minerva, called 
 Parthenon, because that goddess preserved her virginity inviolate, or because it was 
 dedicated by the daughters of Erechtheus, who were particularly called napSevot, vir- 
 gins. It was also denominated 'EKar6p.TT£Sov, because it was one hundred feet square. 
 It was burnt by the Persians, but restored by Pericles, who enlarged it fifty feet on 
 each side. It was of the Doric order, and built of that beautiful white marble found 
 in the quarries of Pentelicus, a mountain of Attica. Within this temple was the statue 
 of Minerva, so celebrated for its size, the richness of its materials, and the exquisite 
 beauty of the workmanship. The figure, the work of Phidias, was twenty-six cubits 
 high. This temple still remains a noble monument of antiquity, being 229 feet in 
 length, 101 in breadth, and 69 in height. 
 
 A view of the Parthenon is given in our Plate XXI. fig. 1. cf. P. HI. § 96. On the bas-relief taken from it by Lord Elgin, cf. P. IV. 
 5 190. On the works of Phidias, cf. P. IV. § 179. 
 
 Here also was the temple of Neptune, surnamed Erechtheus. Tins was a double 
 building, and, besides other curiosities, contained the salt spring called 'Eptx^eii, which 
 was feigned to have sprung out of the earth from a stroke of Neptune's trident, when 
 he contended with Minerva for the possession of the country. This part of the temple 
 was consecrated to Neptune. The other part belonged to Minerva, surnamed IloXta;, 
 the protectress of the city, and HdvSpoo-os, from one of the daughters of Cecrops of that 
 name. Here, so late as the second century of the Christian sera, was the sacred olive- 
 tree, which was said to have been produced by Minerva, and to have been as old as 
 the foundation of the citadel. Here also was the image of the goddess, which was said 
 to have fallen from heaven in the reign of Erichthonius, and which was guarded by 
 dragons, called oiKovpol d<j>eig, and had a lamp always burning with oil, and an owl be- 
 fore it. The whole structure was called 'Epex^aou. Both these buildings still remain. 
 The smaller edifice, which is an entrance to the other, is 29 feet in length, and 2] feet 
 
 3 inches in breadth. The larger is 63§ feet in length, and 36 feet in breadth. The roof 
 is supported by channeled Ionic pillars. See Plate IV a. 
 
 Behind the temple of Minerva stood the public treasury, which from its situation was 
 called 'Ojr«r$o'<5<>/Ltos, and in which, besides other public money, a thousand talents were 
 deposited for any very great exigency of the state. 
 
 In the citadel were also several other edifices, as the chapel of Jupiter "Zoirhp, and of 
 Minerva Soirstpa; the temple of Agraulos, the daughter of Cecrops, or rather of Mi- 
 nerva, who was worshiped under that name, in the front and steep side of the rock ; 
 and the temple of Venus, 'hrnoKvrtia, consecrated by Pheedra, when in love with Hyp- 
 polytus. 
 
 $ 108. The lower city, which contained all the buildings that surrounded the citadel, 
 with Munychia, Phalerum, and Piraeus, was encompassed with walls of unequal 
 strength, built at different times and by different persons. The principal parts of the 
 walls were the MaKpa tz\xv, which joined the harbor of Piraeus to the city, and which 
 being about five miles in length, were sometimes called Max-pa o-ke'Xi?, long legs, and 
 brachia longa, long arms. They consisted of two sides. The wall on the north side 
 was built by Pericles at great expense, and continued forty stadia. That on the south 
 
 c2 
 
IV o. 
 
 iiiii 
 
 li 
 
P. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 31 
 
 side was called Hdnov rtXxot, or *apa i*£<rov reixn, to distinguish it from the south wall 
 of the citadel, and sometimes tsTxos <t>a\rtpiK&v, because it included the port of Phalerum. 
 It was built by Themistocles, of huge square stones, not cemented together with mor- 
 tar, but fastened on the outside by iron and leaden cramps. The height of it was forty 
 cubits, but Themistocles wished to raise it to eighty cubits. Its length was thirty-five 
 stadia. Upon both of the walls was erected a great number of turrets, which, after 
 the Athenians became so numerous that the city could not contain them, were con- 
 verted into dwelling-houses. The Mowvyov, or wall that encompassed the Munychia, 
 and joined it to the Piragus, contained sixty stadia; and the exterior wall on the other 
 side was forty-three stadia in length; and hence it appears, as has been before ob- 
 served, that the whole circumference of Athens was 178 stadia, or rather more than 22 
 Roman miles. 
 
 § 109. Of the buildings of the lower city, the principal and most remarkable were 
 the following.' — TloinreTov was a stately edifice, in which were kept the sacred utensils 
 used at festivals, and in which were prepared all things necessary for solemn proces- 
 sions. — The temple of Vulcan, or of Vulcan and Minerva, situated not far from the 
 Ceramicus within the city, was a public prison. — Near to this building was the temple 
 of the Heavenly Venus ; for the Athenians had two deities of the name of Venus, of 
 which one was designated Qvpavia, and the other Vla.v&rip.os: the former presided over 
 chaste and pure love; the latter was the patroness of lust and debauchery. — 'Av&kciov 
 was a temple of Castor and Pollux, who were called avaKss. I n this place slaves were 
 exposed to sale. 
 
 The temple of Theseus was erected by Cimon in the middle of the city, near the 
 place where the youths employed themselves in wrestling and other bodily exercises. 
 This temple was a sanctuary for slaves, and for all persons of low condition that fled 
 from the persecution of men in power, in commemoration of Theseus, who, when, 
 alive, was the guardian and protector of the distressed. 
 
 Speaking of the temple of Theseus, Dr. Clarke observes, that this beautiful Doric temple more 
 resembling, in the style of its architecture, the temples of Prestum than of Minerva in the Acro- 
 polis* and the most entire of any of the remaining structures of ancient Greece, were it not for 
 the damage which the sculptures have sustained, may be considered as still perfect. The entire 
 edifice is of Pentelican marble ; it stands east and west, the principal front facing the east; and 
 it has a portico of six columns in each front, and on each side a range of eleven columns, ex- 
 clusive of the columns on the angles. 
 
 A view of this temple is given in Plate XXI. fig. 3. 
 
 § 110. 'O\vninov, or 'O'Kvpiwuov, was a temple of Ionic architecture, erected in honor of 
 Jupiter the Olympian, and was the most magnificent structure in Athens. The area, or 
 peribolus, within which it stood, was four stadia in circumference. It was con- 
 structed with double rows of columns, 10 feet in front, and 21 in flank, amounting in 
 all to 124 ; the extent of the front being 171 feet, and the length of the flank more 
 than 400. These pillars are the majestic ruin of this sumptuous and stately temple. 
 The foundation of this edifice was laid by Pisistratus, whose sons continued the work ; 
 but it was not completely finished till the time of Adrian, 700 years after the structure 
 had been commenced. 
 
 The temple of Apollo and Pan stood on the north side at the bottom of the citadel, 
 in a cave or grotto, which was called MaKpai itlrpai, or KeKpoiriai irirpai. — The temple 
 of Diana, surnamed Avai^covos, because in it women, after the birth of their first child, 
 dedicated their girdles to that goddess. 
 
 TLavSeov was a temple consecrated to all the gods, who, as they were united in one 
 edifice, were honored with one common festival, which was called Beo%svia. This wa3 
 also a very magnificent structure, and was supported by 120 pillars of marble. On 
 the outside were curiously engraved the deeds and story of all the gods ; and on one 
 great gate two horses were carved by Praxiteles. 
 
 The temple of the Eight Winds was a tower of eight squares, of marble, on every 
 side of which was carved the figure of a wind, according to the quarter whence it 
 blew. 
 
 The model of this building was furnished by Andronicus Cyrrbastcs, who placed upon the top of the tower a small pyramid of 
 marble, upon the summit of which he erected a brazen triton, holding in his right hand a switch or wand. The triton was so placed 
 
 that he turned round with the wind, and pointed with the wand to the wind which blew. A view of this structure is given in our 
 
 Plate XXI. fig. 2. 
 
 § 111. Sroott, porticos, were very numerous at Athens; but the most remarkable 
 was that called UeitriavdKTioi, and afterwards IIotKfXn, from its containing a variety 
 of curious pictures, drawn by those great piasters, Polygnotus, Mycon, and Pansnus, 
 the brother of Phidias. At the gate of the UoikiXyj was the statue of Solon. — To the 
 north of the Acropolis, not far from the temple of Theseus, are the ruins of a struc- 
 ture once evidently very splendid, supposed by Stuart to be the ruins of this celebrated 
 Stoa or Porch. Some travelers have mistaken them for the remains of the temple of 
 Jupiter Olympius already described, which was in the southern part of the city, near 
 the fountain Calirrhoe. 
 
 I&ovgcTov was a fort near the citadel, which received its name from the poet Musaeus, 
 
32 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the scholar of Orpheus, who used to repeat his verses in this place, where he was also 
 buried. — 'SlSeTov was a music theatre, built by Pericles. The inside of this building 
 was filled with seats and ranges of pillars ; and the outside roof or covering was gra- 
 dually bent downwards. The roof, which was constructed of the masts and yards of 
 the vessels taken from the Persians, and in its form resembled the tent of Xerxes, 
 was supported by columns of stone or marble. It was burnt by Sylla at the siege of 
 Athens, but afterwards rebuilt. This Odeum was situated on the south-east angle 
 of the citadel. The Odeum of Herodes Atticus has sometimes been confounded with 
 that of Pericles, but the Odeum of Herodes was situated at the south-west angle of 
 ■the citadel. This last was built by Herodes in memory of his wife, and was con- 
 sidered as far surpassing, in magnitude and in the costliness of its materials, every 
 other edifice of the kind in all Greece. The roof of this building was of cedar. 
 
 The Ceramicus (KipaueiKos) received its denomination from Ceramus, the son of 
 Bacchus and Ariadne ; or more properly dno rrjs KepapeTKris tzx>"iS> from the potter's 
 art, which was invented here by Coraebus. This extensive space was divided into 
 two parts, one of which was situated within the city, and contained a great number 
 of temples, theatres, porticos, &c. ; the other was in the suburbs, was a public bury- 
 ing place, and contained the Academy, and several other buildings. — The Lyceum 
 and the Cynosarges were also in the suburbs on the north-east. 
 
 Respecting the Academy and other Gymnasia at Athens, see P. IV. §§ 64, 74. 
 
 y 112. 'Ayopai, forums, were very numerous ; but the most remarkable were the 
 old and the new forum. The new forum was in a place called 'Eperpia, which it is 
 probable was near to the portico of Zeno. The old forum was situated in the Cera- 
 micus within the city, and was called 'Apxaia dyopa. It was extremely spacious, and 
 was decorated with "buildings dedicated to the worship of the gods, or to the service 
 of the state ; with others which sometimes afforded an asylum to the wretched, but 
 which were often a shelter for the wicked ; and with statues decreed to kings and in- 
 dividuals, who had merited well of the republic; In it were held the public assem- 
 blies of the people ; but every trade had a different place assigned as a market, and 
 the forum was divided into different parts, according to the wares exposed for sale. 
 Thus KvrXos denotes the place where slaves were sold; 'A\0it6xw'\is dyopa, the bakers' 
 market; Ix-S-udTrwAic dyopa, the fish-monger's market; TwaiKeia dyopa, the market for wo- 
 men's apparel. The time when goods were exposed to sale was called TrAijS-ovo-a dyopa, full 
 market, from the great number of persons assembled ; and different hours of the day 
 seem to have been appointed for the sale of different commodities. To this place the 
 inhabitants resorted every day. The Scythians, kept in pay by the republic to main- 
 tain order, were encamped in the middle of the forum. Collectors also attended to 
 receive the duties imposed on every thing that was sold, and magistrates to superin- 
 tend what passed. 
 
 Bov'SevTfipta were public halls, in which each company of tradesmen met, and deli- 
 berated on matters relating to their trades. At Athens trade was very much encou- 
 raged ; and if any one reproached another, even the lowest citizen, with living by the 
 profit of his traffic, he was liable to an action of slander. 
 
 § 113. Aqueducts were not common at Athens before the time of the Romans ; al- 
 though one is said to have been built by Pisistratus. The want of them was supplied 
 by wells (<ppiara), some of which were dug by private persons, and others at the pub- 
 lic expense ; but as good water at Athens was extremely scarce, frequent quarrels 
 arose among the citizens. Adrian laid the foundation of a stately aqueduct, which 
 was finished by his successor Antoninus, and which was supported by Ionic pillars. 
 
 The stadium was an oblong area, semicircular at one end, designed originally for 
 the foot-race, but used for other games and exercises ; and for the accommodation of 
 spectators, who resorted thither in great numbers, it was built with steps above each 
 other, in order that the higher ranks might look over the heads of those placed below 
 them. The most remarkable at Athens, and indeed in all Greece, was the stadium 
 (Zrdtiov navadjivaiKdv), erected near the river Ilissus by Lycurgus, and afterwards en- 
 larged by Herodes Atticus, one of the richest of the Athenians. It was built of Pen 
 telic marble, with such magnificence that Pausanias did not expect to be credited, 
 even in his brief description of this work, and says that it was a wonder to be taken 
 for a mountain of white marble upon the banks of the Ilissus. It was about 125 geo- 
 metrical paces in length, and 26 or 27 in breadth, and was therefore called a stadium, 
 a measure in ordinary use among the Greeks, being the eighth part of a Roman mile. 
 
 § 114. The Areopagus was a small eminence a little to the north-west of the Acro- 
 polis. On this, the court or senate of the Areopagus usually held its meetings. (Cf. 
 P. III. § 108). A space was leveled for the purpose on the summit of the rock ; and 
 the steps which conducted to it, were cut out of the natural solid stone. There was 
 originally neither enclosure nor roof; but merely an altar to Minerva, and two stone 
 seats for the accuser and defendant. The court was occasionally protected by . 
 temporary erection. — The Pnyx, nwjf, was another eminence, opposite the Areo- 
 pagus, not far from the citadel, celebrated as the place where the Athenians 
 he.d their assemblies. Almost the whole of the structure, as appears from a 
 
P. I. EUROPE. HELLAS. TOPOGRAPHY OF ATHENS. 33 
 
 recent removal of the earth in this place, was an excavation of the rock. The finpa, 
 on which the orators stood to address the people, was carved from the stone, and yet 
 remains. Before this was a semicircular area, of which the part most distant from 
 the orator's stone consists of masonry. In the perpendicular surface of the rock, 
 facing this area, are niches for votive tablets. North-east from the Acropolis, on the 
 street of the tripods (cf. $ 115), was the Hpvravelov, where was a public hall, and where 
 the laws of Solon were deposited. Near it was the BovXeTov or senate-house. 
 
 § 115. Athens had theatres besides those termed Odea. One of the most celebrated 
 was the theatre of Bacchus, capable of accommodating 30,000 spectators. (Cf. P. IV. 
 § 235.) This contained statues of many of the tragic and comic writers, and was the 
 place where the dramatic contests were decided : it was near the Acropolis, at its 
 south-east angle. Nothing of it is now seen except the circular sweep scooped in 
 the rock for the seats. Above it, in the rock of the Acropolis, still appears a cavern 
 or grotto, formerly termed the Cave of Bacchus, but now converted into a sort of 
 chapel. — Close by this cavern stands a building, called the Choragic monument of 
 Thrasyllus ; having on' its front three inscriptions recording dramatic victories obtained 
 in the theatre. Over this building, and higher up the rock, are the two Columns of 
 the tripods, or Choragic pillars. There were several other edifices in Athens, erected 
 for the same purpose ; one, exquisitely wrought, is near the eastern end of the Acro- 
 polis, commonly called the Lantern of Demosthenes, but proved by its inscription to 
 be a choragic monument erected by Lysicrates. This edifice stood in the street of the 
 tripods, so called from the circumstance that in it were erected (on choragic monu- 
 ments or pillars, or otherwise located) numerous tripods, which had been obtained as 
 prizes in the musical or theatrical contests. 
 
 Respecting the dramatic and musical contests above alluded to, see P. IV. § 66. — A view of the Monument of Thrasyllus is given 
 in Plate XLIX. fig. C ; and of that of Lysicrates, in the same Plate, fig. A ; the designation Lantern of Demosthenes is said to have 
 been applied by the modern Greeks, under the groundless supposition that it was the study of that illustrious orator. 
 
 § 116. Athens had three harbors for ships: — 1. Iletpaievg, Pirmus, which belonged 
 to the tribe of Hippothoontis, and was about 35 or 40 stadia distant from the city, 
 before the building of the naKpa reixv or long walls. After that time, the Athenians, 
 by the direction of Themistocles, rendered this their principal harbor. It contained 
 three oppoi or docks. In this harbor were five porticoes, which being joined together 
 formed a very large one, called on that account Maxpa o-roa. The Piraeus also con- 
 tained two forums. Here the productions of all countries were accumulated ; and 
 this was the market not of Athens only, but of all Greece. In this harbor three hun- 
 dred gallies have sometimes been collected at once ; and it was sufficiently capacious 
 to contain four hundred. The advantages of this place were first observed by The- 
 mistocles when he devised the plan of giving a navy to Athens. Markets and maga- 
 zines were presently erected, and an arsenal capable of furnishing every thing neces- 
 sary for the equipment of a great number of vessels. — 2. Movvvxta> Munychia, which 
 was a promontory not far distant from Piraeus, and extended not unlike a peninsula, 
 and was well fortified both by nature and art. It received its name from a person 
 called Munychus, who dedicated in this place a temple to Diana, surnamed Mowvx'm. 
 — 3. ^a\rip6v, Phalerum, which belonged to the tribe Antiochis, and was distant from 
 the city 35 stadia, or as some say, only 20 stadia. This was the most ancient of the 
 three harbors ; and from it Theseus is said to have sailed for Crete, and Mnestheus 
 for Troy. 
 
 For further details respecting the interesting objects in this renowned city, we refer to the works cited P. IV. § 243. 1. J P. V 
 § 7 (b). — We may add Waddington's Visit to Greece. — Hughes, Travels in Greece, &c. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4.— Kruse, Hellas, ode* 
 Darstellung des alten Griechenlandes, &c. Leipz. 1825. 3 vols. 8. In this work may be found an account of Lord Elgin's pro 
 ceedings (cf. P. IV. § 190. 4) ; also of the various modern works illustrating the remains of Grecian art in general. — Cf. Stuart's 
 Diet, of Architect, under Athenian Architecture; cf. also Chateaubriand's Travels, in Introduction. — E. D. Clarke, Travels in 
 various countries, ftc. Part II. sect. 2,—Sarthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. xii., a beautiful description. — W. M. Leake, Topography ot 
 Athens. Lond. 1821. with an Atl. fol. Cf. Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, vol. iii. p. 183. 
 — Wordsworth, Athens and Attica. — Rienacher, Topographie von Athen (a German translation of Leake). Halle, 1829; with 
 notes of Mttller and Meier.— C. O. Mliller, De Munimentis Athenarum, &c. Gott. 1837. 4. with plates. — L. Bergmann, Die 
 AlterhUmer von Athen, nach Stuart und Revett, &c. Weimar, 1838. 80 plates.— Hirt's Plan des Athen.— Ensch Sf Gruber, Ency- 
 clopadie, under Altika (written by MUllerX— There is a glance at some of the most interesting objects, in W. Collon, Visit to Con- 
 stantinople and Athens. N. York, 1836. 12. ch. 18, 19. 
 
 % 117. (4.) The Peloponnesus, the fourth division of Greecia (§ 76), remains to be 
 noticed. In looking at the physical features of this peninsula, we perceive in the 
 interior a circular chain of mountains, almost surrounding an included tract of country 
 which was called Arcadia. From this circle of elevated summits, various branches 
 are sent off towards the sea; and we find a line running out to each of the principal 
 promontories; to Rhium Prom, at the entrance of the Sinus Corinthiacus; to Cheloni- 
 tes Prom, on the western side of the peninsula ; to Acritas Prom, west of the Sinus 
 Messeniacus ; to Tcenarum, to Malea, and to Scyllceum, the other points, which occur 
 in passing round the peninsula to the east. — Between these several mountains were 
 fruitful valleys, watered by numerous streams descending from the mountains in 
 every direction. 
 5 
 
34 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 § 118. This country was originally called Argia and Pelasgia, but after the con- 
 quests of Pelops was called the island of Pelops, IIsAon-os vfjoas ; it was also called 
 Apia. Its present name, Morea, is said to be drawn from its resemblance to a mul- 
 berry-leaf in shape, or from the number of mulberry trees that it produces. — It may 
 be considered in six divisions: Achaia, Argolis, Elis, Arcadia, Messenia, and Laco- 
 nia. Sicyonia and Corinthia are sometimes added to these ; but they may be included 
 under Achaia. 
 
 § 119. Achaia, in the extent we have just given to it, includes the whole north 
 coast of Peloponnesus, and the isthmus of Corinth, by which it is joined to Hellas. 
 Exclusive of Sicyonia and Corinthia, it comprised twelve towns, each independent, 
 and possessed of its own little territory, which were from a very early time united 
 in a sort of confederacy called the Achaean league ; they were Dyme, Olenus, Pharos, 
 Tritaea, Patrce (now Patras), Rhype, JEgium. the place where the deputies of the 
 league met, Helice, Bura, Mge, JEgina, and Pellene. In the resistance to the Ro- 
 mans made by the Achaean league in the later ages, the cities of Sicyon and especially 
 Corinth took part. 
 
 It was from the opposition made in Achaia, that the Romans, when Mummius reduced Greece 
 to a subject province by the capture of Corinth, B. C. 146, applied the name Achaia to the whole 
 country. Cf. $ 213. 1. 6. 
 
 § 120. Sicyon was the most ancient city of Greece, said to have been founded 
 B. C. 2089. — But Corinth has obtained greater notoriety: it was on the isthmus, at 
 nearly an equal distance from the Saronic and Corinthian gulfs. It was once called 
 Ephyra. Its citadel was on a hill called Acro-Corinthus. It had two ports ; Lec'nce- 
 um, on the Sinus Corinthiacus, and Cenchrece, on the Sinus Saronicus. Although 
 destroyed by Mummius, it afterwards recovered its splendor, being rebuilt by Julius 
 Caesar, and became more famous than before for its luxury and licentiousness. 
 
 The isthmus of Corinth was an important pass. Several attempts have been made, at differ- 
 ent periods, to join these two seas by a canal, and from the failure of them all, "to cut through 
 the Corinthian isthmus" has become a proverbial expression for aiming at impossibilities. Here 
 the Isthmian games, in honor of Neptune, were triennially celebrated : and here a stand has 
 frequently been made against foreign invaders, the narrowness of the isthmus easily admitting 
 of regular fortification. 
 
 §121. Argolis occupied the north-eastern extremity of the Peloponnesus. Its 
 chief town was Argos, on the river Inachus, more celebrated in the heroic than the 
 historic ages of Greece. When Perseus had accidentally slain his grandfather Acri- 
 sius, he transferred the seat of government to Mycence ; this latter city retained its 
 power to the end of the Trojan war ; but after the death of Agamemnon, the Argives, 
 through motives of jealousy, besieged, captured, and leveled it with the ground. — ' 
 North of Argos was Nemea, where Hercules slew the Nemean lion, and instituted the 
 Nemean games in memory of his victory ; and Tirynthus, a favorite residence of 
 Hercules, whence he is frequently called the Tirynthian hero. — On the Sinus Argo- 
 licus (Gulf di Napoli) were, Nauplia (Napoli di Romania), in ancient and modern 
 times the principal port in these countries ; Epidaurus, remarkable for a celebrated 
 temple of iEsculapius (P. II. § 84) ; and Troezene, whither the aged inhabitants of 
 Athens retired when their city was burned by Xerxes. 
 
 § 122. Elis was a small province south of Achaia, on the coast of the Ionian sea. 
 
 Its chief town was Elis, the residence of king Salmoneus, who is said to have pro- 
 voked the indignation of Jupiter, by his attempts to imitate thunder and lightning ; it 
 was on the Peneus (Belvidere or Igliaco), a principal river of the province. Pisa, de- 
 stroyed at a very remote period, was on the Alpheus (Rouphia or Rufeas), a larger rivet 
 flowing from Arcadia. Not far from Pisa was Olympia, the place near which the Olym- 
 pic games were celebrated. 
 
 Oly?npia was the name not of a city, but of the sacred site near which the games were per- 
 formed. Here was the grove Mtis, with splendid monuments scattered in it; the temple of 
 Olympian Jupiter, with its celebrated statue (cf. P. II. $ 24); the Cranium or Hill of Saturn ; 
 also a famous hippodrome and stadium. 
 
 Bartfielemy, ch. xxxviii. as cited P. V. § 153. 2. — Choiscul-Goufficr, Sur l'Hippodrome d'Olympia, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. 
 xIIje. p. 122. — Bissen's Pindar, vol. ii. p. 630, where is a plan with explanations. — PouquevilU, Voyage de la Grece, vol. v. p. 401. 
 — /. S. Stanhope, Olympia, &c. as cited P. IV. § 243. I. 
 
 §123. Arcadia occupied the centre of the Peloponnesus; and being entirely de- 
 voted to agriculture was said to be sacred to Pan. — Its principal towns were Tegcea, the 
 capital ; Orclwmenus, near the lake Stymphalus, where Hercules destroyed the Harpies, 
 on the river Ladon, which flows through Arcadia and joins the Alpheus in the eastern 
 part of the province ; Mantinea, where Epaminondas fell, near the ruins of which is 
 Tripolitza, the metropolis of the Morea ; Megalopolis, near the Helissus, a tributary to 
 the Alpheus, built by Epaminondas to repress the incursions of the Lacedaemonians. — 
 From the ruins of Phigalia (Paulitza), in the territory of the Parrhasii, were taken the 
 bas-reliefs called the Phigalian Marbles (cf. P. IV. § 179, § 183. 4). 
 
 The mountains of Arcadia were greatly celebrated by the poets ; the principal were 
 Cullene, the birthplace of Mercury ; Erymantlms, where Hercules slew an enormous 
 
IV b. 
 
36 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 boar; Mcenalus, sacred to the Muses; Parthenius, where Atalanta resided; Parrht* 
 sius and Lycceus, sacred to Jupiter and Pan. From the hill Nonacris flowed the cele- 
 brated river Styx ; its waters were said to be poisonous. 
 
 § 124. The south-western division of the Peloponnesus was Messenia, of which 
 Messene, a strongly fortified town, was the capital ; the citadel was called Ilhome, and 
 was supposed to be impregnable ; these were in the interior, west from the Pamisus, 
 which is the principal river of the province, and flows from the mountains between 
 Messenia and Arcadia into the .Stows Messeniacus. — The other principal towns were 
 Pylos, the city of Nestor, now called Navarin ; Methone, where Philip defeated the 
 Athenians; and CEchalia or Erytopolis, conquered by Hercules. 
 
 The Messenians, after a desperate resistance, were subdued by the Lacedaemonians, and the 
 greater part compelled to leave the country. Subsequently their city lay long in ruins: but 
 when Epaminondas had destroyed the supremacy of Sparta, he recalled the descendants of the 
 exiles and rebuilt Messene. After his death, the Spartans again became masters of the country, 
 but did not expel the Messenians from their restored possessions. 
 
 § 125. The south-eastern and most important division of the Peloponnesus was 
 L a c o n i a. Its capital was Sparta, which we shall describe in the following sections. 
 
 The other towns of note were, Amyclce, on the Eurotas, the residence of Leda; 
 Tkerapne, on the same river, the birthplace of Castor and Pollux ; Gytheitm, the prin- 
 cipal port of Laconia ; Helos, whose inhabitants were enslaved by the Spartans ; and 
 Sellasia, where the Achaeans, by the defeat of Cleomenes, liberated the Peloponne- 
 sus from the power of Lacedaemon. 
 
 The Sinus Laconicus (Gulf of Colochina) was bounded by the capes Malea (St, 
 Angelo) and Tmnarum (Matapan). Near Taenarum was a cave represented by the 
 poets as the entrance into the infernal regions ; through this Hercules is said to have 
 dragged up Cerberus. 
 
 The Peloponnesian states were first subjected by Pelops ; but about eighty years after the 
 Trojan war, the Heraclidse, or descendants of Hercules, returned to the Peloponnesus, and 
 became masters of the different kingdoms. This event, which forms a remarkable epoch in 
 Grecian history, took place 1104 B. C. 
 
 % 126. Topography of Sparta. The city of Lacedaemon, which was anciently called 
 Sparta, is said to have been built by king Lacedaemon, who gave it the latter denomi- 
 nation from his wife Sparta, though he designated the country and the inhabitants 
 from his own name ; but some think that this city received the appellation of Sparta 
 from the Sparti, who came with Cadmus into Laconia. It was situated at the foot 
 of mount Taygetus, on the west side of the river Eurotas, which runs into the Laconic 
 gulf. It was of a circular form, and forty-eight stadia or six miles in circumference, 
 and was surrounded to a great extent with vineyards, olive or plane trees, gardens, 
 and summer-houses. 
 
 Anciently the city was not surrounded with walls ; and its only defence was the 
 valor of its inhabitants. Even in the reign of Agesilaus, and for the space of eight 
 hundred years, this city was without any fortifications ; but after it fell into the hands 
 of tyrants, it was surrounded with walls, which were rendered very strong. It had, 
 however, some eminences upon which soldiers might be posted in case of an attack. 
 The highest of these eminences served as a citadel ; its summit was a spacious plain, 
 on which were erected several sacred edifices. Around this hill were ranged five 
 towns, which were separated from each other by intervals of different extent, and 
 each of which was occupied byone of the tribes of Sparta. 
 
 § 127. The great square or forum, 'Ayopa, in which several streets terminated, was 
 embellished with temples and statues. It also contained the edifices in which the 
 senate, the ephori, and other bodies of magistrates assembled. Of these public edi- 
 fices the most remarkable was the Portico of the Persians, which the Lacedaemonians 
 erected after the battle of Plataea, at the expense of the vanquished, whose spoils 
 they shared. The roof of this building was supported by colossal statues of the prin- 
 cipal officers in the army of Xerxes, who had been taken or killed in that battle, and 
 who were habited in flowing robes. — The Scias was a building not far from the forum, 
 in which assemblies of the people were commonly held. The Chorus was a part of 
 the forum, where dances were performed in honor of Apollo in the Gymnopaedian 
 ejames. 
 
 Upon the highest of the eminences stood a temple of Minerva, which had the privi- 
 lege of asylum, as had also the grove that surrounded it, and a small house apper- 
 taining to it, in which king Pausanias was left to expire with hunger. The temple 
 was built with brass (XoAkioikos). Within the building were engraven, in bas-relief, 
 the labors of Hercules, and various groups of figures. To the right of this edifice was 
 a statue of Jupiter, supposed to be the most ancient statue of brass in existence ; of 
 the same date with the re-establishment of the Olympic games. 
 
 The most ornamented place in Sparta, however, was the Poscile, which, instead of 
 being confined to a single gallery like that at Athens, occupied a very considerable 
 extent. The Romans afterwards took away the superb paintings in fresco which had 
 oeen employed to decorate the walk. — Farther advanced in the city appeared differ- 
 
38 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 ent ranges of Porticos, intended only for the display of different kinds of merchan- 
 dize. 
 
 § I2S. Columns and statues were erected for Spartans who had been crowned at 
 the Olympic games ; but never for the conquerors of the enemies of their country. 
 Statues might be decreed to wrestlers; but the esteem of the people was the only 
 reward of the soldiers. It was not till forty years after the battle of Thermopylae, that 
 the bones of Leonidas were conveyed to Sparta and deposited in a tomb near the 
 theatre ; and at the same time also the names of the three hundred Spartans who had 
 fallen with him were first inscribed on a column. — The theatre was in the vicinity of 
 the forum, and was constructed of beautiful white marble. Not far from the tomb 
 of Leonidas were those of Brasidas and Pausanias. Funeral orations and games were 
 annually given near these monuments. 
 
 Of tfie edifices and monuments of Sparta it may be remarked in general, that they were not 
 distinguished for architectural beauty ; and the city had nothing imposing or splendid in its ap. 
 pearance. 
 
 § 129. On the south side of the city was the 'l^TuSpo/iog, or course for foot and horse 
 races, some vestiges of which are still visible ; and a little distance from it was the 
 Platanistas, or place of exercise for youth, shaded by beautiful plane-trees, and en- 
 closed by the Eurotas on one side, by a small river which fell into it on the other, and 
 by a canal which opened a communication with both on the third. The Platanistas 
 was entered by two bridges, on one of which was the statue of Hercules, or all-sub- 
 duing force, and on the other that of Lycurgus, or all-regulating law. 
 
 The place which served Sparta for a port or harbor,- was Gylheium, Tvdeiov, situated 
 west from the mouth of the Eurotas, and distant from Sparta 240 stadia, according to 
 Strabo, and 30 [300 ?] according to Polybius. It was early surrounded by strong 
 walls, and had an excellent harbor, in which the fleets of Sparta rode in security, and 
 where they found every requisite for their maintenance and security. 
 
 The ruins of Sparta are found, under the name Palmochori or old town, about two miles distant 
 from the modern town Misitra, near a spot called Magoula. "The whole site," says Chateau- 
 briand, "is uncultivated ; when I beheld this desert, not a plant adorned the ruins, not a bird, 
 not an insect, not a creature enlivened them, save millions of lizards, which crawled without 
 noise up and down the sides of the scorching walls. A dozen half-wild horses were feeding 
 here and there upon the withered grass ; a shepherd was cultivating a few water-melons in a 
 corner of the theatre ; and at Magoula, which gives its dismal name to LacedKmon, I observed 
 a small grove of cypresses." 
 
 On the topography and ruins of Sparta, see Chateaubriand's Travels (p. 94, ed. N. Y. 1SI4). — Le Roi, Monumens de la Grece. — 
 Sir W. Gell, Itinerary of the Morea. — Leake's Travels in the Morea. Lond. 1830. 3 vols. 8.— Cramer, Dodwell, &c. as cited P. V. 
 § 7. (b). 
 
 IT. ISLANDS BELONGING TO EUROPE. 
 
 § 130. It was mentioned (§ 8), that having considered the mainland of Europe under 
 three divisions, northern, middle, and southern, we might notice the islands together 
 under a fourth. The European islands known to the ancients were in the Atlantic or 
 Mediterranean ; of those in the Baltic they knew but little. We will speak first of 
 those in the Atlantic. 
 
 § 131. Of these, Britannia was the most important. It was scarcely known to 
 exist before the days of Julius Cassar. Being peopled by successive migrations from 
 Gaul, the Britons naturally aided the mother country when invaded, and thus pro- 
 voked the vengeance of Rome. The south-western shores are said to have been 
 visited by the Phoenicians at a much earlier period ; and that enterprising people have 
 been described as carrying on an extensive trade for tin with Cornwall and the Scilly 
 isles, which, from their abounding in that metal, were called the Cassiterides Insula 
 or Tin islands. 
 
 $ 132. The enumeration of the several tribes and villages being a matter rather of curiosity 
 than utility, we shall only notice a few of the more remarkable. — The Cantii occupied the south 
 of the island ; in their territory were Rutupim (Richborough), celebrated for its oysters by Juve- 
 nal ; and Partus Lemanis (Lyinne), where Caesar landed, B. C. 55. — The Trinobantes possessed the 
 country north of the Cantii; their chief town was Londinum (London), the most flourishing Ro- 
 man colony in Britain. — The Silures possessed South Wales, and appear to have been a very 
 flourishing and warlike tribe. Caractacus. one of their kings, is celebrated for having bravely 
 defended the liberties of his country ; and for a long time baffled the utmost efforts of the Ro- 
 mans : he was at length subdued by Ostorius Scapula, A. D. 51, and sent in chains to Rome. — 
 On the eastern coast were the Iceni, whose queen Boadicea, having been cruelly abused by the 
 Roman deputies, took up arms to avenge her own and her country's wrongs ; at first she ob- 
 tained several victories over her oppressors, but was finally defeated by Suetonius Paulinus, 
 A. D. 61. — The north of England was possessed by the Brigantes, the most powerful and ancient 
 of the British nations; their principal towns were Eboracum (York), and Isurium (supposed to 
 be JUdborough), the capital of their tribe. 
 
 % 133. Scotland was still less known than England; five nations on the borders, 
 known by the general name of Meata, were subdued by Agricola, and became nomi- 
 nally subject to the dominion of Rome. 
 
 When Britain became a Roman province, it was divided into the five following 
 
PLATE V. 
 
 "1. The Rotunda of Salonica, the ancient Thessalonica. It is supposed to 
 have been a Qabirian Temple. By the Christians it was converted into a 
 church of Paul and Peter. The Turks have turned it into a mosque ; and 
 erected the minaret, which appears attached to it, and in the gallery of 
 which is seen a Muezzin, whose office is to announce from the gallery the 
 hour of prayer. 
 
 2. A fountain for the Mussulman ablution before prayers. 
 
 39 
 
40 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 provinces : Britannia prima, comprising the eastern and southern division of the 
 country; Flavia Cmsariensis, containing the western tribes; Britannia secunda, 
 which included all Wales ; Maxima Ccesariensis, which contained the country 
 between the former divisions and the river Tweed ; and Valentia, occupied by the 
 Meatse. 
 
 IJ 134. To repel the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who frequently laid waste the Roman 
 settlements, several walls were built across the isiand. The first was erected by the celebrated 
 Agricola, who completed the conquest of Britain. But this being found insufficient to restrain 
 the incursions of the barbarians, the emperor Adrian erected a rampart of great strength and 
 dimensions. — The wall of Adrian extended from JEstuarium Itunm (Solway Frith), on the western 
 coast, to Seiredunum (Cousin's House), a village north of Pons JElii (Newcastle-upon-Tyne), on 
 the eastern coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a double rampart and ditch, and was 
 strengthened by forts erected at short intervals. — Twenty years after this, the emperor Antoni- 
 nus rebuilt the wall of Agricola, which was nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neg- 
 lected after that was built, whence this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus. 
 
 $ 135. But the last and greatest of these structures was the wall erected by the emperor Seve- 
 rus, A. D. 200. — It was situated a few yards north of the wall of Adrian, and was one of the 
 strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall was twelve feet wide and eight feet high, built 
 of stone and cement ; it was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-one castles, 
 and three hundred and twenty-four towers : the whole body of forces employed to garrison this 
 immense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred mariners, appointed 
 to guard the points where the ramparts communicated with the shore. 
 
 § 136. The islands adjoining Britain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Hebrides ("Western 
 Isles), Nona Taciti (Anglesea) , Mono, Ccesaris (Man), Vectis (Isle of Wight), and Cas- 
 siterides (Scilly Isles). — Ireland was known to the ancients only by name, and was 
 called Ierne Juverna, or H i b e r n i a. . 
 
 The Irish say that they are descended from a Scythian nation, and that at an early period, part of the country was colonized by the 
 Phoenicians ; in proof of the latter, it has been urged that the specimens of the Punic language preserved by Plautus, are almost pure 
 Irish ; and that antique swords, found in the bogs of Ireland, have on analysis been proved to consist of materials precisely similar 
 to those of the Punic swords dug up by Sir W. Hamilton in the field of Cannae. — Cf. P. V. tj 352. 2. 
 
 An island called Thule is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as the most 
 distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore we cannot be 
 certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the Shetland isles, and 
 Greenland, have been named by different modern writers (cf. § 3). 
 
 § 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediterranean, we begin in the western part. 
 The Balearicce, deriving their name from the skill of the inhabitants in slinging and 
 archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names were Balearis major (Majorca) ; 
 Baleans minor (Minorca), and Ebusus (Ivica). 
 
 Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Fretum Fosses 
 (Strait of Bonefacio). Corsica, called by the Greeks Cyrnos, was of little note in 
 ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Napoleon Bonaparte. It con- 
 tained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Aleria by Sylla. North 
 of Mariana was Matinorum Oppidum (Bastia), the present capital of the island.' — 
 Sardinia derived its name from Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son of Her- 
 cules, who at' a very early period led a colony hither; it was called by the Greeks 
 Ichnusa, from its resemblance to the human foot. Neither serpents nor wolves were 
 found in this island, and (as we are told) only one poisonous herb, which caused those 
 who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and hence the expression, a Sardonic grin. 
 The chief town was Calaris (now Cagliari). Both islands were long tributary to the 
 Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans in the first Punic war. 
 
 There were several small islands of no great importance on the coast of Italy ; the 
 chief were Ilua (Elba), which is of some interest, as the spot of Napoleon's temporary 
 banishment ; P rocky ta ; and Capre<z (Capri), infamous as the scene of the unnatural 
 debaucheries of Tiberius. . 
 
 § 138. Si cilia, the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, lies to the 
 south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina). — 
 It was called Triquetra, or Trinacria, from its triangular shape, terminating in three 
 promontories ; Pelorus (Faro), on the north ; Pacliynus (Passaro), on the south ; and 
 Lilybceum (Boco), on the west. 
 
 Syracuscs (Siracusa) was the ancient capital of Sicily, and one of the most remarka- 
 ble cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Corinthian colony led by Archias, and 
 arrived at such a pitch of greatness that the circuit of its walls exceeded twenty miles. — ■ 
 It was divided into five parts, which were so large as to be esteemed separate towns ; 
 viz. Ortygia, a small island, on which the Greeks originally settled ; Acradina facing 
 the sea; Tycha, between that and the following division; Neapc-lis, which stood on 
 the great port ; and Epipolae. — Syracuse had two ports, the lesser formed by the island 
 Ortygia, and the greater at the mouth of the river Anapus, which here flows into a 
 large bay, having the island at its northern, and the fort of Plemmyrium at its southern 
 extremity. The celebrated prison called Latomi<z was cut out of the rock by the tyrant 
 Dionysius ; in this was a cavern shaped like the human ear, so contrived as to transmit 
 all sounds from below to a small apartment, where the tyrant used to conceal himself 
 
P.I. EUROPE. ISLANDS OF THE MEDITERRANEAN. 41 
 
 in order to overhear the conversation of his victims ; it is now a very handsome sub- 
 terraneous* garden. 
 
 This city is remarkable for the defeat of the Athenians, in their fatal Sicilian expedition, and 
 the formidable resistance made by the inhabitants when the town was besieged by Marcellus. 
 This siege was protracted principally by the mechanical contrivances of Archimedes. 
 
 § 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Mcssana ; Leontium; 
 Agrigentum, where the tyrant Phalaris resided ; Lilybceum, Drepanum, Panormos (Pa- 
 lermo), Himera ; NaulocJuis, where the oxen of the sun were supposed to be kept; 
 Tricola, where Trypho and Athenis established the head quarters of a republic of 
 slaves, and held out against the Roman power for several years ; Seli?ws, known for 
 its vigorous but unavailing resistance to the Carthaginians. 
 
 Interesting Greek ruins have been found at Selinus, Agrigentum, &c. — On these ruins, see R. Koare, Classical Tour, vol. ii. p. 78 ss. 
 — Cf. P. IV. § 178. 3.—F. GSrtner, Architect. Monuni. of Sicily, as cited P. IV. § 243. 1.— See also the citations, P. IV. § 234. 3. 
 
 The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simce.thus (Giaretta), celebrated for the produc- 
 tion of amber; Asinarius, where the Athenian generals Nicias and Demosthenes were 
 taken prisoners by the Syracusans, and Helorus on the eastern coast ; on the south 
 side were Camicus and Crimisus, with some smaller streams; and on the north, the 
 river Himera. — Mount JEtna, so celebrated for its volcano, occupies a great part of 
 Sicily ; the poets feigned that the giants, when defeated by Jupiter, were buried under 
 this heap, and that the eruptions were caused by their efforts to relieve themselves. 
 
 The first inhabitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and Lsestrigons, a barbarous race of people, 
 almost extirpated by the different Greek colonies, whom the commercial advantages of Sicily's 
 situation induced to settle in this island. 
 
 % 140. Near the western angle or corner of Sicily are three small islands called 
 JEgates, opposite one of which, JEgusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians 
 in a great naval engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. — North of 
 Sicily were the Insula JEolice (Lipari islands), sacred to Vulcan ; the largest is Lipara, 
 which was once a place of great consequence ; the next in size is Strongyle (Stromboli), 
 where iEolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a celebrated 
 volcano. — South-east of Sicily is Melite (Malta), remarkable in ancient times for its 
 cotton manufactories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Jerusalem 
 to Rome. It was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a convenient 
 station for commerce on account of its excellent harbor. — Near Malta is the small island 
 of Gaulos (Gozo). 
 
 § 141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. Corcyra 
 (Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesprotia, from which it was 
 separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. — It is called by Homer Scheria, or 
 Phceacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabitants as luxurious and indolent. — 
 The principal town was Corcyra, near which were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous 
 and Cassiope. Near the promontory of Phalacrum was a remarkable rock, said to 
 have been the ship which Ulysses received from Alcinous, to convey him to his native 
 country, and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phasacians 
 for aiding Ulysses. 
 
 Leucadia (Santa Maura) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut through 
 by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town was Leucas, in earlier 
 ages called Nericum, and the neighboring country Neritis ; it was founded by a Co- 
 rinthian colony, and was joined to the continent by a bridge, as the strait was here very 
 narrow. — At the south-western extremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named 
 Leucate, and a remarkable rock, called from its color Leucopetra, from which unfortu- 
 nate lovers precipitated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple 
 of Apollo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fatal leap. 
 
 The Echinades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the river 
 Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dulichium, part of the empire of Ulysses. 
 — Near Dulichium was Ilhaca (Thaki), the birthplace of Ulysses; the capital was also 
 called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount Neritus. 
 
 $142. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the Ionian islands. — Its chief 
 town was Same, from whence the island was frequently called by that name ; there 
 were three other towns of little consequence in the island ; from which circumstance 
 it is called T'etrapolis. In this island are some ruins of Cyclopean structure. 
 
 South of this was Zacynthus (Zante), with a capital of the same name, celebrated for 
 its fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was such an abundance 
 of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea assumed prismatic hues from the 
 oily matter that floated on its surface. 
 
 West of the Peloponnesus were the Strophades (Strivoli), at first calle 1 Plolw, the 
 residence of the Harpies ; and south of them, the island of Sphacteria (Sphagiee), taken 
 by Cleon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian war. — South of the Peloponnesus 
 was Cythera, or Porphyrm (Cerigo), sacred to Venus. It contained two excellent towns 
 and harbors, Cythera and Scanda, which the Lacedaemonians fortified with great care, 
 but the Athenians destroyed both in the first Peloponnesian war, 
 r, d2 
 
42 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 § 143. We may include among the JEgtan Islands all that remain to be noticed. 
 
 The Thracian islands occupy the northern part of the iEgean, and were named 
 Thasus, Samothrace, and Imbrus. — Thasus (Tasse), opposite the mouth of the Nessus, 
 was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named iEthria. It produced wine and mar- 
 ble, and the inhabitants were at one time so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the 
 sea with the Athenians, but after a severe contest of two years they were compelled 
 to surrender at discretion. — Samothrace (Samandrachi) derived its name from Samos, 
 by a colony from which it was first peopled. From this place Dardanus brought the 
 worship of Cybele to Troy. — Imbrus (Embro) lies to the south of Samothrace. 
 
 § 144. Tenedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. It 
 contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smintheus, be- 
 cause he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called Sminthas in the Phry- 
 gian language. 
 
 South-west of this was Lemnos (Stalimene), dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown 
 out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It contained two cities, 
 Hephaestia or Vulcatia, and Murina. — Farther west, on the Thessalian coast, was 
 Halonnesus (Droma), which is said to have been at one time defended by the ijaior of 
 the women alone, when all the males were slain. South of these were Sciathus (Sci- 
 atia) ; Scopelos (Scopela) ; and Scyros (Skiro), where Achilles was concealed by his 
 mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war. 
 
 South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birthplace of 
 the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcaeus, and the poetess Sappho ; its 
 chief tow : ns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and JSIiiylene, from whence the island 
 has derived its modern name. — South of this was Chios (Scio), celebrated for its wine. 
 The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island by the Turks, in 1822, excited great 
 public sympathy. 
 
 § 145. The largest island of the ^Egean was Eubcea (Negropont), opposite the coast 
 of Boeotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait called the Euripics. Into 
 this strait Aristotle (P. Yi$ 115), according to the accounts of some, threw liimself, in 
 a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebbing and flowing. 
 The chief towns were Chalcis, joined to Aulis in Bceotia, by a bridge across the Euri- 
 pus ; Erelria, an Athenian colony, founded before the Trojan war ; Oreus, on the 
 Euripus ; the town and promontory of Artemishim, in the northern part of the island, 
 where the Greeks gained their first naval victory over the Persians ; and Carystus, in 
 the south, between the promontories Geraestus and Caphareus, remarkable for the 
 quarries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of Eubcea is not 
 very important, as the greater part was subjected to other Greek states. 
 
 In the Saronic gulf were iEgina (Engia), anciently iEnone, strongly fortified by 
 nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea ; here were discovered the monu- 
 ments called the jEginetan sculptures or marbles (cf. P. IV. § 190. 3). The iEgine- 
 tans were the most distinguished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and 
 obtained the prize of valor. — Next to this is Salamis (Elimi), the island of Telemon, 
 father of Ajax and Teucer. Near Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribia- 
 des the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense navy 
 of Persia. — On the coast of the Peloponnesus was Calauria (Foro), where Demos- 
 thenes poisoned himself that he might not fall into the hands of Antipater, the suc- 
 cessor of Alexander the Great. 
 
 § 146. South-east of Eubcea was the large cluster of islands called the Cyclades, 
 from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. This island, also called 
 Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birthplace of Apollo and Diana ; on which, 
 near Mount Cynthus, stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which pil- 
 grimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called Faralus 
 (^ xapaXos), was annually sent from Athens to Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and dur- 
 ing its absence it was unlawful to punish any criminal in Athens capitally. The other 
 remarkable islands in this group were Myco-nus, Gyarus, and Seriphus, small islands 
 whither the Roman emperors used to banish criminals ; Andros and Tenos, south-east 
 of Euboea ; Ceos (Zea). and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cytlms, Siphnus, and 
 Melos (Milo), south of Ceos ; Paros, celebrated for its white marble, the birthplace of 
 ihe statuaries Phidias and Praxiteles; Naxos, sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was 
 ungratefully deserted by Theseus ; Ios, where Homer was said to have been buried; 
 Thera, and Anaphe. 
 
 § 147. The islands in the eastern part of the iEgean were called the Sporades, and 
 more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here as they were possessed 
 by the Greeks. The chief of these were Samos, sacred to Juno, the birthplace of Py- 
 thagoras ; Icaria, which gave name to the Icarian sea ; Palmos (Palmossa), where the 
 Apostle John wrote the Revelations ; Cos, the native country of Harpocrates ; Car- 
 patkus (Scarpanto), which gave name to the Carpathian sea; and Ehodus (Rhodes). — 
 This latter island contained three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus. 
 
 At the harbor of Rhodus stood the Colossus, an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. II 
 D 721. It held in one hand a lighthouse. This splendid statue (cf.P.IV.$ 180. ]) was thrown 
 
Wl 
 
P. I. ASIA. EASTERN DIVISION. INDIA. PERSIA. 43 
 
 down by an earthquake about B. C. 225, and having long lain prostrate was broken up by the 
 Saracens when they became masters of the island, in the seventh century. 
 
 § 148. Greta (Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the iEgean, was the most cele- 
 brated island of ancient times: it is said to have contained a hundred cities, the princi- 
 pal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the north side of the island; Gorlynia, 
 on the opposite side, where stood the celebrated Labyrinth, built by Daedalus ; and 
 Cydonia, by some esteemed the capital. 
 
 The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idrei Dactyli, who lived near Mount Ida, and exercised 
 mechanical arts ; nearly contemporary with these were the Cnretes, who directed their attention 
 to agriculture. — Minos, a descendant of Jupiter, was the legislator of Crete, and from his laws 
 the institutions of Lycurgus are said to have been principally burrowed. The fabulous legends 
 respecting this monarch, his wife Pasiphae,and his daughter Ariadne, are mentioned in another 
 place (cf. P. II. $ 117. (a), and $ 125). 
 
 The Cretan Labyrinth is generally represented to have been near Gnossus ; but some suppose it to have been found in the remark- 
 able excavations or caverns near Gorlynia, consisting of several chambers and gaileries. It is not improbable that some such cavern 
 near Gaossus gave rise to the story of an artificial labyrinth. — See H^ckh^s Creta. — Cockercll, on the Cretan Labyrinth, in Walpole's 
 Memoirs. — Smithy Diet, of Antiquit. ait. Labyrinthus. 
 
 II. OF ASIA. 
 
 § 149. Asia, the largest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, is cele- 
 brated as the birthplace r>f the human race ; the quarter where the true God was wor- 
 shiped when the rest of the world was sunk in superstitious barbarism ; the scene of 
 our Savior's life and suffering"; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Baby- 
 lonian, and Persian, which possessed extensive sway (cf. % 211) before the commence- 
 ment of authentic European history. — From Asia the first principles of the arts and 
 sciences were imported into Europe, and there civilisation had attained a high degree 
 of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism. 
 
 "J 150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, the 
 Eastern and Western ; the boundary between them being the river Rha or Wolga, 
 the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus. 
 
 The Eastern division includes Scythia, Sinarum Regio, India, Persia, Media, 
 and Parthia, with the countries north of the mountains called Paropamisics . — The 
 Western includes Sarmatia, with the countries between the Mare Caspium and Pon- 
 tus Euxinus, Armenia, Asia Minor, Syria, Arabia, and Mesopotamia, with the 
 countries in the valley of the Tigris. 
 
 I. THE COUNTRIES OF THE EASTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. 
 
 § 151. Scythia was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of 
 Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scythia intra Imaum, 
 and Scythia extra Imaum, separated by the mountains called Imaus, now Belur Tag, 
 which unite with the modern Altai on the north, and Himmaleh on the south. — 'Scy- 
 thia extra Imaum included the Regio Casia (Kashgar in Tartary), and the Regio Se- 
 rica (the north-west part of China) ; in the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare 
 of ancient commerce between eastern and western Asia. 
 
 There has been much discussion respecting the real situation of the ancient Serica. — Cf. LPJlnville, and Gosselin, sur la Serique 
 des Anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, vol. xxxii. p. 573, and xlix. p. 713.— Class. Journal, vol. vi. p. 204. vii. 32. — Anthonys 
 Lempriere, article Seres. 
 
 The SiNjE occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients ; sup- 
 posed to be the country now named Cochin China. Their capital Was Thynce, on the 
 Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus. 
 
 § 152. India included the territory extending from the mountains called in their 
 northern part Parueti, on the west of the river Indus, to the river Serus or Menan, 
 which empties into Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Siam). It was divided by the ancients 
 into India intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem : the boundary between them be- 
 ing the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gangeticus (Bay of Bengal). This 
 country* was but little known before the expedition of Alexander. The southern part 
 of India intra Gangem, or Hindostan, was called Promontorium Comaria (cape Como- 
 rin). Several places on the coast were known. North of the river Chabens (Cavery), 
 was the Regio Arcati, the modern Arcot. — In India extra Gangem was the Aurea 
 Chersonesus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called Magnum Pro- 
 montorium (now cape Romania). 
 
 § 153. Peesia, in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of the river 
 Tisris, between Media on the north and the Persian gulf on the south. But the name 
 
44 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 is sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the whole territory south of the 
 Paropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zagros chain and the river Tigris on the 
 west, to the Parueti and Arbiti Monies separating it from India on the east. Thus it 
 includes several provinces. 
 
 Susiana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Elymais and 
 Susa; the latter, called in the Bible Skuskan, was the winter residence of the Per- 
 sian kings ; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which flowed from the Orontes 
 mountains into the Tigris. — P ersis was directly east of Susiana, bordering upon the 
 Sinus Persicus, and corresponding to Persia in its limited and proper sense. Its capi- 
 tal was Persepolis, represented as a city of great splendor ; the royal palace was set 
 on fire by the order of Alexander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his 
 mistress Thais. 
 
 The ruins of Persepolis still excite admiration. It was situated on a beautiful plain six miles 
 wide and 100 long from N. W. to S. E. which is now crowded with numerous villages.— Through 
 this flowed the Jlraxes, now Bendemir or Bend Emir discharging into Lake Baktegian. The 
 principal ruin is the palace called by the natives Chehul-Minar, Chil-Minar, or Skehel-JMnar, or 
 palace of forty columns. 
 
 See a description, with plates, in Rob. Ker Porter's Travels. — G. Keppel, Journey from India to England, by Persia, &c. in 1S24. 
 Lond. 1827. 4.— J. E. .Ihxander, Travels from India to England, through Persia, Asia Minor, tc. in 1S26. Lond. IS27. 4.— CC 
 Herder, The Univ. History, &c cited § 2U. VI. 
 
 Previously to the founding of Persepolis, the royal residence was at Pasargada, which was in 
 Ccele-Persis, on the river Cyrus, flowing southerly into a small lake; here king Cyrus is said to 
 have erected a tomb for himself, in a high narrow tower. 
 
 A monument still exists, which has been supposed to be the tomb of Cyrus : it is represented in our Plate XVIII. fig. 1. — Cf. 
 P. in. § 1S7. 4. 
 
 The other provinces were C a r m a n i a (Kerman), south-east of Persis, also border- 
 ing on the Sinus Persicus ; Gedrosia (now Mekran), lying on the Erylhraum Mare 
 and extending from Carmania to India ; Arachosia and Drangiana, which in- 
 clude the whole remaining territory on the north and east between Gedrosia on the 
 south and the Paropamisus on the north. — This latter territory was watered by the 
 Elymander, which, with tributaries from the mountains on the north, east, and south, 
 flowed into the Aria Palus, a lake or sea on its western limits ; the whole territory was 
 often included under Aria, which properly belongs to the contiguous country north of 
 the Paropamisus. 
 
 § 154 a. Media was situated south of the Mare Caspium; its northern limit was the river 
 Araxes flowing to that sea from Armenia ; on the south were Susiana and Persis. Its 
 principal river was the Mardus or Amardus, rising in the south-western part, where the 
 Orontes chain of mountains is connected with the Zagros chain, and flowing by a cir- 
 cuitous course into the Caspium Mare in the country of the Mardii. Media was sepa- 
 rated from Armenia on the west by Mons Imbarus, a chain extending from Mt. Ararat 
 on the north to the Zagros on the south. The capital was Ecbatana (now Hamadan), 
 in the region south of the mountains termed Orontes. 
 
 Ecbatana was made the summer residence of the Persian monarchs, and afterwards of the 
 Parthian Two tombs, with inscriptions in the Hebrew character, are still shown to travelers 
 as being those of Mordecai and Esther. — Rapa, or Rages, mentioned in the apocryphal book 
 of Tobit, was a place of some importance, north-east from Ecbatana. 
 
 SeeRennell, Geog. of Herod, sect. v. 11, as cited P. V. § 241. 5.— Hock, Vet. Med. et Pers. Monumenta, cited P. IV. § 171.— Mai 
 cclm, as cited § 211. VL 
 
 § 154 b. The northern portion of Media, lying on the river Araxes, was formed, after 
 the death of Alexander, into an independent kingdom, by the satrap Atropates, and 
 thence called Atropatene; having as its capital Gaza (now Tebriz or Tabreez), 
 and next perhaps in importance Atropatene or Atropalia on a stream flowing into the 
 Mardus. In the western part of this province was the Locus Spauta or Marcianus 
 (lake .of Oroomiah), near which on its western side was Thebarma (Oroomiah), said 
 to be the native place of Zoroaster or Zerdusht. 
 
 This region, now a part of Aderbijan, and belonging to Persia, has become intensely interesting, on account of the American mis 
 siou established among the Nestorian Christians, who reside in the plains of Oroomiah and in the mountains on the west, and whose 
 existence was first made known to the western world about the year 1826. — See Smith and Dwisfit, Researches, &c. as cited P. IV. 
 § 36. I.— Miss. Herald, vol. xii. p. II. xxxiv. p. 2S9.— A Grant, The Nestorians, or the Lost Tribes. N. York, 1S41. 12.—/. Per- 
 kins, Account of a Residence in Persia, &c Bost 1843. 8. with colored plates. (See Plate VI a.) 
 
 $ 155. Under Parthia we include the region lying at the south-eastern corner of the 
 Caspian sea ; between Media on the south and the river Oxus (Gihon), which flows to 
 the north into the sea of Aral, although it was once supposed to flow into the Caspian, 
 and is so delineated on some maps. It was originally but a part of Hyrcania, a pro- 
 vince belonging to the Persian empire. By Arsaces, after the time of Alexander, it was 
 made the seat of a new state, which under his successors, called Arsacidos, grew into 
 a considerable empire, and opposed effectual resistance to the Romans (§ 211. vin.}. 
 Ore of its principal places was Nisaa (Nesa), on a northern branch of the river Ockui> 
 (Margah), which empties into the Caspian. Hyrcania (Corcan) was a considerable place, 
 on the small river Socanda. — But the royal residence of the Arsacidae was Hecatompylos, 
 
PLATE VI n. 
 
 This MAI- gi 
 modem names of vil- 
 lages, &c. in the Va ley of 
 
 ' t THEBARMA. 37 
 
 The Mts. on the West, a pail of 
 
 the Zagros chain, are occupied 
 by Kooriis or Curds, the ancient 
 Cardvclri (cf § 170). !£uppnse<l 
 monuments of the ancient fire- 
 worship exist in the valley '• cf, 
 J. PcrUini, p. 8, as cited § i 51 b. 
 
46 CLASSICAL G20GRAPHY. 
 
 in the south-western part ; although the later Parthian monarchs sometimes resided at 
 Ctesiplwn on the Tigris. 
 
 The remaining countries, between Parthia and Scythia, were Aria, Bactriana, and 
 Sogdiana. — Aria was east of Parthia and Media, and north of the Paropamisus, al- 
 though the name was often extended, so as to include (§ 153) a large region south of 
 that chain of mountains. The principal place was Artacoana (now Herat). — B a ctri- 
 a n a was east of Aria and south of the river Oxus ; its capital was Zariaspa or Bactra 
 (Balk), on a tributary of the Oxus. — S o gd ian a includes the territory between the 
 Oxus and the Jaxartes or Sir ; corresponding nearly to the modern country Al-Sogd. 
 Its chief place was Maracanda (Samarcand), on the Polytimetus, a branch of the Oxus. 
 Cyropolis was a place founded by Cyrus on the Jaxartes. Various tribes occupied this 
 region; in the north-eastern part were the Sacoe. 
 
 II. THE COUNTRIES OF THE WESTERN DIVISION OF ASIA. 
 
 § 156. Beginning on the northern limits we notice first Sarmatia, called Asiatica, 
 to distinguish it from the country of the same name in Europe, from which it was sepa- 
 rated by the river Tanais. Its boundary on the south was the Caucasus. It was inhabited 
 by roving and uncivilized tribes; particularly ^ the Alani, and the Cimmerii: from the 
 latter, the strait connecting the Palus Mceotis with the Euxine received its name of 
 Bosphorus Cimmericus.' — 'South of Sarmatia, and between the Pontus Euxinus on the 
 west, and the Mare Caspium or Hyrcanium on the east, were the three countries, Col- 
 chis, Iberia, and Albania. Colchis was on the Euxine ; one of its chief places was 
 JEa, on the river Phasis (Faz-Reone). — A 1 b a n i a was on the Caspian, extending south 
 as far as the river Cyrus (or Kur). An important place was one of the two celebrated 
 passes of the Caucasus, called Pylce Albania or Caucasia, between a northern spur of 
 the Caucasus and the Caspian, as is generally supposed ; afterwards the strong city 
 of Derbend. — I b e r i a was between Colchis and Albania, a high valley, watered by 
 the Cyrus and its numerous tributaries. The other celebrated pass of the Caucasus 
 led from this valley over into the declivity of the Euxine ; it was the defile through 
 which the river Aragus (Arakui) flows into the Cyrus; it is now called Dariel. — 
 These passes, and others in the vicinity of the Caspian Sea, are sometimes termed 
 Pylm Caspice ; but the pass properly so termed, is supposed to be the modern pass 
 of Gurdock, about 90 miles from Teheran. 
 
 On these passes, cf. Walckeriar, de Portes Caspiennes, Caucasiennes, et Albaniennes, &c. in the Man. de VInstitut, Classe cVHist. 
 et Lit. Anc. vol. vii. p. 210, with a map. — BiU. Repository, No. xxii. p. 370. 
 
 § 157. Armenia was immediately south of Colchis and Iberia, extending to mount 
 Masius and the Carduchi Monies on the south, and from Media on the east to the 
 northern branch of the Euphrates, which separated it from Asia Minor. It presents 
 three great valleys, extending nearly east and west ; first, that on the north-east, 
 watered by the Araxes, also called Phasis (now Aras), flowing to the Caspian ; second, 
 the central, separated from the first by the chain of mountains in which is the summit 
 called Ararat, and watered by the southern branch of the Euphrates, which rises in 
 its eastern part and flows westerly, containing also the lake called Arsissa Palus ; 
 third, the south-western, smaller, separated from the central by the Nivhates Montes, 
 and watered by the Tigris, which rises in its western part and flows through it in an 
 easterly course. — Some of the principal places were Artaxata, on the Araxes, the an- 
 cient capital : Arza (Erze Roum), near the sources of the northern branch of the Eu- 
 phrates ; Amida, on the Tigris near its source ; and Tigranocerta, taken by Lucullus 
 in the Mithridatic war, and plundered of vast riches. 
 
 The summit called Ararat is commonly supposed to be that on which Noah's ark rested ; this is said to have been ascended, for the 
 first time, by Prof. Parrot, in 1829. See Bibl. Rcpos. No. xxii. p. 390. 
 
 § 158. Asia Minor is a term not used by classical authors, but invented in the 
 middle ages. In general, the Roman writers confined the term Asia to the countries 
 bordering on the Propontis and iEgean, and divided it into Asia intra Tanrum and 
 Asia extra Taurum. The large peninsula which is known by the name of Asia Mi- 
 nor, included a great number of petty states, whose boundaries varied at different 
 periods.— ^-The northern provinces of Asia Minor, beginning at the iEgean sea, were 
 Phrygia Minor, Mysia, Bithynia, Paphlagonia, and Pontus. — The middle provinces 
 were Lydia, Phrygia Major, Galatia, Lycaonia and Isauria, Cappadocia, and Armenia 
 Minor. — The southern provinces were Caria, Lycia, Pisidia, and Pamphylia. 
 
 %ee Rennell, Geography of Western Asia. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 § 159. Phrygia Minor, or Troas, is celebrated for the Trojan plains at the en- 
 trance of the Hellespont. The lapse of ages has produced such changes, that modern 
 travelers are not agreed about the situation of the city of Troy, called also Ilium. 
 
 Ilium was built at some distance from the sea, above the junction of the Scamavder, or Xan- 
 thus, and Simois, two small streams, rising from mount Ida, and falling into the Hellespont; the 
 citadel was cal'sd Pergamus, and was erected on a little hill included within the walls. The 
 
P.I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. ASIA MINOR. 4? 
 
 plain between the city and the sea was intersected by the rivers Scamander and Simois, and 
 there the battles mentioned in the Iliad were fought. At the eastern extremity of the plain was 
 the mount Ida, the summit of which was called Gargarus ; the west was bounded by the Helles- 
 pont, which here forms an extensive bay, between the promontory of Rtueteum on the north, and 
 Sigeum on the south. Here lay the Grecian fleet, and at a little distance on the shore was the 
 camp. Ajax was buried on the Rhstean and Achilles on the Sigean promontory. 
 See P. II. § 132, ami P. V. § 50.— Renndl, and others, on the Topography of Troy, as cited P. V. § 50. 7. 
 
 Mysia, divided into Minor and Major, extended from the Hellespont to Bithynia. 
 The principal towns of the former were, Abydos (§ 73); and Lam-psacus, dedicated to 
 Priapus, celebrated for its wealth and luxury. — The principal city in Mysia Major 
 was Cyzicus, situated on an island of the same name in the Propontis, and joined by 
 two bridges to the continent ; celebrated for the gallant resistance it made when be- 
 sieged by Mithridates ; near this is the river Granicus, where Alexander defeated 
 the army of Darius, and where Lucullus obtained an equally important victory over 
 Mithridates. 
 
 § 160. Bithynia, at first called Bebrycia, lay between the Thracian Bosphorus 
 and the river Parthenias. Its chief towns were, Apamea, at the mouth of the river 
 Rhyndacus ; Nicomedia, on a gulf of the same name ; Chalcedon (Kadi Keui, or Cadi's 
 village), called the City of the Blind, because its founders neglected the more eligible 
 site Byzantium, at the opposite side of the Bosphorus; Chrysopolis (Scutari, directly 
 opposite to Constantinople), where the Athenians stationed a fleet imposing tribute on 
 all vessels from the Euxine ; Libyssa, where Hannibal was buried ; Calpas and Hera- 
 clea, on the Euxine ; Niccea (Nice), where the first general council was assembled ; 
 and Prusa, at the foot of Mount Olympus, where Hannibal for a short time found 
 refuge with king Prusias. 
 
 Prusa attained great importance under the name of Bursa, when Othman, founder of the Ottoman empire, made it his capital. It 
 continued to be the chief residence of the Sultans until the capture of Constantinople in 1453. It still retains, in the modern Broosa, 
 an important rank among the cities of Asiatic Turkey. (See Plate, VI i.) 
 
 Paphlagonia, lay between the rivers Parthenias and Halys. The chief towns 
 were Sinope (Sinube), the birthplace of Diogenes, and capital of the kingdom of 
 Mithridates ; and Carambis (Karempi), near a promontory of the same name, opposite) 
 the Criu-Metopon, a cape in the Tauric Chersonese. 
 
 P o n t u s, the kingdom of the celebrated Mithridates, extended from the river Halys 
 to Colchis. The principal towns were Amisus, near the Halys ; Eupatoria, on the 
 confluence of the Iris and Lycus, named by Pompey Megalopolis ; Amasia, the birth- 
 place of the geographer Strabo ; Themiscyra, on the river Thermodon, where the 
 Amazons are supposed to have resided ; Cerasus, whence Lucullus brought the first 
 cherry-trees that were seen in Europe ; and Trapezus (Trebisond), on the borders of 
 Colchis, greatly celebrated by the romance- writers of the middle ages. Near the river 
 Halys the Leleges and Chalybes, famous for their skill in iron- works, resided. 
 
 The Christian scholar will feel a peculiar interest respecting Pontus and Bifhynia^from the circumstance that here occurred those 
 bitter persecutions of the early converts to Christianity which are noticed in the letters of Pliny the younger, governor of these pro- 
 vinces under the Emperor Trajan. See P. V. § 441. I. 
 
 § 161. Lydia, called also Meeonia, lay to the south of Phrygia Minor and Mysia, and 
 to the east of the iEgean sea. The northern part of the coast was called iEolia, and the 
 southern Ionia, from the number of Greek colonies which settled there. — jEolia was 
 colonized by the iEolians, soon after the termination of the Trojan war ; its chief 
 towns were Adramyttium, founded by an Athenian colony; Pergamus (Bergamo), the 
 capital of a small territory, greatly enlarged by the Romans after the defeat of Mithri 
 dates, and bequeathed to them by Attalus its last king; its port was called Elea; be- 
 tween Elea and Adramyttium was LyrnessUs ; south-west from Pergamus, Thya- 
 tira: and Cana, a town built on a promontory of the same name, near which are the 
 -ZEginusan islands, where Conon, the Athenian admiral, completely defeated the 
 Spartans. — Ionia contained several remarkable cities, of which the principal were 
 Smyrna, on the river Meles, near which Homer is said to have been born ; a cave 
 here used to be shown to travelers as his birthplace, and another as the spot where 
 he wrote his poems (cf. P. V. § 50) ; north and east of Smyrna was Mt. Sipylus, the 
 residence of Niobe (cf. P. II. § 131) ; Clazomenae, on a peninsula of the same name, 
 celebrated for its wealth ; Erylhrm, near mount Mimas, the residence of one of the 
 Sybils ; Corycus, near which the fleet of Antiochus was defeated by the Romans ; 
 Teas, the birthplace ofAnacreon. — South of the peninsula of ClazomenaB, were Colo 
 phon, on the river Hulesus, celebrated for the grove of Claros, sacred to Apollo , 
 Ephesus, on the river Cayster, the most splendid of the Asiatic cities, now degene- 
 rated into a paltry village, remarkable for the splendid temple of Diana; Mycale, 
 opposite Samos, where the Persian fleet was totally destroyed by the Greeks ; Priene, 
 on the Maander, a river noted for its winding course ; and Miletus, the birthplace o c 
 Thales. — In the interior of Lydia was Sardis, the capital, situate at the foot of mount 
 Tmolus, on the river Paclolus, a branch of the Hermus. Not far east from Sardis 
 was Tliymbra. celebrated for the victory there gained by Cyrus over Crcesus. Oa 
 
48 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 the Hermus was Magnesia, where Antiochus, king of Syria, was overthrown by the 
 Romans. 
 
 Within the limits which we have above given to Lydia, were six of the seven churches addressed m the Apocalypse ; viz. in the 
 order in which the apostle John introduces them — Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamus, Thyatira, Sardis, and Philadelphia ; the other, Lao. 
 dicea, was in Phrygia Major. — See Milner, History of the Seven Churches. Lond. 1832. S.—Arundell, Visit to the Seven Churches 
 of Asia. Lond. 182S. 8.— On the ruins of Sardis, cf. Miss. Herald, for 1839, p. 208. 
 
 $ 162. East of Lydia was Phrygia Major, extending from the river Lycus on the 
 south to the Sangarius on the north. Its chief towns were Pessinus, near the foot 
 of jnount Dindymus, sacred to Cybele, the mother of the gods, whose image was 
 conveyed thence to Rome at the end of the second Punic war (P. II. § 21) ; Gordium, 
 celebrated for the Gordian knot cut through by Alexander; Apamea, on the river 
 Marsyas, where Apollo flayed alive his musical competitor Marsyas; Laodicea, cele- 
 brated in sacred history, on the river Lycus; and Colossce. Galatia, or Gallo- 
 
 Greecia, lay north of Phrygia, of which it originally formed a part. _ The chief towns 
 were Ancyra (Angoura), where Bajazet was defeated and made prisoner by Tamer- 
 lane ; Gangxa, the residence of king Deiotarus, a great friend of Cicero ; and Tavium, 
 
 the capital~of the Trocmi. South-east of Phrygia were Isauria and Lycaonia. 
 
 The principal towns of the former were Isaurm, the capital ; Lystra and Derbe, men- 
 tioned in the Acts of the Apostles (xiv. 6). The principal town of the latter was 
 Iconium. Both of these provinces were intersected by the chain of Mount Taurus. 
 
 % 163. Cappadocia lay between the Halys and the Euphrates. Its most remark- 
 able towns were Comana, celebrated for a temple of Bellona, plundered by Antony ; 
 Tyana, the birthplace of the impostor Apollonius (cf. P. V. § 255 b) ; and Mazaca, 
 named by Tiberius, Ccesarea ad Argceum, to denote its situation at the foot of Mount 
 Argceus, from whose summit, as ancient writers assert, the Euxine and the Mediter- 
 ranean might both be seen. — 'The north-eastern part of Cappadocia was known by the 
 name of Lesser Armenia, and contained Cabira or Sebaste, a well fortified city captured 
 by Pompey ; the strong fortress Novas, where Mithridates kept his treasure ; and JVi- 
 copolis, built by Pompey, to commemorate his victory over Mithridates. 
 
 The Greeks described the Cappadocians as the worst of the three bad Kay-pas, or nations whose 
 names began with that letter; the other two were the Cretans and Cilicians. 
 
 % 164. The south-western province of Asia Minor was C a r i a. Its chief towns were 
 Halicarnassus , the capital, celebrated for having given birth to the historians Dionysius 
 and Herodotus, and for the Mausoleum, a splendid monument, one of the seven won- 
 ders of the world, erected by Artemisia, queen of Caria, to the memory of her hus- 
 band Mausolus ; Cnidus, in the peninsula of Doris, sacred to Venus; Alabanda, on 
 the Maeander; and Stratonicea, on the southern coast. 
 
 L y c i a lay to the east of Caria. Its chief towns were Telmessus, on a gulf of the 
 same name, called also Sinus Glaucus, from the river Glaucus flowing into it ; Xanthus, 
 celebrated for its obstinate resistance to Brutus, the inhabitants having destroyed them- 
 selves by fire to avoid surrendering ; and Patara, sacred to Apollo. — Near the gulf of 
 Telmessus ran the chain of Mount Cragus, sacred to Diana ; in this chain was the 
 volcano Chimara, fabled by the poets to have been a monster subdued by Bellerophon 
 (cf. P. II. § 117). Some hills at the Promontorium Sacrum were usually esteemed the 
 commencement of Mount Taurus , and a little beyond it is a part of the same ridge 
 adjoining the sea, round which Alexander's army were compelled to march up to their 
 middle in water. 
 
 See Fellowes, Account of Discoveries in Lycia.— Cf. Amer. Eclectic, Jan. 1841. 
 
 § 165. Next to Lycia were P i s i d i a and Pamphylia, two mountainous districts, 
 whose boundaries are indeterminate. The chief towns of Pisidia were AntiocMa; 
 Termessus, the capital of the Solymi, a people mentioned by Homer ; and Cremna, a 
 Roman colony. The principal towns in Pamphylia were Perga, the capital ; Aspendus 
 on the river Eurymedon, near which Cimon defeated the Persian fleet ; and Coracesium, 
 where Pompey destroyed the nest of pirates who had so long infested these seas. 
 
 C i I i ci a lay to the east of Pamphylia, and south of Isauria, and was divided into 
 two portions, the western called Tracheotis or rough, and the other Campestris or 
 level. — The chief towns of Tracheotis were Selinus, where the emperor Trajan died ; 
 Anamurium, opposite Cyprus; and Seleucia (Seletkeh), on the river Calycadnus. — In 
 Cilicia Campestris were Soli, a colony of the Athenians ; Tarsus, said to have received 
 its name from one of the wings of the horse Pegasus being dropped there ; the birth- 
 place of the Apostle Paul; Issus, where Alexander obtained his second triumph over 
 the Persians : and Alexandria (Scanderoon), erected by the conqueror to perpetuate 
 the memory of his victory. — On the confines of Syria was the mountain Amanus, be- 
 tween which and the sea were Pylce Syrice, a celebrated pass. — The river Cydnus is 
 remarkable for the coldness of its waters, by which Alexander was almost killed, and 
 for the splendid festivities celebrated on its banks when Antony visited Cleopatra. 
 
 § 166. Stria was bounded on the north by Mount Amanus ; on the east by the 
 Euphrates ; on the south by Arabia ; and on the west by the Mediterranean. It was 
 
PLATE VI 6. 
 
50 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 divided into five provinces, Comagene, Seleucis, Ccelo-Syria, Phoenicia, and Judea, 
 or Palestine. 
 
 The principal city of Comagene was Samosata, on the Euphrates, the birthplace 
 of Lucian. — In Seleucis, or Syria Propria, were Hierapolis, the city of the Syrian 
 goddess Astarte (cf. P. II. § 48), on the Euphrates ; Bercea, previously Chah/bon (now 
 Aleppo), on the Chalcis, flowing into a small lake ; Antiochia, where Christians first 
 received their name, on the river Orontes } near it Daphne, with its delightful grove 
 sacred to Apollo ; A-pqmea (Famieh), higher up the Orontes, which rising in the ele- 
 vated regions on the eastern side of Libanus, flows by a north-west course to the 
 Mediterranean ; still further up, Emesa, the city of Heliogabalus, the worst of the 
 Roman emperors; and "on the opposite side of the Orontes," near the limits of this 
 province, Heliopolis (Balbec), sacred to the Sun, whose magnificent ruins still attract 
 admiration. 
 
 From the map of Syria accompanying Robinson's Researches, Balbec appears to be on the Leontes. — " Among the cities which 
 are enumerated by Greek and oriental names in the geography of Syria, we may distinguish Emesa or Hems, and Heliopolis or Bal- 
 bec. Under the last of the Caesars, they were strong and populous ; the turrets glittered from afar; an ample space was covered 
 with public and private buildings ; and the citizens were illustrious by their spirit, or at least by their pride ; by their riches, or at 
 least by their luxury. In the days of paganism, both Emesa and Heliopolis were addicted to the worship of Baal, or the sun J but 
 the decline of their superstition and splendor has been marked by a singular variety of fortune. Not a vestige remains of the temple 
 of Emesa, which was equalled in poetic style to the summits of mount Libanus J while the ruins of Balbec, invisible to the writers 
 of antiquity, excite the curiosity and wonder of the European traveler. The measure of the temple is two hundred feet in length, 
 and one hundred iu breadth : the front is adorned with a double portico of eight columns ; fourteen may be couDted on either side ; 
 and each column, forty-five feet in height, is composed of three massy blocks of marble. The proportions and ornaments of the 
 Corinthian order express the architecture of the Greeks."— See tbe view given in Plate VII. — R. Wood, Ruins of Balbec. Lond. 
 1757. fol. — C. B. Elliott, Travels in Austria, Russia, and Turkey. Lond. 183S. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 Ccelo-Syria was so named because it lay between the two parallel chains of 
 mountains, Libanus and Anti-Liha7ius ; and the name is sometimes applied so as to 
 include the valley of the Orontes, and also the whole valley of the Leo?ites, which 
 rises near the western sources of the Orontes, and flows by a south-western course 
 to the Mediterranean. But it is limited, in our division, to the upper part of the latter 
 valley, north of mount Herman, the principal peak of Anti- Libanus ; including also 
 another valley on the east (now called Gouteh Demesk, or Orchard of Damascus), 
 watered by the rivers Chrysorrhoas (Pharphar) and Abcna, flowing into a large lake 
 below Damascus, which was the chief town of the province. — The territory east and 
 north-east of these valleys as far as the Euphrates, is mentioned in connection both 
 with Seleucis and with Ccelo-Syria; but more commonly under the general name of 
 Syria ; some places in it, on the Euphrates, should be mentioned ; as Thapsacus 
 (El-Der), the celebrated ford, passed by Cyrus in his expedition against Art'axerxes, 
 by Darius after his defeat by Alexander at Issus, and by Alexander in pursuit of Da- 
 rius ; and Orouros (Gorur), fixed by Pompey as the boundary of the Roman empire 
 when he reduced Syria to a province ; but the chief place in this extensive region was 
 Palmyra, or " Tadmor in the desert," said to have been built by Solomon, the resi- 
 dence of Longinus (cf. P. V. § 124), and of Zenobia, who so bravely defied the em- 
 peror Aurelian ; it is yet marked by celebrated architectural ruins. 
 
 On the ruins of Palmyra, see R. Wood, as cited P. IV. § 2-13. 3. — The Modern Traveller.— Irhy and Mangles, Travels in Egypt, 
 Syria, &c. Lond. 1S22. 8. 
 
 Phoenicia contained the cities of Tyrus (Tyre) and Sidon, famous for their exten- 
 sive commerce. The siege of Tyre by Alexander is celebrated for the obstinate 
 defence made by the besieged, and the unconquerable perseverance of the besiegers. 
 Berytus (Beirut), north of Sidon, was the seat of a distinguished school for the study 
 of law in the age of Justinian. 
 
 Beirut has been for several years a very interesting missionary station. In its vicinity, on mount Lebanon, dwell the Maronites 
 and the Druzes. — See Jowett's Researches. — Missionary Herald, from the year 1S23, passim. — Bond's Memoir of Pliny Fisk. 
 
 § 167. Judaea, or Palaestina, is called in Scripture the land of Canaan, of Israel, 
 and of Judah. It was at first divided among the twelve tribes ; it was afterwards 
 separated into the kingdoms of Israel and Judah ; and finally the Romans divided it 
 into four regions, Galilaea, Samaria, Judaea Propria, and Peraea or Transfluviana, the 
 country beyond Jordan. 
 
 Galilaea was again subdivided into Inferior, chiefly inhabited by Jews; and Su- 
 perior, which, from its proximity to Ccelo-Syria, was called Galilee of the Gentiles. — 
 The chief towns of Upper Galilee were Ccesarea Philippi, so called to distinguish it 
 from another town of the same name in this province ; its original name was Laish, 
 afterwards changed to Paneas, and finally called Caesarea Philippi, by Herod's son 
 Philip ; Gabara and Jotopata, bravely defended by the historian Josephus, when be- 
 sieged by Vespasian. . The principal cities in Lower Galilee were Ace, or Ptolemais 
 (Acre), memorable for its siege by Richard Cceur de Lion in the time of the Crusades; 
 Canm ; Sepphoris, afterwards called Dio Caesarea; Nazareth and Jezreel. — A large 
 lake in Galilee was called the Sea of Tiberias or Gennesareth ; at its northern ex- 
 tremity was Chorazin; at the western side were Capernaum, Tiberias, and Bethsaida; 
 on the opposite side was Gadara. — The chief mountains of Galilee were Carmel and 
 
'VII 
 
P. I. ASIA. WESTERN DIVISION. JUDAEA. 51 
 
 ilabyrins or Tabor, the scene of our Lord's transfiguration. — Between Galilee and 
 Samaria stood Bethsan, the chief of the ten confederate cities called Decapolis, which, 
 dreading the power of the Jews, entered into a confederacy against the Asmonean 
 princes, who then governed Judea. 
 
 $ 168 a. Samaria lay south of Galilee. Its chief towns were Samaria, the capital, 
 destroyed by the Asmonean princes, but rebuilt by Herod, who called it Sebaste, in 
 honor of Augustus; Ccesarea, first called Turris Stralonices, a celebrated seaport, the 
 residence of the Roman governors ; Joppa, a seaport south of Cassarea, where An- 
 dromeda was delivered from a sea-monster by Perseus (P. II. § 122) ; Sichem, in the 
 interior, the ancient capital, between the mountains Ebal and Gerizim; it was in later 
 times called Neapolis ; Lydda, called by the Greeks Diospolis ; and Arimathea. 
 
 Judaea was situated south of Samaria, between the Lake Asphaltites, or Dead 
 Sea, and the Mediterranean. — The capital was Hierosolyma (Jerusalem), which we 
 shall notice particularly in the next section. North-west from Jerusalem was Em- 
 maus or Nicopolis, where the Jews were defeated by Vespasian; directly north was 
 Bethel; north-east was Jericho; south from Jerusalem was Bethlehem, the birthplace 
 of Christ ; further south, Hebron, where Abraham was buried ; still further, some- 
 what to the west, Beersheba, often mentioned as the southern limit of the country of 
 Israel ; south-west, Eleutheropolis, a very flourishing city in the time of Eusebius. 
 
 ? 168 b. Hierosolyma, or Jerusalem, originally belonged to the Jebusites, from whom it was 
 taken by David, who made it his residence. The Arabians now call it El-Kuds, the Holy. — It is 
 situated on a broad elevation, having higher hills all around it ; the Mount of Olives on the east ; 
 on the north a ridge extending from the Mt. of Olives and bending around to the west, at the 
 distance of more than a mile : on the west, hills at a greater distance sloping gently, beyond a 
 
 ain ; on the south, the Hill of Evil Counsel rising directly on the further side of the Valley of 
 3innom. 
 
 It is surrounded by walls presenting a stately appearance, of hewn stone, with towers and 
 battlements, of a height varying according to the inequalities in the ground, from twenty to fifty 
 feet ; in circumference about two and a half geographical miles. The ancient walls formed a 
 larger circuit of about three and a half geographical miles accordingto Josephus ; and Jerusalem 
 is said to have been anciently fortified by three walls ; but this statement must not be understood to 
 mean that there were three walls around the whole city, one within another; since the two 
 inner walls were merely walls intersecting the city and joining the outer wall ; the hill of Zion 
 was first of all enclosed within a wall: then Moriah, with Ophel, was added, and afterwards 
 Akra, and a second wall was extended from the old one so as to include these ; subsequently 
 Bezetha was annexed, and to protect this a third wall was constructed joining the others. 
 
 Of the eight former gates, only the fqur larger are now open : the Gate of the Pillar, or Da- 
 mascus Gate, on tire north ; the Gate of the Pilgrims, or Bethlehem Gate, on the west ; the Gate 
 vf David, or Zion Gate, on the south; and the Gate of the Tribes, or St. Stephen's Gate, on the 
 5ast. The principal streets now run nearly at right angles to each other. 
 
 The surface of the ground is diversified by five hills : the largest is Zion, in the southern part, 
 rising abruptly from the Valley of Hinnom ; north of this and in the western part of the city is 
 Akra, separated from Zion by the valley of the Tyropceon ; north-east from Akra and east of the 
 Damascus Gate is Bezetha, in the north-western part of the city ; south-east from this and in the 
 eastern part of the city is Moriah, which, with Bezetha, rises from the Valley of Jehoshaphat ; 
 south of Moriah, and at the south-eastern corner of the city, is Ophel : Bezetha, Moriah, and 
 Ophel may be considered as parts of one ridge which extends to the south beyond the walls. 
 
 These hills are closely encompassed on three sides by narrow valleys ; on the. east the Valley of 
 Jehoshaphat ; on the west, the Valley of Gihon, which is continued into the Valley of Hinnom on 
 the south : at some distance from the south-eastern corner of the city, the Valley of Jehoshaphat 
 and that of Hinnom are connected. The Brook Kidron is but the bed of a torrent which during 
 the rains of winter flows through the Valley of Jehoshaphat to the south. The valley in which 
 was the bed of the ancient Tyropmon commences in the depression between Zion and Akra (near 
 the western or Hebron or Bethlehem gate), and descending easterly bends to the south between 
 Zion and Ophel, and meets with the other two valleys at their common point of junction. 
 
 The hill Zion was the part first occupied by David, and hence called " the city of David." 
 Only the northern part of it is now within the walls ; much of the rest is literally "a ploughed 
 field;" on the north-western partis the present citadel, the lower portions of the walls of which 
 are probably the remains of the ancient Tower of Hippicus.-^On the summit of Akra is the church 
 of the Holy Sepulchre, on the spot designated by doubtful tradition as being the Golgotha and 
 the Calvary of the Scriptures. — Bezetha is mostly covered with low buildings or hovels, with no 
 obvious traces of ancient ruins, — On Moriah, which at the first was apparently a mound of solid 
 rock, the Temple of Solomon was built ; the surface of the rock being leveled for the purpose ; 
 and then immense walls were erected from the base of the rock on the four sides, and the 
 interval between filled in with earth or built up with vaults so as to make on the top a large 
 area, which formed the Court of the Temple. To this the present area of the grand Mosque of 
 Omar, or enclosure called " El-Haram-esh-Sherif," nearly if not wholly corresponds ; being a 
 plateau or terrace nearly in the form of a parallelogram, supported by and within massive walls 
 built up from the lower ground on all sides; the lower portions of the walls are probably the 
 very walls on which the ancient Temple rested ; as seems to be shown by some remains of an 
 immense arch which supported the Bridge that formerly extended from the Temple across the 
 Tyropceon to a celebrated Xystus or portico on Mount Zion. — In the northern part of the present 
 area of the Mosque of Omar was the fortress called the Tower of Antonia, rendered memorable 
 in the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, who captured the city, A. D. 70; at which time the Temple 
 was utterly destroyed by fire. The Mosque now on its site was built by Omar in the seventh 
 century. 
 
 The ancient inhabitants depended for water, as do the modern, chiefly on cisterns ; almost 
 every house having now one or more excavated in the limestone rock on which the city stands. 
 Immense cisterns also still exist within the space under the area of the Temple. Large open 
 
52 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 reservoirs or tanks, or pools, were likewise constructed in and around the city. The Upper Poo, 
 and the Lower Pool still exist ; the former west of the city, in the Valley of Gihon ; the latter, 
 on the south-west, in the Valley of Hinnom. The Pool of Balhshtba, the Pool of Hezekiah, and 
 the Pool of Bethesda, are names given to three reservoirs within the present walls : the latter is 
 at the north-east corner of the Haram-esh-Sherif ; but there is no evidence that it is the pool 
 mentioned in the New Testament by the same name (BnQeaSa), having five porches. — The only 
 Fountains of living water now accessible are three; that now culled the Well of Nehemiah, pro- 
 bably the En-Rogel of the Old Testament (Josh. xv. 7, 8; xviii. 16), a deep well just below the 
 junction of the Valley of Hinnom with that of Jehoshaphat; the Fountain and Pool of Siloam, 
 which is in the valley of the Tyropceon, just above its junction with the Valleys of Hinnoin and 
 Jehoshaphat; and the Fountain of the Virgin, which is some distance from that point of junc- 
 tion, up the Valley of Jehoshaphat: the water of the latter is accessible only by descending 
 sixteen steps .down an excavation in the solid rock; and an artificial subterranean passage 
 extends from it through Mount Ophel to the Fountain of Siloam, winding so as to make the 
 distance 1750 feet, by which the waters of Siloam proceed from the Fountain of Mary the Vir- 
 gin. — A fountain is said to exist at the depth of seventy or eighty feet below the area of the 
 grand mosque, flowing by some artificial passage. 
 
 An Aqueduct, supposed to be ancient, carries water across the Valley of Hinnom, around the 
 sides of Mount Zion, and conveys it, as is supposed, to the Haram-esh-Sherif, or area of the 
 mosque. 
 
 East of Moriah, on the rocky elevation just beyond the Brook Kidron, are the sepulchral 
 monuments called the Tomb of Absalom or Absalom's Pillar (cf. P. III. l> 187. 5), and Tomb of 
 Zacharias. — South-east of these, on the south-western declivity of the Mount of Olives, are the 
 excavated sepulchres called the Tombs of the Prophets. — Those called the Tombs of the Judges, 
 are further up the Valley of Jehoshaphat, rather west of north from the city. — The remarkable 
 excavations commonly called the Tombs of the Kings, are about north from the city, on the nearer 
 side of the valley : they are probably the celebrated sepulcher of the mother of Constantine, the 
 Empress Helena, who, having embraced Christianity, spent the latter part of her life at Jeru- 
 salem, and died there at the age of eighty, about A. D. 325. 
 
 The above outlines of the Topography of Jerusalem will be of service to the student in reading the Scriptures, and the intensely 
 interesting story of the siege and destruction of the city by the Romans.— See Jnsephus (cf. P. V. § 248). — Mi7mar<. as cited § 211. ii 
 
 For fuller details as to the Topography, see F. G. Cromc, Jerusalem, in Ersch und Gruber's Encyclopixdie. — E. Robinson, 
 
 Biblical Researches, as cited § 171. In vol. lit. is a full list of works on Palestine. For details respecting the Temple, with PlaBS, 
 
 &c , see H. Prideaux, Connexions, &c. N. York, 1840. 2 vols. 8. with engravings— Calmct, Diet, of the Bible, Fragments 242— 
 249. vol. iii. p. 346. Chariest. 1813. 4 vols. 4.— For Plan of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, &c, see also Calmti, vol. iii. p. 164. 
 
 § 169 a. The southern district of Judaea was called Idumea, or the land of Edom ; 
 the chief towns were Gera, Zoar, and Bozra at the foot of Mount Seir. But this dis- 
 trict, or the -principal part of it, is included, perhaps more properly, under Arabia Pe- 
 trcea (§ 171). — The sea-coast was called Philistcsa, or the land of the Philistines, from 
 whom the whole country is now called Palestine ; its chief tpvvns were Gath, Ekron, 
 Azotus or Ashdod, Ascalon, and Gaza. 
 
 § 169 b. Perasa is separated from the other provinces by the river Jordan. The 
 chief towns were Ramoth-Gilead, in the land of the Gileadites ; Gadara, on the tor- 
 rent Hieromas, where the Christians were severely defeated by the Saracens; Gaulon, 
 a fortress of remarkable strength ; Gamala, near the Sea of Tiberias ; and Rabboth- 
 Ammon, in the district Ammonitis, afterwards called Philadelphia. — The Jordan 
 rises in Mount Hermon, and passing through the Sea of Tiberias, falls into the lake 
 Asphaltites, whence there is no exit for its waters. 
 
 This lake is supposed to occupy the situation of the cities of Sodom and Gomorrah. It has 
 been said that, from its extreme saltness or other properties, it is destructive of animal and 
 vegetable life, and that neither fish nor weeds are found in its waters. Dr. R. Robinson, who 
 visited the region in 1838, states that the water is intensely salt and bitter : but that trees and 
 bushes grow by it ; no pestiferous vapor was perceived, and many birds were singing among 
 the trees, and some flying over the waters. Bibl. Rcpos. Apr. 1839, p. 419. 
 
 § 170. Mesopotamia was south of Armenia, between the rivers Tigris and Eu- 
 phrates, whence it derives its name. Its chief towns were Nisibis, on a branch of the 
 Tigris, the great bulwark of the Romans against the Parthians ; Edessa, near Syria ; 
 Seleucia, now Bagdad, on the confluence of the Tigris with a branch of the Euphra- 
 tes ; and Carrhce, called in Scripture Charran, for a lime the residence of Abraham, 
 and the scene of the miserable overthrow of Crassus. On the borders of Chaldsea 
 were the plains of Cunaxa, where Cyrus was slain by his brother Artaxerxes, and 
 where the ten thousand Greeks commenced that retreat so memorable in history. 
 
 Babylonia and Chaldsea were districts separate from Mesopotamia, lying below it 
 to the south-east. Their chief town was Babylon, the most ancient and remarkable 
 city of antiquity. 
 
 Belus, its founder, commenced his building near the tower of Babel, which by profane writers 
 is called after his name ; but to Semiramis, the widow of his descendant Ninus, the grandeur 
 of Babylon is attributable. She enclosed the city with a wall of brick cemented by bitumen, of 
 almost incredible dimensions, and ornamented it with one hundred brazen gates. The circuit 
 of the city was said to have been more than sixty miles ; and so great was its length, that when 
 Cyrus had captured one extremity of the city, the inhabitants of the other were ignorant of the 
 event until the following morning. — The river Euphrates flowed through the city, and Cyrup 
 having diverted the river into another channel, led his troops through the vacant bed, and sur- 
 prised the Babyluiiiiuis, who, with their monarch Belshazzar, were at that moment celebrating 
 a fepet in honor of their gods, and consequently made but a feeble resistance. — The Chaldscaiig 
 
P.I. AFRICA. jEGYPTUS. 53 
 
 were celebrated astronomers, but they debased the science by the admixture of judicial astro- 
 logy, for which perversion of intellect they were greatly celebrated. 
 
 On Ihe topography and ruins of Babylon and Nineveh, see J. M. Kinneir, Geographical Memoir on Persia. — Rennell, Remarks 
 on the Topography of Babylon. Lond. 1S16. — Rich, Memoir on Babylon. &c. Lond.lSlS. — Bill. Repos. No. xxii. 365; No. xxiii. 
 158, 24S ; No. xxv. 139. 
 
 East of the Tigris lay Assyria, now called Kurdistan from the Carduchi, a tribe 
 that inhabited the northern part of the country; they are mentioned by Xenophon as 
 having opposed the retreat of the ten thousand ; they are supposed still to exist in the 
 modern Koords, various tribes of whom occupy the mountains of this country, and 
 who are generally of a savage character. — Its chief towns, Ninus or Nineveh, fre- 
 quently mentioned in Scripture ; the ruins of this celebrated city lie opposite the mo- 
 dern Mosul ; and Arbela, near which is th« village Gaugamela, where Alexander 
 overturned the Persian empire, by the defeat of Darius. 
 
 § 171. The only country of Asia remaining to be noticed is Arabia, which was the 
 large peninsula between the Sinus Persicus (Persian Gulf), and the Sinus Arabicus 
 (Red Sea). It was divided into three parts ; Deserta (desert), Petrcea (stony), and 
 Felix (happy). 
 
 Arabia Deserta lay between Syria and Chaldoea, and extended along the Sinus 
 Persicus. — Arabia Felix, celebrated for its fertility, was in the sou^iern part border- 
 ing on the Sinus Arabicus and the ocean. The most remarkable among its inhabitants 
 were the Sabcei, who cultivated frankincense. Macoraba was the name by which the 
 Greeks knew Mecca, which is illustrious in the Mohammedan history ; here is the 
 famous building called Kaba or Kaaba, with the fabulous black stone of Gabriel. — 
 Arabia P e t r ae a was a smaller portion lying south of Judea and at the head of the 
 Sinus Arabicus or Red Sea, which is here divided into two bays, the eastern called 
 JElanites Sinus i and the western Heroopolites Sinus. Between these bays or arms 
 were the mountains Horeb and Sinai. On the eastern was the seaport Berenice or 
 Asiongaber, the Ezion-Geber of Scripture. The most remarkable place was Petra 
 (called Sela by the Hebrews), embosomed in rocky mountains just south of Judea, in 
 the district called Idumea. 
 
 The ruins of Petra have been discovered recently, and have excited great interest from their 
 striking peculiarities (being entirely excavations from the solid rock), and from the evidence 
 they furnish of the fulfilment of prophecy. 
 
 See Laborde's Journey to Arabia Petraa, Lond. 1836. 2 vols. S. with 65 plates — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rio. No. cxvii,— North .imer. 
 Rev. for Jan. 1837.— BM. Repository, vol. ix. p. 431.— Stephens, Incidents of Travels, &c— E. Robinson, Biblical Researches in 
 Palestine, Mt. Sinai, and Arabia Petraia, Bost. 1841. 3 volSj 8. 
 
 The observations ana inquiries of Robinson seem to have settled the question as to the mountain on which the Ten Command, 
 ments were given by God to Moses ; showing satisfactorily that it was not the summit pointed out by tradition under the name of 
 Sinai or Jebel-Musa, but auother summit a little north-west from it, belonging to what is called Horeb.— See the very interesting 
 account, vol. i. p. 87-212. 
 
 The celebrated Sinaitic Inscriptions, which have attracted the attention of travelers, in an unknown and peculiar alphabet, have 
 lately been deciphered by Beer, of Leipzic— See Robinson, vol. i. p. 1SS, 552. — Grey, in the Transact, oftlic Royal Soc. of Litera- 
 ture, vol. iii. Lond. 1832. 
 
 § 172. The Asiatic Islands were not very important, except those in the Mare 
 JEgaeum already named (§ 147). The principal other in the Mediterranean was C y- 
 prus, sacred to Venus ; the chief towns of which were Paphos, where stood the 
 celebrated temple of Venus, infamous for the debauchery and prostitution it sanc- 
 tioned ; Citium, the birthplace of Zeno, the Stoic, on the west coast ; Salamis (Fama- 
 gusta), built by Teucer, on the east ; Lapethus, Arsinoc, and Soli, in the north ; and 
 Tartiassus, celebrated for its copper-mines, in the interior. — The other islands were 
 Proconnesus (Marmora), in the Propontis; Taprobane (Ceylon), and Jabadi. (Sumatra), 
 in the Indian ocean. 
 
 III. OF AFRICA. 
 
 § 173. The name Africa was applied strictly and properly by ancient geographers, 
 at least until the time of Ptolemy, to a small part of that vast peninsula of the eastern 
 continent which it now designates ; and by them Egypt was reckoned among the 
 Asiatic kingdoms. But we here use the term as including all that Was known to the. 
 ancients of that whole country. We shall consider it under the following divisions ; 
 iEGYPTus, or Egypt, ^Ethiopia, Libya, Aff.ica Propria, Numidia, Mauritania, 
 and Africa Interior. 
 
 § 174. The general boundaries of .ZEgyptus were the Mediterranean on the north, 
 Syria and the Sinus Arabicus on the east, Ethiopia on the south, and Lybia on the 
 west. The limit between it and Syria was the Torrens JEgypti, or river of Egypt as 
 called in the Bible, which flowed into the arm of the sea called Palus Sirbonis. The 
 
 E 2 
 
54 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 limit between Egypt and Lybia on the west was the great declivity and narrow pass 
 termed Catabathmos (<cara/?a0^ds). Its southern limit was the smaller cataract of the 
 Nile. 
 
 One of the most striking features of Egypt was its river, Nilus. This has two prin- 
 cipal sources ; the eastern rising in the mountains of the country now called Abys- 
 sinia, and the western in the Lunce Montes, or Mountains of the Moon. Having passed 
 through the ancient Ethiopia, it flows through the whole length of Egypt to the Medi- 
 terranean ; not receiving a single tributary for the last 1000 miles of its course, and at 
 last dividing into two great arms and forming the triangular island called Delta from 
 its shape. It had seven mouths ; the most western was the Ostium Canopicum ; the 
 others in their order proceeding towards the east, were the Balbytinum, Sebenmti- 
 cum, Phatnicum, Mendesium, Taniticum, and Pelusiacum. — Its annual inundations 
 were the great cause of fertility, and reservoirs and canals were formed in great num- 
 bers to convey the water over the whole country ; where the land was too high to 
 allow canals to convey it, pumps were used for raising the water ; almost every vil- 
 lage, it is said, had its canal, although there were in the narrow valley of Egypt many 
 thousand cities and villages. 
 
 § 175. There were three principal divisions of Egypt ; the northern part on the Me- 
 diterranean was called JEgyptus Inferior; the southern part on the confines of Ethio- 
 pia was JEgyptus Superior or Thebais; and the portion between these, Heptanomis. — • 
 The capital of Lower Egypt was Alexandria, the great mart of Indian merchandize ; 
 during the middle ages, caravans continually passed from thence to Arsinoe (Suez), 
 on the Red Sea, whence goods were conveyed by sea to India. In front of the har- 
 bor was an island named Pharos, on which a celebrated lighthouse was built ; south 
 of the city was the lake Mareotis, in the vicinity of which the best Egyptiin wine was 
 made. In Alexandria was the celebrated library, said to have been burned by the 
 Saracens. (Cf. P. IV. §-76). — In the interior of the Delta was. Sais, the anc ; ent capi- 
 tal, remarkable for its numerous temples. Between the Delta and Sinus Arabicus 
 were Heroopolis, the city of the shepherd kings ; and Onion, founded by a colony of 
 Jews, who fled hither under their high-priest Onias, from the cruelties of Antiochus, 
 and, by the permission of Ptolemy, built a city and temple. 
 
 In Lower Egypt, east of the Delta, was the land of Goshen, according to the views of the best modern authors. — Cf. E. rriinson, 
 on the Exodus of the Israelites, &c. Bibl. Repoi. vol. ii. 744. Also, Researches, vol. i. 
 
 § 176. In the middle portion or Heptanomis, one of the chief places was Memphis, 
 near the spot where Grand Cairo now stands jj, it was the ancient metropolis of all 
 Egypt; in its vicinity are the stupendous pyramids. Arsinoe south-west of Memphis 
 was an important place ; near this was the famous lake Moeris, said to have been exca- 
 vated by order of an Egyptian king as a reservoir to contain the waters of the Nile 
 conveyed into it by a great canal, now the lake Birhet-el-Kurun, and believed to have 
 been wholly or chiefly the work of nature ; at the southern end of this lake was the 
 still more celebrated Labyrinth. — Oxyrunchus was a considerable place, said to have 
 derived its name from a sharp-nosed fish (<>!% ijvyx°s) worshiped by the inhabitants.— 
 In Upper Egypt, the most important place was Thebes, which gave the name of Thebais to 
 this division ; called also by the Greeks Diospolis, and Hecatompylos ; although de- 
 stroyed by Cambyses 500 years before Christ, its ruins still excite admiration, occupying 
 a space of 27 miles in circumference, including the, modern Karnak, Luxor, and other 
 villages; near it was the famous statue of Memnon. — Tentyra (Denderah), was nortk 
 of Thebes, and also presents interesting ruins ; especially the large temple of Isis, 
 from the ceiling of which was taken the famous Zodiac transported to France and 
 made the subject of much speculation (cf. Amer. Quart. Rev. vol. iv). — Between 
 Thebes and Tentyra, nearer the former and on the eastern side of the Nile, was Cop- 
 tos; from this place a road was constructed by Ptolemy Philadelphus across the desert 
 to Berenice on the Sinus Arabicus. Considerably to the south of Thebes was Ombi 
 made notorious by Juvenal (Sat. xv.) for its quarrels with Tentyra respecting the wor 
 ship of the crocodile. Syene was the extreme town on the borders of Ethiopia ; the 
 place of Juvenal's exile ; where also was the well sunk to mark the summer solstice, its 
 bottom being then illumined by the vertical rays of the sun directly perpendicular over 
 it. Not far from Syene was the island on which Elephantine stood, of which interest- 
 ing ruins still remain. Near Syene was also the Mons Basaniles, mountains of touch- 
 stone, from which the Egyptians used to make ornamental vases. — South of Syene 
 were the Cataracts of the Nile ; mighty terraces of red granite (Syenite) cross the bed 
 of the river, and throw its waters into an impetuous and foaming torrent. In this region 
 were the quarries whence the vast obelisks and colossal statues and blocks of the Egyp- 
 tian temples were taken. There were three places on the Sinus Arabicus, which 
 should be mentioned ; Berenice, in the southern extremity of Egypt ; Arsinoe (now 
 Suez), at the head of the Sinus Heroopolites, the western arm of the Red Sea; and 
 Myoshormus, called also Portus Veneris, midway between them ; they were commercial 
 places, goods being transported from them to the Nile. A canai, called Fossa Trajani, 
 connected Arsinoe with that river. 
 
"Vrri: 
 
P. I. AFRICA. ETHIOPIA. 55 
 
 In the vast deserts on the western or Lybian side of Egypt were the cultivated and 
 inhabited spots called Oasis Mag?ia, and Oasis Parva, the Great and the Little Oasis. 
 The latter was in the division termed Heptanomis, south of lake Mosris. The Great 
 Oasis is in the part that was called Thebais. It was a place of banishment in the time 
 of the later Roman empire ; yet said to have been a delightful residence, and some- 
 times called by the Greeks, the isle of the blessed. 
 
 § 177. The ruins and antiquities of Egypt have ever awakened the deepest interest 
 in the traveler and the scholar. Besides the various temples and other edifices, of which 
 splendid remains are found in various places, the following rank high among the objects 
 of curiosity. 1. Obelisks and Pillars; several of these were removed to Rome; of 
 the remaining, the most noted are the Pillar of On at Heliopolis, the two obelisks 
 called Cleopatra' s Needles at Alexandria, and Pompef s Pillar, also at Alexandria. An 
 obelisk, nearly 70 feet in length, was brought to Paris in the year 1836, to be erected 
 in that city, by Louis Philippe. — 2. The Pyramids, ranked by the Greeks among the 
 seven wonders. They are numerqus at Djiza, or Gize, near Cairo and the ancient 
 Memphis, and at Sacchara, 18 miles south of Gize. Those at Gize are the most cele- 
 brated. One of them has been open from the earliest times of which we have account. 
 Several others have been opened in recent times. They all contain chambers evidently 
 used for sepulchral purposes. (Cf. P. IV. § 231. P. II. § 96. 3.)— 3. Catacombs.' These 
 are subterranean burying places. They are found in several places ; but the most re- 
 markable are near Thebes, at a place now Called Goilrnou, a tract of rocks at the foot 
 of the mountains west of the Nile. The tombs are excavated in the rocks, and extend, 
 it is said, over the space of two miles. From these', many mummies have been taken. — 
 The labyrinth, which Herodotus considered more wonderful than the pyramids, included 
 numerous subterranean chambers designed as repositories for the dead ; over these was 
 an immense pile of splendid buildings. Some ruins of this structure near lake Mceris 
 (i? 176) have been discovered. — 4. Colossal images and statues. One of the most re- 
 markable of the colossal images of the sphinx (cf. P. II. § 117) is near the great pyra- 
 mids. A very celebrated colossus is that commonly called the statue of Memnon (cf. 
 P. II. § 74. P. IV. § 169. 2. § 231. 1).— The Egyptian monuments are covered with 
 inscriptions in Hieroglyphics (cf. P. IV. § 16). 
 
 Much research has been employed in modern times upon Egyptian Antiquities and Remains. A new degree of interest was 
 awakened in the whole subject by the celebrated expedition of Bonaparte in 1798. In this invasion of Egypt, he took with him a 
 detachment of no less than one hundred men who had cultivated the arts and sciences (savans) selected for the purpose. " Tbi9 
 body, the first of the kind which ever accompanied an invading army, was liberally supplied with books, philosophical instruments, 
 and all the means of prosecuting the several departments of knowledge." — The splendid work, published under the emperor's 
 patronage, and styled Description de VEgypte, was the result of their labors (cf. P. IV. § 169). 
 
 Many other valuable works illustrating the his'ory and monuments of Egypt have been published during the present century, 
 some from members of the company of savans above named. That of Denon holds a high rank ; entitled Travels in Upper and 
 Lower Egypt during the Campaigns of Bonaparte ; with folio plates. — The following works relate to this subject. Leigh's Travels 
 in Egypt, — Belzoni's Travels. — Jomard's Description de l'Egypte. — Hamilton's JEgyptiaca.— Letronne, Recherches sur I'Egypte. 
 — RusselVs View, of Ancient and Modern Egypt, in Harper's Fain. Library, No. xxxiii.—/. Miot, Memoires de I'Expedition en 
 Egypte, &c. Per. ISI4.— /. O. Wilkinson, Topography of Thebes, and general View of Egypt. Lond. 1635. 8.-7. G. Wilkinson,' 
 Manners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians. Lond. 1837. 3 vols. 8.— We may add, the Travels of Clarke, Norden, Shaw, 
 Pococke. Cf. Supplement to Encyclop. Briiann. article Egypt. — Lund. Quart. Rev. vol. xiii. 1. xvi. 1. xvii. 181. xix. 178. xxiv, 
 p. 139. — Jimer. Quart. Rev. No. vil. — For. Quart. Rev. Nos. xxxii.. and xxxiii. — Am. Bibl. Repos. No. xxiii. — See also references 
 given P. IV. § 216. 1. §^230. 1. § 23S. 3. § 243. 3 A history of Pompey's Pillar is given in J. White's Egyptiaca, Part I. Oxf. 1821. 
 
 § 178. Ethiopia was the name given by the ancients very indefinitely to the coun- 
 try lying south of Egypt ; the modern countries of Nubia and Abyssinia particularly 
 were included. — Various uncivilized tribes are represented as dwelling here in ancient 
 times ; on the coast were the Troglodytm, said to inhabit caves of the earth. It seems 
 also to have contained inhabitants equally advanced in refinement with the Egyptians. 
 
 The most important places were Napata, Meroe, Auxume, and Adulis. — Auxume 
 (Axum) was on one of the sources of the Astaboras (Tacazze), the eastern branch of 
 the Nile. Its ruins still exist. "In one square, Bruce found 40 obelisks, each formed 
 of a single piece of granite, with sculptures and inscriptions, but no hieroglyphics. One 
 of the obelisks was 60 feet high." — Here was found the monument usually called the 
 Inscription of Axum (cf. P. IV. § 92. 5.). — Adulis (Arkiko) was on a bay of the Sinus 
 Arabicus; having some celebrity from two inscriptions there found (cf. P. IV. $92. 
 5). — Meroe was on or near the Nile south of its junction with the Astaboras ; near the 
 modern Shendy, as is supposed. It was the capital of a large tract between these 
 rivers called by the same name, and was celebrated in ancient times, being the grand 
 emporium of the caravan trade between Ethiopia and Egypt and the north of Africa. 
 The remains of temples and other edifices of sandstone still mark its site. — Napata was 
 farther north or lower down on the Nile, and was next in rank to Meroe. 
 
 These regions have also been explored in modern times, and splendid ruins have been found scattered along the valley ot \t,e Nile. 
 The following are some of the sources of information on the subject. Bruce's Travels in Abyssinia, cited P. IV. § 118. I.— Travels 
 of Salt and Lord Valentia ; of Burckhardt : Franc. Gau (P. IV. § 243. 3), and especially of Cailliaud.— Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. 
 vol. xvi. 13. xix. 174 — Hoskins' Travels in Ethiopia, Lond. 1835, S. 
 
 § 179. Under Libya we include the whole extent from JEgyplus on the east to the 
 Syrtis Minor (Gulf of Cabes), together with an indefinite portion on the south. The 
 
56 CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 term was used by the ancient poets to signify Africa in general. In its strict and most 
 limited sense, it included only the region between Egypt and the Syrlis Major (Gulf 
 of Sidra). — In the latter sense, it comprised on the coast only the two districts Mar- 
 marica and Cyrenaica. We include under Libya also the portion farther west called 
 Hegio Syrtica, from the two Syrtes on the coast already named. 
 
 Marmarica was on the east nearest to Egypt. The inhabitants were said to 
 possess some secret charm against the poison of serpents; some of them, named 
 Psylli, made it their profession to heal such as had been bitten, by sucking the venom 
 out of the Wound. In an Oasis,, now El Wah, south of Marmarica, stood the cele- 
 brated temple of Jupiter Ammon (P. III. § 71), and near it the fountain of the Run, 
 whose waters were said to be warm in the morning, cool at noon, hot in the evening, 
 and scalding at midnight. Alexander, after having encountered great difficulties, suc- 
 ceeded in visiting this oracle, and was hailed by the priest as son of Jupiter. 
 
 "Belzoni, previously to his leaving Egypt, made a tour to El Wah (the bushes), the northern 
 Oasis. He found, as Hornemann had, thctops of the hills of the desert encrusted with salt, and 
 wells of sweet water rising out of a surface overspread with masses of salt, as Herodotus related 
 two-and-twenty centuries ago. He found also the remains of what has been considered as the 
 temple of Jupiter Ammon ; but the natives were as jealous and as unwilling to let him see this 
 'work of the infidels,' as Hornemann had found them to be. The fine rivulet of sweet water, 
 whose source this traveler describes as being in a grove of date trees, and which Brown was told 
 by the people, was sometimes cold and sometimes warm, was also visited by Belzoni; who says 
 he proved the truth of what is stated by Herodotus, that this spring is warm in the mornings and 
 evenings, much more so at midnight, and cold in the middle of the day. Had Mr. Belzoni pos- 
 sessed a thermometer, he would have found ,that it was the temperature of the air which had 
 changed, while that of the fountain of the sun remained the same." — Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 95. 
 
 Cyrenaica, or Pentapolis (Barca), lay between Marmarica and the Syrtis Major, 
 or altars of the Philseni. It contained five cities ; Cyrene, founded by a Greek colony, 
 the birthplace of the philosopher Carneades ; Apollonia, a celebrated seaport ; Ftole- 
 mais, at first called Barce ; Arsinoe, and Berenice or Hesperis, near which were the 
 gardens of the Hesperides , famous for their golden apples, and the residence of the 
 Gorgons, so celebrated in fable. (Cf. P. II. § 115. Ed. Rev. No. 95,, p. 228).— West 
 of this was Regio Syrtica, also called, from its three cities, Tripqlitana (Tripoli) ; 
 its cities were Leptis, called major, to distinguish it from a town of the same name 
 near Carthage ; CEa, the present city of Tripoli ; and Sabrata, a Roman colony; and 
 Tysdrus, now Elgem. A people called by Homer the Lotophagi dwelt on this coast ; 
 he says that they fed on the lotos, a fruit so delicious, that whoever tasted it imme- 
 diately forgot his native country. On the coast were the Syrtes, two dangerous quick- 
 sands, which frequently proved fatal to hapless mariners ; here, also, was the lake 
 Tritonis, sacred to Minerva. 
 
 ' There are interesting ancient remains in these regions, particularly at Leptis and Cyrene. — The 
 situation of Cyrene is described as exceedingly beautiful. — "It is built on the edge of a range 
 of hills, rising about 800 feet above a fine sweep of high table land, forming the" summit of a 
 lower chain, to which it descends by a series of terraces. The elevation of the lower chain may 
 be estimated at 1000 feet ; so that Cyrene stands about 1800 feet above the level of the sea, of 
 which it commands an extensive view over the table land, which, extending east and west as 
 far as the eye can reach, stretches about five miles to the northward, and then descends abruptly 
 to the coast. Advantage has been taken of the natural terraces, to shape the ledges into roads 
 leading along the face of the mountain, and communicating in some instances b# narrow flights 
 of steps cut in the rock. These roads, which may be supposed to have been the favorite drives 
 of the citizens of Cyrene, are very plainly indented with the marks of chariot wheels, deep fur- 
 rowing the smooth, stony surface. The rock, in most instances rising perpendicularly from these 
 galleries, has been excavated into innumerable tombs, generally adorned with architectural 
 facades. The outer sides of the roads, where they descended from one range to another, were 
 ornamented with sarcophagi and monumental tombs ; and the whole sloping space between the 
 galleries was filled up with similar structures. These, as well as the excavated tombs, exhibit 
 very superior taste and execution. In two instances, a simple sarcophagus of white marble, 
 ornamented with flowers and figures in relief of exquisite workmanship, was found in a large 
 excavation. In several of the excavated tombs were discovered remains of paintings, repre- 
 senting historical, allegorical, and pastoral subjects, executed in the manner of those of Hercu- 
 laneum and Pompeii. (Cf. P. IV. $ 226). — In the region of Cyrenaica are several caverns con- 
 taining stalactites, presenting of course various fantastic shapes. It has been supposed that 
 this fact, together with the existence of the ruins and excavations in the vicinity of Cyrene, may 
 have given rise to the story of the petrified city, of which, under the name of Ras Sem, marvelous 
 accounts have been related to travelers in Africa." 
 
 See Modern Traveler.— F. W. Sr B. Beechy, Expedition to Northern Coast of Africa. Lond. 1S28. 4. 
 
 At Tysdrus are still found ruins of Roman structures ; particularly of a spacious amphitheatre, 
 " consisting formerly of four rows of columns in tiers one. above another, and sixty-four arcades." 
 The inner area is said to be 300 feet in length and 200 in breadth; and the whole circumference 
 1570 feet ; the height is estimated to have been at least 105 feet. The upper tier of columns is 
 nearly fallen ; the three lower are preserved. . 
 
 See Bev. C. F. Ewald's Diary. A drawing is given in The Penny Magazine, Jan. 13, 1838. 
 
 § ISO. Next to Tripolitana was the province of Africa Propria, of which the capi- 
 tal was Carthago. This city was founded by a Tyrian colony, led by queen Dido, and 
 by its extensive commerce became one of the most opulent cities of antiquity. Its 
 citadel was called Byrsa, because it was said that Dido, on coming here, purchased 
 
P. I. AFRICA. NUMIDIA. MAURITANIA. 57 
 
 as much ground as she could encompass with a 0ipaa, or hide, and then, having cut 
 the hide inco strips, took in the space originally covered by the city. 
 
 Carthage is immortalized by poets and historians on account of the three wars which it sus- 
 tained against the Romans. The last of these wars resulted in the total destruction of the city 
 by Scipio Africanus the younger, B. C. 146. The city is said to have been above twenty miles 
 in circumference ; it being set on fire by the Romans, the conflagration lasted seventeen days. 
 A new city was built by the emperor Augustus at a small distance from the site of the ancient. 
 The new Carthage was taken from the Romans by Genseric, A. D. 439, and for more than a cen- 
 tury afterwards was the capital of the Vandal empire in Africa. It was finally destroyed by the 
 Saracens towards the end of the seventh century. A single aqueduct is said to be the chief trace 
 of it found in modern times. 
 
 The other remarkable towns in this district were Tunes or Tuneta (Tunis), where 
 Regulus was defeated and taken prisoner ; Clupea, near the Promontorium Mercurii 
 (Cape Bona) ; Adrumetum; Thapsus, where Caesar defeated Scipio and Juba; and 
 Ucica, where Cato the younger slew himself; near Utica was the river Bagradas, 
 where Regulus slew an enormous serpent, that had destroyed many of his soldiers. 
 
 § 181. Numidia was at one time divided into the kingdom of the Massyli, ruled by 
 Massinissa, and that of the Massaesyli, under the government of 'Syphax ; but after 
 the third Punic war, they were united into one kingdom under Massinissa. The capi- 
 tal was Certa. The principal towns on the sea-coast were Tabraca, remarkable for 
 its groves ; Hippo Regius, near the small river Rubricatus, the episcopal seat of Saint 
 Augustine ; and Rusicade. In the interior were Vaga; Sicca; and Zama, where Han- 
 nibal was defeated by Scipio. On the confines of the desert were Thala and Capsa. ' 
 
 § 182. Mauritania was separated from Numidia by the river Ampsagas. — Itg 
 chief towns were Cmsarea, whence .the eastern part was called Csesariensis; and 
 Tingis (Tangiers), from which the western received the name Tingitana. This 
 country extended from the river Ampsagas, separating it from Numidia, to some dis- 
 tance on the Atlantic coast. The Romans, after their conquest over these regions, 
 planted in them numerous colonies, and constructed fortresses and roads, of which 
 some traces yet remain. The most southern Roman settlement was that called Ex- 
 ploratio ad 3'Ler curium, on the coast of the Atlantic. The waters west of this terri- 
 tory were named Oceanus Atlanticus, from the chain of mountains called Atlas, 
 which bounded Mauritania on the south, and terminated at two different points on 
 the coast, the northern ridge being termed Atlas Mi?ior, and the southern Atlas 
 Major. — Mons Abyla was the elevated summit near the strait connecting the Medi- 
 terranean and the Atlantic. This and Calpe on the European side formed the fabled 
 pillars of Hercules (Herculis Column®). 
 
 § 183. All the remaining countries of the land may be included under Afkica In- 
 terior, to which it is impossible to assign any definite boundaries. — The Gastuli, and 
 Garamantes, and other tribes, are represented as dwelling within it. The NigritcB 
 were placed about the river Niger. The Great Desert was called Deserta Libya? In- 
 
 terioris. On the coast west of this were the Insula Fortunatce; called also Cana- 
 
 ria, from the number of large dogs, as some suppose, found upon them, and thence 
 their modern name Ca?iaries. — South of these were the Insults Hesperidum, the mo- 
 dern Cape Verd islands, on which some have placed the gardens of the Hesperides 
 (cf. § 179). — West of this coast the ancients also placed the island Atlantis, said to 
 have existed once, and to have been afterwards submerged in the ocean. It was re- 
 presented as larger than Asia and Africa, and as very fertile and powerful. 
 
 Some have considered the whole account of Atlantis as a mere fable ; others have conjectured 
 that the Canaries, Madeira Isles, and Azores, once formed parts of a vast island thus described; 
 and others have maintained that the land referred to must have been the continent of America. 
 
 The fatter opinion is maintained in an Essay entitled as follows : An Attempt to show that America must he hnown to the 
 Ancients, 8,-c. by an American Englishman, Pastor of a Church in Boston. Boston, New England, MDCCLXXI1I. — Some have 
 
 imagined that this island was situated in the Northern regions ; Bailly, Lettres sur 1'Atlantide de Flaton, &c. Paris, 1779. 8. 
 
 See Malte-Srun's Geography.— Bory de St. Vincent, Essai sur 1'antique Atlantide. Par. 1804. 4. — The ancient story is given in 
 the Critias or Atlanticus of Plato. 
 
VIII a. 
 
 •lavj Hxaojsj 
 
 iHV<J HXQOg 
 
fcW Smdfoi % a Circular a*\th list and prices. 
 GUYOT'S 
 
 Ijpuahni political 
 
 It is impossible to overestimate the value and importance of a thorough knowledge of the 
 Physical Phenomena of the earth, regarded with reference to its occupants. On it depends 
 not only all Natural Science, but it is also the only sure foundation for the Philosophy of His- 
 tory. In this knowledge must be sought the true key and explanation of the forces that 
 shape the career of mankind. 
 
 The best mode of communicating this knowledge to the young is an educational problem 
 that can scarcely be said to have received a satisfactory solution up to the present time. 
 How high it stands in general estimation, is shown by the variety of attempts made to eluci- 
 date the Elementary Principles of Geography and History, while their very number proves 
 the unsatisfactory nature of each. Under a conviction that a series of Maps and Text-Books 
 on Geographies, prepared on comprehensive views, combining simplicity and accuracy, 
 would meet with the most ready and hearty support of all interested in the cause of edu- 
 cation, the Publishers concluded an arrangement with Professor Guyot, the eminent suc- 
 cessor of the immortal Humboldt, to prepare such. 
 
 The. spt!. 3 * of Maps are now completed, and on a scale of magnitude before unattempted. 
 They challenge the most minute scrutiny for scientific accuracy and perfection of mechanical 
 execution. Their adaptation to practical use in the class-room has been thoroughly tested 
 with the most pleasing and satisfactory results. 
 
 • The main feature of the system followed by Professor Guyot, is the connection of the 
 physical configuration of the earth's surface with that of the living organisms that inhabit, 
 it, thus blending together the lessons of Geology, Physical Geography, Animated Nature , 
 and Civil and Political nistory. Studied in this manner, Geography is no longer, as usually 
 taught, a crude mass of names and figures, fatiguing to the memory, and calling up no asso- 
 ciations to the mind of the learner. Aided by these splendid Maps (and Text-Books), the 
 mutual relations of the "Earth and Man " and its natural productions become evident, and 
 their dependence one on another. New life is breathed into the dry bones of the Past 
 the teachings of History take visible shape, and what was formerly a tedious and unproduc- 
 tive study, attracts in its new form the lively interest of all intelligent scholars. 
 
 The annexed Map is an exact miniature copy of Guyots Map of the United States (one 
 of the series, size 6x7 ft.). It is presented, so that some idea may be formed of the original. 
 By a new system of coloring and engraving, the physical and political peculiarities of each 
 country, the mountains, plateaus, river systems, marine currents, &c, are all rendered dis 
 tinctly visible, while the political lines are clearly indicated. By reference to the key (on tho 
 Map), a full explanation of the coloring, &c, will be found. 
 
 The Text-books are in course of preparation; the Publishers hope during the Spring of 
 1865 to issue the Primary and Intermediate, and the Teacher's Guide. 
 
 CHARLES SGRIBNEB, 
 
 124 Gkand Street, Netv Yoek 
 
INTRODUCTION TO CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 Preliminary Remarks. 
 
 § 184. Chronology treats of the computation of time and of the dates of events. It 
 is comparatively a modern science. Among the ancients there was scircely any sys- 
 tematic attention to the subject. Yet it is a highly important science. Accurate chro- 
 nology is essential to all reasoning from historical facts ; the mutual dependence and 
 relations of events cannot be traced without it ; with the greatest propriety it has been 
 called one of the eyes of history, while geography with equal propriety has been said 
 to be the other. Chronology is also an important aid to the memory, if properly con- 
 sidered, in studying history and biography. 
 
 In treating this subject, although our design requires a special reference to Classical Chronology, 
 yet from the nature of the subject we must introduce some things which belong rather to tha 
 science in general. We shall explain the Greek and Roman divisions of time and modes of com- 
 puting it ; and endeavor to present all that the student will need as preparatory to a full study 
 of the classical historians and of ancient history. 
 
 Chkonolo&t may be considered as consisting of two parts; the first, measuring 
 time and adjusting its various divisions; the second fixing the dates of historical events 
 and arranging them in order. 
 
 I.— Of measuring Time and adjusting its divisions. 
 
 § 185. The most obvious measures and divisions of time are those suggested to all 
 men by the revolutions of the heavenly bodies. These are three ; days, months, and 
 years ; the day from the revolution of the earth on her axis, or the apparent revolution 
 of the sun around her ; the month from the periodical changes in the moon ; the year 
 from the annual motion of the earth in her orbit round the sun. — These three divisions 
 are not commensurate, and this has caused the chief embarrassment in the science of 
 Chronology ; it has, in point of fact, been difficult so to adjust them with each other in 
 a system of measuring time as to have the computed time and the actual time perfectly 
 in agreement or coincidence. 
 
 § 186. The day. This was undoubtedly the earliest division, and originally was dis- 
 tinguished, it is likely, from the night ; extending from sunrise to sunset only. It was 
 afterwards considered as including also the night, or time between sunset and sunrise. 
 But the beginning of the day has been reckoned differently by different nations, for 
 civil purposes; at sunrise, by the Babylonians, Persians, Syrians and inhabitants of 
 India ; at sunset, by the Jews, Athenians, ancient Gauls, and Chinese ; at midnight, 
 by the Egyptians, Romans, and moderns generally. — Astronomers in their calculations 
 consider the day as beginning at noon, after the manner of the Arabians according to 
 Priestley. There have also been various modes of subdividing the day. — "The di- 
 vision of time into hours is very ancient : as is shown by Kircher (CEdip. iEgypt. t. ii. 
 part 2). The most ancient hour is that of the twelfth part of a day. Herodotus ob- 
 serves that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians [Babylonians, 1. ii. c. 1091 , among 
 other things, the method of dividing the day into twelve parts ; and the astronomers 
 of Cathaya still retain this method. The division of the day into twenty-four hours 
 was not known to the Romans before the Punic war." (Tegg.) 
 
 § 187. The Greeks, in the time of Homer, seem not to have used the division into 
 hours ; his poems present us with the more obvious parts of the day, morning (ti&s), 
 noon {vl'mjov Ttiiap), and evening (<5aA»;). But before the lime of Herodotus, they were 
 accustomed to the division of the day, and of the night also probably, into 12 parts. 
 They were acquainted also with the division of the day and night into four parts each, 
 according to the Jewish and Roman custom. 
 
 The Eomans subdivided the day and night each into four parts, which were called 
 vigils (vigilice) or watches. They also considered the day and the night as each di- 
 vided into 12 hours; three hours of course were included in a vigil. — The day vigiU 
 
 59 
 
60 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 were designated simply by the numerals prima, secunda, tertia, quarta; but as the 
 second vigil commenced with the third hour, the third vigil with the sixth hour, and the 
 fourth with the ninth hour, the terms prima, tertia, sexta, and nona, are also used to 
 signify the four vigils of the day. The night vigils were designated by t the names ves- 
 pera, media nox, gallicinium, conticinium. 
 
 It is sometimes stated, that the first vigil and first hour of the day commenced at what we ca!! 
 6 o'clock A. M. ; the third vigil (vigilia tertia), and sixth hour (hora sexta), at 12 o'clock, noon ; 
 the corresponding vigils and hours of night, at what we call 6 o'clock P. M., and 12 o'clock, mid- 
 night. This statement may be sufficiently accurate in general ; but it must be reniemberpd, that 
 the Roman hours and watches were of unequal length; the first hour of the day began with sun- 
 rise, and the twelfth ended at sunset; and the first hour of the night began at sunset, and the 
 twelfth ended at sunrise. Of course, the hours of the day in summer were longer than those of 
 the night, and in the winter they were shorter. Cf. P. III. $ 228. 
 
 § 188. Different devices have been employed for marking and making known 
 these parts of the day. The sun-dial was used by the Babylonians and Jews ; and by 
 the latter, watchmen were maintained to announce the time. The Greeks borrowed 
 the sun-dial from the Babylonians, and called it the Heliotrope (nXio-p6Trtov), or Gno- 
 mon (yvd/iuv) ; but the latter term properly designates the needle or index which cast 
 the shadow on the dial.' — The Romans, besides the dial (horologium, solarium), em- 
 ployed also the Clepsydra, for some account of which see P. III. ^ 228. 
 
 Several specimens of the ancient sun-dial are still preserved ; one is said to be still remaining 
 nearly in its original situation, on the rock of the Acropolis at Athens. " Upon each side of the 
 octagonal building commonly called the toioer of the winds, was also placed a vertical sun-dial ; 
 the gnomon or index projected from the side, while the lines indicating the hour were cut upon 
 the wall. The lines of the dial upon the wall are distinctly extant at the present day: and 
 although the gnomons have disappeared, the places where they were inserted are still visible." 
 Besides stationary dials, the ancients had portable ones of metal, which were termed Pliorema- 
 tica. (Cf. Stuart's Diet, of Architect, vol. ii.) — An instrument called a water-clock was in consi- 
 derable use in some parts of Europe a few centuries ago. Striking clocks are said to have been 
 invented by the Arabians about A. D. 800. — Watches were first made in Germany, A. D. 1477. 
 
 See Birtlioud, Histoire de la Mesure du Temps par les Horologes. Par. 1802. 2 vols. 4.— Emesti, de Solariis, in his Opuscula — 
 G. H. Martini, Abhandlung von den Sonnenuhren der Alten. Leipz. 1777. — Saltier and Falconet, Sur les horologes des Anciens, in 
 the Mem. de VJlcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 14S ; and vol. xx. p. 440. Cf. vol. iii. p. 174, on the Gnomon.— Smith, Diet, of Anti- 
 quities, art. Horologium. — Gough, on a Roman Horologium found in Italy, Archxologia (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), vol. x. p. 172, 
 with a plate, — For delineations of several ancient sun-dials, see Calmet, as cited § 163 b. vol. iii. p. 363. 
 
 § 1S9. The month. This division, without much doubt, had its origin in the various 
 phases or changes in the moon. It included the time of the moon's revolution round 
 the earth, or between two new moons, or two successive conjunctions of the sun and 
 moon. The mean period is 29 days, 12 hours, 44 minutes; it was considered to be 
 29i days ; and the ancients commonly reckoned the month as consisting alternately 
 of 29 and 30 days. 
 
 The Greeks thus reckoned their months, and termed those which had 30 days, 
 nhripeis (full), and StKauSdivol (ending on the 10th day) ; those of 29 days they termed 
 kolXoi (hollow or deficient), and iwatpOivol (e?iding on the 9th day). Twelve lunations 
 thus computed formed the year ; but it fell short of the true solar year by about 11 days 
 and a quarter, making in four years about 45 days. To reconcile this and bring the 
 computation by months and years to coincide more exactly, another month was inter- 
 calated every two years ; and in the first two years a month of 22 days ; and in the 
 next two, a month of 23 days ; thus after a period of four years the lunar and solar 
 years would begin together ; this was called the Tsroasrr/pis. But the effect of this 
 system was to change the place of the months relatively to the seasons ; and another 
 system was adopted. This was based on the supposition that the solar year was 365 
 days and a quarter, while the lunar was 354 ; which would in a period of 8 years give 
 a difference of 90 days; the adjustment was made by intercalating, in the course of the 
 period, three months of 30 days each; the period was called 'O/craerrifiU- Its invention 
 was attributed to Cleostratus of Tenedos ; it was universally adopted, and was followed 
 in civil matters, even after the more perfect cycle of Meton was known ; one reason 
 may have been the reciprocal adaptation between the Octaetens and the Olympiad, the 
 former including exactly two of the latter. 
 
 § 190. " The following are the names of the Grecian months, together with those 
 of the corresponding Julian months, as near as they can be given. In this list Scali- 
 ger's account has been followed, which, upon the whole, we believe the most cor- 
 rect. As the first month of the Athenian year comprised but a few days of the latter 
 pari of our June, and the greater part of July, the latter month will be given as the 
 corresponding one. — 1. 'EKaTo/jfiaidjv, July; so called from the great number of Heca- 
 tombs which were usually sacrificed in this month. — 2. Ncraysirvidiv, August; so called 
 from the sacrifices which were then offered to Apollo Meraysirvto;, because on this 
 month the inhabitants of Melite left their island and removed to Attica. — 3. BoriSpopucov, 
 September; which was so called from the festival termed Bor ; Jpdyia. — 4. Uvaveilndiv, 
 October; so called because in this month, after the fruits of the year were gathered, 
 feasts were served up, the chief of which coneisted in boiled pulse [eaten in memory 
 of the food of Theseus on the last day of his voyage from Crete]. — 5. Mot/Ka/cr>)picoy 
 
P. I. DIVISION OF TIME. THE MONTH. 61 
 
 November; so called from Jupiter Mai^a/crryc, the boisterous, because in this month the 
 weather^was very tempestuous. — 6. noceiosuv, December; in which month sacrifices 
 were offered to Hocreidtiv, Neptune; as if it were called Neptune's month. — 7. TapriXtiov, 
 January; which was sacred to Juno TaprjXios, the goddess of marriage. — 8. 'Affco-rjj- 
 pi(ov, February; which took its name from the festival of the same name. — 9. 'EAa- 
 <t>riPo\t<Zv, March; so called from the festival 'EAa0>;/?dAtn, which was sacred to Diana 
 'E\a(pri06\og, the huntress, because this was the month for hunting stags. — 10. Novvv- 
 X^i April; in which sacrifices were offered to Diana Movwxia, from the harbor of 
 this name, in which she had a temple. — 11. Qapyri'kiwv, May; in which month sacri- 
 fices were offered for the ripening of the earth's fruits. — 12. SKipfiodxipitiv, June; so 
 called from a festival of the same name celebrated in this month in honor of Mi- 
 nerva. Every month was divided into rpia fcxfjpepa, three decades of days. The 
 
 first of which was called pwos dpxopsvov or 'lorapivov, the decade of the beginning ; the 
 second, pnvoc peoovvros, the decade of the middle; and the third, pnvfc (ptiivovros, or 
 navopivov, the decade of the end. The first day of the first decade was called veoprivU, 
 because it happened on the new moon ; the second, Sevripa larapivov, and so on to 
 ScKariq Icrapivov, the tenth day of the month. The first day of the second decade, or the 
 eleventh day, was called tpwti? peoovvroc, the. first of the middle, or -rrpuTr, IttI Rtica, the 
 first after ten; the second, Stvripa peoovvroc, and so on to the twentieth day Uixas), or 
 the last, day of the second decade. The first day of the third decade was called ir/>w-;/ 
 in' eixaSi, or npcorri <f>Qit,ovTog, and so on. The last day of the month was denominated 
 by Solon 'ivr\ koI via, the old and new, as one part of the day belonged to the old, and 
 the other to the new moon. But after the time of Demetrius Poliorcetes, the last day 
 of the month received from him the name of &ripnrpiac." (Cleaveland.) 
 
 On the Attic months, cf. Classical Journal, ix. 324, 559.— L. Ideler, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c). 
 
 § 191 a. The Romans are said to have had under Romulus only 10 months ; but 
 Numa introduced the division into 12, according to that of the Greeks. — But as this 
 formed only a lunar year, a little more than 11 days short of the solar year, an extra- 
 ordinary month (mensis intercalaris, called also Macedonius) was to be inserted every 
 other year. The intercalating of this and the whole care of dividing the year was en- 
 trusted to the Pontifices (P. III. § 228), and they managed, by inserting more or 
 fewer days, to make the current year longer or shorter as they for any reason might 
 choose ; and this finally caused the months to be transposed from their stated seasons, 
 so that the winter months were carried back into autumn, and the autumnal into sum 
 mer (Cic. Leg. ii. 12). Julius Caesar put an end to this disorder, by abolishing the in- 
 tercalation of months, and adopting a system which will be explained in speaking of 
 the year (§ 192). — The names of the Roman months were the following; Martius, 
 March, from Mars, the supposed father cf Romulus, in whose arrangement of the 
 year this month was the first ; Aprilis, derived by some from the verb aperio, the 
 month in which trees and flowers open their buds ; Mains, May, from Maia, mother 
 of Mercury; Junius, June, from Juno; Quintilis, the fifth month, afterwards named 
 Julius, July, from Julius Cassar ; Sextilis, sixth, afterwards Augustus, August, from 
 Augustus Caesar ; September, seventh month ; October, eighth ; November, ninth ; De- 
 cember, tenth; Januarius, January, from Janus; Februarius, February, so called from 
 the purifications Ftbrua performed in this month (P. III. § 230), being the last of the 
 year. 
 
 The ancient Greeks and Romans personified the Months and the Seasons as well as the Hours , 
 a further account of these personifications is given in P. 11. $ 105. 
 In Plate IX. are representations of the Pour Seasons, as sculptured on the Arch of Severus (cf. P. IV. § 188. 2). 
 
 § 191 b. The Romans divided the month into three parts by the points termed Ka- 
 lendm or Calendar, Nonas, and Idus. The Calends were always the 1st of the month ; 
 the Nones were the 5th, and the Ides the 13th of each month, excepting March, May, 
 July, and October ; in which four months the Nones fell on the 7th, and the Ides on 
 the 15th day. In marking the days of the month, the Romans counted backwarus 
 from these three fixed points, including always the day from which the reckoning began : 
 e. g. the last-or thirty-first day of December was called the second from the Calends 
 of January, pridie [ante] Kalendas Januarii; the last day but one or 30th of Decem- 
 ber, was called the third from or before the Calends of January, tcrlio [die ante] Kal. 
 Jan.; and so on back to the 13th day, which was called Idus; the 12th was pridie 
 Idus, and soon back to the 5th, which was the Nona; the 4th, by this plan of 
 reckoning, would be of course Pridie Nonas. 
 
 Cf. La Nauze, Calendrier Romain, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, vol. xxvl. p. 219. 
 
 A Roman Calendar, compiled from Ovid, Columella, and Pliny, which notes the rising and setting of the stars, the Roman revi- 
 vals, &c, is given in Pauly't Encyclopadie (cited P. III. § 13. 6) ; it may be seen in Smith's Diet, of Antiq. art. Calendar. — See also 
 Fosgini, as cited P. IV. § 133. 6. 
 
 The ancient Greeks and Romans had no division properly answering to our weeks ; although 
 the former had their decade of days Q 190) ; and the latter their nundinm, or market days occur- 
 ring every ninth day (P. III. J 229). But the Egyptians and oriental nations had a week of seven 
 days. This division (Jiebdomades) was introduced among the Romans, it ia said, not far from <he> 
 
 F 
 
62 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 beginning of the third century after Christ. The days were named after the planets or pagan 
 gods: Dies Solis, Sunday; Luna, Monday; Martis, Tuesday; Mercurii, Wednesday; Jovis, 
 Thursday; Veneris, Friday ; Saturni, Saturday. It is worthy of notice that our names for the 
 days had a similar origin, as is seen by observing their Saxon derivation ; Sunnadsg, Sun's day ; 
 Monand.<Eg, Moon's day; TuesdtEg, day of Tuisco (i.e. Mars); Wodensd&g, day of Wodin or 
 Odin, a northern deity ; Thorsdag, day of Thor, a deity answering to Jupiter; Frigdag, day of 
 Frigga, the Venus of the north ; Salerdmg, day of Saeter or Sealer (i. e. Saturn, cf. P. II. $ 16. 2.) 
 
 § 192. The year. This division was probably not formed until some considerable 
 advances had been made in astronomical science ; and it was long after its first adop- 
 tion before it attained to any thing like an accurate form. — The most ancient year of 
 which we know, was that consisting of 12 months supposed to contain 30 days each, 
 thus amounting to 360 days. It has been conjectured that this gave rise to the divi- 
 sion of the ecliptic into 360 equal parts or degrees, which is still preserved. But it 
 was soon found that this fell short of the actual year, or the time of a revolution of the 
 earth; and an addition of 5 days was made, so that the year consisted of 365 days; 
 this is ascribed to the Thebans. The Grecian year, however, as established by So- 
 lon and continued to the time of Meton and even after, consisted of 365 days and a 
 quarter. 
 
 The mariner in which the Greeks made their computation by the lunar months to agree with the solar year, has already been 
 expU.ned (§ 1S9). Cf. Gibert, L'annee Grecque, in the Mem. Acad. Inzer, vol. xxxv. p. 133. 
 
 The Roman year seems to have consisted of 365 days until the time of Julius 
 Caesar. The method employed by the Romans of previous ages to adjust their com- 
 putation by lunar months to the solar year has also been mentioned (§ 191), and like- 
 wise the confusion which resulted from it. This Cagsar attempted to remedy (cf. P. 
 V. § 528. 4). He instituted a year of 365 days 6 hours. To remove the error of 80 
 days, which computed time had gained of actual time, he ordered one year of 445 
 days (365 plus 80), which was called the Year of confusion. And to secure a proper 
 allowance for the 6 hours which had been disregarded, but which would amount in 4 
 years to a day, he directed that one additional day should be intercalated in the reckon- 
 ing of every 4th year ; thus each 4th year would have 366 days, the others 365. — This 
 is called the Julian year. In the Roman calendar the intercalated day was placed after 
 the 6th (sextus) of the Calends of March, and therefore called bissextus; hence the 
 phrase bissextile year still in use. 
 
 But in this plan there was still an error. The day was intercalated too soon ; i. e. before a whole day had been gained ; because 
 compnted time, instead of gaining 6 hours a year, gained only 5 hows 48 m. 57 sec, and in four years would gain only 23 h. 15 m. 
 48 sec. ; so the intercalated day was inserted too soon by 44 minutes and 12 seconds ; of course, computed time, by this plan, lost 
 44 m. 12 sec every four years, or 11 m. 3 sec every year. In 131 years this makes a loss of computed time, of one day ; i. e. com- 
 puted time would be one day behind actual time. In A. D. 15S2 this loss had amounted to ten days, and Pope Gregory 13th 
 attempted to remedy the evil by a new expedient. This was, to drop the intercalary day or the bissextile, every 1001b year except- 
 ing each 400th year. By the Julian year, computed time loses 11 m. 3 sec. a year, which makes about 19 hours in 100 years; drop- 
 ping the intercalary day on the 100th year makes up this loss of 19 hours, and gives also a gain of about 5 hours ; dropping it on the 
 next 100th year gives another gain of 5 hours to computed time ; so of the third 100th year ; and in this way computed time gains 
 of actual time, in 300 years, 15 hours ; if on the next 100th year, i. e. the fourth, the intercalary day be inserted, computed time 
 loses for that century 19 hours ; but to meet this loss, it had in the three preceding centuries gained 5 hours in each, and in all 15 
 hours, so that the loss is only (19—15) 4 hours at the end of 400 years. By this method the difference between computed and actual 
 time cannot amount to a day in 2500 years. In this system, called the Gregorian Calendar, the years 1600, 2000, 2400 are inter- 
 calary ; and the years 1700, 1800, 1900, 2100, 2200, 2300, &c, not.— The Gregorian year was immediately adopted in Spain, Portu- 
 gal, and Italy ; and during the same year in France ; in Catholic Germany, in 1583 ; in Protestant Germany and Denmark, in 1700 ; 
 in Sweden, 1753. In England it was adopted in 1752, by act of Parliament directing the 3d of September to be styled the 14th, as 
 computed time had lost 11 days. This was called the change from Old to New Style. — In 1832, Russia was said to be the onlycountrj 
 where the Julian year or the Old Style was used. It is, however, retained in the Greek and Armenian churches. {Miss. Herald, foi 
 Dec. 1S35, p. 454.) — On the Gregorian Calendar, see Ch. Clavius, Romani Calendarii a Gregorio XIII. P. M. restitati Explicatio. 
 
 Different nations have begun the year at different seasons or months. The Romans at one time 
 considered it as beginning in March, but afterwards in January. The Greeks placed its com- 
 mencement in Hecatombseon, at the summer solstice. The Christian clergy used to begin it at 
 the 25th of March. The same was practiced in England and the American colonies until A. D. 1752, 
 on the change from Old to New Style, when the first of January was adopted. 
 
 § 193. Cycles. In adjusting the different methods of computing time, or the division 
 of time into days, months, and years, great advantage is derived from the inven- 
 tion of Cycles. These are periods of time so denominated from the Greek kvk\os, a 
 circle, because in their compass a certain revolution is completed. Under the term 
 cycle we may properly include the Grecian Olympiad, a period of 4 years ; the Octae- 
 teris, or period of 8 years ; and the Roman Lustrum, a period of 5 years ; and also the 
 Julian year, or period of 4 years as just described. The period of 400 years, compre- 
 hended in the system of Gregory already explained, may justly be termed the cycle of 
 Gregory. — Besides these, it seems important to mention the Lunar Cycle, the Solar 
 Cycle, the Cycle of Indiction, and the Julian Period. 
 
 See F. Nolan, as cited § 205. — H. Dodwell, de veteribus Gnecorum Romanorumque Cyclis, &c. Dissert, decern. Lond. 1701. 4. — 
 flkbuhr, on the Secular Cycle, in his Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 209. ed. Phil. 1835. 
 
 § 194. The Lunar Cycle is a period of 19 years. Its object is to accommodate the 
 computation of time by the moon to the computation by the sun, or adjust the solar 
 and lunar years. The nearest division of the year by months is into twelve; but twelve 
 
XX 
 
T. I. MEANS OF ASCERTAINING DATES. 63 
 
 lunations (which make the lunar year) fall short of the solar year by about 11 days. 
 Of course, every change in the moon in any year will occur eleven days earlier than it 
 did on the preceding year ; e. g. if in September of the present year full moon occurs 
 on the 16th, the corresponding full moon of the next year will occur on the 5th of Sep- 
 tember. — Hence every year the various changes in the moon fall back as calculated by 
 the days of the year. At the expiration of 19 years they occur again nearly at the 
 same time. 
 
 This Cycle was invented by Meton, an Athenian astronomer, who flourished about B. C. 430. 
 Many attempts had before been made to adjust the solar and lunar years (# 189), and this im- 
 provement was at the time received with universal approbation ; but not being perfectly accu- 
 rate, it was afterwards corrected by Eudoxus, and subsequently by Calippus. The Cycle of 
 Meton was employed by the Greeks to settle the time of their festivals ; and the use of it was 
 discontinued when these festivals ceased to be celebrated. "The Council of Nice, however, 
 wishing to establish some method for adjusting the new and full moons to the course of the sun, 
 with a view of determining the time of Easter, adopted it as the best adapted for the purpose; 
 and from its great utility they caused the numbers of it to be written on the calendar in golden 
 letters, which has obtained for it the name of (he Golden Number." The name of Oolden Num- 
 ber is still applied to the current year of the Lunar Cycle, and is always given in the Almanac. 
 
 § 195. The Solar Cycle is a period of 28 years. Its use is to adjust the days of the 
 week to the days of the month and the year. As the year consists of 52 weeks and 
 one day, it is plain that it must begin and end on the same day. Let the seven letters 
 A, B, C, D, E, F, G, represent the seven days of the week, A being always applied 
 to the first day of the year. Let January begin with Monday. Of course A will stand 
 for Monday, and Sunday coming on the 7th day will be represented by G, the 7th let- 
 ter. The year will end with Monday, as it began with it; and A, the next year, will 
 stand for Tuesday, and Sunday will be on the 6th day of the year, and be represented 
 by F. Thus the year will commence one day later every common year, and Sunday 
 will be represented successively by the letters taken in their retrograde order, G, F, E, 
 &c, and if 52 weeks and one day were the exact year, or there were no leap year, the 
 year would, after seven years, again begin on Monday, the same day with the first 
 year supposed. But the leap year, consisting of 52 weeks and two days, interrupts the 
 regular succession every fourth year, and the return to the same day of the week is 
 not effected until 4 times seven, i. e. 28 years. 
 
 This Cycle is employed particularly to furnish a rule for finding Sunday, or to ascertain the 
 Dominical Letter. Chronolngers employ the first seven letters of the alphabet to designate the 
 seven days of the week; and the Dominical Letter for any year is the letter which represents 
 Sunday for that year. Tables are given for the purpose of finding it in chronological and astro- 
 nomical books. 
 
 § 196. The Cycle of Indiclion is a period of 15 years. The origin and primary use 
 of this has been the subject of various conjectures and discussions. It seems to have 
 been established by Constantine the Great, in the fourth century, as a period at the end 
 of which a certain tribute should be paid by the different provinces of the empire. Pub- 
 lic acts of the emperors were afterwards dated by the years of this cycle. 
 
 The cycle, which has been perhaps most celebrated, is that which is termed the 
 Julian Period, and was invented by Joseph Scaliger. Its object was to furnish a com- 
 mon language for chronologers, by forming a series of years, some term of which 
 should be fixed, and to which the various modes of reckoning years might be easily 
 applied. To accomplish this, he combined the three cycles of the moon, sun, and in- 
 diction, multiplying 19, 28 and 15 into one another, which produces 7980, after which 
 all the three cycles will return in the same order, every year taking again the same 
 number of each cycle as before. Taking the several cycles as settled in the Latin 
 church, and tracing them back, he found that the year when they would begin together 
 was the year 710 before the creation as now dated, and that the first year of the Chris- 
 tian Era as now computed was 4714 of the Julian Period. 
 
 This invention would be of great importance if we had no acknowledged epoch, or fixed 
 year, from which to compute; but since we have such an epoch, it seems to be unnecessary. 
 Its use is almost entirely superseded by the general adoption of the Christian era as a fixed 
 standard. 
 
 II. — Of fixing the Dates of historical events and arranging them in order. 
 
 § 197. To arrange events methodically in the order of their occurrence, and assign 
 the proper dates, is the second part of Chronology. In the consideration of this part 
 we shall notice the following topics ; (A) The methods employed to ascertain the dates 
 of events, or the time when they occurred ; (E) The epochs and eras which have been 
 employed or are still in use ; (C) The systems of arrangement, and chronological tables 
 and charts ; (D) The actual dates of the most prominent events in classical Chronology. 
 
 § 198. {A) Methods employed to ascertain the dates of events, — Here we observe, 
 
64 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 that the principal helps or sources are four. First, we will notice that furnished by 
 observations on generations of men or successions of Kings. — It has been supposed 
 that the average length of a king's reign, or of a generation of men, may be estimated 
 by comparing a sufficient number of facts. — When this average is taken, and we are 
 told by a writer how many generations lived, or how many kings reigned, between two 
 events, we can at once find the time between them ; and if the date of either event is 
 known, the date of the other will follow. This is the only Chronology of the earliest 
 writers, and is used in the Bible. The Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans used it. Gene- 
 rally they reckoned a generation and a reign as of the same length ; three of them 
 equal to 100 years. Sir Isaac Neiuton employed this means of ascertaining dates, and 
 maintained that the average for reigns of kings is only 20 years ; and for generations, 
 29 or 30 years, if reckoned by eldest sons, and 33, if reckoned by others. On these 
 principles he attempted to rectify ancient chronology, giving to many events a date, 
 more recent than other authors. 
 
 It may be desirable to give a further explanation of this method by two illustrations, (a) The 
 date of the return of the HeraclidtB to Peloponnesus is disputed ; but the date of the Battle of 
 Thermopylae is settled, B. C. 480. Now between these two events there reigned at Sparta a suc- 
 cession of 17 kings; 17 multiplied by 20 gives 340 years between the events, making the return 
 of the Heraclidee B. C. (480 plus 340) 820; a date 280 years later than as given by other chrono- 
 logers. — (6) The date of the Argonautic Expedition is disputed ; but the beginning of the Pelo- 
 ponnesian War settled, B. C. 431. Now it is found, that Hippocrates, living at the beginning of 
 the Peloponnesian War, was descended the 18th from JEsculapius by father's side, and 19ih from 
 Hercules by mother's side, and that iEsculapius and Hercules were both Argonauts ; that is, 
 there were 17 generations in one line and 18 in another, between the two events. Taking the 
 medium 17i and multiplying by 29 gives 567; making the date of the Argonautic Expedition, 
 B. C. (431 plus 567) 998 ; 326 later than by other chrpnologers. 
 
 But there are two grand objections to this method of ascertaining dates. First, the inaccuracy 
 and uncertainty of the average ; it cannot be very satisfactorily or exactly determined. Secondly, 
 the fact that ancient writers, in naming a succession of kings or giving a genealogy, often omit 
 several of the series. This is done in Matthew, ch. i., for the sake of reducing the number of 
 generations between the great epochs mentioned in the 17th verse, to exactly fourteen. 
 
 § 199. A second help is found in celestial appearances and cha?iges. This method is 
 in general more safe and certain, as it depends on strict astronomical principles perfectly 
 settled. The appearances employed are eclipses and the precession of the equinoxes. 
 
 (a) Eclipses. The ancients were very superstitious- as to eclipses. Many are re- 
 corded, and mentioned as happening at the same time with important events in history, 
 and described so that they may be recognized by the astronomer, who can calculate 
 with perfect accuracy the time of every eclipse that has happened. 
 
 We will give illustrations. Thucydides, in relating the attempt of the Athenians on the Syra- 
 cusans, says that Nicias, finding the Syracusans reinforced and himself in danger, determined 
 to sail out of the harbor of Syracuse; but when everything was ready for sailing, the moon was 
 eclipsed, for it was then full moon ; by this appearance the Athenian soldiers were filled with 
 alarm, and besought Nicias not to proceed ; and in consequence they almost to a man perished. 
 This event is generally supposed to have been about B. C. 413. — Now it is found by calculation, 
 that the moon was full at Syracuse the 27th day of August, B. C. 413, and that there must have 
 been a total eclipse there, visible from beginning to end, and likely to produce on the soldiers 
 
 the effect which Thucydides mentions. The date of the era of Nabonassar, B. C. 747, is also 
 
 determined by a record of an eclipse of the moon in Ptolemy's Almagest (cf. P. V. $ 218). 
 
 In a similar way, Ferguson, in his Astronomy, proposes to fix the time of the birth of Christ. It is evident from Matthew ii. 13- 
 15, 20, 21, that Christ was born only some months before the death of Herod ; aud from Josepbus (B. xvii. ch. 8) we learn that there 
 was an eclipse of the moon at the time of Herod's last sickness ; astronomical calculation shows that the eclipse occurred March 13, 
 in the year 4710 of the Julian Period ; hence the birth of Christ could not have been later than about the close of the 4709th of the 
 Julian Period. — The same author refers to the mention made by Phlegon (cf. P. V. § 239) of a most extraordinary eclipse of the sun 
 as occurring in the 4th year of the 202d Olympiad, and would employ it as a help in determining the date of Christ's death ; since no 
 natural eclipse could occur the year specified, which corresponds, according to Ferguson, to the 4746th of the Julian Period, he thinks 
 
 the event mentioned by Phlegon was the supernatural darkness that marked the Savior's crucifixion. In Play/air's System of 
 
 Chronology, cited P. V. § 7. 7. (c), is a list of eclipses that were observed before the Christian era, also, in Ferguson's Astronomy. 
 
 Mere Lunar appearances may be employed in the same way. By comparing Mark xv. 42. Luke zxiii. 54. and John xviii. 28, 
 ft would seem evident that the crucifixion was on Friday, and at the time of the Passover ; it is known from other sources (cf. Jose- 
 phus, Ant. B. iii. ch. 10) that the Passover was kept on the day of the first full moon after the vernal equinox. Ferguson says he 
 found by calculation that " the only Passover full moon that feil on Friday, for several years before or after the disputed year of the 
 crucifixion, was on April 3d, in the 4746th year of the Julian Period."— Cf. Fergnsoii, as cited § 203. 
 
 (b) Precession of Ike Equinoxes. The equinoxes, being the points where the equator 
 crosses the ecliptic, are not precisely the same from year to year; but they move back- 
 ward (i. e. to the west) 50 seconds every year, or 1 degree in 72 years. If, then, the 
 place of the equinox in the ecliptic at the time of any event is stated, we may determine 
 the date of the event, by noticing how far the equinox has now receded from the place 
 it then held, and allowing 72 years for a degree. The only objection to this method is 
 the difficulty, perhaps impossibility of deciding what point the equinoxes actually did 
 occupy at the time of particular events in ancient history. 
 
 Sir I. Newton applied this principle also to settle the time of the Argonautic Expedition. — A 
 sphere, representing the heavens with the constellations, is said by ancient writers to have been 
 formed for the Argonauts, by Chiron ; on this sphere, it is also said, the equinox was placed in 
 the middle point in the sign Aries. In the year 1689, the equinox had gone back from that point 
 
P. I. 'EPOCHS AND ERAS. 65 
 
 36 degrees 44 minutes : this, allowing 72 years for a degree, gives a period of 2645 years between 
 the year 1689 and the Expedition ; making it B. C. 9^5; nearly the same as by the calculation 
 
 from generations by the same author. If it be stated how a star rises or sets in relation to the 
 
 sun, trie place of the equinox may be found, and dates ascertained, in the way just mentioned. — 
 Sir Isaac Newton and others have employed this to ascertain the time when Hesiod lived. In 
 a passage in the Works and Days [vs. 564], Hesiod says, that Jircturiis rose at sunset, 60 days 
 after the sun entered the winter solstice, a point 90 degrees distant from the equinox. — But the 
 place of the equinox cannot be settled with certainty in this way; because it cannot be cer- 
 tainly known whether the ancient writer means his own time and residence or not, whether he 
 means true or apparent rising, or even what constellation or star he means exactly. Cf. Costard, 
 in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlviii. p. 2. 
 
 § 200. A third help in the fixing of dates is found in the coins, medals, monuments, and 
 inscriptions, which are preserved for the benefit of succeeding ages. These often throw- 
 great light upon historical events, and afford important aid in ascertaining the time of 
 their occurrence. Interesting facts are sometimes first made known, and the period 
 when they took place is often indicated, by the face of a medal, or the representations 
 on a public monument. — Inscriptions are of still greater service. As one of the most 
 valuable of these we must mention the chronicle of Paros, which fixes the date of the 
 chief events in Grecian history from Cecrops down to the time of Alexander. (See 
 P. IV. $91.4.) 
 
 $ 201. The fourth source is furnished by the testimony of historians, who state the 
 distance between events, or between events and an epoch. The early historians paid 
 very little attention to the subject of chronology; it was not until a comparatively late 
 period, that they began to think of dates and distances of time. The principal frag- 
 ments of the earlier writers, Eratosthenes, Apollodorus, and Thrasyllus, are still to be 
 found in the Chronicon of Eusebius, and the Stromata of Clemens Alexandrhtus. The 
 writings of the Byzantine Chroniclers are also of service ; particularly the chronologi- 
 cal work ('EK-Xr/j/f; Xpovoypaipias) of Syncellus. It is chiefly from this and the above- 
 mentioned work of Eusebius, that the details of the commonly received Chronology have 
 been gathered. (Cf. § 205; and P. V. § 236, 239, 288.) 
 
 § 202. (B) Epochs and Eras employed in Chronology . — It is essential to correct and 
 exact chronology that there should be some fixed epoch, to which all events may be 
 referred and be measured by their distance from it. But it is of comparatively little 
 consequence what the epoch is, provided it is fixed and acknowledged, as it is perfectly 
 easy to compute in a retrograde manner the time before it, as well as in a direct man- 
 ner the time after it. An epoch is distinguished from an era. Epoch is the point of 
 time which is taken as a starting-place from which to reckon, and taken usually be- 
 cause signalized by some important event. Era is the space of time, that follows the 
 epoch ; the series of years computed from it. — The two terms may be interchanged as 
 nearly synonymous, because every era has its epoch and every epoch its era. 
 
 § 203. The following are the most important eras, which are noticed in Chronology. 
 — (<z) Era of Olympiads. The Greeks for a long time had no fixed epoch ; but after- 
 wards reckoned by Olympiads, periods of 4 years. They began 776 B. C. A new 
 Olympiad era, however, came into use under the Roman emperors, beginning A. D. 
 131.' — (b) Era of Rome. The Romans often reckoned by lustrums, often by the year 
 of the consul or the emperor. The building of the city was their grand epoch. This 
 was 752 B.C. (It is placed by some 753 or 754.) — (c) Era of Nabonassar (or Belesis). 
 Used by some historians ; the commencement of Nabonassar's reign at Babylon, 747 
 B. C. — {d) Era of the Seleucidce. From the reign of Seleucus and his descendants in 
 Syria. The Jews chiefly used this. The Nestorians still compute from it. (Researches 
 of Smith and Dwight, vol. ii. p. 257.) It is usually dated 312 B. C. when Seleucus 
 recovered Babylon, 10 years before the real commencement of the kingdom of Syria. 
 — (e) Era of Diocletian. This was founded on the persecution of Christians in the 
 reign of Diocletian. It was used by Christians until the Christian era was adopted. 
 It began 284 A. D. — (/) The Mahometan Era or Hegira ; founded on the flight of 
 Mahomet from Mecca to Medina, A. D. 622. — {g) The Persian Era, or Era of Yezde- 
 jerd; founded on the reign of a Persian king, named Yezdejerd, A. D. 632. — (70 The 
 Christian Era; Annus Domini; the year of our Lord. This era is founded on 
 the birth of Christ, but chronologers are not agreed as to the year of his birth ; some 
 placing it seven years before the received epoch, others four years. This, however, is 
 of no consequence as respects the utility of the era in chronology, because all, who 
 adopt the Christian era, agree to call the same year by the same numerical date ; all 
 meaning (e. g.) identically the same year by A. D. 1836. The era began to be used 
 about A. D. 360, according to some writers ; but others state that it was invented by 
 Dionysius, a monk, A. D. 527. 
 
 On the Christian Era, see /. Priestley, Lectures on History, L. xiv. — J. Guil. Jani, Historia 32rae Dionysianae. — G. Hambergcr, Ue 
 Epochae Christianas ortu et auctore. — Marine, Dissertation on the Birth of Christ. — Cf. Lardner, Credibility of the Gospel, &c. Fart I. 
 vol. ii. p. 796.— Ferguson's Astronomy, by D. Brewster, Phil. 1817. 2 vols. 8. i. 460-65. 
 
 Terhaps we 6hould mention here the Era of the Trench Republic, which the revolutionists attempted to establish. This was intro- 
 duced in 1793, with a formal rejection of the Sabbath and of the hebdominal week, and a novel arrangement and pedantic nomen. 
 clature of the months. The twenty-second of September was fixed as the beginning of the year. The year consisted of twelve 
 months of thirty days each ; which were divided, not by weeks, but into three decades, or periods of ten days. As this would com* 
 
 9 f2 
 
06 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 prise but 360 days^oe were added at the dose of the last month of the year, called complementary days; and at the close of every 
 fourth or bissextile year, a sixth, called the day of the Republic. The cycle of the fnur years was termed the Franciade. The 
 three months of A u t u m n were named Findemiaire, Srumaire, Frimaire ; those of W i nter, Nivose, Pluviose, Pentose; those 
 of Spring, Germinal, Florial, Prairial ; those of Summer, Messidor, Thermidor, Fructidor. This infidel calendar was used 
 about twelve years. The Gregorian was restored Jauuaiy 1, 1S06. 
 
 _ § 204. (C) Systems of Arra.ugem.ent and Chronological Tables. — There is a great 
 discrepancy between the various systems of chronology which have been advocated in 
 different nations and at different times. Among the oriental nations there was a strong 
 desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, and hence each carried back its chronolo- 
 gical dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egyptians, 
 Babylonians, Hindoos, and Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or 
 thousands of years before the creation. Such systems need not be particularly noticed 
 here. (Cf. P. IV. § 21.) 
 
 § 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures and the 
 other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of the student's atten- 
 tion. They differ from each other considerably ; that drawn from the Septuagint 
 assigns to many events a date much more ancient than that which follows the Hebrew ; 
 e. g. the former places the flood some hundred years further from the Christian era, 
 and the Creation at least 600 years further from the Flood, than the latter. There has 
 been much discussion among the learned, concerning the respective claims of these two 
 systems. We only remark here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. 
 
 The system of Archbishop Usher is the basis of the principal systems for chronolo- 
 gical tables and charts which are commonly used. The system of Usher is in general 
 accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bible, the Arundelian Marbles, 
 and the Chronicon of Eusebius. 
 
 The system of Sir fcaac Neicton has already been mentioned, and some of the methods em- 
 ployed by him for fixing dates. This system assigns many important events, particularly of 
 Grecian history, to periods considerably later than other systems. His chronology was at first 
 received with "some favor, but is not usually regarded, although Mitford adopts it. 
 
 On this, see Mitford's Hist. Greece, ch. iii. Append.— Cf. Shuckfords Prof, and Sac. Hist. Conn. bk. vi. Fref.— For the titles of 
 some of the most important helps on the subject of Chronology, see P. V. § 7. 7 (c) ; $ 299. 6. — For others, we refer to Home's 
 Intro, to Crit. Study of Holy Script, vol. ii. p. 730. — A labored defence of the Septuagint Chronology is made by Rev. /. J. Jachson, 
 in his Chronological Antiquities. — See also Fred. Nolan, on the antiquity and connection of the early cycles, and their utility in 
 settling the differences of chronologists, in Trans, of Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. iii. Lond- 1S37. — Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 4. 
 — 1. B. Chapm, Agreement of the true Biblical, Egyptian, and Chaldean Chronologies. New Haven, 1839. pp. 16.— Cf. Christ. 
 Spect. June, 1S37, and Dec I S3S. — Marsham, as cited p. V. $ 236. 
 
 § 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of history and 
 chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be presented but gra- 
 dually and slowly by description ; the locality of events and dates on the paper also 
 helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every student ought to avail himself 
 of the aid of a historical and chronological chart, either by purchase or (which is bet- 
 ter) by actually forming one himself. 
 
 $ 207. A great variety of plans for charts have been 'adopted, possessing greater or less degrees 
 of utility. — (u) One of the most simple and obvious plans is to form two perpendicular columns; 
 one for events of every kind ranged promiscuously in order of occurrence ; the other for their cor- 
 responding dates. Sometimes a third column is added to this plan, for Biography. — (6) Another 
 plan of similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendicular columns ; one for dates, 
 and each of the others for a class of events: e. g. sovereigns in one, remarkable events in an- 
 other, battles in another, &x. Such is the plan of IVorcester's Charts. Both the plans men- 
 tioned may be marked for centuries by horizontal lines. — (c) A third plan is the contrivance of a 
 sort of tree, whose branches represent nations; and events are ranged in them according to 
 their dates, the earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of Eddy's Chronology delineated. Con- 
 quests by a nation may, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one branch receiving others into 
 itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting out from others. — (d) A fourth plan is 
 marked by the peculiarity of being divided into periods, limited on each side by prominent events, 
 skich is Goodrich's Chart. — (e) A. fifth plan, worthy of notice, is that devised by Emma IVillard, 
 called "Perspective sketch of the course of Empire." It is essentially the Chronological Tree 
 inverted ; the earliest events being placed at the top of the chart, and diverging lines being sub- 
 stituted instead of the trunk and branches. Light and shade are employed to indicate the com- 
 parative rank and culture of different nations. (IVillard's Atlas. Hartford, 1836.) 
 
 But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand faults ; 1. equal length 
 of time is not represented by equal spaces on the chart; 2. duration is represented by perpendi- 
 cular lines, while the horizontal line is altogether the most natural and most satisfactory repre- 
 sentation. — (/) A sixth plan adopts these two important improvements, with the division into 
 periods, and the several columns for different classes of events, allowing, where the scale is 
 large enough, each event to be located in its exact place in the line of time. The chief objection 
 to this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to include all the important 
 ■ •vents of some periods without increasing too much the size of the chart, and rendering it in- 
 convenient for portable use.— (^) A seventh plan unites geography with the history and chrono- 
 logy. This method is exhibited in Priestley's " Specimen of a New Chart of History," given in 
 his Lectures on History. — (ft) The device of a combination of streams or rivers is employed in a 
 recent chart by 1. 1. Hitchcock, called History made visible, Phil. 1S39, 54 inches by 27. 
 
 §208. (D) Actual Dates of the most prominent events. Nothing occasions more per 
 plexity and discouragement to the student in classical history, than the difficulty of re- 
 membering actual dates. Many have found this so great as to give over in despair. 
 
P. I. BRIEF OUTLINE OF CHRONOLOGY. 67 
 
 But, as has been repeatedly remarked, accurate chronology is essential to the utility, 
 and it is no less so to the pleasure, of reading history. And the difficulty complained 
 of is by no means insuperable. 
 
 Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented ($210); but on the whole, 
 the writer knows of none better than to take a glance over the whole field of past time, 
 select a few grand events which stand out as landmarks, associate these events with 
 their dates, and commit them to memory with perfect exactness, making them as 
 familiar as the letters of the alphabet. Any person of common capacity can do this ; 
 and the student who wishes to lay any foundation at all for historical knowledge must 
 do at least as much as this. This being done, he will find it comparatively easy to 
 locate the various events, which he may read about or learn from time to time, in their 
 proper place between these grand events whose dates are thus fixed in the memory. 
 
 § 209. With these views the following outline, in which it seemed desirable to include 
 modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed to memory. 
 
 The learner is advised to draw it off on a roll of paper prepared for the purpose ; using a hori- 
 zontal line to represent the flowing or progress of time. Let this line be divided into equal spaces, 
 each representing an equal length of time; let the dates of the events he distinctly written 
 exactly at the points in the line where they belong according to this equal division ; and let the 
 events also be written directly above or under the dates. 
 
 Brief Outline. Chronology is Ancient or Modern. Ancient includes the whole time before 
 Christ, comprehending 4004 years. Modern includes the whole time since Christ. 
 
 I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions by the Flood; Antediluvian ages, the 
 portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion after the flood.— The Antediluvian 
 ages may be considered as containing only one period ; the Postdiluvian ages as containing eight 
 periods. The grand events and periods are the following. 
 
 Of the Antediluvian ages, 
 
 The one period is from Creation . ,. . . B. C. 4004, 
 
 to Deluge B. C. 2348. 
 
 Of the Postdiluvian ages, the 
 
 1st period, is from Deluge .... to Calling of Abraham . . B. C. 1921 ; 
 
 2rf period, from Calling of Abraham . . to Escape of Israelites . . . B.C. 1492; 
 
 3d period, from Escape of Israelites . . to Building of Temple . . . B.C. 1004; 
 
 4th period, from Building of Temple . . to Founding of Rome . . .B.C. 752; 
 
 5th period, from Founding of Rome . . to Battle of Marathon . . B.C. 490; 
 
 6th period, from Battle of Marathon . . to Reign of Alexander . . .B.C. 336; 
 
 7th period, from Reign of Alexander . . to Capture of Carthage . . B.C. 146; 
 8th period, from Capture of Carthage . . to Coming of Christ. 
 
 II. Modern Chronology is divided into three distinct portions by the Fall of Rome and the 
 Fall of Constantinople: Early Jlges, the portion before the Fall of Rome ; Middle Jlges, the por- 
 tion between the Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople ; Recent Jlges, the portion since 
 the Fall of Constantinople. — The early ages may be considered as containing two periods; the 
 middle ages, five periods; and the recent ages Jive periods. The grand events and periods are 
 the following. 
 
 Of the Early ages, the 
 
 1st period, is from Christ . . . to the Reign of Constantine . . A. D. 306; 
 
 2d period, from Reign of Constantine . to Fall of Rome . . . . A. D. 476. 
 
 Of the Middle ages, the 
 
 istperiod, is from Fall of Rome . . . to Flight of Mahomet . . . A. D. 622; 
 
 2d period, from Flight of Mahomet . . to Crowning of Charlemagne . A. D. 800; 
 
 3d period, from Crowning of Char! am agne . to Landing of William . . A. D. 1066; 
 
 4th period, from Landing of William . . to Overthrow of Saracens . . A. D. 1258; 
 
 5th period, from Overthrow of Saracens . to Fall of Constantinople . A. D. 1453. 
 
 Of the Recent ages, the 
 
 1st period is from Fall of Constantinople . to Abdication of Charles Fifth . A. D. 1556; 
 
 Id period, from Abdication of Charles 5th . to Restoration of Charles Second A. D. 1660; 
 
 3d period, from Restoration of Charles 2d . to Independence of United States A. D. 1776; 
 
 5th period, from Independence of United States to Downfall of Bonaparte . A. D. 1815; 
 
 5th period, from Downfall of Bonaparte . to the Present Time. 
 
 $210. Eut it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the expedients, above 
 alluded to (} 208), which have been devised to assist in the recollection of dates. We wilJ 
 briefly notice three different systems of artificial memory. 
 
 I. The first is that of Dr. Grey, whose Memoria Tichnica has generally met wilh the mosl 
 favorable reception. "As this method," says Priestlev, "is so easily learned and may be of 
 such use in recollecting dates, I think all pers ns of a liberal education inexcusable, who will 
 
68 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 not take the small degree of pains that is necessary to make themselves master of it." The ex- 
 pedient is to substitute letters for figures, and form of these letters a syllable or word, and asso- 
 ciate it with the name of the persons, the date of whose birth, reign, death, or the like, you 
 wish to remember, or with a prominent term or word connected with an event to be remem- 
 bered. The following is Dr. Grey's substitution alphabet, in which each of the ten numerical 
 characters has its consonant and its vowel or diphthong; l,ab; 2, e d; 3,ti;i,fo; 5, I u; 6,sau; 
 7, p oi ; 8, k ei ; 9, re on ; 0, z y. To remember the date of the founding of Rome by this system, 
 substitute for 752 such letters as will, according to the above alphabet, represent 752; e. g. p u d, 
 and join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome, or a part of the word, thus Rom-;rarf. The 
 very oddness and uncouthness of this combination will sometimes impress it on the memory. To 
 remember the date of the Deluge, 2348, we may form the word Del-etok; of the battle of Mara- 
 thon, 490, Marath-»)«y, or Mara-/o?tz. Where a series of dates of successive events are to be 
 fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in 
 Hexameter verses; which, however, the student must understand, are to be committed to me- 
 mory ; these are called memorial lines. 
 
 See R. Grey's Memaria Teclmica, or Method of artificial Memory. (With Lowe's Mnemonics.) Lond. 1812. S. Cf. Land. 
 Quart. Rev. ix. 125. 
 
 2. The second method is a system of topical memory, including also the substitution of letters 
 for figures. The principle of the topical method is to conceive a certain number of places in a 
 room, or in some limited space marked by sensible objects ; and conceive these places as ar- 
 ranged in a certain fixed order; and then whatever successive events or objects one wishes to 
 remember, throw, in imagination, some pictures of or concerning them, in their proper order, into 
 these conceived places. Such is the principle of Feinaigle's Art of Memory. By this a four- 
 sided room is divided into fifty ideal squares ; these who wish a more capacious memory may 
 take also a second story having 50 squares more, numbered up to a hundred ; and one may go 
 on so ascending through as many stories as lie chooses. Nine squares are to be placed on the 
 floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, thus making forty-five; the other five on 
 the ceiling above : the squares on the floor number from 1 to 9; the square numbered 10 is put 
 on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left hand, and the next nine squares from 11 
 to 19 are on the left hand wall under it ; the square 20 is on the ceiling over the wall opposite in 
 front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 29 on that wall under it ; the square 30, and the next 
 nine from 31 to 39 are put in like manner on the right hand ; and the square 40, and the next 
 nine from 41 to 49 behind you ; the remaining square 50 is placed in the centre of the ceiling. In 
 each of these squares a picture of some visible object is located; e. g. in 1, a. pump; in 2, a swan; 
 in 3, a man using a spade. This scheme of squares, numbers, and pictures is first to be committed 
 to memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of Eng- 
 land, he would create in his mind a picture in connection with each one of them, throw these 
 pictures in imagination into the squares in the exact order of the regal succession, and associate 
 the picture pertaining to the king with the picture fixed in the square to which he falls; in form- 
 ing the new picture two things are important ; it should be so conceived as to have some casual 
 or slight association suggesting the name of the king, and suggesting at the same time a word or. 
 phrase; which is devised by the person along with the ideal picture, and which expresses the 
 date according to an alphabet of letters substituted for figures. E. g. to remember the date of 
 Henry 7th, it is said the ideal picture of 7 hens is a good one for the purpose ; the square to 
 which he is assigned is 29; the picture fixed in this square (in the engraved illustration of the 
 system) is a woman spinning on a small wheel; these two pictures then are to be somehow bound 
 together, and it may be thus, the woman spinning s e e s 7 hens ; the next thing is to form a word 
 or phrase indicative of the date ; and by the alphabet adopted in this system, " The oakra.il" 
 is such a phrase; the remaining step in this process of storage in the memory, is to bind the 
 phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining that the woman spinning s e e s 7 hens 
 on The oak rail. — The following is the substitution alphabet ; 1,6c; %df; 3,gh; 4,jkz; 5,1; 
 6,mn; 7,yq; 8,rs; 9, Jo; 0, wx; and 100, St; 1,000, Th; 100,000, Y. 
 
 See The New Art of Memory, founded on the principles of F e i n a i g 1 e, illustrated by engravings. Lond. 1813. 8. 2d ed. Cf. 
 Lond. Quart. Rev. as above cited. 
 
 It. is worthy of remark here, that the ancients, particularly the Roman orators, made use of a 
 system of topical memory. Quintilian gives an account of a system, in which the various parts 
 of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the several squares in the method of Feinaigle. 
 The things to be remembered were connected by association with certain types, and these being 
 arranged in order were assigned to the different parts of the house; "they assign," says he, 
 "the first idea they wish to remember to the portico, the second to the hall; then they go round 
 the inner courts ; nor do they only commit these associations to the bedrooms and anterooms, 
 but even to the furniture. When they wish to recollect these associations, they recur mentally 
 to those places in order from the beginning, and regain every sensible type, which they had en- 
 trusted to each particular spot, and this type at once suggests the idea connected with it." 
 
 3. The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. Hallworth. In this plan a substitution of 
 letters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that instead of forming mere bar- 
 barous and unmeaning words, like that of Grey, or words artificially associated with some image 
 or picture, like that of Feinaigle, a significant sentence is formed, which states the event to be 
 remembered, and concludes with a word or phrase that expresses something characteristic of 
 the event, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet, denotes 
 the date. The alphabet of Hailworth is the following; 1,6 c; 2, df; 3, g, h,gh; i,kl; 5,mn; 
 6, p, r ; 7, s sh ; 8, t, ch ; 9, v w j, used as consonants ; 0, th ph wh, and also q x y z. In forming 
 words the vowels are used just as may be convenient, without having any significancy ; the con- 
 sonants alone being considered in expressing a date ; thus ch u rch [chr ck~\ signifies 868 ; troop 
 \t r p], 866. To recollect by this method the date e. g. of the Flood, the following sentence is 
 formed ; The deluge comes and men die guilty: the phrase die guilty expresses the date, as the 
 consonants d g I (represent 2348. — For greater convenience and scope in forming the character- 
 istic phrases, the plan admits articles, prepositions, and conjunctions to be used, like the vowels, 
 without significancy ; e- g. Abel fell a sacrifice to Cain's h at e and sin: h t s n, 3875. — Mr. Hall- 
 worth has taught his system by lectures in different parts of the country, and has published 
 several little books in which its principles are explained and applied. 
 
 S^e T. HaUworth's Efficacious Method of acquiring, retaining, and communicating Historical and Chronological Knowledge. 
 
P. I. EIGHT PRINCIPAL STATES OF ASIA. 69 
 
 N. York, ISM.— Hallworlh's method applied to General Ancient History.— Also to Sacred History, &o— History of the United 
 States. 
 
 § 211, We shall complete our design, in reference to the actual dales of events in 
 ancient and classical history, by a rapid glance at the Chronology of the principal states 
 of ancient times. — We will mention lirst those whose capitals were in Asia. The prin- 
 cipal Asiatic states or kingdoms were eight ; the Assyrian; the Jewish; the Trojan; 
 the Lydian ; the Phoenician ; the Persian ; the Syrian ; and the Parthian. 
 
 I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the building 
 of Babylon by Nimrod, B. C.2217. The 1st period of its history may be that from 
 Nimrod to Ninias, B. C. 1945. 
 
 In this period reigned the celebrated queen Semiramis, mother of Ninias. Under her the em- 
 pire gained its greatest extent ; reaching on the east to the sources of the Oxus and ihe Indus, 
 including Persia, Media, and Bactriana : comprising on the west Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria, and 
 Asia Minor to the Mediterranean ; and limited on the north only by Mount Caucasus, and on the 
 south by the deserts of Arabia. Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included only the 
 three countries in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Baby- 
 lonia. 
 
 The 2d period may be that from Ninias to Sardanapalus, who died B. C. 747. 
 
 This long period, of about 1200 years, is involved in great obscurity. During it 33 kings are 
 said to have reigned. — On the death of Sardanapalus three kingdoms were formed out of the em- 
 pire ; the Assyrian, with Nineveh as its capital ; the Babylonian, with Babylon for its capital ; 
 and the Median, with Ecbatana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider the 
 Assyrian monarchy as still continuing; and 
 
 The 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to Esarhaddon, B. C. 681. 
 
 During this period of 66 years, 4 kings reigned in Nineveh, of whom Esarhaddon was the last; 
 and 10 kings reigned at Babylon. During this time the Assyrian history was intimately con- 
 nected with that of the Israelites. In the year B. C. 681, Esarhaddon united together two of the 
 three kingdoms, viz. the Assyrian and Babylonian. 
 
 The 4th and last period extends from Esarhaddon to Cyrus the Great, B. C. 536. 
 
 At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia. — At the same time, also, Cyrus 
 united to Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued its separate existence from the 
 death of Sardanapalus. 
 
 For a general view of the Assyrian history ; Rollin's Ancient History, bk. m.—Millot's Elements of History, vol. i. p. 62. (Ed. 
 EJinb. 1823. 5 vols. 13.)— The English Universal History. Lond. 1779-83. 60 vols. 8. (IS vols. Ancient.) vol. iii.— Prideaux, 
 Connection of the 0. and N. Testament, (for the time from Sardanapalus to Cyrus.) — Berosus, &c. in Cory, cited P. V. § 236. — 
 fleercn, Historical Researches into the Politics and Commerce of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, &c. Cxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 Trans!, from his Idcen, cited P. IV. § 171.— Sainte Croix, La ruine de Babylon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlviii. p. 1. For 
 
 Assyria, and likewise for the several states and empires to be mentioned, we also refer to Hcercn's States of Antiquity, cited §215.6. 
 — Cf. also Meusel, cited P. V. § 240. 
 
 II. The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with Abraham, B. C. 1921. 
 It may be divided into eight periods. The 1st period extends from Abraham to the 
 entrance into Canaan under Joshua, B. C. 1451. 
 
 During this period they remained a nomadic nation. 
 
 The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of Samuel, B.C. 1060. 
 
 During this period the nation was under the government of the judges and priests. Samuel 
 was the last of the judges. Saul, the first king, was anointed as such some time before Samuel's 
 death. 
 
 The 3d'period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two kingdoms 
 of Judah and Israel by the Revolt under Jeroboam, B. C. 975. 
 
 This was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by the reigns of David 
 and Solomon, and by the building of the Temple at Jerusalem, the capital. — Respecting these 
 reigns, see Christ. Spectator, iv. 131 ; v. 528. 
 
 The 4th period may include the history from the Revolt until the Restoration from 
 the Babylonian Captivity, B. C. 536. 
 
 The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians. The ten 
 tribes cf Israel, whose capital was Samaria, were carried into captivity by Shalmanazar, B. C. 721; 
 the two tribes of Judah, by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 61)6. During this time nineteen kings reigned 
 over Judah at Jerusalem. The seventy years of the captivity are dated from the conquest of 
 Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. 
 
 The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus, to the Submission of the 
 Jews to Alexander, B. C. 332. 
 
 During this period the Jews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on the 
 throne of Persia. 
 
 The 6th period is from Alexander to the Re-establishment of an independent 
 monarchy under the Maccabees, B. C. 168. 
 
 After the denth of Alexander arid the division of his empire, made B. C. 301, the Jews were 
 claimed by Syria and by E-rypt, and exposed to the invasion or oppression of both.— The perse- 
 
70 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 cution of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the general revolt which led to the re-establishment of 
 independence. 
 
 . The 7th period is from the Maccabees until the time of the Roman interference under 
 F*mfey, B. C. 63. 
 
 During this period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy dissensions. 
 
 The 8th and last period is from the first conquests of Pompey to the final Destruc- 
 tion of Jerusalem by Titus, A. D. 70. 
 
 For the Jewish history ; The historical books of the 0. Testament.— Josephus (cf. P. V. § 243.). — Berruyer, Histoire du peuple da 
 Dieu, &c. Far. 1742. 10 vols. 8.— Basnage, Histoire des Juifs, &c Haye, 1716. 15 vols. -12.— Prideaux, Connect, of the 0. and 
 N. Testament. The French translation, said to be better than the English original, is entitled Histoire des Juifs et des peuples 
 voisins depuis la decadence des Royaumes d'Israel et dc Juda, &c. Amst. 1725. 5 vols. 8. — J. L. Bauer, Handbuch der Geschichte 
 der Hebr. Nation, &c. Nttrnb. 1800. 2 vols. 8. valuable.— H. H Milman, History of the Jews, (Am. ed.) N. Y. 1830. 3 vols. 18. 
 Cf. North JLmer. Rev. vol. xxiii. p. 234.— Jahn, Hebrew Commonwealth. Transl. from German, by C. E. Stouie. And. 1828. 3. 
 
 III. The Trojan. Its origin is involved in darkness and fables, but is placed as 
 early at least as B. C. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say that the state was 
 destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184. 
 
 The history of Troy consists of traditions preserved by the poets. Cf. P. II. } 132. — Mitford's 
 Greece, ch. i. 
 
 IV. TheLydian. This commenced about B. C. 1400.- Three dynasties of kings 
 are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the reign of Crcesus ; 
 and under him the kingdom was destroyed by Cyrus, B. C. 536. 
 
 The capital was Sardis. The kingdom was in the time of Croesus very rich and powerful ; its 
 fate was decided by- the battle of Thymbra. 
 
 For the Lydian history ; The English Universal History, vol. iv. as above cited. — Freret, on the battle of Thymbra, with a plate, 
 in the Mem,, de Vjlcad, des Inter, vol. vi. p. 532, 
 
 V. The Phoenician. This was in existence in the time of David, under a king 
 named Abikal, B. C. 1050. The state continued until the Capture of Tyre by Alex- 
 ander, B. C. 332. 
 
 Phoenicia seems not to have formed properly one state, but to have contained several cities 
 with petty kings or princes, of which Tyre stood at the head. 
 
 Oh the Phoenician history ; Sanconiathon, &c. cf. P. V. § 238. — Rxs, Cyclopaedia, under Phcenice. — Mignot, Sur les Pheniciens 
 (several dissertations), in the Mem, Acad. Inscr. vols, xxxiv-xlii. — The English Univ. Hist. — Also, 1 1th vol. of Heeren's Works. 
 Gott. 1824. 
 
 VI The Persian. Its history is obscure and its power insignificant until the time 
 of Cyrus the elder, B. C. 536. We may include the whole history after this date in 
 two periods. 
 
 The 1st period extends from Cyrus to Xerxes, who invaded Greece, and was de- 
 feated in the famous Battle of Salamis, B. C. 480. 
 
 In this period, under Darius Hystaspes, the father of Xerxes, the Persian empire attained its 
 greatest extent ; reaching to the Indus on the east, to the Jaxartes and Mount Caucasus on the 
 north, and including Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt, and Libya. The capitals were Babylon, Susa, 
 Ecbatana, and Persepolis (cf. <5<J 153, 154, 170), the royal court being held sometimes in one and 
 sometimes another of these places. 
 
 The 2d period extends from Xerxes to the overthrow of the Persian empire by Alex- 
 ander, in the reign of Darius Codomannus, B. C. 331. 
 
 About the middle of this period occurred the expedition of the younger Cyrus, described in the 
 Anabasis of Xenophon ; Cyrus fell in the battle of Cunaxa, B. C. 401.— Alexander completed the 
 subjugation of Persia by the victory at Arbela, B. C. 331. 
 
 For the Persian history ; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. iv. and following.— Millot's Elements, vol. i. p. 83, ed. before cited. — The Uni- 
 versal History, before cited, vol. iv. and ix. — Brissanius, de regno Persarum. 1591. 8. — Hyde, Rhode, fyc. cited P. V. § 183. 3.— 
 Herder's Persepolis, in his Works.— Heeren, as above cited.— Grotefend, &c. cited P. IV. § 18. i.—J. B. Frazer, Hist, of Persia, in 
 Harper's Fam. Library, No. lxx.— Sir J. Malcolm, Hist, of Persia from the earliest period, &c. Lond. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 2d ed. 
 
 VII. The Syrian; or the Kingdom of the Seleucidce. This was one of the four 
 monarchies formed out of the empire of Alexander. It was commenced after the 
 battle of Ipsus, by Seleucus Nicator, B. C. 301. We may include its history in two 
 periods. 
 
 The 1st period is from Seleucus Nicator to the time of the collision with the Romans 
 in the reign of Antiochus the Great, B. C. 190. 
 
 The capital of this kingdom was Antioch. The territory under its sway included the northern 
 part of Syria ; all Asia Minor, except Bithynia ; Armenia, Media, Parthia, Bactriana, India, Per- 
 sia, and the vallev of the Euphrates.— Antiochus was brought into a war with the Romans espe- 
 ciallv by protecting Hannibal. His defeat, in the battle of Magnesia, B.C. 190, deprived him of 
 part of his territories and greatly weakened the kingdom. 
 
P. I. TWO STATES OF AFRICA. EGYPT AND CARTHAGE. 71 
 
 The 2d period extends from Antiochus the Great to the complete conquest of Syria 
 by the Romans under Pompey, in the reign of Antiochus Asiaticus, B. C. 69. 
 
 In the first part of this period occurred the revolt of the Jews under the Maccabees, B. C. 168, 
 in consequence of the persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes. — The throne of this kingdom, on its 
 overthrow by the Romans, had been held by twenty-three successive kings, most of them lawful 
 heirs of the house of the Seleucidse. 
 
 For the Syrian history; Vaillant, Imperium Seleucidanun, cited P. IV. § 93. 1. — Frolich, Annates rerun Syrioe. Vienn. 1754.— 
 The Universal Hist, above cited, vol. 8th of the Ancient 
 
 VIII. The Parthian; or Kingdom of the Arsacidm. The Parthians occupying 
 the country on the south-east corner of the Caspian, were subject to Persia when con- 
 quered by Alexander. On the division of his empire, they fell to the share of Seleucus 
 Nicator. But under the third king of Syria they revolted and established an independ- 
 ent kingdom under Arsaces, B. C. 256. 
 
 The Parthians were constantly at war with the Syrians, and afterwards with the Romans ; 
 but could not be conquered. They obtained dominion from Armenia to the Indian Ocean, and 
 from Syria to the river Indus; including Bactriana, Persia, the countries in the valley of the 
 Euphrates, and Armenia. Their capital was Hecatompylos. 
 
 The Parthian kingdom continued until the revolt of the Persians, who dethroned the 
 Arsacidae, and established the kingdom o/" Modern Persia, A. D. 223. 
 
 For- the Parthian history ; Vaillant, as cited P. IV. § 93. — C. F. Richter, Historisch-kritischer Versuch uber die Arsaciden-und- 
 Sassaniden-Dynastie, &c. Lpz. 1804. 
 
 § 212. We will notice next the states, whose capitals were in Africa. Of these we 
 have but two of importance ; the Egyptian and the Carthaginian. 
 
 I. The Egyptian. The first king named in the Egyptian dynasty is Menes, 
 generally supposed to be the same as Mizraim, son of Ham and grandson of Noah ; 
 he settled in Egypt about B. C. 2200. With this date the real chronology of Egypt 
 commences. 
 
 A high antiquity, in part surely fabulous, was assigned to this kingdom by two Egyptian 
 works now lost; one was the Old Chronicle, cited by Syncellus (cf. $ 201); the other, the work 
 of Manetho, cited by Eusebius (cf. P. V. $ 236). 
 
 The 1st period in the Egyptian history may be that extending from Menes to the 
 Escape of the Israelites, B.C. 1492. 
 
 Of this period profane history gives us no connected or satisfactory account. Most that can 
 be relied on is to be drawn from the incidental notices found in the Bible. Some chronologers 
 place the celebrated Sesostris at the close of this period; some consider him to be the Pharaoh 
 that was drowned in the Red Sea. 
 
 The 2d period includes the time from the Exodus to the reign of Psammetictjs, B. C. 
 670, when the history begins to be authentic. 
 
 No connected history has been preserved of this period, and we are here also much indebted 
 for what we know, to the accounts in the Scriptures.— Twelve different governments under 
 twelve different chiefs, are said to have been united under Psammeticus. 
 
 The 3d period extends from the time of Psammeticus to the conquest of Egypt by 
 the Persian king Cambyses, son and successor of Cyrus, B. C. 525. 
 
 The Egyptian history now becomes more luminous. Herodotus is the principal authority. 
 The art of writing and the use of the papyrus as a material were now common. 
 
 The 4th period includes the portion of time from Cambyses to the conquest of Egypt 
 by Alexander, B. C. 332. 
 
 After the time of Cambyses, Egypt had been made a Persian satrapy, and, with the exception 
 of a few instances of revolt, in one of which the throne was partially re-established, had con- 
 tinued subject to Persia until it now changed masters. 
 
 The 5th period is from Alexander to the subjection of the country to the Romans, 
 resulting from the victory of Augustus in the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 
 
 Alexander appointed Ptolemy, one of his generals, governor of Egypt; and Ptolemy, after the 
 death of Alexander, became king of the country, B. C. 323, and commenced the dynasty of the 
 Ptolemies, who retained the throne until Cleopatra, associating her fortunes with Antony, lost 
 it by the success of her lover's rival. — Thebes and Memphis had been the capitals in the previous 
 periods. In this, Alexandria, founded by Alexander, was made the seat of the new court. — 
 Egypt remained a part of the Roman empire until it was wrested away by the Saracens, 
 A. D. 640. 
 
 For the Egyptian history; Rollin's Anc Hist. bk. i.— Marsham, as cited P. V. § 236.— ChampoUion le jeune, L'Egypte sout 
 les Pharaons, &c. Par. 1814. 2 vols. 8. (for period before Cambyses.) — For the period after Alexander, Vaillant, Historia Ptole 
 
 maeorum, cited P. IV. § 93. 1.— ChampoUion Figeac, Annates des Lagides, &c. Par. 1819 2 vols. 8. Cf. Manor's Universal 
 
 History, vol. i. (ed. N. Y. 1804. 25 vols. 12.)— Also, the Universal History before cited, vol. i. and viii. — M. Russet, View of Egypt 
 — Cf. § 177, also P. IV. § lb ; § 91. 8 ; § 231. 
 
 II. The Carthaginian. The chronology of Carthage may be naturally divided 
 into three periods. 
 
72 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 s, 
 
 The 1st period is from its Foundation by Dido, B. C. 880 f to the beginning of the 
 wars of Syracuse in the time of the Syracusan king Gelon, B.C. 480. 
 
 In this period the following points are worthy of notice : (a) the origin of the city Carthage, by 
 aTyrian colony under Dido, in whose story much fable is mingled : (b) the pursuits of the people; 
 commercial, like those of the Phoenicians ; they had intercourse by sea with Britain and Guinea, 
 by caravans with the interior of Africa, and through Egypt with the eastern world ; (c) their 
 conquests; their commercial pursuits led them to seek possession of the islands and coasts of the 
 Mediterranean, and they gained Sardinia, Corsica, the Baleares, also the Canary Isles and 
 Madeira in the Atlantic, and many places in Spain, and the northern coast of Africa; the chief 
 conquests were effected by Mago, and his sons and grandsons ; (d) the form of government; it 
 was a republic, but of a strongly aristocratic character; the executive consisting of two chief 
 magistrates called Suffetes, and the legislative consisting of a Senate of select grandees, and an 
 Jlssembly of the people; as at Rome, there was a continual strife between a popular and an 
 aristocratic party; (e) the revenue; its sources were, 1. tributes from the subject cities and 
 states or tribes ; 2. customs paid on goods at Carthage and all the ports ; 3. proceeds of the mines 
 in Spain. 
 
 The 2d period extends from the beginning of the wars with Gelon of Syracuse to the 
 beginning of the contests with Rome in the First Punic War, B. C. 264. 
 
 The principal thing which marks the history of this period, is the long continued struggle to 
 obtain complete possession of Sicily. The Carthaginians and Syracusans were involved in 
 almost constant wars. 
 
 The 3d period is from the first war with the Romans to the final Destruction of 
 Carthage, B. C. 146. 
 
 The contests between Rome and Carthage grew out of mutual ambition. Sicily, which both 
 desired to own, furnished the occasion. — There were three wars called Punic ; each disastrous 
 to Carthage. The first lasted 23 years. The second was marked by the bold invasion and 
 splendid victories of Hannibal; ended by the battle of Zama, B. C. 232. The third lasted only 
 about three years, and terminated in the entire destruction of the state and city. Carthage had 
 existed about 700 years. 
 
 For the Carthaginian history; Rollin's Anc. Hist. bk. ii. — Hmdrich, De Repnblica Carthaginiensium. 1664. — Heeren, as cited 
 above. — The Universal History, vol. xv. of the Ancient.— Bottiger's Hist, of Carthage. Lond. 1837. with a map. 
 
 $ 213. The ancient states which were seated in Europe remain to be mentioned. 
 Without naming singly the various minor states, our object in this sketch will be' ac- 
 complished by a glance at the Chronology of Greece and Some. 
 
 I. Of Greece. The whole extent of time to be considered is 15 or 1600 years, 
 from the permanent settlements in Greece to her final reduction to a Roman province. 
 This whole space may be very conveniently and happily presented by a division into 
 six successive periods, each limited by distinguished events, and characterized by pro- 
 minent circumstances. 
 
 1. The 1st period comprehends the whole history from the Dawn of civilization to 
 the Trojan War, 1184 B. C, and from its peculiar characteristic may be denomi- 
 nated fabulous. 
 
 Much which is related in the accounts of this period must be rejected as idle fiction ; 
 yet a few important events may be selected and authenticated. — Civilization had its 
 first impulse in the arrival of colonists from Egypt and Phoenicia, who laid the founda- 
 tions of some of the principal cities, as Argos and Sicyon about 1800 years B. C. Lit- 
 tle advancement was made, however, until, after the lapse of more than two centuries, 
 other colonies were planted, at Athens by Cecrops and at Thebes by Cadmus, about 
 the time of Moses (P. IV. § 34). Between this time and the Trojan war considerable 
 progress must have been made in cultivation. 
 
 We find some of the peculiar institutions of the Greeks originating in this period ; 
 particularly the oracles at Delphi and Dodona, the mysteries at Eleusis, and the four 
 sacred games, the court of Areopagus at Athens, and the celebrated Amphictyonic 
 Council. — The arts and sciences likewise received considerable attention. Letters had 
 been introduced by Cadmus. Astronomy was sufficiently studied to enable Chiron to 
 furnish the Argonauts with an artificial sphere exhibiting the constellations. The ac- 
 counts of the siege of Thebes and that of Troy show that progress had been made in 
 the various arts pertaining to war. — But the whole history of the period exhibits that 
 singular mixture of barbarism with cultivation, of savage customs with chivalrous 
 adventures, which marks what is called an heroic age. 
 
 2. The 2d period includes a much shorter space of time, extending from the Trojan 
 aar to the time when the regal form of government was abolished, about 1050 
 B. C. From the most important and characteristic circumstances it may be called the 
 period of colonization. 
 
 The first governments of Greece were small monarchies, and they continued such 
 ■without encountering peculiar difficulties until after the Trojan war. Soon after this 
 we find the country involved in fatal civil wars, in which the people, under a number 
 
P. I. STATES OF EUROPE. GREECE. 73 
 
 of petty chieftains hostile to each other, suffered extremely from calamity and oppres- 
 sion. These evils seem to have led to the change in the form of Government, and the 
 substitution of the popular instead of the regal system. The same evils also probably 
 contributed to the spirit of emigration, which so strikingly marks the period. The 
 emigrants who sought foreign settlements are distinguished as of three separate classes. 
 The earliest were the JEolians, who removed from the Peloponnesus to the north- 
 western shores of Asia Minor and founded several cities, of which Smyrna was the 
 principal. The second were the Ionians, who went from Attica (originally called 
 Ionia), and planted themselves in Asia Minor, south of the iEolians, where Ephesus 
 was one of their chief cities. The third were the Dorians, who migrated to Italy and 
 Sicily, and founded numerous flourishing settlements. Syracuse in Sicily became the 
 most important. — In the period of colonization we notice the origin of the four princi- 
 pal dialects in the Greek language. (Cf. P. V. § 4.) 
 
 3. The 3d period comprehends the space (of five hundred and fifty years) from the 
 abolition of monarchy to the Beginning- of the Persian War, about 500 B.C.. 
 
 In this period two of the Grecian states are chiefly conspicuous, Athens and Sparta; 
 and from the special attention of these states to provide themselves with a suitable 
 political constitution and civil code, this portion of the history may be designated as 
 the period of laws. 
 
 Sparta found in Lycurgus her lawgiver. His institutions gave a permanent cast to 
 her character, and were not abolished until the last ages of Greece. — Many years 
 later, Athens received her constitution from the hands of Solon, who executed the 
 task unsuccessfully attempted by Draco. (Cf. P. V. § 167 ; P. III. %% 8, 9.)— The 
 other principal incidents in the history of this period are the repeated wars of Sparta 
 with her neighbors the Messenians, and the usurpation of Pisistratus and the fate of 
 his sons at Athens. — In the war Sparta at last was completely triumphant, but suf- 
 fered much from the devoted skill and patriotism of Aristomenes, the Messenian 
 general. It was in this struggle that the Spartans were so much indebted to the lame 
 poet of Athens, Tyrtseus. (Cf. P. V; § 53.) 
 
 In the very time of Solon, Pisistratus contrived to obtain at Athens a sort of regal 
 authority, which he transmitted to his two sons. The father used his power to pro- 
 mote the glory and welfare of the state. ^Of the sons one was assassinated at a public 
 festival, and the other, being subsequently expelled, fled to Asia, and sought revenge 
 by instigating the Persians to invade his native country. 
 
 4. The 4th period extends from the beginning to the Close of the Persian War, 
 460 B. C, a space of almost 50 years. To this age the Greeks ever after looked 
 back with pride, and from its history orators of every nation have drawn their favorite 
 examples of valor and patriotism. The Persian invasion called forth the highest 
 energies of the people, and gave an astonishing impulse to Grecian mind. It may 
 properly be called the period of military glory. 
 
 The design of subjugating Greece originated in the ambition of Darius the Persian 
 king, the second in succession from Cyrus the Great. He found a pretext and occa- 
 sion for the attempt in a revolt of his Greek subjects in Asia Minor, in which Sardis, 
 the capital of Lydia, was pillaged and burnt. The war was carried on by three suc- 
 cessive kings, Darius, Xerxes, and Artaxerxes, but on neither of them did it confer 
 any glory; while the battles of Marathon, Thermopyla?, Salamis, Mycale, and Plataea, 
 secured immortal honor to the Greeks. — A succession of splendid names adorns the 
 history of Athens during this period. Miltiades, Themistocles, Aristides, Cimon, and 
 Pericles, acted distinguished parts in the brilliant scene. Sparta also justly gloried 
 in the self-sacrifice of Leonidas and his three hundred brave companions. — The period 
 of the Persian war was the age of the highest elevation of the national character of the 
 Greeks. Before it, theio existed little union comparatively between the different 
 states, and it was not till Athens had alone and successfully resisted the strength of 
 Persia at the battle of Marathon, that other states were aroused to effort against the 
 common enemy. In the confederation which followed, Sparta was the nominal head, 
 but the talents, which actually controlled the public affairs, were found in the states- 
 men of Athens. To Athens, therefore, the supremacy was necessarily transferred, 
 and before the close of the war she stood, as it were, the mistress of Greece. 
 
 5. The 5th period includes the portion from the close of the Persian war to the 
 Supremacy of Philip, B.C. 337. At the beginning of this period the general affairs 
 of Greece were in a highly prosperous condition, and Athens was unrivaled in wealth 
 and magnificence under the influence of Pericles. — But a spirit of luxurious refine- 
 ment soon took the place of the disinterested patriotism of the preceding age, and >hr 
 
 10 G 
 
74 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 manners of all classes became signally marked by corruption and licentiousness. This 
 may be designated as the period of luxury. 
 
 The history of the period presents several subjects of prominent interest. — One of 
 these is the protracted war between Athens and Sparta, termed the Pelopomiesian. 
 Pericles was still in power when it commenced, but he soon fell a victim to the terrible 
 plague which desolated Athens. The unprincipled Cleon and the rash Alcibiades suc- 
 cessively gained the predominant influence. The war was continued with slight in- 
 termissions and various successes for nearly thirty years, and was ended by the battle 
 of iEgos Potamos, B.C. 405, in which Lysander, the Spartan king and general, gained 
 a final victory over the Athenians. By this event Athens lost her supremacy in 
 Greece, and was deprived even of her own hberties. Her walls were thrown down, 
 and a government of thirty tyrants imposed upon her citizens. To this, however, the 
 Athenians submitted but a few years. In 401 B.C. the Thirty were expelled. 
 
 The same year was remarkable for two other events. The first was the accusation 
 of Socrates, one of the greatest and the best men of which paganism can boast. The trial 
 for some reason was delayed several years, but the result was utterly disgraceful to 
 the city and to all concerned (cf. P. V. § 171). The other memorable event was the 
 expedition of Cyrus the younger, the satrap of Lydia, against his brother, the king of 
 Persia. Ten thousand Greelts accompanied him in this enterprise. The march from 
 Sardis to the Euphrates, the fatal battle of Cunaxa, and the labors and dangers of the 
 10,000 in returning to their homes, are recorded by Xenophon with beautiful simpli- 
 city. — The assistance which the Greeks gave in this revolt of Cyrus, involved them 
 in another war with Persia. Sparta had, by the result of the Peloponnesian war, 
 gained the supremacy in Greece, and the other states, especially Athens, Thebes, 
 Argos, and Corinth, refused to aid her in the struggle which followed. They even 
 united in a league against her, and Athens furnished the commander to whom the 
 Persians were indebted for the almost entire destruction of the Spartan fleet. This 
 war was terminated by a treaty, B. C. 387, which weakened and humbled Sparta, 
 and was alike dishonorable to all the Greeks. 
 
 The two states which had for ages been pre-eminent in Greece, Athens and Sparta, 
 were now both depressed, and opportunity was afforded for a third to seek the as- 
 cendancy. This for a short time was secured to Thebes, chiefly by the talents of two 
 distinguished citizens, Pelopidas and Epaminondas. — But a war with Sparta shortly 
 consummated her glory and exhausted her strength ; she gained a brilliant victory in 
 the final battle of Mantinea, 363 B. C, but was hi the same instant ruined by tha 
 death of her general Epaminondas. — The successive downfall of three principal states, 
 Athens, Sparta, and Thebes, and the jealousies and dissensions connected therewith 
 reduced Greece to a miserable condition. The general corruption and licentiousness, 
 already mentioned, increased the degradation. In a few years we find the Grecian 
 states embroiled in the Phocian or Sacred war, B. C. 357. (Cf. P. III. § 72.) This 
 commenced in the jealousies between the Thebans and the Phocians. The Spartans 
 and the Athenians, and ere long the Macedonians, became involved in it. Shortly 
 after this contest was terminated, a new Sacred war arose, called the Amphissian ; in 
 which the council of Amphictyons appointed Philip, king of Macedon, as general and 
 leader of then confederacy. Amid such dissensions, the ambitious Philip eagerly seized 
 a favorable moment for entering the Grecian territories. At Athens the single voice of 
 Demosthenes was lifted to warn the Greeks of his ultimate intentions, and to rouse 
 them to united resistance. A feeble alliance with Thebes was effected, but in vain. 
 The battle of Chesronea, B. C. 337, made Philip the master of Greece. 
 
 6. The 6th period extends from the supremacy of Philip, gained by the battle of 
 Chaeronea, to the Capture of Corinth, 146 B. C. By the disastrous defeat at Chte- 
 ronea the genuine fire of the Grecian spirit was extinguished, and the subsequent his- 
 tory exhibits little else than the steps by which the country was reduced to a dependent 
 •jrovince. We may therefore denominate this the period of decline and fall. 
 
 Alexander, who succeeded his father Philip as king of Macedon, and autocrat of 
 Greece, cast a sort of glory on the first years of this period by his extensive conquests. 
 Those, who love to trace the course of conquerors, will follow with interest his march 
 from the Hellespont to the Granicus, to Issus, to Tyre, to the Nile, to the desert of 
 Libya, to the Euphrates, and the Indus ; but every reader will regret his follies at Per- 
 sepolis and be disgusted by his beastly life and death at Babylon. — For twenty years 
 after Alexander's death the vast empire he had formed was agitated by the quarrels 
 among his generals. By the battle of Ipsus in Phrygia, B. C. 301, these contests were 
 terminated, and the empire was then divided into four kingdoms, one comprising Ma- 
 cedonia and Greece; a second Thrace and Bithynia; a third Egypt, Libya, Arabia, 
 Palestine, and Ccelosyria ; and a fourth called the kingdom of Syria, including all the 
 rest of Asia, even to the Indus. 
 
 To the first of these the Grecian states belonged. Patriotic individuals sought to 
 
P. I. STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 75 
 
 arouse their countrymen to cast off the Macedonian yoke ; but jealousy between the 
 states and the universal corruption of morals rendered their exertions fruitless. All 
 that is really honorable and memorable in the proper . affairs of the Greeks at this 
 period, is found in the history of the Achaean league. — The Achaean league was origi- 
 nally a confederacy between twelve small cities of Achaia, established very early, 
 when the Grecian states first assumed the popular instead of the regal form. It took 
 scarcely any part in the perpetual conflicts between the other republics, and was neutral 
 even in the Peloponnesian war. 
 
 The Macedonian kings had dissolved it, but it was revived about 280 B. C. Subse- 
 quently it was enlarged, and Corinth became the head and capital. Under the presi- 
 dency of Philopoemen, B. C. 200 to 180, it rose so high in power and reputation, that 
 its alliance was sought by some of the governments of Asia. Had the other states at 
 this time risen above the foul and mean spirit of envy, the independence of Greece 
 might probably have been restored. But unhappily the Romans were requested by 
 one of the states to aid them against the Macedonians. The Romans gladly embraced 
 the opportunity, and shortly after this a Roman general led as a captive to grace his 
 triumph the last king of Macedon, 167 B. C. 
 
 Nothing but the Achaean league now preserved southern Greece from falling an in- 
 stant prey to Roman ambition. The remaining vigor of the confederacy averted this 
 destiny for twenty years ; then it came, under the pretext of just punishment for insult 
 upon Roman ambassadors. The legions of Rome poured upon Achaia, Corinth was 
 taken, and with all its wealth and splendor committed to the flames and consumed to 
 ashes. This completed the subjugation of the country, which became of course a 
 province of Rome. 
 
 The principal helps in the study of the Grecian history are mentioned, P. V. § 1. 7. (d). — A good elementary work is PinnocWa 
 improved edition of Goldsmith's Historyof Greece. &c. Philad. 1636. 12.— A valuable text-book and guide to deeper research; 
 A. H. L. Heeren, States of Autiquity, translated from German by G. Bancroft, Northampt. 1828. 8.— For the later periods of Gre- 
 cian history ; /. Gast, Hist, of Greece from accession of Alexanderiill the final subjection to the Romans. Lond. 1782. 4. — Breiter- 
 bauch, Geschichte der Achiter und ihres Bundes. Lpz. 17S2. 
 
 § 214. II. Rome. The history of Rome extends through a space of more than 1200 
 years; which may be divided, like the Grecian history, into six periods. 
 
 1. The 1st period includes the time from the Building of the City, B. C. 752, to 
 the Expulsion of Tauquin, B. C. 509. It may be called the Period of the Kings, or 
 of Regal Power. 
 
 The Roman historians have left a particular account of this period, beginning with 
 the very founders of the city, Romulus and Remus, whose descent is traced from 
 iEneas the hero of Virgil. But many have doubted whether this portion of the Roman 
 history is entitled to much credit, and some have even contended that it is altogether 
 fabulous. (P. V. § 510.)— Seven kings are said to have reigned (P. III. §§ 193, 240). 
 One of the most important events of this period, was a change in the constitution 
 effected by the sixth king, Servius Tullius, introducing the Comitia Centuriata. He 
 divided the citizens into classes, and subdivided the classes into centuries, making a 
 much larger number of centuries in the richer classes than in the poorer. (P. III. § 252.) 
 — The reign "of the second king, Numa, is remembered, on account of his influence on 
 the affairs of religion ; as he instituted many of the religious ceremonies and several 
 classes of priests. — During the period of the kings, 244 years, the Roman territory was 
 of very limited extent, and the people were often involved in war with the several 
 states in their immediate vicinity. Tarquin the Proud, the last king, was engaged in 
 the siege of an enemy's city only sixteen miles from Rome, when his son committed 
 the outrage upon the person of Lucretia, which led to the banishment of the family and 
 the overthrow of the regal government. 
 
 2. The 2d period extends from the expulsion of the Kings to the time when the Ple- 
 beians were admitted to the Offices of state, about 300 B.C. At the beginning of 
 this period the government was a thorough aristocracy, but at the close of it had be- 
 come a full democracy. It included over 200 years, and may be designated as the 
 period of the Plebeian and Patrician contests, or of Party strife. 
 
 Two consuls, chosen annually, first took the place of the king, and exercised almost 
 precisely the same power. All offices of state were forbidden to the Plebeians or com- 
 mon people, and filled exclusively by Patricians or descendants from the Senators or 
 Patres. — The first step in the undermining of the aristocracy was the Valerian Law, 
 which allowed a citizen condemned to a disgraceful punishment to appeal from tho 
 magistrate to the people. Under the protection of this law, the people, discontented 
 with their poverty and hardships, ere long refused to enrol their names in the levies, 
 which the wars with the neighboring states demanded. This difficulty led the Patri- 
 cians to invent a new office ; that of Dictator (P. III. § 248). But the dissatisfaction 
 
76 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. 
 
 of the Plebeians was not to be thus removed. They united with the army and with- 
 drew to Mt. Sacer, B. C. 493. Reconciliation was effected by creating the office of 
 Tribunes, who were to be chosen annually from the Plebeians, and to possess the power 
 of a negative upon the decrees of the Consuls and even the Senate. (P. III. § 245.) — 
 This arrangement only led to new dissensions, the Tribunes generally making it their 
 object to oppose the Consuls and the Senate, and the Plebeian interest gradually en- 
 croaching upon the Patrician. — In a few years another fundamental change was effected. 
 The important business of state had, from the time of king Servius Tullius, been 
 transacted at the Comitia Centuriata, or assemblies voting by centuries. It was now, 
 B. C. 471, decided that such business might be transacted in the Comitia Tributa, or 
 assemblies voting by Tribes, in which the Plebeians held the control. 
 
 The next office created at Rome seems to have originated in the jealousy between 
 the two parties, the Patricians opposing, and the Plebeians favoring it. This was the 
 Decemvirate, fi. C. 451, which superseded both consuls and tribunes, but continued 
 only three years, and then the two other offices were restored. — In a few years the 
 people made another advance, the Senate conceding, that sis; military tribunes, three 
 Patrician and three Plebeian, might be substituted instead of the two consuls. — Another 
 office was created during this period, the censorship ; two Censors being appointed to 
 take the census of the people every five years, and to watch over the public morals, — 
 But this office does not appear to have originated in party animosity ; nor had it 
 any influence in healing the dissensions between the higher and lower orders (cf. 
 P. III. § 247) . 
 
 One grand object with the Plebeians yet remained unaccomplished. They were 
 not eligible to the more important offices of the state, and to remove this disability 
 they now bent all their energies. The struggle continued for many years, and occa- 
 sioned much unhappy disturbance, but terminated in their complete success ; as they 
 gained admission to the consulship, the censorship, and finally to the priesthood, and 
 thus obtained a virtual equality with the Patricians about B. C. 300. 
 
 During this period, so harassed by internal contests, Rome was engaged in fre- 
 quent wars. Three of them are most noticeable. The first was with the Etrurians, 
 under king Porsenna, shortly after the expulsion of Tarquin, "a war fertile in exploits 
 of romantic heroism." — The second was with the city Veii, a proud rival of Rome. It 
 ■was at last taken by Camillus, B. C. 390, after a siege of ten years. — The last was 
 with the Gauls, who invaded Italy under Brennus, and are said to have taken Roma 
 and burned it to the ground, B. C. 385. Camillus, who had been forced by the cla- 
 mors of the populace to go into retirement, unexpectedly returned, and put to speedy 
 flight the barbarian conquerors. 
 
 3. The 3d period in the Roman history extends from the final triumph of the Pie- 
 beians to the Capture of Cartha&e, B. C. 146. 
 
 Rome had hitherto been distracted with intestine feuds and dissensions, and had 
 extended her dominion over but a small extent of territory. The admission of Ple- 
 beians to all the high offices of trust and distinction promoted the consolidation and 
 strength of the republic, and the career of conquest was soon commenced. This may 
 be remembered as the period of the Punic Wars, or of Foreign Conquests. 
 
 The first important conquest was that of the southern part of Italy, which resulted 
 from the war with the Samnites. Southern Italy was settled by Grecian colonies 
 (§ 50), and contained at this time several cities, flourishing, wealthy, and refined by 
 letters and the arts. On their invitation Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus, passed over 
 from Greece with a large army and a train of elephants to aid them against the Ro- 
 mans, and was for a time successful, but finally, being totally defeated at the battle 
 of Beneventum, B. C. 274, fled precipitately to his own dominions. The allied states 
 and cities immediately submitted to Rome, who thus became mistress of Italy. 
 
 She now began to look abroad for acquisitions, and the island Sicily became an 
 object of desire. The pursuit of this object brought Rome into contact with Carthage, 
 which was now flourishing and powerful. The Carthaginians had settlements in 
 Sicily, and desired as well as the Romans the dominion of the whole island. Hence 
 sprang the first of the three Punic Wars. Sicily was chiefly settled by Greek colo- 
 nies. These colonies preferred independence, but, situated between Rome on one 
 side and Carthage on the other, were in no condition to resist both, and had only the 
 alternative of joining one against the other. They chose the side of the Romans in 
 the first Punic war, which began B. C. 264, and was ended B. C. 241, by a treaty 
 exceedingly humiliating to Carthage. Sicily was made a Roman province, yet Syra- 
 cuse, the principal city, was allowed to retain an independent government.— The 
 tragic story of Regulus belongs to the first Panic war. 
 
 After a peace of twenty-three years, the second Punic war began in the siege of 
 Saguntum in Spain, by Hannibal, B. C. 218. Having taken this city, Hannibal 
 crassed the Pyrenees and the Alps, and marched down upon Italy with a victorious 
 
ST 
 
 P. I. STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 77 
 
 army. The Romans were defeated in three engagements before the memorable 
 battle of Cannae, in which they were completely conquered, and 40,000 of their troops 
 left dead on the field. But after the battle of Cannae the Carthaginians gained no ad- 
 vantages. A king of Macedon came to their aid in vain. — Scipio, a Roman general, 
 having conquered Spain, passed over to Africa and carried the war to the very walls 
 of Carthage. Hannibal was recalled from Italy to defend the city, but was utterly 
 defeated by Scipio in the battle of Zama, B. C. 202, by which the second Punic war 
 ended even more disastrously than the first. In this war Syracuse in Sicily took part 
 with the Carthaginians, and was on that account besieged by the Romans. It was 
 ably defended by the scientific genius of Archimedes, but at length taken by Marcel- 
 lus, and made a part of the province of Sicily, B. C. 212. 
 
 The result of the second Punic war may be considered as the occasion which car- 
 ried the Roman arms into Asia. Hannibal, after the battle of Zama, fled to the pro- 
 tection of Antiochus, king of Syria. This led to a war which compelled the king to 
 cede to the Romans nearly the whole of Asia Minor, B. C. 190. — The interference 
 of the king of Macedon in the second Punic war also furnished the ground for a war 
 with him, which was the first step towards the conquest of Greece. A few years 
 after, the Romans-, on the pretence of aiding the iEtolians, subjected Macedonia, B. C. 
 167. The Achaean league preserved the southern portions of the country a little 
 longer ; but in twenty years these likewise fell under the dominion of Rome by the 
 capture of Corinth, B. C. 146. 
 
 Carthage fell the same year with Corinth. The Romans had waged a third Punic 
 war, when the Carthaginians were greatly weakened by an unfortunate struggle with 
 the Numidians. The third Punic war continued but about three years, and termi- 
 nated in the entire destruction of Carthage, under circumstances of aggravated cruelty 
 and faithlessness on the part of the Romans. 
 
 4. The fourth period extends from the Capture of Carthage and Corinth to the 
 establishment of the Imperial Government by the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. 
 During this whole time the Roman history is a continued tale of domestic disturb- 
 ances. This may justly, therefore, be termed the period of the Civil Wars. 
 
 The very commencement of the period is marked by the disturbances which grew 
 out of the attempts of the two Gracchi. They successively endeavored to check the 
 growing corruption of the Senate, and to relieve the circumstances of the people ; but 
 both fell victims to their own zeal and the hatred of their enemies, Tiberius 133, and 
 Caius 121 B. C. Some have ascribed their efforts to ardent patriotism; others to 
 mere ambition. (Cf. Niebuhr's Rome, cited P. V. § 299. 7.) Not long after the fall of 
 Gracchus arose the Social war, by which the states of Italy demanded and obtained 
 of Rome the rights of citizenship, B. C. 90. — Scarcely was this ended, when the Ro- 
 mans began again to imbrue their hands in each other's blood in the fierce war of 
 Sylla and Marius, rival leaders in the republic. Two horrible massacres signalized 
 this contention. Sylla finally triumphed, and was made perpetual dictator, yet re- 
 signed his power at the end of four years, B. C. 78. The death of Sylla is soon fol- 
 lowed by the famous conspiracy of Cataline, detected and subdued by the vigilance of 
 Cicero, B. C. 62. 
 
 Still Rome was distracted by parties, headed by ambitious men. — The first trium- 
 virate, a temporary coalition between Pompey, Crassus, and Caesar, repressed the 
 flames of discord for a few years. Pompey had already added Syria to the Roman 
 possessions : Caesar soon added Gaul. Crassus lost his life in an attempt to conquer 
 Parthia, B. C. 53. The death of Crassus broke the bond which held Caesar and 
 Pompey together, and they hastened to determine in the field of battle who should be 
 master of Rome. The contest was decided in the plains of Pharsalus in Thessaly, 
 by the entire defeat of Pompey, B. C. 48. Pompey fled to Egypt, but was beheaded 
 the instant he landed on the shore. For five years Caesar held the supreme power at 
 Rome, but was assassinated in the senate, by a company of conspirators headed by 
 Brutus and Cassius, B. C. 43. 
 
 A second triumvirate was now formed, on the pretext of avenging this murder, be- 
 tween Antony, Lepidus, and Octavius, each aspiring to the power of Caesar. A horrid 
 proscription sealed in blood this compact. A war with the party of the conspirators 
 necessarily followed, and the battle of Philippi, B. C. 42, put an end to the hopes of 
 Brutus and Cassius, at the head of this party. Octavius, who was the nephew of 
 Caesar, easily effected the removal of one member of the triumvirate, Lepidus, a man of 
 feeble talents and insignificant character. His other colleague, Antony, infatuated by 
 love for Cleopatra, queen of Egypt, soon furnished a pretext for open hostility, and the 
 fate of battle again decided who should be the master of Rome. The armament of 
 Antony and Cleopatra was wholly defeated by Octavius at Actium, B. C. 31. This 
 battle subjected Egypt to Rome, and Rome, with all her possessions, to the powet 
 of Octavius, by whom the imperial government was finally established. 
 
 g2 
 
78 CLASSICAL CHRONOLOGY. * 
 
 The Roman history, from the fall of Carthage to the battle of Actium, presents but 
 a melancholy picture, a blood-stained record of sedition, conspiracy, and civil war. 
 
 5. We may include in a 5th period the time from the establishment of the Imperial 
 Government to the reign of Constantine, A. D. 306. As Christianity was introduced 
 into the world in this period, and was opposed until the end of it by the Roman govern- 
 ment, we may designate it as the period of the Pagan Emperors. 
 
 The reign of Augustus, the name taken by the first Emperor Octavius, has become 
 proverbial for an age flourishing in peace, literature, and the arts. It is distinguished, 
 also, for the birth of our Savior; as the next reign, that of Tiberius, is, for his cruci- 
 fixion and death. — The four reigns succeeding, viz. those of Tiberius, Caligula, Clau- 
 dius, and Nero, are chiefly memorable for the tyranny of the emperors, and the profli- 
 gacy of their families and favorites. 
 
 On the death of Nero, A. D. 69, follows a" year of dissension and bloodshed, in which 
 Galba, Otho, and Vitellius, successively gained the empire and lost their lives. — The 
 Flavian family, Vespasian and his two sons, Titus and Domitian, next in order receive 
 the supreme power. Titus is celebrated as the final conqueror of the Jews, whose 
 obstinacy provoked him to rase their city to the ground, an event exactly fulfilling the 
 predictions of Christ. His reign is memorable for the eruption of Vesuvius, which 
 buried the cities Herculaneum and Pompeii in ruins. Domitian, the last emperor of the 
 family, provokes his own assassination, A. D. 96. 
 
 Passing the reigns of the feeble Nerva, the martial Trajan, and the peaceful Adrian, 
 we arrive at a brilliant age in the imperial history, the age of the Antonines, extending 
 from A. D. 138 to 180, a space of about forty years. Their reigns appear in the midst 
 of the general sterility and desolation of the imperial history like the verdant oasis in 
 the desert. Literature and the arts of peace revived under their benign influence. 
 
 After the death of Marcus, A. D. 180, there follows a whole century of disorder, 
 profligacy, conspiracy and assassination. The army assumes the absolute disposal of 
 the imperial crown, which is even sold at public auction to the highest bidder. Within 
 the last fifty years of the time, nearly fifty emperors are successively proclaimed, and 
 deposed or murdered. — In the year 284, Diocletian commenced his reign, and attempted 
 a new system of administration. The empire was divided into four departments or 
 provinces, and three princes were associated with him, in the government. This sys- 
 tem only laid the foundation for rivalship and contention in a new form, and in a few 
 years Maxentius and Constantine, sons of two of the princes associated with Diocletian, 
 appealed to the sword to decide upon their respective claims to the imperial purple. 
 The former fell in the battle, and Constantine secured the throne. 
 
 This period is memorable in the history of Christianity. Under the Pagan Emperors, 
 those who embraced the gospel were constantly exposed to persecution and suffering. 
 Ten special persecutions are recorded and described, the first under Nero, A. D. 64, 
 and the last under Diocletian, commencing A. D. 303, and continuing ten years, unto 
 A, D. 313. But, notwithstanding these repeated efforts to hinder the progress of the 
 gospel, it was spread during this period throughout the whole Roman Empire. 
 
 6. The 6th period includes the remainder of the Roman history, extending from the 
 reign of Constantine to the Fall of Rome, when captured by the Heruli, A. D. 476. 
 The reign of Constantine the Great imparts splendor to the commencement of this 
 period. He embraced the Christian faith himself, and patronized it in the empire, as 
 did also most of his successors ; on which account this may be called the period of the 
 Christian Emperors. 
 
 One of the most important events of his reign, and one which had a great influence 
 on the subsequent affairs of Rome, was the removal of the Government to a new seat. 
 He selected Byzantium for his capital, and thither removed with his court, giving it the 
 name of Constantinople, which it still bears. He left his empire to five princes, three 
 sons and two nephews; the youngest son, Constantius, soon grasps the whole, A. D. 
 360. By the death of Constantius, his cousin Julian received the purple, which he 
 was already on his march from Gaui to seize by force. The reign of Julian, styled the 
 Apostate, is memorable for his artful and persevering attempts to destroy the Christian 
 religion, and his unsuccessful efforts to rebuild the Temple of Jerusalem, with the ex- 
 press purpose of casting discredit on the predictions of the Bible. 
 
 From the death of Julian, A. D. 363, to the reign of Theodosius the Great, A. D. 
 379, the history presents little that is important to be noticed, except the jealousies 
 between the eastern and western portions of the Empire, which grew out of the re- 
 moval of the court to Constantinople. Theodosius was the last emperor who ruled 
 over both. In 395 he died, leaving to his sons Arcadius and Honorius separately the 
 east and the west. — From this time the Eastern portion remained distinct, and its his- 
 tory no longer belongs to that of Rome. 
 
P.I. STATES OF EUROPE. ROME. 79 
 
 The Western portion languishes under ten successive emperors, who are scarcely 
 able to defend themselves against the repeated attacks of barbarian invaders. At length, 
 under Augustulus, the 11th from Theodosius, Rome is taken by Odoacer, leader of 
 the Heruli, and the history of ancient Rome is terminated, A. D. 476. 
 
 The whole of the period from Constantine to Augustulus is marked by the continued 
 inroads of barbarous hordes from the north and the east. But the greatest annoyance 
 was suffered in the latter part of the time, from three tribes, under three celebrated 
 leaders ; the Goths, under Alaric ; the Vandals, under Genseric ; and the Huns, 
 under Attila ; the two former of which actually carried their victorious arms to Rome 
 itself (A. D. 410 and 455), and laid prostrate at their feet the haughty mistress of the 
 world ; and the latter was persuaded to turn back his forces (A. D. 453) only by igno- 
 ble concessions and immense gifts. 
 
 § 215. It may be proper to add here, that the Eastern Empire, called also the Greek 
 Empire, was sustained under various fortunes, for a period of almost 1000 years after the 
 overthrow of the Western. After the fall of Rome nearly sixty different emperors had 
 occupied the throne at Constantinople, when, A. D. 1202, that city was taken by the 
 crusaders from France and Venice, By this event the Greek emperors were forced to 
 establish their court at Nicaea in Asia Minor. After the lapse of sixty years, their 
 former capital was recovered : and, subsequently to this, eight different emperors held 
 the sceptre there ; although the empire was gradually reduced in strength and extent, 
 until it consisted of but a little corner of Europe. Its existence was prolonged to A. D. 
 1453, when Constantinople fell into the hands of the Turks, who have retained it to 
 the present day. 
 
 For the principal works on the Roman history, see P. V. § 299. 7. — We mention here as valuahle, j&lex. Fraser Tyller's Universal 
 History. Bost. 1835. 2 vols. 8. — The student in ancient history will derive advantage also from B i g 1 a n d's Letters on the Study 
 andUse of History, and Priestley's Lectures on History ; also, RUh's Propadeutik des historischen Studiums. Berl. 1811. 8. 
 
IX o. 
 
 ' ' 
 
 <s 
 
PART II 
 
 MYTHOLOGY OF THE GEEEKS AND EOMANS. 
 
 11 
 
PLATE X , 
 
GEEEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Introduction, 
 
 § 1. Among the early nations of antiquity, before the art of writing had come 
 into general use, tradition was the only mode of preserving and spreading the 
 knowledge of remarkable events. Many circumstances contributed to give to 
 early traditions a fabulous character. The love of the marvellous, a natural 
 tendency of the mind to employ symbolical and allegorical images to express 
 ideas for which no definite words have been appropriated, and a disposition to 
 eulogize and exaggerate the exploits of ancestors, all conspired to load history 
 and fact with a mass of fiction, so that it became impossible for later inquirers 
 to distinguish accurately between the true and false. 
 
 § 2. Traditions of this sort the Greeks distinguished from authentic history 
 by the name oimythi (^J^ot), and they termed their contents or the matter of 
 them, as well as the knowledge or study of them, mythology {/xv^oxoyua). 
 Mythology, however, was not with them, as in modern times, a distinct branch 
 of study. The term is now used appropriately for that branch of knowledge 
 which considers the notions and stories, particularly among the Greeks and 
 Romans, respecting gods and demigods, their pretended origin, their actions, 
 names, attributes, worship, images, and symbolical representations. It is often 
 employed also in a wider sense, including the religious fables of all ages and 
 nations, and thus is made synonymous with the history of fable. 
 
 § 3. It is important to distinguish the point of view in which these mytholo- 
 logical narratives were contemplated by the ancients, from that in which we are 
 to regard them. To the former they were closely connected with their national 
 history and their religious faith, were indeed parts of them ; to us they are only 
 monuments and evidences of the state of culture of the human mind, if we view 
 them philosophically. They exhibit the reflections, upon nature and deity, of 
 men guided by sense and imagination, affected much by external appearances, 
 and mistaking physical effects for independent or voluntary powers. But they 
 afford much valuable and even necessary aid in understanding the Greek and 
 Roman authors, especially the poets, and in judging of ancient opinions, usages, 
 and art. 
 
 § 4. The traditions of mythology, in passing down through many centuries, 
 were multiplied and augmented, and experienced various changes in respect to 
 their general dress, aim, and application. Originally they consisted in part of 
 actual occurrences, in part of arbitrary fiction, springing from fear, reverence, 
 gratitude, patriotism, credulity and love of the marvelous, or duplicity, cun- 
 ning, and ambition. They were, it is probable, sometimes of native origin, but 
 more frequently were introduced from foreign sources, by settlers and other- 
 wise. By the poets they were woven into epic song ; by early philosophers 
 they were clothed in mystery and allegory ; and by the later interpreted in 
 divers conflicting ways ; while artists found in them an ample range of subjects 
 for the chisel and the pencil. 
 
 § 5. Some of the modern writers on Greek and Roman mythology have 
 merely stated the fables as reported among the ancients. Others have, in addi- 
 tion, sought to trace them to their origin, either by making conjectures of alle- 
 gorical, historical, and physical meanings in the stories, or deducing them from 
 the events of early ages recorded in the Bible. But as these traditions arose 
 in various ways, and often accidentally, there will of course be error in every 
 system which attempts to refer them all to one common source and purpose. 
 
 83 
 
84 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 § 5 m. The foundation of very many of the fictions of mythology is laid in the idea, 
 which arose from the simplicity and inexperience of the first ages, conversant only 
 with objects of sense ; viz. that every thing in nature was endued with an appropriate 
 activity and spontaneity like that in man. In consequence of this idea, wherever an 
 unusual appearance or agency was observed, it was ascribed to a distinct being or 
 existence operating directly or immediately. This creation of personal existences out 
 of natural phenomena, this personification of physical objects and events was, in all 
 probability, one of the most prolific sources of fable and of idolatry; for which the stars 
 and the elements seem to have furnished the first and the most common occasion. 
 
 Many of the pagan stories are ingeniouslysolved by referring their origin to symbolical or allegorical descriptions of physical prin- 
 ciples and changes. Cf. P. IV. § 41.— On the rise of idolatry, we refer to Faber, Origin of Pagan Idolatry. Lond. 1816. 3 vols. 4. 
 Cf. also Skuckford, Sac. and Prof. Hist. bk. v.— .Bam'er, cited § 12. 2. (a).— See references, P. V. § 364, 3. 
 
 The following remarks, on the sources of fable, are from the Traiti des Etudes of Rollin. They 
 were translated by Mr. Wellington H. Tyler, who has consented to their insertion here. 
 
 1. " One source of Fable is the perversion or alteration of facts in Sacred History ; 
 and, indeed, this is its earliest and principal source. The family of Noah, perfectly 
 instructed by him in religious matters, preserved for considerable time the worship of 
 the true God in all its purity. But when, after the fruitless attempt to build the tower 
 of Babel, the members of this family were separated and scattered over different 
 countries, diversity of language and abode was soon followed by a change of worship. 
 Truth, which had been hitherto intrusted to the single channel of oral communication, 
 subject to a thousand variations, and which had not yet become fixed by the use of 
 writing, that sure guardian of facts, became obscured by an infinite number of fables, 
 the latter of which greatly increased the darkness in which the more ancient had en- 
 veloped it. — The tradition of great principles and great events has been preserved 
 among all nations ; not, indeed, without some mixture of fiction, but yet with traces 
 of truth, marked and easy to be recognized ; a certain proof that these nations had a 
 common origin. Hence the notion, diffused among all people, of a sovereign God, all- 
 powerful, the Ruler and Creator of the universe : and consequently the necessity of 
 external worship by means of ceremonies and sacrifices. Hence the uniform and 
 general assent to certain great facts ; the creation of man by an immediate exertion of 
 Divine power ; his state of felicity and innocence, distinguished as the golden age, in 
 which the earth, without being moistened by the sweat of his brow or cultivated by 
 painful labor, yielded him all her fruit in rich abundance ; the fall of the same man, 
 the source of all his woe, followed by a deluge of crime, which brought on one of 
 water ; the human race saved by an ark, which rested upon a mountain ; and after- 
 wards the propagation of the human race from one man and his three sons. — But the 
 detail of particular actions, being less important, and for that reason less known, was 
 soon altered by the introduction of fables and fictions, as may be clearly seen in the 
 family of Noah itself. The historical fact that he was the father of three sons, and 
 that their descendants after the flood were dispersed into three different parts of the 
 earth, has given rise to the fable of Saturn, whose three sons, if we may believe the 
 poets, shared between them the empire of the world." 
 
 On several of the points above suggested by Rollin, the pagan mythology exhibits striking coincldedcsa with facts in sacred history 
 These are pointed out by several writers ; we mention particularly Grotius, De veritate Rel. Christ (L. i. c. 17.)— De Lavaur, His 
 toire de la Fable conferee avec l'Histoire Sainte. Amst. 1731. — Faber, Hora3 Mosaicse. — Collyer, 7.ectures on Scripture Facts. 2d ed 
 Lond. 1809.— Stillingfleei's Origines Sacra;.— Cf. Maurice, History of Hindostan. Lond. 1820. 2 vols. 4. (bk. i.) 
 
 2. "A second source of Fable was furnished by the ministry of angels in human 
 affairs. God had associated the angels with his spiritual nature, his intelligence and his 
 immortality ; and he was farther desirous of associating them with his providence in 
 the government of the world, as well in the departments of nature and the elements, 
 as in reference to the conduct of men. The Scriptures speak of angels, who, armed 
 with their glittering swords, ravage all Egypt, destroy by pestilence in Jerusalem an 
 innumerable multitude of people, and entirely extirpate the army of an impious prince. 
 Mention is made of an angel, the prince and protector of the Persian empire ; of 
 another, prince of the Grecian empire ; and of the Archangel Michael, prince of the 
 people of God (Dan. x. 20, 21). The visible ministration of angels is as ancient as the 
 world, as we learn from the Cherubim stationed at the gate of the terrestrial paradise 
 to guard its entrance. — Noah and the other patriarchs were perfectly instructed in this 
 truth, which to them had an intense interest : and they took pains, no doubt, to instruct 
 their families on a subject of such importance ; but these by degrees losing the more 
 pure and spiritual notions of a divinity concealed and invisible, attended only to the 
 agents through whom they received their blessings and punishments. Hence it is 
 that men formed the idea of gods, some of whom preside over the fruits of the earth, 
 others over rivers, some over war and others over peace, and so of all the rest ; of 
 gods whose power and agency were confined to certain countries and nations, and who 
 were themselves under the dominion of the supreme God. 
 
 3. " A third source of Fable may be in a native principle deeply fixed in the minds 
 of all people ; this is the persuasion which has always prevailed, tha', Providence pre 
 
P. II INTRODUCTION. 85 
 
 sides over all human events great and small, and that each, without exception, expe- 
 riences his attention and care. But men, frightened by the immense detail to which the 
 Divine Being must condescend, have felt bound to relieve him, by giving to each of a 
 number of deities some particular, appropriate, personal duty ; Singulis rebus propria 
 dispertientes officia numinum. The oversight of the whole field would devolve too 
 many concerns upon a single deity ; the soil was intrusted to one, the mountains to 
 another, the hills to a third, and the valleys to another still. St. Augustin (de Civitate 
 Dei, iv. 8) recounts a dozen different deities, all occupied upon a stalk of grain, of which 
 each, according to his office, takes a special care at different times, from the first mo- 
 ment that the seed is cast into the ground, until the grain is perfectly ripened. — Besides 
 the crowd of deities destined to perform the inconsiderable duties of such affairs, there 
 were others which were regarded as of a higher grade, because supposed to take a 
 more noble part in the government of the world." 
 
 The number of gods admitted in the Greek mythology was immense, if we may take Hesiod's 
 testimony for authority. He says there are 30,000 gods on earth, guardians of men. 
 
 Warburton (in the work cited P. IV. 5 12. 3) contends that the fables respecting metamorphoses, 
 which are recorded by ancient authors, had their origin in the common belief of the doctrine of 
 metempsychosis; and the latter he affirms to have been a "method of explaining the ways of 
 Providence, which, as they were seen to be unequal here, were supposed to be rectified here- 
 after;" thus, he says, metempsychosis naturally suggested metamorphosis ; "as the way of pu- 
 nishing in another state was by a transmigration of the soul; so in this, it was by a transforma- 
 tion of the body." 
 
 4. " A fourth source of Fable was the corruption of the human heart, which ever 
 strives to authorize its crimes and passions. The more important and renowned of 
 these gods are the very ones whom Fable has most disparaged and defamed by attri- 
 buting to them crimes the most shameful and debauchery the most detestable, murders, 
 adulteries, incests. And thus it is that the human heart has been ready to multiply, 
 distort, and pervert the fictions of mythology, for the purpose of palliating and excusing 
 practices the most vicious and frightful by the example of the gods themselves. There 
 is no conduct so disgraceful, that it has not been authorized and even consecrated by 
 the worship which was rendered to certain deities. In the solemnities of the mother 
 of the gods, for instance, songs were sung at which the mother of a comedian would 
 have blushed ; and Scipio Nasica, who was chosen by the senate as the most virtuous 
 man in the republic, to go and receive her statue, would have been much grieved that 
 his own mother should have been made a goddess to take the place and honors of 
 Cybele." 
 
 5. "I do not propose to introduce here all the sources from which Fable takes its 
 rise, but merely to point out some of those best understood. And as a fifth source, 
 we may refer to a natural sentiment of admiration or gratitude, which leads men to 
 associate the idea of something like divinity with all that which particularly attracts 
 their attention, that which is nearly related to them, or which seems to procure for them 
 some advantage. Such are the sun, the moon, and the stars; such are parents in view 
 of their children, and children in that of their parents ; persons who have either in- 
 vented or improved arts useful to the human family ; heroes who have distinguished 
 themselves in war by an exhibition of extraordinary courage, or have cleared the land 
 of robbers, enemies to public repose ; in short such are all who, by some virtue or 
 by some illustrious action, rise conspicuous above the common level of mankind. It 
 will be readily perceived without further notice that history, profane as well as sacred, 
 has given rise to all those demigods and heroes whom Fable has located in the heavens, 
 by associating, with the person and under the name of a single individual, actions 
 widely separated in respect to time, place, and person." — Cf. P. V. § 222. 4. 
 
 § 6. The advantages of an acquaintance with mythology are many. One of 
 the most important, aside from its aid in reference to ancient philosophy, re- 
 ligion, and history, is the better understanding it enables one to obtain of the 
 Greek and Roman writers and of the works of their artists. It is obviously ne- 
 cessary to the cultivation of classical learning, which is of such acknowledged 
 importance in modern education. — Cf. P. IV. § 29. 
 
 On the benefits of studying the ancient mythology we add an extract from Eollin, as 
 cited under the last section. 
 
 1. "It apprizes us how much we are indebted to Jesus Christ the Savior, who has 
 rescued us from the power of darkness and introduced us into the wonderful light of 
 the Gospel. Before his time, what was the real character of men ? Even the wisest 
 and most upright men, those celebrated philosophers, those great politicians, those 
 renowned legislators of Greece, those grave senators of Rome? In a word, what 
 were all the nations of the world, the most polished and the most enlightened ? Fable 
 informs us. They were the blind worshipers of some demon, and bowed the knee 
 before gods of gold, silver, and marble. They offered incense and prayers to statues. 
 deaf and mute. They recognized, as gods, animals, reptiles, and even plants. They 
 did not blush to adore an adulterous Mars, a prostituted Venus, an incestuous Juno, a 
 
 H 
 
SO GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Jupiter blackened by every kind of crime, and worthy for that reason to hold the first 
 rank among the gods. — See what our fathers were, and what we ourselves shoufd 
 have been, had not the light of the Gospel dissipated our darkness. Each story in 
 Fable, every circumstance in the life of the gods, ought at once to fill us with confusion, 
 admiration, and gratitude. 
 
 2. " Another advantage from the study of Fable is that, by discovering to us the 
 absurd ceremonies and impious maxims of Paganism, it may inspire us with new- 
 respect for the majesty of the Christian religion, and for the sanctity of its morals. 
 Ecclesiastical history informs us, that a Christian bishops, in order to render idolatry 
 odious in the minds of the faithful, brought forth to the light and exposed before the 
 eyes of the public, all which was found in the interior of a temple that had been 
 demolished ; bones of men, limbs of infants immolated to demons, and many other ves- 
 tiges of the sacrilegious worship, which pagans render to their deities. This is nearly the 
 effect which the study of Fable must produce on the mind of every sensible person ; and 
 this is the use to which it has been put by the holy Fathers and all the defenders of 
 the Christian religion. The great work of St. Augustin, entitled ' The City of God, 
 which has conferred such honor upon the Church, is at the same time a proof of what 
 I now advance, and a perfect model of the manner in which profane studies ought to 
 be sanctified." 
 
 a This bishop wis Theophilus of Alexandria; respecting whom, see Murdoch's Translation of Mosheim, i. 392. 
 
 We would here refer to a very able and interesting treatise by Tholuck, on The nature and moral 
 influence of Heathenism among the Greeks and Romans. — "Whosoever," says Tholuck, " stands on 
 a lofty mountain should look not merely at the gold which the morning sun' pours on the grass 
 and flowers at his feet, but he should sometimes also look behind him into the deep valley where 
 the shadows still rest, that he may the more sensibly feel that that sun is indeed a sun. Thus it 
 is also salutary for the disciples of Christ, at times, from the kingdom of light to cast forth a 
 glance over the dark stage, where men play their part in lonely gloom, without a Savior, with- 
 out a God:" 
 
 See a translation of Tholuck's Treatise by Prof. Emerson, in Bibl. Repository, vol. it. 
 
 3. " Still another benefit of very great importance may be realized in the under- 
 standing of authors, either in Greek, Latin, or even French, in reading which a per- 
 son is often stopped short if ignorant of mythology. I speak not of poets merely, 
 w-hose natural language is Fable ; it is often employed also by orators, and it fur- 
 nishes them frequently with the happiest illustrations, and with strains the most 
 sprightly and eloquent. Such, for example, among many others, is that drawn from 
 the story of Medea, in the speech of Cicero [Pro Leg. Manil. sect. 9), upon the sub- 
 ject of Mithridates, king of Pontus. 
 
 4. " There is another class of works, whose meaning and beauty are illustrated by 
 a knowledge of Fable ; viz. paintings, coins, statues, and the like. These are so 
 many enigmas to persons ignorant of mythology, which is often the only key to their 
 interpretation." It should be added, that mythology, at the same time, itself re- 
 ceives new light from the study of such remains or imitations of ancient art, so that 
 these two branches of classical pursuits reciprocally aid each other. 
 
 § 7. Greece having been settled by colonies from several eastern countries, 
 and having derived her religious notions particularly from Egyptians and Phoe- 
 nicians, the origin of most of the Greek deities is to he sought in the religious 
 histor} r of those countries and nations. But many changes took place, and 
 this original derivation was greatly obscured through the vanity of the Greeks, 
 who wished to claim for themselves and ancestors the merit, of their whole re- 
 ligious system. This motive led them to confound the history and alter the 
 names of the primitive gods. 
 
 Some traditions may have come from India. There are certainly many points of 
 resemblance between the mythology of Greece and that of India. 
 
 See Karl Hitter, Die Vorhalle EuropaischerYOIkergeschichten vor Herodotus urn den Kaukasus and an den Gestaden des Pontus. 
 Berlin, 1S30. 8. Cf. Kennedy, as cited § 12. 2. (f ). Also Moore and Maurice, as there cited. Also the Works of Sir Wm. Jones, 
 
 cited § 25. 4. On the influence of the Phoenicians, &c on the early culture of the Greeks, cf. P. IV. § 40-42 ; P. V. § 12. On 
 
 the changes successively wrought in the mythology of the Greeks, Mayo, vol. iii. p. 1-9, as cited § 12. 2. (a). 
 
 § 8. The religious system of the Romans gives clearer evidence of its Gre- 
 cian descent, being in scarcely any part of it a native growth, but borrowed 
 chiefly from the Greek colonies in Italy. Yet the Romans likewise changed, 
 not only in many cases the names of the gods, but also the fictions of their 
 story, and the rites of their worship. They also derived some notions and 
 usages from the Etrurians. (Cf. P. IV. § 109.) All the religious conceptions 
 and institutions of the Romans were closely interwoven with their civil policy, 
 and on this account exhibited some peculiarities, particularly in their system 
 of auspices, auguries, and various omens. We find therefore in Roman mytho- 
 
P. II. INTRODUCTION. 87 
 
 logy much which the Greek had not, and much which was borrowed from it, 
 but altered and as it were molded anew. 
 
 § 9. Thus the general division or classification of the gods was not the same 
 with both nations. The Greeks made a three-fold division into Superior gods, 
 Inferior gods, and Demigods or heroes; the Romans a two-fold, into gods Supe- 
 rior and Inferior {Dii majorum et minorum gentium). Their first class the 
 Romans distinguished as Consenies and Selecti ; their second class, which in- 
 cluded demigods or heroes, they also distinguished as Indigetes and Semones. 
 
 1. In the Roman classification the Consentes, so called because they were supposed 
 to form the great council {consentient es) of heaven, consisted of twelve, 6 males and 6 . 
 females; Jupiter, Neptune, Apollo, Mars, Mercury, Vulcan; Juno, Minerva, Ceres, 
 Diana, Venus, Vesta. These were the great celestial gods. — The Selecti were nearly 
 equal to them in rank, and consisted of eight, Saturn, Pluto or Orcus, Bacchus, Ja- 
 nus, Sol, Genius, Rhea, and Luna. These (the Consentes and the Selecti) were called 
 Dii majorum gentium, and all the rest Dii minorum gentium, in allusion to the division 
 of the senators (patres). 
 
 2. The Indigetes, called also Adscriptitii, were heroes ranked among the gods on 
 account of their merits, and included particularly Hercules, Castor or Pollux, and 
 Quirinus or Romulus. — The Semones included those deities that presided over parti- 
 cular objects ; as Pan, god of shepherds, Flora, goddess of flowers, &c. — Besides 
 these there were among the Dii minorum gentium a numerous class of miscellanei, 
 including the virtues and vices, and other objects, personified ; and also a number 
 called dii peregrini, foreign gods introduced at Rome from abroad, or at least tole- 
 rated, although perhaps worshiped chiefly by foreigners residing in the city. 
 
 3 t. The gods were likewise classed according to their supposed residence. When 
 thus classed, four divisions were made of them; the celestial gods (cf. § 11); the ter- 
 restrial; the marine ; the infernal. 
 
 The Consentes in the Roman division corresponded to the class which the Greeks, 
 when denominating the gods by their residence, termed the Celestial and Olympian, 
 Iwovpiivioi, dXvunioi; which were also called bi fieyaXot Scot, and bt SoJtieKa Scot. The 
 Athenians had an altar consecrated to these collectively, Pon6; rcov dudeica. 
 
 4 t. The gods are sometimes arranged according to their descent in the fabulous 
 genealogies. But the genealogy of several of the gods is given variously by different 
 poets and fabulists. 
 
 The earliest Greek theogony was that of Orpheus (cf. P. V. $ 48). In Homer (cf. P. V. J 50) 
 are traces of a second theogony, which has been ascribed to Pronapides, said to have been the 
 preceptor of Homer. Next is the regular scheme of Hesiod (cf. P. V. $ 51) in his poem entitled 
 Theogony. Parts of a fourth system are wrought by Aristophanes (cf. P. V. $ 65) into his comedy 
 of the Clouds. A partial theogony is mingled by Ovid (P. V. $ 364) with his Cosmogony. Cicero 
 (cf. P. V. <J 468) in his treatise on the nature of the gods gives the genealogy of some. — See $ 12. 1. 
 
 A genealogical table, according to Hcsiod's Theogoriy, is appended to Cooke's Hesiod (cf. P. V. § 51. 4). — A genealogical Chart of 
 Mythology is given in our Plate, page SO. 
 
 § 10. But the differences in the systems of the two nations need not essen- 
 tially affect a scientific treatment of the subject of their mythology. For the 
 principal deities of each were common to both, and it will' contribute to brevity 
 and comprehensiveness to include them all in one system of classification, 
 pointing out what may be peculiar in each case as it occurs. It is therefore 
 proposed to consider the gods of the Greek and Roman mythology in four 
 classes; viz. (1) Superior Gods, (2) Inferior Gods, (3) Mythical Beings, whose 
 history is intimately connected with that of the gods, and (4) Heroes. 
 
 In the first, class will be noticed the twelve Consentes, or great celestial gods, and 
 also, Janus, Saturn, Rhea, Pluto, and Bacchus. — In the second will be menlioned 
 Uranus or Coelus, Sol, Luna, Aurora, Nox, Iris, iEolus, Pan, Latona, Themis, JEs- 
 culapius, Plutus, and Fama. Here belong also numerous deities of the Romans 
 which were not common to them and the Greeks. — The third class comprehends the 
 Titans and Giants, Tritons, Sirens, Nymphs, Muses, Graces, Fates, furies. Genii, 
 Lares, Satyrs, and the like. — Under the fourth and last fall the names of Perseus, 
 Hercules, Theseus, and various others, whose achievements led to their deification. 
 
 § 11. It maybe proper to remark here, that the ideas entertained by the 
 Greeks and Romans respecting the nature of Divinity, were exceedingly im- 
 perfect. A being possessing; powers of body and mind superior to those of 
 man, especially superior might, mainly answered to their notions of a god. 
 The superiority which they ascribed to their deities consisted chiefly in freedom 
 from bodily decay, a sort of immortal youth, ability to move with wonderful 
 celerity, to appear and disappear at pleasure with a noble and beautiful form. 
 
88 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 and to exert an immediate influence upon the condition of mortals. In these 
 respects, however, their power was limited, according to the general opinion, 
 heing controlled by an eternal and immutable relation of things, termed fate or 
 destiny. 
 
 "The ancient Greeks believed their gods to be of the same shape and form as themselves, but 
 of far greater beauty, strength, and dignity. They also regarded them as being of much larger 
 size than men ; for in those times great size was esteemed a perfection both in man and woman, 
 and consequently was supposed to be an attribute of their divinities, to whom they ascribed all 
 perfections. A fluid named Ichor supplied the place of blood in the veins of the gods They were 
 not capable of death, but they might be wounded or otherwise injured. They could make them- 
 selves visible or invisible to men as they pleased, and assume the forms of men or of animals as 
 it suited their fancy. Like men, they stood in daily need of food and sleep. The meat of the 
 gods was called Ambrosia (dufipoo-ia), their drink Nectar (ye/crap). The gods, when they came 
 among men, often partook of their food and hospitality. 
 
 "Like mankind, the gods were divided into two sexes; namely, gods and goddesses. They 
 married and had children, just like mortals. Often a god became enamored of a mortal woman, 
 or a goddess was smitten with the charms of a handsome youth ; and these love-tales form a 
 large portion of Grecian mythology. 
 
 " To make the resemblance between gods and men more complete, the Greeks ascribed to their 
 deities all human passions, both good and evil. They were capable of love, friendship, grati- 
 tude, and all the benevolent affections ; on the other hand, they were frequently envious, jealous, 
 and revengeful. They were particularly careful to exact all due respect and attention from man- 
 kind, whom they required to honor them with temples, prayers, costly sacrifices, splendid pro- 
 cessions, and rich gifts; and they severely punished insult or neglect. 
 
 " The abode of the gods, as described by the more ancient Grecian poets, such as Homer and 
 Hesiod, was on the summit of the snow-clad mountains of Olympus in Thessaly. A gate of 
 clouds, kept by the goddesses named the Seasons, unfolded its valves to permit the passage of 
 the Celestials to earth, or to receive them on their return. The city of the gods, as we may term 
 it, was regulated on the same principles as a Grecian city of the heroic ages. The inhabitants, 
 who were all the kindred or the wives and children of the king of the gods, had their separate 
 dwellings; but all, when summoned, repaired to the palace of Jupiter, whither also came, when 
 called, those deities whose usual abode was the earth, the waters, or the under world. It was 
 also in the great hall of the palace of the Olympian king that the gods feasted each day on am- 
 brosia and nectar; which last precious beverage was handed round by the lovely goddess Hebe 
 (Youth), — maid-servants being the usual attendants at meals in the houses of the Grecian princes 
 in early times. Here they conversed of the affairs of heaven and earth; and as they quaffed 
 their nectar, Apollo, the god of music, delighted them with the tones of his lyre, to which the 
 Muses sang in responsive strains. When the sun was set, the gods retired to sleep in their 
 respective dwellings. 
 
 "The Dawn, the Sun, and the Moon, who drove each day in their chariots drawn by celestial 
 steeds through the air, gave light to the gods as well as men." (Keightley, p. 14-17.) 
 
 § 12 f. Before proceeding to notice more particularly the classes specified, we will, 
 ill accordance with our general plan in other parts of this work, present some references 
 to the sources of information on the subject ; alluding first to ancient authorities, and 
 then giving the titles to more modern works. 
 
 1 u. Almost all the Greek and Roman poets make use of, or at least touch upon, mythological 
 subjects ; although these are not by any means treated in the same manner in the different kinds 
 of poetry, epic, lyric, dramatic, and didactic. We have properly mythic poetry in the Theogony 
 of Hesiod and the Cassandra of Lycophron (P. V. $ 67), the Metamorphoses of Ovid, and in two 
 poems of Claudian, the Gigantomachy, and the Rape of Proserpine (P. V. § 366). — Many histo- 
 rians have introduced into their narratives mythological traditions, without presenting them, 
 however, as fully entitled to credence, while they have also recorded much that appertained to 
 the worship of the gods and to works of art connected with mythology. Herodotus, Diodorus, 
 Strabo, Pausanias, and the elder Pliny, may be mentioned particularly. — There were also ancient 
 writers who made mythology their theme, or treated the subject more at length ; as, among the 
 Greeks, Jlpollodorus, Conon, Hephccstion, Parthenius, Jlntoninus, Liberalise Palmphatus, Heracli- 
 des, Phurnutus (P. V. $ 221 ss) ; among the Romans, Hyginus and Fulgentius (P. V. # 502 ss). 
 Notices os this subject are found also in the works of some of the early writers of the church, 
 and also in the notes of most of the Greek scholiasts. 
 
 2?j. Of the numerous modern works on Mythology, some treat the subject more at large, others 
 more compendiously ; some present the subject in an alphabetical order; there are also works 
 accompanied with plates and drawings for illustration. 
 
 (a) The following are some of the works which go into more 
 full details on the whole subject, or on particular parts. 
 
 Lit. Greg. GyralJi, Historia? Deor. Gentil Syntagmata xvii. 
 Bas. 1548. fol. Also in his Opp. Omn. (ed. /. Jensius). Lugd. 
 Dat. 1606. fol. 
 
 Pine. Cartari, le imagini degli dei degli antichi. Lion. 1581. 4. 
 Also in Latin, Lugd. 1581. 4. oft. repr. 
 
 Natalis Comitis Mythologiae s. Explicationis Fabularum libri 
 X. Gen. 1651. 8. 
 
 Gall. I. Vossius, De theologia Gentili et physiologia Christiana, 
 s. de origine et progressu idolatria? libri IX. Amst. 1668. fol. 
 
 Ant Banier, La mythologie et les fables expliquees par Phis- 
 •dire. Far. 1738-40. 8 vols. 12. In German, with additions by 
 J. A. Schlegd and /. M. Schrockh. Lpz. 1755-65. 5 vols. 8. In 
 English,.Z?cmitt",Mythologyof theAncients. Lond. 1739. 4vols. 8. 
 
 R. Mayo, System of Mythology. Philad. 1815. 4 vols. 8. 
 
 F. Creuzer's Synibolik und Mythologie der Alten Volker, beson- 
 ders der Griechen. Lpz. 1819-21. 4 Bde. 8. 3d improved ed. 
 commenced 1836.— Same (abridged) by G. H.Moser. Lpz. 1822. 8. 
 
 Ch. A. Lobcck, Aglaophamus, sive de Theologice mystica; Gree- 
 corum causis. Regimontii (Koningsberg), 1829. 2 vols 8. op- 
 posing some of the views of Creuzer : it has been highly com- 
 mended. 
 
 /. H. Voss, Antisymbolik. Stuttg. 1824. 8; 
 
 G. Hermann, De Mythoiogia Grascorum antiquissima. 1817. 
 G. Hermann and F. Creuzer, Briefe Uber Homer und Hesiodus, 
 
 Heidelb. 1818. 8. 
 
 G. Hermann, Briefe uber das Wesen und die Behandlung der 
 Mythologie. Lpz. 1819. 8. 
 
 J. A. Kanne's Mythologie der Griechen. Lpz. 1805. 8 By 
 
GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 89 
 
 «at7ic, crste Urkunden der Geschichte, oder allgemeine Mytholo- 
 j^ie. Baireuth, 1S0S. 2 Bde. 8.— By same, Pantheon der altesten 
 Naturphilosophie al'.er Volker. Tab. 1811. 8. 
 
 /. L. Hug, Untersuchungen aber d. Mythos d. beruhmtern 
 VOlker d. alt. Welt, vorzUglicb d. Griech. Freyb. 1812. 4. 
 
 K. 0. Milller, Prolegomena zu einer wissenschaftlicben My- 
 thologje. Gottingen, 1825. S. 
 Buttmann, Mythologus. Bert. 1S28. 2 vols. S. 
 S. A. L. Richkr, Phantasien des Alterthums, oder Samml. 
 myth. Sagen der Hellenen, Romer, &c. Lpz. 1708-20. 5 Bde. 8. 
 We may add J. Bryant's New System of Mythology. Lond. 
 1807. 6 vols. S. 
 JDupuis, Origine de tous les Cultes. Par. 1822. 7 vols. 8. 
 R. P. Knight^ Inquiry into the symbolical Language of Ancient 
 Art and Mythology, in different Nos. of the Classical Journal. 
 
 Count de Gebelin, Le Monde Primitif. Par. 1774-87. 9 vols. 4. 
 explaining fables, traditions, symbols, and language. 
 Guigniaut, Religions de l'Antiquite. Par. 1825-30. 4 vols. 8 
 Constant, De la Religion. Par. 1826-31. 5 vols. 8. 
 
 (b) More compendious treatises, or manuals. 
 C. T. Damm, Mythologie der Griechen und Romer (ed. Leve- 
 3010). Berl. 1S20. 8. with plates. 
 
 M. G. Hermann, Handbuch der Mythologie aus Homer und 
 Hesiod. Berl. 17S7-95. 3 vols. 8.— By same, Mythologie der 
 Griechen, fur die obern Klassen, &c. Berl. 1801. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 K.Ph.Moritz, Gdtterlebere, oder mythol. Dichtungen der Alten. 
 Berl. 1S19. 8. with plates. Also trans!, by C. F. Jager, N. York, 
 1830. 12. with plates. Same work in English, Mythological 
 Fictions of Greeks and Romans. 12mo. 
 
 Fr. Ramback, Abriss einer Mythologie fttr Kilnstler. Berl. 
 1796. 2 vols. 8. % 
 
 C. A. Bottiger's Grundrisse zu Vorlesungen Uber die Mytholo- 
 jjie. Dresd. 1808. 8.— By same, Amalthea oder Museum d. 
 Kunst mythologie und bildl. Alterthumskunde. Leipz. 1821. 
 
 F. Fiedler, Mythologie der Griechen und Italischen Volker. 
 Hal. 1823. 
 
 Andrew Tooke, The Pantheon; containing the Mythological 
 systems of the Greeks and Romans. 36th ed. Lond. 1831. 8. with 
 plates. 
 
 Valpy's Elements of Mythology. Lond. 1S32. 18. very brief. 
 C. K. Billaway, Roman Antiquities and Ancient Mythology. 
 Bost. 1812. 12. 
 T. Kcightley, Myth, of Greece & Italy. 2d. ed. Lond. 1838. 8. 
 
 (c) Dictionaries of Mythology. 
 B. Hedtrich, Mythologisches Lexicon (ed. I. J. Schwabe). Lpz. 
 1770. 8. 
 
 P. F. A. Nitsch,T$eues mythol. WOrterbuch (ed. F. G. Klvpfer). 
 Lpz. 1821, 2 vols. 8. 
 K. Ph. Moritz, Mythol. WOrterbuch far Schttler. Berl. 1817. 8. 
 7. G. Gruber, WOrterbuch der altklassischen Mythologie und 
 Religion. Weim. 1810. 3 vols. 8. 
 
 n . C. Chompre, Dictionnaire abrege de la fable. Par. 1818. 12. 
 Fr, Nnel, Dictionnaire de la fable, ou Mythologie Grecque, 
 Latine, Egyptienne, Celtique, Persanne, Indienne, Chinoise, &c. 
 Par. 1823. 2 vols. . 
 
 PPnu Holwell, A Mythological Dictionary, &c (Extracted 
 from J. BryanVs New System or Analysis of Ancient Mytholo- 
 gy.) Lond. 1793. 8. 
 
 Bell, New Pantheon. Lond. 1790. 2 vols. 4. 
 Encydopidie Metkodique, the part entitled Antiquity, Mytho- 
 ogie, Chronologie, &c, which part consists of 5 vols. 4. Par. 
 1786, ss. 
 Biographic Universelle, partie Mythologique. Par. 1832. 
 vols. 8. 
 
 (d) The following works contain plates illustrating the sub- 
 jects of mythology, accompanied with explanations. 
 
 Bernard de MoiUfaucon. L'Antiquito expiiquee et representee 
 en figures. Par. 1719. 10 vols, in 5, fol. Supplem. Par. 1724. 
 6 vols. fol. Translated into English by David Humphreys* 
 Lond. 1721. 5 vols. fol. with Supplement, 2 vols. fol. 
 
 Joach. von Sandrart, Iconologia deorum. Narnb. 16S0. fol. 
 
 Spence's Polymetis, or an inquiry concerning the agreement 
 between the works of the Roman poets and the remains of tbe 
 ancient artists. Lond. 1747. fol. 1755. fol. 
 
 Le Temple des Muses, a superb folio. 
 
 D. Bardon, Tbe Usages, religious, civil, &c, of the Ancients. 
 Lond. 4 vols. 8. 
 
 A. Hirt, Bilderbuch far Mythologie, Archaologie und Kunst. 
 Berl. 1S05-16. 2 vols. 4. 
 
 A. L. Millin, Galerie mythologique, ou Recueil des monu- 
 mens pour servir a 1'etude de la mythologie, de Phistoire de 
 Part, &c. Par. 1811. 2 vols. 8. containing correct pictures of 
 about 800 ancient monuments. — Trans. Germ, by Tblhen. 
 
 A. H. Petiscus, Der Olymp, oder Mythologie der iEgypter, 
 Griechen und Romer. Berl. 1837. 8. 6th ed. 
 
 (e) The impressions on ancient gems are of much service in 
 illustrating mythology, to which part of the subject belong the 
 following works : 
 
 A. C. Klausing, Versuch einer mythologischen Daktyliothek 
 far Schaier. Lpz. 1781. 8. (with. 120 neat impressions of en 
 graved gems.) 
 
 T. P. RoWs mythol ogische Daktyliothek. Narnb. 1805 (with 
 90 impressed models of engraved stones). 
 
 Also Hpperth Daktyliothek (P. IV. § 210). One thousand ol 
 his impressions belong to mythology. 
 
 The gems of which IVtdgewood andBentley have given imita- 
 tions, pertain, many of them, to mythology ; as also those o!. 
 Tome (P. IV. §210). 
 
 (/) Here we may name likewise some works on the Mytho- 
 logy of other nations besides tbe Greeks and Romans. 
 
 Moore's Hindoo Pantheon. 
 
 Rhode, Ueber die religiose Bildung der Hindus. Lpz. 1827. 
 2 vols. 8. 
 
 Kennedy, Researches into the Nature and Affinity of Ancient 
 and Hindoo Mythology. Cf. Asiatic Researches. 
 
 Maunce, Indian Antiquities. Lond. 1806. 7 vols. 8. 
 
 Ward's View of the History, Literature, and Religion of the 
 Hindoos. 
 
 Montg. Martin, Hist, and Antiquities of Eastern India. Lond. 
 1838. 3 vols. 8. with some good plates illustrating Hindoo my- 
 thology. 
 
 C. Coleman, Mythology of the Hindus. Lond. 1832. 4. 
 with plates. 
 
 Hager, Pantheon Chinois (or Parallel between the religious 
 worship of the Greeks and the Chinese). Par. 1810. 4. Cf. Class 
 Journ. i. 178. 
 
 J. C. Prichard, Analysis of Egyptian Mythology j in whkh 
 the superstitions of the ancieu! Egyptians are compared with 
 those of the Indians and other nationsof antiquity. Lond. 1819. 8. 
 also 1839, with preliminary essay by Von Schlegel; and plates. 
 
 Nyerup, WOrterbuch der Scandinavian Mythologie. Copenh. 
 1816. 12. 
 
 E. Davies, Mythology and Rites of the British Druids. Lond. 
 1809. 8. 
 
 J. M. Kemble, Saxon Mythology. Cf. Bibl. Repos. xi. 247. 
 
 For some remarks on the resemblance of the mythology of the 
 Middle Ages to the Classical, cf. Editor's Preface to PTartorti 
 Hist. Eng. Poetry, vol, i. p. 25 ss. ed. Lond. 1824. 
 
 12 
 
 H 2 
 
P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. SATURN. . 91 
 
 I. — Mythological History of the Superior Gods. 
 
 § 13.* The Divinities which we include in the class denominated Superior 
 Gods, are the following: Saturn, KpoVoj, XpoVoj, Salumus ,- Janus; Rhea or 
 Cybele, 'Pia, c Peux, Kvpiht]; Jupiter, Zsv$; Juno, "Hpa; Neptune, nocstSdu; 
 Neptunus ; Pluto, TLKovtuv ; Apollo, 'Art.6%%u>v ; Diana, "Ap-^jiuj; Minerva, 
 IIa.X7i.aj ; Mars, ''Apjyj ; Venus, 'A^poSi/f^ ; Vulcan, "H$ omovoj, Vukanus ; 
 Mercury, 'Ep^j, Mercurius ; Bacchus, Atowcroj ; Ceres, A^pj? ^p ; Vesta, 
 Etftfta. 
 
 § 14. (1) Saturn. This was one of the most ancient of the gods, called 
 Chronos by the Greeks and Saturnus by the Romans. He was said to be the 
 son of Uranos and Titsea, i. e. the heavens and the earth, and to have possessed 
 the first government of the universe. His wife was Rhea, who was his sister. 
 Saturn and his five brethren were called Titans, probably from their mother; 
 Rhea and her five sisters likewise Titanides. Saturn seized upon the govern- 
 ment of the universe by his superiority over his father and brothers; yet 
 pledged himself to rear no male children ; accordingly he is represented as de- 
 vouring his sons as soon as born. 
 
 § 15. But this fate, three of them, Jupiter, Neptune, and Pluto, escaped, 
 through the artifice of Rhea their mother, who gave him stones to devour in- 
 stead of the children at their birth. Jupiter aided Saturn in recovering his 
 throne, after he had been driven from it by his brothers the Titans and bound in 
 Tartarus. But soon he made war himself upon Saturn, and seized the govern- 
 ment. According to Roman fiction, Saturn now fled to Italy (thence called 
 Saturnia), and acquired great honor by teaching arts and morals to the people. 
 Under him was the so-called golden age, which the Greek poets assigned to 
 the reign of Saturn and described as singularly happy. Probably an idea of 
 the perfection and fecundity of nature, when just newly created, is the basis 
 of this story. 
 
 Hts. Op. etDi. vs. 199.— Virg. 2En. viii. 319.— Ob. Metam. i. 89-112. 
 
 § 16. From the Greek name of this god, which is the word signifying time 
 (zpovoj), he has been considered as designed to personify time, and the first 
 cause of the visible world. His Latin name also, as well as the story of his 
 devouring his children, seems to have some reference to the idea of time, as 
 satiated only by the destruction of what it has produced. 
 
 1 u. This name, however, may have been given from the idea of fertility or produc- 
 tiveness, as- he is said to have taught agriculture and the use of seeds. The word Sa- 
 turnus is derived from Satur, signifying full, satiated, and also fertile. Saturn is 
 
 termed Sator, Vitisator, Falcifer (bearing a sickle or scythe), Sterculinus or Stercutius 
 (having taught the fertilizing uses of manure), Canus and Leucanthes (KevKavOrn), 
 
 2. Some have traced the fables respecting Saturn to the history of Noah. See 
 Tooke's Pantheon, Pt. ii. ch. i. § 5. — " Saturn was not unknown to the ancient Ger- 
 mans, among whom he was worshiped by the name of Seatur ; who is described as 
 standing on a fish with a wheel in one hand, and in the other a vessel of water filled 
 with fruits and flowers." HolwelVs Diet, cited § 12. 2 (c). 
 
 § 17. It was once customary to offer to Saturn human sacrifices, particularly 
 among the Carthaginians, the Gauls, and the Pelasgic inhabitants of Italy.— 
 His principal temples among the Greek were at Olympia, and at Drepanum in 
 Sicily. The temple of Saturn in Rome served also the purpose of a treasury, 
 in memorial, perhaps, of the general security and the community of goods in 
 the Saturnian or golden age. The chief festival of this deity was the Satur- 
 nalia of the Romans, which was, like the Peloria (JlsXujpia) of the Thessalians, 
 devoted to freedom, mirth, and indiscriminate hospitality. 
 
 1. The custom of sacrificing children to Saturn seems to identify him with Moloch, the Phoeni- 
 cian idol, to whom the apostate Israelites sacrificed their offspring. 
 
 See Jahn, Bibl. Arch. § 211. — Diod. Sic. xx. 14. — Morin, and Freret, Des victimea humaines, Mem. Jlcad. Inscr, vols. i. and 
 Xviii.— Origin of human sacrifices. Class. Journ. xiv. 352. xvii. 104. 
 
 2 u. Saturn was represented by the figure of an old man having a scythe or sickle 
 m one hand, and often in the other a serpent with it's tail in its mouth in the form of a 
 circle, both emblems of time. There are, however, but few ancient monuments of 
 this deity. 
 
PLATE XI. 
 
P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JANUS. RHEA OR CYBELE. 93 
 
 3. In our Plate X. fig. 1, he appears in a sitting posture, with a sort of sickle in one 
 hand. In the Sup. Plate 3, he appears with the scythe, a long beard, and wings. — 
 He is also thus described : "a decrepit old man, with a long beard and hoary head ; 
 his shoulders are bowed like an arch, his jaws hollow and thin, his cheeks sunk ; his 
 nose is flat, his forehead full of furrows, and his chin turned up ; his right hand holds 
 a rusty scythe, and his left a child, which he is about to devour." 
 
 §18. (2) Janus. He was one of the Superior Gods of the Romans. They 
 represent him as of Thessalian origin, and as reigning over the earliest and so- 
 called aboriginal inhabitants of Italy, in the time of Saturn. It was to Janus 
 that Saturn fled, and under them was the golden age, a period of uninterrupted 
 peace. To Janus, therefore, Romulus dedicated that celebrated temple, which 
 was always open in time of war, and was closed with much solemnity, when- 
 ever there was general peace in the Roman empire ; a thing which happened 
 but three times during 724 years from the building of the city (cf. P. I. § 60). 
 From this deity the month of January was named, and the first day of the 
 month was sacred to him. 
 
 1. He was considered as the inventor of locks, doors, and gates, which are thence 
 called januce. His name was applied to structures which were sometimes erected on 
 the Roman roads where four roads divided ; a sort of gateway with an arch opening 
 in each of the directions, and called a Janus. He was termed Father, and sometimes 
 God of gods. In sacrifices, prayers were first offered to Janus, and oblations were 
 made to nim, as being the door of access to the gods. — His original name was Djanus 
 or Diamcs, which some have derived from dies, day. He is called the Sun, and was 
 the Sun-god or God of the Year, of the original inhabitants of Italy. The story of his 
 friendly reception of Saturn is by some explained as referring to the agreement be- 
 tween the old inhabitants of Latium and the immigrating Pelasgi to worship the two 
 gods in common. — Janus was not received among the gods of the Greeks. 
 
 2 m. He is represented with a double, and sometimes with a quadruple face ; hence 
 the epithets Biceps, Bifrons, Quadrifrons. He is also called Patulcius T Clusius, Con- 
 sivius, Custos, and Claviger. 
 
 3. The representation with two faces in Plate XI. fig. 8, and in Sup. Plate 3, gives 
 nis appearance on a number of consular coins. In Plate VII., on his temple, he ap- 
 pears with four faces. It is worthy of notice that the Brahma of the Hindoos is repre- 
 sented with four heads. See Plate XII. Janus is also represented with a key in 
 
 one hand and a rod in the other, with 12 altars beneath his feet, supposed by some to 
 refer to the 12 months of the year. His statue erected by Numa is said to have had 
 its fingers so composed as to signify 365, the number of days in a year. 
 
 § 19. (3) Rhea or Cybele. The common name of the wife and sister of 
 Saturn, was Rhea or Ops. Yet the history and worship of Cybele were after- 
 wards so entirely interwoven with those of Rhea, that both were considered the 
 same person, and although Rhea was said to be the daughter of Earth, were 
 each taken for Gaia or Tellus, and often called Vesta, and the great mother of 
 gods. The origin of Rhea belongs to the earliest periods of mythical story, 
 and hence the confusion in the accounts which are given of her. 
 
 Cybele, properly speaking, lived later ; and was, according to tradition, a 
 daughter of Mason a king of Phrygia and Lydia ; or according to others, in an 
 allegorical sense, the daughter of Protogonus. Her invention of various musical 
 instruments, and her love for Mys, a Phrygian youth, whose death rendered 
 her frantic, are the most prominent circumstances of her history. 
 
 Ovid, Fast. 4. 223.— Ca.tv.Vus, de At. ct Ber. 
 
 Besides the names above mentioned, she was called Mater Dyndymena, Bere- 
 cynthia, and Ideea, Pessinuntia, and Bona Dea. 
 
 § 20. That this goddess was a personification of the earth as inhabited and 
 fruitful, is supposed from the manner in which she was represented. 
 
 1m. Her image was generally a robust woman, far advanced in pregnancy, with a 
 turreted mural crown on her head. Often she was borne in a chariot drawn by lions ; 
 sometimes she rested upon a lion. 
 
 2. On gems, she is seen in a car drawn by lions, holding in her hand a tambourine. 
 Such is her appearance, Plate X. fig. 2, taken from Monlfaucon. In the Sup. Plate 
 3, she sits in a chair, with keys in her right hand, attended by lions. — She was also 
 formed with many breasts, with a key or keys in her hand, sometimes a sceptre, and 
 frequently with two lions under her arms. In Sup. Plate 5, is a remarkable repre- 
 sentation, given by Monlfaucon (Ant. Ex. 1. p. 18). Cf. P. IV. § 156. 2. 
 
94 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 A figure in silver with some parts plated with gold, and the whole elegantly finished, repre- 
 senting Cybele, was found at. Macon (ancient Matisco) on the Saone, in 17(54. 
 
 This was published by Count Caylus, vol. vii. pi. 71. — Anthon's Lempriere. — Banter, sur les statues de Cybele, in the Menu 
 Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 241. 
 
 § 21. Her worship was especially cultivated in Phrygia, but spread thence 
 through Asia. The celebration of her festivals was exceedingly tumultuous, 
 as her priests (called Corybantes or Gatti, and the chief one Jtrchigallus) went 
 about with clamorous music and singing, acting like madmen and filling the 
 air with the mingled noise of shrieks, howlings, drums, tabrets, bucklers and 
 spears. 
 
 1 u. The removal of her image from Pessinus to Rome, and the establishment of 
 her worship in the latter city, was a remarkable event. The festival called Megalesia 
 (from ^ydXrj, the great mother) was maintained in her honor. 
 
 Liv. Hist. 29. 10, 11, 14.— Vol. Max. 8. 15. 
 
 2. The place called Pessinus was said to have derived its name from UeaeTv, to fall, 
 because it was the spot upon which the image of this goddess fell, being like the fabled 
 Ancile and Palladium sent down from Jupiter. 
 
 At her festival, the Megalesia, Roman matrons danced before her altar ; the ma- 
 gistrates assisted in robes of purple ; a great concourse of people and strangers usually 
 assembled, and Phrygian priests bore the image of the goddess through the streets of 
 the city. The festival called Hilaria was celebrated in a similar manner, and attended 
 with many indecencies. 
 
 3. There appears to he a strong resemblance between Cybele and Pracriti, the goddess of 
 nature among the Hindoos. The latter is represented as drawn by lions, and her festival is 
 attended with the beating of drums. 
 
 See Moore's Hindoo FantheoD. — Coleman's Mythology of the Hindoos. 
 
 § 22. (4) Jupiter. The highest and most powerful among the gods was 
 called by the Greeks Zsij, by the Romans Jupiter. It would seem, that by 
 this god was originally represented nature in general ; afterwards, the superior 
 atmosphere ,■ and finally the supreme existence. Many tales of the early history 
 of Crete were incorporated among the traditions respecting him. He was a son 
 of Saturn and Rhea, educated in Crete. He robbed his father of his kingdom, 
 and shared it with his two brethren, so that Neptune received the sea, Pluto 
 the infernal world, and himself the earth and heavens. The giants, sons of 
 the earth, disputed the possession of his kingdom with him, and attempted to 
 scale Olympus, but he defeated them with thunderbolts forged by the Cyclops. 
 
 Enraged by the corruption and wickedness of men, he destroyed the whole 
 
 "ace by a vast deluge, from which Deucalion and Pyrrha alone escaped. The 
 supposed date of this flood is not far from 1500 years B. C. 
 
 Ovid, Metam. i. 151, 260.— Claudian's Gigantomachia. Cf. P. V. § 3h6. 
 
 § 23. The ordinary residence of Jupiter was upon Olympus, a mountain of 
 Thessaly, which the poets, on account of the constant serenity of its summit, 
 represented as a suitable place for the abode of the gods. (Cf. § 11.) — His 
 first wife was Metis, whom he destroyed, because it was foretold him, that she 
 would bear a child that would deprive him of the kingdom. Afterwards the 
 goddess Minerva was produced from his head. By his second wife, Themis, 
 tie begat the Horse and the Parcse. — The third and most celebrated was -Juno, 
 by whom he had his sons Mars and Vulcan. — Tradition, particularly the tales 
 respecting metamorphoses, relate numerous amors of Jupiter; e. g. with Eu- 
 ropa 1 , Danae, Leda, Latona, Maia, Alcmena, Semele 2 , and Io 3 . Apollo, Mer- 
 cury, Hercules, Perseus, Diana, Proserpina, and many other gods and demigods 
 were called the children of Jupiter. The name of son or daughter of Jupiter, 
 however, was often employed merely to designate superior dignity and rank, 
 and not intended to imply literal relationship. 
 
 i Ovid, Metam. ii. £36. 2 lb. iii. 265 3 jh. i. 5S8. 
 
 § 24. The worship of Jupiter was universally spread, and numerous temples 
 were erected to his honor. The largest and the most celebrated in Greece was 
 that in Olympja in Elis, remarkable for its own magnificence, and for its colossal 
 Etatue of Jupiter wrought by Phidias, and for the Olympic games held in its 
 vicinity every fifth year. His oracle in the grove of oaks at Dodona was 
 renowned (cf. P. III. § 71), and considered the most ancient in Greece. — In 
 Rome the Capitol was specially dedicated to him, and he had in that city many 
 temples. 
 
P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. JUPITER. JUNO. 95 
 
 1m. Jupiter is generally represented as sitting upon a throne, with a thunderbolt in 
 his right hand, and in his left a long scepter resembling a spear ; and the eagle, sacred 
 to him, standing near, or, as in some monuments, resting at his feet with extended 
 wings. 
 
 2. The representation in the Sup. Plate 2 corresponds to the above description. — The 
 eagle sometimes is perched upon his scepter. Jupiter is also spoken of as wearing 
 "golden shoes and an embroidered cloak adorned with various flowers and figures of 
 animals." — In the Sup. Plate 1 we have his appearance in a noble statue, from Spence's 
 P olymetis.--In thestatue at Elis (see PI. XI. fig. 3) he is presented as " sitting upon 
 his throne, his left hand holding a scepter, his right extending victory to the Olympian 
 conquerors, his head crowned with olive, and his pallium decorated with birds, beasts, 
 and flowers. The four corners of the throne were dancing victories, each supported by 
 a sphinx tearing in pieces a Theban youth." 
 
 On the Olympian statue, see Flaxman's Led. p. 87, as cited P. IV. § 191.— Quatr. de Quincy, cited P. IV. § 160. 
 
 3. As Jupiter Ammon, he was represented as having the horns of a ram. Such 
 was the statue at his temple in Libya (cf. P. III. § 71). Thus he appears in the Sup. 
 Plate 29. On ceremonial occasions, and when the oracle was consulted, this statue, 
 sparkling with precious stones, was borne in a gilded barge on the shoulders of twenty- 
 four priests moving (it was pretended) just where the god impelled them, followed by a 
 troop of women singing hymns. 
 
 But the most singular representation is that given in the Sup. Plate 10, exhibiting 
 Jupiter Pluvialis, as found in a bas-relief at Rome, designed to commemorate his in- 
 terposition in sending rain on a certain occasion. 
 
 § 25. This god received a multitude of names and titles derived from circum- 
 stances of his history, or the places of his worship. 
 
 1 u. The Greeks termed him Zeis, and applied to him various epithets, as the Idcean 
 {b 'ISaTos), Olympic (OXvuttikos), Dodoncean (AaSuvaTos), thunderer (Kspavviog), deliverer 
 (fkevdepios), hospitable (^" l °s), punisher of the perjured (onicios), &c. The Romans 
 styled him Optimus Maximus, Capitolinus, Stator, Diespiter, Feretrius, &c. As the 
 avenger of crime, he was called also Vejovis or Vedius ; yet some consider these as 
 names of another distinct divinity ; and others take them for names of Pluto. 
 
 2. Among the epithets applied by the Greeks were also the following ; from his 
 sending rain, ojuBpiog, vinos, ve^eK^yepirris, dpo-iveyfis; from his darting thunder, do-re- 
 poirriTris, ppovratos, TepviKspavuos ; from his protection of suppliants, Ikso-los, l/certo-iog. The 
 Romans also called him sometimes Inventor, Elicius, Latialis, Sponsor, Victor, Plu- 
 vialis. — His Latin name Jupiter is from 2,ev Uarep, Z being changed into J. From 2cv; 
 (in Doric ^Stig and iEolic Aevs) came also probably the Latin Deus. The word is by 
 some supposed to be of eastern origin ; others say it is applied to this deity as the source 
 of life from ?aa>. 
 
 3. Very discordant opinions have been maintained respecting the meaning of the 
 various fables about Jupiter. It is evident, that attributes drawn from many different 
 personages and probably eastern deities were associated with his name, in the descent 
 of mythological traditions from one generation to another. When the different tales 
 are united, they form a very incongruous mixture, combining historic narrative, poetic 
 ornament, and philosophical allegory. 
 
 4. Sir William Jones, with much ingenuity and learning, has attempted to show that the Greeks 
 and Romans embodied in their Jupiter the special attributes which the Hindoos ascribe distinc- 
 tively to the three divinities of their famous triad, named Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva. In essen- 
 tial attributes, Brahma is said to be the creator, Vishnu the preserver, and Siva the destroyer 
 and re-producer. Each of these offices is ascribed to Jupiter in the classical fables, according to 
 Sir William. — The Hindoo deities are given in our Plate XII. as usually seen in Bengal : Brahma 
 with four faces and four hands, holding a spoon, a rosary, a portion of a Veda or Hindoo sacred 
 book, and a vessel of the water of ablution ; Vishnu with four hands, in one of which is a sort 
 of ring or discus, which is said to send out flames of fire when twirled on his finger, and in the 
 others a shell used for a trumpet, a sort of club, and a lotus; Siva, having a trident in one hand 
 and a rope in another for binding offenders, with serpents for his ear-rings, and a string of huinaii 
 heads for his necklace. He has a third eye in his forehead. 
 
 It is worthy of notice, that the Hindoo fables represent Vishnu as assuming different forms uy 
 successive incarnations, in the exercise of his attributes as preserver. Ten incarnations, or 
 Avatars, are specially designated. These are represented by the ten engravings in our Plate 
 XIII. "All the Avatars are painted with gemmed Ethiopian, or Parthian, coronets ; with rays 
 encircling their heads; jewels in their ears; two necklaces, one straight and one pendant on 
 their bosoms with dropping gems ; garlands of many-colored flowers, or collars of pearls, hang- 
 ing down below their waists; loose mantles of golden tissue or dyed silk, embroidered on their 
 hems with flowers, elegantly thrown over one shoulder; with bracelets on one arm and on each 
 wrist; they are naked to the waists, and uniformly with dark azure flesh; but their skirts are 
 bright yellow, the color of the curious pericarpiuin in the centre of the water-lily ; they are 
 sometimes drawn with that flower in one hand; a radiated elliptical ring, used as a missile 
 weapon, in a second ; the sacred shell, or left-handed buccinurn, in a third ; and a mace or bat- 
 tle-axe, in a fourth." Nine of these incarnations the Hindoo tales describe as having already 
 occurred. The tenth is to take place at some future period, when Vishnu will descend from 
 heaven on a white winged horse, and will introduce on earth a golden aee of virtue and peace. — 
 It should be remarked in this connection, that Crishna is celebrated in Hindoo mythology as an 
 
96 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 incarnate deity. According to Sir Wm. Jones, he is considered distinct from all the rfvatars 
 these had only a portion of the divinity ; " while Crishna was the person of Vishnu himself in 
 human form." In the Hindoo pictures, Crishna sometimes appears among the Avatars ; be is 
 "more splendidly decorated than any of them, and wears a rich garland of sylvan flowers as low 
 as his ankles, which are adorned with strings of pearls." 
 
 See Sir Win. Jones, on the gods of Greece, Italy, and India, in his Works and Life by Lord Teignmouth, Lond 1807. IS vols. 8. 
 (vol. iii. p. 31S.) — Cf. Monthly Papers of the A. B. Comm. for For. Miss., Nos. ii. and vii. May and Oct. 1SS2.— Ward, as cited § 12. 
 
 § 26. (5) Juno. The wife and sister of Jupiter, daughter of Saturn and 
 Rhea, and as wife of Jupiter mistress of gods and men, was called by the 
 Greeks "Hpa, and by the Romans Juno. Her birthplace was assigned by the 
 Greeks to Argos, or the island Samos, and to other spots in Greece, although 
 her story and her worship were rather of Phcenician origin. The chief pecu- 
 liarities of her character were love of power, and jealousy; the latter passion 
 was constantly inflamed and fed by Jupiter's infidelity. — In consequence of this 
 jealousy she wrought several metamorphoses, as in the case of Calisto 1 and 
 Galanthis 2 . Hence also her wrath against Io 3 and Semele 4 , and her ill-will 
 towards the Trojans because Paris denied her the prize of beauty in the contest 
 with Pallas and Venus. By her jealousy she often aroused the anger of Ju- 
 piter, who once, according to Homer's representation 5 , suspended her in the air 
 by a golden chain. Ixion's love for her was punished by Jupiter with ever- 
 lasting torture, he being bound to a wheel constantly revolving. 
 
 » Ovid, Metam. ii. 474. 2 lb. ix. 306. 3 71. i. 568. * lb. iii. 156. s Iliad, xv. 15, IS. 
 
 § 27. The worship of Juno was far spread, and the number of her templea 
 and festivals was very great. Her worship was especially cultivated in Argos, 
 Samos, Sparta, Mycenae, and Carthage, cities which committed themselves 
 particularly to her protection. In Elis were games, every fifth year, sacred to 
 her, called 'HpaTct. This was the name also of her great festival celebrated a> 
 Argos and other places, which was likewise called ixowojiijSoia, because it was 
 customary on the occasion to sacrifice a hecatomb of oxen at the temple of the 
 goddess. There was a similar festival at Rome, called Junonia and Junoiw 
 
 lia. From her, tutelary angels or guardians of females were called among 
 
 the Romans Junones. The Roman women took their oaths in her name, as 
 the men did in the name of Jupiter. Both Greeks and Romans honored her as 
 the protectress of marriage. — The Romans dedicated to her the month of June, 
 named 1 after her. — She is often described by the poets as the Queen of gods 
 and men. 
 
 « Ovid, Fast. vi. 26. 
 
 1. Juno had a great variety of names ; as Argiva, Cingula, Egeria, Juga (Zvyia), 
 Lucinia or Lucina, JHoneta, Nuplialis (TaiinXia), Opigena, Populonia, Sospila, Unxia, 
 &c. 
 
 2 u. Her daughters were Hebe, goddess of youth ; and Ilithyia, who presided over 
 births. Her messenger and servant was Iris, the goddess of the rainbow. 
 
 3. Hebe was employed to hand round the nectar at the feasts of the gods. Her office of cup- 
 bearer afterwards fell to Ganymedes. When Hercules was admitted to Olympus, Hebe became 
 his spouse. — In fig. 4, PI. XIV. she is represented as pouring out the nectar, with the bird of Jove 
 by her side. — In the beautiful design presented in the Sup. Plate 7, she is also seen pouring out 
 the drink of the gods. 
 
 § 28. The ancient artists endeavored to exhibit the haughtiness and jealousy 
 of Juno in their representations of her. Among the symbols of her attributes, 
 the most remarkable was the peacock, held as sacred to her; and found by her 
 side in many figures. Sometimes her chariot is drawn by two peacocks. She 
 was frequently represented by Roman artists upon their coins, which, however, 
 often contain the Empresses exhibited as Junos. 
 
 1. She is usually represented as a grave, majestic matron; usually with a sceptre in 
 her hand, and a veil on her head and a crown decked with flowers ; sometimes she 
 has a spear in her hand, or a patera, or vessel for sacrifices. The peacock is some- 
 times at her feet. Thus she appears in our Plate XI. fig. 1. In the Sup. Plate 2, are 
 seen two peacocks and the chariot, with Iris flying above. — Homer exhibits her in a 
 chariot adorned with gems, having wheels with brazen spokes and naves of silver, and 
 horses with reins of gold. But generally she is represented as drawn by peacocks in 
 a golden chariot. 
 
 2. The fables respecting Juno are interpreted differently according to the meaning 
 attached to those respecting Jupiter. When Jupiter is considered as typifying, or 
 
PLATE XII. 
 
98 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 allegorically representing, the active productive power in nature, Juno is the passive. 
 Their quarrels are then explained as physical allegories. 
 
 §29. (6) Neptune. The government of the waters of the earth was, in the 
 division of authority already mentioned (§ 22), assigned to the brother of Ju- 
 piter, called HoaeiSuv, or Neptune. The idea of a god ruling the waters arose 
 from the surprise of the first observers of the power of that element ; even be- 
 fore Neptune, Oceanus, son of the heavens and the earth, and husband of Thetis, 
 was honored as god of the sea. Oceanus was, according to Hesiod, one of the 
 Titans, and was considered as ruler of the exterior waters encompassing the 
 earth, while the interior seas and rivers were assigned to Neptune. 
 
 1. A statue dug up at Rome about the sixteenth century, represents Oceanus as an old man 
 sitting on the waves of the sea, with a sceptre in his hand, and a sea-monster by hirn. On an 
 ancient gem he is represented in a similar manner. In our Plate XLIII. he appears in a recum- 
 bent posture. 
 
 2 u. The wife of Neptune was Amphitrite, a daughter of Nereus or Oceanus ana 
 Doris. He obtained Amphitrite by the aid of a dolphin, and in return honored the fish 
 with a place among the constellations. The principal sons of Neptune were Triton, 
 Phorcus, Proteus, and Glaucus. The chief characteristics of these minor deities ol 
 the sea were the power of divination and ability to change their forms at pleasure. The 
 daughters of Nereus and Doris were the so-called Nereides, or sea-nymphs, fifty in 
 number. They belonged to the train of Neptune and were subservient to his will. 
 
 § 30. The principal exploits and merits ascribed to Neptune are, the assist- 
 ance rendered to his brother Jupiter against the Titans ; the building of the 
 walls and ramparts of Troy ; the creation and taming of the horse ; the rais- 
 ing of the island Delos out of the sea ; and the destruction of Hippolytus by 
 a monster from the deep. He was feared also as the author of earthquakes and 
 deluges, which he caused or checked at pleasure by his trident.- The fol- 
 lowing are some of his many names and epithets ; 'Ae^catos, upholding the 
 earth; "Zsoalx^cov, earth-shaker ; "irtrtstos, Petrasus, Consus. 
 
 1. Various etymologies have been given of the name I1o<tei6c5i/ and Neptune. The 
 latter is by some derived from Nubo, because the water covers or conceals the earth ; 
 the former from toSs and <5£w, as Neptune binds the feet, that is, man cannot walk on 
 the water. But. such speculations cannot be relied on. The government and pro- 
 tection of ships was committed to him. He also presided over the horse, which was 
 sacred to him, and over horse-races; at the festival of the Consualia all horses were 
 allowed to rest from labor. 
 
 2 u. The Greeks seemed to have derived the worship of this god not from Egypt, 
 but Libya. He was honored particularly in cities situated near the coasts, as presiding 
 over their navigation. Thus at JMisyrus, on the isthmus of Corinth, he had a cele- 
 brated temple, and also on the promontory of Taenarus. Of his temples at Rome, the 
 most noted was that in the ninth district (cf. P. I. § 54), containing a suite of pictures 
 representing the Argonautic voyage. The victims usually sacrificed to Neptune were 
 horses and bulls. In honor of him the Greeks maintained the Isthmian Games, and the 
 Romans the Neptu?ialia and the Consualia, which were afterwards, from the place of 
 celebration, called Ludi Circenses. 
 
 § 31. His figure upon remaining monuments is in accordance with the dignity 
 ascribed to him, commanding and majestic, with a front calm and serene even 
 in anger. In his hand he commonly holds the trident, or a long antique sceptre, 
 with three tines, with which he makes the earth tremble and throws the waters 
 into commotion. He is often described as moving upon the waters, drawn in 
 a chariot by dolphins or war-horses, and surrounded by a retinue of attendants. 
 
 The representations of Neptune are various. Sometimes he stands upright in a 
 large sea-shell, holding his trident, and arrayed in a mantle of blue or sea-green ; as in 
 our Plate X. fig. 5. Sometimes he appears treading on the beak of a ship. Often he 
 is sitting in a chariot, or a shell with wheels, drawn by sea-horses ; sometimes accom- 
 panied by his wife Amphitrite as in Plate XLIII. His image is very frequent on coins 
 and medals. He is described as having black hair and blue eyes. 
 
 Cf. Virg. 2E-D. i. 124. Horn. II. xiii. 20. Virg. Ma. i. 155. Stat. Achil. i. 60.— See Fontenu, Le Culte des divinites des eaux, 
 in the Mem. Acad. Inter, xii. p. 27. 
 
 § 32 a. (7) Pluto. He was a second brother of Jupiter, and received, as 
 his portion in the division of empire, the infernal regions, or the world of shades. 
 Under this idea the ancients imagined the existence of regions situated down 
 far below the earth, and they represented certain distant and desert lands as 
 
P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. PLUTO. 99 
 
 serving for a path and entrance to the under world. Hence the fictions respect- 
 ing Acheron, Styx, Cocytus, and Phlegethon, as being rivers of Hell. These 
 regions below the earth were considered as the residence of departed souls, 
 where after death they received rewards or punishments according to their con- 
 duct upon earth. The place of reward was called Elysium; that of punish- 
 ment, Tartarus. 
 
 1, The residence of departed souls was termed by the Greeks aSnc, Hades. It is im- 
 portant to bear in mind this fact in reading the passages of the New Testament, where 
 this word occurs. The term, although sometimes rendered grave, and sometimes hell, 
 properly signifies the world of departed spirits, and includes both the place of happiness 
 and the place of misery. Cf. Luke xvi. 23. 
 
 It was a part of the office of Mercury to conduct the shades of the dead in the region called 
 Hades. Hence he is sometimes represented as in the act of opening or shutting the doors or 
 gates of a tomb; as on the monument given in Plate XVIII. fig. 4. and in the Sup. Plate 14. 
 This figure is given in Taylor's Calmet to illustrate the expression "Gates of Hades," in Matt. 
 xvi. 18. 
 
 On the meaning of the term Hades, see M. Stuart, Exegetical Essays, &c. Ando. 1830. 12. — Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv 
 p. 539 ss. — Campbell, Diss, in his Transl. of the Gospels. 
 
 2. Departed mortals were adjudged to Elysium or to Tartarus by the sentence of Minos and 
 his fellow judges (cf. $ 34), in the Field of Truth,. — Elysium is described as adorned with beauti- 
 ful gardens, smiling meadows, a..d enchanting groves; where birds ever warble ; where the 
 river Eridanus winds between banks fringed with laurel, and "divine Lethe" glides in a quiet 
 valley; where the air is always pure, and the day serene; where the blessed have their de- 
 lightful abode. — Tartarus is represented as a "hideous prison of immense depth, surrounded by 
 the miry bogs of Cocytus, and the river Phlegethon which rolls with torrents of flames," and 
 guarded by "three rows of walls with brazen gates ;" here the Furies torment their wretched 
 victims, and all the wicked suffer according to their crimes. — Virgil speaks of seven portions in 
 
 the regions of the departed ; Tartarus and Elysium being the sixth and seventh. Although 
 
 Elysium was considered by all as the residence of the blessed, its situation is variously stated; 
 some placed it in the center of the earth, adjoining Tartarus; others placed it in the middle re- 
 gions of the air ; others, in the moon; others, in the sun; more commonly, however, the man- 
 sions of the blessed were said to be in the Fortunate Islands, Insula Fortunatm (cf. P. I. $ 183). — 
 Tartarus is also variously located ; Homer places it in the country of the Cimmerians, supposed 
 by some to have been around Tartessus in Spain, and by others to have been near Baite in Italy; 
 Virgil places the entrance to it, or rather the entrance to Hades, in a cave near lake Avernus in 
 Italy; others place the entrance at the promontory of Tsenarus; others, in Thesprotia. — In the 
 Sup. Plate 13, is a composition designed to represent the Tartarus of ancient mythology. Charon 
 in his boat, Pluto with his sceptre, and the three Judges appear in the fore-ground, with several 
 mortals awaiting their sentence. The Furies are lashing two criminals just given over to their 
 power; and various offenders are suffering their peculiar punishments as narrated by the poets; 
 for which see the history of Prometheus and others, especially Ixion and the other offenders 
 mentioned under { 34 b. 
 
 On the views of the ancients respecting the state of the soul after death, cf. Homer, Od. xi.—JEsckylus, in his Prometheus and 
 Persae. — Plato, in his Fhsedo. — Cicero, De contemnenda morte, and Somnium Scipionis. — Virgil, Mn. vi. cf. Tibull. El. i. 3. vs. 57 ss. 
 — Gibbon, on Virgil's 2Eo. vi., in his Miscellaneous Works. — Heyne, Excursuses in his editions of Virgil and Homer (cf. P. V. § 50. 5. 
 § 362. 4).— C. F. N'agelsbach, Die Homerische Theologie iu ihrem Zusammenhange. Numb. 1S40. 8.— De Fuvrmont, L'Esfer 
 Poetique, in' the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iii. 5.— Class. Journ. iii. 276. xi. 318. 
 
 § 32 u. The chief incident in the history of Pluto is his seizure and abduction of 
 Hspceqi6tiri, or Proserpine, who thereby became his wife, and the queen of the lower 
 world. She was a daughter of Jupiter and Ceres. The circumstances of this event 
 are related fully and poetically by Claudian 1 and Ovid 2 , and furnished the ancient artists 
 with frequent subjects for their skill in device and representation 3 . 
 
 * De raptu Proserpina^ L. iii 2 Metam. v. 341. 3 See Montfaueon, Ant. Expl. T. I. pi. 37-41.— See also our Plate X. 3. 
 
 and the Sup. Plate 14 ; in both which the seizure and abduction are represented. 
 
 The name of Proserpine was sometimes applied to Diana, when considered as a goddess of the 
 lower world. Cf. $ 39. 
 
 § 33 u. Pluto is represented both by poets and artists with an air menacing, terrible, 
 and inexorable. The latter usually exhibit him upon a throne, with a bifurcated seep 
 tre, or a key, in his hand. A rod is sometimes put into his hand instead of his sceptre 
 The device which places upon his head a sort of bushel or measuring-vessel, instead 
 of a crown, is of Egyptian origin, borrowed from the images of Serapis. 
 
 1. He appears crowned with ebony; sometimes with cypress leaves; sometimea 
 with flowers of narcissus. He is also sometimes represented in the act of bearing oft' 
 Proserpine in a chariot drawn by winged dragons ; such is the appearance in our Plate 
 X. fig. 3. — In the Sup. Plate 11 he appears with a long beard, in a sitting posture, rest- 
 ing his head on one hand, holding in the other a long sceptre, with Cerberus at his feet. 
 
 2. He is said to have possessed a helmet which rendered its wearer invisible; like the magic 
 ring of the Lydian Gyges (cf. Cic. de Off. iii. 9. Herod, i. 8). 
 
 § 34 a. His worship was universal ; but it was attended with special solem 
 nities in Bceotia, particularly at Coronea. His temple at Pylos in Messenia 
 was also celebrated. The Roman gladiators consecrated themselves to Pluto. 
 
 L.O 
 
 ,c. 
 
100 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 The victims offered to him were usually of a black color. Some of his prin- 
 cipal names were Ziv$ atvyvoc., Soranus, Summanus, Februus. 
 
 The Greeks named him TlXovrcov as some suppose from sAotJtos, wealth, which comes 
 from the bowels of the earth. The Romans gave him the name Bis, having the same 
 sense. He is also called "A-Snc, Orcus, Jupiter infernus, &c. — His chief festival was 
 in February, when the Romans offered to him the sacrifices called Februa, whence the 
 name of the month. His rites were performed by night or in the dark. The cypress 
 was sacred to him, branches of which were carried at funerals. 
 
 § 34 b. Under the control of Pluto were the three judges of the lower 
 world, Minos, Rhadamanthus, and JEacus. These decided the condition 
 of all the spirits brought into Pluto's realms by Charon. Minos held th 
 first rank. They were sons of Jupiter. They appear in Grecian history as rea 
 persons. 
 
 1 u. At the entrance to the world of shades, in Pluto's vestibule, lav the dog Cerbe 
 rus, a three-headed monster, that hindered the spirits from returning to the upper 
 world. The most memorable of those represented as punished in Tartarus were Ixion, 
 Sisyphus, Tityus, Phlegyas, Tantalus, the Danaides, and the Aloides. 
 
 2. Charon is said to have been the son of Erebus and Nox. His office was to con- 
 duct the souls of the dead in a boat over the rivers Styx and Acheron to the realms of 
 Pluto. As all were obliged to pay to him an obolus, a small piece of money, it was 
 customary to place a coin for that purpose under the tongue of the deceased before the 
 funeral rites. Such as had not been honored with a funeral were compelled to wander 
 on the shore a hundred years before they could be transported. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 14, Charon is seen sitting in his boat, in the act of receiving the obolus from 
 a mortal introduced by Mercury. 
 
 3. The fable respecting Charon is borrowed from the Egyptians, who had the custom of a trial 
 and sentence upon their deceased, before allowing them the honors of burial. For this trial all 
 were carried across a lake in a boat, whose helmsman was called Charon. 
 
 Eollin, Anc. Hist. bk. i. ch. 2. sect. 2. — Cf. Class, Journ. vol. xxiii. p. 7. — Bulletin des Sciences Historiques, vol. iv. p. 352. 
 
 4. There are numerous representations on the monuments of Egyptian art which seem to refer 
 to this trial or judgment of the soul. It appears to be often symbolized by the figure of a pair of 
 Ecales or balances, as if it were a weighing of the soul (ipvxocraaia); to which there may be an 
 allusion in the prophet's interpretation of the mysterious writing on the wall of Belshazzar's 
 dining-room (Dan. v. 27). In fig. B. of our Plate XVIII. is a representation of this kind; in 
 which we see the Egyptian balances, and a number of priests and allegorical or mythical per- 
 sonages. 
 
 This drawing is reduced from one given in the great French work styled Description de VEgypte, &c. cf. I\ IV. § 231. — See Mem 
 de VInstitut, Classe cPHistoire et Lit, Anc. vol. v. p. 84. sur la Psychostasie, ou pesee des ames, with plate. 
 
 § 35. (8) Apollo. The earliest and most natural form of idolatry was the wor- 
 ship of the stars, and especially of the sun, whose splendor, light, heat, and salutary 
 influence upon all nature, were taken as the supernatural and independent powers 
 of a deity. Hence the ancient fiction ascribing. personality to this luminary, 
 which was worshiped by the Egyptians under the name of Horus, by the Per- 
 sians under that of Mithras, by the later Greeks and Romans under that of 
 Phoebus (*otpoj) and Apollo. The two latter people, however, considered their 
 "HUoj and Sol as a separate divinity, and attached to the history of Apollo 
 many circumstances not connected with his original character as the god of 
 light. 
 
 The worship of the Persian Mithras ("Mithras Persidicus"), is said to have been introduced at 
 Rome in the time of Pompey ; altars being erected with the inscription, Deo Soli invicto Mithrm. — 
 Some of the antique representations of this god are very remarkable. On the engraved stones 
 called Abraxas (cf. P. IV. # 200), he often appears under the figure of a lion, or of a man with a 
 lion's head. In the Sup. Plate 9, are two representations. The first is from a bas-relief found 
 at Rome, about 1600; the image is a man draped below the loins, having two wings on each 
 shoulder, with a head partly that of a lion, and a lighted flambeau in each hand; a serpent- 
 twines around his shoulders and wings, and from his mouth issues a sort of fillet or ribin, 
 which in the original monument floats over a blazing altar. — The other is from a marble bas- 
 relief, found at Rome in a house near the theatre of Pompey ; in this Mithras appears a vigorous 
 young man, with a turban on his head, his knee resting on a prostrate bull ; with one hand he 
 holds the nostrils, and with the other plunges a dagger (acinaces) into the neck of the animal; a 
 dog leaps up to catch the falling blood, while another lies near by, apparently barking; a scor- 
 pion adheres to the lower side of the bull, and a slain or sleeping serpent is stretched at his feet. 
 The monument has several accompanying images, some of which are given in the engraving, 
 although not in their original place ; two youths appear with flambeaux, that of one being in- 
 verted; a man with a radiated head occupies a chariot with four horses leaping in apparent 
 fright ; in another chariot is a woman with horns or crescents attached to her head, almost 
 thrown out by the stumbling of her horses ; denoting doubtless the sun and moon. 
 
 See Montfauam, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. p. 367-3S4.— Creuzer, Symbolik und Mythologie, &c. vol. i. p. 345 ss.— Cf. Smith, Dili 
 »f A utiq. rj. 6, 
 
P. II, SUPERIOR GODS. APOLLO. DIANA. 101 
 
 § 36. According to both Greeks and Romans, Apollo was the son of Jupiter 
 and Latona, born on the island Delos. He was regarded as the god of the 
 sciences and the arts, especially poetry, music, and medicine. They ascribed 
 to him the greatest skill in the use of the bow and arrow, which he proved in 
 killing the serpent Pytho, the sons of Niobe, and the Cyclops. The last 
 achievement incensed Jupiter, and he was banished from Olympus. During 
 his exile Apollo abode as a shepherd 1 with Admetus king of Thessaly. He 
 also assisted Neptune in raising the walls of Troy, beguiling the toil of the 
 laborers with his lyre and songs. His musical contest 2 with Pan and Marsyas 
 is referred to the same period of his history. — Other memorable circumstances 
 in his history are his love for Daphne and her transformation 3 into a laurel-tree; 
 that of Clytie for him and her metamorphosis 4 into a sun-flower; his friendship 
 for Hyacinthus 5 , who was killed by Apollo's inattention, but changed into the 
 flower of that name ; and for Cyparissus, also accidentally slain and changed 
 into a tree 6 ; the indiscreet request of his son Phaeton 1 , to guide his father's 
 chariot for one day, and the fatal consequences of the attempt. 
 
 i Ov. Met. ii. 680. 2 v i. 382. xi. 146. 3 Met. i. 452. * iv. 206, 256. « x. 162. 6 x . 106. 1 i. 750. 
 
 § 37 a. The worship of Apollo was much celebrated among both Greeks and 
 Romans. As the god of inspiration and prophecy, he gave oracles at Didyma, 
 Patara, Claros, and other places. His temple at Delphi, and the oracle con- 
 nected with it, was the most celebrated ; next in fame was that in Argos, and 
 the one at Rome on the Palatine hill, built by Augustus and adorned with a 
 famous library. The Greeks celebrated in honor of Apollo the Pythian ga?nes, 
 and the Romans those called ludi Apollinares and the ludi seculares. The 
 laurel and olive, the wolf and hawk, the swan and grasshopper, the raven, 
 crow, and cock, were sacred to Apollo. 
 
 1 u. The following names were applied to Apollo : Cynlldus, Delius, No?nius, Pa- 
 tareus, Pythius (Jlvtiios), Smintheus, Thymbraus. 
 
 2. He had also the following names: Aortas, Ilatav, 'ExnfioXos, To%o<p6pos, AXelUaxos; 
 Vulturius, Epidelius, Lycius, Delphinius, Pelphicus, Actius, 
 
 § 37b. The image of this god, as expressed by poets and artists, was the 
 
 highest ideal of human beauty, a tall and majestic body, and an immortal 
 
 youth and vigor. Accordingly he appears on extant monuments with long 
 
 hair, crowned with laurel, having in his hand a bow and lyre, and a quiver on 
 
 his shoulder, naked, or but lightly clad. The most celebrated monument is the 
 
 marble statue, called the Jlpollo Belvidere. 
 
 A view of this monument is given in our Plate XLIV. fig. 3, drawn from Winckelmann. See 
 P. IV. $ 186. 4. Cf. Tibull. L. iii. Ele. 4. v. 27. 
 
 1. " Sometimes he is painted with a crow and a hawk flying over him, a wolf and a 
 laurel-tree on one side and a swan and a cock on the other, and under his feet grass- 
 hoppers creeping." Sometimes he is exhibited in the midst of the Muses: cf. § 103, 
 He also appears, with a radiant head, in a chariot drawn by four horses ; thus he is 
 seen in our Plate XI. 4. In the Sup. Plate 2 his figure is given as represented on many 
 monuments; here is seen also an altar with a lyre sculptured on it. — A statue of Apollo 
 stood upon the promontory of Actium, as a mark to mariners, and was seen at a great 
 distance at sea. 
 
 2. The stories respecting Apollo resemble those in the Hindoo mythology respecting Crithna, 
 who is sometimes painted in company with nine damsels, who are whimsically grouped into the 
 form of an elephant, on which he sits and plays upon his flute. Crishna is also frequently repre- 
 sented as the destroyer of the great serpent ; in some views he is held in the folds of the serpent, 
 which is biting his foot; in others, he holds the serpent triumphantly in the grasp of his hands, 
 and crushes its head beneath his foot. 
 
 Cf. Sir Writ. Jones, as cited § 25. 4 Asiatic Researclia, vol. viii.— Calmei's Diet. &c. vol. iii. p. 529 of ed. Charlestown, 1813. 
 
 § 38. (9) Diana. She was a daughter of Jupiter, and was born of Latona 
 on the island Delos, at the same time with Apollo. As in Apollo the sun was 
 deified and adored ; so was the moon {luna, csTwjm?) in Diana, who was called 
 6y the Greeks "Ap^s/Mf. She was also recognised as the goddess of hunting 
 or the chase, of which she was passionately fond in her youth. She was like- 
 wise viewed sometimes as a goddess of the infernal regions, under the name of 
 Hecate. As presiding over the chase, she received from Jupiter a bow with 
 arrows, and a train of sixty nymphs. — She also obtained from him the grant of 
 her petition to live a virgin, and was therefore the goddess of chastity. Hence 
 
 12 
 
102 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 her displeasure at the transgression of one of her nymphs, Calisto 1 , and her 
 transformation of Actason 2 into a stag. The only one, towards whom she was 
 not indifferent, was the shepherd or hunter, Endymion. She slew the nymph 
 Chione 3 from jealousy of her beauty, and the daughters of Niobe 4 because 
 Latona was slighted by their mother. 
 
 l Ov. Met. ii. 464. s iii. 194. 3 ix. 321. * vi. 148-312.— Cf. Horn. II. xxi\:—Hyg. fab. 9. 
 
 The story of Niobe and her children (cf. $ 81, $ 131), afforded to poets and artists a rich subject 
 for the embellishments of fancy. The number of the children is variously stated ; Homer gives 
 her six sons and as many daughters; while others say seven, and some even ten. In the splen- 
 did group of statuary called Niube arid her Children (cf. P. IV. J 186. '2), seven sons and seven 
 daughters are represented. Montfaucon gives an engraving from a most beautiful antique, 
 found at Rome, in which Apollo and Diana appear in the air discharging their arrows upon the 
 unhappy family; the youngest daughter clings to her mother; a horse is leaping in fury upon 
 another daughter ; one son lies dead on the plain ; the other children are in attitudes of distress. 
 In our Sup. Plate 1", this subject is represented in a composition, in which Amphion is intro- 
 duced, and a concourse of the citizens of Thebes. — A person dying by plague or pestilence was 
 said to be slain, if a male, by the arrows of Apollo; if a female, by the arrows of Diana. 
 
 See Monlf. Ant. Exp. vol. i. p. 107. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. iii. p. 109 ss. 
 
 § 39. Nowhere was the worship of Diana so much regarded, nowhere had 
 she a temple so splendid, as at Ephesus. (Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3.) With this 
 exception, that in Chersonesus Taurica was the most celebrated, especially 
 through the story of Orestes and Iphigenia. Her principal temple at Rome 
 was that erected by Servius Tullius on Mount Aventinus. In Rome the festi- 
 val of the ludi seculares were sacred to her in conjunction with Apollo, and she 
 was particularly honored under the name of Lucina, as presiding over births. 
 In this view she was also called by the Greeks and Romans Ilithyia (iuhifevia), 
 although this was the name (cf. § 27) of a distinct divinity. 
 
 1. The poppy was sacred to Diana. The Athenians sacrificed to her goats, or a 
 white kid, sometimes a pig or ox. The inhabitants of Taurica offered on her altar 
 strangers that were shipwrecked on their coast. 
 
 2 u. Among her names were Phcebe, Cynthia, Delia, Hecate, Dictynna, Agrotera 
 (ayporifia) • Trivia (TpioStrts), from her statues being placed in crossways as she pre- 
 sided over streets; Chitone (X'rtDvjj) ; and Triformis (rpiixopQos), from her threefold 
 character as goddess of the moon or month, the chase, and the lower world. 
 
 "Diana is called Triformis and Tergemina: first, because though she is but one goddess, yet 
 she has three different names as well as three different offices : in the heavens she is called 
 Luna ; on the earth she is named Diana ; and in hell she is styled Hecate or Proserpina : in tha 
 heavens she enlightens everything by her rays ; on the earth she keeps under all wild beasts by 
 her bow and her dart ; and in hell she keeps all the ghosts and spirits in subjection to her by he!, 
 power and authority: secondly, because she has, as the poets say, three heads; the head of a 
 horse on the right side, of a dog on the left, and a human head in the midst; whence some call 
 her three-headed or three-faced : thirdly, according to some, because the moon has three phases 
 or shapes ; the new moon appears arched with a semi-circle of light; the half-moon fills a semi- 
 circle with light ; and the full moon fills a whole circle or orb with splendor." 
 
 3. Other names or epithets were applied to her : \o%da, Kvvnyds, AptoiicoiTos, lox&aipa. 
 and To%o<p6pos. 
 
 § 40. As goddess of the chase, she is represented in monuments of art, tall 
 and nimble, with a light, short, and often flowing costume, her legs bare, her 
 feet covered with buskins, with bow and arrows, either alone, or accompanied 
 by her nymphs ; often with a hound near her : often riding in a chariot drawn 
 by two white stags. 
 
 Tn our Plate X. fig. 7, she is seen in her chariot drawn by stags. — In the Sup. Plate 15, she is 
 given as represented in a beautiful statue, supposed to have come from the same hands as the 
 Apollo Belvidere. 
 
 1. " Sometimes she appears with wings, holding a lion in one hand, and a panther in 
 the other, with a chariot drawn by two heifers, or two horses of different colors." 
 
 2 u. As the goddess of night, or the moon, she is represented in long robes, with a 
 large starred veil, having a torch in her hand and a crescent on her head. 
 
 See Plate XLI — Cf. Plate XIV. fig. 2.— See } 76. 
 
 3 u. We have figures of the Ephesian Diana, in the Egyptian style, and in Greek 
 imitation of it, in which she is exhibited with numerous breasts, and very similar to 
 lsis, whereby the fruitfulness of nature seems to have been represented. 
 
 Montfaucon gives several of these figures. One of the most remarkable is presented in our 
 Sup. Plate 16 ; on the head of the statue is a double mural crown ; a large festoon is suspended 
 from the neck, and within it are two images of Victory ; on each arm are two lions ; the body 
 tapers to the feet like a Hermes, but is divided into four portions, the first of which is occupied 
 by numerous breasts, the second by heads of stags, and the third and fourth by heads of oxen. 
 "4 In the Sup Plate 12, are thres views of a statue of Diana Triformis, from Montfaucon* 
 
PLATE XIII. 
 
 h a s 
 
 w 
 
 i? 
 
 
 
 B 
 
 P B 
 
 > 
 
 O 
 
 103 
 
104 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 presenting the three faces successively; the first face on the right with a torch in each hand; 
 the next face, with a knife {cultrum) in the right hand, and a whip (Jlagellum) in the left; the 
 third, with a key in the right hand and a serpent in the left. 
 
 § 41 a. (10) Minerva. Under the name of Minerva among the Romans and 
 of Ilaxxdf and 'A^j/vol among the Greeks, ancient fiction personified and deified 
 the idea of high intelligence and wisdom. She was a daughter of Jupiter, 
 sprang from his head. She is said first to have revealed herself near the lake 
 Tritonis in Libya, from which circumstance she was called Tritonia. 
 
 1. Some derive this epithet, and the Greek Tpiroyiveia, from the word tpitu signi- 
 fying head- 
 
 2. Minerva is by some supposed to have been originally the Egyptian deity worshiped particu- 
 larly at Sais under the name of Neith or Netha. Various etymologies of the Greek name 'AOrjvd 
 have been given ; among them is the conjecture which derives it from the name of the Egyptian 
 deity, by inverting the order of the letters; Netha (vr/Oa), being thus changed, would form adnv. 
 
 § 41 b. The Greeks ascribed to this goddess the invention of many arts and 
 sciences 1 , which had a great influence on their civilization. She was regarded 
 as inventress of the flute, of embroidery and spinning, the use of the olive, and 
 various instruments of war; in short, of most works indicating superior intelli- 
 gence or skill. Arachne's contest with her in working with the needle, and 
 consequent despair and transformation are beautifully described by Ovid. 2 
 
 » Ov. Fastor. iii. 815. a Oo. Metam. vi. 5. 
 
 § 42. The city of Athens was consecrated to Minerva, and boasted of receiv- 
 ing its name from. her. The splendid temple at that place dedicated to her was 
 called Parthenon, 1 in reference to her virgin purity {jtap^kvoi). She had other 
 temples, at Erythra?, Tegea, and Sunium, 2 and several at Rome. Her principal 
 festivals among the Greeks were the Panathensea, the greater and the less, and 
 among the Romans, Quinqualria, on each of which, games and contests were 
 held. The owl was sacred to Minerva, and is often found on her images and 
 on the Athenian coins. 3 
 
 i Respecting the Parthenon, see P. I. § 107. Cf. P. IV. § 234. 3. § 242. § 243. 1 a On the remains of the temple of Sunium, 
 
 cf. Mm. Quart. Rev. vol. vi. p. 234. 3 See the Attic coin given in Plate XL. fig. 5. 
 
 The following is the story respecting the name of the city of Athens : — When Cecrops built 
 a new city, Neptune and Minerva contended about its name ; and it was resolved in the assem- 
 bly of the gods, that whichsoever of the two deities found out the most useful creature to man, 
 should give the name to the city. Neptune struck the ground with his trident, and a horse 
 issued from the earth. Minerva caused an olive to spring up. The latter was pronounced the 
 more useful thing, and Minerva therefore gave the city her own name, 'Adr/va. Dr. Clarke 
 imagines that thi3 story had its origin from the fact, that the plains of Greece were once covered 
 or nearly so with water, which was afterwards removed by evaporation and other causes, and 
 thus a cultivable soil was presented to the inhabitants. 
 
 Clarke's Travels in various countries, &c. Part II. sect. ii. ch. 12. 
 
 § 43. Minerva is usually represented in military armor, with a helmet, and 
 the JEgis, or her peculiar cuirass bearing on it Medusa's head, and with a spear 
 and often a shield or buckler in her hand. Her helmet is generally ornamented 
 with the figure of the owl, hut presents various forms. 
 
 1. In our Plate XI. fig. 6, she appears holding in her left hand an image of Victory, 
 with her right resting on a round shield bearing on it a Medusa ; her spear leans on her 
 right shoulder ; the iEgis is seen on her breast. In the Sup. Plate 6, she is in a sitting 
 posture, with her spear and buckler; the owl appearing at her feet. In the Sup. Plate 
 20, the owl appears on one side and a cock on the other ; the iEgis on her breast is 
 here very distinct. 
 
 The term cegis (dtyij) signifies literally a goat-skin. Homer represents the wgis as a part of 
 the armor of Jupiter, whom he distinguishes by the epithet aiyioxos ; yet he speaks of Minerva 
 as using it (cf. II. ii. 447-449. xviii. 204. xxi. 400). 
 
 2 u. The colossal statue of Minerva, wrought by Phidias, and the Palladium were 
 much celebrated; the former on account of the perfection of its workmanship (cf. P. I. 
 § 107. P. IV. §§ 160, 161, 179); the latter on account of the superstitious confidence 
 placed in it by the Trojans, Greeks, and Romans. 
 
 The Palladium was a statue of Pallas, with a spear in one hand and a distaff in the other, 
 about three cubits high. It was said to have fallen from heaven into the citadel of Troy or 
 Ilium before it was completely built, and that the oracle of Apollo being consulted upon this oc- 
 currence, answered, that "the city should be safe so long as thatimage remained within it." 
 When the Greeks besieged Troy, it was therefore thought of the first consequence to obtain this 
 image. Ulysses and Diomedes succeeded in getting it by stealth (Vir. JEn. ii. 162). It was said 
 to have been afterwards recovered from Diomedes by iEneas, carried to Italy, and finally lodgec 
 in the temple of Vesta. 
 
P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MARS. VENUS. 105 
 
 3 u. Besides the names Minerva, Pallas, and Athena, this goddess was often called 
 Ilapdevos, 'Epydng, and 'Epyavri, IloXiay ; she is also termed Musica, Fylolis, and very 
 often TAauicaiTris or Csesia. 
 
 §44. (11) Mars. The god of war and battles was a son of Jupiter and 
 Juno, and educated in Thrace. He was viewed as presiding over rude and 
 fierce war, the origin of which was ascribed to him, while Minerva had the 
 
 credit of inventing tactics and the proper military art. Notwithstanding the 
 
 high idea which Homer gives of the strength and heroism of Mars, he repre- 
 sents him as taken prisoner by Otus and Ephialtes, and wounded by Diome- 
 des ; it was, however, by the help of Minerva 1 . Besides these occurrences, his 
 amors with Venus and his dispute with Neptune 2 respecting the son of the 
 latter, Hallirrhotius, who was put to death by Mars, constitute all that is re- 
 markable in his history. 
 
 i Hom.W. i 383, 855.-^2 jipottod. iii. 14.— Pausan. i. 21. 
 
 § 45 a. He was most worshiped in Thrace, where probably the whole con- 
 ception of such a god originated. He had however temples and priests in most 
 of the Grecian cities. 
 
 " Mars was never a favorite deity with the Hellenic tribes of Greece, and his worship 
 
 was comparatively neglected It is not easy to discover the origin of this deity ; 
 
 he seems to have been derived from the Pelasgi, or some other warlike and barbarous 
 tribe, rather than Egypt. He bears a striking resemblance to the northern Odin, and 
 probably was the same deity under another name." Tooke's Pantheon, Lond. ed. 1831. 
 
 § 45 b. The Romans regarded him as the father of Romulus, and the founder 
 and protector of their nation. They erected to him many temples, consecrated 
 to him a large public place, the Campus Martins, and a peculiar order of priests, 
 the Salii, who celebrated his festival with music and dancing in solemn pro- 
 cessions. 
 
 1. It was a special business of these priests to guard the ancilia, or sacred shields ; 
 5especting which see P. III. § 215.' — A very ancient hymn sung in honor of Mars by 
 the Romans is still preserved ; see P. IV. § 114. 4. — To Mars was offered the sacrifice 
 calJed Suovetaurilia ; a representation of which, as found in an ancient bas-relief, is 
 give,> in our Plate XXIX. 
 
 2. Several animals were consecrated to Mars ; the horse, for his vigor ; the wolf, for 
 his fierceness : the dog, for his vigilance. Magpies and vultures were also offered to 
 him on account of their greediness. 
 
 § 46. The ancient artists have represented Mars in full manly vigor, with a 
 strong but agile body, and an air calm and collected, rather than vehement or 
 passionate. He commonly appears equipped in armor; sometimes naked; 
 sometimes in the attitude of marching, as Mars Gradivus. 
 
 1. He is also represented as riding in a chariot drawn by furious horses, covered with 
 armor and brandishing a spear in his right hand ; thus he is seen in our Plate XL fig. 7. 
 Sometimes Bellona, the goddess of war, bearing in her hand a flaming torch, drives the 
 chariot over prostrate warriors ; such is the representation given in the Sup. Plate 10. 
 Sometimes he is represented as attended with a horrid retinue ; Clamor, Anger, Dis- 
 cord, Fear, Terror, and Fame. In the Sup. Plate 6, he appears as ready for marching ; 
 with his plumed helmet, coat of mail, spear, and shield. 
 
 2. Bellona, called by the Greeks 'Evua>, is sometimes said to be the wife, sometimes the sister, 
 and sometimes the daughter of Mars. She had a temple at Rome, and before it was a pillar 
 called Bellica, over which the herald threw a spear when war was proclaimed. 
 
 3 u. Mars was called "Apr/; by the Greeks ; other names given to him are Odrysius, 
 Strymonius, Enyalius, Thurius, Quirinus, Ultor. 
 
 § 47. (12) Venus. The ideal of the most perfect female beauty, and the 
 love awakened by it, was in eastern fiction expressed and personified in an 
 imaginary goddess ; she was called by the Romans Venus, and by the Greeks 
 °A4>po8</rt7. According to the common story, she was born from the foam (a$p6j) 
 of the sea; in Homer she is presented as a daughter of Jupiter and Dione. 
 After her birth she came first to Cytherea, and thence to Cyprus. — Many of the 
 gods sought her ; but Vulcan obtained her as his spouse. 
 
 1 u. She, however, loved Mars, Mercury, and Adonis especially, although with un- 
 requited passion ; the early death of the latter she bitterly lamented. 
 
 Ovid, Metam. x. 500, 717 sa. — Bion, Idyl on the death of Adonis. — See also Theocritus, Idyl xv. which is a beautiful little comedy 
 recognizing the story of Adonis ; the scene is laid in Alexandria, at the time of a festival in his honor. 
 
 14 
 
106 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 The story respecting Adonis, the young favorite of Venus, is, that being engaged in hunting, 
 of which he was excessively fond, he received a mortal wound from a wild boar. At this Venus 
 was immoderately grieved, and Proserpina restored him to life on condition of. his spending six 
 months with Venus and six with herself. It has been explained thus : Adonis, or Adonui, was 
 an oriental title of the sun, signifying Lord ; the boar, supposed to have killed him, was the em- 
 blem of winter, during which the productive powers of nature being suspended, Venus was said 
 to lament the loss of Adonis until he was restored again to life ; whence both the Syrian and 
 Argive women annually mourned his death, and celebrated his renovation." — Adonis is supposed 
 lo be the same deity with the Syrian Tammuz (cf. Ezekiel viii. 14). — Lucian (De Syria Dea) gives 
 an account of the festival Jldonia, held in honor of him at Byblus. Cf. P. III. $ 77. 2. 
 
 2 u. In her contest with Juno and Minerva, Paris awarded to Venus the prize of 
 beauty. Hence her memorable zeal for the interests of the Trojans. 
 
 § 48. The most celebrated places of her worship were Golgi, Paphos, and 
 Amathus, upon the island of Cyprus, which was wholly consecrated to her; 
 Cythera, Cnidos, and Eryx in Sicily; all situated near the sea, and in delight- 
 ful regions. In Rome she was honored as the pretended mother of iEneas, the 
 ancestor of the nation, although her worship was first formally introduced from 
 Sicily, in the sixth century after the building of the city. 
 
 1. At Hierapolis, in Syria, was a splendid temple in honor of Venus, under the name of As- 
 tarte or Mergatis, the Jlshtaroth of the Holy Scriptures. 
 See Lucian, De Syria Dea.— Cf. Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii.—Calmet, vol. iii. p. 372. ed. Chariest. 1813.— Class. Journal, No. liii. 
 
 2u. The pigeon or dove, the myrtle, and the rose, were especially sacred to the 
 goddess of love. 
 
 3. The swan and the sparrow were also sacred to Venus. Her sacrifices were goats 
 and swine, with libations of wine, milk, and honey. 
 
 Some have considered the worship of Venus as derived from corruptions of the traditions re- 
 specting the universal deluge ; her rising from the sea being a type of the world emerging from 
 the waves of the flood. — Bryant's Mythology. — HolwelVs Myth. Diet. 
 
 § 49. The poets and artists of antiquity endeavored in the description and 
 representation of Venus to embody the fullest and purest idea of female beauty. 
 The most distinguished antique statue of her is the famous Medicean Venus at 
 Florence. 
 
 Respecting this statue, see P. IV. § 1S6. 5. 
 
 1. She is represented on coins and gems, and in the descriptions of the poets, in 
 various ways ; sometimes she is clothed with a purple mantle glittering with diamonds, 
 her head crowned with myrtle and roses, riding in a chariot made of ivory, finely 
 carved, painted and gilded, and drawn by swans, doves, or sparrows. Sometimes she 
 is attended with the Graces and several Cupids. At one time she appears like a young 
 virgin, rising from the sea and riding in a shell ; at another, she holds the shell in her 
 hand. In our Plate X. fig. 6, she stands on a wave of the sea, supported by two Tri- 
 tons, with two attendant Cupids. In the Sup. Plate 6, she stands in a shell, with long 
 tresses, drawing a mantle around her. In the celebrated picture by Apelles (cf. P. IV. 
 J 222), she appears rising from the bosom of the waves and wringing her tresses on her 
 shoulders. In some monuments she holds one hand before her bosom and with the 
 other presses her mantle close about her limbs ; Montfaucon gives a figure very similar 
 to this, from a statue formerly in the gallery of Versailles. In the Sup. Plate 7. she is 
 seen in a reclining posture, with Cupid resting his elbow on her lap, while the Graces 
 are adorning her person, and two doves conduct her car on a cloud. In an ancient paint- 
 ing, given in the Sup. Plate 8, she supports in her arms the dying Adonis. In some 
 representations she has golden sandals on her feet, and holds before her a brilliant 
 mirror. The Sicyonians exhibited her with a poppy in one hand and an apple in the 
 other. In Elis she was painted as sitting on a goat and treading on a tortoise. — She 
 usually had a belt or girdle called Cestus, in which all kinds of pleasures are said to 
 be folded. 
 
 Heync, Qber die Vorstellungsarten der Venus, in his .Intiquar. Aufsatze.—Mamo, Abhandl. ttber die Venus, in his Fersuche iller 
 mythologische Gcgmst'dnde. 
 
 2 u. Various attributes were given to her, under the different characters of Venus 
 Urania, Marina, Victrix, &c. She was likewise known under the names Erycina, 
 Anadi/omene {avaivofievn), PapJiia, Idalia. 
 
 3. Her names and epithets were exceedingly numerous ; as, Cypria,IldvSnfiog, Cythe- 
 rea, <fri\<>imdfic, TtXeaaiyayioc, Verticordia, 'Eraipa, Acidalia, Libertina, Saligenita, 
 QaXaaaia, &C. 
 
 § 50. The son of this goddess, "Epcoj, Amor, or Cupid, was her common 
 companion, and the god of love, which he was supposed to influence by his 
 arrows. He is represented with a bow and arrows , often with a burning torch 
 in his hand. He was very frequently exhibited on ancient works of art, and 
 iv agreat variety of forms*. Often several Cupids appear in company. — 'Aj^spcoj, 
 
P. XI. SUPERIOR GODS. VULCAN. 107 
 
 inferos, who is usually considered the god of mutual love, was originally frrn 
 god that avenges despised love. He is sometimes represented as wrestling 
 with Cupid. 
 
 a See our Plate XI. fig. 9 b Cf. Manso, as cited § 49. 1.— See Plate X. fig. 6, and Sup. Plates 7 and 9. 
 
 1 u. The attachment of Cupid to Psyche is the chief incident in his history and forms 
 one of the most beautiful allegories of antiquity. 
 
 The allegory is found in Jlpulmus (cf. P. V. $ 471. 2). For expositions, cf. KeiglMey, p. 148, as 
 cited J 12.2. (6). — Psyche is usually represented with the wings of a butterfly; as in the statue 
 (Psyche in terror of Venus) given in our Sup. Plate 8.— See also Plate XLVII. fig. 5; cf. P. IV. $ 198. 
 
 2. Hymenaeus was also one of the imaginary companions of Venus. He presided 
 over marriage. He was represented as of fair complexion, crowned with the amaracus 
 or sweet marjoram, carrying in one hand a torch and in the other a veil of flame color, 
 indicating the blushes of a virgin. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 9, Hymenaeus is seen leading by a chain Cupid and Psyche ; from an antique 
 sculpture representing their nuptials. 
 
 § 51. (13) Vulcan. In unenlightened periods, the violent agencies of the 
 elements, as well as the appearances of the heavenly luminaries, excited as- 
 tonishment and were deified. Traces of the worship of fire are found in the 
 earliest times. The Egyptians had their god of fire, from whom the Greeks 
 derived the worship of "H$a«ri'o$, called by the Romans Vulcanus or Vulcan. 
 Fable styles him the son of Jupiter and Juno. On account of his deformity 
 his mother thrust him 1 from Olympus; or, according to another story, Jupiter 
 hurled him out, because he attempted to help Juno when fastened by the golden 
 chain. He fell upon the island Lemnos, afterwards his chief residence, and 
 was, according to the later fictions 2 , lamed by his fall. 
 
 1 Bom. II. xviii. 395. i. 590. « Vol. Flue. Argon, ii. 87. 
 
 § 52. To Vulcan was ascribed the invention of all those arts that are con- 
 nected with the smelting and working of metals by means of fire, which ele- 
 ment was considered as subject to him. His helpers and servants in such 
 works were the Cyclops, sons of Uranus and Gaia, whose residence also was 
 in Lemnos, and of whom there are commonly mentioned three, Brontes, Ste- 
 ropes, and Pyrakmon. These are to be distinguished from the Sicilian Cyclops 
 of a later period. 
 
 1. The epithet Cyclopean is applied to certain structures of stone, chiefly walls, in 
 which large masses of rough stone are nicely adjusted and fitted together. 
 
 Cf. P. IV. § 231. 3. Frertt, L'Histoire des Cyclops, Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxiii. 27. 
 
 2m. Mount iEtna was represented as the workshop of Vulcan ; so also Lipara, one 
 of the .ZEolian isles, called likewise Vulcanian. — Works requiring peculiar art and 
 extraordinary strength, especially when metals were employed as materials, were 
 called by the poets Vulcan's masterpieces. Among these were the palaces of Phoebus 1 , 
 of Mars 2 , and Venus 3 ; the golden chain of Juno 4 , the thunderbolts of Jupiter 5 , the 
 crown of Ariadne 6 , the arms of Achilles 7 , and of iEneas 8 , &c. 
 
 » Ov. Metam. ii. 1. a Stat. Thcb. vii. 38. 3 Claud. Epithal. Honor, et Mar. v. 58. * Pausan. Att. c. 20. Lacon. c. 17. 
 
 5 Ov. Metam. i. 258. « Oo. Fast. iii. 513 1 Bom. II. xviii. 468. a yi rg . 2En. viii. 407. 
 
 3. Vulcan is said to have formed, by request of Jupiter, the first woman; she was called Pan- 
 dora, because each of the gods gave her some present or accomplishment. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 4, is a composition designed to exhibit the gods assembled to bestow their gifts on the woman.— See Hcsiad, 
 Works and Days, vs. 94. 
 
 § 53. According to the earlier fictions, Vulcan had for his wife Charis, oi 
 Aglaia; and according to the later, Venus, after Minerva had rejected him. 
 Harmonia was his daughter, or the daughter of Mars and Venus. The Giants 
 Cacus and Caeculus were called his sons. — He was worshiped particularly in 
 Lemnos, and the Vulcanian isles. A temple was dedicated to him upon ./Etna. 
 At Rome the Vulcanalia were celebrated in honor of him, and at Athens the 
 XaXxEta. 
 
 1. A calf and a male pig were the principal victims offered in sacrifice to him. — Those 
 who followed arts and employments requiring the use of fire, especially rendered honor 
 and worship to Vulcan. " The lion, who in his roaring seems to dart fire from his 
 mouth, was consecrated to Vulcan ; and dogs were set apart to keep his temple." 
 
 2 u. Some of his names are the following : Lemnius, Mulciber, Cyllopodes (kv\\o- 
 TiW'Jf), Anrphigyeis {a-nQiyvrieic). 
 
 3 Some writers derive the name and story of Vulcan from Tubal-Cain, mentioned by Moses 
 
108 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 (Gen. iv. 22). Cf. Holwell, Myth. Diet. The ancients gave various etymologies of the name , 
 
 Servius says it was derived from volitans, because the sparks of fire fly in the air; the account 
 given bj Varro is similar (see # 54. 2). 
 
 § 54. Vulcan was usually represented as engaged in his work, with hammer 
 and pincers in his hands ; sitting more frequently than standing. His lameness 
 is not indicated in any existing monuments, although it was in some ancient 
 statues. 
 
 1. Cicero, speaking of one of these statues, says {Be Nat. Dear. i. 30), "We ad- 
 mire that Vulcan of Athens, made by Alcamenes; he is standing, clothed, and appears 
 lame without any deformity." — Some of the common representations of this god are 
 seen in our Plate X. fig. 4, and Sup. Plate 6. 
 
 2. "That by Vulcan is understood fire, the name itself discovers, if we believe Varro, who says 
 that the word Vulcanus is derived from the force and violence of fire (Vulcanius, quasi Volica- 
 nus, quod ignis per aerem volitat, vel a vi ac violenlia ignis); and therefore he is painted with a 
 
 blue hat, a c symbol of the celestial or elementary fire." (Tooke.) "Vulcan was represented 
 
 covered with sweat, blowing with his nervous arms the fires of his forges. His breast was 
 hairy, and his forehead blackened with smoke. Some represented him lame and deformed, 
 holding a hammer in the air ready to strike; while with the other hand he turns with pincers a 
 thunderbolt on his anvil (ukiicov). He appears on some monuments with a long beard, disheveled 
 hair, half naked, and a small round cap on his head, with hammer and pincers in his hand." 
 (Lemp.)— The medals of Lemnos usually bear a representation of Vulcan, with the legend Deo 
 Vulcano. 
 
 3. The representations of Vulcan show that the anvil of ancient times was formed like the modern. It was placed on a large block 
 of wood (aKfi6QzTov) ; cf. Horn. Od. viii. 274. Virg. j*Rn. vii. 629. — In early times, it was made of bronze, as were also the 
 hammer and pincers ; cf. Bom. Od. iii. 433.— Smith's Diet. Ant. p. 512. 
 
 § 55. (14) Mercury. The Greeks borrowed the worship of this god from the 
 Egyptians, whose Hermes Trismegistus is so celebrated in their early history. 
 According to the Greek and Roman fables, 'Ep^j, Mercurius or Mercury, was 
 the son of Jupiter and Maia. Maia was a daughter of Atlas, found by Jupiter 
 in the cave Cyllene in Arcadia, and afterwards with her six sisters placed by 
 him among the stars, thus forming the constellation named Pleiades from their 
 mother Pleione. 
 
 The principal characteristics of Mercury were cunning and dexterity, which 
 he exhibited even in his childhood, and not always in the most praiseworthy 
 manner. This appears from the tricks related of him, and from the circum- 
 stance, that he was considered as the god not only of mercature, but also of 
 theft; although the latter, in early times was not viewed so much as a crime, 
 as an evidence of power and adroitness. Mercury stole the cattle of Admetus 
 guarded by Apollo, Apollo's arrows, the girdle of Venus, the pincers of Vul- 
 can, &c. 
 
 1 u. By his flute the guardian of Io, even the hundred-eyed Argus, was lulled to 
 sleep. {Ov. Metam. i. 668.) — The principal means of his success in his feats was his 
 eloquence ; this art was ascribed to him in a high degree. He invented also the lyre, 
 attaching strings to the shell of the tortoise, and presented it to Apollo. In return 
 Apollo gave him the celebrated wand {caduceus), the origin of which is variously stated ; 
 its efficacy was potent in calming the passions and stilling contention. Mercury carried 
 this rod as the messenger of the gods, and employed it to awaken dreams, and to con- 
 duct the shades of the dead to the lower world ; for he was called to offices and labors 
 in that world, as well as on earth and in Olympus. 
 
 2 The caduceus was a rod with wings at one end, and" entwined by two serpents in the form 
 of equal semicircles. Originally it was nothing more than a rod adorned with green leaves, and 
 with a skillfully tied knot as the symbol of traffic. In a later age these decorations were changed 
 by the poets into serpents and wings. Various interpretations of the meaning of it have been 
 given. Prudence is generally supposed to be represented by the two serpents, and the wings are 
 the symbol of diligence: both necessary in the pursuit of business and commerce, which Mer- 
 cury patronized." 
 
 On the mythological character of Mercury, Class. Journal, xvi. 224.— Bottiger's Amalthea, i. 104.— Boltiger's Vasengem, ii. 97. 
 
 § 56 a. Mercury is usually represented as a slender youth, holding his wand, 
 almost always in motion, either flying or rapidly marching, wearing a winged 
 hat (petasus), and winged sandals (talaria). Sometimes he holds a purse in 
 his hand, as the god of commerce ; sometimes a tortoise appears by him in 
 reference to his invention of the lyre. The cock was sacred to him, and appears 
 sometimes as an attribute in the images of Mercury. 
 
 1. In our Plate XI. fig. 2, we have a common representation of Mercury flying ; and 
 another similar, in the Sup. Plate 2. — In the Sup. Plate 7, he is seen attending on 
 Jupiter and Juno.— In our Plate XVIII. fig. 4, and in the Sup. Plate 14 (illustrations 
 
P. II. SUPERIOR GODS. MERCURY. BACCHUS. 109 
 
 named Boor of Hell and Charon), he appears in his office of conductor of the shades 
 of the dead. Cf. § 32 a. 1. 
 
 2 u. The monuments called Hermm (see P. IV. § 164) were originally statues of 
 Mercury. They had their origin when art was in a very imperfect slate, but were 
 afterwards retained, and were used to represent other gods and memorable men. 
 
 § 56 b. The worship of Mercury was very common among Egyptians, Greeks, 
 and Romans, and many temples were consecrated to him. At Rome there was 
 a particular festival (festum Mercatorum) held for the expiation of merchants, 
 in honor of Mercury. 
 
 1. At this festival, held in the middle of the day, the votaries sacrificed to him a sow 
 or a calf, and offered especially the tongues of animals, and sprinkling themselves with 
 water, prayed to him to forgive all their artful measures or falsehoods in pursuit of gain. 
 
 2 u. The more common epithets applied to Mercury are Cyllenius, Atlantiades, Ales, 
 Agormus (dyopaToi), Caducifer. 
 
 3. Other common epi'hets are 'Apys«j>6vrri;, StdKrwp, and bi-nyos; he is also termed 
 <5<5Xwc, crafty; xepodo;, as presiding over wealth; rpiKtyaXo;, because his statues were placed 
 where three ways met. 
 
 § 57. (15) Bacchus. The Greeks and the Romans worshiped the inventor 
 and god of wine, under the name of Bacchus, Baaj^oj; the former also called 
 him Aiotdoos. In the fictions of both, he was the son of Jupiter and Sem< le, 
 a daughter of Cadmus. In answer to her request, Jupiter appeared to her in 
 his full majesty and divinity, the fiery splendor of which caused her death. 1 
 Jupiter saved alive the infant Bacchus not yet born, and carried him in his own 
 thigh until the proper time of his birth. Hence, according to some etymolo- 
 gists, the poets called him Si£vpa,uj3o$, as having been twice born; a name 
 which was afterwards given to the irregular hymns 2 sung at his festivals. 
 
 » Ov. Met. iii. 260. 2 Cf. P. V. § 22. P. iii. § 77. 3. 
 
 § 58. The ancients ascribed to Bacchus manifold offices, and related a multi- 
 tude of achievements as performed by him. Especially was he celebrated for 
 his advancement of morals, legislation, and commerce; for the culture of the 
 vine and the rearing of bees ; and for his military expeditions and success, 
 particularly in India. He was universally worshiped as a god, and a miracle- 
 worker, except in Scythia. 
 
 1 u. The power ascribed to him is illustrated in the story respecting Midas, king of 
 Phrygia, who restored to Bacchus his nurse and preceptor Silenus, and received as a 
 compensation the fatal attribute of turning into gold ' every thing he touched.' — Some 
 of the remarkable incidents of his story are, changing the Tyrrhenian sailors into dol- 
 phins 2 ; his residence upon the island Naxos, where he found Ariadne, forsaken by 
 Theseus, and espoused her, but likewise forsook her, and after her death placed her 
 crown among the stars 3 ; his descent to Hades in order to convey his mother Semele 
 back to Olympus, where she was deified under the name of Thyone. 
 
 i Ooid, Metam. xi. 85. * Met. iii. 650. 3 Fast. iii. 459. 
 
 2. Bacchus is also said to have traveled into India with an army composed of men and women 
 The achievements of different personages are doubtless ascribed to him. Diodorus Siculus says 
 that there were three who bore this name. Cicero says there were five. 
 
 3 u. He is called by various names ; Lyaeus, Thyoneus, Evan, Nyctelius, Bassareus, 
 Thriambus, Thyrsiger (cf. Ov. Met. iv. 11), Liber, Bimater, &c. 
 
 § 59. The worship of Bacchus, originating very early in tne East, probably 
 in India, was among the earliest and most general practiced in the Grecian or 
 Roman territories. Pentheus and Lycurgus, who refused to participate in it, 
 were punished with death ; and the daughters of Minyas and Orchomenos, for 
 the same reason, were changed into bats. Thebes, Nysa, Mount Citheeron. 
 Naxos, and Alea in Arcadia, were renowned for their festivals in honor of 
 Bacchus. — The vine and ivy and the panther were especially sacred to him. 
 Goats were usually offered in sacrifice to him, because they aTe particularly 
 injurious to the vine. 
 
 1. The Oscophoria, Epilcenia, Apaturia, Ambrosia, and Ascolia, are named as 
 festivals of this god. 
 
 2 m. The most eminent of his festivals were the Trieterica and the Dionysia (see P. 
 III. § 77. 3), in which his military enterprises were commemorated. These celebra- 
 tions at length became wild and licentious orgies, and were finally on that account 
 abolished (cf. Liv. xxxix. 8, ss.) in Rome by the senate, in the year of the city 568. 
 
 On the worship of Bacchus, see Freret, Le Culte de Bacchus, Mem. Acad. Irucr. vol. xxiii. p. 242.— G. F. Creuzcr. Diouysus, r. 
 
 K 
 
110 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 comment. Acad, de Rerum Bacchic, originibus et causis. Heidelb. 1809. A.—Rdle, Recherches sur le Culle de Bacchus. Paris, 
 3 vols. 8. 
 
 3. In several points the story and worship of Bacchus resemble those of the Egyptian Osiris. 
 There is also thought to be a striking resemblance between Bacchus and the Schivu of India (cf. 
 
 Rhode, as cited $ 13). Sir Wm. Jones (as cited } 25. 4), considers Bacchus and the Hindoo Rama 
 
 to be the same. "The first poet of the Hindoos," says he, "was the great Valmic, and his Ra- 
 wayan is an epic poem on the same subject, which in unity of action, magnificence of imagery, 
 and elegance of style, far surpasses the learned and elaborate work of Nonnus entitled Diuny- 
 siaea (cf. P. V. $ 76), half of which, or twenty-four books, I perused with great eagerness when 
 I was very young, and should have traveled to the conclusion of it, if other pursuits had not 
 engaged me. I shall never have leisure to compare the Diovysiacks with the Ramayan, but am 
 confident that an accurate comparison of the two poems would prove Dionysos and Rama to have 
 been the same person." 
 Cf. Constant, De la Religion, vol. ii. — Voss, Antisymbolik. — Asiatic Researches, vol. viii. 
 
 4. It is worthy of remark, that the abominations of the Dionysiac festivals are to this day practiced at the temple of Juggernaut io 
 Hindostan. This god has two annual festivals. At the one called the. ear-festival, his image, " a block of wood, having a frightful 
 visage painted black, with a distended mouth of a bloody color,'' is brought out of the temple in gorgeous array and placed on a stu- 
 pendous car rising high like a tower, which rests on low wheels and is drawn by the crowd of votaries, attended with flags and 
 banners, amid the sound of musical instruments and the shouts of an immense multitude of piigrims assembled from various and 
 distant regions. In our Plate XIII a. is a representation of this ceremony : the horses, which appear attached to the car, are wooden. 
 The car is covered with indecent figures painted all over it. At intervals the car is stopped, and the priests and boys connected with 
 the temple render worship by obscene songs and lascivious actions to please the god, as they say, and cause him to move. — See Ward, 
 View cf the Religion, &c. of the Hindoos. 
 
 § 60. The ancient representations of Bacchus are much more dignified than 
 those with which the later artists were accustomed to degrade him. By the 
 poets and artists of antiquity he was exhibited as a handsome agreeable boy, 
 just on the border of youth, with a form more resembling a female, than that 
 of Mercury or Apollo, and with a joyful look. Of no other god have we a greater 
 number or variety of representations, in statues, bas-reliefs, and gems, than of 
 Bacchus with his train, Silenus, the Fauns and Satyrs, and Bacchanals. 
 
 1. Among the various representations of this god, we sometimes find him with 
 swollen cheeks, and a bloated body. He is crowned with ivy and vine leaves, having 
 in his hand a thyrsus, an iron-headed javelin, encircled with ivy or vine leaves ; as in 
 our Plate X. fig. 8, where he appears also as a handsome youth, holding a wine-cup in 
 one hand, and attended by a panther. In the Sup. Plate 15, he is a youth holding the 
 thyrsus and leaning upon a column, with a tiger at his feet. Sometimes he appears an 
 infant, holding a thyrsus and cluster of grapes with a horn. Sometimes he is on the 
 shoulders of Pan, or in the arms of Silenus. On the celebrated gem (cf. P. IV. § 211) 
 which is given in our Plate XL VIII. , he appears a bloated young man, borne by Satyrs 
 and also attended by Cupids and Bacchanals. Sometimes he is in a chariot, drawn 
 by tigers, leopards, or panthers, surrounded by his retinue of Satyrs and Bacchae, and 
 followed by old Silenus on an ass. 
 
 For various other representations, see Montfaucon, Antiq. Expl. vol i. Plates 142-167. 
 
 2. In our Plate XLVIII. we have also a representation of Silenus, as given from an antique by 
 Montfaucon ; recumbent on the hide of a panther, with one hand resting on a skin full of wine, 
 and the other on an inverted goblet. — An image of Silenus is mentioned by Pliny {Hist. JVat. 
 xxxvi. 5), as existing in the marble quarry of Paros, said to be the work of nature. There is 
 now in the same quarry a curious bas-relief, of which the image of Silenus forms a part. Dr. 
 Clarke supposes this image to have been a lusus natura, and the other pieces now in the bas- 
 relief to have been added to it by sculpture. " It represents a festival of Silenus. The demigod 
 is figured in the upper part of it as a corpulent drunkard, with ass's ears, accompanied by laugh- 
 ing satyrs and dancing girls. A female figure is represented sitting with a fox sleeping in her 
 lap. A warrior is also introduced, wearing a Phrygian bonnet [see Plate XXII. fig. n and o]. 
 There are twenty-nine figures; and below is this inscription: AAAMA2 OAPT2H2 NYMtfAlX." 
 
 § 61. 1^16) Ceres. However useful the planting 'f the vine might be, agri- 
 culture in general was much more so, and formed one of the earliest and most 
 common pursuits of men. The observation of its importance and of the pro- 
 ductiveness of nature occasioned the conception of a particular divinity, to 
 whom its discovery and improvement were ascribed. The usual name for this 
 divinity was A^jtM^p among the Greeks, and Ceres with the Romans. She 
 was considered as one of the most ancient of the goddesses, and was called a 
 daughter of Saturn and sister of Jupiter. Her native place was Enna, situated 
 in a fertile region of Sicily. 
 
 In this country she is said to have first taught men to cultivate grain, and to 
 instruct them in all the labors pertaining to it. To her is ascribed also the 
 establishing of laws, and the regulation of civil society. Afterwards she im- 
 parted her favors to other lands, and the people of Attica particularly boasted 
 of her protection, and her instruction in agriculture and the use of the plough. 
 She associated Trintolemus with her as a companion in her travels, and sent 
 
PLATE XIII a. 
 
 Ill 
 
112. GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 him over the earth, to teach husbandry, and thereby raised him to the rank of 
 a god. 
 
 See Homer, Hymn to Ceres.— Ovid, Fast. iv. 607-562. Metam. v. 642-661. 
 
 § 62. The seizure and abduction of her daughter Proserpine by Pluto has 
 been already mentioned (§ 32«). Ceres sought for her with a burning torch 
 everywhere, and thus diffused universally a knowledge of agriculture and good 
 morals. She at length discovered that Pluto had borne her to his realms, sup- 
 plicated Jupiter for her deliverance, and received a favorable answer, on con- 
 dition that Proserpine had tasted of no fruit of the infernal world. But she 
 had just tasted of the pomegranate, and therefore received her freedom and 
 liberty to return to this world only for half the year. 
 
 Ovid, Metam. iv. 552.— Claudian, De Raptu Proserpina;. Cf. P. V. § 386. 
 
 1 u. To the history of Ceres belong also the following mythical circumstances ; her 
 changing herself into a horse and into one of the Furies, to escape the pursuit of Nep- 
 tune ; her transformation of Lyncus into a lynx on account of his perfidy 1 ; and her 
 punishment of Erysichthon, who had violated a grove sacred to her, by afflicting him 
 with insatiable hunger 2 , so that he devoured at last his own limbs. 
 
 i Ov. Met. v. 649. a lb. viii. 738.— Callim. Hymn, in Cer. v. 29.— See Ernesti's Excursus, in his ed. of Callimachus (cited 
 
 P. V. § 70. 2), vol. i. p. 262. 
 
 2 u. Ceres bore several names and epithets, as Aj/w, Qm[xo<p6pos, Si™ ; and Eleusinia, 
 Erinnys, &c. 
 
 3. The name A^rr/p is by some derived from J>? for yn and y-nrrip, signifying mother- 
 earth. 
 
 See Knight's Enquiry into the symbol. Lang. &c. Class. Joum- 
 
 § 63. One of the most celebrated festivals of this goddess was the ®sd/xo^6pi,a, 
 which was maintained in many Grecian cities, especially in Athens, in honor 
 of her as having taught the use of laws. Still more celebrated, however, were 
 the Eleusinian Mysteries, which were likewise sacred to Ceres, and which were 
 of two sorts, the greater and the less, the latter held annually, the former only 
 every fifth year. Besides these, the Greeks and Romans honored her with 
 several festivals before and after harvests, e. g. the npo^poswx, and the 'Alwo, 
 the Cerealia and the Ambarvalia. 
 
 On the Eleusinian Mysteries, see P. III. § 77. 4. P. IV. § 41. — Warburton, in his Divine Legation of Moses. — /. Meursii, Eleu- 
 Binia. Lugd. Bat. 1619. 4.—Sainte Croix, Recherches histor. et crit. sur les Mysteres (Silv. de Sacy ed.) Par. 1817. 2 vols. S. — 
 Ouwarojf, Essai sur les mysteres d'Eleusis. St. Petersb. 1S15. 8.— Bougainville, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. xxi. 83.— Class. Jourru 
 xiii. 399. xiv. 165. xv. 117. 
 
 On the Thesmophoria, see Dutheil, as cited P. V. § 65. 3. On the Ambarvalia, cf. P. III. § 219. 
 
 1. Among the ceremonies in her worship were the sacrificing of a pregnant sow, and 
 the burning of a fox (vulpium combustio). " A fox was burnt to death at her sacred 
 rites, with torches tied round it ; because a fox wrapt round with stubble and hay set on 
 fire, being let go by a boy, once burnt the growing corn of the people of Carseoli, a 
 town of the JEqui, as the foxes of Samson did the standing corn of the Philistines." 
 
 Cf. Ovid, Fast. iv. 681. — Judges xv. 4.— Classical Journal, vi. 325. 
 
 2. The ruins of the famous temple of Ceres at Eleusis, where the Mysteries were celebrated, 
 were conspicuous when Dr. Clarke visited the spot. He found also a fragment of a colossal 
 statue of the goddess among the muldering vestiges of her once splendid sanctuary. With 
 great exertion that traveler procured the removal of the statue, in order to its being transported 
 to England. 
 
 See Clarle's Travels, Part ii. sect. 2. ch. 18.— Land. Quart. Rev. xvii. 202. 
 
 § 64. The symbolical accompaniments to the image of Ceres are ears of 
 corn, and the poppy, her usual ornament. She is often exhibited with a torch 
 in her hand, to signify her search after Proserpine. 
 
 In some representations she appears a tall and majestic lady with a garland on her 
 head composed of ears of corn, a lighted torch in one hand, and a cluster of poppies and 
 ears of corn in the other. Thus she appears in our Plate XL fig. 5, and in the Sup. 
 Plate 15. She also appears as a country woman mounted upon the back of an ox, 
 carrying a basket and a hoe. Sometimes she was represented as in a chariot drawn 
 bv winged dragons. Her associate Triptolemus also appears occuDying her chariot 
 {Ov. Met. v. 646). 
 
 § 65. (17) Vesta. The ideas conceived in the Greekand Roman fables respect- 
 ing the earth as a person and goddess were exceedingly numerous and various. 
 Besides Gaia, Titaea or Tellus, who represented the earth taken in a general 
 sens© they iiragined Cybele to denote the earth as inhabited and cultivated: 
 
P. II. INFERIOR GODS. 0<ELTJS. 113 
 
 Ceres more particularly signified the fertility of the soil ; and the name of 
 Vesta or 'Eort'a was employed to represent the earth as warmed by internal 
 heat. The latter goddess also represented civil union and domestic happiness, 
 being supposed to preside over the household hearth. She was called the 
 daughter of Saturn and Rhea, and said to have first taught men the use of fire. 
 
 1m. Jupiter guarantied her vow of perpetual celibacy (Ov. Fast. iv. 249), and 
 granted to her the first oblations in all sacrifices. 
 
 2. She is sometimes termed Vesta the younger, to distinguish her from Cybele (§19), 
 who is also called Vesta the elder. Vesta the younger is the same with Ignis or fire. 
 
 § 66. The establishment of family habitations was ascribed to Vesta, and for 
 this, altars were usually erected to her in the interior or front of all houses. 
 The same was done in the buildings termed Ti.pvta.veia, which were usually 
 found in the Greek cities near their center; that at Athens (P. I. § 115) was 
 the most famous. More rarely were temples raised for her. In her temple at 
 Rome the celebrated Palladium was supposed to be kept. 
 
 The temple of Vesta erected by Numa at Rome was round, and without any image 
 of the goddess. It still exists. Cf. P. I. § 60. 
 
 § 67 a. She was represented in a long robe, wearing a veil, bearing in her 
 hand a lamp, or sacrifical vase. It is, however, more frequently a priestess of 
 Vesta that is thus represented. 
 
 r In Plate XI. fig. 10, from a medal given by Montfaucon, we have such a representation. In 
 the Sup. Plate 3, Vesta is seen as represented in a beautiful statue mentioned by Montfaucon 
 (Vol. i. p. 64). — Vesta is sometimes exhibited holding in one hand a javelin or a Palladium; 
 sometimes also with a drum in one hand and an image of Victory in the other. 
 
 $ 67 u. Her priestesses among the Greeks were widows. But those among the Ro- 
 mans under the name of Vestales, the vestal virgins, were much more celebrated; the 
 mother of Romulus having belonged to the order, although their first regular institution 
 is ascribed to Numa. (Cf. P. III. § 218.) Their principal duty was to watch and keep 
 alive the sacred fire of Vesta, and guard the Palladium (cf. § 43). Their rigid seclusion was 
 rewarded by various privileges, and a peculiar sacredness was attached to their persons. 
 
 1. The extinction of the fire of Vesta was supposed to forbode sudden and terrible disasters, 
 and if it ever happened, all business was at once interrupted until expiation had been made with 
 great ceremony. Negligence on the part of the virgins was severely punished. The fire was 
 every year renewed or replaced, on the Calends of March, by fire produced from the rays of the 
 sun. 
 
 2. In our Plate XXVIII. is a representation of a priestess of Vesta, holding a pan of fire. In 
 the same Plate is seen a Vestal holding the cribrum or sieve ; from a statue in honor of the Ves- 
 tal Tuccia, who is said to have vindicated her innocence by bringing water in a sieve from the 
 Tiber. Cf. Vol. Max. viii. 2. 
 
 On Vesta and the Vestals ; Livy, i. 20, — Plutarch, Life of Numa. — Class. Journ. xv. 123, 257. xvi. 32.— Nodal, Histoire des 
 Vestales, in the Mem. de VAcad, des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 161, 227. — Lipsius, de Vesta, in his Worhs.~ Lupuy, La maniere dont les 
 aociens rallumoient le/eu sacre, &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxv. p. 395. 
 
 II. — Mythological History of the Inferior Gods. 
 
 § 68. The divinities included in the class, which are here denominated Inferior gods, 
 are Ccelus or 'Ovpavdg • Sol or "HAioj ; Luna or J.e\f\vn; Aurora or 'Ho>? ; Nox or Nvl ; 
 Iris, Tpis; iEolus or Ai'oAoj; Pan, Ilav; Latona or A^rco; Themis or Or/p?; iEscula- 
 pius or 'Ao-KArpriov ; Plutus or UXovrog ; Fortuna or Tvxn ; and Fama or Qiyxri ; which 
 were all common to the Greeks and Romans. But to this class are also to be referred 
 several divinities, which were peculiar to the Greeks as distinguished from the Romans ; 
 and also several, which were peculiar to the Romans as distinguished from the Greeks 
 
 § 69. (1) Coelus. Although this god was considered as one of the most 
 ancient and the father of Saturn, yet not much importance was attached to his 
 worship either among the Greeks or Romans. His wife was the goddess of the 
 earth, Titaea or Gaia ; their offspring were the Titans, the Cyclops, and the Cen- 
 limani. Through fear that these sons would deprive him of his kingdom, he 
 precipitated them all to Tartarus, whence they were liberated, however, by the 
 aid of Saturn, who himself usurped his father's throne. Venus and the Furies 
 were called daughters of Uranus, or Ccelus. 
 
 § 70 u. The fictions respecting this god perhaps had some foundation in the history 
 15 K 2 
 
114 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 of early nations. According to the account of Diodorus 1 , Uranus v/ould seem to have 
 been a king of the Atlantides 2 , the founder of their civilization, and the author of many 
 useful inventions. Among other things he was a diligent observer of the heavenly 
 bodies, and became able to announce beforehand many of their changes. Admiration 
 of such knowledge might lead to his deification. Perhaps it might occasion the use of his 
 name (Oopavdg) to signify the heavens. The idea, however, of a deity thus called, ap- 
 pears to have been very ancient. 
 
 1 See Hind. Sic iii. 56. v. 44. 2 The Atlantides were a people of Africa, living near Mt. Atlas. 
 
 § 71. (2) Sol. Although the Greeks and Romans worshiped Apollo as the 
 god and dispenser of light, and in view of this attribute named him Phoebus, 
 yet they conceived another distinct divinity, distinguished from Apollo espe- 
 cially in the earlier fables, under the literal name applied to designate the sun, 
 viz. Sol or "HAtoj. These words, therefore, were employed to express not only 
 the actual body in the heavens, but also a supposed being having a separate 
 and personal existence. In the Homeric Hymn addressed to Helius, he is 
 called the son of Hyperion and Euryphaessa. Eos and Selene are called his 
 sisters. Many circumstances, which are mentioned as pertaining to him, are 
 also related of Phoebus or Apollo, when considered as the god of the sun. 
 
 See Ovid, Metamorph. ii. 
 
 § 72 a. The early prevalence of Sun-worship, which was one of the first and 
 most natural forms of idolatry, renders it probable, that the worship of this god 
 was early introduced into Greece. Many temples were consecrated to Helius. 
 The island Rhodes in particular was sacred to him, where was erected his 
 celebrated colossal statue. Among the Romans his worship was organized 
 with special solemnities by Heliogabalus, who had been a priest of the same 
 god in Syria, and afterwards erected a temple to his honor at Rome. 
 
 Of his splendid temple at Heliopolis or Baalbec in Syria, said to have been erected by Antoni- 
 nus Pius, interesting remains still exist. Cf. P. I. $ 166. 
 
 § 72 &. Sol or Helius is represented usually in a juvenile form, entirely 
 clothed, and having his head surrounded with rays, and attended by the Horee, 
 and the Seasons. He is sometimes riding in a chariot drawn by four horses, 
 which bear distinct names. 
 
 1. Helius is represented on coins of the Rhodians by the head of a young man 
 crowned with rays ; a specimen is seen in our Plate XIV. fig. 1. — A view of the colossal 
 statue of Helius erected at Rhodes is given in Plate VI. This was reckoned among 
 the seven wonders. 
 
 2. The seven wonders of the world were, 1. The staiue of the Sun at Rhodes, 70 cubits high, placed 
 across the harbor so that a large vessel could sail between its legs; 2. The Mausoleum, or sepulchre 
 of Mausolus, king of Caria, built of marble, above 400 feet in compass, surrounded with 36 beautiful 
 columns(P.III. $1S7.);3. The statue of Jupiter in Olympia by Phidias (cf. P. IV. $ 179); 4. The tem- 
 ple of Diana at Ephesus, with 127 pillars, 60 feet in height, with a splendid image of the goddess; 
 5. The walls of Babylon built by Semiramis, 50 or 80 feet wide, and 60 miles in circuit (Rollin's 
 Anc. Hist. bk. iii. ch. 1); 6. The pyramids of Egypt; 7. The palace of Cyrus. 
 
 § 73. (3) Luna. She was the daughter of Hyperion and Theia, and was 
 called Sftojvj? by the Greeks, being distinct in name, descent, and story from 
 Diana or "Aptfjfuj, who was, however, taken as goddess of the moon. To 
 Luna was ascribed great influence in relation to the birth of men. Pandia was 
 said to be a daughter of Luna and Jupiter or Saturn". In common with her 
 brother Helius, Luna seems to have been especially worshiped by the Atlan- 
 tides. 
 
 " Cf. Homer, Hymn to Luna. 
 
 1 u. Both the Greeks and Romans consecrated appropriate temples to her, although 
 the worship of Diana as the goddess of the moon was much more prevalent among 
 them. She was represented like Diana in this character, as a goddess riding in a chariot 
 through the skies, with the stars as her attendants. 
 
 2. She is represented on coins by the bust of a fair young woman with a crescent on 
 her head ; as seen in Plate XIV. fig. 3. 
 
 § 74. (4) Aurora. A sister of Luna, of the same parents, was the goddess 
 of the morning or day-dawn; styled by the Greeks 3 Ecoj or 'H^lpov; by the 
 Romans, Aurora. By others she is said to have been the daughter of the giant 
 Pallas, and therefore called Pallantias. Orion and Tithonus were her prin- 
 cipal lovers, and Lucifer and Memnon her most distinguished sons. The latter 
 
P. II. INFERIOR GODS. AURORA. IRIS. 115 
 
 is memorable for the honors paid to him in Egypt, and for his famous vocal 
 statue at Thebes. 
 
 1. The statue of Memnon is supposed to be one of those existing at the present day among the 
 ruins of ancient Thebes, near the place now called Medinet Abou. A part of the body of it is said 
 to be now in the British Museum. It is called by the Arabians Salamat, the statue which bids 
 good morning, a name evidently originating in a belief of the ancient and common tradition; 
 which was, that this statue uttered sounds at the rising of the sun, when it shone upon it. The 
 statue is covered with inscriptions by persons declaring that they had heard its voice at the 
 rising of the sun.— Mr. Wilkivson states, from experiment actually made by himself, that if a per- 
 son in the lap of this colossus, which is in a sitting posture, give it a blow with a hammer, it will 
 cause a sound to a person standing at its foot as if from an instrument of brass. 
 
 See J. G. Wilkinson, on the contrivance by which the statue of Memnon was made vocal ; in the Transactions of the Royal 
 Society of Literature, vol. ii. Lond. 1834. — M. Letronne, Inscriptions Grecques et Latines du Colossus de Memnon, &c, in same 
 Transactions, vol. iii. Lond. 1837.^.2mer. Quart. Review, No. ix. 
 
 2 u. Cephalus was insensible to the love of Aurora towards him, although she seized 
 and bore him away from his beloved Procris, whom, after his return to her, he had the 
 misfortune to kill through an accident occasioned by her jealousy. — The early death 
 of a youth was frequently called in poetic language, a seizure or theft by Aurora 
 
 ('Ifyirpa? apirayfi). 
 On the story of Cephalus, see Ovid, Metam. vii. 661, 703. 
 
 § 75. This goddess was considered as the harbinger of the sun and of the 
 day, and was sometimes called by the literal name of the latter among the 
 Greeks, 'H^tlpa. By the poets she is represented as a beautiful young woman, 
 whose chariot was drawn by white or light red horses, and who opened the 
 portals of the Sun with rosy fingers. Homer designates her by the epithet 
 Po8o§dx'tv%o$. 
 
 She is described as rising from the ocean in a saffron robe (/cpo/eon-CT-Xoc), in a rose- 
 colored chariot, and scattering the dew upon the flowers. She was called the mother 
 of the stars and of the winds. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 10, she is beautifully represented as driving in her chariot, accom- 
 panied by the Hours, and a flying Cupid with a torch in his hand. 
 
 § 76. (5) Nox. The night was personified in ancient fable and placed among 
 the divinities as a daughter of Chaos. On account of this early origin she is 
 called, in the Orphic Hymns, the mother of gods and men. Generally, how- 
 ever, she is an allegorical rather than a mythological personage ; and in such a 
 sense, sleep, death, dreams, the furies, &c. are called her children. 
 
 1 t. A black cock was the offering commonly presented to her. A black sheep was 
 also offered to her as mother of the Furies. 
 
 2 u. According to the descriptions of poets, and in some representations by art, she 
 is exhibited as enveloped in a long dark robe, with her head covered with a veil spangled 
 with stars. Sometimes she has black wings, or is drawn in a chariot by two horses with 
 a retinue of stars. 
 
 3. Pausanias describes a statue of Nox, holding in her right hand a white child, and 
 a black child in her left, representing sleep and death ; thus she appears in our Plate 
 XXXVI. She has also been described as a woman with her face veiled in black, 
 crowned with poppies, and in a chariot drawn by owls and bats. In fig. 2 of Plate 
 XIV., drawn from an ancient engraved gem, she holds a veil over her head, and three 
 stars appear above it. In plate XLI. she makes a more splendid appearance with a 
 large spangled veil, and a torch inverted ; thus she is painted in an ancient illuminated 
 manuscript. 
 
 § 77. (6) Iris. By the name of *Ipt$ was designated among the Greeks the 
 rainbow, as personified and imagined a goddess. Her father was said to be 
 Thaumas, and her mother Electra, one of the daughters of Oceanus. Her 
 residence was near the throne of Juno, whose commands she bore as messenger 
 to the rest of the gods and to mortals. Sometimes, but rarely, she was Jupiter's 
 messenger, and was employed even by other deities. 
 
 1. Being the messenger of Juno, she was not unfrequently sent, on errands of strife 
 and discord ; whence some have thought her name derived from 'iptg, strife. Others 
 derive it from eipa, to speak or declare. 
 
 2u. She had also sometimes in reference to dying females an office, which was 
 usually assigned to Proserpine, to cut off their hair, and thereby effect their dissolution. 
 Virg. JEn. iv. 693, 704. The rainbow was the path by which she descended from 
 Olympus and returned thither. 
 
 3. She is represented with wings having the various colors of the rainbow, and often 
 appears sitting behind Juno as waiting to execute her commands. In the Sup. Plate 
 
116 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 20, she appears descending on a cloud. In the Sup. Plate 7, she is seen with Mercury 
 and Hebe, attending on Jupiter and Juno. 
 
 § 78. (7) JEolus. Under the name of JEolus both. Greeks and Romans 
 worshiped a god and ruler of winds and storms. He was called the son of 
 Jupiter, sometimes of Neptune, and by others, of Hippotes, an ancient lord of 
 the Lipari Isles. From Jupiter he received his authority over the winds, which 
 had previously been formed into mythical persons, and were known by the 
 names Zephyrus, Boreas, Notus, and Eurus, and were afterwards considered 
 the servants of JEolus. 
 
 1 u. He held them imprisoned in a cave of an island in the Mediterranean sea, and 
 let them loose only to further his own designs or those of others, in awakening storms, 
 hurricanes and floods. (Cf. Horn. Odyss. x. 1. — -Virg. JEn. i. 52. J He is usually de- 
 scribed by the poets as virtuous, upright, and friendly to strangers. 
 
 2. The name JEohis is thought to have come from aioXos, changeable. — The island 
 where iEolus is said to have reigned was Strongyle {^.TpoyybXrj), so called on account of 
 its round figure, the modern Stromboli. 
 
 See Heyne, Excurs. ad JEn. i. 51.— Cf. Pliny, N. H. iii. 8. 
 
 3. In the Sup. Plate 19. are two engravings marked as representations of JEolus. In one, a 
 vigorous man supporting himself in the air by wings is blowing into a shell trumpet like a Triton, 
 while his short mantle is waving in the wind ; this is from a bas-relief on an altar, found near 
 Nettuno in Italy, with the inscription Ara Venlorum ; and it probably is merely the representa- 
 tion of one of the winds, perhaps Eurus ; cf. $ 108 b. — In the other, we have a fragment of a 
 square stone, which originally contained in bas-relief a representation of the circle of the Zodiac 
 with its twelve signs, which were sculptured within the circle; on the outer edge of the circle 
 appear the busts of Jupiter, Diana, Mercury, and Venus ; in the corner is the bust of a man with 
 wings on the forehead, blowing with inflated cheeks, which probably represents one of the four 
 principal winds, the other corners of the piece having had each a wind represented in it. 
 
 See Moiitfancon, Antiq. Expl. vol. i. plate ccxxiv. 
 
 § 79. (8) Pan. One of the most singular of the inferior gods, was Pan, 
 whose worship was universally regarded. He was the god of shepherds and 
 herdsmen, of groves and fields, and whatever pertained to rural affairs. His 
 worship was probably derived from the Egyptians. He was said to be the son 
 of Mercury and Dryope; but his genealogy was variously stated. His favorite 
 residence was in the woods and mountains of Arcadia. From his love to 
 Syrinx, who was changed into a reed 1 , he formed his shepherd-pipe out of seven 
 Teeds, and called it by her name. His pride in this invention led him into his 
 unlucky contest with Apollo 2 . He also invented a war-trumpet, whose sound 
 was terrific to the foe ; a circumstance 3 which gave rise to the phrase, panic 
 fear or terror (rtavtxoj' Sn,/xa). 
 
 i Ob. Metaon. i. 682. a lb. I. 146.— 3 Pausan. Phoc. c 23. 
 
 § 80. Pan was originally, among the Egyptians, worshiped in the form of a 
 goat, and under the name of Mendes 1 . In Greece, Arcadia was especially 
 sacred to him, and here he is said to have given oracles on Mount Lycaeus. 
 His festivals, called Avxaiu by the Greeks, were introduced by Evander among 
 the Romans, and by them called Lupercalia 2 . Goats, honey, and milk were 
 the usual offerings to Pan. 
 
 i Herod, ii. 46. a o». Fast ii. 31, 267. 
 
 1 u. His Greek name IIoi>, signifying the whole or all, had reference to the circum- 
 stance that he was considered the god of all the natural world ; or, according to others, 
 it was derived from niu {to feed), and referred to his patronage of shepherds and their 
 flocks. The Romans called him likewise Inuus, Lupercus, Maenalius, and Lycaeus. 
 
 2. " The figure of Pan (cf. Sil. Ital. xiii. 326) is a rude symbol of the universe, and he appears 
 to have been originally a personification of the jSnima Mundi, or terrestrial soul, by which some 
 ancient nations believed that the entire universe was directed." — This god does not appear in 
 the poems of Homer or Hesiod. 
 
 3 u. His image was generally human only in part, having commonly the form of a 
 satyr, with ears sharp-pointed and standing erect, with short horns, a flat nose, a body 
 covered with hair or spotted, and the feet and legs of a goat. 
 
 4. Such is his image in Plate XIV. fig. 4, and in Sup. Plate 15 ; in both of which he has 
 in one hand a crooked staff and in the other a pipe of reeds, and an amphora lies beside 
 him. In some representations, his head was crowned with pine, which was sacred 
 to him. 
 
 § 81. (9) Latona. She was called A^fw by the Greeks, and held a distin- 
 guished place as mother of Apollo and Diana, and on this account was often 
 ranked among the superior deities. She was daughter of Cceus or Polus and 
 
P. II. INFERIOR GODS. THEMIS. -ESCTJLAPITJS. 117 
 
 Phoebe, and one of the objects of Jupiter's love. The jealousy and anger of 
 Juno was excited against her, and she adjured the goddess of earth to allow 
 Latona no place to bring forth her offspring. Neptune, however, granted the 
 island Delos for the purpose. But here she found no sure asylum, and fled to 
 Lycia, where 1 she was hindered from quenching her thirst at a lake by some 
 peasants. These offenders were in return changed into frogs. — Still more 
 severe was her vengeance in the case of Niobe 2 , a daughter of Tantalus and 
 wife of Amphion king of Thebes. Niobe slighted the divinity of Latona, and 
 the latter engaged both her children, Apollo and Diana, to avenge her ; they, by 
 their arrows, slew the seven sons and seven daughters of Niobe, who by grief 
 was changed into stone. 
 
 » Ov. Metam. vi. 335. a Ov. Melam. xi. 321. See also § 38. 
 
 § 82. This goddess was honored particularly in Lycia, on the island Delos, 
 at Athens, and in many of the Grecian cities. In Crete a festival was sacred 
 to her, called 'ExSvaia. 
 
 1 u. Latona is sometimes spoken of as the goddess of night ; and it is possible that 
 her name originated in this idea, derived from ArjSu, to be concealed, as nature was 
 buried in profound darkness before the birth of the Sun and Moon or Apollo and Diana. 
 
 2. She is usually represented as a large and comely woman with a black veil, so 
 painted, or in engraved gems expressed by a dark-colored vein in the stone. 
 
 § 83. (10) Themis. The goddess of justice (©^j) was one of the most 
 celebrated of the Titanides, or daughters of Uranus and Titsea. To her is 
 ascribed the first uttering of oracles, and also the first introduction of sacrifices 
 into Greece. ' She had by Jupiter three daughters, Auxr], 'Ewo^t'a, and 'Eipyp/t], 
 which were commonly called the Moras ("£2pcu), who are represented by the 
 poets in various lights, but particularly as goddesses presiding over the division 
 and distribution of time (§ 105). Astoea also was by some called a daughter 
 of Themis. 
 
 1 u. Astrosa was likewise a goddess of justice, or rather of property ; and, according 
 to Ovid's account (Met. i. 149), was the last of the divinities to quit the earth. She 
 was placed among the constellations of the Zodiac under the name of Virgo, anciently 
 called Erigone. 
 
 2. Astraea, who according to some was the daughter of Titan and Aurora, was represented 
 (cf. Aul. Oell. Noct. Att. xiv. 4) as a virgin with a stem countenance, holding in one hand a pair 
 of balances, and in the other a sword or scepter or a long rod or spear ; thus she appears in the 
 Sup. Plate 18, drawn from an engraved gem. 
 
 3 u. There was still another goddess, Nemesis, Nejkeo-k, who was supposed to judge 
 respecting moral actions, and to exercise vengeance towards unrighteousness. She was 
 called Adrastia sometimes, from the circumstance that Adrastus first erected a temple 
 to her, and also Rhamnusia from having a temple at Rhamnus in the territory of Attica. 
 
 4. At her temple in Rhamnus was a large and beautiful statue, ranked among the best works 
 of Phidias. — In Plate XXXVI. are two representations of Nemesis, from ancient gems; in each 
 the wheel appears at her feet; in one she has wings, and holds in one hand a branch with a 
 ribin attached ; in the other representation she holds a rod or scepter. 
 
 See Herder's Zerstreuten Blattern, Samml. 2. p. 213. 
 
 § 84. (11) JEsculapius. In proportion as men in the early ages were igno- 
 rant of the efficacy and use of remedies for disease, there was the greater ad- 
 miration of those who were distinguished in the art of healing, and the greater 
 readiness to deify them. Hence the deification of iEsculapius, who was 
 viewed as the god of Medicine, and said to be the son of Apollo and the nymph 
 Coronis 1 . Hygeia, the goddess of health, was called his daughter, and two 
 celebrated physicians belonging to the age of the Trojan war, Machaon and 
 Podalirius, were called his sons, and honored like him after their death. Ms- 
 culapius was killed with a thunderbolt by Jupiter, at the request of Pluto. His 
 most celebrated grove and temple was at Epidaurus 2 , where he was worshiped 
 under the form of a serpent. 
 
 i Ov. Melam. ii. 591. 2 Ov. Met. xv 622. 
 
 1. The ruins of the temple at Epidaurus are still visible at the place now called Jero, pro- 
 nounced Yero, a corruption perhaps of 'Updv (sacra aides). There weie at this ancient seat of 
 the god of health medical springs and wells, which may yet be traced. 
 
 Clame's Travels, part ii. sect. 2. ch. xv.—Frtnt, Culte rendu a iEsculapius, in the Mem. Mead. Inscr, xxi. 28. 
 
 2 u. The serpent was usually attached as a symbol to the image of this god, either 
 free or wound about a staff, expressing the idea of health, or prudence and foresight. 
 
118 GREEK A.ND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 3. In Plate XIV. fig. 6, JEsculapius holds in one hand a round vase or patera, from which a 
 serpent is eating. In the Sup. Plate 21, lie is seen as presented in an ancient statue delineated 
 in Montfaucon ; on his left is the trunk of a tree, around which the serpent winds ; on his right 
 stands Telesphorus, who was said to be a son of jEsculapius, and was considered as the god of 
 convalescents; Telesphorus appears here, as in all representations of him, in a robe covering 
 his arms and whole body, with a hood upon his head. iEsculapius and Telesphorus appear to- 
 gether thus on a coin of Caracalla. 
 
 4. Hygeia may be considered as the same with the Roman goddess of health, Salus. 
 The Romans honored Salus with a temple and festivals. One of the city-gates, being 
 near her temple, was called Porta Salutaris. She was represented with a bowl in 
 her right hand and a serpent in her left. Her altar had a serpent twining round it and 
 lifting his head upon it. 
 
 In Sup. Plate 21, we have a representation of Hygeia from a beautiful statue; she sits on a 
 rock, with one hand raised and holding a scepter, and the other holding a bowl, towards which 
 a large serpent is advancing his head over her lap. 
 
 § 85. (12) Plutus. The god of riches, Tl\ovto$, was probably of allegorical 
 rather than mythical origin, since his name in Greek is but the common term 
 for wealth. His father, according to the fable, was Jasion, a son of Jupiter by 
 Electra, and his mother was Ceres, who gave him birth in a beautiful region in 
 Crete. Jupiter, as it was allegorically represented, deprived him of sight, and 
 his usual residence was low beneath the earth. — By some Plutus is considered 
 as the same personage as Pluto, ruler of the world of spirits, and this may 
 have been the case. 
 
 1 u. It is not known by what figure he was visibly represented. Pausanias barely 
 remarks, that in the temple of Fortune at Thebes, he appeared in the form of an infant 
 in the arms of that goddess, and at- Athens the goddess of Peace held him as an infant 
 in her arms. 
 
 2. " Plutus was blind and lame, injudicious, and mighty timorous. He is lame, be- 
 cause large estates come slowly. He is fearful and timorous, because rich men watch 
 their treasures with a great deal of fear and care." 
 
 § 86. (13) Fortune. Of a like allegorical character was the goddess of For- 
 tune, Tvxri, Fortuna, to whom was ascribed the distribution and the superin- 
 tendence of prosperity and adversity in general. Among the Greeks she had 
 temples at Elis, Corinth, and Smyrna; and in Italy, before the building of 
 Rome, she was honored at Antium, and especially at Prameste. The Romans 
 made her worship in general very splendid, and gave her various epithets ori- 
 ginating from different occasions; as Fortuna Publica, Equestris, Bona, Blanda, 
 Virgo, Virilis, Muliebris, &c. 
 
 1 u. In the temple at Antium were two statues of Fortune, which were consulted as 
 oracles, and gave answer by winks and nods of the head, or by means of the lot. 
 Similar divinations were practiced also at Praeneste, where her temple was one of the 
 richest and most celebrated. 
 
 See Horace, Odes, 1. i. od. 35. (Ad Fortunam) Cf. P. in. § 222. 
 
 2. " The goddess of Fortune is represented on ancient monuments with a horn of 
 plenty and sometimes two in her hands. She is blindfolded, and generally holds a 
 wheel in her hand as an emblem of her inconstancy. Sometimes she appears with 
 wings, and treads upon the prow of a ship, and holds a rudder in her hands." 
 
 Her image in Plate XIV. fig. 9, is taken from an Imperial coin; in her left hand is a horn of 
 plenty ; her right rests upon a rudder ; a wheel is behind her. In the Sup. Plate 18, she appears 
 without the wheel, with the images of the sun and moon On her head. 
 
 § 87. (14) Fame. The goddess styled ^fiy, or Fama, was also of allego- 
 rical origin. Virgil calls her the youngest daughter of Earth, who gave birth 
 to this child, in revenge for the overthrow of her sons, the Giants; in order 
 that she might divulge universally the scandalous conduct of Jupiter and the 
 other gods. She had a place in the Greek Theogony, and was honored with a 
 temple at Athens. She was viewed as the author and spreader of reports both 
 good and bad. 
 
 1 u. The poets represented her as having wings, always awake, always flying about, 
 accompanied by vain fear, groundless joy, falsehood and credulity. 
 
 Cf. Vxrss. Ma. iv. 173.— Ov. Met. xii. 39.— Stat. Theb. iii. 426. 
 
 2. In the Sup. Plate 18, is a representation of Fame with her wings extended as just ready to 
 fly, with her finger pointing upwards. 
 
 § 88. (15) Dailies peculiar to the Greeks. Athough generally the same deities were 
 common to the Greeks and Romans, each nation had some peculiar to itself. These 
 must be included in the class of Inferior Gods. Those peculiar to the Greeks were 
 
P II. INFERIOR GODS. DEITIES PECULIAR TO ROMANS. 119 
 
 less numerous and important than those peculiar to the Romans ; and nearly all of them 
 may be reduced under one or other of the four following divisions. 
 
 1. Places, rivers, mountains, &c, personified. Almost every important city was 
 converted into a goddess, whose image was placed on its coins. Almost every river and 
 stream also was made into a god, of whom some fabulous tale was related; thus Al- 
 pheus is said to have pursued the nymph Arethusa from Greece to Sicily. 
 
 2. Eminent personages deified. The most important of the deities belonging to this 
 division would come under the class denominated Heroes ; although many of them are 
 seldom if ever thus classed, as Orpheus, Homer, Trophonius, &.c. ; besides many of 
 later times. 
 
 3. Virtues and vices personified. The Greeks did not carry such personifications so 
 far as the Romans ; yet imaginary deities were thus formed, and altars were erected to 
 them in Athens and other cities. Some deified among the Greeks are not distinctly 
 named among the Romans ; e. g. Chance, 'KvTOfiaAa ; Voracity, ' ' Ai6r]ipayia ; Lust, 
 under the name of Kotvttco, Cotytto, a notorious prostitute. 
 
 4. Particular pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to some guardian spirit. Thus, 
 'Epyavri designated a goddess of weaving, distinct from Minerva, to whom this term is 
 applied. 'Ew£>, the goddess of war, nearly corresponded to the Roman Bellona ; and 
 Ku/joj, the god of feasting, and Mtiuos, the god of jesti?ig, are recognized in the Latin 
 Comus and Momus. 
 
 § 89. (16) Deities peculiar to the Romans. These may be arranged under the fol- 
 lowing divisions : 
 
 1. Places, rivers, &c, personified. — 2. Pursuits and conditions of life ascribed to 
 guardian spirits.-— 3. Eminent persons, especially emperors, deified. — 4. Virtues and 
 vices personified. — 5. Foreign deities introduced. 
 
 § 90. Of the first division, Roma and Tiber are the principal. Roma was honored 
 by the Romans with temples, sacrifices, and annual festivals, and is one of the most 
 common figures on their medals. 
 
 In Plate II. is a splendid representation of the goddess Roma, from a painting formerly belong- 
 ing to the Barberini family. — In the same Plate is given also a representation of the Tiber as a 
 god.— For similar representations of Italy, Judea, the Danube, &c, see PI. XLII.; cf. P. IV. $ 139 2. 
 
 § SI. In the second, various rural deities are particularly to be noticed. 
 
 lit. Terminus. In order to express and render still more sacred the rights of 
 property and the obligations of fixed boundaries in landed possessions, the Romans in- 
 vented a god, who had it for his peculiar province to guard and protect them, called Ter- 
 minus. His statue, in the form of those called Hermce 1 , was employed usually to mark 
 the limits of fields. Numa first introduced this usage, and ordained a particular festi- 
 val, the Terminalia, which was celebrated in the month of February by the occupants 
 and proprietors of contiguous lands 2 . Upon these occasions offerings were presented to 
 the god on the boundaries or separating lines. He had a temple on the Tarpeian rock. 
 — Oftentimes the statues of other gods, particularly the rural, were placed in the form 
 of Hermae, to mark the limits of landed property, and Jupiter himself was sometimes 
 represented under the name of Terminus, or received the epithet Terminalis. 
 
 i See § 56. P. IV. § 164. 2. a Cf. Ovid, Fast. ii. 639. 
 
 2u. Priapus. The Romans ranked Priapus among the deities whose province 
 was the protection of fields and cultivated grounds. His image was usually placed in 
 gardens (Hor. 1. i. sat. 8), which were considered as more particularly his care. 
 
 Images of Priapus were sometimes worn as a sort of amulet (fascinum) to guard against evil 
 charms, and hung upon the doors of houses and gardens. The god whose special province it 
 was to protect from the charm of the evil eye was named Fascinus. — Plin. Hist. Nat. xix. 4. 
 xxiv. 4.— See P. HI. $ 227. 3. 
 
 Priapus is usually represented with a human face and the ears of a goat; he has a sickle or 
 scythe to prune the trees and cut down the corn, and a club to keep off thieves ; his body termi- 
 nates in a shapeless trunk. — An ass was generally sacrificed to him. 
 
 Representations of Priapus are given in Plate XLV. and in the Sup. Plate 23. In the latter, 
 with an extended arm he holds a bell in his hand. In the former, which is from a large anaglyph 
 or bas-relief given by Montfaucon after Boissard, we may observe the rites practiced at the fes- 
 tival of this god. It is celebrated by women ; two priestesses are close by the statue, one of 
 whom is pouring water or some other liquid upon the image from a bottle ; four others are 
 engaged in sacrificing an ass ; behind the animal stand two others in peculiar costume, one 
 holding apparently a sistrum, the other a bowl or round vase ; on the left of the statue are two 
 women playing on the double tibia, and others bearing baskets of fruit and flowers and vessels 
 of wine ; on the right are two playing on the tympanum, one dressed like a bacchanal with a 
 child on her neck, and others with their offerings of fruit, flowers, and wine. 
 
 3 u. Vertumnus. Under this name an old Italian prince, who probably intro- 
 duced the art of gardening, was honored after death as a god. The Romans considered 
 him as specially presiding over the fruit of trees. His wife was Pomona, one of the 
 Hamadryads (cf. § 101), a goddess of gardens and fruits, whose love he gained at last 
 after changing himself into many forms, from which circumstance his name (Ov. Met. 
 xiv. 623) was derived. This goddess is represented on some monuments of ancient 
 art, and is designated by a basket of fruit placed near or borne by her. 
 
 " Vertumnus is generally represented as a young man, crowned with flowers, covered up to 
 
120 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 the waist, and holding in his right hand fruit, and a crown of plenty in the left."— In the Sup. 
 Plate 23, the horn is in his left hand, and the fruit in his right; he is fully draped, with the head 
 and leg of a swine hanging from his shoulder. This may be supposed to correspond to his statue 
 mentioned by Cicero (Verr. i.) and by Horace (Epis. 20) as standing in a street of Rome. 
 
 In the same Plate is a representation of Pomona, from an ancient monument ; she is without 
 drapery, holding a flower in one hand and a melon in the other, resting against the trunk of a 
 tree, from which a basket of fruit is suspended. 
 
 4 m. Flora. The Romans had also a particular goddess of blossoms and flowers, 
 whom they worshiped under the name of Flora. She is said to have been the same as 
 the Grecian nymph Chloris; although others maintain, that she was originally but a 
 Roman courtezan. But this goddess seems not to have been wholly unknown to the 
 Greeks, since Pliny (N. H. xxxvi. 5) speaks of a statue of her made by Praxiteles. 
 She was represented as very youthful, and richly adorned with flowers. She had a 
 festival and games at Rome, celebrated (Ov. Fast. v. 283)*in the month of April, called 
 Floralia; they presented scenes of unbounded licentiousness. 
 
 The indecency of this festival was checked on one occasion by the presence of Cato, who chose 
 however to retire rather than witness it (Valer. Max. ii. 10). By some the festival is said to 
 have been instituted in honor of an infamous woman by the name of Flora. 
 
 In our Plate XIV. fig. 5, Flora is represented with a garland of flowers on her head, and a 
 horn of plenty on her left arm; as she appears in several antiques. In Sup. Plate 23, she is 
 given from a beautiful statue, once at Rome, and copied by Le Brun; not however identical 
 with the celebrated Flora Farnese (cf. P. IV. $ 186. 11). 
 
 5w. Feronia. Another goddess of fruits, nurseries, and groves, among the Ro- 
 mans, was Feronia. She had a very rich temple on Mount Soracte, where also was a 
 grove specially sacred to her. She was honored as the patroness of enfranchised slaves 
 (P. III. § 324), who ordinarily received their liberty in her temple. It was pretended 
 that the real votaries of this goddess could walk unhurt on burning coals. Her name 
 was derived according to some from a town, called Feronia, near Mt. Soracte : accord- 
 ing to others, from the idea of her bringing relief (fero) to the slave ; or from that of 
 her producing trees, or causing them to bear fruit. 
 
 6m. Pales. Another goddess of the same class, was Pales (from pabulum), to 
 whom was assigned the care of pasturage and the feeding of flocks. In her honor a 
 rural festival ( Ov. Fast. iv. 721) was held in the month of April, called Palilia or 
 Parilia. 
 
 On the festival of Pales the shepherds placed little heaps of straw in a particular order and at 
 a certain distance ; then they danced and leaped over them; then they purified the sheep and 
 the rest of the cattle with the fume of rosemary, laurel, sulphur, and the like. The design was 
 to appease the goddess, that she might drive away the wolves, and to prevent the diseases inci- 
 dent to cattle. Milk, and wafers made of millet, were offered to her, that she might render the 
 pastures fruitful. Pales is represented as an old lady, surrounded by shepherds. 
 
 7. Numerous other rural gods and goddesses of inferior character were recognized 
 by the Romans. Among the minor rural goddesses, we find Bubona, having the care 
 of oxen ; Seia or Segetia, having the care of seed planted in the earth ; Hippona, pre- 
 siding over horses; Collina, goddess of hills; Vallonia, empress of the valleys; Run- 
 cina, the goddess of weeding ; Volusia, with several other goddesses, who watch over 
 the corn in its successive steps to maturity (cf. § 5. 3) ; Mellona, the goddess who in- 
 vented the art of making honey. Among the male deities of the same class, we find 
 Occator, the god of harrowing ; Stercutius, the inventor of manuring ; and Pilumnus, 
 the inventor of the art of kneading and baking bread. 
 
 § 92 m. In the latter period of the Republic and during the first ages of the Empire, 
 the Roman system of divinities was greatly augmented. Almost every profession and 
 employment and condition in life had its tutelar god or gods, whose names thus became 
 innumerable, but who never obtained a universal worship. For a knowledge of these, 
 we are mainiy indebted to the writings of the Christian Fathers, especially Augustinus 
 ' K de Civitate Dei, 1. iv.), against polytheism. To this class belong, for example, Bellona, 
 the goddess of war, corresponding in some degree to 'Evwj among the Greeks (§ 46) ; 
 Juturna, the goddess of succor ; Anculi and Anculce, deities presiding over servants ; 
 Vacuna, goddess of leisure ; Strenua, goddess of diligence ; Laverna, goddess of 
 theft; Cunina, goddess of cradles, &c. 
 
 Diseases were exalted into deities. Febris (fever), e. g. had her altars and temple, and was 
 worshiped that she might not hurt; and so of others of this species. — Mephitis was goddess of 
 noxious exhalations. Tac. Hist. iii. 33. 
 
 § 93. Here we should mention Victoria, a deity of much consideration at Rome. 
 The hall of the senate was adorned by her altar, and a statue in which she appears as 
 " a majestic female, standing on a globe, with flowing garments, expanded wings, and 
 a crown of laurel in her out-stretched hand." The senators were sworn on the altar 
 of this goddess to observe the laws of the empire. A contest arose between the pagans 
 and the Christians on this subject, the latter finally effecting the removal of this altar 
 of Victory. 
 
 See Pmdentiw, Advers. Symmachum, cf. P. V. § 387. 
 
 In our Plate XIV. fig. 10, and in the Sup. Plate 18, Victory is seen as represented in the statue 
 mentioned above. 
 
PLATE XIV. 
 
122 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 94 m. Deified Emperors. To the gods already mentioned, we may add those 
 which were constituted by the apotheosis of the emperors and their favorites. Thus 
 a Ca3sar, an Augustus, a Claudius, an Antinous, and others, were elevated to the 
 rank of gods. Sometimes this was done in their lifetime by the vilest adulation, but 
 more frequently after death, in order to flatter their descendants. 
 
 It would probably be as proper to rank the deified emperors (cf. } 133) in the fourth class of 
 our division. They should be mentioned in this place, however, as belonging strictly to the 
 number of the Roman divinities, in distinction from Greek. 
 
 § 95 m. Virtues and Vices. The poets were accustomed to give a personal re- 
 presentation to abstract ideas, especially to moral qualities, to virtues and vices ; and 
 in this way originated a multitude of divinities purely allegorical, which were, how- 
 ever, sometimes mingled with the mythological, and were honored with temples, 
 rites, and significant images and symbols. Such were Virtus, Honor, Pietas, In- 
 vidiam, Fraus, and the like. 
 
 Virtus was worshiped in the habit of an elderly woman sitting on a square stone. — The tem- 
 ple of Honor stood close by that of Virtus, and was approached by it. The priests sacrificed to 
 Honor with bare heads. 
 
 The temple of Fides (good faith) stood near the Capitol. The priests in sacrificing to her 
 covered their bands and heads with a white cloth. Her symbol was a white dog, or two hands 
 joined, and sometimes two virgins shaking hands. 
 
 The temple of Spes (hope) was in the herb-market. Her image is on some of the coins. She 
 is in the form of a woman standing, with her left hand holding lightly the skirts of her garments, 
 and in her right a plate, with a sort of cup on it fashioned to the likeness of a flower; with this 
 inscription, Spes P. R. Similar to this is her appearance in Plate XIV. fig. 8, drawn from a 
 medal of Titus. 
 
 A temple to Pietas was dedicated in the place where that woman lived who fed with the milk 
 of her own breasts her mother in prison. Cf. Plin. N. H. vii. c. 36. 
 
 Concordia had many altars. Her image held a bowl in the right hand, and a horn of plenty in 
 the left. Such is her appearance, sitting on a chair of state, in Plate XIV. fig. 11, taken from a 
 consular coin. Her symbol was two hands joined together and a pomegranate. 
 
 In the later periods of Rome, Pax had a very magnificent temple in the Forum, finished by 
 Vespasian. The goddess of peace or security is often represented on Imperial coins. In Plate 
 XIV. fig. 12, from a coin of Titus, she appears as a woman resting on a column, with a spike of 
 wheat in the left hand, and a scepter like the wand of Mercury in the right, held over a tripod. 
 
 Fraus was represented with a human face and a serpent's body ; in the end of her tail was a 
 scorpion's sting. 
 
 Invidia is described as a meager skeleton, dwelling in a dark and gloomy cave, and feeding on 
 snakes. Ov. Metara. ii. 761. 
 
 § 96. Foreign Gods. It is proper to notice here some Egyptian deities, whose 
 worship was partially introduced at Rome. 
 
 1. Osiris. He is said to have been the son of Jupiter by Niobe, and to have ruled 
 first over the Argives, and afterwards, leaving them, to have become an illustrious 
 king of the Egyptians. His wife was Isis, who is by many said to be the same with 
 the Io, daughter of Inachus, who was according to the fables changed by Jupiter into 
 a cow. Osiris was at length slain by Typhon, and his corpse concealed in a chest and 
 thrown into the Nile. Isis, after much search, by the aid of keen-scented dogs found 
 the body, and placed it in a monument on an island near Memphis. The Egyptians 
 paid divine honor to his memory, and chose the ox to represent him, because as some 
 say a large ox appeared to them after the body of Osiris was interred, or according to 
 others, because Osiris had instructed them in agriculture. 
 
 Osiris was generally represented with a cap on his head like a mitre, with two horns ; he held 
 a stick in his left hand, and in his right a whip with three thongs. Sometimes he appears with 
 the head of a hawk. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 26, are two engravings marked as representations of Osiris. The first is ac- 
 cording to a colossal statue, dug up at Rome, and taken by some for an Isis. The second is from 
 another sculpture, and shows the hawk's head. In Plate XV. he is seen in a sitting posture. — 
 Cf. Montfaucon, Ant. Exp. vol. 2. p. 278, 290. — The image of a haiok with a vessel on its head, and 
 that of the ibis with a serpent in its bill, have been taken by some as emblems of Osiris j see 
 Plate VIII. 
 
 2. Isis. She was the wife of Osiris. Io after her metamorphosis is said, after 
 wandering over the earth, to have come to the banks of the Nile, and there she was 
 restored to the form of a woman. She reigned after her husband's murder, and was 
 deified by the Egyptians. The cow was employed as her symbol, but more commonly 
 the sistrum. 
 
 Isis is often represented as holding a globe in her hand, with a vessel full of eaTS of corn. Her 
 body sometimes appears enveloped in a sort of net. On some monuments she holds in her lap a 
 child, her son Horus. who is also ranked among the deities of Egypt. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 26, she is seen holding her son, on whose head is a cap surmounted by a 
 globe : her own head is formed into that of a cow, with a hawk on the forehead, surmounted by 
 a singular cap. In Plate XV. she is seen as represented on the Isiac Table. In the same Plate 
 Horus is given as found on that Table. 
 
 Some have considered Osiris and Isis as representing the sun and the moon. Their story is by others viewed as corresponding 
 to that of Venus and Adonis. (Cf Knight's Enquiry, &c.) — Some resemblances have been pointed out between Isis and Isa~ a deity 
 of the Hindoos, and Disa, a goddess .worshiped among the northern tribes of Europe (cf. Tac Germ. 9). — See Creuzer's Symbolifc. 
 
 The Egyptians had numerous festivals which were connected with the fables re- 
 
P. II INFERIOR GODS. FOREIGN GODS. 123 
 
 specting Isis and Osiris. The chief festival adopted by the Romans was termed the 
 Isia ; which lasted nine days, and was attended with such licentiousness as to be at 
 length prohibited by the senate. 
 
 The Isiac Table is a curious monument, which receives its name from its being supposed to 
 represent the mysteries of Isis. The original was obtained at Rome, A. D 1525, and came after 
 some time into the cabinet of the duke of Mantua, where it remained until the pillage of that 
 city, A. D. 1630; it is said to be now (1839) in the royal gallery at Turin. It is described as a 
 tablet of copper or bronze, " almost four feet long, and of pretty near the same breadth ;" and 
 "covered with silver mosaic, skilfully inlaid ;" "the ground-work being a black enamel." It 
 is divided into three equal compartments by two horizontal lines of hieroglyphics; the middle 
 compartment being subdivided by two perpendicular lines of hieroglyphics into three compart- 
 ments, a larger one in the center, and a smalier one at each side of it. The five compartments 
 thus formed are crowded with figures, with hieroglyphics interspersed. The whole is surrounded 
 by a border, also crowded with figures and hieroglyphics. The engravings in our Plate XV. are 
 all drawn from this Table. In that Plate Isis is given as seen in the center of the Table, sitting 
 in a splendid gate-way. 
 
 A fine engraving of the whole Table with some explanation, is given by Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. vol. ii. p. 340, as cited § 12. 2 (d). 
 —It is given also in Caylas, Recueil des Antiquites, vol. vii. p. 34, cited P. III. § 13. 2.— Cf. Shuckford, Sacr. and Prof. Hist. Con 
 bK. vii). — Encycl. Jtmeri. vol. vii. 83. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. 82. 
 
 Among the most remarkable ruins discovered at Pompeii, is a Temple of Tsis. The columns 
 which surrounded it are almost entirely preserved. The temple itself was entirely built of brick, 
 and on the outside covered with a very solid stucco. It had the form of a square, and was not 
 covered, but was surrounded by a covered gallery, which was supported by columns, and served 
 for a shelter in bad weather. "In this temple have been found all the instruments which apper- 
 tain to the religious ceremonies, and even the skeletons of the priests, who had been surprised 
 and buried by the shower of cinders in the middle of the occupations of their ministry. Their 
 vestments, the cinders and coals on the altars, the candelabra, lamps, sistrums, the vases which 
 contained the lustral water, paters employed in the libations, a kind of kettle to preserve the 
 intestines of the victims, cushions on which they placed the statue of the goddess Isis when they 
 offered sacrifices to her, the attributes of the divinity with which the temple was adorned, &c, 
 are, still shown. Many of these vases have the figure of an ibis, of a hippopotamus, of a lotus ; 
 and what renders them still more important, they were found exactly in the situation in which 
 they were used, so that there can now be no doubt as to their reality and their use. The walls 
 of the temple were adorned with paintings, relating to the worship of the goddess; there were 
 figures of priests in the costume of their order : their vestments were of white linen, the heads 
 of the officiating priests were shaved, their feet covered with a fine thin lace, through which the 
 muscles might be distinguished." Stuart, Diet, of Architecture, article Pompeii. 
 
 3. Apis. This is the name of the ox in which Osiris was supposed to reside, rather 
 than a distinct deity. The ox thus honored was known by certain marks ; his body 
 was all black, excepting a square spot of white on his forehead, and a white crescent 
 or sort of half-moon on his right side ; on his back was the figure of an eagle ; under 
 his tongue a sort of knot resembling a beetle {cantharus) ; and two sorts of hair upon 
 his tail. This ox was permitted to live twenty-five years. His body was then em- 
 balmed, placed in a chest, or Zopo;, and buried with many solemnities. A season of 
 mourning then followed, until a new Apis, or ox properly marked, was brought to 
 sight. — It is a curious fact that Belzoni, who succeeded in finding an entrance into the 
 second of the great pyramids of Egypt, found in the corner of a large and high cham- 
 ber in the interior of the pyramid a Sopdc, which, on being carefully opened, presented 
 the bones of an ox. 
 
 Mnevis is the name of the sacred ox consecrated to the Sun, and worshiped espe- 
 cially at Heliopolis. He is described as being white. 
 
 In Plate XV. are two representations, from the Isiac Table, supposed to be Apis and Mvevis; 
 each is attended by two priests; under the head of each is a standard supporting something! 
 perhaps the eating-trough of the sacred animal. 
 
 Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xix. 201. — Bonier, L'Orig. du culte que les Egyptiens rendoient aux animaux, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
 iii. 84.— Also Blanchard, Des animaux respectes en Egypte, in the Mem. $-c ix. 20.— Prichard, as cited § 12. 2 ( f }. 
 
 4. Serapis. This was one of the Egyptian deities, considered by some to be the 
 same with Osiris. Magnificent temples, generally called Serapea, were erected to him 
 at Memphis, Canopus, and Alexandria. Tacitus relates a marvelous tale of the re- 
 moval of an effigy of this god from Sinope, on the southern shore of the Pontus Enxi- 
 nus, to Alexandria. The worship of the god existed, however, in Egypt at a much 
 earlier period. The mysteries of Serapis were introduced at Rome under the em- 
 perors, but soon abolished on account of their licentiousness. — Some derive the name 
 from Sopoc and "Am;, as having signified at first merely the chest or box in which the 
 body of Apis was deposited. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 24, we have a very remarkable statue of Serapis; resembling as to the form 
 of the body that of Cybele in Sup. Plate 5, and that of Diana Ephesia in Sup. Plate 10; around 
 the body twines a huge serpent, whose tail is grasped in the hand of Serapis, while the head 
 appears at his feet; on the portions between the folds of the serpent are various figures of per- 
 sons and animals. — In the Sup. Plate 25, we have another, more in the Roman style; Serapis 
 sits, in full drapery, with sandals on his feet; one arm raised in earnest action; given by Mont- 
 faucon as belonging to the cabinet of Fauvel. In the same Plate is another representation from 
 an Mraxas (cf. P. IV. J 200. 2); he holds a spear in his right hand, and points upward with the 
 
 other; a Cerberus stands at his side. In all these images we notice the face and beard of a 
 
 Jupiter, and also the calathus or basket on the head which is the mark of Serapis. 
 
124 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 It his been supposed by some, and (he notion is adopted by Dr. E. D. Clarke, that the Egyptian Apis was a symbol of Joseph ; and 
 that the various legends connected with the worship of this god grew out of the history of that patriarch.— Cf. Fossius, de Theologia 
 Gentili. Amst. 1642.— Claris, Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch. 5. 
 
 5. Anubis. This was another deity connected in fable with Osiris. He was said 
 to be the son of Osiris, and to have accompanied Isis in her search after her husband. 
 He is represented as having the head of a dog. He is also called Hermanubis ; or, as 
 others say, the latter is the name of another deity of a similar character. 
 
 He appears to be represented in the monument exhibited in our Plate XVIII. fig. B. Cf 
 $ 34. 2. — In the Sup. Plate 27, we have images of Anubis. The first is from a piece of marble 
 sculpture given by Montfaucon from Boissard; he stands with one foot on a crocodile, holding 
 in his left hand a caduceus, and in the right a short rod attached to a globe ; by his head on ont 
 side is a palm- leaf, on the other a laurel -branch; on his right is seen also the head of Serapis, 
 and on his left that of Apis, from which circumstance the inscription on the original monument, 
 6E0I AAEA<t>OI, is supposed to designate Serapis, Apis, and Anubis. The other image in this 
 Plate is drawn from an engraved gem; presenting Anubis with the Roman coat of mail and a 
 bow and arrow. 
 
 Cvnocephalus is by some considered to be the same as Anubis; but this name in Egyptian 
 mythology merely designates the dog as converted into a divinity. The term Cynocephali is ap-. 
 plied by Greek writers to a race of beings said to exist in Asia (Diod. Sic. iii. 34). The image in 
 Sup. Plate 27, is given by Montfaucon, under the name of Cercopithecus, as being the monkey- 
 god of Egypt. 
 
 iELimus designates the cat, as deified by the Egyptians, and especially honored at Bubastis; 
 whence the name Diana Bubastis, applied to the same animal. Their images are given in 
 Sup. Plate 27. 
 
 6. Hakpo crates. He is supposed to be the same as Horus, son of Isis, and was 
 worshiped as the god of Silence. He was much honored among the Romans, who 
 placed his statues at the entrance of their temples. He was usually represented in 
 the figure of a boy, crowned with an Egyptian mitre, which ended at the points as it 
 were in two buds ; in his left hand he held a horn of plenty, while a linger of his right 
 hand was fixed upon his lips to command silence and secrecy. 
 
 Cf. Porphyry, Cave of Nymphs (cf. P. V. § 199. 2).— Class. Journ. iii. 142.— Mongez, Recueil des Antiquites. Par. 1804. 4. 
 
 In Plate XLVII. fig. 1, from an Abraxas, we have Harpocrates sitting on the lotus flower; cf. P. 
 IV. § 198. In the Sup. Plate 25, the first image of Harpocrates presents him with a singular 
 head-covering, from which a large horn descends below the shoulder. The second is remark- 
 able, because he has the wing of Mercury, the panther-skin of Bacchus, the owl of Minerva, the 
 hound of Diana, the serpent of iEsculapius, together with the horn of plenty. 
 
 7. Canopus. He is said to have been the pilot or admiral of the fleet of Osiris in 
 his expedition to India. In the Egyptian mythology he seems to be the god of the 
 waters of the Nile. 
 
 Nearly all the representations of him are formed by the head of a person or animal appearing 
 at the top of one of those vases in which the Egyptians kept the waters of that river; the body 
 of the vase is frequently covered with hieroglyphics. Two such representations are given in 
 our Plate VIII. 
 
 III. — Mythical Beings, whose history is intimately connected with that of the 
 
 gods. 
 
 § 97. (1) Titans and Giants. The enterprises of the Titans are celebrated in 
 the ancient fables of the Greeks. They have already been mentioned in the 
 account of Saturn (§ 14), to whom they were brothers, being generally con- 
 sidered as sons of Uranus or Ccelus and Titaea. The oldest was called Titan, 
 and from him, or their mother, they derived their common name. The preva- 
 lent tradition assigned to Uranus five sons besides Saturn, viz. Hyperion, Casus, 
 Japetus, Crius, and Oceanus ; and likewise five daughters besides Rhea, wife 
 of Saturn, viz. Themis, Mnemosyne, Thy a, Phoebe, and Tethys, called Titanides. 
 On account of their rebellion against Uranus, in which however Saturn and 
 Oceanus took no part, the Titans were hurled by their father down to Tartarus, 
 whence they were set free by the aid of Saturn. With Saturn also they after- 
 wards contested the throne, but unsuccessfully. The Cyclops, mentioned in 
 speaking of Vulcan (§ 52), may be considered as belonging to the Titans. 
 
 The number of the Titans is given variously ; Apollodorus mentions 13, Hyginus 6. 
 The number of 45 is stated by some. The name of one of them, Japetus, is strik- 
 ingly similar to Japhet, mentioned in the Bible, whose descendants peopled Europe f 
 and it is remarkable that in the Greek traditions Japetus is called the father of man 
 hind. Some have considered the Titans as the descendants of Gc-mer, the son oi 
 
^-zr 
 
P. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GIANTS. TRITONS. SIRENS. 125 
 
 Japhet 1 . — They have also been supposed to be the Cushites, or descendants of Cush 2 , 
 and the builders of the tower of Babel. — Others think them merely personifications 
 of the elements 3 ; and suppose their fabled war with their father Coelus, or against 
 Saturn, an allegorical representation of a war of the elements. 
 
 Hesiod's Battle of the Titans is often named as a remarkable specimen of sublimity. 
 It will be interesting to compare 4 it with Homer's Battle of the Gods, and Milton's 
 Battle of the Angels. 
 
 1 Cf. Pezron, Anfiquit. des Celtes. a Bryant, Analys. of Ancient Mythology. 3 Cf. Hermann, Briefe Uber das Wesen der 
 
 Mythologie. * Compare Horn. II. xx. 54 ss. Hes. Theog. 674 ss. Milt, Parad. Lost, vi. 
 
 § 98. The Giants were a distinct class, although their name (ytyo,?, from yij 
 and ylvco) designates them as sons of Earth, or Gaia, who gave them birth, after 
 the defeat of the Titans by Jupiter, and out of vengeance against him. The 
 most famous of them were Enceladus, Halcyoneus, Typhon, JEgeon, Ephialtes, 
 and Otus. According to the common description, they had bodies of extra- 
 ordinary size and strength, some of them with a hundred hands, and with 
 dragon's feet, or serpents instead of legs. Their most celebrated undertaking 
 was the storming of Olympus 1 , the residence of Jupiter and the other gods. 
 In order to scale this summit, they heaped mountain upon mountain, as (Eta, 
 Pelion, Ossa, and others. But Jupiter smote them with his thunderbolts, 
 precipitated some of them to Tartarus, and buried others beneath the moun- 
 tains. Typhon or Typhoeus, for instance, he pressed down with the weight of 
 iEtna 2 , under which, according to the fable, the giant constantly strives to lift 
 himself up, and pours from his mouth torrents of flame. 
 
 i Ov. Metam. i. 151. 2 Oo. Met. v. 346.— Claud. Gigantomach.— Find. Pylh. i. 31.— Mem. de Vlnstitut, Classe d'Hist. et.Lit. 
 
 Anc. vol. vii. 98. sur la nature allegorique des centi manes, fcc.—Eanier, sur Typhon, in the Mem- Acad. Inscr. vol. iii. p. 116. 
 
 1. JEgeon or Briar eus was another giant, eminent in the contest, with fifty heads 
 and a hundred hands. He hurled against Jupiter a hundred huge rocks at a single 
 throw ; but Jupiter bound him also under iEtna, with a hundred chains. — This story 
 of the war between the Giants and Jupiter is also explained by some as an allegori- 
 cal representation of some great struggle in nature which took place in early times. 
 This contest is to be distinguished from that of the Titans, who, although often con- 
 founded with the Giants, were a distinct class. 
 
 2. Orion is by some also placed among the giants as a son of Gaia or Terra ; yet 
 the more common fable ascribes his origin to the joint agency of Jupiter, Mercury, 
 and Neptune ; according to which some derive his name from the Greek word dvpou 
 (urina). He was ranked among the attendants of Diana, and after his death his name 
 was given to a constellation. 
 
 See Francceur, as cited § 1 17 ( f ). — De Fourmont, Le fab. d'Orion, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xiv, 16. attempting to show a con* 
 nection of the fable with the story of Isaac the son of Abraham. 
 
 3. The Pygmies of the ancients were fabulous beings, of very diminutive size, supposed by 
 some to dwell in Egypt and Ethiopia ; by others, in Thrace and Scythia ; and by others, in India. 
 
 Cf. Ov. Met. vi. 90.— Km. Hist. Nat. vii. 2.— Heyne, on Hem. II. iii. 6,—Heeren, Ideen, vol. i. as cited P. IV. § 171.— Maltc- 
 Brun, in the Annates des Voyages, vol. i. p. 355. — Banier, Les Pygme'es, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 101. — Calmet, as cited 
 P. I. § 168 b. vol. iii. p. 113 — A. W. Zwergius, De Pygmjeis .SEthiopiaa. Kil. 1724. 4. 
 
 § 99. Tritons and Sirens. Triton has already been mentioned (§ 29) as a 
 son of Neptune and Amphitrite. From him, as most famous, the other various 
 deities of the sea derived the name of Tritons. They were represented, like 
 him, as half man and half fish, with the whole body covered with scales. 
 They usually formed the retinue of Neptune, whose approach Triton himself 
 announced by blowing his horn, which was a large conch or sea shell. 
 
 A Triton is usually represented with the form of a man in the upper part, and the form of a 
 fish in the lower. Sometimes the head of the fish is also retained; as in the Sup. Plate 19, from 
 a sculpture given by Montfaucon ; where Triton is seen bearing perhaps a Nereid, or more pro- 
 bably Venus Marina, since the figure at the right appears to be a Cupid. In Plate XLIII. Triton 
 is announcing with his horn the approach of Neptune. — Cf. Ov. Met. i. 333. — Virg. JEn. x. 209. 
 
 There were other minor divinities of the sea under Neptune ; but Triton seems to 
 have had the pre-eminence, and under Neptune a sort of control among them. Phor- 
 cus, Proteus, and Glaucus have been already mentioned (§ 29). Nereus was ranked 
 among them as a son of Oceanus, and the father of the Nereides. Ino and her son 
 Palasmon or Melicertes, are also said to have been admitted by Neptune as gods of 
 his retinue. Palosmon is thought to be the same with Portumnus, whom the Romans 
 worshiped as the guardian of harbors. 
 
 § 100. The Sirens were a sort of sea-goddesses, said by some to be two in 
 number, by others, three, and even four. Homer mentions but two 1 , and de- 
 scribes them as virgins, dwelling upon an island, and detaining with them every 
 
 l2 
 
126 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 voyager, who was allured thither by their captivating music. They would 
 have decoyed even Ulysses, on his return to Ithaca, but were not permitted. — 
 By others they were described as daughters of the river-god Achelous, and 
 companions of Proserpine, after whose seizure they were changed into birds 2 , 
 that they might fly in search of her. In an unhappy contest with the Muses 
 in singing, they lost their wings as a punishment of their emulation. Others 
 make them sea-nymphs, with a form similar to that of the Tritons, with the 
 faces of women and the bodies of flying fish. The artists generally represent 
 them as virgins, either not at all disfigured, or appearing partly as birds. 
 
 i Horn. Od. xii. 30. 166. a Ou. Met. v. 652. 
 
 Their fabled residence was placed by some on an island near cape Pelorus in Sicily; 
 by others, on the islands or rocks called Sirennusas, not far from the promontory of 
 Surrenfum on the coast of Italy. — Various explanations of the fable of the Sirens have 
 been given. It is commonly considered as signifying the dangers of indulgence in 
 pleasure. 
 
 § 101. (3) Nymphs. The Nymphs of ancient fiction were viewed as holding 
 a sort of intermediate place between men and gods, as to the duration of life; 
 not being absolutely immortal, yet living a vast length of time. Oceanus was 
 considered as their common father, although the descent of different nymphs is 
 given differently. Their usual residence was in grottoes or water-caves, from 
 which circumstance they received their name, Ni^ujxxt. Their particular offices 
 were different, and they were distinguished by various names according to the 
 several objects of their patronage, or the regions in which they chiefly resided. 
 
 1 u. Thus there were the Oreades, or nymphs of the mountains ; Naiades, Nereides 
 (cf. § 29), and Potamides, nymphs of the fountains, seas, and rivers ; Dryades and 
 ■Hamqdryades, nymphs of the woods ; Napcca, nymphs of the vales, &c. The Dryads 
 were distinguished from the Hamadryads (fya fy%) in this, that the latter were sup- 
 posed to be attached to some particular tree, along with which they came into being, 
 lived and died ; while the former had the care of the woods and trees in general. 
 
 2. Places consecrated to these imaginary beings were called 'Nv^aTa. Such was 
 the celebrated spot in the vicinity of Apollonia, famous for its oracle and the fire which 
 was seen to issue constantly from the ground {Plin. Nat. Hist. xxiv. 7). Such was 
 the place and building at Rome which was called Nymphceum, adorned with statues 
 of the nymphs, and abounding, it is said, with fountains and waterfalls. Festivals 
 were held in honor of the nymphs, whose number has been stated as above 3000. 
 
 See Fontenu, Le Culte des divinites des eaux, in Mem. Mad. Inscr. jtii. 27.— Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. xvii. 192. 
 
 They were generally represented as young and beautiful virgins, partially covered with a veil 
 or thin cloth, bearing in their hands vases of water, or shells, leaves, or grass, or having some- 
 thing as a symbol of their appropriate offices. The several gods are represented, more or less 
 frequently, as attended by nymphs of some class or other; especially Neptune, Diana, and Bac- 
 chus. Under the term of nymphs, were sometimes included the imaginary spirits that guided 
 the heavenly spheres and constellations, and dispensed the influences of the stars ; the nymphs 
 being distributed by some mythologists into three classes, those of the sky, the land, and the sea. 
 
 In Plate XLIII. Nymphs are seen accompanying Neptune and Amphitrite. — In the Sup. Plate 
 19, we have a Nereid upon a sea- monster which seems to consist of the lower part of a fish united 
 with the heads of two horses, which she guides by reins ; one horse has two fins or wings instead 
 of the two fore feet; from a gem of MafTei. In some representations, the Nereid appears a woman 
 with the lower part of the body in the form of a fish, thus exhibiting the mermaid. 
 
 § 102. (4) Muses. The ancients were not content with having in their fic- 
 tions a god of science and a goddess of wisdom in general ; but assigned to 
 particular branches of knowledge and art their appropriate tutelary spirits or 
 guardian divinities, whom they called Muses, Movom, and considered as the 
 daughters of Jupiter and Mnemosyne. They were nine in number, according 
 to the common account, with Greek names, as follows : Ka,si<i {Illustrious'), 
 KaMadrf?/ (Fair-voice), Mt%7ioj.dvri (Singing), ®u%zio, (Gay), 'EpcWw (Loving), 
 'EiiT's'prt?? (Well-pleasing), Tsp^t/^op^ (Dance-loving), ILo%viivio, (Songful), and 
 'Ovpavia, (Celestial). 
 
 The Romans termed them Camama. They were frequently called by common names, derived 
 from places sacred to them, or from other circumstances, as Pierides, from Pieria, Aunides, Heli- 
 coniades, Parvassides, Hippocrenides, Castalides, &c. 
 
 § 103 u. In order to represent the Muses as excelling in their several arts, espe- 
 cially in music and song, the poets imagined various contests held by them; as, for 
 example, with the Sirens, and the daughters of Pierus 1 , in which the Muses always 
 gained the prize. They were described as remaining virgins, and as being under the 
 instruction and protection of Apollo. Their usual residence was Mt. Helicon, where 
 
P. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. GRACES. HORJE. FATES. 127 
 
 was the fountain Hippocrcnc, and Mt. Parnassus, where was the fountain Caslalia; 
 the former in Boeoliu; llio latter near Delphi? in Phocis. Mt. Pindus and Mt. Pierua 
 in Thessaly were also sacred to the Muses. Particular temples were also consecrated 
 to them among the Greeks and llio Homaus. Festivals in their honor were instituted 
 in several parts of Greece 3 , especially among the Thespians. The Macedonians 
 observed a festival for Jupiter and the Muses, which was continued nine days. 
 
 » Ou. Met. v. 300. * See View of Delphi and Parnassus forming the Frontispiece to this Manual. a See Hcync, de Musar. 
 
 religione, ejusq. orig. el causis in Comment. Soc. reg. Gotting. vol. viii. 
 
 The Muses are usually represented as virgins with ornamented dresses, and crowned with 
 palms or laurels. " According to the best authorities, CLIO, History, holds in her hand a half- 
 opened scroll ; Melpomene, Tragedy, is veiled, and leans upon a pillar, holding in her left hand 
 a tragic mask ; Thalia, Comedy, holds in one hand a comic mask, in the other a staff' resembling 
 a lituus or augur's wand ; Eutkrpe, Musk, holds two flutes or pipes ; Terpsichore, the Dance, 
 is represented in a dancing attitude, and plays upon a seven-stringed lyre; Erato, Amatory 
 Poetry, holds a nine-stringed instrument; Calliope, Epic Poetry, has a roll of parchment in her 
 hand, and sometimes a straight trumpet or tuba; Urania, Astronomy, holds in her left hand a 
 globe; in her right a rod, with which she appears to point out some object to the beholder; 
 Polyhymnia, Eloquence and Imitation, places the fore-finger of the right hand upon her mouth, 
 or else bears a scroll in her hand." (.Ant lion's Lemp.) — Generally accordant with this descrip- 
 tion, yet in some respects different, are the figures in our Plate XXXIX. ; where the Muses are 
 represented as seen in the statues belonging to the collection of Christina queen of Sweden, and 
 described by MafTei. — A valuable monument, to guide the critic and artist in distinguishing the 
 Muses, is a bas-relief on a sarcophagus in the Capitoline gallery at Rome, in which the nine are 
 represented. 
 
 "The Muses are often painted with their hands joined dancing in a ring; in the middle of 
 them sits Apollo, their commander and prince. The pencil of nature described them in that 
 manner upon the agate which Pyrrhus, who made war upon the Romans, wore in a ring; for in 
 it was a representation of the nine muses, and Apollo holding a harp ; and these figures were 
 not delineated by art {Plin: L. xxxvii. c. 1), but by the spontaneous handy-work of nature." 
 (Tooke's Panth.) 
 
 For various representations of the Muses, see Montfaucon, Ant. Exp. vol. i. plates 56-62. — Museum Pio-Clementinum, vol. i. 
 plates 17-28. vol. iv. plates 14, 15. 
 
 § 104. (5) The Graces and the Hours. To the retinue of Venus belonged 
 the Graces, Xapt-r'fs, Gratise, servants and companions of the goddess, diffusing 
 charms and gladness. They were said to be daughters of Jupiter and Eury- 
 nome, or according to others of Bacchus and Venus herself, and were three in 
 number, 'Ay^cu'a (Splendor), Qu-Ksva, (Pleasure), and = Eu<j>po<jw»7 (Joy). They 
 were honored especially in Greece, and had temples in the principal cities. 
 Altars were often erected to them in the temples of other gods, especially Mer- 
 cury, Venus, and the Muses. 
 
 1 u. They are frequently represented on ancient monuments as beautiful young virgins, com- 
 monly in a group, holding each other by the hand, and without drapery. 
 
 2. Thus they appear in the Sup. Plate 8, a representation which very nearly resembles what 
 is seen on two beautiful antique engraved gems, given by Ogle, Ant. E\p. Plates 47, 48. In the 
 Sup. Plate 7, the Graces are employed in adorning Venus. An antique painting found, with 
 other pieces, at Rome, in a vault near the Colisa:um, in 1G08, exhibits them dancing, with slight 
 drapery. 
 
 Cf. Find. Olymp. xiv. — Manto, Abh. ttber die Horen und Grazien, in his Mythol. Versuchm.—Massieu, sur les Graces, in the 
 Mem. de I'.llmd. ties Inscr. iii. 8. 
 
 § 105. The Horse, 'Opat, were the goddesses of Time, presiding especially 
 over the seasons and the hours of the day, and were considered as the daughters 
 and servants of Jupiter. They came at length to be viewed as tutelary patrons 
 of beauty, order, and regularity, in reference to which Themis was said to be 
 their mother. They were named Ewofii'a, A10M7, Eip^vrj. 
 
 The Graces, Hours, and Muses, are all supposed by some writers to have had 
 originally a reference to the stars and seasons, and to have afterwards lost their astro- 
 nomical attributes, when moral ideas and qualities became more prominent in the 
 Greek system of fictions. 
 
 The Hours are usually represented as dancing, with short vestments, and garlands of palm- 
 leaf, and all of the same age. In some monuments of later periods, four Hours appear, corre- 
 sponding to the four seasons. — In the Sup. Plate 10, the Hours are represented by four virgins 
 attending Aurora. 
 
 In representing the seasons, the Romans used the masculine gender; thus in our Plate IX. 
 which exhibits them as sculptured on the Arch of Severus, we see four lads or young men, each 
 with wings, and appropriate symbols of Spring, Summer, Autumn, and Winter. The Romans 
 also personified the Months, usually representing them by male figures. 
 
 Cf. Wincliclmann, Hist, dc I'Art, I. iv. ch. 2. § Ki.—Mimtfauam, Ant. Exp. Suppl. vol. i. p. 22 ss. Hore he gives also, Plates 
 5-16, from Lambecius, engravings of the representations of the months as beautifully depicted in a manuscript belonging to the Impe- 
 rial Library at Vienna ; February alone is represented by a female. 
 
 § 10G. (6) The Fates. The very common poetic representation of human 
 life under the figurative idea of spinning a thread, gave rise to the notion of th 
 
128 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Fates, called Molpat, by the Greeks ; by the Romans, Parcse. They were three 
 sisters, daughters of Night, whom Jupiter permitted to decide the fortune and 
 especially the duration of mortal life. One of them Clotho {K%^d>), attached 
 the thread; the second, Lackesis (Aa^sots), spun it; and the third, JLtropos 
 ("Atportos), cut it off, when the end of life arrived. They were viewed as in- 
 exorable, and ranked among the inferior divinities of the lower world. Their 
 worship was not very general. 
 
 The Parcae were generally represented as three old women, with chaplets made of wool and 
 interwoven with the flowers of the Narcissus, wearing long robes, and employed in their works : 
 Clotho with a distaff; Lachesis having near her sometimes several spindles : and Atropos hold- 
 ing a pair of scissors. Such is their appearance in the Sup. Plate 14, which is not copied from 
 any ancient monument, but designed after the description of the poets. 
 
 See Catutt. Epithal. Pel. et Ther. v. 305.— Manso's Abhandl. v. Farzen. in his Mylliol. Fersuchen.— Bonier, Sur les Parques, in 
 the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iv. 648. 
 
 § 107. (7) The Furies and Harpies. Among the divinities of the lower 
 world were three daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto and Proserpine, 
 whose office it was to torment the guilty in Tartarus, and often to inflict ven- 
 geance upon the living. The Greeks called them 'Epivwei, Furies; and also 
 by a sort of euphemism, or from design to propitiate them, TLvfisvCSss, signify- 
 ing kindly disposed; the Romans styled them Furise. Their names were 
 Tisiphone (from Wctj and ^woj), whose particular work was to originate fatal 
 epidemics and contagion ; .fllecto, (from aji^xtfoj), to whom was ascribed the 
 devastations and cruelties of war; and Megsera (from (isydipu), the author of 
 insanity and murders. Temples were consecrated to them among both the 
 Greeks and the Romans, and among the latter a festival also, if we may con- 
 sider the Furinalia as appropriated to them and not to a separate goddess Fu- 
 rina, as some suppose. 
 
 1 u. They were represented with vipers twining among their hair, usually with frightful coun- 
 tenances, in dark and bloody robes, and holding the torch of discord or vengeance. 
 
 2. See the Sup. Plate 14, where they are seen in drapery, with the serpent locks and scorpion 
 whips with which the artists represented them. On two vases in the Hamilton collection they 
 have serpents in their hair. In the Sup. Plate 13, they are introduced as lashing a criminal with 
 their whips. 
 
 Cf. Virg. Georg. iii. 551. JEn. vii. 341, 415. xii. 846.— Ov. Met. iv. 474.— Cf. C. A. BMligcr, Furienmasken im Trauerspiel und 
 auf d. Bildwerken d. alt. Griechen ; eine archseol. Untersuchung. Weim. 1801. 8. — Banier, sur les Furies, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr 
 vol. v. p. 34. 
 
 § 108 a. The fable of the Harpies, "Aprfutat, seems to have had reference 
 originally to the rapidity and violence of the whirlwind, which suddenly seizes 
 and bears off whatever it strikes. Their names were Aello (from dsM.a, storm), 
 Celxno (from xtXcuvbs, dark), and Ocypeta (from wwrfET/^s, flying rapidly), all 
 indicative of the source of the fiction. 
 
 They appear to have been considered, sometimes, at least, as the goddesses of storms, and so 
 were called QveWai (Horn. Od. xx. 66). They were said to be daughters of Neptune and Terra, 
 and to dwell in islands of the sea, on the border* of the lower world, and in the vicinity of the 
 Furies, to whom they sometimes bore off the victims they seized. 
 
 They are represented as having the faces of virgins, and the bodies of vultures, with feet and 
 hands armed with claws, and sometimes as with the tails of serpents. See the Sup. Plate 14. 
 
 Virg. Mn. iii. 210.— See Vols, Mytholog. Briefe. Stuttg. 1827. 3 vols. 12.— Le Clerc (in the Bibliotheque Universdle, vol. i. p. 148) 
 Bupposes the Harpies to be merely locusts; a conjecture which Gibbon seems to approve (Rom. Emp. vol. ii. p, 71. ed. N. Y. 1822). 
 
 § 108 b. (8) The Venti or Winds. It has been already remarked (§ 78) that the 
 four principal winds were at an early period converted into mythical personages. 
 Among both Greeks and Romans they gained the rank of deities. The Venti, 'Ave. 
 (ioi, were eight ; Evpo;, Eurus, South-east ; 'Att^Xkotvjc, Subsolanus, East ; Kamas, Cmcias, 
 Aquilo, North-east ; Bopcac , Boreas, North ; 2/ctpoi/, Corus, North-west ; ZzQvpo;, Zephy- 
 rus, Occidens, West; NoVoc, Notus, Ausler, South; Ait//, Libs, Africus, South-west. 
 
 Little is handed down to us respecting the worship paid to the winds. An altar dedicated to 
 them was found near Nettuno (cf. { 78. 3). Pausanias speaks of one erected at the foot of a 
 mountain near Asopus, where annual sacrifices were offered to them at night. The most re- 
 markable monument pertaining to these gods is the Temple or Tower of the eight Winds at 
 Athens, still existing; said to have been erected about B. C. 150; a view of it is given in Plate 
 XXI. fig. 2; see also P. I. $ 110. 
 
 On each of the eight sides of this tower is represented one'of the winds; Eurus, as a young man 
 flying freely and vigorously; Subsolanus, a young man holding fruit in the fold of his mantle; 
 Mq-uilo, a venerable man with a beard, holding a dish of olives ; Boreas, with boots on his legs, 
 muffling his face in a cloak, and flying eagerly; Corus, also with boots and cloak, and holding in 
 his hands an inverted vase of water; Zepliyrvs, a youth with naked breast, and carrying flowers; 
 A"otus, an old man with gloomy face; Africus, also with melancholy looks and heavy wings 
 
P. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. DEMONS. MANES. LARES. PENATES. 129 
 
 In our Sup. Plate 20, Zephyrus is seen supported in the air, in company with Flora or Chloris, 
 to whom he is said to have been married. 
 
 See Forcellini Lex. Tot. Lat. as edited by Bailey, vol. ii. p. 1155. — Zeafte'.? Topography of Athens. — Montfaiicon, Ant. Ecp. 
 vol. i. p. 413. 
 
 § 109. (9) The Dssmons ox Genii, and Manes. In the earliest mythologies 
 we find traces of a sort of protecting deities, or spiritual guardians of men, 
 called Acw^oj/sj, or Genii. They were supposed to be always present with the 
 persons under their care, and to direct their conduct, and control in great mea- 
 sure their destiny, having received this power as a gift from Jupiter. Bad de- 
 mons, however, as well as good, were imagined to exist, and some maintained, 
 that every person had one of each class attendant upon him. 
 
 From the notion of an attending genius arose the proverbial expressions indulgere 
 genio and defraudare genio, signifying simply to gratify or deny one's self. 
 
 The dcemons of classical mythology must not be confounded with the fallen spirits 
 revealed in the Holy Scriptures, and represented as possessing men in the time of 
 Christ. 
 
 See Farmer, Essay on Demoniacs. — Letters to Channing on Fallen Spirits, by Canonicus. Boston, 1828. — Cf. Brownies, Lights 
 and Shadows of Christian Life, p. 379. N. York, 1837. 12. 
 
 § 110. The Manes were a similar class of beings. Although often spoken 
 of as the spirits or souls of the departed, they seem more commonly to have 
 been considered as guardians of the deceased, whose office was to watch over 
 their graves, and hinder any disturbance of their tranquillity. They were sub- 
 ordinate to the authority of Pluto, on which account he is styled Summanus. 
 Some describe a goddess, named Mania, as their mother. 
 
 1 u. The Romans designated by the name of Lemur es, or Larva, such spirits of the 
 dead as wandered about in restlessness, disturbing the peace of men, issuing from the 
 graves as apparitions to terrify the beholders. 
 
 2. In Plate XXXVI. we have one face of a square sepulchral monument found at Brixia, on 
 which two Manes are represented, each with wings and an inverted torch; a representation not 
 uncommon on such structures. 
 
 See Mansd's Abh. ttber d. Genius der Alten. in his Myth. Vera. — Simon, Diss, sur Ies Lemures, Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. — Ov. 
 Fast. v. 421.— Blum, Einleitung in Rom's alte Geschichte. Berl. 1828. 12. 
 
 § 111. (10) The Lares and Penates. The system of tutelary spirits was 
 carried farther by the Romans than by the Greeks. The former assigned to 
 each dwelling and family its guardian deities, which were called Lares and 
 Penates. The Lares were said to be sons of Mercury and Lara, or Larunda, 
 daughter of Almon. They received a variety of epithets or by-names, accord- 
 ing to the particular object, over which they were in different cases supposed to 
 preside, as familiar es, compitaks, viales, patellarii, publici, privati. 
 
 1 u. They were especially considered, however, as presiding over houses, and had 
 in every house their proper sanctuary (lararium) and altar. They seem to have been 
 viewed as the spirits of the departed ancestors, the fathers and forefathers of the 
 family, who sought the welfare of their descendants. 
 
 2. Public festivals were held in their honor, called Compitalia, which were made very joyful 
 occasions ; the slaves of the family shared liberty and equality with their masters, as on the 
 Saturnalia. 
 
 The dog was sacred to the Lares, and an image of this animal was placed by their statues. 
 These statues were sometimes clothed in the skins, and even formed in the shape, of dogs. 
 
 T. Bempel, Diss, de Laribus. 2d ed. Ziviccav. 1816. 8.— MlUler, as cited § 112. 
 
 § 112. The Penates were also domestic or household gods, but they were not 
 properly speaking a distinct class by themselves, because the master of the 
 dwelling was allowed to select any deity according to his pleasure, to watch 
 over his family affairs, or preside over particular parts of them. Accordingly 
 Jupiter and others of the superior gods were not unfrequently invoked in this 
 capacity. The gods who presided over particular families, were sometimes 
 styled parvi Penates. While those that presided over cities or provinces were 
 styled patrii or publici Penates. Adulation sometimes elevated to the rank of 
 Penates even living persons ; especially emperors. 
 
 The Lares and the Penates are often confounded, but were not the same. "The Penates 
 were originally gods, the powers of nature personified; the mysterious action of which pro. 
 duces and upholds whatever is necessary to life, to the common good, to the prosperity of fa mi 
 lies; whatever, in fine, the human species cannot bestow on itself. The Lares were originally 
 themselves human beings, who, becoming pure spirits after death, loved still to hover round the 
 dwelling they once inhabited ; to watch over its safety, and to guard it as the faithful dog does 
 17 
 
130 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 the possessions of his master. They keep off danger from without, while the Penates, residing 
 in the interior of the dwelling, pour blessings upon its inmates." (Jlnih. Lemp.) 
 
 A number of small bronze statues, representing Roman Penates, were found the last century 
 at Exeter, in England. 
 
 Cf. Virg. 2E.ii. ii. 717. iii. 148.— Heyne, Excurs. ix. ad Virg. 7E,n. ii.— T. Bempel, Diss, de diis Laribus, as cited § 111.— Mlllter, 
 
 de diis Rom. Laribus et Fenatibus. Hafnia?, 1811. 8. For a notice, with plates, of the statues found at Exeter, see the Archseo' 
 
 logia, (cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. vi. published 1786. 
 
 § 113. (11) Sleep, Dreams, and Death. Among the imaginary beings sup- 
 posed to exert an influence over the condition of mortals, "Trtvoj, ''Oi^cpos, and 
 ©cwcwos, gained a personification, being called brothers, sons of Nox or night, 
 and ranked among the deities of the lower world. 
 
 1 u. The residence of Sleep, "Y-rrvog, Somnus, was said to be in Cimmeria, on account 
 of the perpetual darkness which tradition ascribed to that region; and the poppy, on 
 account of its soporific qualities, was his common symbol. He is represented as hold- 
 ing in his hand a light inverted and about to be extinguished. 
 
 The last symbol was also employed in representing Qavaros, or Death, who was 
 often placed beside his brother Sleep on sepulchral monuments, and appeared in a 
 similar bodily form, and not a mere naked skeleton, as in modern art. When death 
 was the result of violence, or circumstances of a disgusting character, the Greeks ex- 
 pressed it by the word xrjp, and they fancied a sort of beings called wipes, who caused 
 death and sucked the blood. The Romans made a similar distinction between mors 
 and leihum. 
 
 2. In the representation of Sommis, given in our Plate XXXVI., he is a young man lying on the 
 ground asleep, with one arm on the neck of a lion, and holding the capsule of a poppy. Thana- 
 tos, or Death, stands by him with a scythe and wings, in a robe bespangled with stars, as he is 
 seen in some paintings. 
 
 The Romans imagined death as a goddess, Mors. The poets described her as roving about 
 with open mouth, furious and ravenous, with black robes and dark wings. She is not often 
 found represented on existing monuments of art; in one supposed to represent her, a small 
 figure in brass, she appears as a skeleton, sitting on the ground with one hand on an urn. 
 
 Cf. Ou. Met. xi. 592, 634, 6iO.—Lessing's Untersuchung, vvie die Alten d. Tod gebildet. Berl. 1769. A.— Herder's Abh. in his 
 Zerstreuten Bllttern. Th. 2. 273.— Spence, Polymetis, cited P. IV. § 151. 
 
 3. The god of dreams was "Ovstpo s (Horn. II. ii. 56), more commonly called Mopfcv;, 
 from the various images or forms (popcprf) presented in dreaming. Morpheus is some- 
 times considered as the god of sleep, but was more properly his minister; Phobelor 
 ($o/?)jrcjp), sometimes considered as the god of dreams, was another minister of Som- 
 nus, and Phantasus (</>ai/rd£&>) another. 
 
 Cf. Theory of Dreams, &c, illustrated by the most remarkable dreams recorded in History. Lond. 1808. 12. 
 
 § 114. (12) The Satyrs and Fauns. The idea of gods of the forests and 
 woods, with a form partly of men and partly of beasts, took its rise in the ear- 
 liest ages either from the custom of wearing skins of animals for clothing, or 
 in a design to represent symbolically the condition of man in the semi-barbarous 
 or half-savage state. The Satyrs of the Greeks and the Fauns of the Romans, 
 in their representation, differed from the ordinary human form only in having a 
 buck's tail, with erect pointed ears. There were others called Fanes, which 
 had also the goat's feet, and more of the general appearance of- the brute. 
 
 1 u. The Fauns were represented as older than the Satyrs, who, when they became 
 old, were called Sileni. Yet the Romans represented the Satyrs more like beasts, 
 and as having the goat's feet. The Satyrs, Fauns, Panes, and Sileni, all belonged to 
 the retinue of Bacchus (§ 60). 
 
 2 u. The name of Fauni was of Italian origin, derived from a national god Faunus, 
 who was son of Picus (king of the Latins) and the nymph Canens (Ov. Met. xiv. 
 320, 336), and whose wife Fauna was also honored as a goddess. 
 
 See Heyne's Abh. von Unterschied. zwischen Faun. Sat. Silen. und Panen, in his Samml. Ant. Aufsatze. Found also in Winck- 
 
 elmann, Histoire de l'Art (cited P. IV. § 32) vol. i. p. 680. TJeber Faun. Sat Pan. und Silenen. Berl. 1790-91. 8.— Voss, Myth. • 
 
 Briefe. 
 
 § 115. (13) The Gorgons. Three imaginary sisters, daughters of Fhorcys and 
 Cete, were termed Topydvss, from their frightful aspect. Their heads were said to be 
 covered with vipers instead of hair, with teeth as long as the tusks of a boar, and so 
 terrific a look as to turn every beholder into stone. They are described as having the 
 head, neck, and breasts of women, while the rest of the body was in the form of a 
 serpent. According to some they had but one eye and one tooth, common to them 
 all, which they were obliged to use in turn. Their names were Stheno, Euryale, and 
 Medusa. Medusa is said to have been slain by Perseus, who cut off her head, while 
 they were in the act of exchanging the eye. 
 
 They are sometimes ranked, with the Furies, among the infernal deities. But their 
 residence is variously assigned ; some placing them m a distant part of the western 
 
P. II. MYTHICAL BEINGS. AMAZONS, ETC. 131 
 
 ocean, others in Lybiajcf. P. I. § 179), and others in Scythia. Some have ex- 
 plained the fable as referring to a warlike race of women, like the Amazons. Others 
 suppose it to have had some reference to the moon as a dark body, which is said also 
 to have been called Topyoviov, from the face believed to be seen in it. 
 
 Massieu, sur les Hesperides, and sur les Gorgones, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iii. p. 28, 51. 
 
 § 116. (14) The Amazons. The Amazons were no doubt mythical beings, al- 
 though said to be a race of warlike women, who lived near the river Thermodon in 
 Cappadocia. A nation of them was also located in Africa. They are said to have 
 burnt off their right breast, that they might use the bow and javelin with more skill 
 and force ; and hence their name, 'AnaZ,6ves, from a and na$d;. They are mentioned in 
 the Iliad (iii. 189. vi. 186) and called avnavupai. 
 
 Various explanations of the fable are given. Some consider it as having a connec- 
 tion originally with the worship of the moon. Several statues of Amazons were 
 placed in the temple of Diana at Ephesus {Plin. N. Hist, xxxiv. 8) , and may have 
 represented some of her imaginary attendants, or some of her own attributes. 
 
 A figure resembling an Amazon, but having four arms, is seen in the caverns of Elephanta. — In our Sup. Plate 22, an Amazon is 
 
 represented with her bow and quiver of arrows. Traditions respecting a race of Amazons are said to be still current in the 
 
 region of Caucasus. Cf. Edinb. Rev. No. lvi. p. 324. On the Amazons, see Creuzer's Symbolik. 
 
 § 117. This seems to be the place for noticing more particularly several Monsters, 
 which are exhibited in the tales of ancient mythology. 
 
 (a) The Minotaur was said to be half man and half bull. The story is, that Minos, 
 king of Crete, refused to sacrifice to Neptune a beautiful white bull, which was de- 
 manded by the god. The angry god showed his displeasure by causing Pasiphae, the 
 wife of Minos, to defile herself with this bull, through the aid of Daedalus, and give 
 birth to the monster. Minos confined the Minotaur in the famous labyrinth. Here 
 the monster devoured the seven young men and the seven maidens annually required 
 from the Athenians by Minos. 
 
 Theseus, by the aid of the king's daughter, Ariadne, slew the Minotaur and escaped the laby- 
 rinth (cf. $ 125). 
 
 (5) The ChinuBra was said to be composed of a dragon, goat, and lion united : the 
 middle of the body was that of a goat, the hinder parts those of a dragon, the fore 
 parts those of a lion ; and it had the heads of all three, and was continually vomiting 
 forth flames. This monster lived in Lycia, in the reign of Jobates, king of that 
 country. This king, wishing to punish Bellerophon in order to gratify his son-in-law 
 Praetus, sends him against the Chimaera; but Bellerophon, by the aid of Minerva, 
 and the winged horse Pegasus, instead of perishing himself, destroyed the monster. 
 
 This fable is by some supposed to refer to a volcanic mountain on the Lycian coast. — See Clarke's Travels, pt. ii. sect. ii. ch. 8. 
 (vol. iii. p. 211. ed. N. York, 1815).— Plin. N. Hist. v. Zl.—Banier, and Freret, on Bellerophon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 
 37, 69. 
 
 (c) The Centauri were said to be half men and half horses. Some make them the 
 offspring of Ixion and the cloud ; others refer their origin to the bestiality of Centau- 
 rus, the son of Apollo. They were said to dwell in Thessaly. The principal inci- 
 dents related of them are their rude attempts upon the women at the marriage of 
 Pirithous and Hippodamia, and the consequent battle with the Lapithae, who drove 
 them into Arcadia. Here they were afterwards chiefly destroyed by Hercules. (Ov. 
 Met. xii. 530.) — Some have imagined this fable to allude to the draining of the low 
 parts of Thessaly, as the horse is in general symbolical of water. 
 
 Knight's Inquiry, &c. in the Class. Journal.— CI. Mitford, ch. 1. sect. 3.— Banier, La Fable des Cent, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
 Iii. 18. 
 
 (d) Geryon was a monster said to be the offspring of Chrysaor and Callirhoe, and 
 to have three bodies and three heads. His residence was in the island of Gades, 
 where his numerous flocks were kept by the herdsman Eurythion, and guarded by 
 a two-headed dog called Orthos. 
 
 The destruction of this monster formed one of the twelve labors of Hercules ($ 123). 
 
 (e) The Hydra was a monstrous serpent in the lake Lerna, with numerous heads, 
 nine according to the common account. When one of these heads was cut off, an- 
 other or two others immediately grew in its place, unless the blood of the wound was 
 stopped by fire. 
 
 The destruction of the Hydra was another labor assigned to Hercules, which he accomplishea 
 by the aid of lolaus, who applied lighted brands or a heated iron as each head was removed. 
 The arrows of Hercules, being dipped in the Hydra's blood, caused incurable wounds. 
 
 (/) Pegasus was not so much a monster as a prodigy, being a winged horse said to 
 have sprung from the blood, which fell on the ground when Perseus cat off the head 
 of Medusa. He fixed his residence on mount Helicon, where he opened the fountain 
 called Hippocrene (iWoc and Kpfivrj). He was a favorite of the muses, and is called " the 
 muses' horse." The horse, having come info the possession of Bellerophon, enabled 
 him to overcome the Chimaera. Afterwards Pegasus, under an impulse from Jupiter, 
 
132 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 »hrew off Bellerophon to wander on the earth, and himself ascended to a place among 
 the stars. 
 
 An engraving is given by Winckelmann of a beautiful bas-relief in white marble, representing Bellerophon and Pegasus ; the 
 original, preserved in the palace of Spada at Rome, is of the natural size. — See Winckelmann, Hist, de l'Art, vol. ii. p. 652. iii. 281. 
 — Cf. Francceur, Cranographie ou Traite Elementaire d'Astronomie. Par. 1818. 8. containing the ancient Jables respecting the 
 Constellations. 
 
 (g) Cerberus was the fabled dog of Pluto (§ 34), stationed as centinel at the entrance 
 of Hades. He is generally described as having three heads, sometimes as having fifty. 
 Snakes covered his body instead of hair. None from the world of the living could pass 
 him but by appeasing him wilh a certain cake, composed of medicated and soporific 
 ingredients. (Virg. JEn. vi. 420.) 
 
 To seize and bring up this monster was assigned to Hercules as one of his labors. 
 
 (h) Scylla and Charybdis are the names, the former of a rock on the Italian shore, in 
 the strait between Sicily and the main land, and the latter of a whirlpool or strong eddy 
 over against it on the Sicilian side. The ancients connected a fabulous story with each 
 name. —Scylla was originally a beautiful woman, but was changed by Circe into a 
 monster, the parts below her waist becoming a number of dogs incessantly barking, 
 while she had twelve feet and hands, and six heads with three rows of teeth. Terrified 
 at this metamorphosis, she threw herself into the sea, and was changed into the rocks 
 which bear her name. — 'Charybdis was a greedy woman, who stole the oxen of Her- 
 cules, and for that offence was turned into the gulf or whirlpool above mentioned. 
 
 Cf. Virgil, Mrs., iii. 420 ss.— Ovid, Metam. xiv. 66.— Propert. iii. 11.— Hyginus, fab. 199. 
 
 (i) The Sphi?ix was the offspring of Orthos and Chimaera, or of Typhon and Echidna ; 
 a monster having the head and breasts of a woman, the body of a dog, the tail of a 
 serpent, the wings of a bird, the paws of a lion, with a human voice. This monster 
 infested the neighborhood of Thebes, proposing enigmas and devouring the inhabitants 
 who could not explain them. At length one of the enigmas, in which she demanded 
 what animal it was which walked on four legs in the morning, two at noon, and three 
 at night, was solved by CEdipus : he said that the animal was man, who in the morning 
 of life creeps upon his hands and feet, in middle age walks erect, and in the evening 
 of his days uses a staff. On hearing this solution, the Sphinx instantly destroyed 
 herself. 
 
 In Plate VIII. are given two images of the Sphinx. One is without wings; having a peculiar 
 Egyptian head-dress; from a sculptured monument given by Boissard. The other is from an 
 engraved gem, given by Maffei; having the calathus on her head, and the sistrum in her paw. 
 
 Representations of the Sphinx are very common amom: Egyptian monuments. A very celebrated colossal statue of a Sphinx yet 
 remains near the pyramids. It is cut in the solid rock, and is 125 feet in length.— Clarke's Travels, pt. ii. sect. 2. ch. 4. — Dcnon's 
 Travels (vol. i. p. 55. Lond. 1S04).— Land. Quart. Rev. xix. 193, 403 ss. 
 
 (k) The Griffon {Tpiip) was an imaginary animal, said to be produced from a lion and an 
 eagle, and supposed to watch over mines of gold and whatever was hidden. Its imai?e is some- 
 times found on ancient medals ; the upper part resembling an eagle, the lower part a lion. 
 
 Cf. PtrgiZ,Ecl.viii. 27.— Herodotus, iii. 116.— Pliny, Hist. Nat. x. 49.— A F. Grafen von Veltheim, Von den Greifen der Alten. 
 Helmst. 1799. 8. 
 
 (J,) In the Greek mythology Typhon is ranked among the Giants; by some considered to be the 
 same as Typhosus (cf. $ 98); by others distinguished from him; said to have been produced from 
 the earth by Juno's striking it; described as having a hundred heads like those of a dragon. — 
 In Egyptian mythology the monster called Typhon holds an important place, be-ing considered as 
 the cause of all evil, "the Egyptian devil." (Fosbroke.) He is described and represented in va- 
 rious ways; sometimes as with a hundred dragon heads; sometimes as a wolf; sometimes as a 
 crocodile, and as uniting the tail of a crocodile with the head and fore-legs of the hippopotamus, 
 as seen in our Plate VIII. 
 
 IV. — Mythical History of the Heroes. 
 
 § 118. In Grecian story three periods are distinguished even by theancients : 
 the unknown, dfyxov, of which no historical monuments remained to make known 
 the state of society ; the fabulous, uv^slxov, of which the accounts left are mingled 
 with manifold fictions ; and the historical, tetopuxbv, of which a genuine and 
 trustworthy history is recorded. The first extends to the deluge of Deucalion, 
 the second to the introduction of the Olympiad into chronology, and the third 
 through the subsequent times. To the second of these periods belonged the 
 Heroes, as they are called, and it is on that account often styled the heroic age. 
 These personages are supposed to have possessed extraordinary powers of body 
 and mind, and distinguished merit is ascribed to them as having founded cities 
 
P. II. HEROES. PERSEUS. 133 
 
 or countries, improved their manners and morals, or otherwise exalted or de- 
 fended them. 
 
 § 119. Grateful sensibility to the merits of ancestors and progenitors was a 
 most common cause of the sort of deification with which these heroes were 
 publicly honored after death ; and the disposition towards this grateful remem- 
 brance was quickened and sustained by oral traditions respecting their deeds, 
 which were much adorned and exaggerated by the poets. Hence it came, that 
 most of the heroes were at last viewed as sons of gods, and often of Jupiter 
 himself. The veneration for the heroes was however less sacred and less uni- 
 versal than the worship of the gods. To the latter, important festivals were 
 established, regular priests ordained, appropriate temples erected, and public 
 solemn sacrifices offered. The heroes, on the other hand, received only an 
 annual commemoration at their tombs, or in the vicinity, when offerings and 
 libations were presented to them. Sometimes, however, the respect paid them 
 exceeded these limits, and they were exalted to the rank and honors of the 
 gods. The introduction of solemnities in memory of heroes is ascribed to 
 Cadmus. 
 
 Cf. Virg. Mn. Hi. 301.— Sallier, in the Hist, de VAcad. its Imcr. vol. iv. p. 299. 
 
 § 120. The heroes of the Greeks were of different ranks. Some were viewed 
 as a sort of household deities, such as after their mortal existence watched over 
 their families and friends and were honored and worshiped only by them. 
 Others, whose services while they lived were of a more extended character, 
 were worshiped by whole states and tribes, as demi-gods, and sometimes had 
 their appropriate festivals and mysteries, and even temples and priests. To 
 such was ascribed a more general superintendence of human affairs. It is the 
 latter class that we are here to notice particularly, as they were the most illus- 
 trious, and their worship was not limited to the Greeks, but was adopted also 
 among the Romans. Of these only the principal can be mentioned, in doing 
 which the order of time will be followed. 
 
 § 121. The Giants and Titans (§ 97) might correctly be ranked among the 
 Heroes, and regarded as the most ancient. To the same class, too, belong 
 Inachus, founder of the kingdom of Argos ; his son Phoroneus, to whom various 
 merits were ascribed ; and Ogyges, a king of Bceotia, memorable from the flood 
 which occurred in his reign. This rank also was enjoyed, especially among 
 their respective people and tribes, by Cecrops, founder of the Attic state; Deu- 
 calion, a Thessalian prince, who with his wife Pyrrha escaped the general flood 
 that happened in his times ; Amphictyon, author of the celebrated council or 
 confederation of the early Grecian states ; Cadmus, who came from Phoenicia 
 to Greece, and contributed so much to enlighten and improve the people (cf. P. 
 IV. §34; Danaus, to whom the kingdom of Argos was indebted for its advance- 
 ment; Bellerophon, who was said to have destroyed the monster Chimaera, and 
 to have performed other exploits ; Pelops, king in Elis, from whom Pelopon- 
 nesus took its name, as his descendants occupied that peninsula ; and the two 
 princes of Crete by the name of Minos, one celebrated as a lawgiver, the other 
 as a warrior. 
 
 Some writers argue against the existence of two individuals by the name of Minos. — See Hack's Kreta. Getting. 1S23. 3 vols. 8. 
 
 § 122. Perseus was one of the most distinguished of the early heroes. He 
 was the son of Jupiter and Danae, educated by Polydectus on the island Se- 
 riphus. His chief exploit was the destruction of the gorgon Medusa, whose 
 head he struck off with a sword given to him by Vulcan. From the blood 
 that fell, sprang the winged horse Pegasus, on which Perseus afterwards passed 
 over many lands. 
 
 1 u. Of his subsequent achievements, the most remarkable were his changing king 
 Atlas into a high rock or mountain, by means of Medusa's head, and his deliverance 
 of Andromeda, when bound and exposed to be devoured by the sea-monster. In con- 
 nection with the latter adventure he also changed into stone Phineus, who contended 
 with him for the possession of Andromeda. He inflicted the same afterwards upon 
 Polydectes for ill treatment towards Danae. To Perseus is ascribed the invention of 
 the discus or quoit, with which he inadvertently occasioned the death of his grandfather 
 Acrisius. Finally he founded the kingdom of Mycenae. After his assassination by 
 
 M 
 
134 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Megapenthes, he was placed among fne constellations, and several temples were 
 erected to him. besides a monument between Argos and Mycenae. (Cf. Ov. Met. iv. 
 603. v. 1-350.) 
 
 2. The fables respecting Perseus are by some considered as a modification of the story of the 
 Persian Mithras (cf. $ 35), and a piece of ancient sculpture on one of the gates of the citadel 
 of Mycenae has been thought to confirm the analogy. — Creuzer, Symbolik— Gell, Itinerary of 
 Greece. 
 
 3. Atlas, whom on account of his refusing hospitality to Perseus, the latter is said 
 to have changed into a mountain, is described as the son of Japetus and the king of 
 Mauretania. He owned numerous flocks of sheep and beautiful gardens abounding 
 with citrons and oranges. His seven daughters, renowned for beauty and wisdom, 
 were called Atlantides from their father, and Hesperides from their mother Hesperis. 
 The gardens called the gardens of the Hesperides were said to be guarded by a dread- 
 ful dragon that never slept. The name of Atlas was given to the chain of mountains 
 in that part of Africa, and to the ocean on the west. Whether from reference to the 
 height of those mountains or to the astronomical researches of the king, Atlas is said 
 to have supported the heavens ; and accordingly artists have represented him as bear- 
 ing an immense sphere on his shoulders. 
 
 Thus he is seen in the Sup. Plate 22. On some monuments, Hercules is represented in a similar way ; because, as is said, he eased 
 Atlas of his burden — Cf. Ogle, Ant. Expl. plate 35. 
 
 § 123. Of all the Grecian heroes, no one obtained such celebrity as Her- 
 cules, son of Jupiter and Alcmena. Wonderful strength was ascribed to him 
 even in his infantile years. Eurystheus king of Mycenee imposed upon him 
 many difficult enterprises, which he carried through with success; particularly 
 those, which are called the twelve labors of Hercules. These were : to kill the 
 Nema?an lion ; to destroy the Lerneean hydra ; to catch alive the Stag with 
 golden horns ; to catch the Erymanthean boar ; to cleanse the stables of Au- 
 gias ; to exterminate the birds of lake Stymphalis ; to bring alive the wild bull 
 of Crete ; to seize the horses of Diomedes ; to obtain the girdle of Hippolyta, 
 queen of the Amazons ; to destroy the monster Geryon ; to plunder the garden 
 of Hesperides, guarded by a sleepless dragon ; and to bring from the infernal 
 world the three-headed dog Cerberus. 
 
 These various exploits were often made the theme of description and allusion in the poets. 
 The first is detailed in the 25th Idyl of Theocritus. The twelve labors are described in 12 verses 
 in the 3d Chiliad of Tzetzes (cf. P. V. # 81). — The story of Hercules strangling the serpents while 
 an infant is given in the 24th Idyl of Theocritus. 
 
 § 124 u. Many other exploits were ascribed to him, by which he gave proof of his ex- 
 traordinary strength, and exhibited himself as an avenger and deliverer of the oppressed. 
 Such were, his slaying the robber Cacus, so much dreaded in Italy ; the deliverance of 
 Prometheus, bound to a rock ; the killing of Busiris and Antaeus ; the contest with 
 Achelous ; and the rescue of Alceste from the infernal world. Less honorable was his 
 love of Omphale queen of Lydia, by which he sank into the most unworthy effemi- 
 nacy. His last achievement was the destruction of the centaur Nessus. Nessus dying 
 gave his poisoned tunic toDejanira; Hercules afterwards receiving it from her, and 
 putting it on, became so diseased that he cast himself in despair upon'a funeral pile on 
 mount OEta. 
 
 The worship of Hercules soon became universal, and temples were erected to his 
 honor, numerous and magnificent. He received a great many surnames and epithets 
 from his exploits and from the places of his worship. Hercules and his labors afforded 
 the artists of ancient times abundant materials to exercise their ingenuity in devices, and 
 they very often employed them. 
 
 Two of the most celebrated antique statues represent Hercules ; the Torso, or Herculese Belvidere, and the SercuUs Farnese : cf. 
 P. IV. § 1S6. 6, 7. The latter represents him leaning upon his club, as it were after his labors. A view of it is given in Plate XLTV. 
 fig. 6, copied from Winckelmann. An engraving of the same is given in the Sup. Plate 22. The other representation in this Plate 
 shows the infant Hercules strangling the serpent j from an antique sculpture. 
 
 For other principal representations of Hercules, see Montfaucon, Ant. Expl. T. i: pi. 123. 141, and Ogle's Ant. Expl. No. 31-10.— 
 See also Laur. Begeri, Hercules Ethnicorum, ex. var antiq. reliquiis deliueatus. Col. March. 1705. fol.— Beynii Not. ad Apollodor. 
 p. 325 —I. Gtirlitt's Fragment, d. archseol. Abhandl. Qb. Hercules. Magd. 1S00. 4.— PA. Buttmann, fiber d. Myfhos des Herakles. 
 Berl. 1S10. S.— Dupuis, Orig. de tous les cult vol. it. — Respecting the ancient writers on the Mythol. of Hercules, see MlUler's Hist. 
 and Antiq. of Dor. Race. Oxf. 1S30. vol. i. p. 623. 
 
 Among the various solutions of the story of Hercules, there is one which very ingeniously applies the account of his twelve labors 
 to the passage of the sun through the twelve signs of the Zodiac. A view of this is given in Jnthon's Lempr iere. 
 
 § 125. Theseus, a son of iEgeus and ^Ethra, or according to others a son of 
 Neptune, was excited by the renown of Hercules, to engage in enterprises the 
 most hazardous, and he successfully accomplished them. Among these was 
 the extermination of a multitude of robbers and assassins that infested Greece, 
 and especially the destruction of the Minotaur a terrible monster of Crete, tc 
 
P. II. HEROES. JASON. CASTOR AND POLLUX. 135 
 
 which the Athenians had previously been compelled to send seven male youth 
 and as many young virgins annually, to be devoured by him. By the help of 
 Ariadne, a daughter of Minos, Theseus was enabled to trace the winding of the 
 labyrinth, in which the monster had his abode, and put him to death. Ariadne 
 accompanied him on his return to Athens, but he ungratefully deserted her on 
 the island of Naxos. 
 
 § 126 u. The other principal exploits of Theseus were his descent to the lower world 
 with his friend Pirithous, his victory over the Amazons (§ 116), whose queen Hippolyta 
 became his wife, and the assistance he gave Adrastus, king of Argos, against the The- 
 ban prince Creon. Great praise was awarded to him for improving the legislation and 
 the whole morals of Athens and Attica ; and yet he was for some time an exile. The 
 manner of his death is variously related, but it seems by all accounts to have been 
 caused by violence. 
 
 The honor paid to him was accompanied with unusual solemnities ; a superb temple 
 was consecrated to him at Athens, and a festival was established called Bfirrua, held on 
 the eighth day of every month, with games, and a regular sacrifice termed Qy&6&iov. 
 Provision was made at the public expense to enable the poor to share in the festivities 
 of this occasion. 
 
 Cf. Plut. in Fit. Thes.—Diod. Sic. L. iv. c 61.— Ou. Metam. vii. 404 ; viii. 152 ; xii. 210.— Mitford's Greece, ch. i. sect. 3.— For 
 a view of the temple of Theseus, see Plate XXI. fig. 3. 
 
 § 127. Jason and the Argonauts. One of the most celebrated enterprises of 
 the heroic ages, one which forms a memorable epoch in the Grecian history, a 
 sort of separation-point between the fabulous and the authentic, was the Argo- 
 nautic expedition. This was a voyage from Greece to Colchis in order to obtain 
 the golden fleece, conducted by Jason, the son of iEson, king of Thessaly. 
 The undertaking was imposed upon him by his uncle Pelias. He invited the 
 most illustrious heroes of Greece to unite in the expedition, and among those 
 who joined him were Hercules, Castor and Pollux, Peleus, Pirithous, and The- 
 seus. ■ The vessel built for the purpose was named Argo, which after various 
 adverse events arrived at iEa, the capital of Colchis.. JEetes was then king of 
 Colchis, and promised to Jason the golden fleece only on certain most difficult 
 conditions. 
 
 § 128. Although Jason fulfilled these conditions, yet iEetes was unwilling 
 to permit him to take the desired booty, and sought to slay Jason and his com- 
 panions. This purpose was betrayed by Medea, the king's daughter, by whose 
 assistance and magical art Jason slew the dragon that guarded the fleece, and 
 seized the treasure. He immediately fled, accompanied by Medea, but was pur- 
 sued by her father. Medea put to death her brother Absyrtus, cut his corpse 
 into pieces and strewed them in the way, in order to stop her father's pursuit. 
 Jason was afterwards faithless to her, and married Creusa, or, as others name 
 her, Glauce, a daughter of Creon, king of Corinth. Medea took vengeance by 
 causing the death of Creusa and also of the children she had herself born to 
 Jason. After death Jason received the worship bestowed on heroes, and had a 
 temple at Abdera. 
 
 See the poems on the Argon. Exped. by Orpheus, Apollonius Rhodius, and Valerius Flaccus. (Cf. P. V. §§ 48, 73, 376.)— Bonier, 
 on the Argon. Exped. in Mem. de VMad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 54 ; xii. 123; xiv. 41. — Heynii Not. ad Apollodor. p. 177. — C P. 
 Levesque, sur le Retour des Argonauts, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e d. Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. iv. 
 
 Various explanations have been put upon the story of the Argonauts. One writer thinks the 
 golden fleece was the raw site of the East. Hager, Pantheon Chinois. — Another thinks the phrase 
 arose from the habit of collecting gold, washed down from the mountains, by putting sheepskins 
 in the channel of the streams. Mitford, ch. i. sect. 3. — Bryant (Anal. Anc. Myth.) considers the 
 whole story as a tradition of the flood. 
 
 § 129. Castor and Pollux, who were among the Argonauts, were twin sons 
 of Jupiter and Leda, and brothers to Helena. On account of their descent, 
 they were called Dioscuri (Atoo'jeo'upot,), although, according to some, Castor 
 was the son of Tyndarus, the husband of Leda. Castor distinguished himself 
 in the management of horses, and Pollux in boxing and wrestling. The last 
 exploit of the Dioscuri was their contest with Lynceus and his brother Idas. 
 Castor was slain by Lynceus, and Lynceus by Pollux: and as Idas was about 
 to avenge the death of his brother, Jupiter smote him with lightning. — Pollux 
 obtained from Jupiter the honors of deification and immortality in conjunction 
 with his brother Castor. Both were placed among the constellations and re- 
 presented by the Gemini or twins in the zodiac. Both the Greeks and tho 
 
136 GREEK AND ROMAN MYTHOLOGY. 
 
 Romans consecrated temples to them, and they were especially invoked and 
 worshiped by mariners. 
 
 1. They were said to be placed among the marine gods, from having cleared the 
 Hellespont and the neighboring seas from pirates. They were invoked as 'AwoTfxmoi, 
 averters of evil : and white lambs were sacrificed to them. — 'The Romans honored them 
 especially for services supposed to be received from them in pressing dangers, as in the 
 battle with the Latins near lake Regillus. They constantly swore by their names ; the 
 oath used by the women was JEcastor, or by the temple of Castor ; that of the men 
 was JEdepol, or by the temple of Pollux. . 
 
 Representations of Castor and Pollux are found particularly on Roman monuments. A fine representation, drawn from a large 
 gem given by Maffei, is seen in our Sup. Plate 21. 
 
 2. The festival called Dioscuria (Sioaicovpia) was in honor of these brothers, celebrated 
 especially by the Spartans. On this occasion the gifts of Bacchus were very freely 
 shared. It was amidst the drinking at the feast in honor of Castor and Pollux, which 
 Alexander held in Bactra, that he madly slew his devoted friend Clitus. — This festival 
 is supposed by some to have had the same origin as the famous mysteries of the Cabiri, 
 which were celebrated particularly at Samothrace, and were thought to have great effi- 
 cacy in protecting from shipwreck and storms. 
 
 An ancient structure now exists at Salonica, which is supposed to have been a Cabirian Temple : see Plate V.— Cf. G. S. Faber, 
 Mysteries of the Cabiri. Oxf. 1803. 2 vols. 8.— F reret, Les Cabires, in the Mem. Acad, Imcr. vol. xxvii. p. 9 
 
 7) 130 m. Heroes of the Theban War. In the early history of Greece, the war of 
 Thebes, which is dated upwards of 1200 years before Christ, is much celebrated. 
 Without relating its incidents we shall here only name some of the principal heroes of 
 the time. Among these were Etiocles and Polynices, the two sons of CEdipus, king 
 of Thebes, whose own private story was so tragical. The war arose from the dissen- 
 sion of these brothers, who slew each other in a single combat, and were afterwards 
 honored as demigods. Several famous chiefs, as Ca-paneus, Tydeus, Hippomedon, 
 ParthenopcBUs , united with Adrastus, king of Argos and father-in-law of Polynices, to 
 take part in the war. The events connected with it furnished the poets with matter 
 for numerous tragedies. — The second enterprise against Thebes, ten years later, was 
 more fortunate in its issue, but less celebrated. It was undertaken by the sons and 
 descendants of those slain in the first war, and was therefore termed the war of the 
 ''Emyovoi. The most illustrious of these were Alcmseon, Thersander, Polydorus, and 
 Thesimenes. 
 
 The Theban war was one of the favorite themes of ancient poets. Antimaclms of Colophon, 
 a Greek poet, and contemporary with Chcerilus, wrote a poem in twenty-four books on the sub- 
 ject ; the fragments have been collected. Cf. P. V. $ 19. — The poem of the Latin poet Statins is 
 still extant. Cf. P. V. $ 378. 
 
 Cf. Paia. ix. 25.— Apollod. i. 3.— Died, iv.— Gillies, Hist. Greece, cb. i.—Kcightley's Mythology. 
 
 $ 131. Whilst the Thebans and the Argives were involved in contention and calamity, Tanta- 
 lus, and his descendants the Tantalides, were equally afflicted by various misfortunes, occasioned 
 by the impiety of this prince, who was said to be a son of Jupiter, and reigned in Lydia. Being 
 of immortal descent, he was honored with a visit from the gods during an excursion they made 
 upon earth. In order to prove the divinity and power of his guests, he served up among other 
 meats the limbs of his son Pelops, whom he had cruelly murdered. The gods perceived his 
 perfidious barbarity, and refused to touch the dish; but Ceres, whom the recent loss of her 
 daughter had rendered inattentive and melancholy, ate one of the shoulders. • In compassion to 
 the fate of the young primce, Jupiter restored him to life ; and instead of the shoulder which 
 Ceres had devoured, substituted one of ivory, which possessed the property of healing by its 
 touch all kinds of diseases. 
 
 As a punishment for his cruelty, Tantalus was condemned in hell Q 34) with an insatiable 
 hunger and thirst in the midst of abundance. — He had a daughter Niobe, who fell a sacrifice to 
 her intolerable vanity. She was married to Amphion, a prince of Thebes in Boeotia ; and having 
 a great number of children, she had the temerity to treat Latona, who had only two, with over- 
 bearing arrogance. Provoked at this insolence, Latona applied to Apollo and Diana, who Q 38) 
 destroyed all her boasted offspring except Chloris (cf. $ 38). Niobe, after the death of her 
 children, returned to Lydia, and ended her days near Mt. Sipylus ; according to the fables, she 
 was so shocked at her misfortune, that she was changed into a rock. " On Mt. Sipylus, accord- 
 ing to Pausanias, was to be seen a rock which from a distance resembled a woman in deep me- 
 lancholy, though near at hand it had not the most remote resemblance to one." 
 
 Pelops quitted Phrygia and repaired to Elis, where he became enamored of Hippodamia, the 
 daughter of king CEnomaus; but this monarch, having been informed that he should perish by the 
 hand of his son-in-law, determined to marry his daughter to him only who could outrun him in 
 the chariot-race; and those who entered the list were to forfeit their lives if conquered. Un- 
 daunted at this condition, Pelops boldly undertook the combat, and to secure his success, he 
 previously bribed Myrtiles, the charioteer of CEnomaus, who disposed the axle-tree of the cha- 
 riot in such a manner as to break it on the course ; and the unfortunate king, being thrown to 
 the ground, killed himself. CEnomaus thus left his kingdom and his daughter to Pelops, who 
 acquired great celebrity, and gave his name to the peninsula in the southern part of Greece. 
 Pelops, after death, received divine honors. He had an altar in the grove Altis at Olympia, and 
 was much revered, even above other heroes (Pind. Olymp. i. 146. Pausan. v. 13). His descend- 
 ants were called Pelopidts. His two sons, Atreus and Thyestes, were celebrated for their mutual 
 hatred and crimes. But his two grandsons, Agamemnon and Menelaus, the Mridw, acquired a 
 more honorable renown. 
 
]- *i. HEROES OF THE TROJAN WAR. 137 
 
 § 132 m. Heroes of the Trojan War. Of all the wars of Grecian story, none is 
 more famous than that of Troy, which was the first military campaign of the Greeks 
 out of the limits of their own country. The immediate occasion of it was the seizure 
 of Helen, wife of Menelaus, king of LacedEemon, by Paris, son of Priam, king of 
 Troy. The siege continued, according to the common account, including the prepara- 
 tion and marches, ten years, with various successes and disasters, until at last the Greeks 
 became masters of the city by stratagem. The chiefs who were engaged in this enter- 
 prize acquired the highest renown in Greece, and the poetry of Homer has secured 
 their everlasting remembrance. The chief commander was Agamemnon, and the more 
 illustrious of the heroes with him were Achilles, Ulysses, Diomedes, Menelaus, Ajax 
 son of Telamon, and Ajax son of Oileus, Idomeneus, and Nestor. On the side of the 
 Trojans, Hector, JEneas, and Antenor were among the most celebrated. 
 
 The war of Troy was not more memorable in itself than for its consequences. It 
 gave a new spring to Grecian culture (cf. P. IV. § 40). The arts of war were greatly 
 improved. Numerous and important civil revolutions took place in most of the states. 
 But all this pertains to authentic history rather than to mythic tales. 
 
 See Mitford, ch. i. sect. 4.— Gillies, ch. i. i\i.— Class. Journ. v. 14, 18. vi. 25. ix. 605, 626. xviii. 141.— Chandler, History of 
 Troy. See references given in P. V. § 50. 7. — Bryant (in a Dissertation on the war of Troy, Lond. 1799. 4) has maintained that 
 the whole tale is a mere fable, and that there never was any such war. 
 
 § 133. Although the personages specially called Heroes in Grecian story belonged to 
 the period termed the heroic age (cf. § 118) ; yet under our fourth division of the subject 
 of Mythology (cf. § 10) will properly fall the names of a multitude of personages of 
 later periods, including Romans as well as Greeks, who after their death were deified 
 in the country where they lived, or had become renowned (cf. § 88. 2, and 89. 3) for 
 memorable attainments or achievements. Merely to have been a king or ruler was 
 sufficient to secure deification among a people fond of the pageantry of superstition. 
 This servile and impious adulation was particularly practiced by the Asiatic Greeks 
 towards the successors of Alexander. Mere governors of provinces were sometimes thus 
 honored. After the Roman imperial power was established, it became a regular cus- 
 tom (cf. § 94) to deify the emperors. 
 
 The Roman senate made it their business by solemn decree to place every deceased emperor 
 in the number of the gods, and the ceremonies of his Apotheosis were united with those of his 
 funeral. But as the actions of each one were now faithfully recorded by history, it was impos- 
 sible to connect with the deified name such fabulous and mysterious tales as to give the divini- 
 ties, thus established by law, much hold upon the popular feelings. The list of imperial demi- 
 gods, therefore, is of comparatively little importance in a view of the ancient mythology. 
 
 This deification of the emperors, it is very likely, gave rise to the beatification of saints, practiced by the Roman Catholics. 
 
 See Middleton's Letter from Rome, showing the conformity between Popery and Paganism. Lond. 1729. 4. 6th ed. 1825. 8.— 
 Also in his Miscellaneous Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols. 8.— Cf. Qibbon, Decl. and Fall, &c. ch. iii. 
 
 Respecting the ceremonies attending the Apotheosis, or Consecratio, see P. III. § 343. 
 
 18 m2 
 
PLATE XVa. 
 
 Gods of the Greeks and Romans, as classed in the preceding Sketch. 
 
 1. Superior Gods. 
 Jupiter Juno 
 Neptune Minerva 
 Apollo Diana 
 Mars Venus 
 Mercury Vesta 
 Vulcan CereB 
 Janus Rhea 
 Saturn 
 Pluto 
 Bacchus 
 
 2. Inferior Gods. 
 
 Coelus Several Gods 
 
 g l peculiar to 
 
 tt, , the Greeks 
 
 jEoIus (cf. §SS); 
 
 Plutus Enyo 
 
 vEsculapius Er^ane 
 
 Cotytto,&c. 
 
 Several Gods 
 peculiar to 
 Nox the Romans 
 
 Iris (cf.§89); 
 
 Latona Priapus 
 
 Themis Terminus 
 
 Nemesis Vertumnus 
 Fortuna Pomona 
 Fama Flora 
 
 Feronia 
 Pales, &c. 
 
 Luna 
 Aurora 
 
 3. Mythical Beings. 
 
 4. Deified Heroes. 
 
 Titans 
 
 Manes 
 
 Inachus 
 
 Hercules 
 
 Giants 
 
 Lares 
 
 Phoroneus 
 
 Theseus 
 
 Pygmies 
 
 Penates 
 
 Oeyges 
 
 Jason 
 
 Tritons 
 
 Satyrs 
 
 Cecrops 
 
 Castor 
 
 Sirens 
 
 Fauns 
 
 Deucalion 
 
 Pollux 
 
 Nymphs 
 
 Gorgons 
 
 Amphictyon 
 
 and 
 
 Muses 
 
 Amazons 
 
 Cadmus 
 
 Heroes 
 
 Graces 
 
 Centaurs 
 
 Danaus 
 
 of the 
 
 Hours 
 
 Minotaur 
 
 Pelops 
 
 Theban 
 arid the 
 
 Seasons 
 
 Chimara 
 
 Minos 
 
 Fates 
 
 Geryon 
 
 Perseus 
 
 wars, &c 
 
 Furies 
 
 Hydra 
 
 
 
 Harpies 
 
 Pegasus 
 
 
 
 Winds 
 
 Scylla 
 
 
 
 Genii 
 
 Charybdis 
 
 
 
 Somnus 
 
 Sphinx 
 
 
 
 Mors 
 
 Typhon 
 
 
 
 The Gods as classed by the Greeks. 
 
 Superior Oods, called 
 
 MtydAot Qeoi. 
 Jupiter Juno 
 
 Neptune Ceres 
 Apollo Diana 
 
 Mercury Minerva 
 Mars Vesta 
 
 Vulcan Venus 
 
 Inferior Oods, called simply Qeol, and 
 sometimes Ao'ipoves. 
 
 The Mythical Be- 
 ings named 
 above j Titans, 
 Giants, &c. 
 
 The Gods ppculiar 
 to the Greeks 
 (cf. § 88), except 
 such as fall into 
 the class of De- 
 migods. 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Aurora 
 
 Bacchus 
 
 Themis 
 
 iEolus 
 
 Luna 
 
 iEsculapius 
 
 Nox 
 
 Helius or 
 
 Iris' 
 
 Sol 
 
 Hebe 
 
 Pluto 
 
 Tyche 
 
 Pan 
 
 Latona 
 
 Plutus 
 
 Nemesis 
 
 
 Fama 
 
 Demigods, called 'Hpcffcot. 
 
 Here fall Ina- The Theban Heroes 
 chug, Perseus, are — 
 and all named Capaneus 
 - under Tydeus 
 
 Polynices 
 Here also some- Thersander, &c. 
 
 times Saturn, 
 
 The Trojan Heroes 
 
 Heroes. 
 
 Bacchus, .iEo- 
 lus, and other 
 gods are put. 
 
 Agamemnon 
 Achilles 
 Ulysses 
 Diomedes 
 Ajax, &c. 
 
 The Gods as classed by the Romans. 
 
 Dii Majorum Gentium. 
 
 1. Consentes. 
 
 2. Selecti 
 
 Jupiter 
 
 Saturn 
 
 Neptune 
 
 Pluto 
 
 Apollo 
 
 Sol 
 
 Mercury 
 
 Janus 
 
 Mars 
 
 Bacchus 
 
 Vulcan 
 
 Genius 
 
 Juno 
 
 Rhea 
 
 Ceres 
 
 Luna 
 
 Diana 
 
 
 Minerva 
 
 
 Venus 
 
 
 Vesta 
 
 
 Dii Minoram Gentium. 
 
 1. Semones, 
 Guardians over 
 particular ob- 
 jects; as 
 
 Pan 
 
 Plutus 
 
 iEolus, &c. 
 Here also 
 Vertumnus 
 Terminus, 
 
 and most of the 
 Gods peculiar 
 to the Romans 
 (cf. § 89). 
 Here also the 
 Mythical Be- 
 ings (cf. § 88). 
 
 2. Jifiscellanei, 
 Personifications of 
 various objects; as 
 
 Virtus 
 
 Fides 
 
 Honor 
 
 Spes 
 
 Pietas 
 
 Bellona 
 
 Febris 
 
 Mephitis 
 
 Victoria, &c. 
 
 3. Peregrini, 
 Gods from other 
 nations; as 
 
 Mithras 
 
 Osiris 
 
 Isis 
 
 Apis & Mnevis 
 
 Sera pis 
 
 Anubis 
 
 Harpocrates 
 
 Canopus, &c. 
 
 4. Tndigetes, 
 or Adscriptitii ; 
 
 Hercules 
 Castor 
 Pollux 
 JEneas 
 Romulus or 
 Quirinus, &c. 
 Also deified Empe- 
 rors, &c 
 
 Gods of the Greeks and Romans, as classed according to supposed Residence. 
 
 Celestial. 
 Jupiter Venus 
 Apollo Vesta 
 
 Mercury Aurora 
 Mars Iris 
 
 Vulcan Hebe 
 Cupid Psyche 
 
 Hymenasus Hors 
 Juno Seasons 
 
 Minerva Graces 
 Diana Muses 
 
 138 
 
 Terrestrial. 
 Terra Pomona 
 
 Cybele Pales 
 
 Ceres' Feronia 
 
 Saturn' Pan 
 Janus' Silenus 
 
 Bacchus' Satyrs 
 Terminus Fauns 
 Vertumnus Lares 
 Priapus Nymphs 
 Flora Penates,&c. 
 
 Marine. 
 Oceanus Tethys 
 Neptune Amphitrite 
 iEolus Matuta 
 
 Proteus Ino or 
 Phorcys Leucothoe 
 Portumnus Sirens 
 Nereus Nereids 
 Triton Scylla 
 
 Glaucus Charybdis 
 Palaemon 
 Tritons 
 
 Infernal. 
 Pluto Proser- 
 Charon pine 
 Minos Nemesis 
 Rhada- Mors 
 manthus Manes 
 .33acus Nffinia' 
 Cerberus Parcee 
 Nox Furies 
 
 1 Goddess of Funeral*. 
 
PART III. 
 
 GREEK AND ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
PLATE XVI. 
 
GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 § 1. GrjEcia is by some supposed to have derived its name from Graicus, a 
 son of Thessalus, his descendants being called Graici, rpottxot. Th6 Graici, 
 however, were only a single tribe of the inhabitants, some of whom planted 
 themselves in Italy. The country originally seems to have had no common 
 name, comprehending properly all its tribes. Graecia was a name used by the 
 Romans, not by the inhabitants themselves. It was called by them Hellas, 
 from Hellen, a son of Deucalion, and also Achaia, Pelasgia, Ionia ; and the 
 people were called by the ancient writers Achaeans, Argivi, Danai, Hellenes, 
 Pelasgians, and Ionians. These names of the country and the occupants, 
 however, were not employed always in a uniform sense, but seem to have re- 
 ferred in their general application chiefly to the more important colonies or com- 
 munities, which originally occupied and peopled the land. 
 
 § 2t. Greece, in the most comprehensive sense of the term, was bounded on 
 three sides by the Mediterranean sea, parts of which were distinguished by the 
 names of iEgean, Cretan, Ionian, and Adriatic; and on the north extended to 
 the chain of mountains called Orbelus (cf. P. I. § 77) separating it from Maesia. 
 Taken in this extent, it is naturally divided into four parts ; Macedonia; Thes- 
 salia and Epirus ; Hellas; and Peloponnesus (cf. P. I. § 76). Taken in a more 
 limited sense, excluding Macedonia, it was sometimes divided into two parts ; 
 Graecia Propria (including Thessalia and Epirus, and Hellas) ; and the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. In the most limited sense, however, it included merely Hellas, 
 which is perhaps usually meant by the restrictive phrase Grascia Propria. The 
 name of Greeks was also applied to the inhabitants of Grecian colonies in 
 Asia, in Italy, and in Africa. 
 
 § 3. It may be well to mention the principal cities which were distinguished 
 for their power and cultivation. These were Athens, in Attica ; Sparta or La- 
 cedaemon, in Laconia ; Argos, Mycenae, and Corinth, in the territory of Argolis; 
 Thebes, in Bceotia ; Megalopolis, in Arcadia. The more eminent foreign or 
 colonial cities of the Greeks were the following ; Miletus and Ephesus in 
 Ionia; Mitylene, Chios, Samos, and Rhodus, in the islands near Asia Minor; 
 Byzantium on the Thracian coast; Corcyra on the island of that name; Ta- 
 rentum, Sybaris, and Locri in Southern Italy; Syracuse, Agrigentum, Gela, 
 and Leontium in Sicily ; Syrene in Africa. In later times Alexandria in Egypt, 
 Antioch in Syria, and Seleucis in Chaldea on the Tigris, were considered as 
 Grecian cities. 
 
 § 4. The form of government in Greece underwent, in the course of its his- 
 tory, three remarkable changes. In the earliest heroic ages, the several tribes 
 or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of their own choice. Subse- 
 quently monarchies properly so called were established in Sicyon, Argos, Attica, 
 Thebes, Arcadia, Thessaly, Corinth, Lacedaemon, Elis, iEtolia, ^Egialea, or 
 Achaia. But the Greeks were in the most flourishing condition during the 
 time of the two republics of Athens and Sparta. — The Achaean and Etolian 
 league, the kingdom of Epirus, and the political constitution of the Greeks in 
 Asia Minor, are also very valuable portions of the Grecian history. 
 
 § 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probably came from Thrace and 
 who were followed next by the Pelasgi (cf. P. IV. § 33, 34) and the Hellenes, 
 lived in a very rude state, without any commercial relations or even common 
 laws. They practiced upon each other constant robbery and violence, and 
 
 141 
 
142 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 were exposed to frequent attacks from the occupants of the neighboring islands. 
 Colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor, gave the first impulse to their 
 culture, which was aided by the commencement of the navigation. The famous 
 Argonautic expedition was one of the most memorable exploits in the naviga- 
 tion of this early period, occurring about eighty years before the Trojan war. 
 About fifty years before the same, the first formal state constitution was adopted, 
 in Crete, under the direction of Minos ; not with the perfection, however, 
 which was secured at Athens, through the influence of Cecrops, and after him 
 Theseus. The people of Attica were the first to adopt a more peaceful, quiet, 
 and frugal mode of life; and this example influenced the inhabitants of other 
 regions to renounce their irregular habits and predatory excursions. 
 
 § 6. Hereby was occasioned a more free intercourse between the different 
 people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects of common interest, 
 particularly in reference to murders and depredations. A proof of this was 
 given by the fact of so many states joining to avenge the injuries of Menelaus 
 (committed against him by Paris in the seduction of Helen) and carrying on 
 together the war against Troy. This war became a means of the further 
 advancement of Grecian culture (cf. P. IV. § 40), although it was also the 
 occasion of many troubles and revolutions among the states at home, and thus 
 led to the migration of many Greeks to neighboring islands and to Asia. Fi- 
 nally they became weary of wars and tumult, began to love peace, law, and 
 social ease, and united in adopting public solemnities and religious rites, and 
 maintaining social and civil order. 
 
 § 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chiefly of a military charac- 
 ter; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil head of his people; but 
 now a more monarchical form was assumed. Soon however the kings abused 
 their power, and by their tyranny forced their subjects to throw off the yoke. 
 Love of liberty then became the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very 
 name of king was odious. It was this spirit which gave rise to a state of 
 things in which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassing all other nations. 
 Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring independence, 
 the jealousies and discords which had previously reigned were in great measure 
 allayed. Amphictyon, third king of Athens, had united several of the states in 
 a sort of confederacy (cf. § 105), and this compact afterwards became much 
 more close and strong. An excess of population in this period of tranquillity 
 and prosperity was prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia, 
 and Africa. 
 
 § 8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedsemon enjoyed first the advantages 
 of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of laws, which however in 
 some particulars evinced the imperfect culture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C. 
 about 820, the author of this code, had previously made himself acquainted with 
 the manners and institutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without intro- 
 ducing any violent changes, or even abolishing in form the existing twofold 
 regal office, he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, and people, in a new 
 and improved attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in part very 
 severe, tended, as did his whole political system, to form a brave, constant, and 
 warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared and respected. His design 
 was accomplished, and Sparta acquired in these respects a high pre-eminence 
 over the other states. 
 
 See /. R. F. Manso, Sparla, ein Versuch zur Erklirung d. Geschichle und Verfassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1S00-1S05. 3 Th. S. 
 — Cf. references given P. V. § 7. 7(d). 
 
 § 9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being advanced in 
 culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 59-4, and subsequently acquir- 
 ing glory and power from the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, she became 
 more and more jealous of the superiority of Sparta. This jealousy led to mu- 
 tual animosities and finally to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was 
 carried on for eight-and-twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between Athens 
 and Sparta, and in which almost all the other states of Greece took part on one- 
 side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her glory did not endure 
 'tang after this. Athens rose far higher in political and literary character, and 
 
P. III. * INTRODUCTION. 143 
 
 became the residence of refined manners, useful knowledge, and cultivated taste 
 in the arts. 
 
 Wm. Young's Political History of Athens.— Trans, into German. Leips. 1777. 8.— Athenian Letters, or the epistolary corres- 
 pondence of an agent of the king of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Lond. 1799. 2 vols. 8.— Trans into 
 Germ, by F. Jacobs, Leipz. 1800.— Bulwer, Rise and Fall of Athens.— Cf. P. V. § 7. 7 (d). 
 
 § 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece we are to notice more 
 particularly in the Archaeology of Literature (P. IV. § 33ss. 61ss.), and here 
 it is only necessary to allude to the causes, which conspired to render Greece 
 so eminent in this respect. Some of the causes were, besides the highly pro- 
 pitious climate of the land, its numerous population, whose very necessities as 
 well as mutual emulation excited and fostered a spirit of activity and invention; 
 its enjoyment of an encouraging and ennobling liberty; its commercial inter- 
 course, and the general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favorable 
 circumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation which is even to the present day 
 one of the most remarkable in history, and whose works in literature and art 
 are still valued as our best models. 
 
 § 11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the antiquities of 
 the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their religious, civil, military, 
 and domestic institutions and customs. The general utility of such knowledge, 
 especially as an aid in the investigation of history, language, criticism, mytho- 
 logy, and art, commends the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at 
 all in classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek antiquities, 
 that, among all the various objects of knowledge, the language, literature, re- 
 ligion, history, and whole genius of the Greeks, hold so high a place in point 
 of relative importance. Some acquaintance with what is denominated their 
 Antiquities is essential to enable us to enter much into these subjects, to com- 
 prehend well their spirit and character, or to contemplate the various monu- 
 ments of their literature and art in a definite and correct view. 
 
 On the utility of the study of classical antiquities, we introduce the following re- 
 marks, abridged, from Rollin (as cited P. II. § 5u.)— "To a certain extent, this study 
 is indispensable for all who make pretensions to education. Without it, there are 
 a multitude of expressions, allusions, and comparisons which they cannot understand; 
 without it, it is scarcely possible to advance a step even in reading history, without 
 being arrested by difficulties which a tolerable knowledge of antiquity would readily 
 solve. Like all other studies, when carried too far, it threatens with its dangers. 
 There is sometimes connected with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly con- 
 ducted, which is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on 
 every subject searches for that which is least known and most difficult to be compre- 
 hended. Seneca (de Brev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that this vitiated 
 taste, which originated with the Greeks, had passed over to the Romans. Juvenal 
 also (L. iii. Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his contemporaries, who required that 
 a preceptor should be able to reply without preparation to a thousand absurd and ridi- 
 culous questions. It is to know very little of the worth of time, and grossly to mis- 
 apply one's talents and exertions, to occupy them in the study of things obscure and 
 difficult and at the same time, as Cicero says (Off. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary and some- 
 times even vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the student carefully to shun this 
 danger. He will remember the sentiment of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is a foolish 
 and pitiable vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon every subject all that inferior 
 writers have said ; that such an occupation consumes unprofitably the time and strength 
 which ought to be reserved for better things ; and that of all the eminent qualifications 
 of a good teacher, that of knowing how to be ignorant of certain things is by no means 
 the least. 
 
 After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of antiquities 
 either to students or teachers. High attainments in this very comprehensive branch 
 of learning ought to be the aim of every youth, who proposes to pursue important 
 studies himself, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty of the work 
 should dishearten no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of time to the read- 
 ing of ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed, little by little, which will 
 afterwards be a source of astonishment even to the possessors themselves. It is only 
 necessary to make the commencement, to employ time profitably, and to note down 
 observations in order and with accuracy. 
 
 Most of the topics connected with antiquities might be embraced under seven or eight 
 heads: religion; political government ; war; navigation; monuments and public edi- 
 fices ; games, combats, shows ; arts and sciences ; the customs of common life, such 
 as pertain to repasts, dress, &c. Under each of these divisions are included many 
 
144 
 
 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 subdivisions. For example, under the head of religion are comprised the gods, priests, 
 temples, vases, furniture, instruments employed in different religious ceremonies, sacri- 
 fices, feasts, vows and oblations, oracles and omens ; and so of the other heads." 
 
 SeeK. Ii. Milhauscr, Ueber Philologie, Alterthumswissenschaft, und Alterfhumsstudium. Fur Studirende. J.ps. 1837. 8. pp. 88. 
 —Burgess, Essay on the Study of Antiquities. O.vf. 1782. 8.— Platlner, ascited § 196. 3u.— Seealso P. IV. §29; and works there 
 
 § 12. The sources of Greek antiquities are in part the classical writers, and 
 especially the historians, more particularly such of them as give details of the 
 whole constitution of Grecian society, the manners, customs, and modes of 
 thinking and feeling. Among the classical writers, the poets also must be 
 considered as sources of information on this subject, especially the epic poets, 
 whose narrations, notwithstanding their fictitious ornaments, have some truth 
 for a basis, and whose representations give much insight into the character and 
 views of the people of the times. But another important source is found in 
 the remaining monuments of art; inscriptions, coins, statues, bas-reliefs, gems, 
 and vessels of various kinds. These, being sensible objects, give us a more 
 distinct and complete conception of many points than could possibly be gained 
 from mere verbal descriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations 
 of beauty and taste. 
 
 § 13 u. Various modern writers have collected from these sources scattered items of 
 information, and arranged them methodically for the benefit of those who wish to gain 
 a knowledge of antiquities, and apply it to the study of Greek literature. Other writers 
 have investigated particular topics in a more full and extended manner. 
 
 1. For an account of works of both kinds, see 
 
 J. A. Fabricii Bibliographia antiquaria. (Stud, et op. P. Schaffs- 
 hausen.) Hamb. 1760. 4. cap. ii. 
 
 Nitsch's Beschreibung des, &c. which is cited below (Th. i. 
 p. 35.) 
 
 Krebs, Haudbuch der philolol. Bucherkunde (Bd. ii. p. 211). 
 
 Cf. Super's Allg. Theorie, Alten. 
 
 Meuzd's Bibliotheca Historica, vol. 3d, as ciled P. V. §240. 
 enumerates the writers on Antiquities. 
 
 2. The most important collection of parlicular treatises on 
 Greek Antiquities is Jac Gronovii Thesaurus Antiquitatum 
 Gracarum. Lug. Bat. 1697-1702. 13 vols. fol. Ven. 1732. An 
 account of the contents is given in the work of Fabricius, just 
 cited.— A mass of valuable matter relating to various branches of 
 Greek Antiquities, with illustrations taken from ancient monu- 
 ments, is found in Montfaucon't Antiq. Expliq. cited P. II. 
 § 12. 2 (d). An abridgment of this in German, by J. F. Roth, 
 was published Numb. 1807. fol. with 150 plates We may men- 
 tion here also Caylus, Recueil des Antiquites. Par. 1767. 7 vols. 4. 
 containing Egyptian and other antiquities, with engravings. — 
 Also, F. A. David, Antiquites Etrusques, Grecques, et Romains. 
 Par. 1787. 5 vols. 4. 
 
 3. Among the best Manuals and Compends on the subject 
 are the following : 
 
 Evcrh. Feithii Antiquitatum Homericarum Libri iv. (ed. El. 
 Stobcr) Argent. 1743. 8. 
 
 Fr. Rous, Attick Antiquities. 9th ed. Lond. 1685. 4. 
 
 Jo. Phil. Pfieffer, Libri iv. Antiq. Gnecarum. Lpz. 1708. 4. 
 
 Lamb. Bos, Antiq. Grtecarum, pracipue Atticarum, Descrip' 
 tio brevis (with obs. of Leisner and Zeunius). Lpz. 1787. 8. 
 (Eng. trans, by Stockdale) Lond. 1772. 8. 
 
 Sig. ffavercamp, Antiq. Grrecarum, prajcipue Atticarum, De- 
 scriptio brevis. Lug. Bat. 1740. 8. 
 
 P.F.A.Nitsch, Bi-schreibung des hiluslichen, gottesdienstlichen, 
 sittlichen, politischen, kriegerischen und wissenscliaftlichen Zu- 
 standes d. Griechen, &c (fortgesetzt von Hbpfner) Erf. 1 791-1800. 
 3 vols. 8. with a 4th vol. by Elipke, Erf. 1806. Cf. Class. 
 Journ. v. 10. 
 
 P. F. A. Nitsch (same), Entwurf der Griech. Alterthftmer. 
 Altenb. 1791. 8. 
 
 L. Schaaff, Antiquilaten und Arcbaologie der Griechen und 
 Romer. (also in his Encycl. der Class. Alterthumsk). Magdeb. 
 1820. s. 
 
 /. Robinson, Archreologia Gra-ca, or the Antiquities of 
 Greece, &c. Lond. 1827. 8. 
 
 /. Potter, Archseologia Graeca, or the Antiquities of Greece 
 Oxf. 1699. 2 vols. 8.— Same work, ed. G. Dunbar. Edinb. 1S20. 
 — with additions and corrections by Anthon. N. York, 1825. 8. 
 —with notes, maps, &c. by /. Boyd. Glasg. 1S37. 12. valuable.- 
 Same work in German, with additions by I. I. Rambach. Halle. 
 1777-78. 3 vols. 8. 
 
 A compendium of Grecian Antiquities by C. D. Clevdana. 
 Bost. 1831. 12. 
 
 Abriss der Griech. und Rom. Alterthllmer, von Chr. Fried, 
 Haacke. Stendal, 1821. 12. (very brief). 
 
 4. The following are not designed for manuals, but contain 
 highly interesting pictures of Grecian antiquity. 
 
 /. Jac. Bartfielemy, Voyage de jeune Anacharsis en Grece. ed 
 Stcrcot. Par. 1820. 7 vols. 12.— Engl, transl. by W. Beaumont 
 Lond. 1806. Cf. P. V. § 153.-In Germ, with notes by /. E. 
 Biester. Eerl. 1792. 7 vols. 8. 
 
 /. D. Hartmanris Versuch einer Kulturgeschichte del 
 vornehmsten Volkerschaften Griechenlands. Lemgo, 1796 and 
 1800. 2 Bde. 8. 
 
 /. D. Lochhart, Inquiry into the Civil, Moral, and Religious 
 Inslilutions of Athens, &c. wilh the Topography, and Chorogra 
 phy of Atlica and Athens. Translated from the German of K. O. 
 JUUller. Lond. 1842. 8. 
 
 The Athenian Letters, cited § 9. 
 
 5. The following works also may be consulted with advan- 
 tage on different points : 
 
 IVachsmuth, Hellenische Alterthumskunde. Halle, 1826. 
 Trans, into Engl. (Historical Antiquities of Greece) Oxf. 1837. 
 4 vols. 8. 
 
 HilVs Essays on the Institutions of the Greeks. 
 
 Gillies' Discourse on the Manners of the Greeks. 
 
 W. Becker, Charicles; Bikler altgriechischer Silten. Lpz. 1S40. 
 2 vols. 8. with plates. A work illustrating the private life of the 
 ancient Greeks. 
 
 C. Hermann, Antiquitatum Laconicarum libelli iv. Marb. 
 1841. 4. 
 
 J. MalUot, Recherches sur les Mceurs, Ies Usages, religieux, 
 civile, et mililaires, des Anciens Peuples. Par. 1809. 3 vols. 4. 
 
 H. Hose, The Public and Private Life of the ancient Greeks, 
 Transl. from German. Lond. 1836. 8. 
 
 Hetren's Politics of Anc. Greece. Transl. by G. Bancroft 
 Bost. 1824. 
 
 C. O. MUlla's History and Antiquities of the Doric Race Tr. 
 by H. Tufnel and O. C. Lciois. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 Wm. Bruce, State of Society in the age of Homer. 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN Tin; EARLY AGKS. 145 
 
 looM, StuUbauihtltuog .inr Athentr. (Traniltttd Into 
 Biujllih) Public B omy <•< Atbom, Lond, 1829, 2 vnl«. h. 
 
 Cardner'i Ctblnel Encyclop. No. Klvll. and ix». (Oa Arln, 
 MboufaoturM, boi ofOroeluind RomtniO 
 
 itouKicr, [^Agriculture Anelonna da Qrtoi. P»r. i830. 8. 
 
 11.11. Il'iu'l, Jrtvinll, OiMiil.il.iuiil Chviicil Alilli|ililii'» J I'nli- 
 
 talniiiK llluitratlooi o( Mm Berlpturoi aud Oluilotl EUcordi ( from 
 
 Oriental i cm, Camb. 1823. B, (of. Borru, Inf. to Stud. B. 
 
 Script. ii. p, Til). 
 Bolltn'i An,'. iii»t. blc x. Bui idltlbn, n.-w y„rk, 1835. 
 
 2 viiln. lnrxn H. 
 
 (.'. /''. ItWl.T, IIr|M'.lullll!i. ill'l d.LTliNllhllll AltOI'lll 
 « l"M. I,|)Z. mi. 8. 
 
 Bncyclopidii Mthoiiqut, u cltcil P. II. t) 12. 2 (c). 
 
 /'. Dttnit, Dictionary ofOmk ud ftonun AnllqulllMi Lond. 
 1700. 4. 
 
 A. Pauly, ReaMBnoyolaplLdle <i"r oltulicben Aiiortbumiwii- 
 Mtuohifuuii kiuiik. ih:ih, commonoid. 
 
 r.r.hnhr, Bnoyslopwlliol AntlqultlM, Oliulnl ind Modi** 
 viil. Lond. 1838. 3 voli. 4. with plitti,— Alio Lond. 1840. 
 I vol. lniw 8. 
 
 tV.Nnlith, Dj.-tn.i.jiry ul (lin-lt ami Kmii.ni Aiiti'|ililii». I.nli.l. 
 I8'12. largo H. vtiry valUlblo. 
 
 tj. Additional roftronooi on partloular toploi will bs glvon 
 
 .Mi Ihii IiiJiii ii iirrur in llm li,lliiwiii|. nrdiniin. 
 
 § 14. The subject of antiquities cannot be treated in so strict accordance with 
 chronological order as the events of history 1 ) because the sources of information 
 are not Sufficiently minute. Hut still in describing the antiquities of a people, 
 one should not lose sight of the influence which political revolutions, the pro- 
 gress and decline of refinement, and other circumstances, have exerted at suc- 
 cessive tines upon the constitution, manners, and whole, national character ami 
 social State. Most writers have not been Sufficiently mindful of this, and have 
 
 also confined themselves chiefly to the most flourishing of the Grecian states, 
 
 viz. Athens, and so have described Jinic, rather than Grecian antiquities. In 
 order to avoid this double fault in the present sketch, the antiquities of the ear- 
 lier and less cultivated times will he. distinguished from those of a later and 
 
 more enlightened period; and in speaking of the latter, although Athens was 
 
 then the most important and most eminent, wo shall also notice the constitution 
 md peculiarities of the other principal states. 
 
 I. — Of the earlier and less cultivated Ages. 
 § 15. Tt has been already suggested (§ 5, $10), that Greece advanced with 
 
 very rapid step from a State Of extreme rudeness in manners and morals to the 
 
 highest degree of refinement. The history of this progress may be divided 
 into three distinct periods. The first extends from the original state of barba- 
 rism to the time el' the Trojan war ; this was the period of the peopling of 
 
 Greece: the second extends from the capture of Troy to the time of Splon, the 
 period of the rise ami formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs; the 
 
 third extends from the ape of Solon, to the time when the (.'recks lost their 
 
 liberty by subjection to the Macedonians (of. P. V. § 'J), the period of their 
 greatest perfection and glory. 
 
 Under the present head it is proposed to notice what pertains more particu- 
 larly to the first and second of the above-mentioned periods; and the subject 
 will be considered in four general branches, viz. religious, civil, military, Bind 
 domestic affairs. 
 
 I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 16. During the rude and unsettled state of society among the (.'reeks, their 
 religion had no fixed or steady form: yet a great part of the popular belief 
 
 Originated in these times, which OH this account have been called the mythical 
 ages or fabulous period. The formation of this early popular faith was aided 
 by the general ignorance, the predominance of sensual ideas, and the natural 
 tendencies of the mind in an uncultivated state of society (l\ II. § , r >«). With 
 the progress Of SOCial and moral Culture, the tradition;; and fables frrew into a 
 sort of SVStem, Which was retained as a. religion of the people, and augmented 
 
 and modified by additions from Egyptian and Phoenician mythology« 
 
 According to common accounts, (ireece received new and better religious 
 notions from Thrace, by Orpheus, 15. 0. about 12.0') (cf. P, V. § 12, § 48^ 
 VJ _N 
 
146 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 They were, however, chiefly of Egyptian origin. The worship of animals the 
 Greeks never adopted ; but the) r embraced in common with most of the ancient 
 nations, the worship of the stars, that early form of idolatry. They also prac- 
 ticed the custom of deifying and worshiping men (P. II. § 118), who were 
 styled heroes, having distinguished themselves by making new discoveries, 
 establishing useful laws, or performing renowned exploits. 
 
 On the religious affairs of Greece, we may refer to /. G. Lahcmacher, Antiquitates Grascorum sacrae. Helmst. 1744. 8. — Chr. 
 Brilningii, Compendium Antiq. Grauc e profanis sacrarum. Francof. 1758. 8.— Mitford, Hist. Graec. ch. ii. sect. 1. — Foucher, sur 
 la religion des Grecs, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. vols, xxxiv. xxxv. xxxvi. xxxviii. and xxxix. — Ant. Van Dale, Diss, de Origiue 
 ac Frogressu Idolatrias et Superstitionum. Amst. 1696. 4. 
 
 § 17 m. Religious study and instruction among the early Greeks was the business of 
 their wise men, lawgivers, and poets, who were mostly at the same time priests. The 
 matter of these was confined chiefly to the dogmas and narratives of Theogony and 
 Cosmogony, which were of a mixed character, fabulous and allegorical, but based upon 
 some real appearances in nature and man. The various operations of the powers of 
 nature and the movements of human passions, were the principal foundation of the 
 tales and doctrines of the mythology. The origin of things, their vicissitudes and trans ■ 
 formations, their nature, tendency and effects, were the subjects ; and these were, by 
 a lively fancy, changed into supposed or imaginary persons, to whom words, actions, 
 and appropriate attributes were ascribed. The regular combination or assemblage of 
 these in order was called the Theogony, or account of the origin and descent of th« 
 gods. This constituted the whole theory of religion, which one of the most ancient of 
 the Greek poets, Hesiod, reduced to a sort of regular form in his poem styled the The- 
 ogony, and all the principal elements of which Homer interwove in his two epic poems, 
 the Illiad and Odyssey. (Cf. P. V. § 50, § 51.) 
 
 § 18 u. In the first ages the wise men, and especially the poets, made great exertions 
 to imbue the minds of the people with reverence for the gods and respect for their wor- 
 ship. On public solemnities, and in great assemblies of the people, they were ac- 
 customed to adapt their songs to this object. Even when the subject of these songs 
 was not the history of the gods, nor any point of direct religious instruction, they were 
 opened by a prayer to Jupiter, Apollo, or some inspiring deity. In this way they fixed 
 and strengthened a prevailing faith in the power and providence of the gods, and 
 formed the first ideas of right, virtue, and morality, and of future rewards and punish- 
 ments. The songs of these poets constituted at first the chief means and subject of 
 the instruction of the ytiung. Hence arose on the one hand the great influence of their 
 poetry on the moral culture of the Greeks, and on the other hand the great admiration 
 in which the early poets were generally held. 
 
 § 19 u. For an account of the principal Grecian deities, their names, rank, history, 
 attributes, and mode of worship, we refer to the portion of this work which treats of 
 Mythology (P. II). Here we only remark, that the number of the Grecian gods con- 
 stantly increased with the progress of time, yet the highest and most distinguished of 
 them were introduced and honored in the early ages, and it was chiefly in the class of 
 heroes or demigods that this augmentation took place, after the lapse of the heroic 
 ages, and by means of oral traditions. The more extensive the services of these heroes 
 were while living, the more general was the reverence for them after death, while 
 those, whose beneficial influence had been confined chiefly to a particular city or tribe, 
 were deified chiefly by the same, and received a less general homage and worship. 
 
 § 20. The sacred places, which were specially dedicated to the gods in these 
 early ages, were in part, fields and grounds, whose produce was devoted to 
 uses connected with religious worship ; partly groves and particular trees, the 
 former being commonly planted in a circular form; and partly, at length, tem- 
 ples, which were viewed as the seats and habitations of their respective gods. 
 The temples were usually in the cities near the market or place of public busi- 
 ness, although they were sometimes erected in the country, and in the conse- 
 crated groves. The ground, on which they stood, was usually elevated either 
 by nature or art, and their entrance or front was. commonly towards the east. 
 Some of them were dedicated to a single deity, others to several. It was not 
 uncommon to place the name of the god, to whom the temple was sacred, in a 
 brief inscription over the entrance. 
 
 § 21. Originally the interior of the temple was entirely vacant, after the 
 Egyptian manner, even without the image or statue of its god. And in the 
 earliest times the image of a god (cf. P. IV. § 156. 2) was nothing but a mere 
 stone, which served to represent the deity, and to which offerings were brought. 
 This was the primary origin of altars. By degrees, these stones came to be 
 formed into a human shape, after which it was more common to place statues 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLY AGES. 147 
 
 (wyaXfia-ta) of the gods in their temples. The posture was sometimes stand- 
 ing, sometimes sitting. The material, at first employed, was of no great value, 
 being stone, wood, or clay. There were, however, in the heroic ages, images 
 of the gods of a more costly substance, such as ivory, brass, silver or gold, 
 although Homer never exactly describes the material. 
 
 §22. The, care of the temples and holy things was intrusted to the priests 
 and priestesses. The number of these varied in different cases, and depended 
 generally upon the rank of the defty, on whose temple and worship they 
 attended. The marriage state was not forbidden them, although it became 
 afterwards customary to take priestesses mostly from persons unmarried, who 
 either were obliged to perpetual celibacy, or remained priestesses only until 
 marriage. In some instances the priesthood was hereditary ; but in others it 
 was adopted in free choice, or by lot. The residence of the priests was usu- 
 ally near the temple, or the consecrated grove, often within the limits of the 
 latter. They derived their subsistence from what was offered to the gods, and 
 were often in easy circumstances. Generally the office was highly honored in 
 the early ages of Greece, and was held, in part at least, by the noblest and 
 most distinguished personages, sometimes even by kings. 
 
 § 23. Some of the principal rites and solemnities pertaining to the religious 
 worship must here be mentioned. Among these were lustrations (xa^tap^oi, 
 ayvta/j.ol), which consisted in the ablution of the body, and a certain purification 
 of the clothes, and of sacred utensils. For this purpose salt water was used, 
 which was taken from the sea, or prepared by a solution of salt in common 
 water. Sulphur and fire were also used on these occasions. These purifica- 
 tions were considered as especially necessary for those who were defiled by 
 murder and blood, and even for the places where such crimes had happened. 
 They were often ordered for the propitiation of offended deities. 
 
 § 24. But prayers and sacrifices were the most essential parts of Grecian 
 worship. The former were put up, especially, when some important enterprise 
 or undertaking was commenced ; the object of the prayer being to secure a 
 happy issue, in case of which very rich gifts were promised to the gods by the 
 supplicant. Both prayers and vows were termed lv%6,i. In making them, the 
 eyes and hands were raised towards the heavens, or in the temples directed 
 towards the images. The posture was sometimes standing, sometimes kneel- 
 ing (yovvd^sG^at, yowrtsteiv) ; the latter was used especially in case of earnest 
 desire or peculiar distress, and often by the whole assembly in common. 
 
 1. Supplicants usually had garlands on their heads and necks, and green boughs of 
 olive or laurel (S-aXXoi or *Xa<5oi i/cr/jpioi) in their hands. In the boughs wool was placed 
 without tying, and they were hence called sometimes ori^uara. With these boughs the 
 supplicants touched the knees, sometimes the cheek, of the statue of the god addressed 
 in their prayers. 
 
 2 u. With the prayers were usually joined the libations, or drink offerings, cnroviai, 
 called also \oi(Sai, x°* L - These consisted generally of wine, part of which was poured 
 out in honor of the gods, and part of it drunk by the worshiper. The wine must be 
 pure {aKpanv), and offered in a full cup. Sometimes there were libations of water 
 \vipoanovia), of honey {jickitmov&a), of milk {yaXaKToarrtovia) , and of oil (i\ai6(nroi/6a). 
 
 In Plate XX. we have the representation of a priestess in the act of pouring out the libation ; 
 in this instance the liquid is poured upon the flame kindled on the altar; also in Plate XXVII. 
 fig. C. which is taken from Moses, Antique Vases. 
 
 § 25. The sacrifices, $vo£ai, originally consisted merely of incense, £rt!oj, or 
 some sort of fragrant fumigation, by cedar, citron wood, or the like. In very 
 early times, the fruits of the earth, in a crude, unprepared state, were offered ; 
 and subsequently, cakes, ovXal, baked of coarse barley, or meal mixed with 
 salt. It was not until a somewhat later period, that the slaughter of living 
 victims was introduced. These victims were selected with great care. At 
 first, bullocks, sheep, goats, and swine, were chiefly taken for the purpose. 
 Afterwards certain animals became specially sacred as victims appropriate to 
 particular gods. Sometimes a single victim was sacrificed, sometimes several 
 at once, which were often of the same kind of animal, and often also of differ- 
 ent kinds. The hecatomb {kxato^ri) properly consisted of a hundred bullocks 
 
148 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 or oxen ; yet neither the number nor kind of animals was very precisely re* 
 
 garded. 
 
 The origin of sacrifices is an interesting and important theme. Some flippant and superficial 
 writers ascribe them wholly to mere superstition and priestcraft. Others attempt in a more 
 serious manner to explain their existence by human origin. Several theories have been pro- 
 posed; one is, that they were at first gifts, a natural expedient for procuring the favor of the 
 gods; another, that they were federal rites, drawn from men's eating and drinking together in 
 token of friendship, and hence the sacrificial banquet (cf. ij 27) ; a third, advanced by Warburton 
 (in his Divine Legation of Moses), is that they were symbolical actions, expressive of gratitude 
 in some offerings, and in others, of the acknowledgment of sin and contrition through the death 
 of an animal representing the death deserved by the worshiper. But a fourth account, which 
 refers them to a divine institution, is more satisfactory. The Bible represents the Hebrew sacri- 
 fices as typical of the death of Christ as the great atoning sacrifice for sinners. (Cf. Ep. to Heb. 
 ix. and x.) On supposition that God, when he promised a Redeemer to Adam, instituted some 
 memorial and type, in an animal sacrifice, it is easy to see how by tradition the practice of offering 
 sacrifices should be universal. — The subject is well discussed by W. Magee, Dissertations on the 
 Scriptural Doctrine of Atonement and Sacrifice. N. York, 1813. 8. — Cf. A. Jl.Sykes, Essay on the 
 Sacrifices. Loud. 1748. 8. 
 
 , § 26. The altars (fiiofxoi), on which the sacrifices were presented, were erected 
 not only in the temples, but often in open places, as on the banks of rivers, 
 on mountains, in groves, and the like. 
 
 The altar seems to have preceded the temple ; and, in the opinion of some, gave rise 
 to the temple, as suggested in the following passage. 
 
 "Throughout the whole of the Iliad no mention occurs of a temple in Greece, except in the 
 second book, evidently incidental, and the interpolation of some vainly patriotic Athenian rhap- 
 sodist. The passage indeed might be condemned on the grounds of philological discussion, but 
 it contradicts both the history of art and of religion in that country. In Troy, the temple of 
 Minerva appears to have been a mere shrine, in which a statue was inclosed, and probably, in 
 Tenedos, a temple of Apollo is merely alluded to. During the age of Homer, then, the primeval 
 altar, common to both Europe and Asia, was the only sacred edifice known. This differed little 
 from a common hearth ; the sacrifice being in fact a social rite, the victim, at once an offering to 
 heaven, and the food of man, was prepared by roasting ; the first improvement on their simple 
 construction appears to have been the addition of a pavement, an obvious means of cleanliness 
 and comfort. Yet even this appears to have constituted a distinction not common, since, in par- 
 ticular instances, the pavement is mentioned as a peculiar ornament. Subsequently, in order 
 to mark in a more conspicuous manner, and with more dignity, the sacred spot, while the rites 
 should be equally exposed to the spectators, an open colonnade was added, inclosing the altar 
 and pavement. Thus the roofless temple might be said to be finished ; but whether this prime- 
 val structure existed in his native country during the age of Homer does not appear. We 
 remark here a very striking resemblance between the ancient places of devotion in Greece and 
 the Druidical temple of the more northern regions. In fact, the astonishing remains at Stone- 
 henge present the best known, and perhaps one of the most stupendous examples ever erected 
 of the open temple. This species of religious erection appears to have been co-extensive with 
 the spread of the human race, and not, as generally supposed, limited to the northern portion 
 of the globe."— Memes, Hist, of Sculpture, &c. p. 225, as cited P. IV. $ 169. 
 
 § 27. Among the ceremonies connected with offering a sacrifice, was the pre- 
 vious washing of the hands (§ 67. 2) and the sprinkling, by the priests, of those 
 who were present, with sacred water (yjpvt^). Then was placed upon the 
 back and head of the victim, in early times, unground barley, in later times, a 
 number of small cakes (rtorfowa, dvXoxvta), often meal mixed with honey, wine, 
 or oil ; a little hair torn from the forehead of the victim was then thrown upon 
 the fire ; next followed the prayer and libation (§ 24. 2) ; then the priest, or the 
 xrjpv%, smote the animal on the head with an ax or club, and cut its throat with 
 a sacrificial knife (r/qjayis). The blood was received in an appropriate vessel 
 (tf^aystov). The victim was then flayed and cut in pieces. The next thing 
 was to cover the haunches or thighs (fiypoo) with caul or fat (xvioari), and to 
 take small pieces from other parts of the animal and place upon them (Jifio^BtsZv). 
 Upon the portions thus prepared, wine was commonly poured, and they were 
 then placed on the altar and burned. The rest of the victim was usually 
 roasted on spits, and eaten at the sacrificial banquet. Banquets of this kind 
 were made especially on the sacred festivals. 
 
 § 28. Besides the sacrifices properly so called, it was common to bring to 
 the gods other gifts and offerings (r5uipa, ava^ua-fa). Among these, were 
 crowns or garlands (otttyavos, G-ttyos), with which the temples, altars, and sta- 
 tues were often adorned, and which were formed of the leaf sacred to the par- 
 ticular god to whom they were offered : e. g. oiivy, for Bacchus ; of oak, for 
 Jupiter. Curtains and vestments (rtEptrtsraoTtafa, rt^pow^ua-fa) wrought with 
 rich embroidery were brought and placed upon the statues or hung in the tern 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 149 
 
 pies. Vessels of gold, silver, and brass were also offered, and tripods (i-ptrtofof) 
 especially to Apollo. The spoils of war were often thus consecrated, axpo&via, 
 with shields and arms. Frequently the articles dedicated to the gods were 
 marked by inscriptions stating the occasion and circumstances of their dedica- 
 tion. From the custom here described, arose the great riches of some of the 
 Grecian temples. 
 
 The temple of Apollo at Delphi, particularly, became in the course of years pos- 
 sessed of immense wealth. 
 
 See Mitfard's Hist. Greece, ch. xxxvii. sect. 1 j ch. xxxviii. sect. 1 j ch. xxxix. sect. 5. — Bancroft's Heeren, p. 201, as cited P. V. 
 § 7. 8. — De ValoiSj Les richesses du temple de Delphes, i& the Mem, Acad. Inscr. iii. 78. 
 
 § 29. In addition to the worship rendered the gods, there was a worship of 
 the heroes as demigods (§ 16), which however was neither so general nor 
 attended with so much ceremony. These had no festivals, properly speaking, 
 but an annual funeral solemnity (evdyiepa), and were viewed as tutelary guar- 
 dians of their country, tribe, or family. On these solemnities, the drink offer- 
 ings (%odi) were in common practice; not only wine was used for the purpose, 
 but often milk, and even blood. Sometimes victims were slain, and various 
 offerings presented, and from these a trophy (tfpo7t<woi>) or a funeral pile, was 
 constructed. In some cases, the first fruits of the season were offered. The 
 usual place of such solemnities was the tomb of the hero, in whose memory 
 they were held, near which it was customary to erect an altar ; often also to 
 make a pit or hole (j3d^poj, hdxxoc,), which had reference to their dwelling in 
 the under world. (Cf. P. II. § 32.) 
 
 § 30. Funeral solemnities were generally a part of the religious usages of the 
 more ancient Greeks. These commenced immediately on the death of an indi- 
 vidual, in the formal closing of his eyes (cvyxXeUiv tfoij oty^aXfiovc,), a ceremony 
 usually performed by the nearest kinsman. The corpse was then washed and 
 anointed, clothed in a white linen pall and placed on a sort of bier (xzx-ipov, 
 ^s'psT'pov). Around this the kindred and friends of the deceased raised the 
 funeral lament, which was often expressed in song by persons employed for 
 the occasion, and accompanied by mournful notes of the flute. The mourners 
 also testified their sorrow by plucking off their hair, and casting it upon the 
 corpse. These ceremonies were continued, not always the same length of 
 time, sometimes three, sometimes seven days, and often a greater number. 
 
 § 31. The burning of the corpse was a custom peculiar to the Greeks, as 
 the Egyptians and the Persians used to inter their dead. In the earliest times 
 interring was practiced by the Greeks, although Homer speaks only of 
 burning. 
 
 1 u. After the completion of the bewailings just described, the corpse was borne on 
 a bed or bier to the appointed place, where a funeral pile (jriipa) was erected. Near 
 this, funeral sacrifices were slain. Upon the pile were placed various objects, which 
 had been particularly valued by the deceased, even animals, and sometimes human 
 beings previously put v to death. During the burning, the attendants uttered their wait- 
 ings and funeral chants. The flame was finally extinguished by pouring on some 
 liquid, and the ashes or remaining bones were collected by the nearest relative, and 
 deposited in an urn, which was buried in the earth. The place of interment was 
 marked by stones and a mound (x&iui), on which was commonly raised a pillar (crrrj\rj), 
 or other monument, with an inscription. The ceremonies were ended with a funeral 
 repast {vzKpofcntvov , mplkatvov). Sometimes games were celebrated in honor of the 
 deceased. 
 
 2: It is stated, that among the Thracians wives were burned on the funeral piles of 
 their husbands ; a custom which is still prevalent in India, although the influence of 
 Christianity is breaking it up in the portions of the country subject to England. 
 
 § 32. In speaking of the religious customs of the Greeks, we should notice 
 their regard to oracles and to divinations. The most ancient of the oracles was 
 that of Dodona; that of Delphi was still more celebrated, and also of earl}' 
 origin. The practice of divination and the interpreting of signs was a business 
 of the priests in particular. It was done partly by observing accidental 
 occurrences, as the flight of birds, or the breaking of thunder, in both of which 
 the right side indicated good fortune, the observer having his face directed to the 
 north ; and partly by consulting the entrails of victims. Sneezing was re- 
 
 n2 
 
150 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 garded as a favorable prognostic. We may mention also the prophetic inter- 
 pretation of dreams, and the belief of the multitude in magic, and in bodily 
 metamorphoses, which they supposed to afford various means of aid and pro- 
 tection. 
 
 The religious festivals were numerous and attended with various ceremonies. 
 — But on each of the topics mentioned in this section, we shall speak more 
 particularly again. (Cf. §§ 70-77.) 
 
 II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 33. It has been already remarked (§ 5), that the first inhabitants of Greece 
 lived in a dispersed state, without civil culture or any social compact. The 
 family relations, the authority of the parent over the child, of the husband over 
 the wife, exhibited the only traces of government. Phoroneus, a son of Inachus, 
 is mentioned as the first author of association for civil purposes. Gradually 
 the Greek tribes began to select leaders, who were called kings (fiaoiXsi.s), 
 however limited might be the extent of their dominion or authority. The choice 
 most generally fell upon such as had rendered to their tribe or country some 
 distinguished and meritorious service; and then the dignity became hereditary, 
 a thing rather rare, however, in the earlier ages. Sometimes the choice was 
 determined by consulting an oracle, and in such case the authority was viewed 
 as the more rightful, and as sanctioned by the gods. 
 
 On the subject of the civil affairs of the early Greeks, we may refer to F. W. Tittmann's Darstellung der griechiscb. Staatsverfas- 
 sungen. Leipz. 1822. S. — Milford, ch. ii. sect. 2 ; ch. iv. sect. 4. — See § 92. 
 
 § 34. The kingly power, in the first ages, was far from being despotic, or 
 unlimited ; the leaders and princes being bound by certain laws and usages. 
 The principal duties of these chiefs were to command in war, to settle disputes 
 between the people, and to take care of the worship of the gods. Valor, love 
 of justice, and zeal for religion, were therefore reckoned among their most im- 
 portant excellences. For their honor and support, a portion of the lands was 
 assigned, the cultivation of which they superintended themselves. Certain 
 taxes or imposts were also paid to them, which were increased in time of war. 
 The signs of their office were the scepter and diadem. The former (tfsc^rt-^poj/) 
 was usually of wood, and in length not unlike the lance; the latter (rStac^ua,) 
 was a sort of bandeau or head-band, rather than a proper crown. The general 
 costume of these kings was distinguished by its richness, and was commonly of 
 a purple color. 
 
 In ancient times, one of the tokens of office and rank always was something attached 
 to the head ; a wreath, cap, crown, or the like. A metallic crown was common. 
 David is said to have had a crown of gold with precious stones, of the weight (meaning 
 probably of the value) of a talent (1 Sam. xii. 30). Athenieus mentions a crown, made 
 of 10,000 pieces of gold, placed on the throne of king Ptolemy. 
 
 In otir Plate XVI. fig. C, we have a curious golden crown, which is said to have been found 
 in some part of Ireland, in 1692, about ten feet underground. Near it in the Plate, fig. a, is an an- 
 cient Abyssinian crown ; on the other side, fig. b, is the covering seen on the head of a conquered 
 prince or general upon Egyptian monuments. — In Plate XXIV. fig. 6, we have the fillet and horn 
 worn by governors of provinces in Abyssinia. "A large broad fillet," says Bruce, "was bound 
 upon their forehead and tied behind their head. In the middle of this was a conical piece of silver 
 about four inches long. It is called kirn or horn, and is worn especially in parades after victo- 
 ries."— Bruce, Travels, &c. as cited P. IV. $ 118. 1. 
 
 § 35. The court and retinue of the first kings was very simple and unimpos- 
 ing. In war, they usually had by their side a friend, who served as a kind of 
 armor-bearer. Both in war and peace, they employed heralds {x-qpvxti) in the 
 publication and execution of their orders. The heralds also imposed silence, 
 when the chiefs wished to come forward and speak in an assembly. The same 
 officers assisted in religious ceremonies, and were present in the forming of 
 treaties. — The kings also selected councillors, of the most distinguished, ex- 
 perienced, and brave of the people ; and in cases of doubt or difficulty, held 
 with them consultations and formal assemblies, in which the speaker was 
 accustomed to stand and the rest to sit. Both public and private affairs were 
 discussed in these assemblies. 
 
 § 36. The courts of justice were in public places; and the whole assembly 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 151 
 
 usually presented the form of a circle. The judges sat upon seats or benches 
 of stone ; the men selected for the office were such as were much respected on 
 account of age and experience. They bore in their hand a scepter or staff. 
 The cause was stated orally by the contending 1 parties themselves, and by them 
 the witnesses were brought forward. The kings or chiefs presided in these 
 judicial assemblies, sitting on an elevated seat or throne. For a period, equity 
 and precedent or usage formed the basis of all decisions ; but afterwards, the 
 courts had for their guide particular laws and statutes, which were first intro- 
 duced by Phoroneus, and more extensively by Cecrops. 
 
 § 37. As the laws in the more ancient times were few and simple, so were 
 the punishments. But few crimes were made capital. Murder was commonly 
 punished by banishment, either voluntarily sought by the murderer, or expressly 
 decreed by public sentence; its duration, however, was but a year, and even 
 this could sometimes be commuted for a fine. The privileges of asylum be- 
 longed only to the author of accidental, unintentional homicide. Adultery was 
 punished severely, commonly with death. Robbery and theft were very fre- 
 quent in the early times of Greece, and originally were not considered as cri- 
 minal, while the right of the stronger was admitted, especially if shrewdness 
 and cunning were united with the theft. Nothing therefore was aimed at but 
 to recover what had been taken, or to inflict vengeance by a corresponding in- 
 jury. Afterwards, however, particular punishments were imposed for these 
 offences. 
 
 § 38. In as much as the inhabitants of Crete were connected with the Greeks 
 by their having a common language, it is important to mention the Cretan laws, 
 which were introduced by Minos. They are said to have been the most ancient 
 written code, and were afterwards taken by Lycurgus as models. Military 
 valor and union among the people seems to have been their great aim ; every 
 ordinance of Minos was directed to promote strength of body, and to cultivate 
 social attachment between the members of the state. In order to impart greater 
 dignity and authority to his laws, he brought them forward as having been re- 
 vealed to him by Jupiter. But the moral culture was not greatly advanced by 
 institutions having their primary and chief reference to a state of war. 
 
 § 39. In the progress of time, the form of government among the Greeks 
 underwent many changes, and at length became wholly democratic. The most 
 celebrated of the states were Athens and Sparta. Of these in particular a few 
 important circumstances respecting their government in the more early ages are 
 here to be mentioned. 
 
 Athens was originally governed by kings. The power of these kings was 
 more unrestrained in war than in peace. After the death of Codrus (1068 B.C.), 
 it became a free state. The chief authority was given to officers styled 
 Archons, who ruled for life. Thirteen archons of this description succeeded 
 each other, all descended from the family of Codrus. After the time of these 
 (752 B. C), the office of Archon ceased to be for life, and was limited to ten 
 years, and was held by a single person at a time. After a succession of seven 
 Archons of this kind, the office was made annual (684 B. C), and nine Archons 
 were appointed to rule jointly, not all, however, of the same rank. — The civil 
 government experienced changes under Draco, and others still greater under 
 the distinguished legislator Solon, and in after times. 
 
 § 40. Sparta was also originally governed by kings. Euristhenes and Pro- 
 cles, the two sons of Aristodemus (one of the Heraclidae that invaded Pelo- 
 ponnesus),reigned jointly, but not harmoniously. Under their descendants the 
 kingly office lost much of its authority. Lycurgus, the famous Spartan law- 
 giver, changed greatly the form of government ; it did not become democratical, 
 neither was it, properly speaking, aristocratical. Two kings remained at the 
 head, and a senate was established consisting of twenty-eight men, who were 
 above sixty years of age. There was also the body of five Ephori, appointed 
 annually. The people themselves likewise had some share in the administra- 
 tion of the state. Notwithstanding many internal divisions and disturbances, 
 this state enjoyed a long period of comparative rest and liberty. This it owt d 
 
152 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 very much to the wise regulations of Lycurgus, the salutary influence of which 
 was aided by the limited territory and moderate population of Lacedeemon. 
 
 § 41. One of the most effectual means of advancing the Greeks was their 
 commerce and the navigation connected with it. In the earliest times, com- 
 merce consisted chiefly in barter and reciprocal exchanges of native products, 
 the use of gold not being introduced. Afterwards pieces of metal of different 
 values were employed. (Cf. P. IV. § 94.) Navigation became more common 
 after the Trojan war, and iEgina first turned it to the advantage of commerce. 
 Corinth and Rhodes became most distinguished in this respect. The commerce 
 of Athens finally became something considerable; that of Lacedaemon on the 
 other hand always remained comparatively unimportant. — On the whole, it is 
 worthy of remark, that the extension of commerce and maritime intercourse 
 had an important influence upon the civil and moral culture of the Grecian 
 states. (Cf. P. IV. § 40.) 
 
 A. Anderson, Historical and Chronological Deduction of the Origin of Commerce, from the earliest accounts ; with Appendix by 
 Coombs. Dubl. 1790. 6 vols. 8. 
 
 " Commerce, in the Homeric age, appears to have been principally in the hands of 
 the Phenicians. The carrying-trade of the Mediterranean was early theirs, and Sidon 
 was the great seat of manufacture. The Greeks were not without traffic carried on 
 by sea among themselves ; but the profession of merchant had evidently not in Homer's 
 time that honorable estimation which yet, according to Plutarch, it acquired at an early 
 period in Greece. While it was thought not unbecoming a prince to be a carpenter to 
 supply his own wants or luxuries, to be a merchant for gain was held but as a mean 
 employment ; a pirate was a more respected character. 
 
 Navigation had been much practiced, long before Homer, in small open vessels, 
 nearly such as are still common in the Mediterranean ; and the poet gives no hint of 
 any late advancement of the art. The seas, indeed, which nearly surrounded Greece, 
 are singularly adverse to improvements upon that vast scale which oceans require, and 
 which modern times have produced. Broken by innumerable headlands and islands, 
 with coasts mostly mountainous, and in some parts of extraordinary height, the Gre- 
 cian seas are beyond others subject to sudden and violent storms. These united cir- 
 cumstances, which have made the Greeks of all ages excellent boatmen, have contri- 
 buted much to prevent them from becoming seamen. The skill and experience of the 
 pilot, in the modern sense of the term, are constantly wanted ; the science of the 
 navigator is of little avail ; even the compass is comparatively useless in the iEgean. 
 The Mediterranean vessels now, not excepting the French, which are mostly navigated 
 by Mediterranean sailors, never keep the sea there but with a fair wind. The English 
 alone, accustomed in all their surrounding waters to a bolder navigation, commonly 
 venture in the Archipelago to work to windward. Sails were used in fair winds in 
 Homer's time ; but the art of sailing was extremely imperfect. The mariner's de- 
 pendence was his oars, which no vessel was without. For in seas so land-locked, yet 
 so tempestuous, the greatest danger was to the stoutest ship. Light vessels, which 
 with their oars could creep along the coast, watch the weather, make way in calms, 
 and, on any threatening appearance, find shelter in shoal water or upon an open beach, 
 were what Grecian navigation peculiarly required. The Phenicians,. for their com- 
 merce, used deeper ships, accommodated to their more open seas and longer voyages." 
 Mitford. 
 
 III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 42. Military prowess was esteemed by the early Greeks as of the greatest 
 merit, and was therefore an object of universal ambition. The first inhabitants 
 were distinguished for their warlike inclinations and habits of life, although 
 their wars were conducted without much method or discipline. They were 
 constantly in arms, not only to defend themselves and their property, but to 
 attack and plunder others. Thus they perpetrated violence, murder, and de- 
 vastation in the extreme. It needed but a trifling- occasion to excite a general, 
 long, and bloody war; the siege of Troy furnishes a striking example. In 
 such cases, several chiefs and people, sometimes of very distant provinces, 
 united as in a common cause. 
 
 On Grecian military affairs, see I T. H. Nast, Einleitung in die griechischen Kriegsalterthlmer. Siutlg I7S0. S. a valuabla 
 work on the jenerat subject.— Also, G. G. S. KSpte, Qber das Kriegsweisen der Griechen im heroischcn Zeitalter, &c. 'Bert. 1807. 8. 
 of. Class. Journ. ix. 1 1.— C. Guiscard, Memoires militaires sur les Grecs et sur les Romains. La Haye, 175S. 4. tt contains a 
 Translation of Onomnder (cf. P. V. § 221), and plans of some ancient battles, &c. Cf. § 275.— Gamier, as cited § 136.— Mitford'i 
 <fist. ch. ii. sect. 3, 4. 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS OF THE EARLIER AGES. 153 
 
 § 43. The Grecian armies consisted partly of foot-soldiers and in later times 
 of horsemen, partly of such as were borne in chariots. The foot-soldiers were 
 distinguished as light armed (4,1x61) and heavy armed (oftntat,). The Thessa- 
 lians were early and especially celebrated for their cavalry (IrtTtslg). Still more 
 ancient was the use of war-chariots, which w T ere employed by the heroes of 
 Homer. Two horses, sometimes three, were attached to these chariots ; each 
 contained two warriors, one of whom guided the horses (jywo^oc), while the 
 other pointed out the direction (rtapou,j3d*?»7j), discharged arrows, hurled missiles 
 from a sling, or fought with short arms, and when the action was close sprang 
 from the chariot (5<4>poj). Notwithstanding the inconvenience of these vehicles 
 in battle, they were in use for a long time, before cavalry came to be generally 
 substituted in their place. 
 
 In the Sup. Plate 10 is seen a war chariot with three horses and two persons; Bellona acting 
 as charioteer, while Mars is hurling the javelin. 
 
 § 44. The weapons of the Greek warriors were of two kinds, defensive and 
 offensive. Among the former (aXslj^jjpta, rfpOjSx^aT'a) was the helmet {xwiyj, 
 xpdvoi, rtspt,xetya\aua, xopuj) made of hide or leather and adorned with a crest 
 of hair or tufts of feathers (tfaxoj, xo<5>oj), and attached to the neck by a strap 
 (dxsvs) ; the breastplate (^iopa|), commonly made of brass, sometimes of 
 leather or linen; the girdje (fuj/j?), mostly of brass and encircling the lower 
 part of the body; the greaves (xvy]filSss), of brass or some more precious metal ; 
 and the shield (agH^), usually round, made of bullock's hide, and used for the 
 protection of the whole body (cf. § 139). 
 
 1 u. The shield was often adorned with figures, but not as much so as Hesiod repre- 
 sents the shield of Hercules to have been, and Homer that of Achilles. 
 
 2. Homer's description of the shield of Achilles (II. xviii.478) is considered as one of the finest 
 passages in the Iliad. A delineation and model of the shield was formed by the celebrated artist 
 Flaxman, and several casts were made in silver gilt, bronze, and plaster. He brought the whole 
 work within a circle of three feet in diameter. It contains upwards of a hundred human figures 
 exhibited in relief. 
 
 Cf. Felton's Iliad, Notes. — See Quatr. de Quincy, Sur la description du bouclier d'Achille, &c. in the Mem. VTnst. de France* 
 Classe cvHist. et Lit. Jlnc. vol. iv. p. 102, with a colored plate. — De Caylus, Boucliers d'Achille, d'Hercule, et d'Enee, &c. in 
 the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvii. 21.— Class. Jaurn. vi. 6; viii. 409. 
 
 § 45. The offensive weapons were, the spear (Sopu), commonly made of the 
 ash-tree (ftsXt,'^), and of different lengths and forms according as it was designed 
 for combat more or less close; the sword (%l$oc), the belt of which hung from 
 the shoulders; the bow (to^ov), usually of wood, with a string (vtijpoi/) of 
 twisted horse-hair or of hide ; the arrows (j5e%7j, ottfTa), of light-wood, pointed 
 with iron, and winged (rti'spoEtj toj) with feathers ; the javelin (axw, axovtiov), 
 of various lengths and {orm^ ; and the sling (o^ei/Som?), of an oval shape, with 
 two leathern strings attached to its ends, by means of which arrows, stones, 
 and leaden balls (iA.o%vfS8w(u) were hurled against the foe. 
 
 The spear used for close combat was called S6pv dpcKrdv ; that for a distance, 7raXr<5i/ ; 
 the point, termed acxjm and (kowci?, was always of metal. Aovpod6i<ri was the name given to 
 the box or case, in which the spears were deposited when not in use. — The term l}x°s also 
 designates the spear; the epithet brazen (x^xeov) is usually applied to it. Cf. Horn. II. 
 
 iii. 380. The arrows were kept in a quiver (ipaptrpa), which, with the bow, was usually 
 
 carried on the back of the shoulders (ot waounv). The quiver had a lid or cover (™,ua). 
 Cf. Horn. II. iv. 116-120. 
 
 Various articles of ancient armor are seen in our Plates XVII. and XXII. The bow and quiver 
 are given in fig. T, and L, of Plate XVII. In this Plate also, fig. Y, Y, we have forms of the 
 Grecian javelin ; in O, O, spear-heads ; in the figs, a, a, the long spear; in H, a form of the clubs 
 (cf. $ 139) which in various forms were used in early periods; in fig. A, A, are given forms of 
 the club or battle-mallet used by the Egyptians, which sometimes had leaden heads with handles 
 four or five feet long ; in fig. I, I, we have the Grecian battle-ax; in fig. S, and in the several 
 figs, marked C, and those marked D, are forms of the Grecian and Roman sword ; in E, a Dacian 
 sword; in those marked B, Persian swords. — In Plate XXII fig. a, b, c, rf, and e, are varieties 
 of helmets found in Egyptian remains: /, g, k, and i, are Persian and Syrian helmets; the 
 kings are sometimes represented with crowns of a similar appearance: n, and o, are given as 
 Phrygian : I, m, are Grecian, and may represent also the Roman : p, and q, are Dacian : h, is a 
 form quite similar to the latter, said to be used also by the Syrians. In fig r, and on the Gre- 
 cian warriors, .fig. 1, and fig. 7, the thorax is seen, and the girdle : s, represents a figure found 
 (cf. Stone's Life of Brant, vol. ii. p. 55, Appendix) buried in a sitting posture, near the celehrated 
 Dighton Rock, in Massachusetts, with a concave breastplate thirteen inches long, supposed to 
 be of cast brass, and a belt of the same material four and a half inches wide, having a reed-like 
 appearance ; a brazen arrow-head, t, was found with it. In fig. u, and on the warrior, fig. 7, we 
 20 
 
154 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 see the greaves ; the shield, in fig. 1, 3, 7 ; the spear in the hands of the Grecian warriors, in fig. 
 1, 2; and of the Persian, fig. 3: the bow, &c. in fig. 6, which represents an Egyptian archer. 
 
 § 46. Most of the weapons of the ancient Greeks were made of brass or 
 copper, which seems to have been used earlier than iron (cf. P. IV. § 10), and 
 was often used after the introduction of iron. For defensive armor, iron was 
 afterwards generally preferred. For the cuirass or breastplate, the greaves and 
 the shield, tin or lead was sometimes used. To adorn the weapons with gold 
 was considered as too extravagant and ostentatious. Yet they endeavored to 
 give their armor the highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of 
 beauty, but to inspire fear in the enemy. On the shield they had a sort of 
 field-badge, or military emblem, usually in bas-relief, the image of some god, 
 or animal, especially the lion. The horses also were ornamented with much 
 care. 
 
 Respecting the military apparel little is ascertained. Lycurgus directed the Lacedae- 
 monians to clothe their soldiers in scarlet. — The Greek soldiers usually carried their 
 own provisions, consisting chiefly of salt meat, cheese, olives, onions, &c. For this 
 purpose each one had a vessel made of wicker with a long neck, called yvhou. Robin- 
 son, p. 349. 
 
 § 47. In connection with the affairs of war, it is proper to notice the use of 
 ships or vessels, which the Greeks in early times employed partly in piracy, 
 partly in transporting armies, and partly in actual combat. In later times the 
 naval battles of the Greeks were frequent and celebrated. Their first ships 
 were long (fiaxpno), and moved by oars. The number of rowers was various, 
 often very considerable. Originally there was but a single rank on each side ; 
 afterwards, as the ship was built higher, another rank of rowers was added ; 
 vessels of the latter kind were called hlxpota, those of the former povoxpota, 
 also/w/jpeij, xixrjtsi. At a later period they were built with three tiers or ranks, 
 tfpwfpsjf, which continued to be the most common form, although there were 
 vessels with four, five, and six tiers, and sometimes even more. 
 
 It was early customary to place upon ships certain images and signs, from 
 which they were named. The ship commonly bore the image or statue of some 
 god, to whose protection it was especially intrusted. In the capture of a vessel, 
 the first object of a victor was to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy 
 in his own ship. 
 
 § 48. The Greeks early practiced in war the forming of regular camps. 
 Their compass and extent were such as not only to include the whole army, 
 but also the ships, which after the landing of the troops were drawn upon the 
 dry land. It was customary to surround the camp with a wall or ramparts with 
 towers and breast-works. Before the wall was a fosse or ditch, guarded with 
 pointed stakes. For the principal officers separate tents were erected, of 
 wooden frames, covered with skins. During the night, sentinels were stationed 
 on guard, and beacon-fires were kindled. Spies and scouts were sent out from 
 Doth parties, when hostile camps were placed against each other. 
 
 " Tents like those now in use seem to have been a late invention. The ancients, on 
 desultory expeditions, and in marching through a country, slept with no shelter but 
 their cloaks, as our light troops often carry none but a blanket ; when they remained 
 long on a spot they hutted. Achilles' tent or hut was built of fir, and thatched with 
 reeds; and it seems to have had several apartments. (II. xxiv. 488. ix. 659)." 
 Mitford. 
 
 § 49. The order of battle was either to place the war-chariots in front, and 
 the infantry in the rear, or to give the latter the front, and support them by the 
 chariots from behind. The whole army was drawn into close array, although 
 arranged, in distinct divisions. On the commencement of battle they implored 
 the aid of the gods, and made vows of grateful returns. Then the generals 
 exhorted the soldiers to valor, and proceeded to set an example. The onset 
 was usually accompanied with loud shouting and clamor to inspirit each other 
 and intimidate the foe. The wounded were healed with care, having nursing 
 and medicine ; but the slain of the enemy were left unburied, or their corpses 
 even exposed to insult, unless their burial was agreed upon in some express 
 stipulation. 
 
 § 50. The spoils taken in battle consisted partly of arms, which the captoi 
 
PLATE XVII. 
 
156 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 either appropriated to his own use, or dedicated to the gods, and partly in other 
 utensils and precious articles, which, together with their owners, became the 
 property of the victor. By means of a ransom, however, the spoils, as well as 
 the prisoners, could be redeemed. After battle, the remaining booty was often 
 divided among the soldiers by lot; the general, however, always received his 
 portion first and without lot. Those who had distinguished themselves by valor, 
 also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which the generals often 
 stimulated their troops before the action. 
 
 " We find that, so early as Homer's time, the Greeks had improved considerably 
 upon that tumultuary warfare alone known to many barbarous nations, who yet have 
 prided themselves in the practice of war for successive centuries. Several terms used 
 by the poet, together with his description of marches, indicate that orders of battle 
 were in his time regularly formed in ranks and files. Steadiness in the soldier, that 
 foundation of all those powers which distinguish an army from a mob, and which to 
 this day forms the highest praise of the best troops, we find in great perfection in the 
 Iliad. ' The Grecian phalanges,' says the poet (iv. 427), ' marched in close order, the 
 leaders directing each his own band. The rest were mute : insomuch that you would say, 
 in so great a multitude there was no voice. Such was the silence with which they 
 respectively watched for the word of command from their officers.' 
 
 Considering the deficiency of iron, the Grecian troops appear to have been very well 
 armed, both for offence and defence. Their defensive armor consisted of a helmet, a 
 breastplate, and greaves, all of brass ; and a shield, commonly of bull's hide, but often 
 strengthened with brass. The breastplate appears to have met the belt, which was a 
 considerable defence to the belly and groin ; and with an appendant skirt guarded also 
 the thighs. All together covered the forepart of the soldier from the throat to the ancle ; 
 and the shield was a superadded protection for every part. The bulk of the Grecian 
 troops were infantry, thus heavily armed, and formed in close order, many ranks deep. 
 Any body, formed in ranks and files, close and deep, without regard to a specific num- 
 ber of either ranks or files, were generally termed a phalanx (II. iv. 332. vi. 83). But 
 the Locrians, under Oilean Ajax, were all light-armed ; bows were their principal 
 weapons, and they never engaged in close fight (dyx^a\"0- 
 
 Riding on horseback was yet little practiced, though it appears to have been not un- 
 known (II. xiii. 722). Some centuries, however, passed before it was generally applied 
 in Greece to military purposes ; the mountainous ruggedness of the country prevented 
 any extensive use of cavalry, except among the Thessalians, whose territory was a 
 large plain. [Cf. Sallier, cited § 138.] But in the Homeric armies no chief was with- 
 out his chariot, drawn generally by two, sometimes by three horses ; and these chariots 
 of war make a principal figure in Homer's battles. Nestor, forming the army for action, 
 composes the first line of chariots only. In the second he places that part of the in- 
 fantry in which he has least confidence ; and then forms a third line, or reserve, of the 
 most approved troops. 
 
 The combat of the chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing to engage 
 singly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern reader with an appear- 
 ance of absurdity perhaps much beyond the reality. Before the use of fire-arms that 
 practice was not uncommon, when the art of war was at the greatest perfection. Caesar 
 himself gives (De Bell. Gall. v. 43), with evident satisfaction, a very particular account 
 of a remarkable advanced combat, in which, not generals indeed, but two centurions 
 of his army engaged. The Grecian chiefs of the heroic age, like the knights of the times 
 of chivalry, had armor probably superior to that of the common soldiers ; and thisj 
 with the additional advantage of superior skill, acquired by assiduous practice amid 
 unbounded leisure, would make this skirmishing much less dangerous than on first 
 consideration it may appear." — Mitford, ch. ii. sect. 3. 
 
 "Another practice common in Homer's time is by no means equally defensible, but 
 on the contrary marks great barbarism ; that of stopping in the heat of action to strip 
 the slain. Often this paltry passion for possessing the spoil of the enemy superseded 
 all other, even the most important and most deeply interesting objects of battle. The 
 poet himself (II. v. 48, vi. 67) was not unaware of the danger and inconvenience of the 
 practice, and seems even to have aimed at a reformation of it. We find, indeed, in 
 Homer's warfare, a remarkable mixture of barbarism with regularity. Though the 
 art of forming an army in phalanx was known and commonly practiced, yet the busi- 
 ness of a general, in directing its operations, was lost in the passion, or we may call it 
 fashion, of the great men to signalize themselves by acts of personal courage and skill 
 in arms. Achilles and Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106. 252), excel only 
 in the character of fighting soldiers : as generals and directors of the war they are 
 inferior to many. Indeed, while the fate of the battles depended so mnch on the skir- 
 mishing of the chiefs, we cannot wonder that the prejudice should obtain which set the 
 able arm, in vulgar estimation, above the able head. But the poet obviously means to 
 expose the absurdity and mischievous consequences of that prejudice, where he makes 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 157 
 
 Hector (II. xxii. 99), in a late repentance, acknowledge the superior abilities of Polyda- 
 mas. Yet Homer's own idea of the duties of an officer, though he possessed very 
 extensive and very accurate knowledge both of the theory and practice of war of his 
 own age, was still very imperfect." — lb. 
 
 § 51. At the end of war the conquered party either submitted wholly to the 
 dominion and laws of the conqueror, or a peace was made upon certain con- 
 ditions. This was effected through legates, fully commissioned for the purpose. 
 In forming a treaty of peace, various ceremonies were observed, partly of a 
 religious character. A victim was slain, of which however no meal was made, 
 but its flesh was cast aside; libations were poured out; the parties joined 
 hands in pledge of good faith, and called upon the gods as witnesses of their 
 covenant, and as avengers of its violation, especially upon Jupiter, whose 
 thunderbolts were an object of terror to the perjured. The restoration of plun- 
 der was generally a preliminary requisition ; and the conquered party was often 
 compelled to pay a sum of money as a fine or indemnification. — Sometimes the 
 whole war was terminated by a single combat, the parties agreeing to abide by 
 its issue. 
 
 IV. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 52. Since social life was but gradually introduced in Greece, it is not to be 
 expected, that the earliest ages should exhibit much refinement in what pertains 
 to domestic affairs. During the heroic ages their mode of living was nearly as 
 rude as their morals. Their principal meat was the flesh of cattle, sheep, swine, 
 goats, and deer, which they were accustomed to roast. The flesh of birds and 
 fish was more seldonxused. The most common food was milk, fruit, and vege- 
 tables. The first and most common drink was water; wine, however, was in 
 frequent use ; but, generally, mingled with water. Large drinking-vessels 
 were employed at their repasts. Ordinarily they had two meals a day, at mid- 
 day and evening, and in the earlier times it was the Greek custom to sit at 
 table, not to recline. The number of persons at one table was seldom greater 
 than ten. 
 
 It was a proverb, ascribed to Theognis (cf. P. V. § 31), that the persons at a social 
 repast should not be less in number than the Graces, nor more than the Muses. — The 
 Roman Varro is said to have enjoined this rule, respecting the proper number at a 
 repast (Gell. xiii. 11). Adam. 
 
 "Homer mentions three different sorts of seats: (1) (5%>oj, which contained two 
 persons, commonly placed for those of mean rank ; (2) Bp6uog, on which they sat up- 
 right, having under their feet a footstool termed Gpqwg • (3) tehees, on which they sat 
 leaning a little backwards." Robinson. — Cf. Horn. Odys. i. 130, 131. 
 
 § 53. Social repasts or banquets were often held, being occasioned by public 
 solemnities, festivals, religious celebrations, marriages, and the like. Some- 
 times they were made at the common expense of the guests (spavoj, cf. Odyss. 
 i. 226) ; such entertainments, however, were viewed as of inferior rank. The 
 feasts upon victims offered in sacrifice have been mentioned (§ 27). 
 
 At table the guests sat according to a definite order. The beginning was 
 made by washing the hands. In early times a separate board was placed for 
 each guest, and his portion of food thus divided to him. Wine was brought 
 by youthful attendants, and the guests often drank to each other, and recipro- 
 cally exchanged cups. They endeavored to heighten the joys of the banquet 
 by conversation and wit, and also by songs and instrumental music. Cf. P. 
 IV. § 68. 
 
 § 54. The dress of the early Greeks was longer, and more ample, and more 
 completely covered the body, than that of later times. Next to the body they 
 wore a long robe or frock (x i "t^> v )i which was kept in place by a girdle, and 
 over this a cloak (^Wi/a) of thicker materials, to protect against the cold. 
 Instead of the latter they sometimes had a mantle (^apoj). The women wore 
 also long cloaks or over-garments, called rtt'rt^ot, often richly embroidered and 
 ornamented. They likewise covered their heads, while the men seem not to 
 have done it in the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war. Shoes 
 or socks were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war the men 
 wore a sort of boot, or greaves (§ 44). 
 
 O 
 
158 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 § 55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strength, the early Greeks 
 practiced frequent bathing, and with it united the custom of anointing. In 
 bathing they made much use of the sea-water, on account of its purifying and 
 strengthening properties. They also had warm baths in their houses. After 
 taking the bath they anointed the body with oil; costly ointments, expressly 
 prepared for the purpose, were of later invention. They cultivated in every 
 way the growth of the hair, long hair being considered as essential to personal 
 beauty and dignity. The color most esteemed was yellowish or light brown. 
 They were also pleased with frizzled or curled locks, and employed artificial 
 means to secure such forms to their hair. 
 
 § 56. Of the real architecture and arrangement of Greek houses in the earlier 
 periods, we do not get an accurate view from the descriptions of Homer, which, 
 aside from their poetical character, relate only to the palaces or dwellings of 
 distinguished personages. (Cf. P. IV. § 232.) Respecting these we may 
 remark, that they were ordinarily surrounded by some kind of a wall, not very 
 high ; between the wall and the house itself was the fore-court, in which an 
 altar usually stood. Then followed a colonnade, a vestibule, and the main 
 building or house, often highly ornamented without and within ; although the 
 art of building at this time had not reached by far the perfection which Greek 
 architecture afterwards attained. In the upper part of the house was the dining- 
 hall, the sleeping-room, and the women's apartment. The roofs were flat, as 
 in oriental countries, and often served as places of resort both by day and by 
 night. 
 
 § 57. The Greeks cheerfully received to their houses the stranger, and the 
 needy; and the rites of hospitality were held sacred among them. Jupiter 
 himself was considered as the god and rewarder of hospitality, and the avenger 
 of all violations of its law's, and on that account was styled Sbpmjs (P. II. § 25). 
 They had no public inns (cf. § 168), but travelers found reception with those 
 who stood related to them by ties of hospitality. This relation existed not 
 only between particular persons, but also between whole cities and communi- 
 ties. Kings and distinguished persons exercised hospitality towards each 
 other by a sort of common understanding. The external tokens of a welcome 
 reception of guests were joining hands and embracing with a kiss. Sometimes 
 this was accompanied with offering the bath and unction. On separating, it 
 was common to unite in a friendly repast, and renew their pledge of mutual 
 friendship over the wine. Valued gifts were sometimes bestowed on the de- 
 parting guest. 
 
 § 58. In speaking of the occupations of the Greeks, agriculture may be first 
 mentioned. This was their most common pursuit and means of living. The 
 boundaries of the fields were marked by stones, which served to guard the 
 cultivators against mutual encroachments. The culture of the vine and of 
 trees was also an object of attention. The raising of cattle was a common 
 employment, and a principal source of wealth. These employments were not 
 considered in any way degrading or ignoble, but were exercised by persons of 
 eminence and even by princes. The hunting of wild beasts should also be 
 mentioned here, as practiced in order to secure the flocks and the fields from 
 depredation. In the chase they made use of various weapons, as the bow and 
 arrow, and the spear, with the help of the dog. Fowling and fishing were 
 likewise a frequent employment. 
 
 The nets (tft/crua) employed in fowling, hunting, and fishing were made of flax (Xiva) • 
 the meshes (Ppoxoi) being of various sizes according to the use intended. In hunting, the 
 nets were supported by stakes (ordXi/ctj) and extended in a curve so as partly to surround 
 a space into which the animals were driven. Several kinds of fishing nets are men- 
 tioned, of which the most common were the divpifiMarpov (retiaeulum) or casting-net, 
 and the aayr\vr\ {tragum) seine or sean. 
 
 See Oppian's Poems on Fishing and Hunting, cf. P. V. § 75.— Ameilhon, sur la peche des Anciens, in the Mem. de VIrutitut, 
 C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 350. 
 
 § 59. The employments of women consisted partly in the care of the house- 
 hold, partly in spinning, weaving, and needle-work, not only for their own 
 clothing, but for that of the men also. Grinding, baking, cooking and wash- 
 ing, were performed by the women. In general, the female sex among the 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS IN THE EARLIER AGES. 159 
 
 Greeks was in a state of great, although not slavish subjection to the male. 
 There was comparatively little intercourse between the sexes. The women 
 lived chiefly by themselves in the apartment assigned to them, the rwouxwj/ or 
 Twaxuov, which was in the interior or upper part of the house (§ 56). Seldom 
 were they allowed to go abroad. In later times this close discipline and con- 
 finement remained in force, and women shared even less than previously in the 
 business and pleasures of men. 
 
 On the ancient method of grinding, cf. Mongez, Sur les meules de moulin employees par les Anciens, in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, 
 C 1 a s s e A'Bitt. et Lit. Anc. vol. iii. p. 441. 
 
 On the state of females, R G. Lenz, Geschichte der Weiber im heroischen Zeitalter. Hanov. 1790. 8. — Rochefort, Les mceurs dea 
 siecles heroiques, Mem. Acad. Inset, vol. xxxvi. p. 396. — Cf. § 181. 
 
 § 60. Among the most common amusements of the Greeks were music and 
 dancing. The former consisted of vocal and instrumental, which were always 
 united ; and it was designed for instruction as well as gratification. Hence 
 music, although in a more extended sense of the term, was an essential object 
 in education. (Cf. § 179, and P. IV. § 63.) The lyre was the stringed in- 
 strument the most in use, and of wind instruments the flute was the most 
 common. The former enjoyed the preference, because it was more easily ac- 
 commodated to song, and also left trie performer at liberty to use his voice. — 
 The subjects of song were chiefly mythical or historical. Music was most 
 generally used at banquets and religious festivals, which were also the most 
 common occasions of dancing. With dancing it was customary to join various 
 sports and exercises of the body, as leaping, running, riding, wrestling, and 
 the like. 
 
 § 61. Marriage and nuptial ceremonies are to be noticed in connection with 
 the domestic affairs of the Greeks. The dowry of the daughter was usually 
 given by the father. It consisted of female ornaments, a portion of the flocks 
 and herds, and the like. There were no degrees of oonsanguinity forbidden 
 in marriage, except that between parents and children; yet it was considered 
 as highly censurable for brother and sister to unite. Previously to marriage 
 the consent of the parents was to be asked. At the nuptials or wedding, the 
 bride was with pomp conducted home by the bridegroom, who had previously, 
 according to the common practice, built and made ready a new house. In this 
 procession to the house, nuptial torches were borne before the newly married, 
 and bridal hymns were sung by a retinue of youths and virgins. Dancing 
 usually accompanied the music; and the whole was followed by a nuptial 
 feast. A widow seldom contracted a second marriage, although it was not ex- 
 pressly forbidden. At least, it did not take place until five years or more after 
 her widowhood. 
 
 § 62. Parents of the better class took special care of the education of their 
 children, both physical and moral. The mother was accustomed to nurse her 
 own children, and considered herself freed from this duty by no rank or con- 
 dition. The aid of others in this respect was sought only in cases of absolute 
 necessity. In subsequent ) 7 ears the children had particular teachers and over- 
 seers, who instructed them in bodily exercises, in useful sciences, and in the 
 art of war. Cf. P. IV. § 64, § 71. 
 
 On the other hand, also, children considered it a duty to love, reverence, and 
 obey their parents. They rejoiced in a father's benediction, and considered his 
 curse as the greatest of evils. They endeavored to repay to parents in old 
 age the care experienced by themselves in childhood, a thing, indeed, expressly 
 required by law. They looked upon it as their highest honor, to inflict ven- 
 geance on such as had injured their fathers. 
 
 On respect paid to old age among the ancients, cf. Class. Journ. iii. 142, 320; iv. 319. On the manners and morals ot the 
 
 earlier ages. cf. Rochefott. as cited § 59.— C. P. Levcsque, Sur les Mceurs des Grecs du temps d'Homere, in the Mtm. de Vlnstitut, 
 C 1 a s s e da Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. ii. 
 
 § 63. The slaves (cSoi^oi) of the Greeks, male and female, were persons that 
 had been taken prisoners in war (di^idxcoT'os, avbpdrtoSov), or were purchased 
 of others. Slaves of the latter class were not common in early times. The in- 
 troduction of commerce or trade in slaves is ascribed to the inhabitants of the 
 island of Chios, at a later period. The master had an almost unlimited power 
 
160 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 over his slave, extending even to the right of life and death. Sometimes the 
 gift of liberty was bestowed. 
 
 Besides the actual slaves there was a class of day laborers, who were accus- 
 tomed to let their services for hire Qtrji ss, rtiXatai), especially in the agricul- 
 tural and pastoral employments, which were originally so common in Greece. 
 A retinue of servants for mere display or luxury was not indulged in during 
 the period of which we have thus far been speaking. Cf. § 99. 
 
 II. — Of the later and more flourishing Ages. 
 
 I. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 64. The number of the Grecian divinities increased with the advancement 
 of civilization; although the mythology of the Greeks, in its elements, was 
 chiefly of early origin, engendered and fostered by the ignorance, superstition, 
 and sensuality of the first ages. The mythical fictions were enlarged, the 
 modes of representing th,e gods were varied, the temples, festivals, and sacri- 
 fices, and all the solemnities and rites of worship were greatly multiplied. 
 The pomp and splendor of their religion became very imposing, especially at 
 the period distinguished for the flourishing state of all their affairs. At that 
 time the plastic arts were in a great measure devoted to the representation and 
 illustration of religious story, and the ornamenting of religious edifices. (Cf. 
 P. IV. § 178, 197, 198,234.) This circumstance gives additional interest and 
 importance to the study of this branch of antiquities. 
 
 § 65 a. The temples {yaol, Ispd) were still built in a simple taste, yet in greater 
 number and splendor. The interior had commonly two parts, -of which the 
 innermost was the sanctuary (aSvtov), into which the priest only entered. The 
 place where stood the statue or image of the god to whom the temple belonged 
 was in the middle of the temple, commonly surrounded by a guard of lattice 
 work or the like, and therefore termed 6r;xb$. 
 
 Originally the Greeks, like the oriental nations, worshiped on the top of mountains 
 or hills, where they afterwards first erected their temples. When in the common creed 
 the gods were multiplied and assigned to valleys, rivers, &c., as their appropriate pro- 
 vinces, temples were built in such spots as were supposed agreeable to the several gods. 
 More than one deity, however, were sometimes worshiped in the same temple ; they 
 were then called avwaoi or awoiKtrai ; and when they had a common altar, ovpficdptH. 
 Different styles of architecture were used for different deities; Doric pillars, e. g. for 
 Jupiter or Mars; Ionic, for Bacchus, Apollo, Diana; Corinthian, for Vesta the virgin. 
 
 The temple usually stood in a space inclosed by a fence or wall (cpKo;, Trcpigo\o;), which 
 contained, besides the temple, often other sacred buildings and a grove ; the whole space 
 was called rtusvog, a term sometimes restricted to the space set apart in the temple for 
 the image of the god. 
 
 In the temple, some say at the door, others near the S&vrov, was placed a vessel of 
 stone or brass (jrepipfiavrrjptov) filled with holy water for the purpose of sprinkling those 
 admitted to the sacrifices. The part of the temple before the cnm was called Trpofo^ • 
 that behind it dmcrddSo^og. The outer porch was termed TrpoxvXa or irpoTzvKma. — There 
 also belonged to the temple a treasury [ipxjsiov) for preserving its own property, or that 
 of others intrusted to it. — The statues and offerings to the gods found in the temples 
 have been spoken of (§ 21, 28). Statues called AHwm? , fallen from Jupiter, were kept 
 in the most sacred part of the temple, and concealed from the sight of all but the 
 priests. 
 
 For other particulars respecting the structure of the temples, see P. IV. § 234. 
 
 § 65 b. The altars (j3io/x6i) were placed towards the east, and had various 
 forms, round, square, or oblong. They were ornamented with horns, partly 
 that the sacrificial victims might be bound to them, and partly that supplicants 
 might lay hold of them, when they fled to the altars for refuge. Perhaps also 
 they were considered as a sj r mbol of dignity and power. The names of the 
 deities, to whom the altars were sacred, were usually inscribed upon them, 
 Altars, as well as temples, were consecrated to their proper use with solemn 
 ceremonies, particularly by anointing. 
 
PLATE XVIII. 
 
 ffilllllliDllW:- '" 
 
 '.. '^iiT^iM'. ; ;;.:: . . ■I'liiliiililllpllllllliM 
 
 21 
 
 o2 
 
162 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Different gods had altars also of different dimensions ; the altar of Jupiter Olympius 
 is said to have been twenty-two feet high. The altars of the terrestrial gods were 
 lower than those of the celestial. To the infernal, sacrifices were made in pits or 
 trenches (§ 29) used instead of altars. The nymphs were worshiped in caves {avrpa). 
 Altars were formed of various materials; often of earth, or of ashes, as that at'Thebes 
 to Apollo 'Zirokog ; sometimes of horn, as that at Delos; sometimes of brick; often of 
 stone ; some Were overlaid with gold (cf. $ 26). They were either square or round ; 
 and were often highly ornamented by sculpture. 
 
 Different forms of altars are given in the Sup. Plate 30, where are seen an altar of Jupiter, 
 one of Neptune, and one of Bacchus. Cf. $ 205. 
 
 § 66. The practice of appropriating sacred groves for the honor and service 
 of the gods was also retained in later times. Their agreeable shade, as well 
 as the stillness reigning in them, was favorable to pious meditation. Although 
 the use of groves was diminished by the multiplication of cities and villages, 
 yet a grove once dedicated to the gods remained forever sacred and inviolable. 
 As well as temples and altars, they were safe asylums for offenders, although 
 this privilege was conferred upon them only by a special consecration for the 
 purpose, and did not belong to all the places of religious worship as a matter 
 of course. The privilege of being such asylums or places of refuge was some- 
 times awarded to the statues and tombs of heroes. — Certain portions of land 
 and cultivated ground were also assigned to the gods, which were likewise 
 called tsfiBVTi, the fruit of which was employed in offerings, or fell to the share 
 of the priests. 
 
 A particular tract of land, situated between Athens and Megara, was consecrated 
 to Ceres and Proserpine, and called 'Opydc. — Trees were also set apart and with cere- 
 mony consecrated to some god {Theoc. Id. xviii. 43). 
 
 The privileges of the sacred temples, as asyla, continued until the reign of Tibe- 
 rius Csesar, by whom they were chiefly abolished, or greatly abridged {Tac. Ann. iii. 
 60-63). on account of the abuse of them by worthless villains. 
 
 Simon, Les asyles, Mem. Acad. Jnscr. iii. 35. — R. Mayo, Mythology, vol. i. p. 156.— S. Pegge, History of the Asylum, &c. in the 
 Archxologia (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), vol. viii. p. 1. 
 
 § 67. The three principal duties of the priests (Ispel?, called also Ispovpyoi, 
 ^sovpyoi, ^ritao) were sacrifice, prayer, and instruction. With these were united 
 sometimes the declaration and interpretation of oracles. The requisite qualifi- 
 cations for the priesthood were a body free from all defects and blemishes 
 (o^oxtoypoj xai aps%^i), lawful birth (yc^tftoj), and an irreproachable course of 
 life. Upon the rank of the god depended the number of the priests, who were 
 employed to attend upon him, and who shared each his part of the various 
 functions of the service. In every place there was one superior priest, if not 
 more (ap£«p«f, lspoSi-Sdsxa , Koi f iepotyuvtai}, charged with the oversight of the 
 religious worship in general {dpxitpcoavvr[). — The office of the parasites (rfovpa- 
 Gi-tot,) was to collect the grain and fruits designed for sacrifices (rfpoodSca 
 usyaXa) into the storehouse appropriated therefor (rtapaeCttov). — The heralds 
 (xr t pvx8s) were ranked among the sacred orders, and also the superintendents 
 (escozopot,) whose business was to cleanse and adorn the temples. 
 
 The clothing of the priests was usually a long white or purple robe, and their 
 head was ornamented, especially at sacrifices, with a fillet and a crown of the 
 leaf sacred to their particular god. 
 
 In our Plate XXVII. fig. C, is a view of a Grecian priest and priestess, in their robes ; each has 
 a thyrsus in one hand, indicating that they are servants of Bacchus, and a vessel in the other. 
 The priestess is pouring a liquid upon the flame of an altar. It is a monument given in Moses, 
 Antique Vases, Altars, &c. 
 
 1. Priests holding their office by inheritance (§22) were called 'ol bc.ysvovg; those 
 who received it by lot, Khjparol ; those by election, aiperol or. hL/rj^io-ptvoi. Some of the 
 Athenian families, in which the priesthood descended by inheritance were the Ei>/*oA- 
 iti&ai, intrusted with the oversight of the Elusinian mysteries ; KrjpvKis , descendants 
 of Ceryx ; the BavXavic'ai, descendants of Thaulon. There was a sacred family at 
 Argos also, called 'ArarropiJai. Priestesses (tipuai, dpfiretpai, dpxdpuai, kpoipavi-iSe;) were 
 taken from noble families. Those of Ceres were termed M£Wo-at ; those of Bacchus, 
 BdKxdi, Ovdkg, Mcuvdkg. — Sometimes services connected with the worship of the gods 
 were performed by persons not properly belonging to the priesthood {Ksxapio-jiivoi rffc 
 Ispoxmvris) ; as e. g. sacrificers ('ispo-oiol), of whom ten are said to have been appointed 
 annually at Athens, and who conducted all the usual sacrifices ; keepers of the tem- 
 ple and utensils {vao<pv\aKec) ; stewards or treasurers (rapdaL t&v lepwv xpi^orcoi'). — Priests 
 
P. HI. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. SA6RIFICES. OATHS. 163 
 
 who were constantly in attendance on the gods to offer the prayers of the people at 
 sacrifices, were called TIp6Tto\oi Semi/. — All who served the gods were maintained out 
 of the sacrifices and offerings.-^At Athens, those intrusted with the care of religion 
 were required to render an account of tneir doings to certain civil officers appointed 
 for the purpose. The 'ltpopvfipwv seems to have been charged with keeping the sacred 
 records. The priests had attendants called lepodovXoi. 
 
 On the priesthood of the Greeks, see J.Kreuser, Der Hellenen Priesterstaat mit vorzujlich Rttcksicht auf die Hieroduien. Mainz. 
 —Class. Journ. xxxix. 350.— Bougainville, Des ministres des Dieux a Athenes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xviii. 60 ; xxiii. 51. — 
 letronne, Sur les fonctions des Hieromnemons, &c. in the .Mem. de Vlnstitut, Classe d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. -vi. 221. 
 
 2. Purification has already been mentioned (f 23) as a rite of great importance 
 among the Greeks. At some of their solemnities, the priests and priestesses were 
 obliged to take an oath, that they were duly purified. Every person attending the 
 solemn sacrifices was purified usually by being washed or sprinkled with the water in 
 the ncpippavrfipiov (cf. § 65 a). This water was consecrated by putting into it a burning 
 torch from the altar, or a branch of laurel (Mipvrt) or olive. Purification was also some- 
 times made by drawing round the person a sea-onion or squill (ovctAAa), or a young 
 dog (oA-i'Aat) ; sometimes eggs were used for the purpose ; sometimes the blood of a 
 pig. Some of the terms employed to designate purifying are mpippaivew , mpijiamaQai, 
 Kc%ipsu>, ayvi^ew, l\aap.dg, ayvuxp.dc, rcAcri), &c. — Sometimes in purifications not only the 
 hands, but the feet and other parts of the body were washed. 
 
 § 68. The sacrifices had different names according to the occasions of them. 
 The thank-offering (^apttfT^pta) was in recognition of some favor received, 
 often in fulfilment of some vow made; the sin-offering (Ixaottxa) was in order 
 to propitiate an offended deity ; the invocation-offering (dtr^tjca) was presented 
 in case of seeking some particular favor. There were other particular sacri- 
 fices, which were offered in consequence of the specific command of some god. 
 
 The beginning of the sacrifice in later times was made by the libation 
 (artovSri, § 24. 2) ; then followed the incense, the burning of something fragrant 
 Qtvfiuafia) ; and at length the sacrifice itself, properly speaking, or the slaying 
 of the victim (Ispivov). The principal ceremonies have already been mentioned 
 (§ 27). — Persons who had the right of being present at a sacrifice were termed 
 aj3ej3'/j%ov, and those who had not, j5sj5rj%oi. The latter were called upon by the 
 heralds to retire before the ceremonies commenced. 
 
 Different animals were offered in sacrifice to different gods, as has been mentioned 
 in treating of the ancient mythology. One of the principal victims, however, was the 
 ox (@ov;) ; hence the term /SovdunTv, to sacrifice oxen : those assistants who slew the 
 victims were called 0ov8vrai. Bulls (ravpoi), sheep (ouc), and goats (iXyec) were often 
 offered. The bringing of the victims to the altar was expressed by such phrases as 
 irpoaaysiv rw fiwpw, or irapaaTnaai Srvaiav roTg Pcopotc ; they were often brought adorned with 
 garlands {urkjipara), and were always required to be free from blemishes {teXcioi). After 
 the victim was slain and cut in pieces, an inspection of the entrails (<rK\ayxvoaKmia) 
 was made by the soothsayer (cnrXayxvoaKOTroc), to ascertain the presages of the future. 
 
 Animals were not demanded as sacrifices from the poor, who were allowed to offer 
 cakes of coarse flour (irmava, veXavoi, ntppara) ; these were sometimes made in the shape 
 of animals. 
 
 It does not appear to have been ever an approved custom among the Greeks to offer human 
 sacrifices, although it was repeatedly done; cf. P. II. $ 17. Themistocles is said to have sacri- 
 ficed to the gods several Persian captives. (Plutarch, Them.) Human victims were sacrificed 
 particularly to the manes and infernal gods. — Cf. Lactantius, De Falsa Religione, c. 21. — Eusebhis, 
 Praep. Evang. iv. 16. 
 
 § 69. It is pertinent to notice here the solemn oaths of the Greeks, in which 
 they called upon the gods to witness the truth or avenge falsehood or injury. 
 They distinguished between the solemn or great oath (6 juiyaj opjeoj) and affir- 
 mations in ordinary cases. Jupiter was considered as especially the god and 
 guardian of oaths, and avenger of perjury, although oaths were taken in the 
 name of other gods also. It was common, e. g., to swear by the twelve great 
 superior gods (pa SioSsxa ^soiis). Sometimes they swore by the gods, indefi- 
 nitely and generally ; and sometimes by inanimate objects, vases, weapons, or 
 any article of which they made use. Not unfrequently the oath was in the 
 name of living or deceased men, such especially as had been highly esteemed 
 and loved. The oath was usually joined with a distinct imprecation of ven- 
 geance on the swearer himself in case of falsehood ; and was sometimes con- 
 firmed by a sacrifice, the flesh of which, however, could not be eaten. Severe 
 punishments were decreed against perjury (frfiopxia). Yet the Greeks, espe- 
 
164 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 cially the Thessalians, were reproached for this crime by the ancients. At 
 least mutual distrust was characteristic of the corrupt Greeks of later times, 
 and among the Romans the phrase Grseca fides was synonymous with perfidy. 
 
 Leagues and covenants were confirmed by making oaths and slaying sacrifices ; 
 hence opxta rkp>siv signifies to enter into covenant. Notwithstanding the great perfi- 
 diousness of the Greeks, they considered one who kept his oath {hopm;) as of course 
 a pious person (rior/?)??). 'Amirfi mans signifies honest faith. 
 
 Massieu, Sur Ies Sennents des Ancieos, in the Hist, de VAcad. des laser, vol. i. p. 191 ; vol. iv. p. 1. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 
 p. 649. 
 
 § 70. The opinion was very early entertained, that the gods honored certain 
 men, especially the priests, with a particular intimacy. There were supposed 
 to be two modes of revelation ; one immediate, by direct inspiration ; and the 
 other mediate or artificial, which was considered as the fruit of great knowledge, 
 experience, and observation. Oracles (xpyjatr^ia, ftavtaa) were of the first 
 kind ; and the second kind was divination {(xavtixri). — From oracles, the Greeks 
 were accustomed to seek, in important circumstances and undertakings, predic- 
 tions of the result (^p^uoc, %oyta, fxavtsvfiata). It is obvious that they could 
 be turned greatly to the advantage of the priests, to whose artifice their exist- 
 ence and support are in great measure to be ascribed. The oracular answers 
 were not given in any one uniform manner, but sometimes immediately, as was 
 pretended, from the gods (^p-^cr^ot) gWo<}>«mh.), sometimes through an interpreter, 
 {X'qtipoh vrtofyritoxoi), or by a pretended dream, or by lot. 
 
 Persons who consulted the oracles were termed S-Eo-puVoi, Seapoi, xpn°~p°<p6pot ; the in- 
 terpreters, xpwp«\6yot. Presents and sacrifices were always requisite before consulting 
 an oracle, which could be done only on appointed days. 
 
 The question has been agitated, whether the responses uttered from the ancient oracles were 
 the mere imposture of priests, or proceeded from the agency of Satan making use of their delu- 
 sions. Van Dale in a learned treatise urged the former view. Fontendle advocated the same 
 side. Baltus with much learning maintained the latter view, in agreement with some of the 
 Christian Fathers. 
 
 Dr. Clarke (Travels, P. ii. sect. 2. ch. xvi.) describes a contrivance, which he supposes was 
 designed by the artifice of the priests to sustain the system of oracles. "We found at the foot 
 of the hill of the Acropolis, one of the most curious telltale remains yet. discovered among the 
 vestiges of pagan priestcraft; it was nothing less than one of the oracular shrines of Jirgos, 
 alluded to by Pausanias, laid open to inspection, like the toy a child has broken in order that he 
 may see the contrivance whereby it was made to speak. A more interesting sight for modern 
 curiosity can hardly be conceived to exist among the ruins of any Grecian city. In its original 
 state, it had been a temple; the farther part from the entrance, where the altar was, being an 
 excavation of the rock, and the front and roof constructed with baked tiles. The altar yet remains, 
 and part of the fictile superstructure ; but the most remarkable part of the whole is a secret sub- 
 terraneous passage, terminating behind the altar ; its entrance being at a considerable distance 
 toward the right of a person facing the altar; and so cunningly contrived as to have a small 
 aperture, easily concealed and level with the surface of the rock. This was barely large enough 
 to admit the entrance of a single person ; who, having descended into the narrow passage, might 
 creep along until he arrived immediately behind the center of the altar; where, being hid by 
 some colossal statue or other screen, the sound of his voice would produce 'a most imposing 
 effect among the humble votaries, prostrate beneath, who were listening in silence upon the 
 floor of the sanctuary. We amused ourselves for a few minutes by endeavoring to mimic the 
 solemn farce acted upon these occasions ; and as we delivered a mock oracle, ore rotunda, from 
 the cavernous throne of the altar, a reverberation, caused by the sides of the rock, afforded a 
 tolerable specimen of the 'will of the gods,' as it was formerly made known to the credulous 
 votaries of this now forgotten shrine. There were not fewer than twenty-five of these juggling 
 places in Peloponnesus, and as many in the single province of Bxotia ; and surely it will never 
 again become a question among learned men, whether the answers in them were given by the 
 inspiration of evil spirits, or whether they proceeded from the imposture of priests ; neither can 
 it be urged that they ceased at the death of Christ : because Pausanias (Corinth, c. 24, p. 165, ed 
 Kuhnii) bears testimony to their existence at Argos in the second century." 
 
 See Van Dale, De Oracnlis veterum Ethnicoium. Ams!. 1700. 4.— B. Fonts/idle, Histoire des Oracles. La Have, 1728. 12.- 
 /. F. Baltus, Answer to Fontenelle's History of Oracles ; trans), from the French. Lond. 1710. 2 vols. 8.— Cf. Rollin, bk. x. ch. 
 (p. 391. vol. i ed. cited § 13) Blackwood's Majaz. vol. xiv. p. 277. 
 
 § 71. It may be proper to mention some of the most distinguished of the 
 ancient oracles. The most ancient was that of Jupiter at Dodona, a city of the 
 Molossi, said to have been built by Deucalion. Before this time, however, this 
 oracle, of Pelasgic origin (cf. P. IV. § 41), seems to have existed in that place. 
 There was a grove of oaks, sacred to Jupiter, and superstition ascribed the 
 actual exercise of the gift of speech and prophecy to the trees themselves, 
 which were thence called fxavtixai 8pvs$. The priests, called arto^TUc. and 
 ~Sb%%oi, concealed themselves upon and in the trees, when they announced the 
 pretended declaration of the gods. The sound of a brazen vase, placed near 
 the temple, was also imagined to be supernatural. A fountain in the place was 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. ORACLES. 165 
 
 likewise celebrated as possessing the wonderful power, not only of extinguish- 
 ing a torch, but of kindling it again. 
 
 1. The oracles in the grove of Dodona were also said to be delivered by doves, 
 which arose from the circumstance that the priestesses, who sometimes announced 
 them, were called in the Thessalian language m\sicu, and rnXuakg. There were also 
 priests called r6fu>vpi, whose business was to interpret the sounds of the vessel on cer- 
 tain occasions. Two columns stood by the temple ; to one of which the vessel was 
 attached ; on the other was a boy with a scourge in his hand ; the ends of the scourge 
 consisted of little bones, which being moved by the wind knocked against the metallic 
 vessel attached to the other column. — From the use of the brazen vessel arose the phrase 
 AaSayvaTov xoifocetov, applied to talkative persons. — The temple is said to have stood upon 
 an eminence near a fountain. — In the Sup. plate 28 is a view of Dodona, in which 
 many of the allusions to the oracle are represented. 
 
 Sallier, and De Brasses, L'Oracle de Dodona, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 35. xxxv. p. 89. — Cordes, De oraculo Dodonseo. 
 Groning. 1826. 8. — J. Arneth, Ueber das Tauben-orakel von Dodona. Wien, 1840. 8. — Lassavlx, Das Pelasgiscbe Orakel des Zeus 
 zu Dodona. Wurtzb. 1840. 8. 
 
 On the site of the temple, cf. Pouqueville, as cited P. I. § 87. 
 
 2 ui Less celebrated was the oracle of Jupiter Ammon, in a desert and almost inac- 
 cessible region of Africa, chiefly known by the visit to it made by Alexander the 
 Great. 
 
 3. The site of the temple and oracle of Jupiter Ammon was discovered by the English traveler 
 Browne in 1793, in the Oasis of Siwa. (Cf. Rennell's Geog. Syst. of Herod, sect. 21.) Near it 
 was the famous fountain of the sun. The spot was visited by Belzoni in 1816. (Cf. P. I. $ 179.) 
 The ruins of the temple indicate an Egyptian origin. — When this oracle was consulted, a splen- 
 did statue of the god was carried in procession by numerous priests (cf. P. II. $ 24). A view of 
 it is given in the Sup. Plate 29. 
 
 4. Several other oracles of Jupiter are mentioned. Herodotus speaks of four : at Egyptian 
 Thebes ; at Libyan Ammon ; at Dodona ; and at Meroe in Ethiopia ; and says the one at Thebes 
 was the original. Besides these, there was an oracle of Jupiter in Bceotia ; also in Elis at Olym- 
 pia ; and one in Crete, in a cave of Mount Ida. 
 
 § 72. Apollo, the god to whom inspiration and prophecy were considered to 
 belong properly, had numerous oracles. The most renowned was that at 
 Delphi, a city of Phocis, where he had also a temple illustrious beyond all 
 others on account of its treasures, the abundance and costliness of the gifts 
 bestowed there. The spot where the answer was given, was called Pythium 
 (ILv^lov), and the priestess, who uttered it, Pythia (Jju^a), from the surname 
 which Apollo received in consequence of killing the serpent Python (Ili&ttv). 
 This spot, or the site of Delphi, was regarded as the centre of the inhabited 
 earth (6>rj>a5i6jy«7j). According to common tradition this oracle was first dis- 
 closed by a flock of goats, which, on approaching an orifice on Mt. Parnassus, 
 were seized with singular paroxysms of shivering and jumping. The same 
 happened to men, who approached this opening. This oracle was very ancient, 
 being celebrated more than a hundred years before the Trojan war. 
 
 1. Some derive the names applied to this oracle and the priestess from the word 
 irvdiaQcu, to inquire, or learn; but Uv8a> appears to have been originally the name of the 
 city of Delphi. — The temple was adorned with statues and other splendid works of 
 art. Its walls were inscribed with salutary moral precepts ; among them the cele- 
 brated one TvioQi crsavTov. (P. V. § 169.) Costly tripods were among the gifts conse- 
 crated to Apollo here. One of the most famous was the golden one presented by the 
 Greeks after the defeat of Xerxes. This was removed by Constantine and placed in 
 the Hippodrome of Constantinople, upon the " triple heads" of the three brazen ser- 
 pents twisted into one pillar. 
 
 The pillar still remains {Gibbon, ch. 17. p. 80. vol. ii. N. York, 1822). — The three heads are said to have been in good preserva- 
 tion when Constantinople was taken by the Turks ; Mahomet II. then rode into the Hippodrome and shattered one of them with his 
 battle-ax; two were remaining in 1700 j but they were stolen about that time by some unknown depredator. (Cf. Lond. Quart. 
 Rev. ix. 169.) On the origin of the Delphic oracle, cf. Mitford's Greece, ch. 3. sect. 2. 
 
 2. The great wealth accumulated at Delphi (cf. § 28), and the celebrity of the ora- 
 cle, and consequent influence possessed by the state which had the chief authority 
 over it, occasioned much jealousy among the Grecian states ; in two instances par- 
 ticularly they were involved thereby in actual hostilities, in the wars commonly called 
 Sacred. 
 
 Mitford's Hist, of Greece, ch. xxxvii-xlii.— De Vdlois, Guerres Sacrees, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 201. ix. 97. xii. 177. 
 
 § 73. The tripod (tfpwtous zp^tfT^pioj), upon which the priestess sat in utter- 
 ing the answers, must be mentioned among the remarkable things pertaining to 
 the oracle. It was dedicated to Apollo by the seven wise men of Greece, and 
 has been viewed as having a threefold reference, to the past, the present, and 
 
166 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 the future. The Ilt&i-'a herself was esteemed as a priestess of peculiar dignity 
 and was obliged to prepare for the functions of her office by many ceremonies. 
 In delivering the oracles, she appeared to be in the most violent ecstasy and 
 convulsion. In early times, the oracular response was commonly clothed in 
 the form of hexameter verse ; often by a poet employed for the purpose. Ori- 
 ginally the oracle was consulted but on a single day in the year, in a month of 
 the spring, called Bvaios or IIvglos ; afterwards inquiry could be made on a 
 certain day of every month. Whoever wished to consult the oracle was re- 
 quired to make large presents and offerings, to put on a wreath or crown, and 
 to propose his questions mostly in writing, and allow himself to be qualified 
 for receiving the answer by many mystic rites. The answer was commonly 
 so enigmatical and ambiguous (^.o|oj, hence Ao|i,'aj), that it would apply to any 
 result that might happen ; and whenever it was clear and definite, the priests 
 had informed themselves of all the preliminary circumstances and the proba- 
 bilities respecting the issue. — The Delphic oracle was suspended at various 
 times, and became finally silent soon after the death of the emperor Julian. 
 
 Originally, there was one Pythia (or irpoiprjTic.) only at Delphi; but after the oracle 
 became more frequented, the number was increased to three, chosen from among the 
 uneducated inhabitants of Delphi, and bound to the strictest temperance and chastity. 
 They officiated by turns, and sometimes lost their lives in the paroxysms ot the in- 
 spiration. Those, who pretended to form into sentences their incoherent exclamations, 
 three in number, were called irptxprrrai ; who always took care to ascertain previously 
 much about the history and characters of those consulting the oracle. The prophets 
 were aided in the sacrifices and ceremonies, which preceded the placing of the Pythia 
 on the tripod, by Jive priests called '60101, wno were under a chief called bo-iurhp. — The 
 -tpinyn-al were guides to those who visited the temple, employed particularly in point- 
 ing out to them its curiosities. A great number of persons were required for the va- 
 rious services of the temple and oracle. — See the Plate facing page v. ^ 
 
 On this oracle of Apollo, see Hardion, Oracle de Delphes, in the Mem. Acad, Inscr. vol. iii. p. 137.— C. F. JVUster, De Religione 
 et Oraculo Apollinis Delphici. Hafn. 1S27.— K. D. HUllmann, WQrdisune; des Delphischen Orakels. Bonn, 1S37.— W. Gotte, 
 Das Belphische Orakel, in seinem politischen, religiosen, und sittlichen Einfluss. Leipz. 1839. — R, H. Klausen, in Ersch und 
 Gruber, Encyclopadie, under Orakel. 
 
 § 74. There were in Greece various other oracles less celebrated. The more 
 important of them were the following: the oracle of Apollo at Didyma, which 
 was called also the oracle of the Branchida? ; those of Delos, Abse, Claros, 
 Larissa, Tegyrae and other minor cities ; where answers were also given from 
 Apollo ; the oracle of Trophonius at Lebadea in Boeotia, in a subterranean 
 cave, said to have been the residence of Trophonius, into which inquirers des- 
 cended, after performing solemn ceremonies, in order to receive a revelation of 
 the future by dreams or oracles ; and the oracle of Amphtaraus in the vicinity 
 of Oropus in Attica, where the answers were imparted to the initiated by 
 dreams. — The number of the ancient oracles amounted to two hundred and 
 sixty. 
 
 1. The oracle of Trophonius is described chiefly by Pausanias (ix. 371, who says he entered 
 the cave. The oracle was upon a mountain, where was a grove, temple, and statue of Tropho- 
 nius. Within an inclosure made of white stones, upon which were erected obelisks of brass, 
 was an artificial opening like an oven; here by a ladder the person consulting the oracle 
 descended, carrying in his hands a certain composition of honey. On returning, the person was 
 required to write down what had been seen or heard. — In Plate XIX. is a representation of this 
 oracle. — As there was a story that a visitor to the cave never smiled after his return, it became 
 common to describe a gloomy person by saying he had been to the cave of Trophonius ; see an 
 amusing application of this, in Addison's Spectator, No. 559. 
 
 The cave is still pointed out to travelers J also the two fountains Mnemosyne and Lethe. — See Clarke, Travels, &c. — Pouqiieville, 
 Voyage, &c. vol. iv. p. 171. 
 
 2. There were numerous oracles of Asclepius or iEsculapius ; of which the most celebrated 
 was at Epidatirus. Here the sick sought responses and the recovery of their health by sleeping 
 (incubatio) in tbe temple. It was imagined by F. A. Wolf, that what is now called animal mag- 
 netism or Mesmerism was known to the priests nf those temples where the sick spent one or more 
 nights for the purpose of recovering their health. 
 
 Cf. F. A. Wolf, Beytrag zur Gesch. des Somnambulismus aus dem Alterthum j in his Vermischte Schriften. 
 
 § 75. The pretended revelation of the future mediately (cf. § 70), or by means 
 of some system or art of divination (/.lavtixr;), was effected in various ways. 
 The most important was by theomancy (^so^tcwm'a), an art possessed by a 
 class of persons who were called ^to.u-aVm?, and claimed to be under divine 
 inspiration. This class comprised three varieties; some were considered as 
 
"xcr 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. DIVINATION. 167 
 
 interpreters of the demons by whom they were possessed, and called Satfiovo- 
 Jwjrtr'ot or rtv^ows; ; others were called iv^ovtuaataC or iv^saatixoi, and enjoyed 
 only the intimations of some particular divinity ; and others still were termed 
 txatatixoi, and boasted of high discoveries obtained during a wholly superna- 
 tural state of mind, which they sought to render credible by the pretext of a 
 long trance, insensibility, or sleep. 
 
 Besides what was termed in general theomancy, there were several methods of 
 divination, of which the following were the principal. — 1. By dreams, oveipovoXia. The 
 Greeks ascribed very much to dreams as supernatural, and viewed them either as 
 revelations and warnings from the gods or from demons, or as pictures and images of 
 future events. The expounders of dreams were called dvsipoKpirai, dveipocKcmoi, or dvei- 
 (xmd\ot. Three varieties of the dream are named ; xpip-ariapidg, when a god or spirit 
 conversed with one in his sleep ; opapa, when one saw a vision of future occurrences ; 
 aVtipo;, in which the future was set forth by types and figures (dWriyopims). Two other 
 varieties are also mentioned, brimvtov and (pavracrpia, but are not considered as affording 
 much help in divination ; e<j>ia\Tris, incubus, night-mare, was supposed sometimes to 
 indicate the future. Dreams were supposed to be sent from the god of sleep (P. II. 
 § 113); and from Jupiier {Horn. II. i. 63). A goddess called Brizo (Ppi&iv, to sleep) 
 was thought to preside over the interpretation of dreams, and was worshiped particu- 
 larly in Delos. Dreams which occurred in the morning were most regarded in 
 divination. 
 
 See Artemidorus, as cited P. V. § 267.— Surigny, Songez, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. da Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 74.— Theory of 
 Dreams, cited P. II. § 113. 
 
 2. By sacrifices. This was called Hieromancy (itpo^avnia) or Hieroscopy (apocKmia). 
 It comprehended the observations of many particulars connected with the offering of 
 a victim, as portending good or ill. One of the principal things was the inspection of 
 the entrails, especially the liver {irruiToaKimia), and the heart. The fire of sacrifice was 
 also noticed {Trvpojiavrda) ; likewise the smoke (KanrvonavTsia) , the wine {divojuavrda), and 
 the water (UpopiavTEia, -xriyopavTsia). There were, in short, various kinds or forms of this 
 divination according to the different victims or materials of the sacrifices and the dif 
 ferent rites ; e. g. there was dXsvponavreia, by the flower or meal used ; ixSvopiavrcia, by 
 the entrails of fishes ; woaxoma, by eggs. 
 
 3. By birds, diwvumKri. Those, who observed and interpreted omens by birds, were 
 called opveocxfaoi, dpvido/iavTu;. Some birds were observed with respect to their flight 
 (rawnrtpvyeg) ; others in respect to their singing (uSikou). Unlucky birds, or those of ill 
 omen, were called ^ojKaip.01, pernicious, and kuXvtikcu, hindering from designed under- 
 takings, and by similar epithets ; among this class were the hawk, the buzzard, and, 
 except at Athens, the owl ; the dove and swan, on the other hand, were considered 
 as lucky birds ; and the crowing of the cock was auspicious. When the observer of 
 the flight of birds was watching for omens he looked towards the north, and appear- 
 ances in the east, which was on his right, were considered as favorable ; hence the 
 use of Ji^ioV, right, to signify fortunate. — Omens were also drawn from insects and 
 reptiles, and various animals. Toads, serpents, and boars were of ill omen. Bees 
 and ants were often thought to foretoken good. 
 
 4. By signs in the heavens (Sioo-rmua) and other physical phenomena. Comets, 
 eclipses, and earthquakes were all unlucky signs. Thunder and lightning were lucky 
 if observed on the right hand ; but unlucky if on the left. To be struck with thun- 
 der 0povrriTdg) was unlucky ; in places thus struck, altars were erected and oblations 
 made to appease the gods, after which none dared to approach them. 
 
 5. By lots. The two principal modes were those termed anxojiavTda and K^pojiavrda ; 
 in the former little pieces of paper, having fatidical lines (<m'x<>s) written upon them, 
 were drawn from an urn, and were supposed to indicate the prospects of the person 
 by or for whom they were drawn out ; in the other, various small articles, as beans 
 black and white, pebbles, dice, and the like, which were all called *A>7poi, and were 
 considered as being of different significancy, were drawn from an urn or other vessel. 
 
 -Other modes were pa(S6op.ai>Ttia, by rods, and /SeXopLavrtia, by arrows, in which the 
 lot was decided by the manner in which they fell from an erect posture or from the 
 quiver. Another was by the use of the mva\ dyvprtKd;, on which certain prophetic 
 verses were inscribed, and the fate was indicated by the verse on which the dice fell. 
 
 6. By magical arts. These were said to have originated in Persia among the Mag:, 
 liayoi. The degree of attention given among the Greeks to these arts (vspitpya) is 
 evinced by a striking fact recorded in the Bible (Acts, xix. 19), which seems to imply 
 that a great number of books were composed on the subject. A few only of the 
 various modes need be named ; viKpopavrtia., nKwpi.avTt.ia, and t/zuxo/wTa'a, in which the 
 dead were supposed to appear or speak ; yaaTpopavrtia, in which demons were ima- 
 gined to speak from the bellies of men, or omens were drawn from the appearances 
 of water in the middle part (yaorpri) of certain glass vessels surrounded with lighted 
 torches : Knoouavnia, in which the performers observed the forms assumed by drops 
 
168 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 of melted wax ; there were numerous other modes. — The aXcKTpvoixavnia was a sort of 
 divination by lot, yet classed among the magical arts ; the letters of the alphabet were 
 written in a circle ; a grain of wheat or barley was laid upon each letter ; a cock was 
 placed in the center ; and the desired information was obtained by putting together 
 the letters from which the cock picked the grains. — It is proper to mention here some 
 of the magical arts, by which mysterious effects were supposed to be wrought ; as, 
 e. g., ipapjiaKua, in which medicated herbs, minerals, and the like ((pappana) were used ; 
 and (iaaKavia, which was a sort of fascination or malign influence which certain per- 
 sons were supposed to exert. 
 
 See Bonamy and Le Bland, &c. as cited § 227.— On divination by the cup, cf. Class. lourn. x. 232. 
 
 7. Finally, divination was also made from various things included under the general 
 name of omens (o-vp,8o\a). One class of these consisted of such as were drawn from 
 the person himself, as tzaKpoi, palpitations of some part of the system; 06p,8os, a ringing 
 of the ears; irrappol, sneezings, '&c. Another class consisted of those drawn from 
 objects external to the person; as the meeting of certain objects or animals on the 
 road (ii'65ia o-uju/JoXa), or certain occurrences at home (to oikoo-kotukov). Certain words 
 were also ominous; such were called orrai, kXj^oVe?, tpiifiat. The Greeks, especially the 
 Athenians, sought to avoid words of ill omen, carefully substituting others , as, e. g. 
 'EvfiEvUs; instead of 'Epivvvc;, and </>iXanjf instead of KXhr-nis. 
 
 On the ancient art of divination, see Cicero, De DLvinatione. — Cf. Wachsmuth, Historical Antiquities, as cited § 13. — Potter, 
 Archaiol. Grsec, bk. ii. ch. 12-18. 
 
 § 76. The festivals formed an important part of the religious worship of the 
 Greeks. Their establishment and support was partly for the sake of honoring 
 and supplicating the gods, and commemorating persons of merit, and partly 
 for the sake of rest, recreation, union, and harmony of social feeling. Their 
 number greatly increased with the multiplication of the gods and the progress 
 of luxury and wealth; the variety and splendor of the accompanying ceremo- 
 nies increased in the same proportion. Especially was this the case at Athens. 
 They were mostly held at the public expense, the means being drawn from 
 various sources. 
 
 See M. G. Hermann, Oie Feste von Hellas historisch-philosophiscb bearbeitet und zum erstenma! nach ihrem Sinn und Zwecli 
 erlautert. Berlin, 1803. 2 Th. 8. 
 
 § 77 t. Some of the most important festivals have been mentioned (P. II.) 
 in the history of particular gods, under the head of Mythology. A slight 
 notice of them here must suffice. The principal out of an almost countless 
 multitude, will be named in alphabetical order, and then some particulars added 
 respecting a few of these. 
 
 Ik. 'A ypioj via, a nocturnal festival instituted in honor of Bacchus. 'A&wvia, 
 
 dedicated to Venus and the memory of Adonis. AXcoa, to Bacchus and Ceres. 
 
 'AvOetTTfjpia, observed at Athens three days, also in honor of Bacchus. 'Ai«- 
 
 Tovpta, at Athens, in commemoration of a victory obtained by Melanthus, through 
 stratagem, over the Boeotian king Xanthus, likewise in honor of Bacchus, and other 
 
 gods. 'AtypoSicria, a festival of Aphrodite or Venus, particularly on the island of 
 
 Cyprus. -Bpavpwvia, sacred to Diana, in Attica, celebrated every fifth year.— 
 
 Aa(j>vri<p6pia, to Apollo in Bceotia, only every ninth year. A>;X ta, also to Apollo, 
 
 on the island of Delos, every fifth year. A n pfirpia, sacred to Demeter or Ceres. 
 
 AiitoXel a, an Athenian festival, instituted in honor of Jupiter, as tutelary god of the 
 city (IloXtrfs-). -A i o v v o- 1 a, to Dionysus or Bacchus ; a greater and more solemn festi- 
 val in the cities ; and a lesser one in the country ; the same that was called by the Ro- 
 mans Bacchanalia. There were innumerable forms of this festival. 'E Karopjiata, 
 
 dedicated by the Argives to Juno, to whom they sacrificed a hecatomb on the first day 
 
 of this festival. '"EXevaiv i a, the most celebrated festival of Ceres, a greater and 
 
 smaller, connected with the well known mysteries. "E p p. a i a, a festival of Mercury, 
 
 in Elis, Arcadia, and Crete. 'E$ kaia, a festival of Diana atEphesus. 'Upaia, a 
 
 festival of Juno at Argos. 'H^aiorna, sacred to Vulcan at Athens, accompanied 
 
 by races with torches. Qea po<p6pia, the festival of legislation in honor of Ceres, at 
 
 Athens and other Greek cities. Kopnta, sacred to Jupiter and Apollo, almost 
 
 throughout all Greece, for nine days. Avxaia, an Arcadian festival in honor of 
 
 Jupiter, instituted by Lycaon. [But this term usually designates a festival of Pan 
 
 corresponding to the Roman Lupercal. Cf. P. II. § 80.] 'Oo-ico<p6p ia, a festival 
 
 of the Athenians instituted by Theseus, and so called from the custom of carrying 
 
 branches about on the occasion. IT avaOfjvata, one of the most solemn festivals 
 
 at Athens, dedicated to Minerva. The lesser was celebrated annually; the greater 
 
 every fifth year. Both were connected with various contests and -games. risXai. 
 
 p t a, a Thessalian festival dedicated to Jupiter, having some resemblance to the Sa- 
 turnalia of the Romans. '£1 pat a, a general name applied to solemn sacrifices . 
 
'rex. 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 169 
 
 which were brought to the gods in the different seasons, with a view to secure good 
 weather. 
 
 For a more complete enumeration and description, cf. Potter, Archaeol. Graca, bk. ii. ch. 20.— Cf. Lurcher, on certain Greek 
 festivals, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 412 ; and xlviii. p. 252. 
 
 2. "The festival called 'AScJvia was celebrated in most of the cities of Greece. 
 The solemnity continued two days. On the first, certain images or pictures of Adonis 
 and Venus were brought forth with all the pomp and ceremonies used at funerals ; the 
 women tore their hair, beat their breasts, and counterfeited other actions usual in 
 lamenting the dead. This lamentation was called dtuviaapidc. or atWi'a, and hence adojviav 
 aytiv signifies the same as "AScoviv Kkaiew, to weep for Adonis ; and the songs on this 
 occasion were denominated aSaviSia. With the images were also carried shells filled 
 with earth, in which grew several sorts of herbs, particularly lettuces ; in memory 
 that Adonis was laid out on a bed of lettuces. These were called Kniroi, gardens ; and 
 hence 'A&Zvilo; Kfjnoi were proverbially applied to things unfruitful and fading, because 
 those herbs were sown only so long before the festival as to be green at that time, and 
 were presently cast out into the water. The flutes used on this day were called 
 yiyypiat from yiyypvs, the Phoenician name of Adonis ; the music, yiyypaap.dc ; and the 
 songs were called yiyypavrd. The sacrifice was denominated Kadkfya, because the days 
 of mourning were called by that name. The second day was spent in all possible 
 demonstrations of joy and merriment ; in memory, that by the favor of Proserpine, 
 Venus obtained that Adonis should return to life, and dwell with her one-half of every 
 year. This fable is applied to the sun which produced the vicissitudes of summer and 
 winter." 
 
 Cf. P. H. § 47.— Banier, Culte d'Adonis, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. v»l. iii. p. 98. 
 
 3. " The A io via i a were sometimes called by the general name of "Opyia, which, 
 though sometimes applied to the mysteries of other gods, more particularly belonged 
 to those of Bacchus. They were also sometimes denominated Bc«xaa. They were 
 observed at Athens with greater splendor, and with more ceremonious superstition, 
 than in any other part of Greece ; the years were numbered by them ; the chief 
 archon had a share in their management ; and the priests who officiated were honored 
 with the first seats at public shows. At first, however, they were celebrated without 
 splendor, being days set apart for public mirth, and observed only with the following 
 ceremonies : — a vessel of wine adorned with a vine branch, was brought forth ; next 
 followed a goat ; then was carried a basket of figs ; and after all, the phalli. — At some 
 of them, the worshipers in their garments and actions imitated the poetical fictions 
 concerning Bacchus ; they put on fawns' skins, fine linen, and miters ; carried thyrsi, 
 drums, pipes, flutes, and rattles; crowned themselves with garlands of ivy, vine, fir, 
 and other trees sacred to Bacchus. Some imitated Silenus, Pan, and the Satyrs, and 
 exhibited themselves in comic dresses and antic motions ; some rode upon asses ; and 
 others drove goats to the slaughter. In this manner persons of both sexes ran about 
 the hills and deserts, dancing ridiculously, personating men deranged in their intel- 
 lects, and crying aloud, E-toi Xafioi, EvoiB&kxc, w "Iaxxe, 'Idflaicxz, or 'Ioj Ba/cts. 
 
 The great festival, Aiovvaia peya\a, was sometimes called domed, or to. kclt' aarv, be- 
 cause celebrated within the city of Athens, in the beginning of spring, in the month 
 'EXaipriPoXuiv. It was sometimes by way of eminence called Aiovvaia, because it was 
 the most celebrated of all festivals of Bacchus at Athens, and was probably the same 
 as Aiovvaia apxarirepa. 
 
 The less, Aiovvaia pucpa, was sometimes called to. xar dypovc., because it was observed 
 in the country. It was a sort of preparation to the former and greater festival, and 
 was celebrated in autumn, in the month UoaciSewv or Tapnhwv. Some are of opinion, 
 that it was the same as Aiovvaia \nvaia, which received its name from A^d?, a wine- 
 press." 
 
 There appear to have been four Attic festivals in honor of Bacchus ; the Aiovvaia 
 tear dypovs, the Arjvaia, the 'AvOtariipia, and the Aiovvaia tear aarv. Other festivals in his 
 honor are also named. 
 
 In our Plate XXV. fig. e, we have a Bacchante dancing with a thyrsus in one hand and a wine 
 cup in the other ; in rig. /, another Bacchante with some musical instrument in each hand, per- 
 haps the crotala. A male reveler is seen on the altar of Bacchus, given in the Sup. Plate 30. 
 
 Cf. Schbll, Hist. Litt. Grecque, vol. ii. p. 5, as cited P. V. § 7. 9.— On festivals of Bacchus, see also P. II. § 59 ; P. IV. § 66. 2.— See 
 Spalding, in the Abhandt. der Berl. Acad. 1811 ; and A. Bb'ckh, Vom Uuterschiede der Attischen Lenaen, Antheslerien, &c. in the 
 Abhandl. der Berl. Ac. 1819. 
 
 4. " The 'EXeuo-r vi a was a solemnity observed by the Celeans and Phhasians 
 every fourth year; by the Pheneatss, the Lacedaemonians, Parrhasians, and Cretans, 
 but more especially by the Athenians, every fifth year, at Eleusis, a borough town of 
 Attica. It was the' most celebrated solemnity in Greece, and was, therefore, by way of 
 eminence, called t& pvarfipia, the mysteries, and T<rA£rf). It is said by some to have been 
 instituted by Ceres herself, when she had supplied the Athenians with corn in a time 
 of famine. Some say that it was instituted by king Erectheus ; and others, bv 
 Eumolpus. 
 
 22 P 
 
170 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 It was divided into the pupa and peyaXa pvarnpia, lesser and greater mysteries ; and 
 then the latter were in honor of Ceres, the former in that of her daughter Proserpine. 
 Miicpa iivarfipia, the lesser mysteries, were observed in the month ' Avdcarnpmv at Agree, 
 a place near the river Ilissus ; and the ptya\a pvarfipia., greater mysteries, were cele- 
 brated in the month Bon6ppii>v, at Eleusis, a borough-town of Attica, from which Ceres 
 was called Eleusinia. In later ages the lesser festival was used as a preparation to 
 the greater, in which they could not be initiated till they had been purified at the 
 former. 
 
 About a year after purification at the lesser, they sacrificed a sow to Ceres, and 
 were admitted to the greater mysteries, the secret rites of which (with the exception 
 of a few known'only to the priests) were openly revealed to them, and hence they 
 were called fyopoi and aruVrat, inspectors. Persons of both sexes and of all ages were 
 initiated at this solemnity. To neglect the initiation into these mysteries was consi- 
 dered a crime of a very heinous nature, and formed a part of the accusation for which 
 Socrates was condemned to death. ^All the Greeks might claim initiation into the 
 mysteries ; but the people of every other nation were excluded by an ancient law ; 
 and persons convicted of sorcery or of any atrocious crime, and especially if they 
 had committed homicide, even though involuntarily, were debarred from these 
 mysteries. 
 
 The manner of initiation was as follows. The candidates, being crowned with 
 myrtle, were admitted by night into a place called pvcrnxos ot/koV, the mystical temple, 
 or pvo-ToSoKo; Sopd;, which was an edifice very capacious (P. II. § 63). At their entrance 
 they washed their hands in holy water, and at the same time were admonished to 
 present themselves with minds pure and undefiled, without which the external clean- 
 ness of the body would not be accepted. After this, the holy mysteries were read to 
 them out of a book called ircrpcopa, from irsrpa, a stone, because the book was only two 
 stones cemented together. Then the priest who initiated them, and who was called 
 hpofyavTris, proposed to them certain questions, to which they returned answers. Soon 
 after, they beheld strange and frightful objects : sometimes the place, in which they 
 were, appeared bright and resplendent with light and radiant fire, and. instantly was 
 covered with pitchy darkness ; sometimes a hollow sound was heard, and the earth 
 seemed to groan beneath their feet. The being present at these sights was called 
 airoipia, intuition. They were then dismissed in these words, Kdy£ , "Opra*. The gar- 
 ments in which they were initiated were deemed sacred, and efficacious in averting 
 evils and incantations. 
 
 The hierophantes had three assistants : the first was called MSov^ps-, torch-bearer, to 
 whom it was permitted to marry; the second, f'V'jf, the crier; and the third, 6 km. 
 0up.cS, from his ministering at the altar. 'kpcKpavrns is said to have been a type of the 
 Great Creator of all things ; SaSovxo;, of the sun ; Ktjpv^ , of Mercury ; and 6 tti /3top(S, 
 of the moon. 
 
 There were also certain public officers whose business consisted in seeing that all 
 things were performed according to custom. Of these was jiaaiXsig, the king, who 
 was one of the archons, and who was obliged to offer prayers and sacrifices at this 
 solemnity, and to observe that no indecency or irregularity was committed during the 
 festival ; four imp.e\r]-aX, curators, who were elected by the people, and ten persons who 
 assisted at this and some other solemnities, and who were called hpo-nowl, from their 
 offering sacrifices. 
 
 This festival continued nine days, and from the fifteenth to the twenty-third day of 
 the month BoriSpoptcov. During this time it was unlawful to arrest any man, or to pre- 
 sent any petition ; and they who were found guiltyof such practices were fined one 
 thousand drachms, or, as others say, put to death. 
 
 On the fourth day of the festival, they made a solemn procession, in which the 
 KaXaOtov, holy basket of Ceres, was carried in a consecrated cart, crowds of persons 
 shouting as they went, Xaips, A^rcp (Hail, Ceres). After these, followed certain 
 women called Kio-mtyopoi, who carried baskets in which were contained carded wool, 
 grains of salt, a serpent, pomegranates, reeds, ivy boughs, a sort of cakes called 
 <pdoTs, poppies, &c. — The fifth was called 'H tw \apiraSav hpepa, the torch-day; because, 
 the night following, the men and women ran about with torches in their hands. It 
 was also customary to dedicate torches to Ceres, and to contend who could present 
 the largest; and this was done in memory of the journey of Ceres, who sought Pro- 
 serpine with a torch lighted at the flames of iEtna. — The sixth day was called "\aK\oi, 
 from Iacchus, the son of Jupiter and Ceres, who with a torch in his hand accompa- 
 nied the goddess in her search after Proserpine. His statue, crowned with myrtle, 
 and bearing a torch, was carried from the Ceramicus to Eleusis, in a solemn proces- 
 sion called "lavcos. — On the seventh day were sports, in which the victors were re 
 warded with a measure of barley, which was the first grain sown in Eleusis." 
 
 Robinson. Archaeol. Graca. — On the Eleusinian Mysteries, see the references given P. II. § 63. — A full account of the Greek mys- 
 teries is given in Limburg-Brouwer, Histoire de la Civilisation, Mor. et Relig. des Grecs. 
 
 5. The Oeo-pofopta was a festival in honor of Ceres, surnamed Seo-porpSpos (legifera 
 or lawgiver), because she was said to have first taught mankind the use of laws. It 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 171 
 
 was celebrated in many Grecian cities ; by the Spartans, the Thebans in Bceotia, the 
 Syracusans in Sicily, and others. — " But the Athenians observed this festival with the 
 greatest show of devotion ; the worshipers were freeborn women (it being unlawful 
 For any of servile condition to be present), whose husbands were wont to defray the 
 charges ; and were obliged to do so, if their wives' portion amounted to three talents. 
 These women were assisted by a priest called 'Zretpavri^opos , because his head was 
 adorned with a crown ; and by certain virgins, who were kept under severe discipline, 
 being maintained at the public charge in a place called QtajUHpopeiov. The women were 
 clad in white apparel.' — Three days at least were spent in making preparations. Upon 
 the eleventh of Pyanepsion, the women, carrying books upon their heads, wherein 
 the laws were contained, went to Eleusis, where the solemnity was kept ; whence 
 this day was called "Avofo;, the ascent. Upon the fourteenth the festival began, and 
 lasted until the seventeenth. Upon the sixteenth they kept a fast, sitting upon the 
 ground in token of humiliation; whence the day was called Nwnia, a fast." 
 
 Cf. Potter, Boyd's ed. p. 378.— Wdlauer, De Thesmophoriis. Wralisl. 1820. 8 On the Fasts of the ancients, see Marin, L'Usage 
 
 du Jeune, cbez les Anciens, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iv. p. 29. 
 
 6. " The UavaOfivata was an Athenian festival in honor of Minerva, the protec- 
 tress of Athens. It was first instituted by Erichthonius, who called it 'AQf\vaia ; and it 
 was afterwards revived by Theseus, when he had united into one city all the Athe- 
 nian people, and by him was denominated TlavaOwaia. Some are of opinion that it 
 was the same as the Roman Quinquatria. At first it continued only one day ; but il 
 was afterwards prolonged several days, and celebrated with great magnificence. 
 
 There were two solemnities of this name, one of which was called MtyaXa IlavaOrjvoua, 
 the Great Panathenaea, and was celebrated once in five years, beginning on the twenty- 
 second of Hecatornbaeon ; the other was denominated Mtxpa TLavadfivaia, the Less Pana- 
 thenaea, and was observed every third year, or, as some think, every year, beginning 
 on the twentieth or twenty-first of Thargelion. In the latter were three games, ma- 
 naged by ten presidents who were elected from the ten tribes of Athens, and who con- 
 tinued in office four years. On the first day was a race with torches, in which first 
 footmen and afterwards horsemen contended, and which was also observed in the 
 greater festival. The second contention was cvavipia; dyoV, a gymnastic exercise in 
 which the combatants gave proof of their strength or manhood. The place of these 
 games was near the river, and was called from the festival HavaBuvoXKdv. The third 
 wa's a musical contention instituted by Pericles ; the subject proposed was the eulogium 
 of Harmodius and Aristogiton, and also of Thrasybulus, who had rescued the repub- 
 lic from the yoke of the tyrants by which it was oppressed. The poets also contended 
 in four plays, which from their number were called TcrpaXoyia. Besides these there was 
 a contention at Sunium, in imitation of a sea-fight. (Cf. Herod, viii. 55. — Pausan. i. 27. 
 § 2.) The victor in either of these games was rewarded with a vessel of oil and with 
 a crown of the olives which grew in the Academy, and which were called popiai from 
 li6pog, death, or from ufas, a part. There was likewise a dance called Pyrrhichia, per- 
 formed by boys in armor, who represented to the sound of the flute the battle of Mi- 
 nerva with the Titans. No man was permitted to be present at these games in 
 dyed garments, under a penalty to be imposed by the dyuvodkr^, president of the games. 
 Lastly a sumptuous sacrifice was offered, to which every Athenian borough contributed 
 an ox ; of the flesh that remained, a public entertainment was made for the whole 
 assembly ; and at this entertainment cups of an unusual size were employed. 
 
 In the greater festival most of the same rites and ceremonies were observed, but 
 with greater splendor and magnificence, and the addition of some other matters. In 
 particular, at this solemnity was a procession, in which was carried the sacred totXos, 
 garment of Minerva. This whr\og was woven by a select number of virgins, who were 
 called epyaurrucal, from ipyov, a work, and who were superintended by two of the 
 dppr](p6pot, and commenced their employment at the festival XaX^ra, which was on the 
 thirtieth of Pyanepsion. The garment was white, without sleeves, and embroidered 
 with gold: upon it were described the achievements of Minerva against the giants, of 
 Jupiter, of the heroes, and of men renowned for valor and great exploits; and hence 
 men of courage and bravery were said to be Sfioi wctXou, worthy of being portrayed on 
 the garment of Minerva. The ceremonies attending the procession with the rorXog 
 were as follows. In the Ceramicus without the city, was an engine built for the pur- 
 pose in the form of a ship, upon which the irenXos was hung in the manner of a sail, 
 which was put in motion by concealed machinery. The wct-Xoj was thus conveyed to 
 the temple of Ceres Eleusinia, and thence to the citadel, where it was placed upon 
 Minerva's statue, which was laid on a bed strewed with flowers, and called 7rX<wi?. 
 This procession was composed of a great number of persons of both sexes, and of all 
 ages and conditions. It was led up by old men, and, as some say, by old women, car- 
 rying olive branches in their hands ; and hence they were called SaXXwpCpot, bearers of 
 green boughs. After these came middle-aged men, who, armed with lances and 
 bucklers, seemed only to respire war, and who were accompanied by the ptroiKoi, so- 
 journers, carrying little boats as emblems of their being foreigners, and therefore 
 called o-KtxpriqiSpoi, boat-bearers. Then followed the women, attended by the sojourners' 
 
172 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 wives, who were called itiptatpipoi, from carrying water-pots in token of servitude. These 
 were followed by young men, who sang hymns in honor of the goddess, and who were 
 crowned with millet. Next proceeded select virgins of high rank, whose features, 
 shape, and deportment, attracted every eye, and who were called navn^dpot, from their 
 carrying baskets, which contained sacred utensils, cakes, and all things necessary for the 
 sacrifices. These utensils were in the custody of one who, because he was chief ma- 
 nager of the public processions, was called dp\Mwpoc. The virgins were attended by 
 the sojourners' daughters, who carried umbrellas and folding-chairs, and who were 
 thence denominated oKta&nditipoi, umbrella-carriers, and iuppofdpot, seat-carriers. It is 
 probable that the rear was brought up by boys, who walked in coats used at proces- 
 sions, and were called iravJaputoi. The necessaries for this and other processions were 
 prepared in a public hall erected for that purpose between the Piraean gate and the 
 temple of Ceres ; and the management of the whole business belonged to the vofioipi- 
 \otKe$, who were appointed to see that the ancient customs were observed. 
 
 The Panathenaic procession is represented on the frieze of the Parthenon. — See Stuart, Antiq. of Athens, cited P. IV. § 243. 1. — 
 Visconti, Sculpture du Parthenon, cited P. IV. § 190. 4. — A small but handsome view of the Acropolis and the Panatheuaic proces- 
 sion is given in Bvyd's Potter. 
 
 On tlie festival, cf. Robinson, Arch. Grac— Potter.— Lond. Quart. Rev. xiv. 517.— H. A. MilUer, Panathenaica. 
 
 Among the monuments of ancient art still in preservation are certain vases called Panathenaic 
 Vases, as they are supposed from inscriptions on them to have been actually employed to contain 
 the sacred oil bestowed upon victors in these games as a part of their prize. 
 
 See P. 0. Bronstcd, on the Panathenaic Vases; in the Transact, of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. ii. p. 102. Lond. 1834. — De 
 Cayhts, Vases dont les anciens faisoient usage dans les festives, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, xxiii. 342. 
 
 § 78. The great public games of the Greeks were also a part of their religious 
 customs. They were looked upon as sacred, and were originally established 
 in honor of the gods. They were always begun and ended with sacrifices. It 
 also entered into their design, and was their effect, to render religion more 
 attractive by association with sensible objects, to bring into nearer contact the 
 several portions of Greece, and to stimulate and publicly reward superior 
 talents. — The exercises of these games were of five sorts, and had therefore 
 the common name Hevta&Xov. They were running, leaping, wrestling, throw' 
 ing the discus, and hurling the javelin, or boxing, which some put in the place 
 of the contest with the javelin. 
 
 See Burette, on these exercises, (la Lutte des anciens— Fugilat, Couree, Risque, &c.) in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. iii. 
 p. 222 ss.— Q. F. Philipp, De Pentathlo sive Quinquertio. Berl. 1827. 8. 
 
 § 79. The race (Spo^oj) was between fixed boundaries, the starting-place 
 (a^fcrtj, |3oaj3is), and the goal or end (crxorfoj, tippa), on a piece of ground 
 measured off for the purpose (orXoj, otdSiov), 125 paces in extent. The racers 
 were sometimes clad in full armor (orfJutfoSpojitot). — There were also chariot- 
 races and horse-races. 
 
 Those who only ran once over the stadium were called o-ratWpfyoi ; those who ran 
 over the space doubled (MauXoc), that is, both to the goal and back,- were called Siav\o. 
 (5pti//oi ; those who ran over the space twelve times in going and returning, i. e. twenty- 
 four stadia, or according to others only seven stadia (AsAi^e?), were termed (VAtxofyfyot. 
 The goal was sometimes called KapTm'ip ; because, in the 6iav\o; and the <5uA<\oc , the 
 racers turned round it. — The prize (aOXov, fipajiciov) was commonly merely a crown of 
 
 olive, pine, or parsley. The term K&qres was applied to horses which performed in 
 
 the horse-race single. Two horses were also used, upon one of which the per- 
 former (dva/3ams) rode to the goal, and then leaped upon the other. In the chariot- 
 race, two, three, four, or more horses were employed to draw the chariot (Hpua) ■ hence 
 the terms cvmpoi, redpemrot, nrpcuopoi, &c. The chariots were sometimes driven over the 
 course twelve times (iSvaA/cactyfyoi). It was an object of emulation among the wealthy 
 to send chariots tor the race to the public games of Greece. 
 
 Qedoyn, Les Courses de Chevaux et de Chars dans les jeux Olympiques, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. viii. 314, 330 ; in. 360.— 
 Quairim. dc Quincy, Sur la Course armee et les oplitodromes, in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe a'Bist.et Lit. Arte. vol. iv. 
 p. 165. with figures. On the Olympic Stadium, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 277. 
 
 § 80. For the leap (dtyta) also boundaries were marked, the place from which 
 (/ScvT'jjp), and the place to which (tjxa^a) it was made. This exercise was 
 performed sometimes with the hands empty, but oftener with metallic weights 
 in them, usually of an oval shape (dvr%£s), sometimes with weights attached 
 to the head or the shoulders. 
 
 The distance leaped over was called itavi>i>. The point to which the performers were 
 to leap was marked by digging the earth ; hence its name from twam-co. The phrase 
 ■nnkSv vnlp ru iaKaujiha, applied to signify excess or extravagance, was taken from this 
 exercise. 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PUBLIC GAMES. 173 
 
 § 81; Wrestling (jta%ri, xaifa^'tixri) was commonly performed in a covered 
 portico (Zvstbf), the combatants being naked, and making tlie most violent 
 exertions to throw each other to the ground. When one had done this with his 
 adversary three times (o fptaSaj), he received the prize. There were two modes 
 of this exercise, one in the erect posture (dp^ortax^), the other in the lying pos- 
 ture in which the parties contended rolling on the ground {wa,x%wo7taxri and 
 dvuVS^tfcj or xv%usbt). — When wrestling was united with boxing, it was called 
 nayzpatftov or Ila/i/ia^top. 
 
 After the names of the candidates had been announced by a herald, they were 
 matched by lot. For this purpose a silver urn was used containing as many balls as 
 there were candidates. The same letter was inscribed on two balls, and those who 
 drew tho same letter were antagonists in the contest. In case of an odd number, he 
 who drew the odd lot was called l<pe&po$, and required to contend with those who con- 
 quered. A competitor confessed his defeat by his voice, or by holding up his finger; 
 hence dips &&ktu\ov became proverbial to signify confess that you are conquered. 
 
 In the strict wrestling, blows were not allowed, nor in boxing was it proper for tho 
 competitor to throw his antagonist ; but in the Pancratium, both modes were prac- 
 ticed by the combatants (nayKpaTiaaTai or Trajujxaxoi). 
 
 § 82. The quoit or discus (St'tfxoj, o6%os) was made of stone, brass, or iron, 
 of a circular form, and was thrown by means of a thong (xaJiwoW) passing 
 through a hole in the centre. He who threw the farthest took the prize. 
 
 1. The discus was about three inches thick and ten or twelve in diameter. Some 
 state that the Sutkos was of stone, and the <«iXoj of iron ; others that the former was 
 carefully made and polished, the latter a rough mass of iron ; the difference may have 
 been wholly in their form or shape. — The exercise is said to have originated with the 
 Lacedaemonians. 
 
 2 m. The hurling the javelin (/5ty«s, dKdvrms) was practiced either with the hand 
 alone, or by means of a thong attached to the shaft. 
 In Plate XVII. fig. Y, is seen a javelin with the thong (.amentum) attached to it. 
 
 § 83. Boxing (rivyfirj) was performed with clenched fists, around which they 
 sometimes bound the cestus (ifids), i. e. a thong or piece of hide loaded with 
 iron or lead. The chief art in this game was to parry the blows of the antago- 
 nist, which were usually aimed at the face. 
 
 The combatant was called IKS/cn/y, from wf, a fist. The cestus, originally reaching 
 no higher than the wrist, was afterwards extended to the elbow and sometimes to the 
 shoulder, and at last came to be used both for defence and attack. The l/itivrss 
 were of several kinds ; those termed peiXixat gave the softest blows ; and the uppftriKes 
 gave the most severe. The exercise was violent and dangerous. The combatants often 
 lost their lives, and victory was always dear bought. Bruises on the face by blows 
 were called tewirja. 
 
 Besides these exercises of bodily strength and agility, there were at the public games of the 
 Greeks contests in music, poetry, and rhetoric, of which mention is made in the Archeology of 
 Literature (cf. P. IV. D 65, { 66). 
 
 § 84. The four most grand and solemn games of the Greeks were the Olympic, 
 Pythian, Isthmian, and Nemean, which were called by way of eminence Sacred 
 games (ayuive j ispot). 
 
 The first and most distinguished were the Olympic, named from the place 
 Olympia in Elis, and dedicated to the Olympian Jupiter. By some, Jupiter 
 was considered as their founder ; by others, an earlier Hercules belonging to 
 the Ideean Dactyli; by others, Pelops; by most, Hercules the hero, who was 
 the first victor in all the exercises, except in wrestling. They were renewed 
 by Iphitus, a contemporary of Lycurgus, about B. C. 888, and afterwards by 
 Chorrebus, B. C. 776. Afterwards they were an object of special care to the 
 people of Elis. Several inspectors (dxiirou, /La^fiov^ot) had charge of the ex- 
 ternal arrangements, under the direction of a chief inspector (axvtdpxyi)- 
 
 1 u. Those who wished to appear as combatants were obliged to spend ten months 
 at the Gymnasium in Elis, practicing the games and various preparatory exercises unde* 
 the instruction of the judges, who were in the Olympic games especially termed 
 'EWavoSiicai. The order in which they successively engaged in the contests was decided 
 by lot. The prize was a crown or wreath of olive (/ctfrivoj).— Among the Olympic 
 victors, Alcibiades was one of the most celebrated; the names of thirteen others Pin 
 dar has preserved to posterity by his Olympic odes. Statues were often. erected to the 
 conquerors in the grove of Jupiter. Their fame was spread the more widely on ac- 
 
 p2 
 
174 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 count of the vast multitudes of spectators, that flocked to the games from every pari 
 of Greece, and from Asia, Airica, and Sicily. Originally females were not allowed to 
 attend. — : — The games were repeated every fifth year, in the month 'E/caro^flaicji', an- 
 swering partly to July, and continued five days. They gave rise to the cfctstom of 
 reckoning time and dating events by Olympiads. Each Olympiad consisted of four 
 years. The first Olympiad is generally considered in chronology as corresponding 
 with the year 776 B. C. 
 
 2. One judge at first presided over the games ; afterwards two ; subsequently there 
 were twelve ; then eight, one from each tribe of the Eleans. The place, where these 
 assembled and superintended the preparatory exercises (irpoyiy/i/aoj«ira) of the combatants, 
 was called 'EW-nvoSiKaTov. They took the most solemn oaths to adjudge the prizes im- 
 partially. Although women were strictly excluded from witnessing these games at 
 first, they were afterwards allowed not only to be present, but even to contend in them. 
 Originally the contests all took place in one day ; but at length several days were de- 
 voted to them, and sometimes a day to processions and sacrifices and to the banquets 
 given to the victors. The Olympic games were celehrated under the Roman empe- 
 rors; but were abolished A. D. 394, in the reign of Theodosius. 
 
 3. Much has been said respecting the various favorable influences which these games 
 exerted in Greece. They are said to have promoted peace and harmony between the 
 different sections and states, as they drew together spectators from every quarter, who 
 thus constituted the great assembly (navrjyupif) of Greece. Olympia was in fact called 
 TcdyKowog X'^pa, the common country of all. Hardihood and valor among the soldiery 
 are also mentioned as natural effects of the various athletic exercises performed at them. 
 They could not fail to stimulate to literary exertion, as they furnished poets, historians, 
 and orators, with the best opportunities to rehearse their productions. 
 
 Bancroft's Heeren, p. 129.— G. West's Diss, on the Olympic games, in his Iransl. of Pindar, cited P. V. § 60. 5— Cf. Sulzer's Alls;. 
 
 Theorie, close of article Pindar* — ThirlwalVs Hist, of Greece. For more particular accounts of the games, Dissen, Ueber die 
 
 Anordnung der Olympischen Spiele ; in his Kleine Schriften.—Krause, Olympia oder Darstellung der grossen Olympischen Spiele. 
 Wiem. 1838. 8. 
 
 § 85. The Pythian games (n^ia) were celebrated upon the Crisssean plains, 
 in the vicinity of Delphi, which was once called Pytho from the surname of 
 Apollo. The games were sacred _to this god, and were a commemoration of 
 his victory over the Pythian serpent. They were instituted either by himself, 
 or by Amphictyon or Diomedes. Originally they were held at the beginning 
 of every ninth year (Iwast^pdj), afterwards, like the Olympic, at the beginning 
 of every fifth year (rtsm'asT^pij). The Pythiad was sometimes used as an era 
 in chronology, but not commonly ; it appears to have been reckoned from • the 
 3d year of the 49th Olympiad, B. C. 582. As a reward or prize the victors 
 received certain apples sacred to Apollo, often also a crown of laurel. 
 
 1 u. The contests appear to have been at first only in music, and to have been re- 
 warded with silver, gold, or something of value. The song called IlvdtKSg j/fyoc, which 
 was performed in these contests, celebrated the victory of Apollo over the serpent ; it 
 consisted of five or six distinct portions, which represented so many separate parts and 
 steps in the undertaking and achievement. Of the same import was the customary 
 solemn dance, composed of five parts. 
 
 2 u. All the exercises in use at the Olympic games were gradually introduced into 
 the Pythian. The Amplactyons had the oversight of them ; to these the candidates 
 were required to present themselves. Nine conquerors are especially celebrated in the 
 Pythian odes of Pindar. The spot where these games were held was a plain between 
 Delphi and Cirrha, sacred to Apollo. 
 
 3. The Pythian games Were sometimes called AixtpiKTVovtica adXa, because they were under 
 the care of the Amphictyons. The particular persons appointed to take the oversight of the 
 games were called 'En-ipt^i-at ; who also acted as judges. They were assisted, in keeping 
 order, by the nao-Ttycxpopoi. The Greek states sent, to attend these games, persons termed 
 Qewpot and TlvdataTai. 
 
 § 86. The Nemean games (Nepua. or Ne/icua,) derived their name from Ne- 
 mea, a city in Argolis between Cleonae and Phlius, in the vicinity of which 
 they were celebrated. They were held every third year {tf>is-t7jpt,xou) so as to 
 fall on every second and fourth Olympic year. It was never common to com- 
 pute time by Nemeads. The superintendents and judges weie selected from 
 the neighboring cities, Argos, Corinth, and Cleonae, and were persons distin- 
 guished particularly for their love of justice. Their dress was black, because 
 the games were first instituted as a funeral solemnity (dywi/ Jrtt-^atjitoj) in honor 
 of Opheltes, or Anchemorus ; although others state, that they were instituted and 
 dedicated to Jupiter by Hercules, after slaying the Nemean lion. The prize of 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PUBLIC GAMES. 175 
 
 the victor was a crown of parsley (otuvov). Ten conquerors in the Nemean 
 games are celebrated by Pindar. 
 
 See Villoison, Les jeux Nemeans, in Ihe Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. 29. 
 
 § 87. The Isthmian games ("lajfyua) were so called from the place of their 
 celebration, the Corinthian isthmus, or the neck of land joining Peloponnesus 
 with the continent. They were instituted in honor of Melicertes, a son of Ino 
 and Athamas, who under the name of Palsemon was received by Neptune into 
 the number of sea gods. Others represent Theseus as the founder of the 
 games, and Neptune as the god to whom they were consecrated. With the 
 Corinthians, all the other states of Greece (except the Eleans, who were ex- 
 cluded by some dreadful execration,) united in celebrating these games. They 
 were held at the beginning of every third year (i-pta^ptseoi), and were attended 
 with the musical contests as well as those in all the athletic exercises. The 
 prize was originally, and also in later times again, a crown of pine ; for a 
 period between, it was a crown of dry parsley. The judges were at first 
 selected from the Corinthians, afterwards from the Sicyonians. Pindar, in his 
 Isthmian odes yet extant, has sung the praise of eight victors, mostly Pancra- 
 tiasts, who gained the prize in wrestling and boxing at the same time. 
 
 In our Plate XVI. are seen various forms of ancient crowns and garlands. Fig. 8 represents 
 the Isthmian crown ; fig. 9, the crown of myrtle ; fig. 10, the laurel. 
 
 Solon established by a law that every Athenian, who gained a victory at the Isthmian games, 
 should also receive from the public treasury (Plat. Sol. 23) a reward of one hundred drachmae. — 
 The triumphal odes, in which the praises of the victors were celebrated, were termed Epinikia. 
 
 See Massieu, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. v. p. 95, 214.— Dissert, in his edition of Pindar ; cf. P. V. § 60.— Krause, Die Fythien, 
 Nemeen, und Isthmien. Cf. § 88. 2. 
 
 § 88. On account of the great estimation in which Athletics were held among 
 the Greeks, and their intimate connection with religion and the interests of the 
 state, the subject deserves a few additional remarks. 
 
 1 u. In the most general sense, the term included intellectual as well as bodily ex- 
 ercises, pursued with earnestness and zeal ; but it was commonly used to signify those 
 more frequent and violent bodily exercises, which were so much practiced in Greece, 
 especially at the games already described, and which were viewed as an essential part 
 of education, and constituted a great object of the Gymnastic system. Many of those 
 who had enjoyed full instruction therein, made these exercises the main business of 
 their life. Such were called «0Xi;rai and dywviarat. The teacher of the system or art 
 was called yupafafriis and ^vm-apxns, superintendent of a JwnJs, which was a covered gal- 
 lery where the exercises were performed in winter, and was so called from the floor 
 being, made smooth and level. Although the Athletas were not strictly in the service 
 of the state, yet they received great honor. Their whole mode of life was conducted 
 with reference to augmenting their bodily strength, and they submitted to many rigid 
 precepts. In most of the exercises they were naked ; in casting the quoit and the jave- 
 lin they wore a light covering. By frequent anointing, rubbing, and bathing, they ren- 
 dered their bodies more strong and supple. In preparation for a combat, they covered 
 themselves with dust or sand, in order that they might take better hold of each other, 
 and avoid too great perspiration and exhaustion. Generally the ground, or surface of 
 the area, on which they exercised, was wet and slippery. 
 
 2 k. Before being permitted to enter this area, they were subjected to an examination 
 and a rigid preparation. For this purpose judges (ddXod&rat, dytavoOtrai, 'EXXawSUai) 
 were appointed, whose number was not always the same, who decided concerning the 
 prize, and excited the combatants by animated exhortations. The rewards of the con- 
 querors were the applause and admiration of the people, the public proclamation of 
 their names, the laudatory song of the poet, the crown of victory, statues, solemn pro- 
 cessions, banquets, and other privileges and advantages. 
 
 For additional remarks on this subject, see P. IV. § 63, § 64.— C. F. A. Bochheimer, Versuch eines Systems der Erziehung der 
 Griechen, Dess. 1785. 2 vols. 8. a work very instructive on this topic and on Grecian education generally.— Cf. Jahn's Treatise on 
 
 Gymnastics. Norlhampt. 1828. 8.— Amer. Quart. Rev. vol. iii. p. 125 Burette, Histoire des Athletes, in the Hist, de VAcad. des 
 
 Inscr. vol. I. p. 211 — P. Faber, De Re Athletica, &c. Lugd. 1595. 4. ; also in Gronrmius, vol. viii.— B. Mercurialis, De Arte Gym- 
 nastica. Amst. 1672. 4.— P. M. Paciaudius, De Athletarum ki)/3httij<7« in Palaestra Graecorum. Rom. 1766. 4.—/. B. Krause, 
 Theagenes; oder wissensch. Darstellung der Gymnastik, Agonistik, und Festspiele der Hellenen. Halle, 1835. 8. with plates. 
 
 $ 89. Dramatic representations or theatrical performances, among the Greeks, be- 
 longed appropriately to religious festivals; and had their origin, in fact, in religious cere- 
 monies, particularly in the rites connected with the worship of Bacchus at Athens ; this 
 circumstance is more fully noticed in the Archaeology and the History of Greek litera- 
 ture : see P. IV. $ 66.. P. V. § 36, § 37, and 47. Some account of the structure of the 
 Greek theatres is given under the head of Architecture; see P. IV. § 235. Besides 
 
176 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 what is said in the sections referred to, a few remarks may be added properly in this 
 place, respecting the machinery and the performers. 
 
 1. In their theatrical exhibitions the Greeks employed various mechanical contrivances. 
 Among these were the following : the QeoXoyeXov, a platform concealed by clouds and 
 supporting the gods in conversation ; the Mrixwn and the Tepavoc, instruments employed 
 to bring a god or other personage suddenly upon the stage, or withdraw him or lift him 
 into the skies ; the Aiwpcu, ropes to enable him to walk apparently in the air; Bpovruov 
 and the KepawoaKontTov, contrivances for imitating thunder and lightning. 
 
 2. The number of actors (wroKpiTou.) in the whole of a play was of course various ; but 
 no more than three at once appeared on the stage (annvn) in the part appropriated to 
 speakers (\oytXov). Although the author of the piece represented was sometimes obliged 
 to be one of the actors, yet those who were actors by profession were, as a class, of low 
 character and loose morals. — In order that the voices of the speakers might be aided and 
 the sound spread over the whole of the theatre, artificial helps were employed ; among 
 these were the brazen vessels (fixeXa) resembling bells, which were placed in different 
 parts of the structure. — In the rude state of the art the features of the actor were con- 
 cealed or altered by smearing the face with wine-lees, or by some rude disguise. 
 iEschylus (cf. P. V. § 39, 61) introduced the regular mask {rrpoo-wmXov , persona) ; which, 
 ultimately, was formed of brass or some sonorous metal, or at least had a mouth so 
 prepared as to increase the sound of the voice. There was a vast variety in the form, 
 color, and appendages of the masks, so as to represent every age, sex, character, and 
 condition ; no less than twenty-five classes of tragic masks are enumerated by Julius 
 Pollux ; six for old men ; seven for young men ; three for male slaves ; five for female 
 slaves; and four for free women. The tragic mask often had a great elevation of the head 
 and hair (called Syxos) to heighten the stature of the actor ; and for the same purpose, the 
 tragic actor wore a very thick-soled boot (ndBopvo;, inffa;). Of comic masks forty-three 
 varieties are specified ; nine for old men; ten for young men; seven for male slaves ; three 
 for old women ; fourteen for young women. The comic mask for the oldest man was 
 called iromrcog irpuro;. Besides all these there were masks appropriate to the satyric drama. 
 
 Representations of several ancient masks maybe seen in our Plate XLIX. cf. P. IV. § 189. 1. See Scklegel, on the Drama, Lect. 
 
 iii. — Mongez, sur les masques des Anciens, in the Mem. dg VInstitut, C I a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. i. 256. vii. 85. — Mongez, 
 (on use of masks for increasing the power of the voice), in the Mem. de VInst., C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. v. p. 89. — See 
 also § 238. 3. 
 
 3. The Choir (xopd?) was composed of performers wholly distinct from the actors ; 
 yet, by its leader, it often took part in the dialogue. The Chorus was maintained at 
 vast expense ; one source of which was in the dresses and decorations, which were of 
 the most splendid kind. See P. V. § 37, and the references there given. 
 
 § 90. As the theatre was opened at sunrise, or even as soon as day-break, the spec- 
 tators assembled very early in order to secure good seats, which, as the edifices were 
 built at the public expense, were at first free for every person. In consequence of the 
 contest for places, which this occasioned, a law was passed at Athens, under which a 
 fee for admission was demanded. This was fixed, for a time at least, at two oholi. But 
 under the influence of Pericles, another law was also enacted requiring the proper ma- 
 gistrate to furnish from the public treasury the amount of this fee to every one who 
 applied for it that he might attend a dramatic performance. The money thus used was 
 termed deapiKa xpriiiara, and the magistrate, Tafias mi> dsoipiKtov. The number of specta- 
 tors was often very great (cf. P. IV. § 235). Barthelemy has given a vivid description 
 of their crowding to the theatre. 
 
 Travels ofAnacharsis (as cited P. V. § 153. 2), ch. xi. Cf. also eh. lxx. — Barthelemy, Nombre des pieces qu'on representoient en 
 an jour a Athenes, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, xxxix. 172.— On Greek theatrical Derformances, cf. P. V. §§ 36-47. — Land. Quart 
 Rev. xii. 119.—/. Praudfit, in the Bibl. Repository, vol. i. of 2d Series, p. 449.— Bbttiger, as cited P. V. § 86. 
 
 II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 91. After what has been already said (§§ 33, ss.) of the original circum- 
 stances and constitution of the Greek states, we may confine ourselves now to 
 their characteristics and peculiarities in later times. The account of the various 
 changes of their constitution and the consequences thereof belongs to history 
 rather than antiquities. The latter, properly considered, will treat chiefly of the 
 eivil regulations of the most flourishing republic, Athens, without overlooking 
 those of the other considerable states, especially the Spartans, who were dis- 
 tinguished by many peculiarities from the Athenians, although they had also 
 many points of resemblance. 
 
 § 92. The early political changes at Athens have been mentioned (§ 39). 
 After the kings, whose power was greatly circumscribed by the chiefs of noble 
 families, and of whom Codrus was the seventeenth and last (1068 B. C), the 
 chief magistrates were the Archons. When these became despotic, Draco 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 177 
 
 (624 B. C.) introduced a code of laws, which soon occasioned new troubles by 
 their severity. Recourse was then had to Solon (594 B. C), who abolished 
 all the laws of Draco, except the one respecting murder. Solon changed the 
 form of government in many points, diminished very much the authority and 
 power of the Archons, gave the people a share and voice in judicial inquiries, 
 and thus transformed the aristocracy previously existing into a mixed and mo- 
 derate democracy. 
 
 On the Civil Affairs of the Athenians, cf. G. Postellus, De Republica Atheniensium. I,ugd. Bat. 1635. 4.— C. P. Levesque, sur la 
 Constitution d'AtheDes, in Mem. de Vlnstitut, C 1 a s s e des Sciences Mor. et PoL vol. iv. — K. F. Hermann, Lehrbuch der Griech- 
 ischen StaatsalterthQmer. In English transl. entitled, Political Antiquities of Greece. Ox f. 1836. 8. An improved edition of the 
 original publ. in 1836.— Wacltsmuth, as cited § 13.— K. D. HUllmann, Staatsrecht d. Alterthums. Coin. 1S20. 8. 
 
 § 93. Originally the people had been divided into four tribes (tyvXcu), and 
 also divided, according to their places of residence, into a number of boroughs 
 or wards (Sijfiot,). Each tribe likewise was subdivided into three curias (^pow- 
 pt'ttt, e§v?i) according to their consanguinity, and each of the curias into families 
 (yivTj, tfpKwcaSsj). But Solon divided the citizens according to their wealth 
 into four classes; 1. Utvtaxo6tofi£8i,fivoc, those who gathered from their fields 
 in moist and dry crops, at least 500 nifopvoi, ; 2. c Irtrt«j, those whose grounds 
 yielded 300 fiiSi/xvoi,, and who were able to maintain a war-horse (tVtrfoj rtoXs- 
 (Ma-trjpooi); 3. ZsvyifM, those whose lands produced 200 (or 150) [ikSifwoi, 
 and who owned the space of one aore or £svyos ; 4. ©^fsj, those who had any 
 less income. All the citizens were admitted to the assembly of the people 
 (§ 106), but only the first three of the above classes shared in the burdens and 
 expenses of the state, and therefore they alone could receive offices, and from 
 them alone the senate (fiovXrj, § 107) was chosen, which at that time consisted 
 of 400. Solon also advanced the authority of the Areopagus (§ 108), as he 
 gave it jurisdiction of the most important criminal cases. 
 
 § 94. Athens remained under these regulations only about thirty-four years. 
 Then, even before the death of Solon, Pisistratus became sole master of the 
 state, and notwithstanding all opposition, continued such until his death, 528 
 B. C. His two sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, succeeded him. These were 
 soon stripped of their power; Hipparchus being slain by Harmodius, who was 
 offended on account of his sister (Thuc. vi. 544) and was aided by his friend 
 Aristogiton ; and Hippias being driven into banishment by the people. After 
 this, the constitution received a new form under the influence of Clisthenes. 
 
 The number of the tribes ($v%<xZ) was now increased to ten. From each of 
 these, fifty senators (fiovXsvtatywere yearly elected, so that the Senate consisted 
 of 500. After this the power of the people was still more increased. Aristides 
 effected the abolition of the law of Solon, which excluded from offices the low- 
 est of the four classes of citizens. Pericles, with the assistance of Ephialtes, 
 deprived the Areopagus of a great portion of its power ; he also occasioned many 
 important changes in the constitution, which were gratifying to the lower 
 classes, and by which the democracy became less guarded and restrained, and 
 the way was opened for the ochlocracy that soon followed. 
 
 § 95. After various changes in the government, Athens was taken by Ly- 
 sander, B. C. 404. The supreme power was then vested in the thirty tyrants, 
 who were, however, deprived of their authority after three years, by Thrasy- 
 bulus, and banished. In their stead, decemviri {Sexadovzot*) were instituted, 
 who likewise abused their power, and were exiled, after the former democracy 
 was restored. This form was retained until the death of Alexander the Great, 
 when it was overturned by Antipater, and the government vested in a certain 
 number of nobles or chiefs. After the death of Antipater, Cassander committed 
 the republic to a lieutenant; and under Demetrius Poliorcetes, it enjoyed again 
 freedom and popular power. With some changes, this state of things con- 
 tinued until the time of Sylla, who in the Mithridatic war conquered Athens 
 and subjected her to the Romans. The final destruction of the city happened 
 towards the end of the fourth century by the hands of Alaric, king of the 
 Westgoths. 
 
 $ 96 t. Athens was the most beautiful and splendid city in Greece. Its circuit was 
 about one hundred and seventy-eight stadia. Its topography is given more particularly 
 23 
 
178 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 in the Epitome of Classical Geography (cf. P. I. §§ 104-116) ; here we shall only name 
 some of the principal buildings and works. One part of it was the citadel, which lay 
 upon a steep rock ; this at first constituted the whole city under the name of Cecropia, 
 and was afterwards termed Acropolis. The most remarkable buildings on the Acropo- 
 lis were the XlpmvKaia, Propylaa, the Uapdwciv, or temple of Minerva with the famous 
 statue of this goddess by Phidias, and the joint temple of Neptune Erectheus and Mi- 
 nerva Polias. In the other portion (which was called the lower city), the temples of 
 Vulcan, Venus Urania, Theseus, Jupiter Olympius, and the Pantheon sacred to all the 
 gods, were among the most remarkable. Of the numerous covered porticos, the Pce- 
 cile (cf. P. IV. § 74) was the most renowned, and adorned with the most magnificent 
 paintings and ornaments. The Odeum, built by Pericles, was devoted to musical and 
 literary exercises (cf. P. IV. § 235. 3). The name of Ceramicus was given to two 
 extensive spaces, one within and the other without the city, the former enriched with 
 beautiful edifices, the latter used as a burial ground. There were several market 
 places (liyopai), with different names according to their specific uses. The Gymnasia 
 also, and the Baths, the Stadium ascribed to Herodes Atticus, the Academy, the Cyno- 
 sarges, the Hippodrome, and the Theatres, belong to the remarkable and interesting 
 works which adorned the city of Athens. The three harbors, Pireeus, Munychia, 
 and Phalerum, should likewise be mentioned. 
 
 For a view of the Parthenon, see Plate XXI. fig. 1 ; in the same Plate, fig. 2, is the temple of 
 the Winds ; fig. 3, the temple of Theseus. — A view of the Parthenon in its ruins as given by Hob- 
 house, is seen in the Plateon page432. — For ruins of the temple of Minerva connected with that 
 of Neptune Erectheus, see the Plate on page 30. — For a plan of Athens, see Plate I. 
 
 § 97. The inhabitants of Athens and of the whole of Attica were either 
 rtofStai, free citizens ; ps-toixot, free commoners, resident aliens or sojourners ; 
 or §ov\oi, slaves. The first class was the most respectable; the last, the most 
 numerous. The number of resident foreigners, however, was not insignificant. 
 The right of citizenship was, in the flourishing times of the republic, a high 
 privilege, which was conferred only upon men of honorable descent and dis- 
 tinguished merit, and upon such not without difficulty, since the agreement of 
 six thousand citizens was first requisite. Free born Athenians were those whose 
 parents were born at Athens, or at least one of whose parents was born there ; 
 and those of the latter class held a lower rank, and privileges in some respects 
 less than the former. 
 
 1 u. By Cecrops the Athenians were divided into four tribes (cf. § 93) as follows ; 
 1. Kexpamg, from his own name; 2. 'Avrfydoiv ; 3. 'A/craia; 4. UapaXia. To each of these 
 tribes belonged several districts, boroughs, or wards (<%o0, of which there were at 
 length 174 in Attica, and which differed from each other in various 'points of manners 
 and customs. The names of the tribes were afterwards changed, and the number in 
 creased to ten (cf. § 94), finally to twelve. 
 
 On the A^/xoi of Attica, see W. M. Leake, in the Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature; a full account, with a good 
 map. — A complete list of them is given in Wachsnm lh'* Historical Antiquities. 
 
 2 u. The number of citizens, mAirai, in the time of Pericles amounted to 14,040 ; 
 and in the time of Demetrius Phalereus, according to a census taken by his direction, 
 B. C. 309, the number was 21,000. 
 
 3. From the census of Demetrius, the whole population of Attica, including aliens 
 (cf. § 99), women, children, and slaves (cf. $ 99), has been estimated at 500,000. 
 
 On the population of Attica, see BSchh's Public Economy of Athens. — Clinton's Fasti, Appendix. — Amer. Quart. Register, op 
 Fopulousness of Ancient Nations, vol. ix. p. 143.— Sainte Croix, Sur la population de l'Ath'que, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. voL xlviii. 
 p 147. — And Lctronne, in the Mem. de Vlnstiiut, C 1 a s s e cVHist. et Lit. Anc vol. vi. 165. 
 
 § 98. The (izfoixot, were those foreigners, or persons not natives of Attica, 
 who became residents in the city or territory. They took no part in the govern- 
 ment, being admitted neither to the assemblies of the people nor to public 
 offices, but were subject to all the laws and usages of the land. They were 
 obliged to select from the free citizens a patron or guardian (Ttpoatdtrjs), in 
 whose name they could manage business and maintain actions in the civil 
 courts, and to whom they must tender certain services. Certain services to the 
 state were also required of them, besides which an annual tribute {^aoixiov) 
 was exacted ; ten or twelve drachms for each man ; and six for each woman 
 without sons ; mothers with sons that paid being free from the tax. Some- 
 times exemption from taxation (oW&eiov) was conferred upon individuals as a 
 leward for meritorious services. Demetrius found, by his census, 10,000 of the 
 class of foreign residents. 
 
 The term Iboi was applied to foreigners remaining in the city or country for a short 
 time only, as distinguished from the foreign residents, although it was sometimes applied 
 
PLATE XXI. 
 
 179 
 
180 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 to the latter ; it was also applied reciprocally to persons who were mutually pledged, 
 by former acquaintance, or in any other way, to treat each other with hospitality. 
 
 If a metic neglected to pay the imposed tax, he was liable to be sold for a slave. 
 Diogenes Laertius was actually sold, because he had not the means of paying it ; but 
 was redeemed by Demetrius. 
 
 Among the services required of the residents was the carrying of a vessel with water, 
 Hpiatpopia, which the married alien women were obliged to perform to the married 
 females of Athens in the grand Panathenaic procession ; the daughters of aliens were 
 obliged on the same occasion to render to the Athenian maidens the service of carrying 
 parasols {trKia&iqtpopia). See § 77. 6. 
 
 Cf. Sainte Croix, Sur les Metosques, &c. in the .A/em. de VAcad. des Jnscr. vol. xlviii. p. 176. 
 
 § 99. The slaves {pov%oi) were of different sorts, those belonging to the pub- 
 lic (ootAot S^iitdoftoi), and those belonging to private citizens (6mmVo*). The 
 latter were completely in the power of the master, and were often treated with 
 great severity. Yet they sometimes purchased freedom by their own earnings, 
 or received it by gift as a reward for merit. Public slaves also were often set at 
 liberty, when they had rendered the state some valuable service. Freedmen 
 very seldom, if ever, obtained the rights of citizens, and were still termed 
 SovXov. In general, the condition of the slaves in Attica, abject and miserable 
 as it was, appears to have been in some respects less so, than in other states 
 of Greece, especially in Laced asmon. The slaves of Attica amounted to 
 400,000 in the time of Demetrius. 
 
 The term di/chris signifies one living in the same house with any one ; 6iKov6p\os, signi- 
 fies one who oversees one's affairs, and is sometimes applied to designate a particular 
 slave, since slaves were sometimes intrusted with the office of steward ; vwnpkrrig, signi- 
 fying primarily a rower, and secondarily an attendant, is also sometimes applied to 
 slaves. Xen. Mem. ii. 10. 
 
 At Athens slaves were not allowed to imitate freemen in the fashion of their dress 
 or the cut of their hair; their coats must be with one sleeve only (IrepopdcrxaXoi) and the 
 hair cut in the servile form (Spi'J dvSpairoSwdris). They could not properly bear the names 
 of Athenian citizens, but must be called by some foreign or low name. They were 
 allowed to bear arms only in extreme cases. The punishments inflicted were severe ; 
 for common offences they were whipped (juumyiata) ; for theft or running away they 
 were bound to a wheel and beaten (an rpo\ov) ; for some crimes they were sentenced to 
 grind in the mills (frC/Wec) ; sometimes they received, upon their forehead or some 
 other part, the brand with hot iron (oriyna). In giving testimony in court they were 
 also subject to torture (fiaaavog). — Yet at Athens the slaves could bring civil actions 
 against their masters and others for violation of chastity and for unlawful severity 
 v/3pe(o; Siky] and duda; Hkyj). When greatly oppressed, they could also flee to the temple 
 
 of Theseus, from which it was held as sacrilege to force them. Slaves carried on 
 
 the whole business of the Athenians ; even the poorer citizens depended on them. 
 There was a sale of slaves on the first day of every month by merchants {dvipanoioKa- 
 tjjXoi)'; usually announced by a crier standing on what was called the vender's stone 
 (■nparhp Xi(A>?). The price varied according to their abilities. Many were skillful in the 
 elegant arts, and versed in letters ; while others were only qualified to toil in the mines. 
 
 See Reiteraeier, Geschichte uod Zustand der Sclaverey, &c. (History of Slavery "and Villanage in Greece.) Berl. 1789. — Cf 
 Atfiensus, vi. (cf. P. V. § 123).— Bemhardy, Grundriss der Griech. Lit. p. 36. — Bibl. Repos. and Quart. Observer, No. xvii. p. 138. 
 
 § 100. The magistrates at Athens were divided, in reference to the mode of 
 their appointment to office, into three classes, the ^stpoT'owj-r'ot,', the xhrjpoitol, 
 and the aips-tol. The first named were chosen by the whole people raising the 
 hand ; the second were appointed by lot by the Thesmotheta? in the temple of 
 Theseus ; and the last were chosen by particular portions of the people, by the 
 tribes and the districts, from among their own number. — The magistrates were 
 required, on the expiration of their offices, to render an account of their admi- 
 nistration to a tribunal, which was constituted by ten accountants (%oyioTtai) and 
 ten directors or judges Qv^vvot., called also i^stacrtai). 
 
 In choosing the Archons and other magistrates by lot, the ordinary method was to 
 put the names of the candidates, inscribed on brazen tablets (mva/cia), into an urn with 
 black and white beans (irfapoi) • and those whose tablets were drawn out with white 
 beans were elected. 
 
 On the Athenian magistrates, cf. Blanchard, in the Mem, de VAcad. des Inscr. vii. 51. — Cf. Julius Pollux, Onomasticon. 
 
 § 101. The most important magistrates were the Archons (ap^ovi'sj). There 
 were usually nine Archons, chosen by lot (xXqpwtoo), but subjected to an exa- 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. REVENUES. 181 
 
 mination as to their qualifications, before they were admitted to take the oath 
 and enter their office. 
 
 1. The examinations of the Archons was two fold ; one in the senate called 'Awx- 
 Kpung, the other in the forum, called Ao>cip.aaia, before the HeJiastce (/jAioarat § 110). 
 Among the points of examination were the following : whether their ancestors for three 
 generations had been Athenian citizens; whether they had a competent estate; and 
 whether they were free from bodily defects (d^eAsiy). 
 
 2 u. The first of the nine in rank was styled Archon by way of eminence, h "Apxfitp ; 
 sometimes "Apxav brcivvpos, because the year was named from him. He attended to the 
 domestic affairs of citizens, decided differences which arose between relatives, had the 
 care of widows, appointed guardians, and took the oversight of certain festivals and 
 solemnities, and also of theatres. — The second was called King, or archon king, 
 apxwv Pao-iXevs. To him were assigned certain duties pertaining to religious worship, 
 which were originally performed by kings exclusively ; he was, in general, overseer of 
 religious affairs. — The third, named Polemarch, voKkpapxa; , attended to the domestic af- 
 fairs of strangers and sojourners, performing the same duties in reference to them, 
 which the first archon did for the citizens. In the time of the Persian war, he had an 
 important share in managing military affairs. — The six remaining archons were called 
 Thesmothetw (Ssa-podirai), and were chiefly occupied with legislative affairs ; they also 
 took cognizance of such judicial matters as did not fall under other jurisdiction. 
 
 3. The three principal archons usually selected each two assistants, called mpsfyoi, 
 assessors, who sat on the bench with the Archons, having been subjected to the same 
 examinations with other magistrates, and being required to render in the same way an 
 account (h&ivn) of their office. 
 
 § 102. Another magistracy at Athens was that of the Eleven, 6o "Ev§EJca, ten 
 of whom were taken one from each of the ten tribes, and the other was their 
 secretary (■ypa^cWEaJs). They were properly overseers of the prisons, and di- 
 rected in the execution of capital punishments. In later times they were also 
 called vopofyvXaxe;. — These were different from the Phylarehi (^vxap^ot), who 
 were originally the inspectors of the ten tribes, and afterwards command- 
 ers in war. The Demarchi (Sj^uap^oi) performed similar duties in relation to 
 the districts (S^oc). — The A^ii'ap^ot. had the care of the public register (%sv- 
 xco/j.a), and made scrutiny in the assemblies, and collected fines of those not 
 present. They were six in number ; but were aided by the To|6Vac, who were 
 a sort of bailiffs or deputy sheriffs, to the amount of 1000. — The Nofio&iat, 
 were also 1000 in number, and were charged with the examination of past 
 laws to see if any were injurious or useless, and with some minor matters of 
 police. 
 
 Besides the magistrates above named, there were many others connected with the 
 treasury, the senate and assembly of the people, and the courts of justice ; the most 
 important of them will be noticed in connection with those topics. There were also 
 various other public functionaries, who were not, strictly speaking, magistrates, but 
 ought perhaps some of them to be named here. — The 'Pfjropss, orators, were ten in 
 number, appointed by lot to plead public causes in the senate and assembly; they were 
 sometimes called vvvfiyopoi, and were a different body from the avv&ueoi, who were ap- 
 pointed by the people. — The UparffeTs, ambassadors, were chosen usually by the peo- 
 ple, sometimes by the senate, to treat with foreign states. When sent with full power, 
 they were called Xlpeafielg avroxparoptg ; generally their power was limited (cf. § 143). 
 They were usually attended by heralds (/njpwre?) ; this name however was sometimes 
 given to the persons sent on an embassy. 1 — We may also mention the notaries, ypap.p.a- 
 TEis ; besides the great number employed by the various magistrates, there were three pub- 
 licly chosen; one by the assembly of the people, to recite before them; and two by 
 the senate, one to keep the laws, and the other the records in general. The office was 
 not at Athens very honorable, and was sometimes held by well educated slaves, called 
 Anpooioi (cf. % 99). 
 
 § 103. The ordinary revenues were of four sorts : 1. T&57, rents from public 
 domains and other public property, and duties paid on articles of commerce and 
 on certain pursuits and persons; 2. <S?dpoi, tributes, or annual payments exacted 
 from allied or subjected cities and states; 3. Tt^i^cWa, fines, which all went to 
 the public treasury, except the tenth part devoted to the service of Minerva, and 
 one fifteenth wppropriated for the other gods and the heroes, that were patrons 
 of the city ; 4. At ifoupyt'cu iyxvx%vov, periodical liturgies, or services, in which in- 
 dividuals were required, for a time, to perform certain duties or maintain certain 
 public establishments at their own expense. — Besides the ordinary, the neces- 
 
 Q 
 
182 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 sides of the state sometimes required an extraordinary revenue; and then 
 special taxes (hayopai,~) laid upon citizens and residents formed an important 
 resource. 
 
 Under the t£\ti, or rents, we may include the income from the mines; the most im- 
 portant of which were the silver mines of Laurion ; the ore from these was termed 
 ipyvpTri; ; they were regarded as a grand source of wealth to Athens. 
 
 See BSckh, on the Mines of Laurion, in his Public Economy. 
 
 Under the Qopoi or tributes, we may include the duty of ten per centum (SsKa-ni, faa- 
 Tsvriipiov) imposed on vessels passing from or into the Euxine ; which was exacted at 
 Chrysopolis (cf. P. I. § 160), which the Athenians fortified for the purpose. 
 
 Tinder Ti/i)?/;a-a or fines, must be included the fees or deposits (jrpvravua), which were 
 demanded of both parties before beginning a suit in court ; these deposits were large 
 in proportion to the sum brought into question by the trial. To the same head must be 
 referred also the proceeds of confiscated property (Srnxionpara). 
 
 Under the Liturgies (\siTovpytai) were included chiefly three, x°Piyia, yvfivacnapxia, and 
 bxrioujig. Those, who rendered the first named service, (x°My°h) were required to pay 
 the expenses of the whole chorus employed at the public festivals and theatrical exhi- 
 bitions (cf. § 89. 3). Those to whom the second was assigned were obliged to furnish 
 the oil and the various necessaries for the wrestlers and other combatants in the public 
 games. In the third service mentioned, certain persons {icriaTopa; rwv <pv\wv) provided 
 entertainment or banquets, on the public festivals, for a whole tribe. — These services 
 were always assigned to the most wealthy citizens. In the time of Demosthenes there 
 was the following system : each of the ten tribes pointed out 120 of the wealthiest citi- 
 zens belonging to it ; the 1200 thus selected were divided into two portions according 
 to their wealth, the -aw TrXovmoi and the nrrov ttXovuioi ; these two parts were each formed 
 into ten classes or companies, called av^opin ; from the ten cvfiuopiai of the more 
 wealthy, 300 of the wealthiest men were selected, who were required to furnish the 
 republic with the necessary supplies of money and with the rest of the 1200 to perform all 
 extraordinary duties in rotation. If any one of the 300 could name a person more wealthy 
 than himself, he was excused. The residents {jietoikol) sometimes performed these 
 services. — Besides the ordinary \emvpyiat above mentioned, there were some extraordi- 
 nary ; particularly two in a time of war, rpanpapxia and tiV^opd. The rpifipap\oi were 
 obliged to provide necessaries for the fleet and building of ships. The uaiptpovn; were 
 
 required to contribute money according to their ability for different purposes. The 
 
 manner in which they performed such of these services as were assigned to them, and 
 the degree of expense and splendor to which they went, became sometimes a subject 
 of emulation among the rich and ambitious Athenians. 
 
 On the whole subject of the Athenian revenues and expenditures, see Aug. BocWs Staatshaushaltung der Athener. Mit 21 In 
 schriften. Berl. 1817. 2 vols. 8. Eng. Transl. Public Economy of Athens. Lond. 1828.— Cf. SancrofVi Heeren, ch. viii.— Mil 
 ford, ch. rxi. sect. 1.— Xenophon, On the Revenues of Attica (cf. P. V. § 186. 2). 
 
 On the Trierarchy, BSchtfs Urkunden uber das Seewesen des Attischen Staates. Berl. 1840. 
 
 § 104. The legislative control of the financial concerns belonged to the peo- 
 ple, and their administration and management to the senate. But a particular 
 officer was at the head of the treasury, called -ta/j-las tv\s xowr^ rtpoooSov, be- 
 cause he had charge of the public revenue, and also -r'ajiiia; -ir^ Siotxjjascoj, as 
 having charge likewise of the public expenditures. He was chosen by the 
 people (ajstpoT'owa) for four years. 
 
 1 u. There were many subordinate officers in the department of finance. One class 
 consisted of such as attended to the collecting of the revenue, and to the previous ar- 
 rangements. To this class belonged the iroArjTat, ten in number, one from each tribe, 
 having the care of whatever the state sold or leased ; the -rrpaKropss, who received all 
 fines imposed ; the bnypa<pcT Sj who assessed the imposts and tributes ; the itaypa/pEis, 
 who enrolled the names of families and individuals, and assessed to them their part in 
 raising an extraordinary revenue ; the li<\oyus, who collected the taxes, duties, rents, 
 &c. TeXwvai were, properly, not officers, but such persons as took leases of public 
 lands or other public property, and paid the rent to the officers. — A second class con- 
 sisted of such officers as kept the moneys collected, and distributed them for 
 public uses. Of this class were the amitm-ai, ten in number, chosen by lot ; and the 
 rap,iai mv kp£v xpvp-arwv, who had the care of the treasures in the temples (§ 28). — Such 
 officers as were employed in keeping or examining the multifarious accounts of the de- 
 partment may be considered as a third class, including the ypapnaTcig, clerks, and vno- 
 ypappanis, under-clerks , and the dvriypaipns, checking-clerks or auditors. Among the latter 
 may be named particularly the dvnypaiptvs t% iwiKfiaca;, controller of the expenditure. 
 
 2. Some of the causes of expenditure from the public treasury should be noted here. 
 The public edifices and other works were built only at a very great expense, and could be 
 preserved in order only at a great annual cost. Pericles expended many thousands of 
 talents upon works of architecture in Athens. The festivals were another source 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. AMPHICTYONS. 183 
 
 of expense ; when we consider their number, and think of the cost of the sacrificial 
 victims and offerings, the banquets, the processions (7ro/x7rui), the theatrical, musical, and 
 gymnastic entertainments, and the rich prizes sometimes bestowed, it is obvious that 
 immense sums must have been expended in maintaining them. — Much was expended 
 also in distributions or donations to the populace (Siavo/nai, Siadoaeis) ; the most important 
 expenditure in this way was by the <5iw/?»Aia, or distribution of the oboli' to each poor 
 citizen as tkeoric money (SeojpiKa, cf. § 90). — Means of support for poor and disabled 
 citizens (dSvi/arot), and also for children whose fathers had fallen in battle, were likewise 
 furnished from the public treasury, and formed another item of expense. — In addition 
 to these, we must mention the expenses of the government, including the salaries of all 
 the various magistrates and officers of different grades, and the wages of the senators 
 (puo-dds 0ov\euTiKds), and of those who attended the assembly (/*io-0dc £/«-A/;o-tao-nKo\,-). — The 
 support of the army and navy required also large sums of money even in time of peace. 
 In time of war, the expenses, not only of this class, but of many others also, must 
 
 have been greatly increased. It may be impossible to form any satisfactory estimate 
 
 of the amount of these various expenditures. The comparative value of the precious 
 metals in ancient and modern times must not be overlooked here, as they were, at least, 
 three times as valuable then as now. 
 
 § 105. Among the public assemblies of the Greeks, which took into consi- 
 deration the affairs of the whole state, the council of the Amphictyons (avvoSos 
 Afiquxtvovav, Afifyixtvovua) is especially worthy of notice. According to com- 
 mon opinion, it was first instituted by Amphictyon, son of Deucalion ; accord- 
 ing to some, by Acrisius, king of Argos. The twelve people or states united in 
 this council (to *wv ""Exx^vcav awsSpvov) used to meet by their delegates, two 
 from each city ordinarily, at Thermopylae; from this circumstance the dele- 
 gates were called HvXayopac, and the council itself HvXala. Sometimes they 
 met at Delphi. They assembled only twice a year, in spring and autumn, 
 unless on some extraordinary occasion. The design of the council was to 
 adjust and settle public national disputes or difficulties, and the delegates had 
 full power to make salutary changes and regulations. Some very important 
 disputes, as e. g. between the Plataeans and Lacedaemonians, and between the 
 Thebans and Thessalians, were terminated by this diet, which was continued 
 to some time in the first century after Christ. 
 
 Some writers have taken a different view of the origin and design of this council. 
 They assert that the Amphictyons were only an association of persons residing about 
 or near Delphi, or some other place ; dpupiicrvovEs being nearly equivalent to antyiKrioves • 
 and that the assembly was originally held simply for the purpose of mutual gratifica- 
 tion and religious festivity, having no precisely definite common object, and being dif- 
 ferent from a confederation for mutual defence, or a congress for mutual deliberations. 
 
 This is the view of Hermann, in his Lehrbuch, cited § 92. — Similar is that of Sainte Croix, Des Anciens Gouvernemens Federa- 
 tifs. Par. 1799. — The political character and design of the council is maintained by F. W. Tittmann, Ut-ber den Buud der Amphic- 
 tyonen. Berl. 1812. 8.— Cf. a'.su Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch. iii. sect. S.—Tliirlivall, Hist, of Greece, c. x. xl'm.—Dc Valois, Sur 
 les Amphictyons, in the Mem. Je 1'Acad. des Inscr. &c. vol. iii p. 191 • and v. p. 405.— T. Leland, Discourse pref. to his Life of 
 Philip of Macedon. 
 
 § 106. Assemblies of the people {ixxXyjaCai) were very frequent at Athens, and 
 had an important influence. In these the acts of the senate were canvassed, 
 laws were proposed and approved or rejected, magistrates appointed, war de- 
 clared, and the like. The place where they met was either the market-place 
 (oVyopa), or a broad space near the mountain called the Pnyx (nW£), or the 
 theatre of Bacchus. The ordinary assemblies (ixxhyaiai jojpJcu.) were held 
 monthly on established days ; the extraordinary (ixxXrjaiat, avyxXri-eot) were 
 called on pressing and important emergencies. 
 
 1 u. These meetings were managed and conducted by the TLpvrai'eis, the IlpocSpoi, and 
 the 'Efrio-rimjc. Before entering upon business, a sacrifice, usually of a young pig, was 
 offered. Then the herald ordered silence, offered a prayer to the gods, and stated, on 
 the direction of the Tlpfotpot, the subject to be discussed by the assembly, and those 
 above fifty years of age were first invited to speak ; after which any one above thirty, 
 of fair character had the liberty. Whatever came before the assembly had already been 
 discussed in the senate, whose decision upon it {irpofiovhtvua, ipf/fio-na rrj; /JonXijc) received 
 its full legality only by the vote of the assembly, and was then called emphatically a 
 decree, ipvP"?!* 11 - Often, however, a decision of the senate without the confirmation of 
 the assembly was in force for a year ; at least it was so in those cases in which, in 
 order to avoid too frequent meetings, the people had granted an independent validity. 
 
 2. The people voted by stretching forth their hands (xuporovia) , and sometimes by a 
 mode of balloting in which beans {niapm) and stones O/"70oi) were cast into vessels pre 
 
184 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 pared for the purpose (<ca<5oi).' — When the business was completed, the npurawi? dismissed 
 the assembly. 
 
 See G. F. Schbmann, De Comitiis Atheniensium, lib. iii. Gryphisw. 1819. 8.— R. Whiston, On the Athenian Assemblies, in 
 Smith's Diet, of Antiq. p. 361.— Aristophanes, n his EKKX);<nd£oi>o-ai. 
 
 § 107. The senate or higher council (yj avu j3oiA^) consisted, according to the 
 arrangements of Clisthenes, of 500; and was therefore styled the senate or 
 council of the 500 (5? fiovXri tiZv rtevtaxooicov). In earlier times it consisted of 
 400, and in later of 600 members. 
 
 1 u. The 500 were chosen annually by lot, 50 from a tribe, which furnished a ready 
 division of the senate into ten equal parts. Each of these divisions, containing 50 
 members, took charge of the public business for 35 or 36 days, in an order of rotation 
 decided by lot: and the members of the division having this charge at any one period 
 was called Ilpurdwij for the time, and the period itself was called Hpvrai>tia. The 50 
 HpvTaveis were subdivided into 5 portions of 10 members. These portions attended to 
 their business in rotation, each for a period of 7 days, and the members were called 
 HpikSpoi for that time, the name being taken from their sitting in the senate as presiding 
 officers. From the Xlp6cfyoi was elected the 'Emo-ranK, who was at their head, and of 
 course at the head of the senate, but held the place only for a single day. — It was the 
 business of the Upvrdvsts to assemble the senate, and propose the subjects of delibera- 
 tion. They also conducted the meetings of the people, in which however they only 
 presided in connection with nine Tlp6c6pot, who were chosen out of the other divisions 
 of the senate and had an 'Emo-ranK at their head. The Upvravsii had a common hall, 
 where they passed most of their time daily, called the Fryluneum (XlpuTavdoti), near the 
 senate-house {MoxiXeXov, and BovKsvrfipiov). 
 
 2 m. The members of the senate expressed their opinions standing, after which the 
 votes were taken. They received a drachma (ipaxnh) per day for every day's attend- 
 ance. The power of the senate was very great. 
 
 3. The senate commonly assembled every day, excepting festivals and days consi- 
 dered as unlucky. The senators were all required to take what was called the sena- 
 torial oath (tov 0ov\cvTiKdi/ optcov) to do nothing contrary to the laws. In voting, they 
 cast each a black or white bean into the box or urn (k&Sqs; Kaiiaxo;) prepared for the 
 purpose ; if the number of white exceeded that of the black, the decree or resolution 
 was affirmed ; otherwise rejected. 
 
 § 108. No court of justice in Greece was more celebrated than the Areopa- 
 gus at Athens. Its name, 'Apfiorfayoj, signifies Hill of Mars, and was derived 
 from the circumstance, that the court was held on a hill so called, near the cita- 
 del. Others derive the name from the tradition, that the god Mars was the first 
 criminal tried before this tribunal. The time of its establishment is uncertain, 
 but was very early, before the age of Solon, who did not institute it, but en- 
 larged its jurisdiction and power. The members of this body ('Ap«orfaytV<u) 
 were originally the most upright and judicious citizens of every condition, but 
 after the modifications made by Solon, only such as had been elected Archons. 
 Their office was held for life. All high crimes, as theft, robbery, assassination, 
 poisoning, arson, and offences against religion, came before this court, which 
 inflicted in such cases death or fines. At first its sittings were only on the last 
 three days of each month : but afterwards they were more frequent, and at last 
 daily ; they were always in the open air, and at night. 
 
 1 u. The sitting was opened with a sacrifice, upon which both the accuser and the 
 accused took an oath with direful imprecations. Then, either personally or by attor- 
 neys, they urged their cause ; but no ornaments of rhetoric, no attempts to move the 
 passions, were ever allowed. After this the judges gave their decision by means of 
 white or black stones. As the court always sat in the dark, the white pebbles were 
 distinguished by holes bored in them. Two urns were used, one of wood to receive 
 the while stones, which were votes to acquit the defendant, and one of brass to re- 
 ceive the black, which on the other hand were votes for his condemnation. The sen- 
 tence was immediately put in execution. In early times the dignity and purity of this 
 tribunal stood very high ; but afterwards its character fell in the general corruption 
 of morals. 
 
 2. In their oath (cWftoo-ta) the plaintiff and defendant swore by the Furies (ae/iMai §sai). 
 In tne trial they were placed upon what were called the silver stones (dpyvpois), the 
 plantiff on that of Injury (%0pts), and the defendant on that of Impudence (dvaikia), or 
 of Innocence (dvairfo); — The brazen urn stood in front of the other, and was called 5 
 IpirpoaQcv ; also l> ici'pio;, because votes cast into it declared xhe- accusation valid ; and 
 h Savarov, as it decreed death. The wooden was termed 5 bniahi, b aVt'po?, or t> e\iov. 
 
 Respecting the pebbles used in decisions, cf. jlnthon's Note to Potter, p. 71. On the Areopagus and the other courts of Athens, 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. ATHENIAN COURTS. 185 
 
 see A. W. Heffter, Die Atheniische Gerichtsverfassung. CMn, 1822. 8.— M. R. E. Meir, Der Attiache Process. Tier Bllcher. 
 Halle, 1S24. 8.— MM Canaye, L'Areopagus, in the Mem. Acad. Inter, vii. 174. 
 
 § 109. The 'E^eVat were also persons of distinguished merit, who constituted 
 the court called 'Erti UaxxaStcp from the statue of Minerva (said by some to 
 have been brought from Troy) in the temple, where it was held. Its origin is 
 ascribed to Demophoon, a son of Theseus, and by others to Draco, who, if he 
 did not first institute it, certainly modified it anew. The judges were fifty-one, 
 selected from noble families, five from each tribe, and one appointed by lot, all 
 over fifty years of age. Solon confirmed the powers of this court ; but referred 
 to the Areopagus all the more important questions, leaving to the "E^eVou juris- 
 diction only over homicide, injuries followed by death, and the like. 
 
 There were three other less important courts belonging to the class which had 
 cognizance of actions concerning blood (erti Huv $ovlxu>v). — The court 'Erti, 
 A£^(w'q was held in the temple of Apollo Delphinius, and took cognizance of 
 cases where the defendants confessed the fact but pleaded some justification. — 
 The court 'Ev TLpv-tavslai was held at the Prytaneum (cf. § 107) and investi- 
 gated cases of deaths by accidents, unknown agents, or persons that had 
 escaped. — The court 'Ev <J?peaT , T , oi; was held upon the sea-shore in the Pirasus, 
 and heard the causes of such criminals as had fled out of their own country. — 
 In all these courts the 'Efitat presided and pronounced the sentence. 
 
 The magistrates called <j>v\o6aaiy.eT; are said to have had some duty in the court ev TIpvTaveiti) ; 
 especially in the cases termed ai n5» dxpvxw Siicai, in which the instruments of homicide were 
 subjected to trial. In the earliest times there were four of these magistrates; one perhaps from 
 each of the four tribes. 
 
 § 110. Besides the courts already described, there was another class having 
 jurisdiction only in civil cases (e'rft t!uv Srjpotcxuiv), of which there were six. 
 The most important was the c Ha.«j*a. Its name was either from cbu'a, multi- 
 tude, on account of the throng attending it, or from rjxios, sun, on account of its 
 being held in the open air. The number of its judges {rfkM6-ta.i hixavtav) was 
 not always the same ; the whole number amounted to 6000, who were chosen foi 
 one year by lot; out of these were taken the number requisite in each particular 
 trial or action. The least number that sat was 50 ; sometimes the whole 6000 
 were assembled ; the more usual number was 200 or 500. It was the province 
 of the ^ecj^o^eVac (§ 101) to introduce the action into court (enjoyed hixrjv h$ 
 *6 Soxaa'tripi.ov), and full power was given by them to the judges to investigate 
 and decide the case. 
 
 1 u. When the accused did not deny the jurisdiction (irapaypacpfi) or request a delay 
 (vTropoaia), both he and the accuser were put under oath. Then the parties deposited 
 a sum of money as security (irpuTavda), and proceeded to bring forward the cause. In 
 doing this they were limited to a definite time, measured by a water-clock (K\&pvSpa). 
 The decision was given in the same way as in the Areopagus (§ 108) ; and the de- 
 fendant, in case of a sentence of death, was given over to the "EvSeko. (§ 102), and in 
 case of fine, to the Tlp&KTopss or 'ExXoyeij (§ 104). If he could not pay the fine, he was 
 cast into prison ; and if he died in confinement, not only the disgrace, but the punish- 
 ment also, fell upon his son. 
 
 2. The bailiff or deputy employed to summon (irpoaKaXcTadai) the defendant before the 
 Thesmothetce, or witnesses before the court, was termed xXiyrtop ; sometimes one or 
 two of the witnesses whose names were indorsed upon the declaration (XJjfi?, 'iyKXrijia), 
 together with the plaintiff, were the summoners (<fXrjrijpcs). The oath of the plaintiff 
 before the opening of the trial was called npo^ixocria ; that of the defendant, avnojioaia ; 
 a name for both was Stwjiocrta. Door-keepers (jayx-Xife) were appointed by a magistrate 
 to guard the court from a crowd. The amount of the security money was, as has been 
 hinted (§ 103), in proportion to the amount at stake in the action. In trivial cases it 
 was a drachm, and called irapaaraats ; the deposit made by one who sued for goods 
 confiscated by the state, or for inheritances of a certain kind, was termed vapaKara(io\ti. 
 If the plaintiff (<3iwjc&>v) failed of proving the indictment (dma) against the defendant 
 (0£<jyojj/), he paid a fine called eno(3e\ia. While the action (iiw\ic) was proceeding or was 
 in suspense, a notice of it, inscribed on a brazen tablet, was hung up (exKcToQat) in one 
 of the most public places of the city. The witnesses Qiaprvpec) were all put under a 
 solemn oath, which they took together at the altar erected in the court-room. Their 
 testimony was called for by the advocates (awfiyopoi) as they wanted it in proceeding 
 with their pleas. 1 
 
 The office of the judges, hiKwyrai, resembled that of our jurymen ; 2 they were 
 usually paid three oboli a day. They sat upon wooden benches, which were covered 
 24 Q2 
 
186 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 with rugs (xf/iadia). In addressing them the advocates stood upon elevations called 
 Qfiixara. The number of prosecutions and trials was very great. There were many 
 in Athens who seem to have made it their business to discover grounds of accusation 
 against the wealthy. These men gained the name of o-vKocpavrai, a term which was 
 first applied to such as prosecuted persons that exported figs (ccto tov ovko. tyaivuv), a law 
 prohibiting such exportation having been enacted at a time when there was a great 
 scarcity of that fruit. 3 
 
 i See Sir W. Jones's Preface to Isxus (cf. P. V. § 101. 3). 2 See /. Pettingal, Enquiry into Hie Practice and Use of Juries among 
 
 the Greeks and Romans. Loud. 1769. 4. 3 cf. Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch. xxxi. sect. !. 
 
 3. The judicial process was substantially the same in the various courts. — The 
 five other civil courts besides the Helicea were those called napapwrov, Tpiyowov, To 
 
 KatynV, To ski Avkoo, and To Mr/ri'xou. 
 
 Respecting these courts, see Meier, as cited § 10S. 2.— SchSmann, Ant. Jur. Publ. Graec— Plainer, Process und KlageD. 
 
 § 111. In addition to the ten public courts, there was also a judicial body, 
 called U teeaa'pdxovta, consisting of forty persons chosen by lot, who held their 
 courts successively in the several districts of Attica having 1 cognizance of cases 
 where the sum or value at stake did not exceed ten drachmas. 
 
 There was likewise a body of Arbitrators, Atat^rat), consisting of 440 aged 
 men, forty-four from each tribe, holding office for a year, and authorized to 
 settle minor controversies within their respective tribes, but subject to appeal. 
 These were called xXqputou, being chosen by lot. — Disputing parties were 
 allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves ; these were called 8oaXkaxtrjpt,oi, 
 or xat' STio'tpori'-qv Acact'/jifal. Minor causes could not be entered in the superior 
 courts, until they had been heard before some court of arbitrators. 
 
 The number of public arbitrators or SiaiTnrai KKnpoiroi stated above is drawn from a passage 
 in Ulpian upon Demosthenes ; some writers have proposed a different reading of the passage so 
 as to make the whole number but forty, four from each tribe. — The private arbitrators were 
 sometimes termed iiarrtrai aips-roi. 
 
 Class. Jounl. xxxix. 350. — M. H. Hudwalcker, Ueber den Schiedsrichter Diateten in Athen, und den Process vor demselben, 
 Jena, 1812. 
 
 § 112. Actions or suits were divided into two classes; public (Slxao S^fiorjiat,, 
 xatf-riyopicu), such as concerned the whole state ; and private (Sixao I8lcu, and 
 blxai, simply), which concerned only individuals. Of the former class were the 
 following : Ypafy-q, an action for the highest crimes, as e. g. murder ($6vo{), poison 
 (fappaxov), arson (rtvpxcucx'), sacrilege {Ispoav'kla), and many others esteemed 
 less heinous; <-I>d<j^, an action for the crime of embezzling or in some way 
 squandering public property ; ""EvSeu&s, an action against persons usurping 
 prerogatives not belonging to them, or refusing trial although confessing guilt; 
 5 Arfay<oy»7, an action against a criminal taken in the act ; n'E^y^ucj, against a 
 criminal found in concealment and there visited by a magistrate; ' AvSpoXrj^M, 
 against such as concealed a murderer, which allowed the relatives of the mur- 
 dered person to seize three persons connected with the concealing party and 
 retain them until further satisfaction; 'Euaayys'Ki.a, an action for a public 
 offence against the state, or for a breach of trust, or against the Aiait^tat, when 
 one was dissatisfied with their decisions. — Actions belonging to the class called 
 private were far more numerous, and were named according to their various 
 occasions. 
 
 Some of the public actions included under the general denomination of ypa<pfi, and 
 not named above, were the following : rpavjxa 6c 7rpo«uaj, a wound given by design ; pov- 
 \simg, conspiracy ; d<ri/?aa, impiety ; npoSoo-ia, treachery ; desertion, whether from the 
 army, XenroaTpdriov , or the fleet, XtmovavTioi/, or from a particular station, \tmoral iov • fri- 
 volous prosecution, avKo^auria ; bribery both against the giver, demcr/to;, and against the 
 receiver, SupoSoxia. 
 
 Some of the private actions or suits were the following : KaKr/yopia; Siktj, an action of 
 slander ; xp?° v s ifori, an action for usury ; diKia; 6'lkyi, an action of battery ; flXatf*;, of 
 trespass ; kXokPj;, of theft ; ipevSo^apTupiov, for perjury. 
 
 § 113. The kinds of punishment were various, according to the nature and 
 degree of the offence for which they were inflicted. Of those not capital, the 
 following were the principal : (1) Tt^ua-r'a, pecuniary fine, called also Zqi.ua; 
 this was sometimes aggravated by corporeal punishment : (2) 'Attiftia, disgrace^ 
 which was of three kinds; first, the loss of some privilege but not of posses- 
 sions ; second, the loss of the rights of a citizen with confiscation of property; 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PUNISHMENTS. REWARDS. 187 
 
 third, the loss of all privileges civil and sacred, both by the criminal himself 
 and his whole posterity for ever: (3) Aouksia, slavery; this, however, by So- 
 lon's laws, could be inflicted only on freedmen, sojourners, and such as had 
 been disgraced (aVijitoi) : (4) 'Xtiyixata, brand-marks, by a hot iron on the 
 forehead or hands, inflicted chiefly on runaway slaves or freedmen: (5) Sr^, 
 in which the name of the offender and his crime were inscribed on a pillar, 
 exposed to public view : (6) Asa/j.6^, bonds ,■ of which there were several kinds; 
 as the xvfycav (also x%oib$), a wooden collar, which bent down the head and 
 neck; the ^otVtf , a kind of stocks, in which the feet or legs were made fast; 
 the aavii, a piece of wood to which the offender was bound as to a pillory; and 
 the -rpo^oj, a sort of wheel, applied to slaves who were bound to it and tortured : 
 (7) <j>tiyij, &siq>uyJa, banishment, with confiscation of goods. 
 
 Banishment is said to have been preferred by the Greek courts to imprisonment, on account 
 of the expense occasioned by the latter. The prison at Athens was termed Stafjoirfipiov, and by 
 euphemism, SiKripa. Prisons in different regions were called by different names : in Bosotia, 
 there was the 'Avayxatov ; at Sparta, the KeaSas ; at Cyprus, the Kepo/jos ; at Corinth, the Kojj ; 
 at Samos, the Topyvpa. 
 
 § 114. The Ostracism, datpaxisftbu was not, properly speaking, a judicial 
 punishment. It was a banishment for ten years, of such persons as were thought 
 to be dangerous to the state. The votes were given by shells, batpaxa; each 
 man marked upon his botpaxov the name of the person he would banish ; if 
 the same name was upon the majority of 6000 shells, the person was sentenced 
 to banishment. The most upright and most distinguished citizens fell under 
 this sentence ; and the Athenians finally abolished it, as the Syracusans did a 
 similar custom among them. The Syracusan punishment was called HetaXus- 
 pb{, because the name was written on leaves, rcs-taWa. 
 
 The ostracism is said by some to have been instituted by Hippias, son of Hipparchus ; others 
 say by Clisthenes, B. C. about 510, who was first banished by it. It continued about one hun- 
 dred years ; it was abolished B. C. about 412, and because it was then degraded by being em- 
 ployed on a very contemptible person by the name of Hvperbolus. Among the illustrious Athe- 
 nians who were driven from the city by this pernicious custom, were Themistocles, Thucydides, 
 Cimon, and Aristides. 
 
 Geiiwz, L'Ostracism, iu the Mem. de. VAcad. des Inscr. vol. xii. p. 145. 
 
 § 115. The punishment of death, Oararoj, was inflicted in several modes; as 
 by the sword, St-'^oj, beheading ; by the rope, Bpo^oj, strangling or hanging; by 
 poison, Qappaxov, drinking hemlock (x^vtiov) usually; by the precipice, 
 Kpri/Avos, casting from a rock or height ; by the KaHartovtia/Abs, drowning. 
 
 Other modes of inflicting death were, by the 'Zravpog, crucifying, a mode used by 
 the Greeks less frequently than by the Romans ; by the cudgels, Tvpimva, or beating, 
 in which the malefactor was hung on a pole ; by throwing into a pit, BHpaQpov, which 
 was a noisome hole with sharp spikes at the top and bottom (called also "Opvy/ia) ; by 
 
 stoning, Ai0o/3o\ia ; and by burning, U.vp. The punishment of death could not be 
 
 lawfully inflicted upon any citizen of Athens during the absence of the sacred galley 
 (it mpaXo; rpifipris) which was annually sent to the island Delos with a solemn sacrifice. 
 
 § 116. Public rewards and honors were awarded to meritorious persons. 
 Among these, were the following; (1) UpoeSpla, the front ox first seat, in the 
 theatres, at the festivals and on all public occasions ; (2) 'Eixuv, a statue, 
 erected in a public place; (3) Xtifyavot, crowns, conferred by the senate, or the 
 people, or by particular tribes and boroughs upon their own members ; these 
 were most frequently a reward for valor and military skill ; (4) 3 Ar sXeia, ex- 
 emptionfrom taxes, which was of various degrees, but seldom extended to the 
 contributions required for war and for the navy; (5) Xvtftjaii iv Tlpvtavdu>, 
 entertainment in the common hall, called Prytaneum ; originally limited to a 
 single day; but afterwards daily and permanent in the case of some {adaitot,) ; 
 it was an honor bestowed on the most worthy men, sometimes upon whole 
 families, and was viewed as a high distinction. After the death of such as 
 had received special honors, their children and descendants enjoyed in some 
 measure the benefit of the same. These honors were obtained with difficulty 
 in the better times of the republic, but became quite common afterwards, and 
 lost their salutary influence in a state of corrupted manners. 
 
 § 117. No people of antiquity was so much celebrated for the wisdom of their 
 laws as the Greeks. The first legislation in Greece is ascribed to Ceres and 
 
188 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Triptolemus (P. II. § 61). Afterwards, Theseus, Draco, Solon, Clisthenes, and 
 Demetrius Phalereus, were the most distinguished authors of the laws adopted 
 by the Athenians. The number of the Attic laws was constantly increased with 
 the changing circumstances of the state. It was commonly the province of the 
 rrpxi-ravftj to propose laws. A proposal adopted in the assembly was called 
 either a decree, 4^<jHa,ua, when it had only some specific application, or law, 
 v6/i.os, when its obligation was universal and unchanging. An ordinance of 
 Solon required an annual revision of the laws, to ascertain what alterations or 
 additions might be necessary. His own laws were inscribed on tables of wood 
 (cf. P. IV. § 53). 
 
 1. The term vopo; designates what may be called a constitutional law, or established 
 principle, as distinguished from a particular enactment ; thus it would be applied e. g. 
 to the laws of Draco and Solon, although those of Draco were commonly called 
 dscrftoi, in distinction from those of Solon called vouot. The term vojms is also sometimes 
 used in the sense of dipt;, a natural right or social usage or fixed custom. 
 
 2. If one wished to introduce a law, he named it to the np-iraras, who brought it 
 before the senate Q3ov\ri); if the senate approved, it was called a WpoiSovKcvpa ; it was 
 written by the Ilpurdrac upon a tablet, which was fixed up publicly at the statues of the 
 'Ethbi/d/kk, some days before the meeting of the assembly (stcxXno-ia) ; from this circum- 
 stance, it was also called -p6ypappa. 
 
 It will not comport with the limits of this sketch to detail particular Athenian laws.— These may be found in Sam. Petit, Leges 
 Atticae (cf. P. V. § 55. 3), and in the work entitled Jurirprudentia Romana et Mtica, T. iii.— Comp. Jo. Meursii Themis Attica. 
 
 L. B. 1624. 4. — See also Potter's Archasologia Graeca, bk. i. ch. xxvi. The most remarkable laws of the Greeks generally art 
 
 exhibited by Kophe in Nitsch's Beschreibung, &c. cited § 13. 
 
 § 118. Next to Athens, Lacedaemon was the most flourishing of the Grecian 
 states, and its most remarkable antiquities should be briefly noticed (cf. § 40). 
 The province in which this city lay bore the same name, but was called also 
 Lelegia, CEbalia, Laconia or Laconica, and was the largest part of the Pelo- 
 ponnesus. The city of Lacedaemon or Sparta was situated in an unbroken 
 plain, on the river Eurotas, and was in early times, according to the direction 
 of Lycurgus, without walls. Its soil was fertile, and its internal plan and its 
 edifices such as to be respectable, although they did not give a just idea of the 
 power and resources of the state. 
 
 On the civil constitution of this state, we may refer to /. K. F. Manso, Sparta, eio Versuch zur Aufklarung der Geschichte und 
 Verfassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1S0O-5. 3 vols. S. — Kitsch, Beschreibung, &c. as cited § 13. — Milller, History and Antiquities of 
 the Doric Race. Traasl. by Tufnell and Lewis. Oxf. 1S30. 2 vols. 8- — IV. Drummond, Review of the Governments of Sparta 
 and Athens. — C. P. Levesque, Sur la Constitution de Sparta, in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e des Sciences Mor. et Pol. vol. iii. 
 
 On the topography and ruins of Sparta, see P. I. §§ 126-129. — A view of the modern village Mistra, near its site, is given in the 
 Plate on page 37. 
 
 § 119. In Lacedaemon the citizens were of two kinds, such as had received 
 the rights of citizenship by inheritance from their parents, and such as had 
 acquired them personally. They were together divided into six tribes, of which 
 that of the Heraclida; was the first. Each of these was again subdivided into 
 five classes, called wj3a*, making thirty in all. The presidents or leaders of 
 these were called Ttpoax-tcM. 
 
 1. The first class of citizens, being of free-born parents, and having complied with 
 all the Spartan discipline, were called the bpoiot, or equals; while the other class were 
 termed v-opziovzc, inferiors, including freedmen and sons of freedmen, and all such 
 as had not fully conformed to the Spartan discipline. 
 
 C. F. Hermann, De conditione atque origine eorum qui Homcei ap. Laced, appellati sunt. Marb. 1832. 4. — Same altthnr, De 
 cansis turbatae apud Lacedaainonios agroruro aequalitatis. Marb. 1S34. 
 
 2. The division into six tribes, above referred to, was made by Lycurgus. Some 
 state five as the number, not considering the HeracVdce as a separate tribe. The 
 others were the Atpvarai, so called from their residing near the marsh or morass (Xipvrj) 
 on the north side of the city; the KwocovpsTs, so called from their vicinity to a branch 
 of mount Taygetus termed Kwoo-oupa {dog's tail) on account of its figure ; the Iln-ai'a- 
 rat; the Maro-o.'trai ; and the Aiyaoai, who received this name because they resided near 
 
 the tomb of jEgeus, Aiyrfj. Mailer asserts 1 , that in every Doric state there were 
 
 three tribes, YX.Wj, TLaiupvXoi, and Avpavarai or AvpS-jec; or the Ilidlean, Di/manatan, 
 and Pamphylian ; and says, we cannot suppose the existence in Sparta of any other 
 than these genuine Doric tribes. He represents each of these as divided into fen u>0ai, 
 and adds, that two and probably more, yet not all, of the wfiai of the Ht/Ucan tribe 
 must have been Heraclida. Each of the ii0ai is said to have contained ten Tpiaic&oes, 
 which were communities comprising thirty families. — There was another division of 
 the Spartans, into six pooat consisting only of such 2 as were of a proper age for mili- 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SPARTAN MAGISTRATES. 189 
 
 tary service. -A subdivision of tribes into ipparpiai, or ycvri, or rpCrrves, is also mentioned 
 as having prevailed 3 in various places. 
 
 i See MUller, Hist, and Antiq. as cited § US. vol. ii. p. 76-80. * Cf. Robinson, Archaeol. Grac. 3 Wachsmuth, Histor. 
 
 Ant. of Greece. 
 
 § 120. It is known that the Spartans were obliged, on the birth of their 
 children, to subject them to a close scrutiny as to their vigor and soundness of 
 constitution, and to submit it to the decision of the presidents of the wj3cw, or 
 clans, whether they were suitable to be preserved and raised ; a regulation 
 designed to prevent a population of weak and sickly citizens. The education 
 of the children was treated with the greatest care. All the citizens not only 
 had equal rights, but also a community of goods and privileges. The lands 
 were, by the laws of Lycurgus, equally apportioned among them. 
 
 As soon as a child was born, it was carried to a place called Lesche (A-koxn) to be 
 examined by the elders of the family or clan. If disapproved as having an imperfect 
 frame or weak constitution, it was cast into a gulf, called, 'Airodercu, near mount Tay- 
 getus. If approved, a share of the public lands was assigned to it, and it was taken 
 back to the father's house and laid on a shield with a spear placed near it. The 
 whole education was intrusted to the parent until the child reached the age of seven ; 
 then the regular public education {ayoiyh) commenced. The boys at this age were in- 
 rolled in the classes termed Agelce (dyiXai or fiovai, herds) ; such as refused this lost 
 the rights of citizenship ; none but the immediate heir to the throne was excepted ; 
 the other sons of the kings were obliged to submit to the correction of the master 
 (Ilat&^of). The discipline was more strict after the age of twelve. At about sixteen 
 they were called aikwai. At eighteen they entered the classes termed tyrifioi, and 
 about two years after received the appellation of sipsve; or ipeves, and were admitted to 
 the public banquets. At thirty they were ranked as men, £%n0°h and were allowed to 
 undertake public offices. 
 
 Cf. MUller, as above cited, vol. ii. p. 313. 
 
 § 121. The slaves among the Lacedsemonians were treated with great cruelty 
 (cf. § 99). There appears to have been but one class, viz. the Helots ("Eacoi'sj), 
 who according to the common account were derived from the maritime town 
 Helos ("E?,o?) captured by the Spartans. Others consider the name as derived 
 from the verb s%u>, and signifying prisoners. The unhappy Messenians taken 
 in the second Messenian war were incorporated among the Helots. 
 
 1 u. The Helots were required to cultivate the land, and perform the most laborious 
 and dangerous services in war. They were exposed to every sort of abuse, and even 
 to the murderous attack of the young Spartans, especially in the custom termed 
 Kpvm-eia, which was an annual legalized hunt against these degraded subjects. Yet 
 some among them, as a reward of distinguished merit, obtained liberty and citizen- 
 ship, on occasion of receiving which they were crowned with garlands and led about 
 the temples. They then were called eireivaKroi, or dcpirai, or veoia^.okig. The last epi- 
 thet seems to have designated such as enjoyed more of civil rights than the common 
 freedmen, whose rank was far below that of the free-born. The number of slaves in 
 this state was very large. 
 
 2. The aiper&i were a class released probably from all service ; the ipvicrnpeg were 
 slaves employed only in war ; the Sco-mxriovairai served on board the fleet ; the p.60coveg, 
 were domestic slaves brought up with the young Spartans and then emancipated. 
 
 3. There was another class of inhabitants in the province of Lacedffimon, who al- 
 though not slaves were yet held in a state of subjection by the Spartans. They were 
 the natives of towns reduced by the latter to a tributary and dependent state ; they 
 were called Fericeci (TUp'ioiKoi). They were engaged in the navy and in the army 
 along with Spartan citizens, and sometimes were intrusted with offices: at the battle 
 of Plataea there were 10,000 men of this class. 
 
 Respecting the Perioeci and the Helots, see MUUer, vol. ii. p. 17, 30.— Capperonien, Sur l'esclavage des Hilotes, in the Msm. Acad. 
 Inscr. xxiii. 271. 
 
 § 122. At the head of government were two kings or leaders (dp^ayit'at), 
 who must be certainly descended from the Heraclidae, and must possess an 
 unexceptionable exterior. They did not possess the full regal authority (rta/x- 
 patrtXsi'a), but a power limited by the laws, to which they were accustomed 
 every month to swear obedience. In war their power was greatest. They had 
 also the oversight of the worship of the gods, and sometimes performed the 
 office of priests. 
 
 In peace their chief civil prerogative was to preside in the senate and propose the 
 subjects for deliberation ; and each could give his vote on any question. In war tlio 
 
190 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Spartan kings had unlimited command ((n-parriyds dvTonpaTup), and could even put to 
 death without trial (iv xz i P°s vojuo). They are said also to have had in time of war espe- 
 cially a body-guard of three hundred of the noblest of the Spartan youths (unr*??) ; 
 from this number five were annually selected and employed for one year, under the 
 name of dya9oepyoi, in missions to other states. Many dissensions grew out of the 
 doable monarchy (Siapxn). The royal revenue was very great. Cf. Mutter, vol. ii. 
 p. 106. 
 
 § 123. Lycurgus established a senate of 28 men, of blameless character, and 
 upwards of 60 years old, which was called yspousi'a, or yspuvoa. The members 
 had an equal right of voting with the two kings, and rendered no account of the 
 manner of discharging their office. — There were also rive Ephori (i'^opot), who had 
 an oversight of the whole state, and whose duty required them to assert the 
 rights of the people against the kings. They were chosen from among the 
 people, without reference to condition. — The BslSimoi, were a class of offi- 
 cers, who were placed over the ifyqfioi,, between the ages of 18 and 20. 
 
 The Ephori enjoyed a power which was called foorvpawo; , and were not required to 
 give any account of their discharge of it ; but they were appointed only for one year. 
 Their tribunal (tyopelov) was in the forum. — The BeiSiaToi were five in number* with a 
 sixth as their ffpar/juj. They had the inspection of the gymnastic exercises, called 
 irXaravirrTa, because performed in a spot surrounded with plane trees ; it was their pro- 
 vince to decide disputes arising at the gymnasia. They had their tribunal or place of 
 council also in the forum. The comirion name for the council-halls of these and other 
 magistrates was dpx^ta. 
 
 § 124. The Spartans had other magistrates ; as the NojAofyvXaxes, who saw 
 that the laws were maintained and executed ; the Ap^oowot, to whom was en- 
 trusted the oversight of the women, to observe their lives and manners and direct 
 their exercises; the 'Ejitrflxcopot,, who preserved order and decorum in assemblies 
 of the people, and attended in general to the police of the forum or market; the 
 IL^cot, four in number, appointed by the kings, and employed to consult oracles ; 
 the npotsvoc, who were also appointed by the kings, and had charge of the re- 
 ception of strangers ; the IIpoSixoi, who had the care of the young kings as 
 tutors; the IIcHooyo^ot, whose office was to oversee and manage the boys put 
 under their care at the age of 7 ; the 'Appootai, who were a sort of sheriffs in 
 the city and province; the HoXEfiapx 01 -! wn0 under the kings superintended the 
 affairs of war, and also attended to some matters of police in the city ; the 
 TrtrfaypE-mt., three officers, who commanded each a chosen band of 100 horsemen. 
 
 § 125. The assemblies (ixxhrjolat,) of the people were similar to those at 
 Athens. In some of them only native citizens of Sparta met; in others there 
 were also delegates from the towns and cities belonging to the province Laconia; 
 in assemblies of the latter class were discussed all affairs of common interest 
 and importance to the whole state. Originally the kings and senate had the 
 power of convening the assemblies ; it was afterwards vested in the Ephori, 
 who also presided in them. The votes were given by utterance of voice (doy 
 xai ov ^foco), anc ' tne majority decided by the loudest acclamation, or by a 
 subsequent division and counting of the two parties. 
 
 The assembly composed only of the cilizens of Sparta was called juxpa iKKXriaia, and 
 usually met once every month. Every citizen capable of bearing arms might attend, 
 and, if above the age of thirty, might speak. The meetings were originally in the 
 open air, but at a later period were held in an edifice, called mcias, erected for the pur- 
 pose. — The other assembly was called simply, or by way of eminence, «<cA^<n'a. It 
 consisted of the kings, the senators, the magistrates, and the deputies of Laconia. 
 
 § 126. The assembly also, which was collected at the public and common 
 meals and termed ovaavtia, ^nSltva, and ^t^Vca, was designed for the purpose 
 of speaking upon matters of public importance. 
 
 In this assembly, kings, magistrates, and certain citizens, met together in certain 
 halls, where a number of tables were set, for fifteen persons each. No new member 
 could be admitted to any table but by the unanimous consent of all belonging to the 
 same. Every member contributed to the provisions from his own stores ; a specified 
 quantity of barley meal or cakes (pa^ai), wine, cheese, and figs, and a small sum of 
 money for meat, was expected from each. A close union was formed between those 
 of the same table. The regular meal was termed cuk\o-j ; after this was a dessert called 
 bnuKXov. The men only were admitted; small children were allowed to sit on stools 
 near their fathers and receive a half-share without vegetables (dPapffaKsvara) ; the youth 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. LAWS OF CRETE. 191 
 
 and boys ate in other companies. At table they sat or reclined on couches of hard 
 oak. The chief dish was the black broth (/i&ac ^dc). 1 The Spartans had also another 
 kind of solemn feast, called kokis, to which foreigners and boys were admitted along 
 with the citizens. 2 
 
 1 The reader may be amused by the following # passage from Sir Henry Blount, who traveled in Turkey, in 1634. " The Turku 
 have a drink called cauphe, made of a berry as big as a small bean, dried in a furnace and beat to powder, of a sooty color, in 
 taste a little bitterish, that they sethe aod drink, hot as may be endured ; it is good at all hours of the day, but especially morning and 
 evening, when to that purpose they entertain themselves two or three hours in cauphe-houseB, which in Turkey abound more than 
 inns and ale houses with us. It is thought to be the old black broth used so much by the Lacedxmonians. It drieth ill humours in 
 the stomach, coroforteth the brain, never causeth drunkenness, nor any other surfeits, and is a harmless entertainment of good fellow- 
 ship." 2 Robinson's Archasol. Gra:c. p. 159.— Cf. MUller, ii. 289. 
 
 § 127. Judicial actions were very summary among the Spartans. Eloquence 
 found no place in them; no advocates were employed; every one was obliged 
 to plead his own cause. There were three distinct jurisdictions, that of the 
 kings, the senate, and the Ephori, each of which formed a tribunal for the deci- 
 sion of a certain class of questions. The most important questions, and particu- 
 larly all of a capital nature, belonged to the senate. In minor disputes, the par- 
 ties were allowed to choose arbitrators for themselves. 
 
 Cf. Robimon, bk. ii. ch. xxii. — On the authority of the Ephori, MUller, bk. iii. ch. vii. ; and bk. iii. ch. ii. § 2, on the Spartan 
 Courts. 
 
 § 128. The punishments were various and in part similar to those at Athens. 
 The most common mode of inflicting death was by strangling or suffocation. — 
 Stealing was punished not so much for the theft committed, as for the want of 
 shrewdness and dexterity betrayed by the offender in allowing himself to be 
 detected. 
 
 1. Strangling was effected by means of a rope (Ppoxos, Pp6fx»s) ; it was always done 
 in the night and in a room 1 in the public prison called At/cac. Death was also inflicted 
 by casting the malefactor into the pit 2 called Ka«Mac; this was always done likewise 
 by night. Aristomenes the Messenian was cast into this, but survived the fall and 
 effected an escape, which was considered as very wonderful. Besides the punish- 
 ments Zrjfua, 'Artuia, and Kvipwv or KXotoc, mentioned among Athenian penalties (cf. 
 § 113), the Spartans 3 had Macmy&jo-ic, whipping, which the offender received as he was 
 driven through the city, and K&njcnc, goading, which was a similar punishment. Ba- 
 nishment, $t)y»), seems not to have been a regular punishment inflicted by sentence ; 
 but was voluntary, and chosen in order to escape death or infamy {dnp.ia). 
 
 • Robinson, Arch. Grac. bk. ii. ch. 24. 2 Cf. Thuc. i. 134.— Pans. iv. 18. § i.—Strab. vm.—Mitford, Hist, of Greece, ch. iv. 
 
 sect. 4 3 Cf. MUlUr, Hist, and Ant. Dor. vol. ii. p. 235. 
 
 2 u. Among the Spartans also various rewards and distinctions were bestowed on 
 persons of merit, both while living and after death. 
 
 3. Among the distinctions conferred on the meritorious, the UpocSpa, first seat in a 
 public assembly, was highly honorable. Much value was attached to the olive-crown, 
 'EXain; artyavoc, as a reward for bravery, and to the thongs, Bei&oms, with which victors 
 in the contests were bound. But it was one of the highest honors of the city to be 
 elected into the number of the three hundred constituting the three chosen bands of 
 
 horsemen (§ 124), termed Aoyafos. To commemorate the dead, statues, cenotaphs 
 
 (KsvoTatbia), and other monuments were erected. 
 
 § 129. The legislation of Sparta had Lycurgus chiefly for its author, and was 
 marked by some strong peculiarities. The form of government was distin- 
 guished from that of all the other states by its union of monarchical with aristo- 
 cratical and democratical traits. There were in Sparta no written laws; they 
 were transmitted orally from one generation to another; on this account Lycur- 
 gus styled them pyjfpai,. They were not numerous, and were chiefly designed 
 to promote bravery and hardihood, and hinder all luxury and voluptuousness. 
 Although they underwent many alterations in minor points, they retained their 
 authority through a period of above 800 years. 
 
 Cf. MUller, as before cited, vol. ii. p. 97, 235. — Xenophon, on the Polity of the Lacedemonians (cf. P. V. § 1 86).— The works cited 
 §118. 
 
 § 130. Next to the states of Athens and Sparta, the island of Crete presents a 
 constitution the most remarkable. It is here, as has been stated (§ 38), that 
 we find the origin of the institutions of Lycurgus. During the republican go- 
 vernment which succeeded the monarchical, it was customary to elect ten offi- 
 cers annually as chief magistrates. These were called Cosmi, xoq/aol, and were 
 taken only from particular families. Under them was a Senate, which was con- 
 sulted only on important questions ; it consisted of 28 members, who for the 
 
192 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 most part had previously held the office of Cosmi. There was also an order of 
 knights, who were required to keep horses at their own expense for the public 
 use, and to serve in time of war. The power of popular assemblies was not 
 great ; they usually did nothing but confirm the decrees of the higher authorities. 
 
 Cf. MWxr, vol. ii. p. 99, I34.-H8ci, Kreta. Gotticg. 1829. 3 vols. 8. 
 
 § 131. The Cretan laws were in general wise, as appears from some traces 
 of them found in different writers. — Like the Spartans, the citizens of Crete had 
 public meals, which they called uvh^iio,. — Slaves were treated with comparative 
 mildness. 
 
 1. " Curiosity is excited," observes Mitford, "by that system of laws which, in an 
 age of savage ignorance, violence, and uncertainty among surrounding nations, in- 
 forced civil order, and secured civil freedom to the Cretan people ; which was not 
 only the particular model of the wonderful polity, so well known to us through the 
 fame of Lacedajmon, but appears to have been the general fountain of Grecian legis- 
 lation and jurisprudence ; and which continued to deserve the eulogies of the greatest 
 sages and politicians, in the brightest periods of literature and philosophy." 
 
 See Sainte Croix, Des Anciens gouvernements federatifs, et legislation de Crete. Par. 1776. 
 
 2. Three different classes of dependents existed in the island ; the public bondmen 
 called by the Cretans pvoia. ; the slaves of individual citizens, d^a/wwrai ; and the tribu- 
 taries, iiriJKooi. Perhaps there was no Grecian state in which the dependent classes 
 were so little oppressed as in Crete. In general, every employment and profession, 
 with the exception of the gymnasia and the military service, were permitted to them. 
 —Mutter, as cited § 118, vol. ii. 5. 
 
 3. The name dvSpsTa is supposed to have been given to the public meals, because, as 
 at Sparta, men alone were admitted to the tables. A woman, however, had the care 
 of the public tables at Crete. The Cretans were distinguished by their great hospi- 
 tality ; with every two tables for citizens there was one for foreigners. — Mutter, 
 ii. 225. 
 
 The term dycAr/ was used to designate an assembly of young men, who lived toge- 
 ther from their eighteenth year till the time of their marriage. These young men, 
 called dytXao-rot, were under the care of a person termed dysXarri;, who superintended 
 their military and gymnastic exercises. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 
 
 § 132. In Thebes, the principal city of Bceotia, a monarchical government 
 existed until the death of Xanthus, and afterwards a republican. Yet this state 
 did not rise to any great celebrity, at least for a long time; the cause was per- 
 haps the whole national character of the Thebans. Besides a proper senate, 
 there were in Thebes Bceotarchs, Botofap^at, and Poletnarchs Ilo^iap^ot ; the 
 former had the care of the civil affairs, and the latter of the military. — Bceotia 
 was divided into four grand councils, or senates, whose decrees guided all the 
 other magistrates. Merchants and mechanics were adopted as citizens, but 
 never raised to any magistracy. The exposure of infants was not permitted, 
 but if their parents were unable to maintain them, it was done by the state. 
 Pausanias has recorded in his description of Bceotia many remarkable features 
 of the later condition of the Theban state. 
 
 The Boeotians had a great national festival, naji/?ot&jr(a, in honor of Athena Itonia, who had 
 a temple near Coronea, near which the festival was held. 
 
 Cf. Mitford, ch. v. sect. 1. — Raoid-RocheUe, Administration de l'E tat Federatif des Bosotiens, in the Mem. de VInstiiui, Classe 
 d'Hilt. et Lit. Anc. vol. viii. p. 214. 
 
 § 133. Of the internal constitution of Corinth but little is known. It was 
 at first governed by kings, of whom the Sisyphidse and Bacchiadas were the 
 most distinguished. Afterwards, when an aristocratical form was introduced, 
 one chief magistrate was chosen yearly called llpD-taiM. He was supported by 
 a senate, repousse. The assembly of the people never had equal authority; 
 their power was often very small. The city was once called Ephyra, and en- 
 joyed a favorable situation upon the isthmus, which rendered it and its two 
 harbours so famous on account of their navigation and commerce. It was de- 
 stroyed by the Romans, B. C. 146, but was afterwards rebuilt by Csesar, and 
 became again very flourishing. — Syracuse and Corcyra were colonies of Corinth. 
 The last city is specially remarkable, from the fact, that a dispute between itself 
 3nd Corinth was the occasion of the Peloponnesian war. Syracuse was for a 
 long time governed by 600 of the oldest men, called <yjco,uopot ; but afterwards 
 became entirely democratical until it was subjected to the Romans. 
 
 Cf. MUlkr, as before cited, vol. ii. p. 156, 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS IN THE LATER AGES. 193 
 
 § 134. Argos, like the other Grecian states, had in early times its kings. 
 In later times it was governed by the people divided into four tribes. It bad 
 its senate, and another body of magistrates consisting of eighty members, and 
 a class of public officers called aptwoi. 
 
 Cf. miller, vol. ii. p. 144, 147. 
 
 In the history of JEtolia, we may mention as chiefly remarkable the league or 
 confederacy between the cities of that district. This confederacy was called 
 the Panwtolium. It had at Thermus an annual assembly or meeting, in which 
 the magistrates were elected, and also a president of the confederacy, who was 
 called c-tpa-trjyos, and was at the same time chief military commander. This 
 officer was subject to the assembly. The council of the Apocleti (drtoxX^-rot) 
 was a different body, who decided questions that arose in pressing emer- 
 gencies. 
 
 See F. W. Tittmann, Darstellung der Griecti. Staatsverfassungen. Leipz. 1822. 8. 
 
 The cities of Achaia also united themselves in a league, and held their com- 
 mon assemblies twice a year at iEgium. In these originally presided one 
 rpa 1 u. J uow , £'i>5, with two XtpatTjybi; and at a later period, one 'Xtpa-t^ybi, besides 
 whom there were ten A^ioupyot to attend to the public affairs of the con- 
 federacy. 
 
 Cf. Breiterbtmch, Geschichte der Achaer und ihres Bundes. Leipz. 1782. 
 
 III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 135. That warlike spirit which, as has been observed (§ 42), was a main 
 trait in the national character of the early Greeks, was also conspicuous in 
 their descendants of a later period. This is true of the Athenians, and more 
 emphatically so of the Spartans, who were inured to hardship by their educa- 
 tion, bound by their laws and their honor to conquer or die, and inspired by 
 their whole national system with a love of war. These republics were ac- 
 cordingly the refuge and protection of the smaller states in their difficulties. 
 The Thebans, likewise, for a certain period, maintained the reputation of dis- 
 tinguished valor. Athens and Sparta, however, were always the rivals in this 
 respect; and although in the war with Xerxes they agreed that Athens should 
 command the Grecian fleet, and Sparta the land forces, yet they soon again fell 
 into dissension, and the Spartans stripped the Athenians, for a time, of that 
 naval superiority, for which the situation of Athens afforded the greatest 
 advantages.. 
 
 On Grecian military afiairs, see Nast, Kopke, &c. cited § 42. 
 
 § 136. The armies of the Greeks consisted chiefly of free citizens, who were 
 early trained to arms, and, after reaching a certain age, at Athens the twentieth 
 year, were subject to actual service in war. From this duty, they were released 
 only by the approaching weakness of age. At Athens the citizens were ex-_ 
 empted from military service at the age of forty, except in cases of extreme 
 danger. Some were also wholly exempted on account of their office or employ- 
 ment. Of those who were taken into service, a written list or roll was made 
 out, from which circumstance the levying was termed xator/pa^ri, or xa-tdxoyos. 
 The warriors maintained themselves, and every free citizen considered it a 
 disgrace to serve for pay ; for which the spoils of victory were, in some degree, 
 a substitute. Pericles, however, introduced the payment of a stipend, which 
 was raised, when necessary, by means of a tax on the commonwealth. 
 
 At first foot-soldiers received two oboli a day ; afterwards four ; whence TeTpap6\on 
 ffio; signified a soldier's life, and nTpw/SoXi^uv, to serve in war. The pay of a soldier in 
 the cavalry, termed Karaaraais, was a drachm a day ; a seaman received the same, with 
 an allowance for a servant. 
 
 On the methods of raising money at Athens for extraordinary expenses, see \\ 103, 104. On the military regulations, cf. Cor- 
 nier, Sur les loix militaires des Grecs, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlv. p. 239.— Cf. § 42. 
 
 § 137. It has already been remarked (§ 43), that the Grecian soldiers were 
 
 of three classes ; footsoldiers or infantry, -to rtt&xbv ; the cavalry, tb t$ 'iriiuzv ; 
 
 and such as were borne in chariots, mb zty oxraxa-tuv. The infantry comprised 
 
 three kinds ; the ort^tVou., heavy armed, who carried a complete and full armor, 
 
 25 R 
 
194 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 and were distinguished particularly by a large shield (ortXov) ; the rtsMaatcu, 
 targeteers, who bore light arms, particularly a small shield {rtsMtj) ; and the 
 <4/Oot, light armed, who had no shield and used only missile weapons. — The 
 war chariots were not much used after the introduction of cavalry. 
 
 The chariots, termed SperravrKpopot, were sometimes terribly destructive, being armed with 
 sythes, with which whole ranks of soldiers were sometimes cut down. — In Plate XVII, fig. K, 
 one of these chariots is presented, drawn by two horses which are protected by a covering of 
 
 mail. It may be worthy of remark here, that such chariots were used by the ancient Britons 
 
 and Belgians, and are designated in the Roman writers by the terms covini and esseda. (Lucan, 
 Phars. i. 426. — Tac. Agric. xxxvi. — Cws. Bell. Gall. iv. 33. — Mela, iii. 6.) "The covinus was a 
 terrible instrument of destruction, being armed with sharp sythes and hooks for cutting and 
 tearing all who were so unhappy as to come within its reach." R. Henry, History of Great 
 Britain, (first ed.) Lond. 1771-93. 6 vols. 4. 
 
 § 138. The cavalry of the Greeks was not numerous, and consisted only of 
 citizens of the more respectable class, and such as were able (cf. § 93) to maintain 
 their horses. The trtrtstj, therefore, at Athens as well as Sparta, held a high 
 rank. Those who wished to attain this rank were first examined in respect 
 to their bodily strength and other qualifications, by the senate and a Hipparch 
 or Phularch (trtrtap^j, ^vJtap^^y) appointed for the purpose. They were called 
 by various names according to the weapons of armor they used ; as, e. g., 
 axpojSoa.Kji'at, who threw missiles ; Sopa-tofyopoi, who carried spears or lances; 
 (,rt7toto%6tac, fi>o"tfo<}>6pot, xovto$6poi, jhjp£o<j>6pot, etc. The following articles 
 constituted their principal armor : a helmet, broad plated girdle, breastplate, a 
 large shield, cuishes, a javelin and sword. 
 
 The horsemen, as well as the infantry, were distinguished into the heavy-armed, m- 
 raippaKTOi, and light-armed, nn KarafpaKToi.. The former not only were defended by armor 
 themselves, but also had their horses protected by plates of brass or other metal, which 
 were named, from the parts of the horse covered by them, -npojitTamka, -poarspviSia, xapa- 
 uriplSia, TiaptmXevpidLa, irapaKvrinidia, etc. The trappings of the horses were termed (pi\apa ; 
 various and costly ornaments, including collars, bells, and embroidered cloths were 
 often used. — The &ip-&xcu were a sort of dragoon, instituted by Alexander, designed to 
 serve either on horseback or on foot. — The "Ap<piwKoi were such as had two horses ; 
 called also 'imraycoyoi, because they led one of their horses. — After the time of Alexan- 
 der, elephants were introduced from the east ; but they were after a short period laid 
 aside, as they were found too unmanageable to be relied upon with much confidence. 
 When used, they carried into battle large towers, containing from ten to thirty sol- 
 diers, who could greatly annoy the enemy with missiles, while they were themselves 
 in comparative safety. 
 
 Saltier and Freret, Orig. de l'equitation dans la Grece, in the Mem. Acad. Insa'. vii. 33, 286. — Be Maizeroy, La Cavalerie Grecque, 
 in the same Mem. &c. xli. 242. — Larcher, L'ordre equestre chez ]es Grecs. in the same Mem. &c. xlviii. 83. 
 
 § 139. The chief articles of armor used by the Greeks have been already 
 described (§ 44, 45), and it is only necessary to remark here, that in later times 
 there were many changes, as to the forms of the articles, and the manner of 
 using them. 
 
 1. The breastplate {§&pal) consisted of two parts, one for a defence for the back, 
 the other for the breast, united at the sides by a sort of buttons. When made of two 
 continued pieces of metal, and on that account inflexible, it was called ^pa\ cra&ios; 
 when made of hide and guarded with hooks or rings, connected as in a chain, it was 
 called Swpaf dXw«W(5? ; it guarded with plates like the scales of a fish, it was called 
 Soipal XemdaiTos. The r)pi6o)paiaoi> protected only the front part of the body ; Alexander 
 allowed only this to his soldiers- — Within the SwpaJ, and next to the skin the Greeks 
 also wore often a defensive armor of brass fined With wool, which was termed pirprj. 
 Cf. Horn. II. iv. 137, 187. 
 
 The thorax is seen in fig. r, of Plate XXII. ; also on the warrior, fig. 7. In fig. 5, the thorax seems to be guarded with plates like 
 the scales of a fish ; also in Plate XXXTV. fig. b. 
 
 2. The shield (dcnric) when of wood was made of the lightest kind, as willow, beach, 
 poplar, &c. When made of hide (d<nri<fcc fioeiai), there were usually several thicknesses 
 covered with a plate or plates of metal. Its chief parts were the outer edge or cir- 
 cumference, aural, i'ruc, kvk\oc, mpupipeia ; the boss or prominent part in the middle, 
 6p.(j>a\ds, p.£aon<pa\u>v ; the thong of leather by which it was attached to the shoulders, 
 rikap.iiv ; the rings by which it was held in the hands, iroprcaKti, for which the handle, 
 o\avov, consisting of two small bars placed crosswise, was afterwards substituted. Lit- 
 tle bells were sometimes hung upon the shields to increase the terror occasioned by 
 shaking them. ^dy^a was the name of a covering, designed to protect the shield from 
 injury when not in actual use , the word also designates a packsaddle. Various epi- 
 thets are applied to shields; dpaptPpoTo;, dy<5/w^<j/ojc, mSnvri^hs, indicative of size; eWwcXm, 
 
PLATE XXII. 
 
 195 
 
196 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 iravroTZ "cat, of shape. The Tt{pov was in the shape of a rhombus, and first used by 
 the Persians ; the QvptSg was oblong and bent inward ; the Aavfjiov was composed of 
 hides with the hair on, and was very light ; the niXrr; was small and light, and, ac- 
 cording to some, shaped like a half-moon. 
 
 In Plate XXII. are several forms of shields ; see fig. 3, fig. 4, fig. 7. See also Plate XXX. fig. 1, fig. 4 ; and Plate V XXI TT. fig. 1, 
 fig. 2. 
 
 3. Besides the offensive weapons which have already been named (see $ 45, and Plate XVII.), 
 we may mention the poniard, called Tapa^KpiSiov, ly%SLpiiiov, and pa\aipa; it answered the 
 purpose of a knife. In later ages, the d/ai/d/cr/s was borrowed from the Persians. This has gene- 
 rally been considered as curved, and has usually been translated cimiter ; in Smith's Dictionary 
 it is contended, that it was straight like the dagger; the writer quotes Josephus (.Ant. Jud. xx. 
 7-10) as saying of the assassins who infested Judea before the destruction of Jerusalem, that 
 "they used daggers in size resembling the Persian acinaces, but curved, and like those 
 which the Romans called sice, and from which robbers and murderers are called sicarii;'' the 
 acinaces seems to have been worn on the right side. The koitis or falchion (.ensis falcatus) was 
 also used in battle ; as was likewise the battle-ax, d^ivr/, and the nektKVs. The Macedonians 
 had a peculiar kind of long spear, called udpio-aa. The club of wood or iron, Ki/pvvr/, was a wea- 
 pon of early times. — We may mention among the offensive weapons the nvpofioXoi Xidoi, fire- 
 balls ; one kind (cr/curdXia) were made of wood and armed with spikes of iron, under which were 
 fixed hemp, pitch, and other combustibles; these, being set on fire, were hurled into the ranks 
 of the enemy. 
 
 In Plate XVII. fig. C, is the iidxaipa ; in Plate XXXIII. fig. 4, we see hanging at the right thigh the weapon which the writer 
 mentioned above considers as the aKivdKijs ; the same is seen in the hand of Mithras, in the Sup. Plate 9 ; cf. also fig. B, in Plata 
 XVII. 
 
 On the various articles of armor, see Fcsbi-oke's Encyclopaedia. — S. R. Meyrick, Critical Inquiry into Ancient Armor, &c. with a 
 Glossary of Names of the Arms of the Middle Ages. Lond. 1824. 3 vols. 4 ; a work which may be recommended to the student 
 desirous of full information on this subject. 
 
 § 140. The commanders of the armies were in early times the kings them- 
 selves, although at the same time certain men, eminently brave, were appointed 
 to be pnkmarchs or generals. Subsequently each tribe chose its own com- 
 mander, who was called o'tpatrjyb?. At Athens it became customary to appoint 
 ten, who had equal power, and who held the chief command one day each in 
 regular rotation, when they took the field together. Over these was a pole- 
 march, whose opinion was decisive in the war-council, when there was an 
 equal division among them; at a later period, however, this officer (rtohifxapxo;) 
 had no share in military affairs (§ 101).— There were also ten taxiarchs, 
 ralc'ap^ot,, subordinate to the ctpatr;yoi ; their duty was to put the army in array 
 for battle, mark out the camp, regulate the order of march, and in general 
 attend to the preservation of discipline. Subordinate also to the Strategi were 
 the two generals of the horse, iVtrtap^ot., who had under them ten (pvXapxoo, one 
 nominated by each tribe. There were also inferior officers, as xo^ayot, ^tXtap- 
 XOi, txat6vtapz°<'i Ssxdb'apxoc, ns/j-rtdSapxot; the names being derived from the 
 number of men commanded by them. 
 
 § 141. The whole army was called expand; the front, ixzta>7iov or rfpwt'oj 
 £uy6j ; the wings, xipata, ; the .rear, odpa or i6%a?o; ^uyoj. The smallest divi- 
 sion, consisting of five men, was called a rts^rfas ; a Xo^oj contained from ten 
 to a hundred men, according to different circumstances ; and a *o|tj, a hundred, 
 or a hundred and twenty-eight. 
 
 The ruficwas also called harovTaoxia. Each division of this sort had five attendants, 
 who (.curaKTOi) did not serve in the ranks ; viz. the orparoK-r/pvf, who reported the officer's 
 commands to the soldiers ; the o-npstoipopo;, who conveyed the ensigns, signals, or 
 watchwords ; the aaX-niyKThs, a trumpeter ; the fcr/pmjj, who supplied the members of 
 the division with necessaries ; and the ovpayo;, whose business was to see that none 
 of the number were left behind. 
 
 Some of the larger divisions ; envraypa, consisting of two rdja?, or 256 men ; irepra. 
 Komapx'ia, two avvraYpara, or 512 men ; xiAtapx'a, two of the last, or 1024 men ; Mcpapxia, 
 or TeXoc, twice the preceding, or 2048 men ; <$a\ayyapxia, or "ZTparnyia sometimes, 
 
 twice the TcXoc, or 4C96 men ; the commander of the latter was called o-rparriyd^. 
 
 The term <&<.iXayJ signifies sometimes a body of twenty-eight soldiers ; some- 
 times a body of 4000, as just mentioned ; and sometimes any number of troops in 
 general. Yet it is said, that a full or complete Phalanx contained four times the num- 
 ber included in the <pa\ayyapxia, above named, i. e. 16,384 men. 
 
 § 142. While the term ^a'xayi is often used in a general sense for any num- 
 ber of soldiers, it is employed also to signify a peculiar order of arrangement 
 in a rectangular form, which gave the body strength to resist a great shock ; 
 the Macedonians were especially celebrated for using it to advantage.— The 
 supoxov was the same with the Roman cuneus, an arrangement in the form of a 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE PHALANX. HERALDS. CAMPS. 197 
 
 wedge, in order to force a way more easily and further into the midst ol -an 
 enemy. — Wheeling, turning, or facing, was called xucis ; to the right, Irft Sopv, 
 the spear being in the right hand ; to the left, S7t asrtiSa, the shield being 
 held in the left. Turning completely about was termed fiemufio'kri. — The Greeks 
 possessed great skill and readiness in manoeuvres, and had teachers of the art, 
 taxtixbi,, who instructed the youth in the practice. 
 
 1. Various forms were given to the <JuXayf, some of which were not rectangular ; as 
 the emicanTrtjs $aXay|, which presented the form of a half-moon, and was also called 
 tcvprri and Koi'Kri ; poppouifis ^a^ayf, which was in the figure of a diamond. In the pha- 
 lanx, t,uyoi signified the ranks, taken according to its length, ^ko; ; crrixoi (also \6x°') 
 the files taken according to its depth, /?u&>c. — Another order of array for battle was the 
 irAu>6to, brick, a rectangular presenting its length to the enemy. — The -nvpyos, tower, 
 was the same form, with its width or the end of the rectangle towards the enemy. — 
 The ixkaiaiov seems to have been an exact square or nearly so. — The KoiXipfiokov was a 
 figure like the letter V, with the open part toward the enemy. — The iXij was in the 
 form of an egg, according to which the Thessalians usually arranged their cavalry. — 
 Of the various terms applied to manoeuvring or evolutions we add only the following ; 
 sfeXiy/wc , a countermarch, by which every soldier, one marching after another, changed 
 the front for the rear, or one flank for another ; SnrXacnaapdg, an enlarging of the body, 
 either by adding men or by extending the same number over a great space. 
 
 2. The term i'X>7, sometimes applied as above mentioned, to designate a certain order of array, 
 was generally used to signify a body of cavalry j a troop sometimes consisting of 64 horsemen. 
 Two such troops constituted the emXapxia, containing 128 men ; eight of them formed the 
 'ucTcapxia-, containing 512 men ; four of the last named formed the TtXoc of the cavalry, including 
 2048 men ; and two rtXi7 made the 'E-rriraypa, comprising 4096 men. 
 
 3. It may be remarked that among the Lacedsmonians, the whole army was divided into n6pai 
 which contained originally only 400 men each, but afterwards a larger number, and variable. 
 Each p6pa consisted of four X6xoi. The jreirijKoo-rSj was one-half of the Xo%oy; and one-half 
 of the irevTrtKoiTTvi was termed iixanoria, including 25 men; the latter body is said by some to 
 have contained thirty-two or thirty-six men. 
 
 The earliest ancient works which treat expressly of Grecian tactics are those of Arrian and #Hian ; cf. F. V. § 250, § 253. 
 
 § 143. The declaration of war usually began with a demand made by the 
 injured or offended party through deputies for reparation or satisfaction. Un- 
 expected hostile invasion was viewed as unrighteous warfare; it was justified 
 only by great and wanton injuries. The most respectable men were selected 
 for the ambassadors and heralds, and their persons were regarded as sacred 
 and inviolable. 
 
 1 u. The heralds (KfipvKeg) carried a staff wound with two serpents (KvpiKsiov) , and 
 were usually charged only with messages of peace, while the ambassadors or deputies 
 (Trpi<rj3sis) were accustomed also to threaten and to announce war. The power of ambas- 
 sadors was limited in different degrees at different times (cf. § 102). The leagues or 
 
 agreements entered into were either (1) <mov&fi, a treaty of peace or mutual cessation 
 from injuries, called also avvdnxri, dpnvri ; (2) t-mpaxia, a treaty of mutual defence ; or 
 (3) o-vppax'ia, an alliance both defensive and offensive, in which the parties engaged to 
 aid each other, not only when attacked, but also when they themselves commenced 
 the war. Such treaties were confirmed by the most solemn oaths, written upon 
 tablets and placed in public view. Sometimes the parties exchanged certain tokens 
 or evidences (av/t/ioXa) of the compact. 
 
 2 b. Before actually declaring war, it was customary to consult an oracle. The war 
 was commenced with sacrifices and vows. Scrupulous attention was also paid by the 
 Greeks to omens and seasons. 
 
 3. An eclipse of the moon was a fatal sign ; the Athenians would not march before 
 the seventh day, ivrdg ipSoprt;, nor the Lacedaemonians until full moon. 
 
 § 144. In addition to what has already been said (§ 48) on the construction 
 of camps, it may be here remarked, that the form of them was often changed 
 according to circumstances. The Lacedaemonians, however, always adhered 
 to the circular form in their camps, as well as their cities. The bravest troops 
 were usually placed on the extremities or wings, and the weakest in the centre 
 or interior. A particular part of the camp was appropriated for the worship 
 of the gods, and for holding councils of war and military courts. The guards 
 were divided into the day-watches, qvXaxat, rj/A-sptvat, and the night-watches, 
 fyvhaxav vvxtepwat. The advanced posts, or outer guards, were called 
 rtpofyvKaxcu. The nightly round of visiting the watch was called l^ocWa, and 
 those who performed it, 7iepiiio-koi, and the guard-house, rffptrtoXstov. 
 
 § 145. Before a battle the soldiers were usually refreshed by eating and 
 drinking, immediately after which the commanders ordered them to action. — 
 
 r2 
 
198 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 When very near the point of engaging, the generals addressed the army in 
 animating speeches, which often produced great effects. Then followed the 
 sacrifice, the vow, and the war-song (rfouav E^a/r^pio;), a hymn to Mars. — 
 The signs used in the field were either or^iia, regular ensigns and standards, 
 or Gvfj.\jo%a, particular signals, commonly understood or specially agreed upon 
 for the occasion. 
 
 1 u. The special signals, <rop:0o\a, were either audible {fyoivixa), such as watchwords 
 (a-wOii/ia-a) ; or visible (oparti), such as nodding the head, waving the hand, shaking the 
 armor, and the like (TrapaawOopaTa). The c-nueTa or standards were of various kinds; 
 some being merely a red or purple coat upon the top of a spear ; others having an 
 image of a bird, animal, or other object. The raising of the standard was a signal to 
 commence battle, and the lowering of it to desist. Anciently the signal for battls 
 was given by lighted torches being hurled by the persons appointed (irvptyopot). Af- 
 terwards it was done by blasts of sound, for which shells (koxXoi) were first used, and 
 then brazen trumpets (cahriyycs) of several different kinds. 
 
 2 u. The Lacedaemonians usually advanced to action by the sound of the flute ; yet 
 we must not imagine, that the marching of the Greeks was as regular and as conform- 
 able to music, as the modern. Most of them were rather in the habit of rushing to 
 battle with impetuosity and clamor (aXaXaypdg , ami). 
 
 § 146. The art of besieging arose first in the later times of Greece, because 
 the cities were not previously fortified with walls. Nor were the later Greeks, 
 especially the Lacedaemonians, very much in the habit of laying regular 
 sieges. The two principal points of proceeding in the siege of a city, were 
 the construction of the entrenchment around it, and the gathering and use of 
 military engines about it. Connected with these were efforts to scale the walls 
 of the city by ladders (£jti,6a0pat, xXv/xaxii) and to undermine their founda- 
 tions. — An entrenchment around the city was called rtfptr'st^ttr^os, or artotfsi- 
 Zcc/A-os, and consisted usually of a double wall of stone or turf. In the space 
 between the walls were shelters for the garrison and the sentinels. Above the 
 walls were turrets or pinnacles (£rfoa|«s), and after every tenth pinnacle a 
 large tower was constructed, extending across from one wall to the other. The 
 parapet of the wall was termed £wpai or $updxtov. 
 
 § 147. Most of the military engines of the Greeks (/xdyava, iA.rizo.vcu) were 
 of a comparatively late invention, and seem to have been introduced first about 
 the time of the Peloponnesian war. One of the principal was the %t%uvri, the 
 testudo or tortoise; so called because the soldiers were covered by it as a tor- 
 toise by its shell. 
 
 1 u. The testudo was of several kinds. The \cS6vti oTpancdiw was formed by the 
 soldiers, pressed close together and holding their shields over their heads in such a 
 manner as to form a compact covering. It was also formed of boards, united and 
 covered with metals; this was either of a square form, as the xt\<Zvri x^^ph, which 
 served to protect the soldiers, while they were preparing the ground in order to bring 
 up their military engines, or of a triangular form, as the x^'^v opv\, for the protection 
 of such as were undermining the walls. — Another instrument for similar purposes was 
 called the yepfov, made of twigs of willow like the Roman vinece, and held by the sol- 
 diers over the head. 
 
 2 u. The xw/ia was a mound composed of various, materials and raised very high, 
 often above the besieged walls.— There were also moveable towers (iripyoi), made of 
 wood and usually placed upon the x^f- a 5 f hey were rolled on wheels and had often 
 several stories, containing soldiers and engines. — The battering-ram (>pid;) was a strong 
 beam with an iron head (ip/3o\>f) in front resembling that of a ram, which the soldiers 
 thrust against the enemy's walls; it was often hung by ropes to another beam, so that 
 it could be thrust with greater force, and sometimes was placed on wheels and covered 
 with a xeXcuvj/'. The Kararrch-ai were engines for hurling missiles, stones, and the like 
 upon the enemy ; those which discharged arrows, being termed d^vficXcT;, and those 
 which cast stones, Xi6o06\oi or lrerpoPiXot. 
 
 Dionysius Siculus (xx. 48, 86) speaks of the latter engines as sometimes capable of throwing 
 stones of one hundred weight (Xt0o/?<5Aos TaXavriaTos), and even of three hundred weight (?rsrpo- 
 66\os TniraXaVTiaXoi). 
 
 3. The 'EXctoXij was a machine, not unlike the battering-ram, but of greater size 
 and force, driven with ropes and wheels. This name (l\bro\tg, city-taker) was first ap- 
 plied by Demetrius Poliorcetes to a machine invented by him, in the form of a square 
 tower ; each side being ninety cubits high and forty-five wide ; resting on four wheels ; 
 divided info nine stories, which each contained engines for throwing spears, stones, 
 and various missiles ; manned by 200 soldiers. Cf. Diod. Sic. xx. 48. — The Tpwrava 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. PUNISHMENTS. 199 
 
 were long irons with sharp ends, and were the instruments chiefly used in earlier 
 periods for demolishing the walls of a city. 
 
 § 148. In the defence of a besieged city the following are the things most 
 worthy of remark. Soldiers, armed with various means of defending them- 
 selves and annoying the enemy, were stationed on the walls of the city. The 
 greater military engines were planted within the walls, and hurled arrows, 
 stones, and pieces of timber upon the besiegers. The mines of the besiegers 
 were opposed by counter-mines, and their entrenchments and mounds were 
 undermined. Their various engines were broken, set on fire, or embarrassed 
 in operation by different contrivances on the part of the besieged. 
 
 § 149. On the taking of a city, the captors did not always treat the citizens 
 and the property in the same way. Sometimes the buildings were demolished, 
 arid all the inhabitants put to death, or at least those in arms, while the rest 
 (at^cacotot, 6opDcawT'oi) were reduced to slavery. But sometimes favor was 
 shown, and nothing but the payment of a tribute exacted. Sometimes new 
 settlers were planted in the conquered city. Whenever the city was demo- 
 lished, it was customary to curse the spot on which it stood, and not even 
 cultivate the soil. 
 
 § 150. The booty or spoils on such a capture, or after a battle, consisted 
 partly in the military stores, and partly in other things, which were the pro- 
 perty of the conquered party. These, when taken from the slain, were termed 
 axv%a; if from the living, xa<j>upa. The whole (tVapa) was brought to the 
 commander-in-chief, who first took a large portion for himself, then assigned 
 rewards to such as had distinguished themselves in the action, and afterwards 
 distributed the remainder equally among the soldiers. First of all, however, 
 a portion was set apart for the service of the gods, which was called axpoOwm. 
 The armor of the conquered was also often dedicated to the gods, and hung up 
 in their temples; this was the case sometimes even with the weapons of the 
 victors, when they designed to terminate their military career. Thank-offer- 
 ings were also presented, and trophies (■tportaia) erected, which were likewise 
 dedicated to the gods; statues also and other monuments were raised to com- 
 memorate victories. 
 
 An inscription (twiypaniia) was often attached to the trophy, or offering presented to the god, 
 or other monument, containing the names of the conquerors and the conquered, an account of 
 the spoils, and sometimes of the occurrences of the war. The trunk of a tree, especially an 
 olive, was often used for the purpose of a trophy, the emblems of victory being hung upon it. — 
 Alexander the Great, abiding by a law of the Macedonians, never raised a trophy; yet he erected 
 other monuments of his successes; among them were altars to the gods, very broad and lofty. 
 A representation of the tropauvi is given in Plate XXII. fig. 4. 
 
 § 151. There was a careful regard to order and discipline in the Greek 
 armies, and various rewards and punishments were established. Among the 
 tevvards were promotion to higher rank, conferring of garlands or other distinc- 
 tions, and also the funeral honors and the encomiums, which were bestowed 
 on the brave warrior. At Athens public provision was made for the widows 
 and children of those slain in battle, and also for those who were injured by 
 wounds (ddwafot). The children of such as valiantly died were also honored 
 sometimes with the first seats (rfposSpt'cu) at the theatres. — The severest of the 
 punishments, death, was always inflicted on deserters, cWo^otot. Such as 
 refused to serve, aatpaTfevtoo, such as quitted their ranks, xsirfot'cbcT'cw, and such 
 as threw away their shields, fa^aaitifes, were subject to civil degradation. At 
 Athens they were not permitted to enter the temples or public assemblies, and 
 were also fined in the court Heliaea. In Sparta they were exposed to still 
 deeper disgrace, which extended even to their whole family; it was so great 
 that their mothers often stabbed them at their first meeting afterwards. 
 
 $ 152. The Greeks employed various means for conveying intelligence. They 
 had a class of messengers or ru?i?iers, called iiiicpotpdpoi, who carried news and official 
 commands; they went lightly armed. — A contrivance much celebrated was the La- 
 cedaemonian (TKtmWri. This was a roll of white parchment or leather (Seppa, ly&s), wrap- 
 ped round a black stick, about four cubits in length. The general always received a 
 stick of this sort, of the same size with another kept by the magistrates or govern 
 ment. When any command or intelligence was to be conveyed, a strip of parchment 
 was rolled on the staff, and on this was written what the person wished to communi 
 
200 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES 
 
 oate ; the strip was then sent to the general, who applied it to his own stick, and thus 
 could read what, otherwise, would be wholly unintelligible. 
 
 § 153. Before proceeding now to notice the naval affairs of the Greeks, we 
 may allude to their method of passing rivers with their armies. It was usually 
 by means of boats (tf^f&'ai) or small vessels joined together so as to form a sort 
 of bridge (y£<j>i>pa), like that which the Persians under the command of Xerxes 
 threw over the Hellespont. In order to hold these vessels fast, large baskets 
 or~boxes, filled with stone, were sunk in the stream, which thus answered the 
 purpose of anchors. Anchors were also sometimes used. It was only in the 
 greatest emergencies that they carried forward with them these boats, having 
 taken them in pieces. Sometimes such bridges were made by means of large 
 casks and leathern bottles. 
 
 Darius is said to have thrown a bridge across the Thracian Eosphorus (Herod, iv. 83, 85). That 
 of Xerxes over the Hellespont was built between Abydos on the one side and Sestos on the 
 other (Herod, vii. 36). 
 
 § 154. The use. of ships in the wars of the Greeks has been already mention- 
 ed (§ 47). Vessels of war (IrdxuTtoi, xoj7iyj^q) differed in their structure from 
 the other kinds, especially from ships of burden (oJwcaSss, ^optrjyoi) which were 
 of an oval form, with broader bottoms. They were usually such as had three 
 benches of rowers, called tpiripsif (triremes, cf. § 304), and hence this term is 
 often used to signify merely vessels of war. Before the vessel was launched, 
 it was purified and consecrated by the priests. Commonly, each vessel singly, 
 sometimes a whole fleet, was committed to the protection of a particular god. 
 The ensign or standard (rfapatf^ov), by which one ship ,as distinguished from 
 another, was placed in the forepart. Each vessel had its own name, which 
 was usually taken from its ensign or flag, and was also inscribed on the prow. 
 
 § 155. We will introduce here some of the names applied by the Greeks to the dif- 
 ferent parts of a ship and the tackling. The Arabic numerals attached to some of the 
 terms in the following description are intended to correspond to those in fig. A, of our 
 Plate XXIII., indicating the place of the parts named, according to HolwelVs plan of 
 a hexireme. 
 
 1. The principal parts of a ship were three, the prow ox front, rrpapa, ptromov; the 
 middle, or body, peaoicoiXo;, ydarpa ; and the stern, jrpfyu/a 7 , dupo. — The prow was more 
 or less adorned, not only by the figures and images placed on it, but by the colors 
 painted on it, from which were derived such epithets as piXroirap-qoi, KvavkpfioXoi, &c. The 
 sides of it were termed Ttrepa and trapciai. The otoXoj was a long plank at the head of 
 the prow, at the extremity of which some of the principal ornaments, &Kp6via, dicpoard- 
 Xta s , were fixed. The tttvx(s ]0 was a round piece of wood also attached to the prow, 
 on which the name of the ship was inscribed ;, it was sometimes called d$6a\pds. The 
 Xvvio-Ko; was the figure of a goose upon the prow ; near the water, according to the 
 opinion of some, but by others assigned to a higher part. The I'ju/JoW 13 was the lower 
 portion of the prow, which projected forward, and in war gallies was fitted to strike 
 into the ships of the enemy. Behind this, and just below the otoXo?, was the -napda-r}- 
 pnv or ensign, some image carved or painted. To the middle belonged the follow- 
 ing parts ; the rpmig^ or o-rsipri, keel at the bottom of the ship, narrow and sharp, to cut 
 the waves, with the jijsXtwfiara, wedges or bilgeways, attached to it, for guarding the 
 ship's bottom: ipahcis, limber, containing the bilgewater, conveyed out by the pump, 
 avrkia; the xoiXn, hold (called also kvto;, and ydarpa), surrounded by ribs or planks 
 rising from the keel, vop.eTs or cymnXia; the fawrrjpEj, or hco^ojiara, rafters, or ropes, on 
 the sides (n-Xsupai 3 ) of the ship from prow to stern ; the toTxoi and kficoXia* seats for the 
 rowers situated on the sides one above another ; the rpfipara or <S</>0aXpoi 5 openings 
 through which the oars were put out ; the aaKwpa, a skin or the like, which lined the 
 openings ; sometimes there was one continued opening for the oars, called rpdiprj^, a 
 
 term applied also to the bulwark or upper part of it. The stern had ornamental 
 
 images, called dicpovia., in common with those on the prow, but termed distinctively, 
 d^Xaoru 9 . To the stern was also attached the nrirpomV 1 , the tutela or safeguard of the 
 ship. Its bow was termed arurcitau, and the planks composing it, mpiroreia. The mid- 
 dle of the stern was named, dodvfoov. The decks, input, were covered parts at the 
 prow and stern ; the $vya were the rowers' seats in the middle and open parts. 
 
 2. Some of the principal instruments (<rmir;) in navigating vessels maybe mentioned 
 here ; they are included under two divisions, the wooden (axevri %v\iva) and the hanging 
 (oxrfij Kpepaord). The 7nj<5aXioi/ 12 , rudder, fixed not directly in the stern, but on the side of 
 the ship, and near the stern. In the iater periods, two rudders were used, one being 
 placed, it is supposed, near the prow (hence vrjss dpipi-npvpaioi) • sometimes there were 
 four, one on each side of prow and stern. The parts of the rudder were b\a%, <pdcip, 
 uTU>'<yiof, dvxfi", Kap.a.1. — The cwfi, ayKvpa, anchor; first a stone bored in the middle, or 
 
PLATE XXIII. 
 
202 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 a basket filled with stones ; afterwards made of iron with teeth, A&ovng, fastening it to 
 the earth; the largest of a ship's anchors was called Izpa, and hence (3d\\uv ayxvpav 
 hpav obtained its proverbial sense, to resort to the last refuge. The cables attached to 
 the anchors, were ■Ktio-p.ara, or KdjinXot ; ropes for towing were termed pvpara, oXko'i ; 
 those for binding a vessel to the shore, irpvjxvf]aia. — The xwai and 'zperpoi, oars, having a 
 broad part covered with metal (jrkarn), and hung upon pieces of wood called o-koXjio'i, by 
 leathern thongs, rpmoi. — The ioto; 16 , mast, fixed in a hole (pzo-dSpn), in the middle of the 
 ship; capable of being taken down and put in a case (JoroiWij) ; having several parts, 
 
 as irrspva, Tpaxn^ ?, Kapxflo-w, Srcopdictov, ucpiov, jjAararr;. The KzpaTai, or Kzpara is , were the 
 
 crosspieces or yards, fixed to the mast ; the dicpoKepcua were the extremities of the yards. 
 The lariaX 1 , sails (called also 6Q6vai, appzvd), including particular ones distinctively named, 
 as hri&pojio;, mizen-sail ; Akcltlov, main-sail (uKdnov also signifies a small vessel, like a pi- 
 rate's) ; Aprkjiov, top-sail ; SoXojv, sprit-sail. — The eppa, SzpzXio;, ballast. — The /?<Aic, the lead 
 for sounding. — The kovto'l, poles for pushing the vessels from rocks. — The d-rrofidBpa,, 
 bridges, or stairs, to pass from ship to shore, or from vessel to vessel (called also 
 tiriPadpai and dvafldSpai). — The term &rAa was applied to the rigging generally. — The 
 terms o-xotvia, k&\oi, and roirzia are commonly considered as synonymous, and as signi- 
 fying the cordage ; including hrirovot, irdSss^, -npo-Kokg, fizoovpiai, irporovot' 20 , made at first 
 of leathern thongs, afterwards of flax, hemp, and the like. But Bockh considers the 
 axotvia as designating the stronger and heavier ropes, to which the anchor was attached 
 and by which the ship was fastened to the land ; and the ro-sTa as designating the 
 lighter ropes, including KahSSta. or koXoj, Ipavrz;, nzpovx 01 , virzpai, the rope called aynoiva, 
 the xaA""5s, ekitovoi, &c. The term mo^iara has generally been interpreted as signi- 
 fying boards or planks covering the outside of a ship ; but it is shown by the inscrip- 
 tions found in the Piraeus and published by Bockh, that the viro^opara were ropes which 
 ran in a horizontal direction around the vessel from the stern to the prow, and were 
 intended to keep the fabric together ; and it would seem that such ropes were taken on 
 board when a vessel sailed, to be used if necessary ; the expression in Acts xxvii. 17, 
 vTToi,wvvvvr£s to irXoTov, probably refers to the act of putting these ropes about the vessel. 
 
 See T. D. JVochey, on Acts xxvii. 17, in the Bibl. Repos. Sec. Series, vol. viii. p. 405. 
 
 3 u. In vessels of war the front point, and sometimes the whole of the front part, 
 was covered with iron. In early times these points or beaks, I'ju/JoAa 13 , were long and 
 high ; afterwards they were made short and low, in order to pierce the vessels of the 
 enemy below the water. From each side of the front were planks or pieces of wood, 
 eirayriks, jutting out, to protect the ship from the beaks of the enemy. The war-ves- 
 sels usually had wooden decks or coverings (Karaippayfiara' 14 ) on which the soldiers 
 stood, and also coverings or guards of hides or the like, which were extended on both 
 sides (ttpi<j>payixara, napappvinara), to protect them from the waves and from the enemy's 
 missiles. The usual sign of a war- vessel was a helmet, sculptured at the top of the 
 mast. 
 
 4. The beaks are seen in Plate XXIII. fig. A, 13 ; and also in fig. b, which is a prow taken from 
 a bas-relief at Rome, and which shows the ensign behind them, and the acrostvlia above it. In 
 fig. a, from an ancient coin, we have another prow, which has a trophy erected upon it. In fig. c, 
 which is from the sculptures on the column of Antonine (cf. P. IV. # 188. 2), is a prow of another 
 form. In fig. 4, we see a merchant- vessel, managed by oars or sails; in fig. 5, a war-vessel with 
 oars alone, and in the early form of one bank only. 
 
 The names of the various parts of a ship may be found, wilh explanations nf every thing relating to this subject, in /. Sehcjfcr, 
 Diss, de Varietate navium, Upsal. 1654 ; contained also in T. Gronuvii Thesaurus, &c. vol. xi. as cired § 13. — See also, by the same, 
 Comment, de militia navali veterum. Ups. 1654. 4. — Lenoy, La marine des anciens Grecs, in the Mem. JLcad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. 
 [). 542. — Potter's Arch. Grace, bk. ii. ch. 14.— Robinson's bk. iv. ch. 14.— A. Jal, Archeologie Navale. Par. 1840.— Also Hohmll, 
 
 *nd Le Roy, as cited § 156. On the Attic navy especially, A. Bockh, Urkunden Uber das Seewesen des Attischeu Staates. Berl. 
 
 1 840. 
 
 § 156. Originally the employments of the rowers and the combatants were 
 not distinct, but the same persons performed the functions of both. In later 
 times there was a division into three classes ; (1) the rowers or oarsmen, ipttai, 
 xcarirpjxtai, who were also distinguished by specific names, according to the 
 rank of their bench, and their work and pay ; (2) the sailors, vavtat, who attend- 
 ed to all the other proper duties of the ship; (3) the marines, iTtij3d-tai, who 
 were armed like infantry, only their armor was more heavy and durable. 
 
 t<.owers in the upper tier of benches, or the portion of benches highest above the 
 water {dpdvo;) were called SpavTrai ; those in the middle, ?«yn-ai (from Juya) ; those in 
 the lower tier or portion, ^aXapiTat. The rowers were also distinguished, as those 
 
 near the prow, TrpoKwwot ; and those near the stern, ettiVcotoi. Of the sailors, some 
 
 (appsvio-rat) had the care of the sails ; others (oxotvofSdrai) went aloft on the ropes to look 
 out ; others {pzo-ovav-ai) were to supply the seamen with whatever was needed. 
 
 There have been various theories to explain the manner in which the hanks of rowers in the 
 ancient galleys were arranged, in the different classes of ships termed rpif/petg, Terp-'qpzis, TrevT/j- 
 pzts, &c. trireme, quadrireme, quinquireme, 8;c. — The most common idea formerly was, that the 
 6«rjciies were placed one above another. But there were galleys of seven, twelv.e, fifteen, and 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. NAVAL OFFICERS. 203 
 
 sixteen banks of oars; Ptolemy Philopater built one of forty banks. If the benches were placed 
 directly above each other, the oars in the upper benches must have been so long as to be wholly 
 useless.— Another solution is, that the banks were ranged in one continuous line along the side 
 of the galley; in a trireme, the first bank being in her bows, the second in her middle or waist, 
 the third in her stern. But such an arrangement would require a huge length in the vessel of 
 forty banks, or even twelve ; besides which, it is stated that the oars of a galley were not all of 
 the same length. — It has been proposed to solve the difficulty by the suggestion that the galley 
 received its denomination from the number of men pulling at the same oar : the trireme would 
 have three at one oar; the quinquireme, five, &c— Another suggestion is, that the banks rose 
 one over another to the number of five or seven, the rowers in the higher banks beins checkered 
 in quincunx with those in the lower; and that if a galley was saidto be of any greater number, 
 the rating was only by the number of men employed at an oar; e. g. in the galley of forty banks 
 there would be five tiers with twelve men at each oar of the highest bank, ten at the next, and 
 so on until the lowest, which would have four men, to make forty in all. The engravings of 
 fig. E, in our Plate XXIII. are two views, exhibiting such an arrangement; the upper one is a 
 front view, and the lower a sectional view. — Other schemes have been proposed which need not 
 be mentioned. The latest is that of Mr. Holwell, of Edinburgh, which is thought by many to have 
 set the matter at rest. He supposes a vessel in the original form having one bank of ten oars 
 arranged horizontally ; let these be divided into two banks of five oars each, and ranged ob- 
 liquely, and they will require but about half as much length; this construction, according to 
 his conjecture, is the birerne ; a trireme would have three of these oblique ascents or banks, each 
 bank having five oars; and thus a vessel might be built with any number of banks by only 
 increasing its length, while no oar would be raised higher above the water, necessarily, than in 
 a bireme. In Plate XXIII. fi? A, we have a view of a hexireme, or galley of six banks of oars, 
 on his scheme; the Arabic numbers, 21, 22, 23, designate the portion of the banks occupied 
 respectively by the three classes of rowers above mentioned. 
 
 See /. Holwell, Essay on the War Galleys of the Ancients. Lond. 1826. 8. — De Le Roy, sur lea navires employes par les anciens, 
 &c in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. 479 ; ii. 141, 153 Of Boyd's ed. of Potter, p. 526, as cited § 13. 
 
 § 157. Among- the principal instruments employed for naval battle were the 
 following; dopowu vavfia%a, very long spears ; Spsrtavov, a piece of iron formed 
 like a sickle and fixed to the top of a long pole in order to cut the sail-ropes of 
 the hostile ship ; #«p tft&^pa the grappling iron ; aprtaysy, large iron hooks at- 
 tached to the mast of a vessel in such a manner that being thrown into the ene- 
 my's ships they seized and raised them up into the air. An instrument, called 
 from its form the dolphin (foxdw), was often used ; it was made of iron or lead, 
 and hung to the mast or sail-yards, and was thrown with great violence into an 
 adverse ship, in order to pierce and sink it. — The means of defence against these 
 instruments was to guard the ship by a strong covering of hides. 
 
 § 158. Each fleet had officers of two sorts, such as had care of what pertained 
 to the ships alone, and such as had care of the marines and all that pertained 
 to warlike action. (1) The chief officer, or admiral, was called vavap%o;, 
 sometimes cwotap^oj, or ci'pai'^yos ; often there were several in equal com- 
 mand, often there was but a single one. The duration of his authority 
 was decided by the people, who abridged it or prolonged it at pleasure. 
 Next to him were the commanders of individual ships, t'p^pap^oe. ; the Lace- 
 demonians, however, had a sort of vice-admiral in their officer called irft- 
 stfofors. (2) Of those, whose authority was confined to the care of the 
 ships and the duties of the rowers or sailors, the principal were the follow- 
 ing; the apxixvpspvYi-tris, who had the care of the whole fleet; the xv^ipv^t^, 
 who had the care of a single ship, and who himself kept the helm; and the 
 ftpupsvs, or rfpupai'i??, the next in command, having the care of every thing be- 
 longing to the forepart of the ship. 
 
 There were also, in the second class, the following : rptripavXris, the musician, whose 
 notes cheered the rowers and regulated the strokes of their oars ; KcXevo-rhs, who gave 
 the word of command to them ; roixapxog, who governed the rowers on one side ; van- 
 (pvXaKss, employed in guarding the ship from rocks and other dangers ; rauias, who 
 superintended the food ; iaxapsv;, who attended to the fires ; \oyurr%, who kept the 
 ship's accounts. 
 
 § 159. In the beginning of a sea-fight they sought first to lighten the ship of 
 all superfluous and unnecessary burdens ; and to render sails, mast, and every 
 thing which was exposed to the violence of wind, as fast and safe as possible. 
 Then the most favorable position and order of battle was selected, according 
 to time, place, and circumstances. Sacrifices were next offered to the gods, and 
 the commanders passed round in light boats from ship to ship, to animate their 
 men. The signal for the onset was now given; usually done by hanging a 
 shield, or flag, from the mast of the vessel bearing the vdvapx°5 > while this sig- 
 nal was hanging, the battle went on. The mode of attack was similar to that 
 
204 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 of a siege ; the ships being drawn up in the form of a circie or semicircle ;r 
 letter V. 
 
 § 160. After a victory, they returned with the booty and captured vessels. 
 All the cities which were in alliance with the victorious party, honored the suc- 
 cessful general with crowns and garlands. With these it was also customary 
 to adorn his vessel. Sometimes the wrecks of the enemy's ships were used for 
 that purpose. These, as well as the better part of the spoils, were afterwards 
 consecrated to the gods; the rest being divided among the men engaged in the 
 battle. A monument was usually raised to the victors, and was sometimes 
 adorned with the wrecks, especially the ornamental parts (dxpdwa, dxpcoriypta), 
 of the captured ships. — The most common punishments in the naval service 
 were whipping with cords, and submersion, the offender being dragged in the 
 water by a rope even till drowned. Such as refused to serve at sea, ai>avfid%oi, 
 were, at Athens, punished with disgrace (d^ux) together with their posterity. 
 Deserters, tet7tovavtcu, were scourged, or had their hands cut off. 
 
 IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. 
 
 § 161. In glancing at the private life of the Greeks, we shall follow the same 
 order as in speaking of the earlier period (§ 51 — 60), and begin with the subject 
 of food. In later times, when riches more abounded, the food was less simple 
 than before; the Lacedaemonians maintained longest their strictness and fru- 
 gality, no professed cook being suffered among them. Among the other nations, 
 and especially the inhabitants of Sicily, the art of cooking was much more culti- 
 vated and practiced. The Athenians, however, lived to a great extent moderate- 
 ly, owing, perhaps, to the comparative unfruitfulness of the Attic territory. Wa- 
 ter was the common drink, with which they were accustomed to mingle wine. 
 The wine sometimes received an addition of myrrh (otvoj y.vpf)ivif7js,) or of barley 
 meal (otvoj a.Tttj%pvtaftEvof). 
 
 The term employed to designate a drinking cup, Kpwrijp, is commonly derived from 
 Kcpaaaadai, to mingle, indicating the prevalent custom of mixing water with wine. Pot- 
 ter states, that no certain proportion was observed in forming this mixture. A very 
 common division of wines was into the iro\v<p6poi or strong wines, bearing a large addi- 
 tion of water, and 6\iyo<j>6poi, weak wines. To drink unmixed wine, diepaforrtsTv, was 
 described as synonymous with 1vdurrim£Xv,to drink like a Scythian. — A common Ho- 
 meric epithet for wine, is aSoxp ; sometimes yepovcnog. (Cf. tlom. II. i. 462, iv. 259.) — ■ 
 The sweft, unfermented juice of the grape fjnustum) was termed yXsvuo;. That 
 which flowed from the clusters by merely their own pressure was called irpoxvpa. Un- 
 fermented wine, inspissated by boiling, bore the name of hprip-a. — There were various 
 sorts of wine, made from other substances besides the grape. Among the Greek 
 wines from the grape, the earliest of which we have any distinct account, is the Ma- 
 ronean, probably produced on the coast of Thrace, a black sweet wine {Horn. Od. ix. 
 249). The Pramnian was another of early celebrity, supposed by some to have its 
 name from a hill in the island of Icaria, where it was produced. In later times, the 
 Lesbian, Chian, and Thasian wines were considered to possess uncommon excellence. 
 The wines of Rhodes and Crete, Cnidus and Cyprus, were also much esteemed. The 
 Mendean wine, from Mende, is commended for a peculiar softness. The Greeks also 
 used wines imported from different places in Asia and Egypt ; an excellent kind was 
 brought from Bt/blos in Phoenicia; the Alexa7idrian, from the vicinity of Alexandria 
 in Egypt, was highly valued. 
 
 Compare § 331 b. — See Henderson's History of Ancient and Modern Wines. Loud. 1S24. 4. — This work is adorned with several 
 beautiful illustrations taken from antiques, and relating to the use of wine. 
 
 § 162. The Greeks had usually two meals a day, viz. : a breakfast, axpd-tidfia, 
 apiO'tov, the time of which was not fixed, and a main meal, Ssirtvov, which was 
 regularly towards evening. But they also partook of an evening meal, Ss&wbv 
 or £<5rt£p«r,ua, and an after-dish or supper, 5dprtoy. 
 
 Robinson remarks that most authors speak of but three meals a day, and do not 
 consider the Ssi\w6v as a separate meal from the 66pm>s ; while others think that the 
 Greeks bad but two meals a day, the apicrrov and Sopno;. It seems certain, that apurmv 
 was finally used to denote the dinner (that is, the meal taken not far from the middle 
 of the day), and SeTirvov the supper, the latter being the principal meal. 
 
 " There was little variety in the private life of the Athenians. All of them rose at 
 daybreak, and spent a short time in the exercise of devotion. Soon after six in the 
 
PLATE XXIV. 
 
206 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 morning, the judges (dicasts) took their seats on the tribunal, and those employed in 
 agriculture, manufactures, or. commerce, engaged in their different occupations. At 
 fnid-day, the more wealthy citizens, who by that time had commonly finished their 
 serious business, refreshed themselves with a short sleep, and afterwards spent a few 
 hours in hunting, or in the exercise of the palaestra, or in walking through the delight- 
 ful groves on the banks of the Ilyssus and Cephisus : or more frequently in discussing 
 with each other in the forum (agora) the interests of the state, the conduct of the 
 magistrates, and the news of the day. It was also during the afternoon, that the 
 Athenians sometimes played xvffcia and jrerrya; two games, the first of which resem- 
 bled hazard, and the other either backgammon or chess." — "During the day, the 
 Athenians either took no food or only a slight repast in private. At sun-set they sat 
 down to supper, and considering the business of the day as over, devoted the evening 
 to society and amusement, and often continued to a late hour in the night." 
 
 § 163. In early times, entertainments were given only in honor of the gods on 
 festival days ; afterwards they became very common. They were of two sorts : 
 the icho7ttv*], given by a single person, and the apavoj, provided at the expense 
 of the party present. Entertainments of the latter kind were generally the most 
 frugal, orderly, and conducive to friendly feeling; such as were invited free of 
 expense, as poets, singers, &c, were called aav^o^M ; the contribution of each 
 other guest was termed cv/j-^oXyj, xataj5o%r;. — The marriage feast, ya^oj, is some- 
 times considered as a third sort. — There were also public entertainments for a 
 whole city, tribe, or fraternity, called avasi-tia,, itav&cualtu,, Sst'rtw* dyjfiosta, $pa- 
 -tpwa, &c. furnished by contribution, by the liberality of rich persons, or by the 
 state. 
 
 § 164. Before partaking of an entertainment, the Greeks always washed and 
 anointed. The hands were also again washed (vi^aaOat,) between the successive 
 courses, and at the close of the feast (drfow^atjflai). In the early times the 
 guests sat at table (cf. § 52); in later times they reclined, but not always. The 
 couches, prepared for the purpose, were more or less splendid, according to each 
 one's taste and condition in life. Five usually, sometimes more, occupied a 
 single couch. The guests took their places according to their proper rank, 
 although often no exact order was observed. The Greeks attached a certain 
 idea of sanctity to the table and the rites of the table. 
 
 Three couches, kYimu, were usually placed round the table, Tpomd,a, one on each 
 side, leaving the fourth side open to the servants ; hence originated the word Tpix\i- 
 viov, triclinium ; they were covered with tapestry, arptipara, and had pillows, irpoaKc<bi.- 
 Xaia, for the guests; they were often very costly, being highly ornamented with ivory 
 and precious metals. Several persons usually reclining on the same couch, the first 
 lay on the uppermost part, with his legs extended behind the back of the second, 
 whose head was near the bosom of the first. See § 329. 2. — The tables were made 
 of wood, highly polished (|e<n->j, sv^oog) • in the later periods, exceedingly costly, 
 adorned with plates of silver and gold, and curiously carved images. 
 
 § 165. At a regular and principal meal (as the Sslrtvov), the first course, rfpo- 
 Hofia, SsLrtvov 7tpooL[uov, consisted generally of pungent herbs with olives, eggs, 
 oysters, a mixture of honey and wine (olvopeXi), and the like. Then came 
 the chief dish, more substantial and costly, xetyafcrj Selrtvov. Afterwards the 
 desert, Ssvtspa 'tpdrtc^a, consisting of various sweetmeats, furnished with great 
 splendor in times of luxury, and called ErtbSst7tva,(i£i!aS6prtta i &c. 
 
 1. The most common food among the Greeks is said to. have been the nQa, a kind 
 of soft cake prepared in various ways, of the flour of barley or wheat. Among the 
 vegetables that were eaten, were mallows (luxk&xsi), lettuce (Spi'<5a£), cabbages (pa<j>avoi), 
 beans (Kvapoi), and lentils (<paicai). The sausage (tyvanri) was a favorite article. Fish 
 (Sipov) also became a favorite dish. 
 
 2 u. In all entertainments it was customary first to offer some of the provisions to 
 the gods, especially to make an oblation from the liquor. 1 — On cheerful occasions, the 
 guests were clothed in white, and crowned with garlands. 
 
 3. At entertainments connected with the festivals of the gods, the garlands worn 
 were formed of the leaf or flower sacred to the particular god honored on the occa- 
 sion. At other entertainments they were composed of various sorts, according to the 
 season of the year, and the taste and circumstances of the parties. The rose, being 
 an emblem of silence, was often placed above the table, to signify that what wa3 
 there said or done should be kept private ; hence the phrase imS po&ov, sub rosa. 
 
 § 166. The officers and attendants at an entertainment were as follows: the 
 2fyiwto<fc'ap£o$, chief manager, who was either the maker of the feast (6 eettdtap)* 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. CONVIVIAL ENTERTAINMENTS. 207 
 
 or one appointed to that place, called also tfparts^orfoioj, apx^pCx%i.voi ; the Barjt- 
 Xsvj, whose business was to see that the laws and rules of such entertainments 
 were preserved, and who was sometimes the same as the first mentioned ; the 
 Acwtfpoj, who divided and distributed the food, of which the best and largest 
 portions were given to the most honored guest; and the 'Owoxooc, who dis- 
 tributed the drink, and were heralds (x<yjpvxs$), youths (scoipot) often of noble 
 birth, or servants (Sot&ot). 
 
 In the later ages, it became an object of luxury to have young and beautiful slaves, 
 to perform the last mentioned office ; for such ones extravagant prices were paid ; and 
 a distinction was made between the vSpo<[>6poi, who served the water, and the 6lvox6ol, 
 who poured the wine, and were younger. When waiting at table, they were richly 
 adorned in person and dress. 
 
 § 167. The drinking vessels were generally large, often very rich and costly; 
 they were frequently crowned with garlands. 
 
 1. The /cparfip was the vessel in which the wine was mixed with the water and from 
 which the cups were filled. Among the various cups used were the kvXlI or Kv\io-Kn, 
 the (j>ia\ri, the pvr6v, the Kapxwiov, the Ka.v8a.poc, the Saras, &c. The xvadoi are described 
 as a sort of ladles used for conveying the wine from the crater to the cup. 
 
 2. It was customary for the master of the feast to drink to his guests, in the order 
 of their rank, drinking himself a part of the cup and sending the remainder to the person 
 named, which was termed irpcmtvuv ; while the act of the person, who received the cup 
 and drank the rest of its contents, was termed dvTmpmivcw. It was also customary to 
 drink to the honor of the gods, and to the memory of absent friends, calling them by 
 name. Three craters were usually drank to the gods, eai;h one to a particular god ; 
 as Kparhp 'Eppov ; Kparfip Aid; Zcu-rijpoj. — Sometimes the guests contended who should 
 drink the most ; and prizes were awarded to the conquerors. Some melancholy ex- ' 
 cesses are recorded ; as, for instance, the case of Alexander, who in this way lost his 
 
 life. Singing (po\mf), instrumental music, and dancing (dpxvo-rvc), were accompani 
 
 ments of almost every feast. The songs were in early times chiefly hymns to gods or 
 heroes ; subsequently songs and dances of a wanton character were introduced. The 
 most remarkable of the various songs used were those termed rndXia. 
 
 Athenieus, L. x c. 9, 10. Cf. JEUari, Var. Hist. L. ii. c. 41. — Respecting the cteoXia, see P. V. § 27. 
 
 3. After the music and dancing, the guests often were invited to participate in various 
 sports. In earlier times, the athletic games were practiced ; but in the later ages, less 
 violent exercises were more frequently chosen, among which playing at the K<5rra/?o; 
 seems to have been a favorite amusement. There were various forms of this game, in 
 all of which the chief object was to throw wine from a goblet into another vessel in the 
 most skillful manner. 
 
 See Gedoyn, Plaisirs de la table chez les Grecs; in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 54. — Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. xxiv. p. 421. 
 
 For details respecting the cottabus in particular, Robinson, Arch. Grac. bk. v. ch. 21. p. 524.— Groddeck, tlber den kottabos 
 
 der Griechen, in his Antiquarische Versuche, Lpz. 1800. — F. Jacobs, uber den kottabos, in WielancVs Attisches Museum. 
 
 On the whole subject of Grecian meals and entertainments, see Robinson, Arch. Graec. bk. v. ch. 17-21. — /. Cornarius, De Con- 
 viviis Graecorum, in Gronovius, vol. ix. — Atkengsus, Deipnosophists (cf. P. V. § 123). 
 
 On the aifairs of private life generally, W. Becker, Charicles; cf. § 13. 
 
 4. Frequently there were entertainments called o-vpir6o-ia (drinking-parties), at which 
 conversation and discourses were expected to form the principal amusement ; although 
 the various games common at other entertainments were not excluded. The propound- 
 ing of riddles {aiviypara or ypltyoi) was much practiced. 
 
 See P. IV. § 60. — Eschmbach, as there cited.— Becker's Charicles. 
 
 § 168. The hospitality practiced by the early Greeks (cf. § 57) remained 
 customary also in later times. The Cretans especially had the reputation of 
 being hospitable ; the Athenians were termed rpooisvot. ; but the Spartans were 
 less courteous to strangers. Hospitality was viewed as a religious duty, and 
 several gods were supposed to take strangers under special protection, and to 
 avenge all injuries done to them. 
 
 1 u. It was customary, at the hospitable meal, first to present salt (Sa-* !iXc) before 
 the stranger, as a token perhaps of permanent friendship. The alliance contracted by 
 mutual hospitality (wpo^cvia, to bporpanc^ov) was as sacred as that of consanguinity. The 
 parties often exchanged tokens of it (ovp(3o\a) in friendly gifts {\hia, &opa, ItuiKa), which 
 Were carefully preserved and handed down to posterity. Officers were publicly ap- 
 pointed, called Trp6%evm, whose duty it was to receive all foreigners, coming on any public 
 errand, to provide entertainment and lodging for them, and conduct them to the public 
 spectacles and festivals. 
 
208 GRECIAN iXTIQTJITIES. 
 
 2. Inns, however, appear to have existed in Greece in the later ages. Cf. Cic. De 
 Divin. ii. 68. — The term -Kav&oxuov (caupona) designated an inn. 
 
 Simon, on the hospitality of the ancients, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. to'i. iii. p. 41. — F. W. Ullrich, De Proxenia. Berl. 
 1S22. — Zell, Die Wirthsh&user d. Allen. — Stctkmann, De Popinis. 
 
 § 169. The dress of the Greeks did not undergo any very important changes ; 
 at least the names used in the first period were still applied to the principal gar- 
 ments in later times. Their clothing was more commonly made of uncolored 
 white wool, sometimes of linen and cotton. Of the colors, which were given to 
 dress, purple was the most esteemed. 
 
 1 u. Coverings for the feet {i-oifipara, ™5iXa) were used very early, but not universally : 
 they were of various forms. Hats (irX\oi, TnXia, TriXifoa) were first introduced at a later 
 period, designed chiefly as a protection against the weather. 
 
 2. The shoes were tied under the soles of the feet b'y thongs, Ijulvtes ; hence the terms 
 vKokXv and viroKvtiv, for putting on and taking off the shoes. The following were some 
 of the varieties ; dp/JiXai, large and easy shoes, which came up to the ankle ; (the term 
 dp,3i\r] is also applied to an appendage of the Greek chariot, a sort of shoe into which 
 the driver thrust his foot to assist him in driving) ; (SXavrai, shoes worn chiefly in the 
 house ; hajiaBpa, shoes common to men and women ; tp.p6.Tai, shoes used by comedians ; 
 KoQopvoi, shoes used by tragedians, buskins; Kapfiarivai, coarse shoes worn by peasants; 
 KprprTfos, a kind of slipper ; supposed by some to be used by soldiers particularly ; Xanu- 
 vlkoI, ap.vK\aifcs, Spartan shoes of a red color; T^po-irai, shoes of a white color, generally 
 worn by courtezans ; -tpifiapihg, shoes worn by women of rank ; o-dvcaXa, shoes anciently 
 peculiar to heroines, consisting originally of a piece of wood bound to the sole of the foot. 
 
 In our Plate XXIV. are illustrations of various forms of ancient coverings for the feet and 
 legs. Several, marked by the letter o, are from Mexican monuments ; those marked b and c, are 
 said to be Phrygian ; d, s, and t, are from Egyptian remains ; e, g, i, k, I, m, p, and q, are Greek 
 and Roman sandals ; k and i having very rich ornaments for the instep attached to them ; q having 
 sharp iron nails underneath (used by warriors, it is supposed, so that an army marching with 
 them must make a confused noise; cf. Rosenmuller, Schol. in Vet. Test. Isai. ii. 5); /, n, o, are 
 Daiian,} h,j, v, are Persian; r is the Turkish slipper made of morocco. 
 
 3. The military covering for the head was the helmet (cf. § 44). The wt\og seems to 
 have been a sort of skull-cap of felt, being of a conical form ; varying, however, in 
 elevation ; but always without a brim. A broad-brimmed hat, termed -iracog, was 
 used by young men : it is seen in Plate XXIV. fig. 3. " Travellers among the Greeks 
 wore the chlamys, sword, and petasus or flat hat ; this hat is sometimes thrown back 
 on the shoulders and retained by thongs fastened under the chin ; travellers carried their 
 money in their girdles." The Kamia was similar to the -nkraaog, with a brim turned 
 upwards. Women always wore upon their heads coverings or ornaments ; some of 
 them were the following; apm^, a fillet, with which the hair was tied, forming on the 
 forehead a frontal, which was often made of gold, and ornamented sometimes with 
 precious stones ; KaXmrpa, a veil; Kpfifcpvov, a covering which came down from the head 
 to the shoulders ; KCKpitpoiog, a net inclosing the hair ; pirpa, a sort of cap or turban. The 
 term pirpa is also applied to a kind of girdle worn by military men under the Scopaf. A 
 form of the fillet used by women given to luxury was termed o-re<pavn bipriKn. The Sppog 
 was a sort of necklace, an ornament much worn, and often very costly (cf. § 338). The 
 women frequently had also ear-rings, Ippara, 'eXiKtg, evuna, eXX6j3ia. — Among the Athe- 
 nians, some of the men wore in their hair golden ornaments called rernysy. 
 
 The term Koprj designated the hair of the head generally ; the word 3-ptf, the general term for 
 hair, is used in the same sense ; but there were distinctive terms designating peculiar properties 
 of the hair, or peculiar modes of arranging it : as e6eipa, a head of hair carefully dressed ; xan-ij, 
 long flowing hair, like the mane of a horse ; ironag, the hair when combed ?.nd dressed ; <f>6(iri, 
 the hair in disorder, as when a person is in fear; Kopori, the hair on the top of the head; xopvp 
 0og, the hair of women when drawn up all round the head and fastened in a bow on the top; 
 KpojffvXog, the hair of men in the same fashion ; the Athenians used the rim\ in fastening the 
 bow ; paXhog, curly hair like wool ; Ktpag, hair combed up from the temples so as to appear like 
 horns ; kikivvos, hair in ringlets, called also xhoKapog. 
 
 4 u. Next to the body, both men and women wore a tunic, an under-garment of wool, 
 Xitwv, which extended to the knee, and when worn alone, was trussed up by a rich 
 girdle (J&noj) ; in some cases it was fastened from the shoulders by costly buckles or 
 clasps (-cpovai, TzSpirai). Over this garment the men wore a mantle or robe, which was 
 long (<papog, Iparion) as worn by the more respectable ; while the lower classes used a 
 shorter kind {xhaTva). There was also another sort of short mantle, %\ap.vg, worn chiefly 
 by soldiers. The women generally wore over the tunic a robe ilpanov), rather short, 
 and over this a broad veil or outer robe, irbcXog, with which they could cover also the head. 
 
 5. The xit&v is represented as being of two kinds, the Doric and the Ionic. The Doric cor- 
 responded to the description above given, being of woolen stuff, short, and without sleeves. The 
 Ionic is described as long, sometimes reaching the feet (noSfipvg), made of linen, with wide 
 sleeves (ropuO- — The Ipartov or Qapog was always a rectangular piece of cloth, exactly or nearly 
 square ; made of wool most commonly, but also of cotton, and of flax ; usually all of one solor 
 (iStfxpav), sometimes variegated (-ooaAov) and embroidered; sometimes ornamented with a 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. COSTUME. BATHING. 209 
 
 fringe. It was often used to spread over beds and couches ; to cover the body in sleep; to form 
 a sort of carpet ; to serve for an awning or curtain. 
 
 Of coverings for the body, called in general iadr/;, eadnua, and eifta, there were many varieties 
 and forms, besides those named above; as, /3airn, SupOepa, a shepherd's garment, of skins; 
 tyi(6u0ona, a cloak used by shepherds and servants; i-rrajpis, a short garment for females, which 
 was thrown over the shoulders ; £jco//ic, a slave's garment, having only one sleeve (cf. $ 99) ; 
 itbsarpXc, a kind of great coat, made of skins of goats ; ^darpov, a girdle appropriate for women ; 
 Sepiarptov, a thin garment for summer ; KaroivaKn, a slave's robe, bordered at the bottom with 
 sheepskin ; AijrJoj, a garment common to both sexes, suitable for warm weather ; o-roAf), a long 
 robe reaching to the heels ; arp6(piov, a kind of kerchief worn by women over the bosom (orndo- 
 Sea/ios); rpifiav, rptffcoviov, a cloak of coarse stuff, worn by philosophers and poor persons; 
 ratvia, a sort of band used by females and passing over the breast ; used also to signify an orna- 
 ment for the head ; <baiv6\ris, a cloak without sleeves for cold or rainy weather; x^a" 1 ?, a fine 
 thin robe. The \pt\Atov was an ornament worn, by women chiefly, upon the arms and hands; 
 a bracelet or armlet (%Xi<Joji>, dn^tSea). The ntpitjKe\is was probably an anklet, an ornamental 
 ring worn to decorate the leg ; frequently represented in the paintings of Greek figures found at 
 Pompeii ; yet the word is sometimes translated drawers, feminalia. The dva^vpiSes were a sort 
 of pantaloons (braccte) worn by the Gauls, Sarmatians, and others, both in Europe and in Asia, 
 but not by the Greeks. Robinson's Arch. Gr. p. 541-546. 
 
 Our Plate XXV. contains several engravings illustrating ancient arid Oriental female costume. 
 In fig. a, which is Egyptian, we see a form of the vail; similar to it is the vail in fig. g, which is 
 taken from the French work L'Egypte, &c, and represents an Egyptian spinning; another form 
 appears in fig. d, an Arabian hood ; in y, which is Syrian, is another kind, a sort of muffler ; in 
 w, which is Egyptian, is one which floats in the wind like a modern vail, but was attached to a 
 ribin or chain passing round the forehead and joined by a clasp above the eyes. In fig. m, is a 
 Grecian lady with a peculiar head-dress, somewhat resembling the spiral curl of the murex shell 
 from which the Tyrian purple was said to be obtained. Other head-ornaments appear in fig. h, a 
 Grecian female, with the double flute, dressed for a festal occasion, and in fig. i, another Grecian 
 in a funeral dress. The net above mentioned is seen in fig. 4, of Plate XXIV; in fig. 7, of the 
 same Plate is a form of the turban, like the crescent-shaped tiara or diadem sometimes seen on. 
 representations of Juno. In these figures we also see the* tunic fastened to the shoulders by 
 clasps ; in fig. 4, it is without sleeves, as in fig. h, Plate XXV. This figure, ft, shows also the robe 
 called peplos, which is seen also in fig. k, said to represent a Grecian lady in full costume of the 
 olden style ; an outer garment like the peplos of the Greeks is seen likewise in fig. 6, which 
 represents a Cairo dancer, and in fig. c, which shows an oriental silk robe thrown over the head 
 and arms. In fig. e and/, we have two female Bacchantes; their costume, like that of the musi- 
 cian, fig. ft, appears to be highly ornamented; one holds the thyrsus and a wine cup, probably 
 the culix (cf. J 167. 1); the other appears to be playing with a sort of castanets. In fig. n, is a 
 representation of an Egyptian princess from the palace at Karnac; it exhibits a slight under dress 
 and a close robe in slanting folds open in front, the whole scarcely concealing the form ; it may 
 illustrate the Coan vestments, or woven wind, of the ancients. A nearly transparent robe is also 
 seen in fig. o, which is an Egyptian priestess holding in her right hand a sistrum, and in her left 
 some mythological image probably pertaining to the worship of Isis. 
 
 The following is an incidental remark of Chateaubriand respecting the materials of ancient clothing. " My host laughed at the 
 faces that I made at (he wine and honey of Attica ; but, as some compensation for the disappointment, he desired me to take notice 
 of the dress of the female who waited on us. It was the very drapery of the ancient Greeks, especially in the horizontal and undu- 
 lating folds that were formed below the bosom, and joined the perpendicular folds which marked the skirt of the tunic. The coarse 
 stuff of which this woman's dress was composed, heightened the resemblance ; for, to judge from sculpture, the stuffs of the ancients 
 were much thicker than ours. It would be impossible to form the large sweeps observable in antique draperies with the muslins 
 and silks of modern female attire ; the gauze of Cos, and the other stuffs which the satirists denominated woven wind, were never 
 imitated by the chisel." Travels in Greece, &c. p. 137, (N. Y. ed. 1814). 
 
 Respecting the material of the vestments of Cos, see § 335. On the question concerning the use of silk among the Greeks, cf. 
 
 Anthem's Lempriere, under the word Seres. On the use of cotton, E. Baines, History of Cotton Manufacture. Lond. 1836. 8, 
 
 (chap, ii.) 
 
 Respecting the costume generally, see a brief account in North Amer. Rev. for July, 1838. p. 148. — Mongez, Suf habillemens des 
 anciens, (Gr. and Rom.) in the Mem. de VInstititt, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. iv. p. 222.— Fosbrohe's Encyclop. p. 610, 919, 
 giving some illustrations drawn from the Hamilton vases. — A. Rubeneus, De Re Vestiaria Veterum. Ant. 1665. 4 ; also in Grsevius, 
 vol. vi.— G. Ferrario, Del Costume Antico e Moderno di tutti i Fopoli. Milan, 1829. 18 vols. fol. exhibiting in vols. v. and vi. the 
 costume of the Greeks — Bardon, Hope, &c. cited § 197. 3. 
 
 6. The Athenian women seem to have paid much attention to the adorning of their 
 persons, " They painted their eye-brows black, and applied to their faces a layer of 
 ceruse or white lead, with deep tints of rouge. They sprinkled over their hair, which 
 was crowned with flowers, a yellow-colored powder." At the toilet they used mirrors 
 (Kartwrrpa), commonly made of polished metals; sometimes of the length of a person's 
 body. 
 
 The Bride, in Plate XXIV. fig. 4, holds a mirror in her right hand. — See Menard, Sur les miroirs des anciens, in the Mem. de 
 PAcad. des Inscr. xxiii. 140.— Cf. Class. Journ. xvi. 152.— Caylus, Recueil d'Antiquites, vol. iii. p. 331; vol, v. p. 173.— BBttiger, 
 ^ssengemalden, iii. 46. 
 
 § 170. The custom of frequent bathing and anointing continued to the latest 
 period, and both were practiced for pleasure as well as for cleanliness and vigor 
 of body. Public baths became at length very common, even in the cities 
 which had not previously admitted them. They were furnished with several 
 distinct rooms for undressing, for bathing, for anointing, &c, which were 
 named from their appropriate uses. 
 
 1. The public baths were furnished with various accomodations for convenience and 
 pleasure. Among the separate rooms were the following : the aWurrjptoe , in which 
 27 s2 
 
210 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 those who bathed put off their clothes ; the vizoKavawv, the " sweating room," or room 
 for taking vapor baths ; the Paimo-Tfipiov, for the hot bath ; the Xovrpdv, for the cold bath ; 
 the dXsnrrfjpiov, the anointing room. 
 
 This account of the rooms is according to Robinson, Arch. Greec. p. 506. — For a more full 
 account of ancient baths, see P. IV. $ 241 b. 
 
 2 m. The various ointments used had different names according to the modes and 
 materials of their preparation. To such an extent did extravagance go in this respect, 
 that it was sometimes necessary to check it by laws. At Sparta the selling of perfumed 
 ointments was wholly prohibited, and in Athens men were not allowed to engage in it. 
 
 3. "Every part of the body had its appropriate unguent. To the feet and legs the Greeks 
 applied ^Egyptian ointment ; the oil extracted from the palm was thought best adapted to the 
 cheeks and breasts ; the arms were refreshed with balsam-mint ; sweet marjoram had the honor 
 of supplying an oil for the eyebrows and hair, as wild thyme had for the knee and neck. — A nice 
 distinction divided perfumes into two kinds: the first were a thicker sort, and applied more as 
 salves or wax (xpipara); the others were liquid, and poured over the limbs (.dXelopara). To 
 indulge in the liquid ointment was thought to evince a feminine and voluptuous disposition ; but 
 the sober and virtuous, it was allowed, might use the thicker sort without any impeachment of 
 their good qualities." Lond. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 263. — Persons called dXti-rrTai were employed to 
 anoint the body after the washing and the rubbing or scraping with the instrument termed 
 <rr\eyyis or ^varpa. 
 
 4u. Some of the services connected with washing and anointing were performed by women; 
 in particular they washed and anointed the feet. It was the custom to kiss the feet of such as 
 were highly esteemed. 
 
 In illustration of this custom of kissing the feet, cf. Aristophanes, E$i)K£S, (p. 460. ed. Lug. Bat. 1624), and in New Test. Luke 
 vi). 38; Johnx\.2. 
 
 § 171. The general construction of Greek houses has already been stated 
 (§ 56). Perfect as was the art of architecture, particularly at Athens, it was 
 applied to public buildings rather than private dwellings, which were mostly 
 of an ordinary character. This was true also at Thebes, otherwise greatly 
 celebrated for her superb architecture. Much more care was bestowed in orna- 
 menting the interior apartments, especially the hall for eating, with rich furni- 
 ture and utensils, and with elegant works of art (cf. P. IV. § 178). Besides, 
 the custom of encompassing and bordering most of the public places or openings 
 with colonnades, hindered a free view of the private houses, and rendered their 
 beauty or splendor superfluous. The artists also found it to their honor and 
 profit to construct the public edifices in a style of superior magnificence. 
 
 I. The common term for the whole house was o7«o? ; the eating hall was called 
 rpmXiviov and lanaropiov ; the sleeping room, KoiTa>v.~Potler gives the following account 
 of Grecian houses. "The men and women had distinct apartments. The part in 
 which the men lodged was towards the gate, and called dvdpiiv or dvApcoviric. ; that assigned 
 to the women, was termed yvmuaov, yvvaiKavins, and was the most remote part of the 
 house, and behind the av\ti, before which were other apartments denominated rrpdiopo; 
 and irpoavKiov. The women's chambers were called rkytoi $a\anoi, as being placed at the 
 top of the house (cf. § 56), for the lodgings of the women were usually in the highest 
 rooms (««*, vn-epcoa). Penelope lodged in such a place, to which she ascended by a 
 K\ipa^(Odyss. i. 330)."— The terms avdfiad^dc, dva(iaQp.is, dvuffadpa, and dva/3aQpov, are all 
 used to designate a. staircase, a flight of steps, or stairs- — Portions of the upper story 
 sometimes projected beyond the walls of the lower part, forming balconies or verandahs 
 (irpoPoXai, yuamoiiafiara). The roofs were usually flat ; sometimes pointed, with a ridge 
 and gable. The windows or openings for light and air (SvpiSes) were commonly in the 
 roofs of the peristyles. The chimney (Ka-rrvocoKn) is supposed to have been merely an 
 
 opening in the roof. Although in general the private dwellings were of an ordinary 
 
 character, yet in the time of Demosthenes there were some, which were very costly 
 and splendid. The houses of Sparta are said to have been more lofty and built with 
 greater solidity than those at Athens. 
 
 In our Plate XXIV. fig. 1, is a plan of a Grecian house as given by Stuart (Dictionary of Archi- 
 tecture). His account is as follows: "The Greek house had no atrium, but instead of it the 
 ■peristyle was approached by a passage called thyrorenm. On the side of the peristyle opposite 
 the entrance was a kind of vestibule called pastas ; the apartments on the right and left of which 
 were termed severally thalamos and amphi-thalamos, and beyond them were the wci or halls. In 
 the first peristyle were the triclinia in daily use, and the apartments of the domestics ; this divi- 
 sion of the house was cailed gynaconitis. In the south portico of the greater peristyle, which was 
 styled andronitis, were the pinacotheca and Cyzicene uzcus ; in the eastern, the bibliotheca ; in the 
 western, the exedra ; and in the northern, the great azcus, or banqueting-room. The hospitalia 
 consisted of triclinia and sleeping-rooms for strangers, and were on the right and left of the great 
 cecus. There were courts or passages to these apartments called mesaulm. In the plan [given in 
 Plate XXIV.] a is the thyroreum ; b, peristyle of the gynaconitis ; c, the pastas ; d, the great axus ; 
 e, stables ; /, /, courts ; g, g, g, porter's cells ; h, h, common triclinia ; i, the thalamos ; j, the 
 a.mphi-thilamos ; k, k, ozci or halls ; I, I, the mesanla ; m, m, the hospitalia ; n, the vestibule ; o, 
 the great peristyle ; p, the bibliotheca ; q, q, the pinacothecm ; r, the Cyzicene wcus ; s, the exedra." 
 
 2 A door (Zvpa, irv\ri) was fastened by means of lock and key (/cAeic) ; the key de- 
 
PLATE XXV. 
 
212 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 scribed by Homer seems to have been merely a bolt which was moved by a thong 
 (Ipa;) attached to it (Od. i. 442). In later times keys similar to the modern were in use. 
 — Various articles of furniture are named. Although the house usually had a fixed fire- 
 place {strria), portable stoves (ioxapou) or chafing-dishes {dvdpaiaa) were frequently used. 
 In the sleeping room was the bed, Koirn or Xe^oj ; this was often in the form of the sofa, 
 about six feet long and three broad ; called also xXivfi. The chair iSpovo;), ewer (n-poxoos) 
 and basin for washing (Kovrfipwv), mirror (kixtotttpov) and its case or stand (Atx/iaoi/), clothes- 
 chest (kIctyi), &c. are mentioned. 
 
 In Plate XXXII. fig. 6, is a sort of key formed by a bolt and string; it was found at Pompeii; 
 in Plate XXIV. fig. 2, we have a Grecian metallic key, selected from a number given in Mont- 
 faucon. — Fig. 5, of this Plate, shows a Grecian sofa-bed, with a man in one corner and his wife 
 reclining behind him. Fig. 10, of the same Plate, is another form of the Greek sofa; it is covered 
 with a cushion, from which an ornamental appendage hangs over one end of the frame. Fig. d, 
 of Plate XXXII. is a curious form, taken from an Egyptian monument. — Chairs (Egyptian) are 
 seen in fig. 8, and fig. 9, of Plate XXIV. ; others (Grecian) in fig. 7, and fig. 4. — The latter, fig. 4, 
 shows also a mirror, held by the female before her face. 
 
 Respecting the Greek house, &c. see Becker's Cbaricles. — Hirt's Geschichte der Baukunst, cited P. IV. § 243. 4. 
 
 § 172. The arts of industry, especially navigation and commerce, were 
 highly prosperous in the flourishing period of Grecian history. 
 
 1 u. The business of navigation was originally in the hands of the Phoenicians 
 solely; but afterwards was shared by the occupants of Asia Minor and several of the 
 Greek islands. The lucrative commerce of Egypt was then chiefly monopolized by 
 the Greeks. Athens was forced to engage in this pursuit by the unproductiveness of 
 her soil ; and although Lycurgus prohibited commerce at Sparta, yet afterwards even 
 there it gradually and constantly increased. By the union with Egypt at a later pe- 
 riod, Grecian commerce rose to still higher success. Besides the states just named, 
 Corinth and the islands iEgina and Rhodes were the principal places of commerce ; 
 and their industry and enterprise contributed very much to the wealth arid power of 
 the Grecian states. 
 
 2. Attica was favorably situated for commerce, being washed on three sides by the 
 sea. Her merchants are said, besides receiving the corn, wines, and metals, which 
 came from various places in the Mediterranean, to have imported also timber, salted 
 fish, and slaves from Thrace and Macedonia ; woolen and other stuffs from Asia Mi- 
 nor and Syria ; and honey, wax, tar, and hides from the cities on the Black sea. 
 They likewise exported, not only different commodities brought from foreign coun- 
 tries for the purpose, but the products of Attica, which were chiefly olives and oil, 
 and various articles of manufacture, particularly arms and domestic utensils. 
 
 Barthelemy's Anacharsis, ch. Ivi. — D. H. Hegewisch's geograph. und histor. Nachrichten die Colonien der Griecbeo betrefTend. 
 Altona, 1808. 8, — Railings History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients. — Benedict, Geschichte der Schifffahrt und des Handels 
 
 der Atten. For an account of the routes by which the productions of the east were conveyed through Babylon to the countries of 
 
 the Mediterranean, see Heeren on the Commerce of Ancient Babylon, as translated by F. M. Hubbard, in the Bibl. Repos. vol. vii. 
 D. 364 ss. 
 
 3. It is evident from the poems of Hesiod (cf. P. V. § 51), that agriculture was at 
 an early period a subject of practical interest among the Greeks. Yet the art does 
 not appear to have been carried to very great perfection in any of the states. (Cf. § 58.) 
 
 •The plow (dporpov) of the Greeks is said to have been of two kinds (<5w> uin) ; the 
 one kind, composite (.irrjKTdv) ; the other, simple (dvroyvov). (Cf. Hes. Works and 
 Days, v. 432, 436.) The principal parts of the composite were the following ; the 
 (o-ro/SodJe or pv/io;, beam; the former term is also put for the yoke, or the string or thong 
 connecting the yoke with the beam ; the vwis or ivyn, plowshare, whose extreme 
 point was called vv^n ; it was attached to a piece of wood called IXv/ax, and connected 
 with a piece termed yvii > the i-x^n, handle. 
 
 A specimen of the simple may be seen in our Plate XXXII. fig. 6, which represents a Syrian 
 plow, with a small metallic blade or share, furnishing an illustration of the metaphor of the pro- 
 phet (Micak iv. 3) : other forms are seen in fig. iii. ; one of the engravings shows a single bullock 
 drawing the plow, which is held in one hand of the laborer, while with the other he guides the 
 animal by a rein. 
 
 See Mongez, Sur les instrumens d'agriculture des anciens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe zVHist. et Lit.Anc. vol. ii. p. 616 j 
 vol. iii. (published 1818), p. 1. with engravings.— Cfi Rougier, as cited § 13. 5. 
 
 4. The soil of Attica was more favorable to the production of the grape (/Sorpvs), olive (t'Xaioc), 
 and fig (o-vkov), than of grain (afro?); and it was necessary to import the latter; it has been 
 estimated that one-third of the quantity annually consumed was imported. The exportation of 
 corn was prohibited. The sale of it was under the supervision of officers called oiro$v\aices. 
 If corndealers (o-ir</7rojAui) combined to raise the price, they were liable to capital punishment. 
 In order to avoid a scarcity of corn (criTodeia), public granaries (aiTo56Kai) were kept, under the 
 direction of purveyors (o-trojeai) and receivers (dToSeKrai). 
 
 On this subject sec Bockh's Public Economy of Athens —Bergerie, Hist, de l'Agrlc. des Grecs. Par. 1830. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 § 173. Here it may be proper to give a brief account of the moneys, weights, 
 and measures of the Greeks. In early times, traffic was effected only by ex- 
 change of goods, or barter, the inconvenience of which must soon be felt. Rude 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MONEY. COINS. 213 
 
 metals were next employed, in order to render an equivalent for what was pur- 
 chased, and were weighed for the purpose. Afterwards their weight and value 
 were indicated by signs, marked or impressed upon them. At length, regular 
 coins were stamped, but the exact time of their first appearance cannot be decided 
 (cf. P. IV. § 94, 95). It is known, however, that in the time of Solon, B. C. 
 about GOO, they were in common use in Greece. The metals used in making 
 money-coins were gold, silver,- brass, copper, and iron. The oldest coins were 
 impressed only on one side. The impressions were various, both as to the 
 objects represented and as to the art and skill therein exhibited. The Attic 
 coins were stamped with an image of Minerva, and of the owl, her sacred bird. 
 
 1 u. The general terms used to designate metals as a circulating medium were 
 these : vopwpa, any legitimate coin ; \7%a, money in the loose sense ; and Kcppa, small 
 coin or change. Besides these there were numberless specific names, derived from 
 the weight of the coins, the place where they were struck, or the image upon their 
 face. There were also terms, which expressed large sums or amounts, but were not 
 names of actual coins ; as e. g. the pva or pvka, and the TdWavrov. The former (/wo) de- 
 signated at Athens the sum of 100 drachms; at vEgina, the sum of 160; the term 
 was however also used to signify merely the golden o-rarfjp. The latter (rdXavnv) was 
 usually the sum of 6000 drachms, but had different values in different places ; a talent 
 of gold in Attica was equivalent to ten talents of silver. 
 
 2 m. Of the actual and circulating coins the Xcttw was the smallest. Seven of this 
 name were equal to the xaXraOc, and eight of the latter to the d(3o\6 s . This last varied, 
 however, in value, according to the place where it was coined. Six d/Mdi were equi- 
 valent to the fyaxpfj, which had its name from the weight, but was of different values 
 in different places. The names of the coins hpnaPoXiov, iiwfiokiov or 6i6Po\ov, rpidfioXov, 
 &c, and fip:i6paxnov, diSpaxpov, &c, are easily understood. Four tipaxpai were equal to 
 the ararfip in silver, a coin, which was also called rerpadpaxpov, and seems to have been 
 the one most generally in use among the Greeks. The c-arfip in gold was equal in 
 value to 20 tpaxpai, in weight to 2, and was sometimes called SiSpaxpog, but was most 
 generally termed xfomvc. It received likewise other names from the places where, 
 or the kings under whom, it was struck; as e. g. Stater Daricus, Stater Crossi, &c. 
 
 3. Among the coins, named from the image upon them, were the 0ovs, bearing the figure of an 
 ox; the Kopri, having a representation of Pallas, the maid; yr\av%, with an owl for its device, 
 another name for the tetradrachma. 
 
 In Plate XL. are several specimens of Greek coins, taken from Montfaucon's Antiquity Ex- 
 plained, and from Calmet's Dictionary. Fig. 1 is a coin of Thebes; fig. 2, of Argos ; 3, of iEgina; 
 4, and also a, d, and e, are Macedonian coins ; 5, and also q, c,f, and v, are Athenian ; 6 is a coin 
 of Thespise ; 7 is an jEtoIian. Fig. 5 is an Attic tetradrachm, with Minerva's head on the obverse, 
 and on the reverse an owl standing on a prostrate vase, the dpfopcv; (amphora) or Skot/i (diota), 
 with the inscription AOE , the whole encompassed with an olive crown. Fig. v is the reverse 
 of a didrachm, showing an augur's wand and a sacrificial vase. Fig. / is the drachm, bearing a 
 sort of tripod ; fig. c is another, which has the head of a Vulcan, and on the reverse are two 
 lighted torches ; on 6, Apollo appears in company with the owl. — Cf. P. IV. $ 93. — For a tabular 
 view of the chief coins and their relative value, see our Plate XXV a. 
 
 § 174 u. Various changes successively took place in the denomination of Greek 
 coins. There were changes also in the worth of these coins, both as to their actual 
 contents and their relative value. Sometimes it was necessary to coin tin and iron for 
 money. The Spartans were required by the laws of Lycurgus to use tin and iron, 
 and did not depart from the custom until a late period. The common ratio between 
 gold and silver was as one to ten, but it was sometimes above ; as one to twelve and a 
 half. There are many difficulties in the way of comparing Grecian money with mo- 
 dern, and thus obtaining a settled idea of the value of the former. The Spaxpn equal- 
 led about 9d sterling. 
 
 1. The mint at Athens, or place where money was coined, was called upyvpoxoireTov ; here 
 were kept the standard weights for the various coins. — Many specimens of the silver ararnp or 
 nrpaSpaxpov are still preserved in collections. Letronne, having accurately examined five hundred 
 )f them, and arranged them according to the centuries in which they were struck, deduced the 
 mean weight of the old Attic Spax/if), coined B. C. two centuries and more ; and the value, as 
 Jhus derived, is stated at 17 cents 5.93 mills of our currency. The later Spaxpn is staled at 16 cents 
 6.92 mills. 
 
 2. See Conger's Essay on the Measures, Weights, and Moneys of the Greeks and Romans, in Anthem's ed. of Lcmpriere.—G. Grosse, 
 Metrol. Tafeln Ober die alt. Masse, &c. Roms und Griechenlands. (by A. G. KSstner.) Brauns. 1792. S.—F. Cli. MatthiS, Ueber- 
 s'tcht des rom. und griech. Mass- Gewichts- und Munz-Wesens. Frankf. 1809. 4.—/. F. Wurm, De ponderum, eic. rationibus spud 
 Romanos et Grascos. Lips. 1821. S.—Hussey, Ancient Money, Weights, &c. cited $ 274. 2.— BSckh, Ueber Milnzen, Masse, nnu 
 
 Gewichle des Alterthums. Lpz. 1838. 8.— Eckel, as cited P. IV. § 99. 1. On the whole subject of Greek Coins and Medals, see 
 
 P. IV. §5 93-99. 
 
 § 175. In connection with the account of Grecian money, it is proper to speak of 
 their systems of notation, or of denoting numbers. The more ancient method was 
 quite simple. Six letters were used for the purpose, viz. for one, I, perhaps from la 
 for Mia ; for Jive, II, from Ucvre ; for ten, A, from A«a ; for a fomdred, H from Hera- 
 
214 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 rdv (Ixanv) ; for a thousand, X, from Xi'Xia; and for ten thousand, M, from Mvpia. All 
 numbers were expressed by combinations of these letters ; each combination signify- 
 ing the sum of the numbers designated by the letters separately ; e. g. nil I repre- 
 sented eight; AIII, sixteen ; A A, twenty, &c. Sometimes they were combined so as 
 to express the product, instead of the sum, of the separate letters ; in such case, one 
 of the letters was made large, and the other was written within it of a smaller size ; 
 for example, 2*1 (representing a IT with a A in its bosom) signified 10X5, i. e. 50: so a 
 n with an H placed within it signified 100X5, or 500; and a A having M within it, 
 signified 10,000X10, or 100,000: this form of combination was chiefly confined to 
 numbers involving 5 as a factor ; such numbers were expressed by using a large n and 
 writing the letter for the other factor in its bosom. This was the old Attic system, 
 and is found on inscriptions ; it is seen in the Chronicon Parium (cf. P. IV. § 91. 4). 
 
 But this method was superseded by another; in which all the letters of the alpha- 
 bet were employed, and also three signs in addition, viz. Bav, Kdjnra, and 2a/nri, men- 
 tioned in P. IV. § 46. 2. By this system, the first eight letters, from Alpha to Theta, 
 expressed the units respectively from 1 to 9, Bav being inserted after Epsilon, to sig- 
 nify 6 ; the second eight, from Iota to Pi, expressing the tens ; the last (II) signifying 
 80, and Kdmra being used for 90 ; the next eight, from Mho to Omega, expressed the 
 hundreds; ii standing for 800, and Xa/nrr being used for 900. The letters, when thus 
 used to designate numbers, were usually marked with a stroke above ; thus, i', 10; 
 k, 20 : KJi' 22. In order to express thousands, the eight first letters with Bav were 
 again used, but with a stroke beneath ; thus, &, 4,000 ; f, 6,000 ; kv\6', 20,432. 
 
 Cf. Robinson's Buttman, § 2.— Bouillet, Diet. Class. {Tableaux, &c. N. 34.) 
 
 § 176. The use of weights was of early origin among the Greeks, as else- 
 where. Grecian weights had the same names with their coins of money, a 
 circumstance which seems clearly to point back to the custom of weighing 
 uncoined gold and silver for purposes of exchange. The proportions of the 
 Weights were different in different applications of them ; as, e. g. those of com- 
 mon merchandise did not in all respects correspond with those of the apothecary. 
 The 6)3oXoj is said to have been the smallest weight used, except by apothecaries 
 or physicians, who used a weight, termed xspaTtiov, about one-fourth of the 
 OjSoXoj, and another, ertdpiov, only one-fourth of that. 
 
 Cf. L. Pxtus, De Mensuris et Ponderibus Rom. et Grsecis. Venat. 1573. fol.—Wwm, Hussey, &c as cited § 174. 2.— See the 
 tabular view given in Plate XXV a. 
 
 § 177. In speaking of the Greek measures, we may notice them as divided 
 into measures of length, of surface, and of capacity. 
 
 1 u. The names of the measures of length were taken, as was the case in most of 
 the ancient nations, from members of the human body; e. g. ooktuXoc, a finger's 
 breadth ; tra-iSa/^, a span, hand's width, the distance from the extremity of the thumb 
 to that of the little finger; w%, a foot. The Herculean or Olympic foot was longer. 
 The Trijxuc, a cubit, was the distance from the elbow to the extremity of the middle 
 finger. 'Opyvia, a fathom, was the distance across the breast, between the extremities 
 of the hands, the arms being extended (dpsyeo) in a horizontal line. 
 
 2. Of measures including length and breadth, or measures of surface, the principal 
 were the novs, the apovpa, and the lAkdpov. The ttovs was a square with each side one 
 foot ; the apovpa, a square with each side 50 irdSes ; and the xXfflpov, a square with a side 
 of 108 ir6ks; so that 2,500 rnkg made an apovpa and 4apovpai a liKWpov. — The term enrapriov 
 seems to have been used to designate a measuring line. 
 
 3 m. Measures of capacity had mostly the same names, whether applied to liquids or 
 to things dry. The largest liquid measure was perpnTfis, equal to about 8 gallons, and 
 called also sometimes k&6o;, xtpapiov, and d^oprfc. The smallest measure was the Ko\Kiapwv, 
 containing less than a hundredth part of a pint, and so called from /cd^Xo? or mxhiov, a 
 snail-shell. The Jam?? contained about a pint, and was equal to twice the measure 
 termed kotvKy]. Between the KorCXri (half pint) and the mxkiapiov, six intervening measures 
 are named. The measure next larger than the Jfo-njc (pint) was the x ov ~s, containing 
 upwards of two quarts. 
 
 4. The K0Tv\n is said to have been applied by ancient physicians to the same use as modern 
 graduated glasses of apothecaries, being made of horn, and divided on the outside by lines, so 
 that certain parts of the measure corresponded to certain denominations of weight. The largest 
 measure applied to things dry was the piSipivo;, which contained somewhat more than a bushel 
 and a fourth, and received different names in different regions. The %oiViJ was a little less than 
 a quart; forty-eight of which were contained in the pedipivos. The aS8ii~, equivalent to the 
 filxiexTov contained four x°'""c£S- Most of the other measures were of the same names as 
 the liquid measures. 
 
 See G. Hooper, Inquiry into the state of Ancient Measures, Attic, Roman, and Jewish. Lond. 1721. 8.— Bb'clJi, Wurm, &c cited 
 5 174. 2.— Cf. the tabular view, given in Plate XXV a. 
 
 § 178. The social pleasures and amusements of the Greeks were very nu- 
 
PLATE XXV a. 
 
 GRECIAN 
 
 MONEYS, MEASURES, AND WEIGHTS. 
 
 The estimated value in our denominations 
 is given according to the Tables of A. B. 
 Conger, which are based on the Treatise of 
 Wurm, & the Tables of Bouillet. 
 
 Moneys. 
 1. Below the Drachm. 
 
 AeittoV .... 
 7 I XaXKoiJS ... 
 14 | 2 | AfygXteou 
 28 | 4 | 2 | 'H/«o/3<SXiov 
 
 . cts. rn. 
 ) 00 0.5 
 
 7.3 
 
 | 8 | 4 1 2 | TipoXd; 
 
 1 4.6 
 
 2 9.3 
 
 5 8.6 
 II 7.2 
 336 | 4S | 24 I 12 | 6 j 3 | 1.5 | Apa#/»j - . 17 5.9 
 
 1 12 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Ainfi oXov ■ 
 
 224 I 32 | 16 I S | 4 | 2 | TtTpo/SiiXou 
 
 2. Above the Drachm. 
 
 Apaxrf - - - - 
 
 2 | Al Spaxiiov 
 
 4 | 2 | TETpddpaxii'OV 
 20 | 10 I 5 | Xpva-ovs - 
 100 I 50 I 25 I 5 I Mva, 
 
 6000 3000 1500 3U0 I 60 
 
 6000030000150003000600 10 
 
 | TdXaVTov I 
 j of Silver. J ' 
 TdtavTov \ 
 of Gold. ' 
 
 Dolls, cts. m. 
 
 17 5.9 
 
 - • 35 1.8 
 
 - ■ 70 3.7 
 3 51 8.6 
 
 - 17 59 3.2 
 1055 59 3.2 
 
 ! 10555 93 2.6 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 
 1. For Liquids. 
 
 KoxMdpiov 
 Xtjm ■ 
 
 Gal. qt. 
 
 2.5 
 
 1.25 | Mvo-tqov 
 
 I KrfyKij 
 
 I 2 | Kv aOos ■ 
 7.5 | 6 ( 3 1 1.5 | '0|<i/3a^ 
 
 Tiragi 
 
 5 I 
 
 6 I 3 
 
 30 [ 24 1 12 | 6 | 4 | 2 | KoTliXlj 
 
 60 | 4-1 | 24 I 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | S&T^S 
 
 jJ6_! ]_2S_S 1 144J 72 | 48 | 24, 1 12| 6 | X.QVS 
 i2l60|l728|864J432l2S8|l44|72|36|6 |A»St1) 4 
 
 pts. 
 0.007 
 0.015 
 0.019 
 0.039 
 0.079 
 0.118 
 0.237 
 0.475 
 0.950 
 1.704 
 0.229 
 
 The Ato')T7j doubled formed the next and largest 
 measure, M£Tp??T?)s ..... 
 
 2. For Things Dry 
 
 Kox^tdotov 
 KtiaQos - 
 1 .5 1 'Ol ifitHpov 
 6 | 4 | KoriXi) • 
 
 120 
 
 240 
 
 12 | 8 | 2 | a^T7)S 
 
 24 ] 16 | 4 | 2 | Xorvig 
 
 9o | 64 | 16 | 8 | 4 | 'HptoCTOV 
 
 192]12S| 32 |l6| 8 |2 | "E/cros 
 
 3S4 |256| 64 |32|l6| 4 \i \ TpiTdj 
 
 Bu. pk. qt. pts. 
 
 0.007 
 
 • 0.079 
 
 • 0.118 
 . 0.475 
 . 0.950 
 . 1.901 
 3 1.606 
 7 1.213 
 
 1 7 0.426 
 
 1 1 52 j 768 1 1 92 1 96 [ 4 8 1 1 2 1 6 ] 3 1 Midi/lvas 1 1 5 1.279 
 
 Measures of Length. 
 1. Small Measures. 
 
 AdKTv\os ....... 
 
 KdvdvXos - • • • • • ' - 
 
 naXato-Ti), or Affipov . . . . 
 
 Ac%ri£, or 'H/UTrrfc'tov 
 
 5.5 
 
 2.75 
 
 1.25 | AixdS 
 
 .375 1.01 
 
 1.5 | 1.2 1 1.09 | Eiri8a^)} 
 
 2 | 1.6 | 1.45 | 1.3 | TLnvs 
 
 1.51 
 3.03 
 
 6.06 
 7.5S 
 8.34 
 9.10 
 0.13 
 
 2.25 | 1.8 | 1.63 1 1.5 1 1.125 1 n^y/»j 
 
 2.5 | 2 | 1.8'l | 1.6 | 1.25 |l.l| Uvy^v 
 
 3 | 2.4 | 2.1*S | 2 | 1.5 |l.3|l.2| II^S I 6.5 
 
 2. Great Measures. 
 
 Miles, yds. 
 000 
 
 B5)/ia 
 
 'Opyvuf .... 
 Aztcdnovs, Ka\a/toj ■ 
 6 \ r/ Afifi.a 
 
 16.6 
 
 10 | 1.8 | XlMSpov 
 
 60 | 10 | 6 | ZrdSiov 
 
 ft- 
 1.01 
 
 2.52 
 
 6.06 
 
 1.11 
 
 0.68 
 
 2.14 
 
 0.87 
 
 120 1 20 | 12 | 2 | Ala vXos 
 240 I 40 | 24 I 4 I 2 I 'Iwrnxdv 
 
 1 ZOO | 720 | 120 | 72 | 12 | 6 | 3 | AtfXi^os 1 667 1.51 
 
 Measures of Surface. 
 
 TLovS - - - 
 36 1 'EggiriSo'ijs 
 
 100 | 2.7 | 'Ara iw 
 833.3 |23.Ui-| 8.3 | 'H>*£l 
 
 >.6\ 46.3 | 16.6 | 2 ]«Ektos • 
 
 2500 | 69.4 | 25 | 3 |l.s| "Apovga 
 
 Poles, sq.ft. 
 001.02 
 
 • 102.30 
 
 3 35.79 
 
 6 71.58 
 
 9 107.37 
 
 10COO |277.7 I 100 1 12 j 6 I 4 I nX^poir 37 157.26 
 
 Weights. 
 
 1. Below the Drachm. 
 
 (Troy Weight.) 
 
 Dwts. grs. 
 
 Atrrrbv ...... 00.2 
 
 7 I XaXicoSs - 
 
 28 I 4 I 'H/ uoftiAiop 
 56 I 8 I 2 I '0/3o\6s 
 
 1 12 I 16 I 4 I 2 I Aio/)6\o 
 
 336| 48 I 12 I 6 I 3 I AoaxM 
 
 • 1.40 
 
 • 5.61 
 > 11.22 
 
 • 22.44 
 2 19.33 
 
 2. Above the Drachm. 
 
 (Troy Weight.) 
 
 Lbs. oz. dwts. grs. 
 
 00 00 2 19.33 
 • • 6 14.66 
 
 1 2 13.48 
 70 1 13 17.29 
 
 11 "I"'™' • "1 1*1 ^g"/} H6 10 16 4.82 
 
 Apox/M) 
 
 2 I AlSgax/J.0 
 
 ion I 50 I MvS. 
 
 iOOO 1 3000 1 60 I TdXavr 
 ~ TrfXa 
 
 215 
 
216 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 merous, and in the better portion of their history, various, refined, and tasteful. 
 Music and dancing were among the most prominent, and were almost a neces- 
 sary accompaniment of public and private festivals, entertainments, and social 
 meetings. In this custom there was a regard not merely to immediate gratifi- 
 cation, but also to the promotion of the general culture. Song and musical 
 accompaniment were almost inseparable; at least instrumental music was 
 scarcely ever practiced without vocal. There were several kinds of exercise, 
 which it was common to connect with the entertainments of the banquet, and 
 various social games or plays (cf. § 167). 
 
 There was an amusement in which dancing and playing with a ball (<r<paTpa) were 
 connected together 1 . The game at ball was a favorite amusement, and was ranked 
 among the gymnastic exercises ; five different modes are named : oipav'ia, ima-Kvpo;, 
 (patvivda, apmaoTdv, dir6ppa%is. There was a sort of dancing in which the dancers or tumblers 2 
 {Kv/iicrrrrnipeg) flung themselves on their heads and alighted again on their feet, and made 
 somersets over knives and swords. — A favorite dance is still preserved 3 in Greece, called 
 Somaica. 
 
 * Burette, Spheristique des Anciens, in the Hist, de VAcad. des Inscr. vol. i. p. 153. a See Paciaudius, as cited § 88. 2.— 
 
 Becker, Charicles, &c. 3 Land. Quart. Rev. xxiii. 350. 
 
 See Burette, De la danse des Anciens, in the Hist, de VJlcad. des hiscr. i. 93.— -J. Meursiw, De Saltationibus Veterum, contained 
 in vol. viii. of Gronovius, as cited § 13.— Jul. Cses. Bulengeri de ludis privatis ac domesticis veterum liber unicus. Ludg. 1627. 8, 
 This is given also in the Class. Journ. vol. v.— On various Doric dances, cf. MUller, Hist, and Antiq. of Doric Race, bk. i. ch. vi. 
 
 § 179. Under the Archaeology of Greek literature notice is taken (cf. P. IV. § 63, § 65) 
 of the great importance and comprehensive meaning of music (jiovtrucfi) in the system of 
 education among the Greeks. Here we introduce some remarks on musical sowids and 
 instruments. To denote what is now called the Science of Music the Greeks used the 
 term 'ApjioviKfi. The subject was divided into several parts ; stated by some as follows : 
 1. of soutuls (irzpi (p66yya>v) • 2. of intervals {nspl iiao-Tr]p.d.TWv) ; 3. 0? systems {ttcpl crvo-rnjidTWv) ; 
 4. of genera (ircpl yhosv) ; 5. of modes (rapt tovkiv or v6p.av) ; 6. of transition or mutation 
 (rrepl /i£To/?oXi?c) ; 7. of composition (irepi pxAomuiac).' — ' ' The notes or sounds of the voice were 
 seven, each of which was attributed to some particular planet: 1. virdrn, to the Moon; 
 2 wapvirarri, to Jupiter ; 3. \txavos, to Mercury ; 4. ptso-n, to the Sun ; 5. irapauicrn, to Mars; 
 6. rpnr;, to Venus ; and 7. vfrrn, to Saturn. Some, however, take them in a contrary 
 order, and ascribe wan; to Saturn, and vjjnj to the Moon.— The tone or mode, which 
 the musicians used in raising or depressing the sound was called I'fyoc.; and they were 
 called v6poi, as being laws or models by which they sang or played. There were four 
 principal v6poi or modes ; the Phrygian, the Lydian, the Doric, and the Ionic. To these 
 some add a fifth, which they call the iEolic, but which is not mentioned by ancient 
 authors. The Phrygian mode was religious ; the Lydian, plaintive ; the Doric, martial ; 
 the Ionic, gay and cheerful ; and the YlColic, simple. The mode used in exciting soldiers 
 
 to battle was called "Qpdwc. Afterwards, the term vdjioi began to be applied to the 
 
 hymns which were sung in those modes." 
 
 Robinson, Arch. Grsec. bk. v. ch. xxiii. — For a fuller account of the science, see Smith, Diet, of Ant. p. 624. — Drieberg, Musi 
 kalischeWissensehaften derGriechen. — Also, Burette, Chabanon, &c. as cited P. IV. § 63. — Meibomius, Collection of ancient writers 
 on Music, cited P. V. § 208. 1. 
 
 § 180. " The music of the Greeks was either vocal or instrumental. The music of 
 those who only played on instruments was called /miothcjj ifjtXh • that of those who also 
 sang to the instrument, pouo-i/o} pcra ue\o>5ias. The musical instruments were divided into 
 eixirvevoTa, wind instruments, and hrara or v£vp6fcra, stringed instruments. The lyre, the 
 flute, and the pipe, were the three principal instruments ; but there were several others. 
 — Of the instruments to which chords or strings were applied, the most famous was 
 the lyre, which was called in Greek Kiddpa and <p6puty%, though some affect a distinction 
 between the harp and the lyre. At first, the strings were made of linen thread, and 
 afterwards of the intestines of sheep. Anciently, the chords or strings were three in 
 number, whence such lyre was called rpixopSo; ; and the lyre with three strings is said 
 by some to have been invented in Asia, a city of Lydia, whence it was sometimes de- 
 nominated do-i'ac. Afterwards, it was rendered more perfect by having seven strings, 
 and hence was called inrdxopSos, Lirrd<p9oyyo; , and £7rrayXwo-aoc. They struck the strings 
 sometimes with a bow, and sometimes only with the fingers ; and to play on this instru- 
 ment was called in Greek Kidap%siv, Kpoveiv TrKfJHTpta, or Siwkciu, SctKru\iois Kpoveiv, and ipaWsiv. 
 To learn to play well on the lyre, an apprenticeship of three years was necessary. This 
 instrument was invented in Arcadia, which abounded with tortoises, of the shell of 
 which the lyre was made. — The flute, av\dg, was a celebrated instrument. It was used 
 in the sacrifices of the gods, at festivals, games, entertainments, and funerals. Minerva 
 is said to have invented the straight, and Pan the oblique flute (7rXayia«Xoc). Flutes were 
 made of the bones of stags or fawns, and hence called vePpeiot avXoi, and the inven- 
 tion of making them of these materials is ascribed to the Thebans. They were also 
 made of the bones of asses, and of elephants; and likewise of reed, box, and lotus. 
 The Boeotians excelled all the other Greeks in playing on this instrument. — The pipo 
 
P III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 217 
 
 was called ovpty$ , and differed in sound from the flute. The tone of the pipe was sharp 
 and shrill, and hence its sounds were called Aem-aXiai. On the contrary, the sound of 
 the flute was grave, full, and mellow ; and hence the flute was denominated /3apv/3pop.os." 
 Besides the instruments already named, we may mention the following, arranged under the 
 headB of stringed instruments, wind instruments, and instruments of percussion. 
 
 1. Stringed instruments: va(3\a, a sort of lute or lyre, said to have twelve strings 
 (faSe/co. <pQ6yyov;) ; 7rr/xnj, another variety of the lyre, used by the Lydians; paydiis, a lute 
 with twenty strings ; aWapoi/, said to be of a square form and similar to the xpiBvpa; 
 Kivvpa, an Asiatic lute often said to be of a melancholy tone, but perhaps without foun- 
 dation ; it has been supposed that the strings were drawn over a sounding board, and 
 
 ^in playing were struck with a plectrum (vXfjKrpov), like a modern violin ; aapfivKri, sambuca 
 (cf. Persius, Sat. v. 25), sackbut(cL Ban. iii. 5), a harp of a triangular form, with four 
 strings of acute sound, used in chanting iambics ; rplyuvov, a triangle with several strings 
 of unequal length ; tpaXrfiptov, said to be like the p.aydiis, and also used for any variety 
 of the lyre ; \p£vpa, a Libyan instrument of a square form. 
 
 In Plate XXVI. are given various forms of stringed instruments. Fig. 1. is a triangular form 
 of the harp or lyre, by some considered as the sambuca, by others as the trigonon. Fig. C pre- 
 sents a similar form; this is taken from a representation of a religious festival found at Hercu- 
 laneum (cf. Land. Quart. Rev. xviii. 87); it shows a Cupid dancing and playing. Fig. 10 is by 
 some called the sambuca; having four strings apparently over a sounding board. Fig. w is an 
 old form of the lyre with three strings. Fig. 11 is another, given in Calmet as "Timotheus's 
 harp with nine strings." Fig. 4 is the ascaron as given by Montfaucon. Fig. 2 is a form of the 
 lyre found on Egyptian monuments; fig. e shows the mode of playing upon it. (For the Thes- 
 pian lyre, see Plate XL. fig. 6.) — In fig. 6, we have the kinura or violin, from Montfaucon. In fig. 7 
 is a similar instrument from Niebuhr, in a side view; a front view of it is given in fis. 8, having 
 five strings of metal wire. Fig. 3 and fig. 5, also from Niebuhr, are given in Calmet, as other 
 forms of the kinura or kinnor, which have been noticed by travelers in the east. A harp con- 
 sisting of seventy-two strings or wires is said to be used in Kurdistan (cf. A. Grant, p. 57, as 
 cited P. I. $ 154b). Fig. 9 is taken from a sculpture at Thebes in Egypt, and seems to be the 
 same instrument with three strings; it has been supposed to represent the Hebrew shalishim 
 played on by females in David's time (1 Sam. xviii. 6). In fig. / is seen a Persian violin and 
 fiddler. 
 
 2. Wind instrumentsiEAu/wj, a kind of flute of Phrygian invention, usually made of 
 boxwood ; yiyypa or yiyypia, a Phoenician pipe (cf. § 77. 2), short, of a plaintive note ; 
 liovavXos , a flute used especially at nuptial festivals ; (WmdXoj, a sort of bagpipe. It may 
 be remarked, that there was a great variety of these instruments belonging to the class 
 of pipes or flutes. The avpiyl , which is called also the pipe of Pan, is of great antiquity • 
 some suppose it to be the instrument mentioned by Moses (Gen. iv. 21, cf. Compre- 
 hensive Commentary) by the name of ugabh. It is still found in the east, in Turkey and 
 Syria ; with the number of its reeds varying, it is said, from five to twenty-five. A 
 double flute is often mentioned, called also the right and left (cf. § 238) ; the right one, or 
 that held in the right hand, is represented as shorter and having a higher tone than the 
 left ; and both as blown by the performer at the same time. The male flute-player 
 was termed avXrjryig; the female, avXrirpia, or aiXr/rpl;. — There were several varieties 
 likewise of the vakmyl, or trumpet; as, /ctpa?, a Phrygian trumpet, or flute crooked like 
 a horn; Kepanvfi, a trumpet of similar form, probably less crooked. — There seems also 
 to have been, in the later times at least, a variety of musical instruments of the kind 
 termed vlpavXts , or water-organ ; the shape of an ancient organ is exhibited partly at 
 least in a poem, by Optatianus (cf. P. V. § 341), describing the instrument in verses so 
 constructed as to resemble its form. 
 
 In Plate XXVI. we have also represented a number of wind instruments. Fig. s is the pipe 
 with seven reeds. Fig. y is the single flute as given by Pfeiffer, from Niebuhr. In fig. a we see 
 a musician blowing the double flute ; It is taken from a representation found at Pompeii (cf. Pom- 
 peii, p. 260, as cited P. IV. $ 226. 1). Fig. ii. presents also, as has been supposed, the double 
 flute; it is from a representation found at Herculaneum; the two parts seem to be of equal 
 Jength. (The same appears to be the case in the views given Plate XXV. fig. h and i.) — Fig. n is 
 the keras or horn, a form of the trumpet. Fig. I is another form, straight; by some supposed to 
 represent the silver trumpets used for assembling the Israelites in the wilderness (cf. Num. x. 2). 
 Fig. B shows a form of the Roman cornu. Fig. i represents a performer upon a sort of flute ; it 
 is from an Egyptian monument. Fig. A is taken from an ancient altar on which is sculptured 
 the funeral pomp of Hector; the figure here given leads the procession ; it is a woman blnwing 
 a long flute with its extreme end fashioned like that of the trumpet; a funeral pipe, used as an 
 accompaniment to the threne or funeral song (cf. Matt. xi. 17). See Oaland, as cited $ 282. 2. — 
 A description of the hydraulis is given in a treatise of the mathematician Heron (cf. Thevennt, Vet. 
 Math. Op., cited P. V. $ 208 1. 1); a drawing, designed after this description, is found in ForkcVs 
 tTeschichte (cited P. IV. $ 63). Cf. Nov. Comm. Sue. Reg. Golting. vol. ii. 
 
 3. Instruments of percussion: some instruments of this class were also used ; rvpiravov, 
 a sort of kettle-drum, flat on one side and convex on the other, formed of wood with 
 leather drawn over it ; sometimes flat on both sides, consisting of a short hollow cylinder 
 with leather or skin drawn over both ends ; beaten with the hand, or with a stick ; much 
 used at the festivals of Cybele and of Bacchus; Kvu./3a\a, cymbals which were of metal 
 (Xa\xa) ; in the shape of two half globes ; usually large and broad ; sometimes smaller, 
 so that two (perhaps those termed Kpovjiara) were held in each hand of the player, and 
 such as are used by oriental dancing-women. The koj&jc was merely a little bell ; the 
 
 28 T 
 
218 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 forms and uses of bells were various. The Kp6ra\ov is described by some as a sort of 
 bell made of brass ; by others, as " made of a reed split in two and so fitted as to emit 
 a sound from the touch." The aeXarpov, sistrum, was properly an Egyptian instrument, 
 used in the worship of Isis; it consisted of an oval frame, with several bars of metal, 
 which passed through it transversely, and being loose gave sounds when the instrument 
 was shaken in the hand. A peculiar instrument was formed by placing metallic rings 
 so as to move freely upon a metallic rorI> which was sometimes in the form of a circle, 
 sometimes of a triangle. 
 
 Several instruments of percussion are exhibited in Plate XXVI. Fig. iii. is the tympanum or 
 drum ; in fig. A are the large cymbals, and in fig. i, the smaller, called castanets. Fig. o, different 
 forms of the simple bell. Fig. iv. shows the. triangle with rings; by it is a stick with a knob at 
 the end, used perhaps in striking the rings. Fig. d presents the Persian drum, with the hands 
 of the drummer. Fig. c is a Turkish female playing on a dulcimer (cf. Dan. iii. 10). — In Plate XLV. 
 representing a sacrifice to Priapus. we see two women playing on the tympanum. In Plate XXV. 
 fig. /. the Bacchante is playing with either the crotala or the small cymbals. The sistrum is seen 
 in fig. o, of the same plate; also in the paw of the Sphinx, Plate VIII. 
 
 On the musical instruments of the ancients, cf. Montfaucon, as cited P. II. § 12. 2. id), vol. iii. p. 342, and Supplem. vol. iii. p. IS5. 
 —Calmet, Dictionary, &c vol. iii. p. 337. ed. Chariest. ISIS.— Fosbrohe's Encyclop. cited § 13. p. 704.— F. A. Lampe, De Cymbalia 
 Veterum. Traj. ad Rhen. 1703. 12.; also in Ugolinus, cited § 197. 1. — Pfeiffer, on the Music of the Hebrews, translated by 0. A. 
 Taylor, in the Bill. Reposit. and Quart. Observ. vol. vi. p. 357. (with a plate.)— Sulzer, Allg. Theorie, Article Instrum&tfaU 
 Musih. — J. Hawkins, History of Music. Loud. 1776. 5 vols. 4. 
 
 § 181. The restraint imposed upon the female sex among the Greeks has 
 already been mentioned (cf. § 59). This state of subjection and degradation 
 continued even in the most nourishing times. Unmarried females were very 
 narrowly watched. Their apartment in the house (rtap^svwv) was commonly 
 kept closed and fastened. The married women were at liberty only to go as 
 far as the door of the court or yard. Mothers were allowed a little more freedom. 
 In general, women were allowed to appear in public but seldom, and then not 
 without wearing a veil (xd%vrttpov). 
 
 1 u. In Sparta, however, only -married women were required to wear veils ; the un 
 married might appear without them. The sex enjoyed generally far more liberty at 
 Sparta than at Athens. Lycurgus hoped by removing restraints to promote an innocent 
 familiarity of intercourse. But this freedom, however virtuous it might be at first, at 
 length degenerated into licentiousness. 
 
 On the state of female society in Greece, see Land. Quart. Rev. vol. sxii. 163. — Bill. Repos. vol. ii. p. 47S. — Social Condition cf 
 the ancient Greeks. Osf. 1S32.— A. Walker, Woman physiologically considered as to Mind, Morals, &c Lond. 1839. S.— IV. Alex, 
 under, History of Women. Lond. 17S2. 2 vols. S.—Lenz, as cited § 59.— G. Bernliardy, Grundriss der Griech. Lit. p. 36. 
 
 2. The employments of the women continued generally the same as in the earlier 
 ages(cf. § 59). They practiced weaving, with the loom C L(rr °s) and shuttle (w/wfj) ; the 
 loom was upright ; two perpendicular beams (!cn-o-(5&j or ksXcovtss) supporting a cross- 
 beam, from which the threads constituting the warp (a-riiucov) were hung ; the woof was 
 termed KpoKfy, also tyvfyii and poSavq. They also employed the needle ifucsrrpa, pawl's) in 
 making garments, and various furniture for household use. Embroidery (epyov Qpvyiwv 
 or Qpvyioi'wv, opus Phrygium) was an art much cultivated, being perhaps the most im- 
 portant part of the general art of variegating in colors (votKiXia), which was effected also 
 by painting and dyeing, and by weaving. Curtains (-epovfiuara, a term applied to a gar- 
 ment or any article of cloth fastened by a -zpovn or brooch), and other articles, richly 
 embroidered (-oXiKcara), were wrought for private dwellings and for the temples (cf. v> 28). 
 
 A splendid work on Ancient Tapestry was commenced at Paris in 1S37, to be completed in 4 vols. fol. with cuts and engravings. — 
 See Countess of Ittlton, The Art of Needle-work from the earliest Ages ; with Notices of the Ancient Historical Tapestries. 3d ed. 
 Lond. 1841. 12.— Cf. AT ss Lambert, Hand-book of Needle-work ; with illustrations. N. York, 1S42. 
 
 § 182. The marriage state was much respected among the Greeks, and was 
 promoted and guarded by the laws. In Sparta particularly, certain penalties 
 were inflicted upon such as remained unmarried after a certain age. At Athens 
 also, all who wished to be commanders or orators, or to hold any public office, 
 were required to have a family and own a real estate. Polygamy on the other 
 hand was not permitted, although exceptions were made in some special cases. 
 The age at which marriage (ydfiof) should be allowed was also prescribed, a 
 younger age being granted to females than to males; the latter, at Athens, were 
 forbidden to marry until they were thirty-five. At Sparta the usual age for 
 men to marry was thirty, and for women twenty. Marriage between parties 
 of near consanguinity was not allowed, or at least was generally viewed as im- 
 proper and scandalous. The Athenians, however, were allowed to marry sisters 
 by the same father (6fx07ta.rpi.0vi), although not those by the same mother (6>o- 
 fitjtptovi). In most of the states, a citizen could marry only the daughter of a 
 citizen ; yet there was sometimes an exception. 
 
PLATE XXVI. 
 
220 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 1. Adultery was punished, and in some cases with seventy. Although polygamy 
 was not generally allowed, concubinage was permitted without restraint. Concubines 
 (■xaWariks) were usually captives or purchased slaves. Prostitution was exceedingly 
 common, and favored even by the whole system of religious worship. In Athens the 
 most distinguished statesmen and. philosophers openly associated with females of dissolute 
 morals (Iraipat). The city of Corinth was still more famous for licentiousness. One 
 of the most odious forms of licentiousness among the Greeks was the Traikpaaria ; how- 
 ever free from impurity might have been originally the relation and the habits of inter- 
 course in Sparta and in Crete between the boys loved (kXsivol or dn-ai) and their lovers 
 (</>t\rjTopes) , and whatever excellent qualities might have belonged to the Theban sacred 
 hand(lepa <j>a\ayQ said to have been a body of 300 composed of lovers and their beloved, 
 it is nevertheless true that the hateful debauchery commonly designated by this term 
 was extensively practiced. 
 
 Respecting (he prevalence of sensuality among the Greeks, cf. Bill. Repoi. vol. ii. p. 441.— On paederasty, cf. Berhardy, Grundriss 
 der Griech. Lit. p. 43.—MUller, Hist, and Ant. of Dorians, bk. iv. ch. 6.— Boyd's Potter, p. 600. 
 
 2t. When a virgin was sought in marriage, it was necessary first to consult the 
 parents, and if they were not living, the brother or guardian (orirpojroe). The betrothing 
 was usually made in a formal manner by the father. The parties pledged to each other 
 mutual fidelity, by kissing or by joining right hands. The bridegroom also bestowed 
 on the bride a present as a pledge of his honor, called appa, dppafiuv, nvfjarpov. The giving 
 of a dowry (t/xuJ, fcpvfj) with the bride was a custom in Greece generally. At Athens 
 it was a legal and indispensable requisite, although the dowry was but small. In Sparta, 
 however, Lycurgus nearly abolished the custom. In the settlement of the dowry, and 
 the stipulations connected with it, witnesses were called in, and the husband delivered 
 an acknowledgment or receipt (irpouccSa), when he took the stipulated gifts. At Athens 
 it was customary before the actual marriage, to present the bride before Diana with 
 offerings and prayers ; this ceremony was called dp/crsta, and was designed to appease 
 the goddess, who was supposed to be averse to marriage. There were other divinities, 
 male and female, who were imagined to preside over marriage, and were therefore 
 called yap.fihoi Seoi, to whom it was necessary to offer sacrifices on entering into the 
 marriage contract. 
 
 3 u. At the nuptials the betrothed pair, as well as the place of the festivity, were 
 adorned with garlands and flowers. Towards the evening the bride was conducted to 
 the house of the bridegroom {oikov aytvdai) either on foot or in a carriage ('"ft"")- The 
 bridesman, who attended her on this occasion, was called 7rdpovoj or ixapdvvp.^os. A pro- 
 cession went before her, bearing lighted torches, and accompanied with music and 
 dancing. When the newly married couple entered the house, it was customary to place 
 or pour upon their heads figs and other varieties of fruit. The parties then sat down to 
 a banquet, which was, as well as the nuptial ceremonies together, termed yapo;, and 
 was attended with music and dancing. The songs were called ijxbawi, or v/jbes. After 
 the dancing, the pair were conducted with torches to the bridal chamber (SaK&po;), which, 
 as well as the nuptial bed (\ix°s , Mm-pov), was usually highly decorated (rao-rdc) for the 
 occasion. The young men and maids remained without, dancing and singing the 
 im6a\apuov koijiyitikov, while a friend of the bridegroom stood by as keeper of the door 
 (S-iyxo/iuV). This company returned to the door in the morning, and sung what was 
 called the bridaMpuov iycpriKov. The nuptial solemnities occupied several days ; one of 
 the days was called enavXia ; another dTrdvha. 
 
 See a lively description of an Athenian marriage in Barthclemy's Anacharsis, ch. lxxvii. On the marriage customs of Sparta 
 
 cf. MUllcr, bk. iv. ch. iv. 
 
 4. Children were discriminated as yvficm, lawfully begotten; v68oi, born of harlots or 
 concubines; Set-oi, adopted. The paternal authority over the son ceased, at Athens, 
 when the son had completed his nineteenth year. It was an ancient custom for legi- 
 timate sons to divide their father's estate by lot, all having equal share, without respect 
 to priority of birth ; allowing a small pittance to such as *vere unlawfully begotten. The 
 father could dissolve the legal connection between himself and his son, and thus dis- 
 inherit him by a form of proceeding termed dmKfjpvfe. If there were no legitimate sons, 
 the estate of the father fell to the daughters, who in such a case were termed hr'uchipoi ; 
 but their nearest relatives might claim them in marriage. When there were no lineal 
 descendants (Jicyovoi) to inherit the property, it fell by law to the collateral relations 
 (o-vyyevets) ; first to descendants of the same father with the deceased, to brothers and 
 the children of brothers ; next to descendants of the same grandfather with the deceased, 
 to cousins and children of cousins, the issue of males in every case taking precedence 
 of the issue of females ; a first cousin was termed dvapid; ; a first cousin's son, dveipiaSovs. 
 The heir ((cAr/poi/d/joc) was said to receive his inheritance (/cXijfpoj) either by right of descent 
 (dyxicmia) or by right of consanguinity (avyykvcia). A male heir by right of descent might 
 take possession immediately; or, if any one hindered him, might bring against that one 
 an action of ejectment (spfiareia). Persons who had no lawful issue were allowed to 
 adopt whom they pleased ; but at Athens foreigners although adopted by citizens could 
 not take an inheritance, unless they had received the freedom of the city. — Free citizens 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FUNERAL RITES. 221 
 
 were permitted to dispose of their property by will (SiaBfiiai), after the time of Solon; 
 but there were certain conditions to be regarded. Wills were signed and sealed before 
 witnesses, and put into the hands of trustees (oti/wXjitoc) who were to execute them. 
 
 Potter, Arch. Grac. bk. iv. ch. xw—Blanchard, On Laws respecting Adoption, &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xii. 68. On tha 
 
 subject of inheritances, see Sir W. Jones, in his Transl. of Isaeus (cf. P. V. § 104. 3,)—£unsen, De Jure hered. Athen.— Schoman, 
 Ant. Jar. Fubl. Gnec. 
 
 § 183. Something should be said of the Greek customs in later times in 
 reference to funerals and burials. Funeral obsequies were considered as a 
 sacred duty to the departed, and were therefore termed oYxaia, vo/upa, 6'ffta. 
 They were denied only to notorious criminals, traitors, and suicides, especially 
 such as destroyed themselves to escape punishment, spendthrifts, and the like, 
 whose remains, if they happened to obtain burial, were even disinterred. 
 
 § 184 t. Some of the customs connected with the burial of the dead have already 
 § 30, 31) been mentioned. In later times it was common to wrap the corpse in a costly 
 robe, the color of which was generally white ; and deck it with green boughs and gar- 
 lands of flowers. The body was then laid out to view (nporideo-Oai) in the entrance of 
 the house, on the ground, or on a bed (/cXivrf) or a bier (<ptp£rpov), where it remained at 
 least one day, with the feet towards the gate. It was while here constantly watched. 
 A vase of lustral water (dp&aviov) stood by, to purify such as touched the corpse. Shortly 
 before it was removed for burial, a piece of money, usually an 6/3o\6g, was placed in the 
 mouth, as the fare {Savaxri, iropdjuov) due to Charon for ferrying the departed over the 
 Styx. A cake made of flour and honey (jusXknrovTa) was also put in the mouth, to ap- 
 pease the dog Cerberus, supposed to guard the entrance into Hades ('Mns). 
 
 On the meaning of the term Hades, and the opinions of the ancients respecting the state of the soul after death, see P. II. § 32. 
 
 As a burial soon after death was supposed to be pleasing to the deceased (cf. Horn. II. xxiii. 71) 
 the Greeks usually kept the corpse only until the third day. It does not appear, that they ever 
 adopted the Egyptian custom of embalming the dead. 
 
 Respecting the custom of embalming, see De Caylus, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxiii. 119.—/. C. Warren, Description of an Egyp- 
 tian Mummy. Bost. 1S24. 8.— Granville, On Egyptian Mummies ; in the Philos. Transactions of the Royal Soc. for the year 1825. 
 p. 269.— T. J. Petligren, History of Egyptian Mummies. Loud. 1834. 4. 
 
 § 185 t. The funeral itself was termed sKKop.i&r), or htpopa, the carrying forth of the 
 corpse, which at Athens was performed before sunrise, but elsewhere in the day time. 
 In Greece, generally, young persons were buried at break of day or early morning 
 twilight. The corpse was placed on a bier, or if the deceased had been a warrior, on 
 a large shield, and the bearers {vtKpoQ&Krai) carried it on their shoulders (aptr/v tptyuv), fol- 
 lowed by the friends and relatives of both sexes. The procession was commonly on 
 horseback, or in carriages ; it was a token of higher respect when all went on foot. — 
 Sorrow for the deceased was manifested by solitary retirement, fasting, and silence, by 
 wearing black and sordid garments, by covering the head with ashes, and plucking off 
 the hair, by cries of lamentation, and by funeral dirges. The latter were performed by 
 musicians employed for the purpose (Spfjvav e^apxoi)-; one dirge (^wc) was sung as the 
 corpse was borne forward ; another, at the funeral pile ; and a third, at the grave ; they 
 were called oAo^uppl ; also iaXs/iot, rakepioi. 
 
 Funeral chants are still common in Greece, termed myriologues.— See Mrs. Hemans, Greek Funeral Chant, in her Poems. Bost. 
 1827. vol. ii. p. 160. 
 
 § 186. The custom of burning the corpse became universal among the later 
 Greeks ; the ceremonies attending it have been chiefly mentioned before (§31). 
 1 t. The ashes and bones were gathered {inrokoyiov) in an urn, and buried commonly 
 without the city, amid many blessings and prayers for their repose. The urns used for 
 this purpose {KoKnat, \apvatcec, oo-roBnKat, daroSoxeTa, copol, &c.) were made of different ma- 
 terials, wood, stone, or precious metal, according to the rank and circumstances of the 
 deceased. These urns were sometimes inclosed in a sort of chest, which was formed 
 of stone or other materials ; and to this chest, as well as to the urn, the term capKotyayoc, 
 seems to have been applied. 
 
 The body of Alexander was conveyed from Babylon to Alexandria in a splendid carriage, and 
 his funeral there conducted with great pomp by Ptolemy. The Sarcophagus in which the golden 
 coffin or urn containing his remains was inclosed, is said to be now in the British Museum, 
 having been discovered at Alexandria by the French in the expedition of Bonaparte, and by 
 them surrendered to the English. 
 
 E. D. Clarke, The Tomb of Alexander. Camb. 1805. 8. Cf. also Clarke's Travels, vol. iii. p. 164. ed. N. York. 1815.— Quatr. 
 de Quincy, Sur le char funeraire qui transporte de Babylone en Egypte le corps d'Alexandre, in the Mem. de VJlcad. des Inscr. 
 C I a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Am. vol. iv. p. 315, with a plate. Cf. C. de Caylus, in the Mem. de VJlcad. des Inscr. xxxi. 86. 
 
 On an alabaster Sarcophagus discovered at Thebes, in the tombs of the kings, Lond. Quart. Rev. xviii. 369 ; xix. 192, 404. 
 
 Along with the corpse when buried, and with the urns containing the ashes when the corpse 
 was burned, it was customary to deposit cups, phials (tptaXiSec), vases (Sf/KvOot), of different 
 kinds, and other articles; many of which have been found in modern times by searching ancient 
 6epulchers. These vessels are sometimes of terra cotla, sometimes of alabaster, not unfrequently 
 at glass. Some made of the latter material have been gathered from the catacombs in the island 
 
 T 2 
 
222 GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Milo, the ancient Melos, one of the Cyclades (cf. P. V. $ 146). " Among the decayed bones are 
 found coins, ornaments of gold and precious stones for the ears, lamps, lachrymatory vases (cf. 
 $ 341. 7), with large quantities of glass, earthen, and copper vessels, probably for oils and per- 
 fumes. . . . Many earthen cups are of the form we call Etruscan; the larger are' painted 
 with a light pencil ; often only the outlines are given, but generally with much spirit. The ques- 
 tion whether the ancients knew the use of glass, was settled by the discoveries in Pompeii ; this 
 is the first I have heard of among the Greeks. The vessels are generally flat at the bottom, and 
 four inches over; tliey rise one inch, of this diameter, and then suddenly narrowing to the dia- 
 meterofan inch and a half, pass thus to the height of seven or eight inches ; their shape is much 
 like that of a candlestick : but I have several other forms, running through a considerable 
 variety." 
 
 The above quotation is from Jones's Sketch of Naval Life. N. Haven, 1829. 2 vols. 12.— Cf. Silliman's Journal, vol. xvi. p. 333, 
 for engravings of some of these vases. — Specimens of the vases found at Milo are in the cabinet of Amherst College. — For further 
 notices of the urns and vases found in sepulchers, see § 341, and P. IV. § 173. 
 
 2 1. The solemnities of the funeral were concluded with an oration or eulogy, with 
 games, repasts, and sacrifices and libations ; which, in many cases, were repeated on 
 successive anniversaries ; the sacrifices and offerings in honor of the dead were various ; 
 rpira, those offered on the second day after the funeral ; ewara, on the ninth ; TpiamSes. 
 on the thirtieth, when the time of mourning expired, which at Sparta, however, was 
 limited it is said to eleven days : x°a-i and hayitxpara, libations and offerings of flowers 
 and fruits at various times ; ysvfaia, offerings on the birth-day of the deceased ; vtKvo-ia, 
 offerings on the anniversary of the death. — In the case of such as had died in war, the 
 oration at their funerals and at subsequent anniversaries of their decease, was viewed as 
 so important that the speaker for the occasion was appointed by the public magistrates. 
 Thus Pericles was appointed, when the Athenians solemnized a public funeral for those 
 first killed in the Peloponnesian war (Thucyd. ii. 34) ; and Demosthenes, when the same 
 honor was rendered to those who fell in the fatal battle of Choaronea (cf. Clifford's 
 Greece, ch. xlvii. sect. 6). 
 
 For a very interesting view of the games and exercises performed in honor of the dead, the 
 student is referred to the twenty-third book of the Iliad, where Homer gives an account of the 
 
 funeral of Patroclus. Solemn games with rich prizes were instituted by Alexander in honor 
 
 of his friend Hepha;stion at Ecbatana; the whole ceremonies of the funeral were conducted 
 with great magnificence, according to Arrian (lib. vii). Diodorus Siculus speaks also particu- 
 larly of HephEestion's funeral pile. 
 
 Cf. Comte de Caylus, Le bucher d'Hephaastion, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxxi. 76.— Qwffifr. rfe Quincy, on the 5am,e, in the Mem. 
 de VInslitut, CI ass e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. iv. p. 395, with a plate. 
 
 The custom of honoring by festivals the anniversary of the death of friends and eminent per- 
 sons was followed by some Christians of the early ages, in the celebrations termed paprvpuv 
 y£ve.B\ia. "These festivals were preceded by vigils, and celebrated around the graves of the 
 martyrs, where their lives were read, and eulogies pronounced, the sacrament administered, 
 and public entertainments given gratuitously by the rich." 
 
 See L. Coleman, Antiq. of Christian Church, p. 441. — /. P. Schwabe, De Veneratione erga Martyres in prim. Ecclesia. Lips. 
 174S. 4. 
 
 § 187. The sepulchral monuments of distinguished men were built often 
 with great expense and splendor. Monuments were also frequently erected to 
 them in other spots, where their ashes were not deposited. 
 
 1. In early times, the Greeks were accustomed to place their dead in repositories, 
 made for the purpose, in their own houses. Temples also were sometimes made repo- 
 sitories for the dead ; especially for such as had rendered eminent public services. But 
 in later ages it became the general custom to bury the dead without the cities and 
 chiefly by the highways. At Athens the most common place of burial was near the 
 road leading to the Peirasus, outside of the Itonian gate, which on that account was 
 styled the burial gate (Jipiai nv\ai) ; those who had fallen in battle, however, were buried 
 in the outer Cerameicus, at the public expense. Graves at first were mere openings 
 dug in the earth, imoyaia. Soon there was a custom of paving and arching them with 
 stone. The place of interment was originally marked simply by a barrow or mound 
 of earth {x&pa) ; which sometimes had a circular basis of masonry (Kprpris). On this a 
 rude stone (a%ia) was placed afterwards ; then, a stone more carefully prepared, a cippus 
 or truncated column ; at length, larger and more imposing monuments were built. 
 
 2. The terms pvijpa and pvnpzlov were applied to designate the whole structure, includ- 
 ing the receptacle for the remains and the monumental erections. Two parts are dis- 
 criminated ; (1) the grave strictly, called Si]k>?, a-nf]\amv, rvp0oc, ra^oc, >)piov, which last means 
 specially the portion under ground ; (2) the space around it, usually fenced with poles or 
 a sort of balustrade, called Spty/cdc, o-ranj, TrEptotroifyii), spwc, cnKdg; within this space the 
 monumental pillars (o-rfjXai) and ornaments were erected. — The various monuments have 
 been discriminated under four heads; 1. o-r^Xai, designating upright tablets terminating 
 in an oval heading called bciQnpa, but applied to any form of sepulchral pillars ; 2. K'wvcg, 
 columns; 3. rpdm^at, flat horizontal tablets; 4. vpya or vaika, small buildings in the 
 form_ of temples. — On the pillars, or other structures forming the tomb, were placed 
 inscriptions {btiypa-fiat) ; and often images of the deceased {ayaXpara), and also other orna 
 ments, with devices denoting their character and pursuits or particular achieve- 
 
p. in. domestic affairs, monuments for the dead. 223 
 
 merits. Thus on the monument of Diogenes was inscribed the figure of a dog ; on that 
 of Isocrates, a syren reclining upon a ram ; on that of Archimedes, a sphere and cylin- 
 der. Tombs adorned with sculptured bas-reliefs have been discovered at Athens and 
 other places. Some of the most remarkable Greek tombs were recently discovered 
 in Lycia. 
 
 See De Boze, Descript. d'un Tombeau, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Imcr. iv. 648.— Arclimolo^ia, (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3), 
 vol. xiii. p. 280, on a Greek sepulchral Monument ; with a plate. — Also, specially, Becker's Chancles j and Stackelbere. Die Graber 
 
 der Helleuen. Berl. 1837. On the tombs of Lycia, C. Fellows, Account of Discoveries in Lycia, a Journal kept during a second 
 
 Excursion in Asia Minor. Lond. 1841. 8. with thirty-eight plates. Cf. C. Fellows, Journal during an Excursion, in Asia Miner 
 Lond. 1839. 8. with twenty-two plates. 
 
 3. Cenotaphs (.Kevoracpia, xevfipia.) were monuments erected for the dead, which were not the 
 repositories for their remains. They were raised both for persons who had never obtained a 
 proper funeral, and also for such as had received funeral honors in another place. It was a 
 notion of the ancients, that the ghosts of unburied persons could not be admitted into the regions 
 of the blessed without first wandering a hundred years in misery ; and if one perished at sea or 
 where his body could not be found, the only way to procure repose for him was to build an 
 empty tomb, and by certain rites and invocations call his spirit to the habitation prepared for it. 
 
 4. A common place of sepulture for many individuals was called noXvav&pinv. — The term 
 Koinnrfipiov, cemetery, appears to have been introduced by Christians, in accordance with their 
 faith, that the grave is but a temporary sleeping-place. The early Christians protested against 
 the practice of burning the bodies of the dead, and followed the Jewish custom of burying them. 
 In the fourth century, an open space near the church was appropriated for the burial of princes 
 and the clergy, which was afterwards made common to all the members of the church. In 
 earlier periods, the Christians buried their dead chiefly in subterranean excavations, which were 
 often of vast extent, and which in those days of persecution served at once as the home of the 
 living and the repository of the dead. See $ 341. 8. 
 
 5. The custom of raising splendid monuments in honor of the dead at length led to 
 such extravagance, that it became necessary to impose penal restraints. The splendor 
 of the monument erected to Mausolus (cf. P. II. § 72) occasioned the word Mausoleum 
 to be applied as a common name to such structures. It is said to have been more than 
 400 feet in compass, surrounded by 36 beautiful columns. 
 
 See De Caylus, Tombeau de Mausole, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xxvi. 321. — Sainte Croix, Tomb, de Maus. in the Mem. de Vln- 
 stitut, C 1 a s s e d'flist. &c. ii. 506. 
 
 In our Plate XVIII. are some specimens of monumental structures. Fig. 1 represents a tomb 
 of white marble at Mourghab in Persia, corresponding to the ancient Pasargada ; it has com- 
 monly been supposed to be the Tomb of Cyrus, which was erected by himself, and visited by 
 Alexander (cf. Jlrrian, vi. 29) ; some, however, declare it to be a more modern structure. Cf. 
 
 Morier, cited P. IV. $ 243. 3. Fig. 2 represents a structure called Absalom's Pillar, which 
 
 stands near Jerusalem (cf. P. I. $ 168 b). In the time of Josephus there was a marble structure 
 by this name, said to have been reared by Absalom (cf. 2 Sam. xviii. 18). The one here given is, 
 however, no doubt, comparatively recent. "The lower portion is quadrangular, standing 
 detached from the living rock, from which it was hewn. Upon the four facades are cut Ionic 
 pillars, above which is a frieze with Doric metopes and triglyphs. Over this basis rises a square 
 piece of masonry, smaller; and the whole is crowned by a tall conical tower;" and the "dome 
 or cupola runs up into a low spire, which spreads a little at the top like an opening flower." Cf. 
 
 Robinson, as cited P. I. $ 171. vol. ii. p. 519. Fig. 3 gives a view of the Tomb of Cestius at 
 
 Rome ; cf. P. IV. $ 226. 1 : it is taken from Pronti, cited P. IV. $ 243. 2. Fig. 4 presents the 
 
 gates of a tomb ; over them is a Greek inscription, Olycon and Hemera to the infernal gods ; Mer- 
 cury, with his wand, is represented as in the act of closing or opening them, it being a part of his 
 office to introduce departed spirits into Hades. See P. II. $ 32. 1. $ 56. Cf. Calmet, Dictionary, 
 &c. vol. iii. p. 279. Chariest. 1813. 
 
PLATE XXVla, 
 
 ATTIC CIVIL INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 Classes of the Population. 
 
 Theso were— Cititmi, UoXXrat ; Residents, Miroucoi ; 
 
 Slaves, &of>\m j and Strangers, H^'">t. 
 IloXXreu, divided hy Cecrops into 4 Tribes, <H\(u ; 
 
 Bach 'VvMj into il Races, Qparplat, v JE0voj ; 
 
 Each *(«rp(« Into 30 Kindreds, Vivn, TptaKdctcs ; 
 
 Hia Tribes, KeKpOTric, A4rJ.Y"wi', 'A/croia, Ilo.paWa. 
 jTnfccs, by Clisthenes, ten ; afterwards, twelve. 
 Solbn'l I Olassa, ncvraKoinoiMtiivm, 'InitcXs, 
 
 Zfivytrai, GiJVsc ; according to wealth, 
 A division also into 174 A5)^oi, or Wards. 
 
 Various Public Officers. 
 
 1. For the Executive. 
 
 The Eleven, 'CU "EvSuea i a sort 
 of Sheriffs the No/moWXatcej 
 perhaps the samo. 
 
 Ttio texiarcbi, Ayllapx 01 » B ' x 
 chief; 80 subordinate. 
 
 The Toxotx, To|o>ai ; 1000. 
 
 2. For the Legislature. 
 
 The President 'EtrtirrdTijs 
 
 of Senate, rl)c UovXfJ;. 
 
 The President 'Elrto-rart/c 
 
 of Assembly, rf)c 'KkkXijcioj. 
 The Proedri, lTpifeffprn. 
 The Prytanes, Ilpvravct;. 
 The iVomofflefffl, No/toMra(. 
 The Syndics, Edvducot. 
 Tho Orators, *Pijrt>pES, same as 
 
 Svvijyapot. 
 The Fphiidor, ' Ki/uVuip, having care 
 
 oftheClepsydtai 
 The Syngraphs, Zvvyoa<}itls ; 30, 
 
 who collected the votes. 
 The Clerks, Tpa/t/iarttc. 
 Heralds, KljpwiMS. 
 ^meassadors, npctr/fors. 
 Tlie Pylagori, rivXaydpoi, delegates 
 
 to tho 'A/i0iKTtioWa. 
 
 3. Oonnocted with the 
 
 Courts. 
 
 Tho Jrcovagilie, 'ApeioKctylrcu. 
 
 The lleliastic, 'IMiao-Tai. 
 
 The Ephctie, 'Fjflrai. 
 
 The Tribe-kings, $v\opa<ri\eX;. 
 
 The Paredri, ndpctfpoi, who sat in 
 
 Courts held by Archons. 
 Dicasfs, Aisao-Tot. 
 nt0COWI<anl«i Aoyttrral. 
 Directors, 'FaiOvvoI. 
 Stmimone.rs, KMjropt;. 
 !7sto's, KiytcXfisS, 
 
 4. For Public Works and 
 
 Lands. 
 
 SnjitTmtoiiteitj 'ETrto-Trfrat 
 
 of Buildings, tu)v 'Epytov. 
 Supertofendehff 'ETuo-rdTat 
 
 0/ JTilttTS, TcOV {ilTrtTWV. 
 
 Guard of Founts, Kpi]vo(px>\a%. 
 Surveyors C Ways, 'OooTTocoi, 
 
 of I Walls, Ttt.xoirotoi. 
 Jlttt/nomi, 'Aarrvvd/toi, having care 
 of streets, &c. 
 
 ClerOUChi, KXtjpoC^ix, to divide 
 lands itt colonics ; applied also to 
 the settlers. 
 
 5. For the Treasury. 
 
 Chief Tamias, Tafila; rf)c Atoi- 
 Ktjo-Ewc ; for 4 years, or 5. 
 
 Sub-Treasurers, TafuoX/x 01 ! 
 Ta/tias rtev 0-Tp<iTiumKc3v, 
 Tafelas rutv -SeiopiKGiv, Ac. 
 
 Collectors of Fines, npdKToptj. 
 
 Taxgathcrirs, 'EsXoystc. 
 
 Ilcllcnatatnin; ' F.MrjVoraniai, for 
 tho Tribute from Greek allies. 
 
 Poletx, nui,\!)Tai, ten ovorsecrs of 
 sales. 
 
 Thcori, Oraipol, deputies with pre- 
 sents for festivals, &c. 
 
 .Am v*,),v of taxes, 'KTuypaf/tste. 
 
 Registers of accounts, Aiaypa</ȣf J. 
 
 Auditors, 'Av7iypac\cZc. 
 
 Receivers, 'Arroi^KTai. 
 
 GofacWfa, ICwAafcpsral] for money 
 
 duo to tho temples. 
 Searchers, on Deits, ZtjrtjTn!, 
 on Confiscations, Mao-T?;psy. 
 
 6. Connected with Trade. 
 
 The Sitophylaees, Zito(J>vUkss- 
 The SllOliic, EiriSfai. 
 The SftorriBtra, Eiro/itTpat. 
 Outwears of Port, 'Eiri/taAtyrat 
 'E/itropioii, or Tali» VEuipfaiv. 
 
 fi»«ped W C™* Wj ' MtT < ,0, ' rf '' , »' 
 
 < Markets, 'Ayopavrf/tot, 
 
 {.Fish, 'Otpovdjiot, 
 Pilots, N(ii'0t''AnK£S„ 
 
 7, For Manners and 
 
 Morals, 
 
 (Enoptic, 'Otvdnrat, to notice wine- 
 
 mixing at banquets. 
 Gty-iiascoawmi, ri'vatKo/edcr/iot, to 
 
 watch tlie dress of women. 
 Gytiaconomi, TvvatKovdfAot, to 
 
 guard the conduct of wpmen. 
 PhratoreSj ^paropss, to see to the 
 
 register of births. 
 SophronistSf Zto(f>pov(<rTai, over 
 
 youth in Gymnasia. 
 OrphanisUSt 'Op^avta-ral, to take 
 
 care of orphans. 
 Episcopi, 'EmtricdKoi, overseers of 
 
 allied cities and colonies; occasional 
 
 office. 
 
 The ^Legislature. 
 
 J&$S6mlly, } K.KK\T)<rta, of all the lloXtrcu. 
 Senate, liovty, of 400 at first; then 600; 
 finally 6c0 ; 50 from each tribe; by lot. 
 
 The Executive. 
 
 Jlrchons, 'Ot *'Apx oVTE S ! Nine, by lot ; the 
 '.EMvu/aoc,, the Hao-tAe^s, the HoA^ap- 
 X<>$, and the six Oeo-jUoO^rat ; forming the 
 State Council. 
 
 The Judiciary. 
 
 Jlrcopngus, 'Apn6nuyo$\ at first, Supreme 
 Epidclphinium } 'K-nl AeX^iWw, ^ in 
 Kpipalladium, *Ktt1 na\Xnftf;u, I Actions 
 Epiprytaneum, 'F.Ttinpvravsly, | o/ 
 Enphrcattium, l Ev ftpso!TTo7, J iJloorf. 
 iSVZtBCtj 'lUVn^a, the Highest ; -^ 
 PiVfl utftvrs; Tlapdfiva-Tov t I in CttfH 
 
 Tpfywrov, Katvdi;, Td iirl [ Actions, 
 
 Avkov, and T<J M^t^ov, J 
 
 The Diatetze, Aiairyral ; two kinds; pwWtt, 
 
 KXqpOTol ; jari'vata, AtpBxo^ ; Arbitrators or 
 
 Referees. 
 The Forty') Tfirro-aptiKoTra, a Circuit Court 
 
 for the Afyfiot. 
 The Xautodiac, Navrofflxai, in naval afl'.iirs ; 
 
 nt rirsBUS. 
 The fiw(<Mte, 'EisToo-Tol, of 10 Aoyto-Tat 
 
 and 10 'Kvffvvol ; on accounts of officers. 
 The TliOSmothetaSy Gccr/toO^Trtt, on subjects 
 
 not falling to other Courts. 
 
 Actions in J^aw. 
 
 Public, AtKat i^/iAriat ; Which included 
 rpn0?;, 'Itio-tc, "Erdstgij, 'Affaywy?), 
 'K(/»Jy^tr(c t , Avd\)o\'i)\j.>Ca, 'EtsayysAfaj 
 under the rpo.(/VJ) came the highest crimes; 
 tnurrfer, &c. 
 
 Pmiare, A^xnt Iff^at ; including actions for 
 trespass, HAa/57/s ; (Ap/Y, &C 
 
 Punishments. 
 
 fi'/ic, 7.t)f.da ; Disgrace, 'Anfila ; Slacmj, 
 AovXtia \ branding; SWy/ia ; Poititlg t 
 T.TtjM) ; Sonds, Aeafiot ; P-anis-hint-nty 
 fctiyi) ; Death, Qdvaros ; 'Oo-TpttKttr/idj,' 
 was Banishment for 10 years. 
 
 Civic Honors. 
 
 .5\Ys( Seac, npo£6"pfa ; Sta(t<flj, 'KtKrfvEj ; 
 Ooums, £T^0ovot; Exemption, 'ArAeta; 
 fensJon, by EiT'ga-tc. 2v npvT«i-'e^. 
 
 Revenues. 
 
 f\Yief| Tt/«J/trtTrt ; Tril/utes, fllrfpotj Rents, 
 T^X?/ ; ConiriluKonj, 'Ets^opoi ; fferw*ce», 
 
 A«Tovpytfat ; the latter including Xop?/- 
 yfo, rv/tvao-tnp^'fa, 'Kori'ao-ij, and 
 Tpajpapftta. 
 
 Expenditures. 
 
 PuftliO rT r orftj, "Epya (T?;^o'(rta; 
 
 ]0M(at Sftaio*, rio/trrai, k. t. A. 
 
 Oonatiuer, Ami'o/i«l ; 
 
 Theatric Fee } Auopo\(a ; 
 
 Pay of Senate, MtuO^s BovXsVTCIcd^; 
 
 Pay of Assembly, MttrObs FKK^ijcnacTiKds; 
 
 Pay of Army, Mtcr0d$ ZTpreTtwTiXiJs ; 
 
 Pny of Navy, MurQd$ Nav7tKL>$ ; &c. 
 
 224 
 
ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 § 188. It belongs to the topios of history and geography rather, than antiqui- 
 ties to describe the origin and progress <>r the Romans, and the extent of 
 their empire. Yet, a glance at these subjects, and a fe,w remarks upon them, 
 will aid in getting a better view of the Roman antiquities, and enable one to 
 understand and appreciate more correctly the people and their more important 
 peculiarities. Some notices of Rome and its empire will be given first, and 
 then something respecting the Romans themselves. 
 
 § 18!). According to the common accounts pf history, the city of Rome was 
 founded 752 It. C. by Romulus and Remus, grand-children of the Alban king 
 Numitor. It was situated not far from the mouth of the Tiber, in Latiurn, a 
 province in middle Italy. In the beginning it was of small extent, confined to 
 Mount Palatine, on which it was built. The numbeT of inhabitants did not 
 amount to 4,000. This more ancient part of the city was afterwards called »p- 
 
 pidum, while the better pari,, later built, was called urbs, which beci i at 
 
 length a general name for Rome. It was first peopled by some families from 
 Alba Longa, and afterwards by various accessions (<•!'. I*. IV. § ion, no); 
 partly of the vagabond and worthless from the neighboring people of Italy. 
 
 i a. The Capitoline I Mil was occupied oexl after the Palatine. and al lasi five other 
 mountains or hills were included in the city, and thence was derived the epithet septi- 
 
 ro/lis. The firsl walls am I the city with low and weak ; Tarquinius t'riscus and 
 
 Sorvius Tullius improved them. 
 
 :. a Among the principal events which greatly changed the appearance of the city 
 were the capture and bun , of ii by the Gauls, 385 a. C, and the erection of mi- 
 ni, rous buildings in the reign of Augustus, and after the conflagration under Nero. 
 in I'd i wo lasi mentioned periods, Rome was very rapidly enlarged and adorned, and 
 continued to be further improved under succeeding emperors down to the time of Ho« 
 norius. In his reign occurred the capture and sack of Rome by the Goths under 
 Alaric, A. D. 410, The city was in a greal measure rebuilt by Theodoric. Bui by 
 
 thai disaster, and the still greater devastati i oi the I rothic I mg Totila, A. I). 547, 
 
 it hist much of its ancienl splendor. Ii continued to wane during the ages following. 
 
 3 a. After all the exertions of the later popes to restore its former beauty, there is 
 avast difference between modern and ancient Rome. Of the latter we find only 
 certain traces and monuments, and these are in pari mere ruins and fragments. 
 
 /'. Macquitr, Rontlielu Jabtblichor, adei chronol. Abrlii dw Oaten. Rooii) tui deni Franz, ml! Amn«rk, veil ''■ ". Vich 
 Lelpj 1783, 6. 
 a mora fiorlli ular notlci oi [hi topogi iphy of Rome Ii given In P. I, Yt M-71. 
 
 § 190. In the most flourishing period of Rome, at the close of the republic 
 ami beginning of the imperial monarchy, the population was very great. The 
 number of citizens may be estimated at three hundred thousand, and the wlmln 
 number of residents at two millions and upwards. 
 
 "Concerning the number of inhabitants in ancienl I, 'nun', we can only form conjee 
 tures Liptiua computes them, iri its most flourishing state, al four millions." {Adam,) 
 Tacitus (Annals, L. xi, c. 25) states, thai by o census in the reign of Claudius thi 
 
 number of Roman citizens ai nted to nearly sevon millions! it is supposed that 
 
 thi i number rmi il have included the citizens in other places besides the city of Rome 
 itself. — Gibbon has the following remarks on the population of the Roman ompirei 
 "The number of subjects « ho acknowledged the lawn of Rome, of citizens, of pro- 
 vincials, and oi lavi cannol now be fixed with such a degree oi accuracy as thi 
 importance ol the object would deserve. We are informed thai when the emperor 
 Claudius exercised the office of Censor. \u: took an account of six millions nine hun 
 dred and forty five thousand Roman citizens, who with the proportion of women and 
 children musl have, amounted to about twenty millions ol souls, The multitude of 
 ■ubjeots, of an inforioi ran] , was uncertain and fluctuating. But after weighing with 
 29 225 
 
226 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 attention every circumstance which could influence the balance, it seems probable 
 that there existed, in the time of Claudius, about twice as many provincials as there 
 were citizens, of either sex and of every age ; and that the slaves were at least equal 
 in number to the free inhabitants of the Roman world. The total amount of ibis im- 
 perfect calculation would rise to about one hundred and twenty millions of persons ; a 
 degree of population which possibly exceeds that of modern Europe, and forms the 
 most numerous society that has ever been united under the same system of govern- 
 ment." 
 
 DelaMalle, Sur la population libre, &c. de la Republ. Rom. in the Mem. de VImtiliit, Classe de Hist, et Lit. Jlnc. vol. i. 461. 
 —R. Wallace, Dissertalion on the Numbers of Mankind in Ancient and Modern Times. Edinb. 1753. 8.— Hume, Essay on the 
 Populousness of Ancient Nations. — Amer. Quart. Register, vol. ix. 140. 
 
 § 191. Originally the authority of Romulus extended scarcely six thousand 
 paces beyond the city. But he and the succeeding kings considerably enlarged 
 the dominion of Rome. During the time of the republic her empire was rapidly 
 and widely spread, and at length, by numerous and important conquests, a 
 great part of the known world was subjected to her sway. 
 
 1 u. In the reign of Augustus the limits of the Roman empire were the Euphrates 
 on the east, the cataracts of the Nile, the African deserts, and Mt. Atlas on the south, 
 the ocean on the west, and the Danube and the Rhine on the north. Under some 
 of the succeeding emperors, even these limits were transcended. 
 
 The following countries were subject to Rome: in Asia ; Colchis, Iberia, Alba- 
 nia, Pontus, Armenia, Syria, Arabia, Pakestina, the Bosphorus, Cappadocia, Galatia, 
 Bithynia, Cilicia, Pamphylia, Lydia, in short the whole of Asia Minor : in Africa ; 
 Egypt, Cyrenaica, Marmarica, Gastulia, Africa Propria, Numidia, and Mauretania: 
 and in Europe ; Italia, Hispania, Gallia, the Alps, Rhastia, Noricum, Illyricum, Ma- 
 cedonia, Epirus, Grascia, Thracia, Mcesia, Dacia, and Pannonia. In addition to 
 these were a number of islands, from the Pillars of Hercules to the Black sea, to 
 which Britain may be added. 
 
 2u. Augustus made a division of the whole empire into twelve parts. — The empe- 
 ror Hadrian afterwards gave a new form to this division, and separated Italy, Spain, 
 Gaul, Aquitania and Britannia, Illyricum, Thracia and Africa into provinces. — One 
 of the last changes of this kind was made by Constantine the Great, who divided the 
 empire into four Praefecturates, containing various dioceses and distinct provinces, for 
 the government of which he appointed a number of new magistrates (cf. § 309. 3). 
 
 The most complete description of the Roman Empire, and of its various changes, is found in Onuphrii Panvinii Romanum Im- 
 perium. in the Thesaurus Anttq. Rom. of Grseuius, vol. i. — Cf. Gibbon, Decl. and Fall, &c. ch. I. 
 
 § 192. In a few centuries the Romans acquired a greatness and power, which 
 is altogether singular and the most remarkable in all history. 
 
 1 u. What in the highest degree contributed to this was their warlike character, for 
 which they were from their first origin distinguished. Bodily strength and superior 
 prowess constituted the grand object of their wishes and efforts, and war and agricul- 
 ture were their only pursuits. A great part of the people were directly occupied in 
 their constant wars ; the proportion of soldiers compared with the rest of the citizens 
 is estimated to have been as one to eight. All the early Romans felt an equal interest 
 in defending their country, because the conquered territory was divided equally among 
 them. In addition to all this, much must be ascribed to their policy in the manner of 
 maintaining their conquests, in the treatment of allies, and in arranging the govern- 
 ment of the provinces, and to the respect towards them awakened in other nations. 
 
 2 k. To treat of these topics belongs to history ; yet a brief view of the principal revolutions 
 in Roman affairs seems to be necessary for our object. 
 
 § 193 u. Romulus, the founder and builder of Rome, was the first king. Accord- 
 ing to the common accounts (not altogether certain, however,) six other kings suc- 
 ceeded him; Numa Pompilius, Tulhts Hostilius, Ancus Martins, Tarq-uhiius Pris- 
 cus, Servius Tullius, and Tarquinius Superbiis ; men of active enterprise, who con- 
 tributed to the growth and stability of the nation. The most remarkable circum- 
 stances or events, during the regal form of government, were the division of the peo- 
 ple into Tribes, Curia?, Classes, and Centuries ; the separation of Patricians and Ple- 
 beians ; the establishment of the senate, and of the religious worship ; the settlement 
 of the mode of computing time, of the military discipline, of the valuation and taxa- 
 tion ; and the introduction of coined money. In general it may be remarked, that 
 the principles of the government under this first form were not strictly monarchical, 
 but rather of a mixed character,' and really laid the foundation of the subsequent ad- 
 vantageous system of the republic. During this whole period, the Romans were in- 
 volved in wars ; but this uninterrupted continuity of war contributed to their success, 
 for they never would make peace until they had conquered. The regal government 
 continued 244 years, and was abolished B.C. 509, because the last king, Tarquinius 
 Superbus, bad provoked the nobility by arrogant haughtiness ; and the people by 
 heavy impositions. 
 
P. HI. INTRODUCTION. 227 
 
 The immediate occasion of Tarquin's expulsion and the abolition of the monarchy, is said to 
 have been the vile abuse committed upon Lucretia, wife of Collatinus, by Sextus TarquiniUB, 
 the king's son.— Of. Goldsmith' 8 Rome, by Finhock; p. bO. ed. I'hila. 1835. 
 
 § 194 u. Rome was now a free state, at first aristocratical, and then for a period 
 governed more by the Plebeians, whose importance and power, sustained by their 
 tribunes, constantly increased. During this time the dominion of the Romans, us 
 well as the vigor of their constitution was augmented ; their legislation was judicious ; 
 and their morals comparatively rigid. For a considerable period they maintained an 
 elevated national character, in which simplicity and propriety of manners, a high spirit 
 of enterprise, a strong sense of justice, daring boldness and self-denial and the warmest 
 patriotism, were prominent traits. — The most brilliant era in the Roman republic was 
 the first half of the sixth century from the building of the city, and especially during 
 the sixteen years of the second Punic war, at the close of which Rome was in posses- 
 sion of her greatest strength. But immediately after this, corruption of morals ad- 
 vanced with rapid steps. Among the various causes of this, we may mention the 
 victories in Greece and Asia, the long residence of the legions and officers amidst the 
 luxuries of the east, and at last the overthrow of Corinth and Carthage ; each of these 
 things contributed to the unhappy result. Through debauchery, luxury, and effemi- 
 nacy, the Romans now suffered a universal degeneracy of manners and morals, 
 although they gained from their intercourse with the Greeks and the eastern nations 
 an increase of knowledge and much polish and refinement in matters of taste. 
 
 A valuable work on this subject is the following : Chr. Meiners, Geschiehte des Verfalls dor Sitten und der Staatsverfassung dcr 
 Romer. Leipz. I782. 8.— Also, by same, Geschictite des VerfaltB der Kitten, Wissenschaften und Sprachc der Romer in den ersten 
 Jalirhunderton nach Ch. Geburt. Wien und Leipzig, I79t. 8.— More minute, but especially instructive, is Ad. Ferguson's Rise and 
 
 Frog, of Rom. Republic, cited P. V. § 299. 7. On the slate of morals in ancient Greece and Rome, Spirit of the Pilgrims, vol. iv. 
 
 p. 679. 
 
 § 105 u. Selfishness, avarice, and lust of power were immediate consequences of 
 this degeneracy ; and became in turn causes of the most melancholy disorders in the 
 state, and of those civil wars, the leaders in which contended for the supreme authority. 
 Octavius at last gained the point, and under the name of Augustus was the first pos- 
 sessor of the now established Imperial throne. His reign throughout was a flourish- 
 ing period of Roman history. Some of his successors were worthy rulers. Put 
 much more effectual and more fatal was the influence of those emperors, who dis- 
 graced the throne by the lowest voluptuousness and vilest despotism ; under these, 
 the already prevailing corruption was fully completed. Now arose in rapid succession 
 the most violent and fatal internal commotions; the right of the strongest triumphed 
 over every thing, and although particular emperors endeavored to prop up the sink- 
 ing dominion, it constantly drew nearer and nearer to final ruin. 
 
 Goldsmith's Rome, and Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. Cf. P. V. 6 299. 7. — Bridge's Roman Empire under 
 Constantino the Great. 
 
 § 196. It may be seen from this brief delineation of the Romans, that their 
 history must be crowded with interesting and instructive incidents : and that a 
 familiar acquaintance with their constitution and customs must be highly useful. 
 The utility of studying - the Roman antiquities needs, therefore, no further re- 
 commendation. 
 
 1 u. But besides the indispensable importance of a knowledge of the antiquities in 
 order to understand properly the history of the Romans, there are other advantages, 
 which render it worthy the attention of every lover of literature, and of every one, in 
 fact, who is not wholly indifferent to intellectual refinement and taste. It, is essential 
 as a help in reading the distinguished Roman authors, whose writings are preserved, 
 and in obtaining a correct idea of the various works of Roman art. 
 
 2 u. The best sources, whence a knowledge of Roman antiquities may be drawn, 
 are doubtless the Roman writers themselves, particularly the historians. There are 
 also several Greek writers valuable in this respect, as they lived among the Romans, 
 and being strangers, many things must strike them as more important and remarkable 
 than they might seem to the native citizens. Among the latter class of writers are 
 Polybius, Dionysius, Strabo, Plutarch, Appian and Dion Cassius, and even some 
 later writers, as Procopius, Zonaras, Lydus, &c. Some aid may be derived also from 
 the writings of the Christian Fathers. 
 
 3 u. In modern times Roman antiquities have been formed into a sort of science. 
 The materials drawn from the sources just named, and various others, have been di- 
 gested into regular systems on the one hand, while, on the other, particular branches 
 of the subject have been examined in more full detail. Yet this has perhaps never 
 been done with sufficient knowledge of fact, or adequate or critical skill and discrimi- 
 nation ; the essential has not been sufficiently distinguished from tho less important, 
 nor the general and universal from the particular and local ; nor has there been suita- 
 ble care to note the periods in which the customs and principles were introduced, 
 made prevalent, or changed. These are defects, which we must notice rather than 
 
228 
 
 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 avoid in the brief treatise, upon which we now enter, and which cannot bo fully re- 
 moved without more labor than has hitherto been devoted to tho subject. 
 
 ;■:. I'lutlmr, I'.'luT Wissensohafiliclin Hesrllndinig und ISehandluug dor Anliquilliten, iiibrsundrra der Hum. Marb. 1B12. 8.— 
 F. A. Wolf, Vorlesunseu Ulnir Allerlhiuus wisscnschaft, &o. us oiled P. V. § 7. 9. 
 
 sS 197. Wo mention here some of the principal writers on Roman antiquities. 
 
 1, Tho largest CottecNmt of separate treatises in the Iwo 
 following : 
 
 Jo. Qtorg. Oranrfus, Thesaurus Antlqultatum Romanarum) 
 c. 6g. Troj. id Rhen. 1684-99. IS void, fol, (For an kccQunl 
 hi [ho contents of this, tea Appendix lo nTmnett, olted below.) 
 
 j. (If, Polmw, Supplement toGrasviuaand Gronbvlui. Von. 
 17:17. fi VOll. ful. 
 
 Mli. Hen:: de Sullciljire, Nnvtis Thesaurus antiq. Rom. Bag. 
 
 Com. 1710-19. 3 vols. fol. 
 Very useful on account of it» copiousness ami its good refer. 
 
 iiiii's, in .Sum. ritisei t.ivu.iii Auliq. Human. Hair. Cum. 1737. 
 
 3 vnia. fol. 
 
 As a system formally arranged, may be mentioned, Jo. Rosini 
 Airiiq. Roman. Corpus alisululissimum, c. 11. Y'Au, Prmiisttri. 
 TraJ.ad Rhen. 1710. -1. (Ed, J. P. ReiteitU.) Amst. 1743. 4. 
 
 Some pertinent Ireatlsei are contained In B. r/golinuj, TbesaU 
 rus Antlqultatum Saorarum, complectensaeleotisslma olarlaalmo 
 nun virorum Opuaeula ; In qulbua Vet. Hebrsaorum Mores, Rltus 
 Sacri,&e, illuatrantura Opna ad Phllologlom Sacrom at Profanarn 
 utlllaalmurw Vonet. mi 69, 34 vols. tut. 
 
 Meusel, as died § 210, vol. 3tl exhibits tho writers on Roman 
 Antiquities, &e. 
 
 2. Under tho class of Afonu'ab are the following : 
 
 Thoi. Oodwyn, Roman Antlqultloa, 15th ad. Lond, I6S9. 4. 
 
 J). Q. stnwius, Antlqultatum Romanarum Suntogma, Jen. 
 1701. 4. 
 
 ir. Bocta", Glosaarlum Anttq. Romanarum, Lond, 1726. 8. 
 
 Has. Kennett, Romie Autiquns Notilia. nr Ihr Autiquitirs of 
 Rome, In two Paris, l.oml. n:n. 8. There have been mas; 
 
 later editions ; first American, Phil, 1822. 8. 
 
 i.\ ;/. [Weujport, Rltuum, qui olim apud Romance, obtlnuerunt, 
 sm-i-iiH'i.i expllcatlo. 14th ed, Berl. 1784. 8, 
 
 C. (3. Sioiril;, Observation!'.! ail JVimpuWii Compendium an- 
 
 tlqultatum Romanarum (ed, .'l. M. Jfaftl). aim. i7.',7. s. 
 c. .'. 11. Huiimunii, Ajamerkungen fiber Nimyort's Handbuch 
 
 .1. 1 rfll .'hen Allertlulnier. Dread. 1786. 8. 
 
 Christ. CeRorittt, Compendium Antlq. Rom, emu adnot. /. 
 E. Im. Makhii. 2d ed. Hal. 1774. 8. 
 
 O. C. Matouus win CiianO, Ausfilhrliehn Abhandlung iler 
 li'linisiiien Alterllnllner, heralisse'iiliin von I.'. ('. ,1th 1: Allou.i, 
 J775-76. 4 vols. 4. 
 
 C. Q. Iltynii Antiquitas romana, Inprlmla juris romanl. 
 GOtt. 1779. 8. 
 
 P.F.A. Nitsh, Beachrelbung ilea hlusllcben, wlasenachaftll' 
 
 chin, sittln'hi'ii, solles.lii'nsllli'hen, pnlitischon noil kriegerischeil 
 
 Zustsndea der isomer, nach den vereohtedehen iSeitallero iter Na- 
 1 11.,,. is j. 11. m. Emails. Erfurt, IS12. 2 vols. 8,— Saute Work 
 abridged (by Ernestl). Erf. 1SI2. s. 
 
 K. Ph. Merits, ANOOYSA, odor Horn's Alterthihncr. 1st pari 
 (of tho aacred rites of ihe Romana). Barh 1791-97, 8. 2d pari 
 (of the civil and private affairs), ed, bj P. RorriAaeA, Berl, I78B. 
 
 Alexander Mum, Roman Antiquities, &e. Edtnb. 1791. 8. 
 Often reprinted. An improved ml. by James Boyd, Edlub. ISM, 
 >2u,o. Anollirr eid. by /. 11. Major. Oxf. 1837. 8.— Trausl. into 
 German, with improvements, by /. L. Meyer (3d til.) Erlang. 
 ISIS. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 J. K. Linger, Sitlcn unit Gebrauche der Rftuwr. Wicu. 1805-6. 
 2 vols. 8. with plains. 
 
 Q. 0. JCbphe, Autiqnitatps Romana), in xii. tab. descr. Borl. 
 1S0S. 
 
 L. Schaaff, Anliquitalen und Arch.lologle dor Griochen und 
 Romer. (la his Encydop. d. class. Mlterthttmshiude). Magdeb. 
 1820. 8. 
 
 F.Crmtier, Abriss iter romischen Aiiliquittlten zum Gebrauche 
 oei Vorleaungen, Loijiz. 1824. 8. 
 
 /. P. Fttss, Romas Auliquities. Trauslaled from the Gorman, 
 •utf. 1640. 8. 
 
 The 5lh vol. of PP&V'jVorleaungen, 11 died P, V. § 7.9, treats 
 of Roman istlqullles. 
 Leu extenalve, but useful 'and Instructive, la the following 
 
 J. II. I.. Mtieiuttt', I'lber Sitleu ilu.l l.ehensart iler Kmiier, in 
 v.'isiliir.l.'Lirii /I'iten tier Itepublik. lU'ilin, ISI I. 8. (Edt Fht 
 
 BuKmdnn). 
 
 Worthy of mention also is, VViteoalfs Roman Cdnveraatlonai or 
 Deeerlptlona oftKe Antiquities of Rome, Lond. i7t>7. 2 vols. 8. 
 The following are abridgments : 
 
 Abriss iler :;i iei'li. un,l innnseh, Alli'ithllmer, von Chr. Fried. 
 
 iiuucke. Stendal, ts2l. 
 Roman Antiquities, and Anolenl Mythology, for Classical 
 
 Schools; by C7,«. A'. IHIlaway. Boston, 1S3I ; -'I a,d. 1685. 
 ZVioj.S. Can; Manual of Rom. Antiquities, l.unil. ls:Hi. 12. 
 
 3. Wo may also refer here to Muntfancon's Antiipiite Kv- 
 pilqu.e'e, as Illustrating bj Ha plntaa and descriptions Roman as 
 well as 1 .'M.'.'c anllqutllea (of, 4 13). 
 
 The [bllowlng work oontaina many excellent delineations 1 
 Raccolta Tavolo rappresent. i i-osluini leli^iosi, eivili e militart 
 degll aniii'hi Bgldani, Etruschl, Greolo Romanl,trattl dagll anil- 
 chi monuinenti.-iiis.'siaie, e,i India in tame, iia Comuolioa> 
 c/u^-l; inn,. 2 vols. -i. containing one hundred plates each. 
 
 As pertaining especially to the subject of costume, we add, 
 Bardoti, resin deaAnplena Penplesi Par. itso. 2 vols. 4, 
 
 A Le/ns, Lo Costume, on Esaai sur lea habillemeuts et let 
 nsagea de plus, peupli de L'Antlqultd, prouve* par les monuments, 
 Liege, 1776. 4. 
 
 /7ii..v. Hbju, The Costume of the Ancients. Lond. isi2. 2 vols. 
 8. with numerous engravings In outline. New ed, Lond. 1841 
 
 2 vols, 8. 
 
 Particularly, Afafllof and Martin, Recherchea sur les cos- 
 limns, les mrnurs, be, dea onclena peuples, (tc. — ornd do 298 
 planches, au trait. Par. 1804-6. 3 vols. 4. •• The first volume 
 
 contains, in great detail, Ihe OOStume, manners, Btc, of the Uo- 
 muis, from tieiuuliis In the t.ist ein|ierurs of CoUStOntlnOple. 
 
 The engravings urn taken from meii.ils and monuments of eacii 
 
 ,'IHH'll," 
 
 4. It is proper also to refer hero to works illustrating tha 
 remains of Human Antiquity, 
 
 See 1'. !Y. !>> 130, I3S, 187, 188, 191,226,2-13, 
 
 F. *J. Daiild, Antlquitda d'Haroutanura, Par. 17SB-IS03. 
 12 vols. 4. 
 
 W, Stiikrkt/, tliuorarium Curiosum, &0, Lond, 1760. 2 vols, 
 in one, ful. with iwo hundred copper plates ; containing nollees 
 of Roman monuments In England, 
 
 The Publications of tho lustitutu di Ctnmsptmdmza Archeo- 
 logioa, a society fur orohasologlcal correspondence, founded in 
 Rome by several ilistinguisheil scholars and antiquaries. Tho 
 Hultetimi dell' rnsttiufo, commenced IS29, contains brief notices 
 of new discoveries and new works, with other articles "i special 
 
 interest. Jly the title of MillHiiltilf, liledili. the annual volume 
 of plates is .lesisn.ilisl. The .Innali dell' Instituto, the Chief 
 publication, gives essays, reviews, and extended lleseriptions. 
 
 Gerhard, Restner, Raoul'Rochette, B0ck,Panofka, Hirt, Mttller, 
 
 Mllllngen, .^c. have been contrihutors. 
 
 C. On various points it will bo useful so consult Lardner, 
 I'uulij, ll'ihr, l\«l.rokc, &0, as cited § 13. 6. 
 
 Also, F, Sul't'utriier, Institutions, Mannci-s, and Customs of tha 
 Ancient Nations. Translated from the French by P. Stockdale. 
 
 W. Smith, Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities.' 
 
 6. Other references lo authors on particular topics »re given 
 under the sections treating o( those topics. 
 
 Lwkhart's Valerius, Buhver's Pompeii, and IflireV Letters 
 from Palmyra, are tictions professim; to exhibit the state of man- 
 ners iu the first centuries alter I'hrisl. 
 
V. III. RELIGION OF THE ROMANS. 229 
 
 § 198. We shall treat the Roman Antiquities, as we did the Greek, under 
 four distinct branches; thus exhibiting separately the affairs of religion, civil 
 government, war, and private life. 
 
 I. UEMGIOUS AFFAIRS. ' 
 
 § 199. As the word religion is of Roman origin, it may be well to notice the 
 ideas attached to this term in the Latin language. Originally, religio seems to 
 have signified every sort of serious and earnest exertion, to which one was im- 
 pelled by external or internal motives. Afterwards, it was used chiefly to ex- 
 press the included idea of duty towards the Deity and towards fellow-creatures; 
 and the theory of this, as well as the practice, then took the name of religion. 
 In the plural number, the word usually designates the regulations and practices 
 pertaining to the worship and propitiation of the Deity. And, in as much as 
 the knowledge and practice of duty towards men and the Divine Being will 
 lead to a certain permanent moral sensibility and conscientiousness of deport- 
 ment, the word religio was also naturally employed as comprehending in its 
 meaning this correctness of morals. 
 
 § 200. In inquiring into the origin of the religion of the Romans, we must 
 revert to the origin of the nation, already noticed (§ 189). There doubtless 
 existed in Latium, long before the founding of Rome various religious customs 
 and the worship of various divinities ; and it is not easy to trace out their 
 gradual rise and establishment. By the subsequent colonies from Greece, Elis, 
 and Arcadia, this native religion received many additions and modifications ; 
 hence the great similarity between the Greek and Roman systems of mythology 
 and worship (cf. P. II. § 8). In some particulars the Roman traditions differ 
 from those of the Greeks, where the divinities and their chief attributes are the 
 same. The Romans also adopted several religious usages not practiced by the 
 Greeks, as e. g. in relation to auguries and auspices, which were borrowed from 
 the Etrurians. To the latter source we may chiefly ascribe the great prevalence 
 of superstition in the earliest part of the Roman history. 
 
 § 201. The religion of the Romans was, like that of the Greeks, intimately 
 connected with their politics. It was often employed as a means of promoting 
 secret designs of state, which the projectors knew how to render agreeable and 
 desirable, by the help of superstition. Thus the inclinations of the mass of the 
 people were determined by pretended oracles and signs. Many military enter- 
 prises derived their most effective stimulus from this source; and not seldom 
 it furnished the strongest motives to patriotic exertion, since love of country 
 was held to be a religious duty. The pomp of the religious solemnities and 
 festivals served to foster and to deepen sentiments of awe and fear towards the 
 gods, and thus contributed to the same end. The purpose and influence of the 
 gods were considered as effecting much in all events and transactions, and this 
 belief was greatly confirmed by the artifice of the poets, who sought to impart 
 dignity to the incidents of their stories, by describing the intervention and agency 
 of the gods therein. 
 
 § 202. On the first establishment of the city, Romulus made it a prominent 
 object to render the national religion a means of union between the various and 
 discordant materials of which the first inhabitants were composed. Still more 
 carefully was this object pursued by his successor Numa, who is viewed as the 
 chief author of many of the religious usages of the Romans, which were in part, 
 as has been suggested, borrowed from the Greeks and Etrurians. His pretend- 
 ed interviev/s with a supernatural being, the nymph Egeria, secured greater 
 respect and success in his efforts. The fundamental principles of N uma's 
 system, being retained, were afterwards carried out more fully and variously.- 
 As knowledge and sound philosophy advanced among the Romans, the religious 
 notions of the more intelligent portion were gradually rectified and elevated ; 
 but this was confined to a few, while the great mass adhered to the common 
 faith, even in the period when the system became inconsistent and cumbrous by 
 the deification of the emperors. 
 
 On Numa, cf. P, V. § 447.— I or a particular account of the gods worshiped by the Roman*, we refer to the part (II.) of this wor» 
 which treats of the subject of Mythology. The Roman division or classification of their gods is noticed in (I'. II.) ■',■ 9. 
 
230 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 § 203. The great number of the Roman deities occasioned a large number of 
 temples, of which, as some assert, there were in Rome above four hundred [four 
 hundred and twenty]. The name of temples, lempla, however, properly belong- 
 ed only to such religious buildings as were solemnly consecrated by the augurs; 
 by this circumstance, and also by a less simple style of architecture, they were 
 distinguished from the sedes sacrse, although the names are often used inter- 
 changeably. Their form was almost entirely in Grecian taste, oblong rectangu- 
 lar oftener than round. It was customary to dedicate them with various cere- 
 monies, on laying the foundation and on the completion of the building, and 
 also after a remodeling or repairing of it. — The principal parts of a temple were 
 commonly the sanctuary (cella sanctior, adytuni), the interior, appropriated for 
 the ceremonies of sacrifice, and the exterior or court, serving for various pur- 
 poses. The temples, however, were often used, not only for religious solemni- 
 ties, but also for meetings of the senate, select councils, and the like. They 
 usually stood in an open place, and were surrounded with pillars, or at least 
 ornamented with them on the front. 
 
 On the structure of ancient temples, cf. P. IV. § 234, and references there given. On the temples at Rome, cf. P. I. §§ 5S-60.— » 
 
 See Simon, Temples de l'ancienne Rome, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 199. 
 
 § 204. The Romans adorned the interior of their temples, as did the Greeks, 
 with statues of the gods, with other works of sculpture and painting, and with 
 consecrated offerings of various kinds, called donaria. Every thing connected 
 with a temple was held as sacred to the god or gods to whom it was devoted.— 
 A general name for such places as were sacred to the gods, even if no buildings 
 were there erected, was fanurn. The word delubrum, on the other hand, had a 
 more limited meaning, signifying properly only that portion of the temple where 
 stood the images of the gods, one or more; but it is often used in a more gene- 
 ral sense. Small temples, or chapels, also places for worship without roofs and 
 only guarded by a wall, were termed sacella. Among the groves (Juci) conse- 
 crated to the gods, of which there were thirty-two in the city, those of Vesta, 
 Egeria, Furina, and Juno Lucina were the most noted. 
 
 § 205. Mars were sometimes erected apart from any temple, and were then 
 inscribed merely with the name of the god to whom they were dedicated; usu- 
 ally, however, they were placed in temples. A distinction was made between 
 altaria and arse; the former were raised higher {alia ara), and were used for 
 offering the sacrificial victim; the latter were lower, and were used in offering 
 the prayer and libation. The former were more usually consecrated to the 
 celestial gods ; the latter, to the infernal. They stood one behind the other, and 
 were so placed that the images of the gods appeared behind them. 
 
 1 u. There was also a third kind of altar, anclabris or enclabris, a sort of table, on 
 which the sacrificial utensils were placed and the entrails of victims were laid by the 
 Haruspices. The mensa sacra was something still different, a table on which incense 
 was sometimes presented, and offerings not designed to be burned, as various arti- 
 cles of fruit and food. — Altars were sometimes made of metals, even of gold or some 
 metal gilded, but more frequently of marble and other stones, commonly of a white 
 color. Sometimes they were hastily formed of ashes, earth or turf, or the horns of 
 victims. The form of altars was various, quadrangular oftener than round. Not un- 
 frequently they were adorned w 7 ith sculpture and image-work. 
 
 Different forms of altars are seen in our Plate XXVII. fig. B, C, m. Fig. t is the enclabris. 
 Fig. H is a representation of Solomon's altar of burnt offering (cf. 2 Cbron. iv. 1); given by Pri- 
 deaux, as drawn according to accounts of the Rabbins ; copied and described in Calmet, Diet. 
 &c. vol. iii. p. 144, 357, ed. Chariest. 1813. — Fig. E. is an altar erected as a sepulchral monument, 
 in honor of a Roman emperor; it is highly ornamented with sculptures, and bears an inscrip- 
 tion ; the letters D M stand for Diis Manibus. The elevations at the corners in this and in fig. 
 H, show what is designated by the phrase " horns of the altar." — In Plate XX. are other forms 
 of the altar. In the Sup. Plate 30, are four others ; on the altar of Jupiter is seen the bust of 
 the god, and below it an eagle holding a thunderbolt in his claws ; beneath this, in the original 
 monument, is the inscription, I. O. M. IVSSA OCTAVIA SVCCESSA P.; i. e. Jovi Optimo 
 Maximo, jussa Octavia Successa posuit. On the altar of Bacchus, a Bacchanal is dancing over a 
 prostrate wine-cup, holding another cup in one hand and the thyrsus in the other. The altar 
 of Neptune is one of the four discovered at Antium (Nettuno); on it is sculptured Neptune with 
 the trident in his left hand and a dolphin in his right; above this is inscribed, in the original, 
 ARA NEPTVNI. The tripod was often used as the form of an altar to Apollo; the very re- 
 markable one given in this Plate corresponds to a representation on a silver coin of Consul M. 
 JEm. Lepidus. — See Montfaucon (as cited P. II. $ 12), ii. 242. 132. Sup. ii. 56. — For various altars 
 as sepulchral erections, see Montfaucon, vol. v. and Suppl. vol. v. — Roman altars have repeat- 
 edly been found in England. Archaologia, as cited P. IV. $ 32. 5. vol. iii. p IIS, 324. 
 
PLATE XXVII. 
 
~32 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 2. It was common also to adorn altars with fillets or ribins, and garlands of herbs and 
 flowers. Altars and temples afforded a place ot refuge among the Romans as well as 
 Greeks (cf. § 66), chiefly for slaves from the cruelty of masters, for insolvent debtors 
 and criminals, where it was impious to touch them, although contrivances might be 
 employed (as e. g. kindling a fire around them) to force them away, or they might be 
 confined there until they perished. 
 
 § 206. A great variety of instruments and vessels, vasa sacra, were employed 
 in the sacrifices offered to the gods. 
 
 1 u. The most important were the following : the ax (bipennis, securis, d, d), or 
 club (malleus, c), with which the victim was first struck; knives for stabbing {cultri, 
 e, e), and others, long, two-edged, for dividing the flesh and entrails (secespitm) ; the 
 censer (thuribulum, 1), and the box containing the substance burnt for incense (acerra 
 or arcula thuraria, 5) ; a vessel used in dropping the wine upon the sacrifices (gultus) ; 
 a flat vessel in which the priests and others offering sacrifices tasted the wine (simpit- 
 lum, b) ; broad dishes or bowls (patera, i, 2), for wine and the blood of the victims ; 
 an oblong vase with one or two handles (capedo, capeduncula, capis, o, o) ; vessels to 
 hold the entrails (ollce extares) ; plates on which the entrails and flesh were brought to 
 the altar (lances, disci, n) ; baskets, particularly to contain the fruit offered (canistra) ; 
 small tables with three legs (Iripodes) ; an instrument, having a tuft of hair, or the 
 like, for sprinkling the sacred water (aspergillum, f ) ; pans for the sacrificial fire (prce- 
 fericula) ; metallic candlesticks (candelabra, h) to which the lamps were attached. 
 
 2. The numerals and letters included in the parentheses with the Latin terms in the above 
 specification, refer to the figures thus marked in our Plate XXVII. The figures marked by the 
 letters are drawn from Montfaucon, vol. ii. p. 150. Those marked by the numerals are from 
 
 Pompeii, p. 130, as cited P. IV. J 226. The Plate exhibits other articles of sacrificial apparatus ; 
 
 fig. g shows the sacred fillet (vitta), which was sometimes hung from the neck; fig. 4 is a ladle 
 (liguld); fig. 3, a pitcher (urceus, culullus) used for the libations; these figures are taken from 
 sculptured representations on an altar standing in the court of a temple found at Pompeii ; fig. 
 B exhibits a scene from the same altar; a magistrate in his robe is offering sacrifice; he holds 
 in his hand a patera; the victim is led forward by the popa or cultrarius, who is naked to his 
 waist with a wreath on his head ; behind the magistrate is a boy holding a vase or pitcher, and 
 an older servant bearing a platter (discus); by his side is a musician blowing the flute, followed 
 by lictors with their fasces ; in the back ground appear the pillars of the temple decorated with 
 garlands. — Fig. m also represents a sacrifice ; given by Montfaucon from an ancient coin ; the 
 augur's wand (lituus) is seen in the hand of the principal person. The group of articles in- 
 cluded in fig. D is drawn from Egyptian monuments, and may serve to illustrate also Hebrew 
 and likewise Greek and Roman sacred utensils. The observer will notice among them the sho- 
 vel, the fork of several tines, knives, a vessel like the modern teapot, a fire-pan, jars, bowls, 
 dishes, &c. cf. Exod. xxv. 29. — Fig. a, is the sacred trumpet (tuba) sounded at hecatombs and 
 other sacrifices. The straight trumpet was also used at sacrifices, as is seen in Plate XXIX, and 
 likewise the flute or clarionet, as is seen in Plate XXIX, and Plate XLV. — In Plate XLV. is seen, 
 hanging from the girdle of a priest (the one that holds the head of the victim) the case (vagina) 
 for the knives ; the same article is given in the Sup. Plate 31. fig. 18. In this Plate also are 
 various instruments of sacrifice ; 1, 2, the acerra and thurarium ; 3, enclabris ; 4, thuribulum, as 
 given by Montfaucon, differing from the form given in Plate XXVII., fig. 1 ; 5, capis ; 6, 7, 10, 
 forms of the simpulum ; 8, patera or patella; 9, the vessel given by Montfaucon as the prwferi- 
 culum, which he describes not as a pan for holding the fire, but as a vessel for holding the wine 
 of the libation ; 11, 17, cultri; i%tuba; 13, malleus ; 14, Dolabra; 15, securis ; 16, seva, or seces- 
 pita ; 19, disctis, a broad shallow platter ; 20, olla; 21, lituus; 22, candelabra ; 23, aspergillum, 
 aspersorium, or lustrica. 
 
 § 207. The priests were very numerous, and were formed into certain com- 
 mon orders, or colleges. These were mostly established by the first kings; 
 Romulus established the Luperci, Curiones, Haruspices ; Numa, the Flamines, 
 Ves tales, Salii, Augures, and Feciales. During the republic the Rex sacrorum 
 and the Epulones were introduced ; and under the emperors some others. — The 
 Roman priests may be ranged in two general classes; those common to all the 
 gods {omnium deorum sacerdotes) ; and those appropriated to a particular deity 
 (uni numini addicti). Of the former were the Pontifices, Augures, Quindecem- 
 viri sacris faciundis, Haruspices, Fratres Arvales, Curiones, Epulones, Feciales, 
 Sodales Titienses, and Rex Sacrorum. Of the latter class were the Flamines, 
 Salii, Luperci, Potitii, Pinarii, Galli, and Vestales. 
 
 § 208. The first rank was held by the Pontifices, instituted by Numa, origi- 
 nally only one, subsequently four, then eight, and finally more even to fifteen. 
 The chief of these was styled Pontifex Maximus, who held the highest priestly 
 office, dignity, and power. He was appointed at first by the kings, subse- 
 quently by the college (Collegium) or whole body of Pontifices, but after 104 
 B. C. by the people. Sylla restored the right to the college, but it was again 
 taken from them. All the other priests and the vestals were subject to the 
 Pontifex Maximus. 
 
 1 u. He had the oversight of all religious affairs, the regulation of the festivals and 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. AUGURS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 233 
 
 the solemnities connected therewith, and the keeping of the records of public transac- 
 tions (annates). He was also judge in many questions of right. — His dress was a 
 toga prcetexta, and his head- ornament a sort of cap made of the skin of a victim and 
 
 called galerus. Augustus assumed this office himself as emperor, which was done 
 
 likewise by his successors down to Gratian, who abolished it. 
 
 2. Those who held the office of Pontifex Maxhnus, are said to have resided in a 
 public house called Begia (cf. § 213). — The hierarchy of the church of Rome is thought 
 to have been established on the model of the Pontifex Maximus and the college of 
 Pontifices. 
 
 L. Bimard, Le Pontifical des Empr. Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inzer, xii. 355 ; xv. 38. Cf. ix. 115. On the Roman pon- 
 tiffs, &c. cf. Moyle's Works, vol. i.— Beaufort, Republique Romaine. 
 
 § 209. The Augurs, in ancient times called auspices, derived their name from 
 consulting- the flight of birds, augurium, avigerium. They were introduced 
 from Etruria by Romulus, and established as a regular order by Numa. Their 
 number was originally three, then four, afterwards nine, and finally increased 
 by Sylla to fifteen. At first they were taken only from the Patricians, but after 
 B. C. 300, in part from the Plebeians. Their chief was called Magister Colkgii, 
 and Augur Maximus. Their badges of office were a robe striped with purple 
 (trabea), a crooked staff (Jituus), and a conical cap (sometimes called apex). 
 Their principal business was to observe the flight and cry of birds (auspicium), 
 from which they predicted future events. They also explained other omens and 
 signs, derived from the weather, the lightning, and the observation of certain 
 animals, particularly of young fowls and the like. 
 
 1 u. In the camp auspices were taken ex acuminibus, i. e. prognostics were drawn 
 from the glittering of the points of the spears by night, or from the adhesion of the 
 lower points of the standard poles in the ground, where they were planted. The 
 places where auspices were to be taken or holy edifices were to be erected, were con- 
 secrated by the Augurs. The order of Augurs continued until the time of Theodo- 
 sius the Great. The public Augurs of the Roman people should be distinguished 
 from the private Augurs of the emperors. 
 
 2. The omens, signa, portenta, prodigia, from which the Augurs conjectured or 
 pretended to foretefl the future, have been classed in five divisions. (1) From 
 birds; chiefly the flight of some (alites), such as eagles, vultures, and buzzards; but 
 also the chattering and singing of others (oscines), such as the owl (bubo), crow (corvus, 
 comix,) or cock (galtus). (2) From appearances in the heavens ; as thunder, light- 
 ning, meteors, and the like. — For taking omens of either of these two kinds the augur 
 stood on some elevated point (arx, templum), which was frequently called auguratorium, 
 with his head covered with the tana, a gown peculiar to the office ; after sacrificing 
 and offering prayer, he turned his face to the east, and divided the heavens in four 
 quarters (called tcmpla) with his tituus, and waited for the omen. A single omen was 
 not considered significant ; it must be confirmed by another of the same sort: In 
 whatever position the augur stood, omens on the left were by the Romans reckoned 
 lucky, contrary to the notions of the Greeks (cf. § 75) ; the explanation given of this 
 disagreement is, that both Greeks and Romans considered omens in the east as lucky ; 
 but the Greek augur faced the north, and the lucky omens would be on his right, 
 while the Roman augur usually faced the south, and therefore had the lucky omens 
 on his left. It is certain, however, that omens on the left were sometimes called un- 
 lucky among the Romans, and the term sinister came to signify unpropitious, and 
 dexter to mean propitious. (3) From chickens (pulti) kept in a coop for the purpose, 
 by the pullarius. The omen was taken early in the morning from their actions when 
 the augur threw crumbs of corn before them ; if they turned away from it, or ate re- 
 luctantly, it was an unlucky omen; if they devoured greedily, very lucky. Taking 
 this augury was called Tripudium, perhaps from the bounding of the corn when 
 thrown to the fowls. (4) From quadrupeds, chiefly by observing whether they appear 
 ed in a strange place, or how they crossed the way, whether to the right or the left, 
 and the like. (5) From various circumstances and events, which may be included 
 under the term accidents ; among these were sneezing, falling, hearing sounds, see 
 ing images, spilling salt upon the table, or wine upon one's clothes, and the like. 
 Omens of this class were usually unlucky, and were called Dircs. 
 
 Kennetl, as cited § 197. 2, ch. iv.— Cf. Matin, Les Augurs J and Simon, Les Presages, in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. i. 54 and 
 129.— Mayo, Mythology, i. 255. 
 
 § 210. The Haruspices were the priests who inspected the entrails of animals 
 offered in sacrifices, in order to ascertain future occurrences ; they were called 
 extispices. They appeared under Romulus and were established by him; it is 
 doubtful of what number their college consisted. For some time Etrurians only, 
 and not Romans, discharged the duties of the office. It was borrowed from the 
 30 u2 
 
234 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Etrurians directly, but seems to have been primarily of Asiatic origin ; the dis- 
 covery of the art (Haruspicina) was ascribed by fable to Tages, a son of Jupi- 
 ter. The number of the Haruspices gradually was increased up even to sixty. 
 Their overseer was styled Magister Pubticus or Summits Haruspex. From the 
 different modes and objects of their divination, they were divided into three 
 classes, extispices, fulguratores, and prodigiatores. For, besides observing, the 
 entrails of victims and the various circumstances of the sacrifice, as the flame, 
 smoke, &c, they also were consulted in relation to lightning and places or 
 buildings stricken by it, and they likewise explained prodigies and dreams. 
 
 1 u. In examining the entrails, they observed chiefly their color, their motion, and 
 the condition of the heart, and when they could determine nothing from the appear- 
 ances, they called them exta muta. On the other hand, the term iitare was used to 
 signify an auspicious sacrifice. 
 
 2. The college of Haruspices had their particular registers and records, as also the other reli- 
 gious orders had ; these seem to have been accounts of their observations, memorials of thun- 
 der and lightning, and ominous occurrences. Their art was at one time considered so impor- 
 tant that the senate decreed that a number of youth should be regularly instructed in it ; at a later 
 period it fell into disrepute ; the emperor Claudius attempted to revive it. Cf. Cicero, De Div. 
 i. 41, 43. ii. 24, 29, 35. Tacitus, Ann. xi. 15. — Most of the ominous circumstances connected with 
 sacrifices are alluded to by Virgil (Georg. iii. 486). 
 
 § 211. The Epulones were priests, who attended on the feasts (epulsd) of 
 the gods. There were three first appointed, B. C. 197; by Sylla the number 
 was increased to seven, called Septemviri Epulones, and by Cassar at last to ten. 
 They had the care of what were called the Lectisiernia, when couches were 
 spread for the gods as if about to feast, and their images were taken down, and 
 placed on the couches around the altars or tables loaded with dishes; the most 
 important of these was the annual feast in honor of Jupiter in the Capitol. They 
 were required to be present also at the sacred games to preserve good order. 
 Very young persons, even those under sixteen, were often taken for this office; 
 yet it was so respectable, that even Lentulus, Caesar, and Tiberius performed 
 its duties. Like the Pontifices, they wore a toga prsetexta. The viri epulares 
 must not be confounded with the epulones; the former were not the priests, but 
 the guests at the repasts spoken of. 
 
 § 212. The Feciales were a class of priests or officers existing long before the 
 building of Rome, among the Rutulians and other Italian states. The order 
 was introduced at Rome by Numa. It continued to the beginning of the impe- 
 rial authority, and consisted of twenty, sometimes of fewer, members. They 
 may be considered as a body of priests, whose business chiefly related to treaties 
 and agreements pertaining to peace and war. The highest in rank was called 
 Paler pair atus. It devolved upon him, or the Feciales under him, to give the 
 enemy the warning, which preceded a declaration of war, and to make the 
 declaration by uttering a solemn form (clarigatio), and hurling a spear (hasta 
 sanguinea), into the enemy's limits. These priests were also the customary 
 agents in effecting an armistice or cessation of hostilities. Their presence and 
 aid was still more indispensable in forming treaties and at the sacrifices there- 
 with connected. They were charged also with the enforcing of treaties, and 
 the demanding of amends for their violation, and also with guarding the security 
 of foreign ambassadors at Rome. 
 
 § 213. The Rex sacrorum, or Bex sacrificulus, held an office, which was insti- 
 tuted first after the expulsion of the kings, and probably derived its name from 
 the circumstance, that originally the public sacrifices were offered by the kings 
 themselves or under their immediate oversight. Perhaps, as Livy suggests, 
 the office and name both arose from a desire that the royal dignity might not 
 be wholly forgotten. This priest had a high rank, and at sacrificial feasts oc- 
 cupied the first place, although the duties were not numerous, and consisted 
 chiefly in superintending the public and more important sacrifices. He was 
 also required at the beginning of every month to offer sacrifice jointly with the 
 Pontifex Maximus, to convoke the people (pnpulum- calare), and make known 
 the distance of the Nones from the Calends of the month then commencing. 
 At the Comilia he offered the great public sacrifice, after which, however, ha 
 musi withdraw from the forum, and conceal himself. His wife was called Be- 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. CLASSES OF PRIESTS. 235 
 
 gtna sacrorum ; she was also a priestess, and offered sacrifices to Juno. His 
 residence, freely granted to him, was also often termed Regia. The office con- 
 tinued until the time of Theodosius the Great. 
 
 See Ambrosch, Studien und Andeutungen, p. 41.— Cf. L. ScKmitz, in Smith's Diet, of Antiq. p. 823. 
 
 § 214. The name of Flamines was given in general to all such priests as 
 were devoted to the service of a particular deity. The most eminent of them 
 was the Flamen Dialis, or chief priest of Jupiter. At the first institution of the 
 order, there were but two besides this, viz.: the Flamen Martialis and the Fla- 
 men Quirinalis. Afterwards the number rose to fifteen and still higher. They 
 were divided into majores, who must be Patricians, and minores, who were 
 taken also from the Plebeians. Their dress was a long white robe with a purple 
 border (leena), and a cap of conical form {apex) adorned with a twig of olive. 
 The Flamen Dialis had a lictor, and also a sella curulis and the toga prsetexta ; 
 his wife was called Flaminica, and aided him in some parts of the worship on 
 the festivals of Jupiter. This priest likewise held a seat in the senate, and en- 
 joyed several other privileges, which were peculiar to the Flamines. Many 
 duties and services were required of the Flamines, especially of the Flamen 
 Dialis. They were distinguished by names derived from the god to whose ser- 
 vice they were devoted, as Flamen Neptunalis, Floralis, Pomonalis ; so of those 
 belonging to a deified Caesar, as Flamen Jugustalis, Flavialis, &c. 
 
 § 215. The Salii were priests of Mars Gradivus, and according to the common 
 opinion had their name from dancing (salire), because on certain festival days 
 they passed about the city dancing, and singing songs in honor of Mars. They 
 were first instituted by Numa. The immediate occasion of their institution, ac- 
 cording to the tradition, was the famous shield, Jncile, said to have been sent 
 from heaven ; this shield, and the eleven others made exactly like it in order to 
 hinder its being stolen, which were all guarded by the Vestals, were carried 
 by the twelve Salii Palatini, when they made their circuit around the city. 
 
 1 u. Their chief and leader in the procession was styled Prcesul, whose leaping was 
 expressed by the verb amtruare, and the leaping of the others after him by redamtruare. 
 They had their appropriate residence (curia Saliorum) upon the Palatine Hill. Besides 
 the music which accompanied their dancing, they struck their shields together, and 
 in that way noted the measure of their songs, which celebrated the praises of the 
 god of war (cf. P. IV. § 114. 4.) and of Veturius Mamurius, the artist who made the 
 eleven shields. 
 
 2 u. The order was highly respected, and was rendered the more so by the acces- 
 sion of Scipio Africanus as a member, and some of the emperors, especially M. Au- 
 relius Antoninus. Their term of service was not for life, btit only for a certain period. 
 — The Salii Collini or Quirinales were distinct from this body, and established by 
 Tullius Hostilius. 
 
 See Liv. i. 20.— Ov. Fast. iii. 259. On the Salii, and other classes of priests, cf. O'dttling, Geschichte der Rom. Staatsverfass.— 
 
 See also especially Hartung, Die Religion der ROmer.— T. GutberUthi de Saliis Martis sacerdotibus apud Romanos liber singularia. 
 Franequera, 1704. 8.— Cf. Seidel, De Saltat. sacr. vet. Rom. Berl. 1S26.— A. Apel's Metrik, Th. 2. p. 647. 
 
 § 216. The Luperci, priests of Pan, were of Arcadian origin, and established 
 by Romulus. Their name was derived from that designation, which Pan re- 
 ceived from his guarding the flocks against the wolf, Lupercus (ab arcendo lupos). 
 His temple was from the same circumstance called Lupercal, and his most cele- 
 brated festival at Rome, Lupercalia. This festival began about the middle of 
 February, and was regarded as a season of expiation for the whole city. The 
 Luperci, on this occasion, ran up and down the streets, naked excepting a girdle 
 of goat's skin about the waist ; they carried in their hands thongs of the same 
 material, with which they struck those whom they met; the word to express 
 the action was catomidiare. A peculiar efficacy was ascribed to these blows, 
 particularly in rendering married women prolific. 
 
 1 m. There were three distinct companies {sodalitates) of these priests ; the Fahiani, 
 Quinliliani, and Julii. The last were of later origin and took their name from Julius 
 Caesar ; the others were named after individuals, who had been their chief or head 
 priests. 
 
 2 u. The Politii and Pinarii were not companies or sodalities of Luperci, but priests 
 of Hercules; they were not held in important estimation, although their pretended 
 origin was traced to the age of the hero himself. The tradition was, that Hercules, 
 
230 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 during his residence in Italy with Evandcr, instructed in the rites of his worship the 
 tribes or families bearing this name, which was afterwards retained by the priests. 
 
 § 217. The Galli were priests of Cybele the great mother of the gods, so 
 called from the river Gallus in Phrygia, whose water was regarded as possess- 
 ing singular virtues, rendering frantic those who drank it. The circumstance 
 of their being castrated is referred to the fable respecting Atys. At the festival 
 of their goddess, celebrated in March, and called Hilaria (cf. P. II. § 21), these 
 priests imitated the phrensy of Atys by strange gestures, violent motions, and 
 self-scourging and cutting. Their chief priest was termed JLrchi gallus. The 
 order was not highly respected. 
 
 § 218. The Vestals, Virgincs Veslalcs, were an order of Priestesses, of very 
 early origin, devoted to the goddess Vesta. The constant preservation of the 
 holy fire and the guarding of the Palladium (P. II. § 43, § 67) were tbe princi- 
 pal duties of the Vestals. They were first instituted by N'uma, four in number; 
 two were added by Tarquihius Priscus or Servius Tullius, and the number ever 
 after remained six. Their leader, the eldest, was called Vesta/is or Virgo 
 Maxima. They were selected (capered) between the age of six and ten, particu- 
 lar regard being had to their descent and their bodily vigor and perfection. 
 They were obliged to continue in the office thirty years unmarried. The first 
 ten years were employed in learning the rites, the second ten in performing 
 them, and the rest in instructing others. Negligence in any of their duties was 
 severely punished. If any one violated her vow of chastity, she was buried 
 alive in a place called Campus scelcralus, near the Porta Collina. Besides the 
 two principal duties of these priestesses, they were accustomed to offer certain 
 sacrifices, whose precise object is unknown. They also had the care of some 
 preparations and services connected with other sacrifices. They enjoyed great 
 respect, and many privileges ; e. g. entire freedom from parental control; au- 
 thority to deliver from punishment a criminal, who accidentally met them ; cer- 
 tain revenues of lands devoted to them ; the attendance of a lictor, whenever 
 they went out; a public maintenance, and release from the obligation to take 
 an oath. Their office was abolished under Theodosius, on account of its ex- 
 pense. 
 
 For representations of Vestals, see Plata XXVIII. and explanations given P. II. § 67.— Cf. Nadal, Dupuy, &c. as there cited. 
 
 § 219 a. A few words must be added respecting the other classes of priests 
 before named (cf. § 207). The Quiiulecemviri sacrisfuc/uiul/s bad the care of the 
 Sibylline books (cf. § 22G). The Fralrcs.ftrva.les served especially at the festi- 
 val called Jlmba.rvaUa (cf. P. II. § b'3), when the fields were dedicated and 
 blessed, these priests passing over them in procession (cf. P. IV. § 111), with 
 a crowd of attendants. The Sodales Titii or Talii had their name from the 
 Sabine king Titus Tatius : each tribe had seven of them. There were also 
 Sodales JLugustales, or priests in honor of Augustus. The Curiones were thirty 
 priests, who performed the sacred rites common to the several Curiae. 
 
 1. Each of the Curim had a president or priest called Curio; these thirty priests 
 formed a college under a chief president termed Curio maximus. Cf. § 251 ; also 
 P. I. * 61. 
 
 2 it. The priests of all the various classes had their assistants and servants {inhiislri). 
 Among these were ihe wailing boys and maids, ramilli and Camilla; ; the assistants of 
 the priests who offered sacrifices, JluniJv.ii and Jhniii/ia ■; the keepers of the temples, 
 aditui or d-i/ii a in a i ; those who brought the victims to the altars and slew them, popes", 
 vieliiinirii, cult rorii. The tibicilies, tnhici/ivs, Jii/irincs, &.C., who accompanied tho 
 Bacriflcial rites with music, formed likewise another fraternity. 
 
 3. Tim mystagogi were those who initiated others into mysteries ; the name is also given to 
 
 those who showed to visiters the curiosities of the temples. By some late writers the priests 
 
 wore divided into three classes j antistitcs, chief priests ; sacerdotes, ordinary priests; and m& 
 nistri, meanest priests. 
 
 § 219 b. Respecting the emoluments of the Roman priests little is known. When 
 Romulus first divided the Roman territory, be set apart what, was sufficient for the 
 performance of sacred rites, and for the support of temples. Noma is said to have 
 provided a fund for defraying the expenses of religion, and to have appointed a stipend 
 (stipend ium) for the Vestals; the Augurs also and the Curiones are said to have re- 
 ceived an annual stipend ; but there is no evidence that the priests received any regu- 
 lar salary, except as it may seem probable from the instances specified. Yet there 
 
vcrrrrr 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. PRAYERS. SACRIFICES. 237 
 
 can be no doubt that, in some way or other, sufficient provision was made for their 
 support. — Two priests, the Pontifex Maximus and the Flamen Dialis, were by virtue 
 of their office members of the senate. All the priests held their offices without respon- 
 sibility to the civil magistrate ; and with few exceptions were allowed to hold other 
 offices both civil and military. 
 
 Cf. did De Leg. ii. 9.— Liv. xxxviii. 47 ; xxxix. 45.— Dionys. Hal. iv. 8.— Also, Liv. i. 20.— Dionys. ii, 6, l.—Tac. Ann. iv. 16. 
 —See H. Belelius, De Sacerdotiis Rom. in Sallengi-e, vol. iii.— JSurigny, Les honneurs accordes aux pretres, &c. in the Mem. Acad. 
 Inscr. xxxi. 108. 
 
 Representations of priests, from ancient monuments, may be seen in Plates XIX., XX., 
 XXVII., XXVIII., XXIX., XLV., XLVI. ; also in the Sup. Plates 28, 29, 32.— In Plate XXVIII., 
 the two figures marked Priests are taken from a bas-relief found at Autun (Jlvgustodunum, cf. 
 P. Ii $ 17) ; they represent two Druidce, or priests of the religion of the ancient Gauls and Bri- 
 tons ; both have ample robes, and long beards; one, who is perhaps the Arch-Druid, wears a 
 crown of oak leaves and holds a scepter, the other holds a crescent or half-moon. 
 
 Respecting the Druids, see Fosbrohe, Encyclop. of Antiq. p. 768.— G. Higgins, The Celtic Druids. Lond. 1827. 4.— The work 
 entitled "Identity of t]ie Religions called Druidical and Hebrew." — Montfaucon, vol. ii. p. 434. — Mayo, Mythology, vol. ii. p. 209. 
 — Edinb Encyclop. 
 
 § 220. Of the vast multitude cf religious customs among the Romans, we 
 will notice first some of those pertaining to their prayers to the gods. They 
 prayed with the head covered or vailed (capitevelato). They bowed themselves 
 down to the ground, in this posture moved around completely from right to left, 
 placed their right hand on the mouth (adoratio), and directed their face towards 
 the east, where the altars and images of the gods were placed. In a higher 
 degree of devotion they cast themselves upon their knees, or prostrated the 
 whole body upon the ground. They were accustomed to lay hold of the altar 
 and to make offerings of meal and wine with their prayers. The prayer was 
 not always offered with an audible voice. Public prayers (precationes) were 
 made by a priest or a magistrate. The most solemn prayer of this kind was 
 that before the Comitia, by the Roman consul. Thanksgivings (supplicationes) 
 were also public and general, for the purpose of entreating, appeasing, and 
 praising the gods; in which view the people made a solemn procession to the 
 temples. Public occasions of this sort were called supplicationes ad pulvinaria 
 deorum; these pulvinaria were a sort of couches or stools with cushions or 
 pillows (pulvini), on which were placed the statues of the gods. They were 
 also termed supplicia, and were appointed in honor of particular deities, or of 
 all the gods united. The prayers offered on these occasions were called obse- 
 craiiones, which term usually has reference to the averting of danger. 
 
 Burigny, Les prieres des Paiennes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlii. p. 27. — Morin, Baisemains, &c. iadoratio), in the same 
 Mem. vol. iii. p. 69. 
 
 There is no evidence that public religious instruction formed any part of the duty of priests, or was ever connected with public 
 worship, which consisted wholly in performing such rites as are above specified, and in offerings and sacrifices. Nothing like preach- 
 ing or sacred oratory was known. 
 
 § 221. The sacrifices of the Romans (sacrificia) were very various. They 
 were offered either at stated times (stata, solennia), or on particular occasions 
 {ex accidente nata) . Animal sacrifices were termed hostise or victims ,• the original 
 difference between these words, viz. that the former designated a sacrifice offered 
 on going out against a foe, and the latter a sacrifice on returning victorious, is as 
 little regarded by the writers, as another distinction, which makes the former 
 a smaller and the latter a greater sacrifice. 
 
 1 u. The animals must be without blemish, and were therefore previously selected. 
 They were brought to the altar, ornamented, like the person offering them, with gar- 
 lands of flowers; the horns of bullocks and rams were decked with gilt, and white 
 fillets were hung over their necks. The willing approach of the victim was considered 
 as a favorable omen ; reluctance and resistance on the other hand as unfavorable ; the 
 act of bringing the victim forward was called admovere. The priests then commanded 
 all the profane to depart, and another priest ordered silence (Unguis' favete). Then 
 followed the prayer to the gods, and after it the offering of the victim. The knife arid 
 the altar were consecrated for the purpose, by sprinkling them with a mixture of salt 
 and the meal of new barley or spelt roasted (mola salsa). The head of the victim was 
 sprinkled with the same, and this is what is properly expressed by the word immolare, 
 although it is often synonymous with maclare. 
 
 2 m. The cultrarius, whose business was to kill the victim, having asked, Agonel 
 and the consul, praetor or priest having answered, Hocage, then struck the animal in 
 the forehead with his ax or mallet ; another, next cut or stabbed him in the throat ; 
 and a third caught the blood in a sacrificial vase. The entrails were then examined 
 bv the haruspex, and if they were found favorable, were, after being cleansed, laid on 
 
238 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 the altar and burned. Sometimes the whole animal was burned {holocaustum) ; but 
 usually only a part, the rest being assigned to the sacrificial feast, or to the priests. 
 Upon the burning flesh incense was scattered, and wine was poured out ; the latter 
 constituted the libation, and was accompanied with a formal address to the deity, 
 accipe libe?is. In early times milk was used in the libation instead of wine. After all 
 came the feast, of which the priests and those who presented the sacrifice partook in 
 common, and which was usually accompanied with music and dancing, and often fol- 
 lowed with games. 
 
 3. Music also usually accompanied the offering of the sacrifice, as is shown by the monuments 
 represented in our Plates. Compare Plate XXVII. fig. B, where are seen two long straight, 
 trumpets; Plate XXIX. where, besides the trumpets, the double flute is played by a boy, who is 
 adorned with a wreath on his head, as are also most of the officiating priests; Plate XLV., 
 where the flute and the tympanum are introduced (cf. P. II. $ 91. 2). 
 
 4. There were sacrifices without blood; made by libations usually of wine, but also 
 of other fluids; by burning incense or fragrant wood, such as cedar, fig, and myrtle; 
 and by offering fruit as a tribute or tithe from the harvest {primitice) and also sometimes 
 cakes (liba) made of flour and honey or of wax. 
 
 5. Illustrations of the pouring out of libations are given in Plate XXVII. fig. C, and in Plate 
 XX.; in the latter is also seen the offering of fruit or cakes, together with a libation; it is from 
 a sculpture in ivory, representing a sacrifice without blood to Mercury; a female is taking some- 
 thing from a cylindrical vase, while a servant (camilla) holds a discus of fruit or cakes and a 
 vessel containing the libation. — In the same plate is the representation of a bloodless sacrifice 
 to Diana, from a bas-relief on the Arch of Constantine (cf. P. IV. $ 188. 2). The image of the 
 goddess, with a crescent on her head and a spear in her right hand, standing on a pedestal, is 
 seen between two trees; on one of which is fixed the head of a wild boar (aper) ; the altar is in 
 front of the image ; three milites hastati are in attendance, while the emperor Trajan, holding in 
 
 one hand a volume, with the other hand empties a patera upon the flame. In Plate XLVI. is 
 
 a representation of the sacrifice of a bull to Jupiter Capitolinus by the emperor Marcus Aurelius, 
 drawn from a remarkable anaglyph at Rome. Cf. P. IV. $ 188. 3. — In the Sup. Plate 32 is a 
 beautiful representation of the animal sacrifice performed by priests, and of the sacrifice with 
 out blood conducted by priestesses, one of whom is pouring a libation from a vessel which is 
 perhaps the capedo (cf. $ 206). 
 
 § 222. It was very common among the Romans to make vows (vota), which 
 generally consisted in promises to render certain actual acknowledgments or 
 returns, provided the gods should grant the requests of those making the vows. 
 A person doing this was said vota facer e, concipere, suscipere, nuncupare, and 
 was called voti reus; to fulfil the promise was vota solvere, reddere ; he who 
 gained his wish was said to be voti damnalus, voti compos. Sometimes the 
 thing desired was itself termed votum. Often public vows were made for the 
 benefit of the whole people ; these were considered as the most binding. The 
 vow was usually written upon a wax-tablet, which was preserved in the temple 
 of the god to whom it was made. 
 
 L u. Those who had survived shipwreck, especially, were accustomed to hang up in 
 the temple of some god (Neptune often) pictures representing the circumstances of their 
 danger and deliverance {tabula votivce). Similar pictures were sometimes carried about 
 by them in order to obtain charitable relief. 
 
 2 m. Among the vows of a private nature were those, which a person made to Juno 
 Lucina or Genius, on a birth-day {vota natalitia); those made when boys, on passing 
 from childhood, cut off their hair and dedicated it to Apollo {vota capillitia) ; the vows 
 of the sick in case of recovery; the vows of those in shipwreck for escape ; of those 
 on journeys by land. It also became a custom for subjects to make vows for the wel- 
 fare of their emperors, which were renewed after the fifth, tenth, or twentieth year of 
 their reign, and therefore called quinquennia, decennalia or vicennalia. 
 
 3. DodweU, de diebus veterum natalitiis, in his Pridea. Acad. Ox. 1692. 8. p. 153. 
 
 § 223. The dedication of the temples, sanctuaries and altars (dicatio), was 
 one of the religious solemnities of the Romans. This was originally performed 
 by the kings, afterwards by the consuls, and often also by two magistrates ap- 
 pointed for the purpose and called duumviri dedicandis templis. The senate 
 must first decree the service ; the Pontifex Maximus must be present at the so- 
 lemnity and pronounce the form of dedication, which was accompanied with 
 acclamations from the people. Sacrifices, games, and feasts then followed. 
 
 On the ceremonies at the dedication of a temple, see Tacitus, Hist. iv. 53.— Cf. Hoohe's Rom. Hist. vol. x. p. 282, as cited P. V 
 ^ 299. 7 
 
 1 u. Similar to this was the ceremony of consecration {consecratio) ; only, the latter 
 expression was applied to a great variety of particular objects, e. g. statues, sacred 
 utensils, fields, animals, &c. Resecralion, on the other hand, was a private trans- 
 action, in which the people or individuals were freed from their vows; this was also 
 called religw?ie solvere. 
 
 2. The term inauguratio was sometimes used as synonymous with dedicalio and 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. LUSTRATIONS. OATHS. ORACLES. 239 
 
 consecratio; but it was in general the ceremony by which the Augurs sought the plea- 
 sure or sanction of the gods in respect to any thing decreed or contemplated by men ; 
 it was a ceremony therefore used not only in dedication, but in introducing a priest or a 
 magistrate into office, and in entering upon any important engagement. Cf. § 209. 
 
 3 u. Execration was imprecating evil on an enemy. — Evocation of the gods was a 
 solemn rite by which (certo carmine) they called upon the gods of a besieged city (evocare) 
 to take the side of the Romans. It was attended with sacrifices and consultation of the 
 entrails. 
 
 § 224. Expiation was a solemnity designed to appease offended gods, and 
 the sacrifice or propitiatory offering was called piaculum. Much more frequent 
 and various were the lustrations or purifications (lustrationes), both public and 
 private. 
 
 1 u. Public lustrations were occasionally connected with certain festivals ; the private 
 were annually repeated in the month of February. — It was customary before the march 
 of an army or the sailing of a fleet to appoint a lustration, not for reviewing the forces, 
 but to purify them by sacrifices. 
 
 2. After the taking of the census, which was done at the end of every five years, a 
 purifying sacrifice was made, consisting of a sow, a sheep, and a bull, which were 
 carried round the whole assembly and then slain. The sacrifice was called suovetaurilia, 
 and he who performed it was said condere lustrum. The name lustrum is said to have 
 been applied to it, because at that time all the taxes were paid by the farmers-general 
 to the censors (from luere to pay) ; the term is also used to signify a space of five years, 
 because the ceremony was performed always at the end of that period. The verb 
 lustrare expressed the act of purifying, and as in doing this the victims were carried 
 round, the word naturally obtained another meaning, viz. to go around, to survey. The 
 lustrum was always made in the Campus Martius. 
 
 In Plate XXIX. is a fine representation of the Suovetaurilia, or sacrifice to Mars, drawn from 
 ancient marbles sculptured in bas-relief: the priest, probably Trajan the emperor, with a veil 
 upon his head, approaches a double altar crowned with laurel ; a servant (Camillas) stands by, 
 holding Ihe acerra; another plays upon the double tibia; two soldiers blow the tuba ; behind 
 the emperor is a priest or servant bearing the vessel considered by Montfaucon as the prwferi- 
 culum ; others are leading forward the three victims ; in attendance are several soldiers and 
 standard-bearers ; a rich fillet lies upon the back of the bull ; all the priests are crowned with 
 laurel. Cf. Montfaucon, ii. 189, and Sup. ii. 73. 
 
 3. The expiation made on the appearance of some prodigy, was often very solemn and impos- 
 ing. "The senate, after having ordered the Sibylline books to be consulted by those who had 
 the keeping of them, to see what was to be done on those- occasions, ordinarily appointed days 
 of fasting ; as also festivals, especially the Lectisternia ; public prayers; and sacrifices. Then 
 you might have seen the whole city of Rome, and in imitation of her the other cities of the em- 
 pire, in mourning and consternation ; the temples adorned ; the Lectisternia prepared in the 
 public places; expiatory sacrifices repeated over and over again. The senators and patricians, 
 their wives and their children, with garlands on their heads, every tribe, every order, preceded 
 by the High Priest and the Duumviri, marched gravely through the streets ; and this procession 
 was accompanied by the youth singing hymns, or repeating prayers, while the Priests were 
 offering sacrifices in the temples and invoking the gods to avert the calamities with which they 
 imagined themselves to be threatened." 
 
 § 225. The oaths (jusjurandum, juramenturri) of the Romans, which were 
 regarded as holy and inviolable, may be divided into public and private. The 
 first were taken by the magistrates before the Tribunal (cf. § 243. 1) often also 
 by the whole senate, the generals, the whole army, all the citizens at the census, 
 and ever)' single soldier. To the latter class belonged judicial oaths, and such 
 as pertained to marriage. They were usually taken before the altars of the 
 gods, who were thus invoked as witnesses ; not unfrequently sacrifices were at 
 the same time offered. Persons taking an oath in a prescribed form were said 
 cOnceptis verbis jurare. 
 
 1. Witnesses in civil proceedings sometimes confirmed their testimony by an oath j and in all 
 public trials (cf. } 261) were required to do it. Perjury was punished, yet, so far as appears, not 
 more severely than false testimony (falsum) without oath. — Swearing seems to have been in- 
 dulged freely ih common life and ordinary conversation ; such expressions as the following 
 Were frequent ; Hercle, or Mehercle ; Pol, JEdepol, Perpol ; per Jovem ; per superos ; medius 
 Jidius ; dii me perdant, or interficeant, Sec. 
 
 Brissonius, De Formul. &c— L. C. Palckenaer, De Rttibus in Jurando a veteribus, in /. OdricVs Collect. Opusculorum. Brem. 
 1768. 4. 
 
 2 u. What was called devotio consisted in a voluntary surrender of one's self Cdevovere) to 
 capital danger or to violent death, in order to rescue his country or the life of a person particu- 
 larly dear. Sometimes the term was applied, when a conqueror assigned (devovebat) a captured 
 city or army to destruction, or when an individual was punished. 
 
 § 226. The Romans had no oracles themselves ; but in cases of importance, 
 they resorted to those of Greece, particularly to the Delphic. Roman supersti- 
 tion, however, found nearer sources of information respecting the will and decla 
 
240 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 rations of the gods. Besides the use of their augurium and exlispiscium, they 
 had recourse to the Sibylline Books, or the pretended prophecies of the Sibyl of 
 Cumas. 
 
 1 u. These Books were received from the Sibyl by Tarquinius Superbus (see P. V. 
 f 16). They were kept with great care in a stpne vault under ground in the Capitol, 
 in the custody of the Quindecemviri sacris faciundis (cf. § 219). In important emergencies, 
 in general disasters, when omens were inauspicious, or circumstances were perplexing, 
 they consulted the Sibylline predictions, and endeavored thence to ascertain how the 
 offended deities could be appeased. 
 
 2 m. The burning of the Capitol, B. C. 84, occasioned the destruction of these books; 
 there were attempts to restore some parts of them from fragments and quotations. The 
 pieces now extant under this naine, however, are in all probability not genuine, but of 
 later origin. 
 
 § 227. The use of lots (sortes), in order to ascertain the result of an affair or 
 undertaking, was very common with the Romans. They were small tablets or 
 blocks {tali) of wood or metal, on which certain words or marks were inscribed, 
 which were kept in an apartment in the temple of Fortune. The most famous 
 were those in the temple of this goddess at Prasneste, which in early times were 
 very frequently employed. 
 
 1 u. Those at Antium were also renowned ; those at Casre and Falerium disappeared, 
 as it was pretended, miraculously. Sometimes lots of this sort were provided and kept 
 for domestic use. Those who foretold the future by means of lots were called Sortilegi. 
 
 Cf. Ci'c. de Divinat. ii. 41. — Liv. xxi. £2. xxii. 1. — Z>u Resnel, Recberches Hislor. sur les Sorts appellees par lea Payens, Sortes 
 Virgilianae, &c. in Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xix. 
 
 2. Besides the use of lots and the practice of augury (cf. § 209), other artifices were 
 employed among the Romans by those who pretended to foretell the future. Some 
 professed to do it by consulting the stars, and were called Astrologi,31athe?natici, or 
 Genelhliaci, and sometimes Chuldmi or Babylonii, as the art was first practiced in Chal- 
 daea. Others professed to interpret dreams, Conjectores; others to have an internal 
 afflatus or inspiration, Harioli, Vaiicinatores. Insane persons were supposed to fore- 
 know the future ; in which class were the Ceriti, those rendered insane by Ceres; the 
 Lymphali, rendered so by the water-nymphs; Lunalici, by the moon; Fanalici, by" 
 the spirit of the Fauni, or of Faunus, the first builder of a fane (fanum). In short many 
 of the Grecian arts of divination (cf. § 75) were practiced among the Romans. 
 
 3. Magical arts, although prohibited, seem to have been employed among the Ro- 
 mans; perhaps, however, chiefly by Greeks and other foreigners. Some passages in 
 Horace clearly indicate that magical pretensions were openly avowed at Rome. Pliny 
 speaks of magic as a most fraudulent art, that has had sway in all the world. — The 
 Romans generally admitted the notion that certain persons had the power of fascinating 
 others (fascinatio), by darting an evil look upon them ; which the Greeks termed 
 BaaKavia (cf. § 75. 6). To avert such malignant influences, an amulet of some kind was 
 sometimes worn on the neck, called fascinum (cf. P. II. § 91. 2). 
 
 Sec Arclixologia (as cited P. IV. § 243. 3.) vol. xix. p. 70, on an antique Bas-relief supposed to represent the fascination by the evil 
 eye. — V. Alsarius, De Invidia et Faacino Veterum, in Grxvius, vol. xii. —Class. Journ. vol. xxxvi. p. 185, on the magic of the 
 Greeks and Romans.— Le Blond, sur Magie, in the Mem.de V Institute C lass e de Lit. et Beaux Arts, i. 81.— Bonamy and Elan- 
 chard, La Magie, &c. in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vii. 23. xii. 49. 'Cf. Hot. Epod. 5. and H.—Plin. Hist. Nat. xxx. l.—Sulverte, Dej 
 Sciences Occultes, ou Essaie sur la Magie. Far. 1829. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 § 228. The division of the year was made at Rome a care of the priests, and 
 therefore falls under the head of religious affairs. Without noticing the various 
 changes in this, we may remark that Romulus, Numa, and Julius Caesar were 
 the authors of the principal methods of dividing and computing the year. The 
 month was divided into three parts by the Calends, Nones, and Ides, and in 
 computing the days of the month, the Romans reckoned, backwards from these 
 three fixed points. 
 
 1 u. The day was reckoned from sunrise to sunset. This space was divided into 
 twelve hours (floras) which of course were of different length at the different seasons of 
 the year ; hence the phrase hora hibemia, equivalent to liora brevissima. The night 
 was likewise divided into twelve hours (P. I. § 187), and also into four watches (vigilice). 
 The use of sun-dials (solaria), and of water-glasses (clepsydrce), seems to have been in- 
 troduced at a comparatively late period. 
 
 2. The dial is said to have been invented at Lacedremon in the time of Cyrus the Great. The 
 first one at Rome was set up B. C. about 260. — The clepsydra (K^txpiipa) was invented at A'».x- 
 andria, and carried thence to Athens and afterwaids, B. C. about 160, introduced at Rome. -It 
 was formed by a vessel of water, having a minute perforation in the bottom, through which the 
 water issued (stealing out, K\i\<jic viup) drop by drop, and fell into another vessel, in which a 
 .ight body floated, having attached to it an index or graduated scale. As the water increased 
 
'.T*C*. 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. 241 
 
 in the receiving vessel, the floating body rose, and by its regularly increasing height furnished 
 an approximation to a correct indication of time." (Bigelow's Technology, p. 365.) — It was so 
 constructed, that the orifice for letting out the water could be accommodated to the varying 
 length of the Roman hours. A servant was employed, whose business it was from time to time 
 to examine the water-clock, and report the hour to his master. 
 
 See the account of the divisions of time among the Romans, the day, month, and year, given under Chronology ; cf. P. I. §§ 187, 
 188, 191-193. — To the references there given we add Dissen, De Partibus Noctis et Diei, &c. in his Kleine Schriftm. 
 
 § 229. The Romans had a multitude of festival days, set apart for the service 
 of the gods, and celebrated with sacrifices, banquets, and games; these were 
 called dies festi. The days called dies fasti were those on which no assembly 
 of the people or senate was held, but the praetor administered justice; days, on 
 which he could not do this, were termed nefasti. Days, of which only a part 
 of each could be appropriated to business, were called intercisi ,• those wholly 
 resigned to business, profesii. Such as were considered inauspicious were 
 called dies religiosi ; among these they reckoned especially the first days after 
 the Calends, Nones, and Ides; which they named pustridiani. The festival 
 days were termed also ferise, dies feriati, from the cessation of common 
 business. 
 
 1. The Roman festivals were either public, observed by the whole nation (ferias publico;), ox 
 private, observed by families and individuals (feria private). Private festivals were held or. 
 days determined by the parties interested; being designed to commemorate births, marriages, 
 deaths, or other important events in domestic history. The public included the ferice statwie, 
 those of regular occurrence on certain fixed days; the feriai conceptivce, those held on days annu- 
 ally appointed by civil magistrates or by the priesthood (jus pontificium); and the fence impera- 
 tive, those held on special emergencies by command of the consul, the prstors, or a dictator. 
 As above mentioned all common business was suspended on the public ferice, the sancity of 
 which was violated if the rex sacrorum, or any of the flamines, saw any person at work. The 
 great number of the feria? and the length of their continuance sometimes interfered with the 
 proper discharge of the public affairs of the state. Marcus Aurelius ordained that two hundred 
 and thirty days of the year should be open for business, and the remaining days might be feriai. 
 The festivals commonly had particular names, but some were designated by a distinctive epi- 
 thet applied to the common name; as, e. g. Ferice Latince, commemorating the alliance between 
 the Romans and Latins; Feriai Sementivm, in seed-time, to pray for a good crop. — The Nundinal 
 were sometimes reckoned among the Feriai; they were regular days on which the people from 
 the country assembled to expose their various commodities for sale, market days; called Nandince, 
 because they occupied every ninth day (Ov. Fast. i. 54). — It was the business of the Pontifices 
 to prepare annually a register called Kalendarium, or Fasti Kalendares, or Fasti Sacri, in which 
 the days were marked in each month and distinguished according as they belonged to the differ- 
 ent classes above named ; and the various festivals were mentioned as they were to take place 
 through the year. The Fasti Kalendares are to be distinguished from the Fasti Annates: the latter 
 were registers of the magistrates; of which the most important were those termed Fasti Consulares. 
 
 Hartung, Die Religion der Romer. — R. Hospinian, De Festis Diebus Judaeorum, Grsecorum, Romanorum, et Turcarum. Tigur. 
 1593. fol. — Couture, Les Fastes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 60. — De la Nauze, Calendrier Romain, in the same Afem.&c. vol. xxvi. 
 p. 219. — Cf. Port Royal Lat. Grammar. — Several Fragments of Calendars are given in Grsevius, vol. viii. — A Calendar fromPauty's 
 Real-Encyclopadie is given in Smith's Diet, of Antiq — Respecting the Calendarium Prxnestinum, see P. IV. § 133. 6.— Respect- 
 ing the Fasti Annates or Historici, see P. V. § 508. 
 
 § 230 1. Of the numerous Roman festivals, we will mention some of the 
 principal, in order of the months. 
 
 January, 1st day. The festival of Janus, on 
 the first day of the year, on which, in later 
 times, the Consuls entered upon their office. 
 The presents customary on this day were called 
 strence ; they were sent from clients to their 
 patrons, from citizens to the magistrates, and 
 
 from friends to one another. 9th. The Jlgo- 
 
 nalia, also in honor of Janus. 11th and 15th. 
 
 The Carmentalia, to the goddess Carmenta, 
 an Arcadian prophetess, mother of Evander. 
 — ■— 25th. The Sementinai, or festival of seed, 
 accompanied with the Jlnibarvalia, which dif- 
 fered from the festival of the same name in 
 May ; on which they passed over the fields with 
 
 the animals to be slain in sacrifice. 30th. 
 
 The festival of Peace (Pax), first established by 
 
 Augustus. 31st. The festival in honor of the 
 
 Penates, or household gods. 
 
 February.. 1st. The Lucaria, in memory of 
 the asylum formed by Romulus, or of the re- 
 fuge (lucus) of the Romans after the sack of 
 their city by Brennus. — This day was also dedi- 
 cated to Juno Sospita. 13th. Faunalia, in 
 
 honor of Faunus and the Sylvan eods, repeated 
 
 5th December. 15th. Lupercalia, to Lycsean 
 
 Pan (cf. J 216). 17th. Quirinalia, to Romu 
 
 ralia, to the Manes, accompanied with a solemn 
 expiation or purification of the city, called fe- 
 ar uatio, whence the name of the month itself. 
 It continued from the 18th to the end of the 
 month, during which time presents were car- 
 ried to the graves of deceased friends and rela- 
 tives, and the living held feasts of love and rt 
 
 conciliation. 21st. Terminalia, to Terminus, 
 
 the god of boundaries. 
 
 March. On the first day, with which in 
 early times the year began, a festival to Mars, 
 on which the procession or war-dance of the 
 Salii was made (cf. $ 215); called also the fes- 
 tival of the shields ; it lasted three days. 
 
 6th. Vestalia, different from that held in June. 
 
 17th. Liberalia, to Bacchus, but different 
 
 from the Bacchanalia. 19th. Quinqnatria, to 
 
 Minerva, named from its duration of five days ; 
 the last day called Tubilustrium, because the 
 trumpets used in sacred rites were then puri 
 
 fled. 23d. Hilaria, to Cybele, whose sacred 
 
 image was during it sprinkled and purified, 
 called also Lavatio Matris Detim. 
 
 April. On the 1st day, Veneralia, the festival 
 of Venus, to whom the whole month was dedi- 
 cated. (Cf. Scholl, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. 
 
 lus, deified by the name Quirinus. 18th. Fe- 1 p. 24). 5th. Megalesia, to Cybele, whose 
 
 31 X 
 
242 
 
 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 priests, the Galli (cf. $ 217), on this made their 
 
 procession. 13th. Oerealia, to Ceres, attended 
 
 wilh games. 15. Fordiridia, to the goddess 
 
 Tellus, for the purpose of averting a dearth Or 
 scarcity, on occasion af which Noma instituted 
 (lie festival; each Curia furnished a pregnant 
 cow (forda) to be sacrificed to Tellus. — -21st. 
 Palilia, a rural, country festival to Pales, god- 
 dess of cnltle. — 22d. Vinalia, repeated in Au- 
 gust, to consecrate to Jupiter the growth of the 
 
 vine in Italy. 23. Robigalia, to the god Ro- 
 
 bicus, that he might protect the grain from 
 blighting (a rubigine) - — 28th. Floralia, to Flo- 
 ra or Chloris, attended with games (cf. $ 236). 
 30th. The festival of the Palatine Vesta, in- 
 stituted by Augustus. 
 
 May. On the first day, the Festival to the 
 Lares Prastites, and the ceremonies by night to 
 Buna Dea, performed by the vestals and wo- 
 men alone. 2d. Compitalia, to the Lares in 
 
 the public ways. 9th. Lfviuria, to tlieLemu- 
 
 res, or wandering spirits of deceased ancestors 
 and relatives on the father's side (cf. 1'. 11. t>$ 
 
 110, 111). 15th. Festum Moratorium, to Rler- 
 
 curv, for merchants (cf. P. II. J 5(5). 23d. 
 
 i ulcanalia, to Vulcan, called also JSMlustria 
 <Yoni the purifying of the sacred trumpets. 
 
 June. On the first day were several festi- 
 vals, to Dea Carna, Juno Moneta, Mars Extra- 
 
 muraneus, and Tempestas, 3d. The festival 
 
 to liellona. 4th. To Hercules. 'Jth. J'esta- 
 
 lia, to Vesta, in memory of the gift of bread to 
 men. Food was sent to the Vestals to be of- 
 fered to the gods; and the asses, which turned 
 the mills, were decked with garlands and led 
 
 in procession. 10th. Matiulia, to Manila, 
 
 celebrated by Roman matrons ; also a festival, 
 on the same day, to Fortmia Virilis, by women ; 
 
 and to Concordia. 13th. Quinquatria (parva), 
 
 designed for the improvement and pleasure of 
 those, who had the care of the music in the 
 
 worship of the gods. 16th. Purifying of the 
 
 temple of Vesta. 19th. To Swmmanus, i e. 
 
 probably to Pluto. 2lth. Fortuha Fortis, for 
 
 people Of the lower classes. 30th. To Her- 
 cules and the Muses. 
 
 Jur.Y. On the first day the occupants of 
 
 hired houses changed their residence. 5th. 
 
 Ludi .ipollinares, with sacrifices. 6th. To 
 
 Female Fortune, in memory of Coriolanus with- 
 drawing his army from the city (Liv. ii. 40). 
 
 7th. To Juno Caprotina, for young women. 
 
 15. To Castor and Pollux.— — 23d. JVeptu- 
 
 nalia. 35th. Furiaalia, to the goddess Furina. 
 
 games in honor of Mars. 13th. To Diana. 
 
 17th. Portvnmalia, to Portnmnus, the god 
 
 of harbors. — —18th. Covsnalia, to Consus, the 
 god of counsel or rather to Equestrian Neptune. 
 The seizure of the Sabine women was com- 
 memorated the same day.- 21st. Vinalia (the 
 
 second), or festival of the vintage to Jupiter 
 
 and Venus. 23d. Vulcanalia, to Vulcan as 
 
 the god of fire, for security against conflagra- 
 tions. 25th. Opeconsiva, to Rhea, or Ops, or 
 
 fruit-bearing Earth. 
 
 t September. On 1 lie 1st day, to Jupiter Mai- 
 
 mactes. 4th. Ludi Mugni, or Rumani, in the 
 
 Circus, to Jupiter, Juno, and Minerva ; they 
 
 lasted from the 4th day to the 12th. 13th. The 
 
 ceremony of fixing a nail {clavus figendus) in 
 the temple of Jupiter, by a dictator appointed for 
 
 the purpose, to avert contagious pestilence. 
 
 25th. To Venus Oenctrix. 30th. Meditrinalia, 
 
 for tasting new wine before the vintage; that 
 this festival was sacred to a goddess of health, 
 named Meditrina, is as doubtful as the existence 
 of the goddess herself. 
 
 October. 12th. jSugustalia, properly games 
 in honor of Augustus, instituted after the close 
 of his campaigns, particularly the Armenian, 
 
 R. C. 19 or 20. 13th. Foulimilia, in which the 
 
 public fountains were crowned wilh garlands. 
 
 15th. To Mars, chiefly a horse-race on the 
 
 Campus Martins, at the end of which a horse 
 
 was offered in sacrifice. 19th. The .flrmilus- 
 
 trium, or review-muster, celebrated only by 
 soldiers, and in full armor. 
 
 November. 13th. A feast dedicated to Jupi- 
 ter, Kpitlam Joi'is. 15th. Ludi Plebeii, in the 
 
 theatre, or the circus ; they were also frequent- 
 ly held tit other times not defined. 
 
 " December. 5th. Faunalia, kept by the peo- 
 ple of the country, as the same in February 
 was by the inhabitants of the city.— —17th. 
 Saturnalia, one of the most famous festivals of 
 Rome, originally limited to a single day, after- 
 wards extended over three, four, and more. It 
 was a festival of leisure and general joy, in 
 memory of the golden period in Italy under the 
 government of Saturn. During it slaves were 
 placed on a footing of equality with their mas- 
 ters. Many of the peculiar customs and sports 
 were similar to those of the Carnival, or Christ- 
 mas Festival, of modern Rome. See Coleman's 
 Chr. Antiq. p. 435. — The work entitled Rome in 
 
 the Nineteenth Century, vol. iii. p. 240. 19th. 
 
 Opalia, to the goddess of Ops. The Compi- 
 talia, to the Lares of the crossways, were often 
 
 August. On the 1st day a festival to the held shortly after the Saturnalia, as well as in 
 goddess of Hope; and gladiatorial sports and | other months. 
 
 § 231. The public games (ludi) among- the Romans, as well as among- the 
 Greeks from whom the former borrowed them in part, were viewed as festival 
 occasions in honor of the gods. These games were usually at the expense of 
 the state, sometimes at the expense of individuals, particularly the emperors. 
 They were different in their character, as well as in the time and place of their 
 celebration. Many were held annually, or after a period of several years, at a 
 time fixed or variable; many also arose from particular occasions; hence the 
 variety in distinctive appellations; e. g., ludi stati, imperative, instauraiiri. 
 votivi, ijuinquenna/es, dccennales, secu/arcs, htsfraks, &c. Names were given 
 also in reference to their character, and the place where they were celebrated ; 
 e. g., ludi circcnscs, capitolini, scenici, piscaiorii, triumphaks, funebres. Only 
 the most famous of these games can here be noticed. 
 
 § 232. The first to be mentioned are the Ludi Circcnscs, or by way of emi- 
 nence Ludi Magni. They received their name from the Circus Maximus, which 
 was not merely a laige free place, but, taken in its whole, formed a superb edi- 
 lice; it was a kind of theatre, commenced by Tarquinius Priscus, and enlarged 
 and adorned by Julius Cwsar as dictator. 
 
 1 u. Its breadth was more than a stadium, and its length was three and a half stadia 
 (3187 feet). All around it were seats (fori) for spectators, so as to accommodate at 
 least 1:0,000 persons. In the middle, extending lengthwise, was a wall, called spina 
 
P. III. RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. FESTIVALS. GAMES. 243 
 
 circi, 4 feet high, 12 broad, and 1 stadium in lenglh. At each end of the wall were 
 three pyramids on a single base, which were the goals (met a), around which the horses 
 and chariots turned. 'J'lie wall had many other ornaments. The whole edifice also 
 was highly ornamented j it was altogether the largest of the kind, although there were 
 in Rome eight other plaoes for races and games, called Circi. At one end were 12 
 openings or parts separated by walls, called carceres, where the horses and chariots 
 stood waiting for the signal lo start. [Not far from the carceres, a whitened rope {alba 
 linen) was drawn across the circus; one half of it marking the commencement, and 
 the other half the end, of the race.] Those who governed the chariots, were diviclcd 
 into certain classes (facliones or greges), distinguished by dresses of different colors. 
 The whole circus was dedicated to the god of the sun. 
 
 2. Pliny (Hist. N. xxxvi. 24) Btatcs the number of persons which the Circus Maximus was 
 capable of containing as 260,000; and the authority of Aurelius Victor lias been cited for the 
 number of 383,000, —Of the other structures of this class the following were the principal: the 
 Cirrus it'iiiniiniiis ; the (U.ir/is JHcxuviiriniis ; i.lic Circus Sallustieus ; the Circus JFlorialis, or Va- 
 ticanus, finished by Nero in a splendid style, and signalized as the scene where numbers of the 
 early Christians suffered martyrdom upder that emperor; the obelisk in the centre of the peris- 
 tyle lit' Sl. Peter was taken from the spina of this circus ; the Circus Caracul 'la ■■ ; the Cirrus l)n- 
 viiiiu;.— On the Via Appia there still remains the ground plan, with part of the superstructure, 
 of a small circus, commonly called the Circus of Caracalla. 
 
 Qricvius, as cited § 197. 1. vol. ix. ; and Pulimus, as there cited, vol. v.— CI. L. Ilianccmi, Discriziono tlci Circhi partioolarmeuta 
 di ((Hello di Caracalla, &c. Con note C. Fca. Horn. I7S0. (61.— Jiurgen, The Circus on Ibo Appiau Way.— Smith, Diet, of Anti- 
 quities. 
 
 3 u. The Ludi Cireenses were commonly held hut once a year; sometimes they 
 were appointed on extraordinary occasions ; in both cases they were maintained at public 
 cost. The solemn procession which preceded them, poni/xi, circe/i.si.s, moved from the 
 Capitol. The images of the gods were borne in splendid carriages or frames (in thensts 
 etfercutis), or on men's shoulders (in kumcris), followed by a great train, on horseback 
 or on foot, with the combatants, musicians, &c. Sacred rites were then performed, 
 and the games opened. 
 
 § 233 u. The. names or shows (spectacula) in the Circus wore of four kinds; chariot- 
 races, with two or lour horses; contests of agility and strength, such as wrestling (lucla), 
 boxing {■j)iir;ilui us), throwing the discus (disci jactus), leaping (saltus), and running 
 (cursus); representations of sieges and of battles on foot and on horseback, including 
 the Liul.us Trojee ( Virg. Mn. v. 515); fighting of wild beasts (ve.naiio). — To describe 
 these particularly would exceed our limits. Many of the exercises, however, cor- 
 responded to those of the (,' reeks (cf. %1S — 83). The victors were rewarded with crowns 
 and sometimes with rich gills in addition. The victor in the chariot-race received a 
 palm-branch, which he bore in his hand. 
 
 1. We have in Ag. U, of Plate XVI. a victorious Roman charioteer, with \hepalm in his ri^ht hand, and the reins in his left j ho 
 is closely girded about the chest cjpd body. 
 
 Sec Brottier, Lc jcux du Cirque, in the Mem. tic. VJIruil. del Inter, vol. xlv. p. 487.— Mongez, Sur les animaux promencs ou tuea 
 dans les Cirques, in the Mem. it I'lnttilut, Classc iV/JIst. el Bit. Am:, vol. x. p. 3C0. 
 
 2 u. At the time of the Ludi Mngni, other spectacles were also exhibited, not. in the 
 Circus; particularly the Naumachim, ,or representations of naval battles. These ori- 
 ginally were made in the sea, but afterwards in artificial basins o,r excavations made lor 
 the purpose and filled w-ith water, which were also called Naumachice. The vessels 
 V/ere usually manned by prisoners, malefactors, slaves, or conquered foes, and many 
 lost their lives or were severely wounded. This spectacle was sometimes exhibited in 
 the Circus Maximus, water being introduced into it for the purpose. 
 
 3. Claudius is said CTac. Ann. xx. fi6.— Suet. Claud. 21) lo have exhibited a magnificent sea-light on lake Fucinus, in which there 
 were fifty ships DD each side, with 19,000 coznbalaiilB.(nauma'0/H , an'{).^RepfeBentajfoni of naval battles were common under the 
 emperors, and are commemorated on some of the imperial coins. — See Schtjjcr, lie Militia Navali. 
 
 § 234. The Ludi Sseculares, or centurial frames, were solemnized with much 
 ceremony. They were not celebrated exactly after the lapse of a century, but 
 sometimes a little earlier or a little later; usually in the month of April. For this 
 occasion long" preparations wore always made, the Sibylline books were consulted, 
 and a sort of general purification or expiation of the whole city was previously 
 made. Sacrifices were offered to all the gods, those of the infernal world as well 
 as those of Olympus, and while the men attended banquets of the gods in their 
 temples, the women assembled for prayer in the temple of Juno. Thank-offer- 
 ings were also presented to the Genii. 
 
 1 u. After the sacrifices, a procession advanced from the Capitol to a large theatre oti 
 the banks of the Tiber, where the games were exhibited, in honor of Apollo and 
 Diana, (in the second day the Roman matrons were collected to offer sacrifice in the 
 Capitol. On the third, among other solemnities, a song of praise to Apollo and Diana 
 was sung in the temple of Palatine Apollo, by a select band of young men and virgin* 
 
244 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 of Patrician rank. The carmen smculare of Horace was prepared to be thus sung, at 
 the command of Augustus, in whose reign the games were celebrated. 
 
 The first celebration took place in the reign of Augustus, B.C. 17 (Toe. Ann. x'i. 1 1) ; the second in the reign of Claudius, A. D. 47 
 (Suet. Claud. 21) ; the third in the reign of Domitian, A. D. 8S ; and the last in the reign of Philippus, A. D. 248, just one thousand 
 years after the building of Rome.— Cf. Hartung, Die Relig. d. Rom.— On the chronology of these games, Class. Journal, xvii. 351. 
 
 2 u. To the religious solemnities, which were held for the purpose of securing the 
 safety of the whole state, were afterwards added various amusements, which rendered 
 this a festival of universal hilarity. Among the diversions were pantomimes, histrionic 
 plays, and the feats of jugglers (prcestigiatores), persons who seemed to fly in the air 
 (petauristce), rope-dancers (fwiambuli), and the like. 
 
 The rope-dancer (KaXo/3dri?s, o-%Mi/o/?riTi;s) seems usually to have been a Greek (Juv. iii. SO). Some of the paintings found at 
 Herculaneum exhibit funamlmli placing themselves in a gTeat variety of attitudes, in the character of bacchanals, satyrs, and the 
 like.— See the work styled AnticlU cCErcolano (cited P. IV. § 243. 2), vol. iii.— A few of the figures are given in Smith., Diet of 
 Antiq. p. 434. 
 
 § 235. The gladiatorial shows, Ludi Gladiatorii, were greatly admired in 
 Rome. They were usually called Munera, as they would impart pleasure to 
 the spectators, or bestow respect on those out of regard to whom they were 
 held ; in the latter view they were appointed, e. g. at the funerals, or in com- 
 memoration, of the deceased. 
 
 1 u. These shows were of Etrurian origin, and probably grew out of the ancient 
 custom of sacrificing prisoners at funeral solemnities in honor of the departed. At 
 Rome they were at first exhibited chiefly at funerals ; afterwards they were given by 
 the iEdiles, Praetors, Quaestors, and Consuls, in the amphitheatres, especially on the 
 festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. 
 
 The gladiators (gladiat ores, uoi'oua\ot) were supported at public expense. Their resi- 
 dence or place of instruction was called Indus, a name often given to any arena or 
 building, where such exercises were learned or practiced ; their overseer was termed 
 procurator, and their instructor, lanista. In the public spectacles, the combat was often 
 carried to blood and even to death, unless the conquered gladiator begged his life of 
 the crowd of spectators. The number of combatants was originally indeferminate, and 
 until fixed by Caesar. The gladiators bore various names according to their armor and 
 their mode of fighting. 
 
 2. The gladiators termed secutores were armed with helmet, shield, and sword. 
 They were usually matched with the retiarii, who were dressed in a short tunic with 
 nothing on the head, bearing in the left hand a three-pointed lance (tride?is or fuschia), 
 and in the right a net (rete) in order to throw it over the head of their adversary. The 
 mirmillones were armed like Gauls, and took the name from the image of a fish on their 
 helmet, and were usually matched with those termed thraces. The essedarii fought 
 from chariots, and the equites on horseback ; the andabals wore helmets which covered 
 their eyes, and according to some writers, fought on horseback. Several other classes 
 are named. — It is to be observed that the term gladiatores included those who fought 
 with beasts as well as those who fought with men ; although the former were termed 
 distinctively bestiarii. 
 
 3. At first gladiators were wholly composed of criminals and slaves ; but afterwards 
 free citizens of noble birth, and even women, fought on the arena. — An advertisement 
 or public notice (libellus) was put up by the person (editor) who intended to exhibit a 
 gladiatorial show, with an account of the combatants and sometimes a delineation or 
 picture annexed. On the day of exhibition the gladiators were led along the arena in 
 procession, and then matched for the contest. When a gladiator lowered his arms, it 
 was a sign of being vanquished ; his fate depended on the spectators ; if they wished 
 him to be saved, they pressed down their thumbs ; if to be slain, they turned up their 
 thumbs (pollicem premebant or vertebant). If a vanquished gladiator was spared, he 
 was said to receive his discharge, which was termed missio, hence an exhibition in which 
 the lives of the vanquished were not to be saved was said to be sine missione. — Vast 
 numbers of men and of brute animals were destroyed. In the spectacles after the 
 triumph of Trajan over the Dacians, it is said that 10,000 gladiators fought, and 11,000 
 animals were killed. These shows were prohibited by Constantine, but not fully sup- 
 pressed until the time of Honorius. 
 
 In Plate XXX. are several figures illustrating this subject, which are taken from sculptures 
 on the tomb of Scaurus found at Pompeii. Fig. 1 represents an equestrian combat ; the anda- 
 fiara? are clothed in the short cloak (inducula), and armed with the lance, round buckler (pa^ma), 
 helmet with a vizor covering the face, and a sort of mail on the right arm. — Two gladiators on 
 foot appear in figures 3 and 4. Each has the helmet and the subligaculum, a short apron fixed 
 above the hips by a girdle. Fig. 3 has armor on the right arm, and holds the scutum, or long 
 shield ; on his right leg is a kind of buskin, and on his left the ocrea or greave ; the rest of the 
 body is naked; he has lowered his shield as being vanquished, and raised his hand to implore 
 mercy of the spectators. Fig. 4 is behind him, waiting for the signal from them, whether to 
 spare bis antagonist or strike the death-blow ; he carries a smaller shield, has armor upon his 
 thighs and the high greaves upon his legs. — Fig. 6 presents a group of four gladiators; two are 
 follower* (secutores'), and two net-men (retiarii). One of the secutores is wounded in the leg, 
 
PLATE XXX. 
 
246 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 thigh, and arm, and, having in vain implored mercy of the spectators, he bends his knee appa- 
 rently to receive from the sword of his comrade a more speedy death than would be likely from 
 the trident of his antagonist retiarius, who pushes him and seems thus to insult his conquered 
 rival. The other retiarius is waiting to fight in his turn with the secutor who is hastening to 
 end the sufferings of his wounded companion. The letters against two of the figures are the 
 sculptured names of the persons represented, with the number of victories gained by them on 
 the arena. The Fig. S, with a lance in each hand, is from a group on the same tomb representing 
 a young bestiariits preparing himself to contend in the arena— Fig. 5 is also from a sculpture on 
 this tomb, representing a bull frantic with rage, with a lance driven through his breast, and 
 rushing towards the man by whom he is wounded. 
 
 See Mazois, as cited P. IV. 5 243. 2.— Pompeii, p. 291, as cited P. IV. 226. 1. For minute details respecting gladiators, cf. /. 
 
 Lipsius, Saturnnlia, in his Works. Ant 1637. 6 vols. fol. 
 
 § 236. The Ludi Florales were united with the festival of the goddess Flora, 
 held on the 28th of April (§ 230). They were instituted at Rome, B. C. 24 ; 
 
 afterwards they were discontinued for a period, but were renewed again in con- 
 sequence of a sterility of fruit, which was viewed as the punishment for their 
 omission. They lasted from the day above mentioned to the evening of the 3d 
 of May; no sacrifices were offered ; those who engaged in the celebration wore 
 garlands of flowers, and indulged in frequent banquetings, and often descended 
 to extreme licentiousness. Parties for hunting and dancing were also formed ; 
 and the sediles curules, who had the care of the plays, distributed vast quantities 
 of peas and beans among the populace in the Circus. 
 
 § 237 t. There were other games or sports (ludi), which we may just men- 
 tion here. 
 
 The Ludi Megalenses, in honor of Cybele, mother of the gods, celebrated with 
 shows, and by mutual presents and entertainments (jnulitare) between persons of the 
 higher ranks. — The Ludi Cereales in the Circus, in the memory of the rape' of Pro- 
 serpine, and the consequent sorrow of her mother Ceres. — The Martiales, dedicated 
 to Mars Uhor, or the avenger. — The Apollinares, in honor of Apollo, and generally 
 scenical. — The Capitolini, to Jupiter, in memory of his preserving the Capitol from 
 the Gauls. — The Plebeii, in commemoration of the expulsion of the kings and the re- 
 covery of freedom. — The Consuales, in honor of Neptune, and in memory of the 
 seizure of the Sabine women. — The Ludi Augustales (Ssffcurra, and 'AvyovaraXta), in 
 honor of Augustus. — The Ludi Piscatorii, held on the sixth of June, near the Tiber, 
 in behalf of the hshermen. — Among the games occasioned by vows and called ludi 
 votivi, the principal were such as were promised and appointed by generals in war ; 
 among which may be ranked those already mentioned (§ 231), the quinquennal.es, de- 
 cennales. &c, given by the emperors every five, ten, and twenty years. — To the class 
 called extraordinarri, belonged such as were held at funerals, called Ludi Funebres ; 
 and those appointed by Nero for youth on completing their minority in age called 
 Ludi Juvenales. 
 
 § 238. For exhibiting many of these games, especially the dramatic {ludi 
 scenici) and gladiatorial, theatres and ampitheatres were used. — In the first ages, 
 theatres were constructed merely of wood, and were taken down after being used. 
 Afterwards they were built of stone, and sometimes of great size and splendor. 
 Their construction was similar to that of Greek theatres; one side or end had 
 the form of a prolonged semicircle, for the spectators, and the other was rec- 
 tangular for the stage and actors. The most famous theatre was that built 
 B. C. 59 by the eedile M. Scaurus, at his own expense, partly of marble, and so 
 capacious that eighty thousand spectators could sit in it. The theatres of 
 Pompey and Marcellus were, also very large and celebrated ; the latter in part 
 still remains. 
 
 1. The Roman theatre, like the Greek (cf. P. IV. § 235), consisted of three parts, 
 the scena, orchestra, and cavea ; but the two latter are sometimes included under one 
 (the cavea), because in the Roman the chorus and musicians were placed on the stage 
 (or scena); and the rows of seats in the orchestra were occupied by the senators, 
 foreign ambassadors, and especially distinguished personages. The next fourteen 
 rows of the cavea were assigned to the equites, and the rest of the people. Women 
 occupied the portico surrounding the whole, by an arrangement of Augustus. — The 
 stage, or portion allotted to the performers, had several parts distinguished by name ; 
 one 3 part was that to which the term scena (which is put sometimes for the stage as a 
 whole) more appropriately belongs, the scene or scenery ; the part sometimes concealed 
 by a curtain {aulceum). which was fastened not at the top but at the bottom, and, when 
 it was necessary to hide the scene, was drawn up by a machine for the purpose (called 
 txoslra); columns, statues, pictures, and various ornaments of the most magnificent 
 character were exhibited, according to the nature of the plays. The postscenium w T aa 
 h place behind the scene, where the actors changed their dresses, and the ■proscenium 
 
P. III. REUGIOTJS AFFAIRS. AMPHITHEATRES. 247 
 
 was the space in front of the scene. The place usually occupied by the actors when 
 speaking was termed pulpitum (KoyeTov, cf. § 89). 
 
 A plan of the Roman theatre is given in our Plate XLIX. fig. 2. The upper half of the circle 
 BHBH is the orchestra ; the circle is presented complete with the four equilatrial triangles in- 
 scribed, in order to show the manner of determining the places for the scena, the postscenium, 
 and the cunei ; these triangles are inscribed so that their vertices fall severally on the ends of 
 the diameters BB, HH ; then their other angles give the points and limits required ; the diameter 
 (HH) of the orchestra was usually one-third (or more) of the whole diameter of the theatre. 
 The length given to the scene or stage was twice the diameter of, the orchestra. 
 
 2. The principal forms of dramatic entertainment among the Romans are mentioned 
 particularly in another part of this work ; see P. V. §§ 308-320. — Among the musical 
 instruments employed were the flute, and the lyre, or harp, and in later times the hy- 
 draulic organ, sometimes called cortina. The common accompaniments of comedy 
 were the flutes termed tibia dextrce or Lydia, and tibia sinistra or Serrana or Tyria; 
 the terms pares and impares are also applied to them. There Ira's been some disagree- 
 ment as to what these terms mean. It is most commonly supposed that the musician 
 used two flutes at once or a double flute ; that the sinistra had but few holes and 
 Bounded a sort of bass, while the dextra had more holes with sharper tones, and when 
 these two were united they were termed impares, and took the other names because 
 one was stopped by the left hand and the other by the right ; when two dextra or two 
 sinistra were united and played upon by the musician, they were called pares. 
 
 A painting found at Pompeii represents a flute-player blowing upon the double flute ; see our-Plate XXVI. fig. a, and cf. § 180. 2. 
 —The use of the double flute is seen also in Plate XLIX. fig. B, and in Plate XXIX.— Boltiger, Die Erfindung der Plate, in vol. ii. 
 of Wicland's Attisches Museum. — A. Manutius, De Tibiis Veterum, in Ugolinus, vol. xxxii. as cited § 197. 
 
 3. Masks in great variety were used on the Roman stage as well as on the Grecian ; 
 and were probably similar to those of the Greeks. Cf. § 89. 2. 
 
 Several masks are represented in the beautiful mosaic given in Plate XLIX. fig. B B. — On theatres, plays, masks, &c. cf. Bernardi, 
 Les jeux sceniques chez les Romains, in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Arte, vol. viii. p. 250. — Dunlop, as cited 
 P. V. § 299. 8.— Work styled Pompeii, cited P. IV. § 226.—/. L. Falricius, De Ludis Scenicis, in Gronovius, vol. viii.— Bdttiger, 
 Prolus. de Personis scenicis, vulgo Larvis. Vinaria?, 1794. 4.— Francisco de Ficoroni, Dissettatio de larvis scenicis, &c. Rom. (the- 
 atrical Masques of the Romans). Rom. 1736. 4. with plates. — Boindin, Sur les Masques, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. aes Inscr. 
 vol. iv. p. 132. 
 
 § 239. The first amphitheatre was built B, C. 45 by Julius Caesar, but merely 
 of wood. The emperor Titus erected the first of stone, the ruins of which, 
 under the name of the Colosseum or Coliseum (from a colossal statue of Nero, which 
 stood near it), constitute still one of the most remarkable curiosities of Rome. 
 The form of ampitheatres was oval or elliptical. They were generally used for 
 gladiatorial shows and the fighting of wild beasts. Both theatres and amphi- 
 theatres were commonly dedicated to certain gods. 
 
 1. The amphitheatre exhibited the appearance of two theatres joined ; thus Curio 
 actually formed one, perhaps the first ; wishing to outdo others in exhibitions of this 
 sort, he constructed two large theatres of wood looking opposite ways, in which dra- 
 matic plays were performed in the morning ; then by machinery for the purpose he 
 suddenly wheeled them round so as to look at each other, thus constituting an amphi- 
 theatre, and presented a show of gladiators in the afternoon. The term arena is some- 
 times put for the amphitheatre, but means properly the place in the centre where the 
 gladiators fought, and was so called from its being covered with sand. The arena was 
 surrounded with a wall, guarded with round wooden rollers turning in sockets, to pre- 
 vent the animals from climbing up. Sometimes the arena was completely surrounded 
 with a ditch filled with water {euripus). Next around the arena was the podium, raised 
 12 or 15 feet above it, projecting over the wall and protected by a sort of parapet. On 
 this gallery or terrace, which was wide enough for two or three rows of moveable 
 seats, senators, ambassadors, and persons of special distinction were seated ; here also 
 the emperor had his seat (suggestus, or cubiculum). Above the podium were the fixed 
 seats {gradus), divided into stories or sloping portions called maniana. The first, next 
 to the podium, included fourteen rows of marble seats appropriated to the Equites. In 
 the second and third maniana, were seats occupied by the people and called popularia. 
 The maniana were separated by passages (pracinctiones) running in the direction of the 
 seats ; there were also passages (scala) running transversely ; thus were formed several 
 compartments in the shape of wedges (cunei). The women, after they were allowed 
 to attend the amphitheatre, were seated in a gallery or portico exterior to the whole of 
 these, and servants and attendants in the highest gallery. The general direction of the 
 amphitheatre was committed to an officer styled Villicus amphitheatri, and persons, 
 
 called designatores, were employed to superintend the seating of the spectators. By 
 
 a device of luxury, perfumed liquids were conveyed in secret tubes around these 
 structures, and scattered over the audience, sometimes from the statues which adorned 
 the interior. — The Romans had also a remarkable contrivance for covering the vast 
 area embraced in such a building ; an awning was suspended, by means of ropes 
 stretched across the building and attached to masts or spars, which rose above the sum- 
 
248 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 mit of the walls. Near the top of the outer wall of the Coliseum there are above 20& 
 projecting blocks of stone, with holes cut to receive the ends of the spars, which ran up 
 through holes cut in the cornice. 
 
 2. In our Plate XXX. fig. 7, is a plan of the amphitheatre of Pompeii. Its extreme length, 
 from outside to outside of the exterior arcade, is 430 feel; its greatest breadth is 335 feet. It 
 consists chiefly of the rough masonry called opus incertum, with quoins of squared slone, and 
 some trifling restorations of rubble. This rude mass was probably once covered with a facing 
 of hewn stone. — At each end of the ellipse are entrances into the arena for the combatants; 
 through these also the dead bodies were dragged out into the spoliarium. On the podium were 
 found several inscriptions containing the names of the duumvirs who had presided ; there were 
 also fresco-paintings, which soon disappeared on being exposed to the atmosphere. There are 
 twenty-four rows of seats ; and the building, as has been estimated, would accommodate above 
 10,000 persons sitting, besides such as might stand. 
 
 Cornte de Caylus, Theatre of Curio, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. xxiii. 369.— Cf. Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. On various 
 
 existing ruins of amphitheatres, Stuart's Diet, of Architecture. Loud. 1S82. 3 vols. 8. — A. Gordon, History of the Ancient Amphi 
 theatres, translated from the Italian of Mciffei. Lbnd. 1730.8. 
 
 II. CIVIL AFFAIRS. 
 
 § 240. In order to understand properly the civil constitution of Rome it is 
 necessary to consider distinctly the different periods of its history; particularly 
 to notice the three different forms of government which were successively es- 
 tablished, the regal, consular, and imperial. The first continued 244 years to 
 B. C. 510; the second 479 years, to B. C. 31 ; and the third 506 years to the 
 overthrow of the western empire, A. D. 476, and afterwards in the eastern. — 
 Under the Kings the government was of a mixed character, and we should esti- 
 mate the powers of the kings by a reference to the early kings and princes 
 among the Greeks, the chiefs of particular tribes (§ 34), rather than according 
 to more modern ideas of an unlimited authority. The essential prerogatives of 
 the Roman kings were the control of the religious worship, the superintendence 
 of the legislation and of judicial decisions, and the assembling of the senate and 
 the people ; yet even in the exercise of these prerogatives, they were in most 
 cases much restrained by the part which the senate and the people had in the 
 public concerns. 
 
 1 u. The ensigns of regal dignity were borrowed from the Etrurians, and consisted 
 of a golden crown, a chair (sella) of ivory, or highly ornamented with ivory, a scepter 
 of the same material, with an eagle on its extremity, a white robe (toga) with purple 
 embroidery or borderings, &c. , a body of twelve attendants (lictores), who went before 
 the king, carrying each a bundle of rods (fasces) with an ax (securis) in the middle. 
 
 In Our Plate XXXI. fig. 1, is a cut representing the securis bound up in the fasces. The fasces 
 are often represented on the consular coins. — Fig. 3, is a group of royal scepters, drawn from 
 Egyptian monuments; showing various forms and ornaments at the extremity. Cf. Plate XI. 
 fig. 1, and fig. 3, where scepters are seen in the hands of Jupiter and Juno. 
 
 2 m. The time, during which the regal form is said to have continued, is too long for 
 the probable reigns of only seven kings, which is the number specified in the traditions 
 respecting this period. But it must be remarked that the whole of the early Roman 
 history is at least uncertain, and is by some considered as purely fabulous. Cf. P. V. $ 510. 
 
 § 241. On the abolition of monarchy the constitution became aristocratical. 
 Two magistrates were annually chosen, with the authority and influence which 
 the kings had possessed, and called Consuls (consules). No particular age was 
 originally requisite for this office, but a law (lex annalis) was enacted 180 B. C, 
 that it should be held by no person under forty-three. Those, who sought 
 the office, were called candidati, from their peculiarly white shining robe (toga 
 Candida). The election took place, in the assembly of the people, voting by 
 Centuries, usually towards the end of July or the beginning of August. From 
 that time until January of the following year, the person chosen was called con- 
 sul designahis, and then he entered upon his office under many solemnities. 
 The two consuls had equal power. At first, both were chosen from the patri 
 cians ; afterwards, however, one was often taken, and sometimes both, from the 
 plebeians. 
 
 1 u. Their badges of office were the same as those of the kings, excepting the golden 
 crown, and the robe with purple ornaments ; the latter was allowed them on certain 
 public solemnities, as e. g. a triumph. 
 
 2 u. The duties of the consuls consisted in taking the auspices, assembling the senate, 
 declaring the votes, among which they first gave their own, in proposing business to 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PRAETORS. .EDILES. 349 
 
 the senate and the people, fixing the comitia, appointing the judges, and preparing de- 
 clarations of war. They were also usually commanders of the army, and were required 
 to attend to all its wants, and inform the senate of all important occurrences. After 
 completing the year of their office they were usually proconsuls or governors of pro- 
 vinces. The power of the consuls was gradually diminished, partly by the institution 
 of the office of dictator and tribunes, and partly by the law which authorized appeal 
 from the decisions of the consuls to the people. Under the emperors nothing more 
 than the mere name remained ; they were merely the agents to execute the imperial 
 will, to whom a few privileges were secured. In the later ages also, their number was 
 increased, and the term of continuance very short. The office was preserved until 
 
 A. D. 541 (after the overthrow of the western empire, cf. P. I. § 214. 6), when it was 
 conferred upon the reigning emperor for life. 
 
 § 242. The issue of the battle of Pharsalia, B. C 48, between Pompey and Caesar, 
 prepared the way for introducing the imperial government ; which was established in 
 the hands of Augustus by the issue of the battle of Actium, B. C. 31. The government 
 now became in fact, a military monarchy ; although the first emperors adhered, in form, 
 to the old usages and customs in a great degree. But under Tiberius, the immediate 
 successor of Augustus, the real nature of the change began plainly to appear, and under 
 succeeding emperors became more and more obvious. As the emperors concentrated 
 in their own persons many of the offices of the state, and various new offices were 
 created for adherents and partizans, the whole system of government was at length 
 turned into a grand scheme for individual aggrandizement and luxury. 
 
 De la Bletterie, on the Roman Government under the Emperors, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xix. 357, and xxi. 299, power of 
 Emperors; vol. xxiv. 261, power of Consuls; vol. xv. 392, of Tribunes ;xxvii. 43S, of Senate.— GBttling, Geschichte der Ram. 
 Staalsverfassung. Halle, 1840. 
 
 § 243. Prastor was in early times the name for any magistrate, signifying 
 merely an overseer, superintendant, or leader (from prssire). But, in the year 
 
 B. C. 365, the name was appropriated to an officer appointed to attend to the 
 administration of justice. The Prastor was at first chosen from patricians, 
 when the consulship was communicated to the plebeians. Two Prastors were 
 chosen after the year B. C. 243, one to attend to the business of the citizens 
 {Praetor urbanus), the other the business of strangers {Praetor peregrinus). 
 Afterward there were four Praetors, and six, then ten, fourteen, sixteen, and even 
 eighteen, until Augustus, it seems, limited the number to twelve. 
 
 1 u. The dignity of the city-Praetor was next to that of Consul, and his principal 
 business was holding courts of justice in the Tribunal {in or pro tribionali), a building 
 appropriated to the purpose in the Forum (§ 261). The Prastor on entering upon his 
 office, always published a statement of the rules and principles by which he should be 
 guided in his trials and decisions ; this was called his edict {edictum PrcBtoris). The 
 usual form in giving his decisions was do, dico, addico. — In the absence of the Consul, 
 the city- Praetor took his place : he could also call meetings of the senate and hold Co- 
 mitia ; he had the care also of some of the great public games. — The insignia of the 
 Prastor were the toga prcetexta, a sword and a spear (gladius et hasta), and an atten- 
 dance of six lictors. In the provinces the Propraetors had similar rank and authority, 
 in the same manner as the Proconsuls took the place of Consuls. 
 
 2. Besides the general edict above mentioned, the Praetor published particular 
 edicts from time to time. Such as he copied from those of his predecessors were 
 termed tralatitia; those framed by himself, nova. An edict published at Rome, 
 edictum urbanum; in a province, provinciale; sometimes named from the province, as 
 edictum Siciliense. Other magistrates {honorati) published edicts also. The law de- 
 rived from all the various edicts was termed jus honorarium; this term or phrase, in 
 later times, was applied to a collection of Prastor's edicts regularly arranged by order 
 of the emperor Hadrian ; the same was also called edictum perpetuum. 
 
 jEOuchard, Sur les Edits des magistrats Romains, Mem. Mead. Inscr. vol. xxxix. 279, edicts of Consuls ; vol. xli. p, 1. of Praetors ; 
 xlii. 149, of JEdiles; xlv. 439, of Prefects.— D. E. Schroder, Die Pratorischen Edicte. Weim. 1815.— Rein, Das Rdmische Privat- 
 recht, &c. Leipz. 1836. 
 
 § 244. JEdiks were the magistrates, whose principal duty was the care of the 
 buildings (asdes). They were of two classes, plebeii and curules, two of each. 
 The former were created first, B. C. 493; the latter, B. C. 266. At a later 
 period, Julius Caesar added two others, called Cereales who had the oversight 
 of the stores of grain and provision. In the Roman provinces, also, there were 
 ,/Ediles whose office was usually but for a year. — The office seems to have con- 
 tinued until the time of Constantine the Great. 
 
 1 u. The JEdiles Plebeii had originally the care of the public and private buildings ; 
 and were required to make arrangements for the public games, see to the present tt^n 
 32 
 
250 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 of the public roads, regulate the markets, prove the justness of weights and measures, 
 and in short attend to the police of the city. 
 
 2 u. The JEdiles Curules were distinguished from them by the toga prmtexta, and 
 the sella curulis. They were at first taken solely from the patricians, but afterwards 
 also from the people. Their chief care was of the great public games. They had also 
 the oversight of the temples, except that of Ceres, which always belonged to the 
 plebeian iEdiles, with whom the Curules probably shared, without distinction, the 
 business of the police. 
 
 For tbe history, duties, &c. of the .ffidiles, see Schubert, De Romanorum iEdilibus. Regiom. 1828. 8. 
 
 § 245. Of the Tribunes there were different kinds. The Tribunes of the 
 people (tribuni plebis) were the most remarkable. The office originated from 
 the general disaffection and secession of the plebeians, B. C. 493. The number 
 was first two, then five, finally ten. One of them always presided at the Com- 
 itia for electing tribunes. Their proper object was the protection of the people 
 against the encroachments of the Senate and Consuls. In order to obtain this 
 office, patricians allowed themselves to be adopted into plebeian families. In 
 the earliest times, the tribunes could not enter the Senate, but had their seats 
 before the door of the Senate-room, where they heard all the deliberations, and 
 could hinder the passage of any decree by the single word veto. By the Atinian 
 law, B. C. 131, it was decreed that the Tribunes should be of the rank of Sena- 
 tors. Their power and influence constantly increased, although it was confined 
 to the city and the circuit of a mile around it, beyond which they could not be 
 absent over night. 
 
 1 u. The Tribunes had no lictors, nor any insignia of office, except a kind of beadles 
 called vialores, who went before them. Their persons were regarded as inviolable. 
 Sylla abridged their power ; he took from them the right, which they had exercised, of 
 assembling the people by tribes, and thereby passing enactments {plebiscita) binding 
 upon the whole nation, and left them only the power of their negative or intercession 
 (intercedere). Their authority, however, was afterwards elevated again, but under 
 Julius Caesar it was small ; it became still more insignificant under the emperors (cf. 
 § 242), who appropriated to themselves the tribunitial power, so that the tribunes an- 
 nually elected had but merely the name and shadow of it. The office was abolished 
 in the time of Constantine the Great. 
 
 2. The office of the Military Tribunes was highly important, but is not ranked among the 
 permanent offices. Cf. $ 248. 
 
 § 246. The Qusestors were among the earliest magistrates of Rome, first ap- 
 pointed by the kings, then by the consuls, afterwards by the people. They 
 were charged with receiving and managing the revenues, and with the scrutiny 
 of certain kinds of bloodshed. Those for the city were called Quasslores urbani,- 
 those for the provinces, Qusestores provinciales ; and those for the examination of 
 capital offences, Qusestores rerum capitalium, or parricidii. Originally there 
 were but two, afterwards four, and then eight; Sylla raised the number to 
 twenty, and Julius Caesar to forty. 
 
 I u. The Quaestors had also the oversight of the archives, the care of foreign am- 
 oassadors, the charge of monuments, presents and other tokens of respect publicly 
 authorized, and the preservation of the treasures acquired in war. They were at first 
 taken only from the Patricians, but afterwards partly from the Plebeians. 
 
 Under the emperors there was a kind of quaestors, called qumstores candidate, who 
 were, properly speaking, nothing more than imperial messengers or secretaries, and 
 were afterwards called juris interpretes, precum arhitri, &c, from their employment. 
 Still later there was another kind, of considerable importance, styled Qucestores palatii, 
 or Magistri officiorum. 
 
 2. The age requisite for the Quaestor was 30, or at least 25, until reduced by Au- 
 gustus to 22. The office was one of the first steps to preferment in the commonwealth, 
 although sometimes held by those who had been Consuls. 
 
 Dodwell, de Quassturse obeundae tempore legitimo, in his Prslecl. Acad. p. 362, as cited P. V. § 542. 7. — Walter, Gescbichte des 
 Pom. Rechts. 
 
 § 247. The office of the Censors (Censores) was established at an early period, 
 B. C. 442. There were two at a time, holding their office originally for five 
 years, but afterwards only a year and a half. Their duties were various ; the 
 following were some of the principal ; to take the census of the people, an ac- 
 curate account of the age, property, and descent of each head of a family, to 
 divide the people into their tribes and rectify existing errors in the distribution, 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MAGISTRATES. 251 
 
 to decide the taxes of each person, to enroll those who were obligated to military 
 service, to make account of the revenues in the provinces, to inspect the morals 
 of the citizens, to superintend the leasing of public lands, to attend to contracts 
 respecting public works, such as streets, bridges, aqueducts and the like. 
 
 1 u. The censors were authorized to inflict marks of disgrace {nota censoria, ignominia), 
 from any evidence and for any cause, which appeared to them suitable. The luxury 
 of the Romans, which in later times became so excessive, was considerably restrained 
 by the censors. In order to escape the censorial rebukes or punishments, the office 
 seems to have been left vacant for some time. 
 
 2. The censorial power was, however, vested in Julius Caesar, first with the title of 
 Prcefectus morum, afterward, for life, with the title of Censor. Augustus also assumed 
 the power, although he declined the title. The same was done by several of his suc- 
 cessors down to the time of Decius, A. D. 250, when the corruption of morals was 
 too great to allow any magistracy or power of the kind. 
 
 He Palais, On the Roman Censors, in the Man. Mad. Inscr. vol. i. p. e3.—Niebuhr's Hist, of Rome, vol. ii. p. 296, ed. Phil. 1S35. 
 
 § 248. The Roman magistrates were variously divided. A common division was 
 into ordinary and extraokpixary (Magistratus Ordinarii and Extraordinarii). The 
 chief of the former have been noticed : Consuls, Praetors, iEdiles, Tribunes of the 
 people, Quaestors, and Censors. — The chief of the extraordinary magistrates (whose 
 office was not permanent, but occasional, being necessary only in particular circum- 
 stances) were the following ; Dictator, Decemvirs, Military Tribunes, Praefect of the 
 City, and Interrex. 
 
 1 u. The first Dictator was created on occasion of the same sedition or insurrection 
 which occasioned the appointment of tribunes of the people (§ 245) ; and similar dis- 
 turbances, difficult wars, and other important emergencies occasioned the appointment 
 of the subsequent Dictators. Sometimes they were appointed for less important reasons, 
 e. g. for regulating the public games and sports in the sickness of the Praetor, not by 
 the people, but by one of the Consuls. The Dictator was indeed always appointed by 
 the consul by order of the people or senate, and must be a man of consular rank. The 
 power of the Dictator was very great, in some respects supreme. War and peace, and the 
 decision of the most important affairs, depended on him. Citizens, who were condemned 
 to death by him, could appeal to the people (cf. Liv. viii. 33). The power and office of 
 the Dictator was limited to six months. He could not appropriate without consent of 
 the senate or people any of the public money. As commander of the army, he was 
 confined to the limits of Italy. No one ever abused the power of this office so much 
 as Cornelius Sylla. Caesar by this office opened his way to absolute power, and after 
 his death the dictatorship was abolished. It was, however, offered to Augustus, who 
 refused the odious name or title, although he exercised all the power. 
 
 2. Plutarch and Polybius state that the Dictator was attended by twenty-four lictors ; but in 
 the epitome of the 89th book of Livy, Sylla is said to have unwarrantably assumed this number 
 (Kennett, p. 123). The Dictator appointed (usually from among those of consular or praetorian 
 dignity) an officer, styled Magister equitum, whose business was to command the cavalry, and 
 execute the orders of the Dictator ; but this officer was sometimes appointed by the senate, or 
 the people ; he was allowed the use of a horse, but the Dictator could not ride without the order 
 of the people. — Sometimes a Consul, or other existing magistrate, was invested with the power 
 of Dictator, by decree of the senate (ne quid detrimenti capiat respublica). 
 
 3 u. The discontent of the people under the use, which the Consuls made of their 
 power, led to the creation of a new office in the year B. C. 451, that of the Decemviri, 
 with consular authority (decemviri consulari potestate, s. legibus ferendis). They were 
 appointed for the special purpose of forming a code of laws. This gave rise to the laws 
 of the twelve tables (cf. i 265). As they soon began to abuse their great power, the 
 office was abolished, B. C. 449, and that of Consul restored. 
 
 4 u. From the same cause (the popular discontent) originated the office of Military 
 Tribunes (tribuni militum consulari potestate), who, in the year B. C. 445, were ap- 
 pointed in the place -of Consuls; but were dismissed after three months. Originally 
 they were six in number, three patricians and three plebeians ; afterwards the number 
 varied, sometimes three, sometimes four, six, or eight ; sometimes military tribunes and 
 sometimes consuls were elected, as the plebeian or the patrician interests prevailed, 
 until the year B. C. 366, when the plebeians were quieted by the choice of a consul 
 from among themselves. 
 
 5 u. The Praefect of the city (Prmfectus urbi) was the officer to whom the Consuls in 
 their absence, especially in war, intrusted the charge of the police. Under the emperors 
 this became a regular and permanent office of great influence. 
 
 6. The Interrex was an officer created to hold elections when there was no consul or 
 magistrate, to whom it properly belonged. The name was drawn from the title of the 
 temporary magistrate appointed by the senate, when there was a vacancy in the 
 throne under the regal government. 
 
 § 249. Less important occasional magistrates were the following ; the Prcefeclus 
 annonm, charged with the procuring and distributing of grain, in cases of scarcity : the 
 
252 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Quinqueviri mensarii, whose chief business was to reduce public expenses [minuendii 
 publicis sumlibus) ; the Quinqueviri muris turribusque reficiendis, to see to repairs in 
 the walls and fortifications ; the Triumviri cedibus sacris reficiendis, to repair the sacred 
 buildings; Triumviri monetales, having charge of the mint; Triumviri nocturni, to 
 superintend the nightly watch ; Duumviri navales (classis ornandce reficiendasque causa), 
 for equipping and repairing the fleet, &c. — Some of these, however, were not magistrates 
 in the proper sense, but they were chosen from among the most respectable men. 
 
 The servants or attendants of magistrates were called in general apparitores; under 
 which were included scribaa, notarii, actuarii, accensi, coactores, prascones, interpre- 
 tetes, lictores, viatores, &c. — The Carnifex was the executioner or hangman. 
 
 § 250. Besides the magistrates which have been named, permanent or 
 occasional, there were various others whose authority pertained to the provinces 
 of Rome, provincial magistrates. These were in part such as have been 
 named. Among them were the proconsuls, propraetors, proquaestors, the legates, 
 conquisitors, &c. 
 
 Proconsuls were either (1) such as being consuls had their office prolonged beyond 
 the time fixed by law ; or (2) such as were raised from a private station to govern some 
 province or to command in war ; or (3) such as having been consuls went, immediately 
 on the legal expiration of their consulship, into provinces assigned to their charge under 
 the commonwealth ; or (4) such as were appointed governors of the provinces under 
 the empire ; as all these were called proconsuls. But the name and dignity properly 
 belonged to the third of these classes. — The senate decided from year to year what 
 provinces should be consular ; and then the consuls, while only designati (cf. §241), agreed 
 by lot which of them each should take on the expiration of his consulship. A vote of 
 the people afterwards conferred on them the military command in their provinces. Their 
 departure to their provinces and return to the city was often attended with great' pomp. 
 They enjoyed very absolute authority both civil and military, but it was limited to a 
 year, and they were liable to a rigid trial on their return ; the offences most commonly 
 charged were (1) crimen peculatus, ill use of the public money, (2) majestatis, treachery 
 or assumption of powers belonging to the senate or people, and (3) repetimdarum, ex- 
 tortion or oppression towards the inhabitants. 
 
 The Proprmlors were such as, after their praetorship, received provinces, in which 
 lor a year they had supreme command, usually both civil and military. Their creation, 
 administration, and responsibility were similar to those of the Proconsuls ; only they 
 had but six lictors instead of twelve, and the praetorian provinces were usually smaller 
 than the consular ; cf. § 260. 3. (4). The Legati were the chief assistants of the Pro- 
 consuls and Propraetors. The number depended on the rank of the chief officer, and 
 the circumstances of the provinces. They at length obtained important authority aa 
 military commanders. One Qiieestor or more attended each Proconsul or Proprae- 
 tor. His business was to superintend the public accounts, and the supplies of the 
 army. Proquaestors were such as the chief officer appointed temporarily, on the ab- 
 sence or death of the provincial Quaestor (cf. § 246). The duties of the Quaestor were 
 
 assigned under the emperors to the officer styled Procurator Ccesaris. The conqui- 
 
 sitores -were inferior officers not properly civil, who were employed to raise soldiers, 
 and by force if necessary. 
 
 § 251. We may notice here the division or classification of the people, which 
 had throughout an important influence on the government. — At the beginning, 
 Romulus divided the city itself and the whole people into three tribes, and each 
 of these into ten Curiae. The tribes were the Rhamnensis, consisting of native 
 Romans, the Tatiensis, of Sabines, and the iribits Lucerum, of all other foreigners. 
 — Servius Tullius altered this division and made thirty tribes, 4 of the city 
 (tribus urbanse), and 26 for the territories (tribus rusticse). The latter at length 
 gained the precedency of the former, and were considered as more honorable. 
 Five tribes were added at a later period ; and also others, which were not 
 permanent. 
 
 The four city tribes were Suburana or Snccusana, Esquilina, Collina, Palatina ; the riistic 
 tribes, Romilia, Lemonia, Pupina, Galeria, Pollia, Voltinia, Claudia, iEmilia, Cornelia, Fabia, 
 Horatia, Menenia, Papiria, Sergia, Veturia, Crustumina ; these belonged to the proper Roman 
 territory ; in addition there were the Etrurian tribes, Vejentina, Stellatina, Tromentina, Saba- 
 tina, Arniensis, Pomptina, Publilia or Papilia, Mcecia, Scaptia, Ufentina, Falerina; and the 
 Sabine tribes, Aniensis, Terentina, Velina, Ciuirina; making thirty-one. 
 
 Boivin, On the Rom. Tribes, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vot. i. 72. — G. C. T. Franckc, De Tribuum Curiarum, atque Centuriarum 
 Ratione. Schlesw. 1624. Respecting the buildings termed Curix, cf. P. I. § 61. 
 
 § 252. Servius Tullius also divided the Roman citizens, for the sake of an 
 equitable distribution of the public burdens, into six classes according to pro- 
 perty These classes were subdivided into centuries amounting in all to 193. In 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. PATRICIANS. PLEBEIANS. 253 
 
 order to preserve this distribution, an ordinance was established requiring the 
 census and valuation to be taken every five years (cf. § 247). 
 
 " The first class consisted of those whose estates in lands and effects were worth at 
 least 100,000 asses, or pounds of brass; or 1*0,000 drachma according to the Greek 
 way of computing ; which sum is commonly reckoned equal to £322, 18s. 4d. sterling ; 
 but if we suppose each pound of brass to contain 24 asses, as was the cage afterwards, 
 it will amount to £7750. This first class was subdivided into eighty centuries or com- 
 panies of foot, forty of young men (juniorum), from seventeen to forty-six years of age, 
 who were obliged to take the field (ut foris bella gererent), and forty of old men (se- 
 niorum), who should guard the city (ad urbis custodiam ut praisto essent). To these 
 were added eighteen centuries of Equites, who fought on horseback; in all ninety- 
 eight centuries. — The second class consisted of twenty centuries, ten of young men, 
 and ten of old, whose estates were worth at least 75,000 asses. To these were added 
 two centuries of artificers (fabrum), carpenters, smiths, &c. to manage the engines of 
 war. — The third class likewise contained twenty centuries; their estate was 50,000 
 asses. — The fourth class likewise contained twenty centuries; their esta'e was 25,000 
 asses. To these Dionysius adds two centuries of trumpeters (vii. 59). — The fifth class 
 was divided into thirty centuries; their estate was 11,000 asses, but according to Dio- 
 nysius 12,500. — The sixth class comprehended all those who either had no estates, or 
 were not worth so much as those of the fifth class. The number of them was so great 
 as to exceed that of any of the other classes ; yet they were reckoned as but one century. 
 — Thus the number of centuries in all the classes was, according to Dionysius, 193. 
 
 Each class had arms peculiar to itself, and a certain place in the army according to 
 the valuation of their fortunes. — Those of the first class were called Classici; all the 
 rest were said to be Infra Classem; hence classici auctores, for the most approved 
 authors (A. Gell. vii. 13. xix. 8). 
 
 By this arrangement the chief power was vested in the richest citizens who com- 
 posed the first class, which, although least in number, consisted of more centuries 
 than all the rest put together ; but they likewise bore the charges of peace and war {munia 
 pads et belli) in proportion. For as the votes of the Comitia, so likewise the quota of 
 soldiers .and taxes, depended on the number of centuries. Accordingly the first class, 
 which consisted of ninety-eight, or, according to Livy, of one hundred centuries, 
 furnished more men and money to the public service than all the rest of the state 
 besides. But they had likewise the chief influence in the assemblies of the people by 
 centuries. For the Equites and the centuries of this class were called first to give 
 their votes, and if they were unanimous the matter was determined ; but if not, then 
 the centuries of the next class were called, and so on, till a majority of centuries had 
 voted the same thing. And it hardly ever happened that they came to the lowest 
 (Liv. i. 43. Dionys. vii. 59)." {Adam.) 
 
 Huschke, Die Verfassung des Servius Tullius. Leipz 1838.— Zumpt, Ueber die Abstimmung des ROiri.Volkes in Centuriat Comitien. 
 —Untirholzner, De Mutata Centuriatorum Comit. a Serv. Tu!l. Re». institutorum Ratione. Brest. 1835. 
 
 § 253. Another division of the Romans, existing from the earliest times, was 
 into Patricians and Plebeians, according to family descent. The Patricians 
 were the descendants of the Senators appointed by Romulus, the Fathers, Palres, 
 of whom he selected three from each tribe, and three from each curia, making 
 ninety-nine; to these he added a man of distinguished merit, so that the Senate 
 originally consisted of 100 members. Afterwards the Sabini were admitted 
 into it, and the number was doubled. Tarquinius Priscus increased this num- 
 ber by a third hundred from the Plebeians, who were termed Patres minorum 
 gentium, to distinguish them from the original Senators, and their descendants 
 were called Patricii minorum gentium. 
 
 1 u. The word populus had among the Romans a more general meaning than plebs; 
 tne former signified the whole body of the Roman people ; the latter, a particular por- 
 tion distinct from the senators and the knights, and called also, ordo plebeius. In early 
 times, this order consisted of such as were proprietors of land, but in the times of the 
 republic it was composed mainly of the lowest class, which we denominate the populace. 
 
 2. There is some disagreement as to the time when the formal distinction between 
 Patricians and the Plebeians really commenced. The existence of Plebeians in the 
 time of Romulus is implied in some passages of ancient authors (cf. Liv. i. 8. Dionys. 
 i. 8. ii. 9). But Niebuhr and others have maintained that the Plebeian commonality 
 arose out of the removing to Rome of the citizens of Alba, after its destruction in the 
 reign of Tullus Hostilius ; that before that time the Patricians included the whole body 
 of the populus Romanus; that in the time of Servius the Plebeians were established 
 in their distinctive character as free hereditary proprietors ; and that from this time the 
 Roman nation consisted of two estates, the populus or body of burghers, and the plebs 
 or commonality. 
 
 See Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, vol. i. p. 234, 309. ed. Phil. 1835.— Rein, .'& Erich und GrUber, EncyclopJdie ; and Schmitz, in 
 Smith's Diet, of Anliq. p. 726, 765. 
 
 y 
 
254 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 § 254. The patricians and plebeians were from the beginning greatly at 
 variance. The former at first held all the public offices exclusively. The 
 plebeians gained a share in them B. C. 493, as has been already mentioned 
 (cf. § 245). After this the patricians often allowed themselves to be adopted 
 into plebeian families, in order the more easily to secure offices, which were 
 common to both ranks, .or confined to plebeians, as was the office of tribunes. 
 The power of the people rose to a great height during the time of the republic, 
 and often was perverted to the greatest abuses. 
 
 1 u. Intermarriage between the two classes took place first B. C. 445. Previously 
 to intermarriages the only mutual relation was that of patron and client ; in which the 
 plebeian made free choice of some patrician as his guardian and patron, and this pa- 
 ■ trician in turn was obligated by certain duties to the plebeian as his client. At last 
 this relation existed chiefly between masters and freedmen. 
 
 2. It was esteemed highly honorable for a Patrician to have many clients, both 
 hereditary and acquired by his own merit. The duties of this relation (clientela) were 
 considered as of solemn obligation. Virgil (JEn. vi. 605) joins the crime of injuring a 
 client with that of abusing a parent ; the client on the other hand was expected to serve 
 his patron, even with life in an extremity. Amidst all the dissensions which mark 
 the Roman history, there seems to have been a mutual and faithful observance of these 
 duties. In later times cities and nations chose as patrons distinguished families or 
 individuals at Rome. 
 
 § 255. Tt is necessary to distinguish between the Patrician rank, and what 
 was called Roman nobility {nobilitas Romano). The latter was a dignity result- 
 ing from merit, either personal or derived from ancestors, and acquired espe- 
 cially by holding a curule office. Patrician descent was not necessary for this, 
 although when united with merit it heightened the nobility. Such as acquired 
 this nobility themselves, were styled novi homines. 
 
 lu. One of the principal distinctions of those possessing this nobility {nohiles) wa3 
 the jus imaginum, which allowed them to form images or busts in painted wax of 
 their ancestors, placing them in cases in their halls (atria), and carrying them in funeral 
 processions (cf. § 340. 3), and at other solemnities. The right was sometimes conferred 
 as a reward, by an assembly of the people, and received with public thanks. The Roman 
 history is filled with contests between the old and the new nobility. 
 
 2. A curule office was one which entitled the person holding it to use the sella curulis 
 or chair of state. Such was the office of dictator, consul, praetor, censor, and curule eedile. 
 
 The chair was composed of ivory, or at least highly adorned with it, commonly being a sort 
 of "stool without a back, with four crooked feet, fixed to the extremities of cross-pieces, joined 
 by a common axis, somewhat in the form of the letter X, and covered with leather ; so that it 
 might be folded together," and thus easily carried by the magistrate in his chariot; hence the 
 epithet curulis. (Mul. Gell. iii. 18.) In our Plate XXXI. fig. 9 is a representation of one an- 
 swering the above description. But the sella appears to have been sometimes of a less portable 
 form and size, as seen in fig. 2 of this plate. These two figures are from monuments found, the 
 
 one at Pompeii, the other at Herculaneum. The chair above described must be distinguished 
 
 from the sella portatoria, or cathedra ; this was a sedan in which a person sat and was carried 
 by slaves, in the manner still common in the east. They were used by private persons as well 
 as rulers and officers. They were very frequent in the time of Cssar. (Suet. Cres. 43. Claud. 28.) 
 — Fig. 10, in Plate XXXI. is from an Egyptian monument, and serves well to illustrate the sel- 
 la portatoria. There are four bearers; a fifth attendant bears a staff" in his right hand, perhaps 
 the badge of his office as conductor of the palanquin. A sort of parasol richly embroidered is 
 stretched behind the occupant of the chair, on a frame for the purpose. The sedan itself is of 
 elegant carved work, adorned with lotuses and other devices. — The magistrates in the colonies 
 and municipal towns sat on public occasions in a large chair called bisellium ; two of these 
 have been found at Pompeii, made of bronze, inlaid with silver, of extraordinary work- 
 manship. 
 
 See the Musw Borlonko, cited P. IV. § 213. vol. ii. tav. 31. vi. tav. 28.— Pompeii, p. 265, as ciled P. IV. § 226. 
 
 § 256. The Equitesformed a distinctbody of high rank in Rome (ordo equester). 
 They were originally composed of 100 young men taken from each of the three 
 tribes, thus making three centuries (300). Their number was greatly increased 
 by the kings, so that there were eighteen centuries under Servius Tullius. They 
 became at length a distinct order, not including all who served on horseback, 
 but only such as were chosen into the rank. In the year 124 B. C, the order 
 received some important prerogatives, being chosen to act as judges, and to 
 farm the revenues. The property requisite to qualify one for election as a knight, 
 at this period, was 400 thousand sesterces (census equester') ; the age about 
 eighteen; nobility of descent was not sufficient to secure it. The Censors 
 were intrusted with the scrutiny, and they presented to those found worthy, a 
 
PLATE XXXI. 
 
256 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 horse at the public expense ; hence the phrase, equo publico merere The order 
 was under the constant supervision of the Censors. 
 
 1. Plebeians as well as Patricians were eligible to this order. The term illustres 
 was applied to those descended from ancient families. The number of equites greatly 
 increased under the early emperors. Persons were admitted into the order, if they 
 possessed the requisite property, without inquiry into their character, or the free 
 birth of their father and grandfather. 
 
 2 m. The knights were distinguished by a golden ring {annulus aureus) or rings, and 
 by the tunica angusticlavia, a white tunic with its purple stripe, or border, narrower 
 than that of the senators. At the spectacles, their seat was next to the senators, who 
 were frequently chosen from the equestrians. They made annually, on the 15th- of 
 July, a splendid procession (transvectio) through the city to the Capitol. 
 
 Marquardt, His'oria Equitum Romanorum. Berl. 1840.— Zumpt, Ueber dieRomischen Ritter und den Ritterstand in Rom. Berl. 
 1S40.— Eylenius, De Ord. equestri Vet. Romanorum, in Sallengrc, vol. i.—P. Burmann, as cited § 338. 2. 
 
 § 257. The Senate, as has been already stated (§ 253), originally consisted 
 of 100 members, afterwards of 200, and finally, before the regal office was 
 abolished, of 300. Sylla added 300 Equites, raising the whole number to 600. 
 Towards the end of the republic, the number was as great as 1000. Augustus 
 reduced it to 600. Under his successors the number was not uniformly the 
 same. — The Senators, when assembled in council, were called Paires Conscripti. 
 Their election was at first made by the kings, next by the consuls, afterwards 
 by the censors, and in one instance, after the battle of Cannse, by a Dictator. 
 Under the emperors, a Triumvirate was sometimes formed to attend to the 
 election. In the choice of senators, regard was had to character, property, and 
 age, which must not be less than twenty-five. 
 
 1 u. The Senators were distinguished in their dress particularly by two things ; the 
 tunica laticlavia, a tunic cr waistcoat with a broad stripe of purple (latus clavus) at- 
 tached to it, and high black buskins (calcei or ocrece nigri colons), which had the letter 
 C marked on them. At public spectacles the Senators also sat in the foremost part 
 of the Orchestra. 
 
 2 m. The Senate was assembled by the Kings, Consuls, Dictators, Pragtors, or 
 Tribunes of the people, by public summons (edictum), or by means of a herald. In 
 the former case the object of assembling was specified. There were, besides, certain 
 days fixed for regular meetings of the senate, the Calends, Nones, and Ides of every 
 month. On festivals and in time of the Comitia when the whole people were as- 
 sembled, the senate could not meet. Augustus restricted the regular meetings to the 
 Calends and Ides. The place of assembling was not exclusively fixed, but it must be 
 set apart and consecrated for the purpose by the Augurs. The temples, and the Ca- 
 pitol amongst them, were usually selected, excepting always the Temple of Vesta. — 
 The number of members necessary (numerus legitimus) to pass a decree {Senatus 
 consultum) was 100; and, from the year B. C. 67, 200. The meetings were opened 
 early in the morning and continued until near or after midday ; before and after the 
 light of the sun no lawful decree could be enacted. Sacrifices were always offered 
 and the auspices taken by the magistrate, who was to hold the senate, before entering 
 the place of meeting. The magistrate, then, Consul, PraBtor, or whoever assembled 
 the senate, proposed the business, and the members gave their opinions usually in an 
 established order. In important or interesting cases, questions were decided by the 
 Senators separating into two parts {itio in partes). The emperors had the right of pro- 
 posing questions to the senate, not properly, but at first only by special permission.-*— 
 A distinction was made between a decree of the Senate, Senatus consultum, and a 
 judgment or opinion, Senatus aucloritas; the latter term was applied, when the sen- 
 tence was less decisive, or was not passed without some person's intercession or veto, 
 or was attended with some informality ; decrees were ratified by being engrossed or 
 written out, and lodged in the treasury (in JErarium condebantur) in the place of public 
 records (tabularium), in the temple of Saturn. 
 
 3. "Although the supreme power at Rome belonged to the people, yet they seldom 
 enacted any thing without the authority of the Senate. In all weighty affairs, the ' 
 method usually observed was, that the Senate should first deliberate and decree, and 
 then the people order. But there were many things of great importance which the 
 Senate always determined itself, unless when they were brought before the people 
 by the intercessions of the Tribunes. This right the Senate seems to have had, not 
 from any express law, but by the custom of their ancestors. — 1. The Senate assumed 
 to themselves guardianship of the public religion ; so that no new god could be intro- 
 duced, nor altar erected, nor the Sibylline books consulted, without their order. — 
 2. The Senate had the direction of the treasury, and distributed the public money at 
 pleasure. They appointed stipends to their generals and officers, and provisions and 
 clothing for their armies. — 3. They settled the provinces, which were annually assigned 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SENATE. ASSEMBLIES OF THE PEOFLE. 257 
 
 to the Consuls and Prators ; and, when it seemed fit, they prolonged their command. 
 — They nominated out of their own body all ambassadors sent from Rome, and gave 
 to foreign ambassadors what answers they thought, proper. — 5. They decreed all public 
 thanksgivings for victories obtained ; and conferred the honor of an ovation or triumph, 
 with the title of Imperator, on victorious generals. — 6. They could decree the title of 
 King to any prince whom they pleased, and declare any one an enemy by a vote. — 
 7. They inquired into public crimes or treasons, either in Rome or other parts of 
 Italy, and heard and determined all the disputes among the allied and dependent cities. 
 — 8. The}' exercised a power, not only of interpreting the laws, but of absolving men 
 from the obligation of them, and even of abrogating them. — 9. They could postpone the 
 assemblies of the people, and prescribe a change of habit to the city, in cases of any 
 imminent danger or calamity. But the power of the Senate was chiefly conspicuous 
 in civil dissensions or dangerous tumults within the city, in which that solemn decree, 
 Ultimum or Extremum, used to be passed (cf. § 24S. 2), That the consuls should take 
 care that the republic should receive no Jiann." {Adam.) , 
 
 C. Middleton, Treatise on Rom. Senate. Lond. 1747. 8. Also in his JSfiscell. Works. Loud. 1755. 5 vols. S. — T. Chapman, 
 Essay on the Rom. Senate. Cambr. 1750. 8. — N. Hooke, Observations on the Roman Senate, as treated by Middleton, Chapman, &c, 
 Lond. 1758. 8.— Spehnan, Dissertation, fee. in his Trans, of Dionys. Hal. cited P. V. § 247. i.—Bletlerie, as cited § 242.— Walter, 
 Geschichte des Rom. Rechts. — Bach, Zimmerin, &c. cited P. V. § 571. 
 
 § 258. Assemblies of the whole Roman people were termed Comitia. The 
 word comitium originally signified the place of assembling, which was an 
 open space in the Roman forum, in front of the court-house of Hostilius; it was 
 afterwards applied to the assembly itself, consisting of three ranks or orders of 
 the Roman people, and held at that place, or the Campus Martius, or the 
 Capitol. Assemblies of one or two orders were called Concilia ,■ and less formal 
 ones, where merely notices or addresses were given to the people, and nothing 
 was decided, were termed Condones. The Comitia were appointed only by the 
 higher magistrates, a Consul, Dictator, or, in the Consul's absence, a Praetor. 
 The most important subjects were considered in these assemblies, some of which 
 have been already mentioned incidentally. 
 
 § 259. The days of the year, on which such assemblies could be held, 184 in 
 number, were called dies comitiales. Romulus established the Comitia Curiata, 
 in which the votes were given by Curias (§ 251); Servius Tullius the Comitia 
 Centuriata, in which the people voted by centuries, and which were the most 
 important; and the Tribunes, B. C. 491, instituted the Comitia Tributa, in 
 which the votes were given by tribes. The decrees passed at the last mentioned 
 were termed Plebiscita, and at first were binding only on the plebeians. — The 
 election of officers, which became the principal business of the Comitia, was 
 chiefly made at the Comitia Centuriata. These were held in the Campus 
 Martius, where more than 50,000 persons might assemble. 
 
 1 u. The consul or presiding magistrate at the Comitia of Centuries occupied an 
 elevated wooden erection, called Tribunal. There were 193 small slips or narrow 
 passages {-pontes, vonliculi) raised for the 193 centuries to ascend upon as they went to 
 vote, Both these and the tribunal were surrounded by a balustrade, forming what 
 was called the Septa or Ovile. Outside of this the people stood until they were called 
 in (intro vocatw) to vote century by century through the six successive classes. The 
 order, in which the centuries voted, was determined by lot (sortilio), the names being 
 thrown into a box (sitella) and drawn out by the presiding magistrate. The votes 
 were by means of ballots (tabellce), which were given to each citizen by persons (diri- 
 bitores) standing at the entrances of the passages just named, and were cast by the 
 citizens into a box or chest (cista) at the end of the passage. The manner of voting 
 was the same in the case of elections, of enacting laws, and of passing decrees or 
 judicial sentences. Only persons between 17 and 60 years of age were allowed 
 to vote. 
 
 2. "By the chests were placed some of the public servants, who, taking out the 
 tablets of every century, for every tablet made a prick or point (punctum) in another 
 tablet, which they kept by them. Thus the business being decided by most points 
 gave occasion to the phrase, Omne tulit punctum, and the like." (Kennett.) — It is ob- 
 vious, that in the Comitia Centuriata the mode of voting must give the higher classes 
 an entire preponderance over the others. 
 
 Respecting the Coniitia, sue Huschhe, Zumpt, &c. cited § 252.— FPaifer, Geschichte d. Rom. Rechts. Respecting the Campus 
 
 Marlins, cf. P. I. § 65. — G. Piranesi, Campus Martius antiquse Urbis. Rom. 1762, fol. 
 
 § 260. The rights of Roman citizenship included several important privileges, 
 especially during the freedom of the state. The life and property of a citizen 
 were in the power of no one but of the whole people appealed to thereon; no 
 33 r2 
 
258 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 magistrate could punish him by stripes; he had a full right over his property, 
 his children, and his dependents ; he had a voice in the assemblies of the people 
 and in the election of magistrates ; his last will and testament had full authority 
 after his death. The right of voting was the most valued ; full citizenship in- 
 cluding this could be bestowed only by the people; citizenship embracing the 
 other rights could be conferred by the senate also. All freedmen and their 
 children were excluded from this right, which is what was properly meant by 
 the Jus Quiritium. 
 
 1 u. Whoever once acquired Roman citizenship, could not be deprived of it, even 
 by banishment; it was lost only by voluntary resignation or by taking a foreign alle- 
 giance. The Jus Quiritium privatum, conferred on the colonies and municipal towns, 
 comprehended in it fewer or less important privileges ; in the case of the Latin colonies 
 it was called Jus Latii or Latiuitatis ; of the Italian, Jus It.alicum. Still more limited 
 were the privileges included in the Jura provinciarum and Jura prcefecturarum. 
 
 2. The rights of a Roman citizen have been divided into private and public ; both 
 are included under the common designation Jus Quiritium, and sometimes under that 
 of Jus civitatis; and sometimes these phrases seem to be limited respectively to the 
 rights termed private or public. — To the private, belonged the following ; 1. Jus 
 libertatis, which secured to each the control of his person ; 2. Jus gentis et families, 
 which secured the peculiar privileges of his descent ; 3. Jus patrium, the entire control 
 over his children ; 4. Jus dominii legitimi, the possession of legal property ; 5. Jus 
 lestamenti and hmreditatis, the right to inherit or bequeath property by will ; 6. Jus 
 tutelar, the right to appoint by will guardians for his wife and children. To the public, 
 belonged the following; 1. Jus census, the right of being enrolled by the censor; 
 2. Jus militicB, none but citizens being enlisted at first, a restriction which was after- 
 wards abolished ; 3. Jus tributorum, which secured to the citizen taxation proportioned 
 to his wealth ; 4. Jus suffragii, the right of voting, so highly valued ; 5. Jus honorum, 
 eligibility to public offices, a right originally confined to patricians, but finally extended 
 to plebeians also ; 6. Jus sacrorum, which included certain rights in relation to religious 
 worship. 1 — Those who did not possess the rights of citizens icives) were generally 
 termed foreigners (peregrini) wherever they resided. 
 
 3. This is a proper place for a brief view of the rights ana privileges, which were 
 allowed by the Romans to the cities or nations conquered by them. The forms of 
 government established in such cases may be divided into four. 
 
 (1.) The Coloniw or colonies were cities or tracts of country, which persons from Rome were 
 sent to inhabit. These persons, although mingling with the conquered natives and occupants, 
 gained the whole power in the administration of affairs. In the later periods of the republic 
 and under the emperors, many colonies were planted with soldiers, who had served out their 
 legal time (twenty years, in the foot, or ten in the horse, cf. $ 277), and who after thus laboring 
 for their country were permitted to receive possessions in a colony, and spend their age in ease 
 and plenty. — Trie colonies were scattered over the empire, and governed by laws prescribed to 
 them by the Romans. 
 
 Niebuhr'.s Rome (ed. Phil. 1835), vol. ii. p. 32.— Frontinus, De Coloni is.— Essay in Madvidgii Opuscula (Haunise, 1834), De 
 Jure et Conditione Coloniarum Pop. Romani. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 256. 
 
 (2.) The Municipia were cities, which enjoyed the right of governing themselves by their own 
 laws; retaining, if they chose it, such as were in use before their subjection to the Romans. 
 They were in some respects like the corporate cities of our country, and their inhabitants had 
 the name and some of the rights of Roman citizens. Originally confined to Italy, they were 
 subsequently formed even in the provinces. The colonire and municipia had similar magis- 
 trates ; the Duumviri were the chief officers ; the senators were called Decuriones. 
 
 Savigny, Geschichte des Bom. Rechts.— Savigny, Ceber das Jus Italicuni, in the Zeitschrift, &c. vol. v.— Smith, Diet, of Antiq. 
 p. 259. — Niebuhr, as above cited, vol. ii. p. 37. 
 
 (3.) The Prefectures were certain towns in Italy, whose privileges were curtailed for offences 
 against the Roman government. They were not suffered to frame their own laws as did the 
 7nunicipia, nor to choose their own magistrates, as did both the municipia and the colonic. 
 
 They were governed by a prefect sent annually from Rome. All the other cities of Italy, 
 
 which were not either colonial, municipia, or prwfecturm, were called civitates feederatai, enjoying 
 their own rights and customs, and joined to the Romans only by confederacy or alliance. 
 
 Zumpt, Ueber den Untersrhied der Benennungen Municipium, Colonia, Pisefectura. Berl. 1840. 8. 
 
 (4.) The Provincial were foreign countries of larger extent, which, when conquered, were 
 remodeled as to their governments, at the pleasure of the Romans. They were compelled to 
 pay such taxes as were demanded, and subjected to the authority of governors annually sent 
 out from Rome. The provinces were termed Praetorian or Proconsular according as Pranors or 
 Proconsuls were governors ; provinces belonging to the emperors were governed by proprstors • 
 those belonging to the senate, by proconsuls (cf. # 250). These governors were often tyrranni- 
 cal and always oppressive ; and the provincial system became one of the most odious features 
 in the Roman administration. 
 
 For illustrations of this provincial tyranny, cf. Cicero's Orations asainst Verres.— Middlelon's Life of Cicero, vol. i. p. 94, as citec 
 
 P. V. \ 404. 1. On the Roman provinces, cf. C. Sigonius, De antiquo Jure Provinciarum. Veil. 1568. 4. contained in Grseoius, 
 
 vol. ii. — Burigny, on Gov. of Rom. Provinces, in the Mem. Mad. Inscr. xxvii. 64. On the general subject of Roman rights 
 
 Walter, Geschichte des Romischen Rechts.— Zimmcrn, cited P. V. 5 571.— C. Sigonius, De Antiquo Jure Populi Romani Bon 
 Ii74. fol. Also in his Opera Omnia. Mediol. 1737. 6 vols. fol. 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. JUDICIAL PROCEEDINGS. 259 
 
 § 261. The judicial proceedings of the Romans included trials of public and 
 private cases, criminal and civil. The former involved the general peace and 
 security; the latter, the claims and rights of individuals. The public or crimi- 
 nal trials {judicia publico) were either ordinary or extraordinary. — The latter 
 ■were such as belonged not to any regular jurisdiction, or fixed time or place, 
 but had a special day of trial assigned, or a special assembly of the people ap- 
 pointed for them. Sometimes the people selected certain persons, as a sort of 
 commissioners in cases of this kind ; such were the Duumviri perduellionis or 
 Quassitores. — The ordinary public trials were also called quoestiones perpetuae, 
 and were first established in the year B. C. 149, for the most common state 
 offences. In these the Prastor presided (cf. § 243), by whom assistant judges 
 {judices assessores) were chosen annually, originally from the senate, then from 
 the knights, and at last from all conditions-. The judges were divided into 
 several decurise, from which the requisite number of them were taken by lot 
 for each trial. Under the emperors,the judges were appointed by them. 
 
 1 u. In all public trials a certain order of proceeding and a series of established usages 
 were observed. The plaintiff {actor, accusator) commonly spoke against the defendant 
 {reus) ; the witnesses were then heard ; the opinion of the judges was given orally or 
 in writing, and judgment was pronounced. The person acquitted could, when he had 
 ground for it, bring his accuser to trial for slander {calurnnia) ; the person condemned, 
 on the other hand, was punished according to the law. 
 
 2. Public trials of a capital kind were held before the Comitia Centuriata; such as 
 involved only the question of some minor punishment, before the Comitia Tributa. 
 In these cases some magistrate must be the accuser. Having called an assembly, he 
 announced that on a certain day he should accuse the person of a certain crime ; doing 
 this was expressed by the phrase dicere diem; the person named must procure bonds- 
 men {vades, prades) or be kept in custody to the day named; on that day the ma- 
 gistrate made his accusation, which was repeated three times, each after one day in- 
 tervening ; then a bill {rogatio), including the charge and the punishment proposed, 
 was posted up for three market-days ; on the third market-day, the accuser again 
 repeated the charge, and the criminal or his advocate {advocdtus, patronvs) made a 
 defence ; after which the Comitia was summoned, for a certain day, to decide the trial 
 then by suffrages. 
 
 On the judicial affairs of the Romans, the fullest authority is C. Sigonius, de judiciis, in his Opera Omnia, cited § 260. vol. iii. ; 
 also in 2d vol. of Grxvius, cited § 197.— Cf. Beaufort, Republique Romaine. 2d vol. — Dunlop, Rom. Lit. vol. ii. p. 141, as cited P. V. 
 § 299. 8. — H". F. Salmon, De Judiciis et Precis Romanorum, in Sallengre, vol. iii. — Walter, Geschichte des Rom. Rechts.— Gdttling, 
 Geschichte der Rom. Staatsverfassung.— Tigmlrom, De Judicibus apud Romanos. Berl. 1826. " Valuable only for the collection 
 of the original authorities." 
 
 § 262. In private affairs, the accusation was commonly called petitio; the 
 plaintiff petilor, and the defendant, is unde petitur. The plaintiff could compel 
 the other party to appear at court, not usually, however, without calling in some 
 one as witness to the step {antestatio). If the defendant chose not to go, he 
 must give security or bail {satisdare). The plaintiff himself stated the matter 
 or object of his complaint {causa); if the defendant denied the thing charged, it 
 led to a formal trial {actio). — There were two principal kinds of actions; viz. : 
 actiones in personam, which related to the fulfilment of obligations ; and actiones 
 in rem, which related to the recovery of property in possession of another. The 
 proceeding, in a case of the latter kind, was termed vindicatio ,• of the former 
 kind, condictio. All private trials belonged to the jurisdiction of the Praetor. 
 
 1 u. The Praetor named the judges, who, when the dispute was about the restitution 
 of property, were called recuperator es. Often for this purpose a hundred or a hundred 
 and five were appointed from the different tribes, called centumvirale judicium. The 
 judges or jury, as well as the litigating parties, were put under oath. Then the action 
 was carried forward orally, and after examination, judgment was pronounced, and 
 provision made for its execution. It may be important to distinguish judges pro- 
 perly so called from arbitrators {abitri causarum), who made awards in cases which 
 were not to be decided on the exact principles of law but to be adjusted by accommo- 
 dation, or by their best discretion ; such cases were termed causa jidei bona et arbi- 
 traria. 
 
 2 u. The usual places for trials were, in public cases, the Forum or the Campus 
 Martius; and in private actions, other free places, or more frequently the Basilica 
 (cf. P. I. § 61). 
 
 § 263. Among the principal penal offences, which demanded public trials, 
 were the following: Crimen majestatis, or an offence against the dignity and 
 
260 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 security of the state and its magistrates; perduellionis, high treason against the 
 freedom of the people; peculatus, embezzling in any way the public property, 
 sacrilege, counterfeiting money, or falsifying records ; ambitus, bribery or cor- 
 ruption of the people to procure votes in an election; repetundarum, extortion, 
 when a Praetor, Quaestor, or other provincial magistrate, made unjust exactions, 
 for which compensation was demanded ; vis pub Iks, public violence, including 
 conspiracies, personal assaults, and various similar offences. — There were vari- 
 ous more private offences of which cognizance was taken in public trials; e. g. 
 crimen inter sicarios, assassination; crimen veneficii, poison; parricidii, parri- 
 cide; falsi, forgery; adulierii and plagii, adultery and man-stealing. 
 
 § 264. The punishments (pcense) inflicted on those found guilty were various. 
 The following were the principal ; damnum, mulcla, fines, which at first never 
 exceeded thirty oxen and two sheep, or the value of them, but afterwards were 
 increased; vincula, imprisonment with bonds, which were cords or chains upon 
 the hands and feet; verbera, blows inflicted on the freeborn with the rods of 
 the Lictors (virgis), upon slaves with whips (Jlagellis) ; talio, satisfaction in 
 kind, i. e. the punishment similar to the injury, e. g. an eye for an eye ; infamia 
 or ignominiu, disgrace or infamy, which generally rendered the person incapa- 
 ble of enjoying public offices; exilium, banishment, which was either voluntary 
 or inflicted, and was attended with a deprivation of all honors. When the 
 person was banished to no particular place, he was said to be interdictus ; when 
 banished to a certain place, relegatus. The form termed deporlatio was the 
 most severe, as the persons were then sent into perpetual exile in distant and 
 desolate places or islands. Two other punishments should be noticed ; servitus, 
 slavery, into which offenders of a certain class were sold; and mors, death, in- 
 flicted for heinous crimes. 
 
 1. Under the term vincula were included several varieties ; as catena, chains ; boits, 
 cords or thongs ; manicce, manicles for the hands ; pedicce, fetters for the feet ; nervus, 
 iron shackles for the neck ; columbar, a sort of stocks, a wooden frame with holes in 
 which the feet were fastened and sometimes the hands. The confinement of crimi- 
 nals was either in prison, or in private custody under a soldier or officers (cf. Acts 
 xxviii. 16) ; the right wrist of the prisoner being fastened by a chain to the left wrist 
 of the keeper ; the prisoner was sometimes chained to two soldiers. — The ancient 
 state-prison of Rome, by the name of the Mamertine Prison, is still pointed out to 
 travelers. 
 
 In our Plate XXXI., fig. A, is a cut showing a kind of stocks now used in the East, in which 
 the criminal prostrate on his back is confined by his feet and hands; it may serve to illustrate 
 the Roman stocks above named. — Fig. B, of the same Plate, is a cut representing one of the 
 stories of the Mamertine Prison. The structure is under a small edifice called the Church of St. 
 Joseph ; it consists of two stories ; the lower one is called Tullianum, after Servius Tullius, who 
 is said to have built it ; this is formed of heavy blocks of stone, arched over without cement, and 
 defying the assaults of time; here Jugurtha was stoned to death ; and here, according to tra- 
 dition, Paul and Peter were imprisoned; the dungeon presents a most appalling appearance. 
 
 Cf. Eustace, Tour, &c. cited P. IV. § !90. I.— Fish, Travels, be. p. 300, as cited P. IV. § 186 6. 
 
 2. The flagellum (^donf) was made of leathern thongs (lord) or twisted cords (funes) 
 fastened to the end of a stick, and sometimes loaded with pieces of iron or lead. The 
 scutica was a simple thong or strap, and the ferula a mere rod or stick. Cf. Hor. i. 
 iii. 119. — The punishing of Roman citizens by the virga (paffSog) was prohibited by 
 the Lex Porcia, many years before the time of Christ (cf. Acts xvi. 22). 
 
 3. The modes of inflicting death were various. Slaves were usually crucified (cruci 
 ajjigere) ; others it was customary at first to hang [arbori suspendere), afterwards to 
 behead (securi percutere) , or to strangle in prison (stra?igulare), or to throw from the 
 Tarpeian rock {de saxo Tarpeio dejicere), or cast into the sea or a river (projicere in 
 projluentem). The latter mode was used in the case of parricide, or the murder of 
 any near relative. The criminal was first whipped, then sewed up in a. leather sack 
 (culeus, cf. Dionys. Hal. iv. 62), sometimes along with a serpent, or an ape, or a do.< 
 and a cock, and then thrown into the water. — The bodies of executed criminals we 
 not burned or buried, unless, as was sometimes permitted, their friends purchased ' e 
 privilege of doing it ; but were usually exposed before the prison, on certain stairs 
 (scalce) called gemonim or gemonii gradus ; down which they were dragged with a 
 hook and cast into the Tiber. The innocent victims of popular violence or civil war 
 were sometimes thrust down these steps of infamy (Tac. Hist. iii. 74). Three other 
 modes of capital punishment were also practiced, especially under the emperors ; ad 
 ludos, in which the criminals were obliged to fight with wild beasts in the amphithea- 
 tre (bestiarii), or with each other as gladiators ; ad metalla, in which the offenders 
 were condemned to work in mines ; ad bestias, in which they were thrown to wild 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. SYSTEM OF LAWS. 261 
 
 beasts to be devoured. These forms were often inflicted on those who embra'-ed and 
 would not renounce Christianity. There was also another form, still more horrid, 
 which was to wrap the offender in a garment covered with pitch and set it on fire ; 
 thus Nero murdered the Christians, on whom he charged his own crime of burning 
 Rome. 
 
 § 265. The system of laws was in general very loose and indefinite in the 
 early times of Rome. The kings, and likewise the first consuls, decided all 
 cases according to their own judgment, or according to usage in similar 
 instances. The abuses growing out of this state of things occasioned, accord- 
 ing to the common accounts, the sending of three commissioners, B. C. 455, to 
 Athens and Sparta in order to collect the laws of Solon and Lycurgus. They 
 returned B. C. 453; and in the year following, ten patricians (cf. § 248. 3) 
 were appointed to devise and propose a body of laws. 
 
 1 u. The laws proposed by the Decemviri were embodied at first in ten, then in 
 twelve tables, and by the people in the Comitia Centuriata were adopted and esta- 
 blished as the ground and rule of all judicial decisions (cf. P. V. § 561). — To these 
 were afterwards added many particular laws, which were usually named from their 
 authors, the consuls, dictators, or tribunes who proposed them ; e. g. Lex Atinia, Lex 
 Furia, &c. ; also from their contents ; e. g. Leges agraria, frumentaria, &c. 
 
 2 u. It was necessary that every law proposed for enactment should be previously 
 posted up in -public for seventeen days (per trinundinum) , and then be submitted to 
 the decision of the people in the Comitia Centuriata, that they might adopt it {legem 
 jubere, accipere), or reject it (legem antiquare). When a previous law was abolished, 
 they were said to abrogate it (legem dbrogare). Laws thus adopted were engraved on 
 brass, and lodged in the archives. — Under the emperors, however, their own ordi- 
 nances had the force of laws, called Conslitutiones principales, and including not only 
 their formal edicts (edicla), but answers to petitions (rescripta, or epistolce), judicial 
 decisions (decreta), and commands to officers (mandata). 
 
 3. Originally laws were enacted by the people in the Comitia Curiata ; such laws 
 were termed in general Leges Curiata. But afterwards the Comitia Curiata fell 
 almost into disuse, and laws were enacted in the Comitia Centuriata, and thence were 
 termed Leges Centuriata. Enactments in the Comitia Tribula were termed Plebisci- 
 ta (cf. § 259). Decrees of the Senate were called Senatus consulta (cf. § 257). Under 
 the early emperors, these decrees were often based on proposals made by the empe- 
 rors, called orationes principum, which were sometimes delivered orally, but generally 
 were sent in written messages ; in later times the orationes seem to have been syno- 
 nymous with the constitutiones .• — The Roman law included the Leges, the Plebiscite, 
 the Senatus consulta, and the Conslitutiones Principales ; and also besides these, the 
 various edicts forming the Jus honorarium ; and likewise several early collections of 
 laws and usages, viz. the Jus Papirianum, the Tabula Duodecim, Jus Flavianum, 
 and Jus JElianum, of which some account is given under the history of Roman Lite- 
 rature (cf. P. V. % 561). It is obvious, therefore, that in the lapse of years the sys- 
 tem of laws must have become exceedingly cumbrous and perplexing. The emperor 
 Justinian first reduced the Roman law to something like order (cf. P. V. % 569). 
 
 Respecting the Orationes principum, cf. Dirbsen, Ueber die Reden der Rom. Kaiser, in the Rheinisch Mus. filr Jurispr. On 
 
 the general subject of the Roman Law and Jurisprudence, we may refer to Beineccius, Antiquitatum Romanarum Jurisprudential!! 
 illustrantium Syntagma. Argent. 1755. 8. — Savigny, System des heutigen Rom. Rechts. — Brinkmann, Institutiones Juris Romani. 
 —Hugo, Lehrbuch der Geschichte des Rom. Rechts. Berl. 1832. 8.— See also in this Manual, P. V. §§ 558-571. 
 
 § 266 u. One thing especially noticeable in the legislation and regular policy of the 
 Romans was their care to provide sufficient supplies of grain. A general scarcity, as 
 in the year B.C. 440 and at other times, occasioned the appointment of a special offi- 
 cer to attend to the subject, called Prafectus Annonm, although the iEdiles had pre- 
 viously been charged with this care, and it continued afterwards to be a duty of their 
 office (cf. § 244). Augustus ordained, that two men should be annually elected to 
 perform this duty, duumviri dividundo frumento. The annual contributions in grain, 
 which were exacted of the provinces, served likewise to prevent the occurrence of a 
 scarcity of bread, and the provincial officers, especially the Quastors (cf. % 246), were 
 required to attend carefully to the business. — In this respect, -Egypt was the most 
 productive province, and it was on account of its grain, that the annual voyage was 
 made by .the Alexandrine fleet, with which the African fleet was afterwards joined. 
 The distribution of grain among the people, at a low rate, was practiced in Rome 
 from the earliest times. 
 
 § 267. The sources of income to the Roman treasury (aerarium), and after- 
 wards to the imperial exchequer (fiscus), were the tribula, taxes imposed on 
 the citizens according to their property, or on the provinces as an annual tribute, 
 and the vectigalia, which included all the other forms of taxes. There were 
 three principal kinds or branches of the vectigalia; the poriorium, duties on ex- 
 
262 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 ports and imports, the person taking lease of -which was called manceps portuum ,• 
 decumse, tithes or tenth-parts of the produce; and the scriptura, or pasture tax, 
 paid for feeding cattle on the public lands. There were also taxes on mines, 
 and on salt works, which yielded considerable revenue. Less important were 
 the taxes on roads, on the value of freed slaves (vicesima, a twentieth), on 
 aqueducts, on artisans, and the like. 
 
 1 u. The vectigalia were let by auction (locabantur sub liasta). Those who hired or 
 farmed them were called publicani, the rent or hire paid being called ■publicum. ; they 
 were usually Roman knights, who of course possessed property, and on taking the 
 lease advanced a large sum, or gave landed securities (proxies). Leases of the reve- 
 nues of whole kingdoms and provinces were often taken by several knights associ- 
 ated (socieias or corpus), who had in Rome a superintendent of the concern (magister 
 societatis publicanorum) , with a subordinate one in each province, or region (promagis- 
 ter), and a multitude of subalterns to collect the revenue, keep the accounts, &c. 
 
 The publicans so often mentioned in the New Testament were of the class of subaltern collectors above described, who were 
 guilty of great extortion in all the provinces. Zaccheus, described by Luke (xix. 2), as " chief among the publicans" (apxt-TtXtiivris), 
 was probably a promagister. — Bouchard, Sur les Publicains, &c. in the Mem. Jlcad. Inscr. xxxvii. 241. 
 
 2. Salt-works (salinm) are said to have been established first at Ostia, by Ancus Martius (Plin. 
 Hist. Nat. xxxi. 41). In later times they were numerous in Italy, and in the provinces. Rock- 
 salt (SAec opvKToi) was known to the ancients ; salt was also gathered from springs and lakes, 
 where it was formed by a natural process; yet most of the salt used was made by artificial 
 evaporation of sea-water. The salt-works were usually public property, and were let by the 
 government to the highest bidder, Amons: the most productive mines belonging to the Ro- 
 mans, were the gold mines near Aquileia (Polyb. xxxiv. 10) ; the gold mines of letiniuli near 
 Vercelii, in which 25,000 men are said to have been employed (Plin. H. Nat. xxxiii. 4) ; and the 
 silver mines of Spain near Carthago Nova. In Dacia were gold mines and silver mines belong- 
 ing to the Romans. Macedonia, Illyricum, Thrace, also Sardinia, and Africa, contained mines 
 from which the Romans derived an income. Those in Dacia are said to have yielded in 4Jie time 
 of Nero fifty pounds of gold daily. 
 
 On the mines of Dacia, cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. Oct. 1841, p. tO.— On those of Spain, Roltin, Anc. Hist. vol. i. p. 32, ed. N. York, 
 1835.— On the ancient mines generally, B. Caryophilus, De antiquis Auri, Argenti, Stanni, ^ris, Ferri, Plumbique Fodinis. Vienn. 
 1757. 4. 
 
 3. Besides the taxes above named, we may mention under the Vectigalia, the following: a 
 tax on the value of things sold (centesima rerum venalium) ; a tax on liberti living in Italy (called 
 octaves) ; a tax on the doors of houses (ostiarium), sometimes on the pillars (columnarium) ; a 
 tax on bachelors (uxorium), first imposed A. D. 403. 
 
 4. After the conquest of Macedonia, the revenue from the provinces became so great that the 
 tribtda previously assessed on Roman citizens were abolished. They were renewed again by 
 Augustus, and continued by his successors. Caracalla bestowed the name and privilege of Ro- 
 man citizens on all free inhabitants of the empire, in order to increase the income from these 
 taxes; this was done without lessening the taxes levied on them as provincial subjects. 
 
 5. Respecting the amount of income to the Roman treasury at different periods not much is 
 known (cf. Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxiii. 17). The annual revenue is said to have been fifty millions 
 of drachms before the time of Pompey, and to have been by him increased to eighty-five mil- 
 lions (Plut. Pomp. 45). In later times vast sums must have been required to meet the various 
 expenses of the civil government, the army, the navy, the public buildings, the aqueducts, the 
 great roads, and other works. — It does not appear that regular annual salaries were given to 
 public officers until the time of Augustus ; but afterwards they were common. Alexander Se- 
 verus is said to have established a salary (salariam) for rhetoricians, grammarians, physicians, 
 haruspices, mathematicians, mechanicians, and architects. The term salariuvi was derived 
 from sal : salt being one of the things essential in supporting human life. 
 
 D. H. ficgewiich, Histor. Versuch liber die Romischen Finanzen. Allona, 1S04. 8.— R. Bosse, Grundzilge des Finanzwesens im 
 Rom. Staate. Braunschweig, 1803-4. 2 Bde. 8.— Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. vi. xvii.— P. Burmann, Vectigalia Populi Romani. 
 Leid. 1734. 4. 
 
 § 268*. In connection with the Civil Affairs of Rome, we may speak of the 
 principal employments and regular pursuits which were publicly authorized or 
 sanctioned. 
 
 1. Under the heads of Teacher, Priest, Lawyer, and Physician, may be included 
 whatever among the Romans corresponded to the learned professions of modern times. 
 — Respecting the business of instruction, conducted by grammarians, rhetoricians, 
 and philosophers, we only refer to the notices given in other parts of this work (cf. P. 
 IV. §§ 123—128. P. V. % 407—412, 416—422, 446— 455).— The established system of 
 idolatry required a large number of priests of different grades ; a sufficient account has 
 been given in former sections of their business (cf. §§ 207 — 219) and emoluments 
 
 (§ 219 b). The employment of the lawyer was highly honorable and profitable. 
 
 The jurisconsult or the pleader, who could distinguish himself by his knowledge of 
 law or his talents and skill in managing causes, was sure to obtain honor and wealth ; 
 although exposed, of course, the orator especially, to suffer in the violence of party 
 revolutions (cf. P. V. §§ 390 — 406, 558 — 571). — The profession of medicine, atfirst not 
 much encouraged, had great patronage from the time of Augustus (cf. P. V. §§ 543 — 
 552). Some statements of Pliny (Hist. Nat. xxix. 5) show that the employment was 
 very lucrative ; a physician, named Quintus Stertinius, received from the emperor 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. COMMERCE AND ARTS. 263 
 
 500,000 sesterces per annum, yet represented himself as making a sacrifice thereby, 
 as he could have obtained 600,000 by private practice. 
 
 We may here remark that a number of surgical instruments were found in 1S19, in a house in Pompeii ; among them were the 
 probe (specillum, p.i}\ri), the cautery (naVTijmov), the forceps (vulsella), the catheter (KaQerijo, mnea fistula), different sorts of 
 knives, &c. — An account of them is given in KUhn, in the Opuscula Academ. Med. et Philolog. Lips. 1828. 2 vols. 8. 
 
 2 u. Although commerce could not flourish much at Rome in early times, when the 
 spirit of war and conquest engrossed every thing, yet there existed a body of mer- 
 chants, who were Roman citizens. The Roman commerce was also extended, on the 
 expulsion of the kings, by a treaty with the Carthaginians. Yet commercial pursuits 
 were regarded as unbecoming for the higher classes, who nevertheless covertly and 
 through agents not unfrequently engaged in them and indulged in speculations. They 
 did this especially in connection with the slave-trade, which was very lucrative. The 
 merchants at Rome were styled mercatores ; those abroad in the provinces, negotia- 
 tores. There were also brokers and bankers {argentarii and mensarii), and contract- 
 ors of various kinds, besides the publicani (mentioned in the preceding section), whose 
 contracts may be viewed as a sort of commercial transactions. Yet Rome never 
 acquired a high rank among the states of antiquity in. point of commerce. 
 
 The argentarii were ordinary brokers ; they were divided into corporations (societales, corpora). 
 The mensarii were public bankers, appointed by the state, who loaned money from the public 
 treasury to such as could give security for it. Both classes had their offices in the buildings by 
 the forum. 
 
 On Commerce, &c. among the Romans, Gibbon, Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. ii.— The Hist, of Rom. Emp. (given in Lardner's Cab' 
 Cyclopaedia) bk. iii. ch. 9. — Be Pastoret, Sur le commerce et le luxe des Romaines, &c. in the Mem. de Vlnsiitut, C 1 ass e d'Hist. 
 el Lit. .inc. vol. iii. p. 285 ; vol. v. p. 76 ; and vii. p. 125.— Emesti, De negotiatoribus Rom. Lips. 1772. 8. 
 
 3 u. Other trades were still less reputable than commerce. The mechanics and arti- 
 sans were slaves, or foreigners, although they sometimes acquired Roman citizenship. 
 Under Numa there were formed certain corporations of them, or colleges {collegia), 
 which afterwards became more respectable and numerous. Of this kind were the 
 collegia fabrorum, tignariorum, dendrophororum, sagariorum, tabular iorunt, &c. The 
 overseer of such a body was called prcefectus ; they had also their decuriones and ma- 
 gistri, whose office was usually for five years. They performed work for the state, 
 or for individual citizens, who were not able to hold slaves. 
 
 Respecting these corporations, see G. Pancirollus, De corporibus Artificum, in 2d vol. of Grsevius, cited § 197. 
 
 4. Among the various arts and trades pursued, the following should be here noticed 
 more particularly. 
 
 (a) The making of glass (vitrum, va\os). — It has been a question of some interest how far the 
 ancients understood the making of glass. Pliny (Hist. Nat. v. 19. xxxvi. 26) states that the art 
 originated in accident, on the banks of the river Belus ; and that glass vessels were first made in 
 Sidon. It was known, however, in Egypt, for pieces of blue glass have been found in the tombs at 
 Thebes, and some of the mummies are decorated with glass. Lachrymatories and paterae of 
 glass have been discovered in the catacombs of the Greek island Milo(cf. $ 186. 1). The allusions 
 and comparisons of Virgil and Horace (cf. Virg. ./En. vii. 759. Hor. Od.i. xvii. 20. Sat. n. iii. 222) 
 indicate an acquaintance with glass (vitrea) in a state of at least considerable perfection. Colored 
 glass is said to have been used in mosaic decorations (cf. P. IV. J 220. 2) in the time of Augustus. 
 Imitations of gems were formed also by means of glass (cf. P. IV. $ 210). The story related by 
 Tacitus (Ann. v. 42) of a vase of malleable glass shown to Tiberius, however incredible, shows 
 that glass-making had been introduced at Rome. Numerous vessels of glass, and even panes 
 of glass in a window, have been found at Pompeii (cf. J 325). The celebrated Portland Vase has 
 lately been pronounced to be glass (cf. P. IV. $ 173); this was found in the tomb of Alexander 
 Severns, in whose reign a special tax was laid, A. D. 220, upon the glass-makers of Rome, who 
 were then so numerous, it is said, as to require the assignment of a particular quarter of the city 
 for the place of their labors. 
 
 See Wilkinson, Ancient Egyptians, vol. iii. p. 88, as cited P. I, § 177. — Boudet, Sur I'Art de la Verrerie, &c. in'.the Description de 
 VEgypte, vol. ix. p. 2\3.—Belzoni, cited P. IV. § 231. 1.— Mazois, Ruines de Pompel. Par. 1830. 
 
 (b) The making of earthenware (fictile, Kcpauiov, darpainvov) or the art of pottery (ars figli- 
 na).— This was early known among the Jews (Jerem. xviii. 3, 4). The vessels found at Volaterrae 
 and other places (cf. P. IV. } 173. 3) prove its existence among the Etrurians and the Greeks in 
 Italy. There can be no doubt it was early introduced among the Romans. The wheel (rpo%6s, 
 rota figularis) of the potter (figulus, Kepauev;) is a subject of allusion in Plautus (Epid. iii. 2. 35). 
 Molds (ruTroi, formm) were used to decorate the vessels with figures in bas-relief (cf. P. IV. 
 $$ 158, 188) and for forming the images on the architectural appendages called antefixa made of 
 terra cotta (cf. P. IV. $$ 239,241); some specimens of these molds have been found near Rome. 
 According to Vitruvius the Romans made their water-pipes of potter's clay. They established 
 potteries in England; vestiges of which, it is said, are still discernible in some parts of the 
 island, especially in Staffordshire. If their vasa murrhina were porcelain (cf. P. IV. $ 195. 4), 
 the art must have reached a high degree of perfection ; some have attempted to show that these 
 vessels were made of a transparent stone dug from fhe earth in the eastern part of Asia. — Th» 
 manufacture of bricks (lateres coctiles) was well understood. Bricks are found in very ancient 
 Roman ruins, which are said to be superior to the modern both in solidity and beauty. 
 
 Lardner's Cab. Cyclopaedia, the vol. on Porcelain and Glass.— S. Parkes, Chemical Essays, &c. Lond. 1830. p. 304, 346. 
 
 Notices of Roman earthen vessels are found in W. Sherry, Description of the discoveries at Heraclea, translated, &c. Lond. 1750. 8. 
 — Cf. Seroux d'Jlgincourt, Recueil de Fragmens. 
 
 (c) The baking of bread (panificium, ars pistoria). — The bakers (pistores) at Rome formed, like 
 persons of other trades, a collegium. No one had made baking a trade, it is said, until B. C. 
 
264 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 173. In a bakehouse (pistrinum, or pistrilla) discovered at Pompeii, were found several loaves 
 of bread apparently baked in molds (artoptw); they were flat and about eight inches in diame- 
 ter. Before the invention of the mill (mola), corn was pounded in a sort of mortar (rnortarinm) 
 called pistum ; whence the name pistor, and pistrinum. Two varieties of the hand-mill (mola 
 manuaria) were found in the ruins of a bakehouse at Pompeii ; grinding with this was done by 
 slaves, chiefly females. The "cattle-mill" (.mola asinaria, pv\og ovikos, cf. Mattk. xviii. 6) was 
 also used ; likewise the water-mill {mola aquaria, vdpaXcrtis), having above the stones a hopper 
 (jnfundibulum) from which the corn fell down between them. In the later periods there appear 
 to have been public mills turned by the water of the aqueducts. When Rome was besieged by 
 the Goths, A. D. 536, and the aqueducts were intercepted, Belisarius is said to have constructed 
 floating mills upon the Tiber. 
 
 Cf. Vilruvius, x. b.—Jiusonius, Poem. lit. 10.— Prccopius, De Bello Gofhico, i. 15 (cf. P. V. § 257).— Mongez, Sur les meules de 
 moulin, &c. as cited § 59. — F. L. Goetzixis, De Molis et Pistrinis Veterum, and C. L. Hoheisel, De Molis Manualibus, &c v , in Ugoli- 
 nut, vol. xxix. as cited § 197. 1. 
 
 (<Z) The business of the fuller (fullo, yvatpng), the dresser of cloth and washer of clothes. — 
 The fullers, like the bakers and other tradesmen, formed a collegium. A fuller's establishment 
 was termed fullonica or fullonium; the mode of performing the work was sometimes a subject 
 of attention from the censors (cf. Pliny, Hist. N. xxxv. 5). On the walls of a fullonica at Pom- 
 peii were found paintings which serve to explain the way in which dresses were cleansed. It 
 would seem that the Romans in the cities sent their clothes to the fuller, instead of having them 
 washed at home. 
 
 The paintings above mentioned are given in the Museo Borbonico, cited P. IV. § 212. vol. iv. — Some of them in Gell, Pompeiana, 
 vol. ii. as cited P. IV. § 243. 2; also in Smith, Diet, of Antiq. p. 432.— Cf. ShBUgcn, Anliquitates Triturce et Fullonias. Traj. ad 
 Rhen. 1727. 
 
 (e) The art of dyeing (ars tinctoria, tinctura). — This seems to have been a subject of special 
 regard in the time of the empire. Establishments for dyeing were supported in various places ; 
 at Tarentum, e. g. celebrated for its woolen manufactures, there was an imperial dye-house 
 (baphium, fiaifietov); these establishments were under a superintendent (baphiis propositus) . The 
 whole work of making the cloth appears to have been performed in them, both the spinning 
 (lanificium) and the business of weaving (textrina). A dye much used was the purple obtained 
 from the shell of the Murex. Dyers from various places resorted to Phoenicia to improve 
 themselves in the art. 
 
 See Jlmeilhon, Sur la teinture des Anciens, in the Mem. de VInstitut, Classe de Lit. et Beaux Arts, vol. i. p. 549 j vol. iii. 
 p. 357.— Cf. notice of the color of the toga, § 332. 2. 
 
 § 269 u. Agriculture was in much higher estimation than commerce or any of the 
 trades ; and the fields of the wide Roman territory, as well as those taken in war, 
 were chiefly possessed by respectable Roman citizens. Many noble Romans lived 
 upon their own lands, and made the cultivation and improvement of them a special 
 study. The ornamenting of their estates proved, in the flourishing periods of the 
 state, an important part of Roman luxury. 
 
 1. The grain chiefly cultivated was wheat, but of various kinds; triticum was a 
 common name ; far is put for any kind of corn, and farina for meal. Barley, hordeum, 
 and o&ts,-avena, were also raised. Flax, linum, was an article cultivated considerably. 
 Meadows, prata, were cultivated for mowing; they seem to have yielded two crops 
 
 of hay , fcenum. The breeding of cattle was an object of attention usually included 
 
 under husbandry ; chiefly, oxen, horses, sheep, and goats. Much care was also be- 
 stowed on bees (apes). Trees, also, both forest, fruit and ornamental, received their 
 share of attention. The Romans were acquainted with most of the various methods 
 now practiced for propagating the different species and varieties. — But the culture of 
 the vine finally took the precedence of all other cultivation (cf. § 331 b). ' 
 
 Respecting the attention paid by the Romans to agriculture as a science, and the care taken 
 in defining the boundaries of lands by means of professional surveyors (agrimensores), see P. V. 
 $ 483—489. cf. P. II. } 91. 1. 
 
 2. Among the agricultural instruments the plow, aratrum, ranks first; its chief 
 parts were the temo, beam, to which the jugum or yoke for the oxen was attached: 
 stiva, plow-tail or handle, having on its end a cross-bar (manicula) of which the 
 plowman took hold to direct the instrument ; buris, a crooked piece of wood between 
 the beam and plowshare ; dentale or dens, the piece of timber which was joined to 
 the buris and received on its end the share ; vomer, the share ; aures, affixed to the 
 buris, and answering to mold-boards to throw the earth back ; culler, the colter. The 
 rallum was a staff used for cleaning the plow, or beating off clods from it. In some 
 plows wheels were attached ; but the plow most commonly used was more simple, 
 
 having neither colter nor mold-boards. Other instruments were the ligo, spade ; 6a- 
 
 tdlus, shovel; raslrum, rake ; sarculum, hoe or weeding-hook ; bidens, a sort of hoe, 
 with two hooked iron teeth ; occa and irpex, different kinds of harrows ; marra, a mat- 
 tock or hoe for cutting out weeds ; dolabra, a sort of adz ; securis, ax ; falx, pruning- 
 
 knife ; falx messoria and falcula, sickle. The implements for beating out grain 
 
 were the perticce, a sort of flails ; traha, a sort of sledge ; tribula, a board or beam, 
 set with stones or pieces of iron, with a great weight laid upon it, and drawn by yoked 
 cattle. These were all used upon the threshing-floor, area, which was a round space, 
 elevated in the center ; sometimes paved with stone, but commonly laid with clay 
 carefully smoothed and hardened. Sometimes the threshing was done by merely 
 driving oxen or horses over the grain spread on this floor, as among the Greeks and 
 Jews. 
 
PLATE XXXII. 
 
 34 
 
 265 
 
266 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 In Plate XXXII., fig. ii. exhibits the Roman plow ; T is the temo ; B, the stiva ; A, points to 
 the aures on the buris ; D, to the dentale ; V, is the vomer; C, the culler. In fig. iii. are seen 
 forms of the Syrian plow, cf. $ 172. 3. — On the Roman plow, cf. DicTison, as cited P. V. $ 489. 3. 
 
 Fig. 8, in Plate. XXXII. is a cut showing varieties of the falx, pruning-knife, and sickle. 
 
 Fig. 5 is from an Egyptian monument, and shows the use of the sickle in cutting wheat in the 
 
 field. Fig. 7 is a Persian drag, for the purpose of threshing grain; a roller with teeth, fitted 
 
 so as to be drawn by cattle over the grain ; it is taken from Sir R. K. Porler. — Fig. iv. is another 
 instrument for the same purpose, taken from Niebuhr; it has three wheels with iron teeth, or 
 with serrated edges, drawn by cattle, the driver sitting on it. These figures may partially illus- 
 trate the Roman traha and tribula. Pontedera, Antiquitatum Rusticarum, &c. Patav.1738. 
 
 3. The carriages used for agricultural purposes were chiefly the plaustra or vehw, 
 which had usually two wheels, sometimes four, and were drawn commonly by oxen, 
 but also by asses and horses. These often had wheels without spokes, called tym- 
 pana. The body of these carriages (and indeed of any carriage) was termed capsum, 
 and the draught-tree or beam, temo. The jugum was the yoke, fastened to the beam 
 and also to the cattle by thongs, lora subjugia — The sarracum was a cart or wagon 
 used in conveying wood, and the various products of the farm. — Pack-horses (caballi) 
 were sometimes used for carrying burdens ; more frequently asses or mules ; called 
 clitellarii, from the packages {clitella) on their backs. 
 
 We may remark in this connection, that the Romans had various carriages for con- 
 venience and amusement. — The chariot, currus, was the most common; always with 
 two wheels, but either two, three or four, or even six horses- Those with two were 
 termed bigw ; those with four, quadriga ; in the races, the horses were always yoked 
 abreast. — The carruca was a sort of private coach of the rich, sometimes of solid sil- 
 ver, curiously carved. — The pilentum, was an easy soft vehicle with four wheels, 
 used in conveying women to public games and rites. The carpentum was a carriage 
 with two wheels and an arched covering. The Ihensa was a splendid carriage with 
 four wheels and four horses, in which the images of the gods were taken to the pul- 
 vinaria in the Circus, at the Circensian games (§ 233). The cisium was a vehicle 
 with two wheels, drawn by three mules, used chiefly for traveling. The rheda was a 
 larger traveling carriage with four wheels. — The horses were guided and stimulated 
 by the bit (frcenum) and reins (habence) and whip (flagellum). Bells (tintinnabula) 
 were sometimes attached to the necks of the chariot-horses in a string similar to those 
 now used. 
 
 Fig. C, in our Plate XXXI. is an ancient biga, preserved in the Vatican at Rome ; it is covered 
 with leather. Fig. 5 shows a Iriga. Fig. 4 is a quadriga, which very nearly corresponds to a 
 representation on a medallion (nummus moduli maximi) belonging to the Royal Cabinet at Paris, 
 on which Augustus appears holding a standard with the eagle at its top, and driving four horses. 
 Cf. Moutfaucon, Sup. vol. i. p. 64. 
 
 Conveyance was also made on horseback, in which case the spur (calear, nivrpov, cf. Virg. 
 ^En. xi.714) was the stimulus. Saddles of some kind (ephippia, iQiiriniiv) were used; sometimes 
 perhaps merely of cloth (vestis slragula); yet sometimes consisting, as is now supposed to be 
 shown by some monuments 1 , of a wooden frame, stuffed and covered with a soft material, and 
 fastened by a girth (civgul-um, zona). Stirrups (stapia) we're also known 52 , in later times as least. 
 — It has been questioned whether the ancients used to shoe their horses. But the allusions of the 
 classical writers seem to indicate clearly the fact that they did 3 , although, in the remains of 
 ancient art the shoe is scarcely found, if ever, in the representations of the horse. Some have 
 supposed that a plate of metal was attached to the hoof, not by nails, but by some other means. 
 
 1 See Ginzrot. Ueber Wagen (" a valuable work on the history of Carriages"). ^ Cf. Jlrchxvlogia, vol. viii. p. Ill, as cited 
 
 P. IV. § 32. 5. 3 Mrchmologia, vol. iii. p. 35. — See the passage from Johnstm, given in § 329. 3. Respecting bridles, bits, &c. 
 
 cf. B. Clark, Chalinography. Lond. 1835. On the vehicles of the ancients, Scheffer, De Re Vehicul. 
 
 § 270. Here will be the place to notice what is most important respecting 
 the weights and circulating coins of the Romans. 
 
 1. The principal Roman weight was the libra or pound. This was divided like the 
 os, into twelve ounces ; and the parts bore the same names with those of the as, men- 
 tioned below. Various Weights, both parts and multiples of the pound, were used in 
 transacting business. They were often made of a black stone which some have 
 called Lydius lapis. Scales (libra) and steelyards (trutina), like the modern, were 
 employed in weighing. 
 
 Various specimens of Roman weights are given by Montfaucon, vol. iii. p. 10(5, as cited ij 13. 
 Some are rectangular solids; but most of them are in a degree spherical. — Fig. 7, in our Plate 
 XXXI. is a steelyard found at Pompeii ; the original has an inscription, bearing a date which cor- 
 responds to A. D. 77, and asserting that the instrument had been legally tested and proved in the 
 Capitol. — Fig. 8 is the movable weight belonging to another steelyard found at the same place. 
 —Roman steelyards and weights have been found also in England. Cf. Archaiologia, cited P. IV. 
 $ 32. 5. vol. ix. p. 131. 
 
 2 u. Servius Tullius was the first who caused money to be coined (cf. P. IV. § 134), 
 by stamping on brass the image of cattle (pecudes whence the term pecunia). Pre- 
 viously, exchanges were made by barter, or by means of uncoined metal. The most 
 common brass coin, the as, was originally a Roman pound-in weight and was divided 
 like that into twelve ounces (uncia). Two uncia made a sextans ; three, a quadrans ; 
 four, a triens ; five, a quincunx ; six, a semis ; seven, septunx ; eight, bes (bis triens) ; 
 nine. d»drans ; ten, decunx ; and eleven, deunx. Afterwards the as was gradually 
 
P. III. CIVIL AFFAIRS. MONEY. 267 
 
 reduced (Plin. H. N. xxxiii. 3) to an ounce in quantity, and finally even to a half- 
 ounce. Silver coin was first stamped B. C. 269; the most common coins were the 
 Denarius, Quinarius, and Sestertius. The Denarius was originally reckoned as 
 equal to ten pounds of brass, and marked X, or \, but after the reduction of the as 
 to an ounce, B.C. 217, it passed as equal to sixteen asses. The proper value of it 
 also varied at different times. The Quinarius was half the Denarius, and marked 
 V. The Sestertius was a fourth part of the Denarius, and originally equal to 2j 
 asse£ (hence its name semis tertius), and marked LLS, i. e. Libra Libra Semis, abbre- 
 viated IIS or HS. After the reduction of the as to one ounce, the Sestertius passed 
 for four asses. The Sestertius was often called Nummus. — Gold coin was first stamped 
 at Rome B, C. 207; the most common coin was the Aureus or Solidus, equal in 
 weight to two Denarii and a Quinarius, and in value to twenty-five Denarii. 
 
 J. Ward, De Asse et Partibus ejus. Lond. 1719. 8. — Cardwell, Lectures on the Coinage of the Greeks atid Romans. 
 
 3. The temple of Juno Moneta was the place of the Roman mint, where their mo- 
 ney was coined ; the term moneta (whence money) referred originally to the image, or 
 stamp, impressed on the coin and reminding one of the person or thing represented. 
 The mint was under the care of the 'Triumviri monetales ; the coins were examined 
 by the Nummularii. The impression on the As or Assipondium was a Janus bifrons 
 on one side and on the reverse the rostrum of a ship ; on the Semis and Quadrans 
 (called also Sembella and Teruncius) was a boat instead of the rostrum. The silver 
 coins Denarius, Quinarius, and Sestertius, often had on one side a chariot with two 
 or four horses, and on the other the head of Roma with a helmet ; but other devices 
 were sometimes impressed (cf. P. IV. § 139. 2). — The value of the Denarius was 
 about 15 cents, as deduced from the experiments of Letronne, who carefully weighed 
 1350 consular denarii ; that of the Sestertius, being one-fourth of it, was therefore 
 about 3 cents and 8 mills. — The ratio of gold to silver in the republic was about 
 10 to 1. 
 
 E. Brerewood, De Ponderibus et Pretiis Veterum Nummorum. Lond. 1614. 4. — Mongez, sur Tart du Monnoyage chez les anciens 
 et chez les moderns, &c. in the Mem. de VInstitut, C 1 a ss e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. ix. p. 1S7. — Conger, ffijckh, as cited § 174.— 
 Hussey, as cited § 274. 2. 
 
 4. The usual rate of interest (fcenus) was one as for the use of a hundred a month, 
 or 12 per cent, a year, and was paid monthly on the Calends. It was called usura 
 centesima, as in a hundred months the interest would equal the capital (caput or sors). 
 Horace speaks (Sat. i. hi. 12) of a usurer, who took 60 per cent. For money invested 
 in property exposed at sea (fcenus nauticum) the lender might demand any interest he 
 liked while the vessel was out ; but after she reached harbor, only the usual rate of 
 12 per cent. — When a person, borrowing money, pledged himself and property in the 
 form of a sale, he was said to be nexus ; a person failing to discharge his debt within 
 the legal term was by the law consigned to the creditor, and was then said to be 
 addiclus. 
 
 See Niebuhr, Hist, of Rome, ed. Phil. 1835. vol. i. p. 437.— Hudtwalker, De fen. nautico Rom. Hamb. 1810. 4. 
 
 § 271 u. The Romans usually reckoned money by Sestertii. The sum of 1000 
 Sestertii they called Sestertium ; duo Sestertia, e. g. signifies the same as bis mille 
 sestertii. When the sum was ten hundred thousand or over, they used the word Ses- 
 tertium in the case required, prefixing only the numeral adverb to the first number, 
 ten, twenty, &c, and leaving the hundred to be supplied by the mind ; e. g. Decies 
 Staterthtm signified 10,00,000 Sestertii ; Quadragies Sestertium signified 40,00,000, 
 or 4 million Sestertii. — They sometimes reckoned by talents, in case of large sums. 
 The talentum was equal to 60 libra or pounds. 
 
 1. Kennet gives the following rule for interpreting the Latin expressions for sums of money : 
 if a numeral agree, in case, number, and gender, with Sestertius, then it denotes precisely and 
 simply so many sesterces; if a numeral of another case be joined with the genitive plural, Ses- 
 tertium, it denotes so many thousand sesterces; if a numeral adverb be joined to the same, or be 
 used alone, it denotes so many hundred thousand sesterces. 
 
 We have on record some statements, from which we may form a notion of the Roman wealth 
 and luxury. Crassus, for instance, is said to have possessed lands to the value of bis millies, i. e. 
 by the above rule, 2000X100,000=200,000,000 sesterces ; taking the value of the sesterce obtained 
 as mentioned in the preceding section, we have 3.8X200,000,000-:-1000=$7,600,000, for the value 
 of the land owned by Crassus ; he is said to have had, in slaves, building*, furniture, and money, 
 as much more. — Caligula laid out upon a single supper, centies, i.e. 100X100,000 sestrrces = 
 3.8 x 10,000,000-:-1000=$380,000 — Cleopatra is said lo have swallowed, at a feast with Antony, 
 a pearl worth the same sum, centies HS. — Cicero is said to have had a table which cost centum 
 sestertium, i. e. 100X1.000 sesterces=$3800. 
 
 Cf. Adam, Rom. Ant. (ed. Boyd) Edinb. 1834. p. 432. — Perhaps these sums would be much larger, if due allowance were made 
 for the depreciation in the value of the precious metals. Cf. Say's Polit. Economy, bk. i. ch. xxi. sect. 7. 
 
 2. In the Roman system of notation, seven letters of the alphabet were employed for express- 
 ing numbers ; viz. I for 1, V for 5, X for 10. L for 50, C for 100, D for 500, and M for 1000. Instead 
 of D, they sometimes used IC to signify 500; and instead of M, they also used |x! or CIC, or OC, 
 to signify 1000. Sometimes a line drawn over a letter indicated that it was to be multiplied by 
 1000 ; e. g. X stood for 10,000 ; 17, 50,000 ; "C, 100,000.— Combinations of these letters usually sig- 
 nified the sum of the numbers represented by the several letters separately ; e. g. VIII, 8 ; XV, 15 , 
 
268 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 LX, 60; CX, 110. But when I, V, or X was placed before a letter representing a larger number, 
 the combination expressed the difference; e. g. IV, 4; XL, 40; XC, 90; and when to IC another 
 C was annexed, it indicated a multiplication by 10; e. g. IC, 500; ICC, 5000; 1CCC, 50,000: in 
 order to signify the same multiplication of CIC, a C was also prefixed as well as O annexed ; 
 e.g. CIO, 1000; CCIOO, 10,000; CCCIOOO, 100,000. For any multiple, however, of this last, 
 100,000, the Romans did not employ letters; but prefixed to this expression a numeral adverb; 
 as bis, to signify 200,000 ; ter, to signify 300,000; decies, to signify 10,00,000, &c. 
 
 § 272. It may be in place to speak here of the modes of acquiring or transferring pro 
 perty (res privates), or methods of gaining the ownership {dominium). The following 
 may be named ; 1. Mancipatio, when a regular compact or bargain was made, and the 
 transfer was attended with certain formalities used among Roman citizens only ; 2. Cessio 
 injure, when a person transferred his effects to another before the Praetor, or ruler of 
 a province ; chiefly done by debtors to creditors ; the cessio extra jus was when an 
 insolvent debtor gave up his property to his creditors ; 3. Usucapio, when one obtained a 
 thing by having had it in, possession and use (usus auctoritate) ; 4. Emptio sub corona, 
 the purchasing of captives in war, who were sold at special auction, with garlands 
 (coro?ia) on their heads ; 5. Audio, public sale or auction ; 6. Adjudicatio, which referred 
 strictly either to dividing an inheritance among co-heirs or dividing stock among partners, 
 or settling boundaries between neighbors, but is applied also to any assignment of pro- 
 perty by sentence of a judge or arbiter ; 7. Donatio, when any thing w.as given to one 
 for a present ; 8. Hcereditas, when property was received by inheritance ; and this was 
 either by bequest, from a testator, who could name his heirs in a written will ifeslamento) 
 or in a declaration (viva voca) before witnesses ; or by law, which assigned the property of one 
 dying intestate to his children and after them to the nearest relatives on the father's side. 
 
 § 273 u. The public sale of property (audio, also called proscriptio) was very common 
 among the Romans. In the place were such sale was held, a spear was set up, whence 
 the phrase sub Tiasta venire or vendere. A notice or advertisement of the goods to be 
 sold (tabula proscriptions, tabula auctionaria) was previously suspended upon a pillar in 
 some public place. Permission for such sales must be obtained of the city Prastor. The 
 superintendent of the sales was termed magister auctionum: in cases where the sale 
 was to meet the demands of debt, he was selected by the creditors, and was generally 
 the one who had the highest claim against the debtor. The sale of confiscated goods 
 was termed sectio; the money arising therefrom went to the public treasury. 
 
 Various distinctions were made of things constituting!property. One, of early origin, and con- 
 sidered important, was into Res Mancipi and Res Nee Mancipi; the Mancipi were all 
 such as could be transferred by the form called Mancipatio ; the JVec Mancipi were such as could 
 not be thus transferred. Under the Res Mancipi were included farms within Italy (pradia rustica, 
 also urbana), and in any place which had obtained the jus Italicum ; also slaves ; and quadrupeds 
 which were trained to work with back or neck; pearls (margaritm) ; and country prsdial servi- 
 tudes (or servitutes pradiorum rusticorum) . By a praedial servitude was meant a right of making 
 a particular use of the land of another, as the right of going through it on foot (servitus itineris); 
 of driving a beast (actus); of driving a loaded carriage (vim); of conducting water (aquceductus); 
 making lime (calcis coquendm), &c. 
 
 On the subject of property among the Romans, see Unterjiolzen, Ueber die verscbiedenen Arten des Eigenthums, &c. in the Rhtin. 
 Mus. — Dirkien, Ueber die gesetzlichen BeschKlnkungen des Eigenthums, in the Zeitschrift, vol. ii. — Eynkerskoeh, Opusculum da 
 Rebus Mancipi et Nee Mancipi. — Savigny, Das Recht der Besitzes. — Smith, Diet, of Antiq. under Dominium, Mancipatio, Pi'X- 
 dium, Servitus, &c. On the form in auctions, /. Rabirius, De Hastarum et Auctionum Origine, in Grxvius, vol. iii. 
 
 § 274. The principal Roman measures of extent and capacity should be explained here. 
 
 1 u. The measures of length and surface were the following ; digitus, a finger's 
 breath ; four of which made a palmus, or handbreadth ; and sixteen, a pes or lioot ; 
 5 feet were equal to apassus or pace; 125 of the latter formed a stadium, and 1,000 of 
 them, or 8 stadia, a milliare. — In land-measures, the following were the most common 
 denominations ; jiogerum, what could be plowed in a day by one yoke (jugo) of cattle, 
 240 feet long, 120 broad, or containing 28,800 square feet ; actus quadratus, equal to 
 half the jugerum, being 120 feet square and containing 14,400 feet ; clima, equal to an 
 eighth of the jugerum, 60 feet square, containing 3,600 feet. 
 
 The smallest measure of capacity for liquid and for dry things was the ligula, 4 of 
 which made a cyathus, and 6 an acetabulum; the acetabulum was the half of a quartarius, 
 which was the half of a hemina; and the hemina, half of a sextarius nearly equal to our 
 pint. For dry things there was also the Modius, equal to 16 sextarii. In liquids the 
 sextarius was a sixth of the congius; 4 congii made an urna; two urnae, an amphora; 
 and 20 amphora, a culeus. 
 
 For a fuller view of the subject, the Tables presented in Plate XXXII a. may be consulted. 
 
 2. Various methods have been adopted to determine the value of the Roman foot, which is 
 important in learning the values of the several measures of length, extent, and capacity.. 1. One 
 means is furnished by specimens of the Roman foot on tombstones ; there are four of these pre- 
 served in the Capitoline Museum. 2. Several foot-rules also have been discovered. The foot- 
 rules were bars of brass or iron of the length of a pes, designed for use in actual measurements. 
 3. The length of the Roman foot has likewise been deduced from the distances between the 
 milestones on the Appian Way. 4. Attempts have been made to ascertain the Roman foot 
 likewise from the congius, the measure of capacity, of which two are yet in preservation, one at 
 Rome, the other at Paris; the solid contents of the congius are said to have been the cube of 
 half a ves From the same measure, it may be remarked in passing, there have been attempts 
 
PLATE XXXIIa. 
 
 ROMAN 
 
 MONEYS, WEIGHTS, AM) MEASURES, 
 
 The value in our denominations is given from 
 Conger's Tables. 
 
 Measures of Surface* 
 
 1. Below the Versus. 
 
 Pes Quadratic ... 
 100 | Decempeda Quadratus 
 
 Sextula 
 
 1.2 f Actus Simplex 
 
 480 | 4.8 
 
 600 
 
 2400 24 
 
 3600 ! 36 
 
 1.5 | 1.25 | Siciliquus 
 6 | 5 | 4 |Uncia 
 9 | 7.5 | 6 | 1.5 | Clima 
 
 Poles, sq.ft. 
 
 00.9-4 
 ■ 94.231 
 
 1 104 69 
 
 1 130.08 
 
 2 20.91 
 
 25 1 20. 83 1 16.6 | 4.16 | 2.7 1 Versus 34 167.05 
 
 2. Above the Versus. 
 
 Versus - 
 1.44 | Actus Quadratus - 
 Jugerum (As) 
 2 I Heredium 
 
 2.88 
 
 5.76 
 
 676 | 400 | 200 | 100 | Centuria • 
 2304 i 1600 | 800 | 400 | 4 | Saltus 
 
 Acres, r. poles, sq.ft. 
 
 34 167.05 
 
 • 1 9 229.67 
 
 • 2 19 187.09 
 
 1 39 101.83 
 . 124 2 17 109.79 
 
 498 1 29 166.91 
 
 Subdivisions of the Jugerum and the Libra. 
 
 The Uncia is a 12th part of the Libra and also of the Jugera 
 and ten intervening divisions have the same name. 
 
 Uncise 
 
 2. Sextans 
 
 3. Quadrans 
 
 4. Triens 
 
 Uncise 
 
 5. Quincunx 
 
 6. Semis 
 
 7. Septunx 
 
 Uncise 
 
 8. Ees 
 
 9. Dodrans 
 10. Dextrans 
 
 Uncise 
 
 11. Deunx 
 
 12. Jugerum, 
 and Libra. 
 
 Moneys. 
 
 Teruncius • 
 2 I Sembella - 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 I Assipondium > 
 As, Libella J " 
 
 " 
 
 « 
 
 2 Dupondius - 
 
 ,0 
 
 5 
 
 2.5 J 1.25 1 Sestertius ■ 
 
 20 
 
 10 
 
 5 M 2 lvSll 9 
 
 40 
 
 20 
 
 10 1 5 1 4 1 2 1 Dena 
 
 ■000| 500 | 250 | 125 | 100 | 50 | 25 |jggg' 
 
 00 3.87 
 
 • • 7.74 
 
 • 1 5, 
 
 • 3 0.95 
 . 3 8, 
 
 • 7 7.38 
 
 • 15 4.76 
 3 86 8.46 
 
 Weights. 
 
 1. Below the Siciliquus. 
 
 (Troy Weight.) 
 Dwts. grs. 
 
 Siliqua 2.92 
 
 3 | Obol us « 8.76 
 
 6 I 2 | Scru pulum • 17.53 
 
 12 | 4 | 2 | Semis extula ... 1 11 
 
 24 j 8 | 4 | 2 1 Sextu la .... 2 22.13 
 36 I 12 | 6 | 3 1 1.5 | Siciliquus - - 4 9.19 
 
 2. Move the Siciliquus. 
 
 Siciliquus ..... 
 1 3 | Duella .... 
 4 | 3 | Uncia 
 48 | 36 | 12 | Libr a - - 
 
 4800 1 3600 1 1200 1 100 | Centumpodii 
 
 Lbs. ox. dwts. grs, 
 4 9.19 
 . . 5 20.26 
 • • 17 12.79 
 .. 10 10 9.53 
 87 7 19 17 06 
 
 Measures of Capacity. 
 
 1. For Liquids. 
 
 Ligula • - - • 
 
 4 | Cyath ui - 
 
 6 | 1.5 | Acetabulum ■ 
 
 12 | 3 I 2 | Quartarius 
 
 Hemina 
 
 I 4 | 2 | 
 
 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Sexta rius 
 2*8 | 72 | 4S | 24 | 12 | 6 | Congius 
 
 1521 288 | 192 | 96 [ 48 | 24 I 4 | Uroa 
 
 2304| 576 | 384 | 192 | 96 | 48 j 8 | 2 | Amphora 
 
 Gall. qtt. pts. 
 0.019 
 0.079 
 0.118 
 0.237 
 0.475 
 0.950 
 1.704 
 0.819 
 1.639. 
 
 2. For Things Dry. 
 
 Qts. pts. 
 0.019 
 
 • 0.079 
 
 • 0.118 
 . 0.237 
 
 • 0.475 
 
 • 0.950 
 3 1.606 
 7 1.213 
 
 6 1 1.5 | Acetabulum .... 
 
 12 | 3 | 2 | Quartarius - 
 
 24 | 6 | 4 | 2 | Hemina - - . 
 48 | 12 | 8 | 4 | 2 | Sextarius - 
 
 384 | 96 | 64 | 32 | 16 | 8 | Semimodius 
 
 768 | 192 I 128 | 64 1 32 | 16 | 2 | Modius 
 
 Twenty Amphora; made a Culeus 
 
 1. Below the Pes. 
 
 Measures of length. 
 
 2. Move the Pes. 
 
 Sextula ... 
 1.5 | Siciliquus. • 
 3 I 2 I Semiuncia 
 
 4.5 
 
 3 
 
 ..5 
 
 Digitus • • 
 
 6 
 
 4 
 
 2 
 
 1.3 | Uncia • 
 
 18 
 
 ,2 
 
 6 
 
 4 | 3 | Falmus 
 
 72 1 48 | 24 | 16 | 12 | 4 j Pes 
 
 Inches. 
 0.16 
 0.24 
 0.4S 
 0.72 
 0.97 
 2.91 
 11.64 
 
 Pes ( 11.64 inches- 
 1.25 I Palmipes - 
 
 1.5 | 1.2 | Cubitus 
 
 1.6 I Pes Sestertius 
 
 5 | 4 I 3.3 | 2 | Passus 
 
 120 | 96 | 
 
 2 | Decempeda 
 24 I 12 I Actus 
 
 5000 | 4000 |3333.S| 2000 | 1000 | 500 | 41.6 | Milliare 
 
 Yds 
 
 /'• 
 
 
 
 0.97 
 
 • 
 
 1.21 
 
 . 
 
 1.45 
 
 . 
 
 2.42 
 
 1 
 
 1.85 
 
 3 
 
 0.70 
 
 38 
 
 2.49 
 
 1617 
 
 2.75 
 
 z2 
 
 269 
 
270 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 to deduce the value of the Roman libra, as the congius is said to have held ten pounds of wine 
 or water. 5. The actual measurement of ancient buildings now standing at Rome is a method 
 which is thought to be most satisfactory. By these various methods the Roman foot is made 
 nearly equal to 12 inches. 
 
 Gassendi's experiment to ascertain the Libra from the Congius is related in Dm. 7. appended to vol. iii. of Goguefs Origin of 
 
 Laws. &c. Among the authorities on the Roman money, weights, and measures, the following may be named in addition lo those 
 
 ci^ed § 270.— KdstntT. Maltkim, and Wurm, as cited § 174.— G. Budxus, De Asse et partibus ejus, libri v. Lugd. 1551. 8 .— /. F. 
 Qronov. De Seslerliis. LB. 1691.— R. Beverini, Syntagma de ponderibus et mensuris Rom. Leipz. 1714. 8.— The treatises of Pxtus 
 and others in the 1 1th vol. of Gr&vius, cited § 197.— G. Hooper, Slate of the Ancient Measures, the Attic, Roman, and Jewish, with 
 an Appendix concerning the old English Money, &c. (published 1721). Also in his works. Oxf. 1751. fol.— /. Greaves, Description 
 of the Roman Foot and Denarius.—/. Arbuthnot, Tables of Ancient Coins, &c. Lond. 1727. 4 — B. Langwith, Observations on 
 Dr. Arbuthriofs Dissertation on Coins, Weights, &c. Lond. 1754. 4.— Of later authors in Metrology, Letronne and Wurm (cf. 
 § 174) are most eminent. Cf. BouiileVs Diclionnaire Classique ; in which (as also in Conger's Essay) are good tables of the Greek 
 and Roman weights and measures.— Cf. also Freret, Les mesures lougues des anciens, in the Mem. .Scad. Inscr. vol. xxiv. p. 432.— 
 Gossettn, Systemes metriques lineares d'antiquite, in the Mem. de Vlnstitut, C 1 a s s e d'Hist. et Lit. Anc. vol. vi. 44. — R. Hussey, 
 Essay on the ancient Weights and Money, with an Appendix on the Roman and Greek Foot. Oxf. 1837. 8. 
 
 III. AFFAIRS OF WAR. 
 
 § 275. The Romans were of all the nations of antiquity pre-eminently war- 
 like; and by an uninterrupted series of great military enterprises made a rapid 
 and remarkable advancement in power and dominion. Hence an acquaintance 
 with what pertains to their military antiquities must aid in forming a just idea 
 of their character and the original sources of their greatness. 
 
 1 u. This knowledge is to be drawn from their chief historians as the primary source ; 
 particularly from the commentaries of Julius Ctesar, and the historical works of Livy 
 and Tacitus ; to which we may add the Greek writers on Roman history, Polybius and 
 Appian, on account of their constant reference to military affairs. Besides these sources, 
 there are the Roman writers who have made it their chief object to describe the Roman 
 art of war, in its various particulars ; viz. Hyginus, Frontinus, and Vegetius. 
 
 2 u. It is from these sources that those who have formed treatises and manuals of 
 Roman antiquities have derived their materials on this branch of the subject. 
 
 /. Lipsius, de Militia Romana (a comment.on Polybius). Antv. 1606. 4.— C. de Aquino, Lexicon Militare. Romse, 1724. 2 vols, 
 fol. — Nast und Rosch, Romische KriegsalterthUmer, aus echten Quellen geschopft. Halle, 1782. S. A good manual on this branch 
 of antiquities —The 10th vol. of Grxvius (cited § 197) consists of treatises by R. H. Schelius and others, on the military affairs of the 
 Romans. — Cf also Rollin, on the Art military, in The History of the Arts and Sciences of the Ancients ; found in his Ancient His- 
 tory. N. York, 1835. 2 vols. 8.— Duncan's Disc, on the Rom. Art of War, in his Transl. of Csesar, cited P. V. § 528. 7.— C. Gut's- 
 card, Memoires crit. et hist, sur plus, points d'antiquites militaires. Berlin, 1773. 4 vols. 8. Cf. § 42. — Le Beau, Memoirs on Roman 
 Legion, &c. in the Mem. de VAcad. des Inscr. in different vols, from 25th to 42d. — De Maizeroi, to complete the design of Le Beau, 
 in same Mem. Sfc. vol. xlii — Heyne, on the Roman Legion, &c. Cf. Class. Journ. xi. 169. — Gibbon, in his Rom. Emp. ch. i. 
 
 § 276. On account of the frequent changes in the military system of the Ro- 
 mans in the successive periods and revolutions of their history, the antiquary 
 must, in treating of this subject, pay constant attention to the order of time. 
 Of the Roman art of war in its earliest state, we have but imperfect accounts ; 
 but we know that the warlike spirit of the nation showed itself under the kings, 
 and gave no dubious intimations of their future career. — In the division of the 
 people into three tribes, made by Romulus, a thousand men for foot soldiers and 
 a hundred for horsemen were taken from each tribe, and thus originated the 
 first Roman legion [containing therefore 3,000 foot soldiers, besides the 300 
 horsemen]. The 300 horsemen, called cekres, and constituting in time of 
 peace a bodyguard of the king, were disbanded by Numa, but reorganized by 
 Tullus Hostilius, and increased by the addition of 300 noble Albani; the whole 
 number of 600 was doubled by Tarquinius Priscus ; and the body of horsemen 
 at last comprised 2,400 men. 
 
 There is not a perfect agreement in the accounts given respecting the number of men in the 
 cavalry at different periods (cf. Livy, i. 30, 36; Plutarch, Romul. 13, 20; Cicero, De Republ. ii. 
 20) ; and there is room for some doubt, whether the whole number at the close of the regal power 
 and in the flourishing times of the republic should be stated as 24,00, or as 36,00, or as 54,00.— See 
 Zampt and Marqaardt, as cited § 256. 2. 
 
 § 277. No one could be a soldier under 17, and all between 17 and 45 were 
 enrolled among the class of younger men, and liable to service ; while those over 
 45 were ranked among the elder men, excused from military duty. They were, 
 always received to service under a formal oath {sacr amentum). The regular 
 time of service was 16 years for foot soldiers, and 10 for horsemen; it was not 
 customary, however, to serve this number of years in succession, and whoever, 
 at the age of 50, had no* served the prescribed number of campaigns was still 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. DIVISION OF THE ARMY. 27 1 
 
 excused from the rest. Persons of no property (capite censi) were not included 
 in the rule of requisition as to service, because having nothing to lose, they 
 were not supposed to possess sufficient bravery and patriotism. In protracted 
 wars the time of service was sometimes extended four years longer, and under 
 the emperors 20 years became the regular period, except for the imperial guard, 
 who were required to serve but 16. As all the soldiers were Roman citizens 
 and free-born, the rank of soldier was in high estimation ; and their peculiar 
 rights and privileges were termed jus militiee. Freedmen could be admitted 
 only into naval service. — In the earliest times the Roman order of battle re- 
 sembled the Grecian phalanx. Subsequently it was a custom to form several 
 platoons or divisions. At a later period the method of three lines was adopted, 
 which will be described below (§ 286). 
 
 § 278. During the freedom of Rome, as has been mentioned, the army was 
 usually commanded by one of the consuls. A consular army commonly con- 
 sisted of two legions of foot, and six hundred horse, all native Romans. For 
 two consuls a double number was requisite, 4 legions and 1,200 horse. The 
 legion contained originally 3,000 foot-soldiers, but gradually increased to 6,000 
 and higher. In the second Punic war it consisted of 6,200 foot with 300 horse ; 
 and each legion had at that time six tribunes, of whom there were of course as 
 many as 24 in all. These tribunes were chosen by the people, partly from the 
 equites, partly from the plebeians. 
 
 1. The number of foot-soldiers in a legion appears to have varied much at different times. 
 Cf. Livy, vii. 25; xxix. 24; xliv. 21 ; Polybius, iii. 12. 
 
 2 u. In cases of great urgency, those who had served their time and were over six- 
 and-forty years of age, were yet bound to defend their country, and to fill vacancies in 
 the city legions ; in such emergencies, freedmen and slaves were sometimes enlisted. 
 Soldiers received at such times of sudden alarm (tumultus) were called tumultarii or 
 subitarii; those of them enlisting voluntarily were called volones. 
 
 3 u. Entire freedom from military duty was enjoyed only by the senators, augurs, 
 and others holding a priestly office, and persons suffering some bodily weakness or 
 defect. Remission of some part of the legal term of service was, however, often granted 
 as a reward of bravery ; this was called vacatio Tionorata. 
 
 § 279. In the levying of the soldiers (delectus), the following were the usages 
 most worthy of notice. The consuls announced by a herald the time of a levy 
 (diem edicebani) ; then every citizen, liable to service, must appear, on peril of 
 his property and liberty, at the Campus Martius ; each consul elected for him- 
 self two legions, assisted by the military tribunes. The common soldiers were 
 taken from all the tribes, which were called successively and separately in an 
 order decided by lot. Four men were selected at a time, of which the tribunes 
 of each legion, in rotation, took (legerunt) one. Afterwards the oath of fidelity 
 (sacramenium) was taken, first by the Consuls and Tribunes, then by the Cen- 
 turions and the Decuriones, and iastly by the common soldiers. Then the names 
 of the latter class were placed in the roll of the legion, and under the emperors 
 a mark was branded on the right hand, that they might be recognized, if they 
 attempted desertion. Compulsory levying, resorted to in necessities, was called 
 conquisitio ; the same thing among the allies was termed conscriplio. 
 
 § 280. After the levy was made, the legions were directed to another place 
 of assembling, in which they were formed into divisions and furnished with 
 amis. The younger and feebler were placed among the light troops, velites ; 
 the older and richer among the heavy-armed ; to which class belonged the hastati, 
 principes, and iriarii. 
 
 1 u. The haslali were young men in the flower of life, named from the long spear 
 used by them at first, and occupying the foremost line in battle; the principes were 
 the men in full vigor of middle age, standing in the second line in battle ; the triarii 
 the more advanced in age, veterans, constituting the third line in battle and laking thence 
 their name. A legion, when it consisted of 3,000, had 1,200 hastati, 1,200 principes. 
 and 600 Iriarii. The last number always remained the same ; the two former were 
 variously increased, and light-armed troops (velites or milites leves) were added ac- 
 cording to pleasure. 
 
 On the three ranks, haslali, he, Le Beau, as cited § 275. Man, SfC. vol. xxix. p. 325. 
 
 2 u On this occasion when the troops were formed into divisions, the colors or stand- 
 
272 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 ards were brought forth from the Capitol and treasury, and committed to the proper 
 officers (cf. § 282). 
 
 § 281. The subdivisions were originally manipuli or centurise, containing each 
 a hundred men; and the leader and captain of this number was called Centurio. 
 — When the legion was divided into the three ranks of the hastati, principes, and 
 triarii, each rank had at first fifteen maniples ; and the whole legion, of course, 
 forty-five maniples. These maniples were all equal, consisting of 60 regular 
 privates, two centurions, and a standard-bearer. The maniples of the hastati 
 had 300 men of the velites, distributed equally among them; to the triarii also 
 were allowed thirty companies of the same; the principes had none. 
 
 1 u. At another period the legion was divided into 30 maniples, and each of the three 
 ranks into 10. The maniples of the triarii contained still the same number, 60 men in 
 each, 600 in all; those of the hastati and principes contained double the number, 120 
 men in each, 2,400 in all of both ranks ; among these were divided 1,200 light-armed 
 soldiers; thus making a legion of 4,200. Each maniple was now divided into two cen- 
 turies, sometimes called ordines. The tenth part of a legion, three maniples of each 
 rank, and therefore including 300 men, was called a cohors, and from the number of 
 men contained, tricennaria; when the legion contained 4,200, the cohort had 420, and 
 was termed quadrigenaria ; so also when larger, quingenaria and sexcenaria. 
 
 On the cohort, Le Beau, as cited § 275. Mem, fyc vol. xxxii. p. 279. 
 
 2 u. Each maniple had now two centurions, distinguished as prior and posterior ; and 
 every centurion had his assistant, called uragus, subcenturio, and optio. — The 300 horse- 
 men belonging to a legion were divided into 10 turmce, and each turma into 3 decurice, 
 consisting of 10 horsemen, whose head or chief was called decurio. 
 
 § 282. Each maniple had its standard, placed in its midst when in battle. 
 The chief standard was always in the first maniple of the triarii, which was 
 styled primus pilus. The images and figures upon the Roman standards were 
 various; but the principal standard, common to the whole legion, was a silver 
 eagle on a staff or pole, sometimes holding a thunderbolt in his claws, an em- 
 blem of the Roman power or success. Those of the infantry were usually 
 termed signa ,■ those of the cavalry, vexilla ; the bearers, signiferi, or vexillarii. 
 
 1. The vexillum, a flag or banner, was a square piece of cloth, hung from a bar fixed 
 across a spear near its upper end. It was used sometimes for foot-soldiers, especially 
 for veterans, who were retained after their term of service ; these were by distinction 
 called vexillarii, as they fought under this peculiar standard (sub vexillo) ; they were also 
 called subsignani. On the flag were commonly seen the abbreviations for Senatus popu- 
 lusque Eomanus, or the name of the emperor, in golden or purple letters. — The signum 
 was originally a handful of hay, expressed by the word manipulus , and it was from this 
 circumstance that a division of soldiers came to be so called. Afterwards it was a spear 
 or staff with a crosspiece of wood, sometimes with the figure of a hand above it, in 
 allusion perhaps to the word manipulus ; having below the crosspiece a small shield, 
 round or oval, sometimes two, bearing images of the gods or emperors. Augustus in- 
 troduced an ensign formed by fixing a globe on the head of a spear or staff", denoting 
 the dominion of the world. When Constantine embraced Christianity, he adopted a 
 new imperial standard which was termed the Labarum ; it is described as a long pike 
 with a transverse yard at the top, in the form of a cross; from this yard was hung a 
 silken veil or banner, of purple color, richly embroidered and ornamented ; the portion 
 of the standard above the cross-yard was wrought into a monogram for the word 
 Xp«7r6;. — The standards and colors were regarded with superstitious veneration by all 
 classes of the army. 
 
 In our Plate XXXIII. eleven different forms of Roman standards are given, in the figures 
 marked by the letter C. — Fig. D is the hand of Mohammed, a sort, of sacred standard or sign of the 
 prophet's power among his followers; it is taken from Morier (cited P. V. $ 243. 3), who repre- 
 sents it as carried in religious processions in Persia. Two forms of ancient Persian standards 
 are also given, in the figures marked B. — The eight marked A are Egyptian. — Several Roman 
 standards are seen also in Plate XXIX ; cf. $ 224. 
 
 Respecting the Labarum, see L. Coleman, Antiquities of Chr. Church, Note prefixed to Explanation of Plates.— Cf. Class. Journ. 
 vol. iv. p. 222. 
 
 2. Near the standard was usually the station of the musicians. — " The Romans used 
 only wind-music in their army ; the instruments which served for that purpose may be. 
 distinguished into the tuba, the cornua, the buccince, and the litui. — The tuba, is supposed 
 to have been exactly like our trumpet, running on wider and wider in a direct line to 
 the orifice. — The cornua were bent almost round ; they owe their name and original 
 to the horns of beasts, put to the same use in the ruder ages. — The buccince seem to 
 have had the same rise, and may derive their name from bos and cano. It is hard to 
 distinguish these from the cornua, unless they were something less and not quite so 
 
PLATE XXXIII. 
 
274 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 crooked. — The litui were a middle kind between the cornua and tubes, being almost 
 straight, only a little turning in at the top, like the lituus or sacred rod of the augurs ; 
 whence they borrowed their name. — These instruments being all made of brass, the 
 players on them went under the name of ceneatores, besides the particular terms of 
 tubicines, comicines, buccinatores, &c. ; and there seems to have been a set number 
 assigned to every manipulus and turma ; besides several of higher order, and common 
 to the whole legion. In a battle, the former took their station by the ensign and 
 colors of their particular company or troop ; the others stood near the chief eagle in a 
 ring, hard by the general and prime officers ; and when the alarm was to be given, at 
 the word of the general, these latter began it, and were followed by the common 
 sound of the rest, dispersed through the several parts of the army. — Besides this clas 
 sicum, or alarm, the soldiers gave a general shout at the first encounter, which in later 
 ages they called barritus, from a German original." (Kennet.) 
 
 A form of the Roman cornu is seen in Plate XXVI. fig. B ; of the lituus, probably, in fig. n. See Galand, La Trompette chez 
 
 les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. p. 104. — Galand, De Tuba; origine et usu apud Veteres, in Ugolinus, vol. xxxii. as cited 
 J 197. 
 
 -'§ 283. The weapons of the soldiers differed according to the class to which 
 they belonged. The velites had a round shield (parrna), about three feet in 
 diameter, a spear for hurling (hasta velitaris), a helmet of ox-hide (cudo), or of 
 the skin of a wild beast (galerus), and in later times a sword. — The hastali bore 
 a large shield [scutum), three and a half and four feet long and over, of thin 
 boards covered with leather and iron plate ; a short but stiff and pointed sword 
 (gladius), on the right hip; two javelins of wood with iron points (pila), one 
 longer and the other shorter; an iron or brazen helmet (galea), with a crest 
 adorned with plumes (crista) ; greaves for the legs, plated with iron (ocrese), 
 used in later times only for the right leg ; a coat of mail (lurica), formed of 
 metal or hide, worked over with little hooks of iron, and reaching from the 
 breast to the loins, or a breastplate (thorax) merely. — The principes and triarii 
 used weapons of the same kind ; excepting that the triarii had longer spears, 
 called hastse longse, in later times lancese, and long swords, called spathse, or 
 when of smaller size, semi-spathse. — The shield was marked by the name of the 
 soldier and the number of the legion and maniple to which he belonged. Who- 
 ever returned from battle without his shield, forfeited his life. — The weapons 
 of the cavalry were similar to the Grecian (cf. § 138) : a war cap (cassis), a 
 coat of mail, an oblong shield, greaves or boots, a lance or javelin, and sword 
 and dagger, which last was used only in close fight. 
 
 The horsemen in fig. 1, of Plate XXX. have a small round shield. Cf. J 235. 3. A sort of shield 
 is also seen in fig. 2 of the same Plate ; which represents a Roman knight attacking a barbarian 
 soldier ; from an antique gem. Both these figures show the horseman's spear. — The scutum and 
 gladius of the soldier are seen in Plate XXXIII. fig. 1, which is a Roman legionary, taken from 
 Trajan's Pillar (cf. P. IV. $ 18*8. 2). — The shield is likewise seen in fig. 2, which represents a 
 legionary with the accouterments and baggage, which he was obliged always to carry in inarch- 
 ing (cf. # 298. 2).— The lorica or coat of mail may be seen in Plate XXII. fig. 5, in which the legs 
 as well as the body are defended by mail; this is the figure given in Calmet to illustrate the 
 armor of Goliath, the Philistine ; it presents also his shield-bearing attendant. Cf. 1 Sam. xvii. 
 4-7. — In fig. 8, a coat of mail covers the arms ; the helmet here seen extends down behind to 
 defend the neck as well as head ; the figure is drawn from Trajan's Column. In Plate XXX. 
 fig. n, is a Dacian horseman completely covered with scale armor; as is his horse also. — For 
 other articles of armor, see Plates XVII. and XXII. Cf. $$ 45 and 139. 
 
 On the Roman armor, see Meyrick, as cited § 139. — Also, Le Beau (as cited § 275) in the Mem. de VMcad. fyc. vol. xxxix. p. 437. 
 
 § 284. According to the common accounts, the Roman soldiery received no 
 pay during the first three hundred years of the city, and wages (s/ipendium) 
 were first given to foot-soldiers B. C. 405, and to horsemen three years after. Each 
 soldier had a monthly allowance (demensum) of about two bushels of wheat, 
 and a stipend of three asses per day. The stipend was afterwards greater; 
 Julius Cffisar doubled it, and under the emperors it sometimes rose still higher. 
 The wages were sometimes doubled to particular soldiers or bodies of them as 
 a reward ; such were called duplicarii. Certain days were fixe"d for the distri- 
 bution of the allowance of corn. Whatever any one saved of his pay was called 
 peculium caslrense ; half of which was always deposited with the standards, 
 until the term of service expired. 
 
 1 u. Various extraordinary rewards were given to those who distinguished them- 
 selves in war, called dona militaria. Donatives, donativa, on the other hand, were 
 gifts or largesses distributed to the whole army on particular occasions, as e. g. in cases 
 of success, when also sacrifices and games were celebrated. Among the rewards, 
 olden and gilded crowns were particularly common; as, the corona castrensis or val- 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. REWARDS. PUNISHMENTS. 275 
 
 laris to him who first entered the enemy's entrenchments ; corona muralis, to him 
 who first scaled the enemy's walls; and corona navalis, for seizing a vessel of the 
 enemy in a sea-fight; also wreaths and crowns formed of leaves and blossoms; as 
 the corona civica, of oak leaves, conferred for freeing a citizen from death or captivity 
 at the hands of the enemy ; the corona obsidionalis, of grass, for delivering a besieged 
 city; and the corona triumplialis, of laurel, worn by a triumphing general. 
 
 The various crowns above named are exhibited in Plate XVI. Fig. 1 is the civica ; fig. 2, the 
 eastrensis ; 3, the obsidionalis ; 4, the muralis ; 5, the navalis ; 7, the triumphalis. — Fig. 6 is the 
 radiata, such as appears to have been worn by the emperors. 
 
 2. " There were smaller rewards (prmmia minora) of various kinds ; as a spear with- 
 out any iron on it (haslapura) ; a flag or banner, i. e. a streamer on the end of a lance 
 or spear (vexillum), of different colors, with or without embroidery ; trappings (phaleras), 
 ornaments for horses, and for men ; golden chains (aurece torques), which went round 
 the neck, whereas the phalerce hung down on the breast; bracelets (armillce), orna- 
 ments for the arms ; comicula, ornaments for the helmet in the form of horns ; catellm 
 or catenulce, chains composed of rings ; whereas the torques were twisted (tortce) like a 
 rope ; fibulas, clasps or buckles for fastening a belt or garment." (Adam). Another 
 form of reward was an exemption from service (vacatio) by release before the legal 
 term was .finished (cf. § 278. 3). At the expiration of the term of service, the soldiers 
 received a bounty or donation in land or money, which was sometimes called emeritum ; 
 those who had served their time out being also called emeriti. 
 
 The torques is seen on the Dying Gladiator (cf. P. IV. § 186. 9).— See Archseologia (as cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. xxii. p. 285, on 
 an ancient bronze bracelet. 
 
 § 285. The punishments inflicted for misdemeanors and crimes were very 
 severe, both in garrison and in camp. Theft, false testimony, neglect of watch, 
 leaving a post assigned, or cowardly flight, was visited with the punishment 
 called fustuarium, in which, on a signal from a tribune, the whole legion fell to 
 beating the offender with sticks, usually until his death ; if he escaped, his dis- 
 grace was scarcely preferable to death. When a whole maniple had fled, this 
 punishment was inflicted on every tenth man, being taken by lot, and the rest 
 were chased from the camp, and received only barley instead of wheat for their 
 allowance. Often disgrace was inflicted in other ways, as by loss of pay 
 (siipendio privari), or loss of rank, e. g. when a soldier of the triarii was de- 
 graded into the haslati. The tribunes could inflict punishments only after in- 
 vestigation of the case ; the general, on the other hand, could immediately and 
 absolutely pronounce sentence, even to death. The latter was the sentence for 
 wilful disobedience of orders, for insurrection and desertion. The mode of in- 
 flicting death was not uniform. 
 
 § 286. Of the Roman order of battle (acies) a general idea may be given here ; 
 a minute detail would belong rather to a system of tactics. The legions were 
 commonly ranged in three lines, the foremost occupied by the hastati, the next 
 by the principes, and the last by the triarii. Between each two maniples a 
 space was left, so that the maniples of the second line stood against the spaces 
 of the first, and the maniples of the third against the spaces of the second. 
 These spaces were termed rectse vise, and were as broad as the maniples them- 
 selves. 
 
 1 u. This arrangement was called quincunx. It had the advantage both of stability 
 and of being easily changed ; it avoided all confusion and interruption, and was espe- 
 cially put in opposition to the Grecian phalanx (§ 142), which it could easily penetrate 
 and route. It was less fitted to resist a violent onset, and therefore was often, in anti- 
 cipation of attack, changed so as to close up the spaces. But in this form of arrange- 
 ment the soldiers were mutually sustained and relieved by being in different lines, and 
 by means of their separate maniples could easily change the positions for attack and 
 defence. Originally the lines were ranged six feet apart, and the men in the maniples 
 three feet from each other; in later times the space was diminished till the soldier had 
 scarcely more than room for his shield. 
 
 2. To the disposition of the soldiers in the three lines of hastati, principes, and triarii, 
 as above described, some have applied the phrase triplex acies (cf. Sallust. Bell. Jug. 
 49) ; others consider the phrase as sometimes at least meaning simply an arrangement 
 in three lines ; an arrangement in two lines being called acies duplex. Other methods 
 of drawing up the army for battle were occasionally used. We mention here the 
 cuneus, in which the army was arranged in the form of a wedge in order to pierce and 
 break the enemy's lines ; the globus, in which the troops were collected into a close, 
 firm, round body, usually adopted in case of extremity ; the forfex, in which the army 
 took a form something like that of an open pair of shears or the letter V, in prder ta 
 
276 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 receive the enemy when coming in the shape of a wedge ; the serra, in which the lines 
 were extended, and in making the engagement some parts of the front advanced before 
 the other parts, thus presenting an appearance a little like the teeth of a saw. 
 
 -\ § 287. The first attack in a battle was customarily made by the light-armed 
 troops, which in earlier times were ranged in front of the first line ; but after- 
 wards they were stationed in the. intervals between the maniples, behind them, 
 or on the wings, and made attack in connection with the hastaii. A considerable 
 part of the light-armed were stationed behind the triarii, to support them. The 
 attack commenced when the legion was at the distance of an arrow-shot from 
 the enemy. As the light-armed now discharged their arrows, the hastati ad- 
 vanced, hurled their javelins, and fought with their swords. If the enemy were 
 not forced to give way, or they were themselves pressed hard, the signal was 
 given for retreat; on which the light-armed and the hastati drew back through 
 the intervals of the second line, and the principes advanced to the fight. In 
 the mean while, the triarii continued in a stooping posture, leaning on their 
 right knee with the left foot advanced, covering themselves w T ith their shields, 
 and having their spears stuck in the ground with the points upwards ; the line 
 thus presented the appearance of a sort of wall. If the principes were com- 
 pelled to retreat, the triarii then rose, and both the principes and the hastati 
 being received into their intervals, renewed the action with close ranks (com- 
 pressis ordinibus) and all three in a body (uno continente agmine). This united 
 attack was then sustained by the light-armed troops in the rear of the whole. 
 
 § 288. Of the light-armed troops a few things further may be noticed. They 
 were commonly called velites ,* in early times, however, rorarii and accensi, 
 sometimes also adscriptitii, optiones, and ferentarii. They carried no shields, 
 but slings, arrows, javelins, and swords. They were usually divided into 
 fifteen companies {expediti manipuli, or expedite cohortes), and besides these 
 there were 300 usually distributed among the hastati of the old legions. The 
 light-armed often sat behind the horsemen, and when these approached the 
 enemy, sprang off and sought to wound and push them by the javelin and sword. 
 
 1 u. They were sometimes distributed among the maniples of the three lines, about 
 forty being joined to each maniple. — They were of three different classes, designated 
 by their principal weapon ; jaculatores, who hurled the javelin; sagiltarii, who shot the 
 ar{Ow; and funditores, who cast stones or balls with the sling. There were also 
 afterwards tragularii and balistarii, who threw stones by the aid of machines. 
 
 In Plate XXXIV. fig. a, is a Roman funditor ; fig. b, a Sagittarius. 
 
 2 u. Those called antesignani were not the light-armed, but probably were the 
 soldiers of the first, or of the first and second line. — The position of the light-armed 
 during battle was often changed ; but it would seem that most commonly they stood in 
 three lines behind the hastati, the principes, and the triarii, and rushed forward to their 
 attacks through the intervals between the maniples. 
 
 § 289. The Roman cavalry was the most respected part of their army, espe- 
 cially as long as it was composed wholly of knights, and this class of citizens en- 
 joyed a high estimation and rank already noticed (§ 256). Even before the regular 
 establishment of this order in its full privileges, B. C. 124, the cavalry consisted 
 chiefly of the noble and respectable young Romans ; such indeed was the case 
 on the first creation of the cavalry by Romulus, who received the most noble 
 youth among his 300 horsemen called celeres ; the same was true under the fol- 
 lowing kings, who increased their number. Towards the end of the republic, 
 the Roman knights began to leave the military service, and thus the cavalry 
 of the later armies was made up almost wholly of foreigners, who were taken 
 into pay in the provinces where the legions were stationed. The knights of 
 later times served only among the Frsetorians, or the imperial bodyguard 
 (cf. § 309). 
 
 § 290. At that period also, the cavalry was often separated from the legions, 
 while previously they had been regarded as the same army, and been stationed 
 especially on the wing. — The forces, commonly called aJse were different from 
 the legionary cavalry; they were bodies of light-horse, composed of foreigners 
 and employed to guard the flanks of the army. — The number of horsemen con- 
 nected with a legion has already been named (cf. §§ 276, 278, 281) ; commonly 
 300 ; sometimes 400. The legions of the auxiliaries (cf. § 292) had the same 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. ORDER OF BATTLE. 277 
 
 number of foot soldiers as the Roman legions, but a greater number of horsemen ; 
 although the ratio was not always the same. 
 
 1m. The cavalry was divided by the tribunes into 10 turmce, corresponding to the 
 number of cohorts in each legion, and 30 decurice, corresponding to the number of 
 maniples. For every maniple there were therefore ten horsemen. Each turma had 
 three Decuriones, the first of whom was commander of the whole turma ; three uragi 
 (dvpayol) were under them. In how many lines the cavalry used to be drawn up for 
 battle is not known. In an attack, the first line of turma, endeavored to break the 
 ranks of the enemy ; and were supported therein by the second. If the enemy were 
 arranged in the wedge-form, the cavalry dashed upon them at full speed. 
 
 2 u. The horses were protected by leather on their bodies and plates of iron on their 
 heads and breasts. In general, the Roman cavalry were of principal service in pro- 
 tecting the flanks of the infantry, reconnoitering the enemy, collecting forage, occupy- 
 ing remote defiles, covering retreats, and pursuing the routed foe. Where the ground 
 was uneven, the horsemen dismounted and fought on foot. 
 
 On the Roman cavalry, Le Beau, as cited § 275, Mem. S(C vol. xxviii.— Zumpt, cited § 256. 2. 
 
 § 291. In early times, when the line in battle was not yet threefold, but the 
 foot were ranged in a single line, the horse were placed in a second to support 
 them. In the year of the city 500, B. C. 252, the threefold arrangement of the 
 legion seems to have been adopted. The cohorts have already been mentioned 
 (§ 281); these also had their particular arrangement, which probably was 
 lormed originally by uniting the maniples, a thing not common until later times, 
 since in the second Punic war the separate position of the maniples was still 
 practiced. Towards the end of the republic, the threefold division of the le- 
 gionaries was abolished ; and the legion now consisted of ten cohorts, each of 
 which contained 400 or 500 men. After the time of Caesar, the more frequent 
 order of battle was to place four cohorts in the front line and three in each of 
 the two others. — Generally the Roman tactics became gradually more and more 
 like the Greek. Under Trajan the arrangement for battle ivas a single compact 
 line. Under later emperors, the use of the Macedonian phalanx was adopted, 
 but it was renounced. 
 
 §292. Of the legions of auxiliaries we only remark further, that these con- 
 sisted chiefly of inhabitants of the Italian states, which at an early period, either 
 of choice or after subjection, entered into treaty with the Romans, and bound 
 themselves to furnish for the field as many foot-soldiers as the Romans, with 
 more than the Roman proportion of cavalry. The auxiliary legions occupied 
 the two wings when drawn up in battle-array. 
 
 1m, A complete consular army, comprising the full quota from the allied states, con 
 tained eight legions ; although the number of allies was not always exactly the same. 
 When in process of time the allies (socii) "vjiere admitted to Roman citizenship, the dis 
 tinction made between them and the Romans ceased. 
 
 2. The number of legions enrolled and assembled for service was different at dif- 
 ferent times. "During the free state, four legions were commonly fitted up every 
 year, and divided between the two consuls ; yet in cases of necessity we sometimes 
 meet with no less than sixteen or eighteen in Livy. — Augustus maintained a standing 
 army of 23 or (according to some) of 25 legions." (Kennett.) 
 
 Respecting the military establishment of the emperors, see Gibbon, Rom. Emp. cb. i. — Cf. § 309* 
 
 3. The forces of the allies were termed alee, from the circumstance of being usually 
 placed on the flanks. They were under command of officers appointed for the pur- 
 pose, called pratfecti. A portion of the foot and horse of the allies, called extraordi- 
 narii, were stationed near the consul, and one troop, called ablecti, served him as a 
 special guard. 
 
 § 293. Besides its proper members, each legion had its train of attendants, 
 and baggage and machines of war. Among the numerous attendants were the 
 following; the fabri, mechanics, workers in wood and metal; lixas, sutlers, 
 holding a sort of market ; chirurgi, field-surgeons, of which Augustus allowed 
 ten to a legion; metatores, whose business was to mark out and fix the ground 
 for encampments ; frumentarii, who had the care of furnishing provisions ; 
 iibrarii and scribse, who were charged with duties such as fall under the care 
 of a quarter-master. — The proper baggage of the army (impedimenta) consisted 
 partly of the bundles or knapsacks of the soldiers (sarcinse), partly of weapons, 
 military engines, stores, provisions, and the like, which were carried in wagons 
 
 2 A 
 
278 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 and on beasts of burden. Eacb person in the cavalry had a horse and a servant 
 (agaso) to carry his baggage. The servants and waiting boys of the legions 
 were termed calories. Originally there were but few persons of this class, but 
 in later times they were often so many as to surpass the number of proper 
 soldiers. 
 
 § 294. The order of march, when a Roman army moved to the field or into 
 the camp, was usually as follows. The light-armed went in advance ; then 
 followed the heavy-armed, both foot and horse ; then the persons needed to 
 pitch and prepare the camp, to level the grounds and perform other necessary 
 work ; then the baggage of the general {dux) and of his lieutenants (Jegatt), 
 guarded by horsemen ; then the general himself under his usual escort ; then 
 124 horsemen ; after which came the military tribunes and other officers. After 
 these followed first the standards, next the choice men of the army, and last 
 the servants and muleteers or managers of the beasts. This seems to have been 
 the usual order of march; but it was of course changed and modified in different 
 cases in reference to the nature of the ground, the country, and other circum- 
 stances. The order in marching out of camp was also somewhat different. 
 And in order to equalize the exposure to danger, both the wings and the legions 
 also were required to relieve each other in position. 
 
 § 295. Besides the arrangements for battle mentioned already (§ 286), some 
 others adopted particularly in marching should be mentioned. The agmen 
 quadratum was when the army was disposed in a compact form, usually that 
 of a square, with the baggage in the centre, either in expectation of the enemy, 
 or on a retreat ; the agmen pilatum, or justum, was a close array in marching. 
 Orbis signified not a circular form, but such a four-sided arrangement as pre- 
 sented a front on every side. The testudo was also an arrangement of the sol- 
 diers, in which they stood close together, raising their shields so as to form a 
 compact covering over them (like the shell over the tortoise), and in which they 
 approached the walls of the enemy, or waited to receive the enemy at a certain 
 distance. The turris was an oblong quadrangular form, with the end or narrow 
 side presented to the foe; laterculus was the same, considered only in its 
 breadth. 
 
 § 296. The camp of the Romans resembled in many particulars the Grecian, 
 but had several peculiar advantages. A camp occupied only for a short time 
 during a march was called casira, and in the later ages, mansio ; casira staiiva 
 signified a more permanent camp, in which the army remained for a length of 
 time, e. g. over a winter, therefore termed casira hiberna, or through summer, 
 casira sestiva. The tents of such a camp were covered with hides, boards, straw, 
 and rushes. The most convenient site possible was selected for the camp. The 
 highest and freest part of it was chosen for the head-quarters of the general. 
 This was called the prsetorium, and occupied a space of four hundred feet 
 square. Here the council of war was held. A particular spot in it was appro- 
 priated for taking the auspices, augurale ; and another for the erection of the 
 tribunal, whence the commander sometimes addressed the army. In this space 
 were the tents of the conlubernales of the general (the young Patricians who 
 attended upon him as volunteers), and of other persons belonging to his train. 
 Near the prxlorium were the tents of the officers and the bodyguards. The 
 entrance to the head-quarters was always next to the enemy. 
 <yt § 297 t. On the right of the Preetorium (e), was the Forum (v), an open space for a 
 market, and for martial courts ; and on the left the Qucestorium (w), where the stores, 
 money, arms, and the like were kept. A select portion of the cavalry, equites ablecti 
 et evocati (o, o) were also stationed on each side of the Prmtorium, and behind them 
 the pedites ablecti et evocati (p, p). Next were the tents of the Tribunes (**) and of 
 the Prefects (tt). Then was a passage, or free way, called principia (v), 100 feet 
 wide, extending through the whole camp from one of the side gates (c) to the other (d). 
 The rest of the camp was what was called the lower part. Through the center of 
 this lower part ran another passage 50 feet wide, extending in the opposite direction. 
 On each side of this last passage, the tents of the cavalry (h) and the triarii (i) were 
 cast; then beyond these tents, on each side, was another passage 50 feet wide, and 
 then the tents of the principes (k) and kastati (l) ; and after another similar passage 
 beyond these on each side, the tents of the auxiliaries, both cavalry (m; and infantry (rr). 
 These five passages were crossed at right angles, in the center, by another of the same 
 
PLATE XXXI V. 
 
280 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 width, termed Via quintana (t) because five maniples were encamped on each side 
 of it. In each tent there were eleven men, which formed a contubernium, one of them 
 having the oversight of the other ten. Around the tents was a free space 200 feet wide, 
 which was the place of assembling to march out of camp, and served also for defense 
 in case of an attack from an enemy. 
 
 Around the whole camp was a ditch, fossa, and wall or rampart, vallum. The 
 ditch or foss was ordinarily nine feet wide and seven deep ; the rampart three feet 
 high ; these measures, however, varied with circumstances. The rampart was formed 
 of the earth thrown (agger) from the ditch, with sharp stakes (slides) fixed therein. 
 On each of the four sides was an opening or gate, porta, guarded by a whole cohort. 
 These gates were called porta pratoria (a), being near the head-quarters towards the 
 enemy ; porta decumana (b), on the opposite side of the camp, called also qusestoria, as 
 in earlier times the quoestorium was near it ; porta principalis dextra (d), and porta 
 principalis sinistra (c), being near the principia. 
 
 A plan of a consular camp is seen in Plate XXXIV. fig. P, as given in Boyd's ed. of Adam ; it 
 is drawn from the description of Polybius (Hist. vi. 24). — The letters and signs included in pa- 
 rentheses in the above description refer severally to the corresponding marks in the Plan. The 
 letters Q Q, in the Plan, designate the tents occupied by the extraordinary cavalry of the allies; 
 R R, by the extraordinary foot of the allies ; S S, by strangers and occasional allies. — In fig. R is 
 a section of a fossa, here given as twelve feet broad and nine deep; showing also the agger and 
 sudes. 
 
 § 298. The watches which were maintained by night were termed vigilise ,• 
 excubiee also signifies properly night-watches, but is used in a more general 
 sense ; statio was the name for each single post. Two tribunes had constantly 
 the oversight of the whole camp, which the same two retained, at the longest, 
 for two months. At their tents all the officers and leaders were required to 
 assemble at daybreak and with them go to the general to receive his commands. 
 The watchword (symbolum) was called tessera, from the four sides or corners 
 of the little wooden block on which it was written. 
 
 1 u. The watchword was given by the general to the tribunes, and by them to the 
 centurions, and by them to the soldiers. Those who carried it from the tribunes to the 
 centurions were called tesserarii. Short commands were often written on similar 
 tablets, and in like manner rapidly circulated through the army. Before the head- 
 quarters a whole maniple kept guard, particularly by night. The outworks of the 
 camp were occupied by the light-armed. Every maniple was obliged to place four men 
 upon guard, so that 240 men were always on the watch in a camp of two legions. The 
 night was divided into four parts, of three hours each, also called watches, at the end 
 of which the guards (vigiles) were relieved by a new set. The legions of the auxilia- 
 ries had also their guards and watchmen. It belonged to the cavalry to inspect the 
 watch on duty, and make the formal round (circuitio vigilum) or visit the several posts 
 or stations. 
 
 2. In the discipline of the Roman camp, the soldiers were employed in various ex- 
 ercises, whence the army in fact took its name, exercitus. These exercises included 
 walking and running completely armed ; leaping, swimming, vaulting upon horses of 
 wood, shooting the arrow, hurling the javelin, carrying weights, attacking a wooden 
 image of a man as an enemy, &c. — It was essential to the comfort of the soldier, that 
 he should be able to walk or run in his full armor with perfect ease ; in common march- 
 ing he was obliged to carry, in addition to his arms, a load consisting of his provisions 
 and customary utensils, amounting in weight, it is supposed, at least to 60 pounds. — 
 The exercises were performed under the training of the campidoctores. 
 
 3. The winter quarters (castra hiberna) of the Romans were strongly fortified, and, under the 
 emperors particularly, were furnished with every accommodation like a city, as storehouses, 
 workshops (fdbricm), .an infirmary (valetudinariuiri), &c. Many European towns are supposed 
 to have had their origin in such establishments; in England, particularly those whose names 
 end in Chester or cester. (Jldam). — Cf. Roy's Military Antiquities in Great Britain. 
 
 § 299. The siege of a city was commenced by completely encircling' it with 
 troops, and the encircling lines (corona) were, in case of populous cities, some- 
 times double or triple. In the attacks upon the city they employed various 
 methods, and engines of various sorts. 
 
 1 u. The tesludo before mentioned (§ 295) was frequently used ; upon the shields 
 thus arranged other soldiers mounted, and so attempted to scale the walls. Higher walls 
 they mounted by the help of scaling-ladders (scalce). — The crates, hurdles, were a kind 
 of basket-work of willow; they were attached as a sort of roof to stakes, borne in the 
 hands of those who used this shelter over their heads, in advancing to make an attack ; 
 they were also employed by the besieged as a breastwork on their walls, and on 
 marches they served as fascines to fill or cover soft and miry places. — Vinece were 
 ■oortable sheds or mantlets of light boards, eight feet high, seven feet broad, and sixteen 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. SIEGES. 281 
 
 long. They were filled out and covered with wickerwork or hides, and served to pro- 
 tect from the arrows of the enemy while the soldiers were undermining the walls. 
 
 Fig. 1, of Plate XXXIV. shows the use of the lestudo by a body of soldiers approaching a wall 
 according to the statement above. — Fig. 2 shows the manner of forming the crates, and the vinem. 
 
 2 m. For a similar purpose were the plutei, wooden shelters, covered with hides, and 
 moved upon wheels or rollers. Under these the slingers and archers especially placed 
 themselves, and sought to force the defenders from their walls, in order that the scaling- 
 ladders might be the more easily and effectually applied. Of the same kind, yet 
 stronger were the musculi ; and also the testudines (wooden shelters to be distinguished 
 from testudo before mentioned) ; these were most commonly used to protect the work- 
 men in erecting a fortification, filling up the ditch, or the like. With some of these 
 shelters they often covered the battering ram. 
 
 Fig. 8, Plate XXXIV. is a plutens, advancing against 3. wall. 
 
 3 u. The battering ram was a large beam employed to break in the walls of the 
 besieged city, in order to enter it. Originally it was managed immediately by the 
 hands of certain soldiers without protection, but was afterwards placed under the shel- 
 ters just described, which covered the men who thrust it against the walls. Its name, 
 aries, was derived from its front end, which was covered with iron in a form resembling 
 a ram's head. Sometimes it was composed of several pieces united, and so large that 
 125 men were required to work it. 
 
 The f alces murales and asseres falcali were beams with iron hooks, to break and 
 tear down the upper breastwork on the walls ; they were managed by the aid of ropes. — 
 Two other instruments, which were probably of a similar use, were termed the 
 grus and the corvus. — The terebra was an instrument employed for opening a hole in 
 the walls. 
 
 In fig. 4, of Plate XXXIV. is the battering-ram in its simple form, suspended by ropes from a 
 cross-beam fixed above two posts driven into the ground. In fig. 5, it is attached to a complete 
 and substantial frame placed upon rollers. In fig. 10, it appears under a shelter as above men- 
 tioned. — Fig. 9 shows the asser falcatus. 
 
 4 u. One of the most ordinary operations of a siege was to construct mounds (ag- 
 geres) as high as the walls of the city, or higher. On these mounds were placed the 
 military engines, also movable towers and other shelters of the soldiers. By means 
 of boards, palisades, and wooden grapnels, they were made capable of sustaining such 
 vast weights. On account of the great quantity of wood-work in them, the besieged 
 generally strove to destroy them by fire, which was often applied by mining under 
 ground. 
 
 These towers (lurres) were of various size and structure, often 120 feet high, and of 
 ten or twenty stories. They were moved upon wheels or rollers. From the upper 
 stories were usually cast arrows, javelins, and stones ; from the middle, a bridge or 
 passage was sometimes thrown over to the walls ; and in the lower one the battering 
 ram was brought forward. When they reached the slope of the mound, they were 
 taken to pieces by stories and reconstructed on its summit. To protect them from 
 fire, they were guarded by plates of iron, or coverings of hides, or moistened with a 
 
 solution of alum. A long iron javelin fixed to a shaft of fir, wound with tow, 
 
 smeared with pitch and resin, then set on fire and hurled upon the enemy from a tower, 
 was called falarica, which name was also applied to the tower itself from which they 
 were thrown. The malleoli were similar, a sort of burning arrows, or bunches of tow 
 attached to javelins, designed to set on fire the works of the enemy. 
 
 Fig. 3, Plate XXXIV. is a specimen of the movable towers. 
 
 5 u. One of the most common and largest engines was the catapulta, by which 
 arrows, javelins, and particularly stones were hurled a great distance. Stakes, sharp- 
 pointed and hardened in the fire (called aclides or sudes missiles) were also thrown from 
 the catapulta?. — In a siege there were usually a multitude of these machines. Their 
 construction is not well understood ; we only know that ropes and cords or sinews 
 were used in order to shoot the arrows and other weapons, which they threw with fatal 
 efficacy. — Of a similar kind was the balista ; called also in later times onager, and 
 designed chiefly for throwing the javelin. — For shooting arrows, sometimes poisoned, 
 the Romans made use of an engine termed the scorpio, which could be managed by a 
 single man. 
 
 Fig. 6, of Plate XXXIV. is the scorpio. — Fig. 7 is the balista, but on a scale more reduced. 
 
 § 300. The modes of defense on the part of the besieged were various. 
 
 1 u. They hurled rocks, often more than a hundred pounds in weight, upon the be 
 siegers, poured upon them boiling pitch or oil, and endeavored to thrust down the 
 scaling-ladder by means of iron hooks, and to kill, force back, or pull'up to themselves 
 the soldiers attempting to mount. The thrusts of the battering-ram they sought to 
 baffle or weaken by hanging sacks before it, and in various other ways, and even to 
 seize and draw it up by their ropes and springs. They likewise cast burning torches 
 36 2a2 
 
282 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 upon the wooden engines of the besiegers, and in other ways attempted to set them 
 on fire. 
 
 2. " Where they apprehended a breach would be made, they reared new walls be- 
 hind, with a deep ditch before them. They employed various methods to defend 
 themselves against the engines and darts of the besiegers. (Liv. xlii. 63.) — But these, 
 and every thing else belonging to this subject, will be best understood by reading the 
 accounts preserved to us of ancient sieges, particularly of Syracuse by Marcellus (Liv. 
 xxiv. 33), of Ambracia by Fulvius (Id. xxxviii. 4), of Alesia by Julius Caesar (de Bell. 
 Gall, vii.), of Marseilles by his lieutenants (Cces. B. Civ. ii.), and of Jerusalem by Titua 
 Vespasian (Joseph, de Bell. Jud.)." 
 
 § 301. In early times the Romans seldom hazarded a sea-fight, and only in 
 special cases. Afterwards, however, they acquired a permanent naval power, 
 and always kept two fleets ready for sail, each manned with a legion, at the two 
 harbors of Misenum and Ravenna. 
 
 1 u. The warriors engaged in this service were called classiarii, and were enlisted in 
 the same way as the legions of the land forces, but often taken from among them. 
 The highest officers or commanders of the fleet (classis) were originally the Duumviri 
 navales, afterwards a Consul or a Praetor, who was called prcefeclus classis, and sta- 
 tioned in the most distinguished vessel (navis prastoria) known by its flag (vexillum. 
 purpureum). Every other ship had a tribune or centurion for its particular com- 
 mander (navarchus). Upon the upper deck (stega, constratum navis) stood the fight- 
 ing men. 
 
 2. Besides the navarchus or commander (called also magister navis), each ship had a 
 pilot (guhernator, rector) and sometimes two, who had an assistant (proreta) to watch 
 at the prow. Besides the classiarii or fighting-men (marines, called also epibata), 
 there were also the rowers (remiges) who were more or less numerous according to the 
 size of the galley ; these were under a leader or director (hortalor, keXctottk, cf. § 158,) 
 who with his voice and a little mallet (portisculus) guided their motions. 
 
 3 u. War-towers were often placed on board the vessels, commonly two, one in the 
 fort part, the other in the hinder part. For seizing and boarding a vessel of the enemy 
 the ferrece manus, harpagones. and corvi were employed ; there were also other instru- 
 ments of this sort ; combustible materials and the like were used in order to fire the 
 ships of the enemy. 
 
 § 302 u. On engaging in a fight, the sails (vela) were usually furled, because they 
 would easily take fire, and the vessel was managed by the rudder alone. The fleet 
 was arranged by the commander in a sort of battle-array, and each vessel was as- 
 signed its place, which it must maintain. A position as far as possible from land was 
 usually desired. The larger vessels were usually placed in front, although the order 
 of arrangement for naval combat was by no means uniform, but very various. The 
 following forms are mentioned ; acies simplex, cuneata, lunata, falcata. Before the 
 battle commenced, the omens were examined, sacrifices and vows were offered. Then 
 upon all the ships was hung out a red flag, or a gilded shield, and the signal for at- 
 tack was given by a trumpet (classicum). The contest consisted partly in the rapid 
 and violent rushing of the vessels against those of the enemy, for the purpose of 
 piercing the hostile ships by means of the rostra, which were two strong beams at the 
 prow of the galley, covered with iron at the points, and made fast to both sides of the 
 keel ; partly in throwing darts, spears, grappling irons, and the like ; and partly in 
 actual close combat. 
 
 § 303. The chief parts of a Roman ship were similar to those of a Grecian (% 155). 
 The following were some of the terms ; prora, prow; puppis, stern; alveus, belly; 
 statumina, ribs ; sentina, pump to draw off bilge-water (nautea) ; foramina, holes to 
 put out the oars (remi) ; sedilia, transtra, seats of the rowers; scalmus, the piece of 
 wood to which the oar was tied by thongs (stroppi) ; gubernaculum, clavus, rudder ; 
 two rudders were common ; insigne, the image at the prow ; tutela, the image at the 
 stern ; aplustria, ornamental parts at the stern, sometimes at the prow, having a sort 
 of staff with a streamer (taenia) ; malus, mast ; modius, the place in which the mast 
 was fixed : antenncz, brachia, yards for the sails {vela) ; comua, extremities of the 
 yards ; pedes, the ropes fastened to the comua. The rigging and tackling in general 
 was called armamenta ; the ropes, rudentes, or funes ; the anchor, anchora ; sound- 
 ing-lead, molybdis ; the ballast, saburra. 
 
 § 304. The Roman ships were divided into three principal kinds, the war-galley, f'io 
 transport, and the ship of burden ; the first was propelled chiefly by oars ; the seconJ 
 was often towed by ropes ; the third depended mostly on sails. These classes were 
 called by various names. Ships of burden had the general name of naves onerarice ; 
 they were commonly much inferior in size to modern trading vessels ; although some 
 ships are mentioned of vast bulk, as that which brought from Egypt the great obelisk 
 in the time of Caligula, said to be about 1138 tons. Ships of war were often termed 
 naves longce, being longer than others ; naves turrita, from the towers constructed on 
 them ; also rostrata, aratm, from their beaks ; and particularly triremes, quadriremes. 
 
P. III. MILITARY AFFAIRS. THE TRIUMPH. 283 
 
 &c, from the number of benches of rowers in them severally. As many as ten 
 banks are mentioned ; Livy (xlv. 35) speaks of a ship with sixteen banks ; and Pto- 
 lemy Philopator is said to have built one with forty banks. On the manner in which 
 the benches were arranged in the Roman and Grecian galley we refer to § 156. 2. 
 
 The naves Liburnicm were light, fast-sailing ships, made after the model of the 
 galley used by the Liburni, a people of Dalmatia addicted to piracy. — The pJiaseli, or 
 naves actuaries, were a kind of yacht or small bark, with few oars, also designed for 
 expedition. — The Camarm were of a peculiar construction, with two prows and rud- 
 ders, one at each end, so that they could at pleasure be propelled either way without 
 turning ; they could be covered with boards like the vaulted roof of a house. {Tac. 
 Mor. Germ. 44.) 
 
 Fig. I, of Plate XXIII. is a specimen of the pkaselus. — Fig. 3 is the Liburnian galley.— Fig. 2 is 
 the stern of a Roman vessel, from a painting at Pompeii ; it shows the two rudders, attached on 
 each side, by bands, as on a pivot, so that the lower and larger ends could be raised out of water 
 by lashing the upper ends down to the deck. Cf. Jlcts xsvii. 40. 
 
 On the ships of the Romans, see Sckejfer, Bolwell, Le Roy, &c as cited § 156. 2.-7. Possius, De Liburnicarum Constructione, in 
 
 Gr&vius, vot. xii. It was stated, in 1835, that the port of Pompeii had been discovered, presenting vessels thrown upon their 
 
 Bides and covered by the volcanic matter. (Downfall of Babylon, Sept. 22, 1835, citing London Literary Gazette.) 
 
 § 305. The great public reward of a Roman commander, who had gained an 
 important victory by sea or by land, was the triumph, a pompous show, which 
 was practiced even in the time of the kings. This honor, however, could be 
 acquired only by those who were or had been Consuls, Dictators, or Praetors; 
 it was not awarded to Proconsuls. Yet in later times there were some excep- 
 tions to this. He who claimed the honor of a triumph must have been also, not 
 merely commander, but chief commander of the army, and the victory must have 
 been gained in the province assigned to the Consul or Praetor. The importance 
 of the campaign and the victory, and its advantage to the state, also came into 
 consideration ; and the general must have brought back his army to share with 
 him in the glory of the triumph and accompany him in procession. If the vic- 
 tory consisted only in the recovery of a lost province, it was not honored with a 
 triumph. 
 
 § 306. The first solemnity which took place at Rome after a victory, was a 
 thanksgiving or supplicatio (§ 220). Then the general must apply to the senate 
 in order to obtain a triumph. Permission, however, was often given by the 
 people, contrary to the will of the senate. A law or vote was always passed 
 by the people permitting the general to retain his command (imperium) in the 
 city, on the day of his triumph, because in other circumstances he was required 
 to lay down his command before entering the city. The abuse of the honors 
 of a triumph occasioned the enactment, B. C. 63, of the law called lex triumpha- 
 lis Porcia, which prohibited a triumph unless at least five thousand of the enemy 
 had fallen in battle. 
 
 § 307. A general enjoying this honor was not to enter the city until the day 
 of his triumph, and his previous request to the senate must be made out of the 
 city in the temple of Bellona. The expenses were usually defrayed from the 
 public treasury, except in cases where a conqueror held a triumphal procession 
 without public authority, as was sometimes done on the Alban mountain. The 
 expenses were commonly very great. Before a triumph, the genera] usually 
 distributed presents to his soldiers and to others. — The Senate went to meet the 
 triumphing general as far as the gate by which he entered the city. 
 
 1 u. The order of the triumphal procession was as follows. First in the line, ordi- 
 narily, were the lictors and magistrates in a body. They were followed by the trum- 
 peters and musicians of various kinds, the animals to be offered in sacrifice, the spoils 
 and booty taken from the enemy, the weapons and chariots of the conquered, pictures 
 and emblems of the country reduced, the captive princes or generals, and other pri- 
 soners. Then came the conqueror himself, seated in a high chariot, drawn by four 
 white horses, robed in purple, and wearing a wreath of laurel. He was followed by 
 his numerous train, consisting partly of his relatives, but chiefly of his army drawn 
 out in regular order. — The procession marched amid constant acclamations, through 
 the whole city to the Capitol, where the victims were sacrificed, and a portion of the 
 spoils of the victory were consecrated to the gods. Afterwards were feasting, merri- 
 ment, spectacles, and games. Often the scenes of the triumph lasted several days. The 
 pomp, expense, and luxury attending them became constantly greater and greater, 
 and the whole custom, on account of its frequent occurrence, and the great abuse of 
 it by some of the emperors, was reduced at last to a common and contemptible affaii 
 
284 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 — The first triumph for a victory at sea (triumphus navalis) was obtained by the Con- 
 sul C. Duillius, after his memorable defeat of the Carthaginians, B. C. 261. 
 
 2. Respecting the pillar and inscription in honor of Duillius, see P. IV. $ 133. — For a fuller 
 view of a triumphal display, read Plutarch's description of the triumph of Paulus iEmilins, after 
 the capture of Perseus king of Macedonia. — See also the account of Aurelian's triumph in his 
 Life by Vopiscus (cf. Gibbon, ch. xi). The last triumph recorded is that of Belisarius, at Constan- 
 tinople, related by Procopius (cf. P. V. $ 257. — Gibbon, ch. xli.) — The total number of triumphs 
 upon record down to that of Belisarius has been calculated as amounting to three hundred and 
 fifty. 
 
 It may be worthy of remark, that the phrase aurvm coronarium had its origin in a custom con- 
 nected with the triumph of a general ; the cities cf the province where his victory was obtained, 
 and those of other provinces also, used to send to him golden crowns, which were carried before 
 him in the triumphal procession. Cn. Manlius had two hundred crowns carried before him in 
 his triumph on account of his victories in Asia (Liv. xxxix. 7). At length it became customary 
 to send, instead of the crown, a sum of money, which was called aurum coronarium (cf. Aul. 
 Gell. v. 6). 
 
 § 308. There was an honor lower than that of a triumph, frequently bestowed 
 on victorious generals, the ovatio. This did not differ very much in form from 
 the triumph ; the essential peculiarities were, that the general entered the city 
 not in a chariot, but on foot or on horseback, robed not in the trabea, but the 
 praeiexta only, and at the Capitol did not offer bullocks in sacrifice, but a sheep 
 \ovis). From the last circumstance, the name of the whole scene was probably 
 taken. The triumph on the Alban mount, already alluded to (§ 307), was less 
 pompous. It was held only by those to whom the senate had refused a triumph 
 in the city, and to whom an ovation only had been awarded. The ceremonies 
 were similar to those of a triumph in the city. The procession, it is supposed, 
 marched to the temple of Jupiter Laliaris, situated on the mount. 
 
 § 309. The Roman military system underwent various changes under the 
 emperors. 
 
 1 u. By Augustus a standing army was established ; he also created an officer 
 called Frcpfeclxis prrstorio, who was placed over the troops constituting the imperial 
 bodyguard and the praetorian cohorts distributed in Italy. The Roman military ser- 
 vice suffered by the new establishment. It soon became merely a system to support 
 the authority of the emperors, not to promote the welfare of the country ; and to for- 
 ward this end, many disorders and abuses on the part of the soldiers were overlooked. 
 From the same cause, likewise, an unhappy line of distinction was drawn between 
 the military and the other classes of citizens. 
 
 The praetorian soldiers were, under the first emperors, divided equally into ten 
 cokorts, containing 1000 men each. Under the later emperors they were entirely abo- 
 lished, and 3500 Armenians were enrolled in their stead ; these were divided into nine 
 scholce, and commanded by the officer styled Magister officiorum. 
 
 The legions, not including the auxiliaries, were under Augustus twenty-five, dis- 
 tributed among the provinces. Besides these he had ten prcetorian cohorts just named, 
 six city coliorts of one thousand each, and seven cohorts styled cohortes vigilum, which 
 together amounted to 20,000 men. In after times, the number of troops was greatly 
 increased, as well as the naval force. On the division of the empire, the western 
 comprised sixty-two legions, and the eastern seventy. 
 
 At the commencement of the civil wars related by Tacitus in his History, there were thirty 
 .egions, distributed as follows : three in Britannia ; three in Hispania ; eight in Gallia, three of 
 them being in the portion called Upper Germany, and four in Lower Germany (cf. P, I. $ 17); 
 two in Pannonia ; two in Dalmatia belonging to Illyricum ; two in Moesia; four in Syria, with 
 three more in Judea under Vespasian ; two in Egypt ; and one in Africa (cf. P. I. } 173). 
 
 2. The epithet praetorian, in the republic, was applied to the cohort which guarded 
 the pavilion of the general. After the time of Augustus the praefect of the praetorian 
 bands was usually a mere instrument of the emperor, and the office was conferred 
 only on such as the emperors could implicitly trust. The appointment was made or 
 the commission conferred by the emperor's delivering a sword to the person selected. 
 Sometimes there were two praetorian praefects. Their power was at first only mili- 
 tary and small ; but it became very great, and finally trials were brought before them, 
 and there was no appeal but by a supplication to the emperor. Marcus Aurelius com 
 mitted this judicial honor to them, and increased their number to three. — The praeto- 
 rian cohorts had a fortified camp at the city, without the wall, between the gates 
 Viminalis and Esquilina. Under Vitellius sixteen praetorian cohorts were raised, and 
 four to guard the city. Severus new-modeled the body and increased them to four 
 times the ancient number. Constantine the Great finally suppressed them and de- 
 stroyed their camp. (Borjol's Adam, p. 123, 485). 
 
 3. Important changes in the military system were made by Constantine. He ap- 
 pointed two ge.neral commanders for the whole army, called Magistri militia ; one 
 of whom had command of all the cavalry, Magister equitum ; the other, of the whole 
 infantry, Magister peditum. 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. FREEMEN AND SLAVES. 285 
 
 Constantine did not abolish the title of Prwfectus prwtorio, when he suppressed the prretorian 
 cohorts, as above mentioned; but he changed the nature of the office, making it wholly a civil 
 one, and dividing the care of the whole empire between four officers of this title ; Prwfectus ora- 
 torio Orientis ; Prwfectus prwtorio per lllyricum ; Prisfectus prwtorio per Italias ; Prwfectus prw- 
 torio Qalliarum. The city of Rome also retained her special overseer, Prwfectus urbis Roma ; 
 and a similar officer, with greater authority, was appointed over Constantinople, which now 
 became the seat of the empire, Prwfectus urbis Constantinopolis. Under the four prefects were 
 subordinate officers, whose authority was limited to particular dioceses, of which there were 
 thirteen; one of them governed by the officer styled Count of the diocese of the East (Comes 
 diaceseos Orientis); another, consisting of Egypt, by an officer styled Prwfectus JEgypti ; and the 
 other eleven by officers styled Vicarii or vice-praefects. The dioceses were subdivided into a 
 great number of provinces, whose governors were of fou,r different grades, termed proconaules, 
 consulares, correctores, and presides. 
 
 4. The empire was divided into eastern and western between the two sons of Con- 
 stantine. In the western, the military jurisdiction continued to be vested in two com- 
 manders styled Magister equitum. and Magister peditum. In the eastern, it was 
 vested in the officers styled Magistri militant, and the number of them was five in the 
 time of Theodosius the Great, who shortly before his death, A. D. 395, united the 
 empire in one ; it was divided again after his death and so continued until the final 
 overthrow of the western, A. D. 476. The five Masters-general of the military each 
 had command of several squadrons (vexillaliones) of horse and several legions of sol- 
 diers (palatines comitatenses) and several corps of auxiliaries (auxilia) ; two of them 
 had also under their command a naval force, consisting of twelve distinct armaments 
 or fleets, six being assigned to each. There was likewise included under this military 
 establishment, in addition to the forces already mentioned, a large body of troops de- 
 signed particularly to defend the frontiers, called sometimes borderers, and commanded 
 by comites and duces, who seem to have been responsible to the officer, termed Qums- 
 tor sacri palatii. — The Masters -general of the West had under their command forces 
 of a similar description, including also troops designated specially for the defence of 
 the frontier. There was a Magister militum in Gaul, but subordinate to the two Mas- 
 ters-general. 
 
 For a general view of the civil and military arrangements of the empire under Constantine and later emperors, see Gibbon., cb. 
 xvii. — For more minute details, Tableau Systc'matique des Empires d'Orient et ^Occident, &c. in 3d vol. of SchblVs Hist. LitL 
 Romaine. — The Notitia Orientis et Occidentis, as edited by Panciroli, or more recently by Booking, as cited P. V. § 571. — Cf. Mansfy 
 Leben Constant, d. Gr. Eerl. 1817. 8. 
 
 IV. AFFAIRS OF PRIVATE LIFE. 
 
 § 310. In .order to form a correct idea of the more private civil and social 
 relations of the ancient Romans, it is important to notice the essential distinc- 
 tion which existed between the freemen and the slaves. There were two classes 
 of freemen, the free-born (ingenui), whose fathers were Roman citizens, and the 
 free made (liberti) or freedmen who had been enfranchised from servitude, and 
 who did not always enjoy the rights of Roman citizens. The children of the 
 latter class were termed libertini and their grandchildren ingenui, in early times ; 
 at a later period the freedmen were called liberti only with reference to their for- 
 mer master, receiving when spoken of otherwise the name libertini themselves, 
 while their sons, if born after the father's manumission, were called ingenui. — 
 The slaves were such by birth, vernse ; or by captivity in war; or by purchase, 
 mancipia. Of their different services, their treatment, and the ceremonies of 
 their manumission, we will speak below (§322). 
 
 On the subjects belonging to the branch of Roman Antiquities upon which we now enter, we may refer to d y Art\ay de la vie 
 privee des Remains. Lausanne, 1760. 12. (Consisting chiefly of treatises in the Memoires de VAcademiv des Inscriptions.) Trans. 
 Germ. Leipz. 1761. 8. Engl. Trans. Lond. 1764. 12.— Sketches of the Domestic Manners oftheRomans. Reprinted, Phil. 1822. 12. 
 Cf. N. Am. Rev. xvi. 163. — Couture, La vie privee des Romains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. i. 303. — Montfaucon, Usages du 
 Biecle de Theodore le Grand, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xiii. p. 474. — Especially W. Becker, Gallus (Roman Life in the time of 
 Augustus). 
 
 § 311. The Romans commonly had three names; the first was called the 
 prsenomen, and had reference simply to the individual who bore it; the second 
 was called the nomen, and was the name of the race or clan (gens) ; the third 
 was the cognomen, which designated the family (familia) : thus, in Publius 
 Cornelius Scipio ; Scipio is the cognomen indicating the family name, Cornelius 
 the nomen pointing out the clan or gens to which the family belonged, and Pub- 
 lius the prsenomen marking the particular man. The distinction between gens 
 and familia was, that the former was more general, denoting a whole tribe or 
 race; the latter more limited, confined to a single branch of it. — The. daughter 
 commonly received the name of the tribe or race, e. g. Cornelia, and retained it 
 
286 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 after her marriage. Sisters were distinguished by adding to this name the 
 epithets major and minor, or prima, secunda, tertia, &c. 
 
 1. Sometimes the Romans had a fourth name, which has been styled the agnomen; 
 this however was only an addition to the cognomen, and may be properly included 
 under it. — The order of the names was not invariably the same, although they usually 
 stood as above stated. Under the emperors the proper name of the individual was 
 frequently put last. 
 
 2 u. Even from the first establishment of the city, some among its heterogeneous 
 inhabitants were of noble descent, and the number of noble families was increased by 
 the adoption of plebeians among the patricians. The following were some of the 
 most distinguished races; Fabia (gens), Junia, Antonia, Julia, JEmilia, Pumpeia, 
 Tullia, Horatia, Octavia, Valeria, PostJiumia, Sulpicia, Claudia, Papiria, Cornelia, 
 JUanlia, Sempronia, Hortensia. 
 
 The names of families were often derived from the employment of an ancestor (cf. P. V. $ 483). 
 Names were also applied to individuals by way of ridicule ; that which was at first a mere nick- 
 name, or subriquet, became permanently attached to a person. 
 
 See Mahudel, De l'Autorite que les Sobriquets ou Surooms burlesques peuvent avoir dans I'histoire, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. 
 
 vol. xiv. p. 181. On the Roman names, and illustrious families, see SchblVs Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. iv. p. 367, and references there 
 
 given. — Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of Rom. Emp. ch. xxxi. — Boindin, Les noms des Remains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. \. 154. — Port 
 
 Royal Latin Gram. bk. viii. ch. 1. — Cf. CastcUio, De antiquis Pueromm Prasnominibus, in Grzvitis, vol. ii. On the subject of the 
 
 races (gentes), see Niehbuhr's Rome, i. 234. — Maiden's Hist, of Rome. — Gbttling, as cited § 242. 
 
 § 312. The increase of these races was much promoted by marriages, in 
 regard to which the Romans aimed to preserve a complete separation between 
 plebeians and patricians, until B. C. 445. Marriage was held to be a duty of 
 every Roman, and those who neglected it were obliged to pay a fine or tax. 
 Citizens were forbidden to marry strangers, except by permission specially 
 granted. Certain degrees of consanguinity were considered as interdicting 
 marriage. Marriage took place at an early age among the Romans, the male 
 being sometimes but fourteen and the female only in the tivelflh year. 
 
 1 u. The jus Quiritium conferred only on Roman citizens the right of marrying a 
 free-born woman. To freedmen this was prohibited, until the enactment of the 
 Poppaean law (A. D. 9) ; by this law the free-born, excepting senators and their sons, 
 were allowed to marry the daughters of freedmen. 
 
 The Lex Papia Popped was an enlarging and enforcement of the Lex Julia " de maritandis ordi- 
 nibus;" by it, whoever in the city had three children, in other parts of Italy four, and in the 
 provinces five, was entitled to certain privileges ; while certain disabilities were imposed on 
 those who lived in celibacy. This subject is alluded to by Horace, Carm. Ssbc vs. 20. 
 
 2. A legal marriage was termed Justa Nupthz, or Justum Matrimonium. The word 
 connuhium, was used as a comprehensive term including all the conditions requisite to 
 the contracting of a legal marriage. Generally it may be stated that there was con- 
 nubium only between Roman citizens. There was no connubium between slaves, but 
 only what was called contubernium. 
 
 See Gierig, Excursus de Contuberniis Romanorum, in Lemair&s Pliny, as cited P. V. § 470. 4. vol. 2d. p. 231.— .iyrer, Diss, de 
 jure connubiorum apud Romanos. Gbtt. 1737. 
 
 § 313. The marriage was always preceded by a solemn affiance or betroth- 
 ment, in which the father of the bride gave his assent (stipulatio) to the request 
 (sponsio) of the bridegroom. This compact and the ceremonies attending it 
 were called sponsalia ; it often took place many years before the marriage, even 
 in the childhood of the parties betrothed. The bridegroom was not always pre- 
 sent at the betrothing, which was sometimes effected by means of letters, or by 
 an empowered substitute. In early times the father's consent was necessary 
 only for the daughter, but afterwards also for the son. The mutual consent of 
 the parties was the most essential. Friends and relations were usually present 
 as witnesses ; the marriage contract was written and sealed {legitimx tabellse) ; 
 the bride received from her betrothed a ring as a pledge of his fidelity ; and the 
 whole ceremony was concluded with a feast. 
 
 § 314. In fixing the day of marriage, care was taken to select one of those 
 esteemed lucky or fortunate. The transference of the bride from her father's 
 power to the hands of the husband was called conventio in manum, and was 
 accompanied by a religious ceremony, and a sort of consecration by a priest 
 (confarreatio). Marriages contracted in this form were the most solemn, and 
 could not be dissolved so easily as in other cases. Two other forms or modes 
 are mentioned ; one was by prescription (wsws), the bride being taken home and 
 living with the bridegroom for a year (usucapio) ; the other by a purchase (co- 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DIVORCES. CHILDREN. 287 
 
 emptio), in which each party gave to the other a portion of money, repeating 
 certain words. 
 
 § 315 u. On the day of marriage, the bride was adorned with a sort of veil or pe- 
 culiar ornament of the head (luteum flammeum), and a robe prepared for the occasion 
 {tunica recta), which was bound around the waist with the marriage girdle (cingulum 
 laneum). The sacrifice ordered on the marriage-day was a sheep of two years of age, 
 presented especially to Juno as the goddess of marriage. 
 
 The conducting of the bride to the residence of the husband, which took place in 
 the evening, was attended likewise with ceremonies. She was taken, as it were 
 forcibly, from the arms of her mother, or if the mother was not living, of the next 
 near relative. She went with a distaff {coins) in her hand, and was careful to step 
 over or was lifted over the threshold of both houses, as it was ominous to touch it 
 with the feet. She was supported by two youth, one on each side ; a third preceded 
 her with a lighted torch or flambeau, and sometimes a fourth followed carrying in a 
 covered vase {cumerum) the bride's utensils {nvbentis utensilia) and also various toys 
 {crepundia).- She bound the door posts of her new residence with white woollen fil- 
 lets and anointed them with the fat of wolves (hence uxor, quasi unxor). She then 
 stepped upon a sheepskin spread before the entrance, and called aloud for the bride- 
 groom, who immediately came and offered her the key of the house, which she de- 
 livered over to the chief servant. Both now touched fire and water, as a symbol of 
 purity and nuptial fidelity. The house was already adorned with garlands of flowers, 
 the work of the preceding day. After their arrival the marriage banquet {ccena nup- 
 tialis) was held, which was accompanied with music and song. The husband after 
 supper scattered nuts among the youth and boys present. Finally the pair were con- 
 ducted to the bed-chamber, by the door of which the nuptial hymns {epithalamia) 
 were sung by young men and maids. The next day the bride presented a thank- 
 offering to the gods, and the husband gave an evening entertainment {repotia), and 
 distributed presents to the guests on their departure. 
 
 § 316. Divorces (xlivorHa) were, especially in latter times, quite common. 
 When the espousals and the marriage had been solemnized in full formality, 
 especially with the confarreaiio just described, particular solemnities were requi- 
 site for a divorce, and these were called diffarreatio. In case of a less formal 
 marriage contract, the divorce was called remancipatio or usurpatio. On 
 account of the frequent abuses of divorce, it was restrained by law; and pro- 
 perly the men only enjoyed the right. The formula with which one dismissed 
 his wife was tuas res iibi habeto. Sometimes the separation took place before 
 marriage, after the espousals, and then it was called repudium ,• the customary 
 formula was as follows : conditione tua non utor. If a woman was divorced 
 without having been guilty of adultery, her portion or dowry was returned 
 with her. 
 
 The situation of the Roman woman after marriage was in some respects better than that of the 
 Greek woman. The Roman matron presided over the household; she superintended the educa- 
 tion of her children (cf. P. IV. $ 125); as being the mater familias, she shared in the honors paid 
 to the husband. Yet, generally speaking, the condition of females among the Romans was simi- 
 lar to their condition in Greece. The social elevation enjoyed by females in modern times is 
 very justly ascribed in a great degree to Christianity. 
 
 See § IS1, and references there given. On the regard to the sex as illustrated by the writings of Tibullus, Ovid, Seneca, &c. cf. 
 
 Ramdohr, Venus Urania. Lips. 1798. 8. On the influence of Christianity, see Buckminster's Sermons. — Ctahing, Social Influ- 
 ence of Christianity, in Bibl. Bepos. Sec. Series, vol. i. p. 195.— Cf. P. IV. § 83. 2. 
 
 § 317. Among the Roman customs connected with the birth of children, that 
 was the most remarkable which left it to the arbitrary will of the father whether 
 to preserve his new-born child or leave it to perish. In reference to his decision 
 of this point, the midwife always placed it on the ground ; if the father chose 
 to preserve it, he raised it from the ground, and was said toller e infantem; this 
 was an intimation of his purpose to educate and acknowledge it as his own. 
 If the father did not choose to do this, he left the child on the ground, and thus 
 expressed his wish to expose it (exponere) ; this exposing was an unnatural 
 custom borrowed from the Greeks, by which children were left in the streets, 
 particularly at the columna laetaria, and abandoned to their fate. Generally the 
 power of the father was very great, but the mother had no share therein. This 
 power extended not only over the life of his children, but the father could three 
 times sell his son and three times reclaim him, and appropriate all his gains as 
 his own. Under the emperors, this power lost much of its rigor, by the regu 
 lation allowing the children to hold the inheritance left by their mothers. 
 
 § 318 u. The freeing of a son from the power of a father was effected by what was 
 
288 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 called emancipation, or a fictitious thrice repeated selling of the son ; the freedom con- 
 sequent upon this was termed manumissio legitima per vindictam. The father and the 
 son appeared together with the pretended purchaser, a friend of the first, and with a body 
 of witnesses, before the tribunal of the praetor, and here the imaginary thrice repeated 
 sale and thrice repeated manumission was completed with certain established usages, 
 sometimes by only a double sale with a delay of the third. On the third sale, the 
 purchaser was called pater fiduciarius ; in the first two, dominus. — The power of the 
 father over his son was otherwise rarely terminated except by the death or banishment 
 of the father ; it belonged to the peculiar rights of a Roman citizen (% 260). By 
 emancipation the son became his own master, and possessor of his own property, 
 of which, however, he must give the father half as an acknowledgment for his 
 freedom. 
 
 § 319. Another custom among' the Romans in respect to children was that of 
 adoption {adoptio). In this, the actual father of a child renounced his own 
 rights and claims, and committed them to another who received the child as 
 his own. 
 
 1 u. The ceremony was performed before a magistrate, usually the praetor. The 
 formalities were in part the same as in emancipation, which was always presupposed 
 in adoption, and previously executed. Only in such a case, the son was sold to the 
 adopting father but twice, and did not revert the third time to the real father. There 
 was also sometimes a kind of adoption by will or testament (adoptio per testamentum), 
 in order to preserve a family from extinction. In such case the person adopted re- 
 ceived a considerable part of the estate left by the person adopting him, and bore his 
 name after his death. 
 
 2 t. That, which was called adrogatio or arrogatio, differed from adoption only in 
 the formalities connected, and in the circumstance that the person adopted was pre- 
 viously his own master (sui juris) and not in the power of his actual father. The 
 adrogatio was not transacted, as was the adoptio, before the praetor, but before the as- 
 sembled people, in the Comitia Curiata, and by the aid of the High-priest ; neither 
 was it limited to individuals, but often included a whole family. Upon the consent of 
 the people to the arrangement, the person or persons adopted into a family took a 
 solemn oath, that they would remain faithful to the religion and worship of the family ; 
 this was called detestatio sacrorum, as the adopted person lost the peculiar rights and 
 was freed from the peculiar duties (sacra gentilitia) of his former gens (cf. § 311), if 
 different from the one into which he was now introduced. 
 
 § 320 w. By what was called legitimation, a natural (naturalis) or spurious (spurius) 
 child was declared to be legitimate (legitimus), and instated in all the rights of such. 
 This affected, however, the relation of the child only to the father, and not to other 
 relatives, or to the whole family of the father. Such a child shared in the inheritance 
 an equal portion with the lawful children. But this custom was not known to the 
 early Romans ; it came first into practice in the fifth century under Theodosius the 
 second, and then scarcely at all in Rome itself, but in the municipal towns, where it 
 was introduced to supply the want of the decuriones or members of the senate (cf, 
 § 260. 2). For, as this office could be received only by sons of decuriones, and was 
 also very burdensome, the fathers were allowed to transmit it to their natural sons, by 
 them legitimated. 
 
 § 321. The education of the Roman youth is noticed particularly in treating 
 of the Archaeology of Roman Literature (cf. P. IV. §§ 123-125). Here we 
 only remark, that for a long time there were no public schools, but the youth 
 received the necessary instruction from private or family teachers (peedagogi). 
 There were, however, those who in their houses gave instruction to a number of 
 youth together. The corporeal exercises, especially in the early times, were 
 viewed by the Romans as a more essential object in education than the study 
 of literature and science. They did not neglect, however, an early cultivation 
 of the manners, and of noble feelings, especially patriotism, love of liberty, and 
 heroic courage. 
 
 § 322 t. The household of a Roman was collectively termed familia,- but by 
 this word was especially meant the body of slaves, of which there was often a 
 large number. Persons in opulent circumstances had them sometimes to the 
 amount of several thousands. The Roman women of rank usually had a nu- 
 merous body of servants of both sexes. — The slaves of a family were divided 
 into different classes or decurise, according to their employments, and a particu- 
 lar registry of them was kept, which was, in some instances, read over every 
 morning. Their condition was very hard, and they were treated as mere chat- 
 tels, rather than persons. 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. SLAVES. 289 
 
 " Slaves in Rome occupied every conceivable station, from the delegate superin- 
 tending the rich man's villa, to the meanest office of menial labor or obsequious vice; 
 from the foster mother of the rich man's child, to the lowest degradation to which 
 woman can be reduced. The public slaves handled the oar in the galleys, or labored 
 on the public works. Some were lictors ; some were jailors. Executioners were 
 slaves ; slaves were watchmen, watermen and scavengers. Slaves regulated the rich 
 palace in the city ; and slaves performed all the drudgery of the farm. Nor was it 
 unusual to teach slaves the arts. Virgil made one of his a poet, and Horace himself 
 was the son of an emancipated slave. — The merry-andrew was a slave. The physi- 
 cian, the surgeon, were often slaves. So too the preceptor and pedagogue ; the reader 
 and the stage-player ; the clerk and the amanuensis ; the architect and the smith ; 
 the weaver and the shoemaker ; the undertaker and the bearer of the bier ; the pan- 
 tomime and the singer ; the ropedancer and the wrestler, all were bondmen. The 
 armiger or squire was a slave. You cannot name an occupation connected with agri- 
 culture, manufacturing industry, or public amusements, but it was a patrimony of 
 slaves. Slaves engaged in commerce ; slaves were wholesale merchants ; slaves were 
 retailers; slaves shaved notes ; and the managers of banks were slaves." 
 
 The following is a specification of some of the principal servants, such as are most frequently 
 mentioned : — 1. Of those employed in the house. The servus admissionalis received the persons 
 who visited the master of the house, announced their names, and conducted them in ; the servi 
 cuMcularii were a sort of valet or chamber servants, often enjoying the particular confidence of 
 the master; the tonsores and cinerarii were such as paid attention to the beard and hair of the 
 masters ; the amanuenses and librarii were secretaries and copyists ; the anagnosta were readers ; 
 the vestiarii attended to the wardrobe; the balneatores waited upon the master at the bath; the 
 medici performed the duties of surgeons and physicians ; the nutrilii and ptedagogi took care of 
 the children. — A multitude of servants were employed in waiting upon table at meals, and were 
 designated from their several functions. Among these were, e. g. the servus lectisterniator, couch- 
 spreader ; structor, arranger of dishes ; carptor or scissor, carver ; diribitor, distributer ; prasgus- 
 tator, taster; pocillator, cup-bearer; detersor, table-wiper, &c. — There were others performing 
 another kind of house-service, e. g. the servus ostiarius, door-keeper ; atriensis, hall slave ; dispen- 
 sator, or arcarius, keeper of the stores; cellarius, pantry-keeper; pulmentarius, pottage-maker; 
 dulciarius, confectioner ; tcadiger, torch-bearer ; cunaria, cradie-rocker ; cosmeta, perfumer ; fla- 
 
 bellifer, fan-carrier, &c. 2. Others were employed out of doors ; the servus insularis, who had 
 
 the oversight over his master's buildings; the servus a pedibus, who went with errands; the 
 lecticarii, who carried the sedan or litter, &c. — A large number of slaves were kept at the manors 
 or country-seats, to see to the husbandry and fruits; among these were the villici, stewards or 
 superintendents; aratores, plowmen; runcatores, weed-pullers; occatores, clod-breakers ; fani- 
 sectores, hay-cutters; vindemiatores, vintagers ; jugarii, ox-drivers; opiliones, sheep-tenders; 
 piscatores, fish-catr.hers; muliones, mule-drivers ; gallinarii, hen-keepers, &c. 
 
 for a full list, see Blair's Stale of Slavery among (he Romans. Edinb. 1833. 8. Cf. Am. Quart. Rev. vol. xv. 71. On the 
 
 employment of slaves, see A. Popma, De Opens Servorum — L. Pignorius, De Servis et eorum apud Veteres ministeriis. Patav. 
 1656. 4, — Mongez, sur les travaux publ. des Romains, in the Mem. de VInstitui, C 1 a s s e de Lit. et Beavx Arts, i. 492. 
 
 § 323. The slave-trade formed among the Romans, as with most of the 
 ancient nations, an important part of business. Slave merchants (venalitiarii) 
 were always found attached to the Roman armies, and importers of slaves 
 (mango7ies) often came to Rome from Greece and Asia. There were various 
 laws regulating- this traffic; which, however, were often left unexecuted, or 
 were evaded by the arts of those engaged in it. For exposing to view slaves 
 offered for sale, scaffolds (catastae) were erected in the market, and commonly 
 small tablets or scrolls (tituli) were suspended from the necks of the slaves, 
 stating their country, age, character, &c. The price varied very much ; it. was 
 sometimes above a thousand denarii. Of still greater value were such as pos- 
 sessed intellectual cultivation, and could be employed as teachers, readers, 
 accountants, musicians, and the like. 
 
 One thousand denarii would equal (cf. $ 270. 3) about one hundred and fifty dollars. In the 
 time of Horace (Sat. II. vii. 43) a fair price for an ordinary slave seems to have been about half 
 that sum. In the time of Justinian the legal valuation of a common slave was twentysolidi,i. e. 
 five hundred denarii, or about seventy-five dollars. But vastly higher prices are mentioned; 
 e. g. beautiful boys are said to have been sold for as much as two hundred thousand sesterces, 
 or fifty thousand denarii (cf. Mart. iii. 6; viii. 13. Plin. H. N. vii. 39, 40). 
 
 § 324 u. The liberating of slaves took place in several ways. The most ancient 
 mode seems to have been by will, manumissio per testamentum, on the decease of the 
 master. There were two other modes ; censu, and per vindiclam ; the former was 
 when the slave, with the master's consent, was enrolled in the taxation list as a freed- 
 man ; the latter was a formal and public enfranchisement before the praetor. In the 
 last case, the master appeared with his slave, before the tribunal, and commenced the 
 ceremony by striking him with a rod {vindicta) ; thus treating him as still his slave. 
 Then a protector or defender (asserlor liberlatis) steps forward and requests the libe- 
 ration of the slave, by saying liunc liominem liberum esse aio, jure Quirilium; upon 
 which the master, who has hitherto kept hold of the slave, lets him go (e manu emit- 
 'ebat), and gives up his right over him, with the words, hunc hominem liberum esse 
 37 2 B 
 
290 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 volo. A declaration by the praetor, that the slave should be free, formed the conclu- 
 sion. To confirm this manumission, the freed slave sometimes went to Terracina and 
 received in the temple of Feronia (P. II. § 91. 5) a cap or hat (pileus) as a badge of 
 liberty. The slave to be freed must not be under twenty years of age, nor the person 
 setting him free under thirty. 
 
 We may here remark, that on the country farms there was a class of population termed coloni, 
 who were not slaves, although sometimes termed servi terrw. They were attached to the soil, 
 and could not be separated from it; the land and the coloni could be sold together, but neither 
 of them could be sold without the other. The coloni, like slaves, were liable to corporeal punish- 
 ment; but they had the right of connubium (cf. $312. 2), which slaves had not. The colonus paid 
 a yearly rent for the land on which he lived. 
 
 On the subject of Roman Slavery, see an able and interesting article in the Biblical Repository and Quart. Observer, No. xx. Oct. 
 1835 — Burigny, Roman Slaves and Freedmen, in the Mem. Acad, hiscr. vol. xxxv. p. 328, and xxxvii. p. 113. — Blair, cited § 322. 
 —Becker's Gallus. 
 
 § 325. The dwellings of the Romans were at first mere huts (casse), and 
 during the first three centuries, even to the capture and plunder of the city by 
 the Gauls, the houses were insignificant (P. IV. § 241). On its being rebuilt, 
 they were larger and more respectable. As luxury increased, especially after 
 the second Punic war, so the private dwellings (domus) became more and more 
 costly and splendid, both within and without ; although this was not universally 
 the case. In the time of Augustus, there was great magnificence and extrava- 
 gance in the building and ornamenting of houses. 
 
 1 u. Among the principal ornaments of the larger houses and palaces were the fol- 
 lowing ; the covering of the outer and inner walls with marble ; the use of phengites 
 {tptyyirris) or transparent marble, in the place of the lapis specularis, which was com- 
 monly employed for windows ; mosaic work on the floors (pavimenta tesselata) ; and 
 various decorations in ivory, marble, costly wood and precious stones, attached to the 
 walls, ceiling, and door-posts. 
 
 2. The phengites, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxvi. 22. 46), was discovered in Cappadocia 
 in the time of Nero, and took this name from its translucency. — The lapis specularis was found 
 in Spain, Cyprus, Cappadocia, Sicily, and Africa ; it could be split into thin leaves, like slate, 
 not above five feet long each. Boyd remarks, quoting the French translation of Adam, "It ap- 
 pears that this stone is nothing else than the talc of Muscovy." Launay (cited P. IV. $ 195. 2), 
 after comparing various allusions to it in Pliny and others, expresses in the following words 
 his conclusion : "que le lapis specularis des Anciens etoit notre gypse feuillet6 appelle Selcnite." 
 (vol. i. p. 314). 
 
 3. Windows made of this stone were termed specularia; it has been supposed that these were 
 chiefly in the better houses 1 .- — Horn is said to have been used by the Romans for the windows 
 (corneum speculare); also paper and linen cloth. Originally the windows were mere openings 
 {foramina, fenestra:) % sometimes covered with a sort of lattice (clathri); sometimes closed by 
 means of shutters with two leaves (bifores fenestra). It has not been generally supposed that 
 glass (cf. 268. 4) was manufactured at Rome before the time of Tiberius, nor that it was used for 
 windows until a much later period ; the first distinct mention of glass windows (vitrea specula- 
 ria), is said to be by Lactantius (De opificio Dei, 8) or by Jerome, in the fourth century^; although 
 mirrors (specula) of glass were much earlier. But glass windows have been discovered 3 in the 
 buildings at Pompeii. " In the vaulted roof (of a room of the thermos or baths) is a window, two 
 feet eight inches high and three feet eight inches broad, closed by a single large pane of glass, 
 two-fifths of an inch thick, fixed into the wall, and ground on one side to prevent persons on the 
 roof from looking into the bath: of this glass many fragments were found in the ruins. This is 
 an evident proof that glass windows were in use among the ancients. The learned seem to have 
 been generally mistaken on the subject of glass-making among the ancients. The vast collection 
 of bottles, vases, glasses, and other utensils discovered at Pompeii, is sufficient to show that the 
 ancients were well acquainted with the art of glass-blowing." It has been suggested, that these 
 vessels may not have been manufactured in Italy, but imported from the East, especially from 
 Tyre, the place where glass is supposed to have been first made. Another room belonging ta 
 the same baths "was lighted by a window two feet six inches high and three feet wide, in the 
 bronze frame of which were found set four very beautiful panes of glass fastened by small nuts 
 and screies, very ingeniously contrived, with a view to remove the glass at pleasure." 
 
 i /. M. Suaresius, De Foraminibus lapidum in priscis .andificiis, in Sallengre, as cited § 197. vol. i. 2 Beckmann, History of 
 
 Inventions, cited P. IV. § 32. 1.— Cf. Voeel, Geschichte der Erfindungen von der iltesten bis zur neuesten Zeit. Leipz. 1841. 12. 
 a Pompeii, as cited P. IV. § 226. 1. p. 162. Cf. also § 268. 4. 
 
 4. Paintings in stucco on the walls, and fret-work (laquearid) on the ceilings, were among the 
 decorations in Roman bouses. The various ornaments were frequently of a character exceed- 
 ingly unfavorable to purity of mind. 
 
 On architectural ornaments, &c. cf. P. IV. § 239.— On the mosaic of the ancients, P. IV. §§ 167, 189, 220. 
 
 5 u. The names of the various parts of a Roman house are known to us much bet- 
 ter than their exact design and use. The following were the principal parts. (1) The 
 vestibulum or fore-court, an open space between the house-door and the street. From 
 this, one entered through the door or gate (janua or ostium) of the house into (2) the 
 atrium, aula or hall, in which on both sides were placed the images of ancestors in 
 niches or cases (armaria). From this, one passed directly through into (3) the implu- 
 vium; called also compluvium and cavadium, which was a court, commonly uncovered 
 'tiihdivale), where the rain-water fell. In this was the proper dwelling-house, which 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. HOUSES. 291 
 
 had two wings with a covered colonnade or portico in front, in order to pass unexposed 
 from one apartment to another of these side-buildings. Of these apartments the 
 principal was (4) the triclinium or dining-room; the others were termed cellos, having 
 distinctive names from their use ; as cella vinaria, coquinaria, penuaria, &c. Besides 
 these there were attached to the larger houses various other appendages ; colonnades, 
 baths, gardens, and the like. — In general, almost all the apartments were on the lower 
 floor; but detached houses or blocks, which were mostly occupied by tenants on 
 lease (and called insula), were higher and had more stories. 
 
 As the population of Rome increased, the houses in the city were raised to such altitudes as to occasion danger, and a maximum of 
 height was established by law ; in the reign of Augustus it was enacted, that the height of private edifices should not exceed seventy 
 feet from the ground.— Gibbon, vol. 3d. p. 216, ed. N. Y. 1822. 
 
 C. The gate or door (janua) was sometimes made of iron or brass, often highly ornamented, 
 and usually raised above the ground, so that steps were necessary to ascend to it. On festival 
 occasions it was hung with green branches and garlands. It turned on hinges (cardines), and was 
 secured by bars (obices, claustra), locks {sera), and keys (claves). Knockers (marculi, mallei) or 
 bells (tintinnabula) were attached to it. 
 
 Fig. a, of Plate XXXII. represents a key found at Pompeii.— Fig. b, of the same Plate, is a door-bolt, found also at Pompsii. 
 
 In the atrium was anciently the kitchen (eulina). Here also the mistress of the house and 
 servants carried on the spinning and weaving. In this was the family hearth (focus), near the 
 door, with a constant fire of coals, and the lares (cf. P. II. $ 111) around it. The Roman houses, 
 as well as the Greek, seem to have had no chimneys, but merely an opening in the roo'f to let 
 offthe smoke ; hence the epithet fumosw applied to the images in the atrium ; to avoid smoke as 
 much as possible, the wood was carefully dried and anointed with lees of oil : yet it is said that 
 chimneys have been found in the ruins of ancient buildings'. Portable hearths or furnaces 
 (foculi), in which charcoal was burnt, were used for warming the different apartments; a sort 
 of stove (caminus), in which wood was usually burnt, was also used, larger than the furnace or 
 brasier, and fixed in one place. In later periods, houses were warmed by a furnace, below, with 
 pipes passing from it to the rooms 2 . — The atrium was sometimes divided, in later times, into dif- 
 ferent parts separated by curtains. 
 
 i Seeker's Gallus, i. 102. Cf. Har. Sat. I. v. 81.— Fitruv. vii. 3. 2 Beckmann, Hist, of Inventions. Cf. Plin. Ep. ii. 17.— 
 
 Sen. Ep. 90. 
 
 In the open court, or impluvium, was often, if not usually, a fountain. The apartments around 
 it, excepting the dining room, were usually small and ill constructed, and properly called cells. 
 Those designed for sleeping were termed cubicula. The tablinum was the room for the family 
 records or archives. The pinacotheca was the gallery for pictures. The solarium, was a room on 
 the portico for taking the sun. — The covering or roof was protected by large tiles (tegulce), and 
 was generally of an angular form ; the highest part was called fastigium, a term also used to 
 designate the whole roof. — Under the better class of houses were very capacious cellars (cellaria\ 
 which were specially prepared for storing various sorts of wines. — Staircases do not appear to 
 have been considered of much consequence; they are found in the buildings at Pompeii. 
 ^ In Plate XXXII. fig. 1, is the plan of a Roman house, given in Stuart's Diet, of Architecture as 
 according to Vitruvius : "a is the vestibiUuvi ; b, the atrium; c, the tablinum; d, d, the ala? ; e, e, 
 cellae familiarica;; /, cavadium; g, vernal triclinium; g, summer triclinium; g, winter tricli- 
 nium; iii, baths; k k k, cubicula?; m. pinacotheca; n, bibliotheca; o, peristyle; q, Cyzicene 
 oscus ; r r, courts of the offices ; s, exedra ; t {, gardens ; u, rooms for embroidery ; v v, sudato- 
 ries." 
 
 On the Roman house, cf. TVilkins, Transl. of Vitruvius, cited P. IV. § 243. 4. — J. Minutolus, de Roman, domibus, in Sallengre, 
 cited § 197.— Fr. M. Grapcddi de partibus 51dium liber. Parm. 1505. 4.— Hirt, Geschichte der Baukunst, cited P. IV. § 243. 4 — 
 Mazois, Ruines de Pompei.— Merovir, Le Palais de Scaurus, ou Description d'une Maison Romaine. Par. 1822. 8. — Smith, Diet 
 of Antiquities, p. 494. 
 
 7. Among the various articles of furniture mentioned are chairs (.sella), tables (mensa), 
 couches (lecti), lamps (lucernce), &c. ; besides the numerous utensils for culinary 
 purposes (cf. § 329. 3), and articles pertaining to the bathing-room and the toilet (cf. 
 $ 338). 
 
 Several varieties of tables are mentioned; as the cilliba, a round table with three legs ; the 
 monopodium ; the sigma or mensa lunata, Sec. (cf. $ 329. 2).— Chairs of different forms have been 
 discovered in the excavations at Pompeii, and other varieties are represented in the fresco paint- 
 ings. — Among the couches were those used at meals, accubita, or lecti tricliniares (cf. $ 329. 2); 
 and the lecti cubiculares or beds for sleeping; the latter had costly frames, sometimes of metal, 
 With feet (fulcra) sometimes of silver, bearing a matress or bed of feathers (culcita, torus), with 
 rich coverings (vestes stragulte, peripetasmata, peristromata concliyliala). — A great number of 
 ancient lamps have been found, particularly at Herculaneum and Pompeii ; of various forms and 
 sizes, and different materials, from the most common to the most costly; many of them, espe- 
 cially those in bronze, are of the most beautiful workmanship. They were wrought into the 
 most whimsical images and shapes; and were attached to supports of various kinds, or sus- 
 pended from the ceilings. 
 
 Several specimens of ancient lamps are given in our Plate XXXII. at the bottom ; in Nos. 1 
 and 3, they are suspended from a stand or branch (lychnucus) ; in Nos. 2 and 4, they are placed 
 upon a low tripod ; in No. 5, on a small erect pillar or stick (columella.) called candelabrum. Fig. 
 d is a couch, from an Egyptian monument, showing the cushion or bed, and the pillow. 
 
 R. H. Baber, Antique Vases, Lamps, Tombs, Urns, &c. Lond. 1836. 4. containing one hundred and seventy plates engraved by 
 H. MoBes ; with descriptions.— See also Montfaucon (as cited P. V. § 13), vol. v. p. 202.— .fc Antichi d'Ercolano, cited P. IV. 
 § 243. 2. one vol. of which treats particularly on this subject.— The Museo Borbonko (cited P. IV. § 212), contains representation! 
 of very tasteful ancient chairs. 
 
 $ 326. The villas, or country seats, of the Romans were much more splendid usually 
 Jhan the houses within the city. A complete establishment of this kind included seve- 
 
292 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 ral parts. 1. The villa urhana was the chief edifice, with its courts, b^ths, porticos, 
 and terraces, for the residence of the lord. 2. The villa rustica was the name applied 
 to the buildings designed to accommodate the steward (villicus), and mimerous slaves 
 of the establishment ; and those for various kinds of live stock ; e. g. gallinarium, for 
 hens; aviarium, for bees; suile, for swine, &c. 3. The villa fructuaria was another 
 part, including the structures designed for storing the various products of the farm ; 
 as wine, corn, oil, and fruits ; often comprehended under villa rustica. 4. The hortus 
 was the garden, upon which in later times great care was bestowed : being planted 
 with trees, shrubs, and flowers, which were often turned into fantastic shapes by 
 slaves called topiarii ; watered sometimes by means of pipes and aqueducts; adorned 
 with walks and statues. 5. There was sometimes a sort of park, of many acres, 
 chiefly designed for deer or other wild beasts, theriotrophium, in which was the fish- 
 pond (piscina) and the oyster-bed (vivarium). 
 
 Many of these villas, owned by distinguished Romans, are alluded to in the classics. Cicero 
 had a beautiful one at Tusculum, besides several in other places further from the city (cf. Mid- 
 dleton's Life of Cicero, sect. xii). — Hortensius possessed sumptuous villas at Tusculum, Bauli, 
 and Laurentum ; the Piscina Mirabilis, a subterraneous edifice, vaulted and divided by four rows 
 of arcadps, under the promontory of Bauli, is supposed by some to have been the fish-pond of 
 this distinguished orator. (Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. ii. 128.) In his Tusculan villa he had a 
 sinsle painting, the Argonauts, by Cydias, for which he paid, according to Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxxv. 
 12), 144,000 sesterces, i. e. above $5,000. — Horace is supposed to have owned a villa at Tibur, not 
 so splendid, yet affording a retreat delightful to the poet. (Anthon's Remarks in his ed. of 
 Horace.) — Pliny (Ep. ii. 17), has given a description of one belonging to himself at Laurentum, 
 of great extent and grandeur. (Stuart's Dictionary of Architecture.) — But the villa of the empe- 
 ror Adrian, near Tivoli, was probably the most magnificent ever erected; its buildings and 
 plantations covered an area, it is said, of at least six miles in circumference; its ruins have 
 survived to modern time, and have furnished many of the finest remains of ancient art. (Cf. 
 P. IV. $} 173, 188. — Stvart's Diet.) — Ruins, called the Villa of Lvcidlus, have been discovered at 
 the extreme point of Pausilypus (cf. P. I. $ 42), in ground used for vineyards, two feet below the 
 surface; the buildings are said to have been found in good order. (Gent. Mag. Ap. 1842.) — The 
 excavations of Pompeii have brought to light a specimen of a villa just without the walls of the 
 place, supposed to have belonged to one Diomedes. (See a livelv description of it in Johnson's 
 Philos. of Trav. p. 235, as cited P. IV. $ 190.) 
 
 Rob. CasteTl, The Villas of the Ancients illustrated. Lond. 172?. fol.— Sufeer's Theorie, i. 305.— G. Grenius, De Rusticatione 
 
 Romanorum, in Sallengre, cited § 197. vol. i. On remains of Roman villse discovered in England, Archxolcgia, (as cited P. IV. 
 
 1 243. 3), vol. viii. p. 363. vol. xviii. p. 203, and xix. 176, with plans. 
 
 § 327. The manner of life among the Romans undeiwent many changes in 
 the course of their history. In the early periods these were favorable to their 
 morals, but in later times highly injurious. Their constant prosperity exerted 
 its influence on their feelings, and these affected their private life and manners, 
 their pursuits, social character, and amusements. At first, and even down to 
 the first Punic war, their domestic manners were characterized by simplicity in 
 thought and action, and united with this there was moderation in the gratifica- 
 tion of the senses, which they but seldom and sparingly indulged. From their 
 primitive rudeness, they gradually advanced in refinement and urbanity, and 
 ere long passed into an opposite extreme. The more they became acquainted 
 with the conveniences and pleasures of the people they conquered, especially 
 the Greeks and Asiatics, and the more their riches and abundance increased in 
 consequence of these conquests, the more prevalent became pride and luxury in 
 private life. In place of their former heroic virtues, their bravery and self-denial, 
 now appeared effeminacy, vanity, and idleness. Magnificence in buildings, 
 luxurious indulgence in food and liquors, fondness for dress and entertainments, 
 followed of course. 
 
 § 3-28. It is not easy to decide what was certainly a uniform course of daily 
 avocations, among a people presenting a great variety in pursuits, conduct, and 
 manner of life. There was, however, a sort of regular routine in the succession 
 of daily employments among the Romans, particularly with the more respect- 
 able and orderly citizens. 
 
 1 u. The morning hours were appropriated to religious worship in the temples, or 
 their own houses. In the morning, also, persons of the lower class were accustomed 
 to call upon their superiors with salutations, especially clients upon their patrons. 
 About the third hour (cf. § 228) the business of the courts, comitia, and other assem- 
 blies were commenced. Between this hour and noon were the promenades for plea- 
 sure or conversation in the porticos, the forum, and other public places. About the 
 sixth hour or mid-day, they had a slight repast, after which it was customary to take 
 a little rest or sleep. The afternoon was spent mostly in amusements and recreation, 
 in visiting, bathing, and attending public spectacles. About the ninth or tenth hour 
 was the usual time for the evening meal. 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. ROUTINE OF DAILY EMPLOYMENT. 293 
 
 2. The following caustic remarks are from the work of Johnson (above named, $ 326).— "The 
 private houses in Pompeii, and the house of Diomede, par excellence, show us at once how the 
 people lived. Each family met, when they did meet, in the open court of the house — while the 
 masters assembled, and might be said to live, in the public porticos and public hotels of the city ! 
 Such was the state of society among the ancients; and if we examine the cafes and other public 
 places of resort, some of them not the most moral or edifying, in Italy and France, at the present 
 day, we shall find that the state of society in this respect has not essentially changed. How the 
 women and children contrived to pass their time at home, while their husbands and fathers were 
 lounging in the porticos, the forums, the temples, and hotels, it is not easy to say ; but if we may 
 judge by the figures and devices on their work-boxes, vases, flower-pots, lamps, amulets, and 
 walls, we may safely conclude that, in their narrow and darksome cells, the pruriency (I dare 
 not use the proper term) of their minds was at least commensurate with the inactivity of their 
 bodies and the enervating influence of the climate." 
 
 See Pliny's interesting account (Epist. iii. I) of the manner in which his friend Spurinna was accustomed to spend the day. 
 
 Abbe. Couture, La vie privee des Romains, as cited § 310. 
 
 3. The eustomary time of day for bathing, both at the public thermos (cf. P. IV. $ 241 b) and the 
 more private balnea, was between two o'clock and dusk. Between two and three o'clock was 
 considered the most eligible time for the exercise and the bath. The baths were usually closed 
 at dusk ; some of the emperors allowed them to be open until five o'clock in the evening. The 
 price paid for admission was a quadrans or quarter of an as ; the charge for entrance was in- 
 creased a hundred-fold after four o'clock. — Nero's baths were heated by twelve o'clock; and 
 Severus allowed the baths to be open before sunrise and even through the night, in summer. 
 The rage for bathing seems to have continued until the removal of the seat of the empire to Con- 
 stantinople ; after which no new therma? were erected, and the old gradually fell into decay. A 
 description of the buildings constructed for bathing is given under the topic of Architecture (cf. 
 P. IV. $ 241 S); to which we must refer for an explanation of the names of rooms or apartments 
 that occur in the following account of the customs connected with bathing. — "Those who went 
 to bathe first proceeded to the apodyterium, where they took off their clothes and committed them 
 to the care of the capsarii, slaves employed for the purpose by the overseer (balneator). Thence 
 they proceeded to the unctuarium, where they were anointed by other slaves (aliptm). Thence 
 they proceeded to the sphceristerium, to engage in some of the exercises of that apartment. From 
 this room they went to the caldarium. In taking the hot-bath in the latter room they sat upon a 
 bench or seat (pulvinus) below the surface of the water in the basin. Here they scraped them- 
 selves with instruments called strigiles, usually of bronze, sometimes of iron ; or this operation 
 was performed by an attendant slave. From drawings on a vase found at Canino, it is inferred 
 that the bathers, after the use of the strieilis, rubbed themselves with their hands, and then were 
 washed from head to foot by having pails or vases of water poured over them. They were then 
 dried carefully with cotton or linen cloths, and covered with a light shaggy mantle called gau- 
 sape. On quitting the caldarium, they went to the tepidarium, and after some delay, thence into 
 the frigidarium; but are supposed not generally to have bathed in these at the public therms, 
 but to have used them chiefly to soften the transition from the intense heat of the caldarium to 
 the open air. The bathing was usually followed by an anointing of the body with the perfumed 
 
 oils of the elaothesium, after which the clothes left in the apodyterium were resumed." It is 
 
 worthy of remark, that the exercise of swimming was connected with the custom of bathing. 
 " This art," it is said, " was held in such estimation by the Greeks and Romans, that, when they 
 wished to convey an idea of the complete ignorance of an individual, they would say of him, that 
 he neither knew how to read nor swim, a phrase corresponding with our familiar one, that a per- 
 son knows not how to read or write. Attached to, and forming a part of the gymnasia and 
 palffistrse, were schools for swimming; according to Pliny, the Romans had basins in their pri- 
 vate houses for the enjoyment of this exercise." 
 
 Bell, as cited P. IV. § 241 b. — Ameilhon, sur Fexercise du nageur chez les anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxxviii. p. II, 
 and x\. p. 96. 
 
 § 329. The dinner of the Romans, or mid-day meal (prandium) was very 
 frugal ; indeed it was not customary to prepare a table for it ; and in the better 
 times of the republic, those who took a formal meal at noon were regarded as 
 effeminate. The fifth hour, from 11 o'clock to 12 in modern reckoning, was the 
 time assigned for it, 
 
 The principal meal was held at evening (cana), and for this, particularly, the 
 guest-chambers or eating-halls {triclinia) were constructed, which in the palaces 
 and manors of the rich were very splendid. These apartments were also called, 
 from the use made of them, ccenationes ,- and among the lower classes, coenacula. 
 
 1 u. The table, being either quadrangular or rounded, had on three sides couches, 
 each with three pillows, on which to support the arm in reclining. Nine persons 
 (§ 52) were therefore accommodated at a table. The right of the middle couch or sofa 
 was called locus consularis. Often seven places only were prepared, the whole of the 
 middle couch being appropriated to some stranger or guest, by way of especial honor. 
 Women were not accustomed to recline at table, but to sit. 
 
 2. The couch on the right hand was called summus lectus, the one placed at the 
 head of the table was called mcdius lectus, while the remaining couch on the left was 
 termed imus lectus. The post of honor on each was the central place, those who oc- 
 cupied the middle of each of the three couches being styled respectively, primus sum- 
 mi lecti, primus medii lecti, and primus imi lecti. The most honorable of these three 
 places, and consequently of the whole entertainment, usually was the primus medii 
 lech. The least honorable was at the end of the left couch farthest from that called 
 medius. As the guests all reclined on the same (the left) arm, the bodies of those on 
 
 2b2 
 
294 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 the opposite couches were extended in opposite directions ; on the right towards, on the 
 left from, the middle couch. — The couch-frames {spondee) and their supports (fulcra) 
 were of wood, ivory, or sometimes metal; sometimes they were veneered with tor- 
 toise-shell ; on these was a sort of cushion which had in it stuffing (tomentum) of wool, 
 feathers or the like ; and this was sometimes covered with a cloth (stragula) often 
 of rich embroidery and purple dye. — The tables (mensce) were often highly orna- 
 mented. The monopodium, was circular, with one foot ; chiefly used by the sick ; the 
 tripes (Hor. Sat. i. iii. 13) of the poorer people had three feet. The mensa lunala was 
 a semicircular table, accommodating usually seven or eight persons, used under the 
 emperors ; it was called sigma from its resemblance in form to the letter C ; the 
 term slibadium designated the couch or sofa which surrounded it. 
 
 In Plate XXXV. fig. 1, we have the ground plan of a summer triclinium in the small garden of 
 the hou?e of Sallust, found af Pompeii; and also a view of the couches and the table in the 
 center. In this plan, A designates the summus lectus ; B, the medins ; C, the imus. The couches, 
 in this instance, are of masonry, and were of course covered with cushions and tapestry. The 
 round table in the center was of marble. — In fig. 5, of the same Plate, also from Pompeii, we see 
 a splendid lectus, with a cushion and richly ornamented pillow (pulvinar). 
 
 3. Before eating, the guests always washed their hands and used towels (mantilia) 
 for drying them. They were usually furnished each with a napkin (mappa) for wiping 
 the hands while at the table. For bringing on and using the food {cibum) there were 
 various articles of furniture, as dishes {lances, palrince) and the like ; but nothing like 
 our fork, it is supposed (cf. P. IV. § 135. 2); although the excavations at Pompeii have 
 shown that the Romans were acquainted with many things, which have been consi- 
 dered as modern inventions. 
 
 " The surprise which is excited by a survey of the various implements of domestic economy 
 and luxury, employed by the ancients, as disinterred from the tomb of Pompeii, where they slept 
 since the beginning of the Christian era, and as compared with those now in use, must be natu- 
 ral, else it would not be so universal. This surprise is not solely occasioned by the almost mira- 
 culous preservation of these objects during so many centuries. We are astonished (though I 
 know not why) that the bakers of Pompeii had ovens for their bread, and could stamp their 
 names on the loaves — that the cooks had pots, stew-pans, colanders, molds for Christmas-pies 
 and twelfth cakes — that the aldermen and gormands stowed their wines at the greatest distance 
 from the kitchen and hot-bath — that the cafes had stoves for supplying mulled wines to their 
 guests — that the apothecary's shop abounded in all kinds of 'doctor's stuff,' a box of pills remain- 
 ing to this day, gilt, for the squeamish palate of some Pompeian fine lady — that the surgeon's 
 room displayed a terrific ' armamentum chirurgicum' of torturing instruments; among others, 
 ' Weiss's Dilator,' the boast of modern invention in the Strand — that the female toilets disclosed 
 rouge, carmine, and other cosmetics, with the hare's foot to lay them gracefully on the pallid 
 cheek — that the masters and mistresses had little bells to summon the slaves (for servants there 
 were none), and that the asses, mules, and oxen had the same noisy instruments, to warn carts 
 and wheelbarrows from entering the streets, where two vehicles could not pass at the same 
 time — that play-bills, quack advertisements, notices of sights, shows, &c, were pasted up at the 
 corners of the streets, in monstrous bad Latin — that opera tickets were carved in ivory, though 
 at a lower price than 8s. 6d. — that dice were ingeniously loaded to cheat the unwary Calabrian 
 who came within the vortex of the Pompeian gaming-table — that horses had bits in their mouths, 
 stirrups at their sides, cruppers on their rumps, though the two latter are omitted in statues, for 
 the benefit of antiquarian disquisitions — that windows were glazed when light vvas preferred to 
 air, which was rarely the case— that the Pompeians, like the Irish, had their wakes, their howl- 
 ings, and their whisky drinkings at funerals — that the public houses had checkers painted on 
 their walls, as at present— that the chimist's shop had for its sign a serpent devouring a pine- 
 apple, symbolical of prudence defeating death — that the Pompeian ladies employed male accouch- 
 eurs, who had all the implements of their art nearly similar to those of the modern men mid- 
 wives — that the houses were numbered, and the names of the occupants painted on the walls — 
 that, in the public tribunals, the magistrates protested to Heaven that they would decide consci- 
 entiously, while the witnesses swore most solemnly that they would speak nothing but truth — 
 that the men occupied all the good seats in the theatre, leaving the gallery for the women, where 
 officers were appointed to preserve order — that, in short, men and women had their passions and 
 propensities, their cares and their enjoyments, long before Vesuvius burst into flame !" {John- 
 son, before cited.) 
 On curiosities found at Pompeii, cf. Class. Journ. iv. p. 305.— Library nf Entertaining Knowledge, vols. xxiv. xxv— Pompeii. 
 
 — Museo Borbanico. For an interesting account of the luxurious manners of the later Roman nobles, Gibbon, Dec. and Fall of 
 
 Rom. Enlp. chap. xxxL 
 
 § 330. At the suppers of the rich, there were commonly three courses. The 
 first was termed guslus or gustatio, designed to sharpen rather than to satisfy 
 appetite; it consisted of eggs {ova), salad, radishes, and the like. With this 
 they drank usually, not wine, but mead, or a mixture of honey. The second 
 course formed the essential part of the meal, and the principal dish was called 
 caput cartas. The dishes were brought on by slaves in baskets or vases fitted for 
 the purpose (reposiloria). The third course was the dessert (bellaria), consist- 
 ing of choice fruits (mala), pastry, and confectionery. 
 
 1. Hence the introduction of the phrase, ah ovo ad mala, from the beginning to the end of the 
 feast. Cf. Horace, Sat. I. iii. 6.— — An account of the fare provided for a social supper, is given 
 by Pliny, Epist. i. 15. 
 
 2 A great number of servants were employed about the evening meal in one wav 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. BANQUETS. 295 
 
 or another ; some of them have already been named (cf. § 322) ; e. g. the structor, 
 who arranged the tables ; the carptor, who divided the food, &c. In (he times of 
 Roman luxury, there was much demand for skilful cooks (coqui, archimagiri). 
 
 3. It may be proper here to advert to the Roman hospitality. The rights of hospi- 
 tality (jus hospilii) were highly respected ; the term hospes was applied both to the 
 host and to the guest, and always indicated mutual obligations between them. 
 These rights and obligations were sometimes created between persons residing at a 
 distance and even in different countries, by an interchange of presents. The joining 
 of right hands was practiced as a sort of pledge of this fellowship (arrha hospitalis) ; 
 sometimes a sort of tally was used consisting of a piece of wood cut into two similar 
 parts, of which each person kept one (tesseka hospitalis) ; some of the European 
 cabinets have specimens of these tessera with the names of friends inscribed. — The 
 Romans had a custom (called mulitatio) of inviting on the next day those whom they 
 had met at another person's house. 
 
 Fig. 4, in Plate XXXV., is a copy of a painting found at Herculaneum, which exhibits two 
 persons joining hands, and one giving to the other the tessera. 
 
 Cf. Class. Journ. ix. 229. x. 229. xviii. 75.— Foslroke (as cited § 13), p. 63?.— 7. S. Casalius, De Tricliniis, Hospitalitate et Tes- 
 
 Eeris Veterum, in Gronovivs, vol. ix.—J.P. Tomasinus, De Tesseris Hospitalitatis. Amst. 1670. 12. also in Gronovius, vol. ix. 
 
 On the general subject of Roman meals, &c. /. C. BuLengeras, De Conviviis, in Gronovius, vol. ix. — Cf. also §§ 166-168. 
 
 §331a. In social banquets, held at evening, it was customary to choose a 
 master of the feast, rex or magister convivii or arbiter bibendi ,• he seems to have 
 been chosen by a throw of dice (Hor. Od. ii. vii. 25). To his direction every 
 thing connected with the banquet was submitted, particularly all that related to 
 drinking, and the social intercourse for the time. After the completion of the 
 meal, the drinking was continued late in the night. It was customary to drink 
 healths, the memory of the gods and heroes being usually honored in the first 
 place. — Not only after the meal, but also during it, between the different courses 
 and dishes, social games or plays were practiced, especially playing with dice. 
 
 1 u. There were two kinds of dice, tali and tesserm. The former were oblong, 
 with two sides or ends rounded, having therefore four sides, on which they might fall, 
 and which were numbered successively one (unio), six (senio), three (ternio), and four 
 (quaternio). Four tali were used in playing ; the most fortunate throw, called Jaclus 
 Venereus or Venus, was when a different number was uppermost on each of the four, 
 and the worst throw, called Canis, was when the same number was uppermost on all. 
 The tesserm had six sides, numbered like modern dice. Three only were used in play- 
 ing ; and the best throw was three sixes, and the poorest three aces or ones. The vessel 
 from which the dice were thrown, was called fritillus or turricula, a box in the form 
 of a tower ; the board or table on which they were received, was termed forus, alveus, 
 tabula lusoria. — Another game not so often played was called Duodena scripta, and 
 was a kind of trick-track or backgammon. It was played with fifteen counters or 
 stones {calculi} of different colors, upon a table marked with twelve lines. — Jn the 
 general corruption of Roman manners the love of playing at games was carried to the 
 highest extreme. 
 
 Cf. Simon, Jeux de hazard, chez les Remains, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 120. 
 
 2. In the time of the Republic, it was customary for the patror> to invite all his cli- 
 ents occasionally to a common supper in his halls ; this was called cmna recta. Under 
 the emperors, it became customary to give to the clients, instead of a supper, a por- 
 tion of food to carry home in a small basket, sportula. At length a quantity of mo- 
 ney was substituted instead of this, to the amount of about 100 quadrantes, or 25 
 asses, which was also called sportula. This word was also employed to designate 
 sums of money distributed by orators and others for the purpose of gaining favor. 
 
 Cf. Juv. i. 95. 118. — Mart. iii. T.—Be Mantour, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. i. 161. 
 
 § 331 b. As wine was the beverage chiefly used by the Romans, especially at their 
 social evening banquets and games, we will introduce here some remarks on the sub- 
 ject. Scarcely any thing else seems to have been so important to the rich Roman in 
 all his arrangements for domestic comfort, as to be well furnished with choice and 
 approved wines. — 1. Hence there was great attention to the cultivation of the vine ; 
 even to the neglect of other branches of agriculture. The soil of Campania was con- 
 sidered as perhaps the most desirable in Italy, for vineyards. Many varieties of grape 
 were cultivated : about fifty sorts are mentioned by Columella and Pliny ; no expense 
 was spared to obtain the best kinds for the vineyards. It was common to rear the 
 vines by attaching them to certain trees (arbusla), particularly the elm and poplar ; 
 and the vines and trees were thus said to be married ; the vines were allowed usually 
 to reach the height of 30 or 40 feet, sometimes a still greater, in the rich soils ; in 
 soils less favorable, the usual height was only from 8 to 12 feet. — 2. The vintage or 
 gathering of the grapes was about the last of September, or in October. They were 
 picked in osier baskets (fiscinae, corbes) and carried directly to the room for pressing 
 
296 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 (torcularium) , where they were first trodden (calcabantur), and then subjected to the 
 press ; sometimes in order to obtain a richer wine, the grape was exposed to the sun a 
 few days after gathering. The common wine-press (torcular) seems to have been 
 simply an upright frame, in which was fixed a beam (prelum) loaded with weights, 
 and having ropes attached so as to work it more easily. The juice (muslum) passed 
 through a sort of strainer (colum) into a vat (lacus), in which it remained in order to un- 
 dergo fermentation about nine days, or was put into large vessels (dolia) for the same 
 purpose. The juice which ran from the grapes without pressing [mustum lixipium) was 
 usually preserved separately, and often with much pains to avoid its fermentation ; 
 one mode of doing which was to secure it in a close vessel and sink it in a pond for a 
 space of a month or more. Sometimes the juice obtained by pressing was boiled 
 down instead of being allowed to ferment, in a place fitted up for this process and 
 called defrutarium ; the must thus inspissated and reduced to one-half its original 
 quantity, was termed defrutum ; the carenum was such as had been reduced only to 
 two-thirds ; sapa was the name when reduced to one-third. — 3. Various means were 
 employed for clarifying the fermented must ; eggs particularly were used for the pur- 
 pose. Various methods were devised also for modifying or preserving the flavor both 
 of the fermented and the inspissated juice ; aromatic herbs and drugs of different 
 kinds were introduced to effect the object. — In order to hasten the maturity of wines, 
 to ripen and mellow them, they were often subjected to the action of artificial heat 
 and smoke, by placing the vessels containing them in the flues of the furnaces, or in 
 some room prepared for the purpose (fumarium), where the smoke for a time passed 
 around them. These forced wines are said to have been in great request at Rome. 
 It is probable that the process tended to give the wines a thicker consistency ; it is 
 stated that they sometimes became consolidated to such a degree that it was neces- 
 sary to dissolve them in hot water. — 4. The vessel most commonly used by the Ro- 
 mans, for keeping their wine, was the amphora, called also quadrantal ; the terms 
 testa, cadus, and diota are applied to the same or a similar vessel. It was made of a 
 sort of clay baked, and held about six gallons ; — generally of an elegant form, having 
 a narrow neck with two handles, and tapering towards the bottom, so that they might 
 easily be fixed in the ground or sand of the wine-cellar, and kept in an upright posi- 
 tion. The amphora was commonly lined with some preparation of pitch or wax and 
 aromatic substances, and was covered also with a coating made of pitch and the ashes 
 of the vine. When the wine had been in the vessel a suitable time, the cover or 
 stopper was confined and made perfectly close by a coating of the same kind, or of 
 plaster.* Skins (utres), which were originally the only kind of vessel used for the pur- 
 pose, seem also to have remained until later times. For the richer sorts of wine, 
 glass vessels appear also to have been employed ; but probably of a much smaller size 
 than the earthen amphora (Martial, Ep. ii. 40). For carrying wine from place to 
 place, very large vessels made of leather or hide, supported and guarded by a frame 
 and hoops, seem to have been used. A painting found in a wine-shop at Pompeii ex- 
 hibits a vessel of this kind occupying the whole of a wagon or car with four wheels 
 and drawn by two horses. — 5. The better kinds of wine were usually valued more 
 highly in proportion to their age. None of the more generous wines were reckoned 
 fit for drinking before the fifth year, and the majority of them were kept for a much 
 longer period. The most pleasant and grateful for drinking, however, was that of a 
 middle age ; although the older might command a higher price. The opulent Ro- 
 man, as has been mentioned, attached vast importance to his wine establishment. 
 Hence to the house and villa of every such person was attached the wine-cellar (cella 
 vinaria). This (called also apotheca, cf. Hor. Sat. n. v. 7) was commonly in part, if 
 not wholly, under ground, and was frequently very spacious. Here the wine was 
 kept, usually, in amphorm, which were ranged along the walls, sunk to a greater or 
 less depth in the sand ; each one having a mark (nola) indicating the name of the Con- 
 sul in office when the wine was made ; hence the phrase interior nota, signifying the 
 oldest and choicest ; because such, being placed first in the cellar, would naturally be 
 at the remote end of the cellar, or because, on account of these qualities, it was 
 lodged in an inner cell or apartment. The villa of Diomedes (cf. J 326) has a cellar very 
 large, extending round and under the whole garden, and lighted and ventilated by 
 port-holes from above; " some of the amphorae still stand as they were packed and 
 labelled seventeen centuries ago." Among the amphorae found, some not many years 
 since, at Leptis (cf. Beechy's travels), was one with the following inscription in Vermil- 
 lion, l. cassio c. maeio cos. forming three lines on the vessel. — 6. Of the Italian wines, 
 the most celebrated were the Falernian and JSTassic (vinum Falernum, Massicum), 
 which seem to have been the product of the same region, in the vicinity of Sinuessa ; 
 and the vinum Setinum, the beverage of Augustus, produced on the hills of Setia. 
 Others in much repute were the vinum Ccecubum, Surrentinum, Calenurn ; of a third 
 rank were the Albanum and Sabinum. The Sicilian wines were rated generally after 
 these. Of foreign wines, the Romans seemed to have placed the Lesbian, Chian, and 
 Thasian, among the first; cf. § 161. Different kinds of wine were used at the same 
 banquet ; and sometimes the guests were treated with different sorts according to their 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. DRINKING-CUPS. COSTUMES. 297 
 
 rank. — 7. From the fact that the wines were so often inspissated, it was common to 
 dilute them for actual use, among the Romans as well as among the Greeks; for this 
 purpose warm or hot water seems to have been frequently used. The mixture was 
 made in a large vase called crater. From this it was poured or conveyed by a ladle 
 {cyathus) into cups {pocula), of which there were almost countless varieties. 
 
 Some of the names employed to designate varieties of the drinking-cup were the following; 
 calices, vhialce, scyphi, cymbia, batiolm. They were made of wood (fagina pocula), or of earth 
 (fictilia); of glass (vitrea), and of amber (succina); also of bronze, silver, and gold, with various 
 ornaments (torenmata, vasa sculpta) ; of gems or precious stones, and of the substance called 
 murrka. (cf. P. IV. $ 195. 4). The specimens of these articles still remaining show great skill in 
 workmanship. 
 
 In our Plate XXXV. are seen a number of the vessels connected with the ancient use of wine. 
 Fig. o is a jar filled with grapes, copied from paintings on the walls of an edifice found at Pom- 
 peii and called the Pantheon. — Fig. 6 is drawn from an Egyptian monument; and shows a mode 
 of obtaining the juice by treading on the grapes collected in a vat. — Fig. 2 is copied from the 
 painting mentioned above as found at Pompeii; it shows a mode of carrying wine about for 
 sale; a slave is filling an amphora from the leathern vessel in the carriage, and another slave 
 holds a second amphora to be filled. — Figs. 6, c, and d, are wine-vessels, from Egyptian monu- 
 ments; c very exactly resembling the Roman amphora; and b, a form still in actual use in 
 Egypt for water. — Figs. e,f, g,i, represent glass vessels found at Pompeii; A is probably a drink- 
 ing-cup. — Figs, n and o are also drinking-vessels; n is the drinking-horn, Kepas, pvrov; several 
 specimens have been found at Pompeii ; o may illustrate the Greek crater ; cf. Boyd's Potter, 
 p. 699. — Fig. 7 shows two elegant glass cups which seem to have been cut, or else cast in a mold. 
 — Fig. 5 presents, in the hand of the Bacchanal, a cup of another form, probably the calix, kv\i%; 
 wine-vessels also appear on the small table which stands by the splendid couch on which he 
 reclines with a garland on his head and the thyrsus in the other hand ; a monument from Pom- 
 peii. — Fig. 3 is a vessel of form like one of those seen on the table of the Bacchanal, given on a 
 larger scale, and showing its ornaments ; it represents the patera, often used in libations. 
 
 Cf. Pownall, on a Roman " drinking-cup wrought of solid crystal," Archxologia, cited P. IV. § 32. 5. vol. vii. p. ISO. On the 
 
 topics of the above section, Henderson's History of Wines, cited § 161. — E. Barry, On the Wines of the Ancients. Lond. 1775. 4. — 
 A. Turnebus, De Vino ac ejus Usu et Abusu, in Gronoiilus, vol. ix. — ji. Baccius, De Conviviis Velerum, in Gronovius, vol. ix. — 
 Pliny, Hist. Nat. xiv.— Columella, xii. — B. Parsons, Anti-Bacchus ; an Essay on Intoxicating Drinks. Bepr. H. York, 1840. 12. 
 p. 199 ss.— R. B. Grindrod, Bacchus; an Essay on Intemperance. Repr. N. York, 1840. 12. p. 192, 245. The last two "works 
 valuable as advocating perfect temperance." 
 
 § 332. The fashion of dress among the Romans underwent changes in differ- 
 ent periods, but less in respect to form than the quality and expensiveness of 
 the materials, and the ornaments. — The most general and peculiar garment of 
 the Romans was the toga, a national characteristic, whence the Romans were 
 termed Gens togata, and Togati, while the Greeks were termed Palliati. It was 
 a loose robe or sort of cloak, extending from the neck to the feet, close below up 
 to the breast, but open above the breast, and without sleeves. It was therefore 
 not put on, properly speaking, but thrown over the body. It was commonly of 
 wool, and white in color ; black, toga pulla, being used only on funeral occa- 
 sions. The toga worn in the house was less loose and ample (toga restricta) ; 
 that used in going out, commonly larger and flowing with many folds (fusa). 
 
 1. Some of the priests and magistrates wore it bordered with purple (toga pratexta) ; 
 this was also worn by freeborn youth, who, at the age of seventeen, exchanged it for 
 the toga virilis or (because generally white) pura, which was assumed in a very formal 
 manner before the Praetor, in the Forum. — The trabea is described as a toga orna- 
 mented with purple horizontal stripes ; that worn by the augurs (cf. § 209) is said to 
 have been of purple and saffron color. — The angular extremities of the toga were 
 termed lacinia. 
 
 2. A statue of one Marcus Tullius, by some supposed to be a descendant of the great Cicero, 
 was found at Pompeii; "he is represented clothed in a toga prmtexta, the robe of otfice of the 
 Roman magistrates; and, which adds value and singularity to the statue, this robe is entirely 
 painted with a deep purple violet color. This seems to give reason for believing that the pra?- 
 texta, instead of being a garment with only a purple hem, as it is usually explained, was entirely 
 dyed with this precious color; at least in the later times of the republic. The price of this pur- 
 ple was enormous ; the violet, though the less costly sort, is said by Pliny to have been worth 
 one hundred denarii (about £3, 4s. Id.) the pound; the red is valued by the same authority at 
 one thousand denarii. It was obtained from Ihemurex, a shell-fish found in various parts of the 
 Mediterranean." Pompeii, p. 205. 
 
 On the age for assuming the toga, cf. Dodwell, de aetate tog. vir. sumenda?, in his Prsdect. Acad, (cited P. V. § 542. 7.) p. 245.— On 
 the color of the toga, Arneilhon, sur la teinture des anciens, as cited § 26S. 4. (c). 
 
 § 333. The garment which the Romans wore under the robe, was the tunic 
 {tunica). It was worn close to the body, without sleeves, and extending almost 
 to the knees. It was entirely open, and fastened by means of a girdle above the 
 hips. It was commonly, like the toga, white. In later times the tunic was 
 worn with sleeves. — With slaves and the poorer classes of citizens generally, 
 this was the only clothing, except the linen under-garment or shirt (indusium, 
 subucula) which had small sleeves. The higher classes never appeared abroad 
 38 
 
298 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 •without the addition of the toga. In winter the latter often wore another gar- 
 ment under it, called tunica interior or interula. 
 
 1 u. Senators and their sons wore a tunic bordered in front on the right side with a 
 stripe of purple, called clavus ; knights (equites) had two such stripes, but narrower ; 
 whence the tunic of the senators was called laticlavia, that of the knights angusti- 
 clavia. 
 
 2. The emperors exercised the prerogative of bestowing the distinction of the laticlave upon 
 such persons as they considered worthy of the honor. Cf. Pliny, Ep. ii. 9. 
 
 § 334 t. The women used the tunic, with a girdle, as well as the men; only 
 that of the women reached down to the feet. They wore also an over-garment 
 extending to the feet, called stola, having a broad border or fringe (limbus) called 
 instita. Some consider the palla to be a robe worn over the stola ; others think 
 them both the same garment. The women sometimes wore a fine robe of a cir- 
 cular form called cyclas. The mourning robe of women was called ricinium or 
 rica, covering the head and shoulders. The amiculum was a short mantle, or 
 vail, worn by the women. 
 
 " A female statue, of the size of life, was found within the cellar of the temple of 
 Fortune at Pompeii, clothed in a tunic falling to her feet and above it a toga. The 
 border of the former is gilt ; the latter is edged with a red purple bandeau, an inch and 
 a quarter wide ; the right arm is pressed upon the bosom, with the hand elevated to 
 the chin, while the left hand holds up the toga." 
 
 § 335. There were other kinds of outer garments more or less in use. The 
 Isena was a thick woolen over-coat, used in journeying; this name was also 
 given to the purple robe of the Flamines (cf. § 214), which was fastened about 
 the neck with a buckle or clasp. The paludamentum, or chlamys, was a long 
 Grecian cloak of scarlet color bordered with purple, used specially by generals 
 and high military officers. The sagum was a soldier's cloak of red color, cover- 
 ing only the back and shoulders, fastened by a clasp. The lacerna was a kind 
 of rain cloak, very broad, and usually with a hood or covering for the head 
 (cucullus, capitiuni). The pxnula was a robe similar to the toga, and more 
 frequently used under the emperors. 
 
 The materials of which the Roman garments were made, were chiefly linen and 
 woolen. Silk was unknown to them until the close of the republic. The Romans 
 seem to have remained ignorant how silk was produced, for a long time after the article 
 was introduced among them by importation from the country of the Seres. Nor did 
 they at first use it without intermixing linen or woolen in texture with it; for which 
 purpose even the silk stuffs, which were brought from the east in a woven state, were 
 unraveled ; cloth of this mixed texture is said to have been first fabricated in the island 
 of Cos. The Coan vestments (vesles Com) appear to have been of a very loose texture, 
 almost like muslin or gauze ; hence called ventus textilus, woven wind. The Seric 
 vestments (vestes Sericm) are supposed to mean such as consisted of pure silk. The 
 term bombycina was sometimes applied to both, although it seems to have been consi- 
 dered as more appropriate for the Coan article ; as that was at length known to come 
 from a worm (/?fy/?u£, bombyx), while the Seric was still imagined to be gathered from 
 the leaves of trees ( Virg. Georg. ii. 121). Silk was considered as proper chiefly for 
 the garments of females. In the reign of Tiberius the senate {Tacit. Ann. ii. 33) is 
 said to have decreed (A. D. 16) that men should not disgrace themselves by wearing 
 silk apparel (veslis serica). The emperor Heliogabulus (slain A. D. 222) is severely 
 condemned as being the first who wore a robe of pure silk. 
 
 Cf. Article Seres, in Anthon's Letnpriere, and Sericum, in Smitk's Diet, of Antiquities. On the Roman costume, see 0. Ferra- 
 
 rius, De Re Vestiaria, in Grxvius, vol. vi. — Becker, Gallus, vol. ii. — Maillot and Martin, cited § 197. — Ameilhon, L'usage des Soie 
 chez les ancien6, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xlvi. p. 452. — Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xl. — Mahudel, Origine de le Soie, in the 
 
 Mem. SfC. vol. v. p. 21S. — J.R. Foster, De Bysso Antiquorum. Loud. 1776. 8. For some illustrations, see Plate XXV. ; cf. § 169 
 
 for explanations. 
 
 § 336. The Romans usually went with the head uncovered, or drew over it a 
 part of the toga; except at sacred rites and festivals, on journeys, and in war. 
 At the festival of the Saturnalia, particularly, they wore a sort of bonnet or 
 woolen cap (pileus), which, however, was allowed only to the free by birth or 
 manumission, but forbidden to slaves. The petasus was a sort of broad-brirnmed 
 hat 1 , used in journeying. — There were various coverings for the feet. The cal- 
 cei were somewhat like our shoes, and covered the whole foot, and often with 
 their lacings (corrigia, ligula) covered the ankles and the lower part of the leg. 
 Shoes of strong untanned leather were termed perones. The caligse were a kind 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. PERSONAL ORNAMENTS. 299 
 
 of half-boot, worn by soldiers. The solesc and crepidse were sandals, covering 
 only the bottom of the feet, and were fastened by leather thongs and bands (vin- 
 culo) passing above. 
 
 The shoe of senators came up to the middle of the leg, and had on the top of the foot 
 a golden or silver crescent, or letter C (hence lunata pellis, patricia luna). The shoes 
 of the men were usually black ; those of women commonly white, sometimes of a red, 
 yellow, or other color. The mullei were of a reddish dye ; worn first by the kings, after- 
 wards by those who had borne any curule office. Sometimes the Romans used socks 
 made of wool or goat's hair, udones. The thighs and legs were sometimes bound around 
 with a sort of scarfs (fascia), which were all in the Roman dress that corresponded to 
 modern pantaloons or breeches (femoralid) and stockings (tibialia). — 'The shoes of 
 comedians were termed socci ; those of tragedians, cothurni (cf. § 89) ; those of panto- 
 mimes, or the rattling appendages to them, scabella. The soccus was a mere slipper, 
 very frequently of yellow color ; the crepida seems to have been nearly the same ; the 
 baxa was a sandal made of vegetable leaves or twigs ; and the baxa and crepida were 
 used by comedians as well as the soccus. 2 
 
 i The head-covering termed petams, is seen in our Piale XXIV. fig. 3. a See P. V. §§ 317-319.— D. L'Aulnaye, as cited P. V. 
 
 § 319. 1. Various forms of coverings for the feet and legs are given in Plate XXIV. ; see the explanation, § 169. 2. 
 
 § 337. The hair, both of the head and beard, was allowed by the more ancient 
 Romans to grow freely, and was but seldom cut. In the fifth century after the 
 building of the city, it first became a common custom to cut the hair more fre- 
 quently, and also to frizzle and anoint it. Young persons were accustomed to 
 draw the hair backwards and bind it together in a knot, for a sort of ornament. 
 
 1 u. When the toga virilis was assumed (cf. § 332), the hair of the youth was shorn 
 and a part of it cast into the fire in honor of Apollo, and a part of it into the water in 
 honor of Neptune. It was also customary, on the first shaving of the beard, to conse- 
 crate it to some deity. Under the emperors false hair were used, by a contrivance like 
 a peruke (capillamentum, galericulum). 
 
 2. Among the ornaments of the youth was the bulla, a sort of ball, which hung 
 from the neck on the breast. The boys, who were sons of citizens of the highei 
 ranks, wore one of gold (bulla aurea) ; it was usually a hollow sphere ; but other forms, 
 and particularly the image of a heart, were introduced. The sons of freedmen and 
 poorer citizens used only a leathern ball (bulla scortea). This ornament was laid aside 
 when the toga virilis was assumed (cf. § 332), on which occasion the bulla was conse- 
 crated to the lares or other divinities. 
 
 Fig. 1, of our Plate XXV. is an altar-shaped box, worn by loose women of the Hindoo temples 
 upon their necks ; richly ornamented with jewels. Boxes like this, or bags, seem to have been 
 formerly worn on the neck to contain perfumes. Cf. Isa. iii. 20 (the tablets), and Sol. Sovg, i. 13. 
 — The figure may serve to illustrate the Roman bulla, as hung from the neck. 
 
 See Mmitfaucon, Antiq. Eipl. as cited § 13. vol. v. p. 68. — Baudelot, Bulle que les enfants Rom. portoient au cou, in the Mem, 
 Acad. Inscr. vol. iii. p. 211. 
 
 § 338. Still greater care was bestowed by the women upon the dress of their 
 hair, which they frizzled, plaited in locks and curls, and adorned with golden 
 chains, with pearls, rings, and ribins. The most modest fashion was the use 
 of a broad ribin or fillet (vitta), by which they gathered and bound the hair in a 
 bunch or knot. Besides the ointments by which they made their hair more 
 glossy, it became fashionable in later times to color it, and even to scatter gold 
 dust upon it. 
 
 1 . The Roman women often used paint (fucus) to improve the color of the face as 
 well as the hair ; both white (cerussa or creta) and red (minium). Various ointments 
 (unguenta), cosmetics, and washes (medicamina, smegmata), were likewise used for a 
 similar purpose. Effeminate men did the same. Of the various cosmetics we mention 
 the following : amaracinum, iasminum, nardinum, asipum, metopium, rosaceum, 
 usinum. 
 
 The mirrors (specula) used at the toilet were made of polished metal, commonly brass or steel, 
 also of silver; sometimes of glass (Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxvi. 26, 36). Cf. Menard, cited $ 169. 6; cf. 
 also $ 268. 4. 
 
 Among the personal ornaments of the Roman ladies were ear-rings, necklaces, and 
 finger-rings. The ear-rings (inaures) were of gold, pearls, and gems, sometimes of 
 immense value. Necklaces (monilia) were often of gold set with gems; several 
 splendid gold necklaces found in Etruscan tombs are now in the British Museum. 
 The men also used an ornament for the neck, which was a sort of twisted chain 
 {torques), or a circular plate (circulus auri). Finger-rings (annuli) were of various 
 forms and devices, commonly set with engraved gems (cf. P. IV. §§ 205, 206), and 
 used not merely for ornaments, but for sealing papers, caskets, and even large packages 
 or vessels ; hence perhaps they obtained the name of symbola. The ring was a very 
 common ornament among the men ; originally only senators and equites (cf. $ 256. 2) were 
 
300 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 allowed to wear gold rings ; plebeians could wear only iron rings except by special 
 allowance ; those who triumphed also wore an iron ring {ferreus sine gemma). — Jewels 
 and other female ornaments were kept in a casket {pyxis, or pyxidula) made of gold, 
 tortoise-shell, ivory, or other precious material. 
 
 2. Specimens of most of these ornaments have been found at Pompeii. A gold ring, with an 
 engraved gem set in it, was found near a temple, in a box along with forty-one silver coins and 
 above one thousand of brass. In several of the nouses were found skeletons with rings, brace- 
 lets (armillai), necklaces, and other ornaments. Of these specimens we only mention further an 
 ear-ring of gold, which had two pearl pendants ; and a breast-pin, to which was attached a Bac- 
 chanalian figure, with a patera in one hand and a glass in the other, having bat's wings joined 
 to his shoulders, and two belts of grapes passing across his body. This curious breast-pin is 
 given in our Plate XLVII. fig. i. — In the same Plate, figs. o,and h, and r, are ear-pendants, from 
 Montfaucon. Fig. 4 shows the ring which was passed through the ear. — P'ig. g ig a pendant with 
 a pin to attach it to a bandeau or some part of the head-dress. — This Plate also shows a variety 
 of rings: cf. P. IV. $ 206.— The torques is seen in fig. 1, of Plate XLIV., cf. P. IV. § 186. 9; and 
 the monile or necklace, probably, in fig. 5, Plate XXXV. — A mirror, with a box of pins, &c. upon 
 a toilet-table, is seen in Plate XXV. figs. 3 and 4. Fig. 2 is a metallic purse for coins and jewels, 
 from an Egyptian monument. This plate also shows various forms of the head-dress. 
 
 Cf. R. A. BCttiger, Sabina, oder Morgenscenen im Putzzimmer eiiaer reichen Rbmerirm. Leipz^ 1806. 2 th. 8.—Nadal, Luxe des 
 
 dames Romaines, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. iv. p. 227. — Becker, Gallus. On rings and their use, J. Kirchmann, De Annulis. 
 
 Lug. Bat. 1672. 12.— P. Burmann, De Jure Annulorum. TJltraj. 1734. — C. Bartholinus, De Inauribus Veterurn. Amst. 1676. 12. 
 
 3. The following passage, from a letter by a traveler visiting Naples and Pompeii, may be 
 pertinent here. " What is admirable to us, barbarians of the nineteenth century, is the exquisite 
 delicacy of shape of all the utensils which served in Roman domestic life. One must see those 
 candelebras, lamps, vases of all sizes, those charming little bronze calefactors (for every thing 
 was of bronze), those tripods, scales, beds, chairs, those graceful and so ingeniously wrought 
 shields, which fill up whole rooms at the Naples Museum. One must, above all, see the toilet 
 arsenal of the Roman ladies, their combs, toothpicks, curling-irons, and the pots of vegetable and 
 mineral rouge found in a boudoir. Thus the Roman ladies used rouge and deceived people; 
 they wore, like our ladies, those necklaces, rings, and ridiculous ear-rings, which add nothing 
 to beauty and diminish not ugliness. How times resemble one another, in spite of the space that 
 separates them !" 
 
 § 339. It remains yet to mention some of the more remarkable features in the 
 funeral customs of the Romans. The dying received from their relatives and 
 friends present the last tokens of love by embraces and kisses. As soon as they 
 were dead, the nearest relatives closed their eyes and mouth, and drew the rings 
 from their fingers. The corpse was then washed in hot water, and anointed by 
 the slaves (pollinctores) of the person taking charge of funerals (libilinarius). 
 It was then covered with clothing suitable to the rank of the deceased, which, 
 like that of the mourners, sometimes (cf. § 340. 4) was white. Such as had 
 been distinguished by a victory weje adorned with a crown of palm leaf. The 
 corpse was then brought into the vestibulum of the house, placed on a bier, and 
 there left for some days. This exposure was termed collocatio, and the couch 
 or bier, kctus feralis. During the time of this exposure, there were frequent and 
 loud outcries (conclamatio), accompanied by the strongest expressions of grief 
 and sorrow. A branch of cypress or pine was usually fixed before the door of 
 the house. — Children and youth of both sexes were interred by night, with 
 lighted torches, without attendants; but adults, on the other hand, by day, and 
 with more or less ceremony according to their rank. 
 
 Claude de Ouichard, On the Funerals of the Ancients. Rom. 1600. 4.—/. Kirchmann, De Funeribus Romanorum (Libri iv. 
 Lub. 1672. 12. 
 
 § 340. Among the Romans, both interring and burning were practiced from 
 the earliest times. The ceremonies connected with the funeral (elatio, exequiae) 
 were the following, chiefly. The funeral of a distinguished person was pre- 
 viously announced in the city by a herald, and therefore called funus indtctivum, 
 and, if the expenses were defrayed by the city, funus publicum. In the proces- 
 sion, the musicians (cornicines, tibicines) and women hired as mourners (prssftcas) 
 advanced first, uttering lamentations and singing the funeral songs (lessus, nsenise, 
 cf. P. V. § 333 b) ; then came those who bore the images of the ancestors ; next 
 the relatives, all in black, with other indications of grief; then followed playars, 
 mimics, and dancers (ludii, histriones), one of them (archimimus) imitating the 
 words and actions of the deceased, and others quoting pertinent passages from 
 dramatic writings; after them followed the corpse, carried by bearers; *u»d 
 lastly, a train, frequently very numerous, of both sexes. 
 
 1 u. The corpse was borne in a couch (lectica) on the shoulders, usually by the fr<*ed' 
 men of the deceased, butoften, in case of high rank, by senators and the most &>- 
 tinguished citizens. In the case of the poorer and lower classes, the corpse was b irae 
 on a small bier (sandapila), by ordinary coffin-bearers (vespillones, sandapilarii). 
 
PLATE XXXV. 
 
302 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 The rich and noble among the Greeks and Romans were exposed, and carried to their burial, 
 on elegant and costly couches, sometimes made of ivory, and gilded with gold; designated by 
 the name of feretrum or capulum. That of Herod is said to have been all of gold, and inlaid with 
 precious stones. In our Plate XVIII. tig. e, we have a funeral couch, which will illustrate these 
 remarks ; it is given by Roberts as used now in India. The Jews seem to have used sometimes 
 for a bier the vop6<; or coffin (cf. Luke vii. 14); yet the Septuagint has the word /cAiVjj, or couch, 
 for the bier of Abner (cf. 2 Sam. iii. 31). 
 
 2 u. The procession, when formally conducted, passed through the forum, where, 
 if the deceased had been a person of distinction, the body was laid before the place 
 of harangue {rostra), and a eulogy (laudatio) was delivered by some relative or friend, 
 or a magistrate, sometimes by appointment of the senate. 
 
 One is struck with the difference between Roman and Egyptian customs. The Egyptians 
 brought the deceased to a trial, instead of a eulogy. Cf. P. II. j 34. 3. 
 
 3. Women were sometimes, honored with the funeral eulogy as well as men. For 
 example, Junta, the sister of Brutus and widow of Cassius, received the honor of a 
 public funeral and a panegyric spoken from the rostrum. The images of not less than 
 twenty illustrious families were seen in the procession ; viginti clarissimarum familia- 
 rum imagines anielalaz sunt. (Tac. Ann. iii. 76.) — The images of ancestors, which 
 were thus used at funerals, were the busts which the higher class of Romans kept in 
 their halls (cf. P. IV. $ 164). 
 
 In Jlnthon's Horace, in a note on Sat. I. vi. 17, is the following remark : " One particular rela- 
 tive to the mode in which these images were exhibited, deserves attention. They were not car- 
 ried before the deceased at funerals, as Dr. Jidam (Rom. Ant.) states, but actors were employed 
 to personate the individual ancestors, and these busts or images formed a part of the disguise." 
 On this topic, however, consult Polybius. vi. 51, 52. — Cicero, pro Mil. 13- — Dion Cassius, Ivi. 134. 
 — Pliny, Hist. Nat. xxxv. 2. — Suetonius, Vesp. 19. 
 
 4. " As to the mourning habits, it has been already observed, that the senators some- 
 times on these occasions went attired like knights, the magistrates like senators, &c, 
 and that the common wear for mourners was black. But we may further remark, that 
 though this was the ordinary color to express their grief, used alike by both sexes ; yet 
 after the establishment of the empire when abundance of party colors came in fashion, 
 the old primitive white grew so much into contempt, that at last it became proper to 
 the women for their mourning clothes. — The matter of fact is evident from the autho- 
 rity of Plutarch, who states this as the subject of one of his problems [or Questions, 
 cf. P. V. § 249. 2] , and gives several reasons for the practice." Kennett. 
 
 § 341. The place of burning, as also of interring, was without the city. In 
 case of the former, the procession finds the funeral pile (rogus, pyra) already 
 prepared, its height being in proportion to the rank and wealth of the deceased. 
 Upon this they lay the corpse, having sprinkled it over with spices or anointed 
 it with oil; it is then kindled with a torch by the nearest relatives, who do it 
 with averted face (aversi). Weapons, garments, and other articles possessed 
 by the deceased, were thrown upon the pile: also various things which were 
 presented as offerings to the dead (munera, dona). When the whole was con- 
 sumed, the embers were quenched with wine; then followed the collecting of 
 the bones (ossilegium) ; these were placed in an urn (feralis urna) of clay, stone, 
 or metals, along with some of the ashes, also spices and perfumes, and some- 
 times a small phial of tears (lachrymss) ; and the urn was solemnly deposited 
 in the earth {tumulus) or a tomb (sepulchrum, conditorium, cinerarium). 
 
 1 v.. Corpses that were not to be burned, but merely interred, which was altogether 
 the most common practice among the Romans, were placed in a marble coffin called 
 area or sarcophagus. — The erection of monuments to the dead (monumenta) was a very 
 common, almost universal practice. They were not always raised over the spot of 
 burial. 
 
 2. Over the grave of one buried in the ground, it was customary to raise at least a 
 mound of earth (tumulus). When a monumental structure was erected, it usually 
 received an inscription (titulus, epitaphium) with the name of the deceased, and some- 
 thing of his life and character. In the sepulchral monument, part of which is given in 
 our Plate XXXVI. the square pannel, seen between the representations of the Dii 
 Manes, was occupied by an inscription. Sometimes a bust of the deceased was at- 
 tached to the monument. Columns or pillars, particularly small cippi, for sepulchral 
 inscriptions, appear to have been common among the Romans, as well as the Greeks 
 (cf. § 187). Sometimes an inscription was put on the coffin, when the body was buried 
 in the earth ; and when the body was burned an inscription was placed on the urn con- 
 taining the bones ; the inscription usually began, as on the urns preserved in the British 
 Museum, with the letters D. M. or D. M. S., i. e. Diis Manibus Sacrum. — Monuments 
 not on the spot of burial (tumuli inanes or cenotaphia) were erected among the Romans 
 for the same reasons as among the Greeks. 
 
 3. There were public and private places of burial. The public were commonly in 
 
xxx. t\. 
 
P. III. DOMESTIC AFFAIRS. TOMBS. 303 
 
 the Campus Martius or Campus Esquilinus, for great men, on whom the honor of such 
 a burial-place was conferred by vote of the senate. Those for the poor were without 
 the Esquiline gate, and called puliculae. The private burial-places were usually in 
 gardens or fields near the highways; the sides of some of the roads leading to Rome 
 were occupied by tombs for the distance of miles from the gates of the city. 
 
 4. One of the streets discovered at Pompeii is called the street of the tombs. The family tomb 
 of Naevoleia Tyche, excavated here, may be considered a fair representation of such structures 
 among the Romans generally. "It consists of a square building, containing a small chamber, by 
 the side of which is a door giving admission to a small court surrounded by a high wall. The 
 entrance to the chamber is at the back. From the level of the outer wall there rise two steps, 
 supporting a marble cippus richly ornamented. Its front is occupied by a bas-relief and inscrip- 
 tion. — A sort of solid bench for the reception of urns runs round the funeral chamber, and seve- 
 ral niches for the same purpose are hollowed in the wall, called columbaria from their resemblance 
 to the holes of a pigeon-house. Some lamps were found here, and many urns, three of glass, 
 the rest of common earth. The glass urns were of large size, one of them fifteen inches in height 
 by ten in diameter, and were protected by leaden cases. They contained burnt bones, and a 
 liquid which has been analyzed and found to consist of mingled water, wine, and oil. This 
 liquid, there can be little doubt, was the libation poured upon the ashes." — In 1780, the beautiful 
 antique called the Sarcophagus of Scipio, preserved in the Museum Pio-Clementinum, was found 
 in a tomb near the Appian Way. It is of the stone calli'd peperino or "lapis Jilbanus, a volcanic 
 production found near the lake of Albano." Visconti, in describing it, says, "est du peperin le 
 plus compact, et a douze palmes de long, sur six de haut et cinq de large." The inscription on it 
 is given under the head of Roman inscriptions; see P. IV. $ 133.2. A bust with a corona on the 
 nead was found in the same tomb. 
 
 5. Common tombs are said to Rave been usually built under ground, and called 
 hypogaa. Such are those discovered at Voleterrse and other places in ancient Etruria. 
 Cf. P. IV. § 173. 3. "Many of the hypogaea of Tarquinia, in Etruria, are similar to 
 those found in Egypt, containing a number of rooms and corridors branching out in 
 various directions ; and when the rooms are of a large size, the roof is supported by 
 square pillars. The walls of many are coated with stucco and ornamented with paint- 
 ings, representing, sometimes the arrival of the soul in Hades, and the punishments in- 
 flicted on the guilty ; but, in general, mythological, heroic, and civil subjects." 
 
 For an account of the discovery of various tombs in Etruria in 1829, see Chevalier Kestner, in the Annali delV Institute di Car* 
 respondenza Archelogxca. Rom. 1S29. vol. 1st, p. 101. — Cf. /. Millingen, as cited P. IV. § 173. 3, and other references there given. 
 
 6. Roman sepulchers have been found in England, containing urns with ashes and sarcophagi 
 with skeletons. (Stuart's Diet, of Architecture.) — A Roman burial-place was called, in the later 
 times, Ustrinum, or Ustrina, from the circumstance of burning the corpse. One of these burial- 
 places was discovered in 1821, at Littington ; many sepulchral vessels were collected, which are 
 said to be preserved in the library of Clare Hall, at Cambridge. — In the parish of Ashdon, in 
 Essex county, are several artificial sepulchral mounds, known by the name of Bartlow Hills. 
 Many have supposed them to have been cast up after a battle with the Danes. They are eight 
 in number ; four larger ones in a line, and four smaller ones in a line in their front. The smaller 
 ones were opened in 1832, and relics were found which seem clearly to prove them of Roman 
 origin. In one, was found a remarkable brick sepnlcher or coffin, six feet and three inches long, 
 two feet three and a half inches wide, and one foot and eleven inches high. There were, in this 
 brick coffin or chest, three glass vessels. One of them was a sort of urn, eleven and a half inches 
 high, and ten and a quarter inches in diameter, with a reeded handle; it was nearly two-thirds 
 full of a clear pale yellow liquor, covering a deposit of burnt human bones; on the top of the 
 bones was seen lying a gold ring, which was found to be a signet-ring having a carnelian intaglio, 
 with the device of two bearded ears of corn. Afterwards, on examination of the contents of the 
 urn, a brass coin was found, very much corroded, bearing the head of the emperor Hadrian on 
 the obverse, and on the reverse a figure supposed to be that of Fortuna Redux. A representa- 
 tion of the brick coffin, with the vessels in it as they were found, is given in our Plate XVIII. 
 fig. h h. One of the larger mounds was opened in April, 1835. An urn like the one above de 
 scribed, with bones, was found; also other similar vessels, two bronze strigiles, and other 
 articles. A bronze vase, with colored enamels, was among the most remarkable. 
 
 See P. IV. § !73. 2.— Archseologia (as cited P. IV. § 32. 5), vol. xxv. p. 1. vol. xxvi. p. 300, 368, with engravings. 
 
 7. The phials, or small vessels, which are supposed to have received the tears of relatives shed 
 at funerals, have been found in great number, and of various forms. They are termed lachry- 
 matories (urnce lachrymales). The tears are said to have been kneaded and compounded with 
 odoriferous balsams. It has also been supposed that the vessels might have contained merely a 
 preparation of fragrant essences, which were figuratively called tears. The lachrymatories found 
 in the ancient tombs are sometimes of terra cotta, sometimes of alabaster (cf. P. IV. J 195. 5), fre- 
 quently of gla^s (cf. $ 268. 4). Many of the latter material have been gathered from the cata- 
 combs in the island Milo, the ancient Melos, one of the Cyclades. Several forms of lachryma- 
 tories and vasa unguentaria are given in our Plate XVIII. fig. a, and fig. d d. 
 
 See Mem. de VInstilut, C 1 a s s e d'Bist. et Lit. Jlnc. vol. vii. p. 92. sur vases lachrymatoires. On the vessels found at Milo, 
 
 see § 186. I. 
 
 8. It has been mentioned (cf. } 187. 4) that the Christians under the pagan emperors of Rome 
 usually deposited their dead in subterranean excavations. "Among the monuments of Christian 
 antiquity, none are more singular than these abodes of the dead ; and one feels at a loss whether 
 most to admire their prodigious extent, the laborious industry that provided them, or the inte- 
 resting recollections with which they are associated. Like the Moorish caves in Spain, they 
 were generally excavated at the base of a lonely hill, and the entrance was so carefully con- 
 cealed that no aperture appeared, and no traces were discernible, except by an experienced eye, 
 of the ground having been penetrated, and of the vast dungeons that had been hollowed out 
 underneath. . . . One was discovered about three miles from Rome so late as the end of the 
 sixteenth century, the size and various apartments of which excited universal astonishment, 
 
304 ROMAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 Numbers still remain, bearing the names of their respective founders, and affording by their 
 inscriptions and the monuments of antiquity found in them, the most satisfactory proofs of their 
 having been used as hiding-places by the Christians." (Coleman's Christian Antiquities, p. 421.) 
 
 § 342. A period of mourning was observed in memory of the deceased ; its 
 duration in each particular case was fixed by law ; in the case of widows it 
 continued ten months. In the time of the emperors, a general mourning (Indus 
 publicus) was appointed at their decease or that of their sons; a thing previously 
 not practiced, except on occasions of great public calamity. — Immediately after 
 the funeral obsequies, it was also customary to slay the victims (called inferiae) 
 offered in sacrifice to the departed, and to connect therewith a solemn funeral 
 repast (silicernium). 
 
 " Among the tombs at Pompeii there is a funeral triclinium for the celebration of these feasts. 
 It is open to the sky, and the walls are ornamented by paintings of animals in the center of the 
 compartments, which have borders of flowers. The triclinium is made of stone with a pedestal 
 in the center to receive the table." A view of it from Mazois is given in Smith's Diet, of Anti- 
 quities. 
 
 1 u. When the deceased was of distinguished character, this repast or entertainment 
 was publicly given, and meat was sometimes distributed among the people {visceralio). 
 These funeral sacrifices were annually repeated at the graves or spot of interment. On 
 such occasions, public games (ludi funebres) were appointed, especially gladiatorial 
 sports. 
 
 2. Gladiatorial shows probably had their origin, as has been observed (§ 235), in 
 funeral celebrations. And, although they were exhibited on many other occasions, 
 "yet the primitive custom of presenting them at the funerals of great men, all along 
 prevailed in the city and Roman provinces ; nor was it confined only to persons of 
 quality, but almost every rich man was honored with this solemnity after his death ; 
 and this they very commonly provided for in their wills, defining the number of gladia- 
 tors as their due by long custom. Suetonius to this purpose tells us of a funeral, in 
 which the common people extorted money by force from the deceased person's heirs, 
 to be expended on this account." (Kennetl.) 
 
 3. A very vivid picture of the funeral sacrifices and games annually repeated at the graves of 
 the deceased is given by Virgil in the fifth book of the iEneid, where he describes the honors 
 rendered by iEneas to the manes of his father Anchises. He mentions particularly a contest in 
 rowing galleys, a foot-race, a boxing-match, a trial of skill in shooting arrows, and a mock eques- 
 trian battle (pugnts simulacra). — Cf. $ 187. 
 
 $ 343 1. The greatest funeral solemnity among the Romans was the deification (conse- 
 cratio) of the emperors, something like the apotheosis of Grecian heroes. It took 
 place in the Campus Martius, where the image of the person to be deified was placed 
 upon a lofty funeral pile. From this pile, whenever it was set on fire, an eagle, pre- 
 viously bound alive upon it, flew aloft in the air; which, according to the ideas of the 
 people, bore the soul to Olympus. The deified person then received the surname or 
 appellation Divus. This solemnity was accompanied also with religious rites, public 
 games and banquets. The custom did not entirely cease under the first Christian em- 
 perors. This ceremony was wholly distinct from the funeral. The true body was 
 burned and the ashes buried in the usual manner and with a splendid show, before 
 these rites were performed with the image of wax. 
 
 The whole ceremony is well described by Berodian (cf. P. V. § 254), in the fourth book of his History. — Cf. Mencken, Disputati i 
 4fi Consecratione.— Schcepflin, Tractatus de Apotheosi. Argent 1730. 
 
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 
 
 ' A0a.p(5dKzwra, 190 
 'APcfaXot, ]63 
 'AyaBotpyoi, 190 
 'AydXporo, 147, 222 
 'AyiXai, 189, 192 
 ' AytXdaToi, 192 
 'AyeMrris, 192 
 AyKoiva, 202 
 'Aynvpa, 200 
 'AyXai'o, 127 
 'Ay*«r/ioi, 147, 163 
 'Ayopui, 17, 32, 33, 
 
 36, 183 
 'Ayopaios, 109 
 'AypioJvia, 168 
 'Ayporepa, 102 
 'Ayxtya-XOL, 156 
 'Ay%io-7£c'a, 220 
 'Ayeoy;?, 189 
 'Aya>J/ briraQids, 174 ; 
 
 eiavSpias, 171 
 AytSvEj lepot 173 
 'Aycji/icrrai, 175 
 'Aywi'oM-ai, 175 
 'AycovoOzrris, 171 
 'AdSr/payta, 119 
 "A&Sif, 214 
 "A<5 W , 99, 100, 221 
 'Advvarot, 183, 199 
 'Aduroi/ 160 
 'MAvia, 168, 169 
 'AStovicurnds, 169 
 A<Wi<5<a, 169 
 'Atiairoi, 187 
 AEnpuyi'a, 187 
 'Aflijwi, 104 
 'A0rjvai, 28 
 'A0)ji>oia, 171 
 'A9i;^,'28 
 'AS\r,Tal, 175 • 
 'Ad\o6sT<u, 175 
 'A0Xo*, 172 
 AiyriVki, 188 
 Aiyioxof, 104 
 Aiyfe, 104 
 Aldmp, 204 
 ATkXov, 190 
 Alviypara, 207 
 Ai'oXoj, 113, 116 
 Alperoi, 180 
 'Airai, 220 
 AlrnTiKa, 163 
 AiVio, 185 
 Ai^aXajToj, 159, 199 
 Aixpv, 153 
 Aiupa', 176 
 'Axdrtov, 202 
 'AKajTopiSat, 162 
 'Axcorrpa, 218 
 'A/ava/oV, 196 
 
 39 
 
 , AKjiO}v, 108 
 
 'AKp6d£TOV } 108 
 
 'Akovtiov, 153 
 'Akovtwis, 173 
 'Axpdrio-pa, 204 
 
 'AKpofloklOTOU, 194 
 
 'AKpodivia, 149, 199 
 ' AxpoKspaia, 202 
 'AxpSvia, 200, 204 
 'A«-po7roX(f, 29 
 'Ax-poo-rdXia, 200 
 'AKpoyrfipia., 204 
 'AKraia, 178 
 'Aicri?, 28 
 'Afcto/fq, 153 
 "Axwv, 153 
 'AXaXaypo;, 198 
 ' A\dppara, 210 
 'AAsHirai, 210 
 'AXErarrjptoi/, 210 
 AXeicrpvopavreia, 168 
 AXE^rrjpta, 153 
 'AXeJikcocos-, 101 
 "AXej dpvKTol, 262 
 'AXEupopas/ma, 167 
 'AXii/Jijo-iff, 173 
 "AXpa, 172 
 "AXj &roj, 207 
 
 'AXri?f*y, 172 
 'AXiJrot, 173 
 'AXurdpvjj, 173 
 'AXwa, 112, 168 
 'Apay5y£y, 131 
 "Apjref, 208 " ■ 
 'Aprpi$\ri<rTpov, 158 
 'Apipiyvrisis, 107 
 'AptyiKrvovia, 183 
 'ApipiKrooviKa a9\a t 174 
 'Apipnnroi, 194 
 
 Aptpitrpvpvoi, 200 
 'Ap^opevg, 213, 214 
 Ai/a/?a9pd ? , 210 
 'Avd/3 arris, 172 
 'Ayay/rtuoi/, 187 
 
 Avaovopkvrj, 106 
 ' ' AvaOf]para, 148 
 'Av&kciov, 31 
 'AvokXimwoXt;, 173 
 'Av&Kpiats, 181 
 'Ai/afupife, 209 
 'Avau/iaxoi, 204 
 'Ai/^paTro&KUTTfjXoi, 180 
 'Avipdirolov, 159 
 'AwJpEia, 192 
 ' Av&pokrppia, 186 
 'AvSpavirts, 210 
 'Avepoi, 128 
 'AvetpiaSovs, 220 
 'Aveif/i6s, 220 
 'AvOcarrjpia, 168, 169 
 'Avdiarripioiv, 61 
 
 'Ai>0paV:o, 212 
 "AvoSos, 171 
 
 'AlTSpWJ, 106 
 
 'Avr<ypa<p£(V, 182 
 'AvrAia, 200 
 'Avrpa, 162 
 "Airuf, 194 
 ' Avrtapoaia, 185 
 [AfiVij, 196 
 'A7ray(oyj;, 186 
 'A7rarovp<a, 168 
 'ATraxiXia, 220 
 'A7r*yXtcori7£, 128 
 'Ant, 123 
 'Anofiddpat, 202 " 
 'AirodsKTCU, 182, 212 
 ' Airo?svrr)piov , 209 
 'A™0£rO(, 189 
 'Am>icfipvj-is t 220 
 Affd/fXTjrot, 193 
 'ArroppaJ-i;, 216 
 'A7rof£OCio-pdf, 198 
 ' Airorponoi, 136 
 'Airoiprjrai, 164 
 'Ap,3v\ai, 208 
 'Apl3v\r), 208 
 'Apyei<p6»Tris, 109 
 'ApyvpTns, 182 
 'Apyvpoxcmetov, 213 
 'Ap&dviov, 221 
 'ApsKwayn-ai, 184 
 'ApEiwrayoy, 184 
 *Ap W| 105 
 'Apfjreipai, 162 
 "Apurrov, 204 
 'ApKreia, 220 
 'Appa, 172, 220 
 "Appsva, 202 
 'Apitcvurral, 202 
 'AppoviKr), 216 
 'Appotrrat, 190 
 ' Appoovvoi, 190 
 'Aporpov, 212 
 'Apovpa, 214 
 "Apn-ayEj, 203 
 'Ap-irao-rov, 216 
 "Apirvtai, 128 
 ''Appa, 220 
 'Appafiiov, 220 
 "Aprefus, 101, 114 
 'Aprkpov, 202 
 "Apruvoi, 193 
 'Apxaycrai, 189 
 'Apxeia, 190 
 'ApXErov, 160 
 'Apxitpciai, 162 
 'Apxtspeis, 162 
 'Apxitpuavvri, 162 
 'ApXtOeojpos, 172 
 'ApxiKvfiepvnrris, 203 
 'ApxireXwyj/s, 262 
 
 2c2 
 
 'ApXirpf/cXiyoj, 206 
 'ApXpvrEs, 180 
 'AaavSiov, 200 I 
 
 'Aoiffeia, 186 
 'Aortas, 216 
 'AoKapov, 217 
 Atr/cauXof, 217 
 'Ao-Kospa, 200 
 "Aom&a, £/r', 197 
 |A<nri ? , 153, 194 
 1 Acrrsponrirtls , 95 
 AarparEuroi, 199 
 'Aovufiokoi, 206 
 'Ao-<pd\ios, 98 
 'AreXeia, 178, 187 
 'Anp.ro, 186, 191,204 
 "Aripoi, 187 
 'Arpowog, 128 
 AiyouoraXia, 246 
 AiXij, 210 
 Aprils, 217 
 AvXrirpts, 217 
 
 AtiXdy, 172, 216 
 'Aiini, 198 
 AvrOKpdroip, 190 
 Airoporia, 119 
 AiropdXoi, 199 
 Airdx0UJ', 178 
 Avroxpla, 170 
 'AfiapioJrai, 192 
 "Atpeais, 172 
 'Afhai, 189 
 "A<p\aora, 200 
 ' A(ppo&iaia, 168 
 'A<ppo8irri, 105 
 'Aipoppobs, 3 
 
 B 
 
 Boirr;, 209 
 BdK%«', 162 
 B<ur%Eta, 169 
 Bd/f^of, 109 
 BaX^iy, 172 
 Ba7rricrri]p!0^, 210 
 ~Bdpa8pov, 187 
 Bapv(3pop.os, 217 
 Bdcrai/Of, 180 
 Bao-tXEr;, 150 
 Bo(7iX£5f,170,181,207 
 Bao-Kavia, 168, 240 
 Barirp, 172 
 Bau, 214 
 BaipEroi/, 264 
 BsffnXoi, 163 
 BsiAaiot, 190 
 
 BElEXoiTEf, 19 
 
 BeX^, 153 
 BeXopavrda, 167 
 Bi;0£<r<5a, 52 
 Bijpa, 33 
 Bijpara, 186 
 
 305 
 
306 
 
 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 
 
 BXavrai, 2.08 
 Bortlpopiav, 60 
 Bdfyo?, 149 
 Boiorapxai, 192. 
 BoXij, 202 
 Bfy/?o ? , 168 
 BojxBuI, 298 
 Bopsa;, 128 
 Borpvg, 212 
 BoCat, 189 
 BoMtcu, 163 
 BouXeioj/, 33, 184 
 
 BovXsuqig, 186 
 BooXjurai, 177 
 Boi)X£urJjpia, 32 
 Bovkzvrfipiov, 184 
 BouXi), 177, 184 
 Bov S , 213 
 BpafeTov, 172 
 Bpavp-jjvia, 168 
 Bpovmoi/, 176 
 Bpovr^rOf, 167 
 Bj3d\0!, 158 
 
 Bpd.xoj, 187, 191 
 Bup<ra, 57 
 Bwioj, 166 
 Bcopol, 148, 160 
 Bo>p:d;, 7w d.oSsKa, 87 
 
 raXoxTo'oTroy^a, 147 
 FapriXia, 96 
 ra/itjXiaiv, 61 
 TafoiXiOi Seoi, 220 
 Tapes, 206, 218, 220 
 Taarpa, 200 
 Tdarpr,, 167 
 Taarpopavrsia, 167 
 TsiomoSiapaTa, 210 
 rswaria, 222 
 r^ij, 177, 189 
 Tepavo;, 176 
 Tspdaxrai, 188 
 Ttpowfa, 190, 192 
 rep'/W, 196, 198 
 rsp&m'a, 190 
 Tapvpa, 200 
 Tecopopm, 192 
 Hya;, 125 
 Ti'yypa, 217 
 riyypavru, 169 
 Tiyypair^df, 169 
 Yiyypos, 169 
 Tiyypiai, 169 
 rXa'VKOTriy, 105 
 rXafif, 213 
 rXeSraj, 204 
 Tvaysvs, 264 
 IVifruH, 220 
 Tvfiviog, 162 
 rVu0i asavrov, 165 
 
 rvoi^coi/, 60 
 
 roi/wrereiV, 147 
 Topydi/jf, 130 
 Topyoviov, 131 
 Topyiipa, 187 
 Tpaimi, 141 
 tpapparevs, 181, 182, 
 193 
 
 l>0i;, 186 
 
 rpi^ot, 207 
 
 Tpvijy, 132 
 
 IHiiK, 2>12 
 r<i0etoi/, 38 
 TvXiov, 154 
 Tvpvaariapxia, 182 
 riy^atn-ite, 175 
 rwaocEibv, 159 
 rwa(«-a)i/, 159, 210 
 
 AaSovxos, 170 
 Aof/zowf, 129 
 Aaipov6\y]TTTOi, 167 
 Aoirpdf, 207 
 A&ktvXov alps, 173 
 AaxruXof, 214 
 AavaKri, 221 
 Aa<pvr], 163 
 Aa<pvt}'p6pia, 168 
 A£(Xr/, 59 
 AetXii/dv, 204 
 Asitti/oi;, 204 
 AcKaJapxoi, 196 
 AE/cacWxot, 177 
 Askos, 191 
 AjK-ao-fioj, 186 
 AcKOTSVTripiov, 182 
 Aottt), 182 
 
 AEKtXIpBlVOl, 60 
 
 AtXi^iv, 203 
 Atfioj, 167 
 Aara?, 207 
 Acpfio, 199 
 Aec^o;, 187 
 AeapOTrjpiov, 187 
 A£(77ro(noj'a'i)Tai, 189 
 Aexfipcpa, 61 
 Ai/Xia, 168 
 At'ipapxoi, 181 
 &r,p.rjrrip, 110, 112 
 Arjpfirpia, 168 
 Aiiprjrpihs, 61 
 Aiipio-rrpara. 182 - 
 A?7/<ioupyoi, 193 
 AiJ/ioi, 177, 178 
 Anpoaioi, 180, 181 
 Ajjw, 112 
 Aiafiadpa, 208 
 AiaypatpEis , 182 
 Aidd^a, 150 
 A«ii5d?£<j, 183 
 A(o9>7/07, 221 
 Aiacnjrai, 186 
 Aia/crcop, 109 
 AiaXXaKrfjpiot., 186 
 Aiai/Oji/ai, 183 
 Aiapxi?, 190 
 AiauXfSpdjUOi, 172 
 AiauXoj, 172 
 Ai<5paxp.oi/, 213 
 At6vpap/3os, 109 
 AtiVoXsia, 168 
 Aucai, 186 
 AiKaia, 221 
 Ai/cai/iKOt Xdyoi, 204 
 Auracrrai, 185 
 
 AlKdtTTl'iptOV, 185 
 
 A«ij| 117, 127, 180, 
 186 
 
 Ai/epora, 154 
 A'lKrva, 158 
 Aipid^ai, 194 
 Aioi/vo-ia, 168, 169 
 Aidvvaog, 109 
 Ai07r£rr7, 160 
 Aioaripua, 167 
 Atoowupia, 136 
 AidaKOvpoi, 135 
 AmXiKnacr/wj, 197 
 AnruXoi/, 28 
 Ataxa;, 173 
 AupQcpai, 209 
 
 A%w?, 153, 157 
 Ai'ppotpopoi, 172 
 Auo0o\ia, 183 
 
 AlWK'tOl', 185 
 
 Aiw^oiTia, 184, 185 
 Aiufij, 185 
 Akott/, 213 
 AoKipaaia, 181 
 AdXio;, 109 
 AdXiXOf, 172 
 
 AdX&w, 202 
 
 Aopidf, 170 
 Adpara, 203 
 Aoparoipdpoi, 194 
 Adpm><r, 204 
 Adpu, 153 ; fVt, 197 
 
 AopuuXcoroi, 199 
 AouXa'a, 187 
 AoOXoi, 159, 180, 207 
 AovpoSoxri, 153 
 Apatyii), 184, 213 
 ApsnavrjipSpoi, 194 
 Apbravov, 203 
 Apd^o?, 172 
 
 Apt)£f /JLCLVTlKal, 164 
 
 Avpavarai, 188 
 AvwSeKaSpopoi, 172 
 Awopoi, 172 
 Awfaa -&EOI, 87 
 Acodwi/al'oi' xaXxsioi', 
 
 165 
 AtocWaib?, 95 
 Awpa, 148, 207 
 AcopoioKia, 186 
 
 E 
 
 "Ey/cXr;p:a, 185 
 'Eymi'Xia, 200 
 "EyKoixffojta, 209 
 'EyKOifitcUTTiKoi, 204 
 'E-yxEipi'Aov, 196 
 "Ey%oj, 153 
 'Eiioha, 200 
 '■E0£<pa, 208 
 "EBvr,, 177 
 EiVaj, 61 
 E6w3» > 187 
 
 ~E!\amvrj, 204 
 EtXEifluio, 102 
 Ei'X(OT£ ? , 189 
 El'/na, 209 
 Ei'p£i/£j, 189 
 YJpnvr,, 117,127, 197 
 EiVayy£Xia, 186 
 Eif (pzpovTts, 182 
 "Eiacpopal, 182 
 "EmT6p(3aia, 168 
 
 ''EKaTOppaiuiv, 60 
 "EKaTOftpr;, 147 
 'EKardjtt/?«ia, 96 
 'EK'ardpjTO^oi', 29 
 'Eraroi/rapxia, 196 
 "Evyoi/ot, 220 
 'FkyWt«j, 117 
 "Em7/?6Xoj, 101 
 'E«f(tX>7(rtai, 183, 190 
 'TSiKKOjiiir}, 221 
 'E>cXoy£r;, 182, 185 
 'EKoran/cot, 167 
 "E«ra«TOi, 196 
 'FjKipopa, 221 
 'EXai'(jf arsipavog, 191 
 ''EXato;, 212 
 'EXaido-n-o^a, 147 
 'EXat/oj/Jo'Xia, 61 
 'EXa(p^/?oX(a)i', 61 
 'EXettoXij, 198 
 'EXsuati/ia, 168, 169 
 "EX»c£j, 208 
 'BWawitKai, 173, 175 
 'EXX»;ra(5(«-aro)/, 174 
 'EXXiji/coy o-tivlclpiov, 183 
 'EXXd^m, 208 
 "EXu//a, 212 
 "EXuuoj, 217 
 'Epfffc; 176 
 'Ep/3a-ai, 208 
 'EpPania, 220 
 'Epfiarfipiov, 198 
 'EpffoM, 198 
 *Ep0o\ov, 196, 200 
 'YjpiriXwpoi, 190 
 Epirvsvora, 216 
 'Ei/dyia/ja, 149 
 'Evayio-fioro, 222 
 "Evapa, 199 
 "Evfcfif, 186 
 "Ei/faa, 181, 185 
 'Ei/0oi)<r((wrai, 167 
 'EvvaEr^pij, 174 
 "Ewara, 222 
 'EvvatpQivoi, 60 
 'Ew£d:ri)Xoi', 29 
 'Ei/ EtpDravEia), 185 
 'Evtim'ioi', 167 
 'Ej/uo), 105, 119 
 
 'ElKPptOLTTOT , 185 
 
 'Evto/^oria, 197 
 'Evcona, 208 
 'EfsXiy/iSs, 197 
 'E^Taorui, 180 
 "E^/?oi, 189 
 'EfwXai/ioi, 107 
 'E{copig, 209 
 'EjrdHcXoi;, 190 
 'ETraXfEtf, 198 
 'ETaiXia, 220 
 'E7rdJi'a/croi, 189 
 'E7n/?d0pai, 198, 202 
 'Eki/I&tcu, 202 
 'Eiriyovoi, 136 
 'Emypappara, 199 
 'ETrtypafjfiai, 222 
 'ETiypa0£r;, 182 
 
 'ETTljEiTTi'a, 206 
 
 'E?rt Ae\(ptvi<p, 185 
 'Ewti5po/wj, 202 
 
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 
 
 307 
 
 'EitiOakdpaov, 220 
 
 'EirWnna, 222 
 'E7rf/cXr;po<, 220 
 'EiriKUTroi, 200, 202 
 'EmXapxia, 197 
 Em Awou, 186 
 'Empaxia, 197 
 'EffifieXifnri, 170, 174, 
 
 221 
 'EttI Mr/n'xow, 185 
 'Emopxia, 163 
 'Eirt naXXoJia), 185 
 'EiTio-stan/, 200 
 Eirteraupoj, 216 
 'EmsT&Tn;, 183, 184 
 'E/naroAEUj, 203 
 E7nraypa, 197 
 'Eititwoi, 202 
 'ETTirpoirn, 200 
 E7rfrpoTO;. 220 
 'Erro/3s\ia orEwuffeXia, 
 
 185 
 'ETTOTrrai, 170 
 'EmJupaVioi, 87 
 'ETrraXop&f, 216 
 'Erajpif, 209 
 'Emwvpot, 188 
 'E^mfe, 202 
 "Epavo;, 157, 206 
 'Eparu, 126 
 'Epyavn, 105, 119 
 'Epyaorofai, 171 
 "Epydng, 105 
 'Epsrai, 202 
 'Ep£rpoi, 202 
 'Epsrpfa, 32 
 'Epexdeig, 29 
 'Epkxduov, 29 
 'EpiVvDSf, 128 
 "Ep ls , 115 
 "Epmg, 160, 222 
 "Eppa, 200 
 "Eppaia, 168 
 "Epptzra, 208 
 'Epprjg, 108 
 'Epwrfjpsg, 189 
 'Epw;, 106 
 "Ea%a, 209 
 ■Eoxipio-pa, 204 
 'E<ma, 1.13, 212 
 'Eori'aaif, 182 
 
 'EtJTldTOpiOV, 210 
 
 'Earidrcop, 206 
 'Eo-xapa, 212 
 'Ecxapzvg, 203 
 'Eraipa, 106 
 'Eraipai, 220 
 'Er£po(xdo-\aXoi, 180 
 EuoyysXi/c^ a7rd<fei£tj, 
 
 272 
 EuOwij, 181 
 Ei)'9wot, 180 
 EipsviSng, 128, 168 
 Eup.oX7ri<5ai, 162 
 Efij/q, 200 
 Ewopfa, 117, 127 
 Evopxog, 164 
 E^poj, 128 
 Evatdm, 164 
 
 EvTCprrrr), 126 
 
 Ed^ai, 147 
 
 Eu</>poiTWi;, 127 
 'E^dpo?, 171 
 'Epea-ta, 168 
 'Epcarpis, 209 
 'E-pirai, 185 
 *E'/iu/?oi, 189, 190 
 'E^rjyiprij, 186 
 'E<pid\Tr]g, 167 
 'Fspiwiriov, 266 
 'Eipo&fa, 197 
 'E^opuoi/, 190 
 'E0opo £ , 170, 190 
 'E<pu<pfi, 218 
 'ExetXij;, 212 
 "E^ripa, 204 
 'Eaifj 59, 114 
 
 Z 
 
 ZevyTrat, 177 
 Zre ndr£p, 95 
 Zeus, 94, 95 
 Z£df orvytog, 100 
 Zr^poy, 128 
 Z^fa, 186, 191 
 Zuya, 200, 202 
 Zvyia, 96 
 ZvyXrai, 202 
 Zuyoi, 197 
 Zuydy, 196 
 Zcopdj prXay, 191 
 
 Zuvrii 153, 208 
 
 Zwrqpzg , 200 
 Zcuarpov, 209 
 
 H 
 
 'ILWari;, 202 
 'HX<a«v 185 
 'HXtowral, 181, 185 
 JHXwf, 100, 114 
 'H\iorp6mov t 60 
 'Hpap, 59 
 'Hpcpa, 114 
 'Hpfpa? apirayri, 115 
 'Hp£po<5pdpoi, 199 
 'H/ijwtov, 214 
 'HpiQtopax'ioj/, 194 
 jHWoxoj, 153 
 'H7rardo-K07rio, 167 
 "Hpa, 96 
 ,'Hpae'a, 96, 168 
 Hpi'ai TriJXat, 222 
 'Hpiov, 222 
 |Hp<ua, 222 
 'H0ai<n-«a, 168 
 "Hpaioroj, 107 
 'Hx«a, 176 
 'Hci s , 59, 114 
 
 e 
 
 OaXapirai, 202 
 OaXapoy, 220 
 OaXsia, 126, 127 
 GaXXoi, 147 
 8aX\o(p6poi, 171 
 eaj/aroj, 130, 187 
 OapyrjXiibi', 61 
 9auX&>iu<5ai, 162 
 6sai <jE[ivai, 184 
 Qkarpov, 33 
 
 Qep.t\iog, 202 
 6 pu, 117, 188 
 6EOI AAEATOI, 124 
 ©£<n ot pcyuXoi, 87 
 &so\oyeiov, 176 
 Qeopavrda, 166 
 Bsopdvrsig, 166 
 OcofEvia, 31 
 Beoirpoiroi, 164 
 Seoupyoi, 162 
 Qcpiarpiov, 209 
 ecapLodsTai, 181, 185 
 6£oyioi, 188 
 BscrpLOipopuov , 171 
 Qcapioip6pia, 112, 168, 
 
 170 
 empiiKpopog, 112, 170 
 6««i, 220 
 OttopiKa, 176, 183 
 e«opoi, 164, 174 
 6i?Kij, 222 
 Qfjaeta, 135 
 erireg, 160, 177 
 QpavXrai, 202 
 Opaz/of, 202 
 Opi7i/Of, 221 
 Op^vuf, 157 
 Qpnvwv e^apxoi, 221 
 BpiyKog, 222 
 OpMaf, 206 
 Qpi\, 208 ; 
 
 dvipairoSojiris , 180 
 Gpoi/oy, 157, 212 
 e&AXai, 128 
 Oupiapa, 163 
 Ouos, 147 
 Oiipa, 210 
 Bvpeog, 196 
 Bvpsotpopot, 194 
 eopi'ffer, 210 
 Owiai, 147 
 9«afe, 162 
 Ourat, 162 
 Qwpaiciov, 198 
 O^paJ, 153, 194 
 
 I 
 
 ''laKXog, 170 
 'IdXsuoi, 221 
 'Ljaios, 95 
 'lepa, 28, 160 
 'Ifpa <pd\ay%, 220 
 'IfpEiat, 162 
 
 IfpErov, 163 
 'lepcig, 162 
 'l£poJ«5airxaXoi, 162 
 'fcpdoouXot, 163 
 'lepopavTtia, 167 
 'Iepop.vfip.03v, 163 
 'l£poV, 117 
 'IfpoTOioi, 162, 170 
 'lEpoo-Koma, 167 
 'IfpotruXia, 186 
 
 Ispoupyoi, 162 
 
 Icpoipavrai, 162, 170 
 'lepotpuvrrig, 170 
 'l£po0ai/Ti&f, 162 
 'I)f£r£(710f, 95 
 
 "Lepra, 200 
 'IXaa^dj, 163 
 
 'IXaorwa, 163 
 "IX/7, 197 
 
 'I/tfis, 173, 199, 202, 
 208, 212 
 
 'Ipdrtov, 208 
 'Id?, 153 
 'Io,X£aipa, 102 
 'Imraypkrai, 190 
 
 Iiriraywyol, 194 
 
 hnrdpxns, 194 
 'iTnrapxi'a, 197 
 "Imrapxoi, 196 
 'Itnteiog, 98 
 
 'Wis, 153, 177, 190 
 194 
 
 'Lnrd<5po/jo?, 38 
 'lTmo\vra.a, 29 
 'l7nroro^dra[, 194 
 
 "I7I7T&)!', TO £(p J , 193 
 'IpEVES, 189 
 
 'Ipis, 115 
 "ItrSpia, 175 
 r Io-OTvpavvog, 190 
 ■Iirrta, 202 
 
 'l0T0/?O£«J, 212 
 'IoTOdOKf/, 202 
 
 larOTtoSeg, 218 
 
 'lords, 202, 218 
 Ix0uofiair£ia, 167 
 
 K 
 
 KaSi(TKog, 184 
 Kadoi, 184, 214 
 Kddog, 214 
 KaQappot, 147 
 Kadedpa, 169 
 Ka0£r»jp, 263 
 Kaiadaf, 191 
 Kamag, 128 
 KaXaftov, 170 
 KaXXid7:>7, 126 
 KaXofidrng, 244 
 KaXoi, 202 
 KdXTrcu, 221 
 KdXTOrpa, 208, 218 
 KaXaSiov, 173, 202 
 KapiyXoi, 202 
 Kap7rr»;p, 172 
 Kavr](jidput, 172 
 Kai/0apos, 207 
 Kavui/, 172 
 Ka7rvu(5dA"J7, 210 
 KaTrvouaiTEia, 167 
 Kap0a.Tivcu, 208 
 Kapxfaioi', 207 
 Kdpi/£ia, 168 
 Karaffadpog, 54 
 Kara/?X^r»c^, 173 
 Kara/?oXf), 206 
 KaTaypa<j>!], 193 
 KardXoyo;, 193 
 Kara7TfXra(, 198 
 Kara7roi/7-f<rp:ds, 187 
 KardaTatrig, 193 
 Kara^pdypara, 202 
 KardippaicTOi, 194 
 Kanyyopfai, 186 
 KaroTirpa, 209, 212 
 Karcova/cr;, 209 
 
308 
 
 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 
 
 Kawia, 208 
 Kavrrjpiov, 263 
 KsctJaj, or KaiaSas, 
 
 187, 191 • 
 KsKpomij 178 
 KEicpv<pa\o;, 208 
 Ksksvarris, 203, 282 
 
 KcXnr.es, 154, 172 
 Kevfipia, 223 
 K£j/ord</»a, 191, 223 
 Khrrims, 191 
 KEirpov, 266 
 Kspaia, 202 
 KepapsiKo;, 32 
 Kzpapkvg, 263 
 K£pd/«oi/, 214, 263 
 KEpapoy, 187 
 Ki P a s , 208, 217, 297 
 Kipara, 196, 202 
 1itpa.Ti.vri, 217 
 Kspariov, 214 
 Kspaiii/ioy, 95 
 KEpnwooraTrEroi', 176 
 KepScJog, 109 
 K£p/ci';, 218 
 Ksp/ia, 213 
 Kepovxot, 202 
 KEipaXi; idirvov, 206 
 K?j7roi 'Ad-jviJoy, 169 
 Kijpsy, 130 
 Kripop.avTe(a, 167 
 K/jpwcaov, 197 
 Kr)p\>l, KfjpDK-e;, 148, 
 
 150, 162, 170, 
 181, 197, 207 
 
 KiyitXi&y, 185 
 
 K(9dpa, 216 
 
 Kikwvos, 208 
 
 Ktp.'.ovu>v nix ;, 29 
 
 Kii/dpa, 217 
 
 Warr,, 212 
 
 K«n-o<pdpoi, 170 
 
 KXd(5<jt l/crjjpioi, 147 
 
 KXeimu, 220 
 
 KA«'j, 210 
 
 KXeiSi, 126 
 
 KXEi^foa, 185, 240 
 
 HXrjioveg, 168 
 
 KXrjpopavTsia, 167 
 
 KXripovopo;, 220 
 
 KXijpoy, 220 
 KXjjpcoroi, 180 
 KXijrfjpEy, 185 
 KXjjrfflp, 185 
 
 KXi'/zawf, 198, 210 
 
 EX&ai, 206 
 
 KXii/q, 212, 221, 302 
 
 KXfaiy, 197 
 KXkTjKOJ, 157 
 
 KXoidy, 187, 191 
 KX<o0c3, 128 
 Kj/rjfu&y, 153 
 Kviaa-ri, 148 
 KdyJ, 170 
 Kofiopwn, 208 
 K68opvo s , 176 
 Ko(Xfp./?oXov, 197 
 KotXi), 200 
 KoiXoi, 60 
 KocfirjTfipiov, 223 
 
 Koi'tt), 212 
 Koiro)i/, 210 
 Kfyuj, 208 
 Koi/roi, 202 
 KovTO<p6poi, 194 
 K<wriy, 191, 196 
 KdTTTra, 214 
 Kdpai, 208 
 Kdp,, 213 • 
 Kopar,, 208 
 Kdpi.p/?oy, 208 
 Kopvvri, 196 
 Kdpuy, 153 
 Kdcrpoi, 191 
 Konvog, 173 
 Kdrra/?uy, 207 
 KoruXq, 214 
 Kdrwrr&j, 119 
 KoSpoi, 207 
 Kd.xXoi, 198, 214 
 Ko^Xidpioi', 214 
 Kox\(ov, 214 
 Kpdwiy, 153 
 KparijpEy, 207 
 Kpanjp, 204, 207 
 liprjcjepvov, 208 
 Kp^dy, 187 
 KpijTrZ&y, 208 
 Upwk, 222 
 Kpidy, 198 
 Kpovpara, 217 
 Kpwi?, 218 
 KpoK07r£7rXoj, 115 
 KporaXov, 218 
 Kpwrrefa, 189 
 Kpt5/Moy, 208 
 Kiia0ot, 207 
 Kiiupoi, 180, 183, 206 
 KvavfyPoXoi, 200 
 Ki>/3sia, 206 
 KvfepvrjTW, 203 
 Ki'/?coTr/<ny, 175 
 KvfiiGTriTripcs, 216 
 
 KwXoy, 32, 62, 194 
 I«X,J, 207, 297 
 KSXurty, 173 
 KuXXowddijf, 107 
 Kvpf3a\a, 217 
 Kwin, 153 
 Kw?;ydy, 102 
 Kwdfffliiptf, 188 
 KvvocovpeTg , 188 
 KOVoy, 200 
 Kityajy, 187, 191 
 Kwdco*, 217 
 KcoXunvui, 167 
 Kd3p.oy, 119 
 K'oveiov, 187 
 KtoTrai, 202 
 KcomyXdrat, 202 
 KawfjpiJ, 200 
 Kwy, 187 
 
 A 
 
 A&KKOg, 149 
 AaKioviKai, 208 
 Aapiradwv ftpepa, 170 
 Adpya/c£y, 221 
 Aao-Tjioi', 196 
 Adipupa, 199 
 
 AdX£<"f, 128 
 AEraoi/atirai, 204 
 AEmwaiinoi', 186 
 Ks.maaTpa.Tiov, 186 
 Asmara-Krai, 199 
 A£nrOrdf(Oi/, 186 
 AeiTOvpyiai, 181 
 Aocrpov, 149, 220 . 
 A£7rraX£ai, 217 
 A£7rrdv, 213 
 Aeaxn, 189 
 AsuKavdl);, 91 
 AcoKupa, 181 
 Afetoy, 212, 220 
 Aii<5oy, 209 
 Afjicvdoi, 221 
 Arcvaia, 169 
 Ariliapxoi, 181 
 Afjfiy, 185 
 A*)ro>, 116 
 AiOo0o\ia, 187 
 Ai8o/]6\ot, 198 
 Atfloj, 196 
 Afttoy 7rpari)p, 180 
 Aip.va.Tai, 188 
 Aiva, 158 
 
 a;^, J28 
 
 Atjcavoj, 216 
 Aoyd&y, 191 
 AoyEio./, 176, 247 
 Adyia, 164 
 Aoyiorot," 180 
 Aoyicrrrjy, 203 
 Aoi/Jai, 147 
 Aofi'ay, 101, 166 
 AovTijpwv, 212 
 Aovrpov, 210 
 Aoipeiov, 212 
 Ad<poy, 153 
 Aoxayoi, 196 
 Ae>X£i'a, 102 
 Adxos, 196, 197 
 Avicaia, 116, 168 
 Awriijcoi/oy, 31 
 
 M 
 Mayadts, 217 
 Mdyai/a, 198 
 Mdyoi, 167 
 Md?a, 206 
 Majat, 190 
 M.aipaKTr}piLov, 60 
 Ma(i/dd£s, 162 
 Ma/cpd (tkeXij, 29 
 Mavpal !/ij£f . 154 
 Maicpai irzTpai, 31 
 MaXdw, 206 
 MaXXdy, 208 
 Mai/rera, 164 
 Mavrcvpara, 164 
 Mavrofij, 164, 166 
 Mapriip£j, 185 
 Maprupco!/ y£j/£0Xia, 222 
 yiaamyo<p6poi, 174 
 MaoTiycocrif, 191 
 Maaril, 260 
 Md^aipa, 196 
 MtJi^i/off, 214 
 Usi\ixai, 173 
 MeX^, 153 
 
 MeKtcnrovoa, 147 
 MEXuraai, 162 
 MEXirroSro. 221 
 MeXiropiivri, 126 
 Mepapx'ia, 19S 
 Mardfyij, 202 
 Meo-<5to(Xos, 200 
 MEco^^dXiov, 194 
 MsoovavTai, 202 
 Msaovpiai, 202 
 MEffaodrai, 188 
 MsTafloM, 197 
 MErayEtri/icoi', 60 
 MEraddpTTia, 206 
 MErofrai, 171, 178, 
 182 
 
 USTOLKIOV, 178 
 
 Msrpiirrjg, 214 
 MircOTroi/, 196, 200 
 
 Mi;Xi7, 263 
 
 Mjjvdf (arapiwiUj &C. 61 
 Mijpoi, 148 
 Mrixaval, 198 
 Mw>"7, 176 
 MiXTOTtaprioi, 200 
 MroSdy /JouXEunVdj, 
 
 &c. 183 
 Mi'rpa, 208 
 Mirpi;, 194 
 'M»a, 213 
 Mw?pa, 222 
 MvripicTov, 222 
 Mvrjorpov, 220 
 Mvofa, 192 
 Mofiuvry, 189 
 UoTpai, 128 
 MoXtt^, 207 
 Mo\v/3Swcu, 153 
 MdvauXoy, 217 
 Moj/ijpEiy, 154 
 Movoicpora, 154 
 Movo/iaxoi, 244 
 Mdpot, 188, 197 
 Mopiai, 171 
 MopipEiiy, 130 
 Mop^, 130 
 Moui/BXia, 33, 61 
 Movvvxiov, 31 
 MoBi/uxtwi/, 61 
 MoScrai, 126 
 MowEroi/, 31 
 MoixriKr), 216 
 Movancri ipi\r), 216 
 M«eoi, 83 
 MD^oXoyia, 83 
 MuXoy di'»cdy, 264 
 MdX(ov£y, 180 
 Mvpid/?(/?Xoi/, 499 
 M%<!jK£y, 173 
 Mvarfipia, 169 
 MuoTi/cdy arjxog, 170 
 MdJ^oy, 119 
 
 N 
 Nd/?Xa, 217 
 Nacdta, 222 
 Naoi, 160 
 ~Nao<pvKaKS;, 162 
 NaiJapxny, 203 
 Naurai, 202 
 
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 
 
 309 
 
 Nai>$t>XaK£?, 203 
 Nwpdfamw, 149 
 N«po0a7rrai, 221 
 NsKpopavTeia, 167 
 Nsiciaia, 22_2 
 Ns^aa or Ns/iaTa, 174 
 N^io-iy, 117 
 NaxJa/zcofey, 189 
 Neoiirivla, 61 
 Nsupwfera, 216 
 NsC/Joy, 153 
 N£</>£X()y£p£r)7?, 95 
 
 Nttoxdpoi, 162 
 Nf/£j aptp'mpupvoi, 200 
 Nrjora'a, 171 
 Ni?rr;, 216 
 Ni/07, 29 
 No'Soi, 220 
 No^eij, 200 
 Nd w a, 221 
 N<V«rp.a, 213 
 NojxoQiTdi, 181 
 Nopoi, 216 
 N^o<r, 188 
 • NoiAOtpvXaKe;, 172, 
 181, 190 
 
 NfSroj, 128 
 NvpKpm, 126 
 Nti/z^aia, 126 
 Nfy<K 212 
 
 E£wa, 207 
 Hwioj, 95, 158 
 Ewoi, 178 
 Harris, 214 
 E<>?, 153, 187 
 zvarapxris , 175 
 Etiordj, 173 
 "EvaTCKpdpoi, 194 
 Ewrpa, 210 
 
 O 
 
 '0/?oXd ? ,213,214,221 
 'Oyd~o<5ioi/, 135 
 "Oy/toj, 176 
 '0<5i7yo<r, 109 
 '0<5for£?, 202 
 'OAPY2HS NYM- 
 
 $AI2, 110 
 'O0di>a<, 202 
 O'ial 200 
 OIkLtm, 180 
 O'Urtjia, 187 
 OiKOvopog, 180 
 07/cof, 210 
 
 O'lKOdKOmKOV , 168 
 
 OiKOVpoX o(f>ug, 28 
 Oivopavnia, 167 
 Oiv6p£\i, 206 
 O7f0; p.vppwirr]g, 204 
 Oivoxioi, 207 
 Oi'crra, 153 
 Oicoi/ioriKi), 167 
 'O/craerripis, 60 
 'OXtyotfpdpot, 204 
 'OXardfe, 200 
 'OXwi, 202 
 'OXoipup^oi, 221 
 
 'OXD/iTrEfoi/, 31 
 
 "O^towt, 188 
 'Opxmarpiovg, 218 
 "O/waJ, 170 
 'OurpaXd?, 194 
 'OpipaXog yrjg, 165 
 'OveipoKpirai, 167 
 'Ovupoitokoi, 167 
 *Oi/si/30f, 130, 167 
 'Owipoa/cOTOi, 167 
 'OJu/fcXyy, 198 
 'Of'Sff pyxo?, 54 
 'Ot«t9^oj, 29, 160 
 "On-Xa, 202 
 'OTrXirai, 153, 193 
 'OnXirodpopoi, 172 
 "OttXoi/, 194 
 "Opap.a, 167 
 'Opyas, 162 
 "Opyia, 169 
 'Opyuia, 214 
 'OpemmiTO;, 102 
 "Opfto;, 216 
 'Op0o7rdX>;, 173 
 "OpKia rkjivniv, 164 
 "OpKtog, 95 - 
 "Op/coy (tovXevriKog, 184 
 "Op/cof p.tyag, 163 
 "Opuot, 33 
 "Opftos, 208 
 'OpwwKdVroi, 167 
 'OpvSojxavTUg, 167 
 'Opaivecpfig, 95 
 "Opuyp.a, 187 
 'Opwus, 207 
 '0<na, 221 
 
 "Ocri0(, 166 
 'Oowrrjp, 166 
 'O<TK0<p6pia, 168 
 'Oaroo"oX£'«, 221 
 'O<n-o0fj<rai, 221 
 'OoroXoyioi/, 221 
 'OarpaKivov, 263 
 'Oarpoucurpxis, 187 
 "OcrTpaKOv, 187 
 'Otrxpip6pia, 168 
 "Orrai, 168 
 OiXai, 147 
 OoXdxvra, 148 
 Oupa, 196, 200 
 Oipayol, 277 
 Oipaydy, 196 
 Oipavia, 31, 126 
 OOpaj/d;, 114 
 'OcpdaXpog, 200 
 'O<p9a\povg ovyKksiziv, 
 
 149 
 'Oxacov, 194 
 'Oxrfj, 153 
 '0'\;i7ftar&)i', rd if 1 , 193 
 "O^oi>, 206 
 
 n 
 
 nayx-paTiaorat, 173 
 Tlayicpariov, 173 
 n«mi/, 198 
 naufepaorta, 220 
 YlaiSovopos, 189, 190 
 IlaXi?, 37, 173 
 JlaXXa/ci&y, 220 
 HaXXaj, 104 
 
 naX/iol, 168 
 naXrdi', 153 
 IlapPa<xt\cia, 189 
 na///?otaina, 192 
 IIap.p.axoi, 173 
 Ila^dxto)/, 173 
 nd/i0uXot, 188 
 nai/, 116 
 
 IIava9^aia, 168, 171 
 nai/adi/vaiKdi/, 171 
 nai/<5ai<7ia!, 206 
 TXav^ajiiKoi, 172 
 nd^oj, 36, 106 
 Jlav&oxtiov , 208 
 ndi/Jpoo-oy, 29 
 JIdi/0£Oi/, 31 
 IIa!/(;y«p(f, 174 
 Ilaj/ifcdi/ SeTpa, 116 
 nairoiWi} icrropia, 252 
 ndTnroj irptSrog, 176 
 napd/Juorov, 186 
 liapaypoKpi), 185 
 Tiapaifiarrjg, 153 
 riapa/cara/?oXJy, 185 
 IlapoXia, 178 
 ndpaXoj, 42, 187 
 THapapLripiSia, 194 
 U.apavvp(jjog, 220 
 n.apa%ifpiSiov, 196 
 IlapairXevpiSia, 194 
 Tlapaarinov, 200 
 Ilapdo-iroi, 162 
 Ilapao-ircoi', 162 
 napaordo-t?, 185 
 Xla.poiovvOnp.aTa., 198 
 ndp£(5poi, 181 
 ITapsiai, 200 
 llopOevoi, 29 
 napflsj/oy, 104, 105 
 napflsxuw, 178, 218 
 ndpoxo?, 220 
 natrrdy, 220 
 m&Xa, 208 
 
 n^si/, 193 
 
 n£(pa(£iif, 33 
 IlEicrtai/d/criOf, 31 
 Ilsioyjara, 202 
 IlfiXacryi/cd!', 29 
 nsXavoi, 163 
 IMdrat, 160 
 Il£X£ld<5£5, 165 
 
 IleXsiai, 165 
 TleXsKvs, 196 
 IlfXoTrOf vrjaog, 34 
 rfeXraorat, 194 
 ntXm, 194, 196 
 tlsXupia, 91, 168 
 Xlsixpara, 163 
 Ils//7rdoap^0i, 196 
 
 nsju7r«j, 196 
 
 nsiracrr/pif, 174 
 nhradXov, 172 
 TlcvraKOtTioijiiSipvoi, 177 
 
 n£lT^/fO<T7-fif, 197 
 n£JT17p£If, 202 
 
 nfTrXot, 157 
 UhrXog, 171 
 IIeVXou dfioi, 171 
 Tltpi/JapiScs, 208 
 nspifaXos, 160 
 
 Tlcpikmvov, 149 
 Il£pi£pya, 167 
 TlepiriyriTai, 166 
 XlepiKCipaXaia , 153 
 TlepioiKoSop}), 222 
 IlepiotKoi, 189 
 TLepmCTaapLara, 148 
 nEpCToXEroi/, 197 
 TlepiiroXoi, 197 
 HspipfiavTripiov, 160, 
 163 
 
 IfepWKEXlf, 209 
 n£p!r£i?(;icr//df, 198 
 Il£pirdi/£ia, 200 
 TLspupspeia, 194 
 Tlspuppaypara, 202 
 neptfvq, 218 
 IlEpoi/jjjKara, 148, 218 
 HspasQdvri , 99 
 IlEraXa, 187 
 nEraXiff^df, 187 
 riETaaoj, 208 
 Etfrpat paxpcu, &C. 31 
 Tterpofltikoi, 198 
 nirpco/xa, 170 
 U.£TT£ia, 206 
 n^yOjuai'ma, 167 
 Il7?JaXcoi/, 200 
 
 nijKrif, 217 
 
 nij^uf, 214 
 
 mXWia, 208 
 
 nrXoj, 208 
 
 IIivaKJa, 180 
 
 IliVaf ayuprwdj, 167 
 niori; Arrixi;, 164 
 Ilirai/drai, 188 
 IfXayiauXoy, 216 
 
 nXaunov, 197 
 
 nXa«f, 171 
 IlXard^iara, 38, 190 
 TiXkdpov, 214 
 IlXsupai, 200 
 HXfjdowa ayopa, 32 
 nXifwrpoi/, 217 
 
 nxivdtov, 197 
 
 nXwa/^o f , 208 
 TlXovTOg, 118 
 nXoSrajj/, 91 
 n^f, 32, 183 
 IK&?, 202 
 
 no(«iX)j, 31 
 
 IIoiKiXfa, 218 
 no/cdf, 208 
 noXipapxog, 181, 190, 
 
 192, 196 
 JToXtay, 29, 105 
 noXrrai, 178 
 IIoXudw5pioi', 223 
 noXfeora, 218 
 noXv/^i/ia, 126 
 Tlo\vp6pot, 204 
 no/zTrai, 183 
 Tlopmuov, 31 
 n^ai/a, 148, 163 
 Hopdniov, 221 
 ndp7ra/c£j, 194 
 noraJsw, 61 
 TIotT£iS<Sv, 98 
 nou f , 214 
 
 UpaKTop£g, 182, 185 
 
310 
 
 INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 
 
 Tlpeefcig, 181, 197 
 Jlpor/Juy, 190 
 XlpoavXiov, 210 
 1Jpo0\fipaTa, 153 
 Ilpo/SoXai, 210 
 TlpofiovXevpa, 183, 188 
 Upoypappa, 188 
 Xlpoyripvourpara, 174 
 Ilp66iKOt, 190 
 npujo^oj, 210 
 IlpooWa, 186 
 Upozipia, or TtpotApa 
 187,191, 199 
 npo'4>oi, 183, 184 
 Tlpoijpdaia, 112 
 IIpotKMa, 220 
 Upoil, 220 
 
 IIpO/C&M-OI, 202 
 
 TlpopSTumoia, 194 
 npojwta, 207 
 npdfEi/oi, 190, 207 
 Tlpo-rroXoi dzoiv, 163 
 Ilpd-opia, 206 
 UpoTrv\aia, 29, 160, 
 
 178 
 TSpoaKerpaXata, 206 
 IIpocrd<5(a, 162 
 npoorarire, 178 
 UpotTTEpfiiia, 194 
 IIpotrcoTT-Ero!', 176 
 nporWcaBai, 221 
 Ilpdroi/oi, 202 
 IlpixprJTai, 166 
 ITpoi/ivAajcai, 197 
 npdxooj, 212 
 IIpo'x»p-a, 204 
 Xlpoiapoaia, 185 
 rip/iva, 200 
 Ilpup.j'ijo-ia, 202 
 npiTai/sra, 113, 182, 
 
 185 
 Upwavtia, 184 
 lipvravuov, 33, 184 
 Ilpurdray, 183, 184, 
 
 188 
 npvTavls, 192 
 npwpa, 200 
 npcopdr)7f, 203 
 
 npcopriif, 203 
 
 Hrappol, 168 
 Ilrfpa, 200 
 IlrEpiyiov, 200 
 Unixfs, 200 
 Tlvav&pubv, 60 
 IIuy/«7, 173 
 IIi'flaioTai, 174 
 Jltifc'a, 165 
 Tlvdia, 174 
 IIudiKd; vopog, 174 
 IK0«H, 190 
 ro9ioi/, 165 
 rafoof, 101, 165 
 
 n«euvff, 167 
 
 nwrijf, 173 
 Thikayopai, 183 
 II uXaia, 183 
 
 ikx>7, 210 
 nsp, 187 
 
 n«pa, 149 
 IKpyoy, 197, 198 
 
 TLvpitaia, 186 
 Ilvp60o\oi, 196 
 Ilvpopavreia, 167 
 Xlvpipopoi, 198 
 IKcrioy, 166 
 IlajXijrai, 182 
 IM/ia, 153- 
 
 'PaffSonavreia, 167 
 'Pd/?<5oy, 260 
 'Pa/?JoOxot, 173 
 'Pd^aiw, 206 
 'Pa<piy, 218 
 'Prj-ropes, 181 
 'Pifrpai, 191 
 'PapwnrlSss, 199 
 'Pi'^ij, 173 
 *Po<5dw,, 218 
 
 'Po<3o<5d/cn>Xoy, 115 
 'PoSoi/ wo, 206 
 'Pvp.ara, 202 
 'PVs, 212 
 Tutw, 207, 297 
 
 Sayrjwj, 158 
 £dy,ua, 194 
 ZaXmyyeg, 198, 217 
 SaX7riy(friJ5, 196 
 SaXniyf, 217 
 Zap0VKr,, 217 
 Wapiti, 214 
 Sdi/<5aXa, 208 
 Savip, 187 
 
 Snptffcro, 196 
 ZapKotyayo;, 221 
 Si/Saora, 246 
 
 S£,<T1^0W1/, 98 
 
 Sturrpoi/, 217 
 SeXwn, 101, 114 
 SsXuw, 175 
 SeXXoi, 164 
 S^x-ov, 212 
 Su/fdy, 160, 170, 222 
 5%a. 222 
 S^ia, 198 
 SrjpeiO(j>6pog, 196 # 
 Sifewaj, 189 
 Sirdpioi/, 214 
 Sirijtrij cv 7rpvTavsi(ji, 
 
 187 
 SiTOd'ti'a, 212 
 2,iTO&6icat, 212 
 Str07r(oXai, 212 
 SiTOy, 212 
 'SiroipvXaKeg, 212 
 Sira), 112 
 Eirwai, 212 
 5>aXpot, 202 
 Sra///ia, 172 
 YKa(prj(j>6poi, 171 
 SjceXij naicpa, 29 
 Skettjj, 222 
 X/ccojj, 200 
 2/c77vft, 176 
 
 S(ri?7rrpoi', 150 
 S(cia<5))0opia, 180 
 'Sict.atiriipopoi, 172 
 2«oy, 190 
 
 S/ci'XXa, 163 
 YKiopavrtia, 167 
 Etipov, 128 
 Sfif'poipopicji', 61 
 SKdXiov, 207 
 Smwoy, 172 
 5XSXa, 199 
 S«iXaf, 163 
 SttirdAi^ 199 
 J/curdXia, 196 
 SdXoy, 173 
 Sopoi, 221 
 Zopdy, 123, 302 
 
 HjrapTiov, 214 
 Sa^Xaiov, 222 
 ■STTi8ap.il, 214 
 S'rX(iy%i'0(7-*f07rra, 163 
 SrXayXJ'do'K'OTroy, 163 
 STrd&oy, 162 
 &w<5ai, 147 
 StomSJ;, 163, 197 
 XraiioSpopoi, 172 
 SrdcJioi/, 32, 172 
 SrdXtKEy, 158 
 Srariip, 213 
 Eraupdy, 187 
 Srcipn, 200 
 Xrippara, 147, 163 
 STeipai'Tiipopog , 171 
 ZrEipawu, 187 
 Sritpavog, 148, 191 
 Sr&j&oy, 148 
 XrijXai, 222 
 ErijX/r, 149, 187 
 
 ST)'jp.MJ/, 218 
 Sriy/w, 180, 187 
 SrfjtfM, 197 
 ~ZTVxpp.avTcia, 167 
 ZrXeyyiy, 210 
 Srod jiaicpa, 33 
 Sroai, 31 
 Sro'XapXOf, 203 
 SroXij, 209 
 SrdXoy, 200 
 SrpaTriyia, 196 
 Srpcmjydf, 190, 193, 
 
 196, 203 
 Expand, 196 
 ~ZTpaTOKr)pv\, 196 
 XrpoyyiiX»;, 116 
 "Zrpfyiov, 209 
 STpiipara, 206 
 Suyycvcta, 220 
 XtiyyEmy, 220 
 2fi«w, 212 
 YvKOtyavTia, 186 
 "ZvKtxpavrai, 186 
 Si>p./?oXa, 168, 197, 
 
 198, 207 
 "Sv/iPoXfi, 206 
 "Svpftaipoi, 160 
 ~S,vppa\ia, 197 
 'S.vppopiai, 182 
 £Dp.7r<5cr(a, 207 
 'ZvpTrocrlapXog, 206 
 Sw<3(ico(, 181 
 Swnyopoi, 181, 185 
 2ui>07/«j, 197 
 Swdfipara, 198 
 Siiwaoi. 160 
 
 'SvvoSog 'Xpupumiovwe, 
 
 183 
 Suvoi/cErai, 160 
 SiiTOy/^a, 196 
 Svpiyf, 217 
 Swo-trfa, 190, 206 
 S^ay£ro;/, 148 
 2(payig, 148 
 SipoTpa, 216 
 SipEi'tor;, 153 
 Sxp&iai, 200 
 S^oira/Jdrai, 202, 244 
 Iscpvia, 202 
 Sdjrsipa, Xurijp, 29 
 
 T 
 
 Tawfa, 209 
 
 TdKTlKOl, 197 
 
 TdXai/rov, 213 
 
 TdXtp.ot, 221 
 
 Tapiiai tS>v hpSu, 162, 
 
 182 
 Ta/Haj., 203 
 Tapiag TrpoadSov, 182 
 
 ruv OetopiKoiv, 176 
 Tavi)7rr£puy£y, 167 
 Tafiapxoi, 196 
 Tdfis, 196 
 Td^oy, 222 
 Ttytoi, 210 
 TBpnnroi, 172 
 T£iXoy v6tiov, &C. 31 
 TeXa/iiiv, 194 
 TsXsairiyapos, 106 
 TeXet^, 163, 169 
 TeXtj, 181 
 T£Xoy, 196, 197 
 Ttk&vai, 182 
 T £/ i£i/oy, 160, 162 
 Tippa, 172 
 Ttp^tx&pri, 126 
 TEaaapdieoi/ra, 186 
 Terpaerripig, 60 
 T£rpaXoyia, 171 
 Terpawpoi, 172 
 T£rpi?p«;, 202 
 TerpufidXov /3'iog, 193 
 TirriyEy, 208 
 Ttp.fip.aTa, 181, 186 
 Toi'xap,\oy, 203 
 Torxot, 200 
 To KairoV, 186 
 Tdpovpoi, 165 
 Tdjoy, 153 
 Tofdrai, 181 
 Tolocpdpog, 101, 102 
 To^ro, 202 
 Tpdm^a fevrkpa, 206 
 Tpdir£?(«, 222 
 Tpa7r£^07roidy, 207 
 Tpd<p) 7 f, 200 
 Tpfipara, 200 
 Tpicwd&ry, 177, 188, 
 
 222 
 Tpiafay, 173 
 Tpifavtov, 209 
 Tpiycavoi/, 186, 217 
 
 Tpi£T£piKOt, 174 
 
 Tpirjpapxia, 182 
 Tpifjpapxoi, 182, 203 
 
INDEX OF GREEK WORDS. 
 
 TpiipaSXij?, 203 
 Tpcfipetg, 154, 200, 202 
 TpactyaKo;, 109 
 TpiitXiviov, 206, 210 
 
 Tpipopipo;, 102 
 Tpiirodss, 149 
 Tpirous ^jjorjjpioj, 165 
 Tpira, 222 
 Tpiroyheia, 104 
 TpiTruss, 189 
 Tpftop&y, 216 
 TpaaSins, 102 
 TpArawv, 149, 199 
 Tpfeis, 200 
 Tpomi, 202 
 Tpo^os, 187, 263 
 Tpvrrava, 198 
 Tfy/?oy, 222 
 Tvparava, 187 
 Tfyiraiw, 217 
 Twroj, 263 ■ 
 TiXV, 118 
 
 Y 
 
 "YaXoj, 263 
 "Xl3peois Hky], 180 
 'Y<5paXn-rjj, 264 
 "YcSpauXis, 217 
 'Xipia<popia, 180 
 'Xipiaipopoi, 172 
 'XSpop.avreia, 167 
 'Y<5p6<nroi/(5a, 147 
 "YJpo^opoi, 207 
 'YXXay, 188 
 'Xplvouoi, 220 
 •Yfjm*, 220 
 *Yi/i/i>, or "Ymj, 212 
 "Ynipai, 202 
 'YirepaSa, 210 
 •YTrifcooi, 192 
 •XTTTipeTris, 180, 196 
 
 "Ywoy, 130 
 'Wyaia, 222 
 'Xiroypapparug, 182 
 'Y7roi%ara, 208 
 'YjroSco//ara, 200, 201 
 'Y7n5/ca«oTOj;, 210 
 'XnoKpiral, 176 
 'X-nop.ziov£;, 188 
 'XTropvoaia, 185 
 'Yjrakia, 173 
 
 $a(i/iyJa, 216 
 4>aiw5X^, 209 
 <f>a>car, 206 
 <&a\ayyapxia, 196 
 *dXay£, 196, 197 
 &d\apa, 194 
 ^aX^pdv, 33 
 *dX/aj, 200 
 *dXoir, 153 
 "JdiTaiTjiia, 167 
 Qaphpa, 153 
 ^apjiaxa, 168 
 "J>ap//a/c£ia, 168 
 Qappamv, 186, 187 
 *a> f , 157, 208 
 4>d<ny, 186 
 <f>£yymjy, 290 
 3>£i<5ina, 190 
 ^tperpov, 149, 221 
 *£pi>»), 220 
 ^rfycov, 185 
 ^fjpai, 168 
 <£%>;, 118 
 *6>oi f , 170 
 * t aXn, 207 
 *taXt<5£s, 221 
 <J>iXijrop£j, 220 
 €>iXiVia, 190 
 ^tKojieiofis, 106 
 
 *iX«f£voi, 207 
 *«/?u, 208 
 <&o(3fiTcop, 130 
 *or/?of, 100 
 
 $>OVlK<2v, 'EOT T031', 185 
 
 4>(5j/oy, 186 
 ^oppiyl, 216 
 <Ex5pot, 181 
 "Sopnjyoi, 200 
 Gparpiat, 177, 189 
 QparpiKa, 206 
 <I>p£ara, 32 
 <J>p£arr<H, 'Ev, 185 
 <f>pt)yioi'(i)i' ipyov, 218 
 *tiyf>, 187, 191 ' 
 *«Xoi, 177, 178 
 <J>uXaKcti, 197 
 <f>i>Xdpxw, 194 
 &>\apx<H, 181, 196 
 <J>uXo/?«<nX£rj, 185 
 Qvokyi, 206 
 <I>&>ma, 198 
 
 X 
 
 Xairr,, 208 
 XaXma, 107, 171 
 
 XoKKlOtKOg, 36 
 
 XoXkovs, 213 
 Xapiarnpia, 163 
 Xdptrtj, 127 
 Xfip aiiripa, 203 
 Xsiporoi^Toi, 180, 183 
 XstpoTovfa, 182, 183 
 XEXfiicr/xara, 200 
 XsKuvt), 198 
 Xepyii//, 148 
 Xr;j/i<r«oj, 200 
 Xt\iapxia, 196 
 XcXiapx"', 196 
 Xit&v, 157, 208 
 XtTwi'ij, 102 
 
 311 
 
 XXaiVa, 157. 208 
 XXai/if, 209 
 XKi&iv, 209 
 Xoai, 147, 149, 222 
 Xoii/tf , 187, 214 
 Xopriyia, 182 
 Xop?7yoi, 182 
 Xopdj, 176 
 Xo%, 214 
 Xpij/zo, 213 
 Xpfipara OscopiKa, 176 
 Xpripanapo;, 167 
 Xpqcrpol, 164 
 XpfyerjuoXdyot, 164 
 Xprjapoipopoi, 164 
 Xpijorjjpia, 164 
 Xpt>ora, 210 
 Xp«n-dj, 272 
 Xpfooj, 91 
 Xwp.a, 149,198, 222 
 
 faXi-rjpioi/, 217 
 ¥eXX«w, 209 
 ¥i}0«7/ia, 183, 188 
 ¥#», 183 
 *io6ia, 186 
 fittSpa, 217 
 *iXoi, 153, 194 
 VvOCopavreia, 167 
 YvxocTaaia, 100 
 
 a 
 
 'fl/?ai, 188 
 'iWtro!/, 32 
 'aWi, 167 
 "ilia, 210 
 'SlpoQzTtZv, 148 
 'SLooKOttia, 167 
 "flp<u, 117, 127 
 'Stpata, 168 
 
INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 
 
 A. 
 
 Ablecti, 277, 278 
 Accensi, 252, 276 
 Accipe libens, 238 
 Aocubita, 291 
 Aecusator, 259 
 Acerra, 232, 239 
 Acetabulum, 268 
 Acidalia, 106 
 Acies, 275, 282 
 Acinaces, 100 
 Aclides, 281 
 Actia, 26 
 Actiones in personam, 
 
 in rem, 259 
 Actius, 101 
 Actor, 259 
 Actuarial, 233 
 Actuarii, 252 
 Actus quadratus, 268 
 Ad bestias, ad ludos, 
 
 &c, 260 
 Addiclus, 267 
 Adjudicatio, 268 
 Admovere, 237 
 Adonia, 106 
 Adoptio, 288 
 Adoratio, 237 
 Adrastia, 117 
 Adscriptitii, 87, 276 
 Adulterii crimen, 260 
 Advocatus, 259 
 Adytum, 230 
 -2Ecastor, 136 
 .Edepol, 136, 239 
 iEdes sacra, 117,230 
 iEdiles. 19, 246, 219 
 ^Editui, 236 
 iEgeon, 125 
 Mgis, 104 
 Aello, 128 
 .aSlurus, 124 
 JEnea fistula, 263 
 iEneatores, 274 
 ^Eolus, 116 
 ^irarium, 256, 261 
 Africus, 128 
 Agaso, 278 
 Agelae, 189 
 Agger, 15, 280, 281 
 Agmen quadratum, 
 
 pilatum, &c. 278 
 Agmine, uno conti- 
 
 nente, 276 
 Agnomen, 286 
 Agonalia, 241 
 Agone, 237 
 Agoraeus, 109 
 Agrimensores, 264 
 Agrotera, 
 Alas, 276 
 Alba linea, 243 
 Alba Longa, 11 
 Alecto, 128 
 Ales, 109 
 Alipts, 293 
 Alites, 233 
 Altaria, 230 
 Alveus, 282, 295 
 Amanuensis, 289 
 Amaracinum, 299 
 Amaracus, 107 
 312 
 
 Ambarvalia, 112, 236, 
 
 241 
 Ambitus crimen, 260 
 Ambrosia, 109 
 Amentum, 173 
 Amiculum, 298 
 Amor, 106 
 Amphigyeis, 107 
 Amphitheatra, 19 
 Amphitrite, 98, 125 
 Amphora, 268, 296 
 Amtruare, 235 
 Anadyomene, 106 
 Anagnostae, 289 
 Anchora, 282 
 Ancile, 94, 235 
 Ancilia, 105 
 Anclabris,230 
 Anculas, 120 
 Anculi, 120 
 Andabatae, 244 
 Angusticlavia, 256,298 
 Anima mundi, 116 
 Annales, 233 
 Annuli, 299 
 Annulus aureus, 256 
 Antefixa, 263 
 Antennae, 282 
 Anteros, 107 
 Antesignani, 276 
 Antestatio, 259 
 Antistites, 236 
 Anubis, 124 
 Aonides, 126 
 Apaturia, 109 
 Apes, 264 
 Apex, 233, 235 
 Apis, 123 
 Aplustria, 282 
 Apodyterium, 293 
 Apotheca, 296 
 Apotheosis, 137, 304 
 Apparitores, 252 
 Aprilis, 61 
 Aquaductus, 19 
 Aquilo, 128 
 Ars, 230 
 Aratores, 289 
 Aratrum, 264 
 Arbiter bibendi, 295 
 Arbitri causarum, 259 
 Arbori suspendere, 260 
 Area, 302 
 Arcarius, 289 
 Archigallus, 94, 236 
 Archirnagiri, 295 
 Archimimus, 300 
 Arcula thuraria, 232 
 Arcus triumphales, 19 
 Area, 264 
 Arena, 247 
 Areopagus, 32 
 Argentarii, 263 
 Argiva, 96 
 Aries, 281 
 Armamenta, 282 
 Armamentum Chirur- 
 
 gicum, 294 
 Armaria, 290 
 Armiger, 289 
 Armillae, 275, 300 
 Armilustrium, 242 
 Arrha hospitalis, 295 
 
 Arrogatio, 288 
 
 Ars figlina, 263 
 pistoria, 263 
 tincloria, 264 
 
 Arx, 17, 233 
 
 As, 266 
 
 Ascolia, 109 
 
 Aspergillum, 232 
 
 Aspersorium, 232 
 
 Asseres falcati, 281 
 
 Assertor libertatis, 289 
 
 Assessores, 259 
 
 Assipondium, 267 
 
 Astraea, 117 
 
 Astroiogi, 240 
 
 Asyla, 162 
 
 Asylum, 17 
 
 Atergatis, 106 
 
 Athena, 105 
 
 Atlantiades, 109 
 
 Atlantides, 114, 134 
 
 Atria, 254 
 
 Atriensis, 289 
 
 Atrium, 290, 291 
 
 Atropos, 128 
 
 Auctio, 268 
 
 Auctores classici, 253 
 
 Augurale, 278 
 
 Auguratorium, 233 
 
 Augures, 232, 233 
 
 Auguriuro, 233, 240 
 
 Augustales, 236 
 
 Augustalia, 242, 246 
 
 Augustus, 61 
 
 Aula, 290 
 
 Aulffium, 246 
 
 Aures, 264 
 
 Aureus, 267 
 
 Aurora, 114 
 
 Aurum coronanum,284 
 
 Auspices, 233 
 
 Auspicium, 233 
 
 Auster, 128 
 
 Auxilia, 285 
 
 Avena, 264 
 
 Aversi, 302 
 
 Aviarium, 292 
 
 Avigerium, 233 
 
 B. 
 
 Bacchs, 110 
 Bacchanalia, 168 
 Bacchus, 109 
 Balista, 281 
 Balistarii, 276 
 Balnea, 18, 293 
 Balneator, 293 
 Balneatores, 289 
 Baphium, 264 
 Barritus, 274 
 Basilic®, 17, 18, 259 
 Bassareus, 109 
 Batillus, 264 
 Batiola;, 297 
 Baxa, 299 
 Bellaria, 294 
 Bellica, 105 
 Bellona, 105, 120 
 Berecynthia, 93 
 Bes, 286 
 
 Bestiarii, 244, 260 
 Bibendi arbiter, 295 
 Biceps, 93 
 
 Bideus, 264 
 Bifrons, 93, 267 
 Bigae, 266 
 Bimater, 109 
 Bipennis, 232 
 Bisellium, 254 
 Bis millies, 267 
 Bissextus, 62 
 Boiae, 260 
 Bombycina, 298 
 Bombyx, 298 
 Bona Dea, 93, 24J 
 Boreas, 116, 128 
 Braces, 209 
 Brachia, 29, 282 
 Brontes, 107 
 Bubo, 233 
 Bubona, 120 
 Buccinte, 272 
 Bulla, 299 
 Buris, 264 
 
 Caballi, 266 
 Cabiri, 136 
 Caduceus, 108, 124 
 Caducifer, 109 
 Cadus, 296 
 Caerites, 10 
 Caesia, 105 
 Cassias, 128 
 Calathus, 123 
 Calcar, 266 
 Calceus, 298 
 Calcei nigri coloris,256 
 Calculi, 295 
 Caldarium,293 
 Calendar, 61 
 Calices, 297 
 Caligaj, 298 
 Calliope, 127 
 Calones, 278 
 Calumnia, 259 
 Camarae, 283 
 Camilla, 238 
 Camilli& Camilla;, 236 
 Camillus, 239 
 Caminus, 291 
 Camcenae, 126 
 Campi, 16 
 Campidoctores, 280 
 Campus Martius, 16, 
 
 105, 239, 259 
 Campus sceleratus,236 
 Candelabra, 232, 291 
 Candidati, 248 
 Canens, 130 
 Canis, 295 
 Canistra, 232 
 Canopus, 124 
 Cantharus, 123 
 Canus, 91 
 Capedo, 232, 238 
 Capeduncula, 232 
 Capillamentum, 299 
 Capillitia vota, 238 
 Capis, 232 
 Capite censi, 271 
 Capite velato, 237 
 Capitium, 298 
 Capitolinus, 95 
 Capitolium, 17 
 Capsarii, 293 
 
INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 
 
 313 
 
 Capsum, 266 
 Capulum, 302 
 Caput, 267 
 Caput coenfB, 294 
 Carceres, 243 
 Cardir.es, 291 
 Carenum, 296 
 Carmen seculare, 244 
 Carmentalia, 241 
 Carmine certo evo- 
 
 care, 239 
 Carna Dea, 242 
 Carnifex, 252 
 Carpentum, 266 
 Carptor, 2b9, 295 
 Carruca, 266 
 Cass, 290 
 Casa Romuli, 17 
 Cassis, 274 
 Castalia, 127 
 Castalides, 126 
 Castra stativa, hiber- 
 
 na, &c. 278, 280 
 Catapulta, 281 
 Catasts, 289 
 Catelloe, 275' 
 Catena?, 260 
 CatenulEe, 275 
 Cathedra, 254 
 Catomidiare, 235 
 Caupona, 208 
 Causa, 259 
 
 Causae fidei bonae, 259 
 Cavcedium, 290 
 Cavea, 246 
 Celseno, 128 
 Celeres, 270, 276 
 Cellse, 291 
 Cellaria, 291 
 Cellarius, 289 
 Cella sanctior, 230 
 Cella vinaria, &c. 291, 
 
 296 
 Cenotaphia, 302 
 Censores, 250 
 Census, equester, 254 
 Centauri, 131 
 Centesima rerum ve- 
 
 naliurn, 262 
 Centesima usura, 267 
 Centies, 267 
 Centimani, 113 
 Centum sestertium,267 
 Centumvirale judi- 
 cium, 259 
 Centuriae, 272 
 Centuriata Comitia, 
 
 257, 259 
 Centurio, 272 
 Cerberus, 100, 132 
 Cercopithecus, 124 
 Cereales, 246, 249 
 Cerealia, 112, 242 
 Ceres, 110 
 Ceriti, 240 
 Cerussa,creta,299 
 Cessio, in jure j extra 
 
 jus, 268 
 Cestus, 106 
 Chaldsei, 240 
 Charybdis, 132 
 Chimaera, 131, 132 
 Chirurgi, 277 
 Chitone, 102 
 Chlamys, 298 
 Chloris, 120, 242 
 Cibum, 294 
 Cilliba, 291 
 Cinerarii, 289 
 Cinerarium, 302 
 Cingula, 96 
 Cingulum, 266 
 Cingulum laneum, 287 
 Cippi, 302 
 40 
 
 Cippus, 302 
 
 Circi, 18 
 
 Circuitio vigilum, 280 
 
 Circulus auri, 299 
 
 Circus Flaminius, Sal- 
 
 lustius, &c. 243 
 Circus Maximus, 18,242 
 Cisium, 266 
 Cista, 270 
 Cives, 258 
 
 Civitates federata3,258 
 Clarigatio, 234 
 Classiarii, 282 
 Classic'], 253 
 Classicum. 274, 282 
 Classis, 282 
 Clathri, 290 
 Claustra, 291 
 Chives, 291 
 Claviger, 93 
 Clavus, 282, 298 
 Clavus figendus, 242 
 Clepsydra, 60, 240 
 Clientela, 254 
 Clima, 268 
 Clio, 127 
 Clitellae, 266 
 Clitellarii, 266 
 Cloaca?, 19 
 Clotho, 128 
 Clusius, 93 
 Ccelus, 113, 116 
 Coemptio, 286 
 Coena, 293 
 Coenacula, 293 
 Coena nuptialis, 287 
 Coena recta, 295 
 Coenationes, 293 
 Cceus, 124 
 Cognomen, 285 
 Cohors, 271 
 Cohortes vigitum, 284 
 Coliseum, 19, 247 
 Collegia fabrorum, tig- 
 
 nariorum, &c, 263 
 Collegium, 232 
 Collina, 120 
 Collis hortulorum, 16 
 Coilocatio, 300 
 Coloni, 290 
 Colonise, 258 
 Colossus, 42 
 Colum, 296 
 Columnar, 260 
 Columbaria, 303 
 Columella, 291 
 Columnse, 19 
 Columna lactaria, 287 
 Columnarium, 262 
 Colus, 287 
 
 Comes dioeceseos, 285 
 Comites, 285 
 Comitia, 234, 257, 259 
 Compitales, 129 
 Compitalia, 129, 242 
 Compluvium, 290 
 Comus, 119 
 Concilia, 257 
 Conciones, 257 
 Conclamatio, 300 
 Concordia, 122, 242 
 Condere lustrum, 239 
 Condictio, 259 
 Conditorium, 302 
 Confarreatio, 286, 287 
 Congius, 268 
 Conjectores, 240 
 Connubium, 286, 290 
 Conquisitio, 271 
 Conquisitores, 252 
 Conscriptio, 271 
 Consecratio, 238, 304 
 Consentes, 87 
 Consivius, 93 
 
 Constitutiones,261 
 Constratum navis, 282 
 Consuales, 246 
 Consualia, 98, 242 
 Consulares, 285 
 Consul designatus,248 
 Consules,248 
 Consus, 98 
 Conticinium, 60 
 Contubernales, 278 
 Contubernium, 280, 2S6 
 Conventio in manum, 
 
 286 
 Coqui, 295 
 Corbes, 295 
 
 Corneumspeculare,290 
 Cnrnicines, 274 
 Cornicula,275 
 Comix, 233 
 Comu,217 
 Cornua, 272,282 
 Corona, 280, 303 
 Corona castrensis,mu- 
 
 ralis, civica, &c. 
 
 274, 275 
 Corona, emptio sub, 
 
 268 
 Corpus, 262 
 Correctores, 285 
 Corrigia, 298 
 Cortina, 247 
 Corns, 128 
 Corvus, 233, 281, 282 
 Corybantes, 94 
 Cosmeta,289 
 Cosmi, 191, 192 
 Cothurni, 299 
 Cotytto, 119 
 Covinus, 194 
 Crater, 297 
 Crates, 260 
 Crepida?, 299 
 Crepundia, 287 
 Creta, 299 
 Cribrum, 113 
 Crimen majestatis, 
 
 peculatus.252,259, 
 
 260 
 Crista, 274- 
 Crius, 124 
 Crotala, 218 
 Cruci affigere, 260 
 Cubicula, 291 
 Cubicularii, 289 
 Cubiculum, 247 
 Cucullus, 298 
 Cudo, 274 
 Culcita, 291 
 Culeus, 260,268 
 Culina, 291 
 Culter, 264 
 
 Cultrarius,232,236,237 
 Cultri,232 
 Cultrum, 104 
 Culullus, 232 
 Cumerum,287 
 Cunaria,289 
 Cunei, 247 
 Cuneus, 196, 275 
 Curatores aquarum, 19 
 Curiae, 17, 16, 236, 252 
 Curia Saliorum, 235 
 Curiones, 232, 236 
 Currus, 266 
 Cursus, 243 
 Curules,249 
 Custos, 93 
 Cyathus, 268, 297 
 Cybele, 93, 112 
 Cyclas, 298 
 Cyllenius, 109 
 Cyllopodes, 107 
 Cymbia, 297 
 Cynocephali, 124 
 
 2D 
 
 Cynthia, 102 
 Cynthius, 101 
 Cypria, 106 
 Cytherea, 106 
 
 D. 
 
 Damnum, 260 
 December, 61 
 Decemviri, 251 
 Decennalia, 238 
 Decreta, 261 
 Decun.ae, 262 
 Decunx, 266 
 DecuriEe, 259, 272, 277, 
 
 288 
 Decuriones, 258, 263 
 
 276, 288 
 Dedicatio templi, 238 
 Defrutarium, 296 
 Defrutum, 296 
 Delectus, 271 
 Delia, 102 
 Delius, 101 
 Delpliicus, 101 
 Delphinus, 101 
 Delubrum, 230 
 Demarchi, 181 
 Deinensum, 274 
 Denarius, 267 
 Dens, 264 
 Dentale, 264 
 Deportatio, 260 
 Designatores, 247 
 Detersor, 289 
 Detestatio sacrorum, 
 
 288 
 Deunx, 266 
 Deus, 95 
 Devotio, 239 
 Devovere, 239 
 Dexter, 233 
 Diana, 101, 114 
 Diana Bubastis, 124 
 Dianus, 93 
 Dicatio,238 
 Dicere diem, 259, 271 
 Dictator, 251 
 Dictynna, 102 
 Dies comiliales, 257 
 
 festi, fasti, &c. 241 
 Diespiter, 95 
 DiffarreatiOj 287 
 Digitus, 268 
 Dii majorum et mino- 
 
 rum gentium, 87 
 Diis Manibus, 302 
 Dionysia, 109 
 Dioscuri, 135 
 Dioscuria, 136 
 Diota, 213, 296 
 Diree, 233 
 Diribitor, 289 
 Diribitores, 257 
 Disci, 232 
 Disci jactus^ 243 
 Dispensator, 289 
 Divortia, 287 
 Divus, 304 
 Dodrans, 266 
 Dolabra, 232, 264 
 Dolia,296 
 Dominium, 268 
 Dominus, 288 
 Domus, 20, 290 
 Dona, 302 
 Dona militaria, 274 
 Donaria, 230 
 Donatio, 268 
 Donati?a,274 
 Doris, 98 
 Druida;, 237 
 Dryades, 126 
 Duces, 285 
 Dulciarius, 289 
 
314 
 
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 
 
 Duodena scripta, 295 
 Duplex acies, 275 
 Duplicarii, 274 
 Duumviri, 233, 239.252, 
 
 258, 259, 261, 262 
 Dux, 278 
 Dyndymena, 93 
 
 B. 
 
 Echidna! 132 
 Edicta, 261 
 Edictum, 249, 256 
 Edictuni perpetuum, 
 
 249 
 Editor, 244 
 Egeria, 93, 230 
 Elaeothesium, 293 
 Elatio, 300 
 Eleusinia, 112 
 Elicius, 95 
 Elysium, 99 
 Emeriti, 275 
 Emeritum, 275 
 Emptio sub corona, 268 
 Enceladus, 125 
 Enclahris, 230 
 Ensis falcatus, 195 
 Enyalius, 105 
 Ephialtes, 125 
 Ephippia, 266 
 Epibats, 282 
 Epidelius, 101 
 Epilaenia, 109 
 Epistols, 251 
 Epitaenia, 109 
 Epitaphium, 302 
 Epithalamia, 287 
 Epulse, 234 
 Epulares, 234 
 Epulones, 232, 234 
 Epulum Jovis, 242 
 Equestris, 118 
 Equites, 244, 253, 278, 
 
 29S 
 Equo publico merere, 
 
 256 
 Erato, 127 
 Erigone, 117 
 Er3^cina, 106 
 Erynnis, 112 
 EssedEe,194 
 Essedarii, 244 
 Euripus, 247 
 Eurus, 116, 128 
 Euryale, 130 
 Euryphaessa, 114 
 Euterpe, 127 
 Evocali, 278 
 Excubite, 280 
 Exequise, 300 
 Exercitus, 280 
 Exilium, 260 
 Exostra, 246 
 Expediti, 276 
 Exponere infantem, 
 
 287 
 Exsequiae, 300 
 Exta muta, 234 
 Extispices, 233 
 Extispicium, 240 
 Extraordinarii, 251,277 
 Extremum, 257 
 
 F. 
 
 Fabiani, 235 
 Fabri, 277 
 Fabrics, 280 
 Fabrum, 253 
 Factiones, 243 
 Fagina, 297 
 Falarica, 2S1 
 Falces murales, 281 
 Falcifer, 91 
 Falcula, 264 
 
 Falsi crimen, 260 
 
 Falsum, 239- 
 
 Falx, 264 
 
 Fama, 118 
 
 Fa m ilia, 235, 288 
 
 FamiliEe jus, 258 
 
 Familiares. 129 
 
 Fanatici, 240 
 
 Fanum, 230, 240 
 
 Far, Farina, 264 
 
 Fasces, 232, 213 
 
 Fasci<e, 299 
 
 Fascinatio. 24 
 
 Fascinum, 119, 240 
 
 Fascinus, 119 
 
 Fasti Annales, 241 
 Consulares, 241 
 dies, 241 
 Kalendares, 241 
 
 Fastigium 291 
 
 Fauna, 130 
 
 Faunalia, 241, 242 
 
 Fauni, 130 
 
 Faunus, 130 
 
 Febris, 120 
 
 Februa, 61, 100 
 
 Februarius, 61 
 
 Februatio, 241 
 
 Februus, 100 
 
 Feciales, 232, 234 
 
 Femoralia, 299 
 
 Fenestra, 290 
 
 Feralia, 241 
 
 Ferentarii, 276 
 
 Feretrius, 95 
 
 Feretrum, 302 
 
 Feriae, 241 
 
 Feriae Latins, 11, 241 
 
 Feronia, 120 
 Ferreee manus, 282 
 Ferula, 260 
 Festi dies, 241 
 Festum mercatorum, 
 
 109, 242 
 Fibulae, 275 
 Fictile, 263, 297 
 Fides, 122 
 Fides Graeca, 164 
 Fidicines, 236 
 Figlina, 263 
 Figulus, 263 
 Fiscinae corbes, 295 
 Fiscus, 261 
 Flabellifer, 289 
 Flagellis, 260 
 Flagellum,104,260,266 
 Flamines, 232, 235, 298 
 FlaminiEe, 236 
 Flaminica, 235 
 Flaminii, 236 
 Flarnmeum luteum,287 
 Flora, 120, 242 
 Floralia, 120, 242, 246 
 Flumina inferorum, 25 
 Foculi, 291 
 Focus, 291 
 Foederatae civitates, 
 
 258 
 Foenisectores, 289 
 Fcenum, 264 
 Foenus, 267 
 Fontinalia, 242 
 Fora, 17 
 
 Foramina, 282, 290 ! 
 Forda, 242 
 Fordicidia, 242 
 Forfex 275 
 Fori, 242 
 Formae, 263 
 Fortuna, 118, 303 
 Fortuna Fortis, 242 
 
 virilis, 242 
 Forum, 17, 259, 302 
 Forus, 295 
 
 Fossa, 280 
 Fraenum, 266 
 Fratres Arvales, 232, 
 
 236 
 Fraus, 122 
 Frisidarium, 293 
 Fritillus, 295 
 Frumentarii, 277 
 Fucus, 299 
 Fulcra, 291, 294 
 Fulguratores, 234 
 Fullo, 264 
 Fnllonica, 264 
 Fullonium, 264 
 Fumarium, 296 
 Funambuli, 244 
 Funditores, 276 
 Funes, 260, 282 . 
 Funus indictiyum, 
 
 publicum, 300 
 Furiae, 128 
 Furina, 123 
 Furinalia, 128, 242 
 Fuscina, 244 
 Fustuariurn, 275 
 
 G. 
 
 Gaia, 93, 112 
 Galea, 274 
 Galericulum, 299 
 Galerus, 233. 274 
 Galli, 94,232, 236 
 Gallicinium, 60 
 Gallinarii, 289 
 Gallinarium,292 
 Gallus, 233 
 Ganymedes, 96 
 Gausape, 293 
 Gemonise, 260 
 Genethliaci, 210 
 Genii, 129 
 
 Genio indulgere, 129 
 Gens, 285 
 Gens togata, 297 
 Gentilitia, 288 
 Gladiatores, 244 
 Gladius, 274 
 Gladius et hasta, 249 
 Glaucus, 98 
 Globus, 275 
 Gradivus Mars, 105 
 Gradus, 247 
 Gratise, 127 
 Greges, 243 
 Grus, 281 
 
 Gubernaculum, 282 
 Gubernator, 282 
 Gustus, Gustatio, 294 
 Guttus, 232 
 
 H. 
 
 Habens, 266 
 
 Hades. 99 
 
 Haereditas, 268 
 
 Halcyoneus, 125 
 
 Hamadryades, 126 
 
 Harioli, 240 
 
 Harpagones, 282 
 
 Harpocrates, 124 
 
 Haruspices, 232, 233, 
 237 
 
 Haruspicina, 234 
 
 Hasta pura, 274 
 sanguinea, 234 
 velitaris, 274 
 venire sub, 268 
 
 Hastae, 274 
 
 Hastati, 271, 274, 276, 
 278 
 
 Hebdomades, 61 
 
 Hebe, 96 
 
 Hecate, 101, 102 
 
 Helirea, 186 
 
 Heliastae, 181 
 
 Heliconiades, 126 
 Helius, 100, 114 
 Hemina, 268 
 Heraclidae, 188 
 Hercules, 134 
 Hermae, 109 
 Hermanubis, 124 
 Hermes, 108 
 Hesperides, 134 
 Hilaria, 94, 236, 241 
 Hippocrene, 127, 131 
 Hippocrenides, 126 
 Hippodromi, 18 
 Hippolytus, 98 
 Hippona, 120 
 Histriones, 300 
 Hocage, 237 
 Holocaustum, 238 
 Honor, 122 
 Honorati, 249 
 Horae, 117, 127, 240 
 Hora hiberna, brevis- 
 
 sima, 240 
 Hordeum, 264 
 Horologium, 60 
 Hortator, 232 
 Hortus, 292 
 Horus, 122, 124 
 Hospes, 295 
 Hostiae, 237 
 Hydra, 131 
 Hydraulis,217 
 Hygeia, 117, 118 
 Hyperion, 114,124 
 Hypogaea, 303 
 
 I. 
 
 Iapetus, 124 
 Iasminum, 299 
 Idaea, 93 
 Idalia, 106 
 Ignis, 113 
 
 Isnominia, 251, 260 
 Ilithyia, 96, 102 
 Illustres, 256 
 Imagines, 302 
 Immolare, 237 
 Impedimenta, 277 
 Imperator, 257 
 Imperium, 283 
 Impluvium, 290, 291 « 
 Inanes tumuli, 302 
 Inauguratio, 238 
 Inaures, 299 
 Incubatio, 166 
 Indigetes, 87 
 Inducula, 244 
 Indusiuru, 297 
 Infamia, 260 
 Inferiae, 304 
 Infundibulum, 264 
 Ingenui, 285 
 Ino, 125 
 Insigne, 282 
 Inslita, 298 
 Insulae, 291 
 Intercedere, 250 
 Intercisi dies, 241 
 Interdictus, 260 
 Interrex, 251 
 Interula, 298 
 Inuus, 116 
 Inventor, 95 
 Invidia, 122 
 Iris, 96, 115 
 Irpex, 264 
 Isia, 123 
 Isis, 122 
 Itio in partes, 256 
 
 Jactus Veneris, 295 
 Jaculatores, 276 
 •Janua, 93, 290, 291 
 
INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 
 
 315 
 
 Januarius, 61 
 
 Janus, 18, 93, 267 
 
 Janus bifrons, 267 
 
 Judices assessores,259 
 
 Judicia, 259 
 
 Juga, 96 
 
 Jugarii, 239 
 
 Jugerum, 268 
 
 Jugum, 264, 266 
 
 Julii,235 
 
 Junius, 61 
 
 Juno, 96 
 
 Caprotina, 242 
 Moneta, 242 
 Sospita, 241 
 
 Junonalia, or Junonia, 
 96 
 
 Junones, 96 
 
 Jupiter, 94 ; Termina- 
 lis, 119; Latiaris, 
 284;Infernus, 100; 
 Maimactes, 242 
 
 Jura provinciarum, 
 praefecturarum, 
 &c. 258 
 
 Juramentum, 239 
 
 Jurare conceptis ver- 
 bis, 239 
 
 Juris interpretes, 250 
 
 Jus iElianum,261 
 civitatis, &c. 258 
 Flavianum, 261 
 honnrarium, 249 
 
 261 
 hospitii 295 
 . imaginum, 254 
 Latii or Latinita- 
 
 tis, 258 
 militias, 258, 271 
 Papirianum, 261, 
 Pontificium, 241 
 Quiritium, 258, 286 
 
 Jusjurandum, 239 
 
 Juturna, 120 
 
 Juvenales, 246 
 
 K. 
 Kalends, 61, 240 
 Kalendarium, 241 
 Kinura, 217 
 
 L. 
 
 Labarum, 272 
 Labyrinthus, 43 
 Lacerna, 298 
 Lachesis, 128 
 Lachrymae, 302 
 Lacrymales, 303 
 Lacus, 19,296 
 Lasna, 233, 235, 298 
 Lanceae, 274 
 Lances, 232, 294 
 Lanificium, 264 
 Lanista, 244 
 Lapis Albanus, 303 
 
 specularis, 290 
 Lapithae, 131 
 Laquearia, 290 
 Lararium, 120 
 Lares, 129, 291 
 Lares Pragstites, 242 
 Larvae, 129 
 Laterculus, 278 
 Lateres coctiles, 263 
 Latialis, 95 
 Laticlavia, 256, 298 
 Latomiae, 40 
 Latona, 116 
 Latus clavus, 256 
 Laudatio, 302 
 Lavatio Matris Deo- 
 
 rum, 241 
 Laverna, 120 
 Lecti, 291 
 
 Lectica, 300 
 Lecticarii, 289 
 Lectisternia, 234, 239 
 Lectisterniator, 289 
 Lectus feralis, 300 
 Lectus summus, me- 
 
 dius, imus, 293 
 Legati; 252, 278 
 Legem accipere, jube- 
 
 re, abrogare, &c, 
 
 261 
 Leges agrariae, &c, 261 
 
 Curiatae, &c, 261 
 Legifera, 170 
 Legitimus, 288 
 Lemnius, 107 
 Lemures, 129 
 Lemuria, 242 
 Lethum, 130 
 Leucanthes, 91 
 Lex annalis, 248 
 
 Atinia, 261 
 
 Furia, 261 
 
 Julia, 2S6 
 
 Poppaea, 286 
 
 Porcia, 260, 283 
 Liba, 238 
 Libellus, 244 
 Liber, 109 
 Liberalia, 241 
 Libertatis jus, 258 - 
 Liberti, Libertini, 2S5 
 Libertina, 106 
 Libitinarius, 300 
 Libra, 266, 270 
 Librae, 266 
 Librarii, 277, 289 
 Libri Elephantini, 18 
 Libs, 128 
 Liburnicae, 283 
 Lictores, 248, 252 
 Ligo, 264 
 
 Ligula, 232, 268, 298 
 Limbus, 298 
 Linguis favete, 237 
 Linum, 264 
 Litare, 234 
 Litui, 272, 274 
 Lituus, 232, 233, 274, 
 Lixae, 277 
 
 Locus consularis, 293 
 Lora,260; subjugia,266 
 Lorica, 274 
 Lucaria, 241 
 Lucerna?, 291 
 Luci, 18, 230 
 Lucina, or Lucinia, 96, 
 
 102 
 Lucta, 243 
 Luctus publicus, 304 
 Ludi, 19 
 
 Ludi Apollinares, 101, 
 242, 246 
 
 capitolini, 246 
 
 circenses, 98, 101, 
 242, 243 
 
 florales, 246 
 
 funebres, 304 
 
 gladiatorii, 244 
 
 inagni, 242, 243 
 
 megalenses, 246 
 
 plebeii, 242,246 
 
 scenici, 246 
 
 seculares, 102,243 
 
 votivi, 246 
 Ludii, 300 
 Ludus, 244 
 Ludus Magnus, &c, 119 
 
 Trojae, 243 
 Luna, 101, 114 
 Lunatici, 240 
 Luna patricia, 299 
 Lunata acies, 262 
 
 pellis, 299 
 
 Lupercalia, 116,235,241 
 Luperci, 232, 235 
 Lupercus, 116, 235 
 Lustrationes, 239 
 Lustrica, 232 
 Lustrum, 62, 239 
 Lusus naturae, 110 
 Lyaeus, 109 
 Lycaeus, 116 
 Lychnuchus, 291 
 Lycius, 101 
 Lydius lapis, 266 
 Lymphati, 240 
 
 M. 
 
 Mactare, 237 
 Maenalius, 116 
 Maeniana, 247 
 Magister auctionura, 
 233 
 
 collegii, 233 
 
 convivii, 295 
 
 equitum, 251, 284 
 
 militiae, 284 
 
 navis, 282 
 
 officiorum,250,284 
 
 pedilum, 284 
 
 publicanorum, 262 
 , publicus, 234 
 Magistratus, 251 
 Maimactes, 242 
 Maius, 61 , 
 Majestatis crimen, 252, 
 
 259 
 Mala, 294 
 Malleoli, 281 
 Malleus, 232, 291 
 Mai us, 282 
 Mamurius, 235 
 Manceps portuum, 262 
 Mancipatio, 268 
 Mancipia, 285 
 Mandata, 261 
 Manes, 129, 304 
 Mangones, 289 
 Mania, 129 
 Manicae, 260 
 Manicula, 264 
 Manipulus, 272 
 Mansio, 278 
 Mantilia, 294 
 Manumissio, 288, 289 
 Manus ferreae, 282 
 Mappa, 294 
 Marculi, 291 
 Margaritae, 268 
 Margines, 15 
 Marina, 106 
 Marra, 264 
 Mars, 105 
 Martiales, 246 
 Martius, 61 
 Materfamilias, 287 
 Mathematici, 240 
 Matralia, 242 
 Matrimonium, 286 
 Mausoleum, 20,48, 114, 
 
 223 
 Media Nox, 60 
 Medicamina, 299 
 Medici, 2S9 
 Meditrinalia, 242 
 Medusa, 104, 130 
 Megaera, 128 
 Megalenses, 246 
 Megalesi:i, 94, 241 
 Mehercle, 239 
 Mellona, 120 
 Melpomene, 127 
 Mensae, 291, 294 
 Mensarii, 263 
 Mensa sacra, 230 
 Mensis intercalaris, 61 
 Mephitis, 12, 120 
 
 Mercatores, 263 
 Mercatorum festum, 
 
 109 
 Mercurius, 108 
 Metae, 243 
 Metatores, 277 
 Metopium,299 
 Milites leves, 271 
 Militia: jus, 258, 271 
 Milliare, 268 
 Milliarium aureum, 1& 
 Millies, &c, 267 
 Minerva, 104 
 Minium, 299 
 Ministri, 236 
 Mirmillones, 244 
 Miscellanei dei, 87 
 Missio, 244 
 Mnemosyne, 124, 126 
 Modius, 268, 282 
 Mola, manuaria, asi- 
 
 naria, &c, 264 
 Mola salsa, 237 
 Moles Hadriani, 20 
 Molybdis, 282 
 Momus, 119 
 Moneta, 96, 242, 267 
 Monilia, 299 
 Monopodium, 291,294 
 Mons Palatinus, &c.,16 
 Monumenta, 302 
 Morpheus, 130 
 Mors, 130, 260 
 Mortarium, 264 
 Mulciber, 107 
 Mulcta, 260 
 Muliones, 289 
 Mullei, 299 
 Munera, 244, 302 
 Munia pacis et belli,253 
 Municipia, 258 
 Murex, 297 
 Murrha, or Murrhi-* 
 
 num, 263, 297 
 Musculi, 281 
 Musica, 105 
 Mustiim, 296 
 Mutitatio, 295 
 Mystagogi, 236 
 Mythi, 83 
 
 N. 
 Naenia, 138 
 Naenis, 300 
 Naiades, 126 
 NapaeaE, 126 
 Nardinum, 299 
 Natalitia vota,238 
 Naturalis, 288 
 Naumachiae, 19, 243 
 Naumachiarii, 243 
 Nautea, 282 
 Navarchus,282 
 Naves onerariae, lon- 
 
 gae, rostratae, &c. 
 
 282 
 Navis praetoria, 282 
 Nefasti,241 
 Negotiatores, 263 
 Nemesis, 117 
 Neptunalia, 93,242 
 Nereides, 98, 126 
 Nereus, 98 
 Nervus, 260 
 Neryx, 15 
 Nexus, 267 
 Niobe, 102 
 Nobiles, 254 
 Nobilitas Romana, 253 
 Nomen,285 
 Nomius, 101 
 Nonae, 61 
 Nota censoria, 251 
 
 interior, 296 
 
316 
 
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 
 
 Notae interior, 296 
 Notarii, 252 
 Notus, 116, 128 
 November, 61 
 Novi homines, 254 
 Nox, 115 
 
 Nubentis utensilia,287 
 Numerus legitimus,256 
 Nummularii, 267 
 Nummus, 267 
 Nummus moduli max- 
 
 imi, 266 
 Nundinas, 61, 241 
 Nuptiae justs, 286 
 Nuptialis, 96 
 Nnptialis coena,287 
 Nutritii, 289 
 Nyctelius, 109 
 Nymphsea, 19 
 Nymphaeum, 126 
 
 O. 
 
 Obices, 291 
 Obolus, 100 
 Obsecrationes, 237 
 Occa, 264 
 Occator, 120 
 Occatores, 2S9 
 Occidens, 128 
 Oceanus, 98, 124 
 Ocrea?, 244, 256, 274 ' 
 Octavae, 262 
 October, 61 
 Ocypeta, 128 
 Odea, 19, 32, 33 
 Odrysius, 105 
 Oesipum, 299 
 Olitorium, 17 
 Ollae extares, 232 
 Onager, 281 
 Opalia, 242 
 Opeconsiva, 212 
 Opigena, 96 
 Opiliones, 289 
 Ops, 93 
 Oppidum, 225 
 Optimus Maximus, 95 
 Optio, 272 
 Optiones, 276 
 Opus incertum, 248 
 Orationes principum, 
 
 261 - 
 Orbis, 278 
 Orchestra, 246 
 Orcus, 100 
 Ordines, 271 
 Ordinibus compressis, 
 
 276 
 Ordo equester, 254 
 
 plebeius, 253 
 Oreades, 126 
 Orion, 125 
 Oscines, 233 
 Oscophoria, 109 
 Osiris, 122 
 Ossilegium, 302 
 Ostiarhim, 262 
 Ostiarius, 289 
 Ostium, 290 
 Otus, 125 
 Ova, 294 
 Ovatio, 284 
 Ovile, 257 
 
 Pabulum, 120 
 Padagogi, 288, 289 
 Paenula, 298 
 Palatinus, 16 
 Palatium, 16,20 
 Pales, 120 
 Palilia, 120, 242 
 Palla, 298 
 Palladium, 94, 101, 113 
 
 Pallantias, 114 
 
 Pallas, 105 
 
 Palliati, 297 
 
 Palmus,268 
 
 Paludamentum, 298 
 
 Pan, 116 
 
 Panstolium, 193 
 
 Panathenaea, 104, 171 
 
 Pancratium, 173 
 
 Pandora, 107 
 
 Panes, 130 
 
 Panificium, 263 
 
 Pantheon, 17 
 
 Paphia, 106 
 
 Paralus, 42 
 
 Pares, 128 
 
 Pares, impares, tibiae 
 247 
 
 Parilia, 120 
 
 Parma, 244, 274 
 
 Parnassides, 126 
 
 Parricidii, 260 
 
 Passus, 268 
 
 Patareus, 101 
 
 Patella, 232 
 
 Patellarii, 129 
 Patera, 96, 300 
 Pater*, 232 
 Pater fiduciarius, 288 
 
 patratus, 234 
 Patres conscripti, 256 
 minorum gentium. 
 253 
 Patricii, 253 
 Patrinae, 294 
 Patronus, 259 
 Patulcius, 93 
 Pavimenta tessalata, 
 
 290 
 Pax, 122, 241 
 Pecudes, 266 
 Peculates, 252,260 
 Peculium castrense, 
 
 274 • 
 Pecunia, 266 
 Pedes, 282 
 Pedicae, 260 
 Pedites, 278 
 Pegasus, 26, 131 
 Pelopidae, 136 
 Pelops, 136 
 Peloria, 91 
 Penates, 129 
 Perduellionis, 260 
 Peregrini,258 
 Peregrini dii, 87 
 Periceci, 189 
 Peripetasmata, 291 
 Peristromata, 291 
 Perones, 298 
 Perpetuae quaestiones, 
 
 259 
 Perpol, 239 
 Perseus, 133 
 Perticae, 264 
 Pes, 268 
 Pessinuntia, 93 
 Petasus, 108, 298 
 Petauristae, 244 
 Petitio, 259 
 Petitor, 259 
 Petrseus, 98 
 Phalarae, 275 
 Phantasus, 130 
 Phaseli, 283 
 Phengites, 290 
 PhiaUe, 297 
 Phobetor, 130 
 Ph(Bbe, 102, 117, 124 
 Phorcus, 98 
 Phylarchi, 181 
 Phyx, 32 
 Piaculum, 239 
 Pierides, 126 
 
 Pierus, 126 
 
 Pietas, 122 
 
 Pila, 274 
 
 Pilentum, 266 
 
 Pileus,290,298 
 
 Pilumnus, 120 
 
 Pilus primus, 272 
 
 Pinacotheca, 291 
 
 Pinarii, 232,235 
 
 Piraeus, 31 
 
 Piscarium, 17 
 
 Piscatores, 289 
 
 Piscatorii Ludi, 246 
 
 Piscina mirabilis, 292 
 
 Pistores, 263 
 
 Pistrilla, 264 
 
 Pistrinum, 264 
 
 Pistum,264 
 
 Plagii, 260 
 
 Plaustra,266 
 
 PlebeiijEdiles,249 
 
 Plebiscita, 250,257, 261 
 
 Plebs, 2-53 
 
 Pleiades, 108 
 
 Plutei, 281 
 
 Pluto, 99 
 
 Plutus, 118 
 
 Pluvius or Pluvialis, 95 
 
 Pnyx, 32 
 
 Pocillator,289 
 Pocula fagina, vitrea, 
 
 &c, 297 
 Pndium, 247, 248 
 Poscile, 31, 36 
 Poena;, 260 
 Pol, 239 
 
 Polias Minerva, 29, 104 
 Policem premebant, 
 
 vertebant, 244 
 Pollinctores, 300 
 Polus, 116 
 Polyhymnia, 127 
 Pomona, 119, 120 
 Pompa circensis, 243 
 Pons Milvius, iElius, 
 
 &c, 16 
 Pontes, 257 
 Ponticuli,257 
 Pontifex Maximus, 232 
 Pontiftcss, 232 
 Popaj, 222, 236 
 Popina, sue Caupona. 
 Popularirx, 247 
 Populonizs, 96 
 Populum c^iare, 234 
 Populus, 2i>3 
 Porta praetois, decu- 
 
 mana, &t., "80 
 Porta Camem-ailis, 
 &c, 15 
 salutaris, 118 
 Portenta,233 
 Porticus milliariaw .■ 
 Portisculus, 282 
 Portorium, 261 
 Portumnalia, 242 
 Portumnus, 125 
 Postcenium, 246 
 Postridiani, 241 
 Potamides, 126 
 Potitii, 232, 235 
 Prsecinctiones, 2*7 
 Praecones, 252 
 Praedes, 259,262 
 Praedia, rustica, ur^a- 
 
 na, 268 
 Prsefecti, 277 
 Praefecturae, 258 
 Praefectus ^gypti, 285 
 annonae, 251,261 
 classis, 2S1 
 morum, 251 
 praetorio, 284, 285 
 urbis, 251, 2S5 | 
 
 Praefericula, 232, 239 
 PraeficEe, 300 
 Prssgustator, 289 
 Praemia minora, 275 
 Praenomen, 285 
 Presides, 285 
 Praestigiatores, 244 
 Praesul, 235 
 Praetor, 249, 259 
 Praetorium, 278 
 Prandium, 293 
 Prata, 264 
 Precationes, 236 
 Precum arbitri, 250 
 Prelum, 296 
 Priapus, 119 
 Primitiae, 238 
 Princip«s,271,275,276. 
 
 278 
 Principia, 278 
 Proconsul, 252, 285 
 Procurator, 244 
 Procurator Caesaris 
 
 252 
 Prodigia, 233 
 Prodigiatores, 234 
 Profesti, 241 
 Projicere in profluen- 
 
 tum, 260 
 Promagister, 262 
 Propraetor, 252 
 Propylaea, 29 
 Proqua;stor, 252 
 Prora, 282 
 Proreta, 282 
 Proscenium, 216 
 Proscriptio, 268 
 Proserpina, 106 
 Proteus, 98 
 Provinciae, 258 
 Prytaneum, 184 
 Psylli, 56 
 Publicani, 262 
 Publicum, 262 
 Pugilatus, 243 
 Pugnae simulacra, 304 
 Pullarius, 233 
 Pulli, 233 
 Pulmentarius, 289 
 Pulpitum, 247 
 Pulvinar, 294 
 Pulvinaria, 237, 266 
 Pulvinus, 293 
 Punctum (omne tulit), 
 
 270 
 Puppis, 282 
 Puteal, 17 
 Puticulae, 303 
 Pylae Caspiae, 46 
 Pylotis, 105 
 Pyra, 302 
 Pyramis Cestii, 20 
 Pyrakmon, 107 
 Pythius, 101 
 Pyxis or Pyxidula, 300 
 
 Atadrans, 266, 293 
 Qusdrantal, 296 
 Quaa igae, 266 
 Quadri^enaria, 272 
 Quadiiremes, 282 
 Quaesitorts, 259 
 Quaestione/ 259 
 Quaestor s*cri palatii, 
 
 250, 285 
 Quaestores, 2S** 
 Quaestorium, 27* 
 Quartarius, 268 
 Quaternio, 295 
 Quinarius, 267- 
 Quincunx, 265, SS* 
 Quindecemviri, 23* 
 
 240 
 
INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 
 
 317 
 
 Quingenaria, 272 
 Quinquatria, 104, 171, 
 
 241, 242 
 Quinquennia, 23S 
 Quinqueviri, 252 
 Quintana via,. 280 
 Quintiliani, 235 
 Ctuintilis, 61 
 Quirinalia, 241 
 Quirinales, 235 
 Quirinus Mars, 105 
 Quirit.es, 11, 16 
 Quiritium jus, 258 
 
 R. 
 
 Rallum, 264 
 
 Rastrum, 264 
 
 Rectae vise, 275 
 
 Rector, 282 
 
 Recuperatores,259 
 
 Regia, 233, 234 
 
 Regina Sacrorum, 234 
 Viarum, 16 
 
 Releeatus, 260 
 
 Religio, 229 
 
 Religione solvere, 238 
 
 Religiosi dies, 241 
 
 Remancipatio, 287 
 
 Remi, Remiges, 2S2 
 
 Repetundarum cri- 
 men, 252, 260 
 
 Repositoria,294 
 
 Repotia, 287 
 
 Repndium, 287 
 
 Rescripta, 261 
 
 Res Mancipi, Nee 
 Mancipi, 268 
 privatae, 268 
 
 Respublica, ne quid 
 detrimenti capiat, 
 251, 257 
 
 Retiarii, 214 
 
 Reus, 259 
 
 Res convivii, 295 
 sacrificulus, 234 
 sacrorum, 232, 234 
 
 Rhamnensis, 252 
 
 Rhamnusia, 117 
 
 Rhea, 91 
 
 Rneda, 266 
 
 Rica, Ricinium,298 
 
 Robigalia, 242 
 
 Rogatio, 250 
 
 Rngus, 302 
 
 Roma, 119 
 
 Romaica,216 
 
 Rorarii, 276 
 
 Rosa, Sub; 206 
 
 Rosaceum, 299 
 
 Rostra, 17, 282, 302 
 
 Rudentes, 282 
 
 Rudera, 15 
 
 Runcatores, 289 
 
 Runcina, 120 
 
 Saburra, 282 
 Sacella, 230 
 Sacertodes, 236 
 Sacra gentilitia, 288 
 Sacramentum, 2?0, 271 
 Sacrificia,237 
 Sacrorum jus, 258 
 Sagitarii, 276 
 Sagum, 298 
 Salarium, 262 
 Saligenita, 106 
 Salii, 105,232,235,241 
 Salinae, 262 
 Saltus, 243 
 Salus, 118 
 Sambuca, 217 
 Sandapila, 300 
 Sandipilarii, 300 
 
 Sapa, 296 
 Sarcinae, 277 
 Sarcophagus, 302 
 Sarculum,264 
 Sarracum, 266 
 Satisdare, 259 
 Sator, 91 
 
 Saturnalia, 91,242 
 Saturnia, 91 
 Saturnus, 91 
 Saxo Tarpeio dejicere, 
 
 260 
 Scabella, 299 
 Seals, 247, 260, 280 
 Scalmus, 262 
 Scena, 246 
 Scholae, 284 
 Scias, 36 
 Scissor, 289 
 Scorpio, 281 
 Scribce, 252, 277 
 Scriptura, 262 
 Scutica, 260 
 Scutum, 244, 274 
 Scylla, 132 
 Scyphi, 297 
 Secespitae, 232 
 Sectio, 268 
 Securi percutere, 260 
 Securis, 232, 248, 264 
 Secutores, 244 
 Sedilia, 282 
 Segetia, Seia, 120 
 Selecti, 87 
 Sella, 248, 291 
 Sella curulis, 235, 250, 
 254 
 
 portatoria, 254 
 Sembella, 267 
 Sementina, 241 
 Semis, 266 
 Semones, 87 
 Senacula, 18 
 Senatus auctoritas,256 
 
 consultum,256,261 
 Senio, 295 
 Sentina, 282 
 Septa, 257 
 Septunx, 266 
 Serae, 291 
 Serapea, 123 
 Serapis, 123 
 Septemviri, 234 
 Septicollis, 15, 225 
 Sepulchrum, 302 
 Seres, 298' 
 Serra, 276 
 Servi terrae, 290 
 Servitutes praediorum, 
 
 268 
 Servitus, 260, 268 
 Servus admissionalis, 
 
 cubicularius, &c, 
 
 289 
 Sestertius, 267 
 Sestertium, 267 
 Seva, 232 
 Sexcenaria, 272 
 Sextans, 266 
 Sextarius, 268 
 Sextilis, 61 
 Sicae, 196 
 Sicarii, 196 
 Sicarios, crimen inter, 
 
 260 
 Sigma, 291, 294 
 Signa, 233,272 
 Signiferi, 272 
 Sileni, 130 
 Silenus, 110 
 Silicernium, 304 
 Simpulum, 232 
 Sinister, 233 
 Sirennusae, 126 
 
 Sistrum, 119,218 
 Sitella,257 
 Smegmata, 299 
 Sminlhse, 42 
 Smintheus, 42, 101 
 Socci, 299 
 Societas, 262 
 Socii, 277 
 Sodales, Titii, 232, 236 
 
 Augustales, 236 
 Sodalilates, 235 
 Sol, 114 
 Solaria, 240 
 Solarium, 60, 291 
 Soleae, 299 
 Solennia, 237 
 Solidus, 267 
 Somnus. 130 
 Soracle,120 
 Soranus, 100 
 Sors, 267 
 Sortes, 240 
 Sortilegi, 240 
 Sortitio, 257 
 Sospita, 96 
 Spathae, 274 
 Specillum, 263 
 Spectacula, 243 
 Specula, 290,299 
 Specularia, 290 
 Spes, 122 
 
 Sphaeristerium, 293 
 Spina circi, 242, 243 
 Spoliarium, 248 
 Spondae, 294 
 Sponsalia, 286 
 Sponsio, 286 
 Sponsor, 95 
 Sportula, 295 
 Spurius, 288 
 Stadium, 18, 32, 268 
 Stapife, 266 . 
 Stata, 237 
 Stater Daricus, 213 
 Statio, 280 
 Stator, 95 
 Statumen, 15 
 Statumina, 282 
 Stega, 282 
 Sterculinus, Stercu- 
 
 tius, 91, 120 
 Steropes, 107 
 Stheno, 130 
 Stibadium, 294 
 Stipendio privari,275 
 Stipendium, 236, 274 
 Stipulatio, 286 
 Stiva, 264 
 Stola,298 
 Stragula, 294, 291 
 Strangulare, 260 
 Strategi, 196 
 Strense, 241 
 Strenua, 120 
 Strigiles, 293, 303 
 Stroppi, 282 
 Structor, 289, 295 
 Strymonius, 105 
 Suarium, 17 
 Subcenturio,272 
 Subdivale, 290 
 Subitarii, 271 
 Subligaculum, 244 
 Subsignani, 272 
 Subsolanus, 128 
 Subucula, 297 
 Succina, 297 
 Sudes, 280, 281 
 Suffragiijus, 258 
 Sugeestus, 17,247 
 Suile, 292 
 Summanus, 100, 129, 
 
 242 
 Suovetaurilia, 105, 239 
 2d2 
 
 Supplicationes, 237,283 
 Supplicia,237 
 Symbola, 280, 299 
 
 T. 
 
 TabellEe, 257 
 
 legitimes, 286 
 Tablinum, 291 
 Tabula auctionaria, 
 268 
 
 lusnria, 295 
 
 proscriptionis, 268 
 Tabulae duodeeim, 261 
 
 voliva?. 238 
 Tabularia, 17 
 Tabularium, 17, 256 
 Trediger, 289 
 Taenia, 282 
 Talaria, 108 
 Talentum, 267 
 Tali, 240, 295 
 Talio, 260 
 Tantalides, 136 
 Tartarus, 99 
 Tatiensis, 252 
 Tegulae, 291 
 Telesphorus, 118 
 Tellus, 93, 112 
 Temo, 264, 266 
 Tempestas, 242 
 Tempi a, 230, 233 
 Tepidarium, 293 
 Terebra, 281 
 Tergemina, 102 
 Terminalia, 119, 241 
 Terminus, 119 
 Ternio, 295 
 Terpsichore, 127 
 Teruncius, 267 
 Tesselatum, 290 
 Tessera, 280, 295 
 Tesserae, 295 
 Tesserarii, 280 
 Testa, 296 
 Testamenti jus, 258 
 Testamento, 268 
 Testudo, 278, 280, 281 
 Tethys, 124 
 Textrina, 264 
 Thalia, 127 
 Theatra, 18 
 Themis, 117, 124 
 Thensa, 266 
 Theriotrophium, 292 
 Thermae, 19, 290 
 Theseus, 60, 134 
 Thesmophora, 27 
 Thesmothetae, 181 
 Thetis, 98 
 Thorax, 274 
 Thraces, 244 
 Thriambus, 109 
 Thurarium, 232 
 Thuribulum, 232 
 Ttvurius, 105 
 Thymbraeus, 101 
 Thyoneus, 109 
 Thyrsiger, 109 
 Thyrsus, 110 
 Tibiae,dextrae,sinistrae f 
 
 119, 239 
 Tibialia, 299 
 Tibicines, 236, 300 
 Tinctoria, 264 
 Tinctura, 264 
 Tintinnabula, 266, 291 
 Tisiphone, 128 
 Titaea, 91, 112 
 Titanides, 91, 117 
 Tiluli, 289 
 Titulus,302 
 Toga, 248, 297 
 
 Candida, 248 
 
 fusa, 297 
 
318 
 
 INDEX OF LATIN WORDS. 
 
 Toga, praetexta, 233. 
 234, 235, 249, 250' 
 284, 297 
 pulla, 297 
 virilis, 297, 299 
 Togati, 297 
 Tollere infantem, 287 
 Tomentum, 294 
 Tonsores, 289 
 Topiarii, 292 
 
 Torcular, 296 
 
 Torcularium, 296 
 
 Toreumata, 297 
 
 Torques aurea?, 275, 
 299, 300 
 
 Torus, 291 
 
 Trabea, 233, 284 
 
 Tragularii, 276 
 
 Traha, 264, 266 
 
 Tralatitia, 249 
 
 Transtra, 262 
 
 Transvectio,256 
 
 Triarii, 271, 272, 275, 
 276, 278 
 
 Tribula, 264, 266 
 
 Tribunal, 17,249,257,278 
 
 Tribuni militun), 251 
 plebis, 250 
 
 Tribus, urbanae, rusti- 
 cs;, 252 
 
 Tributa, 261 
 
 Tributa comitia,257,261 
 
 Tricennaria, 272 
 
 Triclinium. 291,293,304 
 
 Tridens, 244 
 
 Triens, 266 
 
 Trieterica, 109 
 
 Triformis, 102 
 
 Triga, 266 
 
 Trigonon, 217 
 
 Trinundinum, 261 
 
 Tripes, 294 
 
 Triplex acies, 275 
 
 Tripodes, 232 
 
 Tripudium, 233 
 
 Triremes, 282 
 
 Triticum, 264 
 
 Triton, 98, 125 
 
 Tritnnia, 104 
 
 Triumphalis lex, 283 
 
 Triumphus, 283, 284 
 
 Triumviri, 252, 267 
 
 Trivia, 102 
 
 Tropsea, 19, 199 
 
 Trutinae, 266 
 
 Tuba?, 232. 239, 272 
 Tubicines,' 236, 274 
 Tubilustrium, 241, 242 
 Tulliamim, 260 
 Tunica, 297 
 
 angusticlavia, 256, 
 298 . 
 
 laticlavia, 256, 298 
 
 recta, 287 
 Tumultuarii, 271 
 Tumultus, 7, 271 
 Tumulus, 302 
 Turmee, 272, 277 
 Turricula, 295 
 Turris, 278, 281 
 Tutela, 282 
 Tympana, 266 
 Tympanum, 119,218 
 Typhosus, or Typhon, 
 
 122, 125, 132 
 
 IT. 
 
 Udones, 299 
 Ultimum, 257 
 Ultor, 105 
 Unciae, 266 
 Unctuarium, 293 
 Unguenta, 299 
 Unio, 295 
 Unxia, 96 
 Uragus, 272, 277 
 Urania, 106, 127, 
 Uranus, 91, 113 
 Urbs, 225 
 Urceus, 232 
 Urna, 268 
 
 feralis, 302 
 Urns lachrymales, 303 
 Usinum, 299 
 Ustrina, Ustrinum, 303 
 Usucapio, 268, 286 
 Usura, 267 
 Usurpatio, 287 
 Usus, 268, 286 
 Utensil ia, 287 
 Utres, 296 
 Uxor, 267 
 Uxorium, 262 
 
 V. 
 
 Vacatio honorata, 271, 
 
 275 
 Vacuna, 120 
 Vades, 259 
 Vagina, 232 
 
 Valetudinarium, 280 
 
 Vallonia, 120 
 
 Vallum, 280 
 
 Vasa murrhina, 263, 
 297 
 sacra, 232 
 sculpta, 297 
 unguentaria, 303 
 
 Vates, 16 
 
 Vaticanus, 16 
 
 Vaticinatores, 240 
 
 Vectigalia, 261 
 
 Vedius, 95 
 
 Vehffl, 266 
 
 Vejovis, 95 
 
 Vela, 2S2 
 
 Velites, 271, 274, 276 
 
 Venalitiarii, 289 
 
 Venatio, 243 
 
 Veneficii crimen, 260 
 
 Veneralia, 241 
 
 Venti, 128 
 
 Ventorum Ara, 116 
 
 Ventus textilis, 298 
 
 Venus, 105, 295 
 Genetris, 242 
 Marina, 125 
 A r erbera, 260 
 Vernse, 285 
 
 Verticordia, 106 
 Vertumnus,il9 
 Vespera, 60 
 Vespillones, 300 
 Vesta, 18, 93, 230, 242 
 Vestales, 113, 232, 236 
 Vestalia, 241, 242 
 Vestes Coae, Sericae, 
 
 298 
 Vestiarii, 289 
 Vestis stragula, 266, 
 
 291 
 Vestibulum, 290, 300 
 Veto, 250 
 Vexillarii, 272 
 Vexillationes, 285 
 Vexillum, 272, 275 
 Vexillum purpureum, 
 
 282 
 Via Quintana, 280 
 Sacra, Appia, &.C., 
 15 
 Vise, 15, 16 
 Viales, 129 
 Viatores, 250 
 Vicarii, 285 
 
 Vicennalia, 238 
 Vicesima, 262 
 Vici, 17 
 Victima3,237 
 Victimarii, 236 
 Victor, 95 
 Victoria, 120 
 Victrix, 106 
 Vicus albus, &c, 17 
 Vigiles, 280 
 Vigiliee, 59, 240, 280 
 Villa urbana, rustica, 
 
 &c, 292 
 Villicus, 292, 289 
 Villicus amphitheatri, 
 
 247 
 Vinalia, 242 
 Vinaria cella, 296 
 Vincula, 260, 299 
 Vindemiatores, 289 
 Vindicatio, 259 
 Vindicta, 2S9 
 Vinese, 198, 280 
 Vinum Falernum, Cae- 
 
 cubum, &c, 296 
 Virgo, 117, 118 
 
 maxima, 236 
 Virgis,260 
 Viri epulares, 234 
 Virtus, 122 
 Vis puhlicae, 260 
 Visceratio, 304 
 Vitisator, 91 
 Vitrea, 263 
 
 Vitrea specularia, 290 
 Vitrum, 263 
 Vitta, 232, 299 
 Viva voce, 268 
 Vivarium, 292 
 Volones, 271 
 Volusia, 120 
 Vomer, 264 
 Vota, 238 
 Voti reus, 238 
 Votivi ludi, 246 
 Vulcanalia, 107, 242 
 Vulcanus, 107, 108 
 Vulpium combustio 
 
 112 
 Vulsella, 263 
 Vulturius, 101 
 
 Zephyrus, 116, 128 
 Zona, 266 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 Abana, 50 
 Abdera, 21 
 Absynthi, or Apsynthi, 
 
 21 
 Abydos, 21, 47 
 Abyla, 9, 57 
 Abyssinia, 55 
 Acarnania, 24, 26 
 Ace, or Aco, 50 
 Achaia, 34 
 Acharnae, 28 
 Achelous, 21, 26, 41 
 Acheron, 25 
 Acidalia (fount), 27 
 Aciris, 13 
 Acradina, 40 
 Acritas Prom. 33 
 Acro-Ceraunia, 24 
 Acro-Ceraunii, Mon- 
 
 tes, 21, 22, 24 
 Acro-Corinthus, 34 
 Acte, 28 
 Actium, 26 
 Actium Prom. 25, 26 
 Adramyltium, 47 
 Adrianopolis, 21 
 Adrumetum, 57 
 Adulis, 55 
 Ma, 46, 135 
 JEdui, 6 
 
 JEgades or JEgates, 41 
 .^Egaeum Mare, 21 
 JEge, 34 
 ^gina, 34, 42 
 iEgissa or iEgissus, 8 
 ^gium, 34 
 iEgos Potamos, 21 
 ^Egusa, 41 
 Mgypti torrens, 53 
 ^gyptiis, 53 
 iElanites Sinus, 53 
 .SInone, 42 
 -2Enos, 21 
 JEnus, 7 
 
 folios Insulae, 41 . 
 Mohs or ^Eolia, 47 
 iEstuarium Itunae, 40 
 Ethiopia, 55 
 ^Ethria, 42 
 jEtna, 41 
 .Etolia, 26 
 Africa, 53 
 
 Interior, 57 
 
 Propria, 56 
 Aganippe, 27 
 Agathyrsi, 5 
 Agrigentum, 41 
 Agylla, 10 
 Alabanda, 48 
 Alani, 46 
 
 Alba Longa, 11,225 
 Albania, 48 
 Albania? Pylce, 46 
 Albanus Lacus, 11 
 Albis, 6 
 
 Albulus Lacus, 11 
 Alburnus, 13 
 Aleria, 40 
 Alesia, 6 
 
 Alexandria, 48, 54 
 Alfenias, 12 
 Algidum, 11 
 
 Allemanni, 5 
 
 Allia, 11 
 
 Allobroges, 6 
 
 Alos, 24 
 
 Alpes, Graiae, &c, 7 
 
 Alpheus, 34 
 
 Altis, 34 
 
 Amanus, 48 
 
 Amardus, 44 
 
 Amasia, 47 
 
 Ambracia, 25 
 
 Ambracius Sinus, 21 
 
 Amida, 46 
 
 Arnisus, 47 
 
 Amitftrnum, 11 
 
 Amphipolis, 22 
 
 Amphissa, 26 
 
 Amphryssus, 24 
 
 Ampsagus, 57 
 
 Amsanctus, 12 
 
 Amyclae, 36 
 
 Anactorium, 26 
 
 Anamurium, 49 
 
 Anaphe, 42 
 
 Anapus, 40 
 
 Anas, 9 
 
 Anchesmus, 25,28 
 
 Ancona, 10 
 
 Ancyra, 48 
 
 Andros, 42 
 
 Angli, 5 
 
 Anio, 10, 11 
 
 Anthela, 27 
 
 Anticyra, 27 
 
 Anti-Libanus, 50 
 
 Antiochia, 48, 50 
 in Pisidia, 48 
 in Syria, 50 
 
 Antirrhium, 25 
 
 Antium, 11 
 
 Anxur, 11 
 
 Aous, 24 
 
 Apamea, 48 
 
 on Rbjyndacus, 47 
 on Marsyas, 48 
 on Orontes, 50 
 
 Aphetae, 24 
 
 Apia, 34 
 
 Apollonia, 20, 22, 56 
 
 Apulia, 12 
 
 Aquae Sextise, 6 
 
 Aquileia, 9 
 
 Aquinum, 11 
 
 Aquitani, 6 
 
 Aquitania, 6 
 
 Arabia, 53 
 
 Arabicus Sinus, 53 
 
 Arachosia, 44 
 
 Aracthus, 25 
 
 Aracynthus, 26 
 
 Aragus, 46 
 
 Arar, 7 
 
 Ararat, 44, 46 
 
 Araxes, or Phasis, 46 
 
 Araxes, 44 
 
 Arbela, 53 
 
 Arbiti Montes, 44 
 
 Arcadia, 34 
 
 Arcati Regio, 43 
 
 Ardea, 11 
 
 Arduenna Sylva, 7 
 
 Arethon, 25 
 
 Arevaci, 8 
 
 Argaeus Mons, 48 
 
 Argia, 34 
 
 Argos, in Argolis, 34 
 
 Amphilochius, 26 
 A/ia, 44, 46 
 Aria Palus, 44 
 Arimathea, 51 
 Ariminum, 10 
 Armenia, 46 
 Armorica, 6 
 Arnus, 10 
 Arpi, 12 
 Arpinum, 11 
 Arsacidae, 44 
 Arsinoe, 53, 54, 56; 
 Arsissa Palus, 46 
 Artabrum Prom. 9 
 Artacoana, 46 
 Artaxata, 46 
 Artemisium, 42 
 Arza, 46 
 Ascra, 27 
 Asculum, 10, 12 
 Asia, 43 
 Asia Minor, 46 
 Asinarius, 41 
 Aspendus, 48 
 Asphaltites Lacus 51, 
 
 52 
 Assyria, 53 
 Astaboras, 55 
 Atalanta, 27 
 Aternum, 13 
 Athenaeum Prom. 12 
 Athesis, 10 
 Athos, 22 
 Atinum, 13 
 
 Atlanticus Oceanus, 57 
 Atlantis, 57 
 Atlas, 57 
 Atropatene, 44 
 Atropatia, 44 
 Attica, 28 
 Aufidus, 12, 13 
 Augusta Emerita, 9 
 
 Taurinorum, 9 
 
 Vindelicorum, 7 
 Augustodunum, 6 
 Aulis, 27, 42 
 Aurea Cnersonesus, 3, 
 
 43 
 Ausonia, 9 
 Auxume, 55 
 Aventinus, &c, 16 
 Avernus Lacus, 12 
 Axius, 22 
 
 B. 
 
 Babylonia, 52 
 Bactra, 46 
 Bactriana, 46 
 Bsetica, 8, 9 
 Bffitis, 9 
 Bagdat, 52 
 Bagradas, 57 
 Baias, 12 
 
 Baleares Insuls, 40 
 Barce, 56 
 Barium, 13 
 Basanites Mons, 54 
 Basilicata, 13 
 Bastarnicae Alpes, 8 
 Bastuli, 9 
 
 Batavi, 6 
 Bebrycia, 47 
 Belgae, 6 
 Belgica, 7 
 Benacus, 10 
 Beneventum, 12 
 Berasa, 50 
 Berenice, 53, 54,56 
 Berytus, 50 
 Bethel, 51 
 Bethesda (pool), 52 
 Bethlehem, 51 
 Bethsaida, 50 
 Bethsan, 51 
 Bibracte, 6 
 Bilbilis, 8 
 Bithynia, 47 
 Bceotia, 27 
 Boii, 10 
 Boium, 26 
 Bononia, 10 
 Borysthenes, 5, 6 
 Bosphorus, 6, 20, 21 
 Bozra, 52 
 Bradanus, 13 
 Brauron, 28 
 Brigantes, 38 
 Briganlinus Lacus, 6 
 Britannia, 38 
 Brivates Portus, 6 
 Brixia, 9 
 
 Brundusium, 13, 16 
 Bruttia-tellus, 13 
 Bruttii, 13 
 Bruttium, 13 
 Bura, 34 
 Buthrotum, 25 
 Buxentum, 13 
 Byrsa, 56 
 Byzantium, 20 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabira, 48 
 Cadmea, 27 
 Caere, 10 
 
 Caesarea, 7, 51, 57 
 Caesarea Augusta, 8 
 
 ad Argseum, 48 
 
 Philippi, 50 
 Caieta, 11 
 Calabria, 13, 14 
 Calabria-citra, 13 
 Calagurris, 8 
 Calaris, 40 
 Calauria, 42 
 Calle, 8 
 
 Callipolis, 13,21 
 Calor (fl.),12 
 Calpas, 47 
 Calpe, 9, 57 
 Calycadnus, 48 
 Calydon, 26 
 Cambunii Montes, 21, 
 
 22,24 
 Camerinum, 10 
 Camicus, 41 
 Campania, 11 
 Camyrus, 42 
 Cana, 47 
 Canae, 50 
 Canaria, 57 
 Cannae. 13 
 
 319 
 
320 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 Canopicum Ostium, 
 
 &c, 54 
 Cantabri, 9 
 Cantii, 38 , 
 Canusium, 13 
 Capernaum, 50 
 Caphareus, 42 
 Capitolinus, &c. 16 
 Cappadocia, 48 
 Capres, 40 
 Capsa, 57 i • 
 
 Capua, 11 
 Carambis, 47 
 Carambucis, 3 
 Cardia, 21 
 Carduchi, 53 
 Carduchi Montes, 46 
 Caria, 48 ■ 
 Carmania, 44 
 Carmel, 50 
 Carni, 9 
 Carpates, 8 
 Carpathus, 42 
 Carphia, 26 
 Carrhse, 52 
 Carteia, 9 
 Carthago, 56 
 Carthago Nova, 8 
 Carystus, 42 
 Casia Regio, 3, 43 
 Casilinnm, 11 
 Caspia; Pylae, 46 
 Caspiuiu Mare, 6, 44 
 Cassandria, 22 
 Cassiterides, 38, 40 
 Castalia,27 
 Castrum Minervse, 13 
 Catabathmus, 54 
 Catti, 5 
 Caucasus, 46 
 Caudinae Furculae, 12 
 Caudium, 12 
 Caulon, 15 
 Cayster, 47 
 Cebenna, 7 
 Cecropia, 28 
 Celts, 6 
 Celtiberi, 8 
 Celtica, 6 
 
 Celticum, 9 
 
 Cenchrese, 34 
 
 Cenomanni, 9 
 
 Centum Cellae, 10 
 
 Ceos, 42 
 
 Cephalenia, 41 
 
 Cephissus, 26, 27, 28 
 
 Ceramicus, 28, 32 
 
 Cerasus, 47 
 
 Cerbalus, 13 
 
 Certa, 57 
 
 Chaberis, 43 
 
 Chseronea, 27 
 
 Chalcedon, 47 
 
 Chalcidice, 22 
 
 Chaicis, 22, 26, 42 
 
 Chaldaea, 52 
 
 Chalybes, 47 
 
 Chalybon, 50 
 
 Chaonia, 24, 25 
 
 Charran. 52 
 
 Charybdis, 13 
 
 Chelonites, 33 
 
 CUersonesus Cimbri 
 ca, 5 
 Aurea, 3, 43 
 Taurica, 5 
 Thvacias, 20 
 
 Clierusci, 5 
 
 Chimsera, 48 
 
 Chios, 42 
 
 Choaspes. 44 
 
 Chrysoceras, 20 
 
 Chrysopolis, 47 
 
 Chrysorrhoas, 50 
 
 Cichyrus, 25 
 Cico'nes, 21 
 Cilicia, 48 
 Cimbri, 5 
 Cimmericus Bospho- 
 
 rus, 6, 46 
 Cimmerii, 46 
 Cimmerium, 12 
 Circeii, 11 
 Cirrha, 27 
 
 Cisalpina Gallia, 6, 9 
 Cispadana, 9 
 Cissa, 21 
 Cithseron, 26, 28 
 Citium, 53 
 Clanius, 12. 
 Clazomenae, 47 
 Clusium, 10 
 Clypea, 57 
 Cnemis, 27 
 Cnidus, 48 
 Cocytus, 25 
 Codanus Sinus, 6 
 Ccele-Syria, or 
 
 Coslo-Syria, 50 
 Coelius, 16 
 Colchis, 46 
 
 Collis hortulorum, 16 
 Colonia Patricia, 9 
 Colophon, 47 
 Colossse, 48 
 Comagene, 50 
 Comana, 48 
 Comaria, 43 
 Comata, 7 
 Complutum, 8 
 Comum, 10 
 Consentia, 13 
 Constantinopolis, 20 
 Copais Lacus, 27 
 Coptos, 54 
 Coracesium, 48 
 Coras, 26 
 Corcyra, 41 
 Corduha, 9 
 Corfinium, 10 
 Corinthia, 34 
 Corinthiacus Sinus,21 
 
 25 
 Corinthus, 34 
 Corioli, 11 
 Coronea, 27 
 Corsica, 40 
 Corycus, 47 
 Cos, 42 
 Cosetani, 8 
 Cotiaris, 3, 43 
 CottiEe, 7 
 Cragus, 48 
 Crathes, 15 
 Cremaste, 24 
 Cremera, 11 
 Cremna, 48 
 Cremona, 9 
 Creta, 43 
 Creusa, 27 
 Crimisus, 41 
 Crissa, 27 
 Crissseus Sinus, 25 
 Criu-Metopon, 5, 47 
 Cronium, 34 
 Crotona, 13 
 Crustumerium, 11 
 Ctesiphon, 46 
 Cumse, 12 
 Cunaxa, 52 
 Cures, 11 
 Curetes, 43 
 Curia, 7 
 Custulo, 9 
 Cyclades, 42 
 Cydnus, 48 
 Cydonia, 43 
 Cyllene Mons, 34 
 
 Cynocephali, 124 
 Cynos, 27 
 Cynos Cephale, 24 
 Cynthus Mons, 42 
 Cyprus, 53 
 Cyrenaica, 56 
 Cyrene, 56 
 Cyrnos, 40 
 Cyropolis,46 
 Cyrus, 44, 46 
 Cythera, 41 
 Cythus, 42 
 Cytinium, 26 
 Cyzicus, 47 
 
 D. 
 
 Daci, 8 
 Dacia, 8 
 Dactyli, 43 
 Dalmatia, 8 
 Damascus, 50 
 Danapris, 5 
 Danubius, 7 
 Daphne, 50 
 Dardania, 8 
 Daunia, 12 ,» 
 Decapolis, 51 
 Decelia,28 
 Delium, 27 
 Delos, 42 
 Delphi, 27 
 Delphinum,28 
 Delta, 54 
 Demetrias, 24 
 Derbe, 48 
 DesertaLibyas, 57 
 Dindymus, 48 
 Dioclea, 8 
 Diospolis, 51, 54 
 Dirce Mons, 28 
 Dodona,25 
 Dolonei, 21 
 Dorion, 24 
 Doris, 26 
 Doriscus, 21 
 Drangiana, 44 
 Drepanum, 41 
 Drilo, 22 
 
 Dromus Achillei, 6 
 Dryopes, 26 
 Dulichium, 41 
 Duranius, 7 
 Durius, 8, 9 
 Dyme, 34 
 Dyrrachium, 22 
 
 Ebal, 51 
 Eboracum, 38 
 Ebnsus, 40 
 Ecbatana, 44 
 Echinades, 41 
 Edessa, 22, 52 
 Edetani, 8 
 Edonis, 22 
 Egnatia, 13 
 Eion, 21 
 Elataea, 27 
 Elaver, 7 
 Elea, 13, 47 
 Elephantine, 54 
 Eleusis, 28 
 Eleutheropolis, 51 
 Elis, 34 
 Elymais, 44 
 Elymander, 44 
 Emathia, 22 
 Emesa, 50 
 Emmaus, 51 
 Ephesus, 47 
 Ephyra, 25, 34 
 Epidamnus, 22 
 Epidaurus, 8,34 
 Epipolae, 40 
 
 Epirus, 21, 24 
 Equotuticum, 12 
 Eretria, 42 
 Eridanus, 9, 10 
 Erigon, 22 
 Erineum, 26 
 Erymanthus Mons, 34 
 Erythrae, 47 
 Erythraeum Mare, 44 
 Erytopolis, 36 
 Etruria, 10 
 Eubcea, 42 
 Evenus, 26 
 Euganei, 9 
 Eupatoria, 47 
 Euphrates, 48 
 Euripus, 25,27, 42 
 Eurupa, 4 
 Eurotas, 36 
 Eurymedon, 48 
 Euxinns, 5, 21 
 Exploratio ad Mer- 
 
 rium, 57 
 Ezion-Geber, 53 
 
 P. 
 
 Falerii, 10 
 
 Falisci, 10 
 
 Fidenas, 11 
 
 Flanaticus Sinus, 7 
 
 Flavia Canadensis, 40 
 
 Florentia, 10 
 
 Formiee, 11 
 
 Fortunat8eInsula3,3,57 
 
 Forum Julii, 6 
 
 Fossa Trajani, 54 
 
 Fretum Fossa?, 40 
 Gaditanum, or 
 Herculeum, 9 
 Siculum, 40 
 
 Frisii, 5 
 
 Fucinus Lacus, 10 
 
 G. 
 
 Gabara, 50 
 Gabii, 11 
 Gadara, 50, 52 
 Gades, 9 
 Gaetulia, 57 
 Galatia, 6, 7,48 
 Galesus, 13 
 Galileea, 50 
 Gallia, 6 
 
 Gallonim Portus, 8 
 Gamala, 52 
 Ganges, 43 
 Gangfticus Sinus, 43 
 Gangra, 48 
 Garamantes, 57 
 Garganus, 12 
 Gargarus, 47 
 Garumna, 6, 7 
 Gaugamela, 53 
 Gaulon, 52 
 Gaulos, 41 
 Gaza, 44, 52 
 Gedrosia, 44 
 Geloni, 5 
 Genua, 10 
 Gera, 52 
 Gersestus, 42 
 Geranii Montes, 26 
 Gerizim, 51 
 Germania, 5, 6 
 
 Inferior, 7 
 
 Superior, 7 
 Germanicus Oceani- 
 
 cus, 6 
 Getse, 8 
 Glaucus, river, 48 
 
 Sinus, 48 
 Glycys Limen, 25 
 Gnossus, 43 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 321 
 
 Gobaeum Prom. 6 
 Gomphi, 24 
 Gonnus, 24 
 Gordium, 48 
 Gortynia, 43 
 Goshen, 54 
 Gracia, 20, 21 
 Graecia Propria, 25 
 Granicus, 47 
 Grumentum, 13 
 Gyarus, 42 
 Gyrlona, 24 
 Gytheum, 36, 38 
 
 H. 
 
 Hadriaticum Mare, 21 
 
 Hadrumentum or 
 Adrumetuni, 57 
 
 Haemus, 8, 20, 21, 22 
 
 Halcyoneum Mare, 25 
 
 Halesus (river), 47 
 
 Haliacmon,22 
 
 Halicarnassus, 48 
 
 Halonnesus, 42 
 
 Halys,47 
 
 Hamaxobii, 5 
 
 Hebrus, 21 
 
 Hebrides, or Ebudae, 40 
 
 Hecatompylos, 44, 54 
 
 Helena, 42 
 
 Helice, 34 
 
 Helicon, 26, 27 
 
 Helissus, 34 
 
 Hellas, 21, 25 
 
 Hellespontus, 21 
 
 Heliopolis, 50, 55 
 
 Helorus, 41 
 
 Helos, 36 
 
 Helvetii, 6 
 
 Hephaestia, 42 
 
 Heptanomis, 54 
 
 Heptapylos, 27 
 
 Heraclea, 13, 21, 47 
 
 Herculaneum, 12 
 
 Herculis Columnae, 9, 
 
 57 
 
 LeburniPortus, 10 
 
 Monceci Portus, 10 
 
 Promontorium, 15 
 
 Hercynia Sylva, 5, 8 
 
 Herdonia, 12 
 
 Henniones, 5 
 
 Hermon, 50 
 
 Hermundurii, 5 
 
 Hermus, 47 
 
 Heroopolis, 54 
 
 Heroopolites Sin. 53 
 
 Heruli, 5 
 
 Hesperia, 8, 9 
 
 Hesperides, 56 
 
 Hesperidum, Iusulae, 4, 
 57 
 
 Hesperis, 56 
 
 Hexapolis, 26 
 
 Hibernia, 40 
 
 Hierapolis, 50 
 
 Hierosolyma,51 
 
 Himera (town), 41 
 
 Himera (river), 41 
 
 Hippo, 13 
 
 Hippo Regius, 57 
 
 Hippocrene, 26, 27 
 
 Hirpini, 12 
 
 Hispalis, 9 
 
 Hispania, 8 
 
 Histria, 10 
 
 Horeb, 53 
 
 Hydruntum, 13 
 Hymettus, 26, 28 
 
 Hypanis, 6 
 
 Hypata, 24 
 
 Hyperborei, 3 
 
 Hyrcania, 44 
 
 Hyrcanium Mare, 46 
 41 
 
 Iberia, 8, 46 
 Iberus, 9 
 Icaria, 42 
 Iceni, 38 
 Ichnusa, 40 
 Iconium, 48 
 Ida, 43, 46 \ 
 Idumea, 52, 53 
 Ierne or Hibernia, 40 
 Ilerda, 8 
 Ilergetes, 8 
 Ilissus,28 
 Ilium, 46 
 Illyricum, 7, 8, 21 
 Ilva, 40 
 
 Imaus Mons, 3, 43 
 Iinbarus Mons, 44 
 Imbrus, 42 
 Inachus, 34 
 India, 43 
 Indus, 43 
 Insubres, 9 
 Insulae ante Tapro- 
 
 banam, 4 
 
 Hesperidum, 4 
 Iolchos, 24 
 Ionia, 47 
 
 Ionium Mare, 24, 25 
 Ios,42 
 Iris, 47 
 Isaurae, 48 
 Isauria, 48 
 Ismenus, 27 
 Issus, 48 
 
 Ister (Danube), 7, 8 
 Istria, 8, 10 
 Isurium, 38 
 Itabyrius, 51 
 Italia, 9 
 Italica, 9 
 Ithaca, 41 
 Ithome,36 
 
 J. 
 
 Jabadii Insula, 3, 53 
 Janiculum, 16 
 .lapygia, 12 
 Japygium Prom. 13 
 Jaxartes, 46 
 Jezreel, 50 
 Joppa, 51 
 Jordan, 52 
 Jotapata, 50 
 Judaea, 50 
 Julia? Alpes, 7 
 Junonis Promont. 9 
 
 K. 
 
 Kibora, 8 
 
 L. 
 
 Lacinium, 15 
 Laconia, 36 
 Laconicus Sin. 36 
 Ladon, 34 
 Lagaria, 13 
 Lamia, 24 
 Lampsacus, 47 
 Laodicea, 48 
 Lapithss, 24 
 Larissa, 24 
 Larius, 10 
 Latium, 11 
 Latoimas, 40 
 Laurentum, 11 
 Laurius Mons, 26 
 Laus, 13 
 Laus Sinus, 13 
 Lavinium, 11 
 Lebedaea, 27 
 Lechaeum, 34 
 Leleges, 47 
 Lelegia, 188 
 
 Lemanus Lacus, 6 
 Lemanis Portus, 38 
 Lemnos, 42 
 Leinovices, 6 
 Leontes, 50 
 Leontium, 41 
 Leptis Magna, 56 
 Lesbos, 42 
 Lessus, 21 
 Lethe, 25 
 Leucadia, 41 
 Leucas, 25, 26, 41 
 Leucate,26, 41 
 Leucopetra, 13, 41 
 Leuctra, 27 
 Libanus, 50 
 Liburnia, 7, 8 
 Libya, 55, 57 
 Libyssa, 47 
 Liger, 6, 7 
 Ligures, 10 
 Ligusticus Sinus, 10 
 Ligustides, 7 
 Lilaeum, 26 
 Lilybaeum, 40, 41 
 Lindus, 42 
 Lingones, 10 
 Lipara, 41 
 Liris, 10, 11 
 L\ternum, 12 
 Locri Epicnemidii, 
 Opuntii, Ozolae, 
 26,27 
 Locris, 26 
 Londinum, 38 
 Longobardi, 5 
 Lotophagi, 56 
 Lucania, 13 
 Luceria, 12 
 Lucrinus Lacus, 12 
 Lugdunensis, 6 
 Lugdunutn, 6„ 
 Luna, 10 
 
 Lunae Montes, 4, 54 
 Lusitania, 8, 9 
 Lutetia, 6 
 Lycaonia, 48 
 Lycaeus Mons, 36 
 Lychnidus, 22 
 Lycia, 48 
 Lycus, 47, 48 
 Lydda, 51 
 Lydia, 47 
 Lydias, 22 
 Lyrnessus, 47 
 Lysimachia, 21 
 Lystra, 48 
 
 M. 
 
 Macedonia, 21 
 
 Macoraba, or Mecca, 53 
 
 Macra, 10 
 
 Madytos, 21 
 
 Maeander, 47 
 
 Maenalus Mons, 36 
 
 Mseonia, 47 
 
 Maeotis Palus, 3, 6 
 
 Magna Graecia, 11 
 
 Magnesia, 24, 48 
 
 Magnum Promonto- 
 rium, 43 
 
 Magnus Sinus, 43 
 
 Makrinoros, 26 
 
 Malea, 33, 36 
 
 Maleventum, 12 
 
 Malia, 24 
 
 Maliacus Sinus, 21,24, 
 25 
 
 Mandubii, 6 
 
 Mantinea, 34 
 
 Mantua, 9 
 
 Maracanda, 46 
 
 Marathon, 28 
 
 Marcianopolis, 8 
 
 Marcomanni, 5 
 
 Mardii, 44 
 
 Mardus, 44 
 
 Mareotis, 54 
 
 Mariana, 40 
 
 Maritimae Alpes, 7 
 
 Marmarica, 56 
 
 Marrubium, 10 
 
 Marsi, 10 
 
 Marsyas, 48 
 
 Masius Mons, 46 
 
 Massaesyli, 57 
 
 Massilia, ae, 6, 7 
 
 Massyli, 57 
 
 Matinorum oppidum, 
 40 
 
 Mauritania, 57 
 
 Maxima Osesariensis, 
 40 
 
 Mazaca, 48 
 
 Meatae, 38 
 
 Media, 44 
 
 Mediolanum, 6, 9 
 
 Megalopolis, 34, 47 
 
 Megara, 28 
 
 Megaris, 28 
 
 Melanis Sinus, 21 
 
 Melas, 20, 21 
 
 Melibrea, 24 
 
 Melite, 41 
 
 Melos, 42 
 
 Melpus, 13 
 
 Memphis, 54 
 
 Menapii, 7 
 
 Menuthias, 4 
 
 Mercurii Promonto- 
 rium, 57 
 
 Meroe, 55 
 
 Mesembria^O 
 
 Mesopotannft, 52 
 
 Messana, 41*4*, 
 
 Messapia, 13 
 
 Messene, 36 
 
 Messenia, 36 
 
 Messeniacus Sinus, 36 
 
 Mestus, i. q. Nestus, 
 20,21 
 
 Metapontum,13 
 
 Metaurus, 10 
 
 Methone, 22, 36 
 
 Methymna, 42 
 
 Miletus, 47 
 
 Mimas, 47 
 
 Mincius, 10 
 
 Minturnae, 11 
 
 Misenum, 12 
 
 Mitylene, 42 
 
 Moeris, 54 
 
 Maesia, 8 
 
 Molossis, 24, 25 
 
 Mona Cessans, 40 
 Taciti, 40 
 
 Munda", 9 
 
 Munychia, 33 
 
 Muri Veteres, 8 
 
 Murina, 42 
 
 Musaeus, 28 
 
 Mulina, 10 
 
 Mycale, 47 
 
 Mycenae, 34 
 
 Myconus, 42 
 
 Myoshormus, 54 
 
 Myrtoum Mare, 25, 28 
 
 Mysia, 47 
 
 N. 
 Naissus, 8 
 Napata, 55 
 Nar, 10 
 
 Narbo Martins, 6, 7 
 Narbonensis, 6,7 
 Narisci, 5 
 Naryx, 27 
 1 Naulochus, 41 
 
322 
 
 GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 Naupactus, 26 
 Nauplia, 34 
 Naxos, 42 
 Nazareth, 50 
 Nesethes, 15 
 Neapolis, 12, 40, 51 
 Nemausus, 6 
 Nemea, 34 
 Neritus, 41 
 Nervii,7 
 Neryx, 15 
 Nestus, i. q.Nessus, 20, 
 
 21 
 Nica;a, 10, 47 
 Nicomedia, 47 
 Ni".opolis, 8, 26, 48 
 Niger, 57 
 Nigritre, 57 
 Niltis, 54 
 Ninus, 52 
 Niphates, 46 
 Nisaja, 27, 44 
 Nisibis,52 
 Nisyrus, 98 
 Nola, 12 
 
 Nonacris Mons, 36 
 Noricre Alpes, 7 
 Noricum, 7 
 Noti Cornu, 4 
 Novus, 48 
 Nubia, 55 
 Numantia, 8 
 Numidia, 57 
 Nymphseum, 22 
 
 O. 
 
 Oasis, 55, 56 
 Ocha, 42 
 Ochus, 44 
 Odessus, 8 
 CEa, 56 
 CTIbalia, 188 
 CEchalia, 36 
 QSnolria, 9 
 Ctita, 21, 24 
 Olenus, 34 
 Olisippo, 9 
 Olympia, 34 
 Olympus, 24, 40, 47 
 Olynthus, 22 
 Ombi, 54 
 Oncius Mons, 26 
 Onion, 54 
 Opuntii, 27 
 
 Opuntius Sinus, 25, 27 
 Opus, 27 
 
 Orbelus Mons, 22 
 Orcades, 40 
 Orchomenus, 27, 34 
 Orestis,24 
 Oreus, 42 
 Oricum, 24 
 Orontes, 44, 50 
 Oropus, 28 
 Orospeda, 8 
 Orourns, 50 
 Ortygia, 40 
 Ossa, 24 
 Ostia, 11 
 Othrys Mons, 24 
 Oxus, 44, 46 
 Oxyrynchus, 54 
 
 P. 
 
 Pachynum, or 
 Pacliynus, 40 
 Pactolus,-47 
 Padus, 9, 10 
 Peed urn, 11 
 Paeonia, 22 
 Pcestanus Sinus, 13 
 Psistum, 13 
 Pagasse, 24 
 Pagasaeus Sinus, 24 
 
 Palsestina, 50 
 Pallene, 22 
 Palmyra, 50 
 Pamphylia, 48 
 Pancisus, 36 
 Pandosia, 13 
 Pangseus Mons, 21 
 Pannonia, 7 
 Panormus, 41 
 Panticapseum, 5 
 Paphlagonia, 47 
 Paphos, 53 
 Parisii, 6 
 Parma, 10 
 Parnassus, 26, 27 
 Parnes, 26, 28 
 Paropamisus, 44 
 Paros, 42 
 Parrhasii, 34 
 Parrhasius, 36 
 Parthenias (river), 47 
 Parthenius, 36 
 Parthenope, 12 
 Parthia, 44 
 
 Parueti Montes, 43, 44 
 Pasargada, 44 
 Passaro, 25 
 Patara, 48 
 Patavium, 9 
 Patmos, 42 
 Pause, 34 
 Pausilypus, 12 
 Pelasgi, 24 
 Pelasgia, 34 
 Pelasgicus Sinus, 24 
 Pelasgiotis, 24 
 Peligni, 10 
 Pelion, 24 
 Pella, 22 
 Pellene, 34 
 Peloponnesus, 21 
 Pelorum; or Pelorus,40 
 Peneus, 24, 34 
 Penninae,7 
 Pentapolis, 56 
 Pentelicus, 26, 28 
 Persea, 52 
 Perga, 48 
 Pergamus, 46, 47 
 Perinthus, 21 
 Persepolis, 44 
 Persia, 43 
 
 Persicus Sinus, 44, 53 
 Persis, 44 
 Perusia, 10 
 Pesaurum, 10 
 Pessinus, 48, 94 
 Petilia, 13 
 Petra, 53 
 Phaeacia, 41 
 Phalacrum Prom. 41 
 Phalerum, 33 
 Pharaj, 34 
 Pharos, 54 
 Pharsalia, 24 
 Pharsalus, 24 
 Phasis, 46 
 Pherse, 24 
 Phigalia, 34 
 Phileenorum Arse, 56 
 Phitippi, 22 
 Philisteea, 52 
 Phlegethon, 25 
 Phlegra, 22 
 Phlegrsei-campi, 12 
 Phocaea, 6 
 Phocis, 26, 27 
 Phoenicia, 50 
 Phrygia Major, 48 
 
 Minor, 46 
 Phylace, 24 
 Phyle, or Phule, 28 
 Picenum, 10, 12 
 Pictones, 6 
 
 Pieria, 22 
 Pimpla, 27 
 Pincius, 16 
 Pindus, 21, 24, 25, 26 
 Pindus (fl.) 26 
 Pindus (town), 26 
 Piraeus, 33 
 Pisa, 10,34 
 Pisidia, 48 
 Pistoria, 10 
 Placentia, 10 
 Plataea, 27 
 Platanistas, 38 
 Platanius, 27 
 Plemmyrium, 40 
 Plistus, 27 
 Plotse, 41 
 Pceni, 9 
 
 Polytimetus, 46 
 Pompeii, 12 
 Pons MVn, 40 
 Pontus, 8, 47 
 Porphyrce,41 
 Posidonia, 13 
 Potidsea, 22 
 Prseneste, 11 
 Prastfm Prom. 4 
 Priene, 47 
 Prochyta, 40 
 Proconnesus, 53 
 Propontis, 21, 47 
 Prusa, 47 
 Psylli, 56 
 
 Ptolemais, or Aco, 50 
 Ptolemais, 56 
 Puteolanus Sinus, 12 
 Puteoli, 12 
 Pydna, 22 
 Pylos, 36 
 Pyxus, 13 
 
 Q. 
 
 Quadi, 5 
 
 Quirinalis Mons, 16 
 Quirium, 16 
 
 R. 
 
 Ragse, 44 
 Ragusa, 8 
 Ravenna, 10 
 Reate, 11 
 Regillus Lacus, 11 
 Rha, 5 
 
 Rhseteum, 47 
 Rhaetia, 7 
 Rhamnus, 28 
 Rhedones, 6 
 Rhegium, 13 
 Rhenus, 6,7 
 Rhium, 25 
 Rhium Prom. 33 
 Rhodanus, 7 
 Rhodope, 21, 22 
 Rhodus, 42 
 Rhyndacus, 47 
 Rhype, 34. 
 Riduna, 7 
 Roma, 15, 119 
 Rubeas, 3 
 Rubicon, 10 
 Rubricatus, 57 
 Rudeae, 13 
 Rutuli, 11 
 RutupiEe, 38 
 
 Sabsei, 53 
 Sabatus, 12 
 Sabini, 10 
 Sabrata, 56 
 Sacee, 46 
 Sacer Mons, 11 
 Sacrum Prom. 9, 48 
 Sagunlum, 8 
 
 Sais, 54 
 Salamis, 42, 53 
 Salapia, 12 
 Salernum, 12 
 Salice, 3 
 Salmydessus, 20 
 Salona, 8 
 Salyes, 6 
 Samaria, 51 
 Same, 41 
 Samnis, 12 
 Samnites, 12 
 Samnium, 12 
 Samos, 42 
 Samosata, 50 
 Samothracia, 42 
 Sangarius, 48 
 Santones, 6 
 Santonum Portus, 6 
 Saphrse, 5 
 Sardinia, 40 
 Sardis, 47 
 Sarmatia, 5, 46 
 Sarnia, 7 
 Sarnus, 12 
 Saronicus Sinus, 21, 
 
 25,28 
 Saturnia, 9, 91 
 Satyrorum Insula;, 3 
 Promontorium, 3 
 Sauromatoe, 5 
 Savus, 8 
 Saxones, 5 
 Scamander, 46 
 Scanda, 41 
 Scandinavia, 5 
 Scheria, 41 
 Sciathos, 42 
 Scopelos, 42 
 Scordisci, 8 
 Scotussa, 24 
 Scylacium, 15 
 Scylla, 13 
 Scyllseum, 13,33 
 Scyros, 42 
 Scythia, 43 
 Sebasle, 48, 51 
 Sebethus, 12 
 Segedunum, 40 
 Segovia, 8 
 Segusiani, 6 
 Seir, 52 
 
 Seleucia, 48, 52 
 Seleucis, 50 
 Selinus, 41, 48 
 Sellasia, 36 
 Selytnbria, 21 
 Senna Gallica, 10 
 Senones, 10 
 Senus, 3, 43 
 Sepias, 24 
 Sephoris, 50 
 Sequana, 6, 7 
 Sequani, 6 
 Sera, 3, 43 
 Serica, 43 
 Seriphus, 42 
 Serus, 43 
 Sestos, 21 
 Sicambri, 5 
 Sicilia,40 
 Sicyon, 34 
 Sicyonia, 34 
 Sidon, 50 
 Sigseum, 47 
 Silarus, 11,13 
 Siloam, 52 
 Silures, 38 
 Simsethus, 41 
 Simois, 46 
 Sinse, 3, 43 
 Sinai, 53 
 
 Singeticus Sinus, 22 
 Singidunum, 8 
 
GEOGRAPHICAL INDEX. 
 
 323 
 
 Sinope, 47 
 Sinuessa, 11 
 Sion,or Zion, 51 
 Siphnus, 42 
 Sipontum, 12 
 Sipylus, Mt. 47 
 Sirbonis Palus, 53 
 Sirmium, 7 
 Sizopolis, 20 
 Smyrna, 47 
 Socanda, 44 
 Sogdiana, 46 
 Soli, 48,53 
 Solymi, 48 
 Soracte Moris, 10 
 Spalatro, 8 
 Sparta, 36 
 Sparti, 36 
 Spauta Lacus, 44 
 Sphacteria, 41 
 Sphagiae, 41 
 Spoletium, 10 
 Sporades, 42 
 Stabiae, 12 
 Stagira, 22 
 Stoechades, 7 
 Stratus, 26 
 Stratonicea, 48 
 Strongyle, 41 
 Strophades, 41 
 Strymon, 20, 21 
 Strymonicus Sinus, 
 
 21,22 
 Stymphaei, 21, 22 
 Stymphalus, 34 
 Stymphe, 25 
 Styx, 25, 36 
 Suessa Pometia, 11 
 Suevi, 5 
 Sulmo, 10 
 Sunium, 25, 28 
 Surrentinum Prom. 12 
 Surrentum, 12, 126 
 Susa, 44 
 Susianna, 44 
 Sybaris, 13, 15 
 Sybaris(fL), 13 
 Syene, 54 
 Syracuse, 40 
 Syrennusss, 126 
 Syria, 48 
 Syriae Pylae, 48 
 Syrtica Regio, 56 
 Syrtis, 55, 56 
 
 Tabor, 51 
 
 T. 
 
 Tabraca, 57 
 Taenarum, 33, 36 
 Tagus, 9 
 Tanagra, 27 
 Tanagrus orTenagrus, 
 
 13 
 Tanais, 5, 6 
 Tanais Emporium, 6 
 Tamassus, 53 
 Taphiassus, 26 
 Taprobane, 3, 53 
 Tarbelli, 6 
 
 Tarentinus Sinus, 13 
 Tarentum, 13 
 Tarraco, 8 
 Tarraconensis. 8 
 Tarsus, 48 
 Tartessus, 9 
 Tauri, 5 
 Taurini, 9 
 
 Taurus MonsJ 46, 48 
 Tavium, 48 
 Taygetus, 36 
 Teanum, 11, 12 
 Tegea, 34 
 Telmessus, 48 
 Tempe, 24 
 Tenedos, 42 
 Tenos, 42 
 Tentyra, 54 
 Teos, 47 
 Tergeste, 10 
 Termessus, 48 
 Terina, 13 
 Terinaeus Sinus, 13 
 Tetrapolis, 26, 41 
 Teutones, 5 
 Thapsacus, 50 
 Tbapsus, 57 
 Thasus, 21, 42 
 Thebaa, 24, 27, 54 
 Thebais, 54 
 Thebarma, 44 
 Themiscyra, 47 
 Theodosia, 5 
 Thera, 42 
 Therapne, 36 
 Thermae, 22 
 Thermaicus Sinus, 22 
 Thermodon, 47 
 Thermopylae, 21, 25, 27 
 Thermus, 26 
 Thespiae, 27 
 Thesprotia, 24, 25 
 Thessalia, 21, 22 
 Thessalonica, 22 
 Thracia, 20 
 
 Thraciae Chersonesus, 
 
 20 
 Thracius Bosphorus, 
 
 47 
 Thrasymene Lacus, 10 
 Thronium, 27 
 Thule, 3, 40 
 Thurium, 13 
 Thvamis, 25 
 Thyatira, 47 
 Thymbra,47 
 Thynae, 3, 43 
 Thyni, 20 
 Thynia, 20 
 Tiberias, 50, 52 
 Tiberis, 10,11,119 
 Tibur, 11 
 Ticinum, 9 
 Ticinus, 9, 10 
 Tisranocerta, 46 
 Tigris, 44, 46 
 Timolus, 47 
 Tingis, 57 
 Tingitana, 57 
 Tirynthus, 34 
 Togata Gallia, 9 
 TOletum, 8 
 Tomarus, 25 
 Tomi, 8 
 
 Toronaicus Sinus, 22 
 Torrens Egypti, 53 
 Trachis, 24 
 Trajanopolis, 21 
 Transalpina Gallia, 6 
 Transpadana r 9 
 Trapezus, 47 
 Treveri, 7 
 Trichonis Lacus, 26 
 Tricola, 41 
 Tridentum, 7, 9 
 Trinacria, 40 
 Trinobantes, 38 
 Tripolitana, 56 
 Triquetra, 40 
 Trita;a, 34 
 Tritonis Lacus, 56 
 Trixicum, 12 
 Troas, 46 
 Trocmi, 48 
 Trcezene, 34 
 Troglodytae, 55 
 Troja or Ilium, 46 
 Tuneta or Tunes, 57 
 Turris Stratonices, 151 
 Tusculum, 11 
 Tyana, 48 
 Tycha, 40 
 
 Tyras, 6 
 Tyrrheni, 10 
 Tyrrbenum Mare, 13 
 Tyrus, 50 
 Tysdrus, 56 
 
 U. 
 
 Ubii, 7 
 Uliarius, 7 
 Umbria, 10 
 Uria, 12 
 Urius Sinus, 12 
 Utica, 57 
 Uxantis Insula, 7 
 Uxellodunum, 6 
 
 V. 
 
 Vaga, 57 
 Valentia, 13, 40 
 Vascones, 8 
 Vectis, 40 
 Veii, 10 
 Vejentes, 11 
 Velia, 13 
 Venafrum, 11 
 Veneris Portus, 54 
 Veneti, 9 
 Venusia, 13 
 Verbanus Lacus, 10 
 Vergellus, 13 
 Verona, 9 
 Vesuvius, 12 
 Viadrus, 6 
 Vibo, 13 
 Vindelicia, 7 
 Vindobona, 7 
 Vistula, 6 
 Vogesus, 7 
 Volcae, 6 
 Volsci, 11 
 Volsinii, 10 
 Vulcatia, 42 
 Vultur, 13 
 Vulturnus, 12 
 
 X. 
 
 Xantbus, 25, 46, 48 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zacynthus, 41 
 Zagros,v44 
 Zama, 57 
 Zariaspa, 46 
 Zephyrium, 15 
 Zion, 51 
 Zoar, 52 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Abraham, 69 
 
 Abraxas. 124 
 
 Absalom's Pillar, 223 
 
 Absyrithians, 21 
 
 Absyrtus, 135 
 
 Academy of Inscriptions, 17 
 
 Acliaia, constitution and league 
 of, 75, 193 
 
 Actions or suits at law, 186 
 
 Actium, battle of, 71,77 
 
 Actors, theatrical, 176 
 
 Admetus, 101 
 
 Adonai, 106 
 
 Adonis, story of, 106 ; festival 
 of, 169 
 
 Adoption among Romans, 288 
 
 Adoration, origin of the word, 
 237 
 
 Adrastia,117 
 
 Adultery, punished by Greeks, 
 220 ; by Romans, 260 
 
 .^Jacus, 100 
 
 j^castor, 136 
 
 jEdepol, 136 
 
 .^Ediles, Roman, 249 
 
 jEetes, 135 
 
 iEgis of Minerva, 104 
 
 iE<Jos Potomos, battle of, 74 
 
 iElurus, 124 
 
 JEolus, 116 
 
 iEsculapius, oracles of, 166, 117 
 
 iEtolia, confederacy of, 193 
 
 Agamemnon, 137 
 
 Age, respect paid to, 159 
 
 Aglaia, 107 
 
 Agriculture, among the Greeks, 
 158, 212; among the Ro- 
 mans, 264 
 
 Ajax, 137 
 
 Alabaster, 221 
 
 Alaric, master of Rome, 79,225 
 
 Alban mount, 283 
 
 Alceste, 134 
 
 Alcmaeon, 136 
 
 Alexander, his coffin, 221 
 
 Aloides, 100 
 
 Altars, Grecian, 148,160; Ro- 
 man, 230; Roman, in Eng- 
 land, 230 
 
 Amazons, 131 
 
 America, whether known to 
 the ancients, 57 • 
 
 Ammon, 95, 165 
 
 Amor, or Cupid, 106 
 
 Amphiaraus, temple of, 28 
 
 Amphictyon, 133 
 
 Amphictyonic Council, 183 
 
 Amphion, 102, 136 
 
 Amphitheatres, Roman, 246 
 
 Amusements, of Greeks, 159, 
 207, 214; of Romans, 242, 
 247, 295 
 
 Andromeda, 133 
 
 Angels, ministry of, a source 
 of ancient fable, 84; fallen, 
 129 
 
 Annual Register, or Calendar 
 at Rome, 241 
 
 Anointing, 158, 209, 210 
 
 Ant re us 134 
 
 Anteros, 106 
 
 Antimachus, Greek poet, 136 
 324 
 
 Antiochus the Great, 70 
 
 Antipater, 177 
 
 Antiquaries, Society of, 17 
 
 Antiquities, classical, utility of, 
 143, 227 
 
 Antony and Cleopatra, 77 
 
 Anubis, Egyptian god, 124 
 
 Apis, 123; supposed a symbol 
 of Joseph, 124 
 
 Apollo, 100; Belvidere, 101; 
 temples of, 18, 101 ; oracle 
 of, 165 
 
 Apollonius, Rhodius, 150 
 
 Apotheosis, of heroes, 133; Ro- 
 ,man emperors, 122, 137, 304 
 
 Apparel, common, 157; milita- 
 ry, 154 
 
 Aqueducts, Roman, 19; at Spo- 
 letium, 10 
 
 Arachne, 104 
 
 Ararat, Mt., ascended by Par- 
 rot, 46 
 
 Arbela, battle of, 70 
 
 Arbitrators, at Athens, 186 ; at 
 Rome, 259 
 
 Arches, triumphal, 10, 19 
 
 Archimedes, tomb of, 223 
 
 Architecture of Greek houses, 
 158.210 
 
 Archon's, 151, 176, 177, 180 
 
 Arcturus, rising of mentioned 
 by Hesiod, 65 
 
 Areopagus, 32, 177, 184 
 
 Argonauts, 135; sphere made 
 for them, by Chiron, 64; 
 pictures of, &x., 98 
 
 Argos, oracular shrine at, dis- 
 covered by Clarke, 164; 
 constitution of, 193 
 
 Argus, 108 
 
 Ariadne, 109, 135 
 
 Armies, Grecian, 153; Roman, 
 271; attendants of Roman, 
 277 
 
 Armor, ancient, 153, 194, 274 
 
 Arsaces, 71 
 
 Arsacidae, 71 
 
 Artisans, Roman, 263 
 
 Arts, magical, 240 ; the mecha- 
 nic at Rome, 263, 264 
 
 Ashes of the dead, 221 
 
 Ashtaroth or Astarte, 106 
 
 Assemblies, of the Romans or 
 Comitia, 257; Greeks, 183, 
 190 
 
 Assyrian empire, 69 
 
 Astrrea, 117 
 
 Astrologers, 240 
 
 Asvlum, privileges of, 162 
 
 Atel, 5 
 
 Athens, origin of name, 104; 
 citizens of, 178 ; govern- 
 ment of, 151, 177; political 
 history, 72, 142, 151, 177; 
 topography of, 28, 178; 
 magistrates of, 180; re- 
 venues and expenditures, 
 181, 182; senate and as- 
 semblies, 183, 184 
 
 Athletics, Greek system of, 175 
 
 Atlanlides, 114, 134 
 
 Atlas, 133, 134 
 
 Atmosphere personified, 94 
 
 Atridae, 136 
 
 Attila, leader of the Huns, 79 
 
 Atys, 93 
 
 Auction, 268 
 
 Augurs, Roman, 233 
 
 Augustulus, 79 
 
 Augustus, master of Egypt, 71 
 
 Aurora, 114 
 
 Auspices, 233 
 
 Auxiliary troops of Romans, 
 
 277 
 Avatars or incarnations of 
 
 Vishnu, 95 
 
 B. 
 
 Babel, builders of, 125 
 
 Babylon, founding of, 69 ; walls 
 of, 52, 69, 114; commerce 
 of, 212 
 
 Bacchus, 109; festivals of, 169; 
 cave of, 33 
 
 Bachelors, tax on, 262, 286 
 
 Balbec, ruins of, 50 
 
 Ball, ornament worn by Roman 
 youth, 299; playing with, 
 216 
 
 Banishment, 187, 191, 260 
 Bankers at Rome, 17, 263 
 
 Banquets, evening, 295; of 
 Greeks, 157 
 
 Bathing, among Greeks, 158, 
 208 ; among Romans, 293 
 
 Baths, construction of, 209 
 
 Battering-ram, 281 
 
 Battle, Greek order of, 154, 
 197; manner of commenc- 
 ing, 197, 198 ; Roman order 
 of, 275, 278; at sea, 282; 
 Hesiod's of the Titans, Ho- 
 mer's of the Gods, 125 
 
 Beaks of ships, 202 
 
 Beatification of saints, origin 
 of, 137 
 
 Bellerophon, 131, 133 
 
 Bellona, 105, 120 ; temple of, 49 
 
 Belzoni, his entrance of a pyra- 
 mid, 123 
 
 Beneventum, battle of, 76 
 
 Besieging, art of, among the 
 Greeks, 198 ; Romans, 280 
 
 Betrothing before nuptials, 220 
 
 Birds, divination by, 167 
 
 Births, goddess over, 96 
 
 Bissextile year, 62 
 
 Bceotia, constitution of, &x. 192 
 
 Boeotian intellect, 28 
 
 Boundaries of land, Roman, 
 119 
 
 Boxing, 173, 243 
 
 Brachma, Hindoo deity, 93, 95 
 
 Brass, material for ancient 
 arms and tools, 154 
 
 Bread, inventor and god of 
 kneading, 120 ; baking of, 
 263 
 
 Breast-pin found at Pompeii, 
 300 
 
 Brennus, sack of Rome by, 76 
 
 Briareus, 125 
 
 Bricks, Roman, 263 
 
 Bride, Greek, 220 ; Roman, 287 
 
 Bridges over the Tiber, 16; of 
 Xerxes and Darius, 200 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 325 
 
 Brizo, goddess over the inter- 
 pretation of dreams, 167 
 
 Brokers, Roman, 263 
 
 Broth, Spartan black, 191 
 
 Brutus and Cassius, 77 
 
 Bubastis, 124 
 
 Burial-places, 149, 222, 302, 303 
 
 Burial-rites, importance of 
 among the ancients, 223 
 
 Burning of corpses, 149, 221, 
 300, 302; of widows, 149 
 
 C. 
 
 Cabiri, mysteries of, 136 
 
 Cabirian temple, 22 
 
 Cacus, 107, 134 
 
 Cadmus, 133 
 
 Caduceus of Mercury, 108 
 
 Caecutus, 107 
 
 Calendar, Roman, 61, 241 ; Gre- 
 gorian, 62 
 
 Calends, 61,240 
 
 Calliope, 127 
 
 Cambyses, conqueror of Egypt, 
 71 
 
 Camillus, captor of Veii, 76 
 
 Camp, Grecian, 154, 197; Ro- 
 man, 278; discipline of, 280 
 
 Camnagna di Roma, 20 
 
 Canal of Claudius, 10, 11 
 
 Cannre, battle of, 77 
 
 Canopus, 124 
 
 Capaneus, 136 
 
 Capital trials, Roman, 259 
 
 Capitol, Roman, 17 
 
 Capitolinus, the hill, 16 
 
 Captives, treatment of, 154, 
 155, 199 
 
 Carriages, Roman, 266 
 
 Carthaginians, History, 71, 72 
 
 Caspian gate or pass, 46 
 
 Cassander, 177 
 
 Castagnas, 21 
 
 Castalia, 127 
 
 Castanets, 218 
 
 Castor and Pollux, 135 
 
 Catacombs, 55, 221 
 
 Catiline, conspiracy of, 77 
 
 Cavalry, Greek, 24, 194, 197; 
 Roman, 270, 276 
 
 Cecrops, 133 
 
 Celestials, or celestial gods, 87 
 
 Cemetery, origin of term, 223 
 
 Cenotaphs, 222, 302 
 
 Census, Roman, 239 
 
 Censors, Roman, 250 
 
 Centaurs, 24, 131 
 
 Centimani, 113 
 
 Centumviriite, 259 
 
 Centurial or Secular games, 243 
 
 Centuries, division of Romans 
 into, 252 ; voting by, 257 
 
 Cephalus, 115 
 
 Cerberus, 37, 100, 132, 221 
 
 Ceremonies of ancient wor- 
 ship. 147, 148; nuptial, 159, 
 220, 287 
 
 Ceres, 110 ; temple and statue 
 of, found by Dr. Clarke, 
 112; festivals of, 169 
 
 Cester or Chester, towns 
 whose names end in, 280 
 
 Cestius, pyramid of, 223 
 
 Cestus, girdle of Venus, 106 
 
 Chaeronen, battle of, 74 
 
 Chairs, 212; of state, 254 
 
 Chance, personified, 119 
 
 Chants, funeral, 221 
 
 Chariots, race in, 172; Grecian. 
 153; Roman, 266 
 
 Charming or fascinating, the 
 power of, 240 
 
 Charon, 100, 221 
 
 Charts, chronological, 66 
 
 Charybdis, 132 
 
 Chase, 158 ; goddess of, 101 
 
 Cherry-trees, whence brought, 
 47 
 
 Children, treatment of among 
 Greeks, 159; at Sparta, 
 189; legitimate, &c, 220; 
 among Romans, 286, 287 
 
 Chil Minar, or palace of forty 
 columns, 44 
 
 Chimssra, 131 
 
 Chimneys, 210, 291 
 
 Chloris, 120 
 
 Choragic tripods, 33 
 
 Chorus, of Greek tragedy, 176 ; 
 part of the Spartan Forum, 
 36 
 
 Christ, year of his birth, 64, 65 
 
 Christianity, influence of on 
 literature and society, 287 
 
 Christians, how put to death 
 by Romans, 261 ; their 
 tombs, 303 
 
 Chronology, classical, &c, 59; 
 systems of, 66; brief out- 
 line of, 67 
 
 Churches called Basilica?, 18 
 
 Cicero, his table, i!67 
 
 Circensian games, 242 
 
 Cities, principal Greek, 141 
 
 Citizenship, Roman, 258 
 
 Civil affairs of Greeks, 150, 176 ; 
 of Romans, 248 
 
 Classes of citizens at Athens, 
 177; Sparta, 188; Rome, 
 253, 286 
 
 Classic authors, origin of the' 
 phrase, 253 
 
 Client and patron, 254 
 
 Climates, ancient division of 
 earth into, 4 
 
 Clio, 127 
 
 Clisthenes, 177 
 
 Clocks, 60, 240 
 
 Coan vestments, 298 
 
 Coelus, 113 
 
 Coffins, 302, 303 
 
 Cohorts, 272, 277, 284 
 
 Coins, Greek, 213 ; Roman, 266 ; 
 their use in chronology, 65 
 
 Coliseum, 19 
 
 Collatinus, 227 
 
 Colleges or orders of Roman 
 priests, 232; of artisans, 
 263 
 
 Colonies, from Greece, 72, 73, 
 142; of Rome, 258 
 
 Colossal statues, 42 
 
 Column of Duillius, 284; of the 
 twisted serpent, 165 
 
 Combats, single, in ancient 
 war, 156 
 
 Commerce, of Greeks, 152,212; 
 of Romans, 263; of Baby- 
 lon, 212 
 
 Comus, 119 
 
 Concord, 18 
 
 Concubinage among Greeks, 
 220 
 
 Consecration, of Roman empe- 
 rors, 137, 304; of leniples, 
 &c, 238 
 
 Constantine the Great, his 
 reign, 78; his imp. stand- 
 ard, 272; his military sys- 
 tem, 284 
 
 Constantinople, situation and 
 topography, 20 ; tripod in 
 its hi|i p me, 165 
 
 Consular army, 271, 277 
 
 Consuls, Roman, 248 
 
 Conveyance, modes of, 266 
 
 Copper, used before iron, 154 
 
 Corinth, constitution of, 192; 
 
 2 E 
 
 isthmus of, 34; capture of, 
 74, 75, 77 
 
 Corn, distribution of at Rome. 
 261 
 
 Coronis, 117 
 
 Corpses, burning of, 221, 300 
 
 Cosmetics, 210,299 
 
 Cosmogony of the Greeks, 146 
 
 Costume, Grecian, 157, 208; 
 Roman, 297 
 
 Cottage of Romulus, 17 
 
 Cotton, use of, 209 
 
 Couches, for reclining at table, 
 206,291,293,297; for sleep- 
 ing, 290 
 
 Country-seats of Romans, 291 
 
 Courts, at Athens, 150, 185; at 
 Sparta, 191 ; at Rome, 259 
 
 Covenants, manner of confirm- 
 ing, 164 
 
 Covenants or leagues, 164 
 
 Cow, symbol of Isis, 122 
 
 Crassus, wealth of, 267 
 
 Crete, early constitution, &c, 
 151, 192; Labyrinth of, 43 
 
 Creusa, 135 
 
 Crimes at Rome, 259 
 
 Crishna, Hindoo deity, 95, 101 
 
 Crcesus, king of Lydia, 70 
 
 Crowns, 150, 175, 275 
 
 Crusaders, at Constantinople, 
 79 
 
 Cunaxa, battle of, 70, 74 
 
 Cupid, 106 
 
 Curtain, of the ancient theatre, 
 246; embroidered, 148, 218 
 
 Curtian Lake, 17 
 
 Curule, officers, 254; chairs, 254 
 
 Cushites, 125 
 
 Cybele or Rhea, 93 ; priests of, 
 236 
 
 Cycles of the ancients, 62 
 
 Cyclopean architecture, 41, 107 
 
 Cyclops, 107, 124 
 
 Cymbals, 217 
 
 Cynocephalus, 124 
 
 Cyrene, remains of, 56 
 
 Cyrus, king of Persia, 70 
 
 Cyrus the younger, 70; expe- 
 dition of, 70, 74 ; palace of, 
 114; tomb of, 223 
 
 D. 
 
 Dacian mines, 8, 262; tablets, 
 272 
 
 Dredalus, labyrinth built by, 43 
 
 Daemons, 129 
 
 Danaides, l'OO 
 
 Danaus, 133 
 
 Dancing, at feasts, 159, 207, 216 
 
 Daphne, 101 
 
 Darius, 70 
 
 Dates of ancient events, how 
 ascertained, 63; helps in 
 remembering, 67 
 
 David, reign of, 69 
 
 Days, reckoning and division 
 of, &c, 59, 240; origin of 
 the names of, 62; Roman 
 manner of spending day, 
 292 
 
 Death, as a god, 130; punish- 
 ment of, how inflicted by 
 Greeks, 187, 191 ; by Ro- 
 mans, 260 
 
 Decemvirs, 76, 251 
 
 Dedication of Roman temples, 
 238 
 
 Deification of heroes, 137; of 
 emperors, 137,304 
 
 Deities, classes of ancient, 87, 
 138; peculiar to Romans, 
 119 
 
 Dejanira, 134 
 
326 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Delphi, Apollo's temple at, 101 ; 
 oracle of, 165 
 
 Deluge, of Deucalion, 24 ; tra- 
 ditions of universal, 84, 106 
 
 Demetrius Poliorcetes, 177 
 
 Demi-gods, 87, 132, 149 
 
 Deucalion, 24, 133 
 
 Dial, 60, 210 
 
 Diana, 101 ; temple of, at Ephe- 
 sus, 114; Bubastis, 124 
 
 Dice, playing with, 295 
 
 Dictator, Roman, 75, 251 
 
 Dictionaries, mythological, 89 
 
 Dido, 72 
 
 Dighton rock, figure, &c, found 
 near it, 153 
 
 Diocletian, his persecution and 
 massacer of Christians, 78 
 
 Diogenes, Laertius, sold as a 
 slave, 180; the Cynic, his 
 tomb, 223 
 
 Diomedes, 137 ; villa of, 296 
 
 Dionysia, 169 
 
 Dionvsius the tyrant, prison 
 of, 40 
 
 Dioscuri, 135 
 
 Dirges, at funerals, 221 
 
 Disa, goddess of Germans, 122 
 
 Discipline, military, 199; of 
 Roman camps, 280 
 
 Diseases deified, 120 
 
 Dishes at a Roman supper, 294 
 
 Divination, art of among the 
 Greeks, 149, 164, 166; Ro- 
 mans, 240 
 
 Divinity, Greek and Roman 
 idea of, 87 
 
 Divisions of time, 59 
 
 Divorces, Roman, 287 
 
 Dodona, oracle of, 25, 165 
 
 Dogs of Molossis, 25 
 
 Domestic affairs of Greeks, 157, 
 204; of Romans, 285 
 
 Dominical letter, 63 
 
 Dowry in marriage, 220 
 
 Draco, his laws, earliest writ- 
 ten in Greece, 177 
 
 Dramatic exhibitions, among 
 Greeks, 175; Romans, 246 
 
 Dreams, on interpretation of, 
 167, 240 ; god of, 130 
 
 Dress of Greeks, 157, 208 ; Ro- 
 mans, 297 
 
 Drinking cups, 204, 207, 297 
 
 Druidical temple, 148 
 
 Druids, 237 
 
 Drum, 217 
 
 Dryads, 126 
 
 Dryope, 116 
 
 Dwellings, Roman, 290; Gre- 
 cian, 210 
 
 Dyeing, art of, 264 
 
 E. 
 
 Ear-rings, Roman, 299 
 
 Earth personified, 93, 112 
 
 Earthenware, 263 
 
 Eating, Roman customs in, 293 
 
 Eclipses in ancient times, 64, 
 197 
 
 Edict, of Praetor, 249 
 
 Education among the Greeks, 
 159; Romans, 288 
 
 Egeria and Numa, 229 
 
 Egypt, productiveness of, 261 ; 
 deities of, 122 ; Geography 
 of, 53; Chronology of, 66, 
 71; works on, 71 
 
 Egyptian gods, 122; customs 
 of burial, 100 
 
 El Wan, site of temple of Jupi- 
 ter, 56 
 
 Elections at Rome, 257 
 
 Elephants used in war, 194 
 
 Eleusinian mysteries, 112, 169 
 
 Eleven, the Athenian magis- 
 trates, 181 
 
 Elysium, 99 
 
 Emancipation of sons, 287, 288 ; 
 of slaves, 289 
 
 Embalming the dead, 221 
 
 Emperors deified, 122, 137,304; 
 Roman, their reign, 78 
 
 Empire, Roman power of, 249; 
 military system of, 270; 
 changes in, 284; extent of, 
 226 ; division of, 285 ; East- 
 ern, 79 
 
 Employments, under guardian 
 deities, 120 ; of Greeks, 
 158; of Romans, 262 
 
 Empresses, on Roman coins, 96 
 
 Engines, military, 198, 280 
 
 Entrails of victims, as prognos- 
 tics, 234 
 
 Epaminondas, 74 
 
 Ephesus, Diana's temple at, 114 
 
 Ephori, 151, 190, 191 
 
 Epidaurus, medical springs at, 
 117 
 
 Epirotes, 25 
 
 Equitesor knights of Rome, 254 
 
 Eras and Epochs, 65 
 
 Erato, 127 
 
 Erebus, 100 
 
 Erigone, 117 
 
 Erysicthon, 112 
 
 Essarhaddon, 69 
 
 Eteocles and Polynices, 136 
 
 Etruscans, their religious usa- 
 ges, 229 
 
 Eulogies over the dead, 222, 302 
 
 Euryale, 130 
 
 Euterpe, 127 
 
 Evil eye, superstition respect- 
 ing, 240 
 
 Evolutions, military, 197 
 
 Exercises of Roman camp, 280 
 
 Exhalations of Pontine marsh- 
 es, 11 
 
 Expenses, public, at Athens, 
 1S2, 224; at Rome, 236, 262 
 
 Expiation among the Romans, 
 239 
 
 Exposing of children, by Ro- 
 mans, 287 
 
 Fabii, race of, 11 
 
 Fables, mythological, sources 
 of, 84 
 
 Falconer, shipwreck described 
 by, 23 
 
 Fallen spirits, 129 
 
 Fame, goddess of, 118 
 
 Families, Roman, 286 
 
 Family habitations, from Ves- 
 ta, 113 
 
 Fanatic, origin of the term, 
 240 
 
 Fascination, 240 
 
 Fasting among ancients, 171 
 
 Fate, controlling the gods, 88 
 
 Fates, 127 
 
 Father, of mankind, according 
 to Greeks, 124; power of 
 the Roman, over his chil- 
 dren, 287 
 
 Fauns, 130 ; 
 
 Faun us, grove and oracle of, 11 
 
 Feast of the gods, 234 
 
 Feasts, social, of Greeks, 158, 
 206; of Bomans, 294 
 
 Feet, covering for, 208, 298 
 
 Females, state of in Greece, 
 159, 218 ; obligations of, to 
 Christianity, 287 
 
 Feronia, 120 
 
 Festivals, Greek, 168 ; Roman, 
 
 241 
 Field of Truth, 99 
 Fire, the vestal, 113 
 Fishing among Greeks, 158 
 Fish-pond of Hortensius, 292 
 Fleece, Golden, of Colchis, 135 
 Fleet, Grecian, 200, 203 ; Ro- 
 man, 282 
 Flesh-brushes, or strigiles, 293 
 Flight of birds, ominous, 149, 
 
 233 
 Flood, in time of Deucalion, 24 
 Flora, 120 
 
 Flowers, goddess of, 120 
 Food, of Greeks, 157, 204; Ro 
 
 mans, 293, 294 
 Foot, means of determining the 
 
 Roman, 268 
 Fortune, goddess of, 118 
 Forums, at Rome, 17 ; Athens, 
 
 32 
 Fountain of the sun, 56 
 Fowling, among Greeks, 158 
 Foxes, burning of, in worship 
 
 of Ceres, 112 
 Franciade, 66 
 Free men and freedmen, at 
 
 Rome, 285 
 French Republic, era of, 65 
 Fret-work, 290 
 Fulling of cloth, 264 
 Funeral ceremonies, Greek, 
 
 149, 221, 222 ; Roman, 300 ; 
 
 songs, 221 ; eulogies! 222, 
 
 302 ; pile, 149, 302 
 Funeral orations of Pericles 
 
 and Demosthenes, 222 
 Furies, 99, 128 
 
 Furnaces in Roman houses, 291 
 Furniture of houses, 212,290 
 
 G. 
 
 Gabriel, stone of, 53 
 
 Galley, the Athenian, sacred, 42 
 
 Galleys, or war-ships, 200, 282 
 
 Gamblers of Pompeii, 294 
 
 Games of the Greeks, 172, 173 ; 
 Olympic, &c, 173 ; social, 
 207; Romans, 242; in ho- 
 nor of the dead, 222, 304 
 
 Ganymedes, 96 
 
 Gardening, god and goddess of, 
 119; of the Romans, 292 
 
 Garlands, 175, 275 
 
 Gates of Rome, 16 
 
 Gauls, Rome burnt by, 225 ; 
 history of, 7 
 
 Gelon, of Syracuse, 72 
 
 Gemini, 135 
 
 Gems, illustrative of Mytholo- 
 gy, 86 
 
 Genius and Genii, 128 
 
 Genseric, leader of Vandals, 79 
 
 Geography, knowledge of the 
 Greeks in, 3; epitome of 
 classical, 3 
 
 Geryon, 131 
 
 Giants, 124, 125, 133 
 
 Gladiators, Roman, 244, 304 
 
 Glass, how far used bv Ro- 
 mans, 263, 290 
 
 Gnomon, 60 
 
 Gods, Greek and Roman, num- 
 ber of, 85 ; classes of, 87 
 their residence, &c, 87 
 food, &c. 88 ; genealogy, 90: 
 Egyptian admitted among 
 the Romans, 122 
 
 Golden age, 91, 93 ; number, 63 
 
 Gorgons, 130 
 
 Goths, Rome taken by, 79, 225 
 
 Government, changes in form 
 of Grecian, 72, 141,151, 176, 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 327 
 
 178, 191; of Roman, 75, 
 248; by Romans over con- 
 quered nations, 258 
 
 Gracchi, the two, 77 
 
 Graces, 127 
 
 Graici, and other names of an- 
 cient Greeks, 141 
 
 Grain, kinds of, 264; distribu- 
 tion of at Rome, 261 
 
 Grapes, varieties of, 295 
 
 Grecian cities, 141 
 
 Greece, first inhabitants, bar- 
 barous, 141, 150; colonies 
 in, 142; causes of culture 
 and improvement, 141, 143; 
 periods in the progress of 
 refinement, 145; extent of, 
 20, 21, 141 ; outline of the 
 chronology of, 72; form of 
 government in, 141, 142, 
 151, 177 
 
 Greek antiquities, utility of, 
 143; writers on, 144 
 
 Greek emperors, 79 
 
 Greeks in southern Italy, 13 
 
 Gregorian calendar, 62 
 
 Griffon, 132 
 
 Grinding, method of, 158, 159, 
 264 
 
 Groves, sacred, 18, 162, 230 
 
 Guest-chambers, 293 
 
 Gyges, ring of, 99 
 
 Gymnastic art, 175 
 
 H. 
 
 Habits, domestic, of Romans, 
 292 
 
 Hades, 99, 221 ; gates of, 99, 223 
 
 Hair, modes of dressing, 208, 
 299 - 
 
 Hallirrhotius, 105 
 
 Hamadryads, 126 
 
 Harmodins and Aristogiton, 177 
 
 Harmonia, 107 
 
 Harpies, 41, 128 
 
 Harpocrates, 124 
 
 Harps, 217 
 
 Harrowing, god of, 120 
 
 Head, coverings for, 208, 298 
 
 Health, drinking of, 207, 295 ; 
 goddess of, 117, 118 
 
 Heathenism, moral influence 
 of among Greeks and Ro- 
 mans, 86 
 
 Hebe, 96 
 
 Hecate, 101 
 
 Hecatomb, 147 
 
 Hecatompylos, 71 
 
 Hector, 137 
 
 Heirs, at Athens, 220 
 
 Helen, 137 
 
 Helicon, 126 
 
 Heliogabalus, 298 
 
 Heliotrope, 60 
 
 Helius, 114 
 
 Hell, rivers of, 99 
 
 Helmet, 153, 274; of Pluto, 99 
 
 Helots, 189 
 
 Hephaestion, friend of Alexan- 
 der, 222 
 
 Heralds, 150, 197, 234 
 
 Hercules, 134; story of ex- 
 plained, 134 
 
 Hermae, busts or statues so 
 called, 109", 119 
 
 Hermanubis, 124 
 
 Hermes, 108; Trismegistus, 108 
 
 Heroes, worship of, &x. 132, 149 
 
 Heroic age, 72, 132; manners 
 
 of, 159 
 Heruli, Rome taken by, 78 
 Hesperides, 134 
 Hierarchy of Romish church, 
 233 
 
 Hieromancy, 167 
 
 Hills of Rome, 16 
 
 Hippias and Hipparchus, 177 
 
 Hippocrene, 127, 131 
 
 Hippodamia, 131, 136 
 
 Hippomedon, 136 
 
 History of principal ancient 
 states, 69; illustrated by 
 coins, 65 ; sacred, as related 
 to pagan mythology, 84 
 
 Horsemanship, 156, 194, 276 
 
 Horsemen or knights, 270, 276 
 
 Horse, Neptune patron of, 98 
 
 Horse-race, 172 
 
 Horses, for chariots and for 
 carrying burdens, 266 
 
 Hortensius, his villas, 292 
 
 Horus, 100, 122, 124 
 
 Hospitality, Grecian, 158, 179, 
 207; Roman, 295 
 
 Hours, goddesses of, 127 ; of the 
 day, 60, 240 
 
 Household gods, 129 
 
 Household, Roman, 288, 289 
 
 Houses, Grecian, 158, 210 ; Ro- 
 man, 290 
 
 Hunting, fishing, &c, 158 
 
 Hurdles, 280 
 
 Hyacinthus, 101 
 
 Hydra, 131 
 
 Hydraulic organ, 217,247 
 
 Hygeia, 117 
 
 Hymenaeus, 107 
 
 Hyperion, 114, 124 
 
 Iacchus, 170 
 
 Ibis, 122 
 
 Ictimuli, mines of, 262 
 
 Idas, 135 
 
 Ides, 61, 240 
 
 Idolatry, origin of, 83, 81 
 
 Idomeneus, 137 
 
 Ignis, 113 
 
 Ilithyia, 96, 102 
 
 Ilium or Troy, 46 
 
 Illyrians, 8 
 
 Images in temples, 146, 160, 230 
 
 Imperial government, Roman, 
 249 
 
 Implements of agriculture, Ro- 
 man, 264 
 
 Imprisonment at Rome, 260 
 
 Inachus, 133 
 
 Indian mythology, its resem- 
 blance to Greek, 86 
 
 Indiction, cycle of, 63 
 
 Industry, art of, 212, 263 
 
 Inferior gods, 113 
 
 Infernal regions, entrance to, 
 12, 36 ; rivers, 25 
 
 Inheritances at Athens, 220 
 
 Inns, 158, 208 
 
 Inscriptions, on altars, 230 ; on 
 tombs, &c.,222; use of, in 
 chronology, 65 
 
 Institute, Royal, of France, 17 
 
 Instruments, agricultural, 264 ; 
 sacrificial, 232 ; musical, 
 216, 217, 272 
 
 Intelligence and wisdom per- 
 sonified, 104 
 
 Intelligence, means of convey- 
 ing among Greeks, 199; 
 Romans, 15 
 
 Interest, rate of at Rome, 267 
 
 Intermarriages at Rome, 254 
 
 Inuus, 116 
 
 lo, 105, 122 
 
 Ipsus, battle of, 70, 74 
 
 Iris, goddess of the rainbow, 
 
 96, 115 
 Isa, Hindoo deity, 122 
 Isiac Table, 123 
 
 Isis, Egyptian goddess, 102,122 ; 
 table of, 123; temple of, 
 discovered at Pompeii, 123 
 
 Isocrates, tomb of, 223 
 
 Isthmian games, 98, 175 
 
 Italo-Grecian states, 15 
 
 Italy, geography of, 9 
 
 Ixion, 96, 100 
 
 J. 
 
 Janus, a Roman god, 16, 93 
 
 Japhet, similar to Japetus, 124 
 
 Jason and Medea, 135 
 
 Javelin, hurling of, 172 
 
 Jeroboam, 69 
 
 Jerusalem, topography of, 51, 
 52; destruction of, 70 
 
 Jewish history and chronolo- 
 gy, outline of, 69, 70 
 
 Jopates, 131 
 
 Joseph, son of Jacob, 124 
 
 Joshua, 69 
 
 Journals and Periodicals illus- 
 trating classical literature, 
 17 
 
 Judges in Hades, 100 
 
 Judicial proceedings, Greek, 
 185; Roman, 259 
 
 Juggernaut, festival of, &c. 110 
 
 Jugglers and rope-dancers, 244 
 
 Julian, the Apostate, 78; pe- 
 riod, 63 
 
 Junia, sister of Brutus, 302 
 
 Juno, 96 
 
 Jupiter, 94; Amnion, 95, 165; 
 temples of, 17 ; statue of in 
 Olympia, 114; Pluvius or 
 Pluvialis, 95 
 
 Justice, courts of, 150, 184, 259 ; 
 goddess of, 117 
 
 K. 
 
 Kaaba at Mecca, 53 
 
 Kalends, see Calends. 
 
 Keys, ancient, 212 
 
 King, Archon, 181 ; Roman 
 priest so called, 234 
 
 Kings, power of the early Gre- 
 cian, 150, 189; the Spar- 
 tan, 189; the Roman, 226, 
 234, 248; ensigns of, 248; 
 kissing the feet, 210 
 
 Knights, Roman, 254 
 
 L. 
 
 Labyrinth, Egyptian, 54, 55; 
 Cretan, 43, 135 
 
 Lacedaemon, see Sparta. 
 
 Lachrymatories, 303 
 
 Lamps, ancient, 291 
 
 Language, early Latin, similar 
 to Latin now used in Wal- 
 lachia, 8 
 
 Lantern of Demosthenes, 33 
 
 Lapithae, 24, 131 
 
 Lares and Penates, 129 
 
 Laticlave, 298 
 
 Laiona, 116 
 
 Lawgivers, of Athens, 188 
 
 Laws of Greece, early, 151 ; of 
 Athens, 188; Sparta and 
 Crete, 191 ; Rome, 261 
 
 Lawsuits, Athenian, 186; Spar- 
 tan, 191 ; Roman, 259 
 
 Lawyers, Roman, 262 
 
 Leaping, game of Greeks, 172; 
 of Romans, 243 
 
 Legion, the Roman, 270, 271, 
 272; Thundering, 238; 
 number of legions, 284 
 
 Legitimation, Roman, 288 
 
 Leonidas, his tomb, 38 
 
 Letters, used to represent num- 
 bers, 213, 267 
 
328 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Levying, Roman system of, 271 
 
 Libations, 147, 163, 238 
 
 Licentiousness of the Greeks, 
 220 
 
 Lictors, 248, 250 
 
 Life, private, of Greeks, 204; 
 Romans, 285 
 
 Light troops, 194, 276 
 
 Loretto, chapel of, 10 
 
 Lots, used for learning the fu- 
 ture, 167, 240 ; in choosing 
 magistrates, 180 
 
 Lucifer, 114 
 
 Lucina, 102 
 
 Lucretia, outrage upon, 75,227 
 
 Lucullus, his villa, 12 
 
 Luna, 114 
 
 Lunar cycle, 62 
 
 Lupercus, 116 
 
 Lustrations, 147, 239 
 
 Luxury of Romans, 227, 267 
 
 Lycia, Greek tombs in, 223 
 
 Lycursus, Spartan lawgiver, 
 73,151 
 
 Lydian history, 70 
 
 Lynceus, 135 
 
 Lyncus, 112 
 
 Lyre, 216,217; invention of, 108 
 
 Ly sander, 177 
 
 M. 
 
 Maccabees, 69 
 
 Machaon, 117 
 
 Machines, used in war, 281 
 
 Magical arts, 167, 240 
 
 Magistrates at Athens, 180; 
 Sparta, 190; Rome 251 
 
 Magnesia, battle of, 70 
 
 Maia, 108 
 
 Makrinoros, pass of, 26 
 
 Mamertine prison, 260 
 
 Manes, 129 
 
 Maniples in Roman army, 272 
 
 Manners, general, of Romans, 
 292 
 
 Mantlets, 280 
 
 Manumission ofslaves, 289 
 
 Marching, Roman order of, 278 
 
 Marines, 202, 282 
 
 Marius, 77 
 
 Market days at Rome, 241 
 
 Markets, 17, 32 
 
 Marriages, Greek, 159, 218 
 Roman, 286 
 
 Mars, 105; priests of, 235 
 
 Marsyas and Apollo, 101 
 
 Martial rewards and punish- 
 ments, 199, 275 
 
 Masks, ancient, 176, 247 
 
 Mausoleum, sepulchre of Mau- 
 solus. 114,223 
 
 Meals, Spartan, public, 190, 
 191 ; Grecian generally, 
 157, 204, 206 ; Roman, 293 
 
 Measures and Weights, Gre- 
 cian, 214; Roman, 268 
 
 Mechanical trades at Rome, 263 
 
 Medea, 135 
 
 Mediterranean, navigation of, 
 152 
 
 Medusa, 104, 130 
 
 Melicertes, 125 
 
 Melpomene, 127 
 
 Memnon, sounding statue of, 
 115 
 
 Memory, systems of artificial, 
 67,68 
 
 Mende.s, 116 
 
 Menelaus, 137 
 
 Menes, Egyptian king, 71 
 
 Merchants, festival of, 242; 
 Roman, 263 
 
 Mercury, 108 
 
 Mermaid, 126 
 
 Mesmerism, a supposition con- 
 cerning, 166 
 
 Metals, used by Vulcan, 107 
 
 Metamorphoses,fables respect- 
 ing, 85 
 
 Metempsychosis, 84 
 
 Methodicschool in medicine, 137 
 
 Metics, or resident aliens at 
 Athens, 178 
 
 Metis, wife of Jupiter, 94 
 
 Meton, his cycle, 62 
 
 Midas, gift of Bacchus to, 109 
 
 Milestones, Roman, 16 
 
 Military affairs, of Greeks, 152, 
 193; of Romans, 270 
 
 Milk in libations, 147 
 
 Mills, for grain, 264 
 
 Milo, catacombs of, 221 
 
 Miitiades, 21,73 
 
 Minerva, 104; festival of, 171; 
 temples of, 29, 37 
 
 Mines, 22, 26,38, 262 
 
 Minos, 100, 131, 133 
 
 Minotaur, 131, 134 
 
 Mint, at Athens, 213; at Rome, 
 267 
 
 Mirrors, ancient, 209 
 
 Mithras, 100, 134 
 
 Mizraim, grandson of Noah, 71 
 
 Mnemosvne, 121, 126 
 
 Mnevis, 123 
 
 Mceris, lake of, 54 
 
 Moloch, 91 
 
 Momus, 119 
 
 Money, of the Greeks, 212,213; 
 the Romans, 266, 267, 275 
 
 Months of Greeks and Romans, 
 60, 61 ; personified, 127 
 
 Monuments to the dead, 221, 
 302 
 
 Morals. and manners in Greece 
 and Rome, 227 
 
 Morea, 34 
 
 Morpheus, 130 
 
 Mosaic floors, 290 
 
 Mosque at Cordova, 9 
 
 Mother of gods, 93 
 
 Mourning for the dead, 300, 
 302, 304 
 
 Mules, use of, by Romans, 266 
 
 Mummies, 55, 221 
 
 Municipal towns, Roman, 258 
 
 Murra or Murrhinum, vases of, 
 263 
 
 Musseus, 150 
 
 Muses, 126 ; on the ring of 
 Pyrrhus, 127 
 
 Music, in Greek education, 159, 
 accompaniment of ban- 
 quets, 216, aud of sacrifices, 
 238 ; science of, 216 
 
 Musical instruments, 216; in 
 Roman army, 272 
 
 Myriologues, 221 
 
 Mysteries, of Cabiri, 136; Eleu- 
 sinian, 112, 169 
 
 Mythic poetry, 88 
 
 Mythical personages connected 
 with the gods, 124 
 
 Mythographers, Greek, S8 ; So- 
 man, 88 
 
 Mythology. 83; utility of a 
 knowledge of, 86; resem- 
 blance between classical 
 and oriental, 86, 94, 95 ; 
 differences between Greek 
 and Roman, 87 
 
 N. 
 Nail, ceremony of fixing in the 
 
 temple of Jupiter, 242 
 Names, of Romans, 235 ; of 
 
 towns in England ending 
 
 in cester, 280 
 
 Naval affairs of Greeks, 152, 
 200,212; of Romans, 282 
 
 Naval battle, 203, 282 
 
 Navigation of Greeks, 152 
 
 Nemean games, 174 
 
 Nemesis, 117 
 
 Neptune, 98 
 
 Nereids, 98 
 
 Nero, his tyranny, 78; burning 
 of Rome, 225 
 
 Nessus, the centaur, 134 
 
 Nestor, 137 
 
 Netha, Egyptian deity, 104 
 
 Nets, for fishing, 158 
 
 New Testament, literary im- 
 portance of, 242 ; Apocry- 
 phal, 243 
 
 Newton's Chronology, 64, 66 
 
 New-vear's presents at Rome, 
 241 
 
 Nicias, 64 
 
 Night, goddess of, 101, 115, 117 
 
 Nimrod, 69 
 
 Ninias, 69 
 
 Niobe, 102, 117,136 
 
 Nobilitv. Roman, 254 
 
 Nones,"61,240 
 
 Notation, Greek, 213; Roman, 
 267 
 
 Nox, 100, 115 
 
 Numa, his influence at Rome, 
 75, 226, 229 
 
 Numbers, designated by let- 
 ters, Grecian, 213 ; Roman, 
 267 
 
 Nuptial celebrations, 159, 220 
 287 
 
 Nymphs, 126 
 
 O. 
 
 Oases, Egyptian, 55 
 
 Oaths, of Greeks, 163; of Ro- 
 mans, 239; Roman sol- 
 diers, 270 
 
 Obelisks, 19, 55 
 
 Ocean, 98 
 
 Octavius or Augustus, 77 
 
 Odea, 19, 32 
 
 Odin, 105 
 
 Odoacer, leader of the Heruli, 
 79 
 
 QEnomaus and Pelops, 136 
 
 Offences, penal, at Rome, 259 
 
 Offerings to the gods, 148, 149, 
 238 
 
 Official robe of magistrates, 297 
 
 Ogyges, 133 
 
 Ointments of the ancients, 158, 
 210, 299 
 
 Old and new style. 62 
 
 Olympic games, 173 
 
 Olvmpus, residence of the gods, 
 88 
 
 Omens. 149, 168, 233 
 
 Ompha'le, 134 
 
 Oplitodrome, 172 
 
 Ops or Rhea, 93 
 
 Oracles, 149, 164, 166; Sibyline, 
 240; of Apollo, 101 
 
 Organ, musical instrument, 
 217, 247 
 
 Orion, 114, 125 
 
 Ornaments, architectural, 290; 
 personal of Romans, 299 
 
 Orthos, 131 
 
 Osiris, 110, 122 
 
 Ostia, salt-works at, 262 
 
 Ostracism, 187 
 
 Otus and Ephialtes, 105 
 
 Ovation, 284 
 
 Ox, symbol of Osiris, 122; 
 bones found in the Egyp- 
 tian pyramid, 123 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 329 
 
 p. 
 
 Paederasty, 220 
 
 Pagan fables, coincidence of 
 with scripture, 84 
 
 Paganism and Popery, 137 
 
 Painting, ancient, remains of, 
 56 
 
 Palace, origin of the word, 16 
 
 Palaemon, 125 
 
 Palladium, 104, 113 
 
 Palm, token of victory, 243 
 
 Pan, 116 j priests of, 235 
 
 Panathenaic vases, 172 
 
 Panathenaea, 171 
 
 Pandora, 107 
 
 Panic, origin of the word, 116 
 
 Pantheon, 17 
 
 Parents, respect to, 159 
 
 Parga. fate of, 25 
 
 Parks of the Romans, 292 
 
 Parnassus, 127 
 
 Paros, Chronicle of, 65 
 
 Parthenon, 104 
 
 Parthenopseus, 136 
 
 Parthian history, 70 
 
 Patricians and plebeians, 243 
 
 Patroclus, funeral of, 222 
 
 Patrons and clients, 254, 295 
 
 Paulus iEmilius, and the Epi- 
 rotes, 25 
 
 Peace, temple of, 18; temple 
 of Janus in time of, 18, 93 
 
 Pegasus, 131, 133 
 
 Pelias, 135 
 
 Pelopidae, 136 
 
 Pelopidas of Thebes, 74 
 
 Peloponnesian war, 74 
 
 Pelops, 133, 136 
 
 Peperino, stone so called, 303 
 
 Pericles, statesman, &c. 73 
 
 Perjury, at Rome, 239 
 
 Persecution of Christians, 78, 
 261 
 
 Persephone, or Proserpine, 99 
 
 Persepolis, ruins of, 44 
 
 Perseus, 133 
 
 Persian Chronology, outline of, 
 70; kings, their residences, 
 44 
 
 Personification of various ob- 
 jects, 119 
 
 Pessinus, origin of the name, 94 
 
 Petalism, 187 
 
 Petrified city, 56 
 
 Phaeton, 101 
 
 Phalanx, Grecian, 196 
 
 Phial of tears, 303 
 
 Philip of Macedon, 73 
 
 Philippi,siteof,22; battle of, 77 
 
 Philopoemen, 75 
 
 Philosophy, Christian, 210 
 
 Phlegon, eclipse named by, 64 
 
 Phlegyas, 100 
 
 Phocian, or Sacred War, 74 
 
 Phocians, 27 
 
 Phosbus, 100 
 
 Phoenician history, 70 
 
 Phoroneus, 133 
 
 Physicians, Roman, 262 
 
 Picus, king of Latins, 130 
 
 Pierus, 126 
 
 Pile, or Pyre, funeral, 149, 302 
 
 Pillars, or columns, 19 
 
 Pipe, of Pan, &c, 216, 217 
 
 Pirithous, 135 
 
 Pisistratus, 73, 177 
 
 Plays of the Greeks, 172; Ro- 
 mans, 243, 295 
 
 Plebeians and Patricians at 
 Rome, 75, 253 
 
 Pleiades, the constellation, 108 
 
 Pleione, 105 
 
 Plow, Grecian, 212; Roman, 
 264 
 42 
 
 Pluto. 98 
 
 Plutus, 118 
 
 Podalirius, 117 
 
 Poetry, mythic, 88 
 
 Poets, influence on religion of 
 Greeks, 146 
 
 Polemarch at Athens, 181 
 
 Pollux and Castor, 18, 135 
 
 Polydectes, 133 
 
 Polydorus, 136 
 
 Polygamy, not allowed by the 
 Greeks, 220 
 
 Polyhymnia, 127, 
 
 Polynices, 136 
 
 Pomona, 119 
 
 Pompeii, implements, &c, dis- 
 interred at, 291, 292, 294, 
 300 
 
 Pompey, 70, 77 
 
 Pompey's Pillar, 55 
 
 Pomptine or Pontine marshes, 
 11 
 
 Pontiffs, Roman, 232 
 
 Poor, at Athens, how support- 
 ed, 183 
 
 Populace, Roman, 253 
 
 Population of Rome, 225 
 
 Populousness of ancient na- 
 tions, 178, 225 
 
 Porticos, 19, 31, 36, 38 
 
 Portuninus, 125 
 
 Posthumius, 11 
 
 Posts, on Roman roads, 15 
 
 Pottery, Roman, 263 
 
 Pound, Roman, or libra, 270 
 
 Pracriti, Hindoo goddess, 94 
 
 Prasdial servitudes, 268 
 
 Praefects, 251, 285 
 
 Praetorian soldiers, 284 
 
 Praetors, Roman, 249 
 
 Prsetus, 131 
 
 Prayers, of Greeks, 147; of 
 Romans, 237 
 
 Precession of the equinoxes, a 
 means of settling dates, 64 
 
 Priam, kingdom of, 70 
 
 Priapus, 119 
 
 Priests and priestesses, Greek, 
 147, 162 ; imposture of, 164 ; 
 Roman, 232, 235; classes 
 of them made by later 
 writers, 235 
 
 Prison of state, at Rome, 260; 
 Sparta, 187, 191; Athens 
 and other places, 187 
 
 Prizes, in the funeral games, 
 222, 304 
 
 Procession at the Circensian 
 games, 243 ; triumphal,283 ; 
 funeral, 302 
 
 Proconsuls, 252 
 
 Procris, 115 
 
 Professions, at Rome, 262 
 
 Property, among Romans, 268; 
 basis of division into class- 
 es, 253 
 
 Propraetors, 252 
 
 Proquaestors, 252 
 
 Proserpine, 99, 112 
 
 Provinces, Roman, 226, 258 
 
 Provincial magistrates of Ro- 
 mans, 252, 258 
 
 Prytanes, at Athens, 184 
 
 Psammeticus, 71 
 
 Psyche and Cupid, story of, 
 107 
 
 Ptolemies, dynasty of, 71 
 
 Publicans of the New Testa- 
 ment, 262 
 
 Pulpit, origin of the word, 247 
 
 Punic language, 40; wars, 72 
 
 Punishments, Athenian, 186, 
 199 ; Spartan, 191 ; Roman, 
 260; of Roman soldiers, 275 
 2 E 2 
 
 Purifications, Greek, 147, 163 ; 
 
 Roman, 239 
 Purple dye, its costliness, 297 
 Pygmies, 125 
 Pyramids, 55, 123 
 Pyrrha, 133 
 Pyrrhus, in Italy, 76 
 Pythian games,' 101, 174 
 Pytho, 101 
 
 Q. 
 Quaestors, Roman, 250 
 Queen of gods, 96 
 Quinquatria, 104 
 Quirites, rights of, 258 
 Quoit, or Discus, 173, 243 
 
 R. 
 
 Race, Grecian, 172; Roman, 
 243 
 
 Races or families at Rome, 286 
 
 Rainbow personified, 96, 115 
 
 Raising a child, 287 
 
 Rama, Hindoo deity, 110 
 
 Ras Sem, the petrified city, 56 
 
 Religion of the Greeks, 145, 
 160; expenses of, 182; the 
 Romans, 229 
 
 Repasts, of Greeks, 157, 204; 
 Romans, 293 
 
 Residents at Athens, 178 
 
 Revenue of Athens, 181 ; of 
 Rome, 261 
 
 Review-muster, or Armilus- 
 trium, 242 
 
 Rewards of Athens, 187; Spar- 
 ta, 191 ; of Roman soldiers, 
 274 ; Roman generals, 283 
 
 Rhadamanthus, 100 
 
 Rhea, 93 
 
 Rhodes, Greek letters at, 34 
 
 Riches, god of, 118 
 
 Riding on horseback, 156, 266 
 
 Rights of citizens and subjects 
 of Rome, 258 
 
 Ring, badge of knighthood, 256 ; 
 of Gyges, 99 
 
 Rings, 299 
 
 Rites, of marriage, 220, 287; 
 religious, 147, 148, 237 
 
 Rivers called infernal, 99 
 
 Roads, Roman, 15 
 
 Roman antiquities, 227 
 
 Romans, their empire, 75, 226; 
 most brilliant era, 227 
 
 Rome, goddess of, 119; foun- 
 dation of. 225 ; govern- 
 ment of, 248, 249; extent 
 of empire, 226; luxury and 
 decline, 227 ; classes or di- 
 vision of the people, 252; 
 population, 225; topogra- 
 phy, 16; chronology of, 75 
 
 Romulus and Remus, 225 
 
 Rope-dancers, 244 
 
 Rotunda or Pantheon, 17 
 
 Rowers, their benches in the 
 ancient galley, 202 
 
 Runners among the Greeks, 199 
 
 Running, one of the games, 172 
 
 Rural deities, 120 
 
 S. 
 
 Sacer, Mt. 76 
 
 Sackbut, 217 
 
 Sacred or Phocian War, 74, 165 
 
 Sacrifices, human, 91 ; of the 
 Greeks, 147, 148, 163; Ro- 
 mans, 232, 237; origin of, 
 148 
 
 Saddles and stirrups, 266 
 
 Saguntum, siege of, 76 
 
 Salamat or Memnon, statue of, 
 115 
 
330 
 
 GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 Salaries, at Rome, 262 
 
 Sale by auction, 268 
 
 Salic priests, 235 
 
 Salt, token of friendship, 207 
 
 Salt-works, Roman, 262 
 
 Salus, goddess of health, 118 
 
 Samuel, 69 
 
 Sardanapalus, 69 
 
 Sardis, burning of, 73 
 
 Sardonic laugh, 40 
 
 Saturn, 91 
 
 Satyrs, 130 
 
 Scaling ladders, 280 
 
 Scepters, 248 
 
 Schiva, Hindoo deity, 110 
 
 Scipio, conqueror of Carthage, 
 77 
 
 Scironian rocks, 28 
 
 Scriptures, Sacred, attested in 
 Pagan fictions, 84 
 
 Scylla and Charybdis, 132 
 
 Scythian guards at Athens, 32 
 
 Sea-fight, 203, 282 ; mock, 243 
 
 Seasons personified, 61, 127 
 
 Seatur, German deity, 91 
 
 Sertorian war, 8 
 
 Seleucidae, 70 
 
 Self-devotion, 239 
 
 Semele, 109 
 
 Semiramis, 69 
 
 Senate, Athenian, 184; Spar- 
 tan, 190; Roman, 256 
 
 Septuagint, chronology of, 66 
 
 Sepulchers, Greek, 222; of 
 early Christians, 223 ; Ro- 
 man in England, 303 
 
 Serapis, 123 
 
 Serfs, in Italy, 290 
 
 Serpent, in fables respecting 
 Apollo, and Crishna, 101; 
 emblem of health, 117 
 
 Servitudes, 268 
 
 Sesostris, 71 
 
 Sesterce, value of, 267 
 
 Seven wonders of the world,114 
 
 Sewers of Rome, 19 
 
 Shield, the sacred, 235 
 
 Shields, ancient, 153, 194, 274; 
 of Hercules and Achilles, 
 153 
 
 Ships, Grecian 154, 200; Ro- 
 man, 282 
 
 Shipwreck, practice of those 
 surviving, 238 
 
 Shoes, 208, 298; of horses, 266 
 
 Shows or spectacles at Rome, 
 243 
 
 Sibyls, books of, 240 
 
 Sieges, manner of, 198, 280; 
 celebrated, 282 
 
 Signals of battle, 198 
 
 Signs, in the heavens, &c. 167 
 
 Silence, god of, 124 
 
 Sileni, 130 
 
 Silenus, curious image of, at 
 Paros, 110 
 
 Silk, known to the ancients, 
 209, 298 
 
 Singing at feasts, 207 
 
 Sirens, 125, 126 
 
 Sistrum, 218 
 
 Sisyphus, 100 
 
 Siva, Hindoo deity, 95 
 
 Slaves, in Greece, 159, 178, 180 ; 
 at Sparta, 189; Rome, 285, 
 289; patron goddess of the 
 freed, 120, 290; trade in, 
 263 ; republic of, in Sicily,41 
 
 Sleep, god of, 130 
 
 Sneezing, ominous, 149 
 
 Sobriquet or burlesque name, 
 286 
 
 Social entertainments, 214, 295; 
 war in Italy, 77 
 
 Socrates, his trial, &c. 74 
 
 Sofa-bed, 212 
 
 Sol, 114; statue of, at Rhodes, 
 114 
 
 Solar cycle, 63 
 
 Soldiers, classes of Grecian, 
 193; of Roman, 271, 272; 
 load carried by Roman, 
 274, 280 
 
 Solomon, reign of, 69 
 
 Solon, his influence on Athens, 
 177 
 
 Somnambulism, in ancient 
 times, 166 
 
 Soul, state of, after death, 95 ; 
 weighing of, by Egyptians, 
 100 
 
 Spain, mines of, 262 
 
 Sparta, under Lycurgus, 142; 
 rival of Athens, 142; 
 changes in government, 
 151 ; system of education, 
 189; magistrates of, 189; 
 public meals, 190; consti- 
 tution, 188, 190; topogra- 
 phy, 36 
 
 Spectacles or shows, Roman, 
 243 
 
 Sphere of Chiron, 64 
 
 Sphinx, 132 
 
 Spirits, departed, 99 ; fallen, 129 
 
 Spoils of war, how divided, 
 154, 199 
 
 Spoletto, aqueduct at, 10 
 
 Spurs, 266 
 
 Stage, actors on Greek, 176; 
 parts of Roman, 247 
 
 Staircases, 291 
 
 Standards, military, Grecian, 
 198 ; Roman, 272 
 
 Statues, found at Pompeii, 298 
 
 Stheno, 130 
 
 Stirrups, 266 
 
 Stonehenge, 148 
 
 Storms, goddesses of, 128 
 
 Strangers, treatment of by the 
 Greeks, 207 
 
 Stucco-painting, 290 
 
 Styx, 99 
 
 Suliotes, bravery of, 25 
 
 Sun, the Fountain of, 56; sta- 
 tue of at Rhodes, 42 
 
 Sun-dial, 60 
 
 Sun-god, 93; worship, 114 
 
 Superior gods, 91 
 
 Suppers of the Romans, 294 
 
 Supplicants, 147 
 
 Surgical instruments, of Ro- 
 mans, 263 
 
 Swearing, among the Romans, 
 239 
 
 Swimming among the ancients, 
 293 
 
 Swords, 196, 274 ; of Noricum, 7 
 
 Sybarites, 13, 15 
 
 Syenite, 54 
 
 Sylla, and Marius, 77 ; conque- 
 ror of Athens, 177 
 
 Syracuse, constitution of, 192; 
 topography of, 40 
 
 Syria, kingdom of, 70 
 
 Syrinx, 116 
 
 Svthes, chariots armed with, 
 194 
 
 Table, of Isis, 123 ; genealogi- 
 cal, of mythology, 90 ; an- 
 cient for eating, 206, 294 
 
 Tables and charts, 66 
 
 Tables, twelve, 261 
 
 Talent, value of, 213 
 
 Tammuz, Syrian deity, 106 
 
 Tantalus, 100, 136 
 
 Tapestry, ancient, 218 
 
 Tarentines, 15 
 
 Tarpeian rock, 16, 260 
 
 Tarquin, expulsion of, 75, 227 
 
 Tartarus, 99 
 
 Taxes at Rome, 261; Athens, 
 181 
 
 Teachers at Rome, 262 
 
 Tears, preservation of, 303 
 
 Telesphorus, 118 
 
 Temples, ancient, 148; Gre- 
 cian, 146, 148, 160 ; in time 
 of Homer, 148; Roman, 18, 
 230; dedication of, &x. 
 238; at Athens, 178; of 
 Jupiter Ammon, 95; of 
 Isis, 123; Janus, 18; Juno 
 Lacinia, 15 ; Solomon's, 
 52, 69 
 
 Tents, of Greek soldiers, 154 
 
 Terminus, 119 
 
 Terpsichore, 127 
 
 Terra cotta, 263 
 
 Thalia, 127 
 
 Theatre, performances in, 176 ; 
 of Romans,246; of Greeks, 
 175 
 
 Theban war, heroes of, 136 
 
 Thebes, constitution of, 192; 
 supremacy of, 74 
 
 Themis, 94, 117 
 
 Themistocles, his eminence m 
 state, 73 
 
 Theogony, Greek, 87, 146 
 
 Theomancy, 167 
 
 Thersander, 136 
 
 Theseus, 134 
 
 Thessaly, 24 
 
 Thrace, 20, 21, 145 
 
 Thracians, widows, 149 
 
 Thrasybulus, 177 
 
 Thrasyllus, monument of, 33 
 
 Threshing-floor, 264 
 
 Thyestes, 136 
 
 Thymbra, battle of, 70 
 
 Thyone, 109 
 
 Thyrsus, of Bacchus, 110 
 
 Time, personified. 91 
 
 Titanides, 91,124' 
 
 Titans, 124 
 
 Tithonus, 114 
 
 Titus, conqueror, 70 
 
 Tityus, 100 
 
 Toilet, Grecian, 209; Roman, 
 299, 300 
 
 Tomb, of Cyrus, &c, 223; Ro- 
 man at Pompeii, 303; at 
 Cyrene, 66; of Virgil, 12 
 
 Tombs of early Christians, 303 
 
 Topography, of Rome, 16; of 
 Athens, 28; Sparta, 36 
 
 Totila, Rome laid waste by, 225 
 
 Towers, ancient, 281 
 
 Towns, with names ending in 
 cester, 280 
 
 Trade, at Rome, 263 ; in slaves, 
 289 
 
 Traditions of mythology, 83 
 
 Translucent stone, 290 
 
 Treasury, Athenian, 182; Ro- 
 man, 261 
 
 Treaties, 157, 234 
 
 Trees, cultivated by Romans, 
 264 
 
 Trial, of persons accused, 185, 
 259 
 
 Tribes, of Athens, 177, 178; 
 Sparta, 188; Rome, 252 
 
 Tribunes, Roman, 76, 250, 251 
 
 Trident, 98 
 
 Tripods, consecrated to ApolIo v 
 149, 165 ; street of, 33 
 
 Triptolemus, 110 
 
 Triremes, 202 
 
GENERAL INDEX. 
 
 331 
 
 Trismegistus, 108 
 
 Tritons, 125 
 
 Triumph of Roman generals, 
 283 
 
 Triumvirate, 77, 252, 267 
 
 Trojan history, 70 ; war, 70, 72 
 
 Trophies, 19, 149, 199 
 
 Trophonius, oracle of, 166 
 
 Trumpets, 217 
 
 Tubal-Cain, 107 
 
 Tunnel of Pausilypus, 12 
 
 Tusks of the Calydonian boar, 
 26 
 
 Twelve Tables, laws of, 261 
 
 Tydeus, 136 
 
 Typhon, ,125, 132 
 
 Tyranny, Roman, over pro- 
 vinces, 258 
 
 Tyrants, the thirty, 74, 177 
 
 Tyre, capture of, by Alexan- 
 der, 70 
 
 U. 
 
 Ulysses, 137 
 
 Urania, 127 
 
 Uranus, 113 
 
 Urns, for voting, 184; for de- 
 positing the ashes of the 
 dead, 221, 303 
 
 Utensils, ancient, found at 
 Pompeii, 291, 300; repre- 
 sented on Egyptian monu- 
 ments, 232 
 
 Valor, 18 
 
 Valley of Moffeta, 12 
 
 Valmic, Hindoo poet, 110 
 
 Vases, Panatnenaic, 172; sa- 
 crificial, 232 ; Egyptian, 124 
 
 Veils, 208, 209 
 
 Venus, 105; places sacred to 
 her, 106; temple of, at Kie- 
 rapolis, 106; at Paphos, 
 53; Anadyomene, 106 
 
 Vertumnus, 119 
 
 Vessels, for holding wine, 296, 
 297 ; of war, 200, 282 ; sa- 
 crificial, 232 
 
 Vesta, 93, 113 
 
 Vestal virgins, 113,236 
 
 Vices, deified, 122 
 
 Victims, in sacrifice, 237 
 
 Victory, goddess of, 120 ; re- 
 wards of, 199, 204 
 
 Vigils, or watches of Romans, 
 59 
 
 Villas, or country seats of Ro- 
 mans, 12. 291 
 
 Violet, robe of office, 297 
 
 Violin, ancient, 217 
 
 Virgo, 117 
 
 Vishnu, Hindoo deity, 95 
 
 Virtues, deified, 122 
 
 Voting, Athenian mode of, 183, 
 184; Roman, 256, 257 
 
 Vows, 238 
 
 Vulcan, 107 
 
 Vulcanalia, 107 
 
 W. 
 
 Wages of Roman soldiers, 274 
 
 Walls, Roman in England, 40 
 
 Wand of Apollo or Mercury, 108 
 
 War, heroes of the Theban, 
 136; of the Trojan, 136; 
 affairs of, among Greeks, 
 153, 193; Romans, 270: 
 declaration of, 197, 234; 
 the Social, 77; the Sacred, 
 165; the Sertorian, 8; of 
 Troy, Bryant's view of it, 
 137 
 
 War-chariots, 193 
 
 War-engines, 280 
 
 War-galleys, 200, 282 
 
 Wards or boroughs of Attica, 
 178 
 
 Watches, divisions of the night, 
 60, 240, 280 
 
 Watch-word, 280 
 
 Water-clock, 60 
 
 Wealth, instances of Roman, 
 267; god of, 118 
 
 Weapons or arms, of the an- 
 cients, 153, 194, 274 
 
 Weeding, goddess of, 120 
 
 Week, known to Egyptians, 61 
 
 Weights and measures, Greek, 
 214; Roman, 266 
 
 Well of Syene, 54 
 
 Widows, burning of at fune- 
 rals, 149 
 
 Wife of the Rex Sacrorum, and 
 of the Flamen Dialis, 234, 
 235 
 
 Wills, 221 
 
 Wind-instruments of music, 
 217 
 
 Wind, woven, 209 
 
 Windows, of Roman houses, 
 290 
 
 Winds, as gods, 128; temple 
 of, 31, 60 
 
 Wine-cellars, 291, 296 
 
 Wines, of Greeks, 204 ; of Ro- 
 mans, 295 ; history of, 204, 
 297 
 
 Winter-quarters, of Roman 
 soldiers, 280 
 
 Witnesses in courts, 239 
 
 Women, condition and em- 
 ployments of among the 
 Greeks, 158, 218 ; Romans, 
 287 
 
 Wonders of the world, seven 
 114 
 
 World, as known to the an 
 cients, 3 
 
 Worship, Greek religious, 148 
 Roman, 237 
 
 Wrestling, 173, 243 
 
 Writers, on mythology, 88 
 89; on Greek antiquities 
 144, 146; Roman antiqui- 
 ties, 227, 228 ; Roman mili- 
 tary affairs, 270; ancient 
 weights and measures,270 
 chronology, 66 ; on horo 
 logy, 60 ; topography of 
 Rome, 16; topography of 
 Athens, 33; of Sparta, 38 
 Byzantium, 20 ; Babylon 
 and Nineveh, 53; Jerusa- 
 lem, 52. — See also refer- 
 ences under specific sub- 
 jects ; e. g. for writers on 
 Jewish history, see Jewish 
 history, in this Index. 
 
 X. 
 
 Xerxes, king of Persia, 70 
 
 Y. 
 
 Year, division of by the an- 
 cients, 62 
 
 Yero or Jero, 117 
 
 Young, time of burying among 
 the Greeks, 221 
 
 Youth, goddess of, 96 
 
 Z. 
 
 Zama, battle of, 72, 77 
 Zodiac of Denderah, 54 
 Zones 4 
 
 THE END. 
 

 L6J& ; 2i 
 
LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 
 
 019 700 094 6 
 
 111 HHf 
 
 WpWrh 
 
 « l88s 
 
 {JGGs 
 m HSnE 
 
 ^■L. 
 ^BH