Glass Book 'W ■J* I Roberto L Luaces INGENIERO AGRONOMO LUGARENO 96, CaMAGUEY. m -^m w THE I^AIESSISIE^S A@@!I@<^iV^^§ BEINQ A J) I GiE S T OF AJUL THAT RELATES TO AGRICULTURE, AND THE CONDUQTIISG OF RURAL AFFAIRS V? ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED, AND ADAPTED FOR THE UNITED STATES. BY JOHN NICHOLSON, ESQ. OP HinKlMEB'cOITNTT, STATE OP KEW YORK. SECOND EDITldiy, CORRECTED AND ENLARGED PUBLISHED BY BENJAMIN WARNE|it^ AMD SOLD AT HIS BOOKSTORES, iV PHILADELPHIA- AND RICHMOND, VIRGINIA. Wiili-am ^cksorit Printer^ Lancavter^ (Pr • 4820 '.^n^v Eastern District of Pettmyhanid, To'^d f: % ,^ »!fe****^*; BE IT REMEMBERED, that on tbe 'twentf -sixth day of July, it the forty-fifth year of the Independence of the United States of Aineric^, A. D. 1820, >\ BENJAMIN WARIf!|SiR, of the said district, has deposited in this office the title of a book, the right whereof he elaims as proprietor, in the words following, St;iJt^JJiiJt;Jt/Jt(fi; to wit: ^ , ' , , '»■ ^ 1^' The Farmer's Assistant ; being a idigest of all tliat relates to Agriculture, and the con- " ducting of Rur?il affairs ; alphabetically arranged, and adapted for the Uiiited States. « By John Nicholson, Esq. of Herkimer county, State of New York. Second Edition, « Corrected and Enlarged." \. ^^ • #« In conformity to titfe act of the Congress; of the United States, entitled * An act for i-the encouragement OT leai-n^ng, by securing the copies of maps, chaits, and books, to ; tlie authors and proprietors of such copies, during- the times therein mentioned,"— And also to the act entitled, " An act supplementary to an act entitled " An act for the en- couragement of learning, by securing the copies of maps, charts, and books, to the ajithors and proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned," and extending the benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching liistorical and other prints." . -> D, CALDWELL, derk of the Eastern tiistricfbf Penmylvamt- RECOMMENDATION. John NicHoxsoN, Esq. the Author of the Book published under the Title of "The Farmer's Assist- ant," having, submitted to niy inspection a number of manuscript, papers, containing raate^als, which he* intends 4o jn*t "«« ^^''^ Additions and Gor- »ectrf the State of J^ew York. ■.**•- Mbamj, April 29,,1818 4 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. AIR. Seeds which are buried so d^.ep as to be seclud- ed from their requisite portion of air will not vegetaie; for this reason, weeds are coi^stantly . spnni^mg up m new ploughed grounds; those seeds which betore h,y too deep for vegetation being turned up nigher the surface* _ Let seeds be sown in the ^lass receiver of an airpump, exhausted of air, and they will not.vegetate; but adrmt the air and they will grow directly. ^ . . c The lodging, or falling, of some kinds of;*,grain/,^ncl o£ rrass, is owing to standing too thick to adimit a free circu- laiiof^ o^ air, by means of which they can only pl-eserve a healthy state. Plant one grain ot wheat, lor instance, m the richest soil, and the stalks when grown wilLnot fall ; but plant a i-reat number of grains in the same sod, so closely to-ether as to preclude a free circulation of>ir amongst thS stalks, and they become unable to ^sustain their qwh weight. ^ , ., Air consists of different gases, as they arc,t«Kmed; the oxygnie'z^^, or vital air, which is essential to the existence otallanimM^; xh^Jiydf^ene^^^xs, or ijiflammable air ; the nitrogene ^'as, or common agnrios^heric air, deprived ot its oxygene, by having served thfe^ purposes of respiraiion or combustion, and.whkh is also called azote; and the ca?^6o. nic acid. fori^Vly. called Jixcd mF, so often found fatal m the bottoms of wells and elsewhere. These aVe thp prmci- pal; but by the application, of a sufficient degree ot caloric (heat) all liquid substlhces can be changed into the gase- ous siate. J f. . The common atmosphere is principally compos.ed ot the oxyg?ne and nitrogene gases, being about twenlfy.one parts of thejormer and seventy-nin« of the latter.. ,, As Wo oxygene or respiruble air is essential to the exist- ence of ai.imals; so the hydrogene and the azote is absorb- ed in plants, and is essential, to their growth. I iants also, while exposed to the light, 'emit oxygene. Thus, by i.ie 10 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. jf econotny of Nature, the veg;etable world is continually ab- sorbing that air which is hurtful to Min, and ib almo-st con- &tar,tly'reproducu)c; that which is healthful. See further, Food of Plants; APPLES. The seeds of an apple seldom produce ti%es which bear the same ki' d of apples, and hence the necessi- ty of graf'ing, when we would raise the same kind. ^ ^jnrlicious selection of trees which bear ihe best apples for diff- rent uses, is a ma*tf*r worthy of particular attention. See Cider, Orchard &c. In gathering applet, fo' Winter-use, they should be flicked from the tree, and laid carefully in a heap, under cover, without being bruised. After they have siveate4^ let them be exposed to the air and well dried, by wiping them with dry cloths; then lay them away m a dry place where they will not freeze. The time requisite for sweating will be six, ten, or filteen days, jiccording to the warmth of the weather. Mr. Forsyth says, that ' the most complete method of saving them, so as to preserve them the greatest length of time, is to wrap thtm in -p^'per and pack them away in stone jars between layers ot^ bran ; having the mouths of ^ the jars covered so close as to preclude the admission of air, and then to keep them in a dry place where they will not be troz'-n.' ^■ The fruit should not be gathered till fully ripe, which is known by the- stem parting easily from the twig: It should aho- be gathered in dry weather and when the dew is cff. ? ^ ^^^ Mr. Deanej in his * Xe'wengland /^armer,* .speaking of his method of preserving Winter apples, says: » I gather ^hem about noon on the day of the full of the moon which happens in the latter* part of September, or begining ot October. Then spread therh in a chamber, or j^arret, where they lie tiO about the last of November. Then, at a time when the weather is dry, remove them into casks, or boxes, in*the cellar, oufot the way of the frosts; but I prefer a cool part ot the cellaf. With this managettient, I find I can keep them till the last of May, so well t1iat not one in fif y will rot. *; t In the Autumn of 1793, I packed apples in the shav- ings-of pine, so that they scarcely touched one another. Tney kept well till Some time in May following; though they were a sort which are mellow for eating in December. Dry sawdust might perhaps answer the end as well.-^^Some barrel them up, and keep them through the Winter in upper rooms, covering them with biankets or matS) to pre- vent fre,i®2ing. Dry places are best for thera.* ik FARMER'S ASSISTANT. U Mr. Deane then gaes on to offer his reasons, why the full ot the moon sTiould be pretered to any other time, and con- cludes wi'.h an opinion, that even apples for cider* should be gathered at thai linie.. Certain it is, that many Farmers have the fullest belief, that the full of the moon is the most propor time fer many things to be done, in the line of their busmess; and it may be knowledge which is the resuK^of loni^ experience, and handed down from Father to Son^ even Irom iimes more remote than we are apt to imagine. It is confidently asserted by many, that apples may ba safely kepi m ca:>ks through VViuter, in a cold chamber, or garret, by being merely covered with linen cloths. APPLE TREE CPyr]^s Malm.) . This tree flourishes mosi ir» a nr.ilt a4iidy loam, saiiUy, or ricti, warm, gravely soil A stiff clay is not good, even though it be rich. It thriven better in a pour s^pdy soil- than m any other poor earth * . " Some appletrees bear alternately and some yearly. The cause ot the toimer is said to be owing to the young tree bearing too large a crop at first; for this so exhausts it as to render it unfi; tor Oearing the next year; m the mean time, u becomes sufficienily recruited for a heavy crop the third y*: .r» and thus it become^ confirmed in the habit of alternaie bearing, in whic ^ it ever alter continues. In order, therefore, to prevent young trees fpom gtting into this habu, let the young fruit 'be sinped off where it appetrrs too plentitul, but less and less each year, until such time as the tree can bear a full yearly crop, and thus become confirmed in the habit of a yearly bearer. Perhaps a tree that has^ become confirmed in the habit of alternaie bearing might have its habit changed, by qnce or twice divcsimg it of Its young fruit during the bearing year, and manuring it^weil during that season. Take a scion from a yearly^ ap'B graft it on the limb of an alternate bearer, and it will become alternate, and vice versa. But it the troe reason has been given for alternate bearing, it doe'si not toUow that a scion from a yearly bear- er, when grafted on a stock that has never borne, will be- come alternate. In the first case, the habit of the altepate bearer^ being already confirmed, regulates the scion; but where the habit oi ihv; scion has become - con firn^ied, and that of the young stock has not, it would seem that the habit of the scion must prevail. At the Summer solsiice, the bark of the body of an appletree may be taken off, and a new bark will presently iorm, which will^ regenerate the tree, and render such, as were before barren, productive. See luitnerj Fruit TREES, ORCHARD), NuKSEUY> and Crab APPLE. 12 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 4 APRICOT.. The culture that is proper for a peachtree is also ^ood for an apricot, with this difference, that it re- quires a lighter and warmer soil than a peachtree. iSce Peaciitree. JSH [Fraxinus) There are three kinds of ash in this niry; the white, the yellow, and the black. The upland whitea'sh is the best timber; but is liable to a white rot when kept- too much in contact with the ground. Winter is the best lime for felling it to preserve the white part from worms. The blackash is the most durable wood for rails, Sec. ^ ASHES. See Manures. ASPARAGUS {Officinalis.) , To ma^e a bed of this ex- celent Spring green, open a trench tour or ifve feet wide and/one fooi deep, in the warmest part of your garden; the warmer the better. Fill the trench half lull of good barn dung; level it, and sciatter some good earth over it; then lay on your roots, eight or nine inches apart, in their natu- ral position ; or, if seeds be used, about half that distance tipart : Fill up the trench with good soil and your bed is made. If roots be planted, they may be cut the second year; but if seeds, tot till the third. ^ After the bed is fit for use, all the shoots which come up^during the first six weeks may be cut off; but all aifier that should run to seed to strength- en the plants. As this plant is one of the first green vegetables which the opening"' season presentsr, and as no substimte equally productive can be had till tlife season for green peas and beans, it becomeis a matter of economy to ha've two as- paragus beds; the first to be brought forward as early as possible; the other Lite. For this pur^se, the latter ought to have a northern exposure, and it ^ould be spaded in order' to retard its growth ; by which means the plants will be equally large and yet very lender. The roots should be kiid so deep as to admit of spading the ground over them. ^ The beds should be kept clear of weeds throughout the season. In the Fall, they should have a layer ot roten dung spread over them, an inch in depih^ which may in part be taken cff the next Spring; and, when the bed becomes tooi^high by the constant ad^iiion of dunjT, part of the earth may be pared off in the Spring, bet^re the plants shoot, and the bed covered again v/ith a thin compQbt of toCfen dung. ^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. IS ASS. This is a valuable animal for carrying burdens, and for being used in small carts. Mr. .Livingston Ib^^erves, that for these purposes they are much used, in the country between Nantz and Paris; and that even loads of wo(J(^ and hay are there carried on their backs. 'Their use tor many purposes in this Country,. particularly in villages, would be found an article of economy ; they will subsist on the coars- est fare; may be kept at constant service; are subject to few or no diseases; and they live to' a great age. It is also mentioned in ' The Cdm/ileie , Grazier,' that Asses have been successfully used in Greatbriiain for ploughing light lands, four of them being e%ual to two Horses. -^ B. BARLEY (Horaeum.) This is a hardy grain, subject to few diseases, bears the drought well, and is profitable for cultivation. When hulled, it may be ground into flour, which makes a bread whiter, than wheat, and but little infe« rior in t^iste. Soups made of it, when hulled, are as good as those made of rice, and are Accounted cooling and de- tersive in levers. The longer this grain is kept the better- tasted it becomes; as the cause of its^bad taste is owing to lis hull. The usual allowance of seed for an acre is |wo bushels ; but thi^ is hardly sufiicient : In general, two and a half IS better. Burley has frequently been known to yield sixty bushels an acre. It requires a soil in good con- dition, and, like many other crops, turns to poor accounp when sowji on sudi as are poor. The best for raising it are the loamy, satfay-loamy, or gravelly soil ; but it will do very well even on a strong stiff clay, provided it be well mellowed with frequent and effectual ploughings and har- rowings; and these cap be done to the best effect in the Fail preceding. As barley is a dry husky grain, and requires considerable moisture to cause it to vegetate, it should be jsown when the ground is sufficiently moist. It should also be sown as soon as the ground can be well prepared in the Spring. This grain receives essential benefit from being soaked in lye, brine, or some other fertilizing liquor. An English Writer mentions an experiment made, some years sinccj which may be worth inserting. U FARMER'S ASSISTANT. < The ''last Sprin?,*, says he, < being remarkably dry, I soaked my seed-barley in the black water taken hoin a re- servoir A^'bich constantly receives the d raining *ot my dung- heap and siables. As the light corn floated on the top I skimed it off, and let rhe rest stand twenty-lour hours. On taking it from the Water, I mixed the grain with a suffi- cient quantity ol: wbod-aiihes, to vmake it epread regularly,' and^owed three fields wilh it. *" The produce was sixty bushels to the licre. I sowtd sonie other fields with the same seed,, dry"^; but the cro|-», like those of my Neighbors, was very poor, iiot Wove than ivvemy bushels an acre, and much mixed with weeds. I also sowed some of my seed dry, on one ridge, in each of «^y former fields;, but the produce was very poor,,4n cotnparison to ths other parts of thefiiia.':., Adding some saltpetre to the li,quor, in which l^he barley is soaked, will probably be found of great service. See Sowing. ' ^ It t^^ injurious to harvest this grain before it is thoroughly ripened; and, after it is cut, it^should lie a ni^rht or two in the dew, in order to make the beards come off more easily in threshing. : Tfiis grciin, like many others, will degenerate so much in a few years as not lo'be worih cultivating, if the seed be not frequently changed. The Farmer ough', therefore, to procure newlreciruiis of'seed brought from some considera- ble distance. - It may be advisable, also, to change the kind of barley, in order to ascertain whicii is most suitable to the soil. These are various: There is the two rowed, the four rowed, and the six-rowed barley; and ihere is afso a spegies of barley which has no husk upon it, which is commonly called Spelt. (See Spelt) The'six-rowed bar- ley is sowed in England and Ireland, as a Winter-grain, and is there called bear, bere, or barley big. It shells very much, if suffered to stand until it is sufficiently ripe. The four-rowed barley has generally been cul^tiv^'^^tl in this and the neighboring States ; probably because, in them, it has generally been found the best for cultivation. As in some parts Farmers have attempted to cultivate this grain without success, ii may be well to observe, that perhaps the cause of this failure was owing to vheir lands not having been made sufficiently rich; to not having been ploughed and harronved sufficiently; to not having sowed on them a sufficiency of seed (tor, if this be not done, this grain will often be chpaked with weeds); to' seed, winch bad become degenerated^ '%y having been too long used in one part of the country ; or, perhaps, to the kind of barley not having j^een suitable to the soil. If the Farmer has satisfied himself as to all these particular?, and still finds A X FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 15 \ himself unsuccessful in the culture of this grain, he may conclude that either his soil, of whatever kind if may be, or f the climate ia which, his fitrm is siiuated, is not siSiiable la' the culture of hurley «, / Some Farmers (ji F^airfieldi in this county (H rkinner) have raised goods ^crops of this grain, for six or tight years successively, on the same ground, without any manuring,, anxl with rather an increase of the crop. The soil 6n which this is done is a dtep dark colored loam. The crops are usually about forty bushels to the acre, and arc raised with but slight culture; the stubble-ground where the last crQ|p^grew being merely plougl»ed up in the Fail, and crop- ploughed, in th& Spring, when the next crop is harrowed in. In harvesting, after the crop is cut with the cradle, and has lain a sufficient length of time, it is risked up iiks hay, wi hout any binding into sheaves, and carted in. How long these lands Will endure this culture, without any manuring, and yet produce good crops, or whether similar results, may in general be obtained from all dther good barley lands, is more than we can d< termine. Wherever' a country is found suitable lo the culture of barley, and not so for raisini^ wheat or rye, there, p;rticu- larly, it becomes highly expedient to erect mills for nulling barley ; for this grain, when hulled, can be converted into very good bread Peas may also be hulled at such Mills, which renders them excelent for sou p^. Sec. BARN. TTVe siz" of the barn should be proportionate to the produce of the (arm; for in this Cootitry, where build- ing is not ejcpensivc, all the hay and grain ishou 14 be stored in a' building sufficient to cover them. Mc\ny Fa.rmers con- tent themselves with a small barn, perhaps not sufficient to hold half thei^r produce; while most of the^r hay is left in their "i^eadows, in stacks, to be there foddered out to the • cattle in the course oT the Winter. In this way the manure is almost totally lost, as a stack containing five tons of hay, fed out in this way, would not ia|nuie aa ei'^^ht of an acre to any essential purpose. Cowdung, in panicuKtr, is most bentficial when buried in a dry soil; but when lai^ o7i a wet soil it answers but little purpose. In - the mean time, it the mea'dow happens to be bare and un- froZ'^p, as is oiten the case, the caitle may .indeed have tfcie chance of [)Kking some deijd grass; ^ but at thej^xpense/ ^destroying the roots, and of poaching the soil with their feet, which produces an addmoniti irjury to the meadow. . If the giound will admit, the barn should be about so far distant from the house, and in such direction from it, as to preclude all danger of fire being communicated froip tlie one to the other, by the means oi the most prevalent high windso 16 FARMER»s ASSISTANT, ,L The t'armers of the older parts of Pennsylvania build very large barns in general; and to obviate the conse- quences of the hay or grain healing, in ^ large mow, four ^ poles' or pieces of timber are set up in the middle, so as to form within them a square space pf about two feet. The > poles are braced by cross pieces at certain distances. Through the apperture thus made, the extra moisiwre in the hay or grain l\as a chance to escape, so as to prevent its being mowburnt. Their barns are usually built of stone, and in the walls a lar^e number of small holes are made for the admibsion of^ air. Their cattle are chiefly all housed, and their dung is under cover when throvvii^ut of the stables, to prevent its being injured by the rains. The roofs of the barns are usually painted, to preserve them against the weather. The floor of the barn should be kept tight, so that the grain cannot fall through in threshing, and for this purpose it should have a layer of thin boards under it. I^ is most advisable, also, to have a place set apart in the barn for the purpose of storing away the grain, after it is threshed. The bins for the graih should be made of hard plank, to prevent the ral,s and mice eating through them, and should .have lids which can be fastened down with padlocks. A row of narrow bins, with different apartments tor various kinds of grain, nitiy be placed very conveniently along the side of. the floor where the horsestable is placed, so as to be partly, unlder the manger. ^ . BARNYARD, ;^The practice of having a barnyard on a declivity is a bacfone, as in this way very mucjh manure is washed away, without essendally ^benefiting the adjoining grounds. The yard should be level, and lowest in the mid- dle, in order to prevent the escape of much fertilizing liquor, that will otherwise run off from the dung during heavy rains. It should be cleared in the Spring of the dung made during Winter; and if the Milch-cows and other ca^4|ie are to be kept in it at night, during Summer, * . much manure may be mude in it by carting in rubbish of various kinds, together with suitable earths, to mix^with the dung of the cattle and absorb their stale. The yard should also have a high close fence round it, as well tor securing the cattle as for breaking off the winda; apd, in order to make the most of the dung, the cattle should be kept constantly in the yard during the season of foddering, and have a well close adjoining to supply them with water. Tlie stiflfcr the soil of the barn- yard, the less manure will be lost by the stale and wash soaking iqto the earth j and for- this reason some have taken the trouble to cover the whole with a thick layer of clay. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 17 BEAN (Vicia.) There are a great*^ variety of beans; ^ome of which^ are best adapted for field- husbandry, and others for culinary purposes. For the former, the English or Windsor bean is the best for strong clays and other rich soils, and the little white bean, for those which are light and dry. They are each cultivated in the drill method, and ploughed and hoed like other hoed crops. The English bean is to be sowed early, as a little frost will not hurt it. When they have grown to the height of about three feet, and incline to become too tall, the tops shoup be broken off. After gathering the first crop, the statics are to be cut off close to the ground, and a growth of suckers will rise and affolPd another green crop late in the Fall. >^' The little white bean is to be pulled before the Fall frosts, and to lie on the ground to (|ry and ripen. The haulm of (jeans should be siaVed for Winter-food for Sheep, as they are very fond of it. For culinary purposes, the Canada bean, which is a bush- bean, ripens soonest, and is therefore^to, be prefered for an early sitpply : The pods, however, become unfit for eating^ when the bean has attained its size. Ot those which have vines, the caseknife beSn, the cranberry, and the thousand for one, so called, ai>e very good. The short bean, as it is called, is also much esteemed, on account^^of the pod being good to eat wlien the bean is full grown. Mr. Dean s^ys, the^est raLanufli*for beans which have vines is hog*s dung witP^ mixture of ashes. ' -t .^ When beans are cultivated in a climate that is not natu- ral to them, they degenerate; and, therefore, fresh supplies of seed should be obtained from that country to which they are best adapted. As the culture of the bean is* fiot likely ever to become a part of field-husbandry, in this Country, we omit going to any length on this article. Their culture here seems to be naturally superseded by that of Inaian corn. |^ f BEER. To make Sjirucebeer.'^ Boil some spruce-boughs with som^i^ wheat-bran till the water tastes sufficiently of the spruce; strain the water, and stir in at the rate of two quarts of molasses to a half-barrel; work it with the empty- ings of beer, or with yeast if you have it. After working sufficiently, bung up the cask, or, which is Setter, %)ttle its contents. To make Molassesbeer. Take five pounds, of 'molasses, half a pint of yeast, and a spoonful of powdered ginger; put these into a vessel, and pour on two gallons of scalding hot soft water; shake the whole till a fermentation is produced; 3 „ 18 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. then add of the same kind of water sufficient to fill up your half barrel. If the'cask be greater or smaller than this, the component parts must be in proportion. ^Let the liquojj ferment about twelve hours; then botue it, with a, raisin or two in each bottle. It honey instead of molasses be used, at the rate of about twelve pounds to the barrel, ^t will make a very fine bev- erage, after having been bottled a while. To make Beer with IIo/is. Take five quarts of wheat- bran and three ounces of hops, and boil them fifteen minutes in fifteen gallons of water; strain the liquor; add two quarts of molasses; cool it quickly to about thljl^m- perature of new millE, and put it into your half barrel, hav- ing the cask completely fillld. Leave the bung out for twenty|four hours, in order that the yeast may be worked off and thrown out ; and then the beer will be fit for use. About the fifth day,>bottle ofT what remains in the cask, or it will turn sour, if the weathef be warm. If the cask be new, apply yeast, or beer-emptyings, to bring on the fer- mentation ; but, if it has been in this use before, that will not be necessary. % ^ Yeast, particularly the whiter part, is much fitfr to be used for fermenting, than the mere grounds of the beer- barrel ; and the same may be observed, in regard to its use in fermenting dough for bread. To recover a task of stale Smallbeer. Take some hops and some chalk broken to pieces; put them in a bag, and put them in at the bunghole, and then «%j^ up the cask closely. vLet th^ proportion* be two ounces -of hops Sid a pound of chalk^for ahalf-barrel. To cure a cask of rofiy Beer. Mix two handsful of bean- flour with one handful of salt, and stir it in. To feed a cask of Beer, Bake a rye-loaf well nutmeged; cut it in pieces, and put it in a narrow bag with some hops and some wheat, and put the bag into the cask at the bunghole. T^^la^ify Beer, For a half-barrel, take about six ounces of chalk, burn it, and put it into the cask. This will dis- turb the liquor and fine it in twenty-four hours. It is also recommended, in some cases, to disscilye some loaf-sugar and add to the above ingredients. ^/ We omit going into any description of the method of making strongbeer, as the necessity for it among Farmers, as a household beverage, seems to be greatly obviated by that of smallbeer, which is much less intoxicating, and by cider, a stronger drink, , which is readily afforded from apple-orchards, which are more or less natural to almost every part of the United States, except a little of its south- ern border, where the grape can be cultivated to advantage. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ly It is indeed true; that /hany Farm^ts in Greatbritain brew thelt own strongbeer ; but there is but little of that country where appl#t)rchards are natural, either to the soil or the climate; and hence, as a substitute for. cider, this drink has been resorted to. It is an expensive liquor for the Farmer to make much ^use of, as it requires four bushels'of malt to make a barrel, even of common ale, and eight, for a barrel of beer of the strongest kind. BEES. Every hive must have Its Queenbee; and if she be t||^n away, and cannot be replaced by another, or a new one bought forth, in the manner here^ter to be mentioned, the Swarm soon quit their labors and become extinct. The Queenbee is the Mother of the whole ; as well of tlie suc- ceeding Queens, as of the working Bees, which are much the most numerous in every hive, and o^the Males, or Drones, which do not worl^ The eggs for each kind are laid in cells particularly intended for their reception. The Queen, or Mothep^. is about a fourth larj^er than the Work- ers, and an eighth larger than thfi|&/ones: She has a much larger and longer belly, and is of a darker color, than^ the rest. The only apparent use for the Males is for impregnating the Queen ; and yet but one out of the whole performs this office. On some fine warm day, early in Summer^ she leaves the hivjp Jbr this purpose, mounts out of sight in the air, is goii^^some considerable time, and, if successful in accomplishihg: the purpose *of her flight, returns with evident marks of impregnation; the genitals of the Male being left in her. v When the Males are no longer of use, for the purpose of impregnation, or rather in the month of August, they are fallen upon by the Workers, dispatched by their stings,^ and thrown out of the hive. If the Queen is not impregnated, until after the expira- tion of twenty days from the time when she first ^ebmes from her cell, she will produce no other eggs than those for Drones all her life; and she will' begin to lay in the cells intended for them in fort]f-six hours after her impreg- nation. ^ But, if impregnated before she is ttfrenty days out of her cell; then, in forty-six hour-s thereafter, she commences laying eggs successively for the young Queens, ana for the Workers, in the cells intended for them respectively, and ai.the rate of about two hundred a day, for about eleven of the succeeding months; when she commences ^laying eggs for Drones, in the cells intended for them. The cells for bringing forth the Workers, and the Drones, are the hexagonal holes of the combs. These are 20 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. begun at the uppermost part of the hive, and extend per pendicularly downwards, so that the ^lls %e horizontally. After they have been used as the depositories of the young brood, thejr are cleaned out, and made the receptacles of the honey, and of the bee-bread; and, when emptied of these, in the course of the enduing Winter, are again used the next season for bringing forth new broods of Bees. The cells foi* the young brood of Qij^^ens are placed in the uppermost part of the hive, and hang perpendicularly. The young brood of Lurvae, or Worms, which fo|j^ the future Workers, and Drones, are fed in their cells, 1^'^he Workers of the hiv8^ wilh pollen or the farina of flowers, which they gather and bring home in yellow masses at- tachelf to them on each side; and of tl^is the bee-bread is also composed. The food of the Worms intended for Queens is different from this, b|ing a kind of paste or jelly, of a pungent taste. The eggs for all the three kinds of Be^s are hatched in three days. A WovX^r then remains fi^ days in the ver- micular slate; a Male, six and a half; and a Queen, five. jThe Worker's Worm occupies thirty-six hours in spining its silken envelope or coccoon ; in three days it changes to a Nymph ; and only on the twentieth day of its existence does it become a perfect winged animal. The Drones are still longer in attaining this last metamorphosis, which lakes place in twenty-four days after the eg|^ for them, are laid. The Queen comes tO:^perifcction in i^^ipn days, i^ The coccoon of the Workers, and Drones,* covers them entirely ; that of the Queens covers only the head, thorax, and the first ring of the belly, leaving the most vulnerable part open to the attack of its Rival, which may soonest ac- quire a perfect state of existence, and be let out, by the Workers which guard her, from her cell. But, where a Queen is formed from the brood of the Workers, she is enveloped entirely in the coccoon, it being then indispensa- . bly n^tessary that, while in this stale, she should be secure from all attacks. ' H,k' The rearing of a new Queen happens when the reigning one is lost, and no other is to be found in the cells of the Queens to be brought forth. As soon as this discovery is made, the hive becomes a scene of tumult and disorder; and destiruction seems to be anticipated by the Bees, by the precautions they take to guard against a disaster of this kind. Should there be no eggs or brood in the combs of the Workers, the Swarm must perish ; their instinctiye faculties then seem to be lost ; they cease to collect honey and prepare wax, and soon'' disappear. But, if there be brood in the combs, their usual labors are continued. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 21 Having selectea|a*Worm of three days old, or less, they sacrific?e three of ,the contiguous cells, that the c^ll ot the Worm may be folmed into one adapted for a Qu^en. In the mean time^ the Worm is fed with^the jelly before men- tioned, and at the expiration of three days they proceed to alter the cell into an upright one* When, the Queen has reached maturity, the seal of the cell is broken, and she comes forth qualified to .fulfil every function on which the preservation of isb many lives depends. '^ ' It would therefore seem that the Workers ^re imperfect Females in their organization ; and this is further evident, from the fact that some of them laj^^eggs, which, however, produce no other Bees than Drones.' * ; ^ Honey is the food of Bees : It is a vegetable jfecfetion, which appears at different seasons of the year, Ewfa^particu- larly when flowers are in blo,w. The Bee licks it from these with its proboscis ; the honey is iswallowed ; and on returning to the hive it is disgorged, not, from the trunk of the Bee, l^l^afrom its mouth, intQ,the cells. Ijoto some of these honey' JFor daily use IfJ^f^lip' while that put into others is sealed up, arid reserved for times of necessity. Many of the Workers free themselves of their collectiotis before reaching the hive, by bestowing them on others; and for this purpose the trunks of these are seen extended, and they receive the honby into them as it is disgorged. The wa3|as afterwards formed from honey ; and when the ^ees swaim^thiey always carry enough (if it with them to Construct s&ihe combs. They can also form these from sugar, as has been proved by experiments made for the ; purpose. The yellow matter with which they ret^urn laden is composed of ;.the farina of flowers, which is the food for the Young of the Workers, and Drones, as before mention- ed ; and also of a resinous matter, called propolis, which is used to line the hive, ^nd stop its crevices. The propolis is also used to cover any offensive insect or animal that may get into the hive, and which they cannot re&iove after* killing; such as, snails. Sec. In this case, the covering they put over it prever^^ its becoming offensive and con- tagious. The Queen that has become a Mother is treated with much more consideration and respect, than before this event has taken place. She is, nevertheless, the Leader of the first Swarm that leaves the hive in the t^ason. ' She exhibits the first symptoms of the swarming that is about to ensue. She becomes greatly agitated; runs about among the rest, and communicates to them the same feel- ing as she passes along; drops her eggs at random: Those coming in loaded neglect to unload themselves, but run precipitately about, as the tumult becomes more gen- 22 FARMER'S A^^ISTANT. eral. At length, the whole, partaking,ij|^he impulse, rush to the outlets of the hive, and the Que^ along with- them. This is an event that only happens in C^ar weather, eind during the warmest part of the day. On issuinvj from the hive, they do not generally appear to have any place of settlement in view. The agitation produced soon raises the degree of heat among them very considerably; and it may be this circumstance that at last induces them to le^ve their dwelling. They will, however, return to it, if the Quee|) be taken away. They often resort to a place unsuitable in point of C^fh- venience, and unfit for^^heir preservation.. After rising in the air,*itus c^n\monlj|f some tree that arrests their pro-^; gress; a^ the Qieen frequently alights at the extremity of a bretmih; where the Bees which tnay have formed in clusters in the vicinity come to surround her. Sometimes they will swarm in the grass, ne^r the hive they have for- saken; though there may be trees at no great^ distance. Sometimes all the precursors of swarmiq^Jdisorder, and agitation^iave been exhibited ; when a clof\fiP|>assing before the sun has restored tranqviility to the hive. When more than one Swarm leaves the hive in a sea- son, those following consist of the Bees which were abroad when the first event took place, together with the young ones which have come from the eggs laid by the Queen, before her departure. Each succeeding Swarnft is led out by a young Queen,''. as there are several ro^l^lls in the hive^ but the cell that contains the oldest of the royaf blood is always opened first; as Bees seem to have an idea of the right of succession, and a knowledge of the one on whom it 's|jouTd fall. Sometimes, however, two young Queens will be found in the hive at once. If the Swarm be not removed from the place where it settles, it soon commences its labors ; and the same may be fibsery|d, if it be removed to an empty hive. Cells or combs a^ soon constructed of wax from the honey the Bees ha^Wbcirried with them ; and the first eggs laid will be those of the operative part of the Community. Having gone thus far into the natural history of Bdls, something is now to be said of the best means of managing them. The method*practised in this Country is, to have rows of beehives set close together, in a building made for the purpose, which is called the bee-house. The apiary, spok- en of by British Writers, seems to be quite different from this ; as the hives are recommended to stand six, some say twelve, feet af>art ; and to be firmly ftxed in a stake set into the grouj^d. We have, however, never seen any par- ticular advantage pointed out, by having the hives so far FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 23 apart; while the expense of the- apiary must, in this way, be much greatcr,^^ every hive must have its sepai^ate roof or covering. \Ve|shall therefore speak of the apiary, or beehouse, as we have it in this Country. ^ v It should be at a suitable distance from any place where cattle are kept, or where Horses are lied; from ho^sties, and every other 4)lace where filth is collected.^ It is well to place it in a remote part of the garden, and let some shrubery grow round it for the Bees to light on, if they are so dis- posed, when the^. swarm. No^trees should be near it. Let it stand leaping fqrward a little, facing, the south, and clear of shade, with the front part of the roof prbjeciing over considefably, to prevent rains f^^ weting. the hives. These should be kept cleap, diy,:|pd sufficienfcigt, jya;rra in Winter; but not so warm a& to tempt the Be^ abroad in warm Winter- days. ^ ,, J^ The species of Swallow called Martins wilj destroy Bees; of course, no harbor should be afforded tor these birds. Some say that the common Swallow and the Redbreast, will also dest^tejlhem; but this is rather doubtful* ^. It is advisa^pla have large Swar&^; small oips never thrive so well;^ and for this purposq iwo or more small ones should be put together. The Swarm should weigh from four to six pounds. To ascertain their wfeight, that of the empty hive shoijid. be first known, an^Snaiked on it ; and then the addiiion to that will^e the weight of the Bees, when put into it. The weight of ^ach^Jj^ readily to bs known by'jtw!j|teelyard. " ♦ For joining two or more Swarms, take a full hive, at night, and set it bottom upwards; then set an empty one of the same size witb its bottom exactly on the other, and let there be cross pieces in the empty one for; 'the Bees to light on. Then strike gently on the tw;0 sides of the full hive to which the edges ofr the combs are fastened, and ths Bees will leave it and ascend into the upper. Then repeat the operation with another full hive, the one with the Bees in being set uppermost, as before, and yooiiave two Swarms together. Repeat it again, as before, an||^ou have three ; and so on, if more Swarms are to be added. Then set the hive with the Bees in it where one of fhe full ones stood, and they will go to work together. The Queens must, however, be first, searche4 for, and all destroyed but one. , _ Another method reconimended is to take a full hive, set it on a cloth with the bottom downwards, and then give it a smart stroke, which will cause all the Bees to fall ; search for the Queen and destroy her; have another full hive rea- dy, and put it over the Bees, and they will soon cravvi up into it, and become incorporated with tli^se of that hive. 24 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. This may also be repeated, for the purpose of adding a third Swarm to the other two. . > ^|fe Lest any one should want faith, hol|wer, in these me- ^Ihods of i'^inint^ Swarms, we will add the directions given by Mi\ T/iorlei/i for the purpose, which, though attended with some more trouble, appears to be perfectly practi- cable. He directs that the Bees should be first stupified with the smoke of the dried mushroom, found in the fields, which is commonly cdiWed Fuf-balL It is first to be compressed, and then dried in an oven till it will retain fire. The hives'^intend^d to be joined are to be placed sv^ith their bottoms over twp empty ones, when a piec^of pu[lf set on fire.ds to be plalfid under each full hive, so that the smoke wifl ascend into them; lind, i^hen the Bees |iave becomei^llupified, let the full hives be knocked gently on the sides, and the Bees will fall into the empty ones in a torpid state ; when one of the Queens is to be searched for and killed. The two Swarms are then to be mix^^together, and droped in among tliS'-combs of one of t^^fives, and set away where that hive stbod. The entranee^Jnto it is to be covered with a cloth, to prevent their geiing out. Let the hive into which they are put be first examined, to see if it contains a sufficient of honey for both Swarms. The second day after their union, remove the cloth, in the dusk of th^ ^.evening, alfd they will sally forth; but, on account of approaching nighty will soon i^jCturn. Keep them confined three or four days, leting th)^tti out in the evening, as before, and then the cloth may be removed. Swarms may also be divided, in order to increase the number; and this is to be done before the usual time of swarming, *^or when brood is in the hives, which is about the time the trees are in blossom. Three or four pieces of comb, having brood in them, are to be cut out, and placed, in rackwork, in an empty hive, in the same position as when taken out; then take, say, 500 Bees from another hive, ani^4)ut them into this, and close it up, and keep it in a place where the temperature is moderate. Violent agitation will ensue among these Bees ; then si- lence; then still louder noise: But, after the second day, they will begin to construct the Royal Cell. On the fourth or filth day the hive may be carried into the garden, and the prisoners suff'ered to escape, which they will quickly do;, but in about two hours they will return, and in due season bring forth the new Queen. This requires about fifteen days, and during that lime the Bees should have honey, sufficient' for their subsistence, given lo them every other day. ^ * ■ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ^5 We have before observed, that Bees in swarming often appear^t^have no ^^g in vi^w to reijvc^e to; but at,othcr times the case is diferent. In such case, after leaviing the hive, they will rise to some Height in the air and go ojff in a straight direction, sometimes to the distance of two ur three miles, to some 'place apparently before selected for their future resi'dence, which, in this Country, is conHnonly some hollow in a tree. When this happens, it is usual to .attempt to prevent their flight, by prodlocing confusion ampjpg ^them, by loud rattling noises, and thus bring them down and cause them to sditfe. For this purpose, firing off a gup amon^ .them is said to be most efficacious. Throwing sand or fiajfe gravel among them is also recommended; the Bees, rn'isiiiking the sand for rain, are suddenly disconcerted. Whatever is done in these ways should be done quickly, and effectually, or it will probably be disregarded by the Bees^ If tliey get fully under way, for the place of their desti-;/^ nation, they pre hardly to bie arrested in their piogtess. They may be follo>\^ed, if the Pursuer can keep in s%ht of them; and brought back, if not lodged, in the hollow ot a tree, or other inaccessible place. II they light on a branch of a tree, for instance, after they have settled, the branch may be gently cut off and laid on the ground; and then the hive, supported on two sticks, is to be set over them, and the whole tovered with a sheet, when thcy^willvsoon^ ascend into the hive and eommence working./ '' , In the evemng/when ail is still vviihin, the hive is to be brought to its place in the b^ehouse. _Let them settle where they will, after swarming, they are to be got into the hive in this way, or as nearly so as the circumstances of the case will admit, and set to their place in the evening. ■' It is said by Mr. ^Bonner, that after they haye settled they may be taken up in handfuls, and put into the hive. We should, however, advise to previously fortifying the hitnds with leather gloves. ,A case is mentior^ed by Mr Thorlcy where the Bees lighted on the head of his servant G^, ynd^ remained there, without slinging her; and that, on finding the Queen and seizing her and some others, .antl puting them into the hive, the rest, on missing her, soon followed in crouds andtook possiession of the hive. * - - In dealing with Bees, care should be taken not to breathe on themj as nothing is more irritating to them; while, at the sam#1ime, they take no offence at being blown on with a bellows. Where they are to be scraped together, make use of a feather for the purpose. It is advisable to fii your dress to them, by puting on clothes through which they "annot sting; and to protect the face, and particularly the yes, by a priir of goggles ; though jnany neglect these pre- "'4 26 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. *l. . cautions, without sustaining any injury. Bees are certainly much less inclined^ to sting, when ^gai-ming, than Usual i and, if gently dealt with, maj^' then iontimonly be handled with safety. ^ ^ ' If two clusters of Bees form in swarming, and remain separate, a ^^^^c" will be found in each ; and as no Swarm that leaves a hive is ever too large, one of the Queens must be destroye4, and then the Bees will all unitei In cases of this kind, it would seem that the Queen last released from lier cell is let out a little too soon/ and before het Predecessor has liad time to go off with a Swarm, and by this mean the younger Queen goe,s off with tljie rest. >''-l If a Swarm has b^e|) destitute of a Queen for as much as twenty-four hours, thfey will receive a hew one that is a Stranger ; but, if offered to them at first, she would be re- jected by tfiem and put t6 death. The hive should be proportioned to the size of the ^warm; one therefore weighing from four to six pounds '^sho6ld have a hive that will contain about three pecks. In this Country, hives are commonly made 'of boards op of straw. The formeritwe believe to be as good as any, and must be used for the management we would recommend, which is as follows ; The hive is to have a hole in the top, say, two inches square, which as to be covered with a sliding shutter; and is to kept closed until the hive is filled. When this is the case, which is to be known by the Bees lyih|j. inactive iibout .its mouth, open the hole above, by drawftVg the shutter back, and set a small hive on the top, into. which the Bees will ascend, and fill it with the purest honey, and whit^t comb, without any mixture of bee bread. When the upper hive is full,' take it off in a cool morn- ing, when the Bees are inactive, and carry it into a room with the windows open to the morning sun, and as this en- livens them they will fly off to the hive left standing, to join their companions in filling another small hive, which is to' \^^ placed on the top, as befdre. When this is full take it away, and put another in its place, which, in due time, is *also to be takeii away; closing the shutter, and leaving the lower hive for the Winter-fbod of ^he Swarm. The dpper hives should be sufficiently large to contain abput seventeen pounds of honey, which the Bees', if the Swarm be as large as it should be, will usually fill about three times ih the season. *"^ In taking out t hie honey from these small hives, which should be done speedily, let those Bees which are found unable {b fly be thrown into a vessel of cold water, so con- trived that they can crawlout again, and they will soon recover their wonfed activity, and go after their companions. FARMER'S ASSISTANT.: 27 In this method of managing, it will be seen, th£>t there is no necessity for the jptocess of fire and brimstone for geting rid of the Bees ; a procedure equally cruel and destructive of the race. Another method of taking -the honey, without killing the Bees, is by driving them out of the full hive, at night, into an empty one, with its bottom set otil'that of the other, in, the manner we have before mentioned; atid then, seting the latter in the place where the former slobd, they will soon go to work again. This method is saiii'tb' be considerably practised in France. Mr. Deane recommends a method ofcmanagement, which should also be described; though we tbnsider it inferior lo that we have just recommended. , He directs that three hives, fourteen inches in di&eter^ and ten high, be set one on the other; the two lower ones having holes in their tops, and sliding shutters, as before mentioned. Each hive is also to have a place of entrance for the*. Bees. T^e holes of the two lower hives are to be open at the comnrte^ncement of the season, when the Bees will first fill the upper hive. , ^ When full, close the shutter below, and take this hive away, and treat it in the manner before directed, and the Bees will proceed to fill the next hive below. When this is full, take it away, as before, and close the aperture in the top of the lower hive, and the Bees will then proceed to fill' that with hone^i which is to be leti tor their Winter- food. Mr. DeaneiJ^js^s that this method prevents the Bees swarming; but in this, we believe, he is mistaken. ., What induces us to prefer the plan we have recoitimendr ed, is the purity of the honey and comb, as before stated, and its freeness from any mixture of beebread. The comb is very thin and transparent, and the honey is perfectly clear. ^ . Another sort of beehive is recommended in the Edio- b.i^rg Encyclopedia, as l^eing much approved in Scotland. ^.JThis is ^ hive with a number of leaves joined together, like theleave^ of a, book; each leaf being a frame, or pieces* of lattice-work, sufficiently wide jto hold one comb, and no more. The hive is to be composed of a suitable number of these leaves, which, like the leaves of a book, may be open- ed at any place, in the front part, and the combs, formed in any of them, taken away; which vacancy will be soon filled again by the Bees. On opening these leaves, the Bees are found to be very civile ox rather fearful ; owing perhaps to the sudden influx of light which is thus occasioned. The principal advantages of the leaf- hive seem to be, the facility it affords for taking away a part of ita contents,!^ at pleasure, and for examining the condition of the Beesj 28 FARMER'^ ASSISTANT. in regard to their stock of provisions, their health, and whether they are tree from troublesogie insects. Of these particulars, something shall now be said. Were we merely to consult Our feelings, we should ad- vise to feed Bees, when their siock is exhausted. If this be near the close of -Winter, interest alone will dictate the measure; but, if they are found destitute at a^n earlier pe- riod,, perhaps their destiny is only to be averted from mo- tives of C0130 passion. And is the industrious Insect, that toils lor us incessantly during Summer, unworthy of pity in the hour of distress? It should be remembered, that, when -even a little, Bjee perishes with famine, it ^ feels % pa!}g as great, as when a Giant dies.* But jinpther Writer, quoted by Mr. Deane, says that Swarms, ' which have not a good stock of honey to serve them through Winter, are not, fit to keep.*. HoHfy IS. the/ most natural food for Bees. It is to be convvj'^d into the, hives by. lltjtle troughs for the purpose, and the food is to be given daily, until the Bees can ()ro,vide for themselves. Let, some good sweet-wort be/mixed wiih the honey, and it w)il then go much farther. , Sugar, or mo- lasses, may also be used in place of honey. A Writer, quottd by Mr. iJ>fi2we, says, ^ < * Some prescribe toasts of bread, soped in strong ale, and put into the hive; whereof they will not leave one crumb remaining* This is certainly much the cheapest ff^xl. The quantity of provisions, the Bees riiay. have in store, is to be, known by the weight of the hive. The weight of the Swarm, and of the hive or box containing them, should always be known, and marked,; and , then, after a reasonable dejJuction lor the weight of the comb, the remainder of the whole weight must be honey and bee-bread. The hiite composed of leaves, as betore described, affords, however, a readier way for ascertaining the stock of provisions, by opening the leaves and examining every part; and this we think one of its principal advantages. Perhaps the leaf-hive, with. a hole and shutter in the top, for the purpose of filling the small hives, as first mention- ed, would . be foi»nd an improvement combining the advan- tages of each. - ». ■-..'-*:. In rega'rdvto the diseases of Bees, it may lie^firstly ob- served, uhat epidemics have been known to prevail among them, and sweep .them off almost entirely; that a case of this kind happened, &bout forty years since, in Syria, in the Archipelago, as is related by the Abbe jptllu Rocca. Such instances are very rare, however. The most common dis- ease among them is a kindiaf diahoea, which is very inju- rious; the commencemefttof*^ which may be observed by farMer^s assistant. 2^ the foulness of tf^^ombs. These should, have the foul parts pared and scraped off^ It is said by some, that the disease may be cured by sup- plying the Bees with a rrlixture of rose notary and honey, di- luted with water. Othei's recommend for the purpose a syrup of equal quantities of sugar and wine, with a little nutmeg grated in; and by others, a mixture of honey, su- gar, and wine is prescribed. These medicines are also ad- tised to be given, when the Bees appear dull and languid, owing to a disorder of thelantennse. But what has lately proved most destructive to Bees, in {hh Country#is an insect, which is the spurious tinea, while in Its caterpillar form. It^ is a species of moth, and is thus described by M. i^ecttmwr. ^ "These creatures are of the caterpillar kind, and have sixteen legs. They feed on wax', and for food enter the beehives; where they boldly engage the Befes, and are not to be prevented by them from feeding, though at the ex- pense of their habitations; so that it is no uncommon thing for a Swarm of Bees to be forced to change their place, leaving this contemptible victor in possession of the hive/ * All the Authors who have writen t>n Bees, have com- plained of this destructive animal. It never eats the honey, but feeds only on the wax ; attacking^principally those waxy cells where the female Bee deposits her eggiS for the future progeny.* 'The B^es;w6uld readily destroy these creatures, vcre it 'not for the armor they are covered with. They form themselves a coat of armor of a double matter. The first, next to the body, is a kind of silk of their own spining ; and the outer covering is of beeswax, laid on considerably thick. The creature, just thrusting its head out to feed, goes on devouring the cells ; while the Bees are buzing about him, attempting, in vain, to pierce him with their stings. He never forsakes his covering; but lengthens and enlarges it as he goes; and^ gnawing down the sides of the cells in his march, without staying to eat them one by one, the destruction he occasions is scarcely to be con- ceived.* * * When its time of change approaches, it contracts its bcjdjr within its double covering, and there changes into the nymph state ; whence^ after a proper time, it comes forth in the form of a moth, with granulated horns, and a crook ,ed proboscis.' ' The Bees know their enemy in this new form, and de- stroy all the moths they can meet with. They^ are seldom *5b^:ortunate, however, as to kill the whole race as soon as produced ; and, if only one escape, it is able to lay a foun- dation of revenge for the death of its Brethren.* 30 farmer's: ASSISTANT. ' All the flies of the moth kind lay a yist number of eggs; and the young: ones produced from those of one surviving female, of this species, are sufficient to destroy many honey-combs ; nay, many hives of them. The moth pro- duced by this caterpillar flies but little; but is very nimble in avoiding danger by runing, which it. does with great swittne^^.' This insect has been extending its ravages from south to north, for several yeafs pa^t, and in its progress must soon pass the northern bounds of the United States. Probably, like many other insects, its existence will be only tempora- ry. Mr. Fan Schaick says, ' < In the county of Greene, where I first observed it in 1813, thp havoc it spread throughout its course was .wide and annihilating/ « In a single instance^ one Farmer had upwards of thirty hi*^es destroyed that year.* 'In 1815, I observed it in the counties of Renselaer and Saratoga, when it first made its appearance there, where its ravages were. equally destructive.* < On inspecting a number of hives (says he) I found its eggs deposited in every part of them, but most generally, and in vast numbers, under the rims, and in the crevices of the floors or stands, nearest to the hives ; as if the little in- sect had anticipated tlfe wants of its progeny, and determin-^ ed to fix it where its sustenance should be abundant. But in doing so it does not appear tO act solely forrthe benefit of its OS's pring; for, whilst the worm destroys rthe* wax, and detaches the honey from the cells, the fly devours the latter, where it can do so with Impunity.' He adds, ' On examining several hives, I have found caterpillars and chrisalides, and the remains of each in large clusters, enveloped in webs suspended therein, and apparently the cftily tenants which occupied the desolated hive.* . > < The great desideratum (as he well observes) is how to destroy ^the tinea, or how prevent its intrusion into the hives.* ' For destroying it, he observes, ' the most cff'ectual me-r thod which' I have yet observed, is to raiseythe hive about an inch above the floor and prop it there, when, the moment the Bees discover tlieir unmasked enemy, whether in the shape of eggs, or of caterpillars in different stages of formation, they attack thena^ with fury, and toil incessantly until they have destroyed or removed every vestige of them off the board/ . He further very judiciously recommends the construction^ of the floor or plank on which the hive ^ stands, and also the rim of the hive^ tobe » of such materials and dimensions, FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 31 as would afford no place of concealment for the fly or its eggs.* For these, purposes, therefore, let the plaiik be planed smooth, its cracks all stoped, and then either paint- ed, or white-washed with lime; and then let the rim be pared off to an edge, so that it can ^ afford no covering underneath, betw'een the edge and ; the plank'. Let the edge he also painted, and its cracks stoped. ^ With these precautions, and with^ the further i^prove^ ments, suggested ^ and put in practice, by Dr. Zow, which we shall now mention, we are fully conyincetl that the rav- ages of this, and every other creeping insect, upon the hive, may be. effectually prevented. His method is to suspend the hive, by a cord fastened io the top, and have the plank forming the floor moveable up and down. During cold weather, the plank is brought up close to the rim, to keep the Bees sufficiently warm ; but on the approach of Sprang, or' when the weather has be- conie suitably tnoderated, the plank is let^down about four inches, and kept in that situation during the warm or growing season. At^ particular cold spells, during the flrst of the Spring, or latter end of the Fall, the floor, .no doubt, ought to be raised up, until the return of vvarmer weather; but it should only be kept in this position while the comfort of the Bees requires it. . Two further advantages are mentioned by D,r. L. as be- ing gained by this treatment. The hiye has always suffi- cient fresh air' within, so as to save the labor of some of the Bees, whi^cjh are aloted in every close hive to perform the business of ventilation ; and, the bottom of the hive be- ing entirely open, the Bees are not impeded by each other, ir| coming in or going out. Dr. L. also found one of h^s hives infested with ants, which were lodged between boards forming the bottom. Most probably theR insects make their incursions into the hives at night; as he says the Bees quickly routed them, as soon as their hidingplace was discovered. Some yejars since, whe|i the caterpillar v/^s making great ravages in Newjersey, a Writer, in a Morristown Paper, recommended raising the hives, and strewing fine salt un- ^er the rims, which he had tried for two years with com- plete success. We have^ been informed, however, that others hav6 not m^t with the same success in making this trial. - Another forniidable enemy of the Bee is mfentioned by ^ome European Writers, whi^gh is the insect called the ,^fyhinx Mrofios. It is said to prevail ag^iijst; the workirig ;feees, by making, a clacking kind noise, Which, for a while, it vyould seem, deprives them of the power of rcsistance,i for it is said the Queen also possesses the power of making :.2 FARMERV^ASSI^TA^'T. this noise, which disarms The Worker? for a while; and that on hearing a similar sound, from the insect in question, it produces a similar effect, and giyes the animal a chance Qf preying on. the honty. ; But, as we believe this insect has never made its appear- ance in this Country;'/'we will refer those of our Readers to the E^inburg Encyclopedia (article Bee) who are desirous of having a particular description of this enemy of Bccs> Wasps and hornets also prey on the contents of the hive ; and should therefore have their nests destroyed, whenever found any where near the beehcuse. , , Sometimes Bees turn Robers^ and those owned by one will be found carrying 6ff the honey, ffonn the hives belong- ing to another, to their own dwellings; and in that case the Bees of the emptied hives are said to follow. Whether this be a matter of conquest on the one side,^ orvof consent on the other, is perhaps difficult to say; but^^ where the Owner of the deserting Bees finds this to be the case, vi^hich is to be known by the sdddeh desertion and r€^m plying of his hives, perhaps his best Remedy is to re- move his remaining Swarms to another neighborhood, for the season, or change his stock of Bees. Those which are the Robers may be traced to their dwellings, by scattering a Utile flour oyer them, as they leave' the hives from which they carry Ihe honey, and ob- serving their course as ^hey go off. '' Bees thrive best, and collect most honey, Jn the neigh- borhood of flowers; and the nearer to thfelm the belter. Buckwheat, while in blossom, affords excelent food, for them. Broom, clover, mustard, and the flowers of the poppy, afford them good pastures. The fldwers of migno- nette are much relished by them, and give the finest honey. Mr. Bromwich,' 2i British Writer, relatife that he planted a quantity of it before two beehives, at a considerable dis- tance from any other Bees ; and, wiih such abundant sup- plies as this afforded them, few ever left the garden where the mignonette grew. In September, he took the honey, and found it to cx^ ceed, by above a third, what hfe obtained from any other two of his b,est hives, where the Bees were obliged to fly farther; and that the honey was equal in fragrance and color to what is Imported from the warmer clirhates. For the purpose, therefore, of having the Bees as con- stantly as possibte where they can have the easiest access to their food, it. is the pra^ciice in some countries to carry them from place to place, in search of IVesh, or of ih^ earliest, flowers J and this is done- both by land and water. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 33 On the Nile, thjUd^irg sent up, in boats constructed for the purpose, to \VWere the flowers are earlier in bloom ; and return again in two or three monthsi stoping frequently where the feeding is be?t. Along the shorq^ot Asia Minor, they are carried in boats, froni one island to another, in search of food. In France, they are transported, both by land and water, for the same purpose. A case is mentioned by M. Reaumur^ of a M, Frotauf, who kept 4^ut six hundred hives, which he moved, by land, tw^ent5phniles or more from home, in search of the best feeding;* From thirty to forty -eight were carried in one cart, made for the purpose; the hives heing properly arranged in tiers, and standing on strong cloihs, fastened t© springs. They traveled slovily, and on the smootliest roads; and frequently halted where the feeding was good. But we shall not further enlarge this article, with rela- tions of what is done ih old settled Countries, where, latjj^r being cheaper than it is here, the Cultivator of Bees is ena- bled to mukj? that profitable which, perhaps., might not be found equali|^ipj^ this Country. _, ^^ ^ Bees are qfertainly very profitable, fr properly manai^ed, and attended to. They, however, require more attentioil than is usually bestowed on them here. We have endea- vored to give the general ouUines of their natural history, andlSf what is considered to be gc^'management of them, without entering too ncifhuti'ly into details, which are incou- sisterit with the intended brevity of this Work. Our CouRtP^Js probably not calculated to support so many Bees, a^ one that has less of woodland, and more land that is j5;ultivated. The forests yield but little' food for the Bee», except the honey- dew, as it is calle^d, which at times is found very plentifully on tt)e leaves of trees. This, % however, affords bu^ Indifferent honey; and probably, when * this dew abounds in the forest, the leaves of the plants of the" cultivated fields are not wholly destitute of it. * There can be no doubt, however, that almost every part of our Country, where it is cultivated, is capable of feeding six times the number of, Bees wiih which it at present abounds. ' ^ ,^0 BEET (Beta.) There are varieties of beets ; but the best are the red, artd'the reder tj:|e sweeter. Sov/ th^m ear- ly, if the soil be not very,.rich ; 6ut they may be sown lat»^r, where it is strong. The soil should be well mellowtd t) a good depth. A soil naturally mellow is best for them. The ' larger they grew the fartlier they'shou-d be set apart, even Id the distance of tw^ye inches. The seeds generally come up double, but should be separated, while youn^, otherwise both rck»ts will be small, and sometimes twisted S4 FARMEiai^ ASSISTANT yomM e^cli Qtlitr. Those taken out m^ be transplanted; y^t they will niake but short roots. Brets should be kept clear of weedsj til! the leaves covering the ground prevent their further growth. The roots sfiould be duj^ tip before any severe frosts; none of the fibrous roots should be taken away; nor should the tops be cut close. In thk^situation they should be boiU ed, to prevent any loss of their juice-. In Winter, they are best kept in sand ; and they should not be sufFeFred to freeze, as this makes theni tough and unfit for use. "^ Sugar is made frona- this root, and for thistpurpose the white beet is prefered. They are washed, and boiled soft ; when the juice is |)ressed out, by a screw press, and then boiled down to a consistence prosper for graining: Itas then ponred out into flat pans, made for the purpose, and gently stired while it is cooling. In order to render it n^ore dry, and white, it is put into the screw -press, and there severely pressed; by which operation the molasses is forced out, leaving the remainder almost as white as lump- sug^r. The,, molasses may be again boiI6d\^'d[6jvn tind con- vened into sugar, as before, or it may be ke^tior use. • We mention this use of the beet here, from a belief tjiat cither it, or the pumpkin, may afford the cheapest sugar to all those who are soon to inhabit the vast praires of the West, which form nea^ half of pur territory; wherig the s^jgar-maple^alDDunds but little, and "inhere much of the soil is admirably calculated for the culture of this root. It is almost useless to say, that it will afford ^^ir-dent spirits as readily as it wi^l sugar. '" See further, Mangel Wurt^el. Probably this may be found best adapted for the purpose of making su^ar. BOG-MEADOWS. Where these are not a turf, but a mere loose black dirt, and ctin be well drained, having then a sufficient depth, they make valuable Idnds, particu- larly for the purpose of raising hemp. The drier this land can be laid the better. When this earth is cawed out upon upland, it is found a good manure; and upland, parti- cukirly gravel and sand, whlh carted into bog-meadows, is almost equally beneficial. Prodigious great crops of herds- grass have beer^ raised on them, when thus manured with upJand e^^i : And if this be so benfe^cial for grass, why not equally so with hemp? It would seem, that not only grass and hemp, but many other productions, such as Indian corn, potatoes, cabbage, carrots, beets, turnips, parsnips, and perhaps almost every grain but wheat, might be culti- vated to great advantage on well drained boglands, where they had been previously well manlired with upland earths. The Indian corp, however, must be such as has been long FARMER'S ASSISTANT. S5 cultivated in a in^pxe northerly climate, and, of course* ripens so soon as td^lscape the early frosts which pie vail in bog-meadows. Hops are cultivated^ to -^reat advantage in these lands. * ^ # The method of draining these lands effectually is, first to run a ditch through the middle, and draw off as much of its waters in this way as possible.^ .Where the meadow is very wet and miry, you commence, at the lowest part of the ground, where you design its outlet to begin; and thence carry the dl^h inio the meadow, sinking it ail the way as you proceed,- as low as will barely give the waters a cur- rent to-run off i and the deeper this ditch can be sunk the better. Then run a ditch^ proportionktely deep- all round the edge of the bog, for the purpose of cuting off all the . springs. Then eross ditches are to be made, in number and size proportionate to the extent of the bog, and of the size of the middle and surrounding ditches. Generally speaking, the deeper and iargec your 'Pitches, the. fewer cross-ditches you need have. It shouldJ^.|emembered, that boglands will settle dfewn very muchj^^er draining; for which due allowance ought to be made, m regard, to the d6pth of the ditches. Some- times it may be found, that there will, after draining, be too thin a layer of bogdirt above the clay on which it is bot- tom^, to be of much value ; andi^reseeing this, it ougHt in some cases to deter the Proprietor from going to the expense of draining the swamp, particularly if it be covered with a thrifty grov^th of timber. See further, Ditches. BORECdLE OR COLESEED (Brassica rafia.) We give the directions, for the culture of this plant, from the Gardener's Dictionary, . ' This plant, which is generally known by the name of Rape or Coleseed, is much cultivated in the Isle of Ely, and some other parts of Englandj for its seed; from which the rapeoil is drawn: And it has also been cultiyated, of late years, in other places, for feeding of cattle, to greats advantage. '^■. ^ , ' The coleseed, v/hen cultivated for feeding of cattfb, should be sown about the, middle of June. i>e ground should be prepared for it in the same, manner as^for turnips. The quantity of seed for an Icre of land Js from six to eight pounds; and, as the price of seed is not great, it is better to allow eight pounds; for, if the plants are too close in any part they may be thined, when the ground is hoed| which must be performed in the same manner as is prac- tised for turnips, with this difference only, of leaving those muchvjiearer together; for. as they have fibrous roots, 36 FARMER||ASSISTANT. and slender stalks, so they do^ not reguire near so much room. " ^ < These plants should have a second hoeing, about five or six weeks afa^r the fi^st, which, if w^ll performed in dry weartier, will entirely destroy the weeds, so that they will require no further culture. ' ' \yhen there is notiliii immediate want of food, these plijnts had better be k^pt fcrt* hard weather, or Spring feed; when there may be a' scarcity ot other green, ^d. If th'e heads are cutoff, and the stalks left in -the Sound, they Will shoot again early in the Spring, and produce a good second crop in April; which may be either fed off, or per- mited to run to seed, as is the practice where this is cul- tivated for the seed. But, if the first is fed down, tfterie should be care taken that the cattle do nat destroy the stems, or pull them out of the ground. * As this plant is so hardy as not to be des^oyed by frost; so it is. of great service, in hard Winters, for feeding of Ewes: For, when the ground is so hard frozen, as that turnips cannot be taken up, these plants ma||^|i^ cuv off for ^ a constant su^pply. This will afford late '^^'■^ after the turnips are run to seed; and, if it is afterwards permited to stand lor seed, one acre will produce as much as, at a moder.rte computation, . will sell for five pounds (about twenty two dollars) cle^Hbf charges.* ^ ' The same Author adds : # ' The curled colewort, or Siberian borecote, is now more generally esteemed than the former; being extreme hardy, so It is never injured by cold; but is always sweeter in severe Winters than in miW seasons.* ' Mr. Dtane says : , * A Gentleman informs him that, in Boston, he made several trials of this plant, and found that the' Winter did not injure it. It is fit tor the table from December to April.* Mr. D says: ' He made triul of three kinds of borecole, the last year, in the latitude of 44. It crew very well till-Wintcr; but not one plant itr fifty 'md any life in the following ^piing. The sdrts \yere the green, the white, and the red. But it is j^bable that in some parts,of Newengland, and in warm '^^ations, this plam may be cultivated to advan- ml tage; though not in fields, it may in gardens. It is believed that this plant might be advant cultivated, in the middle and more souAerly States BOT WORMS. The manner in which these are produc ed is this: An insect somewhat ^resembling a Bee in its bead and neck, having a long crooked tail, may be seen FARMER'S ASSISTANT during the months of Autumn, almost constantly ^ying about Horses ; and in the 'course ol a few wepiks will fill their hair, particularly about the breast and legs, with great numbers of its nits. Whenever tlie Horse itches in any part, he applies his tfeeth for the purpose'^of scratching : In doing this he loosens some of ^hesevnits, and they are received into his mouth; whence 'they pass with his food into the stomach, and from these the Bot is producec^. Ex;. periments which have been communicated byrM,r^.Living^' «^on put this- matter out of doubt. * *^ To kill Bots in a Horse, pour a quart of rum down his thrpat. This will make theip loose their hold of the maw, and they will be carried off with its contents.^ Repeat the do^ as often as may be found ^ necessary. > A few doses of linseed oil, a pint each time, jwill also quickly effect a cui^e. . AnOth^V efFi^ctual remedy, we havie seen recommended, is, to take a Sjgoonful of unslacked linie, at a time, and mix .. it with the food of the Horse, morning and evening, for> three or four days, which wi'U completely expel these insects. BUCKWHEAT (Pol^gonium.) The product of this grain depends much on the wheaiher, while the growing crop is in blossofti ; for, if the days are moderately cool ait that time, it may be expected to fill well and be abundant; but it may be otherwise, should there be much warm weath- er at that time. Sixty and seventy bushels to the acre are sornetimes raised of this grain, where the growth is suffi- ciently thick and heavy on the ground; but olttimes the crop, for want of filling properly, will not yield a third of this amount. It Should be sown at such timr, as it will just ripen be- fore the Fall-frosts are usually to be expected. Half a bushel is about a proper allowance cf seed to the acre. The crop will grow wiya more indifferent culture than, 'perhaps, any other. It is much assisted by gypsum, where that manute is suitable to the soil. Even te wet the sq^ed before sowin^^ and then to dry it with a sufficient sprinl^Ung of that nttanure, will greatly a^iist the growth of the crm). It is considered excelent for Bees, while the cropTs in. blossom. It may be cultivateid yearly on the s^me ground, and to considerable advantage, on light lands pJtJ no great value, but* which are suitable to gypsum, as a iij^n^Jrj^. It •would, seem that ij^. might be raised, with scmfe profit, or* mtjch of that great>'tract of light mellow levi^l land, which extends to a greater or less distance back from the Atlan- tic, in the southern States. . i ; For the article of bread, it would be a very agreeable substitute for' Indian corn, which is the grain priHcipally 38 FARMER'4. ASSISTANT. W used in that counftFy for that part of aliment. Indeed, the principal excelence of Buckwheat is for m-iking an agreea- ble bread ; for the cakes made of its flour, if eaten while warm, are generally mitch relished; and, for the purpose of bread, the same weight of flour .of this grain will, per- haps, go farther than that of any other whatever. When ground, or steamboiledj &tickwhedt is aiso good for feeding, and fating Swine, and other aninj^ls. The crop, when ripe, is cut with a cradle, and let lie in the swath a lew days to dry. It is than ra^^ in smaM biinches, i^hich is to be. done in the morning, tiS prevent its shelling too much. When sufficiently dry, and during the driest part of the day, it is drawn, either to the barn, or to the centre of the field, which, in some places, is the most usual practice,, and threshed $Tat immediately. It is very easily threshed with the-flaU, while dry. Indeed, the crop r^is easier raised, harvested, and threshetl, that) perhaps any "other. ^ We cannot recommend the culture of this,A grain, on lands which are suitable for more valuable eiP0p^ ; but, on 1ig|it smooth iands particularly, the Farmer m^y find con- sidirable account in keeping a field, of a few acres, for a yearly crop of buckwheat, as well for family-use as tor as-- bisting in fating l>is Swine, Stc. A bnsh^el of gypsunji to the acre, or perhaps less, applied yearly to the ground, would be found'sufiitiefit to keep it rich enoug^i for good crops. ''.•"■■'{' BULL. Ste Neat cattj^e. BURN-BAKING. A method of manuring stifF clay lands. It is performed by paring off the sward, in pieces about eighteen inches long, ^a foot wide, and two or three inches thick; these are set on t^ifeir edges, leaning against each other, to dry, which in good weather requires about three weeks. They are nhen lai^ up somewhat in form of ovens, with their months to a common windward side^ having a hole in the top of each for the smoke to pass off. In a dry day, when the wind blows into the -mouths, tlvey are set on fire with straw, anti ifthey burn too briskly some earth' niust be thrown on to deaded the fires. At the end of about tly'ee days they will be completely burnt through ; and thenH^t^ l>urnt earth is spread over the ground and ploughed 'ih' with a^shoul furrow. See further, Weeds, for another use of Burn-baki^s. For culing up the swards in square^Jlar burnbaking ^^ a roller with sharp iron rims jound ii, at suitable distances, is to be used. As the roller passes over the ground the rims sink into it sufficiently deep. The ground is first to be cut one way. with this implement; ihen with another implement, FARMER'S A^ISTAKT. 39 resembling a wheel plough, it is cut into-squares, by cross- ing the direction of the roller ; and the squares are at the same^time severed underneath by a broad thin slf^are for the purpose, and are turned over in the. mapner of turning over sward- ground. They are then to be set up, as before directed. ' * Mr. Youngs the late fanwus Agriculturalist, -of Great- britain, recommends burn baking,^ where it can be easily performed, a^ highly benficial to odld, StiflT, and clayey soils, fy ' ^^ ^ - ..-.. "' ' ■ ^ BURNT'CLAY, This 'h a good manure foi* clay ankl other heavy soils. In ' The CQmpkte Grazie^i*^ it is also recommended for light soils. The method' of preparing it is«af follows: ^ rn\.lhe first place, dig yotir clay in spits of the si:ie of bricks, and let them be well dried in thesun. Take small billets of wood, QV faggots of brush, and pile them up in the form of a sugarloaf, three or four feet hitj:h ; then pile your spits of dried clay closely round this, leaving a hole on ^one side to Kifidle the fire, and another in the top for the smoke to pass o 15'. Surround the pile again with two ni,^e enclosures of' the spits of clay, and then kindle the hrel When it has goten well on lire, stop up the holes with clay, arwl the innate heat will so fire the mass, that wet chy may be thrown on in great quantities. , Care must however be taken, n6tto lay it on, so fast, floi^\s,o closely, as to put out the fire, as in that case you must begin anew. By raising a stage round the 4)ile, you may thro vif on clay till you get it as high as you please. The pile must be watched day and night, till fully burnt. Farmers possessing clay-lands will do well to make ejc- periments of this manure. From ten to twenty loads of it is a suitable dressing for an acre. BUTTER. For curing butter, take Dr. AndersorCs re- cipe, as follows r ' Take two parts of common salt, one of brown-sugar, anxl one of saltpetre; beat them together so as to blend them completely, and apply one ounce of this to every pound of butter; work it well into the mass, and close it up for use.* ^ This will cost about a cent per-pound more thah^by cur- ing butter in the usual way ; biil its peculiar exjgjp^nce is, that butter thus cui^d will keep sweet for twd or three years; and its taste is much superior to that which is cured in the common way. It must not, however, be used sooner tharv a month after it has been laid down, as it does not fully acquire its rich marrowy taste, tintil about that length of lime. Butter cured in this way and laid down lor Winter- 4d FARMER^ ASSISTANT. use, will then be* found worth at least twenty-five per cent more than that which has been cure^ with salt alone. \ Dr. Anderson condemns the practice of keeping milk in leaded Vessels, and butter in stone Jars, as communicating to the milk, anid to the butter, a poisonous quality ej^treme^ ]y injurious to th^ huna^n consiitutidn. To prevent the rancidity ot common salted butter, Mr. Be Witt very judici0us% ■Recommends making it into rolls, ^ and keeping it in a pur^ brine in a cask, with a lid and dasher, sornewhat siniilar tp^the common i|&*urn. The dasher is for the purpose of Keeping the rolls under the brine, which is effected by means of a cord tied at one side of the vessel, run over the head of the handle of tHe dasher, and then tied down at the opposite side, ^she brine does not penetratjB the butter, and therefore may be made strong i and, to keep it pure, it may be occasionally heated, and the scumaaken off, which will clarify it. Country Merchants, who take in butter, by attending to this, may preserve all their Spring and Summer butter sweet for the Fall- market. >|P'|^' jjifo make the finest butter, take the- /as? fdfl^^lh-part of the nffit'of each teat of the be&e Cows fa|: making butter, and make it by itself. The first part of the milking^ which con- tains much the least and the poorest of the eream, can' be made into inferior butter, or used for other purposes. -Butter made in the m6n)th't)f May, is observed to be the best for keeping. v , ■ , CABBAGE fBrascia.j There are many varieties of this plant, such as the conimoh white and red cabbage, the Dutch, the Scoth, the Savoy, the Winter-green globe, the brocoli, the borecole, the Battersea, Sec. The oil called rapeoil is made from the seeds of the borecole, or rafie, as it is, somfelimes called. In Gre^tfetain, the cultivation of cabbages is a part of field husbawfy, and they are used for feeding and fating cattle. ^ .'-i ^ Cabbages require a soil made rich,^ut the kind is not so material. Mr. Young makes mention of good crops raised .. in red sand. Rich swamplands, well drained, are good for them. They will grow yearly on the same ground; but they exhaust the soil considerably. For field-cuhure, % • FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 41 the plants are to be set in rows four feet apart and about two feet from each other, and ploughed and hoed like other hoed, crops. Transplanting is the most advisable method, though the seeds may be planted at first where they are designed to grow. Strewing soot, ashes, or lime round them, while young, will assist considerably in keeping off the insects which usually attack them. Where ihey are liable to become club footed, by reason of worms which eak into their roots, a small trifle of salt strewed round them is good. f. When cabbages are feet to Milch-cows, the decayed leaves must be taken off, or they will impart a bad taste to the milk and butter. •Inhere a field-crop of cabbages is to be raised, or an early crop for the table, the seeds for the plants should be sown very early in the Spring; where the crop is designed for Fall and Winter-use, the seeds may be sown later; but, as the proper time for this must still depend on the cli- mate, it is a matter that is best learned by experience. Cabbages for Winter- use should be pulled in dry weath- er, and be wiSll dryed before they are put into the cellnr. Let them be hung up in the cellar, with the heads down- wards. The cellar should nOt be too warm, or they will soon rot. They may also be kept well during Winter, by cuting off the heads and laying them away in a cask filled with snow, and keeping them in a cold place. But, for the Spring-supply, let a trench be made in a dry soil and line it with straw; set the heads closely together with the roots upwards; cover them with straw, and then with earth, piled up as steep as possible. In this manner they will keep till May, and may occasionally be dug out as they are wanted. CALVES. See Neat-cattle. CANKER. See Fruit-trees. CANKER WORM. See Insects. CARRIAGES. Some of the best British Farmers prin- cipally use one-horse carts, instead of wagons, on their farms. Mr. Young- particularly recommends themiifor this purpose, as being on the whole more convenient and cheaper. In Ireland, the wheel car is almost universally used on farms, and for transporting on the highways. On these, one Man is found sufficient to drive four cars ; the Horses, being under good command, follow each behind the other. Each Horse draws from ten to twenty hundred weight, according to the state of the ro^ds; for it is found 42 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. that one animal drawing by itself, in a car or cart, can si easily draw eight hundred weight, ap two can draw twelve hundred weight, when put together in a wagon. The reason of this is obvious: In a cart, the Horse carries a part of iht load on his back; and, in drawing, his exertions are not buffled by the jostling and unequal exertions of another. Carts are, however, more easily upsfi in bad roads than wagons. Ano her objection against them is, that they press too heavily on the Horse or Ox^n, when going down hill, particularly when carrying a top-heavy io^; and they incline to tilt up behind, wheti ^oing up hill witlti such load. These defects are, however, easily obviated by a contriv- ance fixed m front of the box, for the purpose of raising its fore end when going down hill, and of sinking it when going up; so that, in either case, the centre of gravity of the load will not be materially altered from what it is on level ground. A can contrived and used by Lord Somerville^ in Great- britain, -answers this purpose in part. Another contrivance of that Nobleman is, a wooden bar placed on the, outside of C£^i wheel, just above the hubs, so that when going down hifl'the bars are drawn by each end against the sides of the wheels, so strongly as to impede t leir motion, and thus prevent the load pressing forward with more force than la convenient. A description of the menns by which these several operations are performed is here omited, because they are, perhaps, nearly as easily imagined as described. Any one, wishing to test their efficacy, need not be long at a loss for the means. The cart-wheels made use of by the above Nobleman and others are of cast- iron, being about three feet in diameter, with a rim about four inches broad ; The spokes are flat, and broadest where they join the hub and the rim, so as to give them most strength where most is wanted. If any part of the wheel happen to break, by a too violent concussion, it can be mended again with wrought iron, when it will be as strong as ever. The axletree is of wrought-iron. Such a cart may last an age, with good usage, and the cost of them is not so great as that of carts made of wood. Probably they would, however, be found too bnttle\<)n stony lands; though their strength will be lound ve^'^gpeat, it cast of the best metal to be had for the purpose. In the construction of the body of Jlie cart, the essential points are to fit it for the purposes for which it is mostly to be used ; to place so much of it before the axletree as that, when filled, about a fifih of the weight of its contents will rest on the Horse; and that it be so contrived as to be tilted up to empty its load. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 43 The improvements above mentioned, for regulating the centre of gravity of the load, and for impeding the progress of the carriage in going down hill, may be equally well applied to our ox- carts. The wagons generally used in this Country, whether for one, two, or more Horses, are, perhaps, as convenient as those to be found elsewhere: All that is particularly insist- ed on is, that, according to the experience of the best British Farniers, the one-horst cart should be prefered to the wagon oa smctoth weil-cjgiliivated farms, as being cheap- er, and more convenient for most uses. Whether the wheels of carts be made of wood or of cast- iron, the rims should be as much as four inches broad ; byHhis mean they sink less into the earth, ur.d therefore run more safe and steadily. Their being low, and plac- ed pretty wide apart, also renders the cart less liable to upset. Carriages should be constantly shielded from the weath- er, when not in use: The Summer sun cracks and shrinks the wood, anij' ;wet weather tends imperceptibly to decayjt, and to wasteHlie parts which are of iron by rust. ^. For the best method of seasoning timber for carts, wagons, &c. see Timber. Wagons and carts may be made to run at least one- fifth easier, by having iron rollers in the boxes. This, at the same time, saves the trouble of taring the ^xletrees. A plan has been patented for wagon-boxes with rollers, which has the rollers held at equal distances, by having each end fixed in a rim or ring ; so that, as the rollers run round in the inside of the box, the ring turns with them, and thus prevents any friction by the rollers geting out of their places. If four or five dollars a year can be saved by the easy runing of a carriage, by being enabled to carry, per- haps, a fifth more at a load, it is well worth while to be at the additional expense of four or five dollars, in the first instance, to fit the carriage for this purpose. CARROT (Daucus ) There are few articles of culture more profitable than that of carrots. They will yield, with the best cultivation, from six to eight hundred bushels an acre. They require a mellow soil, into which they can easily penetrate deeply. They will grow very well on one which is moderately rich ; provided it be well and deeply mellow- ed. A fertile sand, a sandy loam, a dry warm loam, or a fertile gravelly loam, are each suitable for them, with pro- per manuring and cultivation. The ground ought to be ploughed till it is perfectly mellow, and as deep as possi- ble, not less than eight inches in depth, if you^^.expect the 44 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. best crops. The land should be perfectly free of stones. It is best to plough but one way; not to cross- plough ; for this is only necessary in rough hard ground, for breaking clods and other obstructions to the plough; but, for the mere purpose of mellowing land, cross ploughing is not more efficacious than constantly ploughing one way. In this way, where you make the parting furrow, you begin the next time to make the back- furrow, and thus you keep the depth of the earth that is stired by the plough equal, which is essential to the equal growth *of carrots. The ground ought to be ploughed in this way in the Fall, and then but little will be requisite to prepare it* in the Spring. After ploughing in the Spring, it ought to be finely harrowed, and then it will be filed f A wet loam. The extent of the rotation, that can be profitably pursued on lands of this description, must depend much on the degree of superabundant moisture they con- tain. Where they are quite wet, but lew crops can be raised on them, to advantage,' except grasses. Such land-i are greatly improved by hollow-drainingc See HoLtOW DRAINS. Where they are but moderately wet, however, several*' kinds of crops may be successfully grown on them, especi- ally if the ground be raised in ridges j though these arc calculated more readily to injure the land, by washing the best parts of the soil away by heavy rains, if it lies consi- derably descending. In such case, it is most iadvisable to carry the ridges in such direction as will give them but a moderate descent. v> ' * Suph grounds are not suitable for rootSj though potatoes may be raised on them to some advantage. This may he the first crop; and, in such case, let the ground be sufii- * ciently mellowed with ploughing, and then ^ery shallow* furrows run for forming the beds in which to lay the dung; and when the seed is laid it may be cohered with a furrow of a one-hor^e plough, run on each side, so that in this way the growing roots will be more elevated than ii necessary in "^drier soils, - ^ - By thrc^wing up the ground in high narrow ridges, after the pota^o0s are taken ofl^/ the fermentation rnay more readily be kept up for the crop of the next; year, la this testate of the ground, a crop of Indian corn* may often be raised to advantage, by mellowing the ground in the Spring, and: planting on ridges jto be raised by iwo farrows/ thrown up against each other. %■ ^ ^Let the^^ ground be thrown up in'ridges again Jn the Fall; and \he next Spring sow it with oats, barley, or Summer- wheat, according, -as the ground ^nd the climate may be most suitedior oj^e or the other pi these^ crops. ■ 7 so FARMER'S ASSISTANT, Good crops of flax may also be raised in su^ soils ^and they are naturally suitable for Winter-wheat, ^ where they are sufficiently dry to enable that cmp to withstand the ^ Wint^^frosts. With the third crop grass-seeids should commonly be isown, which should be thos« of timothy or some other kind calculated to withstand the frosts of Winter in such soils. ClbverJ no doubt, will answer wlvere the ground is suffi- ciently dry for Winter-wheat. When the grasses begin to 0dM% let the ground be broken up again. Oats, well har- rowed m off the sward, when this is properly turned over, will often answer well for the first grain-crop in such soils. . , 6- Dark-colored dry loamsi The darkness pi the color is commonly owing to ''a large proportion of vegetable earth being mixed with the loam in such soils; and, as ve- getsible matter is calculated to i^ert41ize soils, those of this description are commonly well adapted to the growth of almost every plant, and an extensive rotation of crops, \vhicb>may be similar to those mentioned for a dry loam. ^a^hey are not always so good for wheat, however, as some of the stiffer soils, vvhich have less vegetable matter in their composition ; nor so godd for turnips, as some fertile sandy soils. 7. Dark-colored wet loam^. These being also largely mixed with vegetable matter, are often better calculated tor several growths of roots and grain, than the wet loams before mentioned. They are, generally speaking, most natural for many kinds of grasse^, and for a more or less extensive rotation of grain and root-crops, according as they may be more or less retentive of moisture. Hollow- ^ draining may often be found a great improvement of such 4 soils, where they are quite wet; as well for the most of grasses, as for crops of roots and of grain. 8. A gravelly soil. This is commonly a poor earth for culture; but more or, less so, according to. the proportion oi^ gravel it contains, and the sort of stoney matter.compos- in^ the gravelly ingredient. . A fine schistic gravel niky sonoetimes be found quite productive. Generally speaking, however^ hard gravelly soils are best adi^pted to crops of rye and red-clover, alternately; and with the aid of gypsum, for which manure this soil is peculiarly adapted, and with deep ploughing, tolerably good crops of each may be con- stantly raised. With the aid of gypsum, good crops of buckwheat may be had from gravelfy soils which are natu- yally very sterile f and tfiis, instead of rye, may be the in- termediate crop between those of clover, from Jwhich the most profit is to be expected. FARMER^s ASSISTAJnfj^r # ' S(|int{oir^ay also be grown to considerable advantage, «> on hard gravels. See Grasses. Bdt on fine! schistic gravelly soils, and those approaching more to the clwracter of that of which we "shall next speak, crops of pS^atoes, ^ l-ndian corn, and even tolerable growths of wheaf, may- be bad, in rotation, beside clover, with the aid of gypsum and ^ other suitable manures, 9. A gravelly loarii/ There are various degrees ol fcr«. tility to be found in this soil, according to, the quality of the loam, andvthe kind and quantity of gravej. contained in it: But, generally speaking, it is a soil prope^ calculated, with the aid of gypsum, and other suitable iioanures, for a rotation, say, first of potatoes, then Indian corn, followed by wheat in the Fall, after the crop of corn has been cut UpV or, barley in the Spring, and then clover. Soiine ot the mellower and richer sorts of this soil may also answer well for turnips, carrots, and other roots, and generally for almosx all kinds of crops suitable for dry upland soils. 10. Clayey soils. Real stiff clays form but a sma)l pro- portion of the arable lands of this Country ; though there is a considerable portion ot them that have more or less alu- mine in their composition. The more obdurate soils of this description, when long manured with lime, and other ingredients, lose that adhesion which renders them slo un- ple^l^sant in cultivaiiort, and they then beconiemore^i assimi- lated' to loamy soils, .v Clays, in their original state, are unfriendly to thje growth of root-crops, and some of tliem are too retentive of water for crops of wheat; but, *if they are sufficiently dry, they are well adapted for this grain, ^nd tolerably well for oats^ barley, red-clover, timothy, and some other grasses; though, for all the natural meadow-grasses, the weter clay^ are best. Stiff clays, being but little assisted by gypsum, do not pos- sess the advantages common to most •other soils in this Country, which' are powerfully aided by this stimulant. The extent of any rotation of Crops, on clayey lands, must depend much on the proportion of clay they niay contain, if clayey- soils be sufficiently dry, with a propor- tion of calcareous or silicious earth mixed with them, they may be then wdll suited for rotations of such culmiferou^ and leguminous crops as may be found most advantageous; % and also, for some of the root-crops, particularly potatoes. The rotation in such case may be similar to that for dry loams, substituting the potatoe- crop for that of turgips. . It the soil be merely a stiff dry olay, the first crop may be, oats, well harro,wed in on the sward properly turned o'^er : Such, at least, is a common and successful practice fc.'; ill Greatbritain. As soon as the crop 'is harvestecl, turn the stubble undex; and in the Fall thrQW jjp the ground into ig FARMER'S ASSISTAKT. high narrow ridges. In the Spring, cleave these dowa-and prepare the ground for barley;, and manure the ground with a compost, suitable to the soil, betore this crop is ^own. 'Plough up the ground again, as soon alter harvest- ^ ing as possible ; put it in wheat in the Fall ; and, in the H Springs harrow in clover and timothy-seed. After the crops (if grass begin to fail, begin the. rotation with oats, as before. ■ , . : In England^ the bean-crop comes in as ajp^rt of the rotation in clay soils ; but probably it would npt answer so Veil in this Country; or at least this would seem to be infered, from the circumstance, that this culture has nevfrr been iniroduced here; though probably it might be found benificial on farms whwe clays entirely abound, as neither peas nor 'Indian corn can be raised to advantage on such boils. , ! Where stiff clays are too wet for wheat, they admit of bui little charge; and should be kept mostly in timothy or other grasses suitable to the soil. The changes may be oats, and then Summer- wheat, or perhaps barley, as before mentioned. • It is difficult, hcrwever, to designate particularly the most suitable changes ot crops for every soil; as they are more exactly to be ascertained by the known products of la^ds^ when properly cultivated. But sach crops, in rotation^ as are found tq yield most clear profit, and 'are at thesarne time best suited to follow each other, should u^tSally be cultivated, after 'making, due allowance for the greater ex- haustion of the soil, occa^sioned by the growing of sdme than of others. Generally speaking, the leguminous and the root-crops, with the exception of potsftoes, are the least exhausting. ^ye is the least of a scourger, of the culmlicrous crops,, 'and perhaps Indiaiffcorn the most so., The root-crops, and particularly turnips, are to 4),e recommended for the profits ^^^ they usually afford ; for their being less injurious to the ^^*' gr'^und; and for their being good preparatives for other crops. ' ' , . There are several others, not here mentioned, which, m many instances, may be found advisable to cultivate ; ^and Ssom.etitries it n>ay be best to follow the almost exclusive cuUivalioa .of certain plants, which may be found best f adapted for^^atticular pieces of land. CHEESE. For making this article, take the following directions: Make ^our 'milk blood-w^tm, and put in your^ runnet ; but no morfe than will just nriake the curd com^ ^ . Add an ounce oi fine salt to so much curd as will makem |w » chttfee of fifteen pounds, and in that proportion fof» ^ greater or i|€s. Stir the curd till it is gathered ; put it in a strainer, and with your hands work put all the whey ; then lay it in a clean linen cloth, put it, in the hoo%, and, covering it with the clotby.put it in the press, and* let it stand there two hourB; then take it out, rub it over^^ith ^' fine salt, put it in another dry cloj^,-, and put it ii^ the press > ^-^ eight hours} then take it out again,, put it in another xlry cloth, and ppt it in the press again, where it is to remain till the next cheese is ready. v When taken out of the press, put it ffi brine twenty-four hours^ and let the brine have as much saltpetr^in it as will Jie on a shilling. Some little additions ot saU'ind saltpetre must be occasionally made to the brine ; and let it be cleansed as often- as necessary, by heating it and tak'ihg off the scum. When you take the cheese out, dry it with a cloth; bind it round with a long string to make it keep its shape, which must be kept round it for some days, and let it be daily turned on the shelf, for two months. , Let the evening milk be put with that of the morning; and, to make the best cheeses, let none of the cream be taken away. If the evening milk) however, be skimed, and added to that of the morning, itvvill make tolerable cheese. Skim-mlli cheeses are also made ; but they are not worih much. -The method of making the much-admired Stiltoncheesc, HI England, as communicated by Mr. A/onA-, is as fol- lows: ^ Take the night's cream and put .it to the morning's milk with the runnet. When the curd'is come, it is not to ^ be broken, as is done with other cheeses; but take it out with a soil-dish altoge-ther, and place it in a seive to draift gradually, and as it drains keep gradually pressing it, till it becomes firm and dry • then place it in a wooden iioop^ afterwards to be kept dry on boards, turned frequently, with cloth binders roulid it, whicli^are to be tightened as occa- sion recjuires. The Dairy- maid must not be disheartened, ff she dqes not succeed perfectly in her first attempt. * In the" dairies which I visited (says Mr. Monk) the ijcheeses, after being taken out of the wooden hoop, were bound tight round with a cloth, which Was changed every day, until the cheese became firm enough to support itself. I Alter the cloth was taken off, they were rubed every day '4II over, for two or three months, with a brush, and, if tlie weather was damp or moist, twice.a day 5 and, e'v en before the cbth was taken olff, the top and bottom were well rub- 1^ every day. ^.f The're is no doubt (says he) but those cheeses require ' ^great deal of attention, owing to their richness and thick' cess. They run frorii eight to ^ighifeeii pounds,' 5^4 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. They are never better than when about a year old. They sell in England from twplvis to fourteen pence ster- ling per pound.^ But no good cheese can be made, tinless the runnet # be good. 1^ * See Runnet. The room where cheeses are to be kept for drying should be^ark, to keep out flies; and, to prevent these from de- positing their eggs in the cracks of the cheeses, let them be smeared over with a mixture of salt butter an The dasher turns on the handle," by beftig fixed to it by a piypt. The dasher is merely two cross- pieqies, say,_ three Inches square, put together, by being let into each other, which then form four wings. These are cut beveling on each side, at an angle of forty-five degrees, so that they stand diagonally ; the whole being very similar to the lyings of the little windmills (so called) which are set up, on poles, to be turned by the wind. • As this dasher goes down, in the milk, it turns one way,, on its pivot in the lower end of the handle, and as it comes up, it turns the other way; and this produces an agitation of the milk, better calculated for producing the butter, than any n[>et hod ever yet known. It is so efficacious in its Q|)eration, that the churning must be performed ntioderatelyj or the butter will come too soon, and be stveUedf as it is technically called by some. Mr. jFisher, the Inventor of this dasher, obtained a pre- mium in England, for the discovery. The churning with this dasher is not attended with that splasliing of the milk, so troublesome in the churn with the common dasher. Oak is generally prefered for churns, as pine is apt to communicate something of its taste to the butter. CIDER. To make the best cider, there are several re- quisites. The apples should be of one sort, and of the best kind. T^ey should be perfectly sound, ripe, and clean. Those which are shook from the trees by^a gentle shaking are best; and all knoty, wormy, and roten ones should be rejected. Such as are hot of this pririiie rate may be made into common cider, *^ The apples thus selected should be spread on a floprj raised from the ground, with a cover over it, and the sides •ii: i« riVaMER's ASSISTANT. enclosed. Here the y are to lie for^the purposjD of sweats Ing. They should lie about four 6r fiye days, when the weather is dry and warm; but longer, when wet and cool; and let them be dried, by exposure to the^un, the roten ^ones thrown away, and ground immediately in a clean mill. " , ^ When the cheese is made, it should stand about twelve or fourteen hours, befpfe the press is put upon its ^^^ M^ delay in pressing wilt greatly improve the ciWi^v. The best plan of making the cheese is, to ctff^pff the but ends of the straw, and lay it along on the fo^ur sides, with the cut ends^fxrojecting out about four inches, on each side, beyond the extent intended to be giyen the cheese : Then, with a strait smooth board, made for the purpose, about five inches wide, and of sufficient length, you commenc* farming one s\de of the layer of pumace, by building it up cbmpacily against the bpard, which is set upright on its edge. When that side is formed, take away the board, and in the same way proceed to form. the next, and so pn till the four sides are built up. Then lay on another layer o£ straw, as before, and proceed with the board to build up the four sides of the next layer of pumace, and thus you proeeed building up the cheese as nearly perpendicular as possible. T In this way, the cheese,^ by having the straw to lap .well in the middle, or centre, is in no danger of bursting open in pressing, as is often the case when large cheeses are made in the common way, with the straw brought round the outside of each layer of the pumace. We have seen cheeses made, in tlie manner here recommended, large enough to run OiT twenty- four barrels of cider. The first and last runing of a cheese should be put by itself, as \t is not so good as the rest. In pouring the cider into the cask, let there bea fetrainer of coarse cloth in the bottom of the funnel, to keep.out the pumace. New casks, OP those which have just been emptied of brandy, are the best. If old casks are to be used, it is of the utmost im- portance to have them perfectly clean. When they are first emptied, they should be well washed, and then bunged ,, >,iip tight. For want of this precaution, they often become " tnust'y, and then they spoil all. the liquor afterwards pUt into them. . *- ^^ i The only successful method o.f cleansing,. musty ^.^skS; * we have ever heard of, is that communicated by M.-C^wor- fnandcs, which he'learned of a French Peasant, as appears in *The Annals of A^ts knd Manufactures,* published m • France, and is as foUoivs : .' . ^ « Make up in quantity what will be equal to about sixteenth-part of what the cask' tc be cleansed will hold) of FARMER'S ASSIStIkI?^ 57 the following ingredf^tUs, viz. about four pounds of common salt, and one of alliim, added to a mix'ture of watfer with Cowdung fresh droped from a Cow (no other will answer) ; put the whole in a pot andT heat it almost to tjoiling, stirjng it constantly; pour it thus heated into the cask, and shake it well, turning it rpund on every side, and continue shak- ing It every hour or two, taking out the bung ,5yhile shak- ing, lest it burst. I ^ i, < When it? contents hav^ become cold, pbur them out, and rinse it elesin; then pour in some hot wat^f, in which about two pounds more of salt, and one of alluq^ have been dissolved; sh^ke the cask well on every sidfe, as before, and while the water is yfct warm pour it out; drain the cask, and bung it up tight, till wanted for use. ' - ' * This (says Mr. L.^ will not only make the cask perfect?, ly sweet, b\it will even restore j|)ne to sweetness againf that has been injured by being pt|fpn a musty cask.* When casks have more or less ofv a sou^ smell, Mr. L* Hommedieu directs to take at the rate of, about a pinjt of unslacked lime for a barrrel, put it in, and pour in three or four gallpns of hot water, or more for a larger cask ; shake it well on every side, giving it some vent, as before men- tioned; let it stand till cooled, and then rinse it with cold water, Repp^t the operation, if the cask does not then smeir perfectly sweet. Most probably, a suitable quantity of wood-ashes, would more effectii^Uy eradicate any sour- ness in the cask, ii ' ' ' After it has been filled with the liquor, the next prQoess is the fermentation, and this is a matter of some nicety, i There are \three fermentations; the vinous, the acid, and the. putrid. When the first ceases .the second begins, and wiiifen that ceases the thlrd'begins. v Si'he first is only neces- sary' for cider, and care must be taken -to stop all further fermentation; as soon as this is over. This is known by the liquor ceasing to throw up little bubbles to the top... Then too all the pumace is raised up, and, if suffered torifemain there, will again sink to the bottom and render the liquor turbid. Let this time then be carefully observed, and let the liquor then b^,,d raw n off, not top closely, and put into other clean casks, or bottled, closed tight,^ and set away in a cool celldl^ Ii«t a gallon of Trench bran^f^; added to every barrel. ,^^^ But, to^furthei* improve it, let it undergo a further ope- ration, as follows: As you draw off the cider from the first casks, put it into fresh ones, fiUihg each aboflit three- quarters full, and set ihem away till Winter; at which time let them be exposed^ tP the > Some boil cider in the Spring, for Summer-usej but the practice is a very bad onei^?j)articularly w^heri/ boiled in brass Icettles. If any boiling be' ever proper for cider, it must be as it comes from the press. This is the proper method of treating water cider, or that which is extracted from the pumace after the cheese has been pressed. The pumace i3 put into casks in the evening, with a due proportion of warm water thrown on it, and in the rnibfrning it is ttiade into a cheese, and pressed off again; the liquor is then to be boiled till all the sciim has risen and been skimed bff, and then it is to be put away in casks in a cool cellar, and treated like other cider. It fernaents but little, and makes . a pleasant drink for the next Summer, if bottled, or other- wise kept well. Perhaps this would be a good method of ^ treating all dder. < *- Cider may be kept lor years in casks, without ferment- ing, by burying thetn deeply under ground, or immersing them, in spring water r^lttii^ when taken up the cider will be very fine. / A dri'ik, called cider-royal, is madeof the best runing of the cliiiiE-se, well clarified, with six or eight gallons of ^rench brandy; or good cider brandy, added to a barrel: JS€i the vessel be filled ful|, bunged tight, and set in a cool cellar, and in the course of a twelvemonth it willbe a fine i drink. If good rectified whiskey be usedi instead of bran- dy, ^t will answer very well. / ''^> A quart of honey, or molasses, and a quart of brindy, or other spin is, added to a barrel of cider, will improve the liquor very nnuch, and will restore that which has become too flat and insipid. To prevent its becoming pricked, or * to cure i^ when it is so, put a little pearl-ashes, or other mild afkali, into the cask. „, A lump of chalk broken in pieces, and thrown in, is also good. Salt of tartar, when the Qider is about to be" used, is also recommended. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 59- To refine cider, and give it a fine amber-color, the fol- " lowing method is much approved of. Take the \lfctes of six egi^.^, wiih a handful' of fine beach sand, washed clean j stir them well together; then boil a quart of molasses ^oy/n. to a candy, and cool it by pouring m cider, and put this, together with the eggs and sand, into a barrel of cider, and mix the whole well together. When thus man^cd^ it will * keep for many j^ears. -Molasses alone will also refine cider, and give it .^higher color; but, to prevent the molasses making it ^p:k, let an equal quantity of brandy be add- ed to it Skiro-milk, with some lime slacked in it, and mixed with it, or with the white of eggs with the shells broken in, is also gooiJi^Jfor clarifying all liquors, when well mixed with them. A piece of fresh bloody m^at. put into tfib cask, will also refine the Jiquor and serve for it to feed on. ' ^ " ^ To prevent ttie fermentation o^|(^r, let the jcask be first strongly fumigated with burnt suiphur| then put in some of the cider, burn more sulphur in the cask, stop it tight, and shake the whole up together; filh the cask, bung it tight, an|^^ut it away in a cool cellar. To brmg^pn a>ft;r mentation, take three pints of yeast for a hogshead, ad He says that when, by placing the ear ajt^l^e bung, a hisbing noise is no longer heard, then the ferni^tation has ceased ; and then the cider should be drawn off. If this be not done, the pumace at the bottom will, during a damp or warm state ot the weather^ i;^e up, which produces a second fermentation, of the acetous kind, which hu|?t#Uhe liqour. ' . ,4 ■ " ' ''"'"? " ' . '# When the cider is drawn off into other clean casks, an ebullition pervades the nqi|or; and while th'iit continues the bung is laid loose in "the hole, and tlie^gimblethole is kept open till the ebullition subsides. Then put in the bung tight, leaving the gimblethole partly open a little longer, and then close that up. ' ,;< He fines his cider after the ebullition, which takes place after ihe second racking, has subsided. At this time, he draws off some gallons of cider into a small cask ; to which he adds isinglass, pouhded and unraveled into shreds, at the rate of two ounces, for a hogshead ; and the liquor thus drawn off, with the isinglass in it, is stired up for three or four days, so that it becorttes diluted to a thin jelly; when the Whole is strained through a fine hairseive, and put into a clean hogshead, which is filled with the rest of the^cider 4irom which a pArt was drawn, as before mentioned. He racks off his cidei* sfx times; first, \^hen th«' ferment- ation has ceased ; second, when the ebullition ftas ceased; third, when drawn off to be put on the fining; fourth, when drawn off the lees of the fining; fifth, when the consequent cbulliiibilf has again ceased, and the cider has lain still six or eight days ; when it is then drawn off into clean barrels, or* bottles. He sells this cider for upwards of fourteeen dollars a barrel. i - ^ CLAY. The basis of this earth is alumine. A quality peculiar to clay is, that,'by reason of its aliimiae, it con- tracts, vihtn dried or heated, and (jjgjfcpands again,' when moistened. A clayey sbil therefore is a^vays to be known by us cracking open in dry weather; ana the more clayey, the wid^vvill be these openings. ^ * Wheye the soil is very clayey, and at the same time wet, it is worth but little f(^;r the plough j^^jthough it may be good for mowing, or pasture; but if' the ^adhesion* of the FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 61 soil be destroyed by proper manures, and nP5e laid dry hj^ hollow-draining, it then becomes a fine soil for most pro- ductions. See Manures, aiid HollowtDRAInS. Some nicety is requisite, as to the proper tinw for ploughing this ground. If it be too dry, it will not crum- ble; andyif too wet, the ploughing will only render it more conf^act. The hard clods are easiest mellowed by the^ plough, after they h^ve been merely wet through with a gentle r&iiit See further, Earth^. - -• . CLEARING OF LA^S. But little need be said on this subject; as he who has to undertake the clearing new landpwill acquire more knowledge, from practice, of the best methods of subduing our heavy forests, than fropi any ^ essay on the subject. He willi<%d that the essential point is to put his shoulder to the wlfciel, and persevere undaunt- edly; and in a fe^w years he will find his exertions amply compensated, by the pleasing scenes and profitable im- proye«ients which shall have been made around his dwell- ing. ■'.''" ^^r ■ "■ -, When new Settlers first go into the woods, they have to Spend much valuable time ia/ hunting up their Oxen and Milchcows, which, for want of an enclosed pasture, haye ' to run in the woods; and to remedy this, as soon as possi- ble, we wpuld propose the folljlit^ing : About the first of June, take a suitable piece of ground, cut out the bushesj ', and all the small growth ot timbe^r which shall be under a certain size, , say a foot over at the but; pile all the^brush round those trees which are left standing. In a dry time, in the ii|ci>tith of August, set firei^ them, and the fires w!u . kill the trees* left standing ; then'^^pile and burn whtt*lies on the ground, which is soon done, and in due season harrow in a crop of wheat or rye, and in the following Spring sow the ground over with herdsgrass. The crop of wheat or % rye, sown in this way, will be nearly as good as' if the tim-^ ber were all talt^n off; and the year following the ground will afford the requisite suj^l]^ of pasture and hay. When the limbjs^of thfe standing trees begin to rot and fail off, cut-^. the wlyiiiU down, and let them lie there; as the pastul'e" will not*'be injured, but rather eyenlually benefited, by the trees lying and roting upon it. This method of jtilling trees by fire is. libwever, only recommended H;tvhere they are such aSi canfiot be killed by girdlingi such as*beach, ■naple, basswood, &c. /r ' |g. New Settlers, who will take this method ofi^rovi^ing a supply oi pastG^ and hay, will always find their account ia two ways: >It is turning the grounds j^l^mmediate profits ^* FARMER'S ASSISTANT. with the least fossible expense ; and the surplus of hay and pasture will command an extra price; as those articles are always starce, during the commencement of ney^ settle- ments* CElMATE. All .seeds are to be planted, or sown, at such time as is suitable to the climate. In northerly cli- miites, of in very elevated situations, the Spring and Au^ tumn press closer upon each other; and there the Spring- crops must be planted, or sown, later, and thievFall- crops earlier, than in more temperate climates. The right time for planting and sowing must, therefore, be ascertained by the judgment of the Farmer, founf^d on due experience, and a knowledge of the climate in which he lives. Climate depends greatlj^on altitude as well as latkitde. This is no where more strikingly exemplified, than on the sides pf Moiiat^tna. ^ W^en, at the base of that niountain, the Peasants are reaping their Spring-crops, on its highest cultivable parts they ai'e busied in sowing the same crops; and at its extrenie point of elevation is perpetual Winter. ^ The' highest lands which lie between the Mohaw.k and Blackriver, in this Statue, are not fifty miles nor^h of Alba- ny; yet the climate, oh this 'leight, is at least six degrees of latitude colder, than at that city. From a knowledge of these facts, it is obvious,vthat the ^atne productions will not thrive equally well in '|11 place«, under the same degree dfelatitudej, even though the soil be the same ; and, knowing,this, it becomes necessary for the Farmer to regulate his system of farming accordingly. .'■■" ' "' #,^LOVER (Trifolium firatejise.J 'VVhite-cloyer is a very fine grass, affording the sweetest pasture and hay; but the product is too small, when compared wi^h red- clover, which is nearly as sweet, to be worth cultivatini*. The almost universal use of red-clover, upon dry upland soils, is, it. would s^em, an indication of its superiority over •most other'grasses; but, it certainly neVer can be made to yield so^great a clear profit as Lucernes where this grass is cultivated in a suitable soil ^d plimate. ,^^ See also Qrasses, for the great product of the Fioria. One excelence of red-clover is, that it is thed^ly grass which can with advantage be turned under by ine plough, and thus, with one ploughing only, ens^e a good crop of wheat or other grain. The crop, ho\^fever, will be best where'' the clover ,v;is mowed, and not fetf off by cattle. Another g^od quality is its superiority Over almost all other gra^^^ in mellowing and enriching the soil. It de- rives most \»f its nourishment from a considerable depth; and, like all tap^ropted plants, it exhausts the land but ♦. FARMER'S ASSrSTANT. 63 little; while, at the same time, when plou'^ii under, it forms a good green-dressing for the soil. ^ Green clover is a good food for Swine, during l^^mer; and clover-hay, when boiled, is also found to be a good food for them, during Winter. Mr. Livingston makes mention of a Farmer. at Rhinebeck, who fed his Hogs, during Win- ter, with no other food ^3Ut boiled clover, and that they M^f^ )^^P^ ^" goo^ condition. The clover used ior them was preserved by being salted, a half peck to a load. It was cut an(i left in winrows about six hours, then put into small cocks. The next day, about noon, these were open- ed ; toward* evening they were hauled home, and laid away with salt, which kept tl^ hay green all the year. ;* 3ee further, SwiNi^and Steamboiler. T^kp quantity of r&d-cloverseed, to be sown to the acre, is abtnit fourteeo pounds, and none but clean seed ought to be sown. ^ ^^ ^ ^' The best crops ^withwhichrto sow clover, are barley, oats, and Springiwheat. It is, however, frequently sown in the Spring, on Wintef-wheat, or rye; but in this Way it often happens that the seeds do not grow, owing to their not being covered. This difficulty may, however, be obvi- ated,, by giving the ground a brushing, by draging a large bunch of bushes, tied together, over it, where the land is rough; or by giving it a light harrowing,' where it is smooth ; either of which methods, but particularly the lat- ter, will be a benefit to the grb^th of wheat or rye. It may also be sown with, Winter- wlieat, or rye, in the Fall; , but there is danger ir^ that case of its being killed by the succeeding Winter,. ;- > Clover yields tv*^ crops in the season, if the land be^mi good heart; unless it be in the ibortherly parts of the State, where the second growth wilf generally be too small to mow \p advantage, and is, therefore, best to be fed off. ,, When a crop of red-cloverseed is to be raised, let it be from the last crop of the second year ; as suffering the crop to ripen injures the roots for a succeeding crbp. In the.^ first crop, of either season, very little seed is to be found* . In more'northerly climatesy,^wj!^€re a second crop is scarce- ly to be^afforded, let the clover be pastured the second|| year, u^ about the tenth of June; an Let the insect arrfVe at its place of dt?^tination in what- eyer way it may, a method of extirpating it is mentioned in the Edmburg Encyclopedia, which the Writer thinks might be pursued \o advantage: This is to prepare something similar.to an umbrella, the covering being merely of paper, which is to be set over the plants, successively,' while a ""^match of burning sulphur is placed underneath. The coyer confines the fumes of the sulphur, so that the insects are enveloped in. it; in whif^^fi situation the 'Writer thinks they must perish in a very few minutes ; so that one Man, with these means of destrCiciion to the insects, could fumigate a great many plants in a day. * The Writer makes a ca!culation^'>hovv much ground could, in this way, be gone over, by one Hand, in a 4ayi the result of which is',' that the expense of the prob^ss would not be veCTj considerable. Th^ plan may be wfell worthy of experimfent. We imagine that Planters in general will see the propri- ety of relmquiijshing, in a great measure, the growing of cotton, for other pursuits of agriculture, niore profitable, and less calculated to exha»st*the soil. Even if cpttoh be not ^o great a scourger of the land as many other crops, still it affords no essential return of manure to the earth; and lands, even if not wholly exhausted, will become tired of bearing too much of one particular grbwth - There is a general disposition in altpost every part of the earth to require changes in the growths whie.h it bears. We see this exemplified even, in the forvfets. Where land become:^* divested of its rimbfer, by clearing or otherwise, and is%fterwards left untiled, it usually produces^ a new and different growth Iroi^ that which it formerly bore. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 6f - «. * The extensive qulture of the Guinea grass (See Grasses) will enable the Sobthern Planters to cover their ,j^lds with cattle; and where these may be readily grown, in |>rpfusion, there will always bf found the residence ot wca!t)i and plenty. ^ ., ? COWS. The marks of a good Cow are these : The ''fbreliea^ broad, the eyefe" black, the horns large and clean, the neck loi^jg and straight, the belly large and deep, the thighs thick, the legs round with short joints, and the feet broad and thick. Red Cows are sc»id to give the best milk; though the black ones are said to bring the best Calves, whigh is, however, doubtful. But the Cow that gives milk the longest time, between the periods of her calving, is genieraliy besf for profit or for , family use ; provided, the quantity and quality of her milk be equal to that of others. Just before calving, a Cow should be well fed ; and, if she calve in Winter, her drink should b^ a little warmed for a day mid night afterwards. Ijf she cloes not clean well, after calving, give her a pale of warm wat^sr, with some ashes in it. : Those that calve pretty early will yield most milk iii (h^ ^^'^^pn. The times of milking ought to be regular, and as nearly equi-distant as ^pos§ible. Where thre feeding is full, it is found that milking three times a day, during the Summer season part'cularly, will increase the quantity nearly one- third. In that case, (he first milking ought to be by sunrise, the secpiid about one, and the, Utter about seven or eight o'clock in the evening. Omiting to milk Cows regularly, at Iteast twice a dayj tends very much to dry them. Some- times one or more teats of a Cow may be diseased; but .this does not affett the milk of the rest. CowfS-^^re^jCertainly v-ery profitable. Allowing one to give only stf qt^arts a day, for forty weejks in each year, and Uiis is not a lar^e allowance, her milk, at two cents per quart, will amoiant! to upwards of thirty-ihr,ee dollars; which is prbbably sufficient to purchase her,^nd pay for a year*s keeping. iSre further. Neat cattle/ Cream, Dairy, &c. CRABAPPLETREE (Pyrus Cdrondria.) The tree bearing this name in Europe is diiferent from that fpund in * this Country, Tjh^e^^ blossom of that growing heje.isvery fragrant; its ft^uit'^^Smail and sour. The Virginia crabapple is famous for the cider made from it; but we believe it m«st be a variety of the tree different from t^^t growing farther to the north, as the fruit of this has an uncommon degree of acidity. % . ca. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. The Virginia crab is an alternate beiir^r. An orchard of two hundred and forty trees of this kitid is cultivated, in Pennsylvania, by Mr. Wynkoofi. The trees are about tvvreniy yeaps old, and they afford himr, every ^ther year, about -<3tiie liundred and sixty barrels of cider, which, after being ipade, and fined, alter his superior method, he ^ sells for ab(Jjit. thirteen dollars a barrel, exclusive of the cask. Cider, made Irona the Virginia crab ha& been taken l"orJ^ champaine. ' v The tree is hardy, suited to almost all soils, uniform in its bearing, and the limbs are less liable to split or break off, when heavily laden with fruit. Probably it might be made a yearly bearer by being treated, at the comrifjencemerxt of its bearing, in the manner directed under Appletree, If so, it would greatly enhance its value. For the 'process pursued by Mr. Wynkoofi^ in maturing his cider, se^ Cider.' CREAM. Pans, or trays, for holding milk, to raise the most cream, oi^ght to be broad and shallow, and the n^ilk put in them should not.be more than three or four inches in depth. Tin and wood are the be^t materials for making these. Some line wooden trays with leadj but this is a ^ bad practice, as lead majr sometimes b^ dissolved by the 'acid of the milk, and then it is poisonous. Wooden trays ought to be well scalded, and dried in a cool place, as often as new milk is put into them, to prevent the wood from absorbing too much of the acidity of the mitki and thus coagulating the new milk, betore the cream has time to, rise; for cream will not rise, after the milk has become C*bagulated. It new milk be kept as warm as when it comes from the Cow, no cream will Tise on it; but, when sufficiently cool- ed, the cream separates from the rest and rises to the top. In order then to effect this, to the best advai\tage^ the ne>v milk should be made as pool as possible, and the cooler it is thus made, the more suddenly and eff'ectually the c^;ean[i "will rise. The Cooler the cellars, theretore, in which milk is kept, the belter. To set milkpans, made of tin, ip beds of salt, would, no doubt, be usetul, where the cellar is too warm ; and to set all milkvessels on a %or which is con- stantly covered with cold springwater, is also an excelent plan; and, wheii*e it can be done, ought .ne,ver to be omited. Most of the cream comes last from thfc Cow in milking. The last half-pint of milk that can be got, by milking the Cow dry, cjautains as niuch ci'^am as the first quart, or perhaps tlifee pints ; aiid, for this reason, Cows ought always to be milked as clean as possible. The quantity of cream will also be greater, if the milk of ekch Cow be FARMER^s ASSISTANT. , ^ strained into a pa^fby itself, as sbbn as possible. The practice of pouring^fhe milk of the Cows together^ while milking, and leting the whole stand till nearly cooled, is a very bad one, as, in tWs way, much of the cream will not afterwards rise. It is said, that ' any given quantity of milk, having the cream separated by the scalding process we shall describe, yields' a fourth more Of butter; and^ it is well known that this cream 'may be churned into butter in two or three minutes. The milk is kept twenty -four hours; it is then put into a vessel over a small fire, which shall only be sufficient to raise the heat of the milk, nearly to boiling, in two hours, not less; and when it has been this length of time heating, and begins to exhibit indications of being near boiling, by bubbles rising to the surface, it is to be taken off, and let stand twenty-four hours more. The smallest degree of boiling mars the process. v^ ^ > At the end of this time, the cream will be all^ on the surface. It is the© to be c^ivided into squares, with a knife, and taken off from the milk lieneath. This cream will keep muph longer, witliout souring, than cream raised in the common way; and may be, at any time, quickly converted into butter. It may., also be salted, and used on bread, or otherwise, without churning. It is good for coffee, but not for tea; as, when put itito this liquid, a part of it turns immediately into butter. In Londoii» this cream is considered a great dainty, and, in Winter, is sent iAto that city from a distance of two hundred miles, ' CtlCUMBER (Curricumia.) This is a cold fruit and hard of digestion; yet pleasant to the taste. They are ren- dered mx>re wholesome by pickling; though the taste of a pickled cucumber must be considered far" inferior to those which are fresh, whe^ properly prepared for eating. This is best done by slicing them, and then puting them in cold water for a while, which renders them ixiOre easy to digest. Mr. Coiufitr^ in his ' Taskf'm describing the method of raising cucumbers in hot'beds^ directs that after *two rough indented le&ves* are produced, * a pimfile that portends a future sprout,* on * the second ^taXk* is to be pinched off, to {••event its growth ;?i)fid this, he says, will make the other branches grow more strong, and be n>ore prolific. The soil for cucumbers caiinot be too rich, nor too well cultitated, to raise a great crdpr A spot well rfian^red with fish, or other flesh, Will produce a great quantity. Hogs- dyng is also very good for them. . ^V<»p also Radish^ for a good manure Cor them. 70 * FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Take a tub and fill it halt-fall of:^pwips, and with as much water; over this lay some straw'^Sd fill the tub with the richest earth; plant this lull of (he seeds, and guard the plants well while they are subject to insects, though they will be much less subject to them in this jvay ; spread some brush round the tub for the vines to run on, and in this wjiy a great crop may be raised. The water m ihe tub must be constantly replenished by a tube from the outside, which will keep the soil in the tii^b sufficiently moist. See Insects, for the method of keeping t^em off the young plants. CURRANT (Ribea.) There are a variety of currants, including those called gooseberries. {See Gooseberry.) The black currant, which grows , in the swvunp^ i.i Uiis Country, is greatly improved by cultivation, says Mr. Win- terbotharriy and affords a wipje equal to Poh, when it nas age. It is also an eXcelent rtiedicine tor a sore mouih-and throat. When bruised and steeped jn whiskey, or other spii'its, it is also excelett for coids and for ba,d coughs arising from pulmonic complaints, They are to be steeped a fortnight or more; then strain the liquor, buttle it, and put it away for use. The r^d a9d the white currants ..re most common here, and each makes good wine, though the white is thought to make the best. Currants are the most useful of air the small kinds of fruit-trees, and for' making wines they are \^ei^y profitable. After pressing out the juice for making wine, let the seeds be dried, and sown late in the FuJ), or eariy in the Spring, on fine light earth, and from the-se, new varieties may be had; some of which may be found very fine, and much superior perhaps to those in common use. Some may be found to ripen early, others late, which are quulmes particularly desirable for family-uses. Currants are easily propagated from cuiings, which is the usual method, or from byers 6r slips. See Layers and Slips. ' As spon as vegetation has commenced, take the strongest and straightest shoots, but not such as are suckers, and set the ends pretty well in the ground, in order that they may have sufi|icidnt moisture; and let them be watcred>.,if the weather be very dry, after planting. They will soon take root, and the next season will begin to bear. They should then be kept carefully pruned, and should not be suffered to run too high. They should^^be kept clear of suckers, as these draw much of that nourishment which is requisite for the fruit* The ground about them should be occasionally hoed, to keep it clear olf w^eds and i^ass. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 71 Currants will do Yv©ry well even on light sandy soils; but, perhaps, the best|^il for them is a good mellow sandy- loam With proper 'culture, however, they will grow pretty wtll on jlmobt ai»y soil that is. not too hard and poor. Mr Forsyth gives some very^minute directions for prun« ing currants, and applying his composition to the wounded parts ; but iivthis instance, as in some others, he probably carries his theoHes to -extremes. Whatever mfay. be the case in Gt-eaibritain, where fruit is not so easily raised, it is believed' thsil the above general directions, if pursued, will ensure good crops of currants in this Country, which appears to be ve»y natural to their growth. To make Currant-mne- Take currants fully ripe, at the rate ot one gallon for' eei'ch gallon of water; bruise them fine in the water; strain "the whole through a cloth, and add two pounds and three quarters of good brown sugar to every gallon of currants and water thus mixed together^ stir it well, and, when the sugar has dissolved, put the whoie inio'a clean cask, filling it full, ahd leaving a good vent-hole open. When ihe fermentation is over, stop it up tight, and in six months it will be fit for bottling or for use. Like other wines, however, it improves much by age. Probably moksses, well clarified, might be made to jln- swer instead of sugar ; and, probably, honey, or a due mix- ture of, it, would be better than either. ' An acre planied with 'currants, and well-cultivated, would probably yield, on an average, a qjiantity of fruit sufficient to make a thousand gallons of wine yearly. The expense of making this wine does not exceed fiity cents a gallon; and the Wine, alter having d little a^e, is worth treble this money. > i^ A currant-garden should be set with the bushes inrows^ about eight feet between each, and about three feet ibc- tween e^h bush, with intervals ot proper width and at re- gular dlstanc^ for passing across the rows. Planting cur- rants on the south side of a wall will makfcthem ripen more early, and they will ripen later when planted on the north side. CUTINGS. These are twigs of trees cut off and set into the ground, where they will take root and grow. They should be taken from young thrifty trees. Cutings of currants, grapevines, Willow, Lombardy pop- lars, 8cc. are made to grow without any difficulty; those of quinces are not so e^<6y, and those of tne appletree are still less so. Let those which a)pe most difficult to grow be set as deep as twelve inches; thqsie less difficult six', eight, or ten, as the kinds may require. Let them be cut and set in , the Spring) as soon as vegetation has commenced ; and pef'^ 7% FARMER'S ASSISTANT,. haps earlier than this is best for those which are most diffl*" cult to grow* "^ Let them be frequenilyj^watered, when the ground is dry. The twigs used for this purpose should be of good straight growth ; but not such gs are suckers, as is said by some. >. Appletrees raised in this way will ftot grow so large as those raised from the seeds^nor will they be so long-lived; but in this way, as in grafting, the choicest selections of fruit can be made. - Where cutings are to be kept some timcfj "before siting in the ground,^ let the cut ends be kept in moist earth, and soaked in water before they are set. See further, Slips and Scions. It has afways been said, that neither cutings, slips, or scions should, be taken from the sprouts of trees. Forsyte particularly insists on this, alleging that sprouts never be- come good bearers. Sprouts certainly bear no fruit, while they are mere thrifty upright shoots; but it is believed, that when they have obtained considerable size, apd shoot out their lateral branches, these Will become as good bearers as any other branches of the tree. For currants, in parti- cular, some Who have tried cutings olt tlie sprouts, for set- ing, assure us that they prefer them to the branches; as they grow straight and thrifty, and, when they have thrown but their lateral branches, bear exc^^eedingly well. It has. been said, that a cuting, slip, "or scion, when planted, or grafted, will live no longer than the parent stock, if that die a natural death. Mention is made, in the letters of EsfireiUa^ of a very famous peartree at Teignton, m'Greathritain^ v/hich, on account of the excelence.of it^ fruit for making perry ^ w^s esilled the Teignton _ Squaafi: that all the neighboring Farmers grafted irom this tree ; and, that when it was found in the last stage of decay, all the gMts which had been takeji ironi it were found in^the same condition. Perhaps it will be found, that cutings, slips, or s9ions, will die, when the parent stock dies of natural decay; but that the same rule will not hold in regard to suckers, as these appear to be somewhat of a different kind of growth, and more, in the nature of a youngs tree. They seem to grow with more health and vigor, than the lateral branches. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 73 D. DAIRY. The business of the dairy requires close atten- tion. The milkirigs, inorrfer to be most profitable, should be three times a 4ay ; the first at daylight ; the second at ifcJbn; andj the latter at twilight. This will very considera- bly increase thre quantity of milk given in a day from apy number of Cows. ,^ In order to ascertain tvhich Cow's milk is the best, as yielding^ the most cream', let' the milk of each be put. by itself, and their products of butter will then determine^ the point. The quantity of milk afforded by each should algo be taken into consideration. , . ! See^ further, "Butter, Cheese,vsChurn, Cows,^ Cream, NEA«r-CATT|.E. " . ^ , ■■■V'.^ ~ . • . / / : 'a Dr. Anderson recommends wooden vessels, as being the most wholesome fop holding milk; but that, if tin pans be used, they should be washed, every time they are emptied, with warm water in which a Utile $alt has been dissolved, and should be kept clean by scouring; and, to prevent acidity in wooden vessels, they should in liite manner be scpured and cleansed with hot water. Leaden vessels he condemns, as is mentioned under Butter. The dairy requires two appar^rnents ; a clean cool room in the cellar for the milk, and a dark room above ground for dryiiig and keeping the cheese, pany^ Farmers, how- ever, confine their attention to making butter alone ; and in that jcase a -good, cool cellar is the essential requisite. Let the milk be set on'tlje ground; for it is the coolest part ol- the cellar Jn Summer, aiid the warmest in Winter, . *^ If milk be kept in tin pans, and set within earthen ones, of a texture so porous, that the watet^fn them Will gradually exude, it will impart a great degree of coolness to the Hiilk. The water-in the earthen pans should surround those holding the milk. If the outer pan were macie of stift leather, il would answer the same purpose. ; DEW. * An experiment (says Mr. Livings r on) hikfi beeii made to ascertain the difference between dew- water and rain- water, by puting an equal quantity of each ill different vessels, and seting thein in the sun. tb dry away : The result was, that ,;|be sediment or settlings of the dew-water were greater in quantity, blacker,,^ and rich- er, than those of the rain-water.* t 10 U FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Dew is, therefore, fertilizing ; ansj^tliis is the reason why lands will be twost benefited-,* 8y being constantly ploughed, when the dew is on them. 8cc. of farms. A lane of this kind nuay often be thfe more eligible where it can take in some spring, or <)ther liviryg water; as,, in that case, every field becomes accessible to the water at all times, by leaving open the gate of that which is in present use in pasturiDg* # FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 75 Lots for tillage .-sliould always ^ be square, or at least of equal sides; those for mowing or pasture may be irregular, without any inconvenience. DRESSING. A dressing differ^ from a manuring only in this, that the former is intended merely for one crop, while the latter is intended for several. Some dressings, such as gypsum, ashes, salt, &c are to be laid on the soil; othets again, such as composis, &c. are to b$ slightly buri- ed in it, and mixed with its surface. DRILL. A rafachine for sowing seeds, by opening one or noore furrows^ at proper distances from each other, of a depth suitable to ttie seed to be sown, and at the same time drJping the seeds, and covering theip, all at one opera- tion. It is to be drawn by one or more Horses, according to its size/j or it may be drawn by hand, or pushed for- wafd, something similar to the mamier of pushing a wheel- barrow, where a small pachine for drilling a row at a time is to be/used. Of this latter description may be those for drilling ip the seeds ot Indian corn^, beans, turnips, onions, arid' generally all seeds which may be cultivated in rows, or drills, to ^advantage, ar>d which l^avre seeds of such snape as can be properly droped at suitable distances with this implement of husbandry. , . Where wheats or othef grain, that is usually sown in the broadcast, is to be drilled, the .implement for the pur- pose is to be of ^uch dimensions as that several rows are drilled in>^t once. Mr. iJw^/^er/oW makes mention of one used, in Newjersey, for drilhng in wheat in rows, at the distance of about tl>irteen inches between each, which is drawn by two Horses, and with which about eight acres ma/ be drilled in a day. The cost of this drill he states to be about ten dollars ; and he adds,' that, where the seed is drilled in with this machirwf, less see^ is M'equisite, and a larger crop is to be expected. , ^ It is certain, that a'^ much as oneHhird of the seed rrtay be saved by drilling in wheaf!^ and sotne other grains. Which are usually so^vn in the broadcast; but we are not so cbofi- dent, that an increase of crop, to any essential amount, is to be expected from this method of commiting wheat to the earth ; as We do not fiM this insisted on 'by the agVicultural Writers in Greatbriiauj,. where the drilling-husbandry is well understood. Still, however, the effects of drilling in wheat may be ^pund more advantageous here, than in that Country; and, at all events, the mere saving of seed will amply repay the 76 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. srhall adclitional expense iricured by th(e''Use of this machine for covering^wheat, barley, and some other grains. ^ But the excelence of drills is principally^ to be found, in tlie facility with which seeds can be buried which are only proper*^ to be planted or sown in rows, or in hills; as, in such Cases, one Man with a drill, to be -drawn either by han^ or by a Horse, as the case rpay requi/e, will perform af much, inicommiting s^eds to the. earth, as would be done bj^'six, eight, or ten Men, in the same length of time, with- out the use of this implement^ find, at the ; same' time, the work done with the drill will be found much better execute ^d, and wiih a great saving of seed. Drills, however, are only proper for gFounds which are clear of stones, and other impediments to the use of these machines. For descriptions and drawings of the different kinds, in use in Greatbritain, we refer the Reader to the )Encyclope- dias lately published fti tliAt Country, ' or to Editions of either of tbfm published here.' DROUGHT. Af a country becomes cjeared of its lim- ber, it beconies more liable to droughts-; and these will be more or less severe according to the climate. That which IS naturally Qool and moist, such as. that of Greatbritain and Ireland, will seldom, if ever, be ^fTected by too m lie h dry weatberjwhileHhat in, which the Summers are hoier, and of course the atmosphere dryer, will oftenV suffer much on this account In most parts ot Spain, the fields are patched up by the middle of Summer; but before this the crops are kl\ harvested. ^ In this Country, droughts are' never ^o severe, nor so universal j yet palatial ones are often experi- enced, much earlier, and long before the crops have come tojnaturity. This is an evil; and all the Farmer c^n do, is to make the best possible provision against it: Generally speaking, nothing is better The essential point, in colorings is a knowledge of the ncieaos of seting the colors so permanently, that th^y will nevel* fade. In cottons, this is often a matter of difficulty; In woolens it is less so. . The liquid, or substance used to set colors, is called the mordant. The proper mordant for blues, "and for scarlet, or red of various hues, is the solution o/* /in^ aiid is prepared as follows : , '- Take two parts of spirit of nitre, one of fuming spirit of salt, and in thjs liquor dissolve" one-twentieth part ojvits quantity of the purest tin tljat- can be had, or more if the liquor will dissolve more.^ The tin is to be granulated, and put in by degrees, as the liquor dissplves it. To use this mordant, dilute It in two or three pal*ts of clear ^stream- water, according to its strength, until'^t' has the addity of vinegar, oi" lemon- juice. >. ^heanordant is to^be used in two ways. Where it gives no color of itself, the cloth or yam. may be first put into the mordant a suitable length of time, and then :put into the dye ; or a suitable proportion of the raordap^^ may bej wiixed bWith the dye : But, where the former gives a color of ^usclf, the cloth or yarn should first be put into it, and then 78 FARMER'S ASSISTANTc into the latter. Thus, for dying cottbn black, the mordant corpmonly used is a boiled decoction of fustic, which of itself gives a yellow color ; but, after having received this, will receive a permanent black dye. The bark of the quer- citron wilf answer instead of fustic. A good black for woolens is only to be obtained by first dying, them a deep blue, fixing that color with its proper mordant ; and then they are to be put in the black dye, w'^ its mordant. The different hues of gray are merely mixtures of white lyopl with suitable proportions of wool dyed bl^ck, in the rtianrier just mentioned. Green is a mixture of blue and yellow dyes; and may be a lighter, green, by more of the yellow first given it, with its mordant, and afierward's less of the blue, with its mor«> dant; or, vice versa, for a deeper greep. The same may, be observed of ojther hues, which are produced by a mixture of* twp, or more, of the primitive colors. The deepness, or the lightness, of any particular primitive color, or of mixtures of either, is obtained by a proper appoftibnment of the dying ingredients, with their proper mordants ; that is, where the color is intended to be deep, more of the ingredients are to be used; and less, where it is to be light, Af\er premising thus much, we Will give a list of differ- ent colors produced by different vegetable substances, with the mordant proper for each, as^far as w^ have been ena- bled to obtain a knowledge ot the same s %. Vegetables. Indigo, ]Woad, iFalse indigo (flowers) • plue Whortleberry (fruit) Pokeweed (fruit) "Wintergrape (fruit) Common hazlenut hnisks (green) HickorjnUt husks (^reen) v "Witch hazlenut husks (green) Sumac (bai-k) Oak trees (bark) , Maples (bark) Walnut-trees (bark) Sassafras (bark) Madder (roots) Persiranaon-tree (bark) Locust-tripe (bark) , * Poplar-tree (bark) Peachtree & Arsesmart (leaves) Stowefj'uitm;ees (bark) Colors Mordants., Blue, Solution bf tin: Do. Do. Do. Do. Mazarine blCie, Tyrean purple. Violet, Black; Copperias. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Do. Steel, Do. Purple, Do. Olive, Do. Red,^ Do. Do. Do. Crimson, Allum and salt of tartar. Yellow, Do. Do. Do. t>o. Do. Nankeen and Cinnamon, 'Do, FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 79 For dying the scarlet, three parts of water to one of so- lution of tin, are to be mixed together; and thei) jsuch a quantity of cochineal must be added, as will just give the scarlet hue; and, if a still f^aler red is wanted, the 'q\iantity of cochineal and mordant must be reduced. , . To give a dark and- unchangable blue color to wool (Says Mr. Genef, from whom we derive most of the information iti this article) the French Manufacturers mix one part of the best indigo, pjulverised, with eight parts of vitriolic acid, well concentrated; and leave it undisturbed for twenty-tou^ hours. They then add, by degrees, ninety six parts of pure soft water to the mixture, and stir it frequently. If the wool, or cloth, wheti immersed in this, becomes of too dark a Wu^, its color is, to be made lighter by its being; soaked about ^ day, or a longer pr shorter time, as may be found necessary, in a cold solution of twenty-four parts of pure soft water iand one of sea or common «alt. Alhim, says Mr. G may be used as a mordant for indi-. go; and if any woolens are immerged in a bath cotitainirig absolution of soda, after being dyed w'uh this blue, ' and fix*id with this .mordant, they will acquire a darker color. The same method, he says, may be siiccessfully applied to silk, but not to linen or cotton. . EARTHS. Chemists, by analysing the suhstance which fortns (his eatth, find it to contain Several distinct kinds oC firatter, which they denominate /zn7wz7zt;e earths; which are, however, unnecessary to be designated' here, farthei' than as some of them enter into the composition of soils. These are principally limey magnesia, silex^ and aluinine^, Ijp addition to these, other; substances ar^; found in soils £ such/ as animal and vegetable matter, in a decomposing state, cerisiin saline compounds, and the oxoyde of iron. Lime is seldom found in its purity ; but is generally cojmbined with other earths, and with acids. What are commonly called limestone, marble, chalk, and th#differ- ent kinds of marie, are all mixtures of lime with other earths, combined wi^ carbonic acid, i»nd arc ,eftch called carbonates of linrie. Gypsum, or sulphate of lime, is a mixture of lime with other earths, combined with sulphuric acidj and, wheis 80 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. lime is combined with phosphoric aci>d, it is called phos- phate of lime. ^ ' Lime, in its pure state, is infusible; but is readily dis- solved in acids, or in six hundred and eighty times its weight of wajter. When either of the above-mentioned acidsus poured on any stone; or earth, which contains lime, an effervescence will take place, by which the presence of this earth may always be discovered. Limestone, gypsum, marble, Sec. are generally found the Uppermost of the stony incrustations of this ^tobe ; and appear generally to have been formed, before the dry lands appeared. Chemists suppose them to be principally formed froms hells, such as those witli which matty parts of the bottom of the ocean now abound, in prodigious quantities ; and ^he skeletons of fishes, jind other aquatics, often found in Jhese masses, would in some measure seem to confirm this opinion. '/ Some of the stone, commonly called limestone, is com- bined with a large pr^portiof^jof 7Ma^ne5ziz; Of whifch ecirth we shall speak presently. Sometimes, also, limestonei is principally combined with argilaceous, and sometimes with silicious, eatth J the former being known by its hardness, and smoothness of surface when broken, and is the least calculated to improve a clay soil ; the latter being distin- guished by b^ing more soft, and rough, when brok^ and is best adapted for clays. MarlSle is usually combined with argila(;eoUs earth, and chalk is formed of nearly the same ingredients ; but, per- haps, contains less alumine. ' 'V. The upland marie is generally a clay, with a certain proportion of lime, and, the more the better, as a manure. Someiitries, however, this kind of marie has a considerable proportion of sand ; in which case, it may be found best adapted for clay soils; aS, in the former case, it will be found most suitable for those which are sandy. The riiarle of bog-swamps also varies in its proportions of a fine rich clay, or loam, and of very fine sand; but, in all cases, contains more liife ; and, the^ weaker sorts, probably, more earth formed of vegetable rhatter. vi^^e further. Manures. , ' There are also calcareous sands, which- may be easily discovered by applyirig any of the acids to them, in the manner before directed. Sometimes, also, these sands are mixed with siiex. -i- ^ Magnesia is a white, friable, light earth, usually combin« cd with other substances, and sometimes with limestone. When this is the case, the stone, when burned, makes what the English Farmers call hot lime 5 and, in Greatbritain, is •FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ' SJ esteemed of much less value, as a manure; but, in this Country, it is said to be most valuable. ,' V ^ The magnesian limestone i may be known, froni v:that which is purely calcareous, by the slowness ot its solutioa in acids; as, even the softest kind o^ it, is longer in dis- solving than marble. Frequently it has, also, a chrystalized structure; and sometimes small blaqk dots may be seen int.ersperse(J throi^ghout the mass. ' ^'j^kx. or the earth of flintSj is exhibited mostly In the form of crystaline sand. ^ j^lumine is the basis of clay, and serves to endue th.at earth with the peculiar characie/i^tic of contracting in bulk, when dried; and of expanding &gain, when moistened. 'Animal matterj in a decomposing state, must be princi- pally the remains of the various insects, and^other animals, which have existed, arid perished, in thp earth, during the lapse of a^es. ^^ ' The presence of the remains of animal matter, in earths, is ascer.tained by applying a stronjg heat to them; undex" the operation of which they emit a smell simil^t .to that of feathers when- burning, and leave a residue which is prin- cipally carbonaceous matter, together.with carboriic acid, volatile alkali, and inflammable aeriform products. Vegetable mdiUQV^ in a decomposing state, is much ^more apparent in almost every part of the surface of the earth 5 but most so in rich, moulds, and in new. landsj where the surface is usually more or less covered with it. It forms the upper stratum qJ5 bog-meadows, and indeed the whole mass, where they are not underlaid with marie. When it undergoes the operation of a stropg heat, the residue is mostly ashes. ■ The saline? compounds found in earths, or soils, are but rarelyto.be df^scovered, and are principally common salt (muriate of soda) epsom salt (,sulphate of m^gpesia) and the salts chemically called muriate, and sulphate, of potash, nitrate of lime, and the mild alkalicss. ^z Spils containing the least of any particular^ saline ingre- ^^ dient, that forms a part of the food ot plants, will probably ■ always be found most benefited by the. application of th.it kind of salt, as a manure. ; Soprte particuljir kinds of grass grow w^ll in this soil, even where it is very' light and ^ry, ^ See Grasses. ' *■ Sandy soils have this particular advantage; they are easily tilled ; so that, if what is saved in tillage be expend- ed in.additipnal m^nuriiigs, it is doubtful whether this soil, when skilfully m'anage€,^\\vill not be found as prpfitabre to the Fariner as most other lands of midling qiiality. ^fe Improvement OF Lands, and Manures. Sandy lands are also much pleasanter to till, than most Other soils; so that, if pleasure b^ an object with the Farmer, he will bring that into the account, when forming; a proper estimate of the value of this soil.-- A great proportion~of the vast and populous empire of China is said to be more or less of sandy soil. The county of I^Jprfolk, in Greatbritain, which is said to be now^amot)g the most productive tracts, in that Country, was, originally, for the most part, a poor light sand. In this Country, sandy lands have generally been too little valued: They have been mostly occupied by poor Fartpers, who have taken no pa^ins^, in the first instance, ta giye them more stamina, and tti'us fit th^m for profitable courses of crops; but, on the contrary, what little fertility they possessed has usually been exhausted' in the produc- tion of poor crops, and thus the s^bil has at length, in many instances, become almost entirely barren. y^> The gravelly soil is that in which |mvel forms the largest component part. Pure gravel, like pure sand, is barren ; being nothing more than a"^ collection of pebbles, of a larger kind than those of which-^s^ti^ is composed^v A coarse sand, and a fVne gravel, may be considered so,gearly synonymous, that we will not pretend to draw the' liHe of cfiBtinction between them. Of the different kinds of stony matter which form the gravelly ingredient, in soils of this description, the slaty or schistic gravel is much the best ;. particularly where the slate is of a soft crumbly kind ; as such would seem to be v^in a gradually decomposing state, and usually contains ^ M S4 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. considerable .ipi'oportion of calcareous or other fertilizing matter. We hdve sfcen some very good soils, which par- took largely of a slaty gravel.^ Generally speakJug, soils which are yerf gravelly are hard, and they are usuaUy poor, from much the same causes%hich coiuribiite to the proverty of soils which are veryj;^sap.dy ; and the means p{) ameliorating each are ve^y sinnilar. but as a hard graveUy soil is much more difficult; tp^flEiellow than the sandy, the former is, on that accounti*;^ this least valuable. Hard gravels must be ploughed 'very deeply, in order to enable the gf'Qwing crops to withstandrthe droughts of Sum- mer. Roots which require adeep extension into the earth, and all those plants which aire most affected l?y drought, have^ but little ^hance of succeeding in a gravelly soil of this, description. It is most efF'Sctually mended Ufii^asting earths tipon it which are most retentive of mois^^'?: At the same time, it is a soil that is extremely sensible to the operation of gypsum; and, with the aid of that manure, will produce good crops of clover, which, in due season, will enable the soil to bcar^ crop ofrye to advantage; and in this way, or jiomething similar, poor gravelly soils may be made to yield considerable profit. Cut, as the soils which may be denominated gravelly are £ome more, and some less, so; some very hard, and dry, some mellower, and not so much affect;bd' by drought; we will not pretend to designate particularly the niost-profita- ble uses of soils of this kind, as much must depend on their particular character, and as those of the better kinds may often be found very good for most kinds of culture. The lomny soil is a close, compact, retentive earth, and appears to be similar to .clay; with this difference, however, that loam does not crack open when dried. It is also, in general, different in color from the most of clays; the poorer sorts of loam being ot ^ pUle yellow; the better stKt& of a brownish color; and some are often found of u redish hue, whifth are endued with various degrees^of ier- tilit^; though, generally, they are very good for almost every purpose of farming ; particularly when of a dry and itn-liQw kind. .: , , "^ The dai;k, or brown-colored sorts ar^ almost invariably good lands; but best, where they are dry and mellow. Tho darkness of , the color probably denotes the presence of much vegetable matter in them. Loams of every kind, Whether wet or dry, are natural to grass: S6me, however; vvhich incline to become mossy, when they have been a few, years in pasture, or mowing- gruuiids, require io be more frequently ploughed up;.un-* FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 85 less the growth of 'the moss be destroyed by scarifying and top dressings. ,\Ve have known gypsum to answer an ex- celent purpose, in extirpating .the growth ot moss in a dry loamy soil. This manure was merely scattered ov^^ the mossy ground in the Spring; when the moss soon give way to a growth of white-clover. ' Loamy lands are generally too cold, and oft^o too wet, for bearing good crops ot Indian corn; unless the ground be well warmed and mellowed, by suitab^le rtiahurings, &c. Some of the dry, relish, and dark-colpred kinds, however, answer well for this grain, as well as for almost every other growth.* In general, loams, are a good wheat-soil, unless where they are too wet; and even thejr wetness may be remedied by hollow-draining. %, See ihot articles' i ' • a A loamy s6il wilLpay, as well as any other, for. what manure is given it, if ir'6e of the right kind. :.;^See Manures. {:■■ It is also much. easier prepared for crops, than that of which we shall^. next speak ; and, although loarn^ are very various iti quality, and in fertility, in general it may be said, that tracts of this soil will usually be found to contain rtiuch good farming-lands. V .. The. clayey soil, is the most compact and retentive of any, anhas,beeb^ug to fill or grow yp again. ' , ^ ' In Holland, much turf of this description is taken froin the bottoms of 'the canals, and is tised for fuel. c/ , Ireland abounds m,uch in low"^ sunken :tracts, which are often chiefly cpmposfed of turf, or of peat; of which V^ shall now speak, and conclude with some observations of these earths which iti^jr l^e nipre or l^ss applicable to each. >Pea^ soils sometimfli-Wm the surface of the earth; sometimes again this earth is found at various depths under- neath, irj a more compact form. It abounds. mucK in the cold mountainbus tract of land which forms the^northerly and unsettled part of this county (Herkimer) anji its vicinity. The surface of the earth there is, in many places, composed of a mass of peat, forming a depth of from one to two, and sometimes, three, feet. The timber, where the peaty earth prevails tp sucli ex- tent, is mostly spruce and hemlock. The peat thus formed would seeni to be principally the remains of the trees which have sprung from the soil, and in time have become decomposed, to a certain extent, during the course of many thousand years. "'' Heatand moisture are the princip^, agents, both \x\ pro- ducing and destroying. They cause animals, and vegeta- bles, to expai;id and grow to maturity ; and wfien they be- come diseasied^ and no longer fit to sustain life, the_same principles^ of heat and moisture, which before gave life and nurtured^ thenn, suddenly decompose the^, and cause them to return to dust. Without heat and mowfure, there couid be no vegetable or animal existence, ici^he first place ; nor any change or decomposition of theifi,, after they had once been formed. But it requites a certain degree- of heat to entir^sly de- ''Compos^ animal or vegetabie matter, of any kind; while, at the same time, the decomposition of either may be in parr, or entirely, prevented by the presence of other Substances, ^vhich are calculated to preserve them from sits operation. Thus the Egyptians had an art of embalming anim^al bodies, so as to enable them to withstand the opert^tion of heat, for thousands of years. 88 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Thus, lean jihimal flesb, by being immersed in runing water a giveri''' time, becomes cjhanged into *a substance called adifiocirCi resembling spermaceti; and in this state would, pr^b^bly almost bid defiance to the ravages of timeu " vH^" And. something similar to this n>ay be observed of vege- table matter, particularly of the hard and woody kinds: The.morc solid parts may remain for unknown lengths oL time, when buried beneath the surface, in earths^ and, ifj^ temperatures, suitable, for preserving them; while the* parts, which are more easily changed, will decompose to a certain extent, and thus forip a mass of peaty or turfy mat- ter, which will serve ^o preserve the sounder wood from decomposition or decay. \ ,. Such seems to be the case in Ireland. In many of the bogs of that Country, trunks of trees are taken up entire, and sound; while all the rest haS; become converted into peat, or perhaps turf. -' V / . ; peat, when found below the surface of the earth, is a much more solid and compact substance, than that found on the surface; and when dug "p, and exposed for some time to the air, becomes hard, like a cinder. When put in com- post, in which lime is an ingrediem, it readily undergoes a further decomposition, and becomes converted into a sub- stance similar to muck, or the black dirt of bogmeadows. Turi, iri coniposts, will also undergo a similar change; though this earth will gradually decompose, or rot away, by mere exposure to the air. Such, too', is the case with the peaty earth, before mentioned, found on the surface, and which, on this account, might more properly be classed with turf, did it not differ fromthat earth', in never growing again, when a part of it has been cut away. Probably this kind of peat should only ,be identified with that which is found below the surface, by being long placed in a similar situation. v The fossil peat, or that which is found under the surface, buriis.very freeljjr^ when dried, and is superior to turf, as an aftifcle.of fuel.'*^ Peat of this description may also be con- verted into charcoa^ and the red ^ort, Mr. Elliot^ of Con- necticut, says, is betterr ,for this purpose than wood. The method of converting it to this use is similar, to that for wood. % '. ■ : ' . y. ■ ^ . ' See FuisL. - ^ We will now say something in regard to soils> which are particularly designated, as being formed of a mixture of some of theV principal earthy ingredients; although, in strictness, almost all "soils are, more or less, composed of mixed ingredients. FARMER^s ASSISTANT. £9 The sdndyloam soil is generally composed of about equal tjuanlities of what is called a sandy and a loamy soil, tuixed together; and as each of these soils has various degrees ol fertility, the quality of a «andy loam may depend, for its fertility, upon the sand, or the loam^ of which the soil i% composed, and Sometimes on, both united. A rich «and, and a rich Ibam, when united ^n proper proportions, form a most excelent soil; while, at the same time, a poor yellow sand, united with,^ poor hard loam, form but an indifferent soil; thx)ugh it ''may be much ira improved by manuring. Generally speaking, sandy-loam soils arc nearly equally good for all kinds of products, excepting for grasses which require moist or wet soils. Taking all the good qualities of this soil into consilleraiion ; the pleasantness, and ease, with which it may be^^VtUed; its suiableness to such a variety Of crops ; its b/efek suitable to gypsum, one ot the cheapest of all manui'^eii^l'Jtarid its forming one of the best kinds of earth for roads; all these circumstances tend to enhance the valye of this kind ot soil, and to render it one of the most valuable which generally falls to the lot? of the Farmer. Of the gravelly-ham there are also varieties of soil, iij point of fertility ; some forming very fine soils,vand some .but indifferent; the soil, in this case, forming its character ''mostly from the quality of the loam ; though often from the kind g among any crop, must lessen "its product, -in the proportion which the weight of the growing weeds bcrars to the weight of the growing crop. What we caH Si^mmer-fallowing, in this Country, hardly deserves the naiiie : It Is very dlft^erent from that performed by the best English Farmers. They break up the ground early in the Spring; and they plough from five. to ten tinx^s, as the state of the ground may require; and the. ground is ivell harrowed Tbetweeri each ploughing: In short, ihey plough and ha^rrow, at proper intervals, till no «turiher growths of wi^eds start from the^sojl. Thus, suppose the ground is turned over by, the middle of April; by the middle of May a^ growth of weeds will have sprung up from the seeds of weeds in the soil* which, by the ploughing, will h^ve been brought sufficiently near the siirface to vegetate : These are to be destroyed by an effectual harrowing. This operation brings other seeds near the surface, which produce a fresh crop of weeds; Plough these under, and this raises other seeds, which then vegetate and grow.' Destroy these with the harrow, as be- fore, and this again raises the Seeds for another crop; which are agairi ploughed under: And thus the work proceeds, at proper intervals, until all- the seeds pf Weeds in the soil have sucbessively vegetated, and been de^tJ^oyed. ' By this culture, most kinds of soils are very considerably impf&ved; though -all not equally so; and they are put in the best conduion for growing of crops. It tends greatly to destroy the adhesion of clays foi^ several successive crops, as is asserted by the Wl'iter last mentioned; it sweetens those soils Which are sotir^ and**1t warms those which are cold. The, soils which are least enriched, by this mode of cuf; ture, are those which are naturally very rich and piieHow, and poor weak sands. The fprmer gaifis nothing in fertili- ty, for pretty much Che same reason that a heap of well- loted and fermented compost \vouId gain nothing, but rather lose, by being too frequently stired up) »nd every part exposed to the^ sun, winds', and rains. FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 95 It would seem that aH massies, that are saturated with fertniiing matter, loose by frequent siiVing \iff^ and ex- posure to the atmosp^fere; while hungry eyitWs, sand ex- cepted, gain more or less »by the same process. Probably sand, by being too much mellowed, becomes less capable of retiining moCSture -At ulil events, give this earth a good mixture of cla'f , and it willt^hen receive Additional fertility^ by a' fii|lt)wmg^ process, ' '" > 'For the purpose of clearing the falloyir qf^he ro^ts 6f lany Unsfeds, or grass, which may infest it, ,Ahe AVriter last men- tioned dii^'ects that, after the groui*.^ ^ias been well mellow- cd~, as before directed, a roller should pass over, it; and then the harrow will more readily drag the Topts tp the surface, where they will die, if the ground be sufficiently ^ry- ^ [ . ": ^, " '\ ^■ The process snould,be repeated, until the soil is cleansed of Yfiem. The teeth of the harrow should be sharp, for the purpose, and they should be turned considerably forward, at the lower en8^. Harrow teeth should always have this S^hape, when Used in smooth gj'ounds. The roll^ is also of essential use, for breaking the baked clods in fallow lands of a clay ^pil The ground is to be harrowed till the clods are all brought on the surface; and then, by passing the roller over them, when they are neidler too wet, nor too dry, they v/ill piilverise very.readi- wly. The rhost favorable time for this is, after the clods l>ave been ohi:e fully dried, and then merejy wet thro Qgh agaia with a gentle rain; then, when they ai'e partly dried again^ they will be easily qrCimbled. ,- On the whole, it nxay be laid down ^s a general rule, that Summfer-fallowings are not necessary iii this Country on any smooth, leyel, and dry soilf "where a suitable rotation of croping can be properly pursued, unless the soil be unfit for hoed crops ; as a proper intermixture of these, if the ploughings and ho€ings.be,done^.eirectuaUy, will sufficiently extirpate the growths of wiseds in the soil. 1^ But, where the land is too stiff and clayey, for the growth of such hoc'd crops as are suitable to^.be raised in this Country, there occasional Summer fallowiug^^ may;, be found requisite ; though they need^nbt be pear so^^^equent, as is common amongst our Farmt^rs, *^ ■ . The objections to Sujnmer^fallowing are, the additional expense, if performed as before directed, and the Ib^s of a yearns' croping of the land: The, bent^fits to be derived from it, in general, are the ad'ctitional fertility which the soil thus derfvfcs, and its Bein^ freed of- a superabundant growth of weeds. r^ When, therefore, each of tlvese benefits njay be expected to accrue, in an ordinary degree, tbey wi(l usually warrant 06 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. - 'f the expense ; but, generally speaking, not otherwise ; liiilc^s the cleansinff of the soil becomes highly requisite, or unlesis it be so stiff, or sour, that nothing short of this jirocess will sufficiency mellow or sweeten it. Sometimes a process, similar to a complete Summer- fallowing, may be found essentially requisite for old rnea- dovvs, pt rough bottom, and .clayey soil, and where tlie grassfs" tiave failed; not only for giving such lands a smooth furfacte.'; but also for greatly increasing, and im- jproving, their products ; and sometimes it maybe fotind requisite to commence with aipfevious Winter-fallowing, in jrder completely to mellow the soil, tor being, in due time^^sd wed with grass-seeds, the ensuing season. , A cbmplete Summer-fallowing is also the best prepara- tive for a crop of flax. '* See that article. Much of the lands of thisvCountuy undergo what riiay be called a Summer-fallowing, in part; when, intended to be sown withv Winter-wheat, or rye; that is, the sward is usually tufned over in June; and then two^ ploughings more, an.4 perhaps three harrowihgs, are givep^llie groind, before the sowing is completed. Formerly, no grass-sefidsl were spwn with the crop; but, during the foUoyying years, in which the land was strffered to rest', the supply of pasture it afforded was merely its^. natural growth, which was usually of small account. The ^ crops- of grain thus raised were generajiy proportionate to this poorness of culture: After deducting from the crops a very moderate rent for the land, the remainder, generally, did not pay the Farmer for his labor in raising them. Fortunately, however,^ tjje use of gypsum has greatly en- coul^aged the use of redrclover j and the difference .which this grass, with the aid of that manure, has ejected in tH'e quantity of the grain thus, raised, has probably served to convince the mOre enterprising Farmer, that formerly' this part, at leas', qf^jbis husbandry was very contemptible. , Now he finds the average of these crops to be, perhaps, twenty bushels an^cre: Formerly they were about half that qucintity. Now, the c/^-ar iirojits in the crop, by the acre,, are, pethaps, from s^^x to eight bushels of wheat : Formerly they were nothing. The siunied growths of grjiss, 'wiiU which his fields were formerly cloihed, ^id not lisually affoid^asturage sufficient to pay ^a very light rent of thci ground ; While at present the iv^o Sumraer*s growths of clover, ^Ite'' deductfing the experises ot seceding, gypsum, &c. will "tTord him a.^ least as much clear profit, as he derives from his crops of grain; and, in the mean lime, his lands are gra4u;aUy increasing iiji. fertility. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 97 By this culture, too, if his lands are smooth, and tolera- bly mellow, he may obtain his crops of grain with no fur- ther ploughing, than the mere turning of the sward under. At all events, if they are too hard, or too rough, for this, he may, nevertheless, get them into better order for sowing, with the same labor he formerly bestowed on them. And, as a sward of natural grasses usually requires much longer time to rot, than a sward of clover, he need not break up the latter beiore the first of August ; by which means he reaps nearly all the benefit which the second season will afford of this grass. In this way, a season is not lost by fallowing ; and, on the whole, it is pretty profitable and good culture for much of the rough arable lands of this Coiintry, which have not been fited by Nature, or by art, for the finest cultivation. . But the English Farmers say their lands will eventuall^^ become iired of bearing^^Iover, or wheat, too constantly. Perhaps tlie same win-?j>e the case here. If so, it will indicate the necessity of fiting such lands, if practicable, for a more perfect culture, by judicious rotations of crops; or, at least, of appropriating them to the growing of other grasses, and grain. But, as there is nothing like Summer-fallowing, properly speaking, in thus raising alternate crops of clover and wheat, or rye, that process v/ouid probably be found neces- sary, at the end of every ten or twelve years, to cleanse the soil of its^ increasing growths of weeds. Particular care would also be requisite, to keep out all grasses from the soil, but the clover; and this would be most easily and effectually donej by repeated harrowings before, and after, sowing the crop of Winter- grain. What is called Summer-fallowing in this Country is often thought necessary, by most of our Farmers, for the purpose of roting a stiff sward; bijl this can be effected equiiily well by a Winter-fallowing, and without any loss by the ground being unproductive during a season. Thus, i| a stiff sward be turned under by the first of November, it^^ill be fbund sufSciently roted, for most cr^ps, the ensuing Spring; and, with proper managment, the Spring .crop may^.be advanta- geously followed by a Winter-crop, or by anotnier Spring crop, as may be found most suitable to the soil. Winter-fallowing ought to be more attended to in this Country; and, in most cases, it should be the substkute of such Summer- fallowings as oi^r lands usually receive. All Spring-crops should be preceded by this process, unless preceded by hoed crops; and even where a hoed crop is cultivated on a clayey, or a wet soil, the ground should be thrown up into high narrov^ ridges in the Fall, in order to be more easily and eftcctually mellowed the next Spring. 9» FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Indeed, in all cases, where soils of the descriptions last mentioned are intended for Spring- crops, they should be thrown up into high narrow ridges in the Fall. By this mean the Winter-frosts will more readily crumble and mel- low the soil, and thus fertilize it; and by its lying more dry, when in ridges, it is the more readily brought into a proper tilth, and a due state of fermentation, the next Spring: And these are points of the utmost importance in such soils ; as the finer the tilth, and the greater the fermenta- tion to which they are brought, they will be rendered so much the more fertile for succeeding crops. See Freezing, where a case of Trench-ploughing is mentioned which serves fully to illustrate the truth of this remark. In light sandy grounds, a Winter-fallowing is not so ^essentially requisite, for some kinds of Spring-crops; neither does this process tend to fertilize such soils: But in all such as are harder, or -njore or less gravelly, a Winter-fallowing of s>vard-ground should, generally, pre- cede a Spring- crop, for the better preparing of the ground; and all such soils as are wet, sour, cold, or clayey, should undergo this process, as well as that of ridging, for the double purpose of better filing the ground for Spring- use^^and of meliorating the condition of the soil. After having thus stated the principal uses and benefits to be derived from fallowing of land, it remains to say something, in regard to the difFerertce of climate, between this Country and Greatbritain, in order that the Reader may, with more accuracy, determine how far Summer- fallowings, here, are necessary, for the soils before men- tioned, for the reasons that they are found rfeqiiisite in that Country. Vegetation begins earlier, and ends later, in Greatbritain than it does in any part of this State ; but, owing to the growing season there being mucli; cooler than with us, the progress of vegetation is feeble and languid; and the cir- cumstance ofltheir crops of grain, and grass, never growing to so great a height, as with us, shows that the whole mass of the vegetation, of a season, is less in that Country than with us. Wheat-harvest is from four to six weeks earlier t;^ here, than it is there. ' It remains, then, to be inquired, whether our lands could not be, in a very considerable degree, cleansed of the seeds of weeds, by a mode of culture which would effect little or nothing in that Country. Suppose that the stubble of our wheat, rye, barley, or oat-crops were turned under, as soon as the ground was ^ cleared of those crops ; could there be any doubt that by three ploughings, and three harrowings, at proper intervals, FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 9^ the ground would receive at least one-third of the benefit, in regard to destroying the seeds of weeds, and sweetening and fertilizing the soil, that it would receive by a complete process of Summer-fallowing ? Yet little or nothing could be effected, in the same way, in Greatbrjjain; for, before the same culture could be attempted there, the season ijrpuld be too far advanced. It may then, with truth, be said, that Summer-fallowings may more readily be dispensed with in this Country, than in that, by more frequently giving the ground a partial sweetening, and cleansing, in the manner last mentioned : But, at the same time, it will readily be seen, that nothing short of a complete Suihi|fier- fallowing will, at any time, effect the complete cleartsing and melioration of the soil. See further, Ploughing. FALSE QUARTE#:| A rift or chink in the hoof of a Horse from top to bottom. The inner side of the hoof, being the thinest, is most liable to it. When it becomes troublesome to a Horse, Gibson directs that the cleft be pared out to the quick; then annoint the hoof with a mix- ture of tar, honey, and suet, melted together, and lay a pledget, dipt in the same, along in the cleft. Then bind up the hoof as tight as possible, by winding rope-yarn closely round it from top to bottom. The shoe should previously be taken off. The wound should be opened and drest every third or fourth day ; and, to prevent any inconve- niency from this, let the cleft be held together at the bottom by a thin plate fastened op for the purpose, pi-^ i^S\ It is, however, very difficult, and often impossible, says this Author, to effect a cure in an old or a diseased Horse. FARCY. A disease m Horses similar to the scurvy among Men, and is caused^ by confining a Horse too long to dry meal. It is known by small tumors appearing on the head and other parts of the body. Turning the Horse to fresh pasture will effect a cure, in the first stages of the disorder; but wherfe it has become more inveterate, by long standing, Gibson directs, that the Horse be bled, mod- erately purged, and then, that doses of antimony be giveti him. „ '';'■ FENCES. Poor fences are pjroductive of incialculable mischief to the Farmer. By these his crops are constantly liable to be destroyed, and his cattle learn to become habit- ually unruly. One unruly creature will learn others to be so; and thus the Farmer, with his poor fences, finds his cattle, instead of being profitable, to become proddctive of unceas- ing losses, and, what follows of course, of unceasing vexation. 100 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. - When the Farmer is conscious, that he cannot even sleep in peace, on account of the danger oi his catlle destroying the fruits of his labors, he cannot be said to enjoy that tranquility which ought to be the reward of the sweat of his brow. Rather, therefore, let him make his fences what might be generally deemed more than sufficiently high and strong, than too low^nd weak. This, if it be an error, is erring on the safe side; on the side which secures the fruits of his labors, and promotes his tranquility and happiness. Log-fences are often made on new-cleared lands, where rail-timber docs not sufficiently abound, and these the Farmer will of course muke of the most durable logs which his new-cleared land affords. Whiie-pine log-fences are very good, and will last twenty years without any essential repairing. Clear white- pine timber inay, however, be split into rails, which are very durables All kinds of wood will last much longer in rails, when the bark is peeled off. What are called worm fences are made with most ease, but require more timber than some other kinds. If, there- fore, timber be scarce, post-and rail fences, set in a bank, made of the earth of two small ditches thrown up together, ought to be prefered, wiiere good durable posts can be had. If the posts are too small to have holes made through them, the rails may be fiated at the ends and fastened to the posts with spikes, or with wooden pins well secured. Post-and-rail fences, without these ditches on each side, arc very good where the soil is dry, and the same may be observed of board fences; but, where the soil is wet,- the posts will be thrown out by the frosts. In all cases, the posts ought to be set at least two feet in the ground. Red-cedar is best for posts. Locust, chesnut, butternut, and black-walnut are also good. Good oak will also last pretty well. Burning the ends of th^ posts which ^o into the ground, so as to make them black, will make them last longer. A method of making a fence from two shallow ditches, by laying up the contents of each in a bank between them, is in successful operation in Dutchess county, in this State, and is well adapted for lands lying moderately level, and ftee from stones. It is made to answer without any addi- tion to the top of the bank; but, we believe, the addition we shall describe would generally be found most advisable. We propose, for instance, to raise the bank three and a quarter ftet high from the bottoms of the ditches; and, for tills purpose, the ground is to be marked out as follows. A strip, say 18 inches wide, is first to be marked witli a line, to be Icit as a foundation on which'the bank is to be raised. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. loi Then a strip, say, four and a half feet wide, is to be, in like manner, marked off on one side of this ; and another,, four and three-quarters wide, marked off on the other side. from these two latter strips the sward, to the depth df, say, three inches, ii to be pared off, and laid away on each side, to bp used in the way we shall presently mention. Then the earth under the pared ground i^ to be dug out, in the sloping direction exhibited below, and laid up on the strip first mentioned, so as to form a bank eighteen inches high from the /surface of the earth. Then the sward, pared off as just mentioned, is to be laid with the grass-side upwards, on each side ot the bank, from the bottoms of the ditches to the top, which completes the bank. We will now exhibit an end view of the bank as thus made, and covered with the sward, and of the slopes of the two ditches, which we imagine will afford an adequate idea of the construction of tfie whole.- A B The furface of the earth. C D The ditch on each side of the bank. E' The bank. " ' F The sward faid on one side' of the bank, taken from the surface of the ditch C, which is four fegrand three-fourths wide. This sward laps, at the to^flJie bank, over that on the other side. G The sward laid on the other side, t^ken from the surface of the ditch D, which is four and a half feet wide. But, in order to make this bank what we would call a sufficient fence; it 'will b^ necessary to make an addition to it, by driving stakes into the top of the bank, say, six feet apart; and to these nair one length of boards, say, fourteen inches wide, and at the height of about foui- inches from the top of the bank. This gives the fence the height of about four feet nine inches from the bottoms of the ditches; which height, con- sidering the particular advantage of this kind of fence, of which we shall next speak, will, as we imagine, be found sufficient to turn the most unruly cattle. The advantage of the fence consists in this : The eleva- tion of the bank, with its addition, is too great for cattle to 102 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. attempt to climb up, and pass over in that way ; and it will be found impracticable to pass it by a leap; because, in coming sufficiently near it, for that purpose, the forefeet of the beast must be so much below the level of its hindfeet, that it becomes unable to raise itself to spring to any advantage. |^ A hedge may in the mean titne be growing on the top of this bank ; and, when it has become sufficiently matured, the addition of the stakes and boards may be taken awayi to be used in some other place. » For hedge-fences, see Hedges. For making stone-walls, see Stones. FERMENTATION. Ground is in a complete state of fermentation, when the adhesion of 'its particles is destroy- ed ; when it is in a soft pulfy state, so that when pressed down it will expand again* It is to be brought to this state by frequent ploughings, or by ploughings and manurings together. When ground is in the highest fermentation, it is then in the best state for growing of plants; and the more effectu- ally the fermentation is kept up, during the time in which the plants are growing, the greater will be their growth. Fronts have great effect in preparing for a state of fer- menta^tion in stiff soils, when thrown up during Winter, in such manner as to lie dry. See Freezing. Moderate rains succeeded by warm sunshine, have also a similar efTect on such soils. During the Summer-season, a proper state of fermenta- tion is only to be produced in the soil when it is neither too* w# nor to dry. Poughing, however, when the ground is very dry, if not so good for producing a state of ferment- ation, is, nevertheless, good for killing all weeds and grass, with which the soil may be infested. FERN CPoly/iodium.J This wefed grows' in some cold loamy soils in the northern parts of this State; but it appears to be easily extirpated by tilling the land. In the northern parts of Europe, it is in many places troublesome and difficult to subdue. They, howev^, esteem it much when made into manure, as it contains a large portion of alkaline salts. In some parts of the north of Europe, they burn it, and gather the ashes, which, being weted with water, are made into little balls, and dried in the sun, and are then esteemed to be nearly as good as soap, for the purpose of washing. Barilla is made from fern, by burning the plants in kilns, so that no air can approach them during their calcination. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 103 FLAX (Linum.) Such crops of flax as are usually raised do not pay tor the labor bestowed on them. This must be owing to bad managepient. As this is a ci'bp that the Farmer must raise, if he has any regard to Domestic Economy, the means of raising it to advantage should be duly attendf d to. ^ A good method of raisii% a great crop of flax is as fol- lows : Summer-fallow a piece of ground of suitable soil, and give it six or eight ploughings and harrpwings, during the Summer, so as as to destroy all the seeds of weeds. Apply your manures during the first ploughings, unless they be composts, or top-dressings ; at all events, let the soil be eventually made rich enough for hemp. The next Spring, mellow the ground well again by two or three ploughings, harrow it, and sow, of well-cleaned seed, at the rate of about three bushels to the acre, and harrow it in lightly. Give the ground a top-dressing, of about four bushels of fine salt to the acre, and also some gypsum, if the soil be suitable. Let the crop be 'lown about the first of May, or as soon as the ground can be effectually prepared, after vegetation has commenced. By five or six hundred* pounds of flax may be expected from this method of culture, and with a proper change of seed, the acre, of a fine quality. -^ This is probably about the best culture ; and all devia- tions from it, by less expensive methods in preparing the ground, will, generally, be so much for the worse. Ground may, however, be pretty well prepared for a good crop by previous hoed crops, which have been well manured, parti- cularly if pains be taken to prevent any weeds g,oing to seed in the Fall. Weeds are the enemy of flax; and no good crops can be raised on ground that is full of their seeds, even though it be sufficiently rich and well prepared. See further. Folding of Land, for a proper method of preparing the ground for flax. In addition to the requisites of a rich earth, free of the seeds of weeds and well mellowed, for obtaining a good crop of flax, anothei/ requisite is, that the ground shall not have borne flax, for as much as seven years previous to the time it is to be sown with this crop. Almost every soil, that is sufficiently dry for a proper degree of fermentation, may, by being well prepared, as above directed, be made to yield good crops of flax, unless the soil has too little moisture, as may be the case with dry gravelly and light sandy earths. , ' ' But a very essential point, in raising great crops ofs ASSISTANT. los ■ **» St, and cf course .can perform the labor better, and at the same time cheaper. f ^ >. ^ The Farnier, perhaps, would do- well to make more of a J>usiness of raising flax, whpn he becomes engaged in it, by raising: enough in one season to last him two or three years: He ^^muld thep have a greater io^ducement to go more spiritefty into the mosfcpproyed method, of culiiva^ tion, from the ^conviction, that cultivating it jn the most complete manner, and pretty largely at a time, is the only way to make tl)^ business profitable. Particular m^ should- be taken fo have the seed perfect- ' ly clean; and- also, to sow it evenly. This is best eipTected by first sowing one-iialf of thp seed over the who|e grgund, and then the pther half, cross v/ise. It should be sown in a calm time. FLOODING OF^ LANDS. Where svjramprland is to be cleared, and it can be flooded, by making a dam at the oug.^ let, at a small expense, it is^a matter/of ecoiiomy to att^i to this, as in this way its growth of wood can be completSy killed. This may also bp performed. ^onian^s, after they are \ cleared, for the purpole* of killing the grass, if it b^e ba^, in order with more ease to ihtroduce a better kind, or a bette]^ system of ^culture'. Flooding also serves, in a greitjer or a less degree, ^o enr jth the , land 5 thojigh this depends chiefly on ihe* kind of vyatei:' with \yhichr it is flooded. If it conuln a rj^li sedinient, il is 'jgopdj but, if destitute of this, i|t J§ ,pf no 'use. See iMPRpVEMENT OF ^LaNDS. ' / ' ' ' ' r . ■ ■■■ * FO-AL^, or colts. To raise the best Colts,, this first ^ step is to procure the best Breeding mares, then put theni to the best Horses, and give the Colts good.keepiiig, par- ticularly during the first Winter after theip^\a^.f^ weaned. The proper time for leaning is the begining of fodiiering- time; and then thfey ought to be put in a stable by them- selvei^, kept on good h-jy, arid Jed regularly twice a day, during "Wiriter, with oats, or some other nourishing food. The next Summer, they ought to have gopd^^p^siure. Colts ^re frequently sf>oited by poor keeping at the time ^ they' reqiiire the best; and this, as is the, case with all other ^ young anJmals, is during the first Wilitpr. ^/^er this th^y do not require better keeping than is requisite for oHj^f^ Hogles. If' Colts be not welt kept the liriit Winter^ they are very apt to ^et stunted ;*and of this they never wholly recover. If F«i9^rmers would pay more attention to keeping, their Colts in the best li^nner, as well as a due, attention to the selectioi^roi Breeding m^|es, and of HorseV for cover iOG FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ing, we should soon find the breed of Horses in our Coun- try much improved. FODDER AND FODDERING. Much chaff and straw^ that is often thrown away, q;)ay with a little pains be made gOpd fodder for, cattle, b^ being mixed with ^reen corn- "^taliks, or with Ha/ not fully'^dried, and sprinkling a little salt throughout the whole. ' In this way the moisture and pnjiUch ot the sweetness of the stalksi or hay, is absorbed by the straw and chaff, and, with the addition/of the salt, the whole mass is converted into good fodder. (jGkltle will also eat striiw or^ chaff very well, after having some brine sprinkled over it. r jrw Salting all fresh hay, wheh put up, is a great addition to it, as it renders it more nourishing to cattle, and of course will go further in keeping, them. A respectable Farmer of this county (Herkimer ) who keeps a large stock of cattle, s^ys, he is certain, that adding eight qusirts of salt to each toil of hay will make it g^ as far, as a ton and a quarter that has not been salied. At the same time, hay may be put into tlie mow, when salted, in a much greener state .than willjout it; and wlien^taken out will be found almost as green and apparently as fresh as when first stowed away. H4y which is storec^ in narrow mows, or on sc^affolds, will keep well with te%s dryip^g than that which is put into large mows To prevent hay from, damaging in a jarge mow, somie recommend a barrel or a Stuffed saclt to be placed in the centre, and gradually 'Taised as the mqw is raised: T|»Ls forms an opening in the middle, through ^liich the ste#m o| the heated hay can pass off, and thereby prevent it ffom being mow burnt. Another method is, to piit the driest hVy in the centre, and the wetest nearest the out- sides. See also, Barn. Meadows whieh produce wild grass ought to be mowed very early, and the hay well salted down ; and in this way tattle will eat it nearly as well as they will herdsgrass.. Stacking of hay in meadows, to be fed out there, is a pdor plan ; as the meadows are in this way often much in- jured by the treading of the cattl^fand, when this is not the case, much hay is generally wasted, and the dung of the cattle turns to liiile or no account. The JFarmer ought .always to have sufficient room in his barn, and hayhouses, \o hold all his hay; or, if he has not this, he ought to s^gk his hay adjoining his barn, and then it can be easily tiirown in at once, when his barn is emptied^- Foddering should not be-comnienced tiir it Is really ne- cessary; for, 'when the cattle,^|fave been taught to expect ft, they will neglect their other feeding. Fodder at first in FAJlMEB's ASSISTANT. lor . • Ihe morning, wh^n the frost is on the ground. Neat-cattle should not yet bei housed; but Horses Sliould. In cold rains they should, however, be sheltered) as these are more hurt» Au\ than cold dry weather. "a*" /'^ The meanest fodder shoij^lcf not" J|e dealt out first, but leave this tor severer weather ' If ihe' stock of fodder is too scanty for tHp stock of catlfe, don't pinch them' im the fore- part of the W^inter: They can better^endure scanty living, when they have become hardened to the rigors -^of the season. * Some Fawi^rs feed their straw ^entirely to^Some of tbe hardiest of the young catdej ancl fbr this^ pujj^osc keep them by themselves, without suffering them to 'taste any other food, by which means ttiey wijl keep tolerably well: But, perhaps, the better way is to lay aside the^striiw, wnen threshed, with some brifte sprinklfed over each layer, >.o a* to give a dei!;ree of saltl^fess to the whoFe mass; and, after it has Iain a while, to occasionally feed it out to all the neatcattle. This will answer in place of salting theip, and at times they will eat this foo*d with a gcfod relish. "^"■ It should be remembered» th^t cajttle" oUghc not to 'be kept constantly on salted fodder ; for in that cJsV they grow tired of it: A change of food/ sometimes: salt, and Some- times fresh, is best. "' '' V / Too much fodder shquld never bje jaid before cattle at once: Rather let them have a little at a time, and be fed the oftener. ^y constantly breathing on tlieir food, it be- comes less palatable; and for this reason th6y will eaf that which has been .jexposed to the open air apd winds, after they have rejected it in the stable. ' ^*^ ^ ^t. >, C&ttle, whicTi run but during Winter should have a shelter, and a rad^ under it tOr hold their fodder.' By this mean, most of their dijng, being drbped under t1ie shelter, will be preserved from the rains, and will, on that account, ^*be much^better than that which has been more exposed.* Cows,"when near calving, should not be cdrifined to fheir stalls; but each should have a separate apartment, lirid be kept without tying. ' Horses keep well on clovei^'h^y-^ mixed with herdsgrass. If they are to be fed with Indian corn, or ^ther hard grain, it shouM be well soaked, ^boiled, or ground, before it is given them. .They may be kept in good order by teeding them with raw potatoes or carrots, washed clean ; though they would be more nourishing when boiled. Pumpkins are excelept for fating them. See P|^MPKiN. FOLDING OF LANI>jj Folding Sheep 6ft fields, which are ploughed up for fallOw-landj is a ver^good practice ^ i lbs FARMER'S ASSISTANT. as in this way the land receives all the manure that is made from their tdiung and urine, witjiout the trouble of any pre- vious preparation, or carting, '&c. But iolding Sheep on, small pieces of ground, says Mr. VHommMieu^ will do the* Sheep as much injury as it Will benefit the land. The reason ot this seems to be, that when Sheep lie on ground on which they have preiviously lain and dunged, for several nights^ it beconfifes hurtful to them, fgr pretty much the. same feasons that they, are injured when too many of thein afe placed together in one pen during \Vinter: Their breath and this smellbf their excrements afjj^^^jurious to each other. But where they ^re folded in aiarger field, they choose a fresh place to lie down eyery night, and in this way eventually go over the whole field. ■ It is said,, that in this way an hundred Sheep will,^ in one season, sufficiently manure a fallow of eight acres for a good cro{5 of wheat. JThe manure thusj made should be frequently ploughed or harrowed under^ ta prevent much ©yits evaporation, :^; \^,^ ■ /' , '. ^Ipldipg Covvsv Sec., oh^land,, can only be done to advan- ^ tage on small pieces of ground designed for cabbages, turnips, kc; for, if put into a large field, they will almost alvvayVUie down oh nearly the s^^me spot. . I SeViMANUREs, for, an advantageous metli^ of folding CoWs^'&.b. -:.v,,7; ,' : ■ '".. ;■ . -, .■, A lo% spot of gr^ss'ground, which is inclined |(to bear coarse wild' grass, will' be mi\ch helped by .folding Sheep on it; to the injury of the Sheep, however; and so will a dry spdjt, by, folding Cows on it. ' ^^^ ^ When ground , is folded for ; raising turnips, instead of m sowing'tbis crop the first yeiw, let it be frequently plough- ed, in order to killalVthe weeds, and sc^wri early with fi;»x the next ^Spring, and then vvith turnips, after the flax is taken c^ff^ Great crops of flax may in this manner be raised ; and by again mellowing the ground, aftcr^the flax- crop, a very ^ood croj) ci turnips may be raised the same season. FOOD OF PLANTS. Every seed containSv a plant iji embryo:- When it has Acquired its lull size^and shape ft*is ,then a fSerfect plant. In the mean time, it derives, first irom the seej^ itself, then from the air, the eartl^,' and from %vater, certain food which noari^hes it and causes it io grow 16 maturity. From the air it is supposed to absorb hydrogene gas, and the septous principle, or azote; and for this^eason will grow most thrifty in large cities," or in the vicinity of animal putridity. Let any putricj^^^ecaying flesh be laid in a field of gro^ng plants, and tliose which are nearest ta • ^ FARMIIR's assistant. 109 4bc putrid iri^ttier will grow much faster than 'those, at a distance; l?ecause those nearest have a greater chance of i* absorbing the impure air emited from it, than those growing farther off. , '^, 5ee further, Air. ;^ From the earthrplants derive some of theip component parts, as discovered by chemical analysis ; such as earths, salts, oil, Sec* and from water^ whfether mixfed with thei earth, or otherwise, they imbibe the juices or sap, which i^ so essential to their existence. See SA|^i^ : ■ ;,• ■ \,{., :^ Some manures, it would seem, •operate by attracting ^ matter whioh is food for plants; siich as gypsum, which is supposed to attract nitre pid moisture'. Ashes afford salts and attract nitre. Other man ure^^ again afford, in part^ the food of plants, and atiihe sai^e time assist 'theni in ob- taining more from the earthj^ by opening it for the more easy extension of their roots ; such -as barn-dung and ma- nures of that kind. Others, perhaps, assist directly in sup- plying food ; such aS salt^r blood, putrid fleshj Sec. Others, again, merely serve to Open earths which are too solid to admit the roots in search of food; such as sand, roten wood, sawdust, Sec. applied to clays. And, lastly, day applied to sand assists, an part, byfsupplying additioiial food, ana. pigj-tly by enabling, the soil to retain a sufficiency' of watei* to sup- ply plants with the requisi^fe proportion of this article. ^ Some plants extract their food princip^ly from the ajr; sotne, mostly fEorri air and water; and othersj, principally from the earthi The hyacintlj^ and many other plant^, will gt^tow 'well with air an^ water, without the assistaiice of earth. ' Biit, generally speakin;g, plants require tlie united ^ assistahde of air, wat6r, and earth • and froiii t\iese they extract that fodd which is requisite to bripg them to per- fection. ; ^'' Some plants acquire most of one ^kirid of fdod from the earth, and some another. Tap- rooted plants, again^dewve their nourishment from a greater depth; while those with fibrous roots merely ext^-act from the surface. Hedce,^ ine earthy as the conninon parent of plantsi 'may become ex^ hausted, in cohtinually producing some kinds; while it niay still be well fited for the jDroduction of others ; and hence? in som# i^tances, arises the necessity ot a change of prop's. See CiiAwG*Evt)F Crops. . FOREST. , Every farm ought to have a piece of wood- land, or forest, sufficiient for fiiel and other plurposes. Raising timber, for the purpose of fencing, will not often' be found advisable. Farmers must eventuaUy depend on making stohe viralls, or hedges, for the purp(y^bf enclosing .,^. no FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ^ their lands. , But wood and timber 'sufficient for fuel, for building, for carriages, and implements of feirming, cannot be dispensed with. Qt these, the Farmer will jalways find it most advantageous^ to keep the requiaue stock himself, and not rely on others for purctrasing it. Nor is u advisa- ble to have his woodlands separate, and at a considerable distance from his farm; unless it be m parts of the country wliere part 6\ the lands are too valuable to be kept in wood, and other adjacent parts are only fit for ihat purpose. Wben the Farmer is ^learmg up his farm, he ought to reserve, for woodland, that part which is 1^'isi adapied for tillage, or for grass Land which is swampy with a thin soil over a &indy bottbmi that is rocky and hilly^ or that is dry, poor, OT very graVelly, ^may do well for woodland; while it woi/ld answer bitt indifferently for fiilage. The quantity of ground to be ^et apart for this purpose rtiust depend' on tnd size of^^he faj^pti^, the qualiiy of the soil of the wooMland; the nature of the climatt ; and, fre- quer^tly, according to the demand or market fo'* wood ; for, in some easel,, it rtjay- be found more^ profitable to keep tolerably good land in Avoodj than in any otuer cultivation. Of the' natural growth of wood, it w'ill require as much as twenty acres, or more, to keep two fires, according to the common method of' using wood for fuel; but> it is a very easy matter to hav^jj, .. , Where- wood is raised merely for-'fuel, it may be silvered to grow as thick as ife'will; it becomes sufficiently thined of itself, as it^grows larger ^ but where oak, or any other trees, are to Bt^ raised for timberv the j' ought to stand fur- ther apart, in order to have their growth rapid, and the timber firijl^' and durable,^ If woods! are old and decayin'^,thef better way is'to^t all off, as you ^ant to use the wood, aod let ap%n,tire n^W growth start up, which >^11 grow more rapidly. Much poor exhausted lands ^m this'"Cotihtry should be planted with forests,' to supply' the waste of Wood that is constantly increasing: -For raising oaks, which are an es- sential article, some'jjirect to let the acorns be ploughed under, with a shoal ftfrrowi in the Fall; or they may then be buried in a bed of eartH,'- and, after they have sprouted in the Spring, planted as biefore, at the distance of about a foot from each mher.: They^ may aiso^be planted'- 19 the swardj at the depth of about two ii^cev l>y diging little* holes for Ihe purpose. ' * ~ 5eev further, Oak. - ^ \. -^ Let the wefeds be kept down till the young growtli ot the forest shall have overpowered tHem, The str6hgest plants will keep down the weakest, arid thus sufficiently thin the trees, ^as they increadge in size^ but, where a growth fop timber is intended, let the weakest be cut jaway to give more ro6m for the strongest, after they, have attained some considerable size. Let np'caule be^admited into the forest, until the tre^s are beyond their reach; and, at no time whatever, where young sucessive growths for ^uel is in- tended. . • - FOUNDERING of HORSES, We usually, say that a Horse is foundered, when his Idgs and feet have becdme stifFened and sore, by gating too large a quantity pf hard grain at once. The heist, remedy for ^tWs, is ex'erirse'by riding; and in addition tg this let the bits of his bridle be wound round with a rag*!^ into which let as much human terdure be put as it will hold. Put^this into his^moutli^, and let him chew upon it while riditrgUum, and iir.r>^u^ season repeat the dose, if necessary.* i\^ FARMER*s ASSISTANT. ■ ♦• But there is a disorder of the feet of Horses, in which they are alsj^ said to be foundered/ This is a painful dis- ease: The Horse affected with it draws himself up in a heap, and is; loth to move. It is gjccasioned ^y )^anding in cold water, after being *heated vvith exercise; or, some- times, even -by standing still in the stable several days, after exercisi^ 5 sometimes by bad .shoeing, or by bruises on the legs. : ' m' III this case, if a remedy be npt speedily applied, a gathering will take place in ' the feet, and , the hoofs will be cast off; by which the use of the Horse ^ill be lost for some time. The remedy ils, to slit the hoofs open from top to bottom, so that blood will follow pretty freely*^ In order tp cure , these wounds again, apply tar, turpJ^tine, and hopey, melted toget&er^ with a fourthpar|^ of-, the spirits of wine. Let pledgets made of tow be soaked in this, and then laid in the chinks, and the fobt bound up. These are nbt to be opened' fof two days; and trfen let fresh applica- tions be made -every day, till the channels in the hoffs be grown up/ i : 5 ' ? If the sole of the foot is -s^lso di^ayfn, it must be served in £^ similar manncir. A piece of leather should be laid over the sole, and the whole fdot so ly)und up with strong bandagesj that the applications itJay not b6 displaced. FREEZING. E^ery h'ard stiff so;l, when thrpwn up in ridges in the Fall, and mellowed by the froi^tsj receives thereby, an essential addition to its fertilityV.^y, A'r Winter's frost is hot, hovyever, always sufficient to mellqw the largest clods; those should, therefore^, be broken in pieces in th6 Fall, with the joHier, in ordet to derive full benefit from the frosts."-' ''■;.' V ' " ' " ' .' / , *■ A Farmer of Newjersey, sotile y^ars since, trench* ploughed an exhausted field of clayey §oil in tlie Fall 5 cross-ploughed a part of it, and in" that part broke the lumps to pieces. In the Spring, the field was all ploughed equally, and sow|? With barley and clover. The part on which the most labor had thus been bestowed was in fine order when sown, and yielded about thirty bushels an acre, of barley t The other part v^as sti^lin lumps, the frosts i>pt having been found sufficient to mellow them entirely, ahd the pro(^uct-of.^barl'ey was only about twenty bushels an' acre.* The same^ tliiTerence was afterwards observed in the clover. ^ , .,. ^ ». But this field,' with, this stratum of crude earth thrown uppermost, would ha've yielded little or nothing the next Spring, and until mellowed and fertilized by Summer-sunsj had it not been mellowed and fert^ilizsd by Winter- frosts. %■ S^A][iMER*& ASSISTANT. !1$ Another bcnc^t derived from freezing is, lyjlatlt ser^^es to restore all soils to a due stale of sen^ibiliiy (b the emigra- tion of heat. Heat is the stimulant dljlloilsj but, as is the case with all stimulants, the longer it is applied without intermission, the less powerful it becomes; particularly in the production of grasses and other plants which are natural to northern climates. Thus, a degree of^lfeat which in the Fall will not be foi^id sufficient to make those plants grow, will make them grow rapidly, when a,pplied to them in the Spring In tl^is respect, thereforjCt Iree^mg,. which is only the absence of heat, servtes as^ a kind of r^esfcorative to the £oil, and r^is it for the productipn of those plants.. Thus freezing is t fertilizer of sti^ soils, and a restorer of all, by renewing tnfeir sensibility to the effects of heat* When plant^ hdve been frostbiten^ whiie growing, they may be restored by sprinkling them plentifully, while in. the frozen state, wi|h brine, , or with water containing a solucion of sal-ammoniac, which 1^ belter. ^ , FRUIT-TREES. ^Wi ^i^orsijt/i's essay on these has been justly esteemed, for^its originahiy and research. It. is, how- ever, a production best calculated lof the Country where ic was writeni and even there, perhaps, some parts of it may be found more pleasant in theory than profitable in practice. His composition tor curing defects in trees, and restoring old decayed ^:^nes, and the method of preparing it, shall be first notice4v4p a«d covered, €s befeii*c directed, , with the powder. As llie baii^on the edges grows over this cQvered wood, h workb off the composition and supplies its plape, till at length I he bark ot the two edge^ftieets and g>oiWs together. If the growing bark should raise up any flkes ot the com- position, so as to expose the wood, let them be pressed down with the finger some rainy day, when the composition isjiliable. !^; Where a tree would be too much weakened, by cuting away all its dead wood at once';; cut only a part away next the edges, and as the bark covers this cut away more. Where limbs are cut off; let the slumps be pared smooth and the edges rduuded, bVloire the compositiog is laid on. He s3ys, this should ^always be applied wherever a limb is cut offj in order to preserve the tree from rof^g at such places. He makes met^lioR ot many old decayelB trees, some - ed to a want of skill in the pertorraance, or a difference in climate, is peKhaps not well ascerrained. Perhaps the com- position ought to varied in its materials, so as to be better adapted to the greater degree of tieat and dryness which prevails in our atmosphere. He also make^ mention of shaving off all the cankery bark of old stunted trees, then scantying the remaining bark, where they were bark-bound, and covering the whole with his ctfflaposiiion^ vyhicli produced a surprising altera- tion in their growth. ' ^ ^ • In lieu of the above composition^ the folio wiifg has been successfully used aiiout Albany, for healing the wood, and for covering the stock in ^;ratting : Take two parts of bees- wax, one of rosin, and bne of hogslard; liftelt them, and blend, them together. It must he made/^soft- enough to put it on with the hand ; and let it bfe laid on thickest round the edges and thinly in the middle. If it become top soft,, duringf'the heats of Summer^ let a little powdered rosin be sprinkled over it. '^'^^^ v Mr. Forsyth^^ method of fieadm^^down trees, in ord^r to rertovate their grov/lhVand to procure a new set of slTaight, thrifty, bearing limbs, is as fq|lows.: First, take off one or two pi the princips^ limbs, just above an ey^s let them be cut slanting downwards,* with the sides where the e)^e is the highest; pare and round off the ends of the stumpSj and cover them with the composition. Presently, sprouts will start out from the eyes, w^hich are to be trained ^tj FARMER'S ASSIST A^jf. 115 pruned for newr. bearing limbs. When these l^ve grown a litlle, cut-off more of the limbs, and go ihroii^i^h the ^me process whh them, and ^ on, till they are Ai taken off. Thus, a new set ot ihrJi^ limbs are given lo the tree, which will be better bearers than the old. The new growths soon cover the stumps, so as to leave only a slight cicatrix. ^ He speaks of heading down some trees at once, and par- ticularly recommtnds the heading down of all young troes while in the nursery, by taking of the whole trunk a little above the ground, and m the manner above directed, which he says will greatly improve their Imure growth, and make "^them bfetJEir bearers. Hii . mOtjitions, particularly, some young oaks^, he thus headed "^oWn, which afterwards grew more than as fast again as those whicli were not. He also describes a method of pruning the limbs at their bearing ends. This is to take off ihe most^prominent twig, when it has become tired of bearing, close to the next lateral branch ; and then this shoot^i foivvdrd iind becomes the bearer: When this has in lil^ ni toner become tired of bearmg, the lin^b is to be tukcn/<)ff, back at the ne:it lateral t^anchjf and tl>e next shoots torward again, and so on. . .^:-' . r-' .' ' ■ ' ■- ; This may be a good plan to keep trees in the dvvarf-state, which is so much practised in Greaibritain ; iTbeing neces- sary there to raise much of their more tender fruit by the sides of walls, H'^de very^ high for. the ^purposs ,• round the fruit-gardens; and there, the keeping of some kinds ot iruit- trees in thfe dwarf state, is the jnore necessary. Fruit trees are subject to a disease, called the canker. It occasions the bark to gfjrjow rou^h and scaby, Snd turns the wood affected to a rusty-brown color. It will soipetimes kill the tree, if not ren)edied in due season. :^ This disease may arise from various, cai2se¥; fr6m bad< j)runing ; fri^ dead shoots left, on the . tree ; from frosts killing the 1® year's shoots. See. " " The diseased parts are* to be entirely cut away, till nothing but sound white wood remains; or, if the disease be merely in the bark, th^ outer bar^k must be cut awayj and if the inner bark be .aIto affected, vi^hich is to be known by its exhibiting small black, spots, like the dots of a pen; cut all away that is thus affected, and let the composition be applied, as before directed. . In the Memoirs of the P))iladelphia Agriculiuraj Society, we find mention of a disease of appletrees, called the bitter rot. Whether this is merely another name top tfefe canker, w6 ^re unable to say. It is, however, cured by" taking off all the bark of the body .'of tiiC' tree, and some ^little distance up the large linabs ; v/hen a new bark, wiif presently forpn^ lie FARMER'S ASSISTANT. and restore^e tree. This operation is dir^Ud to be pcf* forrri'ed durrag the longest day in the year. * , Fruit trees, ot the bione km^, are trequentif:.^ diseased wich gwn^y^ which arises from md pruning, bruises, and other causes. The diseased pans are to be cut away, and the composition applied- as belore. Thus nfiuch for Mr. Forsy^th. Those who are anxious to be more intimately acquaicftfcd vviitf this Author, will do Jiwoll to puichuse his book, In the plates annexed to it are cxhibued many specimens ot bis ingenuity. If fruit trees be suffered to run much to suckers, theso will greatly tOjUre their b0aving,> Let them, therefore, be kept clear of these. Airstraight upri,y;ht shoots,^ from the limbs of trees, should also be Sken away, for these bear no fruil ; though in time their lateral branches will bear. Lat- eral branches are always^ the bearers; and such branches., as do not bear, only serve to rob the bearing branches of their requisite nourishment; and should therplore^ be taken away. The trees should, also be cleared oijt.H dead and decaying branches, anii ^ of all crpss-biancfifes thai rub against each other. vf,t -^ Young ai^ple and plumtreesv in ^|ii?tiGularf arc |npt Jo get covered with what are ustfally called /ice, being an inani- nuate subsia^iee resembling an insect, of the color, and somewhat of the shape, of a grain of flixsefedi but narrow- er. Where the ba^'k is, thickly covered with these, the growth of the tree ivill be very much iaipedjg^ and sone- times it will be killed, if they are not removed.' -They are to be scraped off with a knife. Moss ought also to be scrape^ off, as it greaily injures the growth of the tree. For keepnig off moss, lice, audjl every thi«g else that Should ^e kept off frorai young appld and- som%iOther fruit- trees, it is a.good pti^h to whitewash their bodies, and prin- ^Gipal limbsf '^very Spring, with a mixture, of lime and wa;-u^ ter. Mr. i^rs?/;;/!, however, recommends, fo^i*^this purpose/ a mixture ot old urine, cowdung, and soaplfids.. Where young fruit- trees stand in swari^i^ round, the sward should be cut away from about them, and the^ ground about their XOOiS loosened every Spring. ; It ia ik>uhd, that the seeds of thie apple, and probably all other fiuit-trfces, whjch are .brought from EuropiCj here, will' grow larger than those of our own. Probably, tbis is merely the effect of a change of seed: II so, our seeds sown there might produce the same inequality. Be this as it may"^ it is by no means certain, that tlie largest fruit-trees are the most profitable to the acre ;• as, the larger they acj?^ the more^ground each must have. ;• ^ee further, the articles whic|ji.tre»t of the various kinds •oned,|,p" retrench his expenses, in fuel, more thali one hundred doli^ts a year. But, in addition to *all this, great savings m^f be made, by adopting the best means for making woodlands yield the greatest possible quantitjrjy^f wood, as well as of husbanding, to thfe best advantage, th« which is growing. The nmural growths of forests are but seldom compp^d ©[ those trees which grow most rapidly. Such as ^re most GODgenial|frowth c^^ trees, several things are to be observed. In the first pfti^e, the young trees, which are subject to be injun d by cattle, should be protected No cattle should be suffered to run in grounds covered with^(iuch growth; the cattle can acquire little or no food, but what lis gained ^^ the expense of the young trees i and, what is>gaine4 in ; this way, is greatly counter- balanced by the inju/y thus done to them. In the next place, when trees are to be cut down for fuel, those should be selected for the purpose which are the least productive, or that grow the least in a year: And this point is to be as;sertained, as well by the general appearance of the trees, whether, they bfe healthy ai^ sound, or otherwise, as by observing the yearly shoots of every tree^ as the limbs of those which grow the fastest shoot the greatest length evfery year. ^ ^ In thining the trees, som^ regard should also be had to their statidmg, as hearjy equi-distant as is compatible with the circiimstances just mentioned. In natural forests, too, those sorts of trees which naturally grow fiister^' than others of different kinds, should-be left standing; provided they are thrifty, and of a kind that is valuable for fuel. In felling the trees, they should be cut off^ as near the ground as possible, by which meansless wood Will be sut- ured to go to wast^^in the «tomp; and the small limbs should all be carri|# home, cut up, and laid under the woodhouse to^dry ; as a few of these, when dried, will often answer as well to boil a teakettle, or pot, as^!|here larger wood, in greater quantities, is'ased for the piirpose. All decayed and roting wbod should'iarso be brought home ; for this, w^hen dried under the woodhottse, wiii answer very well for fuel. See Wood HOUSE. -V,v - v^- - ^ood should always be dried, before it is ua0?!v;yfor, aXtfeugh whentdried it will not last quite so long, in born- ing, as when green ; y.et one-l5alf of the quantity,. at a time, win give more Ijeat, and at the same time make a much pleasamer fire. There can be no doubt that, generally speaking, any given quantify of dry <||ybod, while consuming, will impart any given degree of heat^ for as much as one- lourth, andV with some kindsol wood, perhaps even two- thirds, of the' time longer,-^ than the same quantity of greea r ARMER V ASSISTANT. 1 1 9 f -V-- wood : Of course, a prpporiionate saving may be made in the use ot the former, iif^preference Jo the latter. There is a saving in sawing woodi when carted home, in preference to ctoping it, as the sawing can be full as speedily and cheaply performed. A further saving is made, in culing up the wood quite short ; as a firi|,^cpm posed of ♦billets of wood, not and turf, the only other articles of fuel generally used, are by no means so conveni- ent, for many purpi^sfe, of cooking parfiicu-larly ; but, wlfere either of these caiii be procured, at nb^great distance, they are generally a cheaper article of fuelj than wood. Coa^needs no previous preparation %r use, but the mere digging it out of the earth. Peat, and turf, are easily raised, in the first instance, by means of a long narrow spade With a wing, set at right angles on the right side, by means of which a square chunk, about fourteen inches long, and four inches sqt^re, is cut out from the pit at every sinking of the spadef Bur, in order to render these matsges of earth fit for burning, some; fiitther steps are recf^isite: Each chunk, thus cut out, isf-to be hid ort the ground, separate by itself, to dry; and,'|[^hen partly dried, are to be piiedVopen, across each other ^''ifed thus, in*;^ few days of dry weather, they will be fit to cart homt^^lifor use. They^hoi^d be kept; under cover, in a dry state, for the purposes of iuel. These ea%hs fere very che^p kinds of fuel,, where they cahv be had on any farm, or at^tib great distance from it. •See further, Earths. , Where neither of the forcj^oing articles are to be had, for fuel, recoiii-se must be had to artiiroial means, for a sup" ply. In some instances, dried cowdung has been used, for this purpose. But the best artificial substitute fpfr fuel, that we can suggest, would be about equal parts of co^dung, or horsedung, and clay, well mixed together, an4 Cast, like bricks, into chunks, say, three or four inches square and 126 ]?AR]!«R's ASSISTANT, aboujli twelve- inches long, and>^;^ that shape dried fol' burning. *** ' ' ' W ■ '^ * Clay, of itself, will undergo a proems of calcination^ when dried (See Burnt Clay) and we believe that, with a suitable qflantitj^ of either horse or powdung, mixed with it, and prepj^'e^^ in this way, it would answer tolerably well for fuej;, particularly when burned in a grate, with a tfiflb of dry wood to set fire to the mass. Nor would this be any great waste of manure ; as the ashes, thu|/;i|Qade, or rather the burnt clay, would probably be nearly,' aP quite, as val- uable, as a manure, as the dung which wottld thus be, wasted. ^^^ ' ' .' We woulfflBlastly, mention that, in the Domestic Ency- clopedia, published by Dr:^ -^^se, of Philadephia, a fuel is recommended, which is mad6^*6f clay, with a suitable quan- tity eithefr of common coal, or 6harcoal, ground fine, and mixed evenly with the mass ; when it is shaped iii suitable moulds, and dried for use. ^ We are induced to think favorably of this method of making fuel, as it is probable a small quantity of the last- mentioned coal is sufficient, and ^hat no great quaniityf&f the, first is requisite j, though this mti^tv^^epend on the qual- ity of that material. ': "y'\ It is also said, that the shives of flax, op hemp, mixed with clay, and dried ^s before mentioned, make good fuel. In thi^ same Work, directions are also given lor; jnaking fuel- balls, as they are there called, for the purpose of kindlipg fires, as follows : Take equal parts of coal and charcoal, ground fine ; mix them with clay ; form the mass into balls, about as large as hen's-ieggs; dip them in a strong solution of saHpctre, and^then dry them j when they will be found quite inflammable;' * ..■.■V^-^-f "' ' ^ '■■' FULLER'S THI|TLE (Difisacus.) The heads of these are used for ^iiising the knap on fiiae woolch clJoths. From their present scarcity, in our infant Mani|^ctories, they command a great price ; and are, thcrefdrfe'i l^firthy of attention. ^ * . ^ Sow the- seeds, at the rate of about a ped^ %*^^^ acre, About the/irst of May, .on gti^nd proper^ pSI-pa^ed by ploughing and harrowing. Keeip down the vveedslp^ hoe- iqgj and Jet the plants stand about a foot asunder:' AH the rest are to be cut aw6y. Hoe them as often^^|s the weeds 4f rise. The heads do not fprm until the second Summer. ^ When they are fit to cut, which will be about the first of August, let them thea^c cut, ti^d in bundles, airtd dried, under ccjiver, or* in the open air, according to the state of the weather. FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 121 The heads have sold, iti'our Woolp^'/Factories, for a cent r a piece ^^ and sometimeb double that price. An acre, at thisVate, would athount to several hundred dollars. A -' GARDENS. These are distinguished into jthe flower- garden, the fruit-garden, and the kitchen^garden. We shall say nothing of the flower- gatden ; for farming has nothing to do with flowers; but ^he fruit and^kitchen-gai^ens are somewhat more substantial. It is beft to have the fruit and kitchen-gardens in the^ same enclosure ; but the plan, too often observed, of blind- ing them together, in too great a degree, ought ttof be a'i^idcd, Fruii-tr,efcSj which make considerable shade, must bennjtirious to the growth of vegetables in the same neigh- borhood ; and ought i^herefore to be cuUivated by themselves. Such fruit-trees, however, which make but little shade, as; grapes, currants, quincesj &c. may be verv agreeably inter- mixed with -te; growths of the kitchen-garaen. i^ For tl^Fruit-gaiden, see Fruit-trees, Peach, Apricotj Quince, Sec. &c. A kiichfn-garden,'^well stored with vegetables, is highly important to the Farmqrj^ as the use of these supersede the necessity of consuming^m^ich. meat ; a practice equally in- consistent with economy anir^ilh good health. When we perceive that the food of the Cottagers, of Ireland, is prin- cipally milk apd* potatoes; that these ar^ a, race of People which are health^, robust, well-madie, with strongf, ^uick, and ardent powcr^S mind ; apd when we perceive that those savage r^ion^^hich, foi^ wj^^nt of other food, are obliged to subsist en^rely on fish or oilter meat, are generally the most |tupid, squalid, and ill-made; ,we certainly cannot draw con* elusions in (ayor> of eatmg great quantities of flesh. It is Iqvitkble (o have a .dose high fence round youi* kitchin iri(d fruit- gardens. This, in the first place, renders 4 every thing within it secure from Pillagers; and al>o serves l^to keep out fowls. Another benefit, consists in keepini? oft' tlie strong cold winds of the Spring, winch are ytry injuri- ous to the vou^g plants, and also to the huit, which is ihea abnul putiii^ forth. Dung that is old, and destitute of the seeds of weecjs, ought only to be used in manuring a kitchengardenv and th^ ground ought not to be plougbedj but deeply dug, for 122 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. #., r; all vegetables which rppt deeplfW the ground. Nothing further need be said, with regard to the kitchen-garden, than that^ loose mellow soil, wjtH a sou^^erly exposure, il the bestpTt^at^^jit ought to J^e kept rich; that,^|is fast as weeds ris^i-^thry ought to t#^extirpated ; and that no weeds ought to be suffired to gO to seej^vithin the garden. ,. ^' if the garden be of a Av'etish or^iff soil, it will be greitly 'fe^ntfi^ed by being throwii up into high ludges in the Fall.: At the same j^me, this will assist in ddsn'oying the seeds .^of ,we*eds; but particularly in destroying insects which may * be 'breeding Jn the soil. GARGET. 5^e Np AT CATTLE. GIG!^) Little tu^iors, or blaaders, filled with matter, found in the mouths of Horses. The cure is c,|fected by sliting, them open, and then washing them with salt and vinegar. ^ ^, GLANDERS. Commonly cdA\edXhe Horse- distem^r. It is always accompaixied with a discharge of matter trmti the nostrils, and a swelling of the glands und£r the throat and tongue. When the bones in that part become carious, it is generally injgurable ; and this may be kttown by the bad smell ;Which is produced in such cases. The U-^atment recommended in Gibson's Farriery, for this diseafe, whire in iig. first and second stages, is to niake use of purges, diaphGretics, and roweling in the hinder "parts. V^^e imagine, ^ that roweling in the breast will answer the same' purpose. See Roweling ,, ■-. To clear the nostrilsi, Gz6s fruitful trees; that those which are taken from lateral, dWibrizbntal, branq^es are to be prefered to those of th^, strong perpendicular shootsj and that Hone shgiul4 be tak^ from the sprouts of tree^' * ^ - *• -i. Mr. Forsyth prefers the ivhifi-g^fafdng^ for .common cases* 1^(, for these, Mr. Deane prefers the cle0gtafiing. This, lie says, is mo%t commonly practised in this Country, and is attended with success. It i^. done, on the stocks in the nur- sery, or on,^e small limbs.,of trees. The proper ^ekson for it is just^^fore the leaves begin to open. The head of the Slock must be cut ofF sloping, and a slit made sloping the opposite way, deep enough tp.^eceive the scion, which should hi cut like a w§dg€, with tl^ outside thii^er than the inner. The rind of the scion mcRt exactly joirf*ihe rihd of the stock. The slit should be opened by a wedge of hard ^voodj.the scion should then be gently put in its place and, the stock closed. AUer this, the .whole thu it be daub^ round closely wiih a mori^r made of a mixture of loam anti.fresh horscdung, so as completely toe^iclude the access of air; and this mort,^r m^ust be suiruunded wit'h a winding of taw, or old clolh^,^to prevent the rains Washing it away. The scion shouldi|be covered nearly to the top with this mortar;^ and it should also extend two or three' inches downwards round the stock. In place of this mortar, Forsyth recbmrnendska plaister made of pitch, turpentine, and beeswax, which is in like manner to be daubed closely rotind, so as to exclude the external air. The mortar, ho^#ver, if well made, and well applied, will answer very well. It should be composed of fine loam, not clay^j' because clay will contract and crack open, when dried. < -^v Cleft-grafting may be successfully perforrbed on trees, where the fibre of the outer bark runs round%: suph; as the peach, plu^i, cherry, Ecc by fi;st»Vuting through that bark, vith a knifes, at the pl^ce where the cleft is to be made, ai>d iiij liie same direction it may; be expected to run; when the rest of: the bperation ,may be;^ as easily performed as on other trees. W/'ifi- grafting is performed by cuting off the head of the stock sloping; then making a notch in the slope, from the upper part downwafd, a little more than half an inch deep, to receive the^scioh, >vhich must bp cut with a slope up- ward, and a slit made in this like a tongue, which is to be inserted into a/slit m^de in the slope of the stock; and the scion- is then set in^ so that the- rinds of each join exactly together. The scion is then fastened by a ligature to keep FARMER'S ASSIStANT, 125 It steady, and then surroiS^'d with rig^^ar, or the plaister, as before<« t-^ . Grafting in the find is performed by cutmg off^the stock square i bUting clown the bark a. small distance, aft^ raising it up, so that the end of the sc?0p may be inserted beiween • it and the wood: The scipn is made with a shoulder;, cut in aboufc 'half its thickness, and the other half is -sloped off gradually, so^as to givait the form of a wedge; the cut-^ side being flat^l the bark-side unt6uched._ This wedge or tongue 4s insie'rted under the bark, withnhe shoulder fited to the stock; the raised bark is then pressed close and Wund round, and the plaister is appli*^ as before mentioned. It is usual, in this ca$e, to insert tnree or four scions in one stock. ** Mr. Frestonyoi Pennsylvania, says he has. grafted scions which C4|Rie from Holl|Lnd, which were apparently dried, and they grew; but thait he failed in other instances, where the bark of the scions appeared to have become somewhat roten. He was /also successful in grafting scions, of the ajmietree, as late as the; twentieth of June, when the leaves of the trees were full prrown. See further, Inariching and Injioculating, for the me- thods of performing ihese operation^,;,. IBRMNHOUSE, or granary. Ifthe Farmer think proper^ build a grainhouse, which is v^ry useful for In- dian corn in particular, the best method of keeping rats and f mice out'bf it is, to set it on blocks, covered with flat ^ stones, large enough. to project four or five inches beyond the bfo^s, on every sidf^ To prevent the blocks from roting at the bottoms, they Sight to be set on stones, raised a little above ground. It i^ a good plan to have a grain- house and carriage or wagonhouse built together; the upper part tor Indianicorn, and oiher grain, and.the le^wer part for wagons, caris,,^loughs, &C. ^c. ^' X^'^ Some-.Farrti^rs make provision for a pUce to k6ep their ^^'Indian corn in their .barrfs,N which is a pretty go,od plan. The place .for this is a floor, raised on a second set of beams, w^h rest on posts set in the beams, next below p the platies *6f the barn. In the middle of this floor is a hole, through which a tackle is suspended, and the corn is raised in .baskets and spread a proper thickness over th^ ^ floor. Such a^lloor in an ordinary-sized barn would proba- bly contain'tbree hundred biishels. At the proper season, the corr^%^,thrown down on the barn-floor,,; and there threshed bur with flails, or\with a threshing-maishine, which is better, and is then cl^iijifd and put into bins made for the purpose on one side of the barn-floor. See Barn. ^' ^- 126 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. i^ine bins must be made tighf |f hard plank, sufficiently tliick to prevent the rats from gnawing through them ; and the lid to each may be fastemd down by a clasp secured by a padlock; This plan is equally good for keeping wheat and other grain. If the ^ain which is put into these shoulcL|ieat, it an be shoveled out upon the floor, and there stired%bout until it is sufiicien% dry to be returned into the bins. The method of ascertaining, whether grain has become heated in the bin, is to run a stick to the bottom; let it remain^here ipr a quarter of an hour; and in that tinie, if there be any heat innhe grain, it will be commuai- catfed to th^ick. -v t^ ^^ * It grain B^kept long in safcks, its heating may be pre- vented by frequently turning.j^em, first on one end, and then on the other. isj^ GRASSES. iSome of these are^st calculated^-for moist or wet soils, some for dry, and some for the different climates in wbidh grass is cultivated!, Sonne again are best lor pastures, and some for mowing. Tbe different kinds which are most valuable arp here noted, together with iM\v proper soils, 8cc. MexdoW'C xTST\]:LyTmot/iy grass or Herdisgrass (Phleum Pratensis) is the ^s(Ss most used for hay iff the Northern States. U is also erroneously called Foxtail; but thisjj^ another grass. The catstail ha^ a long head^ someWhat W- sembling the tail of a cat, with very fine seeds ; the foxtail has a short bushy head, more like the tail of a fox, with coarser seeds. In other respects, they have conViderable resemblance. i0 ' - t:^ Catstail grows best in a rich ^o?s^ soil; but it w-ill grow well, f^r a few years, in a r'lz^ wet or in a ricb arable soil. In the fich wet soili;llt gradually lessens in product; while, at the same time,=4t gi^'^s way to wiW grasses. In the rich arable soil, it gradually faifs, by reason of ^- ground be- comiagfound and the sward thiokiened withf^her grasses. ^ Probably, if it were wtll torn fvitli the harrow every'iP^ Spring, end not too closely pastured in the Fall, and none in, the Spfing, it would grovy Wreil for many yeap in such soil. By|close pasturing in' tii^;Fall, it is apfiloi,.be torn out by the roots, and by cropfeg it again in the'Spritig, ^ it suffers. greatly. , It will yiel^ one-half more hay, when not pastured. at all, than when pastiired closely in. the Fall, and again in the Spring. Ill the richest soils, and when not pas|yred, up- wards of tour tons may be had trtrfti the acre^-in-a season, at two mowings. Cattle are tiiot quite so fond of it in pastures, as they are of clover; btit, when made into hay, diey eat it very readily. It is not so much a ferulizer of # FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 127 land as clover: On the%C(5hirary, it binds, and somewhat exhausts, the soil. It is perennial, and v«lll last beyond the memory of Man, it not destroyed by close pasturing. The proper time for mowing it is, when it is in bl^om, or a little later. ' -tt"' W% From the trials made in Greatbriiain, of this native Ameriqjin grass, it is hd-^ever i^sserted, by Mr Curtis^ to possess no excelence which is not possessed, in an'equal degree, by the ^m . i». Meadow FOX^iL (Mofiecums 'Pratensis J This j^rass is much cultivated in Greatbriiain. It is an early:%rAss, and vegetates with such luxuriancy, that, according to Mr. Curtisy it may be moVved tliree times a year.^'he British Graziers consider it as one .of their best grasses, parti- cularly for larger cattle. :^ The soil ^st suited tor it is moist meadow*land, or that which is oc1:asionally over- flowed; though it will grow well on almost any soil, except those which are very wet, or very dry. Linnceus states it to be a proper grass for .grounds whic^i^aye beeti drained. - ^t is perennial, and yields abundance of seed, whfch is easily gathei:ed. The seed is, however, sometimes liable to be destroyed by an insect. .^ i. MEADow-FEScuE'^f Ae«^Kca J^ratenffsj is an early, hardy, perennial^aa&i ^nd grows well on aiirndst every soil; good for hay^or pasture; pro()ucts al^undance of seed, which is easily gathered. Mr. Curtis says, it has a great resem- blance to raygrass; but if superior to it for fornhing mea- dows, as it grows longer and has more foliage. It blos- abouj|i«the middle of June,^, Darnjel, or RAYGRAssi(^L9/m7w Perenne) is good for ari early supply of pasture, as it siaris very early. |t grows to the heiglit^viof about two feet, and blossoms tne latter end of May.^Horses'are extremely fond of it, when made .farly into h^ ; and for-Racehorses, particularly* has been found vpref<|r^e to any other hay. It is,, however, apt to run too mticlh to stalks, in most soils; and then cattle dis-- like it in pastures. A naturalsort of raygrass is mentioned, as havin^been luely cultivated in Greatbriiain, which is much supl^ior to Hie sibVt usually cultivated there. 5*?^ fur'h' r. Qui'c/igrasS. in Weeds. Crested Dogs r ail ( Cijnosurus Cristatus) is good for upland pastul?^?, and is a wholeiioine food tor Sheep, It forms a thicU turf, and blossoms ^bout the middle of June. It abounds with seed, which is easily gathered ; but care should t{e;|^Jien, that, it- be fully ripe, as otherwise it will sometimes^il to grow. It is suitable for dry, sandy soilSj and will not thrive in wet meudows. 128 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Meadowgrass (Poa PratensiqJ will flourish well even in the driest soils, and will endure drought better, perhaps, than almost any other grass. It makes fine hay, and is fit for earljg^ting. It is also good for early pasture. It yields fPSp of seed ; but X^ is difficult to sow, on account of their filaments causing 'tliem to adhere to each other. To r^edy this, it is recommended to put them in newly slacked lime, to separate them, and then to be fubed in df^ sand. ' ^v,^ Vernal or^ Spr^nggrass (Jnthox AhtHum Odoratum) is a very early grass for pasture, and grows in almost every situation i though not eqiTally productive in each. It is an ordorifj^yous grass, and is recommended by some to be sowed with oth^ grasses, in the proportion of about one eighth for meacJtiws. It is not very productive. Meadow Softgrass ( HoUus^Lanatus) j^rovt^ well on atiy soil, not too dry and barren. k||i is belt calculated for Sheep in pastures. It is injurious to HorsesJ when made into hay, by produciqg a profuse discharge of urine, and general weakness ; which may, however, be re'ddily remov ed by a change of food. It is not a very early grass. -^^ Sheeps FESCUE ( Festuca Ot^inaJ grd^s well in dry,. saiiSdy soils, is very good tor Sheep, as they are fond of it, and soon fatened with' it. It is perennial, and flowers in June. ' ;-' " . ■^._, ,^ .Z^:';. .. Hard-fescue (Festuca Duricuscida) flourishes, ip al- | most ever/ siiuaiion, wet or dry, and blossortis in June. It grows luxuriantly at first, often to the height of four feet; but it soon becomes thin, and disappears after a Vhile. It ^ is best for mixing with some oth^; grasses. ,^^ Annual Meadowgrass fi*e>&./^«nwa^ is in flower throughout the Summer. Cattle of every kind are fond of it. I| is recommended fofMilCh-cows, oa account of its affordinpr butter of a very superior quality. RouGHSTALKED Meadowgrass (^Poa TriviaUs ) resem- bles the preceding in its appearance, and iKi flowering! ^^ but is best suited for moist or wet meadovvsv It is very ^ productive, and good for pasture or hay. It is, however, liable tp be injured, says Mr.^CMr;is, by severfiiClod, or excessive drought. ^ Fowl MevADoavgrass ( PoUAvcpria, S/iicalis Sudbff^risJ was first discovered in a meadow, in Dedham, and was supposed to have been brought there by water f6wls, says Mr. Deane, It is an excelent grass for wet meadows, and has been known to yield three tons of bay to an acre, in a season. It remains so long green,; that it may be mowed at any 'time f^om July till Octobet-v; It makef' very good hay for Horses, and Neat-cattle particiilarly. # J'ARMER's ASSISTANT. 129 Flatstalked Meadowgrass (Poa Comjxressa) flou- rishes in dry soils, and flowers from Jun.3 to Au^^ust. Dr. ^wi/erson esteems this as the most valuable of all the Poas. It forms a fine turf, and imparts a delfcjate- flavor to the flesh of Sheep and De^, which animals are very fond of it. . ^ V Silver Hairgrass (Mra Caryofihyllea ) is most suita- ble for "sandy lands, and is recommended by Mr. Stillingjiei^" I for Sheep-walks, on account o^^he .fineness of the mutton ^ of those Sheep which are fed on' it. It flowers in July. Mr. Stiliingjleet applies the samcorfemark to the waved mountain fiairgrass (aira Jiexuosa) which grows in heaths%nd barren pastures, and is in flower from June to j^gust. Bentgrass ( Agrosds Stqlonifera ) '^his grass, which IS commonly called the FioHn, is a nati\^e of* this Country,^ as well as of others. It jgrows abundantly in that part of Ireland which is contiguous to the Giani*s Causeway ; ^and also round Logh Neagh. Mr. Green says it grows in great profusion in the island below the city of Albany. By chemical experiments, it is found more nourishing than any grass known. In the jOrcheston meadow, in England, it has yielded nine tons to the agre, in a sea^onj. Its bulk, when growings docs not seem greater than that of some other grasses ; but it is uncottimoqly. heavy. ^j Sheep and Neat-catile are very fond of it. Wherv given to the Cows, it increases the quantity, and in^proves the''^ ^ quality, of their milk. It grows as well in the/ shade a^s elsewhere, and may be grown either trom the seeds, (^ from th^^strings or runers % the grass; and from these latter it is most readily cultivated, as they will take root j at each joint, with a slight covering, after. they appear. tq be perfectly life^Iess. The method commonly praetieed, in Ireland, for rearing it, is to cut the strings in short pieces, stiew themi evenly over the groiintf;' and cover them with suitable eartii, or with compost, 'as the nature of the ground muys^quire: ,/? After which they are to be kept clear of weeds, iirtSi such time as the,<|||ting growth hasi got a sufficient hoW of the til; when it will cover the/gfound thickly, to the exclusion every other grass or weed. ^, Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania, is successfully cultivating *his grass, arid from his (communication^ we derive most of our inform'ation respecting it. By his trials^of. ir, the dry uplands of this Country arp not well calculated tor its growth. ^W.. IP^ '■-'' '.*'■■' It delights in^^ moist Wft^^t fioil ; thrives lyel)^ .eve|i pn wet boggy lands, and covers them with so tough a sward, that learns may readily go on the,m. it is dso well suited 130 farmer:s assistant. to lands which can be irrigated, or to such as can be ovci'" flowed. .^ , It isJid^a fit grgsS' to be connected with any alternate husbairory^ as, after it h£^§ goten complete footing in a suitable soil, it is hardly to be eradicated. This we, how- cver^^onceive to be no objection to its culture, in all lands t,q which it is properly adapted; for, if more of these be found on any farno, than nnay be thought expedient to be cultivated with it for tnbwing-groundsj it will be found equally profitable for pastures. It is longer in coming to maturity, than other grasses; and, for tnis reason, is mowed in the Fall, in Ireland. Here, it would probably be fit for the sithe in August. It is more troublesome to mow than other grasses. When dried, it is first put into very small cocks, and afterwards into larger ones ; but in these^ must not be tramped down; and in this situation may remain exposed to the weather for months, without essential injury. Its small bulk, in proportion to its weight, renders it much less ex- pensive to keep under cov^r, than the hay made of other grasses. ^ It would seepd, th^re are several varieties of this grass; and, probably, that cultivated in Greatbritain is superior, in product, to any found here. Mr Peter's says, the strings of the liorin found here are not so large as those brought from Ireland. In his last communicatioh on the subject, it appears that the product of his hay, of this grass, was at the rate of four and a half tons per acre ; but this is on drj5» upland. , , ** Mr. Clifford had, for the iffrst cuting, on upl^d in his garden, at the rate of three and a half tc^s to the acre. For the greater quantity of nutriment contained in fiorin, than any other grass, see Nutriment of Food We are, on the whole, folly of opinton, that a great acquisition to the wealth of this Country v^ill be found in the extensive culture of the fiorin, whete lands are best adapted to it. GuiNEAGRAss ( Patiicmn Maximum ) This grass was first brought from Guinea,;^tnto, the island q| Jimaica, and is highly extoled \i^^^\xf'W3hsards^ in his History of Westindies. v' ' We will give the Reader the account whidh Mr. Oglesby^ of KentucKy^ gives of its product in Wilkinson county, in the State of Mississippi; and from this, and from the cer- tificates of others, it will be seen, that it nj,ust become pro- .^ ductive oi immense advantage to the southern part of our •■^ territory, and perhaps to every part of our Country. < I have (says Mr. Oglesby) been accustomed to both timothy and clover meadows, and have frequently assisted FARMER'S ASSISTANT. iSi m. cuting some of the best in the State of Kentucky. At Percyfitild, near Fortadams, I cultivated a In of Guinea- grass, somewhat less than a quarter ot an acre; from which I fed SIX or eight Horses, during the Summer of eighteen hundred and twelve. I planted it in the second Week in May, and began to cut it the 2bih ot June, and cut ii five times before the 15th of October, and obtained from each plant (which occupied 4 square yard) about sixty pountj^^ •f green grass. ' » I have frequently observed it to grow fotir inches in |ti twenty-four hours. From the astonishing growth, and fronn the result of all my experiments, I have no hesitation in saying, that it will yield ten. times as much as any timothy or clover meadow I have ever seen.i^; k is now (1 5th October) as green as it was in June ; and animals are re- markably iond a||:it, both^ green and dif. The hay is ex- celent, and cures withofcdifficuUy.' Mr. Bronaugh says it will produce more ^than slx^mes the quantity of any oth^r grass he ever knew. Mr. Robiti' son says, * on the l6Ji Juiy> 1812, I weighed the first cut- ^ ing ot one plant of G-iineagrass, which was thirty pounds.' The cerdiicaie of Mr, Green is of similar import. Dr. Browrif oi Natches, who turnishes J^he ceruficates, corrobo- rates them, and considers this grass of immense importance to the Country. • ,,^ We can see no reason ^^if it caMiot be cultivated in every part of this Country to advantage; notwithstandiiig it must be planted yearly, it being killed by the frosts. In countries where frosts do not prevail, it is perenniel. Dr. -Browffltsays it is best adapted to a rich moist soil; but will grow to dd vantage on anyi?" v / Tall OAXGkA^s (Avena^filaiior) flxjwers in Juute and July. It grows very la,rge arid coarse, ^nd makes a pretty good hay; though Horses are not fond of it. In point of excelence, J^% Curtis ranks it next to foxtail. In pastures, it should bel|fesely fed. It yields plentifully of seed. No doubt, a little salt applieit to the hay made of this grass, when laid down in the mow, would be a great improvement to it. It isalso called Orc/jarc/^rass. Mr. Mumenberg^ of Pennsylvania, recommeilds this gra?s * very highly, as one of the b'est he had ciiltivaied. It woufd M probably answer well for soifing, as it starts very early and grows very late. Yellow Qatgrass (Avenp, Flavescens) is ^Iso a coarse grass, which, thrives in rrieadows and pastures, and on hills of calcareous soil, where it floi^ers in June! and July. Though tolerably sweet, it is less relished by Cattle than the fioas and fescue grasses; though Mr. Curtis saysj it promises lo>m^ke good Sheep-pastureso 132 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. Yarrow (Achillea Millefolium) is highly recommended by D'. Anderson^ as biing one ot the most valuable plants growingju Gieatbritain. It thrives well on moist loams, and on .pPdriest soils, and ^ill be found green when other grasses are parched with (Jrought. Every kind ot xattie are fond of it. Tht- sttcds are gathered in October. It flowers in June and July. It is a mistake, however, to rank this plant among gi^asses; and its superiority has never been discovered in this Country. RiBGRASS (Plantago Lancoljxta) has been considerably propagited in Yorkshire (Greatbritain) where it is held in estimation. It is best adapted to rich sands^and loams, and on poor sands it answers tolerably well for Sheep, It is not liked by Horses, and is bad for hay, on account of its retaining its sap. It is said, by ,,^cirron 'Mailer^ that the richness of the milk, in the celebrated dairies of the Alps, |s owilig to the Cows feeding on this plant and the lady's manthe (alchemilla vulgaris ) Its seed is, plentiful. Cocksfoot ( Dactylis Glomerata) js a Coarse grass, and grows with luxuriance. Ic suits all kinds^of soils, but those which are very wet or very dry. It is recommended by Mr. Pacey^ who says it'^ffoxds an abundimt crop; springs early ; yields abundance ot seed ; makes excelent hay ; and is very p^ermanent. ^It flowers in June. Where it grows on rank soils, however, or in coarse patches^ eattle will not eat it. V y Blue Dogst ail- grass (Cynosurus CoerulmsJ is the earliest ot ail the. British grasses, and flowers a fortnight sooner, than any other. It is^' hoi^r^ver, not very productive ; but may be useful in Sheep-pastiires, in high rocky situa- tions, where there is but little soil. 0/ Aquatic Plants, m^ hi ch are useful in Culti-qationy, are the folldiving : "JV:' ^ . Flote-foxtail Y '^^^Z^^^"^"* Geniculatus J grow^ in mea- (i!t5#s 'Oh the Severn, where other good grasses are expeled by reason of wetness .and inundations. It is a good grass tpr hay, and flowers in May and June. It is recommended for newly- reclaimed morasses, and lands recovered from the sea. ' . ^ " ' ,;. " ,Flote-Fesc;ue . (Festuca Flidtans) will gVbw in still Weier grouiKls than the^^orf-yb^iriazYf. or, rather,' may be said to be anr»phibioiis, growing as well in the water as other- wise. Ii flowers in June, and is a constituent part of the celebrated Orcheston meadow, in Greatbritain. Horses and Cows are very fond of it. It springs early, and promises to be useful for the game purposes as the last- mentioned grass. FARMER*s ASSISTANT. 133 The Chedder and Cottenham cheese owe their excelence principally to this grass, and to the Water hairgra^s (Aira JiguaUca) which is further s^id to coniribuie much to thi^ fine flavor of the Cambridge butter. It generally grows ia the edges of standing waters, and flowers in June apd July. Reed Meadwograss ( Poa Jiquatica) is one of the largest and most useful of the British grasses, and forma much of the riches of Cambridgeshire and other counties in England, where draining meadows, by wind-machiHery, is carried on. It is godd for pasture and hay,; particularly for Milch cows, though it is not relished well by Horses. It is strong and well suited to low places which are liable to be inundated/ It grdws to the height of siX' feet; but should be mowed when about four fe^et high. It may be mowed several times in a season. - It grows plentifully^ in the marshes q| Sandusky-bay, River Riiisin, Detroit, and elsewhere, roiilfd the #esterly pan of Lake Erie, where it is the principal reliance for pasture and hay. Xhe French Farmers there cut it, and bind it ii^^undles, when dried, wbicfi seems to be similar to the management of it in the parts -where it is cultivated in Greatbritain. In addition to the JVaturdl Grass^J here enumerated^ a« Tjorthy xi^cdlture-t are several Artificial Grasses^ or Vege- tables wfiieh are cultivated as such; among the most valu- able of^hich are the folloiving: Lv^eHne f Medicago ^Sativ,a^[) This grass was irttroduc- ed from France into GVeatbritain, about sixty years 'since, and is very highly esteemed for soiling; though it makes good hay, Jf cut while quite green. Mr. Liviiigstqn has made considerable trials of it in this State, afi^'^^e products have, in some instances, b^een greater tha|pthose mentioned by British .Writers. With the best cCiitivation: and plentiful manuring, from six to nine tons of hay, per acre may bciliad in a season, of this grass. Twenty jpounds of seed are. requisite for an acre, if sowi? in th6 broad-cast; or six pounds, if drilled. If cultivated in the flatter way, it is to' be ploughed and hand-hoed tliree or four times in the season ;; but perhaps the broadcast is- the more profitable culture here, where labor is high. ': Mr. Y.oung recommends it to be sown with' oats; first sowing and harrowing in that grain, and then: sowing or drilling in the lucerne, and covering j^ lightly with a Jight harrow. Others^ihowever, advise, that the ground be previously well prepared by deep, frequeht, and effectual plou^hings, and thut the seed be sown jj^y itself; and, as it hk. 134 FARMER'S, ASSISTANT. Is essential that the ground be well seeded, perhaps this is the better way. Mr. Livingston sowed it in the fore part of September, after a crq|> of early potatoes, and found it to answer very well. If the ground be prepared for it by Summer- fallowing, it may be sowed at this time. The essential points in preparing the ground are, first, to manure it well, and then lo have it frequently and deeply ploughed, knd weU|pleared of the seeds^ of weeds. ^idry loam, sandy or gravelly loam, rich sand, or other good dry soil is suitable for it. It is said to grow well in the coldest climates; but those which are mild arc most suitable for it. It is a very early grass, endures drought well, and grows very late. Probably our dry warm Sum- mers are more favorable to its growth, than the cool moist ones of Greaibritain ; and; thai, for this reason, greater crops of it may be raised here. W^^rcre ground has been well prepared i6v a crop of fldX, this grass might be sowed to advantage immediately after that crop. ' See Flax. During the first season of its growth, the {^(^uct will not be so large as afterwards: In this season, too, when cultivated in the broadcast, it is most infested with weeds, which are most easily d^estroyed by frequent Rowings, for 'the purpose pf soilings^ The mowings may be' as often as the grass Will fill the sithe., During this season, too, it will be much hurt by being pastured ; but, after this, it may be fed without injury. Sometimes this grass becomes diseased and turns yellow: In such case, let it be mowed imiiied lately, and it will then start as fresh and green as ever. " ^ Mr, De La Bigarre says, th^t, after this grass has stood two or three seasons, it should be well harrowed early in the Spring; and if the roots are considerably torn, by the operation, they will not be injured. This should be re- peated every second Spring afterv^ardsj and at these times the ground should previously have a good top dressing, whicK will be well mixed wi|h the soil in the operation of harrowing. The dressing should not be of barn-dung, but some manure, oi' compost, free of the seeds of weeds. Bog- dih, bog marie, vniud, &c. are good for this purpose. f'sLet gypsurn also be; applied evQry Spring; but not before* the harrowing) as this manure should never be buried in thQ soil.! , > ' ' • , . Mr. Youngs of Greatbritain> makes a computation of his expenses in cultivating an acre of this grass, in the drill- way; and, after deducting the expCRses and rent of the ground, i!ythej and rates, he makes the clear profit 9/. 18«. 4flf. sterling,' ; ^A FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 135 Mr. Livingston has alsa made a similar computation, of some cultivated by him in the bro^d-cast; the result of which wa? not very far different; though the value of the crop was, in this case, set much lower than that put upon it by the former Gentleman. This grass lasts about ten years ; when the ground should be ploughed up; and it will then be found very rich, as the crops do not materially e^chaust the soil. It is believed that, for soiling, in particular, this grass will be found more^productive and profitable than any other, where the highest cultivation and a suitable soil are given to it, and ,,whe,re the climate is suitable to its growth. ; ' Mr. Young says, that, for' fating Bullocks, and for pas- turing Swine, this grass may be very advantage'ously used. Where it is made intoiiay, let it be cut while quite green, and made wi^put much shaking about, as the leaves fall off considerably, when dry. A little salt added to it, when laid down in the mow, would no doubt be a great improvement. Saintfoin ( Hedysarum Onybrychis) will grow very well on dry stony soils, that are unfit for any good cultiva- tion, and will produce on the worst lands a ton of hay, beside considerable after-math, in tfie season. On good dry lands, the product will be much larger. It may be used for soiling} during the forie-part of the season, and mowed for hay in the latter part, ^he hay will faten Horses considerably, as is said, without the aid of oats. It increases the quantity of the milk, and some say of the cream also ; while the butter is improved in its color and flavor. ,■■: Saintfoin rejquires a sdH' free' of the seeds of we«ds, as for lucerne, and the ground should be well mellowed by deep ploughings. The sfeed may be sown with the drill, or in the broa^-cast; three bushels being allowed to the acre in the formec method, and at least four in the latter. The seeds shoi^ld be /rc^A, and sown early in the Spring, Those which have a bright husk, a plump kernal, which is bluish or^jgray,^ without and greenish within, are the best^ It is believed to be the better method to sow from one to three bushels of this seed, with abovjt five pounds of com- mon red-clover, to the lac re ; as the clover serves to keep down the weeds till the saing|§^tly iniproved by an occasional scarifying. It may alsV'^be sown with oats in the broadcast; but, for soiling, it is best- soww ulcne in the fore- part of the" sea^n, and lightly :harrowed in. It produces plenty of seed, w^h is easily gathered. Spurry (Sfiurgula Arva^isis) has been considerably cul- tivated in Flanders, on account of its growing very late in the Fall, and^even during^ Winter, and avFording good food for Sheep and Cows. Cattle a^'e very fond of it. It flowers from July to September, and is best suited to sandy and other xlry soils. FARMEtl^ ASSISTANT. 137 The "Bus^^H^VETpH (Vicia Se/iiumJ is^saicl to shoot cafUer in Springs than any other artificial grass. It grows iate in Autumn, and, in Gr^^tbritain, retains|Hs verdure 'tiirough the Winter. - Mr. Swayiie states the amount of its producey per acre, to have been about twenty four and an half tons of green fodder, equal to about four ajid an half tons of dry hay. The culture of this plant was long since recommended by jinderson; but the principal difficulty seem^^ito be in (Col- lecting the seeds, as the pods burst when ripe, and tlitis scatter them before they can be conveniently gathered.' Dr. Withcrirhg also obsiferves, that the seeds arevoften de^ strbyed by the Yankee qf a- specif^ ot ca(^/a6w6r. ^v-. Tares (Vicia Sativa.) ,.Oi tli^se there are twjEi^v^rietieSi the Winter and -Sy^nw^^, Tares. VjiV. Livingston maije-some. ti'ials of the latter, which were not very successful. The Spring-tare is to be sown as early ii) the Springs as the ground can be well prepared, anxl the Winter t^ire early in September; each at the rate of about eight or ten pecks to the acre, broad cast, or .about half that proportion for the drill. Each kind is good for feeding cattle of every description, partieulat-ly the Winter tar^, which, ia Great- britain, comes into use just as the turnip-crop is exhausted. This plant is not prog^ier for making into hay, .being greatly injured by v/et weather, and rejquiring more than common pains to dry it. "^ The seeds of t!ie djfTcrent kinds must be carefully kept apart, as thiey cannot be disijipgulshed from each' other. The HROADLEAyED-vEjTCHi or Everlasting Tare (Lathyrus Latif alius ) was long .binci.^ rtcommeitdeii^by Dr. Anders.ony di's promising to afford "largt^ crops of hay and grass.. It is eaten eagerly by cattle, and olien grows to the height of twelve feet. ^^ The Xufted-vetch, or Tare (ViciaEracca),2iKi-Am^ considerable: i^eigh', and produces abundi^nce of leaves. This sort anliJP^e ivood-.vi^ich f vicia sylva^ica) vvhiqh ri:it3 l^from two to tour feet._high, are sa^i to resiore weak or starved cat^j^l^feponer than any other vegetable kno^vn. The ST^^Sfc'LE-vETCH f /.a//iz/rozV/^.9j haji' been strongly recommenJ^ed by Mr.r4//zO£-, as alfjiding a tender and agreeable food for. ^heep. Of Clovers, the most valuable kinds vjhich are knoiun and cultivated-, are the Trefoil, Qr Coj.imon Hed-clo^er .(' T?ifolium^Fra tense j which is commonly cultivated in this Siate. It grows iv^pll on all dry 'sofis. About ten or twelve pounds of seed are requisite for an acre. It is sown in this Country with barley, 1? •^ 138 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. oats, or Spring^'Wheat, when that article is raised; or it may be sown with Winter-wheat in the F*all, if the land be dry and warmly exppsed ; or in the Springy w.hen it should be lightjy brushed or harrowed in. The product of this grass, when well manured, may be tour tons to an acre, at two mowings. It is peculiarly ex- celent for forming, a Tay for a crop of wheat; which may be sown to great advantage on the clover-sward, when proper- ly turned under. AH kinds of cattle feed and thrive well on It, either m pastures, when soiled on it, or when fed on the liay. For feeding Swine with the hay, howeve*', it should be well saved, early cut, and steamboiled before it is given them, and in this way it will keep them in good condition through Winter. '"*11ed Perennial-clover, or Cowgrass (.Trifolium Me- ditm) is cultivated in Greatl?ritain, in almost every kind of good uplarii! soil, even in heavy day-lands. It is to be sowed in the Spring with oats, barley, &c. It is also usual to sow it there, as well as the common red«clover, with the crop of flax. It rarely, succeeds when sown by itself. It produces abundance of seeds, which are easily col- lected. Hop-clover (Trifolium Procttwden^j grows naturally in Greatbriialn, in dry meado,^s and pastures. It is recom- mended by Mv. Amo$ for laying down land to grass, by mixing it with the clover last mentioned, and the White- clo5?:er (Trifolium I^e/ie?is-J This grass grows spontaneously on dry uplands in this State, after they have been manured with gypsum, or with bog-marle, &c. It is a very sweet grass for pasture or hay ; but not very pro- ductive. *^it is generally short-lived; but may l^e made to last longer, by passing a roller over it; for, where the stalks come in close contact with the ground, new roots will start and descend into it. It is cultivated in Great- britain for Sheep-pastures and for other uses. It is most useful in mixing with other grasses, for the purpost of^ thi^k^ping the growth at the bottom, and thus increasing the Vppduct. After having sa'td thus much of each particular kind of grass, something remains to be said of them in general. It may lirstly be observed, that in laying dqwn lands to grass, of every kind, the work should be done effectually. The ground should be made mellow and fine ; the seed should be clean and good, and sowed evenly and plenti- fully, and lightly covered, and the ground made perfectly smooth, panicularly where it is intended for mowing or &pili^g, FARMER^a ASSISTANT. 139 The Graziers of Greatbritait^i in laying down their grass- lands, make use of ntiuch more seed than is usual Wjhis Country. Whether they use more than is profitabfif'ex- . periments alone are competent to determine. Let one rod Squjre of ground, -^perly prepared, be laid down with 'a given quantity of seed ; another square rod with a greater quantity, and another with a still greater; then carefully gather and weigh the product of each square rod separate- ly; and if that^which has most seed has an inw^ase' of pro- duct sufficient to pay for the extra seed, and about t(rty per cent more, that quantity of seed may be most advisable to give the ground. ^ In the same way, it may be ascertained, how far it is profitable to sow the ground with different kinds of grassei'if, in order to increase the product of the whole. "^This is a matter that is much attended to in Greatbritain, as will bfe seen by the following directiorts^of 'Mr. Young- and ^^r. Toilet, for laying down particular soils to grass. Thus, Mr. Young dire ets for an acre of clay-land, the folbwing grasses and proportions of each : "^ > Of Cowgrass, five pounds; trefoil (commori- red clovtr) five dp. ; dogstail, 10 do, ; and of fescue and foxtiiilj one bushel. ;, For an acrebf loam, of white-clover, five pounds; dogs- tail, ten do.; ray^, one peck; fescue, three do.; foxtail, three do. ; and of yarrow, two do. For an acre of sand, of white-clover, seVen pounds; trefoil, five do.; 'burnet, six do, ; ray, one petk; and yar^ row, one bushel. Mr. ro/Zer, directs, that, for an acre of such dry light s^il as is adapted to the culture of turnips, the following pro- portions of seeds be given. Of smoothstalked poa or meadowgrass, six quarts; ray-^ grass, four do.; dogstail, six do. ; yellow oatgras's, four do. ; cocksfoot, two -do. ; vernalgrass, one do.; CoWgrass, three do. ; white.cl6v^r, two do.; ribgrass, two do. ; and of yar- frowj* two do. Again, fpr such soil as is of the moister kind of upland, he allows, tor an acre, ot foxtail, six quarts; roughstalked poa, six do. ; mfeadow-fescue, six do. ; snioothstalked poa, four do.; raygrass, two do.; vernalgrass, one do.; Cowgrass, three do.; white-clover, two do.; ribgrass, two do.; aind of yarrow, two do. For firm low lands, liable to be overflowed, he allows of foxtail, 2 pecks; meadow-fescue, two do,; roji^hstalked: poa, two do.i' raygrass, one do.; vernalgrass, dhe quart; white-clover, two do,; Cowgrass, two do.; and of ribgrass, two do. 140 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. „jj' ■ ^*^Where the #ater lies Ibn^^r, he directs the corftpb^itW to be^s fellows : "' ' "' ''^^ dl roug:hstalked poa, two pecks ; fox'tail,"tAvo dcr. ; meap do^fescde, two do.; Hole foxtail, thtj^e quarts ; and ol, flote-ftscue, four do. And, for sjtuaftioriS still more Wet, the ioUowing: Of roughsialked pi^a, two pecks j foxtail, two do.; flote foxtail, :.one 'do ; and"6t flote-iescue, one do. The abbve are given merely as specimens of the quanti- ties of seefe:ad vised to be apportioned td different soils, and*of the several kinds which ore deemed most suitable to • e^ch, in Gwatbrit^in ^ Our Summers bein^- Warmer, and dur atmosphere less mom, it dqes not lollcnv, thUt the same sons ot grasSies, or the sanie proportions and quantities of tt>e seejis of each, would here be found most proper in similar gbiis. These are matters that are proper subjects 6f inqiiiry with the ingenious/and experimental Parmer. G#brally speaking, it is believed, that the British Farmers and Gfcsziers ^ive^their grounds more seed than will be found necessary iathis Country, whatever may be the case in Greatbritain. ■« -• GRAVEL. ISce Earths. GllEEN;PRESSING, Turning under a growth of green vegetables, for the purpose of manuring the soil. Buck- wheat is much used for this purpose. Sow-it in May, about half a busbeF^^'o the acre; and, when in blossom, run a roller over it, fexactly in the way that it is to be ploughed under. , i^fter it has beph all turned under, let it lie about twenty days, or ii' month, by which time it will be rbten, and fit to be ploughed again to receive the grain intended to be sown. To increase the growth "of the buckwheat, and . of course the quantity of manure, let a little gypsum be strewed over the ground, ii it be suitable to that manure. E^ven to wet buckwheat, intended to be sown, and then strew on it as much gypsum as will adhere to the gcains^ will make the growth of it considerably larger.-, ^ A green-dressing may be useful to a crof< of wheat, \Vhereihe land is Summer-faliowed, and at the sanie time is in poor heart. Lundsi, however, which are stiitable for gypsum, are most eabiiy recruited by th^ free use of that manure and red-clover; but, where the soil is not asssisted by that manure, or where it cannot be procured on reason- able terms, greerj'dressings may be "found a useful part of husba4^ry. GREENS. Potherbs, ppper for boiling when young and tender, for food in the Spfihg. FARMER'S ASSISTANT/ 141 Spinagc, sown ya the\|Fall, affords a plentiful supply of these : So will the common turnips; French turnips, 1?^, Sec. But the Farmer ought to supply himself, iu dddifipn to these, with at lea^J See jiilLKWEED. : The. sait/ia fialustris^ or marsh-marygoldj growing abund* aQtly ili mae^^ places, makes an excelent green in the Spring of the year. GREEN SCOURING. A dificase to which Sheep and Bullocks are often subject. It is cured by^verj'aice : A %Vineglass-full, for a Sheep; a pint, for a Butlock. Ver- juice is the juice of the English crapapple. Our crabapple is of a different kind. The juice, however, of sour unripe apples, of t% common kinds, may answer in place of ver- juice. GRIPES. A disorder, of the choHc kind, with Which Horses aiid sometimes horned cattle are troubled. It gen- erally proceeds from wind pent up in ^the stomach or bowels, and is caused by a high state^ of cpstivend^s. Horses and horned cattle have been known to have the dung within them so hard and dry, that it could not be voided without assistance ; and this assistance is by clearing it out by hand. After it has in this way beien principally cleared out, clysters are to be administered, which will open the passag^^d of course give vent to the wind. See furthi^r^ Neat- cattle, for the particular treatment of the disorder in them. GHOVES. These are both ornamental and useful. To plant heights of ground, the sides and tops of which are generally not very good for tillage or pasture, adds much 10' the beauty of a landscape; and is at the same time highly useful, as it regards the quantities of firewood which may be' produced from such spots. Planting-^^s of trees alorsg highways is also pleasant for shade to tne Traveler, and profitable to the Owner of the soil. The same may be observed, in regard to lanes, and to passages from the high- way to the mansionhouse. Sugarmaple-treeS; planted round 142 FARMER'S assistant: the borders of meadows, and.somelstraggjiing ones in them, are very pleasant and profitable, as' they do no injury to ttie growtli of the grass. Wherever trees can be planted in pastures and along fences, without doing injury to the growths of the adjbining fields by their shade, this part of rural economy ought never to be qjmited.^ , The shade of sotne kinds of trees is much more hurtiiil to the growth of plants than others. ^ < I planted niaize (says Mr. Livingston) on the west side of a young wood, consisting of oaks, poplars, a few ches- nuts, and a large mulberry ' somewhat advanced into the field. The shade made by the rising sun extended nearly across the field, and was not entirely off until about ten o'clock. I r^marked^ihat, as fari^s the shade of the chesnut reached, the qprn was extremely injured; it was yellow and small; The chonical shape of the morning-shade from par- ticular trees might be traced a' considerable extent, in the sickly appearance of the plants. The blackoaks were like- wise injurious; but less so than the chesnuts; the poplars, very little so. Near the mulberrytrce, the corn was cover- ed by its shadfe for a long time every morning ; and, though not so large as that which had more sun, maintained a healthy appearance.' The shade of the blackoak is' particularly hllrlful to the growth of wheat; that of the locust is, oh the contrary, beneficial to grass-grounds ; and that of the sugarmaple does but little injury to the growth of grain, and none to grass. '0UINEA-CORN fJ^o^cMs S/iicatus.) This plant is considerably cultivated in Sduth-carolina, where it is esteem- ed for its seed when ripe, which commonly yields from six- ty to eighty bushels to an acre; and the growth is mowed while green, for the purpose of soiling cattle ; for which it is very good, and abundant in its product. The seed is used for feeding poultry, Sec. and when Hull- ed, which is there performed by beatinj^ in a mortar, it is nearly or quite as palatable as rice, when boiled and eaten with milk. ^ The crop is sown in drills. It does not exhaust the soil, if cut while; green, and if the stubble be then ploughed under it rathfer assists the ground. It requires a rich dry soil. * GYPSUM. >; See Manures. farm|:r*s assistant. , 143 H. HARROWS Aui) HARROWING. In r«gard to shape,* the three- squafT^ harrow is as good as ^yi but let it be long and narrow, for stone y or stumpy grounds, and wider where the ground is smootii. The essentials for a good harrow ai"^, to have long heavy teeth, made of iron, and pointed with steel at the ends. Where the land is rough, there ought to be fewer teeth than vj^here it is smooth. The teeth of the harrow, for rough ground,, ought tb be set slanting a little backward, so that it will not get fastened on the stones, roots, or stumps ; and, on the contrary, where it is ufed for smooth ground, they ought to be set slanting considerably forward. In stoney rough grounds, harrowing cannot be performed to so much advantage, as ot> smooth grqunds; and every Farnler ought to make his grounds smootht Two or three ggood harrowings may be as good as a ploughing. Harrow- ing ought to be performed, on wet ground, in a dry time, and in the middle of the day. On dry lands, it is best to harrow in the mornings, while the dew is on, and when the ground is moderately dry. It ought to be harrowed before seeds are sown ; otherwise they will be buried of unequal depth^and will come up in rows; most of the seeds being in that case thrown into the bottoms of the furrows. On furrows of green sward turned under, the harrow must be loaded with more.than its common weight, which in all cases opght to be pretty heavy, and run lengthways with the furrows. Where seed is sown on ridges, the har- row oUgKt also to be run, lengthways. Perhaps, in such itases, it is best to let the larid remain in the furrows, as it is left by the plough; the se^d, in such cases, being usually H ploughed ^n. Harrowing meadow lands, where tbey become bound, or where they become cold and mossy, is of essential service to them, and will, make them produce much more largely the following years. The best time to do this is in the Spring, while the ground is soft. If the meadow be too wet, however, for Spring- harrowing, it ought to be done in the drier part of the^ Full ; and, in such case, if a dressing of Horse or Sheep dUng, mixed with sand, be laid on, pre- vious to the harrowing, it will be of essential set-fee. Harrowing wheat and rye in the Spring is considered, by ♦European Writers, to be very beneficial; but doubtless this ought to be done very carefully, and it is advised,^by some, to ^ FARMER'S ASSI^ANOJS ^'' tjiat a roller ^afterwarc!%rpassed over the ground, t^^x the plants which may have, been di^turbea by this. process? 5%#lso, Spiky ROLLER. yARVfiSTTNG. In addition to the wheat and rye- harvest, in this Country, we have the Indian corn harvest. A general rule, as it regards wheat and rye, is, that the earlier eaqh is harvested, and betbre the grain has become hard, the whiter wiH be the flour, and the ihiner the skin of the grain; but the whole weight of the product will be a little less, than, if the grain he harvested later. Probably all that is gained by late harvesting is an addiiton to the skin of the grain, „x,, When a s^verec^ight or ru^t^has struck wheat or rye, it should be cut immediately, even if the grain be in the milkjr* state; and it should lie on the ground, bui riot so clos^ as to injure the heads, until such time as the stalks hav§ become dry and the grain somewhat hardened. Then it ought to be bound up and put in shocks, and carted in as soon as it is sufficiently dry. The later wheat and rye are cut, however, the easier it v/ill thresK; but^ at the same time, there is greater ^waste by^the shelling of the grain, in harvesting and cartings it in. As soon as Indian corn is ripej it should J^e harvested; buv while the> stalks have any ■ -greenness, the crap cannot be said to be fully ripe.. If the corn is m^^rely toped in' the field, not air cut up by the roots, while green, it is advisable to gather the ears, cart them home, and husk them pttt by night; by which means time is saved, and by which, also, the hubks may be^saved, which are very valuable Tor fodder for Cows, Sec. , ,: If Indian torn be killed by a frost, it should be immedi- ately cut up by the roots, before the leaves have had^time to wither, ^nd set up in shooks, haviog the jLops tied to- gether to keep out the rains. In this' way the ears will ripen, in the same manner as when left to ripen on the stalk. This, , in most cases, is a good practice, where n6§ lra$t has injured the crop; as in tliis w .y the, field is clear- ed of the corn in time to plough and sow with wheat,' and at the same time all the leaves and st.dks are saved for fodder. ^By this method, also, tlie ground is less exhausted by the crop. •HAWS OR IIOOK^j. This is an^enlargemcnt of. the tnembrane over me eye of a Horse, atid is caused by fevtr; and fever,- as ^ir. FcCers observes, 13 often occasioned by too high tcediiig and pampering this animal, as he had ex- perienced, by the inattention of his Scrvunt in this parti- cular. V FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 145 On his Horses being^t^s' affected, the Servant was for applyinj^ the usual remedy of cudng out the hawsj||which Mr. PetevM would not suffer to be done, as Iioraes;l|l pften deprived of sight by the operation. He found an effectual and speedy remedy for the disease, by feeding the Horses * entirely on raw fSitatbes. ^ HAYMAKING. If a meadow is to b8 mowed twice in a season, the first Crop ought to be ctit earlier than where mowed but once, ift order that the roots may recover im- mediately'and be ready for vegetation afresh. Where the grass is cut later, the vegetation of the roots stops for some time. The ^rass, however, which is tfc^cut early will not be so heajiry as that which tecut later'^ipt ^iil shrink after cuiing; but the roots wilf^ot be so much exhausted, and will afford a .larger crop the nex,ptime of cuting, or the next Summer, if cut but once in a seasons >^ The best time for cuting herdsgrass, where but one crop is cut in the seasoo, is when the seeds of the grass have formed, but before they have become|fuHy ripe; but, as Farmers cannot cut all i^heir hay in a fid^y or two, it is g^^necessary they should begin before this time, that they may not «nd too long after it. The samei^time is also proper for cuting clover^ or rather when a part of the heads begin to turn brown. Fowlmeadow or birdgrass, may be cut much later, without being hurt by long standing. We have seen wirpgrass mowed on the clay lands of Coxackie, in the month of October, for the first time in the season, ard it then mad^- tolerably good hay. Lucerne, on the contrary, must be cut while entw'ely green; otherwise it will make but poor hay. The same may be dbs^ved of , all wild swamp- grasses, and of the high coars^^ grasses which grow every, where on the vast prairies, that extend through the western parts of the territory of the Unite^^vStates. For haymakings it is essemial to have dry weather ; and the prospect for this ought always tfi be an object of aften- tion with the , Farmer. Frequently, the change and full of the moon pFDduces an alteration of the weather, either for th^, better or the worse; but there is n^p certainty in, this. As a general rule, the weather between the change and the full may be expected to be the best. Sometimes rainy spells of weather kst for weeks, during hay-time; and during §uch spells it is sometifnes as well for the Fi^rmer to let his grasis stand untouched, until the indications of the weather becoftie more favorable,, %|fe See Weathe^r. " ,^ '^m- Some methpdslare recommended for making hay, which are more tedious and vmorie expensi^ than the common method, and^ on that account, so much the worse, if In % V, 19 146 FARMER'S ASS^SJANT. Qther respects tUey ar6 better. Jkit| where labor is scarce, time is every thing, in « makifig^ay while the sun shinfes,' and th^^temethod, in which it can be made with most expe- ditioTi, i^ht to be prekred. The best plan, therefore, is, for the Eai-mer to be at his mowtng betimes in the morning; cut down as much as « possible by nirife or ten o'clock, by which time jiiie dew will be off; then spread the mowed grass evenly, and about twelve turn it over where it lies thick; in the afternoon rake it into winrows, shake it up lightly, that it may be better exposed lo the ail^'; towards sundown miike it into neat small cocks, and ler it remain so a day or two. If it be not then suffiQ||nily dry, shake it out again on a small space of ground, atS^^iturn it o^ till it is dried; then cock it again, if necessary, and as^on afterwards, a^ possible, draw it in. / But, in order to save much trouble in drying hay, the application of from four to eight quarts df salt to the ton is recommended: It is found that hay, thus salted, can be well saved in a mu||h%reener state, and at the same time the benefit which fne hay deriY|s. from the salt is more than fourfold its %lue. Tht5 method^also, ot^having a hole in the middle of large mows, niay be found well worth attention, on account of its obviating the necessity of so much labor in drying hay, that is to be stowed away in such mows. See Barn. General Stnithy of Suffolk, ,|nakes use of a /i07*siera/<:^t, for raiding on his smooth mowing-grounds, whicK, with one Man, a Horse, and a Boy to ride the Horse, will gather hay as fast as sixx ^len in the ordinary way. The rake is about ten feet long; the teeth about two feet; and at right angles from these 'pm some upright slats of the same length, set, at |M;,lc>wer endf into the piece into which the teeth are morti|l!^ and into amother light slender piece at the#p. ^:^r '''^'''' ^,.,, ' The teetli, when iWoperatioti, run along the ground nearly hofizontally, with thC; points a little the lowest, so as to run under the hay, and as they take it up the upright slats retain it till *the rake is full, when the Man w!io follows it behind turns it over, and thus empties it in a row; then lifts its over the, hay, thus emptied, and sets it in beyond it; and so it proceeds on, till tt Js agam filled, and the same process is again repeated. 4 ■ When one, strip across the piece is thus raked up, the Horse is ,l3|^ed around, and another strip is raked in the same manner, emptying'' the hay at the ends of the last heaps raked up, so that in this way winrows are formed. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 147 When it is thus raked into winrows, it is draged upby the rake into bundles, large enough for making into cq9k Those who nnake use of smooth pIoughing^!(Hws for mowing-grounds, or have smooth gieadows, will do well to attend to this iabor saving implement. HEDGES. For making these, different sor^^ of trees have been used, and the hedges have been made in differ- ent ways. Some have pretered planting the hedge on the top of a fc«pk, thrown up for the purpose ; while the more modern method is, to plant it on the surface, without any bank. This latter method is the che|j||£st, and, as is ob- served by Mr. Pickering'^ of Massa^fflMptis, would seem to be Jthe only proper metl^j in sumlS^pily suuations ; as in such the ditch, to be made foBjjKaising the bank, ma3f form, a channj|l .lor carrying off miR water, and thus be- come liable to be cut into a deep gully, to the uUiqaate ruin of the hedges ^* In level lands, |iiQ we ver, a hedge s|t^ a bank, properly made, would seem to be most formicldl^ to catile; but the bank we should prefer vifmild be one raMed between two small^ditches, and made in the manner d&scnb^ under Fences. ' A bank of this descriptK^^H," after'uaving served the purpose of a tehee, with the aid of the additions there described, may, in the mean time, ha&^ the young hedge coming to sufficient n>aturity ; whence ^^additions, first madis4br pomplffting the fence^ may be taken away. \y^e.hav9,'at tlie same tim(§ no doubt that a good hedfb may eventually be made, in dry level lands, withoutihe aid of a bank; t>ut in wet or meadow-lands, which are not natural to the growths of upland timber, we should advise to have a bank sufficiently raised to<^Jay the ground dry; unless willow, or some other grov5?th suitable to a wet soil, is to be used for making thejiedge. ^Si^^' We have seen the Washington-thorn (v^ae^s coi^faj planted in Maryland, without any ^Mjk, on uplands; Some of which were sufficiently dry, aiia some were#)aturally wet; and the result, as far as ^ur observations extended, ■went to show that thorn, of that species^at least, requires a bed of moderatfcly ^ry earth j and that it does not flourish in wet soils. , ^ 4 This remark Js here made^frdrm^a belief that thorn, adapted^o th(S ^mate^^ is one of the i?no4t valuable trees for making hedged; th^t every species of this tree requires a soil laid sufficiently dry, it it be not naturally Mg^and that it should not be deficient of a considerable degreS^f fertili- ty, either natural or acquired. Where hedges are to be made of this tree;, without be- ing set in a bank, ws should advise to the method pursued 148 FARMER*^ ASSISTANT. By Mr. Quincy. of Massachusetts, which is, first, to culti- vate tl^^t^rouf)d, intended for bearing the hedge, with pota- toes ; tli^g it properly manured, and kept clear of weedsj £s this, or some sim'lar preparative, i^ calculated to form a bed of the most promisitig n^tur^ for the future growth of the thorn, when set out; and also, for forming a sward of gruss on e^ch side of the hedge, whet) such should be farmed. The sward sliould not approach "the young trees too -closely at first; but a small strip, in which the trees stand, should be k*^pt clear of grass and \veeds, ih orde^/ to accel- erate tiie growth of the trees; and, where this part lies niuch exposed iOj,^^wa!shed by heavy rains, it should be covered with sma||^TOnes, or olher^vise, until such time as the sward may i^^diately Ijj^Tound the youngs growth, without its thereby reccing essential injury.. ^' Tlie advantage to be^ferived from keepin^oung trees, of this or any other description, free from grass and weeds, about the roots, is to enable them % start with more vigor at fiisi; for, after t^ir advance in gvtjt^th has become more established, ^the wider extepsioil of the rooU, their future growth w|| not be so muW impeded by the incum- «brances%f we^s' or grass, which at first may prove seratior, ; but, from what too often hajipens, the failure of having the young^rowihs exactly as you would V ish them to stand and flourish. ^ The failure of one or two trees in %^|)lace produfjes a chasm in the fence ; and this at fir^st is wly to be obvi ued by some tenoporary method of fi|ii||&up the gap; as it npust at least require time to make an^iter-growthi^upply the place of trees which may be ntissing. ^ ^ With all the imperfections,'^ however, to which hedges may be liable, we consider them a much safer protection to the growing crpp, and, generaHy speaking, less expensive, than the wpoden fences which at pfeisent are commonly made in this ©ountry., .. » Instead of plashing the hedge, a substiiute is recom». mended ^ Mr. Main^ of' Georgetown, wiiich he has found effectual. This is to cut or trim tli^^op of the hedge down to an even height, of about three -aBd a half, or four feet, and their to lay thereon light durable fieles, tied together .at the ends ; and presently.-; the nevy shoots 1'50 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. will start up on each side pf the poles, and thus hold them to their places ; while each^tree forming the hedge being, in this mapner, mutually braced by the poles, the young hedge soon becomes enabled to withstand the attempt wf any creature to push its way through. The method of filling up any place, where there may be a deficiency in a growing hedge of thorn, as directed by Dr. MeasCf is to scrape away the ground at such place, and if any roots of the growing trees are there to be found, cut them off, at the places where you want the trees to stand ; and from the ends of the roots thus severed sproUts will start up, which are to be protected and cultivated in the places where theyijB|||«r. If no roots are ^p^ found at^e places where they are wanted, take pieces 6^ the roots of the growing thorn, cut to the len*gth of about filfe inches, and set thj^se well into the ground, wiih the thickest end uppermost, ^at the places where the trees are wanted; and T^-oni these upper ends sprouts will rise and form a new growth ^ The Palmetto Ro^'f Yucca ALo^lia) '\l said to make the best hedge that is^^bwn ; but it^U not endure the sever- ity of the Winter^f the more northerly States. It is well adapted to the iSiore southerly part of this Country. Mr. Kirk^ of Pennsylvania, particularly recommends his method of making he<^ges. He make^^hem of the common Locust. f"' '^ t"-' ■* ^ See Locust, 3He merely makes a furrow, #ith the ploiigh run once or twice ea(:h way, to serve as the • bed for the youpg trees. These are to be of two years growth when set oUt in the furrow; they are to stand at the distance of about eleven inches from each other^ and they are to be set leaning, or slanting, alternately in ooposite directions, in order to be plashed or wove.,togethlr, and tied in that position; so that, when the planting and plashing is completed, the young hejdge will exhibjdrthe following appearance: In four or f^ve years, Mr. JCirk says, the young hedge, when thus made, will form a sufficient fence ; and as the shade ot locust is not injurious to the growth of the adjoin- FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 151 ing grain, and is even beneficial, to that of grass, the hedge may be suffered to grow up as W^ as it will. \Mskm In about thirty years after planting, it will reaf^^pe full meridian of its growth; when the whole may be cdFdown, at the height ot about five feet from the ground, and then the stumps, thus left, will stand and serve as ;in impeneira- bl© fence for asmudV'as fifteen years more; giving about forty years as thQ length of time which that growth of locust will serve the purpose of a fence. Mr. Kirk says that, on cuting the locust down, a new growth of sprouts will start up in abundance; from which sufficient may be selected for trainings up a new hedge, to supply the place of the stumps wh§^||, they shall have failed. ^ "^.^^ If the foregoing^ may be s^ely estimated, as the restfit to be expected from the culture of #)cusi, for hedges, we sljould be disponed to place this tree in the first rank, as i^ell for racking hedg« as for other useful purposes. It forms a timlDcr of the first rate for* every use, where hard- ness, durabihty, and strength are re^uij^d: It is also rapid in its growth, and excele^fefor fuel. W- We should be disposed to say that #farm of common size, with locust cultivated for its ..hedges,'* would" afford, ffoni the growth of these, a sufficiency of fuel fop Such farm, if managed in an economical way. ^^ See Fuel, and Warming ofRoomSi. "^P Beside timber for mos<; of the necessary purposes for carrying-on the business of the farm. ;;<: ,, »^ The li^thod, pursued by Mr. Kirk^ for making the, seeds of the ^tust germinatei is to put them in water, hot enough to sc?ild a Hog, and to let'them remain in this till the water is cooled; when they are to be immediately plantefd, in a bed well prepared for the purpose, in rows or drills^ at the distance of about %ighte^n inches between each drill. ■/ The young plants^^ are to be hwjd,. and kept clear^of weeds, till the end of the second yWr, and in the Spring of the third they are to be set out in the hedge. The planting of.the seeds, and the above-mentioned previous preparation for the purpose, is to be at the time when garden-seeds are usually commited to the ground in the Spring. While growi'ng in the rows or drills they should stand four or five inches apart. Mr. 7az//or, o0^Carotihe, Virginia, makes his hedges of cedar; and^e says fhat, in seven years, a hedge made of this tree becomes as close, from bottom to top, >|Sf box, of a breadth not exceeding tour feet; ^and that it is more likely to prove effectual against Hogs, than any of the family of 1-52 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. shrnbV, as it unites great^density with the exuberance and infl^;>cibilny iratural to the it-ee. * The boughs of this tree, being pll^t, are easily wove betweenl^e bodies of the tre6s, without any bending of them, f^r the purpose of plashing. The principiTl difficulty, in cuUivating*this tree, lies in making its seeds germinate; but, most probably, this could be easily accomplished,^by the means just mentioned for the ' treatm'tnt of^ the seeds of. the Locust. S^e also, Seeds. ^^ - . . \ Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania,- thinks that, , ii> point of elegance at least, the common hemlock (Pirius Abies Canadensis) is e^|id to a preference to cedar; an(|: that it nosscsses quai|^ equally ||aluable, for the purposfe of orwa^nrar hedgii^^rand it is for this purpose, particularly^ that trees of this descrifition are probably entitled to a pre- ference. Whether the hemlock can be cultivated in any ..other way, thin by layers, we are liable to say. , ; t. See I^AYERS. , •. ^ , „ M.'De Ld i?/^aM^ 'Recommends the white-mulberry for hedges, panicularl^n account "l^ -the value of the leayes of this tree ^ r feeding silkworms. &Ve Silkworms, and Mulberry. It is easily raised from the seeds, or from slips or cutings. kj ,„ . See SLi^find been said to assist the inexperiencbci CuUivator, iu- this important part of field- t.usbandry. He will probably find that, in addition to all tl>e knowledge^e can .)^rive , from writen essays, on the subject, some practical experience will still be found ne- cessary, to render hh3i^|plerably expert in the art of making good fences, of this desbription. HEMP (Caunaks.) This plant requires a mellow dry soil, and the richer the betterr It turns to but little account, where the soil is not sufficiently fertile. Ii ^ili grow year after year on the same ground, and it is not so exhausting as some other crops. If the soil be sufi|cieinly rich, it is the surest of any crop; it is subject" to nd^'^iseases; severe droughts do bat little affect it; and cattle wiU«ot touch it. Prom two> to three bushels of seed are requisite for an acre; two, where the soil is middiingj and three, where it is very rich. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 153 Where the soil is not vnaturally very strong, some advise having two fields for this culture, which are to bear. crops alternately: While the one is bearing a crop the other is preparing for the ne^t't season, by ploughings and manuring. This is productive of an extra expense tor the rent ot the land, Sec. but, as veryjarge crops are the essential point in making the cuI^Mre very profitable, two years* rent of the land may be found but a small drawback in the amount of the profits. If, for instance, two acres can be made to produce a ton, which shall bring three hundred dollars in the^market, and halt that amount be allowed for the expense of preparing the ground, and raising and' cleaning the crop, the surplus profit would be but' little l^^^ned by deducting tlie extra year's rent of two acres. -; , To enriclvthe ground, during the alternate years, pejifeps t^o successive gieen-dressings of- buckwheat, ploughed under, mi^htltie found of considerable service. See Green- DRESSING. In this case, the first growth might be ploughed under in the Sunfmrerand the latter in the FalK.^f barn dung is to be added, let it be ploughed under m the Spring; but if compost, not until the next Spring, when thevSped is abo^t to be sown for the; crop of hen^p; and then let it be well mixed with the surface of the soil. Gypsum*/will also help the crop, if the sg^be suitable for that manure. Let the ground be Wm\ mellowed, by repeat^ ploughings in the Spring, for the receptioft of the seed, and let it be harrowed before the'^seed is sown, and then harrow xh^ seed in. ^ It should be sown pretty early in. th^ Spring; but not before the ground has sufficigitly dried and can be put in ample ordeng The seed shouw be buried of as even a depth as possible, in order that it may all start Equally ; otherwise a part of the plants will outgrow and keep down the rest. When sown as early as ^ove directed, it will be fit for pulling or cuting, about the firsf of August,' the time for which bein^^^novvn by the Jailing of the flowers and withering of the^lves. "^ '^ The male plants of hemp bear the flowers, and the female plants the seed. A sufficiency of the latter are to be left for seed ; and these will require about six weeks further time to rij^en ; the ripeness being known by the seed turning brown. The seeds may be gently beat off the stalks when dried; or they may be taken off by a coarse kind of comb niade for the purpose. The female hemp, which has stood to ripen the seedsvjTcquires a Jorf^er time to rpt than the male, and when dressed is harsher. The better wily is to sow some hemp, thinly, by it^elf^ for seed, and then the rest of t^e crop may be all (bulled or cur together. 20 ISA FARMER'S ASSISTANT. In the bo^meadows of Orange pounty, the hemp is cut close to the ground, with an instrument made for the pur- pose jbtff ip uplands, which have any little stones in the ■way, lit is best to pull it. In cuting, or pulling, each one takes a-sjwath wide enough to spread the hemp as he goes along. When sufficiently dried, which in good weather will require about a week, it is to b^e gathered in bundles and bound with straw, and carefully stacked in the field till about Christmas. ' It is then to be carefully spread on the snow, and, by being covered with other snows, it will be t|leached and improved in its color. When the snows dissolve in March^ it will generally be^found sufficiently rotcd ^ and' is then to be taken up and ~^(Bt in small loose shooks in* the field, Wbi^n sufficiently dry, it is to be broken with a coai^se break, then carried to the barn to be again broken with the ^ommon flax-break, and then dressed in the irianner of flax, but more gently, as it will waste vviifi hard beating. The aboVe is the Orange county ^nethod ; but the h^mip may be roted in the Fall, and then dressed out agreeably to the above directiorts. It may aisp be water-roted, which is to be done shortly after it is pulled, and about ^ve days are generally requisite for this purpose. When' sufficiently roted ini5,5his way, a small handfull may be pulled asunder with a llttlei exertion ; and then it .jnust be taken out very carefully, so as not to injure the coailJii^and dried. The water in which it is Toted Should not run rapidly, as such will wash away the coat. Letv the sheaves b6 laid llngthways across the stream, and sunk completely under. Standing water is good for rotln;^ ; but unless thfe hemp be ■^once turned, while rotifig, that whicli liev uppermost will be roted' most, owin^ to the water near ^e surface being warmer than bat below. A new method of rot^ng hemp has been compiunicated by M. Bralle, as follows: Put fifty pounds of hemp, in the syjk, into a vessel filled with water, suffieienf to cover th^pierhp, and previously heated as 'bigh as two hundred degrees of Fahrenheit, and into which has been mixed at least one pound of good soft-soap; take away the fire, and let the henpp remain in the vessel two hours; then take it out and cover it with straw, so that it may cool gradually. The next day, spread \t evenly on a floor, and run a heavy roller over it several times, which serves to break it; spread it out on the grass for five dr six days \6 bleach ; then take it up, dry it, and clean it. By this management, it is stated, that one-fourth more of cleaoed hemp may be obtained, than by rotiug in any other way; t lie hemp is .much sbfter, stronger, of better quality; and the process Of cleaning is much less expensive. FARMER'S AiSSISTANT. 153 To make this method ef cleaning hemp profi^ble, it must be made a separate business and carried on tiKlMgive- ly. Wooden vessels may be used for boilers, and thS^oil- ing performed by steam, in the manner described under Steamboiler. If a larger quantity ot hemp be put, into the boiicr, the soap iritist be proportionate, and more 'must be added, as morewater becomes necessary. The seed for a crop of hemp must be ot the last year's growth 1 That which^ is older will not readily vegetate. See Seeds, for the method of malting old seeds vege^ tate. ' * Some kinds of birds are fond of thi^seed; and must,* therefore, be kept from it when so\vri. (^^ If hemp be suffered to stand after^Ttfe right tim^S^for pulling, the stalks of the male wither and blacken^ and then the coat is^ of but little value. Where hemp grows too long for dj^essing, it may be cut in two, without any injury. Hemp may be made a substitute for flux, tor all ordinary purposes; but, in that case* it must be sottened by steeping it over warm waj^r, or lye ; and, after it is dried again, beating it till it is. perfectly soft. The steeping is perform', ed ^, placing it on ittcks, wiihin the vessel, over the water. The Steamboiler, just ^nentioned, mi^ht be applied to this purpose. , ' "%■> ^ • No very particulai^ii?ections are here intended to be given, in regard to- preparing the g4*ound for hemp, by manuring, 8cc. ; all that will be insisted is, that plenty of malitire must be applied, evenly to the soil, of such kind as is suitablo to i^, atid that the ground mast be' effectually ploughed. >' ^ #" llERDSGRASS. See Qrasses. HESSI^N-FLY. See Insects. " HItDEBQUND, Htorses often become hidebound, wiien they are poorly kept, and badly used. In this case, the animal ^rows poor, his skin sticks to his ribs, and small boils break out on his back. A method of treatment oppo- site to that which the Horse has received will generally restore hitn;. that is, ke^p and. feed him well, worlt him moderately, and loosen his skin by piling it, and using th0 currycomb frequently, but qot too harshly. HILLS:an» valleys. It is found that more rain ialls in the valleys than on the hills. The reason of this is, that in the valleys the drops of rain having farther to iall^ of course come , in contact with^ and absorb more of^ that vapor with which even the driest atmospliwre abounds. 156 FARMER'S 'ASSISTANT. If a goblet filled with cold watir be set in a warm atmos- phere^^^Xbis vapor will presently adhere to its sides in the form OT Vater ; and in the same'way^ it adheres to the drops of wate^ in their descent. ^ ^ In this, as in every thing else, thfe wisdom of the Creator is displaytid. The teinperauire of thi^ yalleys/being wanner than thai of the hills, more moisture is Tequired and more is given them H.nce, too, the reason why many plants, which require much heat, grow best in valleys: They have Ihe requisite degree oil" heat, and at the same time a pro- portionate degree of moisture. j, But as ail grasses which ♦are indigenous reauh'e only the heat of the bills, they grow as well on tjli^m as in the valleys : • A good general rule,, therefoie, iSy the valleys for tillage), and the hills for pastures. ,^ • • Two other good reasons for this are: Firsftiy, when hills are kept in tillage, they aVe generally more or le^s washed by the heavy rains, by which much of the best soil is carri- ed off; and, secondly, they are always mor^ or less irfd6n- venient for ploughingj and generally still more difficult for carrying ^ny heavy manures upon themv The above rule, howevpi}, is not to be applied to hills;'^f large extent^ and moderate descent; it' is, in strictness^.,merely appUcable to brokenhills and declivities. >: . HOE" AND HOEING. Where the hoe is to be used in rough or stony ground, it should be made stronger aind narrower; where the ground is light an(J mellQW, itiftay'b© broader arid lighter. ^ , '4-^ Hoeing, generally speaking, should be merely the finish- ing work of the plough or hoifee hoe. Where it is i|sed merely by itself, the work is more laborious, and iess effectual, as the hcJe merely passes ^ver the surface of the ground. It is, however, of great use in killing those wejeds which the plough or horse- hoe does not touch, and in duly distributing the fresh earth in its proper place near 'the plants. Where the plough is not used) the hoe is indis- pensable. "' ' ' , ; / ' See morp on this subject, in treating of creps that require H'oeing. HpOSTY. A goo4 sty is of the utmost importance in /bating Hogs. Nor is it less important for keeping them in Winter; as, the more, comfortably they are kept^ the less Nourishment they require. The sty should be proportioned in size to the nuniber of Swine it is to contain. One of Vixteen feet by twelve is probably sufficient for eight fating Swine. It should be divided into two apartments; that in the; rear, which should , FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 157 be about six feet wide, should be close, ^nd warmer the Hogs to lie in. Jlere they should have a constarfMjpply of dry litter, whe,n the weather is cool; for it is an^iPJniial point to keep them comfortable T)ie front part oMhe sty, which would then be about ten feet wide, should have the floor desciending to one side for the urine to rii^n off, and ia order that, the lower side may be the repository of their excrement; and on this side should be an opening wide enough to scrape jt out. The tiough should be on the upper side,' covered with one or more lids; and upright pieces should be set before it, at su,ch distances apart '^s i|iat one Hog only could put his bead between any two of them, in oidej/ih^t, while feeding, the weaker aninnals should be protectedligainst the stronger. The whole should be covered with a roof; for it is esseniial that they be protected from storms, while they are in the outer or feeding apartments ^ , According to the foregoing, if .sixteen Hogs ^^ to be kept or fated in the^sty, it should be thirty-two feet long and twelve wide,.and in that case there nrnight be^a sleeping apartment, at each^^nd. These apartments should again be subdivided, in orjbr that, for the quiet of the aninials, par* ti^arly in fating, to^o many may not be forced to lie to- ^eSer. It would probably be best also to divide vthp feeding apartment; for too 5i|E||||% Hogs l^ept together are^nbt apt to enj^y that peace ah^'qfuiet w^ich is necessary to (Sieir fating ,well. Tosis should also be set up i^ the siy foF^he .flogs 5:tb rub tbentselves. ^ ' . *' , ', If thirty-two Hogs are to be kept or fitted, then,' perhaps, the better way is, to have two stys, of the 'dimensions last described, placed together, with a roof; over the whole, and ,fi passage between t^iem for thie purpose of, carrying food. to #|he troughs. . ^ ^ '^ >■ The upper part of the sty^ or some part of it, ma^ be appropriated to storing the dilfei-ent ariicless of food^Mii^h are intended for feeding or fating. If (would be well hfio to have the steamboiler under the sanie root. For a d^cription of this, se^^.SwiNE. If a' part;i5fi;the roof extended considerably beyond the sty, it would afford a convenient cover for forming a heap of compost from the dung of the Swine. HOGS. 5fc, Swine. HOLLO W-DRAINS. T>ese are made for Ibe purpose of ' making land sufficiently dry, where it is- naturally too wet for any good culture. At the same time, they Are cal- culated, permanently, to enrich. the soil; as, by b peaces, and thus eventually stop up the drains. '.' ^ Where the ground H considerably descending, let them be carried in an Qblique direction, so as that their desc.e,nts will be gradual. T^he leaduig ones should be sufficiently large to carry off alf fhe water they may at any time receive from the small ones. Let them be from eighteen inches in width, at top and bottom, to three fe^t^ and sometimes more ; and^^ let the depth be aboUt threes feet, or perhaps four, where ihey are to carry off mtich water-, . The small ones should be about a rod apart and about t\vo feet deep; or, the^y may be about a rod and a half apart^ and aboiit thj:ee feet deep. The shallower they are, the closer they should be together. Their width should dependL on the maimer in which they are to bfe Constructed* {^S The b^it method of making the leading grains is, to'nm them ahout kalf full with small stoncfS||!, say, f such as wergh from one tfo ten or twelve pounds ; ana let these be covered with a layet" of such as are small. enough to fill up all the chinks; in order tha^, when the earth is ihieown on, it can- not fall down amon§ the stones bciow. Then throw on the earth that 'was before thrown out, reserving the best for the top. But it may frequently happen that stones, of the descrip- tion mentioned, caniJbt be eonveniently had; and in that case flat stones, if they can be had, of bricks, . made for the ptjrpb&e, must be resorted to;' and then the construction sh(@d be quite drfferent. If bricks be used^ they should be- made for tl^ purpose, and effectually burnt; otherwise they wnl soon crumble aw4y, and thus stop jap the drain. Let those for the bottom be made,, say, eight inC^hes sjquare,, and two inches thick ; those for the sides and top, say, twelve iflches sq^uare, and of a like thickness. ^t The bottom jof the drain, in this case, should be just wide enough to build up the brick- work, in the manner we shall now describe. First, % the bottom "britk^, flat and evenly, on the bottom of the drain; then set up the sides, perpendicularly, the lower edges close to the sides of trhe bottom bricks, and Testing on the bottom of the drain; then cover the whol« over with others of the larger-sized bricks, tliriBw in the earth, aiid the drain is made. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 159 In this case, however, the leading drains should be no deeper than the small ones, in order that the lat^r niay regularly be carried into the former; and, for this^atepose, spaces sufficiently large arp to be left in the sides cTthese, for the discharge of the waters of the small drainsjlnio the leaders. ; If flat stones are 4p be used, the construct^oti^^may be similar to the foregoing; or, after the bottoni has been laid, the side-ston|s may be set up, say, ten inches apart at the Jbottom, and leaning agajnst each other at the top, so that tOk aperture thus formed by them will b6%f a triangular shapfe. Billets of wood ^ of any durable kind, may, also, in like mapner, be used for forming the aperture, as such, when buried so deeply beneath the sui^aee,,^ will probably last from fifty to one hundred years." ^. Where the descent of the leaders is ve^^ry gentle, there is no necessity of a layer of brick or stone to form the bottom, as in such case thfe current of the water would not wear any of the earth away; but, where the descent, is more rapid, it is necessary to secure tbe bottom from being washed |)y the runing ^Hhe water j^ otherwise t|ie drains would soon* become stopetl : And, where the bottom;' is. thus secured f^om wearit»g» the descent of the drains may be coibslderably rapid, without any danger of being injured by the^ waters which pass tht-ough them. irf^^ There are severat|Tnethods of making th.e small drains^ some-of which are 4nori(B expensive than others. Tfeie more expen^ve methods will be found the^mqst durable^; >itnd yet not always^ on that account, the most- advisable.^ Suppose, for instance, that. by one method of construction i\ie drains would last forever J that this method should cost fifty dollars ^n acre; that,. by another method, which should cost forty itellars an acre, they could be r made to last sixty years; which, in that case, would be most ad^eflable ? U^ndoubtedly the latter., Two dollars and fifty cents put at interest, at seven per cent; and doubling, as it wii|^.^at the end of about every fourteen years, give upwards of forty dollars at the end pf sixty years; of course there would be a saving of about seven dollar^^and a half o£ capital, by majiing the Wraths t)n thi^ cheaper construction^ 7 The mpst -costly construction of the sftiall idrains would be such as we have belore describjed foR the leaders; but ©n a smaHer scale. The cheaper constructions are, to dig them very narrow at the bottom, and then lay in some sub- stances through which the waters can readily find their way into.^the leaders. For this purpose, very coarse gravel, which coiitain^ little or no mixture at fine earthy mauer, has been successfully usfed, and this generally forms a very durable drain. 160 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. The next best method, perhaps, is to- lay in a proper quantity of the smaller |imbs hi trees. Instances are men- tioned^.by British Wriier, where the small Hnibs and twigs of the beach, and ot the willow^ had lain in the bottoms of diai^ for forty years, and were Still tolerably sound. They sfiould be laid down in a green state, and in quantity sufficient for all the waters of the drain to pass easily through them; and should be covered with, a thin layer of straw, or other fit ingredient, to keep th^* earth, when tht^wn on, froip falling down among thera, and thus imped* ing the waters in^ their course, .^ * Another method is, to lay a large roll or rope of twisted straw, say, four inches in diameter, along in the bottom of the drain; and theti^ throw in the earth. The waters, in this case, at first find Their way through the straw : But this soon rots away,- and leayes a circular aperture, which is the best shape for preventing the earth pn thd upper side from falling in. t This kind of drain willlas^ fbrty years or niore. In this' Cfise, however, it would seem that the descent of the dranis should not be too rapid ,3^stt the waters Wash away Seme of the earth, and thus even||^lly stop the apertures. Another rnethod is, to cut the drain about fob r inches wide at' the bottom, apd widening from that for eight or ten inches upwards; then take pieces of the sward, which n^^st be laid asiide for the purpose, and cut them into a wedg^ing shape, so that when laid into ihe dralh, with the grass-side downwards, they will onl^ go within about four inehes of the , bottom, thu^ forming an aperture t»^low for the passage of ahe waters. This kind of drain, U is said by British Writers, Avill last about forty years. We will;^ mention another method of carrying off the superabundant y^tet-s, of mowing and of pasture-land, that is often foUnd very bentficial to the pasture, or to th& growing crops of grass: This is to run furrows with the plough, at suitable distances apart, and in proper directions, though the land&; then dig out narrow channels, say^ three ino»es wide, and as txiany deep, in the bottoms of the"' fun rows; and then lay the S»[ard, turned over by th^ pbugh, back ill' its proper place. W jk^ If this operation be properly performed, |^i,^y often, be found very serviceable, especially where .j^hetiVy xattie, < or carriages^ are not suffered to go on the ground, 'i^- Someiirtie,s lands may require hollow-draining, which are so shaped ast to have no natural outlet for the waters. In such cjse, let a hole be dug in the lowest p^rt of the land, till a stratum oT course sand, of gravel, can be found, if at any re(iso9able depth: Then fill up*the hole with stones, as before nb'entiont;d, and carry the drains into it, where the \V4ter3 will sink away in th^ sand or gravel below. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 16 1 III Greatbritain, where lands are dearer, and labor cheaper, thap in this Country, hollow-draining h^ been found a very profitable improvement of wet soils?'' That Country, however, has a much moister climate th|in this ; and, of course, much of the upland soils there are longer in a wet state, than in thi^'Couniry. We have, however, conhiderable lands which would be much improved by hollow-draining : But the essential in- quiry is, would not the expense overbalance t-he additional value tonfered on the lands by the operation ? la many cases, most probably, it would : In otjiers, again, we think tJhie ihnprovement would be found profitable; particularly if the operation were performed in the cheapest manner. Machinery may easily be contrived for the purpose of cuting the drains, and of closing them again, principally by the labor of Harses, or Oxen, which might be a great saving in the expense, ^ ji Bridges, on the construction of the hollow- drain,^ may often be advantageously used for passing over dirches, and smah streams. For this purpose, a suitable quantity of stones are Mo be thro v/n into the ditch, or channel ot the stream, and the chinks filled up, as bclore mentioned, and coii'ered with earth, and a durable" brio ge is nwide. The waters of the ditch or stream pass underneath among Vfie stones. Hop (Hamulus.) This plant requires a rich mellow soil, well pr'epkred by dicing or dee^5 ploughing. Bog- meadows are good for raising it. The plants are raiji^d in hills, six or seven feet apart, where the soil is not very rich, and at a greater distance, >feher The thicker the bag the better tb^y will keep, -s^ ^^■ To bag thehi, a hole is made through %n upper floor, to ♦which the open bag is suspended; the hops are thrown in, in small quantities at once^ and trod down as hard as possible; for the harder the better. When full, sow the bag up as light as possible. Mind to make four handles to the bag^ one at each corner. -They are made by tying -a handful! of hops in seach corner, so as ta ^rm knobS| • whicbi miyr easily be held^in the hand. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 163 The best poles are those which will la^f longest. ..Ches- nut is on this account to be prefered. They are to Be laid under cover, while not in use. Each pole should have three vines, and all above this should be broken off in the Spring. * * A hop- garden, says Mr. Young', will last almost forever, by renewing the hills that now and then fail; but the better way is ta grub it up, and new plant it, about every twenty- fi^qVyears. 'Mats made of the splinters of ash will answer as well as't those made of hair, for the purpose of being used in kilns for drying the hops. The seed of the hops is ihfe strongest part; and therefore they should always be g^^githered so soon, that these will'not fallout in gathering^ -- ^y. The long^, white h^'p. Is most esteemed, as yielding the §atest quantity and being the most beautiful. Care/^bould t^Uken to have tiie hops ail of otie/kind ; for, if there bs erent sorts, some will probably- ripen before others. Some say th%t the hills in the hop-yard should be covered with manure every Fall, to preserve the roots from the frqsts; but this may pfobably be the suggestion of those wh'0 are often so minutely nice, that their practice is fiot Warranted by the expense. Experience, however, is the bes^ g:uide in thesfe matters. /;f^ 4^ The culture of hops is very profitable. At the price Uiey command in this Country, ap acre^f them, well culti- vated, will amoCmt to two or three hundred dollars, and the expense, to the acre, of raising them will not he more than one hundred. Nor need the Farmer be fearful of a want {^market for them, as they are always a good article for eicportaiion, if not wanted at home, HORN-DISTEMPER. ^e^NEAT-c attle. - HORSE. The marks of a good Hors6 are, a high neck, full breast, a lively eye, a strong^c^ stiff dock, fUU but-' tocks, ribs reacj^in.^ near to th?^%ips, ^good hoofs, and a gofod gait. "''■^" "' „ ' ■ •■ \ - M Something has already been, said of Colts, and of the manner in which they ought t6 be treated while they are * \ acquiring their growth. See Foals. ^ . "^ ^ The next point is to tre^ of them as Horses ; and here^jf matter of the first consecjwince is, to break them well. The common method of foixibly breaking thein is absurd in practice, and often dangerous to him*that Undertakl^ it. In this case, a^ in most others^ gentle means are best. First, let a young Horse be tamed by leading ^ith ^'bridle; 364 FARMER^ » ASSISTANT. then saddle hifirt^^d lead him about smartly so as to make him trot ; then put weights in the saddle, adding more and more till he carries the lull weight of a Man. It he be very fractious, lead him with another Horse. After he has been broke to leading wellj and ca<^fyjng burdens, let him be gently mounted, while some Person holds him, and rode about in a ploughed field, with another Horse before him^ if necessary, until he learns to go by himself. * In teaching a young Horse to draw, the same gentlciress % should be used ; first putmg hina with a gentle Horse that is true to draw.; then loading him lightly, and gradually heavier, till he has learned, like his teliow, to exert his lotmost strength. ' ; - ^ y , Horses should have, at dry pasture^ and a good shade in it. yir-.L^ffommedieu makes mention of ;a Horse which was always kept m a dry poof pasture of^ild gpas6 ; and yet was always fat; and the reason assigned for this was, that the Horse, for want of water, learned to- feed at nig|||^ when the dew is on^ which ' renders the grass more nourishing. The best method of keeping working Horses in Summer, where it can be conveniently done, is to soil them ; tha,t is, to ifeed tliem in stables, cuting and carrying in grass to feed them. The grass should be cut atid carried in during the morning, while the dew is on. They should also have a yard adjoining the stable, in which they may run at large at times. This pjis^i^tice is a great saving of pasture-land; the Horses will ke^p much better, aqd they are always at band for service. Clover, whether green or dry, is^' considered one of the most nourishing grasses for Horses j Uut^ if clover-hay b^ fed to them for some time, it piroduees too great a degrejp of looseness. Clover and timothy together is therefore the best. When grain is giveniJheiln, let'^'it be either ground, or boiled. A Horse never should be exercised so severely as to make him sweat prcjfusfjly; or, if he be, let him be well covered until his #;in ^d hair be dried, ^nd in the mean time thoroughly rubed down. He should at^^l times be k^pt clean, and his skin curried, but not too severely. A very common error with Fiirmers is, to \Mtp more Horses than they want, and to kee|J them all' but poorly; but the reverse of this only can be called economy. Keep but few Horses, and' keep them well. On a stock or dairy- farm, of a hundred acres, two< I^rses, if properly kept, are sufficient; and double that number istenough op a farm of tNe )same lizc that is kept under the plough ; or rather, on luch farm, two HorsQji and a yo^e of Oxen may, per- Siaps, bfe fouod advisable. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. , 165 When a Horse is on a journey, he sho^be fed. with hay and provender, and not turned out Jfo gr^s at evening, tor his joints to be stiffened by the dampness and cold ot the night, after the warm and severe exercises of the day. Tp prepare him for a journey, he ought al^o to be previously kept to hay, with provender, and have moderate daily exer- cise, in order that his fat may become more' splid, and of course his body better enured to fatigue., Hef ought also to be shod sonje days before, in order, that the shoes may become easy to his feet. ' - v W^' . # It would be desirable to have a remedy 'Tor the dryness of hay, so as to render it a more agreeable food for Horses. Set a basket of snow before a Horse, whilQ at hay, and he will take a mouthful of hay and then of snow, afiernately ; which shows that aomething is needed to supply the vjraste of .saliva which. i*Aftbsorbed by the hay while eating. In Summer, Horses might have Water constantly before them, but :the coldness of Winter precludes any substitute but snow, unless something pf this kind should ,b|;foiiHd*r in feeding 'plentifully, with carrots. These they are fpnd of, and it is fouad that they will keep thenar as well as oats, and fate n those that are lean. Some other kinds of roots would, perhaps, answer equally v/ell, particularly >|;hen steamed. ' ; It is chiefly wl^at imay be called a comfortable, state of eXjistence, or a freeness from. suffe^|ig, vv^hich occa?^ions a H6r$e to grow fat f and therefore, th^J^ss they suffer from thirst, from want of agreeable fopd, oi^lsbmfortable stabling, or from too severe exercise, the easier they may be kept in good order. These things -are apt to be little ^attended to; «d in this way animals entrusted , to our care^ which it is ^ duty to make comfortable while they exist, are oft^n glected and left to suflper. A disorder, cajled Ftycflisiriy h?is for some,^ears past been gaining ground among Horsed in Pennsylvania', and is ex- tending to those of this State: Thisis an excessive water- ing or slavering at the mouth, wj^ch prevail8,^«iostly during* the middle aud latter pait of th§'%rowihg season, and t^nds very much to impoverish these animals, and sometimes even kills them. Various causes have been assigned for this.; b^t none of t|iem satisfactory. There is, however^ a certain remedy for the disorder; this is to soil the Horses. 5'(?e Soiling^ 8e^. * And to sprinkle thb grass thus fed to them with a small quantity of some grain, suitable for them, ground fine. This remedy has the peculiar advantage of^being one that is profitable, where some iHiitable grass i'i kept for soiling. 166 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. .^Mr. Peters s^t$*that this jdisease q( Horses prevailed ia Pennsylvania, before the introduction of gypsum as a ma- nure in., that Stale; and thinks iW the true cause of the disorder has not yet been truly ascertained, as hay made of th« second growth of grass frequently produces it. He finds alsoy that soiling Horses on red^clover, when this grass has become rather too much ripened, frequently ha| the same effect. ^ ^ ^ Mr. I^rlec contends, however, from the restjlt of exper-' •aments he has i^ade, that the plant called Euphorbia Macu- Hata^ growing among, red-clover, produces the. complaint; and that this plant will also produce a sirr.ilar effect, when eaten by other animals. It is of an acrid and ^poisonous nature. ; Dr. Mease makes mention of a mill used in Pennsylvania, for grinding Indian corn together wi^? the cob, which is much approved, where it is in practice, for makiog a more valoable food for Horses, than grain ground in any„other way/j as thp^cobs ©f themselves /^possess considerable nutri- ment; while, at th€f same/tim«, as Dr. Mease observes, this inerease of.bulk serves to afford the stimulus of distension, which is as necessary, for either Man or beast, as the nuJuri- mental parts of food. ^ " V No dotjbt the same method of managing this grain wauld be found (equally advantageous ^for fating other gattle. It is also foundjha&iimeal, of all sort?, when fermented and baked, will go twice as far in feeding Horses, or other cattle, as that which has not undiergone these operations. l^ord Dundonald recommends malting of grain, before feeding to Horses, in order to fix its sacharine quality. When the teeth of an old Horse meet together they pr(^, ject outward, so as nearly to form a right angle ; those o^ young Horse meet almost perpondicularty ; those of a mid- dle-age are a niedium between the former and latter; so that the age of a Horse can be very nearly ascertained by attention to these circumstances. The lips also of a young Horse are firm and hard, and his mouth is very fleshy with- in the palate. The Tips pffAti old Horse are soft and flabby, and easy to turn up, and his mouth is lean dfy^ye. and below the palate, and seems only to have the skin over the bones. The teeth of the young Horse are usually short; of those that are old, usually ;long ; though these signs are not always cenaini The eye of an old Horse usually s^ppears sunken; that of the young more full. The endsx)f the teeth of a two- year-old Horse have no black spots; at three, they have two of these in the two middle under teeth ; at lour, they have four such spots; at five, they have six, each front tooth then having one i and at six these spots disappear ia FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 167 the four middle teeth, and ar^ only seen in the two next the tusks, vhich a(t th^age of five makejtheir appearance. Those well experienced in thefee matters have other signs, by which they can judge pretty nearly of the age of si Horse, after he has passed six years, but not with cer» lainty. - ' See further, Mares, and Foals, Sec. For the diseases of Horses, see BoT\toRMs, False quarter, FarcY, Found- ERFNG, Gigs. Glatj^ers, Gripes, HiderounI), Lampas, PoLi^EviL, Scratches, Spavin, Staggers, Strain, Sur- feit, Tumor, Vives, Ulcer, Wheezin^, Windgall, and Yello^vs; . '^ When Horses, by long journeys pr otherwise, have the skin rubed off tlieir backs, let a little dry wbitelead be occasionally sprinkled over the raw flesh, which lyiM soon heal the sore. Persons on jourpieys ought always- to carry some of this articlilwith them, for this^ purpose. Whea the withers of the Horse are wrung, and swelled by means of bad saddles or otherwise, the swelling may^ be allayed by washing the part' with brine, or with sak and blaci- soap mixed together, applied t^the swelling. Any restringent, such as alum be^t up with the white of eggs, is also good- • - ' y HORSE-HOE. This is a kind of plough invented by Mr. Tull. It differs from th6 one-horse pldtigh, in having shafts like those ot-^^a one-horse carriage, and the plough is regulated in a great degree by the shafts, so that much de- pends on the steadiness of the Horse. ""^ r The shafts §erve to regv^ate the depth the^plough !§ to run. They are- more convenient in turning, as there are no t^e-ropes, or chains, usfed in drawing, for the Hor^e to '^ his legs over. ' ' See further, Ptou^GHi- y> IMPROVEMENT of LAND. This is to be effected in various ways, and by^ variotis means. Some lands are naturally sterile from the want of moisture^ some, from having too much of this; some, from being^destitute of cer- taia ingredients in the soil; and some, from being too rough and stony for any profit in tillage-. ' ■' • i 16$ FARMER^s ASSISTANT. ,! In the SoiiUiern States, too, tlrere is much land that has ISlcome sterile % severe cropirig t(^ tobacco and Indidti corn; and, by being left bare, has Washed much into gul- lies by the rains. Many dry^ sandy, anjd gravelly tracts may be converted into a state of fertility, by the addition of clay or marie to the soil. . ,. v* See Manures. -#*'' T' •-'> There are also particular passes th«t flourish in vei-y ^^fej^ soils, whith would enable thfe Farmer successfullylo pur- sue the soiling-system of culturer in such lands. '5eotherrententive earth, as much as one hundred loads tQ4he acre are usually requisite in the first instance tor such soils ; and tlien, with the aid of clover, and other grasses suitable tb* thenj, and with gypsum, and the manure which the cattle afford, nfi'ad^ into suitable conm- posts, or oiherwise, they will be found very pleasant and pro- fitable lands for sucKgi^owihs as are suitaWe to ihetti. And they will b^found suitable toe, most crpps» even for wheat, where It is so\V'ed on a clowerswV^ turned under. After such soils have thus been made suflicietitly reten- tive of .moisture, they will, perhaps, be foynd^s profitabfe for Guliiva^tion as almost any soil whatever ; auid for this reason, I hat, although they will atteHvards require more ejtpense in manuring, than is requisite in the stronger soils; yet tliis expenditure will be found bulanced by the gieat^r ea&e with AY^iiicli ilxey can bq ,pioptrly filed, by ploughing, lor'grOwini^ of cropsV - They rtquire but Intie ploughing, and but little strength is requisite for perVorming it. In most cases, one plough ing, ii properly performed, is sufficient; or two^ at most, will only be found riiecessary. - Where a clover- sward of such soil is to he turntd under, two Horses will befoujtd requisite;' biit for merely stint) g tiife ground up, where th^re is\fiO sward, the strength of one good Hors«, or of twii'iA^ses,' will be fotind fully adequate. "^/V-^e Ass br'%he (double plough, which turns two furrows at once, may be used in' such case, and drawn by tivo Horses or two Oxen. See Plough. . . .. In the counties of Albany, SxAenectady, Saratoga, and ^13B^" there are plains of I'g^it sandy lands, lo the extent of^P^haps one hundred thousand acrjgs, which, if they were improved, and cultivated, in the mapner just, described, woiild pfobably give amplt^ employ and supportj' to at least one thousand Farmers; while, at present, those lands are .almost wholly unproductive. And, as far as those tracts have colne under our observation>y bringing poor sandy lands, of the above de- scription, under profitable cultivation, by the aid of clays, pjr clayey marks, for manuring them. A marie having maclii sand combined with it would be unfit for this purpose. It is only the tolerably level parts of such lands, which should be selected for thus improving. Those which are broketi are generally too sterile, arid to little retentive of manure, to be inrtproved to any advantage, otherwise tbanlby planting them with locust, for which they are verjf well adapted. ^ ^ Sometimes, ioo, If me parts of such soils will be found closely underlaid with a sand too coarse to b^ tnade suffi- ciently retentive, by any. reasonable expense ; these should therefore be cultivated v/ith the locust, or perhaps with fruit trees, if they will thrive Oil such soils. Our sea-coast abounds, in many |)laces, with much sandy lands, which need improving in the nianper ju^i mentioriCd. Under Manures, the Reader will also find some hints, relative to a method which might probably be advantage- ously adopted, for improving all landsf which lie adjoitiing, or near, every seasiiore, by manuring them with sea- water. ' ^^ Where laj^^s are |oo retentive of moisture, and at the same time not too leve^ nor too steeps they may^ be *g^^e|ytly benefited by hollow-drains. , s^f •See Hollow-drains. '^ : »# ' Where they are flat meadows, marshes, or morasses, they are to be laid dry by open drains. See BoGMEADOws and Ditches. V Where they Re too 1^ for any draining of this kind, they are either to be raised by the means of warfiii^BMr the water is .tp be raised out of the ditches, for the pur^6se of being thrpyvn back into the river, ocean, or elsewhere, whence theyicame, by the means of wind- machinery. In this noanner, a-large proportion of flolland h^s been redeemecl from the ocean ; atid x:onsiderable tracts in Cam- bridgeshire and Lincoliishire, in England, have in like man- ner been made yery pl^ductive for grass. ' In this case, the ditches, which are to^lbe large and pro- portioned to the extent bf the tract drained off, ar^ to be run to that point where it* is most convenient 'to raise the waters out of them by wind-machinery, to be carried off. But, in order to dp this, a dyke, or bank, is first to be rais« ed round that part of the land ar' joining the side whence it is overflowed; or, if it be an island, it is to be banked all round. The bank ^?, to be of a height and thickness suita- ble to the weight and turbulence of the walers it may a' times have to eiteouater from without. J FARMER'S ASSISTANT. in «^ It is, ad visible to plant the outside of these ban^p« with trie shrub-willow, which grows along the bdinljLS of the low- land^s ot many ot the small rivers oi this Country Y but by no means should such banjos be planted with trees ot large growth, as these are liable to be upset by the winds, and Jtijght thus do great mischief, by leting in the adjacent waters. ^ ^ There are many tracts of marshy lan^s on our sea-shores, Which might be rendefred very valuable by Wing; thus im- bariked, then ditthed, and having the Waters, of the di^tches thrown over the banks, by th& aid of wind-machinery. See that article. Between Hoboken and Newark,' in 'Newjersey, is a large tratt of this description. Such larlds being strongly;- im- pregnated with the baits of the ocean, ai'e generally very tertile> where they arfc laid Bufficienily dry for the plough; and, in sucli ease, if they are laid down with meadow-cats- tail, or other grass suitable to the 'soil, 'they will yield dou- ble, perhaps treble, the amount which they bore otthe salt- grass, with which they were covered in their naturlal sta^e., „. •■ . •■.. ■ " ■ ' In the county of 'Orange is a very .large tract, called the druwned- lands i which never can be effectually drained, but by in« method above meniioned;, anci the same may be ob- served of another large tract, adjoining the Sacondaga fiVei^r in the county of Montgomery. The like observation may be applied to the great tracts of marshy and swampy lands on the Senaca river; to the tract called the Tonnt' %vanta swamfi; and to many/Other tracts, ^within and vvithoiit this State, which need not be, here designated. Another greatimprovement of swasmpy lands iS effected Siming them, after laying them dry by ditching. It is icularly Useful in all grounds which are cohered with a peiaty or turfy matter, from which Httie or no vegetation is to be expected^ . By mixing^Jime with surfaces of this description, a fur- ther decomposiuon of this vegetable matter tak«s place, and it becomes reduced to a solid and fertile mould, capable ot sustaining vigorous growths of plants suited to siich soils. But this is j^^^the only benefit derived from the process; as the lime de'siiiys the mzaswa whith is often so abundant- ly produced in 'such soils, as to render them the seats of P^stiknce and disease, j ^ The liming of swamps for the double purpose of render- ing , them healthy, and increasing their fertility, was first suggested by .Linriceus, and is said to have been of late yery successfully practised in Greatbritain. ^ee Manub-es, for- the quantity of lime to be used. 172 FARMER^ ASSISTANT. ^ Along the baj^s ot rivej^^*^any« IpW tracts^ of 1^3 may be greatly^Jnnproved, by raising them higher with the sediment OT'^he waters. In this way, much has been done on the banks of the Don, thfe Ouse, and the Trent; iu Greatbritain The land which is thus to be raised has, first, a dyke or bank.Mhrown up round it, similar to that just de- scribed, for the purpose of keeping put the waters of th6 river, ..except at the place where a j^ie is to be erected to let them in. When they are to be let in, that is, when ihey are muddy and haye considerable s*ediment to deposit, the gate is to be raided ; ^nd, after the sediment ha$ beervde- positcd, they are kt off again; and a new supply is t;aken in at the next tide, or at the next flood, a« the case may be. Mention is made, by the Gompilers of ' The, Complete Griizier,' of lands on some of the tide^waterb of Greatbritain having been raised two^eet higher, by this method, in a short time. The progress to be made in thus raising the' land must, however, depend on the depth to which the waters cover the land, the quantity of mud or sediment they contain, and to the irequencTy with which the land can thu^ be flooded. The sediment which is thus deposited tnakes ^. ver^y fer- tile soil; but most fertile where it is the sediment of tide- waters near t.he ocean; as in,v that case the soil, thus made, must be strongly impregnated with th^ salt of that wa^eu. Probably little or nothing could, in this way, bjC^/ effected by the tides of our rivers ; as the tides here do not gene- l~ally rise sufficiently high, to prodijce a current so rapid as to stir up mud for ibrmjng much sediment: But there is every reason to believe, that much of our low, swampy, intervale gro.unds might be greatly benefited, by leting.in the waters of the adjacent river, duripg a i^ood, and haviftg the sediment all deposited before they were let off again. ^. Bkji tills plan appears to , bis admirably- calculated for filliirg up the vast swamps, which abound so much oh the Missouri and the Mississippi. Those rivers, during high v/aier, contain a greater proportion of mud than perhaps aLiy pihe;t: streams; and at this time the waters can readi- ly be^ycarried through the leve.es, into the lower back *; rounds, after they have been properly innbanked; and, in due seajjori, 4et off again, eitheTr into the bayous, where these are fouiid, or into the rivers, after the waters have subsided. ^ : ^^ In this way, it v/ould seem that the immense intervales, which every where border on those sireannfs, may be re- deemed from the dominion of the waters; that the same sediment .which serves,, in the first instance, to raise the laiids higher, may afterwards be used, when necessary, for i^ARMER's ASSISTANT. 173 the purpose of mandring them ; and thXis^ a secdtid Egypt may be ^tificially created, of vastly greater ejctent than the tract of land which^ is enriched by tM ^overHowings ot the 'Lands whi6h are liable to be ibuivdated, by the rise of rivers, may also be protected from the" waters, by imbank- ments'.on each side of the streams; tvhich is the method adopted on the cultivated parts, of the Mississippi, on a great e;xtent of the Euph^-jbites; artd on many other streams < and* during the season of hi^p waters, great care is re- quisite to prevent their breaking through the banks, and ''/tiius rhundating the adjacent lands. Much lands in their natural state are found covered with a turf or peat substance, and sometimes of very considera- ,b]e h'tckness, particularly those^ which are more elevated, and in raakre;>n.orthern latitujdes. Large tracts of the high ,Jands» which lie northerly of the settled parts of Herkimer "and M5ntgomery counties, are ot that description ^ The soils thus covered ar« usually of pretty good quality ; gen- ;. eraliy best fiie^ for grass, however; though sometimes they are merely poor s£(nds. . _= The mass with, which they ar« covered appears to be a .mixture of wood and vegetable matter, which has only un- dergone a panial decomposition ;. owing, probably, to the coolness of the surrounding atmosphere, which: is formed^ by the shade of a thick growth of wood;, for, if this be cut away, %nd the sun let in, this mass will gradually undergo a further decomposition, and at length be so reduced in bulk that it can be mixed, by the .plough, with the soil be- neath, and thus rendered productive.- THis m^ss, also, when mixed with a due proportion of ';^me, in composts, will undergo a rapid decomposition, and thus be rendered a good manure. /^ . , The bringing of si^ch lands under jdultivatipn can only be, effected gradually; time must be aHowed for the purpose. The heavy growths ot timber with which, in this Country, th^y abound, may be exhausted in manufactpries, of various kinds, which require the use of much fuel; ahd as the heat bf the sun v^iH, in due season, .dissipate the intupiibrance Which covers'tht soil, it can,' at length, be brought under that cultivatlc^ to which it is best syited. Such groundjsi even in their crude state^ will, howtver, bear tolerably gop^ ^Vop^ of potatoes. /"'{^. . . Low morasses are frequeotfy composed, of turf, or p^t. See those articles. ^ If such latids can be flooded, by wey iti^, thijs be converted into fee lands. 174. FARMER'I ASSISTANti^ Mention is ^n^adfc of this having be^n succcSsfullfipeT. formed, in Gr^isitbritain, whife thp water: wasN brought a considerable distance; and also of grounds of this descrip- tion having been made fine meadowlands, by m«ans of the most approved method of irrigation practised in that ^ Country. See Water. If ^uch grounds cannot be improved in either of these ways, they may be renderred tolerably good for grass, by frequent ploughings, in order connpletely to rot the surface, and manuring it pleniifuUy with sand, or other suitable earth* Sometimes lands of very good soil are found too closely underiai'd with limestone, or other rock, to be sufficiently retentive of moisture, in times of drought. Such: may^ nevertheless, answer very well for , orcharding, for the smaller fruit-trees, or for pastures, by having considerable growths of locust, at the same time- on the groupds, as these will, in a great degree^ prevent the effects of drought Lands which are very rockyj or stoney,,may still be very valuable for frult-trees, for pastures, 8cc. The clearing such - of these incumbrances is sometimes a matter of no sma]l difficulty ; and U is always advisable to calculate, whether the additional value of the land/ when cleared, will warrant the expense,' an additional inducement, however, for incuring the expense^ is^ that' these incumbrances are usually good materials for making the rnbst substantial kind of fence. ■ The Southern Planter often finds himself in possession of large tracts of lands, which have been exhausted by the constant culture of tobacco, and Indian corn. These tracts ajce frequently turned to commons, and dk^ .then called o/rf- ^ild. In this exhausted state they, perhaps, do not^teld ftie Owner six cents an acre, by the year. How shall he*; ^ re^novate tliese lands, and thus restore tertility and beauty t^ some of tlie fairest portions ot the earth, which have b^en blasted and desolated by the hand of ?vlan ? V ^ Th6 Planter must change his mode of culture ;' he ' must pursue a system a^'good, as that which laid his lands waste was bdd- He must keep his lands well stocktd with clover, DP other good grass, and keep as many cattle as he can find ni^ans of supporting, in order to enable himself to make as much manure as possible. He must feed his^ lands t^ith every Idnd of manure which is proper for them ; pur- sue the soiling-ci^lture, as far as that may be found suitable for his grounds; plough often, and well; and he will soon find that his how barren wastes will bloorti with increasing ♦ verdure. !■ _ V Those parts, however, which have been too deeply gum- ^d^;% the rains, to be easily leveled ag^n, should be plant*- i&!mih locust, or other valuable wood. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 175 It^h?is been generally pbseryed, that when crops are suf- fered to stan^ on the ground^ uptil they have fully ripened, they/ exhaust the soil considerably more,_,than if taken off in a greener state. The same is the ca^ in regard to weeds * of every description. ifPerhaps the remark is not so fully applicable to crops of roots. It niay therejEore be said that lands are negatively im- proved^* in' a saving of their usuaV exhaustion, by taking such crops off. the ground as soon as they have attained a sufficient degree of maturity. - ^ This is a matter that is/worthy of consideratior), . especiat- ;; ly when it is remembered that several kinds ©r crops may be severed from the ground, without injury, in some cases with a saving, be'fore they have fully ripened. Thus, Irtdian corn may be cut up while the stalks are •^still green,. and set up in shocks for the ears to harden; and ; '*in this way much , good fodder will be saved. By harvesting oats while the stalks are soipewhat green, they will be the better for fodder, and the grain ^yill receive no injiiry there- by. The; saime may be observe(;i, to a certain extent, iri re- gard to crops of wheat and rye. , Flax pulled when just out of blossom is tmuclj th€ best; but in that case the seed is lost; which, howe'^fer, is not always of much account. The pea-crop is injured by stand- ing too long; as in that case the ha^^m becomes of little value. ' , ■ • ■ ' . ■' . • In short, no crops of grain derive any benefit from stand* ' in g until the stalks are completely dead, except when the grain is to be used for seed. The improVf^njent of land is also ta be effected, by vari- ous other means, which ^iU b'e treated of under different '^ ^nicies iSf this work. ' v ^ The improving of a Country in the highest degree, not only by making^ its natural barren tracts as highly product- ive as theywwl bekr; but also by adding the highest addi- tional fertilfty to the better parts; is the foundation of its wealth and prosperity. ' «, The lands of a Nation are its principal capital: If these, therefore^ become so exhauste^ior be suffered to remain so little improved, as to yield littld more in products than what is merely equal to the value of the labor bestowed on them, the condition of that Nation must, in general, be poor; that of its Farmers, in particular, dan be but little better than that of the Laborer who has to ^arn his daily bread. But if the lands be generally so improved, and enriched, aauo yield-twenty dollars in product, for every ten dollars bestowed upon them in labor; then the Farmer may g^ow ricb,;and his affluence will be more or less felt by all plasses ^ of Community. % 176 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. By hif!;h\y improving a Country, ^also,. its populatioti, may be doubled ort^Jtrhaps trebled ;, aftd, by^hus bringincj the. Members of community closer together, much labor is saved in ihelf necej^^ary intercourse; much in going to Church, tb Mill, and to Market. -^ Great natiorial work^, in constructing catials, roads, bridi^es, &c. wtfll benefit a greater number of l*eopje, in prop6t^tion to the expense^ and national,defence, in war, is. much more costly, for a widely-extended papulation," ihan that which is compact, as we have found by experience. Good culture, when bestowed on highly improved lands, may be said to be a source of rational pleasure; while that which is usually given to lands which are but poorly im- proved, is most commonly productive oi> mijch toil, and vexation. ' . , ^ ^ ; "*** IN*AJRCHING. Sometimes called., ^raft^ng By approach, It is the joining of twt) young trees together, that sf md ^ sufficiently near each other ior that purpose A part of each, of ,the sa^e length and width, is to be cut away, so Ihatj when the trees are brought together, the pared edges of the rinds will exactly join, A tongue shoiild be rrtade in the one, and a sUt in the-dther to receive it; to keep the parts from sliping, they are: to be bound firrhly togethiar, and coated with wet loam, or otherwise, as is directed in Grafting. After about four months, tliey will be so well joined that the top or bonom of either part may b|% taken away at pleasure ; so that in thi^ way the tap of ane* tree may be set on the stock of another. Let t)^e parts taken away be cut pfetjy close arid sloping, and cov^r the ends with F,orsyth's comfpo^ition, or with a coat of wet foam. ' ',. ' .•■ • ^, Tbis operation is to be performed in April or May, andS' is' commonly practised upon myrtles, jassmint s, walnuts, firs, pines, and other t re el, that will not succeed by com- mon grafting. Forsyt/i, hoy/ 6\Gr, observes, that the trees thus reared; will be 4vcakly. ^ INDIAN CORN fZfa J This plant is a native of this Country^ ahd seems tp be a^dapted to every part of it th^t is tolerable to be inhabited. There is but one species of it, though m^ny varieties, owing perhaps principally to (he variations of climate. It requires a warm Summer, and this is afforded even beyond, the most northerly parts of our territory. It is a very valuable grain for. almost 6 very pur- pose; its great increase when properly cultivat^jd, and the trifle that is rpquired for seed, must ever render it a favot-ite of the Poor, as well as an ankle of profit with the WeaUhy. tARMER*#*ASSISTANf; 177 The ;^praises, of ^ thehasi^/rudciing* have been deservedly sung; and surely tffosc, at least, whdse f bones arcLjtnade of Injjkp^o'^"/ will readily assent to the'- Axithor of < The Wealth 'of Nations' obseryes, that those of the Irish, whose principal food is pptjitoes and liiilk, are the handsomest and best-made of any P<;ople in Greatbritain : "But, in point of^tasie, the hasiypudding is very far superior; ancl is j)robably better caiculaied to nur- ture rising,^ generations of the first' order, such as, with proper cul'vure,' will be better fited to be .» the Lorlcis of human kind/ than -those vi^ho arrogantly assume this pre- eminence. ; ^ " In Kentucky, and elsewhere on the rich lands of the Ohio, a hundred bushels of Indian corn are frequently raisedto, the acre. Tbis^ has" also' been done iii this county (Herkimer); but so great a crop in tjiis northern climate \s not to be. expected, un^less on some chosen spots, and where the best cultivation is besfowed. Two very Ic-rge crops which were raised near the ciiy of Newyoik, some ^ears since, deserve, however^ to be noticed^ as specimciiS ^f what ^ood culture i» capable of ^producing in this 'State. ■ -^ ■■ . ^c ■/ ' ^ ■ ; ■ Mr. Sicvensj who raised the largest of these crops, each hfirig the product of- three acres, ploui^hcd his groiu.d thrOT times, and previous to the last phiuiihing caned on seven hundred horsecart»loads of street-mcinure., He pUiu- ed his seed in double rows/about eight inches apart, and the seeds v/ere set, diagonally, (he same distance from each other.: Between each of these; double rows was left 0;^ pace of five and a half feet. *- During the season, the crop was . suckered tiiree tim^s, and the intervals were repeatedly ploughed^ and kep^t clear of weeds by hoeing and hand- weeding. His product was one hundred and etglueen , biishiels to the acre; and it Woiild probab]y have b« en great- er,. had not a tHunder-storm injured it,, by blowing most ^ of it .down at the time the ears were seting; 1^ Mr._Xwf//ou', who raised the tt"ier crop, had ninety-eight *• bushels to tiTe acre. He, however, carted only two hyn- dred loads upon his three acrss^ He plahted-his seed in single rovys, which were four feet apart, with the grain- set eightanches asunder, Probably the reasCDof this c!\ i 178 FARMER's^ASSISTANT. being less than tne other was on account of less manure having been-carted on; ^a it is doubltul whether jilanting in tlouble rows is better than planting in single. Froq||aU!this, it appears, that a greater quantity of Indian corw cMbe raised on an acre, than of aqy othfel* grain; land, considering its nutrinoental qualities, it i;iiay- safely be said that, next to rice, a given piece of ground cultivatedl^ with this grain will support a greater huniber of Pebble, than th?it which is cultivated with any other grain what- ;ever. ■»'■■ ^ >'. The proper ^oils for thi^ grain arethe sandV, sandy loam, gravelly-loam, and rieh red. or!* d^rk colored earihs, which have no clay in them. vStifF clays are very unfit; for this crop, and cold or wet loams are not qiiuch better, ^nless well managed • ■ ,/ ' " ' See Cux^bE of Crops, for the best method of managing such soils. Where swardland is intended for Indian corn, it shout<| be broken up in the Fall; and, if it be a stiff or wetish soifi it shouid be thrown up in high narrovir ridges by a^second ploughing, in the Spring, t!ie ground should be well mel- lowed with ploughing immediately before planting. What- ever fresh barn-dung is to be appHf^d, should be ploughed in. Planting in rows, agreeably to the methods before de- scribed, is best, as in this way about one-sixth part more can be raised from the acre. - , As soon as the plants liave got to the height of six or eight inches, run a furrow, with aoneh'orse plough, as close to the rows as possible wivhoyt iirjuring the roots, tur>iing-: the furroWs from the plants, then immediately turn the fur- rows back airam,,so'as effectually to mellow the mold into which the roots are shortly to extend. Let this ploughing be of a good depth: The hoe is to follow and complete;th? dressing. In due season, the plough is again to be applied, tuning the furrows farther from the plants, and turning the*m towards them j which, is again to be followed by the hoe.. ^ , ... After this, another hoeing should be given for the pur- ;pbse of extirpating all th« after-groWtli of weeds, .yhic^h in old ground are apt to spring up; bur any further ploughing, unless at a considerable distance from the rows, will be found of little use to the roots; and the stalks, which are now very tender, will be easily braken. - In raising this crop, the essjential points in tilling the ground are, to keep it; mellow and clear of weeds ; and, tberetore, ploughing immediately before planting, and then again siiring all the ground that can be stired, by first ploughing closely from the rows, and then back to them, answers the purpose ^fmellowipg most effectually. As FARMER'S AS§I§TANT. 179 •-' ■ . -,')>• •^' t^e roots extend into the ground tl^ us mellowed, that part only ijfito which they have not yet extended can, with any benefii to the roots, Receive any further ntiellowing from thf plough. ' It, is essential to have this plant started well; because, if it get stuf t'-d atthe outset by cold rains, it' seldom gets the better of this during its wi\ole growth^ p^Jflicularly ii ihe soil be not perfectly suitable to it. To prevent this, it is ad- visable to^^pply some stimulants to the plants at that time; and theybdst for this purpose are bogdirf, maile (duv^ out of bogswaVhps) ashes, and gypsunv. The Utttr ought, however, to be prefered on all soils to which it is suitable, because it is cheap.and easily applied. , Where a soil is wetisb, it ought, after being weU mel- lowed, to bejlhrown up into ridggrs, by having two furrows .^hrown up against each other,- at proper distances, and on the top of these ridges let the. seeds be planted, the Plant- ers carrying their rows crosswaya of the ridges. "^ Where lurrows are made fbi* planting, they ought to be shallow, not more than half the depth of common ploughing. It would be as well to have no furro,\v at all, but mertly to harrow the -ground smooth before' plantihg, ^nd then to plant in roivs, by a line or mark drawn along the ground 'by hand, with an instrument made for the pu^r pose. A more complete method, however, is to drill in the seed, by a light drill-plough that may be easily madel for the purpose. One of this description may be drawn by hand; and may be so contrived as to make a small furrow about two inches deep, drop the seeds at proper distances info the furrow » and cover the seeds, all in one operation. These methods, however, are for ground that is clear of stonesi If tl^s crop be harvested too early, it will lose much by shrinking; It is also found, by experimentsy that where it is toped at the usual time the crop will be considerably less, tha,n if it stand without toping. If, therefore, it be toped at all, it .ought not to be dpnte before the grains have hai;dened. It is believed that th^.best plan is to cut up the stalki by the roots, some days after the usual time for top- ing, and set it up in shocks to harden. In this mode, the ears derive the sanre nourishment from the stalk which they do wjien it is left Standing* ^ large additional quantity of valuable fodder is thus saved; while at the same time the ground is cleared of its incumbrance, SO' as to be ready for sowing a crop of wheat the same Fall. The additional labor of husking out the corn in this manner is very trifling. The shocks are to be of such siz^ ajs can be conveniently tied together at the top, by bands of straw^ in such mlhner as too keep out the rain. J80 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. The best and soundest ears sliould rt>e selected for seed, rejeciing the grains which grow neaV each end. In or^ej: to acceii^ate the growrfi of the croj), it is sometime^ advisar b!e to '^k the seed in Water a lutle warm, for about twenty iour ho,urs. Another method is to pour boiiipg water upon ii; let it stand on it "about half a minute; then cool it'as soon as possible, and plant it before it dries. In this/'manner the seed will come up rnucli' sooner'; but If there should be cold rains, im^iediaicly aiier plantings there is danger that it will hot come up at all. '" -Sc^d? Seeds, for a safe m^tliod of quickening its >growth. If the seed be smeared all. over wiih tar, aad then Tiaye ashes or gypsum sprinkled on it sufficient, to rentier it fit for handiingj and be then phUited, neither birds nor squir- rels will touch it. In ihis case, hoWever, it is necessary first ^o soak it sufficiently to make it vegetate; as, without this, the coiTt of tar will keep but the moi^iture, and prevent; tbe seed from sproiuing. \ - The proper time for planting depends on the elimate. In this S'lale, however, from the 20ih of May to the first of June, is about the best time. The old Indian rule, which perhaps is the best, is to' plant when the leaves of the oak tree have grown- as large as a squirrel's loot. A change of seed is advisable with this grain, as with all others; but a chapge of seeds grown on different soils is perhaps the most requisite. CUariges of tliis seed ouglit rat Iter to be from cast to west, b,r''from west to east, allow- ing the climate to be the same, than horn north to south, or from south to north. If it be carried ftpm the south too far to the north, the crop will be large, but will not ripen be- |6re the frosts ; and if carried from the north too4ar to the souths it will Hpen earlier than is requisite, but tlue crop will be small. But it must be remembered, that climates %cl\eri depend on altitude asvvell as on latitude. Where this crop is raised on bogmeadows, which are always sub- ject to early frosis, the seed should be brought from the northward, in order jhat it may ripen before the frosts. Of the varieties of t his jifant, those which have the long- est ears and the largest grains will yield most; but Farmers, in many situations, must have regard to that kind which ripens earliest, wnotber the most productive or not. ' The praciice of making very large hills to this crop, wliile growing, is unnecessary. The principal point in hoe- ing i?j to destroy all the weeds, drawing at the same time a lutle fresh earth round the stalks whil^ youtig. There ought, however, to be sufficient of earth eventuiiHy drawn round to support the stalks. The growth of suckers is in- jurious to the crop, and 6'Ught to be either pulled up, op bent dov/n to the ground antl covered v/ith earlrti sufhcient FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 181 to kill them; fend this is believed td /be ^ the better way, as by this mean tlie principal stalk is not injui-ed by wounding. It is said that sprinkling "Ibme gypsum on the st|k ot tlie e4r will mctke it fill to the very end. / ^^llndian ^corri will grow many successive years on the same grpuridi; but it is not advisable to platit it more thaa two years saccessively, as it is a crop which exhausts the soil. Like sonie other crops, it 'Cannot be overdone by manuring; but, on the contrary, the richer the soil the grea^l-will be the clear profit; and if the ground be l<^ft too rrcl^ for wheat or barley, it'^can be put to the more pro- fitable culture ot hemp. ' Tnis plant may be gradually habituated to a more north- erly or southerly climate. J^^br instance-, take the Virginia corn' and plant it one or two miles farther north every Sundi!» nfi«r, and by the time it has got into fcanada it will be the' smali Canada corn, 'and vice versa. - Thus tar we have thought.proper to insert this article, as it s?ood inthe first Edition ot this Work; as we see no particular reason to make any essential alteration ; though some addition to' the article may, perhaps, be ^cceptable^ ' A/method has been mentioned to us, of preventing birds and squirrels from pulling up the corn, which is to soak the seed, and then rbU it in sulphur, and plant it immediately. '.Sulphur is of itself a rnunure ; but by no means so efficai cious tor this grain ^aS gypsum ; and in this it should always ^.rolled, atter being soaked a few hours, before plantings e effect jDf this application on the growing crop livery ^reat indeed. ' ■; Perhaps 8k little sulphur mixed 'with the gypsum might render the seed sufficiently obnoxious to bifds, See. If not, perhaps the better ^ay would be to omit the sulphur, by whieiTfjKioregypsurn could be used; aiid, for preventing the ^ deprfedations of birds, he. scatter Indian corn over the field, at the rate of about two quarts to the acre, after planting; on which the birds, &c. will feed, without attempting ta pull up any pf the young plants. , In soaking the corn lor seetf^tiidd some saltpetre to the water u^ed for the purpose; and let as/much gypsum be used, in rolling the seed, as can be made to adhere to the grains. Some have pursued a method of planting rows or drills of Indian corn' and potatoes,^ alternately, to much apparent advantage; this giving the corn more room for the roots to e'xtend in search of food, without any essential injury to the intermediate drills of potatoes. Perhaps it might be, found, in some instances, as advantageou's to plant pump- VJns, as the intermediate rows. S'e? Pumpkin. 182 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. A crop of Indian corn, in tne Southern States, requires more ploughing and hoeing, tharv in the Northern, on ac- count ofiwe greater length of time requisite to mature the corn which is grown' to the south. At the same time, the souihern, corn will not yield more, to the acre, than th?it whichjs grown to the north. "'■ Would it not then be more advantageous to the Southern Planter to cultivate the tiorthern corn; as in that case less ploii^hing and hoeing would be found requisite ;. and he roig^t raise the northern corn^ after fi^st mowing a ^op of red-clover off his land; as the clover-'jward, tuinied tinder^ would be a fine lay for the corn. crop ? We observe that Mr. Bakenpell^ of Montg6mery county, Pennsylvania! derives great benefii to his corn-croii, by covering the seeds with the earth of, trench-plpughed fur- rows^ This, we think, only indicates the propriety of Irench-ploughing the land entirely ; by'.which mean double its present product would probably be obtained, of every kind of crop. We will conclude this article, with the insertion of a commutiicaiion of Mr. Steele^ of Philadelphia, to Mr. Pe- ters, describing his method dI ciiliivating Iddi.jn corn. * I plough the ground, carefully, about six inches deep ; after which J spread lime, at the rate of forty five or fifty bushels to the acre, which I nnix \Viih the sutlace, by the use of the qoramon harrow ; uren m»rk the ground, wii^j a shallow, furrow, for planting (the corifi-rows five feet api#t)-. drop the seed three or four feet from hill to hill, and cover' in the usual manner. ' ' * When the corn is up to the height of three or four ipcheS} I give ,.each rovy a stroke with a cortimon harrdw, relieving any of the pUnts, that may' be'covcred in the ope- t^ration, with a small rake adapted to th6 purpose. When this is completed, or within a few" days after, I comTlnence what is generally termed moulding. This is performed by two strokes, between the rows, with what is called a coul- ter-harrow (its teeth being coulters in miniature) which completely mellows the ground, by cuiing through the furrow, and much closer to the cprn, than it is possible with any ot^er instrument, I have used, leaving the vegeta- ble surface, turned down in the ploughing, in the' same position throughout the season, which affords, to the roots of the corn, the best soil for nourishment, in whatever di- rection they may be extended. * At the season of bigrhilling (in the technical language of Pennsylyania) I give my corn a similar course, with the sam^ machine, but with small shovels, resemblmg that of the shovel-plough, introduced into the places before occupi- ed by the coulters j when the dressing is ended. ;irx\£\iviurv a r^ooAkj x x^i-^ i. < It remains oh\y to give you some description of my corn-machineyvancl to statj^toyou my reason for adopting this method'^f raising Hmny and the consequent advan- tages, * The frame of my harrow is perhaps no way materially di|forent from that of the common triangle corn-harrow; the sides about four and a half feet long, wtl'h a spread that places the two back teeth forty-two inches' apart. The whole number of Ofeeth is seven; the front tooth in the centre, and tb« others three aside, at equal distances. A light piece of scantling U framed ipto;the sides, in front ^^^g;J>ack teeth, for the purpose of strengthening the ^rar^P^and supporting the handles. '^The c6ulter-tooth is about ten and a half or eleven inches below the timber, forming such angle with the ^shank Us to give the coulter that direction best calculated to penetrate the ground^and perform the office intended. The shovfel-tooih, beloW the shank, is about six inches in length, and toiXr and a half in breadth, projecting in that fiosition best adapted for cuting gr^ss or weeds, and generally for, cleaning and mellowing the surface. The shanks of each ^re filed to the same hole and fastened with a^ screw . on the top ; the coulter-tooth must be supported ^ith a considerable shoulder behind; otherwise it would be bent back, the resistance 'being so great as to produce a sufficient draft for two Horses. With the shovel-teetb, one Horse can travel vj^ith ease. ^ The/farm, on which I have uSed this machine, I pur= chased, in a very exhausted state, about fifteen years ago; and, -designing to improve it with lime, I deenied it of im- portance to retain the lime (which I have uniformly intro- duced with corn-crop) as much on the surface as possible, for the firj>t year. This would not have been the case, if the plough had been used; and perceiving that the rMsing of corn, in, the usual way, exposed the soil tbWash, my object was to prevent this injury by reducing the sutface to a perfect plane, havjng neither hill nor furrow. * I have uniformly found that the coulter-harrow prepared the ground to imbibe and retain a greater quantity of rain- water, than in any other way ; in addition to this advantage, that a much less surface is exposed to evaporation, than if the land had been ploughed into ridges,^ Which in a seas6n of drought aiffords a decided advantage; as in the year 1808 I had nearly, forty* bushels to the acre', when land of the same quality, in my neighborhood, farmed in the usual manner, had not half iliat quantity. * ■ ' ^ ^ ' -' . ' f * My S9;i iriforms me that the crop of 1808 exceeded forty bushels, to iliie^cre. 184 FARMER'S AbSlSTAI^T- . -. ^ ' -i-Jt ■ ' " * I have tried both Fall and Spring- ploughing, and am in- clined to prefer the latter, as I;^j^ave generally found that, by midsummer,/ the sod was aS'well rotcd in the one as' the other, and have -experienced much less trouble from the rising ofvgTass, than when the ground was ploughed in the Full, -^i' '.V,:- . '-■ " .' - ■ " ' • -■ / j The f»rm is a thin gravelly loatti, with a mixture of cltiyj and, .being in a progressive state of ifnprovement, I have jiot iilanted corn a second-time, in the same field, subse- (|uent to liming. The average crop may be^tated at forty bushels per acre; but with, a light dressing with stable-nria- nyre I have riaised sixty. The dung should be turned dq\vn ihjhe ploughing. - * In order to be somewhat particular in the account I have given you, 1 may, perhaps, have failed. in rendering the description sufBciently intelligible; but you will l^lea^^ to acctpt, it as it is, with my wish that the method I~ have yjractised may be tried by others; as, I believe ^ saving of labor would not only be gained by its adoption, but also sn increase of crop, from ten to twenty per cent, and in seasons of drouglit to a. much greater amount.' "^ ■ INDJAN. IIEMP, fJfiocynum Cannabimun.) - This plant is quite sitr.ilar to the milkweed, havirtg «« similar pod of vegetable silk, biit .smaller. It i^iffers mo^i esseniiaily from that plant in the superior strength of the cout of its steip. . .-• — .■ - ■ ' ' ■■ ' ' ;'•■■' ,' '■- ■ % < I caused (says '^v. Genet) to b,e waterroted a consider- able quantity of it, id 1814, ynd-obtained an excelent hemp, a^ white as snow, remarkable lor its strength, which proved to be double that of common hemp. - ^ ^ ■« Several of my Neighbors (says he) have assured me, th^t the ropes and y^arn made from the. fibres of that plant^ were- far superiorj for strength and durability, to those made of ilax or hemp. < That sort of apocynum, being pet^ennial, cbuld be culti- vated and multiplied with the greatest advantage,, asid,' being mo"»e natural to %1ow and overfldwed lands, could render proBiable certain pieces 6f ground which are now" totally uijprod^ictive.' ■ This plant, ' growing in its natural slate, on swards ^and in bogs, is- lower than, the milkweed ; but, cuUivated, it would probably grow^ l^'^gci', ^nd liberally reward the atten- tion paid ro its.;jimprovement.* Mr. GpTic'f also- supposes its leaves to be equally useful; witli thost: r.f liie milkweed, for the purpose ot dying, *5fe vMlLK^YEEUr FARMER*^ ASSISTANT. iS5 INDIGO. Three species of this plant are cultivated; the Wild ( Indigofera argentea) the Gautimala ( disfiermea ) and the French (tinctoria.J The f^rst-mennoned is the hardiest plant, and affords the best blue; but one of the other two species is commonly prefercd, as being more productive t and ot these, the French surpasses the Guati- mala in quantity, but yields to it in fineness of grain, and beauty of color. > ' Indigo is a tap-rooted plant, will endure severe drought, and is unsuitable for wet lands,. In the Wcstindies, it may be railed in poor dry soils; but to most advantage in those which are rich. In the Southern States, however,* it re- quires a good soil. The more southerly parts of our terri- tory are tolerably well adapted for the culture of this plant ; but it is more prodtiotive fariber to the South, particularly in many of the Westindia Islands, where it is indigenous. A bushel of the seed of this plant is sufficient for live acres. ' ^ The ground is first to be properly mellowed with the plough, and then harrowed, when the see^s may be sown with a drill, in rows, at the distance of dbout twelve or fourteen inches apart, in a manner very similar to that which is directed for the culture of onions. See Onion. And the intervals between the rows are to be kept clear of weeds, until such time as thtir further growth will be prevented by the growing crop covering the ground. it is to be sown as early in the Spring as the ground can be properly prepared; and, when the plants are in full blossom, they are to be cut ofF a few inches from the ground^ when a new growth will come to/njaturity for cut- ing, as before directed, which, in this Country, is all that can hp expected as the product of a, season. In the Westitidies, the plants ar^ cut three, and some- times four, times in a season ; but each succeeding cuting is much le^s in product than that preceding i^.yhe culiure of the crop is to be renewed every Spring, and a sufficiency of the first growth is to be left stancliti,g'yor a supply of fresh seed. , J ' After each cuting, the next process is the manufacture of the indigo, which would seem to be much the most, diffi- cult operation. , We shall not describe ih^ method formerly pursued for obtaining the pulp, o| which the indigo is composed, frona tke plants; as the firequent failures in this part of the busi- ness; together witl) the mortality occasioned by the miasma produced by the operation, have greatly discouraged many from embarking in the cuUure and manufacture of indigo ; 24 1^6 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. We shall therefore merely tort the directions of Dr, Roxburghy for extracting th^fcoloring matter from the plants, . <• By the scalding process (says he) I have aljyays, on a small sc^e. made from the common ipdigo plant belter inciigo, than I could by fermentation (the old method) and ih onefour(h of the time ; andv what is also of great im- portance, without the smallest degree of that pernicious effluvia, which attends the manufacture of indigo by fer- ftjeniation.' .^y <, > ' He further observes, lO ^substance, that the Hmdpos, of the northern Provinces of Indqstan, make all their indigo by boiling the plants, and precipitating the pOlp or coloring matter with a cold infusion of the bark of the j^tiil^along tree: Yet, says he, ' . / * Notwithstanding th-e inferiority of- this bark, as an astringent, when its effects are conipared, with those of lime Water, I have always found their indigo of an^ excelent quality, and very light; a cubic inch weighing only about one hundred and ten grains, and being of a. blue violet- color. The sufierior quality of this indigo must alone be imputed to the nature of tbe process l?y which the color, or rather the base of the color, is extracted from the plant.* t Besides the s-uperior quality of the Indigo obtained by the scalding process, the quantity is generally increased by it: Moreover, the heal h of the Laborer in this way is not endangered, as in the fermenting process, by constant and copious exhalations of putrid miasma. The heat employed expels most of thf fixed air during the scalding, which ren- ders a very small degree of agitation, and very little of the precipitant, necessary. The operation can also be perform- ed two or three times a day, upon a large scale; a.nd the indigo dries qfefickly, without acquiring any bad scnell^ or putrid unwholesome tendency ' After the boiling or scalding ha^ been propiprly executed, the liquoi*' is to be drawn off, and is then to be agitated or churned, '■ See Churn, Until the coloring matter begins to granulate, or float in little fta^es.on ihe water; anrf when this ciirdling or coagu- lation has been completely effected, which is usually done in about fifteen or twenty minutes, a strong impregnation pf lime watejPj Prepared in a vat for the purpose,. is gradually to be added, not only_^ to promote the separation, but like- wise to fix the color, and preserve tig matter Containing it from putrefaction. *^' ; In the operaiipn of churning, particular care must how- ever be taken,, not to exceed, or to fail short of, the proper degree of agitation; as too little of this will leave the indigo FARMER'S ASSISTANT. isr green and coarse ; while too much will give h almost a black color. When ihe prbjxjr degree df agitation has been given to the liquor, the coloring' matter changes, on adding the limewater, Irom a greenish to a fine purple color, which is the hut most proper. _ '^^^ After these operations, ihe curdled pulp is left undisturb- ed till it settles to the bottom, when the water above is drawn off, and the indigo is put into smoll linen bags to drain; after which it is put into little square bqxes or moulds, and dried gradually in th& shade, which finishes the mamifaciure. ^ The boiling or scalding of the plants, for obtaining the coloring matter, may be pertor*med in a wooden vat, mads for the purpose, by the aid^of steam, in the manner now commonly practised in distiling. Mr. ^divardsy in hjs iHstory of the Westindies, a work whence? Wvi derive most of the foregoing information on this article, says, that although the culture and manufac- ture of indigd held out great prospects of gain to those embarked in it, stUr the business was mostly given up; owing, as it would seem, to the difficulties and unheal^ii- ness attending the old fermenting process for obtaining the coloring matter. It would seem, liowev'er, that the scaldinig process, as above described, is Calculated to obviate these difficulties, and to render the business profitable. In the Westindies, it is found, necessary to change the ground' for^ rearing this plant every year; as the* second year's crop,^ on the same ground^ is liabk; to be destroyed by grubs, which, when changed into winged insects, prey On the leaves of the plant. Changing the ground for the crop is tdund necessaxy in the Southern States, as the ground soon fails for the cul- ture, where it bears the plant yearly. We have thought proper to direct the drill-culture, for corhn)iting the seeds of this plant to the earth, as being much th^ cheapest method. In the Westindies, it is performed by diging trenches two or three inches deep, with the hoe, diibping the seeds by hand, and then covering them lightly with the hoe. We, hoAvever, see no necessity for trenches being thus made, as the beds for the seed; but, if they are requisite, 'they may be readily, made with the scraper, described under 1* ifRNiPS ; and then the seeds may be laid and covered, in the bottoms of the trenchesrwith the drill. - INOCULATING, OR BUDING. This, says mmytfh is the^aest method of grafting most kinds of fruit, ^artici?- larly stone-fruit, ^ - ^ ' -.''-,■■ •'' 188 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. He observes that this operation is best learned by prac* tke; but gives directions ior' pertorming it, as follows: provide a sharp penknife, with the end of the handle flat for raising the t)ark ; prepare your slips intended to be in- serted j cl^oose a smooth part of the stock, five or six inches above the ground, for dwarfs; for haif'Standatdsy about three feet ; but for standards^ about six feei ; cut horizon- tally across the stock aboui un inelt in length, and from that slit the bark downwards about two inches, so as that the incisions be in the form of the letter T ; but be careful not to cut so deep as to wound the stock. :-. After having cut off- the leaf fioai the bud, leaving the foot stock remaiiiing, you make a cross cut about half an inch below the eye, and with jour knife slit off the bud, with part of the wood to it, in form of an eschutcheon ; puii off with your kuiie that part of |he wood which was taken with the bud, obser\^ing that' the e^e of ,the bud be left ; for those that lose their eyc^s in' striping, should be rejectedl' -,■■ ' -. r / .. .v Then, having gently raised the bark of the stoqk, insert the biid ; place jijt smooth between the rind of the stock and the wood J and, having lited it in as esfaCtly as possible, wind the whole closely found witii bass-mat made soft by soaking in water (soft ropeyarn will perhaps answer ,as well) begin- ing at the under pan of the slit, ^nd proceeding to the top, minding n6t to bind round the eye of the bud, which should be left open. ' In three^ or four weeks, you Will perceive which have taken, by their appearing frtsh, and then the bandages round these should be loosed* In April following, cut off the stock, sloping, three inches above the bud; fasten the shoot proceedii>g from the bud to 4:he stump of the stock for the ensuing season,, and the nexlt seasoi^ take off th^t * Stump close above the bud. ^ ' The time for inoculating is, from the middle of June to the middle of ^ugust, or ratfier at the time when the bark raises easily, Mnd the buds will come off well from the wood. The most general rule is, when you observe, the buds formed at the extremity of the same y6ar*s. shoots; for then they have finished their Sprin^^ growth. Cloudy weather, and mornings and evenings, are the best for the operation. Forsyth says, the slips or outings to be used for buding should not be thrown into water. He adds, that all treids of the same genus, which agree in^jljeir flavor and fruit, will take upon each other. All the mit^/fearing trees will thertfqre grow on each other, and the same may be ob- served of all the plumb' bearing trees, including the almond, peach, nectarine, apricot, See. - FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 189 To the foregoing directions, which are also tliose of Mr. Miller J Mr, Forsyth has added drawings, which are calcu- lated better to expUio thejirocess of inoculating. INSECTS. Immense^numbers of these prej^upon the labors of the Farmer, against the ravages of which it is, in ^ many instances, difficult to provide adequate remedies, j^ Such, however, as have been discovered, shall be noticed, ^ as something is said t)f the different kinds of those insects , which are found tiiost troublesome. x - Some vegetables are offensive to all insects; such as the elder,^ Especially the dwarl kjnd4.th6 onion, tansy, and tobac- co, except tb the worm that pr^ys on thai piant. The juice of these iijiay therefore be applied,-with effect, in repeling insects; and sometimes the plants themselves, vvhile green, or when reduced to powder,'- particularly the latter, when made into snuff. '"^ Set aiy onion in the c^tre of a hill of cucumbers, squashes, melons,- ^c. and it will effectually keep off the yellow, striped bug, that preys upon those plants while ybutig*^'- ' ; ,'' ■■ ' ' ■ ' ' No doubt a plant of tobaccoV set in the same way, would answer a ^itfiilai^'purpose ; or, perhaps, to sow a few tobacco or onion-seeds in the hill, when planting, would have the same effe<:t; and the, growing plants from these seeds could be taken away, when no longer wanted as pro- tectory. , . ■/' Of other substances, suTphur is perhaps the most effect- ual, as every kind of insect has an utter aversion Va it. Powdered quick-lime. is deadly to many insects, and per- haps offensive to all. V , The ^me may be observed of soot, ; wood-ashefsj?^ and (Other substances which are Strongly alkaline ; and also of common salt finely powdered, brincj old urine, &c. , " Calomel is also deadly to insects; and camphor, and tere- bintbine^ substances, are offensive to them. After premising thus much, we shall now speak of in* sects separately, and begin with the , . Cankerworm. The female of this insect comes out of the ground very early in the Spring,' and ascends the tree to deposit lier eggi^, which she does in suitable places in the bark| where they are brought forth, and the youi^g brood live on the leaves of the tree! The only effectual remedy is, to prevent the insect frotn ascending the tree j^,ahd this may be done in various ways ; but ipe easiest^ per^apsi is as follows : , First scraps off the shaggy bark rou^d the body of the tree, to the width of two or three inches; then make up a mixture of oil, or blubber, with suitable propqrtictis of sul» 190 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. phur and Scotch snuff; and with a brush lay this on tlie scraped part, forming a ring round the tree an inch or two Wide; and no insect will ever attempt to pass this barrier, as long af the composition has i^ny,; considerable moisture left in it. «= ' - '• Let it be repeated when it ibclinesto harden; though perhaps this is not necessary. Let it be done early in the Spring, 4)efore the insect comes from' the ground Another method, which it is believed will be found equally tlTectual, thoui^h. attended with more trouble, is to scrape oft' the shaggy bark froirr the body of the treci and then whitewash that part .^11 with lime and wat^r'and a little sulphur added. '^ In place of this, however, Mr. Forsyth directs that the body of t^e tree be covered with a composition oiold urine, kept some time for the purpose, soapsuds, and fresh cow- dung; and this he say* will keep ofF all insects. Let it be laid on plenri fully. Another method^ we have heard recommended^ is to fasten, a strip of sheepskin, with the wool outwards, round the body of the tree, lakmg care that no place be left for the insect to creep up between the strip and the bark.' Xh& •wool should be frequently combed to keep it loos^. A streak or ring of tar made round the body is also effectual, a^ long as the taf remains soft; but, as it soon becomes so hardened on the ekteriol^ that the insect can crawl over, it requires to be Repeated very frequently; Perhaps such a ring of tar and oil, or blubber, niixed to- other, would answer belter. , ■" Lastly, a strip of oiled paper put round the tree, with thV lower edge projecting out considerably, forms a barrier which the insect„cannot pass. Let tlie lower edge of the paper be kept well oiled. In' regard to all insects which are injurious to trees, by climbing them, and comnniting depredations upon them, in various ways, we belieye, from the most correct information we have been enabled to obtain, from various sources, that, by taking the earth away from the roots of the trees, very early in the Spring, and destroying whatever may appear-to be the Elbode of any insects; and then returning the eSt-th back, mixed with a small quantity of sulphur, sprinkling some of this upon the surface, will keep every iosect from ascendihg any such tree. The effeot of sulphur, for this purpose, is very durable* Probably one operation of this kind ^ill last for several years ; jthougb, on this point, ^ve have%b particular inform- ation. Other repelants of' insects may be found' repelants oqly for a, time, more or less limited ; but perhaps may an- swer the purpose for oae Spring; such as quick- lime, fine # FARMER'S ASSISTANT. l&i salt, old urine, strong soapsuds, a strong decoction of tobac- co, onions, &c. &c. Let' either of the four lastmentioned ingredients be, applied, boiling hoi, to the roots, after first taking the earth away, as before mentioned. CuRCULio. This is a bug, about thp size of that which eats iino tht pea, and has proved very troublesome to most ^ of the smoothskined stone fruits, and even to peaches, ap^ pies, and pears, in diflTerent parts of 'the country contiguoits ' to Philadelphia. It has, also made its appearance about Albany. ^ ^^ ,^ ,,:;., It ascends the trees in tht^ SpHog, and as the fruit ad- vances it makes a wound in tho^^kfn, and there de'i)osits the embryo; from which a mag^ is first produced. This preys upoqxthe fruit until ii^diea. and falls ofFj when the ^ maggot makes its way into the earth, and is there changed into a bug, .which is ready t9^ ascend the trce^, the next Spring, and mak^ its deposit in the fruit, as befor^* One method of keeping this and all other insects from trees, as. practised by Col. JSfichols, near Easton, is to tie a small bag of 'comnion salt round the ti^ee. A ring put round th^ tree, of a mixture of grease, or blubber, mixed with salt, and iiome ot the other ingredients before men- tioned, would' perhaps answer a better^ purpose, and be at- tended with less trouble. A recipe of his, which he says he ha% practised oti peachtrees with advantage, in regard to their health, is: * Take away the dirt from around, the root, and where you find gum issuing out, there you "will also find a white maggot, which is carefully to be tuken away; then wash the body and, roots with strong brine, which you will repeat now and then, ih the Spring and Summer.' We will mention two other methods, whi■'■ Most vOi the articles before Mentioned, as beingf^ofensive to insects) either boiled in, or diluted with, water, and that applied to the hills, especially just before a rain, will quick- ly drive the Grubs away. Top, or Spindleworms, White worqns, resembling Grubs, found in the central hole which , is formed by the leaves of Indian corn^ and they there, eat off the, stein which forms the top of the plant. They are mostly to b« found near barnyards, and in rich spots.' They are disco- vered by their excrement appearing on the leaves. Sprink- ling the corn with a weak lye of wood,- ashes will extirpate them. BlackworiAs. Ash-colored worms, with black stripes on theif backs. W,heii full gi:own, they are of the thickness of a goose quill, and about an inch and a quarter long. They hide in the soil by day, and con^mit their depredations by night.. They eat off young plants above ground, and freqitently endeavor to draw them under. It is said that maniiting the ground with salt will drive them from it,>and that hme and ashes will also have nearly a similar effect. Redv^^orms. These are slender, about an inch lon|^,.with a hard coat, and pointed head. ■ I'hey eat off wtieatv barley, and oats above the crown of the roots; and they also .eat through turnips, potatoes, £:«. No adequate Remedy is known, unless it be manuring wiii|^the manures before mentiofled, which are offensive to, aH. insects. Sumvner- fallowiiigs are also recommended,, ^s depriving them of their requisite food. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 193 Palmerworms. About, half an inch in length, with many legs, and very nimble. They give to appletrecs the same appearance that the Cankerworm does. Mr. Dean says, that great numbers of them appeared, in the year 1791, in Cumberland, Massachusetts, and ale off all the leaves of the trees, except the membraneous parts; but that next year they disappeared. They let themselves down from the trees by threads, similar to the Spider. No remedy known. TiMBERWORMS. The smailier kind merely eat into the sap of wood, and turn it into powder-post, as it is commonly called. Felling timber about ^e middle of Winter, the time it has least sap in it, will obviate this difficulty. The large Boringvvorm takes its residence chiefly in pine ^ timber. They are hatched in the cavities of the bark ; and being small, when they Qnter the wood, thevgrow IjS^ger as they proceed, till their boring may be heara at a considera- ble distance. If the trees be scorched in a light flume, says Mr. Deane^ or steeped in salt-water, it will de^rjpy these worms, or prevent their entering the wood. The same Author also makes miention of formidable armies of worms which, in the year 1770, overran the county of Cumberland, about the middle of July. They striped the vegetables of their leaves, leaving only the stems; were extremely voracious ; moved in apparent haste, and all in the same direction; crawled over houses, kc. un- less they found an entrance. Other parts of the Eastern States have since experienced their ravages. The best security found against them was, to stop their course by trenches>,ihaving their sides leaning over, ojat of which they coM not climb, after they had got into them.u ^ Hessian-feV. We^il known for its ravap:es in wheat. Remedy: Immerse the seed-wheat ten or fifteen seconds in boiling-hot water; cool it suddenly; dry it, with lime or gypsum sprinkled' upon it, and sow i:|*^m mediately. This process will assist its growth, in addition to its killing the nits of the fly, which, by a good glass, are said to be dis- cernibte near the sprouts of the grains that are infected. This remedy stands well attested by "several publications, and is believed to be effectual. This insect appears to be now on the decline, and its duration will probably be found to be temporary. Though we have given it a German appellation, it is very doubtful whether it ever was k^^n in Germany or any other part of Eiipop'e. , ^ ,;, Maggots. Troublesome to the roots of cabbages, tur- nips, and radishes. Give the ground a previous manuring with salt, which it is believed will be found effectual. * ^ 19i FARMER^s ASSISTANT. ■«• Some weak brine applied to the roots of the plants,<^nst after a rain, is also recommended. It should not be to© strong^, lest it injure the growth of the plants. Yellow-striped Bug. Formidable to the young plants of cucumber, Sec. In addition to what htjs already been said, of the remedies for keeping off these intruders, we w<;^uld recommend sprinkling the plants with a little sul- phur, or Scotch snuff, which it is believed will be found equally efficacious. We have understood, also, that sprinkling the plants with gypsum has been found to answer an excelent purpose, as well for keeping off the inject as for manuring the growing plants. Turnip-fly. This insect eats the seed-leaves of the young turnip-pjants, and thus destroys them. One remedy i^, to s6iv the ground with a mixtxire of old and new seed, and, as these will come up at different times, a part of the one or the other will stand a better chance of escaping. SotviiAa suitable proportion of tobacco-seed with the crop will, no doubt, E^nswer ^very purpose, for keeping off this insect. But, as common salt is found to be an excelent manure for this crop, we would recommend about three or four bushels of this article, made fi^ne, with as many pounds of sulphur, and perhaps one or two of Scotch snuff, well mixed together, to be sown on the ground, just as the plants are coming up^ and this, we venture to say, will be found effectual in keeping off these insects. A flock of ducks,, let into the turniplield, is also very good, as they will destroy the insects, without injuring the plants. Rolling the ground, where it is smooth, is also beneficial, iQ protecting the crop, as this serves to close up t&e hid- ing-places of the insect. * It should be remembered, however, that, where turnips are cultivated extensively, the crop is much less liable to injury, from these Injects, than where only small pieces are sown. In the former case, the insects, being the same in number, have a wide extent to feed upon; and therefore do not feed so closely. In the latter, their pasture betng but small, they eat all off before them. Garden-flea. Very destructive to young cabbage- plants, while in the seed-leaf. Remedy : Sow some onion or tobacco^SeedS with the seeds of the plant; or, sprinkle some sulphur or snuff on the growing plants. Soapsuds sprinkled over theni is also good. ^ Lice. These infest cabbages, particularly; but are de- stroyed by the frosts. They are easily extirpated by smoak* particularly that of tobacco. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 195 Weavel. a little black bug-, very destructive to wheaL cithtr in barns or graneries. On thrusting your hand into a bin of wheat infested with them, considerable warmth will be felt; but, as they are usually collected together, every part of the heap or bin should be examined. There are various ways of keeping wheat clear of this insect, after it has been threshed out and put in bins. Mr. UHommedieu found that a sprinkling of lime with wheat, infegted mth them, in his bin, soon drove them away. The lime can be afterwards winnowed out. Sulphur or snufF, put up in little papers, or bags, and properly distributed among the wheat, in the bin, will keep them out, or drive them out when they have got posses- sion. A plant of henbane has the same effect ; and so has the leaves and wood of the lombardy poplar. A bin made of boards of this wood will never have a Weave! in"j|t. Take wet linen cloths^ and lay them over a heap or bin of wheat, with Weavel in it, and they will soon come jout of the wheat, and get upon the cloths; when, byidyjing these in water again, the insects are readily destroyed^' ^^ They may also be sifted out of wheat, by a sieve which will let them through and retain the wheat. It would seem that the readiest way to keep them out ' of mows of wheat, before threshing, would be to mix little pieces of the lombardy poplar every where through the mow, in laying the sheaves away. Perhaps common salt is as offensive to this insect, as to most others; and, if so, to sprinkle some among the sheaves, when laying them down, might answer the double purpose, of keeping out the Weavel and improving the' straw for fodder. ^IGrasshopers. • Prodigious quantities of tKesc are some years generated in upland mowing- grounds. Upland pas= tures do not produce so many, owing probably to the feet of the cattle destroying many, before they are brought forth, u- Low wet meadows or pastures seldom produce many of them. The only known remedy against them, and it is sometimes very inadequate, is to destroy them by raising large flocks of Turkies and other poultry, which feed on them. Lice on Cattle, and Ticks on Sheep, may be added to the catalogue of destructive insects. W^here Colts and young Neat-cattle become lousy, by reason of poor keeping, or otherwise, the Lice are to be destroyed by oiling the creature, or washing it with a decoction of tobacco; and they should have bSlter keeping, to prevent a return of the Lice. 4 And where a Sheep becomes full of Ticks, which will sometimes kill the animal if not removed, they may be ds- fe. 196 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. f troyed by a fumigation of tobacco-smoke, as is descnbed under Sheep. But the easiest method is, to part the wool of the animal on each side ot its spine, from its head to its tail, and drop in some Scotch snuff along in each opening, and this will soon free the Sheep of its vermin. Where it requires im- mediate relief, however, recourse should be had to the mMhod fir (5 1 mentioned. g tfee Peachtree, for an effectual method, practised by Mr. Bayley. for preventing the injuries done by a Worm to that tree, in Virginia. For destroying the black Bug, that eats into the pea, 9ec that article. ^ m JAUNDICE. See OvERFi&bw^NG of the Gall, and Yellows. JERUSALEM ARTICHOKE (Hdianthus Tuberosus.) This IS a hardy perennial plant, with a large bulbous root. The stalk grows to a considerable height. It is cultivate^ by the roots, in the manner of potatoes. ^ The roots are par- ticularly useful for feeding Swine, when boiled, and are said to be very productive. One Cultivator found its pro- duce to be about four hundred and eighty bushels to. an acre, without manure. Another raised between severity and eighty tons from an acre. They will grow well in almost any dry soil, even if it be poor. When cut, and ground in a cidermill, they make good food for Horses, with the addition of ^a little salt. Mr. Legaux, of Spring- mill, Pennsylvania, raises this root from Dutch seed, and has had them eight and nine inches in diameter. He says they are easily kept through Winter in the ground, nothing being requisite further than to dig a trench round them, tc> prevent the water injuring them. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 197 KILLING OF BEASTS. But little need be said on this subject, as butchering is only to be learned by practice. Bui the cruel manner in which butchering is often per- formed is deserving of some animadversion. The killing of blasts for our use is lawful ; but surely it is not so to torture them. He who, in the act ot taking the life of an unoffending creature, deals not the stroke of death with mercy, must either have become callous from inveterate habit, or in feeling must -fee of little higher grade than the animal against which his hand is raised. v^v It is believed, howevef, that there is a rightar^ a wrong time for killing Neat-cattle, Swine, and Sheep. 'The right time, allowing them to be well fated, is when their meat shrinks the least in boiling; and the wrong, when it shrinks most. Some say the former is the case during the increase of the moon ; and the latter, during its decrease. That this planet has its effect on the bo'dies of animals, may readily be believed, from the mere circumstance of lunacy among Men. It would be well to make some accurate experiments, to ascertain the truth of this matter, by having animals, in- tended for butchering, killed at different times^ say, at the fiAof the moon, at its change, during its increase, and its decrease ; and then, by boiling a given number of pounds of the same parts of each together, and weighing each separately after boiling a given time, the result would be tolerably conclusive, as to the -right time of killing. The experiment should be repeated, if, the first was not con- clusive. LAMPAS. An excrescence in the roof of a Horse's mouth, which hinders him from feeding. Young Horses are most liable to it. The usual cure is, applying a hot iron to the swollen part. Mr. Gibson says thai care must 19S FARMER'S ASSISTANT, be taken, not to penetrate so deep as to scale the boneSbat lies under the upper bars of the mouth, as this would be very injurious to the animal. Mr. Peters^ of Pennsylvania, after remarking that lampas is caused by fever in the Horse, and that the swelling should be allayed by reducing the fever, says that he never wopld suffer a Horse to be burned in the mouth, as he had known them to be ruined by repetitions of this jpperation. Sometimes a mess or two of hard Indian corn, he says, banishes the swelling. -t LAYERS. Trees and shrubs that yield no seed in this climate, and which cannot be propagated by slips ocAput- ings, may nevertheless be propagated by layers. The^an- ner of doing it is as follows : Take shoots of the last year's growth, bend them to the earth, and burry them half a foot deep in a good mellow soil; fa^en them with hooks to preyent their rising, and bend the tops so as to bring them above the i'iiiPface. A slit upv^ards^ should be made in that part of the twig which lies deepest, or a wire drawn tightly round it there, to prevent the sap from mounting too fast. Lilt^the ground be covered to keep it moist, and let it be watered if necessary. When the twigs have struck root, they may be cut off in the Spring and transplanted into the nursery. The time for laying evergreens is July or August, and October for deciduous trees. Many herbaceous plants may also be propagated in this way. LICE. See Insects. LIMESTONE. Sec Earths. *^ ^"^ LOAM. See Earths. LOCUST ("Robind.) This is a very valuable tree for cultivation, as it will grow well on any poor barren sandhill, and indeed in every kind of dry soil, where the climate is not too cold. A sandy loam or gravelly loam is best suited :^, for it. It will cause grass to grow on the poorest soil j so that ground planted with these trees answers the double purpose of forest and pasture. The trees will acquire a very considerable size in fifteen years, and in about twenty- five years are full grown. The timber is excelent for the trunnions and knees of vessels, for cogs for mills, and for many other purposes, where hardness and durability are required. For posis for fences, it will last fifty or sixty years, and for firewood it. is also excelent. On the whole, coniiidering all the good FARMER'S ASSISTANT. i§9 qualities of the locust, it may be accounted the most profit- able which the Farmer can cultivate. See Forests, for an easy method of cultivating this tree. It is said that immersing the seeds of this tree for half a minute in boiling-hot water, and then cooling them before planting, will make them sprout very suddenly, and grow two feet high the first year. .* t ■ . LOMBARDY ?0?LAR CPofiulus.J This tree acquires its full size in about twenty years ; by which time It will contain half a cord of wood. It is grown at pre^nt merely for ornament; but, when firewood becomes ipecessary to be plaiiifed, probably this tree may be thought wbrth cultivating for fuel. It will not, indeed, make fuel equal in quality to that of the locust; but, as it grows faster, its inferiority of quality may perhaps be compensated by the rapidity of iis growth. It must, howeVcr, be dried before it will be fit for fuel, as in its green state it will not burn to any advantage, It is easily raised from^slips or cutings, and will grovj^ on almost any soil. In France and Italy, this-^tree is cultivated and trimed up for beams and other timber for buildings; but probably it will grow larger in thoser countries than in this State, as the climate there Is more friendly to its growth. LUCERNE. See Grasses. M. MADDER (Rubia Tinctorium.) The following direc- tions for raising this plant are copie'd from * THe J^mfiorium of jirt8.' '' < This plant may be propagated, either by offsets or seeds. If the latter method is prefered, the seed should be of the true Turkish kind, which is called lizari, in the Levant. On a light thin soil, the culture cannot be car- ried on to any gre^ profit. The soil in which the plant delights is a rich sanely loam, being three feet in depth or more. » * * The ground, being first made smtooth, is divided into beds four feet wide, with alternate alleys half as wide again as the beds. ThQ reason of this extraordinary breadth of the alleys will appear presently. In each alley is to be r 200 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. shallow channel for the convenience of irrigating the v^jiolc field, Ecc. That part of the alley which is not occupied hiay be sown with legunnes. ' * The madder-seed is sown broadcast, in the proportion of from twenty-five to thirty pounds per acre, about the end of April. In a fortnight or three weeks, the young plants begin to appear ; and, from this time to the mouth of Sep- tember, care must be taken ta keep the ground well water- ed and free from weeds. 'If the plants are examined in Autumn, they will be found 'surrounded with small yellow offsets, at the depth of two inches; and early in September the earth from the alleys is to oe 4ug out, and laid over the plants of madder, to the height Iclf two or three feet.'^ With this th^^st year's operation ceases. * The second year's work begins in May, with giving the beds a thorough weeding ; and care must be taken to sup- ply them with plenty of water, during the Summer. In September the first crop of seed will be ripe; at which time the stems of the plants may be.mowti down, and the roots covered a few inches with earth, taken as before out of the alleys. ' The weeding should take pTace as early as possible in the Spring of the third year ; an^Fthe crop, instead of being left for seed, may be cut three times, during Summer, for green fodder; all kinds of cattle being remarkably fond of it. \ ' ^ * In October the roots are taken up, the offsets carefully separated, and immediately used to form a new plantation ; and the roots, after being dried, are sold, either without further preparation, or ground to a coarse powder, and sprinkled with an alkaline lye. ., ; t The roots loose four- fifths of their weight in drying'; and the produce of an acre is about two thousand pounds weight of dry saleable madder.* Madder usually sells for about thirty-two dollars per hun- dred; so that the prSdiice of an acre, as above stated, would ^'amount to six hundred and forty dollars. MANGEL-WURTZEL (Beta Altissima.) There are varieties of this species of the beet, some of which are more productive than others. Mr. Peters says those of a rosecolored skin, with the interior solid and white, not laminated and mottled, like the common beet, are the best. He says it*is better than the common beet for the table; and that its leaves wJaile young are, for this purpose, fully equal to the Spinage. * IncheSi we suspect it should be;, Instead of feet. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 201 He gives a preference to this root, having tried all others, partictilarly for fating Neat-cattle, Sheep, and Store-hogs; and says that to some Horses it is grateful and nutritive, though some refuse to eat it. See Pumpkin, for a method of learning any Horse to eat that food, which no doubt will answer equally well for this. v^ ♦ The leaves, he says, which are very abundant, are supe- rior to any other green hprbage, now in common use, both in quality and quantity, for^oiling. ** See Soiling But see also Guineagrass. They may be frequently striped off during thtf^^season, leaving, the heart shoots, or leaflets, and the |pots will, on this J^bunt, grow the better. Some mow theW off, taking care not to cut too close to the roots. ^ Mr. Peters cultivates this root, with success, on loamy land, with some inixture^ot sand in it. The land was formerly trench-ploughed. Rich, deep, loamy^oils are properly adapted* to its culture; and on such,^e; think, there can be no d'^'Vibt of t!!s Seing more piofitahl^ to culti- vate than any ofeer root, especially when the lekves are used for soiling. ^ '" Steamboiling the roosts renders them more nutritive and efficient for the piijrpose of fating cattle. Those which are stored for Winter and Spring-usejmust be protected from frost; though, if .they should become frozen, they may be u^ed for cattle, before they have thawec), by extracting the frost from them in water, in the manner directed for turnips. ^ 5(?e-^TuRNip. The roots should not be stored away, until tl>e moisture on ^he exterior part has been dried : They may , then be kept in dry sand, to protect them from frost; qr they may be kept without sand, in a place sufficiently guarded against frost, as described under Turnip; in whiph way they vi'iU ^^^ re ma in fresh and sound,' as^ long as they are , wanted lor the "Winter 'and Spring supplyi Having observed thus much, on the culture of this excel- cnt root, we shall give the Reader^an extract frorn the third Voluip^iDf the ' Memoirs ot the Philadelphia Society for promoting Agriculture;* which we, presume will be ^und sufficient to teach the Inexperienced the proper mode of ciiUure, and ta^nvince every one of the superioi* cxceience of this root, "fe, ,. , , :' [The following account of methods used in the cultivation of the improved, beetrooty or mangle wurtzel, is talfen from a recent publication by Mr. Pinder Simpson, of the colnuv 2^ >^»' 20^ FARMlSR's ASSISTANT. ©f Essex, England, 1814* Experiment must defeWe to what degree, these statements will apply to the cuitu|^ of this root in our Country. Fifty tons have been raised on an acre, in England. The produce of one-tenth of an acre will, keep a Bullock fating^ fourteen weeks. Dry fodder must accompany this green food. The produce of six acres will faten sixty Bullocks ; allowing each one hundred pounds per day; as appears in the statements made in this publicauon. 1. In broad-cast, on striin^^-land, spade- irenched, ten inches 4^ep, leaving the plants after hoeing nearly fifieen inches apart each way. Produce, per acre, fifty tons. 2. Transplanted in rows, three feet apart, th^plants [eighteen inches apart in each row. Produce, p^^cre^ twenty-two tons. 3. Dibbling the seed, in ro^s two feet apart, and the plants left twelve inches apart in each row. Produce, per 'acre, forlj^ eight tons. , By these difTcrent methods^ results will prove which is preferable, lis great advantages over turnips are shown in -every way, as well on i^ccount of the beet being more nutritious, as its not being siibject to the fly, or other an- noyances to turnip-crops. Nor is the expense of cultiva" tion so great ]; .. For the inferrtiMion and guidance of tliose Occupiers of land*5^ who may be desirous of cultivating fhe improved beet- root upon strong land, the next chapter will contain a parti- cular account of the method qsed in cultivating ^hat root upon strong land at ^edfords. The n^ethod there staled, is \\^e plough goin^ and re- turning the same way atS^before mentioned, leaving the ma- nure immediately andie^^the middl^'of the new ridges. A light roller is then passed along thc^ ridges, in the middle of which the seed is dibbled, so that the plants may re- ceive all the benefit which can be derived from the Kxianurei 204 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. The seed is deposited about an inch deep, whilslf%e moisture is fresh in ihe earth, and covered by drawing a garden-rake along ihe rows. " , After =«this, the light roller is again passed along the ridiies, and ihe work is finished. When the plants arc about the size of a radish,, they are hoed with a turnip hoe, leaving the plants in the rows about t\Velve inches apart. It any of the seeds fail, and there happen not to l)e an even crqai^^ the roots, where they are too thick, are drawn out befoi^^he hoeiiSg takes place, and transplagted, to fill up the vacant plsices, and insure a full crop, Vkr,l|i^l\|^ always certain ; inasmuch as ninetv-nine pi Mits, GOT diR>ne hundred, thrive and do ^Vell. Ii^|(!ans- Iplantiu2:,^c2rt'e is necessary to prevent the point of tire rQOt from turning upwards. , ^ ■ • The Weeds, whilst the p|ants^ ^r^yoijjng, are kept hoed ; blit, after the head of the pfeht has on^e spread, no weed can live^tjij^erneath its shade,^and the expense of hoeing aheiward^is very trifling tndee'd. ■ ^ The -^kviiele ot the crop is^ taken up in' the month of No- vfember, in' dry vveathtiT*. The tops are cut off near the crown ot the plants, and the plants, when perfectly dry, are piled uplna shed, and covered with straw sufficiently thick to preserve them ti;<>m the frost. They kept last year till the latter end of MarsCb, and they would have kept much longer. '^ _ -, ^ l^he seed may be had of Cochran^ Seedsman, in Duke- street,. Grosvenor-square, dnd ot-Messrs. Gibbs ilf Co. Half- tiioon^'reet, Piccadilly. From three to four pound's of the peed will be sufficient for «n acre of groun'd, prepared and dibbled according to the^rpethod here stated. The W'^ce last year was seven shillings per pound; but it may p*bba» bly be less hereafter, as the Growers of the root, so long as that high price continues, will of course s^ye their owa feeed, and thereby lessen the demand from the Seedsman. THE METiiOB BEFORE DESCRIBED ELUCIDATED. Form of\hc Ridges before manuring. % a a '^''rhei tops of the ridges, about IVi'o incl\es broad, a a a a^ ^tervals of twenty -four inches from one a to another. Bejjths about twelve inches from a to b. iurrows where the manure is deposited, b b h. FARMER'S ASStSTANT. 205 Form of the Ridges after sJilitiTiff and rolling, A Ik A # A Tops, A A A A, nine inches broad, in the middle of which the seed is deposited/ A| ^ Situation of the mahure, B BTB B. i It will not be supposed, by any intelligent Farmer, that, where the quantity oi the innproved beetroo^^iv^n daily to a^'illock is stated, it is meant that it should 6e given witl^^u om dry food. It may, however, be necessary to'^say, that' the same dry food mi^st be given wiih the beet as is usually given with turnips, Mv. Heaton last yuar gave, oat-straw only, and the„ Bullocks did well upon that food^/and were sold to profit. No doubt they wovki have beeii reiijdy for the Butcher sooner, had good hay -been given to theii^: But this tact may be reUcd upon, that fresh Bullocks,' ^ed upon the beetroot and oat-straw, .will} in three months time, get fat enough. for the Butcher. It may also be necessary to observe, ^jiat not a word, here stated, is intended to apply to such lig|i»t turnip-sqils as will bear the tramplihg^ of Sh^ep, without injury to the land. Mr. Heaton has^none upon his farm; and I have not sttj|fi- cient knowledge of the nxanagemenj^ of turnip-land, of That d^Tiption, to say, whether, prudenc^ would warrant any trSI ol the beetroot, upon a lar^e scale,, on sucli soil, to be eat^n on the Ijind. Habere a field, selected for a crop of beet, hapjiens to be in a foul state, the seed had better be sown in a garden, and the whole field ptahted with the youngs beet, when of the size of a i;adish. This will give time for cleaning the ground, and filing it for a crop: for, although the beets are destroyei^ of weeds, it is not meant to recommend sowing them onioul groand, or in any way to encourage a slovenly system of^far:ming. AUhougli^ manure has been used in the cultivation of tbii root, it is not absolutely necessary; and, if not in a roten state, it do6s mischief.,^ Good crops have' been obtained at Be^fords, ivithout mah^rey and without injury to the suc- ceeding crops of cornS^Beet is fed frotn a depth considera- bly below the reach of the plough, as generally used; so that it does., not draw the surface-soil in which corfl is led. i - ; The method of cultivating the beetroot, here recom- TOended, is the same as that which is used in the cultivation 206 FARMER'S ASSISTANt. of turnips, in Northumberland and other parts of the North, with this exoeption^ that the rows .there are twenty-seven inches apart. There liay be reas^s in the North for still preferin^that space ; but in Essex (he effect of it, in the cultivation of the beetroot, would be-, that, instead of forty- eight tons per acre, foriy three tons only would be obtained. Experience has "proved, that the roots do not get to a larger size in rows three feet apart, than they do in rows two feet apart. It may, thsi-efbre, fairly be presumed, that they would not be larger -in rows twenty-seven inches apart ; and, if not larger, the weight of the crop, per acre, must be less;, because the plants decrease in number as the rows increasepi space. The advantages that would arise from the cultivation ojf ese rodts, upon a small part of every strong land fairo throughout the kingdom, must be *'|)bvious. Calculations might be given that would astonish', arid almost exceed the belief of, nqost Readers. Such calculations, however, in general, ate but little attended to ; and it is thought better to oniit them ; hoping that enough has been said upon the subject to fix the attention of every Person interested in the cultivation 6i land. MANURES. A J^nowledge of the efficacy of different manures, to what^sbils they are most suitable, and the means of%iaking tiiie most oj each, is worthy of the parti- cular attention of the Farmer L^nds are seldom so rich, but it may be a matter of gain tp increase their fertility; and fe% tracts are so poor but, with proper tillage an^ similar purpose; though, if the mud be stiff and clayey, ml should only be applied to a light dry soil. Thesdifferent sortf*of marie found in bogswamps are als^ excelent manures for all upland soils. These earths are usu- ally found at the depth of from one to three feet from the surface, ^nd are either ot a white, same may be observed of the bogdirt. Like th^s, too, these inarles are peculiarly excejent for Indian corn, and all Summer-grain? and a less quxintiiy is sufficient. T^ey may be used as top- dressings, or otherwise. The upland marles are, good manures for sandy, gravelly, an^ other dry soils. They are al^o valuable in. proportion to the quantity of carbonate ot lime they contain. Mr. Foz^w^ me^^ions the tract of country. lying between' Holkam iand HougKten, in I^ngland, having been converted into good farming-lands, which formerly were so light and poor as.,^to be kept only fo|-^Sheep walks. This was effected by diging up the' marle,.|which was found tp lie at some depth underneath, and manuring the soil with it, at the rate of about one hundred loads to the acre. This kind'of marie is merely a clay, with sometinfies a mixture of fine sand ; having a greater or less proportion of carbonate of lime in it; and the more the t^eiter. It i& 208 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. <)•■'• generally of 'a bluish color, and like other marie s is to be known by the effervescence i^ occasions when droped ijpto ^^ vinegar, or other strcJl^ger acid. Mie greater the efferVes- ' cence tHfe better the marie. |f i^ee ]fenry'% Chemistry, for the means of ascertaining how much calcareous,^arth any marie ccjntalns. Upland marie should be carted out in the Fall, and spread' as directed for^clay. The other kinds should be thrown up in a dry time in theFall, and may be carried out in the Winter, or other lime "^en the'ground is sufficiently firm for the purpose. ' , Ashes, as a manure, are found to be^ more efficacious in some parts X^he c(j|intry^lian in others; gene^Uy most so when appliecrlo lands near the ocean. ThP^Longisland Farmer c^n afford twelve cents a bushel for even leacl#& ashes; while, in Herkimer county, they are suffered to lie iimouched about the potasheries. '**' . -' ^ ,,: Ashes generally answer the most valuable purpose when applied to Indian corn, particularly where the soil is not .suitable to this plant. 'Where the soil is wet, go^I, loamy, or clayey,- the plaints ar^e apt to get stunted by the cold rainir which usually lair after planting; and then the, ashes serve to supply- the naturardeficiencies 6f the soil, till it becomes fertilized by the Summer sun. But, where the soil is natural to the; growth of this plant, and there is no da%er of its being siunted at its cutset, perhaps it may be be|terio apply the -ashes later; so that t)ie plants tiiay de- rive the greatest assistance, from this manure, whiis' the ears are seiin^ and- foriioiing. ; ^, ^^, Ashes should generally be used for top-'dre^sings : l^jr salts lose nothing:i;by exposure to the air, "and soon find their way into the soil. ^ ^/^ ^ .f^; Soot is miich mop^ efficacious than ashes ; beside silts'/ it contains oil. The. soct of coal is esteetned equally us good as that of wood*. It is used for top-flK-ssing^'^ and re- quires about forty l?usluld for an acre. When applied to Winter-grain it s only be li|'d in consi- derable quantities in large towns. ",r^ Ot salts, which serv^ as manures,' the principal are the common sea-salt,^ urine, stale of caiti^, seawater, saltpe^tre, and alkaline salts. To the latter, t|^ virtue of ashes, as a manure, is principally owing, So/ipsuds is in part valua- ble on account of its alkaline salts-; and perhaps ^he neu- tralized oil it contains^adds much .to its valuev It is usual to throw this manure ;a way ; bOt this is a needless waste. It may be taken in the wateringpot, and strewed over the ,v^^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 20^ %. ■ , '^ ' ^, ■\^_^ garden, where it will be oP^great service as a manure, and in expeling insects.> .^ ' We sball presently i^y sOmethirlp^further of thisr and:, other manures affordeyi from the dwellinghouse. jS ^j* Saltpetre should, be dissolved in lye. of wood ashes^, in which seed'shouldlbe soaked, before Rowing or* planting. See ■ Sowing. ^^ ^ . ^ '% ' ' ' ' * Perhaps old .urine, or ^ven comnibn salt; would be found a valuable addition, in maldng a liquor for steeping ^§eed before sowing. |r ^ "'^.'' \ Seawater is said to contain saltpetre, sulphur, anfa oH, be- side common sAlt ; and is th^for|! preterable to the latter article for npnuring, when put impotMpbsts, qi^oftiierwJVfe. Mr. Deaf^ mdkts mention of anunared huts^bf potatoe which had two quarts of water applied to each, imm^diateJ after planting; and he says that the product of ^these was one-hajl more than %e same nunjb|^ot adjoining hills pi?o* duced. "Most probably, a quart t^each hill %a^ld havSj^* been better. ^v . ^ ■ - %' He mentions also a piece bf flax|^f which one sidfe was short and yellow; but, on its being^prinkled^wjth this wa- ter, it^ equaled the rest of the piece in about/jten days,^aud eventually was thj^ best. ^-\.'^ ' These two experiments were made on ^ff soils, but he says he found sandy grounds equally benefited by this manure. • v< ' This water might be carried from the sea some di$fance on the land, to advafttage, in the following manner i *Tal^e a one-horse cart, and suspend a tiglft, box, rightly Shaped, un(|er the axletree; the box having a y^ilve in thfc under side; drive the cart into the water, ai^j^^^j^the valve opens, and lets that fluid into tlie box; and, when the. cart is driv- en out, the \alye^ closes^ahd holds the water. * When the cart is driirin out to the ground on which th% water is to be spread, this operation may be perfoMred in the manner, we shall next describe: A tube is to be provid- ed, say, twelve feet in length, with sniall holes bored Into it at the distance of six^ inches apart, and tUe ends of the tube closed; attach this to the under side of the box, cross- ways, at either end,- so^ a? to be out of the way ot the wheeh of the cart. - When you tome to where the vi^ater is to be sprp^ad, it is to. be let outiOf the box into' the tobe, by an aperture for tfiC^urposeV^nd as t^e cart moves along the wat^rCrun^? out of each of the small hpies in the tube, and thus spririi^' kles over a piece of ground oi "twelve feet wide, till the Whole is exhausted.; , - (r ' With the next load, begin where the wiater ceased ryliing* befoi*ei and thus continue ihe v/atered s^rip across 4he lieldii 10 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Then talce another stnp of tweke feet wide, adjoining that already watfered, and,^us proceed v»i;]^g.tjg whole has been .-gone over.. '^' ' ^^ ,^ ' 4. In thi* way, one Man could carry o|it, say, forty cartloads a day, at the distance of half a mile, or halt that number, if a mile ; as but little ume need be spent, either in loading or unloading. Atjout *ten loads, of a l^ifared gallons each^ would probably b^ suffi^^-ient for an acre' at any one time. gt^ But this is not all that may be' done with seawatet: It may'^-be drove any distance int^-a coiT^itry, m aqueducts for * the purpose, with the aid of wind-machinery. Say, lor in- stance, that it can be dn^ye on ascending lands, to the heiglit of^n |y'i*^f^''fi^^%Si^^h one wheel and crank turned by the wind. ^^^hen^TaisCT that height, and eifptied into a- cistern for the purpose, it may, in the same way, be dro^e up to the height of another hundred feet, by another wheel imd crank ■^ttirned as before; and so o|i to any given height* required; So that th^ highest cultivable lands, ot those %ibsL remote from th^ sea, may,jn this way, and with the cart before described, bei maniiV'ed with seawater. The sprinkling of the water t)ver the land m^ be done at ar%mall ejjpense, as we have just shown. The principal e^cpense there^e js the aqueducts for carrying the water. These, if madie^of wood, would%irobabiy cost a thousand dollars Aa mile, iiji^cluding 'all other necessaiy apparatus. Ev;ery mile in Ifength would serve for two square miles of| larid^ The wood forming the aqueducts, being constantlyi^' saturalted with salt-water, would proWbly last a century. The expense, at this M{^i would fall short of ten cents per acre, by the year. , ^ In addition to x]^p use of the water fbr manure, a great saving could be made in the use of salt, for cattle, and in various other ways in which tMs itqi^id rhight be, in partj a substitute for that article. ^t' The method of driving water up an aqueduct is by a plunger, and two valves j one within the aqueduct to keep the water from returning, as the plunger is drawn back by the crank; the other ivithin the plunger; and, while this is receding, its valve opens to let in more water, and shuts again v^hile the plunger is advancing; arid at this time. the other valve opens to let the fresh supply of water pass through it. Thlis, the valves open and shut alternately, similar to thos^ in a common pump.;, >' Whether the advantages to be derived, from puting a *jp!an of tfjis kind into operation, w6tiiil warrant the exptinse, must depend on the result of ej^periments to be properly ^ On some parts bf^oiJi? se^jcoast it would ber impracticable; particul^ly on most of that ti North-earoiinaj where the • KARMER's ASSlSTMJ'f.- 211 wide and extcnsWe* bodies of;fresh w^ater forming the Albe- marle a^d Pamlico soujjds lie betwQ^n the sea and most of ^ the main land of that^ratl. ^ <» ^ ^-v 'v« But there is much of our coast,' and t^*e contiguous islands, which ofOTmany millions of acres to be benefited by this method o(^^nuring lands. -♦ The'siale ot^cattie is in part valuable, on account of its containing more o^ less^f common salt, and perhaps in **part from its tendency* lo pitdtiuce miasma, septon* or azote, some or all of which assist the growth of plants. Xhe older ' the sial^ the be(eier it is, as a manure. tJnder Soiling, one metho^^f s^ng itjs noentipbed, •and anothf^ili be spoken of blfore*^!^ close thfs a'rficle. |,Urine from the domicil is still more valuable, as possess^ /^ 4*ng the properties of that of cattle, but in a higher "iJegree, md ^huuld«(always bg saved in the manner we sf»ail present-* \y no^mon. It has a powerful effd^, when sprinkled oyer ■grass-grounds. ^ ^, Common salt is considereafrhorer^fficacious, when mixed in comp<^jts, than when ^|)plied in its crude state to the soil. jjiMr JiliioC makes nientioo of ftve bushels of this:; ma- nure oemg sowt),-^ its crude state, on an acre- of flax, and that it had # Sniprisingflfff«ict. We have -seen this crop very niuch assisted, with the appli^tion.of only two bushels |©f it tcTthe acre. #. .^^ . ,^ An intelligent Farmer once obiser^ed to us, that during ourfRevolutionary War, w^^n this ajrtiole was so desft' that^ he could not afford \o give u to hjli-^cattje, his barn-dung seemed to be of but little service to his lands; but that he found the case muclr altered, when he c,^fd ^gain ^ft>ri to, deal out a sufficien(;y of. it to^is stock. M , ^^Sp^ " We will alsojhere ni^^ntit^ a s>mall pamphlet we^w. in Maryland, some' yearsj^^^ince, whicbvva§ mostly the certifi- ^cates ot Planters of the interier of that State, des(^ribing the surprising effects produced on lands there, by sowing. a mixture of salt and fine mould upon them; particularly ^ when ajypiied to crops of wheat and flax. - ^ a These lands were such as had become much exhausted, by constarit^^,0rops of tobacco, and Indian corn; and on which few cattle Ikl^d ever been raised ; of course Uttle or no salt had ever Be'i^n given them, since they were cleared. 'We mention these matters, as inducing our belief that soiiii^ of this ingrediei|t is highly essential to the proj^uct- iveness of soils ; and that, where they are long destitute of it, a little may have a powerful effect upon them, as a manure. \ \, ^^^ / N(ir would we confine th^s observation to cominoa.: salt alone: W^ believe it may be applied to 9II the salts which operate as manures. If too much common salt be^ how- .: •« • '212 FARMER'^ ASSISXANT. X ever, given to lands at once, it wiU^pppXf ii^jurious, for a V^bile at least; and pe^iiaps the sa!:i|ie holds equally, true, in 'regard tQ^the other salts. . -^^-^ We hav« se'fe'n a late newspaper publication, which very bighl)" recommended cpmmon salt, as a nianure for turnips. Mr. Dtctncs however, ^ays he once made trials of it upon this crop, upon onions, and on carrots; and that the latter crop only' was benefited by the ap^^lication. Perhaps he either applied too mifch'to the two former ^ "crops, or the soil might not have required any addition of this ingredient? as we have seen a little>6f it u^d v^ry successfully, ^s a mimii re fo^' onions. »* WlTelhcr cStnnnon^ult^^ay be,,i)rofitably s^^ied, as a ' xj, itianure, must depend on its price, its effects on the growth of iliffePeni plants, and in different soils, and situations ; as ^ it is iiup'posed not to be so powerful in^.its effect on lands'^* near the ocean, nor, ^Irhaps, on sonie soils, as fPis^on ■others. "■ , _,_^ ; B'U little attention has^^^ beerP=|iitiid, in this Country, to the opera'iion of time, as a manure; though, in some tnstances, , We have heard of its beii^g very ^ccessfully applied. | Under Earths^ something has been said in regard to Imii , is a primitive earth, and asking on0 of those which i-,ie tssentially necessary, as a component part, in fojipming a durably ifertile soil', ' r LiiTje is of singular use, in destroying the adhesive qual- >. !iy of ktiff clitys; and it is on-Soils of this description^^ind 1)11 cold loams, that it I^b been considered, in Greatbritain, as ixiost efficacious. On such soils, the British Farmers •fsnally apply aboj^lt two hundred and forty bushels to the ?? lie, \yhich is cdftsidered ajull jnanu^rjiig; the effects of which ave usually manifest foTi^igfi, ten,? arid twelve of the imcceeding crops. , ^^ '''^ ./^; t .'^If i^e be applied to the lighter aiid drier lands of that< . '^Gbuntry, not niuch more than half of that allowance is given at once. ; An opinion was held by Mi% Zzv/^*?on, that lime is miost suitable to lands in a cool moist climate, such as that of Greatbritain ; and Mr. Brownel considers it a^.an impro- per manure for lands containing much vegetable earth; but perhaps experience may show, that both of these opinions are in a great measure erroneous. 'i*. - Lime will reduce peat and turf to a mpre Vegetable earth; but vve believe it never proceeds so far in the work of deconiposition, as to destroy vegetable matter, or lessen its^quaniJiy where it abounds. i It woAild be desirable i^atia^curate 'trials of lime were made, in order to ascertain its value in our soils, and whether it should be held in as high estimation here, as ■#■ • ♦ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 213 «ft ' %■; r,, «^ in Greatbrhain, where its use, as a manure, is very ex- tensive. ... ^H We wiii here give tl^e inferences oLan experienced prac tical Farmer of thaL Co^itry, fronri various trials ©f lime on clays, on loams, JBi ow sandy loams on a close retentive bottom^ ♦ ^|l 1. That lime operates equally well, whether applied when fresl\ slaked, ^or when it has been some time slaked, ^provided the condition of the ground be such as to render a calcareous application beneficial. ^ a. T|^at it i^ not material, wh^her lime be used on grs^-land, or on Summer-fallov|,| bu| may be applied as may be nac^ convenie^ especially 611 new clean grass- land. On land which has long "lain in grass, it is thought best to take one crop after breaking it up; an4|th^n'to Summer-fatiow, and apply the lime. "^ ^'^ 3. ftat to lime moorish. soil> is hazardous, uhless dun|p be likewise bestowed ; and, to repeat the applicati(on, espe- cially where such soils havd^bn^eh severely croped^ is s^lmost certain loss ; and that a cpjnpost of lime and rich elhh is, in su<^ case, the only propter substitute. / , 4. That strong loams .and clays require a full dose, to bring them ifi't^ action, ailr such soils are capable of absorb- ing a great quantity of calcareous matter ; and that lighter soils require less lime, to stimulate tHtem ; and may be in- jured by a quantity ^jhat would prove but moderately bcne- fici^ to those of a heavy nature. 5? That upon fresh land, or th^t which is in a proper state for an addition of calcareous earth, lime is much supe- rior to dung, as its effects continue for a-longer time, whilp the crops thus grown are of a superior 'feitjd, and are'Sess liable to be injured by drought, or by Excess of moisture; and that the stiff soils particularly arg so much easier work- ;ied, when welUimed, that this circumstance alone is-^most a sufficient induc0ment to apply lime to such grounds, if it possessed no fertilizing properties. Finally, that though strong soils require to b0^tini^a^d with a good dose of lime, while those of a light texture require bu|i]ittle more than half the allowanc^e of the fonn* er, especially where they are' fresh, or have not been belore limed ; still judgment is requisite in the application : But that it is generally safer to exceed the proper quantity, than to be below it; for thBt, in this latter case, the manure may prove almost wholly useless; while it rarely happens that the ground is injured by .ah excess of lime, especially if more- or less dung be soon after administered. ; ' A circupstahce' calculated to strt^ngtheh the belief; that lime will answer well as a manure^ iirt'^almost every^part of this Country, is, that the Romans used it^ as a manure in 214 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. • Italy, when they conquered Britain; snd/iare supposed to have first introduced" it in that I&iand;;$or, although the Summers of the latter Country 'li;|; niuch moister and cooler than otirs; still those of the former arc nearly as warm, and perhaps full as dry, as the a#rage of Summer- weather here. ,^/^ " t And if lime enables crops the better to withstand droughts, which are often more severe li^ere than in Britain, ^ this would seem to be an additional reason for its use, as a "^ manure, in this Country. Lime is also'of singjftlar use in producinfg a hig\ degree of fermentation, in all soUs which require it; and this is essential to their JifeduOTiveness,^ in every gp^ntry and * climate. The British Writer to whom we have just refered says,.^ however, that experience has shown thai iime wUl not re- store land^s; which have bqeh completely worn out 5y con- stant crops of grain. He theretore supposes lime to be merely calculated to bring certain principles into action, which were previously, possessed by the soil, and which are probably lost when thus exhausted by severe cropmg.^ But again he says, that all lands are benefited by iime, ' which can be refreshed by grass, or enriehed by dun^,' We liaye thus far given the Reader the substance pf what we find in the latest' and ^est British Publications on lime, as a manure : But, from information ^ derive from Dr. Mease, of Philadelphia, we are enabled more partici^rJy to state the quantity prefer for an acre in this Country ; and also that which has been found most efficacious, as a ma- nure, in Pennsylvania. ' We have met^tioned two hundre^ and forty bushels to the acre, as being the allowance for clay-soils in Greatbritain ; but we are induced to believe that where so much is appli- ed, in that Country, it must be of lime made from chalky > which is much weaker than ihat made of litpestone. Forty bushels tp the acre is about the usual allowance of lime of this latter description on the lands of Pennsylvania, wliicS are commonly a loam mixed with more or less of either sand or gravel. It is also found that ihe^sinds which have there been previously limed, are more' powerfully stimulated by the application ot gypsum, than those to which lime has not been recently applied. ;*^ ,^, Under Earths, we have mentioned that, in GreatbTitain, lime which has the most magriesia in it is accounted the least valuable; but, in Pennsylvania, it is found the most efficacious. The quality possessed by lime, of producing a great de- gree of lermentation,#enders it 6f singular use in making /y composts. These are iVequently mads, in Greaibritainj FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 215 from mere collections of alluvial or other rich earths, wherever they cap be had» and mixing them with lime sufficient to prodiice thtfLrequisire degree of fermentation, which is to be effect^d%y' frequently stiring up the mass with the plough, or the shovel; and in this state is carted out, and mixed imrirediately with the soil. Composts are afib^made in some parts of that Country, in which peat commonly forms about three-fourths of the mass; the remainder being fresh barn dung, together with some lime to be laid on ihe top, to assist in the decomposi- tion of the pear, as the mass becomes, properly heated. The peat and the dung are first t^^ laid down in layers, in pljaporiion to their respective quan^ties, until the heap is made about|^r feet high. Sticks are "to be run down into the heap, in different parts of it, to ascertain the degree of heat the mass has acquired; and whenever it approJiches to blood-heat, it must be either watered, or turned over, as there i^anger of the whole beii>g consumed, particularly in warm weather, if the mass become too'^ warm. After the heat subsides, i^ich it does in time a/ccording. to the state of the atmosphere, and ^he degree of perfection in proportioning the materials of the heap, it is to lie uatil about Ihree weeks before it is to be applied to the soilj when it is to bej turned topside down, outside in, and a second heat comes on, which nuist be carefully attended to, as before ; and, when this subsides, the'inass is to be ap- plied to the soil. , T||kmass of manure thus made is found to be as good, as tne same weight of roten barn-dmig Care and experi- ence seem, however, necessary in making this manure to periFection. In Summer, it may be mad^, in eight or ten weeks: In cooler weather, a lopgier time ft necessary. > '^* Where the peat is taken M)m beneath the surface, it should be thrown up some f^ime before, for the purpose of drying, and being lighter in transportation. The compost, while making:, should be kept as light as possible. See Earths, in regard to the description of peat. That which abounds on the stirface of soine swamps, and uplands, is readily decomposed by the application of lime, and mixing k with this earth. ' We will rp^ition another kind of compost, in" which lime is an ingredie\it, as recommended by the Society of Improv- ers in Scotland, for malting use of the ridges along-side i of f(^ces, in fields which have been ^ong ploujghed. First plough the ridge deep with a qleavingTturrow; then cart on a liiyer of stiff cldy, then a layer of barn-dung, then another of day, and on ihct whole a layer of lime, and covel! the mass oVer with ploughed 'earth from each side, and l^t 216 farmer's assistant. it lie a while ; then enter it with a deep cleaving furrow, and in this way plough it to the bottom^ then go over it again with gathering furrows, un^l the whole is thrown up into a high ridge, and in this siMation let it again lie to ferment. '■ ^ .' ^' Repeat the process of cleaving down, and ridging up, at proper intervals, till the whole mass is^^mill fermented; and then' cart it out, and mix it with the soil, at the rate of about thirty-five loads to the acre. The component parts of manure made in this way, or something similar, stold be adapted to the soil intended to be manured. '$^ ■ . ^ Mr. Youn^, of Delaware, greatly irnproved ivornout'^lay- lands, by composts, in which lime was a pri^pal ingredi- ent ; and, while the land thus became redeemed from abso- lute sterility, the soil at the same time became darker in color, and lost that stubborn adhesiveness, so troublesome^ J&i, clay-soils. '•'4, . ■. f Mr. Jshfordy cff Penney lYanji.9, put twS hundred bushels Of linie on nine acres ; planted'the ground with Indian corn; left one acre unlimed; crop of corn. great, where the lime Mras applied. Next year, Summer-fallowed, and had good "Wheat and rye, where the land was limed. Sowed herds* grass atid clover, and applied gypsum to. the whole; had a good QTop of grass, ^here the land was manured with lime; but poor, where it was not. *This was probably land sornewhat stiff, and considerably exhausted. It wbuld seem that stiff lands are coiAonly very considerably as|^ted. by gypsum, after havingbeen manured with lime. Mr. Ashford aays he ploughs Ms land for Indian corn in ^ tl*id^Fall, lays on 'his liiiae in the Spring, and is never trou- bled with either worms or w^ds.!" He brings home all his ccornsialks in the Fall, lays them dpwn, firmly trodep, with altern^kte layers of. lime; and next Spring he finds the mass roted and fit for use. If he were to add some barn-dung, and, some earths, suitable to the soil to be manured, he would find his heap of compost much improved in quantity, and perhaps in quality.' .- Peachtrees, when .planted in grass-grounds, where they naturaUy grow but indifferently, are much assisted by strew- "^ ing some' lirne round the roots. This probably assists in re- peling insects, ^s well as in. serving as a manure, for the trees. See Orchard, where Mr. Coxe assisted the. growth of his young ap^letrees, -by a compost in which lime was an ingredient. " sj^^^^^. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 217 Pigeons* dungp, \vhich Ys chiefly calcareous rrtatter, is lound very efficacious, wtien powdered^ and a slight quantity applied to lands; while, at; the same time, too much will prove hurtful at fi^jst. The dung of other fowls is very similar, though son^e more and some less' efficacious. S^e Poultry, where this kind of manure is to be made in the greatest quantities. We roust also notice human ordure, which is capable of being convented into ^''^ery powerful manure, after being mixed with suitable earths, and having a due length of time to prepare it in a contpost of suitable earths, &c. It re- quires two years to bring it to perfection. Barilla is highly valuable, as a manure. Old woolen rags are also very good. A piece, of the size of a Man's hand, will serve to manure a hill of potatoes, when properly bu- ried in iMe soil beneath t^e growing plants. We will now spea^ of another calcareous earth which, in this Country, is commonly': entitled to the highest con- sideration, as. a cheiip and valuable manure, and this is gx/fisum. ' ■^' \ ' One hundred parts of gypsum (says Mr. CAo/^/a/) con- tain thirty of sulphuric acid, thirty- two of pure earth,, and thirty eight of water.* < If ft be kept in a fire of considera- ble intejasity, in contact with powder of charcoal, tlie acid is decomposed, and t^e residue is lime.* ' « * Qypstim is found in the earth in four different states : 1, irMie pulverulent and fris(ble form, which constitutes gypseous earth, fossil flour,'8ic7; 2, iVi solid masses, which constitute plaister-stone ; 3, in ^t^laciitesj and, 4^ in deter- minate chrystals of different forms.* ' The color of gypsum (he jadds) is subject to a greit number of varieties, which are the signs of various quali- ties, reld^ive to its uses; The white is the most beautiful; but sometimes it is gray, and in this case it is less esteem- ed, and less valuable. The several states of the oxyde of iron, with which it abounds, in greater or less quantities, constitute its rosdcolored, red, and black varieties.* For almost^ all soils, except clays and wet loams, this is the cheapesS^nianure that can be applied ; and its use in this Country 'Serves greatly to,, equalize"'tfve value of lands, by rendering those which are naturally poor a;lmost as p|o- ^ ductive as the rich. ^> ' ■ This gypsum that abounds in -the interior of tlie State of Nevjryork is much superior to that of Novascotla ; not only as (b its being a greater stimuUiit to the growth of plant^ but in Regard to its being more general in its bperatio® better calculated to assist the grow tl\ of all plant?, ^ all s^ils and situations. s' — ^ 28 218 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. It has been successfully appUed to old meadow-Uhd ot timothy-grass; to growing cvop.s of wheat; and on lands near the ocean; in all ot which cases the Novascotia gyp- sum is usually applied with little or no effect. In another instance, however, we have: seen it inoperative on timothy- grass, on a dry loam; while it had its usual ef- fect on the clover growing on the same soil. Its effects are not always the same j but most certain when applied to clover, by greatly increasing that crop, and by puting the land in good condign, for almost any Qther, when the elover-sward is turn^oi'tinder. ( .., As gypsuqi, when sown qn suitable grounds^ always^pro- duces a spontaneous growth of white-clover; and as this growth is an intallible indication of the soil being thus ren- dered in good condition for a crop of wheat, or rye ; ,where^ therefore, either of these crops is'to bj^ raised oa fallow- groundSj the better v/ay: is X6 sow the gypsum early in the Spring, ^nd, as soon as the .growth of this clover is produc- ed, break up the soil, and prepare it for the crop, by further ploughings in due season; and in this way the product will leommonly be double what might be expected on the same ground, without ih^ application of this ^njaaure. Thus, suppose that the ground be a dr]^loam, or gravelly loam, so' exhausted, that ten bushels to the acre, ot wheat, could only be obtained by the common culture j let two bushels^ of gypsum to the acre be applied, early j| the Spring, and by the middle of |iii)e, or sooner in niore'"l^uth- crly climatesj the ground will be covered with a sward of white-clover; ari4 then, wit^ liie same cultu^re, twenty bush- els to the acre m^ be expecttd, and the ground will be m much better condition for another' crop. The same difference -may be expected, where a crop of I'ye is to be raised, on ground suitable to its growth. The most powerful opt ration qf this ii>anure, in propor- tion to thf! quantity used, is in applying it to dry the seeds, after being sya»^ed in some fertilizing liquor, such as a mix- ture^lof old urine, lye bj wood-ashesy.or strong soapsudjj, Ivith^ solution, of saltpQtre, an^ /sown or planted immedi* Sttely." ' ''/ ^\ ,,,, *-;.y^':" : -,; \:,/ The effe'ct,s of such' treatpient on seeds of Indian corn, ^r buckwheat, peas, oats, bai;ley, and perhaps flax, will proba- bly be found the greatest; but, if the gypsum of, the State of Newyork be used, perhaps its effects may be^fotmd.more generoliy. useful. ■■■,.,. ■ /- ^ , ^ fl^.' . ^ ,^, When potatoes are cut for planting^ it is of singular use ni the growth of the crop to sprinkle on gypsumj, before the cut parts have dried;.; and also to apply sortie' to ,the hillS; before the seed is covereclj about a table spoonful to each. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 2 19 Indian corn is ^Iso greatlyjbentfited by a similar applica- tion to the hills.. Let the gypsum be scattered a little in both cases. ' '^ ' ., ,^ 'its eflFectS on pumpkins, squashes, and other plants of that son, is said to be gr^t; also, on cabbages, and proba- bly on turnips of different kinds, as they are all different sorts of Srassica. Most pi'obably, all plants will be more or less assisted, in their growth, by a proper application of gypsum. I« Ev«ry Farmer and Planter ought to keep a constant sup- plyj,of this excelept manure, if it can be obtained at any reasonable price, ancJ liis lands be -hnbre or less naturally sterile, or exhausted, and suitable for its application. He will find thatj with proper management, every bushel he applies to his lands will yield him double, and from thai even tOi ten-fold, its value, according to his soil, the price gypaunik costs hitn, and the uses to which he applies it. its ap'plication, together with the cultivation of red-clover^ and other suitable' grasses, to almost all the dry-lands of the Atlantic States, (ying soi^lh bf Pennsylvania, is a desidera- tum of the utmost jmportatice to the Planters of that natu- rally fine tract of country ; a country not generally of a very strong durable soil; that has suffered much from the most exhausting crogs/ and the worst of husbandry; but is, nevertheless, susceptible of being made second to none in the United States, By a proper system of culture, With the aid of gypsum, and other suitable manures, and grasses. , G^#erally speaking, little else but these are wantlns: to raise the value of the plantations of that; country to, five^ and, in some instances, to ten, times the ambunt of the prices they at present command. ! Col. Taylor^ of Virginia, frpiii various trials of gypsvfm, draws the following conclusioris^i That this manure should be mixed with the earth, by harrowing of ploughing ; that drought may defeat its operation on Indian corn, it the ma- nure be not thus worked into the soil; an|i' that its effects on this crop are as great in this way, as wh«n applied to the hills ; that it increases the fertilizing effetts of coarss barn-dung; that gypsuiti may greatly increase a crop of red-clover, when sown even as late as May; that even a half-bushel of this manure, to an acre, may ofte^ be found as efficient as a much larger quantity; that ah excess of moisture, or of drought, commonly ^destroys its operation ; that the state of the ground, or of the atmosphere, whether w6t, or dry, at the time of sowing this manyre, is not es- sential ; but that the state of e^ich, afterwards, is of particu- lar consequence ; that its effects are more likely to be de- feated when, sown on the grotmd,' than;, when worked into it; that sowing it broadcast on India4 '.cot-n, after;u is up;, 220 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. irtay improve the crop twenty-five per cent ; that, sown ift June, it niay improve English grass ; that sown in Augustj^ and worked in, it may improve the ground; and that, sown in November, it will most probably neither assist the crop^ nor the land. ''■ This, it must be remembered, is the Novascotla gyp- sum. Mr. Peters says the foregoing very nearly agrees with his experieoce. He says he has alw£^ys derived very bene- ficial effects, in raising every kind of grain, from first wet- ing his seed, and the^ rolling or drying it in' gypsum, be- fore sowing; but th^fe^|ie never experienced any benefit, by sowing this manure on any kind df grain, usually sown in .|be broadcast, except buqkwheat. / ^ Hq had probably never trie4 it on peas, and dther legu- minous crops. / He found it excelent for tobacco: ^He says it will not operate on ,^n exhausted soil, that has biecome destitute of Vegetable of putrescent animal matter; but that when either of these, or lime, is applied to such soilf then the gypsum, even if it has been lying in the soil, without effect, will have its usual operation. At the same time, he says that lands newly cleared, which have commonly much animal and vegetable matter in them, are not. assisted ^Y this manure. He also considers it as efficient as lime, for the purpose of fcxpeling insects from the soil. ,t. Acids applied to gypsum produce an effervescent^ and this is, therefore, one method of distinguishing this manure from other kinds of limestone. Another is, to reduce the mass, supposed to be gypsum, to powder; then put it in a vessel over the fire; and if^it be gypsum an ebullition will lake place, when the mass bificomes sufficiently heated. We have been informed, that gypsum has a most pow- erful effect, when applied as a manure to strawberry-plants, by greatly increasing the size and quantity of the fruit. We believe that all leguminous plants, and all those which grow above ground, in the shape of vines, derive much benefit from this manure. Mr. Livingston says, that in traveling through Flanders he found that pyrites were used as a manure, particularly lor grass-lands, at the rate of about six bushels to the acre. The seed grain is also covered with it, as it is with gypsum in this Country. The stone is sufficiently impregnated with sulphur to burn^ when dry, and this is the method there used to reduce it to powder. For this purpose, it is laidJn heaps, and when it has become red with burning, the fire is extinguished; for-if it burn longer it becomes black, and then the quality Is li^t so good. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 221 After the burning, it is e^ily reduced to powder j and as a proof of its great valu©) as a manure, he observes it is carried forty and fifty miles into the., country, on the backs of Asses. , >- Mr. Livingston is of Opinion that the sulphuric acid in this, as well as in gypsum, is the fertilizing principle; that in this slow combustion this acid is absorbed in the burnt earth,' while the inflammable matter is dissipated; and t>at the union of the alkali and the acid forms a salt not unlike, in its chemical relation, to gypsum, or perh sips one that is ^ore soluble, more impregnated ^ith the acid. . •* Refering alsoto a circurnstance-^fiiientioned by Dutiamel, "Where this acid being scattered dver weeds, wi^h the view of destroying them, only made them grow with additional vigor, he observes, tljat probably if it were diluted, and applied to the soil, or mixed with woodashes, and applied in that way, it might answer the purpose of gypsum. And in order to find an acid that would be cheaper and better, as being already <:omposed^9,f a constituent parrof vegeta- bles, he observes that the pyro-ligneous acid may be obtain- ed, at a trifling expense, %y converting vvoodinto charcoal, and condensing thfe vapor ; as the charcoal would of itself repay the expense of the operation, particularly where wood is cheap. ''^ Mr. Livingston further observes, that he has seetf py^i^ttes on his own estate; and, advises that experiments be made of this earth. It is to be laid in beds about four feet thick, an|^ while burning shpuld be stired with a rake. When cooled, pound it fine arid sift.it. If thie earth should prove too inflammable, he advises to give it a mixture ot lime, ivhich, by the process of burning, wQuld, be converted into gypsym; or wood-ashes vyfould be found useful. If the pyrites be in lumps, it musj be reduced to a coarse gravel, before burning. '■' Xi A due attention to the recom;mendation of Mr. Living- ston on this subject might be productive' of very beneficial results, as no doubt many parts of the interior of this Coun- try may be found, abounding in pyrites which are destitute of gypsum. Mr. Chafimanyoi Pennsyjvania, tried sulphufet of,barytes, calcined, as a manure, and found that it even exceeded gypsum in its effects, not only on dry gravelly lands, but also on clays. It drove insects from liis garden. He con- siders it the most powerful manure ever yet discovered, pare must be taken, however, not to strew it on ,^he grow- ing plants, lest it kill them. ^ In preparing some, for the purpose of ihaking an experii^ ^IKvent) he took twentj-four pounds of this earth, mixed it With th*ee pounds of powdered charcoal, and put the whole 22^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. into an earthen jar, with a light cover thereon, and burned it in a Peter's kiln. Sulphur is also found to be nearly as efficacious, as a ma- nure, as it is W expelihg insects. Pulverized stonecoal, says Mv. Muhlenberg^ is a good manure for most soils. Four hundred pounds are suflicient for an acre. Pulverized charcoal is also good; and the same may be said of pulverized slate, limestone, and shells of shellfish. The latter are also good to be ploughed in whole, in a dry soil, for, the purpose of increasing its rtioisture. » Burnt-clay, good for pold stiff soils. 5ee BURNT-CLAYj^nd BURNBAKING. Every paf-tof animal substances may be converted into good manure. The flesh, in decoiti posing, discloses abun- dance of azote and miasma; and some of the constituent parts of blood are alkaline and sea- salts, oil, air, lyaiter, &c. atl of which are essentially the food of piants. The bones, when powdered, are good as a top-dressing; and even the shavings of the horrjs, and of the hide when curried, are good in composts, or when buried in light soils. The flesh shouM be spread over the ground, and ploughed in imme^ diately. The blood is best used in composts. Of vegetable manures, those which are either ploughed down for green-dressings, or are otherwise buried in the earth while green, are much more efficacious than when dried, especially if long exposed to the weather. "•'iSee Green-dressing, j^ Such may, however, be useful when brought into OTw- yards, and there mixed with the dung of the cattle, by which means they absorb much of the stale and juices of the excrements, which woiild otherwise be lost. For thi^ purpose, almost every kind of plant, whether green oi* dry, is more or less useful. Of the contents of the barn-yard, Horse-dung is t|ie worst, and Sheep-dung is much the best, as a manure. If the former be suffered to lie long in a heap, it will be spoiled by its own heat, which is to be known by its white mouldy appearance, and therefore should be applied to the soil as soon as possible.* It is most suitable for c61d, wet^ and stiff soils'; dnd the same may be observed of Sheep- dung, thougll'this wirl! greatly assist any soil. Cow-dung is best for light df dry soils. Every kind of barn-dung is much injured by being suf- fered to lie exposed to the rains; and therefore should be kept as much under cover as possible. It should be carted put in the Spring, and immediately buried in the soil for a crop of Indian corn or potatoes, in order that the seeds of weeds whicii it contains inay be destroyed by the hoings FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 223 and subsequent ploughings; Or if any part of the dung be retained in the barn-yard, for making coniposts, it should be that which is under cbycr; and if this be tlie Horse- dung, let it be immediately nnixed with some cooling earths which are fit ingredients for composts. These may be made of every ingredient that can be gathered together, that is calculated to manure the soil for which it is intended. Clay, sand, mud, lime, peat, &c. may therefore be parts.' To these may be added the scrapings of the back yard, turfs on which cattle have long dunged, oM rubbish of buildings, earth that tias been long covered, banks of rich earth that have been thrdwn up by the plough agains fences, and generally all rich earths which carr be spared. On the heaps of composts should be thrown &\l the soapsuds, dishwater, meaibrine, urine, water that has run from dung, and generally all the filth that is collected in and about the house and barn. ; , = ^ • Composts shoiild be frequently stired up from thie bot- tom, in order that a due degree of fermentation may event- ually pervade the whole mass ^ and wher| in this state of fe^rtn en ration they should be darted out; spread evenly on ground well prepared, ploughed in lightly, and well mixed by the harrowings which cover the seed that is at the same time to be sown. , A heap of compost of this kind may be made toi advati- tage^ear the dwelHnghouse, for the purpose of recetying' froriPit the additions that may be afforded ^there. Or it may be made adjoining the Hogpen, to receive all its contents | for Hog-dung is an excelent manure for all dry soils. Such a s'.ock would be found of signal use, ^s a manure for the turnip-crop. 4, See Turnips. ' : ^i^ These heaps of compost will be the better to be slightly covered, so as to admit no more rains than will serve to keep thent in a' proper degree of moisture. ,Jf properly prepared, they will be found much superior to equal quan- tities ol raw barn-dung; and, if proper pains be taken, very censiderable quantities ot them may be made every year* An excelent method of making a large quantity of ma- nure, with little trouble, is as follows:^ in the ;5pring, en- close a piece of ground, say, ten rods/long an4 tv^o wide; have thfe two end fences so that they can b^ speedily remov- *ed at pleasure to plough the ground more easily. After ploughing It with a cleft furrow, turn the Milch-cows and young cattle upon it every night. After they have saturated the surface, plough it with a gathering furrow ; and so on aUernaticly, at intervals, until the groiind is completely sa- turated with their stale and dung. Then cart it off, and apply it as before directed lor composts. 254 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. By .first carting earth and rubbish into the barn-yard, the same proces^pt making manure may be carried on there ; but this requires an adtlitional' carting, which greatly en- hances the expense. It is usually better to make these yards in suitable places, and drive the cattle into them, after the Cows are milked. They may be made in the fiefd in- tended to be manured. Sheep, however, should never be shut up in this manner, as it will be found more hurtful to them, than the advantage gained by their manure is worth. Perhaps the same may be observed of Horses. Let a slight shed be made in a Sheep-pasture, and under this cart a layer of sand or ather earth : The Sheep will resort to this for shade if it be the only one in the field. As they saturate the earth thus carted in, bring in more and spread it over the other; as this becomes also saturated, let more be brought in, until the mass is raised so high as to render it pecessary to cart it off' to manure the soil, tis before directed^ The same process may be carried on in the Sheep-pen, during Winter, to nearly' equal advantage. The earth becomes in ihis way so fully saturated with the urine and excrements, thait it becomes very g(^od manure. The stale and manure of Horses and Qlher cattle might in part be saved, during the warm Summer-days, in the man- ner above directed for Sheep. The Reader will find the most effectual and complete method of making the most of the manure, which is usualjy lost in Summer, under Soiling of Cattle. t Mr. Peters sayS that barn dung should not be completely roted, before using ; but that it should be so far advanced in putrefaction, as to destroy the vegetative power of the seeds of weeds it contains ; that it should be applied to the soil while it is still in a. state of fermentation, and during the latter part bf the process of rating. There seems to be some diversity of opinion, on this point. Some say dung should be perfectly roted, before it is used; while others contend for burying it in the soil, be- fore roiing. We believe that any given quantity of fresh barn-dung may, in most cases, be rendered more productive by being first roted to a certain degree; and that it will go still far- ther, when ;^operly mixed in a compost : But, as additional expense must, in either of these cases, be incured, this should be duly estimated, and regulated according to cir- cumstances. > For instance, if labor is high, the price and the produce of lands low, and the lands already in a high state of fertil- ity; there may be a, loss incured in expending too much labor in making the most of the contents of the barn- yard. M FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 225 But, if the case be reversed, by the land being deficient in affording the greatest products, the prices of, these, and of the land, sufficiently hi^, and Ihe wages of Laborers moderate 5 there a proportionately increased expenditure, in manuring 'the land, will be found essentially requisite, for obtaining the greatest clear profits. «^ A sound discretion is indeed essential, in determining how much may be expended, to ac^vantage, in manuring lands J but, generally speaking, much is lost in falling short of that point where, by the aid of plentiful manuring, the greatest profits are to be expected. ^Z* See further, Stercorary, lor the means of making the most of barn dung ^ ^This manure, in 4ts crude state particularly, should always be buried to a good depth in the soil ; and in this state should remain there till it Ifas sufficiently roted ; for by^ing upon, or too near, the surface, nriucfeW its efficacy seems to be lost by evaporation. While the v^uable quali- ties of Sonne manures, such as salts of various kinds, are constantly sinking into the earth, the contrary, in a great^ measure, seems to be the case with barn-dung. Old graveyards, where the Dead lie closely intered, are always femarkable for tlieir fertility : The "miasma produced from the putrefying matter, though laid at a great depth, is constantly risings and of course enriching ihe surface; and such, to a certain extent, would seem to be the case with baf^-dung, while in a decomposing state. Mr. Peters observes, however, that grass-crops are *«n exception to the general rule, ot deriving most benefit from barn-dung when well buried; as he has always found this manure, like all others, most efficacious in the growth of grasses, when used as a top-dressing. t It^ouid seem that, forljtops ot this description, its. effi- cacy is principally in serving as a covering to the ground, and thereby preventing the escape o^ moisture, wiiich is more or less particularly essential*^ to the growth ot grasses. We imagine it will usually be found more effectual, as a top-dressing, for some grasses than for others; and always most so on the drier grounds. For tap-rooted grasses, v*'e think this manure should be buried in the soil. Under Earths, we have described the method of burn- ing peat, and thus reducing it to ashes, for a manure ; but we are induced to condemn the practice, unless, perhaps, where it abounds in great quantities on the suj^ace of the earth, as in the county of Sullivan, and the northerly part of t^erkimer, and its vicinity, in this .State, and in various other parts of the Country. '^*'' 29 526 FACER'S ASSISTANT. Generally speaking, it is believed that peat may bfe more advantageo^ly used in composts, in the way before de- scribed ; as Sin this way its fects will be greater, and much more permanent^ as a manure. Where the surface is but thinly covered with peat, it may ^e mostly burnt off, in a dry time, after the land is ckared ; and then the ashes lie on the land where they are wanted : But in such, case it would eventually prove more advantageous to the land to roi or decompose ihe peat, with lime, as before mentioned; after which the black mass re- maming may be mixed with the earth below, so as to ren- der it more permanently productive. A surface of peat of tiis description may, however, be successfully cultivated with yearly crops of potatoes, un4il the peat, by roting away, can be mixed with the earth be- low;, so as tQ form a mixture suitable for other crops. Under Mfis, that article is recommended as a manure for potatoes.J:|r We have no doubt^ that peat made fine,, and mixed with some suitable earth, would answer a better purpose; as what 'seems most essential to the growth of these rootflkis to be placed where they can most easily extend, having at the same time a due degree of air and moisture; and it is probably for this reason that they grow well under a mere covering of straw. Seaweed (Mga Marina) is afforded in consider^le quantities on many parts ot our seacoast, and is valuable as a ii^anure, particularly tor light dry soils. For clays it is not so good. It is best to be ploughed in the soil while green ; as, when it has become dried, it is not so valuable as a manure, Jtjbas two advantages over barn-dung ; one in common, however, with naost other manures, it contains no see^lsof weeds; the other is, it tends to render light lands more compact, an^ for that reason crops of wheat raised on them are but lit"^ aflfected with mildew ; while wheat grown on lands long manured with the contents of the barn-yard, be- coming thereby more loose and friable, is found, in Great- britain at least, to be most liable to this disorder. Mr. Davy, in his Memoir to the Board of Agriculture in England/ after mentioning the different results of analyzed earths which were found extremely fertile, observes, that, ' In supplying animal or vegetable manure, a temporary food is only provided for plants, which is in all cases ex- hausted by means of a certain number of crops; but when a soil is rendered of the best possible constitution and tex- ture, with regard .toiits earthy parts, its fertility may be considered as pertriifi^ntly established. It becomes capa,ble of attractiog a lart»e portion ot vegetable nourishment from FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 227 the atmosphere, and of producing its crops with compara- lively little labor and expense.* Sse further, Earths ^ Wnen manures oi toe common kir^ds are to be applied, let tht^m be laid on pretty plentitully, and generally tor that crop #hich needs them mosi They should be aoplied evenly 'o the soil. It is but too common lo see dung scat- tered thickly round where the heaps were laid in caning out; while the ground farther off has little or none; bui this is miserable management. All kinds of dung,, in Composts or otherwise, should be mixed with the i^oil as fitobn after carting out as possible, as they loose much by drying and evaporation. ^ .^ It should, however, be remembered, that soils may be overcharged with coraposis,*or with pw barn-dung. Too much even ot composts in a sandy soil tends to overheat it, anilithus lessen instead of increasing its moii^re; and too much m clays tends to produce too rank a growth. Raw bann-dung may, however^ be buried pleniifufiy in clays, where its fermeiitation will be so slow as not to produce tdfe greai a degree of fertility .A^^, In sand, however,* it is otherwise.. Composts, or even raw barn dung, is much more efficacious to the growing plants, when laid in th|^ drills where they are planted, than when mixed generally with the soil; but as this requires much more labor Ihid exoense, and as the ground becomes hardened by^cariing oi^the manure, it is doubttul whether much is, in general, gained by the practice. MAPLE (Acer.) There are nine sorts of this tree, enun»erated by Botanists, in this Country; the most valua- ble of which is the sugar-maple; of which kind only some- thing shall be said. # Where the Farmer wishes to save his sugar maple- trees,, he ought not to tap them in the common way; but, instead of this, bore a hole two or three inches into th,!© tree, out of which the sap can be drawn ; and let it be pluged up after the sap has done runing. The method of making the sugar is too wejf known* to need any minute description. It would be often well, how- ever, if those who make this sugar, were to observe more cleanliness, in regard to the vessels in which the sap is gathered. Old troughs, which have lain for years exposed to the weather, are not very proper receptacles for the sap, if regard be had to the cleanliness of the sugar, and -of course to its value. Some make use of vessCTs ijiiade in the Jprm ofj^ails^ which they keep for the purpose, and this is certainly at least more cleanly. The^ vessels can be laid 22a FARMER'S ASSISTANT. % up every year, after the time of using them is past, and be preserved many years. In clearing pasture-lands wh#h abound with sugar-maple, it would be well to preserve these trees, as they do no in- jury to the pasture; but the difficulty is, that as soon as iheyj^ecome mor6 exposed to the winds they are* blown down. But let all the small maples in such grounds be left, and in a few years these will grow up with sufficient strength of root to withstand the winds, and become an ar- ticle of profit and ornamental to thB farm. They may also be very easily diig up in the woodlands, and transplanted into such pastures. I'his is a piece of econpmy whifch the Farmer would d'O well to observe, if be wishes his farm to yield due supplies of sugar, when thutjirticle sh^l have become more scarce. Twenty trees to an acre would do little or no injury to the paHiire ; an|||^en acres of such a maple-orchard would, in a few years, ^peid no inconsiderable quantity of sugar. By boring the trees, as above directed, no essential injury is done to them; so that they might be increasing in grow^th for Hllf a century, or perhj|ps double that length of tim^b The sugar of the maple may be grained in the manwr directed for graining the sugar of the beet; or it may be done in the vessel in which the sap is boiled, if it be not to6^ large for the purpose. * Ste Beet. ^ , The trees may be raised from cutings, or from tne s^ds. MARES. Those which are kept for breeding are only here to be noticed. ^j^res should not be suflFered to breed, till after they are four years old. They should besfree from distemper&p lest their Colts inherit them. They should be of good color ahd size, well made, strong, and spirited, with bright p*rom- inent eyes?l If the Mare have any defects, she should not be put to a Horse having the same. About the 1st of June is the^ proper time to put her to the Horse, and every ninfh day afterwards, till she refuses to tkke him. Mares with Foal should be housed pretty early in the Fall, and, be well kept till foaling. They should not be riden swiftly, nor put to drawing or carrying burdens, for a month or two betore foaling. The smell of a hide newly taken oflF will make a Mare lose her Foal. When about to foal, they t^ould be kept in a yard by themselves. It isw very desirable to have the breeding Mares cast their Colts after the likeness of the Horse, astiin that^ase their own form aSd qualities are not so essential. They FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 229 should also give plenty of milk, in order that the Colts have a good first Summer's growth. A further and very essen- tial req«isite is, that they #ould be sure in being got with Foal every yeai^ in order that the ©wner may not be disap- pointed in his expectations of profit. Go6d |>r^ding Mares are profitable ; but those n^ pos- sessing the above qualities had bettef be kept tor some other .use. Pastures which are wet, and bear coarse glasses, are usually applied with more advantage t#keep- ing breeding Mares than to any other purpose. ■^, ^ '^. MARLE. See Manures. MEADOWS. All mowing-lands are properly mea€i|^s; but, when we speak of thest in geRer|^, we mean low moist grounds, which in their natural state are best fited fo|^the Many. pieces of land of this description, vJPch bear no- production of grass. thing but coarse wild gp-ass, might be made the best of lands by hollow-draining, and manuring with sand or other pj^oper manure. This will ren#er them fit for the [Slough, ^nd well*4suited for; the production of the largest crops of grass. Three tons of hay to the acre, beside Fall-pasturing, or perhaps a second crop, may be had from such pieces of land, after being thus improved. Such land would then l^ worth two hundred dollars an acre ; while, perh'a^, in ire natural state it would not be worth thirty. Farnnters should study their own ease, pleasure, and |^ro- fit, by filing a small piece of meadow so as to yield them a sufficiency of -hay. An acre, at two mowings, can be made to yield four tons of hay, and at' this rate ten acres would yield sufficient for a hundred-acre farm. The greate»i.;ease, andgaving of expense, in gath^ering forty tons of hay from ten acres of fine smootlf meadow, instead of perhaps twenty- five acres of rough meadow, ought of itself to be a sufiicieint inducement for the Farmer to improve a part'of his mea- dows, so as to answer in place oif the whole. Meadfiws may bt pastured in the Fall, without much in- jury; but not closely. The after-growth of grass should never be too shortly eaten, but a part should be left to cover the roots during Winter.^ Good meadows are often spoiled by close feeding in the Fall ; and in addition to this many Farmers practise feeding them in ihe Spring, until such time as the upland pastures have grown. By these means the meadow is poached, an^the roots of the grass torn to pieces, in such manner that* not more thfi one-half of the crop is to be expected, that might be obtained, 'by pasturing moderately in the Fall, and none in the Spring. ■.-' 230 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. By this bad management, too, all the best grasses are eaten out, ^ cattle will eat these the closest ; or, being more tender/they are destroyed by the feet of the cattle ; and in the mean time tli^e wild grasses usu^p their places, to the great injury of the meadow. Wliere a meadow is quite wild, it should be mowed rather, before the grass has attained its full size, and in this way It Ttj^y yield a tolerably good second crop; while each crop, #y being mowed while very green, and by adding a peck of' silt to every ton, may be converted into good fod- der. ■ Bjf, mpvving wet meadows very early, the grass may be out oi" the way before the heavy rains which often fall in the moDth of July Meaiiows which are entirely of wild* gra^s ^re mucli loss liable to be injured, by close pasturing and the treading of g|I|1q, than%iny other; the treading of such grass will not ^entially injure it, and the cattle are nevi"!" disposed to eat it very closely. For destroying moss in meadows, see Moss. ^ MELON (Cucttmis Melo.) Seeds^ brought from the SouthH^ard produce the besj melons, and the seeds shoi|||^ occasionally be renewed by a fresh, supply Jrom that quarter. Mr.' Miller says they should be three years old before planting, and that those which will swim in water should be rejected. The ends of the runers, and the fruit last formed,^ safs Mrj, Deane^ Should be taken off, in order that the frpit first formed may have more nourishment, grow larger, and ar- rive to greater perfection. A sandy loam, with a southern exposure, is best for me- lons, g^ good manure to be put under them, when plant- inigj^ts an old compost made of good^ loam and the dung of Neat-cattle or Swine. The^Cantel%fupe is the finest-t*ted melon. The above observations apply equally to the watermelon (cucuvius anguria) the mode of culture of each, being well known, lequires no particular description. , See Insects, for the means of keeping these from the young plants. METHEGLIN. A hundred pounds of honey is general- ly used to make a barrel of this liquor; but Mr. Deane says he found ninety pounds to answer very well. It improves considerably^ by age, and becomes as strong *as common wines. The liquor is made thus: Take of honey and clear water, in the proportions abjve mentioned, and boil them for an hour : When the liquor is cool, barrel itj adding some ginger, cloves, and macej FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 231 though it will answer tolerably well without these. Some yeasty must be put in the cask to ferment it. Let it have a little *vent, while fermenting; but close the vent as soon as most of the fermentation, is over. It will be improved by being bottled, after five or six months. MIL6EW. Mr. Young sayS that when the wheat-stem has a particular cast of a bluish green, it is then affected with mildew. ' ^ Mr. Marshal directs, that as soon as wheat is discovered to be struck with mildew it should be cut ; and \that this serves to prevent \\\g effects of the mildew; that wheat may *e thus cut th^e wee ks^ before the usual time'of harvest- ing. ' '^ , • ■»- .*..,>. The grain in th^ case ^\\\ be simller than usual, ^ut will make much better flour, and*he quanuty will be greater,' as the skin will then be found very, thin. If' the grain ha§ attained its lull, size, though only in' the milk, it is sufficient; it receive^ that nourishment from ^he stalk which serves to mature it. The green stalks ot the wheat tie^t be sufficiently dried, beforf stacking; and when Parted in they ^1 be found bright an& clear of the mildew, and will make good fodder. ' ^ Mildew is probably owing to a revulsion of the sap in the stalks of the wheat, occasioned by dool nights, when the atmosphere has become cooler than the earth, which in' that cfse^rces the juices upward too fast, and thus bursts open the stales ; as they are perhaps more easily split than those of any other plant whatever. The knowledge of this, how- ever, points to no practicable preventive of mildew; all that can be done is to counteract its effects^ as above directed. In treating of mildew, we mean to be understojad to speak of that disease of wheat^ which causes the stalks to bec^e covered, in a gf^eater (^ less degree, with a redish substance, something similar to the rust of iron. We have seen wheat which was in no wise affected in this way; but still of no value;. being almost wholly desti- tute of grains of any size wor.th preserving. This disease we call blight; but, as we know of no means of preventing it, we shall Content ouji^elves with barely ihentioning, that we have seen its ravages most complete on intervale'grounds, adjoining waters which occasioned a heavy fog in the morning. Wheat should never be sowed on such ground. tf .% For preventing mildew, let wheat always b^sowed suffi- ciently early, as this disease is usually much tne ^lost fatal to i^e late-sown grain. oee, ^Jso, Sowing, for the means^ of making Nvh^at and other grain ripen early. :*:'^ 232 ' FARMER'S ASSISTANT. MILKWEED (Jsdefiias Syriaca.) Under Greens, we have mentioned the young stalks of this plant) as an article of f6od. The plant is also called silkweed, on account of the pod it produces,* which conlaiiis a vegetable silk. This, adhering to the see%s, is calculated to waft ^lem by the winds in every direction. *"* This plant has been (considered as a troublesome weed, ir> mu^ of the northern' parts of this State; but perhaps the use which may be made of the pods, of the leaves, and of the milk of the plant, may be found much more than sufficient to counterbalance any inconvenience to be suffer- ed from it. v' ♦ We^ will first ppiit out the use made of the pods, in France, as communicated by M^> Genet r * The silky substan*^ collected from that plant (says he) is' tSed in France, with great advantagej and is cultivated under the naihe of houatte or nvading. They cari^ it, spin it, and rrtanufacture it into velvets^cloth. and hose, with or without the inteirmixture of cotton or silk. ,^ ' Ii%S also used for wading to stuff quilts and coun^|fc panes; and for that purpose it is far preferablejio cotton, being warmer* and lighter. To card it by itself, they ex- pose it in bags to the steam of water; but, mixed with silk or cotton, it does not i-equire the intervention of the steam, to be made into rolls and spun. The velvets and* other tex- tures made of that vegetable silk, which I have seen m Eu- rope, resembled, if not exceled, the brilliancy of ^ silk; and, with proper mordants, had received the mo3t elegant coloring.* Mr. ^Genet subsequently adds : * I have been informed that a French Gentleman, who attends tl\^ Dyers' |[e- partment of the manufaciQTj of Mr. Lynch, at H^e> has discavered that the le#es of "the asclepias, ah Jlpro- bably of all the apocinUms, were an excelent substitute for the woad.' ';■ See WoAD.]^ < Dr. Low, of 'Albany, has also observed, that tfee milky- juices of the asclepias were equal, if not superior, in many respects, to the opi^im extractlfed from the white poppy.* Tlais it appears that this plant affords food, clothing, medicine, and matter for coloring. Probably its culti- vation may yet be found a matter oi considerable im- portance. 't^J', * ■ ■*'■ We have^also seen the pods gathered, as *a^ substitute for feather^f in making 6eds. We believe they might be most advantageously mixed with feaihcrs,'^ for j^at purpose. , . FARMER'S ASSISTANT* ^ 233 MILLET (Panicum.) The stalks and leaves of*this plant resemble those of Indian corn, though much smaller. It grows to the height of about three and four feet. A sandy soil suits it best, and it|^ould be sown in drills, about three feet ap^rt. The plants should sts^d about six inches apart in the rows, after hoeing. It will produce as large crops as Indian corn, and bears i^rought admirably well. A crop of it sown thick, and mowed green, is exeelent fodder. * This grain (says Mr. Deane) is a gOod food for fowls and Swine. For tlfe latter it ''shoul«|>t be ground into nieal. Some mix it with flour in bread ; but it is best for pud- dings.' "^ '^''^ MOSS fl.ic//en.2) TT'here are vaHous kinds of this; Some grows on trees', on stones, on the shingled roofs*of houses, on the surface of the ground ; and sortie of a very^ minute kind, which is commonly called mouldy bn the sur- face and in the crevices ISnd cavities of almost every sub- stance which is .^et or moist. *l % *Sloss is particularly injurious to the growth of trees and of grass.' Its growth is encouraged on friHt-trees, where the soil is either too cold and wet,, too sterile and dry, or 100 thickly planted. Where the soil is too cold and wet, the best remedy is hollow- draining, ai^ manuring with sand, Sheep dung, and other manures suitable to. the soil. Wherc^ it is too sterile and dry, dig away the e«irth from about thl^roots^ and supply its place with a mixture of earth and mud from ponds or creeks, or some other rich earth, that is better calculated to^ retain moistv3^e. Where the trees stand loo thick, cut part pf them aWay, rub the moss off the rest, and apply Forsyth*^ method oi /leading down, if *neQ|ssary, making use of his-^b-omfwsiciofi to preserve the wood.^ , . See: Fruit-trees. Where moss prevails in grass-ground, -apply a heavy sharp iron-toothed harrow tq it; scarify the top of the soil lill it is somewhat raw, strew some seeds of herdsgrass, or other good grass, over it, and give U a good dressing, of a mixture pf Sheep-dung and sand, or other warm manure that is suitable to a cold soil. This'^is for grounds ^suffi- ciently dry; but if the'moss,4?e occasioned by too much wetness in the'^soil, although \\ig above method may prove beneficial for a while ; yet notliibg short of ho^w-draining will ever prove effectual, for any considerE^ble^length of time. Gypisum will also eradicate moss ton dry Tc^feis. By experiments, says Mr, Deane^ it is found that, the common yellow moss is a good manure for potatoes^ It %U ^ FARMEtt^ ASSISTANT. would deen^to be best, however, when mixed with stable^ dun J, or rather laid on top of it. It is said to be very good to mix with lime in composts, as the lime is best MOWING. This 1bm^ a laborious employment, it be- comes necessary for the Mower to husband his strength to ^ the best advantage. For this^ purpose, the first tequisite is to have a good sithe, of' proper length, if^ the mowing ground b%not too rough, weKl hang on a light stiff snead^ so that th^sithe will not tremble as it goes thrdugh the grass ; hav- in|f the edge of the: sithe to*face the nib which is held in th^left hand j and t<) keep if well groubd and well wheted. A^feiuch art is requisite in keeping a sithe in the best or- ^ *der, as therT& is in learning>to mow well. "^ ^ * The «neads most' commonly used are bent In a twisted shape; but s6m6 use a snead wKich is nearly in the shape of a feaK- circle, and the latter are always prefered by th^se who have bieponrie used to them. They take a wider swlth with the sahfie extension of the arms; a larger 'cut, and g^ therefore may be slower; require less stooping; and froin, ^ the position of the body which is requisite to enter the 9 point of thef sithi^into the grass, being more twisted round to the right, little more is requisite than bringing the body to its nai&'al posture to carry the sithe through. ^, ' Mowers should always be at their work betimeis in the morning* so as to have half their day's work performed be- fore th^ lit at of^j|iie day; and then they can afford them* selvj^s a resting-spell during the most sultry hours. By this me do, too, the mowedjgrass has a lohger tirtie for dry- ing^ during the day. ^^ -i^ ^ , ^■' . \Vhere movping grounds or meadows are of perfectly smooth surface^ as they ought always to be, particular pains ^'should always be taken in mowing to cut the grass as close to the ground and as evenly as possible. Mr Young' re- marks, that grass will never thrive well that is not mown quit^ close; and the loss in the crop where this is not done is very considerablej,^;;than several atlhe top.' MOVVINO GROIJND. ^We generally Ipply this term to aruble lipids that are laid down to grass. But little is necessar»'t<)^be said under this head, further than What has been saiWi^rider Grasses and MeAdows. This may, how- ev^ be observed of all gra^^ges which are not biennial; that ^h^e the ground becomes bound it is good husbandry to>- FARMER^ 4S^SISTAN.T. 225 tear it well with a sharp ij'on^topthed harrpw, after manur- ing, and in ^is way to mix the manure /with the so^ as much as possible, particularly i^ the str^ength of the manure be such as is calculated to evaporate by. drying and expo- sure to the air. 0- ^ ^ It may^ also be farther ot^served, t^t it is a waste oft money to* lay down to grass lands which^are" exhausted by severe croping, unless they are of such ' nature as can be recruited by gyosuqEi,^ or spme oj^^r sjoiilar top-d/'essing. Qenerally, if lands h^ poor, and cannot be assisted by gyp- sum, they ought to b^ recruited while unifier the plough, tiot while under grass. ^ * Giouod that is (AiU*of smaJl stones may be fited tolerably well for mowing, by. passing a roller over it after so^ibgj but the better. way is, to gather the stones into small heaps and carry them^ off, and they will then^ be of no further trouble in future crops. It is alniost unnetessavy to add, that all g^ss-grounds shoul^ be laid down smoothly, by be» ing well narrowed after^ sowing. jMUD. See Manures. MULBERRY (Morus,) This tree is well worth rais- ^mg, not only for its fruit, and gre^it use in feeding Silk- worms, but also for its timber and for fuel, as it grows very ^^ rapidiy, and is ^generally well adapted to our climate. It grows well in a deep dry soil that is moderately rich. It inay be l»ised from the >seeds, or by cUiings or slips. 'Se^%rther, HfipGE§ aad Silkworms, MULE. This animal, propagated by t^wJo distinct species of the M-qnus or Horse-tribe, to wit, thei'^^orse, commonly so called) and the Ass, is generally barren; though /some instances have been known of its breeding. It;is a healthy, hardy, and useful creature; 'subject to very few disorders; will live on the refuse. of the fields, or the woods; and yet, with the hardest and scantiest fare, will labor incessantly, and seem hardly sensible of fatigue. Mules live much, longer than Horses. They are obsti- nate, however, and require to be kept almost constantly in use, as a few days of idleness, renders them very refractory, when again ^put to labor. '^^ ,^ , Where they can be ^ept pretty constantly in use, either in draft, or under the saddle, they will perform double the labor that a Horse is capable ^enduring, andpvith half the ^ expense in keeping. They are , also uncommonly surefooted, and itrs^ be rode over the roughest and steepest ways in safety, wh^re there would be none, when mounted on Horseback. - A 235 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. In Spain^ theyAftre prfcfered, byvthe Grandees, to Hon^es, for ridingV especially in the mtjre mountainous parts of |h|t Country.,^ In every situation, where thej^ labor is almost constant^ required, they are certainly mii^ more profitable to keep than Horses; and the same may be observed, where they are to be used in broken mountainous Countries. For^ lurther observations, as far as they may be applica- ble* to the Mule, we x^ter the Reader to articles Hor^e, FoALS> See. MUSTARD f^ina/iis. J This plant requires a soil sui- iicienily strong for^tprnips.- Let the- ground be well pre- paredv by ploughings and harrowings\feariy in the Spring, and sow, of well- ripened seed^^at the rate of two quarts to the acre. ;^,, When the plants are a few inches high, thin them, so as to stand about ten inches apart^. and destroy the iveeds with the hoc. ' ^\ When the lower seeds are ripe, the middle seeds green, and the top oltrthe plants in blossom, cut thbm with a sickle, bind them in moderate-sized sheaves, and put these in sik«11 Stacks for a few days. In this situation the green seed Will soon ripen. Carry the sheaves to the barn, having a large cloth under therh, to prevent wasting, and in a few days they will be fit for threshing. The ground lor raising this plant sh nearly mixed ; tender ^38 FARMER»s ASSISTANT. # constitution)^ I fateii kind^f} ^nd yifeid large quantities both -of milk^^nd/tallow. 4. Lancashire breed, with straighter horns than those pf any other; spreading widely and extending forward; large and square-built; fore quarters deep,} milk nof abundant but rich; the aninial hardy. From an intermixture of this breed with others, Mr. Bak&well Obtained his Dishley breed, which are remarkable for fating very easily, and upon the most valuable parts; ifiough they yield but litilfc milk or tallow, when compared with some others. Considerable pains have been taken to introduce Bulls of ^his,,or similar breeds, into this State,' without airy apparent knowledge ol the uses to which the Calves from such Bulls were to be applied. It should have been, understood^, f-ljat ^ such breeds are not «o weU fited for Milch-cows alitor iating-cattle, and in England are raised for that purpose. ^^ 5. Highland breeds or Kyloes. Horns turned upwards"; colors various, chiefly black, though sometimes brindled or dun; hair long and cipse; bodies, lyell shaped; best suited lor cold mountainous countries ; good for milk, and kind to faten. ' v -^ ; ■ fi f 6 Polled 6re In the selection aftd improvetnent of breeds of cattle, a due regard is to be had to the uses Jbr which they are in- tended. Thus, if; th6 best Milch-cows are desired, select from the breeds of those whigh ,are known to be the best for that use; tb^t is, atimiting the size to be equal, those which yield the rtiOst of iM(^' ci^cavi as. makes the best biitji-^, ter, in any one year, ar^,|;enerttily ,to be preicred. This is to *be ascertained'^ by keeping the milk of different Cows separate,-apd then the quantity and quality of ^^"T7 r^o.d«KtP. can be easfly determined. ' '' 240 FARMER»s ASSISTANT.^ The size of Cows is not^ so material; as, it is found that "^ll catilje eat -nearly in pfoportion tb^ their respective ,sizes. **\Vhat would be necessary to feed 'one of the larg^ Lanca- shire brefed of Cows, Would be nearly suflBcient for two of the Aldernay' breed, before mentioned ; while the milk of fthe two latter would, probably, nearly double that of the former. There is hardly any breed of Neat-cattle but wh'at are sufficiently large for Milch- cows, if well kept ; for it should be remembe^e^,, that all cattle w^ir ^row much larger, if well kept^ tiian'if kept poor ly^ during tfcle Winter season particularly. In Greatbritain, much pains have bi?en taken to select breeds which should unite the two most valuable qualities, of being th^ best for milking, and the kindest to faten ; but hitherto such breed is said not to have been found. Sir John Sinclair^ how ever i ohservesy *-It is probable, tfiat by great attention a breed migH_t~be reared, the males of which might be well calculated tor th:e shambles, and the females p^odUce abundance of niilk ; ar^d yet when they reached eight or nine years might be easily fatened.' ^ He further adds, that s6me of tlie English and Scotish breeds have nearly reached this polnl of perfection. If the" object of the Farmer or Grazier be merely to raise cattle for fating, then, perhaps, some of thp larger breeds may sometimes be best. In large towns, particularly, ^ piece of a mammoth Ox, when highly fated, seems -more desirable, and will usually command a greater price, than an. equal weight of equally good^ beef of a small animal. The Dishly breed, before mentioned, are highly esteemed in Greaibriiain, foi- this purpose. The most essential pdints, however, in a breed for Fating-cattle afe, that they grovir rapidly, in order that they may soon attain their full si^e ; that they are of comely shape^ for this will usually enhance their price with the Butcher; that they keep^^easlly and faten kindly, and on \.\\e bestjiarts^ as the English Graziers say ; and that their beef be tender, sweet- flavored, and well Inixcd with fat. ' ; ^' *" In this Country, but little has been done in the- way of * raising cattle which a^e only intehtled for fating. Our Working-oxen are usually .bought up, at the age of seven or eiE^ht years, for the purpose. For the best bi*eed Of Working-oxen, therefore, due attention should be had 'as well to their possessing the foregoing requisites for good Fating-cattle, as to their beihg strong, hardy, quick- paced, and good tor the draft. The> signs of a good Ox, saj^ Mr- Z>faw«', are, thick, soft, smooth, sWthair; short thick head; glossy smooth horns; large sh%gy" ears; wide, iorehead; full ^black eyes; wide «" V ■" •■■■" ^- * ' I^ARMlER^s ASSISTANT. 241 tiostrils ; black lips; thick fleshy neck; large shoulders j ^ broad reins; large belly; thick rump and ihighs ; Waight bacli; long tail, well covered with hair; and short broad hools. The best colors are brown, dark-red, and brindled^ Young Steers, which are intended for ,labor, should be early yoke(^ and taught to draw 5 for if this be delayed till they have attained considerable growth, they are more diffi- cult to break. They should be moderately worked at first with old Oxen, till they have acqiiired sufficient strength, and become enured to labor. If yokes be used, let that part which rubs against the breast and neck be rubed with tallow, when worked much In wet weather, to prevent soreness, Wheti an Ox is eight years old, he should be turned off to faten ; and, to promote his fating, let a little blood be taken Irom him. If kept longer, his flesh will not be so Lord Kaimes observes, that, among cattle, the strongest rules, and claims precedence by taking the lead; that if the strongest Ox be not therefore first unyoked, he is apt to be unruly while his Fellow is leting. loose. /^ At the age of four years, all Neat-cattle «have onfe circu- lar ring at the root of their horns, and one additional ring yearly thereafter. When, however, they become quite old, these rings become so indistinctj as no longer to be sepa- rately perceptible. For the Bull, the finest-looking Calf, possessing, as near- ly as can be judged, the foregoing requibites for a good Ox, should be selected, and from the .finest of the breed which he is^intended to propagate; and he shpuld not be suftered to go to ^ Cow until he has attained a good growth. Suf- fering youngi or dwarfish, or ill looking Bulls to go to Cows, only tends tQ degenerate the breed; and, in the two former cases, the Cow, by being served with such, fre- •[uently misses having a Calf. The Bull should have good keeping, so that he may be^ in prime condition when he is put to Cows. When he is^. about eight years old, if he grows cross and mischievous, he should be castrated and turned off tofaten. Bulls may be broke while young, and worked, and then they prove much less refractory. ^^ Iij regard to Calves, ihose which are brought forth early, .are best for raising, as the^ will, endure th^, first W^inter better; and, if Heifers, wiil^generally be with Calf a year sooner than those brought forth late. The most promising Calves should be selected for rearing, for the uses intended, and the rest fated and killed. In fadng siich^^Mr. M§.c^n{.- advises, that they be taken fi'om the Cow the next day after they are calved; and let them have only two teats of tlie 24^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. . Cow to suck during the fii'st week, three, duHng the second, and all during the third and fourth; and in this way, he says, they will be fater in the end, than if they had all ai first. T^^e teats which are not given them should be previously milked. In Holland, Calves are fated in coops or pens made for the purpose. These are merely narrow boxes with bottoms of ialiice work, just so wide as to admit the Calf to lie down, but not to turn < round, and sufficiently high to stand up in. They hold but one Calf at a time, which is kept in darkness. When it is to be fed, a small hole is opened in front, just large enough to put its head through, which it readily does, being attracted by the light, and the pail of milk is then presented to it to drink, A lump of chalk is also hung up by the door for the Calf to lick at. The box or pen is to be kept sweet and clean. In this way, says « The Complete Grazier* they fateh much faster than in any other.^ Whether Calves are kept for fating^ or for rearing, feed- ing them three times a day is much preferable to feeding them only twice; but, whether fed twice or thrice a day^ the times of feeding should be regular^ anj as nearly equi- distant "as possible. Dark coops or boxes, something similar to those abave described, are also provided by some of those who make a business of fating Calves for market, in the vicinity of the large towns in England, where they are treated in a manner similar to that above mentioned. Fresh litter is constantly provided for. them to lie on, and particular attention is paid to their cleanliness. The use of the chalk is for correcting the acidity of their stomachs. Pains are also there taken to have Calves brouglit forth at different times during Winter for fating, as the veal then commands a great price. They are kept five or six weeks, before they are killed ; and a little before killing, and also, when about four weeks oldy they are plentifully'bled ; taking as much away as they ^.cah well bear, which is usually about a quart at each time. The principal use of the bleedings is, to give a superior de- gree of whiteness to the veal. Keeping them in dark places tends to keep them quiet, so that they do not tatigiie them- selves by too much exercise. They are fated \vith vaTious kinds of food beside milk, as that is in such places too valu- able to be much used. The most common articles used are^ choped turnips and potatoes, grains, bran, sweet hay, 8cc, No doubt, a little flaxseed broth, mixed with hay-tea, would be an excelent addition. In regard to the best food for rearing of Calves, the me- thod pursued by Mr. Crooky as mentioned in * The Letters and J^afiers of the Bath and West of England Society:^ ^FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 245 deserves to be mentioned. In 1787, he purchased three sacks of linseed, value 21. Ss, (equal to about nine dollars) which lasted him three years. One quart of seed was boiled in six quarts ot water for ten minutes, to a jelly, which was given the Calves three times a day, mixed with a little hay- tea. Thus he was enabled to rear, in 1787, seventeen Calves; in 1788 twenty-three; and in 1789, fitteen, without any milk at all: And he stages, ihaj his Calves throve mucli better ihajn those of his NeighbO|^s %hich were fed with milk. Thus, it seems, that less than eighteen cents worth of flaxseed, with a trifle ot hay, is sufficient ior one Calf, Linseed oiNcakes, when pulverized and boiled, make an equally good broth, or jelly. Tjie above is nearly similar to the directions of Mr. Clif^^ of t^is State. Hj directs, that, after the Calf has been ted for a fortnight upon sweet milk, give it skim-milk, mixed with aa equal or larger quautuy of flcixseed broth or jelly, and let it be given to it inilk-warm. Enough jelly may be boiled at once lor three or four da^s; but, if the weather be warm, it will spoil by souring. With this drink, Mr. Cilfs says, Calves v/ill thrive as well as if fed on sweet-milk. For learning a Calf to drink at first, the best method is, to let it suck your^nger with its nose in the milk. Mr, Buddf of' Massachusetts, directs to take the Calves from the Cows when three days old, and feed them with gruel composed of one-third barley and two third oats, each ground fine, and the mixture sifted. A quart o| this gruel is to be given to each Calf, morning and evening. The gruel is made by taking one quart of the flour, and twelve of Water, and boiling them together for half an hour, and is to be given when milk-warm. In about ten days after commencing the feeding, tie up and suspend a bundle of sweet hay in the middle of the pen where thei-Calves are kept, which they will eat by degrees. A little of the flour put into a trough for them to lick, is also of service. Feed them till two months old, increasing . the quantity as they grow larger. Half a bushel of the above mixture is sufficient for one Calf. The' communication of the above method, obtained for Mr. Budd the prize from the Agricultural Society of Mas- sachusetts. When Calves are put into pasture, it should be such as is dry and sweet. White-clover is the best for them ; Red- clover or trefoil is also good. Mr, U Hommedieu recom- mends that there be no water in the pasture, but sufficient of shad^. The effect of this is, that the Calves learn to feed at night, or when the dew is on, and lie by in the day ; and as grass, while wet with dew, is believed to be most Dourishing, they will, in this way, thrive much better than 24^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. those which have free access to water; for this, iris con- tended by Mr. U Hommedieu^ tends to stunt them and make them pot-bellred Probably, the better way is, to give them a little nourishing drink, at certain times, when the dews iail, or at mid-day, when the weather is very warm. When the weather is pleasant, aittr being put to pasture, the males may be castraied and the females spayed, if they are designed lo be raised for fating. During the first Wintel'7, Calves should be kept in a com- fortable place, and have plenty of good fodder and a little Indian iVieal, or other nourishing food. They should have shelter earlier than larger catile,^ as they cannot so well en» dure the first approach of cold weather. "* Although Calves, until a year olcj, should have the best of keeping, let it not be supposed, that ihey will afterwards thrive well with very indifferent keeping. It is but too common for Farmers to turn their young growing cattle in- to poor pastures, of stinted growth, or into woods where there is not sufficient for them to eat ; by means of which their growth is retarded, and, what is sometimes worse, they learn to become habitualiy unruly, from the constant temptation they are under of breaking into fields where there is plenty. In the first settling of new countries, the extensive wood* lands may aiford plenty of good food for young cattle; but the woodlands of old settled countries afford ,but little food, that IS well calculated for their nourishment and growth. In such cases, a few cattle are sufiicient to overstock the woods, so as to leave them little lo eat, excepting what is obtained to the great injury "of the young growth of timber. ^ ' , Growing cattle, if their pastures be hot of the best, should nevertheless have plenty to eat of that which is middling good ; and the same may be observed, in reg^ird lb their Winter-food; they should have plenty of such ^fodder as they will eat freely, and they should be well sheltered from the severity of the weather. When exposed to cold rains in Winter, they are frequently more injured, than when exposed to much colder snow storms. From each of these they Should be sheltered, as well as from the cold winds. In short, the better and more comfortable young cattle are kept, the larger and more rapid will be their growth; and, although middling good keeping will answer, they will do btuter with better keeping. The keeping of Cows in such manner as to make them give the greatest quantity of milk, and with the greatest s lear profit, is an essential point of economy. Cqws are in general very poorly kept in this Country. By better keep- ing, they would afford more clear profiit. Give a Cow halt a FARMER'S ASSISTANT.' 245 bushel of turnips, carrots, or other good root, per day, dur- ing the six Winter- months, beside her hay; and, if her Summer-feed be such as it should be, she will give nearly double the quantity of milk she would afford, if only kept during Winter in the usual manner, and the milk will bp richer and of better quality. The carrots, or other roots, at nineteen cents per bushel, amount to about eighteen dollars. The laddition of milk, al*/ lowing it to be only three quarts pe^^day, for three hundred days, at three cents'" per quart, amounts to twenty seven dollars. It shAild be remembered, too, that, when ^ Cows are thus fed with roots, they consume less hay ; and they are less liable to several diseases, which are usually the effect of poor keeping. Raw potatoes should not, however, be given to Milch- cows, but should first be steajtiboiled ; otherwise they will commonly lessen the quaritity of the milk. The fetsding of Milch-cows, cattle for fating, and for labor, with roots and cabbages, is a very prominent part of the employment of the British Graziers, and of Farwers who attend to the dairy. For this purpose, fields of turnips, cabbages, carrots, &c. are raised, and fed out to the cattle during the Fall, Winter, and early Spring. The Winters, however, in our northern States, being much severer than those of Greatbritain, renders the feed- ing of cattle with roots, &c. less practicable than it is in that Country. It is more suitable to the climate of the States south of Pennsylvania. Much more, however, might be profitably done in this way, even in Winter, than is gen- eralty imagined. If the Farmer, or Grazier, were first to provide himself with a cellar or apartment under ground, ^^ sufficiently large for storing away his roots, and sufficiently warm to prevent their freezing, with a place in it also for a steamboilery' for steaming the roots, he would then find but little difficulty in dealing out this food to his Cows, &c. even in the coldest weather. In this case, however, they must be kept in stalls, with troughs suitable for this kind of food. Nor is there any additional expense in this ; as it \s well ascertained, that this is the most economical method of keeping Milch, cows, working and fating cattle, as well during Winter as Sumnjer. In Winter, as they can be kept warmer, and more comfortably, less fodder is requisite to keep them well, and much less is wasted. 5ee Soiling, for the reasons why stall feeding is also to be prefered in Summer. ^ee also, Sjable, &c. For a description of a Steamb oiler, see that article. 246^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. If Milch-cows be pastured in Summer, they should have the best or first feeding of each pasture-lot. See Pasture. See also, Grasses, as it respects those which are best for pastures. They should have plenty of water, and that which is good. It is also good for them to have plenty of shade, to which they can retire duritig thie heat of the day. They should be kept quietly, not suffered to be worried with dogs, or by having stones or clubs thrown at theMi, as is bOt too com» mon ; nor should they be forced to travel to#far, by having their pastures at too great a distance; for these are all matters which are essential, in order to their giving the greatest possible quantity of milk. In regard to milking, and the proper treatment of the milk, see Dairy, Cream, CIiurn, BuxtER, Cheese, &c. When Cows are kept very fat, they will not give so much milk. The proper state to keep them in, during Winter and Summer, is that in which ihey are usually found, when fed in good pastures during the latter season. On the con- trary, where they are suffered to grow poor during Winter, and particularly about the time of calving, their milk will be greatly lessened in quantity during the following season. If they are pfentifully supplied with food, as nutricious as that of green grass, they will usually give plenty of milk until very near the time of calving* Some Cows are naturally barren, and this is said to be always the case where a male and female Calf are brought forth together; the male in such cases is perfect, but the female is Incapable of propagating. Particular altenlion should be paid to Cows, in regard to their keeping, for some weeks befoi*e calving. They should have plenty of good h^y, and other succulent food,- such as roots of the kinds before mentioned, or cabbages with the decayed leaves taken off; or, if in the growing season, they should have plenty of good sweet pasture or other good green food. The day and night after a Cow has calved, she should be kept housed, and her drink should be luke- warm when given to her. Let her be kept up for three or four nights thereafter, so as not to be exposed prematurely to the cold or dampness of the atmosphere ; for this tehds greatly to weaken her. If she does not clean well after calving, Mr. Deane directs to give her a pail of warm water, with soilne wood-ashes in it. Particular attention should be paid to this; for, if the afier-birth be suffered to remain in the uterusy it will be- come putrescent, and the smell will sometimes communi- cate an infection among other breeding Cows. They will FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 247 also sometimes incline to eat the after-birth, which should be prevented. . - For cleansing the Cow, the directions in * The Complete Grazier' are, lo put about three quarts of water over the fire, and, when warm, stir in as much oatmeal as will make a strong gruel; stir it till it boils; then stir in a quart of ale, or two of table-beer, and a pound of treacle, and give it to the beast when lukewarm. This will also prevent their taking coid, ^X To regulate the state of the bodjfy^give a mash of branj, weted with warm water. Whexe the udder is hard, it should be milked three or four times a day ; or the Calf should be allowed to suck at pleasure; and care should be taken that it sucks all the teats ; for, when any of these are sore, the Cow will sometimes prevent their sucking them. If the kernel of the udder is harid, the hardness may be re- moved by rubing it three or foiir times a day. The natural position of the Calf in the uterus is, with its forefeet and head foremost; the forefeet lying paralel on each side of the head, and the back uppermost. When found in any other position, it is unnatural, and the extrac- tion of the Call then frequently requires more than ordinary skill. It may be safely extracted by fixing a hook, with a cord to it, in the under-jaw of the Calf, and gently drawing it away. If the flesh of the Cow be torn in the operation, it should be carefully sewed up; and, if afterwards swollen^ washed with warm milk and water. If the Cow disowns or refuses to lick the young Calf, a little salt sprinkled upon it will have the desired effect. Sometimes, Cows, from abusive treatment, violent exer- cise, or that unnatural appetite, called longing^ slink their Calves; and in such case they should be carefully treated, and kept warm and clean, till they recover. If they exhibit previous symptoms of this, it may frequently be prevented^ by bleeding them two or three limes. It would be a great improvement of our husbandry, if ouu Farmers and Graziers, stimulated by the example of those in Greatbritain and elsewhere, would enter largely into the culture of roots, cabbages, 8cc. for feeding Milch-cows and fating cattle; as the business, when well conducted, is very profitable. In Norfolk, and some other parts of Great- Britain, great quantities of turnips are raised, and mostly used for fating. During the Fall, they are put into carts and scattered over the stubble of the last-harvested wheat- field, and care is taken to scatter ihem over every part of the ground successively, in order that each part may have equalbenefit from the manure thus bestowed on the land. The turnips are raised with an iron instrument fixed to a handle ; on the other side of which instrument are edges. 243 r'ARMER's ASSISTANT. set crossways, to cut each root in four pieces, as they are raised. After the cattle have ate their allowance, which should be no more than they can eat at once, they should have some hay given them. Part of the crop of turnips is also gatheredj and stored away for Winter-feeding, and some are left in the ground for Spring-feeding. Other Farmers and Graziers, again, feed iheir fating and other cattle in stalls, where cabbages and roots of different kind's are fed out to them; and this is believedY,to be the most economical way. Some of these articles ofj food are much, more efficacious, by being steamboiled. For the various articles of food, for feeding and fating, 5ff Carrot, Parsnip, jPotatoe, Jerusalem Artichoke, M ANGLE- WURTZEL, BeET, TuRNIP, CaBBAGE, PUMPtiN, Sec. :■ ^ '^ In stallfeeding, as well J as in soiling, great attention should be paid to the comfort and cleanliness of the cattle. Dr Anderson says, they should not only be kept clean and well littered, but they should be curried daily in the man- ner of Horses, and that they will faten much faster, and keep better, for this. He says also, that particular attention shquld be paid to their having pure water, and such as they are fond of. It is obvious, that if such water be not given to cattle, they will not drink as much as they want, and will, therefore, re- main in. a suffering condition, which is repugnant to gjood keeping or easy fating. They should also have water often, so as not to be at any time suffering for want of it. Dr. Anderson states, that he knew a Man who attained great opulence, by attending strictly to these matters, par- ticularly to the important point of having a continued supply of the purest water for his Milch-cows; nor would he suffer the animals to put a foot in it, or even let it be tainted by their breath. In addition to the various roots^ there used for feeding and fating cattle, meal of different kinds is used to advant- age, either when mixed with steamed or raw choped roots, or with choped hay, or straw. Instead of wasting the straw, as is but too common here, it is all saved, and used for lit- tering, and for choping up with strawcuting .machines, for the purpose of mixing with other food, and thus a great saving is made of hay. It would also be a great improvement to chop, up our cornstalks in the same manner. The kinds of grain which might be used here to most advantage for grinding up u^nd mixing, as before mentioned, are probably Indian corn, rye, and bu'ck wheat. Machines are also used in Greatbritaia lor grinding different kinds of grain by hand, with which a Man may gr'md a bushel or more in a quarter of an hour. FARMER^s ASSISTANT. 24 ' ' . 2- Oilcakes are also of great use i"or fating, and for feeding to Cows before calvin^^, for the purpose tif increasint^ their milk. It however makes the beef, which is fated solfely with it, of a loose flabby texture, which is not so agree- able.' -v-, ^ ^ Flaxseed brolh, or jelly, is also much recprnmenflcd for fating. It is made by puting/about a quart of flaxseed to seven of water, and then let stand about forty-eight hoursj ^^ after which it is to be boiled gently for two hours, minding to stir it frequently, lest it burn. After it is cool: d, it is to be mixed with meal, bran, or cut-stViW, and fed out at the *> rate pf about two quarts a day to each beast, and it is said to make a great savirg in the article of food, ^ '^ It is staled, in ^I'/ie Com/ilcte Graziery* that an intelli- gent Farmer of this Country, but ol whut part is not men- tioned, tried fating v/ith turnips, from O'tober until Februa- ry, and that his- cattle rather lost flesh ; but that on his substituting hay, choped pptatoes, and Indian meal mixed together, they soon fatened. Probably a difference in climates may produce different results, in regard to roots which are used for fating. But as the cattle in question were fed entirely on lurnips, which might have produced too great a degree of laxity or scour- ing, it is probable, •that hud the turnips constituted only the same proportion of feed which the potatoes did, they might ^ have proved equally nourishing. ' In regard, however, to raising the different articles for feeding and fating, those should be cultivated which are found most profitable in the tlifferent soil;, and climates of this Country; and which, at the same tim^, are found most efficacious for fating, or in producing the most, and the richest and best-flavored, milk. On the experimental farm of the Marchioness of Salisbury (Greatbritain) 'parsnips are prefered, as well for feeding as for fating; and for tha latter tjse are esteemed almost equal to the oilcake. The milk ol^ttie Cows fed with them is also very plentiful, rich, and weir tasted. Next to the parsnip, is, perhaps, the carror. 550 FARMERS ASS'^STANT. Mr. Fown^^tates, that four Bullocks, six Milch-cow^, and twenty Working horses were fed, a few years since, at ^ Parungton, in Yorkshire, for above five months, with car- ' rols, \vhich,,^ere 'he produce of three acres'only, and vvitli no other fodamp one; and, therefore, where niesses are dealt out In stall- feeding,- regard should be had to thi^ circiimstance, when the food is such as may cloy- the cattle, and thus weaken their stomachs; for in that case they are lisible to iijll backj until the tone. of. the stomach is recovered Regularity in the times of "feeding, and that those times be as nearl»? i ARMER.^ ASSISTANT. Ml «qui-(listant as possibl^^ are also essential points to^^be ob- served. '^••/ -v' ,■'% T^e quantity of food to be giv«n to fating cattle should be in , proportion to the weight of each. An Ox will eat a little less thanya^foh of his vy^ight, per day, ot Cirt»bages, and about a third of tiia weiglu of turnips, beside a iittle dry food io countlsract the- super abundant raoisiure 6f the roots. For middles'ztd a-qimals, from a bushel to a bushel and a halt of Br§wer's oi^ DisiUei's »^rdins> with some dry food, Will be c^ftiumed in a day. About a sixth part of the ani- mals weight, with; the addition ^bf some dry food, is, the proper allowance, per day, of carrots or potatoes. About a pound of powdered' oiicake, and another;, ot hay, lor evrery hundred weight of the anioia), is the usttal allowance, per day,fof thi^ food; but the quc»nliiy of the .former is to^.be gradually increased as the fating progresses, until it is one- iialf more than at first. It i^ Slated, in the work last raenlioned, that everygoad of hay. and luier, given to beasts fating on oilcake, wdt'make seven loads of dung; andj that one load of this is more utli- cacious, as a manure, than two ot common barn^dung. It is also there stated, that Mr. Moody Uttered forty-five Oxen, while faring, -with twenty wagonloads of stubble, and that the product of dung, when roied and fermented, was six 'hundred tons. Another trial is also there meniioned, of Mr. IVhitCy who lied up tinriy-six Cows and four Horses, and while they a,te fifty tons ot hay and had tv/enty actcs of straw for liiter, made three, hundred tons of rote n dung, in good order for the land. • Ift addition to gathering stubblirlor the purpose of iuier- ing, our Farmers may supply themselves with ample quan- tities of dry leaves every Full ; as rhey may be easily raked up and gathered in the woods, for the purposed Mr Living- iiiori makes mention of his having^ used this substitute, m liis valuable essay on Sheep. It may not be amiss to observe, in concluding our re- miuks on feeding and fating, that as the larger English' breeds require richer pastures for thriving well, than the smaller, many of the best English Graziers have lattexiy prcfered the best selections ot the latter, as being on the- whole most profitable. \Vhen a beast is well fated, outwardly, it is indicated by Vts^luD^g and comely appearance ; its skin on the lower- most ribs. will feel kindly and melloWi as the English Gra- ziers suy ; that is, solt and yet ^rm to the touch ; the part where the tail is set on, will |eel plump and soil -and the ?mtch-bonesj as ihey^are calledf'which lie on either sule-ot the root of the tail, will feel loose and well qfa^jered. When also the cod of the Ox, or the naval of the C&v, feels thkk^ 252 FARMEI^ ASSISTANT. rouner case, speedy attention to the beast is necessary, in ordiir'to prevent an inflammation of the intestines, which must^|>yove fatal. The scouring is knOwri in Neat-cattle, by the frequent discharge of slimy exciemcnt, loss of apeVue, loss of flesh, t 254. FARMER** ASSISTANT. Increasing paleness of the eyes, and ^iieral debility. beast should^ be ininie housed art'nor should they be allowed to feed on potatoes and some; other roots, tviihout their being first ^teain'boiied, or cut in piects, \Vh^e a beak, wwevefr happens: io get one of'Che^e i,niis FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 255 throat, which cannot be forced down, take a smooth pliable rod and make a knob on the. end, by winding and lying rags round if, and run, this down . its throat into the stondiach, which will force all belore it into that receptacle. The s/o^^^r* are easily known by the drowsiness, lethar- i^y, and staggering gait ot the animal. This disorder is sometimes ocicasioned by plethora, or fullness of blood, and sometimes it is seated on the bi^aio ; in which case it is in- curable, anless by irapaning. In the former case, the rem- edy is toMeep the beast housed, and to bleed and purge it sufficiently. , ^ -♦ Foe wounds of cattle,, sec Wounds. The overJfo7uing of the gall^. vi\\\z\\ is sometimes called the yellows oi jaundice, is kiiown by the yellow tinge in the mouth and eyes; arid sometimes the whole body assumes ai yellowish cast. The nose is. dry; the udder of the Cow be- comes swollien, ancl yields but little mitk, which also be- comes yellow and curdled, on being boiled' ; and sometimes the fore-teeth becomejyei'y loose. The beast affected with this disorder should be housed, and have two or three gentle purn;es ; Uieji give it, twice a day, a pint of beer in whiph lias been* infused, for three or four da^s, about an ounce to each q^iart of the filings of iron, and a snjall quantity ofhardsoap. L^t .the beast be well It^pt during the time with warm messes of bran, and other nourishing food; to wltich some olivecil, or other purgative mtdicine should bc^dded, if the beast be costive. For curing t!iis disorder, ^Iv. Dfcme directs to take an e[;g and empty it of its whiter retaining its yolk, and fill the caviiy with equal quantities of soot, salt, and black-pepper ; draw out the tongue of the beast, and witn a smooth stick push the egg down its throat. Repeat tlfis two or thte^ mornings, and, he says, it will seldom fail oi a cure. Sometimes, however, this disorder docs not yield to the yower of rnedicine ; but at length turns to the bla^k jaun- c^^ce, which is incurable. The disorder called redvjatcr^ or vpiding bloody urine, ii is believed, has seldom or never prevailed in this Country, Its attacks are mostly en yo'ung beasts, which in that case are sceii Jeaving the herd, and exhibiiing frequent ineffect- ual attempts to void urine. The British practice has been to house the beast, and give it two doses of glauber-saliH, of a pound each, in two succeeding days: Put this, practice is condeir.jied in ' The C&infdtte Grazier;^ -andy instead ol puig ttivcs, strong decoc- tions of Peruvian or \vliite«ak bark* and alurn are recom- mended to be given, in such quantiues, and ixi such timeS;, as the violence ^(gi the ciisease jiiay require. • m 256 FARMER'S AS^STA;NT. The;/m«L^|| is known vbytjie; panting ,or heaving of^hc animars flanks, which is accompanied, with trembling and a decay of ft^h. Hous^ the beast, and .give it, every six hours, during the continuance of the chilly symptoms, a quart of warm strong beer^ in which a table-spoonful of laudanunpi,, another of ground girtgerj and two of the spirits of hartshorn have been, infused. The beast should be fed on sweet hay, and weiriittered. Its drink should be warm water, with a little nitre' dissolved in it, if there ^be symp- toms of fever. As it gains strength, let it out in t«e middle of the day, until such time as it has fully recovered. The injiamination of the liver ^ is indicated by feyer, diffi- cult breathing, a swelling near the shorter ribs, and in Cows, a remarkable distension about the womb. Catjlu affected with this disorder will never fateh. It is sometimes hereditary in certain breeds; in which case, it is incurable. In the vv'ork last nientioned, it is recpmmended to house the beast, bleed it profusely, and give it the following medicine in a tepid state, viz. ^ Saltpetre and glaijber-salts, of each twoounces; Venice, treacle, mithridate, and white ginger, pulverised, of each one ounce; let these*, be boiled in three pints pf water, in which may be gradually added, one gill of oil of sweet- ^Iraonds; the whole being stired together^ This is.sufiiqiicn^ lor one dose, which should be repeated the siicceeding day. Warm tinesses of bran should be the principal diet of the beast, till it has recovered. . 'v The ivjlavimation of the lungs is known by a shortness of, breath, and a painful cough. The animal looks dull ; /the. skin is hot and harsh ; and a copious discharge of thick ropy phlegm issues from its rnouth. House the beast, bleed it plentifully, and give it a dose composed of the flour of sulphur, balsam ofi sulphur, syrup of coltsfoot, apd oil of sweet-almonds, of each an ounce, bleniied toget'ner. If the above ^atment produce no visible alteration in eighteen hours, repeat it. Probably any other purge v/ould ansv/er, as well as t,Ke above. Let the beast be kept comfortable, ^, and have some exercise every day, till it recover. The locked Jaw is similar to that in the human frame, is caused by similar means, and requires a similar treatn4,^nt. If the beast be hardy, opiate frictions, and dashing on oi cold water, is recommended. If it, be of slender constitu- tion, opiate frictions, and warm fomentations of the part alTected, is directed. As the j}east cannot swallow, let gruel be poured down its thrpat with a horn, till the di^r^. der is removed. , # » :'-\ The indications of colds in cattle, to which 'they are most- ly liable in the Sgring, are hQllov<(ne,ss of the flanks, rough- ness of the coat, heat of the breath, iniven pleuiifuUj', and in proper season, will counteract the effects of the bile of road animals. ' For the bite of Rsiilesnakes and most other vipers, a plentiful dose, and repeated when necessary, of olive-oil, has been found effectual, in most cases. Other diseases of Neat-cattle, it may not be amiss to mention, which have, at times, prevailed in particular pla- ces. Some years since, a very fatal disease, which princi- pally attacked Calves in the F.ill, and' yearlings in May and June, and sometimes older cattle, prevailed in Connecticutp It Was called the inortifi cation. Those in the best condition were most liable to u. Its symptoms were, an avertiion to move; a swelling, most commonly in the region ot the kidney, but sometimes in the shoulder, leg, flmk, or side, &c ; and in ^ short time the beast died with Utile pain, but with a very foeteK^ smelL Oh e;camrning the swellings, they were found to contain a jelly and black blood. The c«use was ascribed to fulness of habit, and a too-sudden change from indfi'-rent pastures into such.a^ were very rich Bleeding was recommended as a preventive. No cure was discovered. ' A disease, something similar to the above, prevailed, about sixty years since, in the north of England, which was commonly called the black - guar ter. Bleeding was found a preventive; but in very few instances was a cure effv-cted, after the beast was seized with the disorder! This was ascribed to too much succulent food, when given to beasts of full habit. It would seem, generally, that cattle in a plethoric state, when overfed with rich food, or when too suddenly surfeited with it, are suddenly indisposed, and carried off before re- lief can be given. There are, however, epidemics among cattle, as well as among Men, the precise causes of which may oftentimes be dif^cult to ascertain. Generally speak- ing, it is believed, that among the horned race, either plen- tiful bleeding, or purging, or both, will be found a prevent-. 25:& FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ive, and in n^dst instances a cure, of the maladies which are usually mostfatal to them, froni too lull habit. When Oxen are long and hardly drove in muddy roads^ particularly where the soil is calcareous, they are liable tc^ a soreness between their claws. This will mak€ the beast lame; and, when discovered, the part should be cleansedj and healed with some proper ointment. Sorneiimes, from inattention to this, the part becomes horny; in this case, the hard parts must be fcuC away, and the wounded flesh- cured. A general indication of health in Neat-cattle is a moist or wet nose, and when this is found dry, it is a certain symptom of disease of some kind or other. - Cows have some diseases which are peculiar to them; such as those attendant on calving, and such as affi;ct the udder, Ssc. The udder is divided into as many apartments as there are |.eats, so that if one or more of these are diseased, this does not affect the rest. The milk of one teat may be good, and that of another bad. The uddei*s of Cov.s may be injured in various way^, and swellings and inflammations are the usual consequences. These must be rempved, or the beast will be in danger. Mr. JDcane, speaking: of hard swellings in the udder, which he calls the garget, recommends making a rowel or seton in fh< dewlap, and inserting therein a piece of the root of mechoacan, as large as a nutmeg, with a string fast» ened to it, so that it may be drawn out when the cure is effected; and this, he says, will tause a revulsion of the humor in the udder into the orifice in the dewlap, where it will be discharged. When the cure is effected, the piece of root is to be drawn out by tire string. Probably a com- mon rowel, placed in the breast or dewlap, w^d answer the sanie purpose. Where hard tumors have formed, the Compilers of ' The Comfileie Grazier^ reconnmend, to take of common hem- lock (conium maculatum) dwarf or roundleaved mallow (malva rotundifolia) and common millilot (trifolium milli- lotus) oi each a handful, and boil them in water; with this wash the tumor, after u has opened; the ivater to be as warm as the beast can bear it; and, after thus cleansing ths part, cover it with a plaister of basilicon ointment. The following is also recommended in the lastnientioned work, in obstinate cases of ulcerated udders: Take gum- ammoniac, gum galbanum, castilesoap, and extract of hem- lock, of each one ounce; form them into eight bolusses, and give one every morning' and evening. It is observed in the same work, that internal remedies are always necessary where the udder and teats are cok.^ farmer's assistant. 259 Viderably infl.imed, and for this purpose another interna! medicine is mentioned, viz. Four ounces ot nitre mixed with a pound of comnrion salt.; give two table-spoonfuls of this, powdered, in a gallpn of thin watergrucl, every three hours. Where the inflammations are less violent, and exhibit no symptom of increasing rapidly, it may answer to annoint the udder frequently, during the d .y, wiih iresh butter; or with a salv©; made of an ouqce of castilesoap, dissolved in a pint of sweet milk, over a gentle fire ; or with an oint- ment made with the juice ot the.ieaves of the t^iorn, mixed with hogslard ; or the tumor may be annointed with a little mixture of camphor and blue ointment 5 and let about half a drachm of calomt 1 be given, in a hori'iful of. warm beer, if the malady increase. Wher^ tile teats are only sore, tfiey may be washed with soapsuds, and rubed vvith an ointment ipjde of whitelead and goosegreasej or fresh butter would, perhaps, do as well. , .'v,^>:;,; > . :, ,■■ .■- ' ' The proper pdsition fftr the Calf to lie in the catf-bed has already been mentioned; where, thefetore, it is not pre- sented in this position, at the time tor iis birth, and by rea» sen of this »he Cow cannot deliver her burden, it becomes -^necessary, if possible, to place it properly. Where this cannot be done, the method of extracting it by a hook fixed in the under jaw, as belore mentioned, may be frequently successfully practised. , j Sometimes the hind parts of the Calf are foremost ; 2^ in this case it is best to extract it in that position, by pro- per torce used for the purpose. Whatever assistance, how- ever, may be requisite in these cases, should be given with care and judgment, minding to hurt the Cow as little as possible. |. * Anottiie'r impediment to calving, as noticed in the last- mentioned work, is owing to a part of the natural passage becoming ot so horny or firm a texture, that it will not yield or distend. When on due examination this is found to be the case, insert a sharp- pointed penknite, with the forefinger to the b'ack of it, to guide it correctly, and with this carefuljy cut the horny circle through, which will im- mediately give the animal the requisite relief, if proper assistance be also given. ^ > In this case, as in others wht re the passage is wounded, or torn, it should be bathed with a pint of camphorated . spirit of wine, injected with a syringe ; the beast should be boused and kept moderately warm, and vvell and dryly Tittered, and tie fed with wholesome nourishing food, and with 4rink a little warmed. 26# FARMERS ASSISTANT. The falling; down of the calf-btd trtquently happens after a laborklub Bitirj ; ihough souic Cowt> iire naturally disposed to this dibortler. VVhtre this> is apprehendtd, ii is dircciedj in the laslmeniioned work, that ihe Cow should be cai efullyt watched, and the piucenia, or clecUih-g, removed without effusion of blood At^er which the O^)'..idtor may gently repliice thfc calfb. d, idkmg care not to withdraw his hand till .he tormt-r brgms tt) ie,ei warnfl, Thf folh>wiD^ draft, jnay then be given: Of bay berries^ pulv::;r!zi d gciiiiaiirvjo, and corriaiidcrsetds, each an ounce; oi aniseed Siicl juinpefbvrr^ies, each two- ounces; together with haif a poui d ol tr^aclef and the whole put into three pinr.e ot strong beer. Alter this, it is advisable lo lead- the >beast gcntly»down a hili, if one be near, which will assiif much in placing the calf-bed in its proper place, and rendei* the application ot stays to the womb unnecessary. Where the caltVbed, however, comt.s dov/n, and no im- 33iediate aid can be hud,>i()e parts exposed should be laid on, and kept covered with, a linen cioih; and, when replac- «d, bathed with a mixture of nev/-miik and spirits ; after, which, the above treatment may be pursued. Some Cows have a peculiar shape of the hinder parts, which tends to produce this malady; and,, in such case, it is perhaps difficult to prevent it, unless it can be done lyy keephig their hinder parts higher than usual, while confined to fheir stalls, about \h(: period of gestation. The fiuerfitral f^-oer is caused by, taking cold, while ealving. Cows ihus affected should have housing and good treatment, as has been direcied in other cases, and tl>e head yhoukl be placed highest, in order to assist the natural dis'^ charges. In other respects, they should be treated as in cases of violent colds, except that no blood should be taken, unless, perhaps, in violent cases, and then only at the coni- iTiencemeni of the disorder. Close attention should be paid to Cows, as well as to the females of other kinds of cattle, about their periods of gestation. They often then ^tand in need of some skilful aids, whch, it rendered in due season, may, save their lives 5 and wiiich, if not thus afforded, may be of essential loss to the' Owner. Calves are also liable to some diseases, and, in some Countries, to such as do not prevail in others. In this, it is believed, they are subj.^ct to bu* fcv/. One, however, which frtquently attacks them, is looseness or scouring. It is fujmetiraes caused by their having the milk of the Dam too soon; souietimes, by too frtqueni changes of the milk Tivhich is given. Ofte*uaethod of cure is to stint ih^ amma] of its food, and ^ive U onge or twice, -whije fasting, a hard boiled egg, FARMER'S ASSISTANT. M mashed fine and well mixed with its^^ilk. Another directs, that powdered chalk, mixed with wheat-flour, and made into balls with gin (brandy would seem to be belter) pG given the animal, as a safe medicine. \%; Calves are also liable to colds; in which case they should have a treatment similar to older Neat-cattle. We have read a theoretical essay, of the late Dr. Bush^ en the dibea|s?.s of cattle, wViien with his usual ability His theory is thi#: That similar catises produce similar diseases in the Human, and in the brute, creation ; and t|iat the most proper cure tor the disease, in either case, is pretty much the same. Hei also contends, that the diseases of each are, 6ften simuhaneous; produced by the same generally-pre- vailing causes. We are aware, that the most eminent of the Descend- ants of Aesculapius have laid the foundation of their fame on some new theory, often more or less incorrect; but we are induced to concede to this^ as being fundamentally true, and worthy of due consideration by ail who attempt the healing 'art, upon cattle of every description. We shall merely add, that in Norfolk county, in England, which is famous for its' numbers of Neat-caitle, the fiolled breed h }j^ almost universal use. The Cows of this breed a|e extel^t milkers ; and their inability to be mischivious, frbm their want of horns, would seem to entitle them to a preference. Mr. P. Coofier^ of Newjersey, however, deprives his horned cattie of their horns, when he thinks proper, by taking the "halves, when about a month old, and the horns have risen above the skin, and cuiing off the knobs close with a chisel; then, with a sharp gouge, paring them off clean to tlie bone, searing the wounds thus made, and filling them with jhogslard, which completes the operation- Id the foregoing observations, which are rather miscella- neous in point of form, no attention has been paid to the various terms which many English Farmers and Graziers apply to cattle of different kinds, ages, and conduions, fur- ther than such terms are usual in this Country. We have plain English enough for every purpose ot this kind ; and there is no need of Farmers having a .vocabulary for cattle, consisting of barbarous v/ords, which none but themselves would be iikeiy to understand. NETTLE (Urtica,) It is said, that this plant is more productive in fibre, than hemp, on a given quantity of ground. That the texture of its fibre is finer.and stronger, tiian that of hemp, has been long known to the early l^iet- tlers on the Mohawk fiver; as this plant greatly abounded in the rich, mucky, new lands in that quarte*r, before they 252 FARMER^s ASSISTANT. were cleared. As nwicjj^ as thirty years ago, we have scera cloth made from the nettle, which apjJeared to be as soft as that made of fix. '^ The plant seems to grow most naturally in moist mellow loam, which contains a large proportion of vegetable earth. It may be raised from the s^d, or the root, as it is a hardy perennial. Mr. Greene says the seed should be sowed in the Spring, and that the roots should be planted in the Falfii; tha^, it the iSbre is wanted for the finest fabrics, the plant should be cut while in fulft flower; but, 'if only for common use. it will yield more by standing till fully ripe; that, after being cra- dled, which is the most proper way to cut it, the stalks' should lie on the ground, in order that their stinging quali- ty be thus removed; that it is roted in the same manner as hemp, but requires a longer time for this purpose; and that It is not affected by the inclemency of the weather. It is believed that this plant may be cultivated to great advantage, particularly in soils where it grows in its natural state. " * * It should, however, be observed, that the culture of it has been patented by Mr. Wliitloiv;' but, how far th6 knowledge that has long existed, in regard to its valbable qualiiiesj may interfere with his supposed right to monopotise its culture, we pretend not to say. - - ""' That superior intelligence, however, which may h^ve en- abled him to perceive the value of the plant, when properly cultivated, and to excite public attention in its favor, enti- tles him to particular consideration, and the thanks of his Country. . * NEW HORSE-HOEING HUSBANDRY. Ih the year 1731, Mr. Tull, an ingenious Farmer of Greatbrftain, pub- lished a book under this title ; and, afterwards, further sup- plementary essays on the same subject; the object of which was, to introduce a new system of husbandry, particularly in the culture of wheat. His method is this: ' The ground is ploughed into ridges of about five, six, or seven feet wide, and then smoothed with the harrow; then the seed is sown in straight lines by a drill in small furrows, about two inches deep; two of these furrows being placed together, at the distance of about nine inchesj with an in- terval between these and the next two of about two feet ; so that a horse-hoe, or a horse-plough, can be run between them. As the seeds are droped by the drill-plough, they are covered by little harrows, which are fastened to the plough, and follow after it. The horse-hoe has alreadf been mentioned. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 263 After the plants of wheat have got to a proper size in the Ball, the horse-hoe, or plough, is run close to the plants, on each side of the double rows, and the tunows are turned Ironr) thera j and thus, Mr Tutl says, the growing grain should be lefi during Winter ; it being, by this process, laid so dry, that it will be in no djariger oi being thrown out olf ground by the Winter frost. "^ Early in the Spring, Jlje earth is to be turned to 'he rows; then ^ May, tronOj^hem ; and in June to them .^gain. Some weeds, which wilPrise between the double rows and round the stalks, must be, taken put by hand. % '^ This culture, Mr* Tull says, is equally well applied to barley and some other kinds of grain. For barley, it has been found to answer very well here; but for wheat^ in particular, it will not answer. It naakes this grain grow so rank and thrifty, and continue so much beyond the usual time in the green state' that it generally becomes blasted or mildewed. Protjably the same fate would, in some measure, attend this kind of culture,, with jregard to rye, if a culture so expensive could, in this Country, be afforded to thd't grain. Mr. 7^w//'s leading principle is, that f^quent ploughings have the same effect on lands as manuring'; and this, m general, is believed to be correct, though not equally so in 'all soils ; that by this constant ploughing, or horse-hoeing, the lands will be sufficiently and constantly manured ; that soils not very rich can, in this way, be made to produce very large crops; and, what is sometimes important, they can thus be made to produce the same crops every year ; as the ground is ploughed up again, as soon as the grown crop has been harvested. Although the husbandry of Mr. Tull will probably never come in^b general use in Greaibriiain,'^whete, from the coolness of the Summers it will always answer best; yet, the drill'plough, and the method recommended by him, of ploughing among plants, are each founded in an accurate knowledge of good husbandry ; and the latter will ever be found best in the guhiyation of many plants; such as beans, Indian corn, carrots, cabbages, potatoes. Sec. ; and, no doubt, barley, and probably some other kinds of grain, may in this manner be successtully cultivated. Mr. Dcane says he lias cultivated barley in this way, and never had less than forty bushels to the acre. NURSERY. #would seem to be the better plan, t'(> make a nursery on such ground as is but illy suited to the growth of the trees to be raised ; for, by afterwards placing them in a soil that is natural to them, they, will grow fiaore 264 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. thriftily, than trees raised in a nursury where the soli j^ suitable to their growth.^. See Orchard, tor a case mentioned by Mr. Peters; and also, Plumtree, tor another mentioned by Mr, Livingston^ where this point is more fully illustrated. Let the ground be ploughed very, deeply, early .in the Fall, and be well mellowed ; then lay the seeds, or stones, along in straight rows, and let them be laid plentifully, in order that enough may come up.j^The next yfar, they are to be thined, so as to stand at jploper distances, and the ground is Xo be kept hoedt^ and clear of weeds and grass. After they have had one Summer's growth, they may be cut off near the ground, for grafting. See Grafting Inoculation, may also, at this growth, be successfully per- formed on them. See Inoculation. They should atterwards be kept clear, of Weeds and grass, by hoeing among the rii, until they are transplanted. Where snows fall deep, they art apt to bend down the voung trees, and make them crooked. The best remedy ior this is, to drive down stakes, proportionate to the height of the young trees, and tie them to these in such manner, that the bark will not be injured by the string, nor by rubing against ^the stakes. This is to be done after grafting them. Some sow the seeds, or stones, on a small spot, and after- v/ards plant them out in the nursery. This may >e best for stone-fruit ; but, lor appletrees, sowing the seeds in the pumace is rhe easiest mtthod, and answers as well as any ; and for other seeds, or for acorns, if oaks are to be raised in a nursery, the above method will answer very well. Many trees are propagated from the. slips, or cuiings, such as the Lombardy-poplar, mulberry, and othej:;s. For raising appletrees, m this way, see Slips. NUTRIMENT OF FOOD. The parts of tood, whence nourishment is derived, consist of gelatine, albamen, and the saccharine matter. ^ In a course of Lectures, delivered by Mr. Davy, before the Board of Agriculture, in England, he pointed out, from his own analysis, the quantity of nutritive matter contained in various seeds, roots, and grasses, uaed as food for Man or beast. From this, it appears, that the best wheat contains ninety- five p^rts in one hundred of nutritive matter ; good barley, winety-two; rye, seventy-nine; oats, seventy-four; peas, and beans, fifiy-seven ; potatoes, twenty five; beets, fourteen; carrots, nine; turnips, from four to six; clover, four; flo- rin, six J and other grasses, from two to five. FARMER^s ASSISTANt. 265 Wheat weighs sixty pounds to the bushel, andi turnip* about forty. Thus, it would seeni, that as much nourish* ment is to be derived from on^^nshel of wheat, as from about tiyemy-seven of turnips. -This, however, is nbt tlie case. ' / What is called the stinnulous produced by distention must be taken into the account, in formintc a jproper estimate of the effects' p^duced, in support^ life, by any kind of food; and it is on vjpis account that, ^rJ>aps, fourteen bushels of turnips, particu4arly when boiled^ would sustain life as longj or faten as much, as one bushel of wheat. ^ 0= ^AK fQuercusi.J. Mr. Green^ in his' < Catalogue of plants indigenoiis >to the State ot Ncwyork,' enumerates fifteen different kinds/of oak, ta ivit; the common white, the swamp, the yello^v-chesnut, the scarlet, the Spanish downy-red, the long-stalked^ the scrub or barren, the l^rge-fruited, the rock-chesnvjty the cock, the mossy-cup, the various-leaved, the black-jack, the post-white, and the pinoak. With some of the abovK kinds we are not acquaint|ed» The black-jack abounds in the middle States. 4 There is, also the liveoak of the Southern States, which is uncommonly hard, wheh dried, very durable, and esteemed the best for shipbuilding. , - The swampoak is very firm, to^iigh, and (durable; and, whea cui|ivated, it should be in;s|uui& Far his method of heading down, see Fruit trees. During the fiist seasoH, it)ose which were iieaded dawgt riiade shoots six feet in length, and covered the lops of the ©Id ste^s, leaving only a slight cicatrix; and produced new tap-roots upwards of two feet long The Ovhers, whicli w^re not. headed down, did not grow to one-fotsrth of this length. He further sa^, that when the iprmer werjs eighteen f<^:ti high, the tatter were only ^ve. ' Tl is case is cited by hfti), ais a strikipg ini^ance of the sup«^riority of his method of heading ddrvfi over the Common mtthod of tnanaging trees. His rnethod of curing or restoring old, hollow^ and dis= eased trees, which are partly dead, is also gener dly appli- cable to the oak For the inerhod pf doing this, see also Fruit-trees. The Farmer, who finds his stock of .g^ood oc»k umber gi*bwing more scarce, should turn hi^ attention to the Imec ns of replenishing his farm with this valuable timber. When planted on fiKk heights and declivities, he may find the '"growth of oaks ornamental to his fartr), as well as pro- fitable, by raising its value ; and it may afford him much pleasure, in his morfe advanced years, to observe their in- creased dimensions, while in his mind he rolls back the wheels of time to that period when the oaks were bfit acorns i« his hand. |;^ Tht^ bat k of the whiteoak is best for taning. The inner birk of it, when reduced to a powder, and administered in the manner of the 'Peruvian bark, answers nearly th^ same purpose; but the doses jjiust be largef. The juice of the galls of the shruboak is excelent, for making the best ink, and is also a component payl in black dyes. They are formed by an insect's depositing Its eggs in the tender rind oi the twigs of the tree j and, through the wound thus made, Ihis black juice oozes, and forms a tuipor, sometimes as large as a walnut, in the heart ^; which the young insect is to be founQ. ' ^ The acorns for planting, for raising the oak, should be gathered as soon as they fall fn Autumn, and k^pt in moist sand during the Winter, in a place where they will be fres from frost; and those only which have sprouted should be planted the next Spring, The sprouts should not be suflfep- €(| to dry, before ilie acorns are pat in the ground. '^'' A strong moist soil is pequisiie for raising the common whiteoak, to perfection. Grounds for raising the best oaks, of any kin^, shotild always be those where they grow most tihrifiilly, in a state of naturej^^ if 'Miphijan be always asce»- Uined. ■4 FARMER*s ASSISTANT. OATS (Avena.) The clear profits lo be obtained, from this crop, y-' ^ In whatever v/ay oats are cultivated, 'they recjuire the ground to be well stired up and mellowed, and to be in good condition.^ li is a raistakcn notion, though entertained • by many, th^ slight culture will answer for this crop, or that this grain can be cultivated^ to any advantage, in poor lands, without manure. ... Several kinds oi roots m^y bfe made very good substi- tutes for oats, for feeding Horses, at home particularly; Buch as carrots, potatoes, when steamboiled, turnips, Jeru- salem artichoke, £^c. Pumpkins are also expelent for this purpose. It is also believed that clbver hay, when steamboiled, would nearly of itself keep Horses in good condition, dur- ing the Wi titer season. See Steamboileu, Pumpkin, and the articles treating of the roots jusl mentioned. OLIVE (Olea.) This tree is famous for the production of oil. It thrives well in Italy and the southern pa|-ts of Prance, and, it is believed, it would grow well in*s6>*te*^ of the Southern States. The Winters here are too severe for it. We have, however, a plant which is said to be an ex- celent substitute. See ^IJNFLOWER. It ha&"^|jE;n found, in France, that immersing the olive- fruit in vinegar, before pressing otit the oil, yiiHl improve the quality, and add a tenth more to, the* quantity. ONION (Allium.) This root requires a mellow, dry soil, and the richer the better. The soil ^ may be a rich sand, sandy-loam, dry-loam, or gravelly- loam, ot either of these earths, of common quality, when strongly marfured, Nf. farmer;s assistant. 259 will answer. The'ricl^'black earths, and mucky grp^nds, oC the more northerly and westcrlv -,^rts of this State, ^are good for this root. ,;. h^'^J We have seen it successfuliy*^cultivated in lightt bljick, swampy grounds, when laid sufficiently dry by small op'^n ditches, about three rods apart. *v * In the parts of this State which yjre have just mentioned, the onion affords very produiMhi crops; and a great pro^ portion of the soil may be fited-'lor its culture. From lour to six hundred buslieis of this ropt may be raised to il.c acre. The ground selected tor this culture should be perfectly clear of stones; and, if it contain sieeds of weeds, these should be first eradicated by an effectual Sumnidr4allowing. The ploughings, however, for preparmg the land, in the first instance, need not be deeper than perhaps about three inches. , 'ii^,^ - - m • If the ground be suitably mellow, any further p^oughings,^ for succeeding crops, will be unnecessary; all that will bef^ found requisite will be, to remellow the ground as deeply, and effectually, as it can be done by a heavy irontoothed harrow, .having the teej:h well pointed, and turning forward, so as to run about tw(**inches deep.' f But, where the soil js not ne^iurally of the mello,w kind, it will probably b©f found best to give the ground one even shallow ploughi«ig, and then to make it perfectly fine with the Irarrovv, as before mentioned. ^ " Whatever manure is applied, should be very finely roted, clear of the seeds of weeds, and should be well mixed with the surface of the soil, by the harrowings. After the surface has been finely pulverised with the harrow, the grqund should be rolled, ^nd then it will be fit for the reception of the seed. The sowing should be as early as the ground can be completely prepared. The common method of fomniiting the seeds ,lo the earth is pretty well understood ; bii^ this is a tedious opera- tion. Ti>e seeds should 'be drilled in, in rows about teii or twelve inches apart, by a small hand-driUplough, madefor the, purpose, as described under Drill-husbandry. This machine may "be made to drill in two rows at once, which would enable one Hand to go over, perhaps, two or ^three acres in a day. The seeds should be drilled in pretty lhickly*,^for fear they, may not all vegetate, and covered about half an inch deep. If the growing plants are, founfl ta stand too thick, they must be thined by hand, when the^first weeding cnmmcnces. This is the most laborious operation in the whole, process 0! raising this root, as well as sonae others; but^iQi'e we 270 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. propose anotVicj laborsaving implemlfent, in the shape of a small haad-weedingplQUgh, which is described under Plough, This is to be ]^t^hcd along by hand, runmg lur- row5 on each side oi the, ■iiO^tv^, as near as may be to if nd ad- visable; turning^ the, furrows first from the rows, and then bapk tOrthenn, m onleB^ the tnore completely to throw all the roofs of the young g;romh ot weeds out of the looting they may have got m the ^K Every part of the in^ervaT between the rows should, in this manner, be cut wi(.h this plough ; afier which it would probably be found requisite to use a small narrow iron- toothed rake, for the purpose of cOmplfiiely separating the roots of the, weeds from the soilr. -^ W;ien this has been per- formed, the* cleansing of the rows of the weeds growing among them, which the plough could not touch, and also the thlhing. ot the rows, must be performed^ by hand. When the weeds 4^egin to rise again, this operation must 'be repeated, and a^ain, if it be- necessary, as no weeds ^ Should be suffered to gVow among the crop. jOi<^ grounds never can be completely cleared of weeds, as sgnifc kinds seem to grow spontaneously ; but, where none a% suffered to gqr to jJecd, the trouble of extirpating such as do rise will not be very difficult. I In raising this root, som^ plant them in holes, about ten inches apart, so as to form rows' each ^ay, puting about eight.seeds in each hole. ' ..? This, wher,e the cultivation is all performed by handtatjorj is the easiest, both in seeding the ground, and afiei;v«r»rds in weeding it, as the weedinghoe can be run eaCh way be- tween the bunches or hills; but the product will be found the greatest, where the crop is raised iii rows, whether drilled in, as above directed, pr planted by hartxl. By the use of the drill, and weeding plough, as above described, in raising the crop, it is believed that or^e-half of the labor usually bestowed on the culiure of this root would„6e saved ; and that thereby the Farmer could proba- bly aflford his onions for, about thirty cenis a bushel; a suni, which Is not more than a third of tiiev price they usually comw\and in our markets. The culture of this root, upon sonGfephat of an extensive scale, and agrepably to the above directiojs, woald, no doubt, be found very profitable in same situations, where a ready maiket eould be had for the crpp^ and whereMie soil was suitable for itS; cultivation. '-i; W^en the stalks hitve become dead and dry, the onions Will have ceased to grow, and then they should be pulled, and laid on the ground some ctays, to dpy and harden, be* tore thc^y%re carried in. FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 271 Those ^hich have thick necks and the bulbous part small, and are commonly called «ca//zows,, may as well, be left^ in the ground during the VVmter, a^thigy will contii.u^^teen till that time: They, will sianl^lhe frost; and the be^t Spring will grow in their places t6 be good onions ; or thejr may then be taken up and set m^ bed made tor that pur- pose. At air events, they are^^jood for nothings wuhout a second year*s growth. .*3|f v There is a kind of onion whicli, instead of bearing seied, bears bunches of swiall pnions on its top, and these being preserved, and set out the n^t year, grow to be iarge, and their tops again bear the sm^l ones. Probably these are best calculated for more southerly clii«atesj tho\igh they grow very well in this. In the Fall, after the onions,;have been dried, and the tops cut off, they are to be carried in and spread over a floor 5 and, at the ^commencement of cold weather,; put into^ casks, and set'ina^ place where they will not freeze. A^ little freezing, however, lyill . npt essentially injure them. ^% The place where they are kept, "should not, at all e vents j^ be too warm and moist, as this will cause them to rot. It, they be kept where they are somewhat frczen, they should not be disturbed in theif frozen state j but the better way is, not to suffer them to be froz ,n, but to keep them in a tem- perature a little above the fj-eeziog poiiit Those which are shiped from Newengland, for mat'ket, are usually tied up in wisps .of fciraw, and if they be hung up in. this way they will, perhaps, keep longer than any other. ' if they incline to sprout, sear the roots with a hot iron, wbicb will &top their^'growth. To obtain seed ffom the onions, plant them in the Spring in beds, -ab^out nine inches apart. Tdke the largest and soundest for tnispjarpose, arid keep them cleaVof weeds while growing. When they have come^to a head, tie them - loosely to st^Jces drove ,dowa for tliat purpose ; otherwis^e they will fall to the ground^ and then the seeds will not come to perfection. . -v A. bed thus prepared* and cultivated, avill last many years; and the seeds which iV produces. wiJl be beiiel' as the bed grows older For the purpose. However, of preserving the bed, it must be protected from the severity of the Winterj by covering the onions over .with e^rth, to the depth of about three inches, i^x mf^r^ if requisite rand, in the Spring, thty are to be uncove^d agaip. If an^of them happen to die, their pl§ce is to be supplied by seting others m their stead. 5 It is saijd^Jhat soot, and ashes are, each, very good nia« nures for onions. Apply these when the bulb be^s t« forai. -^ ' m FARMER^s ASSISTAN% Ml'. Deanei^?iy?, he tried common sea-salt upon them, without efffeet; but pet,li%ps the manner, or time, ot the ap- plic^Upn, or the quantitj^iflpplied, was improper. We are unacquainted vWith the particular effects which gypsum would have ujJop this crop j but, most probably, one evil 'teffect it wouW havelwould be the spontaneous pro- ductiori of white-clover., vr It is most probable that|well-roted and fermented com- posts, formed of such materials as ar« most suitable to the soil, will' always be found tlie best manure for this root; and, in order to ensure th6 greatest crops, the manure should be plentifully applied. Onions ^fe ndt v&ii exhausting crop; and they may be consrantly raised on the ^ame ground. It should be added, that SQme are in the practice of beat- ing down the tops, after the robts have attained considerable s^ size, tor the purpdse of making the latter g]i;;ow the faster; but the practice's undoubtedly injuripus, as we have seen confirmed by experiment. >, In all the States, more southerly than that of Newyork, yM has commonly been tounjd necessary to give onions two *^years' growth, in order: to rear them to a suitable size. We perceive, however, -that a tnethod has lately been adopted which <^nables the Ciiliivator to rear a crop every year^ on the same ground. This is, to sow the crop about the 1 0th of September, and let it stand over Winter, and then it will come to maturity the ne:^t seasoh, in time suffi- cient to take it off, and sow the ground again. ' This has been successfully practised by- Mr. Peters, and by Mr. P-hili/iSyOi Peiinsylvania. - \^^ ORCHAKD. The most suitable soil, for almost every kind of tree growrt in the orchard,f^ is that' whidh* is warm, dry, and fertile. Even light sandy lands are better for the purplfc^e, than stiff clays. It Is mbst advisablfe^to make use of hilly or uneven grounds, if the ?oil be suitable, and let those , which are level be reserved for the plough. ^ The fiist step toward making a vaU^able orchard , is, to prepare a hihrsery of young trees, of the best kinds of fruit, and such as are most suitable for the uses to which they are to be applied. For an orchard of peach and apricot-trees, see Peach- TRF.E, and Apricot. " ,y Trees df this description should jiever be i^anied with those Of a lafger gro^vth. T.he appletree and the peartree may grow verywell; together ; and an orchard of these, as being the most durable, a^d susceptible of being applied to more valuable uses, is, generally speaking, entitled to the first consideration. ^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 275 The. juice of the peach and apricot may be distilcd into a brandy of pleasant flivor ; but all arrfent spirits are great destroyers of the Human Race. Uquors of the vinous kind are much less hurtful to the constituUon ; but far from be- ing innocent, if taken to excess. ** In the Letters of Esfireilla^ mention is made of a famous peartree, that grew at a place called Teignion, in E- -^l^nd; that from this tree many others '^f the same variety were raised, by engrafting; and that the perry made from these trees had frequently been sold, in London, Hoi Cham^ fiaigne See further. Perry. Mr Coofier, of Ncwjersey, has made a liquor from the juice of the apple, with other intjredients, which, by Con- noiseurs in wine, passed for it, and was considered oi exctl- ent quality. See Wine. , ^ Liquors ot such quality are not, however, to be made from the most common sorts of either pears or apples. The choicest kinds of fruit must be selected lor such pur- poses. In searching for fruit-trees, whence scions are tq-' be taken for grafting, in order to raise the most valuable fruit-trees, regard should be had to the four following par- ticulars: First, that the trees bear the best of fruit for making either cider or perry; second, that they ripen at different times; third, that they bear pleinifiilly ; and, fourth, that they be-jr every year. Tree^ possessing all these qualities are not every where to be foQnd ; but they should be sought for ; and, whenever found, they alone should be used foT^obt^ining a supply of scions, whence to take limbs to make trees after the Chi- nese method, whi<:h we sh-11 presenily dcicribe. Trees may be found which bear excelent fruit for nwking cider, or perry, and which, when grown to good size^, will each yield, yearly, from twenty to thirty bushth, or mof-e ; which is perhaps five times'-^he quaniuy that the common sort of such trees usually bear. This is surely a sufficit^nt inducement to search for the most valuable fruu-irtes, when planting an orchard, instead of planting in ihe com- inon way. ' For the different methods of grafting, ^ee that article. The Chinese method of raising any particular kind of appletree is as follows: Take a limb, of suitatile siz?^, of thetree selected, andtake off the bark all rOOnd it, to the width of an inch; round this place plaister a bulb of 1 >ani, say, of the diameter of eight or ten inches, und bind it round with old cloths, or tow, and strings to keep it to its place; immediately above this place a vessel, fiile^" with wateV, v/ith suc^ a leak in its bouoni as will constantly 2» FARMER^s ASSIST ANf. afford such droping of the waier as will keep the bulb suf- iciently wet; and as the water leaks out of the vessel let it be again replenished^ In a given time, roots will start from the limb, above the place where the bark is taTten off, and extend into the bulbj and, when they have grown sufficiently, saw off the limb, below the roots, and plant it where it is to grow. Let It be fastened, with a cord^^'to a stake drove slanthig into the ground, to keep the new tree steady, until such time as its roots have extended sufficiently for that purpose; minding, at the same time, to keep the stake from rubing against the bark. This process is to be commenced at a time suitable for having the young tree planted at the proper time in the Fall. This plan will, no doubt, answer equally well for pear* m tret s. The limbs^ selected for the purpose, should be taken from young trees, as soon as their character for fruit and # bearing is known ; if it be true that either limbs, cutings, Sec. will live no longer than their parent stock. Mr See Cutings. ^ It is advisable to have several different kinds of cider- apples, and pears for making perry, in the orchard, and some which ripen sooner than others, in order that more time be allowed for making these liquors; but it is believed best, not to mix different sorts of either together, in making the cider or perry. See Cider, and Perry. It is observed, in the Letters of Es/ireilla, that, in some of the cider-counties in^England, the appletrees are not graft- ed at present; but, for rearing young trees, the largest seeds which are found in the south side of the largest apples, as they hang on the trees, and these of the best selections for fruit, are only used for planting ; and that from such seeds appletrees are grown, which produce either the same kind of fruit, fts that whence the seeds were taken, or other kinds nearly or quite as good. : , Probably it may be found best to plant the seeds,, before drying, after they are taken from the apples; and for the same reasons that the stones of peaches are directed to be planted in that v^ay A few experiments would readily ascertain the truth of these matters. There is another way of obtaining a much better orchard, than the common method of planting trees, without grafting, is calculated to aff;)rd : This is, to set out the trees very close, say, not n^ore than eight feet apart, and without any regard to rows. As soon as they begin to bear, the charac- ter and value of each tree is readily to be known ; and as sopn thereafter as may be necessary, let tj»e most wortliless FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 2^f trees be taken away, and repeat this operation, as the re- maining ones increase in size, so as |o give the growing ones at all times sufficient room. ,, In this way, not more than one 4K&b out of six will be left standing, when the orchard has acquired a large growth; and thus a chance is afforded, of selecting ihe best tree out of every six first planted ; while, at the same time, the orchard in its infancy affords a much larger pro- duct of apples; and the trees, as "they are taken away, are ol some value for iuel. , M Some may object to this plan, that the trees womd stand too thick* at first, tor ploughing i ihtit they would not stand in rows J and that, when the poorest trees were taken away, those left stapding woula be at mpre unequal distances, than when at fiiat planted; as two or more good trees mighv often be found together, and sometimes too many poor ones. The latter objection is the only one of consequence; and it docs not possess much wei^t. Two good trees, where found next each oilier, miy be kit standing; as thB growtli of their limbs will so far become adapted to their situation^ as to seek room to grow where most room is to be tound;v.\ and, where too many poor trees are louud together, they may be all taken down, and have their places suppheu with grafted trees, selected for the purpose, or with limbs con- verted into trees, alter the Chihese method just men- tioned. ' Whe^t^^ier the trees stand in rows, or otherwise, is a mat= ter of litf consequence, turtner than as it regards ploughing among thj;m; and we never should , advise to plough an orchard, more than two or three years'atter planting : For, if continued longer, the shade ot the trees, and the exten- sion of their roots, will impede the growth of the crops • while, at the same time, the roots, and the bark are apt to fee irijured by the operation of ploughing. All that is really necessEiry, to make a young orchard grow thriitiiy, is to plant it'ip a good suitable soli, and to keep the ground clear of grass and weeds, for some little distance round the roots. Orchards which are never plough- ed, endure the longest. Let them be kept as pastures for Calves, for Swine; and Sheep may be safely admited, even among yourfg trees, by taking the precaution to give their bodits a coat ot lime over the bark, wiih a brush; or a coat ot Mr. Forsyth's, compd'sitton ot tresh cowdung, old urine, and soapsuds; either of which will, as is believed, be found a sufficient security against the depredations of Sheep on the bark of 'the uees, or of insects on the leaves. >^ 2/6 FARMER'3 ASSISTANT. It is perhaps almost unnecessary to observe, that larger cattle, which can reach up to the limbs of the trees, should never be buffi;r( d to ^o i«to the orchard. Wc- will su£^y:est aputhcr method or planting an orchard, W^hich we be bejievc wouid^be advantageous. Take young trees of the bebt selected iruit, obtamed by gratiing, or otherwise, and set them in row», at the distance ot ten feet each way. After they have borne about six years, their increased dimensiohs then retiuiting more room, let every other tree, in each row, be cui dowi. ; so as that those leit standing will be in the quincux order, at the distance of about four- teen feet. ^ After these have stood about ten years more, let every other one be again taken away ; and those remaining will theti stand in their first order, at the distances of twenty feet. When they again require more room, repeat the opera- tion i and this again brings those left inio the quincux, at the distance of about twenty-eight feet, which is sufficiently ,far apart for large trees. H ^ The advaniai.^es of this mode of culture are, that, as soon as trets begin to bear, the same extent of ground will yield nearly as great a quantity of fruit, as when the trees are full grown, but fewer in number; the tiees cut aWay will be of considerable value for fuel ;. and less ground is, in this way, sufficient for more constantly affording any given quantity of fruit. rj^ Tiie principal disadvantage of the plan is, that about one hundred and twenty trees morejto the acre will, in the first instance, be requiredfWhich, if the Farmer raises and grafts his own trees, instead of purchasing them, will be about twenty dollars to the acre, of additional expense ; a trifle, when compared with the advantages before mentioned. Mr. Coxe^ of Newjersey, planted eight orchards, in dif- ferent ways; and he found ttiat which was planted in the manner following, to flourish much beyond all the rest: Indeed, he says, it is the most thrifty orchard to be seen in the part of the country where he resides. The holes for the trees were dug about four feet' wide,' and two spUs of the spade in depth ; the trees were ttien set in, without any manure under the roots; the earth dug out of the holes w^s alone made use of to fill them up again ; aiid then he laid over this, and round the tr^ees, a compost made of river-mud, wood a^hes, and a small por- tion of linje, at the rate of about a common wagon-ioad for mL fcvery ten trees. ^ The three years following, alter planting, he cultivated ihe ground with Indian Corn, FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 277 Mr: Peters makes mention of young appletrees taken from a clay soil, and transplanted in one mote suitable ; and that they became more thritty than^oiher appleirtes, plant- ed at the same time, and in the sattie ground, but which had been taken from a nursery where ih« soil was suitable for the growth of this tree. . \ r j He also planted some appletrees at the depth ol two and a half feet ; but they did no^ beconie thrifty, until roots had started out nearer the surface. .^ \ In order to prevent late frost from destroying^Jb^ Iruit, when appletrees are in blossom, or perhaps evetf' alter the young apple has formed; let some gypsum be strewed round under the trees, pretty early in the Spring. Common salt, it is said, will answer the same purpose;. A rope of straw, with one end tied round the body ot the tree, and the othe^end immersed m a tub of water placed underneath, will have a similar effect. The effect of gypsum, in particular, when applied Tor this purpose, is, that it attracts the moisture m the air, from the blossoms to the earth ; as it is well known that lands, when lately manured with gypsu^, have much hea- vier dews on them than any others. Salt is said to have much the same effect, in attracting moisture. ^ It seems to be well ascertained, that raising red-clover in apple-orchards, for the purpose of mowing particularly, proves injurious to theMrees, and more so to the iruit, by causing it to fall off permaturely ; but that, if gypsum be applr^d to the growing clover, it will prove less injurious to the trees and fruii ; and that, if this manure be applied, and the clover fed off, neither the trees nor the fruit will be essentially injured. - ^^ Mr. Fhitiiisy of Pennsylvania, finds Hogs of great use m an orchard of plumbtrees. They cause Iiis trees to bear plentifully; while, withouT these animals, the trees bear very little. The reason of this is, that the Swine, by eating up all the fruit which falls from the trees, destroy the young brood of curculiones deposited in the fruity which is the cause of its early falling off. See Insects. Mr. Garrigus, of that State,' says he has two orchards of the same kinds of fruit; the one more exposed to the east winds than the other ; and that he has known that, 'most exposed, to bear no- fruit, during a season when that wind ^ prevailed, while the other bore considerably. We h&ve seen orchards as productive of fruit as usual, U^hich were never ploughed, but kept constantly for mowing- grounds ; but such were on rich soils, though not inclining to clay. The Jiorin-grass would probably be found much the best, for combining tl>e meadow ajid the orchard to- 278 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. gether, as that grass is said to grow as well in the shade as else wh- re, arid to grow well in almost all soils. See Grasses As soon as I tie young trees begin to bear, care should be taken that they are not overloaded with fruit ; tor, in such case, perhaps even grafted fruit, when taken from stocks which were yearly bearers, may become alternaie. We have heard the contrary of this ajigerted. See Appletree. But of its truth we have no experimental knowledge; although we deem it a matter very important to be as- certamed. Bui, until this shall be the case, we should rather advise to ease the young tree of part of its load, it it appear too heavily laden the first and second years, as soon as It can be ascertained what proportion is to remain, alter that part which visually dies has fallen off. This is more particularly to be attended to, in regard to appletrees; as peartrees are but seldom alternate in their bearing. In regard to pruning, we shall merely observe, that it may be overdone. A profuse loping away large limbs is seldom necessary. It is more essential, that young trees be properly trimed at first; and at this time the hmbs which stand too thickly, cr cross each other, or extend in wrong directions, togeilier with those which are dead, or UMthrifty, may be readily takehaway; and the wounds thusnnade, being small, will soon close over. jtf But, where large limbs are cut away, the wounds will produce a rot in the tree, unless the wood be carefully shielded from the weather, by Mr. /^orsy^^'s composition, ®r something similar. OVERFLOWING of the GALL. See Neat-cattle. PAINTING OF BUILDINGS, &c. For painting the roofs of buildings, Mr Patterson, ot Newjersey, has, some years since, given the following directions, which have been highly approved, as the best composition known for pre- serving the roofs of houses; as it is found, that it hardens by time, and is an effectual preventive against the roof tak- ing fire, from the sparks of the chimney. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 279 ' Take three parts of air-slacked lime, two of wood-ashes^ and one of fine sand ; sift these through a fine sieve, and add as much linseed oil as will bring it to a consistence for working with a Painter's brush. Great care must be taken to mix it perfectly * We believe grinding it as a^paint would be an improve- ment Two coats are necessary ; the first rather thin ; ihe second as thick as can beyK)nveniently worked. Painting of wooden buuaings. of ev«ry kind, is not only ornamental, but the Owner is well repaid for ih$'$ extra ex- pense, by the greater durability which the pairit gives to them. The wooden fences also, whieh are intended to b& ornamental, round, and near buildings, should never be destitute of a good coat of paint. PARSNIP (Pastinaca ) The cuUi^a(ion proper for parsnips, is very similar to that of carrots, and the same kind of soil and manures are suitable for each. They, how- ever, require the soil to be very deeply dug: Eighteen inches is not too deep. They are full as good tor feeding and fating cattle as carrots, and are about equally productive. They might be cultivated to advantage for feeding in the Spring, when the stock of carrots has become exhausted 5 as the best way to keep them over Winter is, to let them remain in the ground during that season. When dug in the F.tll, tor family u*e, the best way to keep them through the Winter is, to bury them in moist sand In Spring, those left in the ground, and wanted for that use, should be taken up before J hey begin to sprout. Probably the Farmer would find the culture of parsnips nearly as profitable as that of carrots, particularly for Spring- feeding. They are planted in beds and sown or drilled in rows across the beds, having the rows about ten inches apart. The plants in the rows should, at the last hoein^j be thined to the distance of about four inches. Those which are pulled out in thining will then be good for Swine. Freezing does not injure this root ; and, therefore, those which are kept in Winter, for family-use, had better be kept in rather a frozen state than otherwise ; because, if kept too warm, they will sprout, and this spoils theih for eating. PASTURE. The subdivisibns of land, that is kept for H the sole purpose of pasturmg, should depend as well upon its fertility, as upon the number of diff'ercnt kinds of cattle that are to be fed on it. Fifty acres of land, that would only feed three Cows during the season, would not pay the expense of subdividing. On the contrary, if the Farmer has 280 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. but three Cows, and has three acres of the best t^aUure- land, he ought to divide this into at least two parts ; so that the one can be growing while the other is feeding. Again, if he keep twenty Cows, and has twenty acres of the best pasture, he will find his account in having it di- vided into four parts, and pasturing each enclosure three or four days, allernately. In this way, pasture-lands will keep at least one-fourth more o^attle, and will keep them much better, than if the whole pasture were in one field. Not;, only a change of pasture is beneficial, but a change of different kinds of cattle in the same pastures should be attended to. Thus, let the Milch cows take the first crop- ing of each field, in rotation ; then the Horses and Oxen, and the Sheep next: In this way, the last feeder will eat much grass that has been rejected by the former. Wet miry spots4n pastures should be drained off, either by, open or hollciw drains; for, by this mean, the grass in such spots will be doubled in quantity, and much improved in quality. Bushes should be cut out and destroyed; this- tles ahd other noxious weeds should be mowed down before they go to seed, and every mean taken to eradicate them. It is never advisable to pasiure lands too closely, particu- larly in the Fall, as this only tends to diminish the quantity the next year. In this respect, it is the same v/iih pastures as with meadows; the closer they are croped the less will be the next year's supply. ' \, - < \Vhere the pasture has yielded much feed, there y^ill, of course, be much dung dropcd : To beat it to pieces, .and scaler it over the field, will tejjd constantly to recruit it. Sheep require no water in their pastures; it is also the beiter opinion, that Calves should have non<^ ; and, generally speaking, that Horses should haji^e little or none, except when they are v^^orkcd. The eff.ict of this treatment is, that they^ become habituated to lie by in the heat of rhe day, and feed at night, when the dew is on the grass, which renders it more nourishing. Cows, however, ought to have water; and, where their pastures afford none, the better way is to sijik a well at that spot where the pasture-lots corner together; and then \viih a little machinery, which will be bui a trifle ol exptns;p, sufficient of water may usually be raised everv day by the winds, for the; purpose of filling the troughs as often as lliey are emptied. The nriethods of doing this are so simple and easy, that they are hardly necessary to be described. ^ Siic further, Wind-machinery. In place of welh, however, artificial punds are recom- mended by some.' See Ponds. FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 281 In pastures which are on the sides of hills, water may be easily obtained in another way ; that is, by diging horizon- tally into the hill till you come to it,,, and then carrying it out in a pipe, or conductor, made for the purpose. Another method is, to dig a well on a steep part of the hill, and place a syphon in it, with so smidl a pipe that it will not let off the water fast enough to exhaust it in the well. Another method of makil% a well, as recommended by M. CadU de Vaux, is to bore a hole into the earth,., with an augur or borer made for the purpose, until sufficient of good water is found. If that which is, first found is not good, bore deeper, until you come to better; and bore suf- ficiently deep to afford a full supply.. Let the hole be about eight or nine inches in diameter. As the augur gets filled with earth it is taken up, emptied, and let down again. After the hole is made', a wooden tube is inserted in it, and the water is raised by pumping. This is a very cheap and safe method of making wells, and might be advantageously performed where ^the earth is free of stones and rocks. ' ,^ "' ^ Lastly, as a matter of ornament and profit, let your pasture- lands be planted with some useful trees; and probably, for this purpose, the locust will be found the best- See Locust. The sugar- maple may also be found very advantageous, where the soil is suitable to it, and where a yearly supply of maple-sugar is desired, which wilt be found an article of no small profit. See Maple. For the best grasses, for pastures, see Grasses. PASTURE OF PLANTSv Every plant requires a given quantity ot earth to nourish it, into which its roots extend for that purpose; and the quantity thus required is called the requisite fiasture of the plant. Some require more earth, and some less. Some require a greater superficial extent with less depth; while others require a greater depth with less superficial extent. For instance, a plant of Indian corn requires a superficial extent of, say, three feet in circumference, and a depth of six inches ; while a root of the beet, carrot, or parsnip kind, requires a superficial extent of, perhaps, only twelve inches in circumference, but a depth of, say, fifteen inches. A ^nt of flax, on the contrary, ^ill not require nioie than six inches in circumference, and five inches in depth. It will probably be found, that the greater depth is given to all plants, the less circumference they will require ; that the roots will, in that case, shoot further downwards; and, therefore, the deeper you plough, the thicker you may sow. 3<3 282 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. This is a matter of nice calculation, and well worth the attention of the ingenious Farnier. In order to i'lucidalie this, the proper method is, to try various plants in beds of the same soil, culture, and dimen- sions, bui dug of different depths, and the plants set at different distances, and then the results will lead to the truih. ,^ Thus, for instance^ make fo\# beds oficarrots, which shall be dug equally weir eight inches deep; Jet the roots in the first bed^ stand at the distance of four inches from each other ; those of the second, at the distance of six ; those of the third, at the distance of eight; and those of the fourth, at th^ distance of twelve inches; and then let it be ascer- tained which bed has the greatest weight of earrots. In the mean time,,have four other beds dug twelve inches deep; and four^more dug eighteen inches deep;%nd plant prie of each of'^thenii at the respective distances above men- tioned, and ascertain what is the result of each. The same * experiments cin bfc tried with equal exactness on most ottyer plants, and the results equally well ascertained. PEA (Pysum.) There are a variety of peas; some of ■which ait: more, and others less, valuable for cultivation. The best for garden-culture are the small early, and the marrowfat pea; the fbr'tner for early use, and the latter for an after and more abundant supply. The method of cultivating each, in the garden-way, is too generally known to need any particular description. They may be sown in the field, in the broadcast-way, for family-use, which is much the easiest, as the trouble of raising fhem in the garden is very considerable. ' The culture of the common field-pea is considerably at- tended to in this State, among the German Farmers, and ysually precedes the crop of wheat; bemg considered a good preparative for that crop, as the ground is left mellow, and but little exhausted by the crop of peas. They yield from sixteen to forty bushels an acre. The haulm is also of some considerable value for fodder. The allowance of seed is two bushels to the acre ; though, per- haps, a greater allowance is advisable, as the thicker they are sown the less liable they are to tall flat to the ground, which in some measure prevents the filling of the pods. They are to be sown during the first decrease of the moon, alter the ground Cc«||be prepared in the Spring ; fc^, if not sown while this planet is performing that part of its revolution, the crop will ripen unevenly; some stalks will be green, while others are dead ripe. The ground should be well mellowed, before sowing. Gypsum is excelent for this crop, where the ground is suitable for that manure. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 283 Soaking the seed in some fertilizing liquor, before sowing, such as a solution of saltpetre, old urint, kept tor the pur- pose, lie of wood-ashes, or perhaps ail uiiiitd, wouldf.no douDt, be ot service to the crop. II the soil be inclining to. clay, lei the seed be dried with linne ; but with gypsum, if It bu suitable to the ground. The cyop> to make it sufficient^ly profitable, should be of luxuriant growth; and as s^ch will cover the ground more completely, it wiil, on that account, be in better condition for the succtedint? crop of wheat. In regard lo harvesang, the practice we* have ^le^eh is, to let the crop stand till it is dead ripe. If it were haiveisted "Willie the haulm was parily green, u svould be much better for todderi t^jd we believe the grain would not be thtreby essentially injured; though, ptrhap§, a little^ more trouble would tigi requisite in drying the hadttn. It is cut L-y me Gviman Farmers with a siihe-and cradle; Tjut we believe 'a common mowuig-sithe is just as good for the purpose. In cuting, u is at the sanui, timc^gulhered into small bunches; in which sii,ttai!ion it 1^ till sufficiently dried, and is then carted in. * The threshing is not difficult.^ It is done with thte fl^i!, with Horses, or with the roller described under Thjie^h- ING. i'ne machines tor threshing, commonly in use, it is believed, would'Tiot so well ahswei^for this crop. Pe.»s are subject to the depr'edations of a small black bug, that eats into tnem. It does not, however, hinder ihein from growing; but, if not destroyed, the next crop will be intested with these insects. '^ To kill ihem, let the peas designed for seed be put, a ^ few seconds, into some, or a mixture, of the liquors before mentioned, made hot ; and then dried in the manuer before directed, and sowed immediately. Tiiose designed for cooking may also be cleared of these bugs, by ihe use ol hot water; as they will drop ^Ut of their holes, atVer they are dead, and may then be easily sifted out. Peas are best adapted to smooth lands; as it is somewhat difficuh to cut the crop in stoney grounds. With the aid of gypsum, they will grow very well on light sandy lands; and, generally speakiiig, they will gro# to advantage on almost every soil that is sufficiently dry, and rich, for a good crop of wheat If the ground be tod rich, however, they will run loo much to haulm, and yield the less. The crops we have seen raised, which were, principally in the lands on the Mohawk Hver, appeared toT^e lessened in product, for want of a change of seed. ' Whether the marrowfat pea would grow tpo tall, and be inclined to fall down too soon, to be advantageous for field- culture, is a point on which we have no information. They « 284 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. might probably be tound most suitable to poorer soils, where their growth would not be too high ; and in such case their product would probably be much greater, than that of the common field pea- Would they not be found well adapted for extensive cul- ture in the fine mellow, but much-exhausted, lands which lie contiguous to the Atlantic, in the Middle and Soutnern Stales? If the soil there, in its present impoverished state, should prove too weak, it can be easily raised to the requi- site diegtee of fertility, by the application of gypsum. But, indeed, those lands want nothing but a plentiful application of this manure, with the use of red-xlover, to fit them for almost every production. . Peas are superior to Indian corn, for fating Swine, or other cattle. Tor this purpose, they should be steamboiied. See Steamboiler? ^^ They are much used, where raised, for feeding Horses j^ but, lor this purpose, a mixture of oats with them is believ- ed to be preferable. When hulled, they are excelent for soup, for puding, 8cc. Some of the common fuld-peas, however, do not boil soft so readily as others. The marrowfat peas, when dried be- fore they are fully ripy!, are best for such purposes, as there is po necessity for hulling them. ^ Peas exhaust the soil ^but_ little, and are considered as good to precede a crop of wheat, as any other crop what- ever. If the profits of the crop can never be very great, so neither ave the expenses incured in its cultivation. PEACHTREE (Jmygdalua ) Peaches ^re of two kinds; the clearsione and the clingstone; but there are good vari- eties of each. The Same sorts c^n only be raised by graft- ing, or inoculation : This may be on apricots, or on plum- trees,, and will make the grafted trees longer lived. The trees should have a warm, dry, fertile soil : A sandy loain is best. If the spot where they are planted be shelter- ed from the northerly winds, it will be the better. To raise the young trees, take stones that are fully ripe, and plant them in October. They will come up and grow jto a good size in the course of the Summer. The^ are to be kept clear of weeds, while in the nursery. At a year's growth, they may be grafted, or innoculated, and, after two Summer's growth, they may then be transplanted. This may be dqij^e when the leaves have fallen in Autumn, or in^ the SpringT ^ Take plants with one strong clean stem, or, if they have two, cut one away, however fair. Let the downward root be cut off, in order that the tree derive its nourishment Irom eanh nigh the surface, which will make the fruit less FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 285 •^ ■ crude, and finer tasted. Be careful not to plant the trees too deep; lor this is injuri/^s to all truit. Let the pruning of the new-planted trees ^e omited, till they have taken root. Mr. Forsyth gives some particular directions for training, pruning, &c. the trees, to make them good bearers; all of which m«ty be wtU enough for the climate of England, but does not seem ntc^ssary to be observed here. Wherethe climate is suitable for peaches, in thip Country ;^ that is, where the frost of the Winter does.not kill them; ttiey gen- erally bear so much that the trees are frequently broken with the fruit, if part ot it be not taken off. Mr. Forsyth also gives a list of the best peaches raised in Engiuud, ;^iuch ripen at the different months of the season tor peaches; but, no doubt, this Country is capable ot affording varieties equal, and perhaps superior, if sought After. * In making a proper selection ot trees, from which to graft, or inoculate, a due regurd should be had to three essentials. 1. To obtain the gmtts, or biids, from trees bearing the finest truit. ^ 2. That this fruit* hould''^^ ripen at different times, froni the earliest to the latest of the season for peaches. 3. Tnat thej;ratts, or bu,ds, be taken from trees which are plentitul bearers; but not such as bear so plentifully as to be broken by their truit. But, perhaps, the too- plentiful beaHng of trees is a quali- ty noi properly descendible to those which are raised from thciii, by graltiiig, or otherwise. It would be well to ascer- tain tnib point, by experiment. It IS said, by some, that it the stones of peaches be buried immediately, wiihbut drying, they will produce trees bear- ing the same kinds of peaches, as those whence the stones were taken. This is well worthy of particular trial. Betore closing this article, we shall present to our Read° ers the method practised by Mr. JBayley, of Accomac county, Virginia, for cultivating this tree, as communicated by Mr. Geddes, * Mr. Bay ley has now (1814) sixty- three thousand trees, and a large disiileiy which is employed only one month in a year. * His peach-orchards are planted in rows from north to south, twenty feet apart, and in each row a tree is placed at * every ten feet. He has tri^d a tree at every ilStvelve feet, and prefers ten feet. The stem, from the ground to the limbs, is only two feet long, the trees being less exposed to injury by the winds; and, in Mr. Bayley^s opinion, the branches grow more upright, and he is enabled to plough closer to the trees than if the stems were longer. 286 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. « He has tried Mr Coulter's niethod of having no stems. He puts stones in the ground, ar^ time between November and April, but prefers Decemb^' ; and cuts out dead and broken limbsj- ^without any other pruning. ' Ploughing and harrowing the orchards is commenced when the%prini^-frost is over; and about this Mr. Barley is very particular He ploughed, one year, a part in Murch; after which came finest, and every pe^jjh droped off the trees irj,the part ploughed ; while those ploughed, after the frost, ypWed a fine crop. At present, he ploughs in the latter part of April; again in May; harrows in June; and again in July. . - *,"* "* • ' The plough is a very light one, drawn by one Horse or Mule, only scarifying the surface, to keep down the grass and weeds, and not cjating the roots of the peachtrees, which run very shallow.' r ^ His harrow is nothing but three ^^ hoes, nine inches wide, each, placed Jjljil under* ^a triangular harrow frai^e; ^ uT « their situation and shape ^ thus, ' /j||||\ /^l malcing'jL/together a breadth of twenty ■|P "^ seven inches.* ^ •* ^ * Another piece of labor has to be performed in this warm climate, which serves ^//^ewz'se to jj^eep down the weeds and grass under the trees. An insect, resembling greatly in appearance the botfly that teases our Horses, pierces the, bark of the trees, a little below the surface of the earth, and there deposits, in June and July, its eggs; out of which are hatched a red worm, haif an inch long, and of the thickness pi a coarse knitingneedle. These worms injure the trees much, and often kill them, by girdling them quite round, just under the surfdce of the^soil. * To previ^nt these winged insects from operating on the softened bark, near the surface, a hill of earth about a foot high is raised round each tree, aboat the 1st of June; and taken away about the 1st of September. These insects either find the bark too hard and dry to pierce, or the tak- ing away the earth leaves the eggs uncovered and they purish. The fact is, after ten years trial, Mr. Bay ley has found his trees thus completely preserved against the worms. ' The age of a peach-orchard, Mr. Bayley estimates at tweniy years;' He has seen them much older; but thinks mure profits to be had, by replanting at the end of twenty* years. A tree is nearly in pCTfection the sixth year; when it will yield annually at the rate of fifteen gallons of fourth- proof brandy, for every hundred trees. The price of this liquor, before the War, was one dollar fifty cents, and now two dollars per gallon.' FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 287 < When the season of gathering: p» aches commences, a number ot H^nds are hired, 6hif fly Boys, at the price of one third of a dollar per day. The Hands gather peaches at the rate of one ..hundred gallons of peach juice per day, each, which yields seven gallons of fourth-proot briud,v ♦ * A Man and a Horse bruises, and puts into tii^bs tor fer- mentation, enough per day for one thousand gallons ot juice. The peaches are bruised in a mill, similar to the stone bark- mills; but the wh^ is a wooden one, four feet in diamel'er, and nine inches thick, runing in a circular trougb||fighreen inches wide, and twelve inches deep. The peach^nes are not broken, nor any use made of the kernal. ' After complete fermentation, which often takes eight days, the jui9e is drawn through a tap near the bottom, and distiled as cider is. When no more juice will run, the pomace is pressed to get out what femains ' Mr Geddes observes that, notwithstanding the expense •of the ploughings and harrowings, &c. the clear profits of the orchards ot Mv. Bayley have frequently been upwards *Df twenty dollars an acre. » ^ It might be further observed, that the pomace, after the 'juice is expressed, t%ethe#wilh the stones, might'be made of considerable value, in feeding and fating Swine. This culture seems more particularly adapted to the great tract of mellow, level, sandy landiwhich stretches along the Atlantic, in the Middle and Southern States, than for harddr soils, and hilly grounds ; as the hardness of the soil would increase the expense ot tillage, and the soil of hills would be subject to waste, by the heavy rains, when kept constant- ly under the plough. We would merely observe, that planting a row of pump- kins between each two rows of trees, would probably af- ford a great additional pi^ofit; as they could be cultivated with merely the additional expense of hoeing the plants, and applying a little gypsum, or other suitable manure, to the hills. The rows of these, being each ten feet distant from the rows of trees, would be but little injured by their shade. Let the. pumpkins be planted in hills, at the distance of about four or five feet from each other. See Pumpkin See also, Fruit-trees, Nursery, Trans- planting, See. '\> PEARTREE (Pijrus.) This tree will gr6M|better on a stiff clay, than most other fruit-trees; but th^oils which best suit the appletree are also most suitable for it. A scion of this tree may be grafted on an appletree j but it does not answer so well, as when grafted on a quince, for dwarf-fruit; and a quince answers well to be grafted on a peartree. The 288 FARMER»s ASSISTANT. pear will also grow on the white-thorn. The best way, however, is to graft the pear on its own natural stock, se* lecting scions from the best trees, as in the case of apple- trees, vt, Let some part.of the selection also, as in the case of peachtreesH last mentioned, be made from trees whose fruit ripens at different times, in order to have a full supply for family-use Generally, it may be observed, that the culture which is proper for an appletree, is also proper for a pear- tree. ::^ See Appletrees, Orchard, Fruit-trees, Nursery, Transplanting, &c. PERRY. To make good perry, manage the pears in the same manner that apples are directed to be managed to make good cider, with this difference, that the pears need not be sweated so long as the apples, by being laid in heaps for that purpose. ^See Cider. A *drink, called fierkin^ is also made from the pressed cheese of pears, in the same manner that ciderkin is made from that of Apples. ^ ^ More attention should be paid in this Country to the se- lection of such peartrees as bear plentifully, and yearly, of th^ best kinds of fruit. Se^ CuTiNGs, Orchard, 8cc. PLANETREE, or BUTTONWOOD (Platanus Occi- dentalis.) This tree is a native of this Country. It grows rapidly, and is useful in pastures for shade, and ornamental in many situations. It is good for fuel; but very difficult to split, owing to the crookedness and intermixture of the fibres of the wood. This circumstance would, however, seem to render it particularly valuable to cultivate, for being sawed into hoards for cabinet-work; for these, when polished, and colored in the manner we shall mention, are said to be as beautifully clouded, as the clouded mahogany. The color of mahogany is given to this wood, by staining it with a mixture of Dragonsblood, from the Canaries (not that from Madagascar) and oil of turpentine, boiled in a stone or porcelain vessel, and laid on boiling hot. If the boards can be boiled in this mixture, it will stain them nearly throogh. ft the wood of this tree be free from any disposition to warp or twist, when sawed into boards, it may be found valuable for being made into furniture, when the method of giving it the mahogany- color is known. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 289 PLOUGH. To construct this implement in such manner thai it will do its work effectually, and at the same time pass through the ground with the greatest possible ease,,iis a matter of the utmost importance; as well to the Farmer individually, as to the Country at large, in an economical point of view. It is found, in Gi:eatbritain, that two Horses can as easily draw one of- the ploughs, which are ^onstructed_afler the most modern improvements, as three can one^*bf those -which were formerly used there; of course, the Farmer becomes thus enabled to perform his ploughing with one Horse less, to each plough, than formerly ; which may be estimated at a saving of about forty dollars a year, for the labor of each Horse thus dispensed with; or a saying of labor to the yearly value of same millions of dollars to the Country. , It is the various means which have been adopted for saving of labor, in that Country, which have principally contributed to raise it to that degree of power and emi- nence, which at present il possesses. It is not to be expected, that every common Mechanic can construct a good plough. The making of them oug:ht to be a separate business, and conducted by Men of sufti* cient genius, and information, for the purpose. A patent- plough is now made and sold in the county of Cayuga, which is said to be very well constructed. . If ingenious Mechanics g;voutd make themselves acquaint- ed with the principles necessary to be observed in the best construction of ploughs, and would keep such constantly for sale, they would find the business profitable, and they would be rendering essential service to the Country. In the American Edition of the Edinburg Encyclopedia are exhibited, drawings of well-constructed ploughs; and the principles necessary to be observed in their construction are there also laid down. The Farmer, or the Mechanic, may readily refer to the Work in question. As it is very difficult to convey an adequate idea of a well-constructed plough, without drawings of it, and as this Work is not intended to contain any of these, ^y descrip- tion, in detail, pf such plough is here omited : Some gen- eral observations on the best construction may, however, not be amiss. I. The lighter the plough, the easier it is ilrawn. In light smooth soils, which offer no impediment to the plough, it may be very light, and yet sufficiently strong- In those which are'stifF, stony, or rocky, its strength must be equal to sustaining the draft, and the shocks it has to encounter. In the latter cases, it requires double, and per- 3r^ 290 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. haps three times, the strength that is necessary in the former. 2. In cleaving the earth, the plough is governed by the principle of the wedge: Like the wedge, therefore, the share and the mouldboard should widen uniformly, and very gradually. The bottom of the plough should be of pretty good length, and somewhat narrower than the usual width of the sward which it turns over at one furrow. Thus, if it usually ^cut ten inches in width of the sward, the widlst part of the share, and of the bottom of the plough, behind, should not be quite nine inches. But the upper side of the mouldboard, behind, should project over beyond this width as much as four inches, in order to lay the sward completely over. 3 The coulter should be set with its lower end in a very slartling direction frjrward, so as to run under the sward and raise it some in cuting it. The share should be so sfiaped as to assist in raising the swaid. gradually, till it is received by the mouldboard ; which, by its twisting shape, should as gradually turn it over. 4. In order for the plough to run steadily, it should have a good length of beam, and i't should not be set too high, If the beam be short, and set high, the plough will raise up behind. The beam should, however, be so curved as to r^e considerably where . the coulter passes through it, in order that the ploug^h shall be less liable to clog, when " used in weedy, qr stubble, t>round. 5. But, after giving the plough the best possible shape, a very essential point is, to have every part that is worn by the earth, in turning the furrow, either plated with, or made ol, cast iron, or well hardened steel. If the share is made » of the former, the chip may be cast with it, so as to form bur one piece ; or, if the chip be of wood, it should be covered with plates of cast iron, where it rubs against the earth. The mouldboard should also be cast; and it should be smooth, so that the earth will not adhere to it, as it does to a wooden mouldboard, when ploughing in ground which is somewhat wet. A plough, thus made, ^ passes as much easier through the ground, than one whose mouldboard and chip are merely of Wood ; as a sled, shod with, cast iron, draws easier over the bare earth, than one that is shod with wood. Cast-iron ploughshares answer very well in smooth lands, and are much cheaper than those made of wroughi ron* They, however, require an edge, made of hardened st 1 1, which is fastened to the share in such manner as to be readily taken off, at pleasure. Tue German Farmers of this county, and its vicinky, itoake use of a large heavy plough, supported by two FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 291 i^heels, and drawn by three Horses, which, in smooth lands, makes very good work; but it is believed that ploughs without wheels, when well constructed, will perform just as well, and at the same time as easily, with two Horses, as the wheel-plough will with three. For the purpose ot gctging the plough, when turning over a smooth swaro, one small wheel ot cast iron, properly fixed under the end ot the beam, would be found to run much »asien and would be much cheaper, than the wheelplough just mentioned. This wheel might be so contrived as to be raised, or lowered) so as to make the plough run deeper, or shallower, at pleasure. Instead of the present method of directing the plough, it might be performed, to better effect, in smooth lands particularly, by a moveable coulter, ,which could be turned to the one side or the other, by a tiller; so that the opera- tion of steering the plough would be similar to turning the rudder of a vessel, for the purpose of steering it, if the riidder were placed before. ^ In the one-horse plough,' which is proper to be used in cultivating hoed crops, a Coulter is not necessary. The share, and the construction of the plough, in other respects, should be nearly similar to that of the plough, first spoken of, but smaller, and lighter; and it is not so essential to have its mouldboard of cast iron ; nor need it have So mu0h of the twisting shape. In constructing a plough to be drawn by two or more Oxen, it is believed that the better way is, to extend the beam quite into the ring of the yoke; and, even, in such case, the beam need not be very long, as the heels of the Oxen would require to be only a little before the coulter. A plough thus contrived would be found to run as steady as a wheelplough. Nor would there be any difficulty in extending the beam of the plough between a span ot Horses, and thus bringing them back, in the same manner, so that their heels should be just before thp coulter. In this case, there should be a cross-piece, fixed on the end of the beam, about eight inches in length, and from the ends of this two short ropes, or chains, should extend to the inner sides of the haims by which the Horses are to draw ; and two such short ropes, or chains, should extend from the outer sides of the haims to two outside shafts, which should extend from a cross- piece, to be set on the beam of the plough, just before the coulter. A two-horse plough, fixed in this manner, would also run as steadily as a wheel-plough; the team would be much shortened, which in. ploughing is highly desirable ; and the expense of tiffe harness for the Horses need be nothing 292 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. more than that of the short ropes or chains, before mcnt!oti« cd, which are to be attached to a pair of wooden haims to each Horse; each haim being nothing more than two pieces of wood, about three inches broad, properly shaped and smoothly rounded on the sides, which are put, one on each side, oi the shoulder of the Horse, and tied together, above and below. Ii has been well ascertained, that haims of this kind are less liable to injure Horses, than any kind of harness what- ever. A onehorse plough may also be drawn, by having the Horse between shafts fixed to the beam of the plough. In this case, and also where the plough is drawn by two Horses, in the manner just described, the cross-pieces whicl) hold the shafts should each work on a pivot, so that the plough could be inclmed to the one side or the other, for the purpose of directing it ; unless the method, before described, ot directing it ^y the coulter, should be ado'pied. A ' double-fined' plough is described by Mr. Livingstoru V'hich he saw in different parts of France: It * has 1 mouldboard fixed on a hook akt the share, and by a pin at the broad end, which nasses through the mouldboard and into the beam. When it comies to the end of the furrow, instead of making a land, the mouldboard is shifted to the other side ; which is done Very quickly, and has the advan- tage of throwing the furrows all one way.* , A plough of this kind is particularly useful in ploughing sides of hills. Another kind of plough, which is well adapted to that use, is the double-plough ; that is, a plough with two shares, coulters, Sec. placed on the opposite sides of the beam ; so , that when a furrow is turning with one share, the other is above the beam bottom upwards. At the end of the fur- row, this share is turned down, and the other up, and thus the work proceeds. The handle is separate ; and the lower end is merely set in between pins that hold the beam and the mouldboards together. When the other side of the plough is turned. up, the handle is taken cut, and set into the other side, in the same manner. There is another kind of double-plough, which has been lone: used in some parts of Etigland ; and in smooth, light, sandy soils, particularly, is wtll adapted for dispatch. It turns two furrows at otice ; arid for this purpose has two shares, mouldboards, kc. the one behind the other. It would seem that the principal difficulty, with such a plough, must be in directing it: But, probably, one of the moveable coulters, before described, applied to the foremost share, would obviate every inconvenience. ^, FARMER'S ASSISTANT;' 2fl3 Ploughs are someiimes constructed with two handles, and sometimes with but one. Ofie is sufficient; two is only producuve or more expense. The handle should lean con- siderably back; and it should have a pin set in behind, near the upper end, to take hold of, and for the lines to rest on, where Horses are used in ploughing. A small handplough might, as is believed, be very advan- ^ tageously used tor the purpose of eradicating weeds among several kinda of growing crops of roots; such as onions, carrots, parsnips, &c. It should have two light handles, leaning well backward, of the length of, say, four and a half feet, or of such hr-ngth as will be found most proper for the purpose of fiuahing the plough torward by hand. It should have a beam, and share, of such dimensions that the plough would cut a furrow of, say, an inch in depth, and about lour inches wide. The sh^re should be shaped similar to that of the large plough, betore mention- ed ; and it should be kept #*:11 ground, so as to cut off^all #e roots of weeds which conic in its way. For the purpose of regulating the depth that it should run, it may have a whed', ot^^rolier, placed under the tore- end of the beam; though it 'is believed thai, in skilful hands, this \vould not be necessary. It should be run close to the rows of roots, turning the furrow from thenn, in the first place, and then turning it back to them again. PLOUGHING. Mr. Livingston mentions an experiment madi^, by which it was ascertained, that dew, when evapo- rated, is found to contain a rich sediment, that rainwater does not possess; and hence may be adduced a good; reason for the commonly-received opinion, that ground is most ben- efied by ploughing while the -dew is on. In preparing for a crop, some lands require to be oftener, and some to be deeper, ploughed, than others. The stifl' and cluy soils require the inost ploughing, and the gravelly soil the oull have served to assist in point- ing out the soils which are most benefited by frequent ploughings. Gt nerally speaking, it is believed that all the more obdurate kinds of soils are most assisted by frequent ploughings, and harrowings, and some of these, perhaps, more than others. She .Fallowing, of Land. ^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT, 293 Ploughing should always be done effectually. Of what- ever depth the soil is to be ploughed, every part should bo turned up, or loosened, to that depth. The furrows, there- fore, should not be too wide ; for, if they are, parts of the ground will remain unturned, or unloosened. In order that the ploughing be completely perf6i;med, the plough should run perfectly flat, and be of the best construction. %. See Plough Among most Farmers, it is the practice constantly to turn the lur'rows against the fences^ but this is slovenly culture, and is injurious to the land. The uppermost part ot almost every soil is the richest. Now, if you keep con- stantly ploughing the land next to the fence with a cleaVihg- furrow, this upper layer of the soil becomes, at length, all thrown up against the fence, on the one side of the land, and into an useless heap on the other ; and, to supply the place of the soil thus thrown off on each side, the crude earth below must be thrown up ; and iliis earth will require considerable time, tillage, and manuring, to make it as g«t)d 1)^ the soil which has thus been improvidently turn^ off rom the surface of the fitld. ^ This matter is the more^worthy of attention, as it re- quires no trouble wbatever to correct this slovenly practice: All that is necessary is, to plough the lands next to the fences as often with a gathering, as with a cleaving, furrow| or, in other words, to plough as often from the fence, as against it. Indeed, it would be desirable, in every part of the field, to have the gathering-furrows always at the places where the last parting-furrows were made. This would serve to keep the layer of vegetable mould spread evenly over the surface, which is a matter of more consequence to the growing crop, than is generally imagined In the ploughed field, the gathering-lurrows of repeated ploughings win frequently happen to be nearly in the same places; of course, the parting-furrows will be nearly to- gether in other pj^rts. By these means, the vegetable mould becomes unevenly spread over the furtace ; in some places it is deeper than is necessary, and in others too scanty; and this is usually productive of a proportionate deficiency m the growing crop, where the mould is too thin, without a coresponding increase, where the moqlti is deeper than is necessary. ' Now, all that is requisite, in order to remedy this incon- venience, IS to have the field marked out into lands, and then lo plough these with cleaving, and gathering, furrows, alternately j and, tg mark out the lunds, it is only necessary to measure their widths on the four sides ol the field, and then to designat#!he extent ot each land by visible markS) fastened on ^the fc^hces on the different sides of the field, 296 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Sometimes, however, fijeWs are too irregularly shaped, or of too uneven surface, 0"%c convenient tor ploughing in this regular manner. Sides of hills, which are steep, can only be ploughed to advantage by constantly turning the furrows downward. See Plough, for the kind of this implement which is proper to be used for this purpose. But lands of this description are unfit for the plough; or, if ploughed, it should be but sfeldom. Rather let them be kept for pastures, for orchards, for raising growths of wood, or, in some cases, for vineyards. By ploughing such lands, the upper stratum, or vegetable mould, is constantly de- scenclmg to the bottom of the hill; not only^by its being thrown farther down at every ploughing, but much of its finest parts are carried down by the heavy rains. Some sides of hills are, however, of such soil as is little waslied by the rains ; and are at the same time of such a depth of that kind of earth, which can be readily converted int^ a good vegetable mould, that thfy may be ploughed for ceniuries without essential injury; provided they are a^ well treated es other lands, in regard to manures, and fre- quf^nt crops of grass Where the swlird is turned over, in order to be harrowed in with a crop, it should be done in a very cartful manner: The sw^rd should all be completely turned over; but, say some British Writers, not so as to lie flat ; the sward last turned should lap a little on the one next preceding, in order that, by this mean, the harrojj/ may the more readily take hold of the soil. This method of raising crops, however, will only be found successful in the sandy and mellower kinds of soils; In the very hard, or stiff, kinds it will seldom do well ; but in all soils a clover-sward, turned under, will be found to answer the best purpose. Under Fallowing of Land, considerable has been* said, in regard to ploughing, which need not be here repeated. In general, it may be observed, that, after jbfee sward has been turned over, the object of further ploiii^'ings being: to iiiellow the soil, and thereby to produce that degree of fer- mentation which is essential to growing of plants in the best manner, and of keeping up that fermentation as long as possible; much depends upon the dmey as well as the manner, in which the ploughings are performed. It the ploughings are but partially performed ; that is, if parts of the ground be left unloosened to the requisite depth, the fermentation of the loosened 'part of the surface must, of course, be partial, and the parts which remain un- loosened must present barriers, beyond which the roots of the grovv'ing plants cannot extend j of course, the plants FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 297 must be curtailed of their requisite pasture, and be propor- tionately lessened in their growth. . One good even ploughing, thereforeV where the grouiid is all loosened to the requisite depth, may prove as bentfi- cial to the growing crop, as two ploughings which are but partially performed; that is, where the plough runs so wide, or so far from a horizontal position, as to leave considerable ridges unclerneath which remain unloosened by the plough. ,'*^ 1} %fc Much also depends on the time of ploughing most kinds of soils, after the turning of the sward, except the light sandy, or the very coarse gravelly soil. These may be ploughed soon after the rains; but if the soil be moist, or stiff, or everr if it be dry, but contains a sufficient pro- portion of vegetable mould, the time selected for plough- ing should be when these soils, will pulverize the most readily. , ,^ Under Fallowing of Laj^d, we have mentioned the most favorable time for mellowing clays, when baked into Soils whic^hydo not bake, and yet are sufficiently retentive of moisture, will be most easily pulverized when they are considerably well dried, or at least so dry as that they will not adhere to the, imouldboard in ploughing. When in an extreme dry state, jthey will not, generally, be mellowed so much by a ploughing : Of course, they will ferment less when moistened again by the rains. Still, however, the drier the state of the soil, the better condition it will be iti for the purpose of destroying any roots of weeds it may contain, or any grass which may remain unsubdued. The breaking up of sward^lands being the most laborious operation of ploughing, it becomes necessary to perfortn it when it can be done with most ease; and this is when the ground is sufficiently moist. Many soils may, however, be too wet, at times, to be broken up to advantage; for, as in that case, much earth will adhere to the mouldboard, the plough will be cloged in its operation, and mil not pass so easily through the ground, as when. it_is somewhat drier. ' • a Sward whicli is turned over, when quite dry, will rot the soonest, and ^ the soil will be most easily pulverized by successive ploughings; but the labor then becomes much severer, and the plough will not so readily keep its place ii;j^the soil. Thbse remarks are, however, not applicable to the light sandy, or the dry gravelly, soil, before mentioned. . Thej^e should be broken up, while they have as miiclj moisture in them as they can-d^maln. '"^■' ^ 38 'MM^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. PLUMTREE (Prunus ) Mr. Forsyth recommends the following: iiclectiun of plufhtrees tor a. small garden: The nvhite firismordian^ small, yellow, mealy ; ripens latter end of July £aril/^ damask, middle-sized, flesh good ; ripens early in Aii^u.st. * ' J^ed Orleans^ large, rich juice; ripens latter end of Ao^-ust .,.' ' ji^ ' ^' ' >1 ' Green-gage, several varieties, fine-tasted, distinguished by Its siz*^ ■lid color; ripens in August and September. La royal, equal to the green- gage, but a shy bearer; red color; ripens late in September. Bra/i d'or, a good plumj and plentiful bearef ; ripens late in September, / Saint Catharine^ one of the best; rich juice, and good bettrer ; fruit hangs very long on the tree. Imfieratrice, has an agreeable flavor; ripens middle of October; should not be gathered till it begins to shrivej, when it tastes like a sweetmeat. The management proper for raising this tr^^^|^ the sam^ as that for peaches. See Peachtree. Mr. Forsyth particularly directs the tap-roots and the fine hairy roots to be taken off, before transplanting; and that the latteral roots should be spread near the surface, in order to make the fruit fine-flavored. He directs that the ground should be deeply dug, before planting. Where the trees bear too heavily, part of the fruit should be taken off, before it is half grown. A good sandy loam, well manured, is the best for this tree. Stiff clays are very unfit for it. Mr. Livingston mentions a draji rf*or which stood fifteen years in a stiff clay, and had not grown to the height of nine feet; when, on removing it into his garden,, which is a loam on sand, well manured every year, it gre# tflore iij' two seasons than in the precediifg^fifteen years / See Fruit-trees Nursery, TransplantiiJ'g, &c. ' POLLEVIL. ^ An tmposthume on the poll of a Horse. At firs'f, says Mr. Gibson, it requires no other method of cure ihan is pioper for boils and inflamed tumors; but it sometimes* from neglect, or mismanagement, becomes a sinuous ulcer- He says the matter is apt to lodge in a small sinus which is under the poll bone, unless care be taken to keep the part firm wilhr a bandage ; that, if the tumor has a large cavity, it should be bid open ; and if it acquire an ul- cerous disposition, it should bt treated as^uch. _ *5fe further, Tumor and Ulcer. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 2^9 PONDS. Those which have no natural o»itlet n^y, nevenheiess, in niost cases, be drawn off by sinking a well, or hole, through the stratum ot clay, or other close earth Which holds the water, until a stratum of gravel shall be found, into which the water ot the pond m^y be carried, "Where it will sink away. The well, or hole, should be filled «p with stones, and the waters ot the pond directed by ditches into it. Frequently the bottoms ot ponds are found to be fine rich earths, and well worthy of r.ultivation. The draining of such ponds is also highly reiquisite, tor the pur- pose of dvoidine: the miasma whicl^^proceeds from ihem, and which is so proBbctive ot levers. Artificial ponds are sometimes made at the corners of two or more pasture-lots, for supplying cattle ;Wiih Water. One, ot an hundred and twenty feet circumterence, should be about five feet deep in the centre. To make it reterttive of water, it nausl be lined with a thick layer of tough clay and fresh slaktd lime, mixed well logr^flicr, and beas down hard with wobden beetles or sledges'; and on the top ot tais beat in a good layer of coarse gravfel. The edges, and tor some distance down the sides, ot the pond, should then be faced with a solid pavement ot stones, so large as not to be moved by the treading of the cattle.^ Moist places, and those where water can be collected together after rains, are best for ponds ot this kind. POPPY ( Pafiaver Somniferum. ) There are two species of this plant, the double poppy and the single. Doctor Ricketson says, that either of the species yield the same quantity and quality of opium. He directs the seeds to be planted in beds, about the middle of May, in rich moist ground; the plants to stand a foot apart. They are to be kept clear of weeds with the hoe. The plants, he says, yield the most jiiice during their flow « in gj and immediately before and after. At this time, he diiects the stalks to be cut off about an inch below the heads; and, as the juice exudes, to take it off with a pen- knife. The part cut off will at first yield juice as well as the standing stalk. When this ceases to run, cut it off a little lower, and so on, till all the juice is extracted. The juice is' to be evaporated in the sun, jtill it is sufii- oiently dried. ^jOne method mentioned by Mr. Green j for obtaining the juice of the poppy, is by making four or five' longnudlfi^l incisions, in each of the capsules of the plant, from the stalk upwards, before or at the time they are fully ripej taking care, however, not to penetrate the cavity of the seedvessels. 300 « FARMER'S ASSISTANT, '^Another is, by pounding the dried leaves, stems, and capsules ; boiling thenra, when pulverized, in water, and then cleansing and reducing it by evaporation. It may be readily cleansed by runing it through a small leach, of about tour or fiveiiriches in depth, of charcoal, pounded or ground fine, underlaid v/ith three or four folds of flannel. The seeds of the poppy also afford an oil, which is fully equal to the olive-oil, for the purposes for which that is used. The seeds should be fully ripened, before they are used for this purpose, and the oil tl;iey afford is then found as wholesome as any oili^er. The oil of the poppy-sfeeds is becoming common in Eu- rope, as a substitute for fbat of the olive. # The poppy is cultivated to some ei^tent in Pennsylvania ; and, no doubi, its culture isC^lbund to be lucrative. POTATOE (Solanum.) This root is a native of this Country, and was first carried to Europe by Sir Walter Raleigh. When boiled, it is a wholesome and nourishing food ior^Man or beast. ^ Many families in I rel^n^ subsist on potatoes and milk, and otten on potatoes only, with a little salt ; yet these are as heaithy, vigorous, and well-made as any People in Greatbritain. . Potatoes are usually cuhivated from tRe roots; but they may be also raised' from the cutings of'-the top branches, >vhen set in the ground; and these will strike root, even if planted bottom upwards. The sprouts taken from potatoes will also grow. The root itself will not grow, if planted the same season in whjch it has been raised. From the seeds of the apples, potatoes may also be rais- ed ; and this is the best way for obtaining new varieties ot .the plant. Gather the apples after the seeds are fully ripe ; mash them in water till they are cleared of the pulp ; then dry the seeds ; and next Spring sow them in a bed, which is to be kept clear ot weeds. In the Faff, sihall potatoes will be found at tHe rootS^ of the plants i and the different varieties of these are to be separately planted the next season ; when they will produce potatoes of the Uipal size; and at this time the respective qualities of each variety can be ascertained. New varieties may also be obtained, in the manner men- tioned under Change and Improvement of Seeds. It is advisable trequently to produce new varieties, as some are much more valuable than others. potatoes may be raised to advantage in various kinds .of soils; provided they are sufficiently rich, or well manured. They wilf even grow in peaty . groupds, where no other ^lant could be raised to any advantage. Stiff'clays, and cold >yet soils, are not so well suited for them. Coarse crude ■-■A FARMER'S ASSISTANT, - 301 manures, such as fresh ba>n-dung, moss, peat, turf, dra woolen ragii, &c. are all good for them. Any manurt-,, that serves to keep the aground loose and mellow, seepas well adapted for growing this plant. ?v They may be raised, of good size, by merely laying them on a green sward, and covering them six or ei^ht inches deep with straw. Salt, brine, or seawaier, is also good for them, when applied in moderate quantities to the hills, or rows. It is also found that weting them, and then rolling them in -gypsum, immediately before planting, ^xeatly as- sists the growth of the crop. Sward grounds are commonly best adapted for their cul- ture. The method commonly pursued in England, for rais- ing the crop, is, we believe, the most expeditious, and, at the same time, as wtll calculated to ensure good crops, as any other, and is as follows; »reak up the ground in the Fall, if it be a sward, and give it a good^harrowing, at a suitable time, the next Spring; ihen spread, of barn-dung, or other suitable manure, at the rate of about twenty loads to the acre, over the ground ; when it will be ready to commence the operation of planting. In order to this, begin with runing a furrow, of a suitable depth, and into this furrow the dung lyiijg on the tOrface is drawn, from a distance of about twenty-seven inches along next the furrow, and distributed evenly along its bottom. On this the potatoes, cut in pieces, are laid along, about eight inches apart, and they are covered by the next furrow. Then two more futcows are run, the second of which is to be the bed for the nekt row, and the dung^ is again drawn into this, and the seed laid, as before, which are again co- vered by the next furrow; and so the work proceeds. The rows in this way are in every third furrow, or at the dis- tance of about twenty'seven inches apart. If the seed- potatoes are not cut in pieces, but plan'ted •whole, they should be laid about eighteen inches from each other; and' ift^ this case the dung should be' collected more tog4ither, at the places where the potatoes are to be laid. There is very little gained by cining the seed in pieces for planting.^ When the plants have risen about six inches above ground, it is to have a good harrowing, across the rows; ^nd the hoe is to follow, for the purpose of seting the plants right, where covered, and drawing some eaft-th round them. ' f In due season, a furrow, with the one-horse plough, is to be run on each side of the rows, with the earth thrown up to the plants^, .^which is to be followed with the hoe, which completes the process for raising the crop. If any weeds 302 * PARMER'^ ASSISTANT. she buld afterwards rise, they should be cut up with the hoe,; s>o that none be allowed to go to seed in the Fall. As soon as the blossoms appear, they should all be tdkan- off; aiil|this, by experinnenis which have been accurately made iw* Massachusetts, is found very considerably tq in- crease the crop. ^_ For gathering the crop, the most expeditious way is, first to i'un furrows on each side of the rows, and then a pretty depp one through the tiliddle, which turns up most of the roots to the surface, for the purpose of picking up by hand. A fork, with lour prongs, is very good for going over the ground, for bringing up thos^ to the surface which remain covered. A fork of this description, with the addition of what may be|, called a fulcrum, fastened, by pivot, to the batk pari ol^the handle, near its lower end, is an excelent implement for raising potatoes, without the aid of the plough. The fork is run under the potatoes ; and \hen, by rais- ing up the handle, the fulcrum, turning on its pivot, is brought in a perpendicular direction, with its lower end to the, ground ; when, b^ pressing down the haridlej the fork becomes a lever, and the potatoes, with the earth enclosing thtm, are raised up; when, by shaking the mass, the earth falls fir'St, and the potatoes remain mostly on the surface. Timse remaining covered, are readily disclosed by the prongs of the fork We have (bought proper to describe, in detail, this me- thod of raising the potatoe-crop, from a conviction ot its superiority, as well in saving labor, as in obtaining the greatest product from the ground. The methods commonly pursued, in this Country, are too well known to need any description. A Planter, of N^rth-carolina, lately sent some Potatoes to the Westindies, for market; a part of which were dried in the sun, in the usual way, and a part were laid away in moist or wet s?in^i as fast as they Wer« dug; and, when ex- hibiteti for sale^^he obtained three times the amount, per bushel, for those laid in sand, that he got for the others. We mention this circumstance, in order to observe that such potatoes, as are designed for the table, should be laid away in wet sand, as fast as they are taken from the earth. We have had occasion, by way of experiment, to plant# rows of hills, alternately, of the very smallest, and of the largest, potatoes; each being selected for the purpose, and one potatoe planted whole in each hill. At the same time, a row of hills was planted with two whole potatoes to each hill ; and the result of the whole was as follows: FARMER'S ASSISTANTS 303 The stalks, in the hills grown from thcb small potatoes, Xere not mftre than halt as bulky and high, as the stalks 6i those grown from the krge ones ; and, the stalks, of those grown from two potatoes to >, hill, were of a medium size between the two. , .^a^fci. On diging jthe crop, no essential difference was l^nd in the product, or size, of the potatoes grown from the small, and the large, ones. THt product of the row, grown from tyto to d hill, was also about the same in quantity; but more numerous^ and of smaller size We will mention the method of raising potatoes, by the poorer Peasantry of Ireland. The potatoes are cut in pie- ces, and planted on the sward, previously dunged, and marked out for beds about eight feet wide ;' leaving the width of about fifteen inches between the ground intended for each two beds, for the purpose of diging al' trench for affording earth to cover the beds. ^;:, ' The covering should be about three inches deep. The crop, while growing, is kept clear of weeds, by the hoe, and by hand. In this way, good crops are raised. ^ Our object, in describing this method ot raising ^He crop, is. a belief that it is admirably calculated to des'trSy the growths of weeds, which are often dfitrimental to the growth of crops. < We believe that even the Canada thistle, or the wild I onion, may be destroyed in this way. By having such a discovering of earth laid over them, while in a state of vegeta- tion, they become smothered, as it were; they die for want of that portion of air which is esseniiul to their ^existence. See further, V^eeds. .' We would also inention, that this method ot raising, po- tatoes is adapted for any wet soil, as the trenches serve to lay the beds dry; and this mode of culture might often be used, to advantage, for the purpose of introducing good growths of grass into suph lands. We never should advise to feed Milch-cows with potatoes, either boiled or raw; as we have frequently known Cows to be greatly lessened in their quantity of milk, by being fed on this root. For fating of all kinds of cattle, they are very good, when steamboiled. See Steamboiler. I'otatoes, for the table ,in Spring, should have a scalding, after the frost is over ; and then be dried, arid laid away in ajchest or box, covered, so as to keep them from the air, Md kept in a dry place. ^' We ought, before closing this article, to notice tne me- thod, successfully pursued, as appears from the Memoirs of the Philadelphia Agricultural Society, ot raising potatoes. 304 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. and Indian corn^^ogeiher,^^h alternate rows, or drills. The jtBvantages of this mode of culture would seem fo be tH^se: Indian corn, in order to afford the greatest quantity of ears, requires to stand more widely separated, than it is when ,|a|)wn in the usual way j whileV at the same time, other ^fl&nts, of more humble growth, may bt raised in the intervals, without essential injury to the growth of the ^corni ■' ':. - ■ '"-"'" ^ It.womd seem, that as much as nearly one-fourth of ad- ditional aggregate product may, in this \^^;| be rfi^ed from any given quantity of ground. Before closing this article, some notice should be taken of thp sweet-potato©, which Js culttvat^ in the more south- erly~ States. It delights in a mellow sandy soil, and the richer the bet- ter.' T^e potatoes prepared for seed at^ previously raised in^he tollowyjg manner: ' A piece of ground is properly mellowed with the plough, and is then thrown up in ridges by two furrows backed to- gether,, at the distance of about three feet apart. These ridges ktie then cut crosswise, with a corner of the hoe, at the distance of about fourteen inches. Pieces of the vines of the growing cwjp of this root are then taken, of about a foot in length, and laid in the places thus cut down, with 4heir lengths acrosrS the ridges, and they are then covered sufficient Jy deep, with the hoe. ' Fron» ?hese layers, roots and branches will grow; and in the Fall a crop of potatoes will be produced, of about a fourth of the usual size. These are to be dug, and laid away in moist s^nd, before they have dr)ed ; and the next Spring are to be used as seed for the nesU crop. The seed crop, while growing, is, to be kept clear of weeds^ like other hoed crops. W^ will next speak of the crop that is to be raised from the seed-potatoes. The ground is to be mellowed with the plough and the harrow, in the §igringi and then tht , seed- potatoes are to be cut in two or three pieces each, and laid along on the sur- face, at the distance of about ten inches from -each other, in strait rows or drills, wTiich may be about three feet apart; and then a furrow is to be Ihrown over them from e^ch side, which cotnpletes the operation of planting. Whatever maniiire is to be applied to |he crop, is first to be laid along where the drills of potatoes are to be laidg. FresH barn-dung will be found as suitable for this crop, ^ for the common sort of potatoes. The crop, while grow- ing, is to be kept clear of weeds, with the| plough and hoe. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. m * Perhaps, however, it may be found that the method above recommended, for cultivating the connmoii potatoe, will be found equally advantageous and suitably tor growing the sweet; though that mode of culture is quite different, from that which is commonly pursued.* ^v The gathering and saving of the crop is similar t^hat of . the common sort. The product of the ^ect- potatoe, when grown in the# climate of the Carolinas, or farth^er south, is about the same of that of the cotpmon sort, in the same climates ; but, as the former contains most saccharine matter, it would see na best ad'.pted for fating cattle, and of course entitledL to a preference, in such climates, for that purpose. ' Its nutrimenial qualities, like those of the other, ate greatly increased by steariiboiling. *' .. We Lieiieve the product of this root mi^ljjt:^ be made much more considerable than it usually isj|^ were the grounds in which it is commonly raised restorea to a proper, state of fertility, and suitable quantities of manure applied to the crop, while growing. There y(^i:^ Gosling, wHin they are about to make their way outr ' C Geese are particularlv profit^e for their feathers ; anA although the plucking of theirv'fo •ften) as is practised by FAllMER^S ASSISTANT: 3.07 some, appears barbarous ;; yet it is fouad that they thrive better by repeated pluc kings, than where they are pcrmited to shed their feathers in the natural way, which is ai the time of moulimg. In Lincoln county (Greatbritain) where they are raised in th6" greatest nujTcibers,>tbey are plucked five times a yearj the first at Ladyday, fof feathers and quiUs, and four times afterwards, between ttiai and Michaelmas, for feathers only. Tame ducks, of which there are varieties, are the same a&;the wild. They begin to lay early, and afford a consider-^ able number of eggs, which are nearly as good as those of'^ Dunghill-fowls. About twelve is enough for a Duck to sit •n. Ducks are greedy feeders; but not nice, as to ih«iir food. They are quickly fated on animal food^pf. which ihey are fond, and tlieir flesh then tastes like that '^f the Wild- duck. They are useful in turnipfields, while^ the young plants are liable to be preyed on by insects. Poultry is most easily fated when kept in a dark place; and boiled grain is generally best for the purpose of'%iing, y? ■■■"■': W ' PUMPKIN. A new, and very liirge, species of the pumpkin has lately been cultivated in this part of the coun- try, which promises to be very profitable for cultivation, if it can be naturalized toour climate. At present, it requires ' early planting, in order to ripen it. Upwards of five hun- dred pounds of this pumpkin may be readUy raised from one. seed. .' ,: ■■^'V}: 2 jj^ Two hoeings, one days labor # 1 f|p Gathering, one days labor, with Horses and wagon 2 50 Cleahng the g^und ^ .||ie vines, half a^ays laja^r 50 Seed ;■ m 25, ^ jILoss of Spring'.pasture >- • 1 Hent »i"d^e ground ' 3 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 309 *:; CR. \ bols.Ct^ By ten tons of pumpkins, atiixteen cents per hundred 32 \ Clear profits of the crop " 21 25 Appose it would be found necessary to expend three dollars more, in manuring for the crop, in the hills, betorc planting, in order to raise the quantity above stated; mere would then remain eighteen dollars and twenty five cents of clear profit to the acre ; an amount of profit which farmers inthis Country do but seldom realize. # . %f the above calculations should be found correct; andj|, this can be easily ascertained by experiment; let the Farm-*" er pursue this system of culture, by having'^ his pumpkin- crop to precede his crop of wheat, instead of the present method ot Summer-fallowing; let him apply his. pumpkins to feeding and fating bf cattle ; and in this way he will find that his ten-acre field will give^ him one hundred. and eighty dollars, of clear profit, mor-e than he derives from it by his present mode of culture, in raising his crop ot wneat. And, this caJiiuiatiop being founded on what it is supposed may be derived from the common pumpkin, it is onljrnecessary to add, that, if the kind first mentioned should answer ihe expectations formed of it, the clear profits it will afford will probably be thre^ or foijrtold greater. , It is believed that pumpkins are considerably improved, as an article of food, for fating of Swine particularly, by being steamboiled,; and perhaps the same may bts observed of them, when used for fating Neat-cattle. As they contain a large portion of saccharine matter, they would, no doubt,, afford considerable of molasses, or of ardent fflfeits, wheni distiled. It is, most probably, their highly- saccharine quality which gives them a superiority for the purpose of fating, PuiApkins ^ill grow well on every kind of soil that is fit for hoed cr(5ps, and the richer the b.etter. In raising thebi, ^it is usual to mix them with the crop of Indian corn: But it is doubtful whether any thing is ever gained by raising two growing crops together. Let, the crop be planted by itself; and in planting give the hills plenty of seeds, in or- der that if some of the young plants should be destroyed by ' insects there might still be enough left. See Insec-^, for an easyj method of keeping them frori> lants of this aescription. ^ ^ •• Pumpkins are excelent for fating Horses. ""They, how- ever, do not reliSj^ them at first; and therefore must be kept irojn feeding, till they are hungry, befolfe the pump- kins are dlfered to them ; and let a little salt be first spri^j^led on this food^lwhen they will soon grow fond of it, aiilfeeat it readily, without salt. ' * € 3iq. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Pumpkins may be kept in a cellAr, for" this purpose^ a considerable partot. the Winter; but the cellar must not be too warm ; and care mus.t -be uken not to break off th«? stems of pujnpkins, but leave these attached, to item; otaerwise they will soon commence roting, at the placps where the stems are broken off. ' PYRITES. §ee Manure?. QUINCETREE (Pyrus'^X^ydonia) This tree is easily raised from layers or eatings.^ A moist soil suits it best. Let th&cutings be planted early in the Spring, and watered ''^"^ in dry wai'm weather. The trees require but littl^'^runing, except to keep them clear of suckers, dead and cross limbs; and wtiere they have too many luxuriant upright sh^ptS) in the top, these should be taken out. ^ Mr. Forsyth says, they are apt tp have^rougti bark, and to be barkbound. In this case, he directs to shave off the rough bark, scarify them, and then to brush them over with his coniposition. , .5 '^^ He says, they should be planted at some distance from apple and pcartrees, lest their farina shotild mix, which will cause the apples and pears to degenerate. \.^i Mr. Matlack, of Philadelphia, says that quinces afford a liquor but little, if any, inferior to the best grape. If this be correct, would not the, extensive culture of this' *ree be * found very pr(;fitable ? See Nursery, pRUiiT-TREEs, Transplanting, ^c. RABBITS. *In some situations, these animals may bfe" kept to advantage, as they muhiply ea^ceedingly, and re- quire no tioiible in brihging up. They dcliglfein«he sides of sandy hills, which are generally Ui^[>todu€tive when till- ed ; but level ground is improper M): thum. The fui%f the tARMER'& ASSISTANT.' 3U ♦*• Rabbit is worth thrice the value of the carcase. Therefore, supposing the Rabbit to consume a quantity of food in pro- ponion to its carcase, it is a species of stock neatly three times as valuible as either cattle or Sht€5p. * Rabbit-warrens ought to be enclosed with a stone or sod walli and at their first stocking it will be necessary to form burrc^s for them, until they have time to make ihem for themselves. Boring the ground horizontally with a large aug^ur is, perhaps, the best method that can be practised. E.'.gles, kjtes, and other birds of prey, as well as cats, wea- sa^y and polecats, are great enemies of Rabbits. The Nor- ffl« Warreners catch the birds by traps placed on the ^opjk of stumps or trees, or artificial hillocks of conical form, ori^*i^ which they naturally alight.* Encijclo/i. ,^ . Would not the rearing of R^tbbits be profitable ip this Country ? We have no eagles or kites to molefst them ; they breed very rapidly; their food is che.^ip and easily pro- ;3irided. A fence to enclose a warren can be^inade of boards, Sl^ no great expense, which will keep out cats atia polecats; and as for weas.els, we have but very few of- thei#in^s Countrjil- ; ^_,^' ^^ -^ ,,- , . ^ t being liable to b# caten%y worms, the toliowirig method is recommended for raising them: Take equal quantities of buckwheaibran, and fresh horsedung, and mix them well and plentifully in . m the ground by diging. Suddenly after this a grea,t ferment- ation will be produced, and numbers of toadstools will start ^ up in forty- eigltt houi^. Dig the ground over agairh and sow the seed^ and the radishes will grow with great rapidity ai|d be free from the attacks of insectft. They will grow Jl^'commonly large. Buckwheat-bran is an excelent manure of itself. , *^ RATS. These are unprofitable for the Farmer to main- * tain, and thie sooner W disposes of them the better. For , this purpose, the most effeetual method is to give them arsenic. Set some plates where the Rirs frequent, with a - little wheat flour put into them j.^let chtm ^ait on this for *" two or three nights ; then add a'little arsenic to the flour, mix it well together, and placfe it as before, and they will eat it very readily, which will |oon dispatch them. When this dose is administered, care %3uld be taken to cover th^ «jk,in ilk pans ana whatever else they can drink at, as the arse- ^Imc occasions a burning thirst, which indices them' tQ go in quest of whatever^will quench it. Perhaps it would be as^» well ta s^ some water fer ^em to drie^. at profryeV places. ^ ,: ^ 312 FARMER'*. ASSIST ANIt A trap, that is much recommended, for catching Rats, is made as follows : Take a barrel, or keg, with one head outs put in it water enough to cover the bottom about two inches deep; in the middle^ of this set a piece of brick or stone; cover the head of th6 Cask with a piece of smooth parch- ment; or, perhaps, smooth stiff paper will answer; in the centre of this cut two slits about six inches long, at%,right angles, so as to form a cross ; immediately over this suspend the best kind of bait for Rats, placed sufficiently high. When the Rat comes to take the bait, in reaching up to it he slips into the hole, by the four corners of rhe parch- dbient or pap6r giving way. He then gets upon the brick^fei ^^Rie middle of the water, and begins to utter cries of dis- tress. This brings others to him, who fall in the same mannfr. Presently they begin to fight for the possession of the brick, Jftid the noise of this brings others, who fall in like manner ; and thus all within hearing of this scene of confusion follow on and share the same fate. ^ Another good metho^ is, by suitable baits to draw thena' into a targe bpx, or cage, by means of an entrance guarded ,. witlftin with sjiarp- pointed wires, similar to thos&j^of the mousecage. While the Farmer% divesti^ hijnself of his |lats, let him not neglect his Micfe; for th^, too, a^e qtiiie e^JUnsive in keeping. . '^ RED-TOP. . See Grasses. RICE (Oriza Saliva J This plaat may be ^considered in some degree amphibious | for, after it has afttained some height, the ground- growing it may be occasionally flooded with water, till the crop comes to maturity. In this manner it is raised in the Southern States; the overflowing of tjje .ground being merely for the purpose of saving the labor necessary to be performed in the ploughings and hoeings the crops requires, when not thus irrigated. <' It will, however, ■ grow very weH on dry lands, if they are sufficiently rich. * It has beeh successfully raised, by Mr. * Boardman^ on dry sandy land at Annapolis, in Maryland, as we find stated ^n the Dpmestic Encyclopedia, published ia Philadelphia. ^ We mention this fact for two purposes ; first, to observe that the crop does not^reqi^ife irrigation; and .that although, by this operation, thelfe imy be a saving of -tabor, still a very great loss is Uiereby incured, in regard to health, audi ^of course enjdyment; and^, second, that although this plant is a native oL|he tropics, still it is capable of becoming na- turalized to TOoler and shorter Summers. ^ *" * -If FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 313 There seems, indeed, a natural disposition in plants to acconnmodate themselves to the climate in which they yre cultivuted If they have been long ^own in warm and lengthy Summers, their growth, and the time required for it, becom.e proportionately increased, and vice versa, when gradually accustomed to cooler and shorter bummers Calculating, therefore, on this disposition of plants, we think it not improbable that the culture ot rice may gradu- ally work its way into more northerly climates, till it will be found practicable to mature the crop in almost every pj/ft of the United States; and although the pUnt willbe^ found diminished in size, as it is grown farther to the north; yet, as on that account it will admit of Beir^ planted more closely, it will probably suffer no diminution of its product in grain. We believe that almost every kind of soil is fited for the growth of rice, that is sufficiently moist and rich. We bave even seen it flourish on a moist «andy loam, in Nurth- carolina. ^ * Early in the Spring, the ground is to beiited with the plough for the^ecepiion of the seed, |^hich is to be drilled in, in rows, at the distancg^of about twenty-seven inches apart. 'When the young plants have acquired a suitable height, the weeds are to be eradicated from the crop with the plough, or with a small harrow, to be guided by hand! behind, run twice between the rows, and the worlfiisvfhl completed with the hoe, and perhaps some hand-weeding. In due season, after this, the water is to be occiasionally let on the ground, for the purpose of killing the weeds aifid grass; and then to be let off again, in w^jw" that the crop m^have such further ploughing and hoeing as may be ne- cessary. If water is not to be used> the growing crop is to be kept clear of weeds, like other hoed crops, till the ground becojO^^s sufficiently shaded to prevent any further trouble from mfem. The grain will be found sufficiently ripened, while the stalks are still green ; and on this account they are valua- ble, as a substitute for hay If t^ crop be flooded, the water is to be let off in due season, so that the ground can be laid sufficiently dry before harvestiilg. la regard to this operation, we will mereljt^ observq, that he who understands the manner of harvesting wheat, ^l^e,^arley, or oats need be at no loss as to the best methoa of gathering this crop; remembering, however, that the straw shouid b^ sufficiently dried before threshing, or storing the crop away. The separatjng of the grain tiom the straw ni£^ no doubt, be advantageously done with a threshing-macjjpint j or it may be performed in any of the other methods of threshmg. Sec. Thrsshing. '^^ # 40 ^ 514 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. After the grain is taken from the straw, and winnowedg the hull is taken off, by a mill made for the purpose, which fits the lajrain for mS^rket. Lands prepared for raisins: rice, by flooding:, are such as were originally swamps, or flu natural meadows. They are prepared tor receiving and re.iainins]: the water, in a m-mner similar to that for improvnur land by wUrfiing. as it is called. See Improvement of Land If the land is naturally loo wet for cultivating: rice, it is to be laid drier, by a ditch, of sufficient depth, dug: round the Afield, with The earth thrown on the outer sides; and ifffis canh will serve to form the bank for retaining the waters, ■when the fielij- is to be fl >oded, Smulkr ditches may also be carried across the fi^ld, into the outer ditch, for the purpose* ol*' laying the field drier, if it be naturally very moist. ,^ A rice-field* thus prepared will bear crops for many years, without any sensible diminution of the fertiluy of the soil; particularly *if it be naturally rich, or if it be assisted by some sedimetit of the waters with which it is flooded. The great objection to flooding fir Ids, d(!ri?ing the heat *of Summer, is the prevalence okmalignant fevers which this practice occasions. Whatever advantages the fields derive from flooding, in repairing that exhaustion of the soil which yi^rly croping must occasion, might be obtained with equal eislfe by le ting on the waters during the Winter season, or when they have most sediment to deposit. Whether, then, the ben* fit to be derived in the saving of laifeor, by flooding in Summer, is more than sufficient to overbalance the ^ll juat mentioned, which is thus occasion- ed, may perhaps be very doubtful; and perhaps it may , be a matter of less doubt, whether it would not ultimately be more beneficial to convert all the rice lands into grass- grounds, for feeding and soiling cattle^ by^^cking them with the best grasses ^^' See Grasses Soiling, &c. The Southern States have eminent advantages, if rightly improved, for raising aspat numbers of cattle, and where these greatly abound iheTands may be increasing in fertility, and, of course, wealth; while the country that has few or no cattle must, sooner or later, exhibit a very different ap- pearance. ^ n Rice is not a very exhausting crop, owing, no doubt, ta its being fit^ to ,» harvest while the stalks are still green. When grown on uplands, the growth of the crop might perhaps b©i#ery considerably assisted by the use of gypsum, applied in tne i|5ual way to the grounH ; or to roll the seeds in, after being soaked in some lertihzing liquor: And if such upland were sufficiently rich, we can see no reason FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 3U why the crop mighi noi be successtully raised, by sowing thfc seed in iht broadcast way; especiiiily it ihe crop were once gone over wi h ihe hoi, tor ihe^purpose ot thining the pianis where ih niiglu stand too closely, as well as for eradicating the first growth ol weeds, RIDGLING. A name given to a half-castrated animal. A Hjrse ot this description is as troublesome as a Sialiion, and yet not fi to be relied on as one. * A ridjgling Hog (says Mr. Dtane) will never be tat, nor grow so Urge a^ a Burrow, tul nis castration be compltudi as it may be> by maku»g an opening in the beliy, wnen the case is most difficult. They should either be killed young,^pr completely castrated. The flesh ot a ricigling Pig is good ; but that of an old one, brawny and disagreeaOle.* ROLLER AND ROLLING. The roller is useful in smooihiijg lae suruce ot meadows that have tjjbome un- even, and tor passing over grounds newly sown willJ^grain, or that are to be laid down to grass. They are further^ usetul in Dre^Kmg the lumps ot baked earth in a clay-soil 5 bui, tor this purpose, a roller filled with iron spikes has been pi'elered bj- some. * Hee Spiky roller. The use ot me lolicr on grounds sowed with different kinds ot gram, particularly builty, which is dry ai^d huslty, is to CdUse the mould to enclose the seeds; much t)! wnich, by lying m cavuies that soon become dried, would other- Wise tail ot vegetaiiug. li is also usetul in light dry soils, for preventing their moisture trom eva^o^aling too easily. Peruaps the roller is as useiul tor this "purpose as for any other, in regard to its application to crops ot grain. It is also useful in depriving certain in&ects of their hiding-places in the cavities ol the soil The rollil|ii!Ot land, m tillage, should be done when the ground is sodry that it will not stick to the roller; and in grass-lands, it shoUW be performed in the Spring, when the ground is soft and wet. A wooden roller should be abto; twenty inches or two feet in diameter, and about six feei in length. It should be round and of an uniform surface. Where the roller is made of stone, it should be about tourte&n inches in diameter, and of the length aoove mentioned. * 4 ROOTS. The most essential divisions of these, are those of the ic/z, the bulbous^ and the ^6roMs kinds. The carrot, parsnip, beet, clover. Sec. are taprooiea; the pota- toe, onion, turnip, &c. arc bullous ; the plants of wheat, barley, oats, herdsgrass, &c. have fibrous roots., ^ taproots % 3ie rARMER»s ASSISTANT. have also fibrous roots, which, hke all others of that kind^ extend horizontally, tar in every direction, and become so fine that they are .imperceptible to the naked eye. The bulbous have also such fibrous roots, and one kind, the turnip, has also a taproot in addition to its fibrous rootSi Trees have also tap and fibrous roots. Some taproots will extent downward, as far as they can find the soil sufficiently opened to receive them. We have known ari^ instance of a parsnip taken from the ground, three feet in length. This shows the necessity of havmg the soil deeply mellowed for taproot;* ; and the fibrous roots extending horizontally so far in every direction, where they can find mellow earth to penetrate, shows the necessity of havmg the ground well mellowed to a sufficient depth to receive them. RUNET, OR RENET- A good method of making this is as folIci3»v!4: Take the maw of the Calf; empty it of its curd i^ wash it ; soak it in strong brine till it is well salted ; dry it on bows made for the purpose; then take two 'quarts of strong brine that will bear an egg, blood-warm, and let the maw steep in this twenty-four hours, when the liquor will be fi[ for use; bottle it up, and cork it tight, and it will keep for a twelvemonth. About a teacup-full will be sufficient for ten Cows. Some direct spices, and a lemon ^ll^ed, tp be put into this liquor. '^notirlr method is, to take the maw, emptied as before, and fill it with an artificial curd made of new cream ; into which put three eggs beat fine ; a nutmeg grated fine ; and three teacup-full^ pi fine salt; mix the mass well together; tie up the mouth'^'df the bag; lay ii under a strong brine for three days, turning it over daily ; then hang it up in a dry cool place for six weeks, when it will be fit for use. When used, it is, first to be dissolved in warm waten The acid contained in the maw is very J^ to become rancid, and to putrify, if a sufficiency of salt be not applied 2 care must therefore be taken to prevent this, by a due sup- ply of this article. No good cheese can be made, unless the runet be good. ^ The runetbag may also be salfed and dried, as before di- rected, and pieces of it occasionally used, by being previous- ly soaked in warm water, and a quantity of this water used, in proportion to the quat^ity of milk to be turned. In Holland, the Cheesemakers use no runet; but, instead of this, they use a small portion of spirit of seasali (muria- tic acid) for forming the curd. This gives the chet se a taste somewhat different from that made with runet. The acid should probably be Jiluted. The quantity, which is just suQicientj may be ascertained by a few experimentSo FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 317 RYE (Secale.) There is but one kind of rye; but this may ot made either Winier-rye, or Sprm^-ryc, by gradually habituating it to diflferent times ot ^sowing. Take VVinier- rye, lor instance, and sow it laier and later, each Fall, and it may at length be sown in the Spring ; and thtn it be- comtb Spring- rye. On the contrary, sow Spring rye very late m the i-all, at first, and you may gradually sow it earlier each-mcceeding year, until it may even be sown in May, and used the fiist season tor pasture, or mowing, and then grown to pertec- tion the second year. Soils ot a Sandy or gravelly texture are the most natural for rye. Almost every kind of dry soil is more or less suif-ed to its growth; it vvill even grow tolerably well in bog-meadows, when laid sufficiently dry. It will produce ^ considerably on the poorest soils;' and prodigious crops of it may be raised on such as are made very rich,J''as may be seen trom a case reported by Mr. V Homme dieu, ■* A Neighbor of his manured tweuiy square rods of ground with li)ur thousand Monhaddan fiah, and sowed it with rye*. In the Spring, it was twice successively eaten off, close to the ground, by Sheep breaking m, after it had acquired a height of nine inches the first time, and six inches ihe lat- ter. These cropings, however, only served to makeit grow thicker and stronger than before ; and, when har^||p- ed, it produced sixteen bushels, or, at the rate of one hun- dred and twenty-eight bushels to the acre; giving to the Owner, according to the calculation of Mr. V Homme dieu^ at the rate of eighty-five dollars to the ac|e» of clear profit. , H| supposes, however, that the crop would have been entirely lost, had it not been twice eaten off by the Sheep. It is said that prodigious crops of wheat may be raised in the same m^inncr. , Rye IS si^ect to rust, but seldom or never to smut ; nor, indeed, lo any other disease that we know of, in this Coun- try. Mr jDw ^ame/ makes mention of a disease it is subject to in France, called the sfiur^ which causes a dry gangrene in the extreme parts of the bodies of those who eat the grain thus diseased ; so that these parts at length fall off, almost without pain. ' The Hotel Dieu, at Orleans (says this Author) has had many ot these miserable Objects, who had not any thing more remaining than the bare trunk of the body ; and yet lived, in that condition, many days.' Tne grains thus diseased are larger than the rest, mostly crooked, bitter to the taste, rough, deeply furrowed from end to end, and project con|Merably beyond their husks. It is not every year, however, xnat the spur produces these 318 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. effects in that Couniry ; and it the grain be kept some con- siderable length ot lime, beiore it is eaten, it will not prove hurtful. We notice this disease of rye, in order that, if similar eff^^cts should ever be produced from it here, the cause of any such malady, and the means of obviaiing it, may be more readily utidersiood. Rye may be raised tor many years in succession on the same gr^^pfd, without materiuliy exhausting the soil, parti- cularly if it be perfectly suitable to the growth ot this grain; and provided, also, that the stubble be turned under imme- diately after taking off the crop: But where the ground is 6uff' red to remain unploughed, till the stubble has become divested of all its moisture, and the seeds of the weed;s have ripened, the successive crops will gradually lessen in % product, and the weeds will increase. We would, however," by no means recommend such a mode of cCiUure, unless as much as twenty five bushels, or mdle, of this grain could be yearly had from the acre; as such a yearly product would probably afford a clear profit, to the acre, of half that number of bushels; and such a pro- fit, in some of the lighter, and in some of the harder, kinds of soils, is not to be despised. As the soil most suitable for rye is usually that which is most benefited by the use of gypsum, it would be much the tMer plan, instead of successive crops of Winter-rye, to sow this grain, and Spring-rye, alternately, in order that the ground might, every other year, be enriched by the appli- cation of this manure. The growing crop of rye receives no benefit from the ap- plication of this manure; bu' ii quickly covers the g^pjnd with a fine sward of white-clover; and, as soon as ground is thus swarded, it is in good condition for btaring any crop. Let the gypsum, therefore, be sown in the Spring, on the growing crop of Winter-rye ; and, by the middle of Octo- ber following, the ground will be covered with white clover; turn this sward over in the latter endiiof the Fall, and in the Spring sow a crop of Spring-rye ; and, as soon as this is taken off, turn the ground over again tor a crop of Win- ter-rye ; and in the Spring repeat the process of manuring with gypsum, as before, for a crop of Spring-rye, and thus proceed with these crops alternately. In this way, we will venture to say, that nearly double the amount ot grain might be obtained, in each crop; par- ticularly in the northerly part of our Couniry, where Spring- rye is nearly as productive as that ot Winter. In such a mode of culture, however, particular attention should be paid to turning ftftder the stubble of the crop of Spring-rye as quick as poSSlble, in order that the seeds of FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 319 the growing: weeds be prevented from ripening, as well as for enabling other seeds, which may lie buried in the soil, to vegetate, and thus be destroyed by the after ploughing and harrowing for puting in the next crop. Many Farnners may have pieces of hard gravtlly, or very light sandy, soilj for which such a mode of culiure mi^ht probably be found as profiiible as any to which the land could be applied: But ot this, the judicious I^mer will be best enabled to judge, after obtaining a fuU^SPowiedge of what mode of culture is most profi able for his more ste- rile grounds; and, in order to this, he must estimate the expenses of puling in his crops; the clear profi s, after paying these expenses, and the rent of the land ; and, whether his lands are likely to become, eventually, more exhausted by such mode of culture, than by a change of crops, where grasses, suitable to the soil, should be cultivat- ed, during some seasons. See further. Change of Crops in regard to hard gravels, and Turnips ior light saudy lands. Where VVmter-rye is early sown, a bushel to the acre is probably sufficient ; but, of Spring-rye, a bushel and a half- to the acre, or perhaps more, should be sown. Rye, intendttd for family- use, should be harvested as early as the grain can be prevented from shrinking, and let lie on the ground a day or two, to harden. In thk way, the grain will make much whiter flour; though, pll? haps, the product will not be quite so heavy and bulky, as when left till fully ripened. Probably all that is gained by leting the grain fully ripen, before harvesting, is an addi- tional thickness of the skin; thereby increasing the quantity of bran, but not ol flour. Bread made entirely of rye is laxative, and good to pre- vent costiveness. Wheat, especially where the flour is very fine, has an -^opposite tendency. For most constitutions, therefore, bread made of equal parts of these grains is con- sidered the most conducive to health. Mixing some flour of Indian corn, with that of rye, will serve to prevent its damminess. SALSAFY ( Tragofiogon ) This foot is frequently called Vegetable Oyster^ on account o ^fc s having a resemblance, in flavor, to that of an oyster. When boiled, mashed, and 32© FARMER'S ASSISTANT. mixed with butter, and formed in shape of oysters, and then tried, it is frequently aiistaken for tried oysters. It requires a culture similvtr to that of carrots, Sec. The roots are to be dug in the Fall, and protected from the Winter-frost. Like all other roots, they are best preserved in moist sand. SALpSfe^ See Manures. SALTING OF MEAT. In packing^ down pork, sprinkle in wliiit is iquil to four quarts ol rock-salt to a barrel; then make a pickle, sufficient to cover all the meat, as siron? as it can be madt wih salt, and when cold pour it on When the pickle becomes considerably colored with the blood of the meat, draw it off, boil it, take off the scum, till it be- come clear, and apply it again. Repeat this, it the pickle again become colored too much, and add more fresh brine, if necessary. In this way, pork will keep sweet throughout the ensuing Summer, and will be free of rust. This method is also good for preserving beef, though the following is better: For a barrel of beef, says Mr. Deane, take four quarts of rock-salt pounded tine ; eight ounces of saltpetre, and five pounds of brown sugar; mix them well together, and with thgse ingredients pack the meat down very closely, so as that they will of themselves cover the whole with brine. The next Spring draw oflf the brine, clarity it, as before di- rected, adding a little salt to it, and apply it again, and the beef will keep very sweet and fine-tasted during the whole Summer following. This method of curing meat, it will be seen, is something^ similar to the best method of curing butter*, and it is also an excelent method for curing pot k and hams. The ham of some of the Southern States is allowed t^ be equal to that of Westphalia ; but, whether this be owifig to this me- thod of curing, to the climate, or to the manner of keeping Hogs there, is perhaps uncertain. When hams have been sufficiently cured in this, or any other way, they should bo smeared over with molasses; smoked sufficiently a»»d sud- denly; the quicker the better; and let them then be well sprinkled over with slaked lime, and put away in casks, filled with bran, to keep during the Summer. The hme will serve to keep all insects from them. SAND. See Earths and Manures. SAP. Plants derive their sap principally from the roots. Before it has entered the|j|||| it is called the food of filants. It is supposed to be absorbed by the capillary roots in the FARMER** ASSISTANT 2n form of vapor, which, beinpf ratified by the heat of .the atmosphere, ascends, and extcfds through all the prires of* the plant; and here is impt rcepiibly darried on that chemical process, which evetitually serves to bring it to perfection. SCRATCHES. This is a disease in the legs of Horses, occtsione^l by bad blood, or too 'hard bbor. Th^ sskin of. the Ie?s b comes craked Oj)cn, en)iting a rt dish-^cii^Ved hu» mor. To cure the disease, wash the cracks wirh^^dapsuds, and then rub them twice a day with ari ointment of hogs- lard, mixed with a little sublitnate mercury Another says that (his troublesome disorder may be ef- fectually cured^ by the application of as strong V solutionj of copperas in water, as can be made, and rubing the 'legs up and down, with a cob, each time. A few applications win be>sdfficient. SEEDS Matly seeds will retain their vegetative faculty for several y;ea% oth^.rs again cannot be ma^def to germinate after the first yeijr, unless uncommon pains be taken lor that purpose,^ ^^ " ' All seeds reqbire fresh air, and if long deprived of this they will los0: their vegeitaiive qtiriliiy If some kuids be- hiltied deeply -"under grotmdr however, they" will retain this .quality for twenty or thirty ^ears. V^ome seeds wtll ItQ a year, some two or three years, be- fore they will pome up; and for this reason, when seed^^ are brought from a distant Country ar^d sown, the ground should not be disiurbt^d during that length of time. Seeds of the dry kinds are best'^pveserved in their pods, or natural coverings; but those of all soft fruits, &c. should be taken out, cleansed, and dried. By experiments made by Mr ^Numbol^^ in 1793, it was found that seeds which re-quire thirty hours to gern)mate in common water, could be n'jade ro germinate in six hours ia oxygenated mtiriatic -acid gas ^ m'xed with water; and by' adding * the stimuUjs" of c«/o*7c (heat) to that ofrt^e oxygend, he was enabled still i*iore to accelerate tffe progress of vegetation.* He took' (he seeds bf garden-^cresses, peas/ French-beans, garden-lettuce, mignonette; ecjual quantities of which were thrown into pure water, and t'.e oxygenat'ecf muriatic acid, at a temperature of eighty-eight degrees Fah- renheit. Cresses exhibited germs. i» three hours, in this acj^; while none w^ere seen in the water, till the end 1^ twenty-six hours. ^;v. ^ # By means of tliis stimuUnt, se^^|g^ich were more than an hundred years old were made Sp^^etate; as were othet aeeds which hud been kept for thirty years, at. the botanical 41 322 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. garden at Vienna, which had tesisted every other means used for thai purpose. ^ ^ « The application oi this may be found useful in planliilEg Indian corn, as it will be sooner out of the way of birds and- squirrels; and, when the first planting has failed, or when birds, &c. have pulled up the Corn, this method would greatly accelerate the growrh of a second planting. It is also useful for many kinds of garden- seeds^ which have been kept over one year. Probably, the seeds ot the American thorn might, also, in this way, be made to vegetate readily, and that hempseed mighty thus be made to grow^ after the first year. > Another method of making old seeds germinate, more readily, is, io immerse them in water, nearly boiling hot| for the space of half a minute ; then sudddhly cool them by exposure to the air, and sow them when the soil is well warmed by the'sun It sown, however, when the earth is cold, they will rot m the ground. ' SifEEP. Mr. Livingston i[\2(% treated this subject with so mucn research and ability, itjat the Reader need require lit- tle or no further information, than what his Essays contain; but as this Worii would be imperfect, without treating of this impor'ant article, and as the Writings of Mr. Living" 'ston and others are too voluminous tor insertion, it Becomes necessary to condense the subject, so as to present it in a small compass. ' , Animals undergo changes by domestication. Qualities >vhich they possessed in the wild state, but which are no longer useful in the domestic, become less and less visible; and owing, perhaps, to this circumstance, and to others, even their appearance becomes more or less altered. The ears of wild animals are erect, which enables them to hear with more acuteness; hut some of the Sheep ol Sicily and of Italy, says Mr LivingstoUy have been so long under the protection of Man, where this quality is not so requisite, that their ears have become pendant. Lord Kaims observes, that, when Sheep run wild they go in droves; that the males are the protectors of the Bock, and that the strongest claims precedence of the rest; that when they lie down, at night, some stand as sentinels, while the rest sleeps But these traits of instinctive sagacity they, in a great measure, lose Vhen Man becomes their Protector. M. Buffon and others' have supposed the Moujlon Mus- nipn, or Argali^ which is still found in the wild state, to be the original stock of the present Sheep. This animal is switt of foot, and in cctflpeli mates has merely a coat o! wool under a coat of hair. la' warm climates, it has nothing but FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 32^ a coat of hair; and such is the case with Sheep which have hsen long accustomed to such climatesv It would seem to be the economy dl Nature, that some graminivorous animals, when domesticated, but still ex ^josf «d to thti rigors ot the seasons, betome more inert, of course po^sests leus animal heat, and therefore require a more woolly coai : Wnilc oihers of the carnivorous kindi "Which are more shelicrtd by Man, but wlioi?e habus still require their wonted activity, and ot course rejtrain tjieir ani- mal heat, require less clothing, or a mere coatnof coarse hair This, perhaps, may oe the reason why .Sheep have more wool and less activity than the Argtsli ; and why Dogs have coarser hair than Wolves. It this, however, be titought sufficient to account for the difference between the Argali and such Sheep as shed their coats yearly, it is still diflftcuk tQ^ assign a reason why the Mtrino Sheep never shtd^ its cdlfc; tor this, if left on tor years, does not tail oif, bu; constaml) increases in length and quantity. Probably different climates and soils hav,e ^ne much, in producuig marked differences among Shenp; and probably diti' rem kuicis,.as we now fiMd fbcm, have de- scended from stock which were ot the same genus, but pos* sessing properues diffetent trom each oiher. Mr. Livingston O'lserves, that ♦ as this quadruped has probably been tound throUiitiout all the inouutainous parts pf Europe and. Asia,^ and perhaps even m Atrica ; as its young are easily tamed; as its miik, its flesh, and us skin tare extremely valuable to Man, in a sav*ige swte ; it is highly probable that u was amongst the first quudrupiids that were domesticated ; and trom this circumstance ii has, perhaps, wrough. no less a change in Man, than Man has in it;* tfiai|n * is highly probible we are indebted, to it^for the conversion ot Masi, from the wild wandering Savage, to the mild and gentle Shepherd.* It may be found equally true, that different soils are best suited to different breeds ot Sheep; and that the soil often serves eventually to produce a difference in Sheep, 'Fat pastures (says Mortimer) breed straight,, tall Shtep; and the barren hilis, short, qoare- ones* The island, called flF*^ rent uses. ' Ii> E^l - '^^ thi-y have ihe Teeswater. t\\e Lin coin" shh'e/dnd '^'.i Dartmoor breeds, wiuci> yi' icJ«^t-.eces ot i^mg coifse wool, w. filing on -an- average from eight to eli.ven pounds; aiiiiii»e average -w.eight of their carcases per quarter, is frbfn twiniy-fi'J^' to mirty poufids. The wftol of these She< p, and ot the Heathy Exmorc^ and Berkshire breeds^ ^«hich are ^rnalkr. and h ive i^mII coarser wool, is proper tor ihe rnviri^ufaC'ure ot 'linkets, Carf)eis, &c. 'a lHw , jytiDkicestershirf;: or fla/?->"zyWA breed, and the Catt* wold dud Homney-jnars/Wbrttii-.^ f^ave aJHo-long wool, but son)ewhat fin'. , bei ig oeiier :fi;.d tor th'- 'tniinufac ture ot worsicU tabrict>j and the average weight ot their fleeces is fpqm eight to nine pounds; the average weight of their car- cases, per quarter, is from twenty-two to twenty-four pounds. _ ':..■" Tat Bakcwell is an improved breed* which was engrafted upon soiiifc at those before' 'mentioned, and are highly esteemed lor the fatness of their carcases, and the fin6 taste of their mutton. In addition to these, the ^English have various other breeds besides the MeTino, yielding fit < ces of short wool of various qudntiries and qualiiie^i the fidcsi of which are the Dunfaced and Shetland breeds; the next finest is the Hertford i^vRy eland breed, and the next the South- doivn. Mr, Livingston Says the latter very much rest||ible our common Sh. ep, having wool about equally fine; and that in England they are esteemed next to the Bdkewell breed. Ml. Custis, of Virginia, is rearing a new breed, which he calls iht; Arlington Sheep, that yield flreces of long wool, well fit^d for the manufacture of worsted fabrics. They are a mixture of the Bcskewell breed with a long-wooled Persian Ram, which was imported by General Washington. .Th<:y promise to be a valuable acquisition to our Country. In addnion to these are the Smithsisiand^ Sheep, before mentioned, which are also the property ot Mr Cus^tis, and which, on account of the fineness and lirgeness of their fleeces, promise to be highly valuable, provided the breed do hot degenerate in a fe\v years, when taken from tnat isl- and. ^ They are, shorn t\yice a year, and some of the fleeces weigh four pounds at each, shearing. Another breed of Sheep oug it to be noticed, as being peculiar to this^ Country : These are the Otter Sheep, so t^AllMER's ASSISTANT. 221 ^..A 6ti account of the length of/ their bodies and the _horiness of their legs/ They wcre'first lound in some of our Aihntic islands, and are ii>tleed, a rickciy, cnppltd- iooking race. Their wool is of a mcdiurrf fineness, and Kl their disadvantages consist in their proporiioni^: 'inabjhiy to escape from Dogs. &c But th^ Man ot taste and tceling will make another objection .to ihem; their form is not pleasing to \he eye» and their rickivy, hobbling gait is cal- culated to excite pity, instead of pUias»irt>. • Another breed of Sheep, vwtiich "c,rv found in almost every quarter ot the globe, are [tie Broddlailed Sheep. These art; of d iff «i rent kinds, and yield fl«'eces ot different qualiies in Qifferent climates. In the Levant, their wool is fine; at the Cape ot Goodhope, it is coarse ; and at Mtdagascai, it is mere hair. They are generally larger than the European Sheep, and the tails of one kind weigh, in many instances, fitly pounds; being fso weighty that the Shepherds artj compeled to place two Utile wheels under each, to enable the Sheep to drag them.* » The composition of this excrescence (says Mr. Livin^^ aton) is said to be a mixture oi fl i>h with a great propoMion ot fat, and to be very delicate food ; but the anitnal has little other fat, the tail being in him the repository of that, fat which lies about the loins of other Sheep." As It is hardly probable that this excresence could have been inherent in the original stock, whence these Sheep descended; but has most probably be.en produced, either by accident or by art: Itis» perhapsj one of the, tnosi extraordi- nary instances, to be found, of an alteration produced in tlie form of an anitnal by domestication. A yearling Sheep has at its first shearing two droad leeth before, beside its narrow teeth; when sheared the second tittle, it has fourj the third time, six; and the fourth, eight. •They are then said to be full mouthed The teeth ot Ewes begin to decay at the age of five years; those of WetherSj at seven ; and of !(iams,^ at eight. At this age, a Ram shoijld be castrated, and turned off to faten with other .old Sheep. E>ves wiilTfaten faster during pregnancy than; at ai»y other /^4jime. .[, ■, ■■ ■ '"'y.-if^ .;. If properly kept, and no accident befal them duringi-preg- nancy, they are capable of yeaning till the age of tf n or twelve; but they frequenily become barren much sopoer, by reason of poor keeping, or^ by injuries received duHng pregnancy. When this is the cas^, and they groW; weakly^ hey should be fatened with other old Sheep. S2r FARMER»s ASSISTANT, Those set ?ipart for fating should be kept separa^ on. good feed, and have some Indian meal daily. Ii is said that a Sheep is never made very tat but once, and that then is the proper time to kill it i Bat, perhaps, this is not founded in truth. The proper tirtie for shearing is, when the weat^r has. set in prpity warm; but sooner, where the wool i^^^lUng off. TtiG sifool of Merino Siieep must be washed after Bhearing, as ' it cannot be washed to any effect whilo on their backs, 'the shearing of these may be later, as th^ir %vool never falh off Sheep, of the common kinds may have their wool washed while on their backs j but in that case they should be kept some days previous to shearing in a clean pasiure, in order that their wool may again imbibe some of the oil which is lost by washing, which will render the shearing more easy, and require less oil to be afierwards added for spining. In shearin»<^ care should be taken not to cut thenri ; and this is more particularly necessany with the Merino Sheep, whose fleece is so close as to render this operation much more slow and difficult, double the time at least. being re- i^uisite for shearing one of these, that is necessary ^ov one of ihe common kind. Would not shears, with blades much- narrower than those of tiie common kind, be much the best for shearing these Sheep ? In E'igland, it is a common practice, after shearing, to smear the bodies of the Sheep with a mixture of tar and fresh butter, which serves to cure the wounds in the skin^. and to fortify their bodies against the cold. This mixiure snay be improved by the addition of a small quantity of sul- phur The Sheep should again be anointed in the month of August, by introducing tlie omtment from head to tail, and also on the sides and back, by parting the wool for the purpose. ThJs composition should, at all events, be applied to the wounds. It serves effectually to destroy all the ticks, ivhich are very pernicious to Sheep The practice of pening up large flocks of Sheep together in a close place, during the shearing, is very injudicious; They should be pened up in the open air, and but a few brought together at a time. The common practice of tying the legs of the Sheep together, while shearing, is hurtful to them ; as it compresses theni into a situation which is un- natural and painful Rather le't each foot be tied by itself, in its natural posit;ion, to a small piece of wood, with cross pieces at each end, which may be easily contrived and made for the purpose. During cold rains and cold nights, after shearing, they should be placed where they can go into their house, or place of shelter, when they please i as they know best when FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 527. they jiyant shelter, and when they become so warm as to re- quire the open ^ir. They should at>jl times, but particu- larly at this, have plenty of salt, as tnis is a stimulant which enables them the better to withstand the^cold. A warm sun is hunful to the backs of Sheep after shearing, and for this reason their pasture should have sontje shade, lo which ttiey can retire during the heat of the day. Affer shearing, their skins should be carefully 'examined^ to see if they have any appearance of the sca&j- un6 those which have, should be kept apart from the rest, till cured, as this disease is contagious. * Tt)is, too, is th'. proper »inne to examine them, as to their age and healthy hv'ir bodily defects; and also, as to the quality 2Ci\di quantity of ihcir flfcces. Those >yhich are found old and brukt'n- mouthed, sickly and infirm,' ill-formed ; Ewes that are bad nurses, and lose their Lambs from wdnt of milk ; those whose wool is in small quantities, which is often the efFuCt of age or sickness; and, those whose wool is bad, either by being mixed with short hairs, or which are rough on the thighs: These should all be marked, in order to be turned off, anci put in good pasture for fating. The wool of yearling Sheep should be kept by itself; be- cause, not having the same ttxlure or strength which the wool of older Sheep has, it will make the cloth. shrink un- equally, if mixed with such wool. The other fleeces may be sorted at shearingume, making separate parcels of the thighs, the belly, and the back and sides. Wool should not be kept long without washing, as in that case it is liable to ferment and spoil in hot weather. After shearing, the horned Sheep should be examined, to see that their horns do not ^ress on the scull, or endanger the eyes; either of which may kill the animal. Where this is the case, the horns are to be taken off; and, for this pur- pose, Mr, Livingston recommends sawing ihem off with a fine stiff-backed saW; then apply some tar to the stumps, and tie a double linen cloth over them, to keep off the At.tbjs time also the Lambs should be docked, castrated, and marked. Mr Livingston recommends the Spanish cus- tom of docking^ the tail, as conducive to cleanliness. The castration is best. performed by taking away the testicles at once. This Operation may be performed on Lambs when not more than ten days old, and the earlier this is done, the finer will be their wool and flesh. If rain or cold weather succeed this operation, before they are cured, they Should be housed • otherwise they will be in danger of dying. Another method of castration, which is probably best for grown Sheep, is to tie a cord tightly round the scrotums and after five or sik days, when the part below the cord fl|H@| cut it cff jn^jt'fcielow the string, and tar the wound. TmiR^^ however, a dattgerous operation when the weather is warms Cool dry weather should be chosen for it. ^ In Spain, it is usual, instead of ^either of these operaVions, to twis» the testicles within the scrotum, so as to knot the covfl I in which case they decay gradually, without .injuring the Sheep* " /' Sp;jying>^vve|ambs increases their wool, makes them fat • en better, and it is said improves the taste of their fl sh. If this operation is to be performed, which perhaps will seldom be found advisable, it should not be attempted be- fore 'he Lambs are six vveARMER*8 ASSISTANT. '529 • When Sheep are badly kept they take colds, and dis- cbarge a mocus from the nose. Good feeding, together with some pine boughs given them occasionally, will rure this complaint. It pine bouj^hs cannot be had, spread some tar over a board, and over ihis spread isome salt, which yiill induce the Sheep to lick up all. the tar, and, this will tffect a cjLire,.;;j^ .. Accbtd||ig to experiments made by Mr Daubenton^ a celeb/at^> The Sheep infected is first to be taken from the fl jck and put by i'seU; ,eitt care, however, keeping the Sheep dry ; the wool to be opened, and a streak to be made down the back, and thence down the rihs and this^hs. Finewooled Sheep, and Rams which have been much exhausted by covering, are most subject to this disorder, and in finewooled fl )cks*it is most diffictilt to cure. It is said thai it nnay be Communicated, even by a Sheep lying on the same ground on which a scabby one had shortly before lain, or by rubing against the same post. Pelt'Tot In this disease the wool falls ofT, buMhe skii^ does not become sore, but is merely covered with a white crust Cure. Full feedint>, warm keeping, and anointing thv -hard part of the skin with tar, oil, and butter, mixed t0K«^''^her. Tick' As- these occasion a constant scratching, they prove itijurious to the wool., and ihey sometimes occasion the death of lean Sheep. Cure. Blow tobacco-smoke into every part of the fit ece, by means of a bellows. The smoke istaken into the bellows, the wool is opened, the smoke is blown in, and the wool is then closed. This is repeated over every part of the body, at proper distances. It is quickly performpfl. See also Insects, for a'nother method of killirg Ticks. D(j^s. These ofitn prove more iKJiirious to Sh«ep thap all their other maladies put together. Cure. A fi-e, say of a hundred dollars, upon every Man thdii keeps a Female of these animals above eight inches. high; or ;* yearly tax, say, of tweniy dollar^, l*id upon the Owners. Extirpate the Females of this race, and the whole bi^eed would soon disap- pear. The Legislature may easily enforce a laiv of this kind, without danger of its being unpofmiar^ which it n said would be the fate of a law taxing the whole race of Do?rs FARMER'S ASSISTANT. ssr Stag-gers. A disease of the brain, which renders them unable to stand : Incurable by any means known, wluch would warrant the expense. See, however, what Gibson says, of Staggers Coldft. The principal indication of this is the. discharge of mucus from the nose. The cure has already been no- ticed. Whenever this, however, becomes habitual with old Sheep, they should be killed off Purging. If any are severely afflicted in the Spring with this, which sometimes happens after being turned out to grass, house them, give them a dose of castor-oil, feed them with dry food, and give them some crusts of wheat bread. A sligiijtj^urging will not hurt them. Hove. SheepiQiike Neat cattle, when put into clover- pastures, sometirnes have their stomachs distended by wind,^ so that they will die if not relieved. The swelling rises highest on the left side, and in this place let the knife be inserted, or other means used, in the manner directed for Neat-cattle. See Neat-cattle. The diseases of Lambs are: Pining. When the excrement of the L^mb becomes so glutinous .a^s to fasten the tail to the vent, it must be washed clean, aufi;t|ave the buttocks and tail rubed with dry clay, which will-prevent any further adhesion. Purging. Put the Lamb with its Dam into a dry place, and give her some oats, old Indian corn, or crusts of wheat bread If the Dam has not milk enough, give the Lamb Covv's milk, boiled, or let it suck a Cow. Sometimes it may be found necessary to bleed Sheep, to allay some inflammatory disorder. * Daubenton recommends bleeding in the lower part of the cheek, at the spot where the root of the fourth tooth is placed, which is the thickest part of the cheek, and Js marked on the external surface of the bone of the upper jaw, by a tubercle sufficiently prominent to be very sensible ta the finger, when the skin of the cheek is touched. This tubercle is a certain index to the angular vein which is placed below.* The method of bleeding, after finding the vein, it is hardly necessary to describe. Philip. Be Castro^ a Spanish Shepherd, has writen a short treatise on the diseases of Sheep in Spain, and of their man- agement there; and he recommends that bleeding should be performed in a vein in the fore part of the dug. The essay of this Shepherd is believed to be worthy of some further notice. He says the Merino Sheep of Spain are subject to the following diseases: 43 330 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. The scab. Cured by Juniper.oil, when the weather is wer, or by a decoction of tobacco, in dry weather. Basquilla; occasioned by loo much blobd. Cured by bleeding in the dug, as before mentioned. Modere^ (lethargy) occasioned by pustules formed on the brain. The She^p keeip turning, while feeding, to the side where the pustules are tbrined. Pew recover, and the disease is infectious. Some get well in part by pricking the part affected with an awl ; but those attacked 'with this dis- order should be killed off. ^^ Smallfiox; being blisurs, which ferst appear on the flanks, and spread over the body. It is produqed by drinking stagnant waters. The diseased Sheep ate.^to be kept apart from the rest, as the disease is infecii6]^^Sii and when the blisters break anoint them with sweetoil. Lastly, Lameness. This appears to be the same as is de- scribed by Mr. Livingston. He observes that ' the legs of Sheep are furnished with a duct which terminates in the fissure of the hoof; from which, when the animal is in health, there is secreted a white fluid ; but when sickly these ducts are sloped by the hardness of the fluid ' He adds, that he had, » in some instances, found the Sheep relieved by pressing out the hardened pfiatter with the finger from the orifice of the duct in each ifoot. Per- haps it may in some cases be proper to place their feet in %uarm water, or to use a firobey^ or hard brush, for Cleansing this passage.* He concludes by observing, that probably the ill-health of Sheep, in wet or muddy pastures, may in some measure be ascribed to the necessity of keeping these ducts free and ©pen. The Compilers of * The Complete Grazier,* however, mention another kind of lameness in Sheep, which is called the foot-halt. It is caused by an insect resembling a worm, two or three inches long, which is found to have entered between the close of the claws of the Sheep, and worked its passage upward between the external membranes and the bone. To extract the worm, move the claws backwards and forwards in contrary directions, and it will work its way out. In Greatbritain, this disorder is chiefly cotj fined to wet pastures. De Castro also mentions diseases to which the Merino Ltmbs are subject, in Spain, when brought forth in wet weather; such as the lohannillo (gangrene) which has no cure. The amarilla (jaundice) which is infectious; the flesh and bones ot the Lamb turning of the color of yellow wax: For this a small quantity of the flix leaved daphne guidium is good. The coviro, a lameness of the feet,. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 339 which appears to be the stopage ot the c^xcretory duct, be*- fore mentioned. Gv-^nerally, he says, the Lambs are subject to ihe diseases ot the Ewes; and iliat ti||€ same remedies are requisite. Sheep, in Greatbritain, are subject to tlie rot; but it is believed that this disease has never been known in this Country. i^Another disease, however, which the British Writers mention, our Sheep are •sometimes liable to ; ihis is, being maggoty, occasianee. The bags must be opened every day to give them fresh air, while hatchT||ife. When the eggs turn a whitish color it is a sign the worms will soon come out; and then, if in bags, they must be stired up five or six times a day, to give the young embryos sufficient air j but, if they be in boxes, they can be thinly spread over the bottom, and then open-" ing the; boxes once or twice a day will answer. The time usually req\iired for hatching is about eight or nine days; sometimes longer If too much heat be applied it) hatching, many of the worms will/^perish in raising. An ounce con- , tains about forty two thousand eggs; but among these may be many bad ones, which, if they do not hatch in two days after the first hatchings, may be thrown away. The eggs of the yellow cocoons are to be prefered, as they give the most and best silk. . ' . If you hatch in bags, as soon as you find some of the worms coming out, put them all into such boxes as before But times must alter. The wool of the Merino Sheep which are reared in Greatbritain is found to be growing coarser, and. in a fe^y years will be unfit for making the finest cloths. The climate and most of the soil of that Country is only properly fited for producing ''large, coarse, longwooled Sheep. Here, the quality of the Merino wool is found to be rather improv- ed. The Uritish will therefore be soon compeled, in a great mea- sure, to abandon their own stock of Merino Sheep, and to look abroad for supplies of the finest wool. It is also to be expected that further encouragement will be given to our own Manufactures, as this is a policy that must be pursued, if we ever expect to become a great and independent People. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 341 described. When a sufficient number have come out, take a piece ot parchment hied to the inside, cut ii tull ot holes like a sieve, lay it over ihe«i, ai-d on it s|)r€ud some tender young mulberry leaves, and the worms tvili then come up through the holes to feed on theni When a sufficient number have thus come up, take up the parchment, by strings fixed to it tor the purpose, and place the leaves and worms in a larger box or shelf, lined with white paper* Fill only about a third ot the bottom ot this box,* or enclosed sheit, with leaves; because as thevvorms grow larger they require more room. Htre you Iced the worms till alter then tirst moulting. In the meai;i^^tjpe, the parchment is to be laid on with leaves, as bcforejdo take out other supplies ot worms; and it mese be taken oiit on another day ihey are to be put in anotljerbox or shell j as those hatched on difTerent days are to be' kept m different boxes. At the end ot two or three days, all the good eggs will be hatched, and the rest may be thrown away. After they are haiched, they must be kept in about the same temperature ot heat tor ten or twelve days. They are to be ted twice or three times a day with tender leaves, till the time of the fir^t moulting; and let those ieaves previously fed be eaten, Ibeiore tresh onc5 are given. In about six or seven days they generally arrive to their first niouiting, if properly kept in regard to waimih, clean- liness. Sec. II they should be as long as a fortnight before moulting, they wul not do well. In their moukings, they lie in a torpid state, in which they leave their old coats and acquire new ones. They moult lour times, before they begin to sf in. While in this state, they should be kept rather warmer than usual, and should not be disturbed. Previous to each ot these limes they look dull and weak, they lose their appetite, the skin becomes bright, and they seek for a place to lie by them- selves. They lie motionless for about two days. They Will not all moult on the same days; biit in three or four days the business will be over, whicn may be discovered by the color ot the skin, and by their activity; and then it is time to change their Utter and clean the shelf. In order to get them out, spread over them some tresh leaves, upon which they will crawl, so as to enable you to Lit them up. Put one-half ot these into one shelf of the same size, and th^- other halt into another ; and this enlargement of ttieir room must be repeated after every moulting, as they are .con- stantly growing larger. . «> ^v^/ Alter the first moulting, some of the worms will Tie re^- » ish, some ash-colored, and some of a blackish hue. The redish ones may be thrown away, as they will not come to 342 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. any thing. More worms perish in the third moulting than in any other. The mulberry leaves must be picked when perfectly dry; and as this cannot be done every day, a store of them is to be kfept on hand, laid in a cool dry room, and siired up now and then, to prevent their heating and wilting. The number of meals, alter the first moultitig, is to be governed by the appetite of the worms ; and, it this bfe not good, it is most probable that they want more heat. Do not deal out the leaves faster than they are eaten. In seven, eight, or nine days, they will moult a second time; and so on, for the two following tinies. The larger they grow, the less heat they want. After'the third moult- ing, open the windows each day, to givfe them fresh air. The shelves are to be cleaned after each nraouking; and where the intervals between the moultings are unusually long, let them be cleaned twice. When too much crowded, take some out on leaves, as before directed, and place them elsewhere. They cannet bear to be touchei by hand, Un- less very gently. The white-mulberry leaves are best for feeding the worms; and the tender young leaves of young trees are to be prefered at fii^st ° but in their more advanced stages they want older leaveb ; and these may be of older,; or grafted, trees. Other kinds of mulberry, however, will answer. li the leaves cannot be had dry, let them be dried before they are used, as wet leaves are hurtful. When they are past the last moulting they eat greedily, and want more food than before. At the end of seven or eight days they begin their cocoons. During all this time, let them daily have fresh air, and let. their shelves be cleaned. When you find them creeping about without eating, as if in search of something, with their bodies of a bright straw- color, it is then time to prepare bushes, fixed on tables, for them to climb on and fix their cocoons. The bushes are to be dry and clear of leaves, and set in rows with their tops leaning together. Under these lay some mulberry leaves, for the further feeding of those which may not be quite ready for spining, and do not let the worms be crowded too much on the tables. To put them on the tables, you apply your finger, to which they readily attach ; then put them on si smooth varnished plate, to which they cannot adhere, and empty them carefully on the table. Those that incline to feed longer will do so, and those that do not will ascend the boughs. The spining is completed in three or four t days; bui, as they do not all commence at the same time, pick oft the cocoons in about twelve days after th^y have begun to spin. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 343 The chrysalis contained in each cocoon is killed by plac- ing them, in baskets lined with brown paper, in an oven heated nearly warni enough to bake bread If this be not done, the chrysalis eats its way out ot the cocoon, and thus spoils the contexture of the silk. They are to be kept in the oven till the ratling noise, which they occasion while dying, has abated. Then take them put, and wrap them close in a blanket to suffocate those which may not yet be dead. Previous to the operation of baking, the outer coat, called tow, is to be taken off; and the same is to be observ- ed with those which are kept tor seed. In reserving these, take equal numbers of males and females, of the yt How kind. The male cocoon is sharp- pointed; the female, round at each end. After being di- vested of their tow, string them together, male and female alternately, upon a coarse thread, leting the needle go merely through the surface of each, for fear of hurting the <;hrysalis within ; hang these in a dry place till the butterfly comes out. One pound of cocoons will give an ounce of eggs. When the butterfly has come out, the males are known by being sharp-pointed; the females being larger and full of eggs. Place them all on a piece of bl u k cloth, and put the males and females together in [feirs; let them remain so three or four hours; and then throw the males away, leaving the females to deposit their eijjgs. These are to be well dried on the cloth on which they are laid, and put in a fresh room during Summer, and out of the way of frost during Winter, * Bad management and other causes occasion some disor- ders among the worms. Some become fat, and do not moult, but continue eatings having a whiter and more oily appear- ance than the rest. After the tHird or fourth moulting, some become lean, refuse to eat, turn soft, and become smaller than formerly. The yellow worms never appear but a little before spining, and, instead of becoming mature, swell up with nasty yellow spots on their heads, and at last over their bodies. All these, when discovered, are to be thrown away. The other method, recommended by the same Writer, is to raise these worms on white-mulberry hedges. A hedge of this kind, of three years old, he says, begins to be fit for the worms ; but those which are four or five years old will be better, as they afford the worm more places of retreat in-, storms. Two br three days after the first moulting, and in a fine warm day, p\it the young worms on the hedge, by means of leaves as -before mentioned. The feathered end of a goose-quill is very good to raise them, or move them in different places. Put them on the fedger at the rate of about one hundred to every two rods; but thicker, where 244 FARMER»s ASSISTANT. the hedg:e is ol!:l<='r. Worms thus raised in the open air, says the same Writer, arc free from all disorders • their otilv fate depends on the season; and our Summers are preferable to those in Europe, for raisings them. In this way, care must, however, be taken to keep certain birds from them. The same Writer also remarks, in a note to his observa- tions on the diseases of this worm, that he was afterwards informed of an experiment made in this State, by which it appears that this climate is more favor ble for raising them under cover, than that of Spain or Prince. Out of six thousand worms raised by Mrs. Montgomery^ but very Jew died; and her s^iccess in raising tj^^m ivas equv.1 in preced- i?>g years. In Europe, he says, four-fifihs of them perish before spining, * , ,. Having ^hus desc^ihed the process of forniing the qocoons cr balls of s'lk. something remains to be said of the manner of ronvertinjr them into threads, for making cloths. • The cocoons are covered wi^h a ki^d of rough cotton-like substan<*e, which is called floss: Within, the thread Js more'distjnict and even ; and next to the body of the insect the apartment s^ems lined with a substance of the hardness of paper; but of^a nnuch stronger consistence. The threads composine: the cocoons do not cro round, iti the manner in which a b^ll of tbv^^d is wound ; but, |ie in an irregular, manner, winding off fi^'st on one of the sides, and then perbaps en that opposite. THe whole length of a thread is about three hundred "yards Eight or tep of the cocbons are usv^allv wound f.ff together; though the num- ber to be thus wound off must depend on the size intended to be given to the thread. corn posed of these, when twisted together. In order to cdrnnjenre the operation of winding, the floss is first to be taken off"; and then the cocoons are to be thrown into warm water, and stired about in it till the jsnd of the thread of each is discovered by its becoming disen- gacred from the body of the cocoon. The proper number of threads are then to be wound bff tog^her, the cocoons remaining in the water during the operation. The whole of each is oot^ however, to be wound; as the latter parts of the threads gradually grow weaker, and of a bad color. I The paper- like substance, before mentioned, may be ^used in two ways: It may be stained of various colors, and used for the purpose of making ariificial flowers ; or it may lie in! the water till the glutinous matter that cements it is dis- » solved, and then be carded, and spun, for making silks of inferior quality. FARMER*s ASSISTANT. U^ SLIPS. These are twigs torn from a tree or shrub, to propc\gate by planting in a moist soil. L< t i wo thirds of their length be buried^ and they will strike root more readily than cutings. This, says Mr Deane^ should be done as soon as the ground is thawed in the Spring. They should be set, if possible, as soon as they are taken from the tree; otherwise let their ends be enclosed in wet clay, until the time of seting. They should be set in fine rich pulverized earth, and should be frequently watered, particularly when the ground is dry. Some twigs will in this way grow very readily; others, again, are more difficult to grow Mr. Deane advises to place those, most difficult to grow, in pots, where they can be mor^, care fully attended to. It is said that some trees, which, are not natural to be cultivated in this manner, will not grow so large as when raised from the seed. Where fruit-trees are cul ivaied in this way, the trees thus raised will bear the same fruit as those whence the slips where extracted. It is said that the life of a fruit-tree, raised from a slip or cuting, will end nearly at the same time of that whence the slip or cuting is extracted; but this seems very doubitul, and in most instances unworthy ef belief. SMUT. The cause of smut in wheat has been product- ive of much investigation and speculation ; but, since the means have been discovered of preventing it, we may well rest satisfied with this. Mr. Young sowed fourteen beds with the same wheat- seed, as black with smut, he says, as he ever saw any. The first bed was sown with this wheat without washing, and this had three hundred and seventy-seven smutty ears ; that washed in clean water, three hutidred and twenty-five; that in limewater, forty-three; that in lie of wood-isiies, thirty- one ; that in arsenic, twenty-eight. Again. That steeped in limewater four hours, had twelve ; that in lie four houfs, twelve; that in arsenic four hours* one. And again. That which was steeped in lie, as before mentioned, twelve hours, had none ; and that which was steeped in the same kind of lie twenty-four hours,- had none : That also which was steeped twenty-four hours in limewater, had none ; that steeped in arsenic twenty-four hours, had five. Mr, Ecroyd, of Philadelphia county, says that in England he saw this experiment fairly tried : Grains of smut were pulverised, and applied to wheat which was perfectly clean and clear ot smut, and which was then sown, and it produc- ed smutty wheat. At the same time, dirty smutty wheat 44 S^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. was effectually washed in clear spring-water, and sown, ariS was entirely tree from smut. In order that the wheat be effectually washed, it should be put into two or three changes of such water, and well rubed and stired about, so as to cleanse the grain entirely from the smut. Mr. Ecroyd says the Man who made these trials had a premium given him, by a number of i armers, for the discovery ; and that, in the way just mentioned, he would produce smutty wheat from seed origjinally clean, and clean wheat from seed originally smutty, in drills, sown alternately in the same field. It has been observed that seed-wheat, which has been well ripened before harvesting, is much less liable to smut than that which has been cm early. Let the wheat for seed be the last harvested, and let it be kept by itself, perfectly dry, until it is threshed out. Perhaps the better way would b»-, to thresh it out in the field when in a very dry state. The reason assigned for this is, that smut is believ- ed to be somewhat infectious; and that therefore if wheat, entirely free of this disorder, be put in a mow with smutty wheat, the whole mass will become more or less infected with smuty by reason of tlie sweating or heating of the mow. V Wheat that is very smutty in the field should riot be har- vested, until the crop is so fully ripe and dry that it will shell out considerably in harvesting; by this mean the grains of smut are mostly broken and dissipated by the harvesting and threshing. Threshing in the field would no doubt, in this case, be preferable; as the drier the crop is, when threshed, the more readily would the smut-grains be broken. , SNOW. In the northern States, snow is very useful in protecting Winter-grain and grass from the severity of the iVost. Winter-grain or grasses, which have been covered through the frosty season, will grow much more rapidly in the Spring than those which have lain bare. Snow may, however, fall too soon, and lie loo long, for Winter-grain, as in that case it is apt to be smothered. Snow is useful in preserving all fresh meat, during the cold season. Let the meat be first a little frozen on the outside, then put it, on a cold day, into casks filled with snow, laying the snow between the pieces, so that they will not touch each other, nor the sides of the cask. The whole ia to be constantly kept liable to the action of the frost; and in this way the meat will neither grow dry, nor lose it color^ during the frosty season. FARMER^s ASSISTANT. ^47 SOILING OF CATTLE : Feeding cattle in stalls, dur- ing ihe growing season, with grass cut and carried in to them. It is particularly reconnaiended lor Milch-cows, Working-horses, and Oxen, and lor taiing cattle; and Mr. Young also recommends that Swine be soiled in a yard tor the purpose. The advantages of this method of husbandry have been experienced in Europe ; and it is strongly recomroendt d by Mr. Young, by the Compilers ot ' The Complete Grazier,* and by other eminent Farmers of Greatbritain. A commu- nication ol Dr. Tlaer^ Physician ol the Electoral Court of Hanover, to the English Boerience ot the Baron de Bulow and othersj lays down the toUowing as facts which, he says, are incon- trovertible: 1. A spot of ground which, when pastured, will yield only suffi- cient food for one head, will abundantly maintain four^ when kept in the stable.^ 2. Soiling affords at least double the quantity of manure from the same niunber of catt?e ; for the best Summer-manure is produced in the stable, and carried to the fields at the most proper peiiod of its fermentation; whereas, when spread on the meadow, and exhausted by the air and sun, its power is much wasted. o. Cbwsjvhich are accustomed to soiling will yield much more milk, when kept in this manner; and fating cattle will increase much faster in weight. 4. They are less subject to accidents and diseases; they are pro- tected from the fiies which torment them in the fields during warm weather; and they do not suffer from the heat of Summer. There are other advantages attending this method of husbandry. The trouble ot driving the Milch'cows to and from tlie pastures, three times a day, is saved; the Work- ing-horses and Oxen are always at hand, so that no time is lost in going alter them; and, what is of no small import- ance, when the cattle are housed the growing crops are in more safety. For the most profitable cultivation of the earth, it is re- quisite that it should be in the highest state of fertility. Some manures will enrich a soil to a certain extent; while others will make it still richer. Generally speaking, barn- dung is the only manure, accessible by every Farmer, with which grounds may be fertihzed in the highest degree. But how is a sufficiency of this to be had? , It all vegetables were buried, while green, in the soil where they grew, the manure thui afforded by them, to- gether with what additions the soil receives from the air by the requisite ploughings, would be constantly increasing its fertility. The vegetable mass produced on a farm is indeed left on, but with much waste, not only in the drying of the 348 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. vegetables before they are put into the barn, but in the drying and washing ot the clung, and the evaporation of its best parts, when lef; in the barn yard, before it is mixed with the soil; and by the still greater waste, when dropeti in the fields. The essential point, then, is to niake and save the great- est possible quantity of barn dung manure from a givea quat.tity ot ground • and this is only to be accomplished by soiling. For this purpose, therefore, some of the most intelligent European Farmers have barns with ccllirs under them, for the purpose ot receiving ihe dung of the cattle, and into these the dung and litter are constantly thrown, where they are prepared, by a due state of termeniation, for mixing with the soil. Suitable earths are also laid behind the cattle to absorb their stale as it runs backward, and these« when saturated, are also thrown down and mixed with the dung. Some, however, object to cellars as the receptacles of the dung, on the ground of their being too cool tor the process of its fermentation during Summer, and prefer sheds adjoin- ing the barn, to keep the dung under cover to protect it from the rains. Where cellars are used, they should not be too deep, and should be wtU opened for the admission of warm air during Summer. iJ'^' The quality of the dung of cattle depends much on their food ; that therefore which is made from green grass will be found superior to that made from dry hay ; that which is made from fating cattle is the best of any. Having observed thus much, we will proceed to lay down a system ol field husbandry, in connection with the plan of soiling cattle, which we presume will be found far more profitable than the usual method of field-culture. Take a fii Id ot proper extent, say, for instance, forty acres, as nearly square as may be, and of as nearly uniform soil as can be hud, of a good gravelly-loam, sandy, sandy- loam, or other good arable soil, and sutficiently level. Clear it of stones, so ■d% that it can be tilled in the most complete mpner: Build a barn in the centre of this field, with a walled cellar under it, with a door to drive in with a cart on one side, and another to drive out at the opposite side. The barn is to be proportioned to the size of the field, and a communication to be made to it on the side most conve- nient, by a lane. For a more minute description, a plan of the whole is here laid down. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 349 E==rc1B: 10 11 12 A. The lane to the barn. B. The barn with a fence round it, communicating with the lane. C. D. E. Divisions of the field into four equul parts, where strips of land are left unploughed wide enough for a cart to go upon. 1. 2. 3. &c. Subdivisions of the field, on which are culii- vated crops of roots, grain, and grass, in rotation. In this barn stables are to be fixed for keeping a number of Milch-cows, Working- horses and Oxen, or fating cartlej proportionate to the size and products of the field They are to be kept on grass, cut and carried in to them during the growing season, and on hay and other food during Win- ter. The Cows should be let out each day during the three milking times, and all the cattle should have af con- stant supply of water from a well made near the barn for the purpose. During Summer, the water may be carried to the cattle in troughs in the stable, but in colder weather the cattle must be let out to troughs of water in the yard. As lucerne starts early in the Spring, and grows late in the Fall, it will probably be found one of the best grasses for early and late feeding. Perhaps some other grasses may be found best in particular soils, and for particular purposes. S^e Grasses. 350 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. The common trefoil or red-clover (see clover) which is mostly cuhivated in this Country, is very good tor soiling. The morning's supply of grass should be brought m the af- ternoon, and that for the afternoon, in the morning; Uiough, if it be a fact that dew is nourishing to cattle, it would seem the better way to bring in the whole supply lOr the day in the morning. A light hand-can is to be used for bringing Id the grass from the parts of the field nearest the barn. After such a field has been brought under cpmplete cul- tivation, and enriched by this mode of culture, it will proba- bly keep, Winter and Summer, about twenty five head of Cows, and fating or working cattle. The lucerne may be made to yield sufficient for soiling about six head per acre, or six or seven tons of hay per acre, if used for that pur- pose. The common red-clover may be made to yield up- wards of four tons of hay, per acre, at two mowings, and is excelent as a lay for other crops. About four hundred loads of the best barn dang would probably be afforded yearly from such a field, which would be at the rate of ten loads per acre each year. The extra labor required for cuting and carrying in the grass, and cleaning the stalls of the cattle twice a day, during Summer, would probably employ one Hand two-thirds of his time. In return for this, the Farmer saves the rent of at least twelve acres of the best pasiure-land, which may be put at five dollars an acre, and his Cows give more milk, and his fating and working cattle keep better and thrive faster. Here, then, the Farmer is amply repaid for his extra labor. But the great superiority of the soiling-system lies in this; by the great quantity ot excelent manure, thus afforded, the Farmer is enabled to carry on a system of field-culture that will be found to average one-halt more of clear profii, than can be expected in the usual mode. It will be seen, by the drawing of the fit id, that it is t© be divided into twelve parts, and that the divisions arfe long and narrow : This renders them more convenient for ploughing. It has been observed, however, that those Cows which have t>een always used to be kept by soiling, during the growing season, are usually more profitable than those which have been newly put to this method of keeping. See Appendix, which contains the best system of rotation of crops. SOOT. Forty bushels of this to an acre, is a good top- dressing for almost every kind of Summer-crop, or for Winter-crops, when sowed on them in the Spring. Let it be powdered fine before it is applied. It is also very good ior cold grass-lands. FARMER?s ASSISTANT. 351 it is recommended to be sown over turnips, not only for the purpose of manuring the ground, but lor keeping off insects. For this purpose, let it be finely pulverizad and sown in the morning while the dew is on, and let it be in moderate quantity, lest it should injure the young plants, to which it will adhere and repel the insects. See Manures. SOWING. There are three methods of commiiing seeds to the ground. 1. In hills ^ which is usually called plantirig, 2. In drills^ or continued rows. 3. In the broadcast method, or a cast of the hand. For making seeds vegetate more readily, see Seeds. By the drill-method of sowing, nearly one-halt of the seed requisite for sowing may be saved ; which, with regard to wheat, particularly, is a matter of some consequence. See Drill. For the proper time of commiting each kind of seed to the ground, and the quantity to be sown of each, see the ar- ticles of which the seeds are to be sowed. A general rule which prevails, in regard to sowing seeds, is, that the largest and most full-grown be sown. It is said that small seeds produce small stalks and small seeds, and large seeds the contrary. This, it is believed, is a matter well worth attending to, particularly as it respects the differ- ent kinds of grain which are not wholly naturalized to our climate or to our soil. Sowing too early in the Spring may be as injurious as sowing too late; for, if the ground be not well pulverized, and sufficiently warmed, before sowing, the seeds will come up slowly, and be stunted in their growth. M. Duhamel found, by experiments, that few seeds will come up, if buried more than nine inches in the soil ; that some will rise very well at the depth of six inches; and, that others again will not rise if buried two inches. Those seeds which, in vegetating, are thrown out of the ground, such as beans, &c. ought to be buried lightly; and, in^en- eral, it may be observed, that very few seeds require to be deeply buried. In light soils, they should be buried deeper than in stiff and cold ones. When the ground is rolled, alter sowing, seeds will come up with a lighter covering of earth, than where this is not done. Much depends on having the seeds sowed as evenly as possible; and for this purpose they ought to be sowed when the weather is not windy, particularly those which are light or easily wafted away. In sowing some seeds, it * is advisable to go over the ground twice ; sowing one-haif 852 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. of the intended allowance of seed one way, and the other half crosswise* Previous to sowinj^, seeds should be soaked in sonne fer** tilizing liquor J and tor this purpose a solution of saltpetre with lie of wood ashes and old urine is believed to be best ; but, in such case, let the seeds be sowed immediately^ or they will not readily vegetate. Mr. Johnson found his crops of wheat and Indian corn greatly bentfied by soaking the seeds in a solution of saltpetre and lie of wood ashrs alone. Let the seeds be soaked about twelve hours in inost cases ; but, for preventing smut in wheat, about twenty-four hours are necessary. See Smut Let the seeds be dried, before sowing, with a sprinkling of gypsum; or lime, or wood-ashes, may be used, when gypsum IS not to be had. ;: > Grain that is designed for sowing should always be kept well aired ; for,'if deprived of this for a considerable length of time, it will not vegetate. Mr. Miller took fresh seeds of different kinds : A part of each he put into vials, and sealed them so as to exclude the air; and the rest he kept exposed to it. After a twelvemonth, he sowed each on dif- ferent parts of the same bed; when all those came up that were exposed to the air, but none of those which were ex- cluded from it. Where land is very rich, it ought generally to have more seed than if it be poor; and it the size ot the grains be large, the quantity sown should be greater than where they are small. SPAVIN. A swelling about the joints of Horses, caus- ing lameness. There are two kinds of this disorder; a blood-spavin and a bag-sps^yin. The former is a swelling of the vein that runs along tlie inside of the middle joint of the hind leg's, which is frequently attended with a lameness of the joint. To cure it, says Mr. Gibsm^ first apply restringents, and a bandage tightly drawn roufta the joint; for these, if early appilfed, will generally effect a cure ; but, if by these means the Vein is nX)t reduced to its usual dimensions, the skin should be opened, and the vein tied with a crooked needle and wax-ihreiad, passed underneath, above and below the swelling, and the turgid part will then digest away with the ligatures. Let the wound be daily dressed with a mixture of turpentine, honey, and spirit of wine. The bag- spavin is merely a cyst, or bag, filled with the '^^gelatinous matter of the joint, irrupted from its proper plaee. To cure this, cut into the b>^g, and let the matter discharge ; then dress the sore- with lint diped in oil of tur- FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 35S pentine, puting into it, once in three or four days, a powder made of Calcined vitriol, alum, and bole By this method of dressing, the bag will come away» and a cure will be effected without any visible scar. Should this fail of a cure, the hot iron is directed to be applied ; and in that case, if the joint become !« flanned, apply a poultice over the dressings, till the swelling be re- duced. SPAYING. It is recommended to* spay -Sows, as this prevents conception and will cause them tQ^ have mjore fat -than the barrows. Heiteri are also spayed in Greatbritain, ^wjhere they are raised ntier^ ly for fating. The method of ptrforming this, with tffect, is best lea^tie^ by practice. ^PELT f7>zV?c7^m,-^e/m> This grain, is much used for bread, in GtMmany< and is the frumeptacious tribute which ^the ancien! Rinnans exacted from theV^People oi that Coufjjtry, while it tarnned a part of tht R )man Empird It is considerably cuUivared by the German Farm'rs in Penin- sylvania Its product is about ti)e same a^ 'hat of wheat; but the flijur made from it is of a yellower ct l(jr^ and there- fore not so valuable iij ihe markets, though pt-rnaps equ lly good for comnnon family iise. The grain is to be hull d before grinding; and, as the skirr^f it is very thinfiif^ it is very productive, in flour. r \'^ Its ailvantages over wheat are, that it is much less liable' to be Winier-killed in moist lands, where wheat is apt to be drawn up by th^ roots by the frost. It will grow on the richest soils, without lodgijig; and it will also grow well on soils too^poor, or dry, to bear wheat to any advantage.'' It is usually sown in Pennsylvania about the 20th of September; though it is said t,hat it may be cultivated as a Spring-crop. Dry soils are said to be mo^t suitable for this grain. Pro- bably it might be cultivated to advantage ifr Newengland, and elsewliere, where wheat does not flourish. SPIKY-ROLLER. This instrument is tnoch recpm- mended, by some E[>glish Writers, for meljowing clay- ground that is baked in clods. It Is. also recommended to be passed bver fields of whea,t, in the Springs, fgir the pur- pose of loosening the ground ; and then to be^ folio wed by a^ brush-harrowing. This wpuld,' no doubt, be~ vei-y useful ; and 'would afford a fine opportunity for sowitig cloverseed on tf»e crop. Its further ^use is, to tear anji loosen old grass-? bound meadows, fqr the purpose of making the grass gW)V more thriftily. r^ ^ s< It is merely a wooden roller with, iron teeth, or spikes^ sirove into it. They are to be about seven inches long^, and 45 f 354 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. drove three inches into the wood, and set four inches apan^ in diagonal rows round the roller. The outer ends are not to be sharp but square. SPROUTS. Where woods are cut off which are apt t© sprout, the best way is to persevere in destroying the sprouts as fast as they appear; because the longer they are suffered to grow, the more difficult it becomes to extirpate them, particularly in wet meadow-lands., In these, the dif- ficulty is inci*eased on account of their taste being less palatable than those of uplands ; and therefore cattle are less inclined to eat them. In such grounds, the best way is to cut off the sprouts four or five times in the first season, and this will pretty much destroy them. II a swamp can be flooded two or three years, it will effectually destroy sprouts and every other growth; or if it can be drained dry, it so alters the. nature of the soil, that its growth of wood soon inclines to die, for want of us usual moisture. The best method of destroying sprouts, is to beat ^them of| from the stumps. This can be done with the pole of an axe; and the more a stump is battered, and its bark beat off rSund the roots, the mwe tffectually will the further growth ot sprouts be preverited. Elder bushes may be completely destroyed, by cuiing.off the sprouts five times in any one year. See. further, Weeds. SPUR. A disease in rye. The grains which are affected with it are larger than the rest, mostly crooked, bitter to the taste, projecting beyond their, husks,^ dark- colored, rough, and ded^ply furrowed from end to end. This kind of diseased grain sometimes proves very de- structive to those who eat it. See Rye. STABLE AND STALLS. The stable should be «o well enclosed as to defend the bgasts from the winds and storms; an4 at the same time it slibuld not be too warm, lest it mak^ them tender, whe^n exposed to the weather. . Trie stable should have a good floor, descendiipg a little backwards^ so J.hat the stale will run off beliind. It should b*e divided into separate apartments, or stalls, for each beast 10 stahd by itself. There should be a good manger for Horses, and the rack. which holds their hay should be up- right and not too high. Some prefer puting the hay into a very large raansrer, or trough, made for the purpose- and Whit is left by Worses can be given to other cattle, as they will eat it very readily. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 355 Stables should be kept cleaa and well littered, to keep the beasts comtortable when they lie down. Some advise boring holes through the floor, to let off the st le more readily. For Horses, there should be sufficient roonri in ihe stalls lo turn their heads to every part ol their bodiei^, and to raise them as high as they please. STAGGERS. A disease in some kinds of cattle. If the staggering ot a Horse be owing to hard usage, Gibson di- rects to take a piiit of blood trom his neck, and then a quart from some vein in his hinder parts, and that he be then kept en moderate cleansing diet. i When the disease arises from an apoplectic disorder, he must be treated as before, and exercised every day wuh^ chewing assafaeiid'aj^ savin, and all other noisome things, ^hictt'wiil keep him in constant action, and forward the circulation of the blood in t^e small A^essels. Aticrwards, * recourse niust be had to clysters, strong purgatives, rubing, and exercise. ^ YW$en it arises fijom a swiming of the head, the animal reels, turns round, and falls. For thi§, take an ounces of senna, boiled in five pir^ts of water, with four ouqiges of common treacle, and the usual quantity of oils or lard, to throw m as a clyster; and repeat thi^ for two or three days. After t^is he may have a drench of b6er, in which the roots of poeny, angelica, rue, rosemary, and flowers of lavender have been steeped. If the disease continue obstitiate, balls of cinnibar, and assafoetida, with bayberries, will be proper here, as in apoplectic cases. - Mr. Gibson condemns the practice of putirtg ginger and other stimulating things into tlie ear, as^ dangeroM^though it may sometimes prove beneficial. ^^ STEAMBOILER. This is an Implement that np Farmer er Planter should be without^ as potatoes, partictilariy, are nearly fc or lube must be set in one side, through which, with the aid of a funnel, the water is to be poured into the ket- tlt , as otten as occasion may require. When poured in, the * tube is lo be stoped, vi^iih a plug tor the purpose. Grain of all kinds may be stf^amboiled lo great advantage, for teeding and fating cattle; but, in that case, it is rtquisite to have the bottom of the liogbht;ad coveted wi h arCloth| ^to prevent the grain runing down through the holes. By ixperiments which have been Accurately macfe, in Pennsylvania, upon Indian corn and potatoes, used for fat- ing Swine, it was tound that they increased in weight 'bne- third faster on the boiled, than on the unboiled food; or, in other words, they g;>in]B^ STONES. Where arable lands particularly abound with these, ho good culture can be carried on. The first step then is to clear such lands of the stones, and let this be done eflTectually; carrying off the small ones and diging put the larg^ ones, so that there be no obstructions no the plough- , fe J > Some lands may indeed be too stony to be cleared of them to any present advantage. Let such be left to the prowess of future generations; they will undoubtedly find their account in clearingusuch, and find use for the stones. If they be not all wanted for fences, buildings, Scq. they may be found useful in making hollow drains, gcc* If stones be very badly shapen, so that they will not lie in a wall, perhaps the better way may be to throw them aside, and make hedge-fences; but if they be chiefly well shaped, let them be made into walls ; for these, if properly made, will last an age, with some trifling repairs. The best method of making these is to dig a trench, where the wall is to be made, to the depth of about eighteen inches ; into this throw all the small and bad-shaped stones, until the ti'ench is filled ; then on the top of these build the wall, in a mason-like manner, to the height of about five feet, and throw the earth dug out of the trench up against the wall on each side ; and in this way it will stand for a length of lime beyond the memory of Man. it a trench be not dug in this manner, the next best method is to plough deep 360 FARMER'^ ASSISTANT. trenches close on each side of the wall, after it is built, and throw the earth, thus ploughed up, against the wall. Where stones are very large, and cannot be removed without breaking them^' the best way is to split throducts ; but they are too trouble- some, in e^ood cultivation, to be desirable on accountvof all the benefit to be deiived from them.' , ^ > Where ground is full of sm sll stones, they ma^^ be drove down so as to be out of the way of the isithe, by having a roller passed over the ground in the Spring, when it is very soil, as the stones are then easily pressed into it. STOCKING OR shocking' Let ten sheaves be dis- posed in two rows, each leaning against the other; then let two sheaves be laid on the top, so as that the but of one lies under the, but of the other, having the heads hanging downwards. In this way, wheat or other ^rain will iteep very well. Another method is to make little stacks, of an hundred sheaves or ijiiore in each. TJiey are made with the heads inmost and, uppermost ; and,, over the top of the "Whole, a lari^e sheaf is tied close to the but-end, and the otner end spread all round the topxof the stack, to preserve it, from the rains This is, no doubt, the best, method for saving the, grain from the effects of long and heavy rains. STRAIN OR SPRAIN.^ ^Horses are liable to strains, particularly in their shoulders. Anointing theni witb spirits of turpentine, in the part injured, will help them for a while; but will not afford a permanent relief Washing the shoulder, when that part is affected^' With brine, as warm as it can well be borne, will effect a cure in a few days. Do- ing ir twice a^ay, and leting the animal rest from labor, will generally'lpej'form a^ure in a few weeks, at farihest. ' If these will not answer, let warm poultices be applied, Of bran, boiled in <,yinegar, with a sufficiency of hogslard to prevent its growing hard; let this be repeated, if necessary, until the cure is completed; and then mind to keep (hat part covered a while, so that it shall not be affected by' colds. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 38 i STRAWBERRY (Fragaria ) The Chili, the hautboy, the wood^ dhd thtt scarlet straivbetry^ are all esteem, d ; but the latter is mostly cuUivaicd- A light loamy soil is best for raising them; and it should not be dunged much, lest they run too much, and of course be less truiitul. ^ They arc first to be sowu trom the seeds, in a bed, whicb is to be kept dean of weeds. In this they are to be kept three years, before transplanting. They are to be trans- planted in September or the begining of Oc ober. The ground into which they are to be transplanted is to be laid out into beds, four feet wide, with alleys between them, of the width ol two f* ct. Tht plants are to be set fifteen inches apart, in rows each way. Mr Miller says, * The plants should never be taken from old neglected beds, where the plants have been suffi red to run into a mi^ltitude of suikcrs; that those sl\ouid be avoided which are not fruittui; and those offi^ets which stand nearest to the old plants siiould be preftred to those which are pro- duced from the trailing stalks at a greater distance.' When they become , unfruitful, which is generally at the end of three years, they lliust be again transplanted. Mr. Miller directs, that the vines be kept clear of weeds during the Summer; that all the runers, or suckers, be pulled off as fast as they appear; and ihey will produce a plentiful crop the next Spiing after planting The old plants produce the fruit; the suckers yield none until after a full yeai's growth; and they serve to rob the old pi mts ef that nourishment which is so essential to their fruit- fulness. In Autumn, let the plants be again divested of their strings and runers, and the beds be a^ain cleared of weeds. Mr. Miller directs that some Taner's bark be then spread over the ground, and this, when afterwards buried in the soil, will serve as a dressing fof the vines. He fui'tber di- TectSj that some moss be spread round under the vines, to keep the fruit from the ground. Straw will answer as well, for this purpose. An improved method of, cultivating the Alpine strawberry, ^ is as follows: ^' ^ * Sow the seed on a moderate hotbed in the begining of April, and, as soon as the plants have acquired sufficient strength, transplant them in open beds. They will begin to blossom after midsummer, and afford an abundant au- tumnal crop.' ' ♦ Mr. Knight, who reports. the foregoing method of vtreat- ment, thinks, that this plant should always be cultivated as an annual one. 4fi ^62 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Gypsum has a most powerful effect, when applied as a top-dressing, or otherwise, lo sirawberry-plants, not only in increasing their growth, but also their product in fruit. STUBBLE. Where the stubble is largje, as it will be vH^re the grain is Itr^e, and is reaped, the ground will be \Wy considerably ben* fittd by ploughing it under as soon as the grain is taken off; whereas, if it be suffered to stand until it is perfectly dried, and all the juices evaporated, it will then do the ground little or no good. In this way, t0(^, the seeds of many weeds a' e prevented from ripening. But the Reader will observe, in the Georgics of Virgil, that the Author of that elegant Work particularly insists on burning off the stubble, in preference to ploughiJig it under, as being nnore bentficial to the succeeding crop, and as having a greater eflF;^ct in fertilizing the land. Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania, is also of this opinion. He «ays that if straw, or other rubish, be spread over land, and then burned off. it will assist the soil more than if the same straw or rubish were suffered lo rot on the ground This we believe to be correct ; but, whether, it be more advisable to let stubble stand till it is dry, aii^Hhen burn it off, in pre- ference to turning it under, before it has dried, is a matter that is perhaps well worthy of accurate experiment. It should be observed, however, that some British Farm- ers prefer gathering the stubble for the purpose of litter, in which way it is converted into good manure, by absorbing the Stale and juices of the dung of the cattle, much of which might be lost for want of something of this kind to retain it: But, whether the dearness of labor in this Country would warrant the expense, we are not prepared to say. Certain it is, however, that, where cattle are properly kept_, a sufficient quantity of litter would seem to be indis- pensable. SUGARCANE (Jrundo Sacqharifera.) There are va- rieties of this plant ; but all pontain the juice from which sugar is made. It requires a rich, deep, mellow soil. The ash-colored soil of St. Christopher's, and the red loam of * the north side of Jamaica, liave been found the best in the * Westindies, for its culture. There is at present but a small proportion of .our territory, where the climate is sufficiently mild for cultivating the cane to advantage; though it is be- lieved that its culture may be gradually extended to the north, as the plant becomes better adapted to the climate in whict^ it is grown. For instarjce, let it be planted a mile farther north every <^ succeeding year, and in this way it will gradually become contracted in its growth, and in the time required for grow- FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 3^3 ing it, until it might even, perhaps, be matured in the short Summers ot Canada. As U would lessen lu growth, it woirtd, like Indian corn, admit ot being planted more close- ly, and thus about the same quantity ot cane WiiUid be ob- tained trom ihc acre. The Imids m this Country, which are best adapted to the euUure of this plant, are chiefly ihose which are almmx]^ and the rich loams, which are gcnerully dark«coiored, being mixed wiih greater or less proportions ot vegetable ea.th. Rich saudy or gravelly loams v»iil probably answer very . well. The soils on which Indian corn flourislies most are, we believe, well adapted for the cane. Whether it could be successlully cultivated on lighter lands, with the aid of gypsum, has probably never been ascertained; though we have iiitle reason to doubt that this manure would act as powertully on this as on many oiuer plants. As there is but a small portion ot this Country adapted, at present, tor the culture of the cane, so that perhaps not one in ten thousand of our Agricuhunsis is likely to be en- gaged in the pursuit ; and as the whole process ot raising the plant, and its subsequent management, would, if detail- ed ail lull length, considerably enlarge t^is volume i we must reter those who may siand in need of information, on this subject, to Mr. Edwards* History of the Westindies : But, toi more accurate intormation, we would advise such to learn, trom. those engaged in this employment, the parti- cular details of the culture, and process, as adapted to this Country, and improved since the lime when Mr. Edwards wrote the Work m question. The method most proper for raising the cane in this Country, as well as the time in which it is to be cultivated, are each different trom what prevails in the Westindies. Here the plough should be the principal implement used in the culture; there, it is, partly from old habits, and partly from tiie steepness and rougnness ol much of the land, mostly pertormed with the hoe. Great improvements have also been made in this Country, m the process ot distiling) since the publication of the Work in question. I'ne culture of the cane on the lands in this Country, which are adapted for it, is at present very profi able ; and this will probably induce many lO drive the business to the utmost extent, to the ultimate exhaustion of the lands. It . was formerly a common saying, among southern Cultivat- ors, of tobacco in particular, that by wearing out one farm enough could be made to purchase tour new ones. Accord- ingly, mucn valuable land- was laid waste, tor the sake of immediate gain; and practising on this plan is still .5ut too | prevalent in the Southern States. Lands arc there common- ly used in a most barbarous manper. 364 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. At present* however, when lands must soon be rapidlf rising, he who expects to be the gainer, by exhausting his lands, will find himself much mistaken. The sun ntver shone on ah acre ot land that was too tertik tor the most profitable cultivation. Commonly, even nt w lands are much too poor to aflFord the greatest profits Instead, theretore, otjyearing out new lands, it should ever be the aim ot tne Pflmter to increase their tertility. By the extensive cuhure ot the Guinea-grass (see Gui- "NEA grass) in the Southern Stares, cattle may be raised in IhyridiU , ^nfi wnh great profit i so that there need be no want of mar>ur« tor the lands, and lands certainly cannot be made too rich for growing the cant. We would tnertfore advise the Planters of that Country to beware of exhau.sting their lands iri the culture of this plant, or any other; but to turn nmch of their attention to raising cattle, by means ol the power|ul aid just mentioned; and this will itff rd the requisite mariiife to keep the lanj^s in the highest degree ol if rtility, and of course afford me greatest piufi. . so that one acre may yield more clear gain, than is commonly detived from four; in the usual Gultul^e of cane in impoverished lands. SU^FLO^^ER. flleiianthus J It is found, that th© seeds ot tliis pldiii afford an oil tqual to that ot tlie olive- tree; and it is said, that seventy bushels ot this seed may be raised from an acre. The plant will grow in almost ah^y soil thnt is sutficienily strohg The seeds are gobd for feeding poultry, during ^lie Winter season From a bushel of this seed, says the Editor of * The Watchman,' a gallon of o)l, as fine as that which we import from Fiorcnce, may be obtained at any time, q-iie soft, bland, and fresh; and the mass that remains, after pressing out the oil. is ot excelent use to feed hogs, poultry, &c. He further observes, that the Inhabitants of unwholsome places should be diligent in cultivating this plant.' on account of the vast quantity ol oxygene gas which it produces; it having been provedif ihaf near twenty times as much dt^is gas is produced in twenty-four hours by one plant, in light and clear weather, as a Man t*espires, in an impure aimos- *phere, in that space of time. The Editor of the ' Emfiorium of Arts'' has also noticed this native American plant, at considerable length; and suggests, with others, who have made trials ot it in Eng- land, other valuable uses to which it may be applied; such as the fibres of the bark or skin, as a substitute for hemp; the stalks, when green, for the purpose ot wattling, &c. andl when clried, as <*\\ article ot tuel , an acre yielding from tiliree to nine wagon-loads; the pith as affording good tin- FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 365 « der, and the leaves, when green, as excelent food for Rab< bits, and serving iof litter when dried. ^ Tticre are eighi kinds ot ihis plant as enumerated by Mr* Grten, in his Catalogue oi Amtncan Plants ; bdt the larg- ' est kuid is recomniendtd ior culture. It sriould be raised in rows, and culiivaied in the manner of hoed crops !■ is easily ruined, and gailiertd ; the crop is a very sure one, and lubjtct to licile or no iitjury from rains, or otherwise, if lett standing 368 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. breed, the next point is to select the fipest for Breeding- sows, and for Boars. Tl>e marks ot a good Hog are, a moderate length, in proportion to the size of the body; the nose short, the cheek plump and full; nt ck thick and shors ; quarters full; car- case thick and lull; hair fine and thin; with a symmetry ^ adapted, to the breed to which it belongs. Above all, it is f.senti.fl, that it be of a kindly disposition ^lo faten early, he longnosed.Hags should be avoided. ^ The So>V will bring forth a stronger and better litter, if iept^iunn the Boar till she is a year old; and he should be ' kept ml that age, before he is put to Sows. He should be kept In good condition for the purpose; and, as the Com- pilers of * The Comfilete Grazier* say, should not serve more than ten Sows in a year. Tiie Sows should also be Jtept in good condition, but not too fat ; as in thai case they ^ will not produce an abundant litter pf:tpig8. As they MyJl v?sually pignwice a year, they should be put to the Bos^^t such times as will bring one litter in April, and another early in September. To cause theiti to go to the Boar, if they miss the right season, give them some parched oats in their wash, or the ^^^W end of a junet-bag. If well kept, however, they will seldom require any stimulous to coition at the proper limes. Those are reckoned the best breeders which have about ten or twelve paps. They should be kept clean and well littered ; but should not have too much Utter at the time of piging, lest they ove^ay their Pigs in it. At the end of a week or ten days, they should be let out of their sties into the yard, for three or four hours each day. Where s^ve- "al Sows are farrowing, about the same time, they must be kept in separate apartments in the sty, lest they devour the Pigs of each other. Youn^ Spws will sometimes eat their own offspring, which may be prev^ented by hashing the bctcks of the Pigs in an infusion of aloes; and, for this pur- pose, the Sows must be watched when bringing forth. It is said, that^upplying them with plenty of water, at this time, will prevent any mischief taking place of this kind. |p The sucking Pigs, intended for market, should be killed at the end of about three weeks. The finest ones should be saved. By this time the rest will be able to follow the Sows, when the males may be casirated, and at the end of another v/eek the females may be spayed. This latter ope- • ration will greatly promote the growth and fatening of ihe females. The castration and spaying may as well, however, be detered till the age of six weeks. A Where the Pigs are to be weaned, Mr. Young" says, it should be at the age of two mon'!>s; and luty should be kept Jn a sty by themselves, and suffered to run into a yard. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 369 They should be kept clean, and well littered, and should havtr plenty of food, which may be boiled potatpes, or car- rots, for a fortnight; when raw ones will prove good food. They should also be baited every day for a month with oatS| and after this mayiiave a thin drink of pea or buckwheat meal (Indian meal will no doubt answer as well) boiled in water, unless there be a dairy ; in which case, a mess milk or whey jmay be subsiitu-ed. Too much shquld no however, be given them at once, as Mr. Deane says it i^r known sometimes so to iriflate them with wind^as tq kill them. Mr. Young says, their being kept very cleali^ly, so as to have fine clean coats, is as essential to their growth as good feeding, until they are turned out with the larger Hogs into the clover field, which, after the age of three months, will keep them very well during the rest of the growing season. : "' has been unifor.tSy remarked, that though^tfcese anU are naturally filthy, if left to themselves; yet, the cleaner they are kt pt. Ui^ better they will grow and faten. Boiled or steamed CTO^er hay will serve to keep Hogs during Winter; but, perhaps, the addition of some potatoes or/carrots, boiled with the hay, would ;6f^very proper The clover should be cut a li:ilt sooner tfiii^ usual, and sl\ould be well cured, and have abbutfa peck of salt to each ton, when laid dt>wn in the mow. For boiling, in this case, as well as for boiling roots, and for other purposes, see Steamboiler j^ , The Sows may be allowed to breed nil tiiey are six years old, and the Boar until he is five. After this, the former is to be spayed and put up to faten, and the lauer is to be castrated, as being no longer fit for use. His flesh will make good bacon, when fated. In p^efereuce to feeding Swme on clover in the fields during "Sumi^'fer, Mr. Young directs soiling themin a yard for the purpose; and in this case he 'makes use pf lucerne, cichory, clover, tares, ^nd other green food, cut and carried in Im- feeding them. The water crowfoot (rununculus aqzaff^lisj is also highly recommended for tnis purpose. This method, however, though it may saveisome ground in pasture, anB may afford the means of making considerable manure, does not seem so apparently beneficial, as the practice of soiling some other caitl^. Mention is made, by Mr. Young, oi his having fed sixty four a Hogs, great and small, on two acres of clover alone, during one season, and that they all grew very well. The pasture in which they are kept should have a supply of ^water. Before Ihfy are turned into the pasture, and while they are young, let th^ top of the gristle of the nose be pared off with a sharp " 47 '^ Ah 270 FARMER'9 ASSISTANT. knife, which will ever afterwards prevent their rooting up the sward. - It answers the sanne purpose as ringing them. Perhaps the best method of keeping Swine, during Sum- mer, is to have two small enclosures ; ^he one to be kept for feeding them, while the other is under tillage for a fresh supply of clover, or other good grass, when that in e first has fdiled. And as they are fond of sweet apples, hich not only serve for Jood, but will even help to faten m, let the enclosures be planted with a few trees of these, of *the best yeurly bearers, stlected for the purpose; somelSeing early ripe and some later; in order that a con- stant supply may be fforded during the season. The trees should, however, not stand so closely as materially to injure the ground for culfevation. Peachtrees may also be advan- tageously used tor the same purpose, till the appletrees have suffi* iently grown. ''%-:■ % Boiled clover has been meniionf'd, ^as affording a ^M(^ food for Hugs during Winter. In Greatbritain, boiled W"- rots, potatoes, turnips. Sec. are mostly used for the purpose^ by those who go largely into the raising of Swine. Hogs tor fating ^puld be in a healthy state; and, to in- crease their appett^Jlet a dose or two of sulphur be given them in their food. / Change oL,food is also good to increase their appetite; but laxfUive food should be avoided, as they are seldom costive. When found so, a little rye will help them. Probably changes of Boiled roots, and of meal and water, at intervals, ^ould be found best. Mr. Young' says, the best method '^^^ ^^ nearly equi distant in point of iiiiie ^s possible * In the ^rk last menuoned, it is observed, that where many Hags are put up together to taten, they will fall away at first, it ever so well led; which is atiiibuted to the noise and confusion produced among them,vby this new state of keeping J^ that, irv«uch cases, it is not unfrequent tor one of the family to become so much the object of hatred to the ^ rest, as eventually to be killed by them; and, that it is much the better way to have them in a number ot small companies, detached from each other, so that the noise and btistle^ll be less, and in order that they may mor'e unmoleste dry enjoy that repose which is most suitable to their drowsy faculties. For this purpose, the sty should have a number of distinct aipartments, separated by close pai|itions from each other, and where,,^he inmates of each caff come forward separately to the general feeding-trough, and retire separately again to rest. Where a Hog has surfeited itself h^ eating too much, give it half an ounce of fljur of sulphur in some wash, once or twice a day, for two or three days; by which time its appetite will be restored. Mr. Dcane advises, that posts be set up in the sty for them to rub against, as they are usually much inclined to rub th^^selves. The business of fating Hogs sftbuld be begun so early in j the Fall, as to be completed before the cold weather sets in; as ^ler this they will 'faten very slowly. Let it be com- ■ -^ ^ Sr2 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. menced by the middle of September, and then the killing may commence about the middle of November. Swine are liable fo some diseases, which are here noticed, with the best remedies tor them. > ♦ Measles, Tills disorder is mostly in the throat, which is filled with small pustules, and sometimes these appear on the outside of the neck. The animal affected looks languid, >yith red eyes, and loses flesh. Cure. Give him small quan- tities of levigated crude antimony in his food. "* The inange^ like the scab in Sheep, is a cutaneous irrup- tion of, the skin, occasioned by want of cleanliness in the hogsiy- It is known by the violent rubing of th« animal, lill he tenrs the pustules, and thus produces scabs. The cure, as directed bv Dr JYoH'ord^ is first to wash the animal well with strong soapsuds; then anoint him with an ointment formed of an ounce of flour of suljihur, t\|0 drachms of fresh pulverized hellibore, three o^bces of hogslard, and hall an ounce of the water of kali. This is to be rubed -In at one time, and is sufficient tor a Hog weighing an hun- dred. If properly applied, no repetition will be necessary, if the Hog be afterwards kepi clean* Where he has a slight cough, he directs do&es of antimony, from half an ounce. to an ounce and a ha!f,rJHCCording to the ^Jze of the animal, to be fifttly pulverized and nuxed wilh his food, for ten days or a fortnight. But wuere, trom long neglect;^ the neck, ears, and other parts become ulcerated, they should be anointed every third or lourth day with an ointment made of iqual parts of t.»r and mutton-suet, melted together, till the cure is completed. "^ . ' The murrain^ or leprosy, in Swine, is known by the short- ness and heat ot the breath, hanging down of, the head, staggering, and secretions from the eyes. It is said to be caused by hot seasons, when the blood becom^yt;fl'4med. 'Remedy. Boil a handful of nettles in a ga^illn of small- beer; add half a pound of flour of sulphur, a quarter of a pound of anniseeds, pulverized, three ounces ot Lquorice, and a quarter of a pound ot eliBcampane ; and give this n^ix- ture in milk, at six^oses. ^ The gargut is an inflammation of the udder, by being filled with coagulated milk. It cbieffy happens where Sows are too fat at iiUeiHng; and where they are thus alTected the Pigs will not suck. In slight cases, the udder may be bathed with camphorated wine; but the milk must be squeezed out by hand, if possible. If relief cannot thus be given, it is best to kill the animal. Dry cough^ and wastiii^l?f the flesh, is best remedied by 4 a dry warm sty, with a regular supply of food that is calcu- lated to keep them cool, and to allay the irritation of the luna^.^ ^ FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 373 Fever, or rising of the lights, seems to be caused by over-teeding ; and may be removed by doses of sulphur and oil. ^ The staggers. Swine tifflicted with this disorder suddenly turn round rapidly, and, it not assisted, will die in hall an hour. Re?nedy. On opening the mouth, a bare knob, in the roof of it, will be discovered j cut this away, and let the wound bleed ; make a powder of loam and salt, and rub the wound wiih if, and then give ih^ beast some urine, and he will prescnily recover. ''' This remedy, Mr. Be Gruchy, a Distiler, who fatens many Hog*^, says he found to be tffv^^ciual, if applied in time. Like many other employments, that of rearing and fating Swme will be found more profirable, the moie largely and spiritedly it is entered into; and in order to this the Farmer- must have his^^pgsty of an adequate construction ; his pas- tures adjoining; his sfeamboiler; his clover-hay; together wrai a due supply of roots and grain for feeding and fating. The business is niost advantageous when connected with a proportionate dairy; but,A.by following the plan above laid d^wn, may answer very well without. JSTote. This article Being essentially ^ same as the article ^wiNE in a former edition of this Work, w^leem it proper now to add, that Mr. Cobbett has lately introduced a new breed of Hogs into this Country.' They are entirely black, short-nosed, and well pro- portioned. Mr. Cobbett declares them to be incomparably superior to the best breed known in Pennsylvania; and that such is the ease with which they may be completely fated, even at the age of a twelvemonth, that the Swedish turnip, or Rutabaga, when steam- boiled, is amply sufficient, of itself, for the purpose. This breed will, no doubt, be rapidly propagated and extended throughout Longisland, where Mr. Cobbett at present resides; whUe his liberality arid public spirit, displayed in the introduction of these animals, as well as his eliorts in forcing the advantages of the turnip- Guliure iinnn|a|»i attention of our Agriculturists, entitle him to the thanks of theT^ountry. --^ He very justly deprecates the breed of lean, illmade, longnosed Hogs, that are too commCnly found in this Country, but more parti- cularly in the Southern States. They are indeed the meanest of all the « swinish multitude,* and cost nearly as much to faten as they are worth when fated. T. - % TAURINO CLOTH. Mr. ^hotwell has manufactured cloth, to which he gives the above appellation, of fhe hair taken from hides at the taneries, mixed with one-third, j)ne- > t" 374 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. > fourth, and one-fifth part of common wool. The Society « for the Promotion of useful Arts,* in this State, appointed a Committee to examine the specimens of tl\ese cloths; who reported that they found them well manufactured, of equal quality and texture, well died, and apparently firm and strong ; that these cloths are not only lighter than that made of wool alone, but that they have the property of re- sisting moisture, to a much greater degree, and are there- fore much better calculated for greatcoats; and that, from actual trial, an equally elegant and more durable carpeting • ipay be made from either of these mixtures, than that made entirely from wool. They also reported, « That, from documents accompanying the specimens, it is certain that a cloih equal, if not superior, in elegance and durability, is manufactured from hair alone ; and that it is a valuable substitute for felling, in the paper- n>anufacture.* TEA^S. Our teams are of three kinds ; teams of Hor- ses, of Oxen, and of Oxen and Horses together. In Spain and Italy, they h^ve teams of Cows, and sometimes of Cows and Bulls together. In the northern parts of Europe, the Reindeer has been subjected to the harness; and Mr. Linf- ingston is of opinioi^AJiiat the Eil^ and the Moose might also be brought under the like subjection, to advantage, in this Country. The advantages of Horses in teams are their siaperiot' docility and quickness of motion ; and their disadvantages are their greater expense in raising and keeping, and their . being of no value after their time of seryjce is over. On the contrary, the advantages of Oxen are their cheapness i». raising and keeping, and their value for beef, after their proper time of service has expired ; and their disadvantages are their slowness of motion, and their greatergUntractable- ness. Probably they might be rendered morlBjIfac table, if some effectu&l method were devised for driving them with lines : In that case, the extra expense of a Hand to drive them in ploughing would be saved, and the ploughing bet- ter performed. Say that a good span of Farming-horses are worth, at four years old, one hundred dollars: At fourteen years from that time they are worth little or nothing ; of course, another sum of one hundred dollars must, at the expiration of that time, be expended in the purchase of a new span. This sum, to be paid at the end of fourteen years, is about equal to fifty dollars paid down. In order, therefore, to keep good the span, a canijj^ of one hundred and fifty dol- 4 lars is necessary; which wrcqual to an expenditure of ten dollars^nd fifty cents a year. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 375 A yoke of Oxen, at four yearfe olcl, are worth, say, sixty dollars ; md allowing them no; to dept eciute in value, till turned off for fating, they require an expenditure of four dollars and twenty cents a year, as the interest of the capital laid out for them. Say that the Horses will cost fifteen dollars a year more than the Oxen to keep them, and provide harness for them; say also, that they do an hundred day's work in a year, and that the Oxen, working a third slower, require one hundred and thirty three days to p«irform the same labor: Then, if one Hand only is. employed with the Oxen, his wages and board, during the exfra thirty-three days, at fihy cents per day, would still leave a balance in favor of the Oxen of four doILtrs and eighty cents for the year's work; but if they shouj|fl require a Boy to drive, wh*ile another* Hand holds tte "p^ouglb ^^en the balance would be very considerably irflavor of the Horses. On the whole, it is believed, that Oxen may be found the most profitable team in some situations, particularly in new countries, and in rough lands; and in other situations again, iuch as in smooth lands, a^d where the best cultivation is required, probably, H^Pscii ought, for most uses, to have the preference. ^ Lord Kaims^ however, expresses an opinion very d iff rent from this. He says that Oxen are preferable for husbandry, in many respects. They are cheaper than Horses, as it re- gards their food, the method of keeping them, the superior- ity of their dung, their being subject to fewer diseases, and their suffering no deterioration by age. He says, that a couple of Oxen in a plough require not a Driver more than a couple of Horses; that the Dutch, ^t the Cape of Good- hope, plough with Oxen without a Driver, and exercise them early^ a quick pace, so as to equal Horses both in the plougWJPd in the wagon; that the People of Malabar use no other animal for the plough, nor for burdens; and that, about Pondicherry, no beasts of burden are to be seen but Oxen. He further justly remarks, that, if Oxen were more generally used, the articles of beef, candles, and leather," three essential necessaries of life, would become much cheaper. The Compilers of < The Complete Grazier* also say, that Messrs. Culley^ of Northumberland, Greatbritain, employ one hundred and fifty Oxen in the draft; that they are used singly in carts, and two in a plough, with cords or lines, without a Driver; but that they do not perform their work with the same dispatch, as Hor^^s. They further observe, that, 'in the north of England, it is not an unfrequent oc- curence to see a light Ox saddled, and briskly troting along t*ie road, obedient to his Rider's voice;' and that * Sussex 376 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Oxen have beaten Horses at the plough, in the deepest clay.* They recommend the Hertfordshire and Devonshire Oxen, as being the most speedy. See the description of the Devonshire breed of Oxen, under Neat-cattle The slowness of Oxen is partly natural and partly acquir- ed by overloading them. This, therefore, should be avoided. When their work is easy, they may be quickened without hurting them, and their contracting a habit of moving so slowly, as some do, may be thus prevented. They always become slower as they grow older, and for that reason they never should be kept longer than such age as they will still make the best beef, which is probably about the age of seven or eigh» years. In a tearti, of part Oxen and part Horses, either the gait of the Oxen must become quickened, or that^pt the Horses made blower; but, perhaps, a little of eacF" would be. the consequence, and in this way the Oxen would be the better, though probably at the expense of injuring 1:hc Horses for almost every kind of work, when worked by themselves. Mr. Livingston makes mention of a contrivance he had seen in Italy, that was attached^ito the noses of the Oxen, which was principa))^ used for governing them ; and by means of it he thinks he had seen them drove with lines. « It consists (says he) of two fl it pieces of iron that turned at the lower ends, and formed a forceps ; these bars shut over, and, wheru closed, the ends genilj^ pressed upon the cartilage of the nose of the Ox. They were kept close by being tightly bound at the top, and straped a§;4inst the fore- head of the Oxen.' 4 If we may argue the utility of a practice from its extent (says Mr Livingston) we must prefer drawing by .the horns to any other mode; nine tenths of Europe ma^their cattle draw in this way, and,' from what I have seen||p their per- formance, I am persuaded that it is to be prefr-red to the yoke. A Bull's strength appears to be placed in his n6ck, and in drawing in this way the whole of it is exerted ; his motion is not" impeded, or his skin chafed as it is by the yokf.' * In the mountains of Savoy (says Mr. Livingston) I saw many cattle, chiefly Cows, drawing by the horns, not in carts but in wagons. How far the working of Cows is ad- vantageous, deserves consideration. ^ It is observable, how- ever,'that our Cows are in general much smaller than those usually worked in Europe.' *■ Yokes (he observes) are used |^n some parts of Italy, ^ but they differ from ours. ^Instead of bows, there are lour flat pieces of wood, which hang from each side of the yoke, and are about ten inches long, and hollowed so as to fii the I?ARMER'3 ASSISTANT. 37f ^Mes of the neck: They are so thick as to admit a rope or chairj to pass ti.rouj^h them, by which they are fixed to the yoke, and each pair of them are united by a chain, or rope, under \ht Oxen's neck You will see that the drufi is in this case by \he top ot the shoulders only, and I btlieve it is to be prefered to our bows, on that account, because the bow, by pressing the shoulder-blade, impedes the motion of ti e aninial.' For holding back, whether they draw by these yokes or by the horns, he says * the end ot the pole projects con- siderabiy beyond the heads ot the cattle, and turns up very much 5 lo this is fixed a leather strap that goes round the horns of the Oxen, ^ that they keep back the weight by their horns, and with much more ease than ours do by twisting their necks * In England, they are worked in harness, which, were it not more expensive, and more troublesome, ought to be prefered to the method practised here. We think it highly probable, that the great pressure of the bows of our yokes against the shoulders of the? Oxen, and the enormous weight ;^ey are often injudiciously ma|le to bear on their necks, when in^carts, are the principal causes of our Oxen moving slower the longer they are iised. In all teams, where two animals draw against each other, the weaker one should have the longer end of the ox-bow, or whiffletree, by which they draw, in order that when drawing they may pull evenly. If Oxen learn to crowd each other, use them to a shorter bow; it they draw apart, use them to a longer one. THA, OR TEA-TREE. This plant is mostly grown in the more mountainous districts of China) and is best adapt- ed to a light TOcky soil. There are two kinds of tea made from the plant ; the green, and the black. The latter ac- quires its dark color by exposure to the sun, in drying; and is also made from the coarser and more indifftrrent leaves. For raising the trees, the seeds are planted in March, by puting senen or eight into a hole 5 out of which number not more than one-half commonly vegetate. The young plants are after^vards transplanted in rows, at the distances of three or four feet each way. They yield crops of leaves the third year after planting, and require to be renewed every five or six years, as the leaves tl^en begin to grow too hard, to be any longer valuable. On the more tender branches grow small soft berries, of a green color, filled with yellow grains; and the other branches bear pods of a larger size, of different shapes ; some round, which contain but one pes, and others of some • ^ 48 srs FARMER'S ASSISTANT. j^lenpfth, which commonly have two or three. The plant, in some parts ot China, is not suffered to grow to a height ot more than six or seven feet; in other parts, to the height of ten or twelve. In the southern Provinces of that Country it is considerably used for making hedges. The leaves are gathered at the begining, the middle, and the end of Spring, and their color diffe.rs bt each time; the fiist being bright, the second livid, and the third deep- green. The qualhies of the leaves depend on the times of gathering J the first being the best, the second midling, and the last of the least value. Their qu .lilies, at each gathering, depend also on the parts of the tree whence the leaves are taken ; those of the higher parts, being the ten- derest, are the best oOhe crop; those ot the lowest, the hardest and worst ; ufra those of the middle, ot a medium between »he two extremes. Afier each gathering, the leaves are exposed to the steam of boiling water, and are then made to shrivel, or roll to- gether, by being placed on plates made of copper, of iron, or of bft*ked earth, with a fire underneath. The leaves of mfk meaner sorts are then dried^in the sun, which darkens their color, and these ai'# the bla^k teas. The better leaves are not exposed to the sun in drying, and these are the green teas ; and in the preparation of some of the finer sorts, particularly that called tchu tcha^ every leaf is rolled singly by hand, the finer preparation of which we call guu' powder tea. Mr. Osbeck, a Traveler in China, says that tea, in the course ot preparation, passes through many dirty hands; and that in packing it down in chests it is troden by the naked, and sometimes bleeding, feet of a Chinese Porter, in a state of perspiration. As the Chinese are proverbial for their nastiness, it were to be wished that our j'emales, who are so attached to drinking tea, could see fhe manner in which it is prepared; as this might probably tend very much to lessen their relish for ihis exhilirating, but ener- vating, beverage, that has added the hysterics to the cata- logue of their disorders, and that has probably contributed much towards making the Chinese a race of Covprds, from the Emperor f»own to the meanest Peasant. The tea-plant has been successfully raised in England, from seed brought from China, and might probably be raised here, with equal success, in all the Stales south of Penn- sylvania. It is doubiful, however, whether it could be cul- tivated here so as to be afford td as cheap as that imported from China; owing to the great disparity in the price of labor in the two Countries. There has been considerable difficulty in makirig 'he seeds of this plant gernnnaie, when brought from that Country. In the ^Emliorium of ArtsA:fc* FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 379 it is stated, however, that the vegetative power of seeds may be long preserved, by being kept among raisins, in boxes. See also, Seeds, for other methods of making old seeds germinate. THORN (Crataegus,) There are many varieties of this irce in this Country, some of which may be found more valuable lor making hedges, than others. One gen- eral rule should, however, be observed in making a selec- tion, and that is, to take ot those which grow naiuraily in the Country where the hedge is to bf^ m^de. In more northerly climates, the rtd-truiied (Coccinta) is most com- mon, and perhaps as valuable as any, tor the purpose. In the Middle Siaies, the Washington thorn (Cordata) seems to have the prelerence. There has existed considerable difficulty in making the seeds ot American thorn vegetate. A succesbfal method, pursued by Mr Kirk^ ot Brundywint-, lor this purpose, is to wash the setds clean; put them in hot water to swell them, expose them at nig^ to be frozen in the water, apd in tne day 'haw them ii]^ie sui)^ and by repealing this operation, lour or five times, he tound them opea and fit for planting. They lire to be planted in beds, and covered to the depth of not more than two inches. After they have come up, they may be transplanted into other beds, and are to be kepi clear ot weeds until they are set ou', which should be when they are at the height of ab9Ut two feet. THRESHING This, when performed with flails, is but slow work. 1 iireshmg with Horses is considerably more exp;diiious. Some of the German F^mers of this county and its vicini^ thresh with a roller, whifih turns on a centre at one end, which is small and confined to the floor, at that end, by an iron pivot on which it turns, and the other end is large in proportion to the increase of the circle it makes. It is drawn by a Horse, and is usually about twelve leet lotjg. It^ sei lull of little square pieces of woodeff*teeth, leaning outwards, with the ends cut off* slanting, agreeably to the superfice of the roller. With this a Man and Horse will thresh out about twelve bushels of wheat in a day. In Virginia, where the greatest crops of wheat are raised, they generally thresh them out in the fi.::ds; and for this, some use threshing-machines, and some make circular floors of eighty teet diameter, or more; on this the wheat is set with the heads upwards, and then wagons and Horses are drove round on it till tha fl -or is threshed; then more is constantly thrown on, till a hundred bushels, or more, 3aO FARMER^s ASSISTANT. are threshed out ; when ihey separate the wheat from the straw by forking it up; clean the wheat; and then proceed as before, till the business is completed. Threshing- machines are, however, the best ; and the expense of them is but a trifle for those who raise large crops of wheat and other grain. For a threshing machine, v,rhich is probably the best that has been yet invented, we reler the Readtr to Agricul- ture, in the American edition of the Edinburg Encyclofie' dioy published in ihe city of Newyotk, by M v^-i. Whiting $5* Watson. The invention is tlmt of Mr. Mrikle. A ma- chine of this description, on a large sci*Ie> and drove by Witter, separates wheat from the stalks and tcins or cleans it, at the same time, at the rate oJ sixty bushels an l»our. One, on a smaller scale, and which requires two Horses to work it, and three Hands to attend it, will thresh and clean sixty bushels oi wheat, or double that quantity of oats, in eight hours. The Writer of the article adds, that * rollers or smail millstones are added to many ol these ma- chine«<, for crushing or grinding grain for Horses, Swine, &^Q. K lives, for cuiing straw, and many oihcr useful ap- pendages, might be adfl^ed.' Tliis machine has also becB put into operation by wind See further, Wind-machinery. It sijould also be addtd, mat mis machine separates the grain from the straw much cleaner, than is usually done With the flail. TILLAGE. A great part of this Work relates to tillage^ or the culiuie of land; the Reader must therefore refer to the various articles which treat of tiiis subject in all its branches. Any unco.nnmon mode of culture, however, or any miscellaneous observations relating to the subject, will naturally form the substance ot this article. Under Soiling of Cattle is laid down a method of tilling a small piece ol land, wherever such may be found suitable for the purpose, which we have ventured to recom- mend. The mode ot culture there recommended is uncom- mon ;(pthe land is divided into narrow strips^ an<|fthese are to be ploughed but o.ie way. Further, theietore, to assist in convincing the most bigoted, that there is nothing ex- travagant in the plan of cultivating in narrow strips, and ploughing but one way; the mode of cultivating two fields, which is practised by the Inhabitants of Murket'toeighton^ in Greatbritain, as published in the < Rusticum Museum* shall be here noticed. These People have five fields, in common, for culture ; three of a clayey soil, and two which are more sandy. The iutter supply them witte^rye, hay, and pasture for^ their FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 381 Sheep, &c. ; and are tilled in the following^ manner: The fields are raised in ridges, which are four mowing-swaths wide ; the middle or higher part of each rid^e, ot ihe wioth ot twa swaths, is cuUivatcd tor rye, and ihe remainder of each, or the moisier parts, alternately tor nmowicig and pas- ture. When the rye is growing ihe gr-^ss-sinps ure mow- ed ; and the next season, wutu rye^sirips are fallowed lor another crop ot that grain, the grass-strips afford pasture for their Sheep, Sec. ; the dung and stale of ihe Hut k serves as a light manuring for the ground every tal![ which there are varieties; and the cabbage tun !p, or braasicd. caulorafia, which is also- called the Swedish turnip, or rutabaga. They are each generally cons*d» r- d in Greatb."it:fii Id and thrown out for feeding, and at each time a diffiJieut part of the field is taken tor the purpose, in order that every part may be ben- efi ed by the manure left by the cattle. Alter the allowance is eaten, which should be no more th^n they can eat, at once, some hay is given them to correct the superabundant moisture of the turnips. Others pull up the roots by hand, first twisting them half round, in order to break off the fiorous roots, and rub off the earth adhering to them; and others again pull up one in each hand, and then knock them togctaer, to free them from earthy matter, before they are cut in pieces. It is also directed, by some, that the taproot be cut off, before they are fed out, as this, is injurious to cattle^ py causing a re- dundency of bile. Those which are stored for Winter-use, for cattle, in Greatbritain, have the tops as well as the taproots taken off; bui, if either be cut too close, the turnip will be apt to rot. The tops ar..i taken off to prevent vegetation ; for this less- ens the nutrimental quiiluies ot the roots. Rutu-baga mav. be left in the ground JFor the Spring- supply of tood, after the other sort is no longer valuable for tl»at purpose. Some Farmers, in the lower and warmer dUtricts ot that Country, leave the Winier-supply in the grdlBnd, and take them up as they are wanted; but this, when the ground is frozen, is attended with much trouble in raising them, affii some in thawing them, which is done gby throwing them into spring j^'iter. A considerable loss in the crop is also there incured, when left in the ground j for. FX^MER's assistant. 391 by freezing and thawing rppeatedly, as they do in that climate, many of them rot betore Spring. OLhers, for the purpose of preserving them in the field, turn the rows under with a deep furrow run on one side; but this renders them somewhat troublesome to raise again, especially when the ground is frozen ; though in this way tl)€y are kept sweeter and fresher, than when stored in high heaps, covered with earth anfl straw, or sometimes wuh straw only, as is practised in that Country. ' In the Spring, or at any time when the ground is suffi- ciently dry and unfrozen, those turned under with the plouph, as just mentioned, might readily be raised with the toirk described under Potatoe. It is probable that the greater warmth of our Summers will afford larger crops of turnips, than can be raised in Greatbritain; and of course render the culture more advan- tageous; unless the gre»ater severity of the Winters, ift the Northern States, should there be found too great a draw- backon the profits, by requiring too much expense for the supply during that season. We believe, however, that the expense of stoinng for the Winter-suppfy, would be found of no great amount, e^n where the Winters arc long and cold. Inithe more southerly States, this expense would be but tnftiifg. In the low lands of North Carolina, for instance, a tract admirably calculated for the turnip culture, all that would be necessary to be stored of the crop, would be a supply for about five weeks; and farther south still, less would be requisite. We are not particularly informed, fiow- ever, whether large growths of these plants can be raised much farther to the sou^h; though 'we believe they may be grown to a good sJze in almost all the milder climates. It would be advisable to turn under a small part of the crop of the common turnips, in the manner before men- tioned, to be taken up as early in the Spring as the ground should become thawed and rid of the snow, as these would then be fresh for use for some time, and until it was pro- per to begin upon the crop of ruia-baga, which should last until the season for grass. A part also that is to be stored for Winter^ even in the Northern States, may be laid in a high long heap and covered with straw, and some earth upon that, in order to be fed out before the approach of the severer part of the season ; as this covering will commc serve to protect the roots from frost of moderate degr1 and if some of them should even get frozen they may be thawed, by being thrown in spring water, without receiving any essential injury from the frost. Perhaps it might be as wel!,^ in our colder cUmeites, to store the whole Winter-supply in this W£^, and let tiiem 392 FARMER'S ASSISTi\Nl\ become frozen, as they would remain in this state during the cold season, and might be thawed, as ihey are to be used, in the way just mentioned; the expense of which would be of no great amount. Or ihe roots might be taken, in their frozen state, and steambojled, by which operation their nucrimenta! qualities would be so much improved, as amply to repay this additional expense. We will now describe a method of constructinp: an apart- ment, sufficienily warm, for preserving turnips from fr^ez- inp^ in the colder part of the Winter. For storing two thousand bushels, an apartment would be requisite of about thirty feet long, sixteen wide, ancj^eight in ht'ight. To afford a room of these dimensions inlts in- side, let the building be, say, thirty-three feet long, nineteen wide, with beams across at the height of eight feet from the ground, and above the beams let it be, say, six feet up to th^ plates. It is to be covered, and enclosed wirh^clap- boards in the usual way. The upper part is to be for stor- ing hay; the low&r part, for turnips: But, in order to pro- tect them from the frost, it is to be Imed with a mass of sandy or other suitable earth, of the thickness of eighteen inches, or less, or more, as the seventy of the Winter may require. This is to be done by seting up studs round the inside, extending from the ground into 4he beams, enclosing the studs with boards, and filling the space between these and the clapboards with earth, as before mentioned. The hay above is to serve as a protection from that quarter; and a suflficiency of it must be left, until the turnips are fed out. As the earth soon becomes, dried, it will do no injury to the timbers of the building. ' Another method i?, to erect a building for holding hay, or other produce of the kind, with a cellar under it, for storing turnips, and with walls sufficient to keep out the frost. And another is, to lay these roots away in layers of moist sand ; that is. first a layer of turnips, then one of sand, and so on alternately, and ihcn cover the outside of the heap s\ilficiently with sand to keep out the frost. If some nearest the surface become frozen, they are to be thawed, as before mentioned. In this case, they should be only toped, and laid bottom upwards, the more effectually to prevent their vegetating. The taproots may be taken off as they are used. Lay- irf^them down in this manner, though attended with some expense, will serve ta keep them in a fresher state, than when laid away without sanci, especially if no m.eans be tak«n to ventilate the heap occasionally. This, however, may be easily eflected by tubes laid at the bottom of the heap, at suitabh xlistances from each other, into which fresh FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 393 air is to be driven, in the manner described for driving water up aqueducts, under Manures The tubes may be made ot narrow strips of boards, wiih a groove cut in each) and then nailed together; and when thus made they should have a number of small holes bored in them, at propt-r dis- tances, tor Icting out ihe fresh air in every pan, which of course expels the foul air from the heap. ' Every Farmer (s'»vs a practicaj^ Writer on Agriculture, In the new E linburg Encyclopedid) who wishes to have any of the varietKs of turnip ot a right kind, ought to save seed for himself. It is unnecessary to expect pure seed from the shopSi unless an attention is beswwed in the rearing and wining piocesses, exceeding what is Qsually given by those concerned in ilie pt'ocesses. H< nee heavy losses are ofien sustained by Cultivators who trust to these Agents; and this has been the case particulniy with ruta-baga. < A few years ago, this excelent root was nearfy given up by many Farmef's, because a spurious seed was furnished by the shops. However, by the attention of some respect- able Agriculturists, seed of a l)etter kmd has again been obtaioed," which muy restore the credit of this valuable root. This credit, however, is only to be preserved by a continue ance of the same sedulity which caused its renovation; or, in other words, by ke&pirig rutabaga at a distance from every other species of the turnip and cabbuge tribes, when forming its fl )wers, and procreating its successors* A yellow turnip of the common species, which, however, is not the common yellow garden-turnip, has lately been cultivated in England, on account of its being very nutri- mental, and capable ot being preserved nearly as lont( as ruia-baga. In growing, it muy stand, nearer together than the common white turnip, as it does not extend so much in circumference. Where ^Sheep are a part of the stock of fating cattle to be fed, during Fall, on the common turnips, a quantity suf- ficient for them noAy be left in the ground. Thus, if they are to consume a fourth ot the whole crop, leave every fourth row, anri by this mean their manure will be distribut- ed more equally over the whole irround. Ruta-baga may also be left m the ground, where Neat-cattle are to feed oa them, as the bulb of this root is entirely above ground; and, in such case, what is left by them may be eaten otf by Sheep. mi^ It may be advisable for those who undertake the culture ef ruta-baga to obtain the best of seed from England, as probably what is to be found in this Country has deteriorat- ed, for want of attention in raising it sufficiently remote irora all the other species of Brassica, By importing the 50 394 FARMER'S ASSISTi«LNT. seed, the advantage will also be obtained that is common to all change of s^ed'^. See Change of Seeds Three pouiids ot se«rd to the acre is amply sufficient, for either sort ot turnips. It is advisable to give this allowance, in order that if pan of ihe seeds should fail of vegetating, or some of the plants be eaten by insects, there will still be as many left growing as will be, wanted. Where consid- erable fields of turnips are grown, however, there is but lit- tle to be feared from insects ; tor, though they might be sufficiently numerous, when collected on a small patch of turnips, to destroy it; still, when they have several aqres t© feed upon, iheir ravages would not so essentially injur-e the plants, but that enough will remain fit for' cultivating. Where land is naturally rich, or where it has been well manured for a previous crop, turnips may be successfully grovj^n* without manuring them in the drills. A much less quantity of manure, however, will answer when applied in this latter way, than when mixed in the ground; but, if this method be t^ken, let the barn-dung be carted out in the Spring and mixed in the ground for a crop of potatoes, br Indian corn. ^ Where Innd has been previously prepared in the best manner for tlix (see flax) that crop may be first taken; and, if pulled vvhile green, and the ground immediately cleared of the crop, there will be time sufficient for a crop of turnips of the common sort, especiallyin our more south- erly climates i and in such the ground might be cleared of this crop in time to sow it with Winter-wheat. In raising set d for ruta-baga, we should advise to select a spot for the purpose, vufficVently remote from any place where the se<:'ds of the common turnip or of cabbages are raised: Manure , the ground well; mellow it with the plough; then set out good thrilty Ti^rge roots, taken from ground where they remained durmg tl»e preceding Winter; let them stand in rows at suitable distaix:es each way, and keep the ground clear of weeds while the plants are grow- ing the seed. If the stems bearing it are unable to sustaVi the weight, let them be sui)i)br'ed, on each side of the rows, by poles laid on crotched '^t-jkes drove into the ground. \Vhen the seed-crop has ful'v ripened, it is to be cut, dried, threshed out, &'■. the manner of don.g which requires no minme de- SCTiption. A similar method is also to be observed for t^is- ing seeds for the common turnip. We hiivf- dwelt thus at length on this article, as well on account of the proper mode of cultivating turnips not being generally understood in this Country, as from a conviction FARMERV ASSISTANT. 395 of the importance of their culiure being introduced here, as a part ot ficld-husbaiidry, where the soil is suitable; and we beiieve that as much as one-halt ot the lands ot the United S'ates are adapted for iheir growth. Suppose that six hun- dred busiiels to the acre may be the average crop, where they are well cultivated and manured; they are worth twelve and a halt cents per bushel, tor leeding and fating cattle; the amount of wliich is seventy-fi^e dollars. Let us now calculate the expense of raising and gather- ing an acre : Three ploughings, and furrowing the ground, 2 days work ^5 Preparing 15 loads of" roten dung, or compost, and laying it in the fun'ovvs,' say - - 5 Covenng the manure, rolling, and drilling in the seeds, say 2 Three poujids ot seed - - - 50 Ploughing and hoeing the crop twice, say - 5 Gathering the crop, &c. - - - 5 Kent of the land - - - 5 %27 50 Deduct, say, gS 5(y, as being the aitibunt of benefit which the next crop will derive from this prepi^ruiion oi the ground, and manuring, and the expense wiii bt 1^25; giving g50, as the clear pj^blits of the turnip-' ro^^i ; jn amount, we believe, that is not commonly to be tquultd by any other crop that is usually' cultivated on ground of no greater fer- tility than is requisite tor turnips. In puling the average amount to be expected from the crop as above, we belitve we have not overrated it; as Mr. Baker, of Ireland, testifies his having raised forty-seven tons on an acre m that Country. The Irish acre is about one- half larger than the English, or that ot this Country. In preparing a former edition of this Work, we were in- duced to believe that, in point of profit, carrots were enti- tled to a preference, in the culture ot root-crops. They are certainly more nourishing than turnips; but they are usually less in produc, and the expense ot their culture is much greater. It would seem that the practical Agriculturists of Greatbritain, where the culture of all sorts ot roots has been tried, generally agree in giving a pn ference to the culture of turnips, where the soil i- most suitable for their growth. But see Mangle-wurtzel for the greatest product of root-crops, whtre iDc sou is adapted to its culture. ^ We add the toUowuig note of Mr. MelvilL as communi- cated to the Society ' for the Promotion of the useful Arts,* XTi this State. It will be seen that his method of culture is somewhat different from ^the most approved method in England, as described in this article. 396 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Note on tlie metliod of cultivating^ Turnifis on the Melvill farm, m Berkshire, Massachusetts, and winch received the premium from the Massachusetts Agricultural Society, October, 1817. Persuaded that the opir ion prevalent m this part of the country, i^elaiive to the culiivation of turnips,, was errone- ous; that, witti not much more labor and expense than for poiatoes, old imfiroved land could be made to produce, as in Europe, a mucn gri-au r quantity ihi^n in the usual manner ot raisinj^ them, on new land recently burnt over, or ors hog-land; 1 determined to appropria.e an acre on the farm belonging to my Father, and under my care, to this experi- ment. ' For this purpose, I selected a piece in ,a lot, which was probably one of the first cleared 6n the farm, and has cer- tainly been (from what I could learn from the Neighbors) as often under uILge as any o'her part of i-, and quite impov- ensbed: The soil a gravelly loam; in 1813, it was sowed to grain and stocked; in 1814 and 1815 mowed j 18i6,^half -the lot was planted to potatoes, manured in the hil! ; the other half was continued to grass, and plastered; on ijie 20th May, 1817, ploughed up of the potatoe-l-nd half an acre, and th« same quantity of sward-land, immediately ad- joining. In this state it remained till the 20'>h Junf, when ploughed it a second time, and formed il into drills of twenty-eight inches; the next day carritd on fourteen loads of Hog-manure, seven of Sheep do. and seven of common barn- yard do and spread it, immediately, on the top of the drills; and in order to preserve the whole strength"iof the manure in the soil, as well as to produce quick vegetation, sowed the seed on the manure, and rolled it in the same day. The following die \tx be sown en Summer-laliows, to pre- FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 401 cede a crop of wheat. He accordiniarly made two trials of them, the seed being brought trom England; but the results of these not being perfectly satistactory, panidilurly in the product of seed, there is reason to believe^ that the culture was not such as it ought to be. The produce of his best experiment was at the rate of about twenty-five hundred weight to the acre. * The fodder (he says) appeared to be remarkably succulent, and extremely well calculated for Cows and Sheep/ He is, however, of opinion, that the cause of his failing in the requisite quantity of seed, which in England is twenty-five or thirty bushels to the acre, was owing to sowing too thick (three bushels to the acre) and to manuring with gypsum, which he supposes makes the plant run nriore to haulm than it otherwise would do. Probably this plant, when the seeds are imported, requires a naturahzation to the soil. At all events, if a ton and a quarter of this fodder could be raised to the acre, as a Summer fallowing crop, together with a due proportion of seed, the culture of it would be tolerably advantageous, by making this the intermediate crop between the breaking up of sward-land and a crop of wheat, as only one ploughing is requisite, after taking ofT this crop, for sowing the ground with wheat. Vetches which are sown in the Fall are used in the Spring for feeding Sheep and other cattle : They may after- wards be mowed for fodder; and it is said they may be mowed twice a year in warm climates. Mr. Livingston mowed the crop, which grew best, about the 20ih of August. There are different kinds of this plant, and perhaps each kind may not be equally well-suiied to our climate. Proba- bly, if further trials were made of this plant, results of a more favorable nature might be obtained. , VINE (Vith)^k'STi VINEYARD. Wherever any kinds of grapes grow wild, they may be there cultivaied to ad- vantage for jq^king wines, and may be habituated to a cold- er climate. Tn the more southerly parts of this State, there are two species of grapes, of which^ there are varieties; the black-grape, -oitis labrusca^ and the foxgrape, vitis vulfilna. In the more southerly climates, particularly on the waters of the Ohio and Mississippi, there are much greater varie- ties of these grapes. ' ;; For garden-grapes, Mr. Forsyth selects the ivhite musca* dine^ ov chasselas^ which is a great bearer; the white siveet- watery which^is very fine-tasted, and ripens in September; the black sweet-nvater^ which also ripens early; the large b lack- dust er^ which is harsh-tasted, being that of which the Oporto wine is made ; and the small black-cluster, which is pleasant-tasted. 51 * 402 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. The spots most favorable for vineyards are the sides of hills or mountains, descending southwardly, or to the cust; but to the south is best; and let the soil be loose and nrieUow, but not liable to be much washed by heavy rains. S ff soils are not good; though by carting on much sand, and other loosening manures, they will answer tolerably well. The ground must be well mellowed by ploughing^', and mixed with sand, if not naturally sandy, and such manures as will serve to make it rich and keep it mellow. Where the hill sidt.s are steep (and such produce the best vines) it is ad- visable to cart on stones of small and middling size to mix with the soil, which help to keep it moist and warm; and a part of ihem are to be laid along in ridges on the lower side of each row of vines, to keep the earth from washing away. Round the vineyatd let a good substantial fence be made, which will keep out both Men and beasts. The northerly side of the vineyard should be well protected from the northerly winds. For a selection of vines for planting, Mr Johnson recom- mends the following, as being hardy and best-suited to more northerly climates. The blafk Auvernat; the black Orleans; the blue-cluster; the nnller grafie (these m-ske the best Bur- gundy) the black Hamburg; me red Hamburg; the white Muscadin; the Muscadrlla; the rrtelie blanc; the ivhite Mo- rillon; ibe white Au-jernat; and the gray Auvernat. The seven following kinds also ripen in i^epiember; but are not quite so hardy, and should therefore occupy the warmer parts of the vineyard, or be planted in more south- erly climates: The Chasselas blanc, or royal Muscadine^ the Malvois, or Malmsey; the gray Frontinac; the red Frontinac; the black Lis-bon^ the white Lisbon; and the Chasselas JVoir. In addition to these kinds, let the fox and the black- grape, before mentioned, as being Jndi^^us, be also added to the list; the tormer of which is proball^ inferior to none of them. •' . The next point is to select branches for the^cutings with which to plant tlife vineyard. These are to oe taken from the bearing part of the Vines ; and among these, such as are short-jointed, from which you may expect vines which will be thrifty and fruntul. They should be sound, of a healthy appearance, thick set with eyes, and the nearer the last ^year's growth the better. Let: them be cut close to the old ^ood, where they will be more firm ; and they are not to be cut to their proper length, which is about five inches, uhtil you are about to plant them in the vineyard. Good branches, of the length of three feet, may afford tour or five cutings ; though those which are nearest to the old wood are esteemed the best. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 403 Some cut off the branches, to be ustd tor cufings, in Oc- tober; and others aguin, in M^rch or April It at the liiiier times, they arc to be planted »n April or Mjy; and the next Winter they must be secured trom the trobt by coarse litter piled up round them; which, in the Spru g Jollowmg, may be strewed over the ground tor manure, ll ihe cutings be planted in the Fall, they are be in the sanu manner pre- served trom the Winier-trost: One method is also to set them out closely in the Fall, in some wtrm dry spot, in a trench about a toot wide, which should be well prepared by diging, and over them erect a root mude ot straw, vvi 11 se- cured, to keep ot the tiosi, and the heads ot ihe branches to be kepc in an upngiit posuion, by poles or laihs surrounding them tor ihut purpose, m order to prevent their lying on the ground, and thus becoming mouldy. Ill planting the cuiings m the vineyard, afier the ground has been well prepared, as belore directed, let the thick ends be cut i-ff aqutre with a sharp knite, and the upper ends obliquely, aooui halt an inch above the eye. Plant them at me distance ot about eight or ten teei each way, and let the earth be pressed round them with the toot. Tuey are to be set in an inclined posiuon, leaving the up- per bud or eye nearly as low as the surtace ot thtj^soil, and be careful not to injure the eye in treading the earth about it. In the Spring, while nightly trosi prevails, let this bud, or eye, be siigiuiy covered with earth in the evening, to save it trom the Irosi, and again uncovered in the morriing. Remember to drive in ihe stake, on which the shoot is to be trained, at the north side, so as to give the shoot all the warmth ot the sun. When the shoots begin to put torth, for some will rise trom under ground, let them ail grow for a certain time, in order that you may have an opportunity of determining which is lik' ly lo be the best; and these are the roundest, shorte^i-juinted, and the most thick^set with eyes. Those which grow long and spindly, with tew eyes, are not good. When you have thus selected the bes?, pinch off all the resL* tor all the nourishment which the roots can afford is reqinlite for its growth. As it advances in growth, fasten it to the sunny sine ot the stake, sp that it be not beaten about with the winds, and pinch off its tendrils, lat- erals, nephews, and suckers; not closely, however, but at some liiile distance trom the body of the main shoot. This shoot may rise to the height ot eight or ten feet in a Summer, if left to grow its luli length; but its growth must be checked at the height of not more than tout feet; otherwise its strength becomes exhausted in the production of waste wood, and the head becomes feeble, and incapable of b aring the lateral branches, v/hich it is destined to support. 404 FARMER'^ ASSISTANT. October, or rather when the leaf begins to fall off, is the time lor i riming 5 and then the branch should be cut down to two good eyes, not reckoning the lowermost next the old wood, which IS called the dead eye ; or several eyes may be left, which, during the next Spring, will furnish a num- ber of sprouts, and from these select the two best. The vine being thus pruned, some direct to open the ground round the roots, to the depth of three or four inches, and to cut away the roots to that depth ; not closely, how- ever; and h'X this be repeated for the first three years; the use of which is to make the vine take deeper root, which it is said makes them more durable, fruitful, and less liable to be injured by droughts. No particular notice is here taken of the method spoken of by Mr. Johnson, of bending the vines down to the ground at tne approach of each Winter, during the first three Win- ters, and covering ^hem slightly with earth, to protect them from frost; because it is not believed that this process is requisite. It it be found so, the head must not be covered with earth, but with chaif, or some such dry stuff, to keep it cool and dry. The second year's growth should only exhibit two branch- es trained. The good eyes will all shoot forth in the Spring; nmd let them all grow to the length of about eight inches^ b( fore you select ihe tivo most proper. These should have the characteristics already described, as necessary for the best branch of the First year's growth. Check the branches of the second year's growth at about five feet, pinching off the laterals, &:c. at about four inches, as before directed. In the Fall, when the leaves begin to drop, trin(> the vines, again, as before. Now you have two main branches to trimj and these should be xut down to within four or five good eyes of Jast year's wood, dealing with the upper roots as before, and burying the vines during "^'^Vinter, as before mentioned, if this be found necessary. The third year presents two main branches, each fur- nished with four or five eyes. Proceed asv^efore in the choice of shoots to be reserved, training only two from each branch : Thus you will have four main branches this year. If you find your vines begin to bear this year, pluck off nearly all the clusters while young ; for, by too early bear- ing, the vines become debilitated, and materially injured for bearing afterwards. With respect to croping and pruning the vine, be always careful to check its aspiring nature, and keep it of humble size, by which means it is always easy to be tnanaged by manual labor, and less subject to be injured by the violence of winds. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 405 In the fourth year, training again two branches from each trained branch of the previous-^year, you will have eight branches to each vine. Y m, therelore, proceed as betore in humbhng the vine, and pioporiioning us quantity ot truit lo Its ability to bearj and rt member not to let the vines bear all the fruit they pu;. forth ; until they are lully able to do it, withoui injury to them alter wards* All this time, the ground of the vineyard is constantly to be kept light and mellow, and perfectly clear of weeds and grass. For this purpose, straw, chuff, fljx-shives, and every thing of the kind is to be carried on, i»nd spread over the ground, to keep it mellow and moist, and to prevent its washii.g. Observing this the fiist four years, greatly for- wards the vines, and at the same time prepares them for good crops afterwards; nor should the practice be atter- wards wholly discontinued. In planting a vineyard, it is also requisite to have a nur- sery of the vines at the same time, to supply those which may die when planted out. The ground of the nursery should not be so rich as that of the vineyard ; it should be kept clear of weeds and well hoed ; and it should be planted pretty thickly, in order that the roots do not extend too much. A vineyard of an acre should tontain but' two sorts of grapes, and one of two acres should not generally contain more than tour sorts. Every kind of grape should be made into wine by itself, and liot mixed with others. The vine, where the climate and soil is most suitable, will grow to a prodigious size, and live a surprising length of years. Strabo speaks of a vine which was twv Ive feet in circumference ; and Pliny also mentions one which was six hundred years old I In the western parts ot this State, and elsewhere in that direction, I have seen them, wheiC; Irom the size of l^^trecs on which they were supported, and they must hmve" grown up with the trees, they could not be less than a hundred years old. Mr. Jqfinson observes, that, from the prices which grapes have been sold for in our largest cities, the income of an acre of vineyard would amount to six hundred dollars ; but, perhaps, this calculation is rather too large. Be this as it may, it is certain that their cultivation, whether they are to be made into wine, or to be picked, and sent into our cities, or elsewhere, for sale, must undoubtedly be profitable. The method of preserving grapes to send abroad, is to pack them up in dry saw-dust or bran ; and in that situation they may be exported, if they should not be wanted at home, with the same facility and safety that they are at pr'j- sent sent from other Countries into this, for 'sale. Probably they ought to be put up £i little before they are fully ripe. 406 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. In Albany and Newyork, they sell for as much, upon an average, ds twenty-five cents per pound. Tne toregoing is mostly an abridgment of Mr. Johnson^ on the cuUure oi the vme, and very nearly at;re-^s wuh Mr. Winterbotham on the same subjt ct. Mr. Forsyth describes a new method ot training the vines, for wall or garden-fruit; but this does not seem applicable to the vintyttrd. His niethod is exhibited in his drawings, which are well worthy of examination. Other essays on this culture may ulso be worthy ot examination; such as those ot Sfieechley MilleVy Antili^ and that contained in the Encyclop.du; und cvtn the song ot the first ot Roman Poets on the subjtci, it it should not afford additional instruction, may neveiiheless be found possessed ol charms which mcty more strongly incline the Man ot taste to the industrious culture of the vine. For the method of mdUing the wine, see Wine. Mr Livingston^ in describing the beautiful country which lies upon the Loire, between Nantz and Orleans, in France, notices ♦ the farm-houses surrounded by gardens fiiU-d with fruit-trees, with vines, trained up the trees, and extended from one to the other. Every house, he says, is also co- vered with a large grape vine, at least on three sides.' This practice he very justly recommends tor Farmers, as being highly ornamental to small houses, useful as it re- gards health, convenient for shade; while the fruit, though not intended for wine, migjht be made a source of family comfort and enjoyment. Ht. observes, too, that the eartti round dwellings is always rich and warm; and therefore well adapted to the grape. VINEGAR. The method of making this liquid out of cider, wine, &c. is too generally known to need any descrip- tion; but it is not so generally kuown that a very sharp "vinegar may also be made out of whey. ThJ^, method of making it, as described by Mr Genets is very sijdi pie. ' After having clarified the whty, it is poured into casks with some aromatic plants, or elder-blossoms, as suits the fancy, and exposed in open air to the sun, where it soon acquires an uncommon dcgiee of acidity.' Vinegar may also be made from the juice of elder- berries, mixed with a suitable proportion of water, and ex- posed to the sun, as beiore mentioned. It may also be made from the juice of the black-birch, or of the maple, when either is boiled down sufficiently; or from the juice of beets, carrots, turnips, potatoes, &c. when boiled and the juice pressed out, and exposed in like manner. •VIVES. A swelling, says Mr. Bartlet^ of the kernels undeF the ears of a Horse, being the part first affected. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 407 They seldom come to matter, but perspire ofF. if warm clothing, anointing with marshmallow ointment, and a mod- erate bleeding or two be applied. Qui, should the inflam- mation continue, notwithstanding these means, a sujjpura- tion should be promoted. For this purpose, make an oint- ment of an ounce of mercury and half an ounce of Venice turpentine, pounded together till the mercury is no longer visible ; then add to it two ounces of hogslard, und anoint the swellings with thisr^ill a suppuration takes place. For destroying proud-flijsh in the sore, see Ulcers Mr. Martlet says, When these swellings appear in an old Horse they are signs of great malignity, and often of an in- ward decay, as well as foreruners of the gl Jiiders. He also says. In young Horses they are critical, and should be mun- aged as above, instead of applying the above ointment at first to disperse the swellings ; as in that case there is dan- ger that the disease may be thrown on the lungs, or inlo the thick flesh of the hinder par's of the Horse, where they ivill form deep imposthumes, and sometimes kill him. w. WAGON. See Carriages. WALLS. Stone-walls, for fences, have already been spoken of. ^ See Stones, The cellar- walls of a house should be laid with stone and lime; not only for standing more firmly and a greater length of timejKbut also to keep out the frost. If they be not thus laid,:it generally becomes necessary to bank up the outsides with Horse-dung, or something that will keep out the frost, which tends to rot the sills, and at the same time has a very mean appearance. The stone- walls of many ancient castles and other build- ings, in Europe, are principally held together, not by bind- ing, as is now practised, but by the force of cement. This cement, it is believed, is nothing more than a due propor- tion of sand and lime, made very thin with water, and pour- ed into the middle of the wall; not merely plaisiering in among the stones, as is done at present. The advantage of this method is, that the lime being so plentifully mixed with water, and for such a length of time before it evaporates, has sufficient time in part to dissolve and be again crystaiiz- ed; and, in crystalizing, it adheres to the stones, and thus 408 FARMER'S ASSISTANT; forms a solid mass. The wall must be saturated with this cement. Even pebble stones may be thus cemented togeth- er in a wall ; provided they be kept in their places, and the mortar be kept from runmg out through them till it has be- come hardened. The due proportions of lime and sand, for making the strongest cement, must, however, be previously ascertained by experiments made for the purpose; as the proportion of each depends on the quality of e^qh ; that is, if the lime have but little of other earthy matter m it, the less of it will answer ; and the more sharp and gritty the sand, ^he less lime will be requisite. Mr Livingston mentions the houses built of earth in the neighborhood oi Lyons, in France, which are well worthy of attention, as a matter of economy. They are built two and three stories liigh, and many of them have stood a cen- tury. The earth used for building them is a gravelly loam. A clay or a sand will not answer, but almost every other earth will The earth is pounded hard with sharp-edged btietles, being put in frames made for the purpose, so as to give the masses a square shape proper for being laid up in the wall. These walls are sometimes plaistered on the out- side, but will answer well without. Tiie barns, and garden- walls there, are built of the same material. Columns are also formed of the earth, in the same manner, in moulds made for the purpose. » The extreme cheapness of these buildings (says Mr. Livingston) the iaciliiy with which they are made, their warmth, their security against fires, re- commend them so strongly, that I shall make myself com- plete master of the art belore I come over, and teach it to my Countrymen.' It is to be hoped that a design so patri- otic has not been frustrated, and that its execution may be duly appreciated. ,,'•■'■■■ '^Py- WALNUT. There are but four sp^^ies o| this tree, in this Country, which are indigenous. The enumeration of these, by Mr. De Witt, which it is believed is the only cor- rect one, is as fiiows: The black-walnut (Juglans nigra) the butternut (Juglans cinerea) the IHinois-nut (Juglans olivae formis) oi cc ch of whicti there are no varieties, and the hickory- nut (Juglans albd) of which there are several varieties; such as the shap^hark, the smoothbark, &c. The nuts of the three first- mentioned, and of the shag- bark, are good; some of those of the varieties of the smooth- bark are tolerable, and some are bitter. The natural growth ot the three first-mentioned indicates a dark-colored, fertile soil; that of the shagbark, one it.clining to clay; and the smoothbarked varieties commonly grow on warm gravelly loams, or other dry loamy, or sandy-loam soils. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 409 Mr. Forsyth makes mention of fifty walnut-trees, in England, being rented for fiky pounds sterling a year; and that the. Lessee cleared that amount from them, af er pay- ing the rent. Most probably, these were the shagbark walnut. He directs that walnut-trees should be raised from the nut, when fully ripe ; that they will be fit to trar^s- plant the first Autumn after sowing ; when they are to be put into beds, and transplanted every second year, until they are large enough to set out where they are to grow. Which management, he says, causes them to throw out fine horizontal shoots, and brings them to a bearing state much sooner, than when they make deep tap-roots; that, when they are large enough to be trimed up to the height of seven feet, they should be set out in the orchard, at the distance of about six feet apart ; and, as they grow larger, those found to be the best bearers are to be preserved, and the rest cut away. In triming the trees, his composition is to be applied {see Fruit-trees) and, previous to seting them out, he directs that the ground should be trench- ploughed. See Trench-ploughing. The shagbark wahmt only is culdvated in England^ and this tree is no doubt the most valuable for its- fruit, as it is a more plentiful bearer than any other. Such land as that on which it naturally grows is probably best for its cultivation. ^ WARMING OF ROOMS, &c. As it is essential to make a little fuel answer for this purpose, as well as for boiling, baking, roasting, Sec. we will here describe a cheap and simple method for all these purposes; leaving every one to vary from it, by the use of stoves, or otherwise, as he may think proper. Make, of sheet-iron, something in the shape of a potash kettle, but not near so deep in proportion to its breadth on the rim, and let it be, say, two and a half feet in diameter across the rim ; set it, bottom upward, on brick- work suita- ble to the dimensions of the rim, about ten inches^ high, leaving a place to fix an iron door, like the door of a com- mon stove : Build a brick wall all round and over this, leaving a space between it and the sheet-iron, of about two inches, and an opening where the door, just mentioned, is placed. Apertures are to be left in this outer wall, for in- serting tubes for carrying off the air that is heated, between the outer wall and the sheet-iron, into difF^jrent apartments. When a fire is made within the part covered by the sheet iron, the air between that and the outer wall be- comes rarified, and of course ascends through the tubes into the different apartments or rooms, while the fresh air is 52 410 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. constantly rushing in to supply its place. Thus, while a constant current of cold air is rushing in below, a like cur» rent of warm air is carried off into the apartments where it is wanted. When any one of these is sufficiently filled with warm air, the tubes leading into it are to be stoped in part, or wholly, till more heated air is wanted. It would be most advisable to let the heated air into each room in different places, in order to distribute it more equally. In a room warmed in the usual way, about two-thirds of the whole heat of the fire passes out of the chimney. In the mean time, all the air in the room will also ha«eipassed off in that direction in less than an hour, and of course cold air must rush in to supply its place. Thus the whole air of such room has to be heattd over again once an hour, and this is to be done with only a third of the heat afforded by the fire. Now, according to the plan here recommended, the air in a room would require a deg?'ee of heat equal to warming the whole over again, about once in six hours, as the heated air is not to be allowed to pass off out of a chim- ney ; and for this purpose of heating, at least two-thirds of the heat of a smaller fire can be applied. Thus a room, to be warmed in the common way, requires a fire which gives twelve times the quantity of heat that is required in the method above described. ^ This heating-stove may be set in the kitchen ;, shut a cel- lar kitchen, or one lower than the dwelling rooms, would be best. It may also be set in a small building adjoining the house; but let it be set lower than the rooms of the house. But, in order to render this complete, let the steam- cooking, baking, and roasting apparatus be attached to it. For this purpose, let the smoke, and the heat that goes with it, pass out through a hole about four inches square, made in the side of the sheet-iron, oppos^e the door ; and let it be carried in a zigzag manner, balied with air from wuhoui the room they are intended to warm;' as this will be a great saving of^ the heated air in the room- They are used en- tirely in- Russia, und they require less fuel than our iron stoves, as iwo cords of good wood will supply one of them a wUole Winter. Coding may also be done in them, as in our iron stoves, % having an oven fixed in them for the purpos,e. i^ WATER. This is found, by chemical experiments, to *be the same substance as air, but in a more condensed formi being composed of about eighty-five parts ot oxygene, and fifteen parts of hydrogene, gas. See Air. This substance, however, in its condensed and in its gase- ous state, is the essential food of plants; as no vegetation can be produce4|jwi.hout air, nor without water; but, with these aloi^e? every species of plant can be jmade to vegetate to a certain degree. It is, however, unnecessary to dwell minutely on this ar- ticle ; but something should be said of its application to meadow lands; of drawing it off, where too abundant; and of applying it to plants. I Where water can be carried over lands, without too great an expense, it should always be attended to, as great crops of hay may be |!iad from such grounds. The means of wa- tering the groun^ or of taking it off, should be completely under control; Wr, if too much be suffered to run on, it m;iy do more hurt than good. Chalybeate waters, and such as are impregnated with mineral acids, should be avoided. That which has a rich sediment is best. The quantity should be proportioned to the nature of the soil; as sandy grounds require more, and^tiff soils less. The channels should be so made as to caif|»*the water to every part, ex- cept where the ground is naturally wet. The main channel should just have descent enough to cause the water to run; and the lateral branches should be run in such directions as that the descent be very '^^oderate, and at the same time convey the water to every part of the ground. Sometimes it is necessary to curry off the surplus water by other chan- nels, where the ground hasjittle ho|lows runing through it. 412 FARMER'S ASSISTANT^ ^, When the weather is hot, the water should be taken off the ground. The night, and days which are cool and cloudy, are the best times for applying it. In the Spring, it should notjae applied till the ground is soniewhat dry; and after the grass begins to start let the quantity be diminished, and kt it also be sloped during rainy weather. When the grass is pretty well grown, no water should be applied, except in cases of drought. After taking off the second crop, the water may be thrown on more plentifully ; but it must be taken off some time before the Winter-frost commences. ^ " * * The foregoing is believed to be thf most suitab)le direc- tions for watering meadows, as practised: in this Country; but this fulls far short ot the most approved practice in Greatbritain. There the spots selected tor the purpose are so nearly level, after the ground has received its proper shape, that the water, which is let in at one side, will but barely run off at the other. The ground is shaped exactly for the purpose, by raising it were it is too low, and sinking it where it is too high ; it is then made into ridges about nine yards wide, and a loot in height, with an uniform de- scent from the middle of each to the extremes; a shallow channel is then made on the highest part ^, each ridge for conducting the water on them, and anoihCT on the lowest ground between them for carrying it off A canal is made on the upper side of the piece ot ground for supplying the water, and another on the lower side for carrying it off, after it has served the purpose of irrigation. Thus the wa- ter is let out of the upper canal into the channels made^on the Jfigher parts of the jridges, which channels it fills, and overflows just enough to impart a due proportion of water''^ to each ridge; and thus gently overflowing spreads over the surface, till it is received in the lowerjt'^^nnels, and by them is carried into the lower canal, and^^hce carried off. It will readily be seen, that no water should be suffered to run off into the lower canal from the channels which carry it on the heights of the ridges. The channels should be stoped at their lower ends. The water in the upper canal should be under perfect control; so that no more than is necessary be let into the higj|Br channels, and that it may be taken off at pleasure. Where the supply of water is small, a part of the meadow may be irrigated at a time, and part at another, in succession, till each part has, in turn, been duly supplied. This is to be done by flood-gates, to confine the water in the upper canal to the parts where it is required. The upper canal is to be supplied from a durable stream, 3nd the more turbid this is, the better. Clear limpid streams are l^, no means so good for the purpose. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 413 This method of>«i irrigation is a beautiful and ^grnious part of husbaiidrjy? ; and seeing that it has been so'success- fully practised in England, it would be desirable that trials of It should be made here; as in many spots it might be found very profitable. For raising water to irrigate lands, which are above its level, diiTv^rent kinds of wheels may be used, which are so well known as to render a desci;iH)t»n of them unnecessary. The method of raising 'water by the force of wind, in the manner it is raised out of the dykes in Holland, may also be resorted to, if it bt tound that the profiis will warrant the expense. The Read^ will find, in Darwi7i*s Pliitologia^ a description of a very cheap wind machine for raising water, ^hich probably mi^it be in some places applied to advan- tage, but most particularly in raisingi water irorn wells, for supplying cattle with drink. *, Water-turrowing lands which are wet, when sown with Summer-gram, is of gueat importance in carrying oflf the surplus water; and the furrows should be made deep, and cleared out witn a shovel, and carried in such a direction as will caus^k the ground to be the least gullied by heavy showers. The same may be said of grounds sown with Winter-grain ; but wet grounds, particularly il they lie flat, should never bdrapplied to this use; for^ if the ground be ever so well water-furrowed, the furrows usually become so filled with ice as to render them useless. Grounds, how- ever, of moderate descent may be , thrown up into high ridges, so as to answer tolerably welfi in most Winters, far winter grain; but, if they be somewhat steep, this manage- me'nt usually proves injurious by the washings of heavy rains. Huiher let such grounds be hollow-drained, and then neither ridging nor water-furrowing will be necessary. With regard to v/atenng of plants, all that is necessary to be said, is, tljtat cold water, as drawn from wells, should never be applied^o them. The water should be exposed to the sun tor such iime as will render it as warm as rain- water; and the quantity applied at once should never be very great ; but rather like the application of a gentle rain. WATER-CHESNUT. .^\\\^ tree is called Lin-kit) in China, where it is cultivatecT for its fruit, which has a cool- ing and agreeable taste. It is sometimes sold in that Coun- try, like filberts, in a green state ; sometimes it is dried, powdered, and made, into ^eoup, or baked, with a proportion of sugar and honey. ., ^ All that IS necessary, for propagating and raising the tree, is to throw the seeds into the shallowest parts of ponds, and j rivers, which have a southern expbsure, as sucH are the -* , * 4 414, FARMER'S ASSISTANT, ' %C natural places for its growth. The seeds -are sown in the latter paft of Autumn. As this tree is grown on lands which are.otherwise total- ly unproductive, it would most probably be found a valuable addition to the catalogue of plants, proper to be cultivated in this Country. WATER-LILLY, of China (JVelumbium ) This plant is called Lieii-wha^ by t^e Chinese, and its root is said to be the most valuable of any known, where suitable grounds can be had for its culture. It is only proper to be grown in marshes. In such grounds, it grows tjp the length of fiiteen feet, and ot the thickness o#^ a Man's arm. The outside is white, and the inside yellow. Ii is an excelent vegetable for the table. The Chinese pretend that it yields the liquor of immortality. It is said not to grow successfully in Europe; but that part of the world is dissimilar in ciimute to China. The climate o\ this Country is similar to that of the latter Coun- try, though perhaps a little colder in the same degrees of latitude. It might be of essential service to this Country to have the seeds of the plant brought thence, t5 be sown as well in our lands which are naturally marshy, as in those which might be rendered .so by flooding ;^s, what might not be needed of the root, for culinary purposes, would be useful for feeding and fating cattle. The plant is readily cultivated in China, by merely sowing the seeds in grounds sijitable to its growth. "^ WEEDS. Generally speaking, most of those which are difficult to extirpate, by common culture, will be found to^ yield to constant yearly crops of such plants as grow very high and very closely. For this purpos^|everal crops of hemp in succession would no doubt be M^ind sufficient to eradicate almost any weed. The tall oatsgrass, and some other grasses which grow very high and thick, would also be found very useful tor this purpose.^ See Grasses Crops of carrots and other roots, which require close weeding, would also be found excelent in eradicating some weeds. It is also believed, ihiK planting grounds with po- tatoes, after the Irish method, will be found sufficient to smother almost every kind of weed. See POTATOE. Something shall now be separately sliid of some of those weeas which are most formidable to the Farmer. The Canada thistle ( Cnicus Arvensis) flourishes in close •and stiff soils: In those which are dry and gravelly, or sandy, it does not prevail. It is extremely injurious in all FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 415 tillage. In lands, hpwever, which have been closely pastur- ed for a number ol succe^jsive years, it will neuiiy disap- pear; and in nnowing lands, its growth will be constantly retarded, and lessened, where the grasses grow luxuriantly, particularly those before mentioned. It is, however, but little injui^ious in hay, as cattle eat it freely ; and they are particularly fond of it, when it has wilted, after being newly mown. In soiling of cattle, it would, therefore, be of no essential injury; while it would gradually give place to the tall and luxuriant growth of grasses, used tor that purpose. «Sf the useful Arts,* in this State, it appears that covering this weed, to the depth of five or six inches, with straw, will completely extirpate it. In the trials which were made, for^Hhis purpose, the straw was laid on when the thistles had grown to the height of six inches, and was left upon them for a twelvemonth. ' It is of the utmost importance (says Mr. De Witt) in the newly cultivHted parts of our Country, to attend to the early destruction of this troublesome weed. It generally appears first in small spots, and if not extirpated will ra- pidly spread, by means of its almost indestructible roots, even should it be prevented, by timely excision, from send- ing if^s winged ^||ds abroad, till it covers ii Jds to an extent which will discOTTage attempts to destroy it. I have seen several spots, far remote from where it prevails, that were at first but a few feet in extent, and which have annually increased, till they have become of a formidable size.' It may be further observed, of this weed, as of all others, that constantly pulling it up, as often as it appears above ground, will subdue it. The leaves of plants, in particular, are analagous to the lungs of Inimals. It is principally through the leaves that hydrogene is absorbed, and oxygene is emiied. See Air. Any plant, therefore, when long divested of its leaves, or of its staik. if it bear no leaves, must eventually perish. The roots alone cannot long exist. All, therefore, thait is necessary for extirpating any v/eed, is to keep all that grows above ground constantly cut or pulled off; aR^ the more frequently this is repeated, the sooner will the roots 41 i FARIVfER's ASSISTANT. ^ loose all further vegetative power. The roots of this thistle are (Ufficuli to subdue in this way; but perseverance will ultimately accomplish their destruction. It is almost use- less to add, that he who operates upon this v/eed, must provide himself with a thick pair of leather gloves for. the purpose. The common thistle (carduus) is easily destroyed by mowing it when in blossom, or by pulling or diging it up in the Sprini?. ' The ycllowiveed (ranunculus) prevails mostly in vvetish meadows, where it roots out most of the grass. li is, how- ever, highly relished by cattle in fodder; thcwgh its product Will be found small, compared with that of the grasses which before filled its place. When eaten green, it is hot and acrid, and cattle do^not much relish it. Hollow draining wet lands, and manuring, and cultivating them with tall grasses, or in some of the methods before mentioned, which may be most suitable to the soil, will quickly extirpate this weed. The ^uhite-iveedy Mayweed^ or oxcye (chrysanthemum) roois out the grasses in pastures and mowing lands, where the ground is not very strong; but where it is well enriched with suitable manures, it gives way to the grasses in turn. It never makes its appearance in a very strong tough sward. Cattle wiU eat it in hay, if it be cui green, and well made ; but they dislike it in pastures ; and at btst, its product is but small. To extirpate this weed, manure the land strongly, and cuUivate it yearly with carrot's, hemp, or tall grasses, as may be most suitable to the soil, Common hoed crops, when' yearly repeated, will also subdue it. But where it grows in moist meadow?, which are not intended to be hol- low-drained, the best means of destroying it are freqtient top dressings of composts suitable to the so#^(5ee Manures) or pulling it up by hand, which should be done when it is in blossom. The daisy prevails mostly in upland-pastures; and some- timts, where the soil is not strong, it chokes the crops of wheat, flix, Sec. It may be destroyed by yearly hoed crops, by hemp, full grasses. Sec. The wild Giiion (allium canad^se) prevails most in Penn- sylvania, where it was brought by the Swedes, and used for pasture It is very injiuious in crops of wheat, and by no means inoffensive in ttiose of rye. It is also bad food for Milch-cows, as it imparts its taste to their milk, butter, and cheese, Yearly hoed crops, hcnip, and tall grasses will gradually subdue it. Frequent plcughings and harrowings, *wnen \)fi& ground is dry, is also beneficial. Let the Irish meihocl of planting potatoes be also tried. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 417 The method commonly used in Pennsylvania, for tliinin^ this weed, is one or two hoed crops, and then oats sowed thickly. Long pasturing or mowing the ground, will lend gradually to exiirpate it; especially if the growth of the grass be luxuriant. A Wriier in a Paper, published at Raleigh, North- carolina, says, that late in August he turned under a sward, to the depth of about four inches, which was much infested with wild-onions; that, in the Fall following, he sowed and harrowed in wheat on the ground, without any further ploughincr ; and that the crop was entirely clear of these weeds. In this case, it would seem, that turning under the roots of the onions to this dep'h, and leaving them thus inverted, is sufficient to destroy their vegetative powers; and, if so, the turning under of a clover-sward, to form a lay for wheat, would seem to be admirably calculated for extirpating their growth. See Clover and Trench ploughing. The growtti of weeds wnich are cosumonly called cockle and steencrite^ is often injuriou-i to crops of wheat and rye. The seeds of these weeds are usually carried into the fi ids in the barn-dung, in its crude state. Dung, therefore, which contains these should not be applted to the summer-fallow^ but carted out in the Spring and used for hoed crops ; in this way, the seeds will vegetate in the Fdll, and then the young growth is effectually killed by ploughing for the next Spring-crops. Johnsivort ( Hyperirum. ) grows on such dry soils as are suitable to the application of gypsum | and this manure, or any other which is suitable to the soil, when pretty plen- tifully applied, and the land laid down with clover, or other suitable grass, will quickly eradicate every vestige of this weed, -« Burdock (Arctium) and some similar weeds, should be cut, or dug up, while green. Quitchgrass (Lolium) is considerably injurious to the growth of almost every plant. It prevails most in the stiffer soils. It starts afresh, wherever its large strong roots are cut with the plough or hoe; particularly when the soil is rather moist. When it is quite dry, the roots may be drag- ed to the surface by frequent harrowings, where they will perish j and this, together with long pasturing, or mowing the ground, is perhaps the only practicable method of getsn^ rid of this grass. It should, however, be observed, that this is a tolerably good grass for either pasturing or mowing; especially when other grasses are mixed with it. The seeds of this grass have some resemblance to ^gains ©E blasted rye. Grain designed for sowing may be mostly cleared of the seeds of itj by swimiug the grain in water. 53 418 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. A species of this grass is cultivated in England, and is commoi ly called Darnel or Baygrass, and is much approv- ed of to sow with red-clover ; but probably this is the grass with broad striped leaves, which we have commonly heard called Ribbongrass. See Grasses, Charlock (Sinafiis) is also a troublesome weed. Some- times it is. called wiid-mustard. Mortimer mentions a field of barley, which, by mowing when this weed was in blossom, gave the barley a chance to g-t above the weeds, as the mowing oi ly took off the tops of the blades of the barley without injuring the crop. He supposes Cow-dung more favorable for increasing the growth of this weed, than any other manure; and recommends feeding Sheep on fallows infested with this weed, as they are very fond of it. The seeds will live many years in the earth, and afterwards vegetate, when it is cultivated. Mr. Deane says * grain should be sown thick, where there is danger of its being injured by Charlock, so that the crop may *overrop the weeds. Barley sown thick will certainly prosper in such situation.' Fallowing the land in an effectual manner, by repeated ploughings and harrowings, is perhaps the best method to extirpate this weed ; for, as soon as the seeds are brought up near the surface, they will vegetate ; and then the next ploughing, or harrowing, will destroy the young plants. Sheep are much better than any other cattle for destroy- ing weeds, by pasturing. As all weeds are propagated by their seeds, none should be suffered to go to seed. This remark is no less applica- ble to the weeds before enumerated, than to the numerous class of biennials which commonly infest the fields. All weeds, by being suffered to grow, exhaust the soil. The ground, therefore, which is kept clear of weeds, will much easier retain its fertility, than that which is suffered to be- come full of their seeds. Generally speaking, any given quantity of weeds growing with a crop lessens its product, in proportion to the weight of the green weeds with that of the growing crop. Farmers should therefore be extremely careful in keeping all weeds out of their grounds, and in destroying the common biennials as fast as they appear, while the ground is bearing crops: And, in regard to those per- ennials, before enumerated, and all others which may infest the lands, the prevention of their growth is generally much easier than their extermination, after they have got footing in the soil. When, therefore, the Farmer sees new weeds start lAp in his land, let him immediately extirpate them, cithefr by frequently mowing them off closely, by taking them out of the ground, or by smothering them with 9), FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 419 sufficient quantity of earth, straw, chip-dung, or other rub- bish; and thus he will find that a pennyworth of trouble, spent in the prevention of the disease, is worth a pound spent in the cure. For destroying the common biennial weeds, see FallowT* ING OF Land WEEVIL. See Insects. WELL. See Water and Pasture. WHEAT (Triticum ) Under different articles of this Woik, to wit: l^HANGE OF ' R >PS CHANGE OF SeEDS, Drill, FALLtnviNG, Green-dressing, Gypsum IIe&sian- FLY Harrowing Hauvesiing, »uildew, "foiling Sow- ing, bMUT 1 HRESHiNG, aiiU VV A TER-FURROwiNG, consider- able hds been oaid wincn regards tne culture ot wheat, and need not here be repeated. There are several species of this grain ^ such as, the Spring- wheaf, and the different kinds ot Winter- wheat; the bald^ the bearded^ the cone^ the Polish, and the Smyrna nvheat^ Sec. The iuiier has a central ear, >j\iLh several smaller lateral ones, which spring Irom the lower end of the large one= It requires a rich soil, and it is probable that, m this Country, tiic horse- hoeing husbandry of Mr. Tull {see New HoRSE'HOEiNG HUSBANDRY) wouid be morc suitable for it than tor any other kind. Winter- wheat, in this State, an-d in some more southerly, will grow on almost every dry soil that is sufficiently rich. Very sandy and very gravelly soils are, howevtr, the most unsuitable. Dry red loams, with a trifle of clay in them^ are perhaps the best. Of the old States, the best wheat, and the greatest Cfops, are raised in what sjare called the Middle States, mx. Gregg^ of Pennsylvania, lately raised sixteen hundred bushels liom forty acres, and crops still larger have been raised in Virginia. In this State, the greatest products are not quite so large ; and the Eastern States are still less favorable tor the growth of this grain. The time for sowing wheat probably depends much on previous habit. Thus, it it were sown a number of succes- sive years by the middle of August, and thei;^ the time of sowing were changed, at once, to October, the crop would probably be much lighrer on that accouni; yet, where wheat has become habituated to be sown late, it will do tolerably well. The later it is sown, however, the more seed is re- quisite. When early sown, a bushel to the acre is believed to be sufficient; but, when sown later, a bushel and an^alf, or more, may be necessary. I.i England, they sow a much larger quantity than this; but it is probably an useless 420 FARMER'S ASSISTANT, expenditure of seed. L^^t the Farmer, however, try expev' imentb in this way, by mowing, iwo, three, or tour bushtls to tbe acre; and iJ well repaid, by a suitable increase of his crops, let him persevere in sowing tbat quantity of seed which he fii»ds most advantageous. Drilling in wheat wUl save as much as one-third of the seed. It wheat is found to grow larger in this way, than when sown in the broad cast, the gain may be much greater. If it be soaked twenty-tour hours in lie and brine, or old lurine, with a proper mixture ot s. Itpetre, its smutiness will be preveniedv which in many instances may be a great sav? ing; while the rrop Will be greatly augmented. See Sowing Thus, by payii.g attention to these particulars, and some others, the clear profiis ot a crop of wheat may perhaps be doubled. Seed wheat should always be run throupfh a screen, be- fore it is sown, to take out the seeds of cockle, drips, and other weeds which inlest the crop. Care should also be taken, not to let the seed get any mixture of rye in it; as the cuting of this out requires considerable labor, and at the same time lessens the crop. The E.iglish Farmers say, that seed should never be taken ot whe^t which has grown on sandy land j but from that which has grown on soils most natural to it. The changing of seed should also be attended to, as this grain is found to degenerate. The Summer-wheat which is brought from Canada is found to produce much larger crops in this county (Herkimer) thaa that which has been sown here for some time. Wheat that is carried to a climate much more northerly, than that in which it has been long sown, will not answer well, as it will be too late in ripening. The best preparations for a crop of w^eat are Summer- fallowing, or a clover sward turned under, and the wheat sown on it. The latter is good culture. The former ought never to constitute a part of a good system of farming, on account of its additional expense, unless it be to recruit ex- hausted lands, or to destroy weeds. But, where lands re- quire to be fallowed, let the work be done tfft:^ctually, by repeated ploughings and harrowings, in order that the ground be enriched, and the seeds of weeds destroyed. Beside clover, the Summer-crops, which are found best to precede a crop of wheat, are turnips, peas, vetches, and barley will do tolerably well ; but let the ground be plough- ed up immediately after the crop is taken otF. A poiatoe- crop is also very good ; provided it be got off the ground suffifeientiy early for sowing the wheat. Indian corn, where the ground is in good heart, will do well, by cuting up the crop while green, and seting it up in shocks to ripen. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 421 Where wheat has lodged so as to fdll fiat on the ground, the better way is to harvest it immediately, it the grain be only in the milk ; lor in that siiuaiion it will derive no lur- ther benefii irom the earth, or troni the air; whereas, if it be cuij and laid to dry, the seeds will derive nourishment from the stalk ; and, though they be small, they will be as large as they would otherwise have been, perhaps larger, and at the same iime<'%ill make much better fluur. The treatment in this case ought to be the same as in case of mildew. See Mildew. It is believed, there is nothing gained by leting wheat stand till it is tully ripe ; that is, till the heads turn down, before it is harvested. If it stand so long, considerable will be shelled out before it is got into the barn ; and even if the bulk should in this case be j^reater, slill the weight may not be increased; and as wheat is now sold by weight, not by the bushel J and as it is known that the best flour is made from the earliest harvested wheat ; the Farmer, from these considerations, may probably be the gainer by commencing his harvest considerably earlier than the usual time. lu this way, too, he will be less in danger of having his wheat grown by long continued ruins; lor it is found, that wheat which is harvested early is less liable to grow, than that which is cut late. Thaf, however, which is designed for seed, ought to be harvested last, as it will vegetate more readily when late harvested. » As a matter of curiosity, it may be observed, that by fre- quently sphting the plants ot wheat, and seting each part by itself, they may be greatly multiplied. Thus, by sowing the wheat in August you may split it, after it has branched out into a number of parts, and this may be again repeated in September, and repeated once or twice aguin in the Springv until in this way you may make one seed produce more than half a bushel of grain. Where wheat is likely to grow too large, the best way is to feed it down in the Spring, lor such length of time as may be thought requisite; and in this way it will grow up with a stronger stalk, be less liable to lodge, and produce a great crop. See Rye, for a very extraordinary crop that was raised in this way. If the wheat cannot be conveniently fed off, let it be mowed off close, as olten as may be found necessary, which will answer nearly the same purpose. In England, experiments have been made of transplanting wheat in the Spring, by means of which the crops proved very good, and a great deal of seed was saved. 1 nis mii^hc be> found peculiarly useful in wet lands, thrown up in ridges 422 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. in the Spring. The expense of such culture would, proba- bly, however, be too great in this Country; and therefore need not be minutely described. Barberry-bushes or cherrytrees, planted in wheaifieldSi will make the wheat growing near them blast. Spring-wheat should be sown as early as the ground can be made mellow ; and there is little or no danger of its be- ing too rich for this crop. It grows%est on rich new lands, or on lands which have been well manured and bore Indian corn, or potatoes, the precedmg year. The quality of this wheat is inferior to that of Wmter-wheat, and the crop is usually smaller. It is, however, cultivated with more suc- cess than Winter-wheat, in much of the higher lands where the snow falls deep in the northerly parts of this State. The requisite quantity of seed to the acre is from one and a half to two bushels. L'ke barley, it degenerates; and new sup- plies of seed from Canada, or sq^xiie more northerly climate, are found requisite. A principai difficulty in raising Winter-wheat on the high lands of the northerly parts of this State, where the snow fails very deep, is, that, it lies so long in the Spring that the wheat being then, trontr'the warmth of the ground, inclined to vegetate, is prevented by reason of the snow which lies upon it, and, being thus excluded from the air, it dies of course. The most effectual remedy found, has been, to feed off the wheat closely in the Fall, which, it would seem, prevents it from starting in the Spring until the snow has dissolved. Mr. Peters finds his wheat-crops greatly assisted, by weiing the seed, and rolling it in gypsum, before sowing. This treatment makes the crop grow larger, ripen much earlier, and preserves it from rust or mildew. He also de- rives great benefit from harrowing his wheat in the Spririg, He thinks five pecks of seed to the acre not tpp much, when sown broad-cast. He verifies the old remark, that lands which have been long manured with barn-dung are not so good for wheat; that such lands are more liable to mildew; and that this prevails most in low grounds. He finds peas much better than potatoes, to precede a crop of wheat. Mr. Ecroyd also ipsists on the great utility of harrowing all Winter-crops of grain in the Spring, when the ground has first become suitably dried. He also says that all Win- ter-grain should be eaten off closely, and as suddenly as possible, by Sheep, Calves, &c. before harrowing; as this serves to help crops which appear diseased, as well as to prevent their lodging. He also recommends passing the roller over the crop, alter harrowing. Mr. Pkers also says that wheat should never be the first crop raised, after the land has been manured with lime; but FARMER»s ASSISTANT. 423 that rye, or Indian corn, may be cultivated with great ad- vantage, immtdiately after applying this manure. He has made trials of the Jerusalem wheat, and finds it more abundant in product, and less liable to lodge. The bread made of it he finds lo be as well tasted as that ot any other wheat ; but it is considerably darker in color. The Spanish Spring-wheat, lately brought to this Country from England, is sai(f%o yield an eighth more than any other wheat, and appears to be of good quality. WHEEZING. A disease of Horsi^s, commonly called broken wind; caused by surfeits, violent exercise when the belly is fuW; by being rode into cold wa^r when very warm; or, from obstinate colds not cured. For the cure, Dr Blacken advises, that the Horse should have good nourishment, much grain, and littte hay ; and that the water given him to drink daily have a soluuon of half an ounce of saltpetre, and two drachms of sal ammo- niac. It is said that the hay made of white-weed will cure this disorder. WHEY. This liquor may be appfed to many valuable uses. ^. See Vinegar, for making that liquid out of this article. It is good for feeding and fating Swine, and particularly excelent for Sows with sucking Pigs. Mr. Deane observes, however, that *care should be taken not to overfeed Swine with this liquor; for it has often happened that after dunk- ing plentifully of it, especially in hot weather, they will swell up and die.* The Tartars make ardent spirits, and vinegar, from the whey of the milk of their Mares ; and Mr. Genet says the Cowherds on the Alps, and in some parts of France, ex- tract from the whey of the milk of their Cows a salt called sugar of milk, * which the Swiss Doctors consider as the best detergent to purify the blood, and cure radically the most inveterate cutaneous complaints. For this purpose, the whey is clarified and boiled until reduced to one- fourth part of the whole, which is deposited in wooden or earthen pans in a cool place. In a short time, the saccharine parti- cjes are chrystalized, and the phlegmatic pdrt is then de- canted slowly, and the sugar is dried bn pieces of gray paper.* Mr. Genet supposes that, for curing cutaneous disor- ders among cattle of every kind, it would be sufficient to boil the whey down to sugar at once; though this, by being colored by the kettle, might not be so fit for pharmaceutical,^ purposes. Probably whey itself, when given to such cattle as will drink it, will auswef a similar purpose ; and this seenis 424 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. the less to be doubted, from a case mentioned by Mr. Genet^ of his successful use of the milk of a Cow, in regenerating a decayed imported Meriim Rim ; the animal being entirely free from the scab, during all the time he was fed on milk; whtle almost all the Sheep, which came from Spain with him, were subject to ihat disorder. WILD-RICE (Avena i^amorj^ This plant which has commonly been called wild-rice, by the English, and Folle- avoine, by the French, is found in the bays, and other suitable places, bordering all the large Western Lakes, and other waters in that direction, almost as far north as Hudson's Bay. It has not been found farther south than about the thirty-ninth degree of latitude; though no doubt it may be cultivated in much milder climates. It grows on lands naturally covered with water, to the depth of from two to seven feet; it n quires a rich or muddy bottom, and ■will not grow in that which is sandy. Is is believed that it may be cultivated to advantage in many situations where it does not naturally grow, and that its culture would be found very advantageous ; a^it grows in situations where no other plant of any essentia^ value is at present grown in this Country. We have seen it growing abundantly in a part of the bay of Llttellodus, on Like Ontario. Ic rises sohie height above the water^; and in ordor to protect it from the waterfowls, which feed on i', the pt-actice of the Indians is to go, in their canoes, amongst ii, and tie it in bunches, about the time the grains have formed ; in which situation it stands till ripe ; when they gather it, by bending the bunches over tha sides of the canoe, and beating out the grain with sticks; in which way they will soon fill a vessel of Ibis descripnon. When hulled, which we believe may be done in a manner similar to that of rice, it is said tc#be as nutricious as that grain, and as well tasie^. How far this species of the Avena may 'be successfully culiivated, in the manner that rice is raised in more southerly climates, remains yet to be ascertained by experi- ments. We are, however, impressed with the belief that it may be found a substitute for rice, and cultivated in all the northerly parts of this Country, where lands are naturally covered with water to a suitable depth, or where they can be thus covered in an artificial manner. WILLOW (Salix ) There are varieties of this tree, though not many that were found in this Country. The weeping-willow and some other kinds are imported. C Some kinds of this tree grow so rapidly, as to be valuable to plant for fuel. Th6 twigs of one kind are used for making baskets, Sec. Other kinds are good for making FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 425 bedgj^es, in wet lands. Perhaps the shrubby kind, that grows alon^ the banks ot many ot our streanns, would be very < good for this purpose. For making the hedge, either in the bank of a ditch, or otherwise, stakes of a proper length are rut and set a good depth in the ground, about a foot apart, and tliey will take root and grow; while new twigs, sprouting out from every part, soon forms tiicm^nto a thick bushy hedge. This, when sufficiently grown, is to be treated as other hedges. Ste Hedges. In Greaibntijin, some of the larger Sorts of this tree are also raised for building^imbt r. In tins case, says Mr. Miller^ they are planted in rows, and stas.d six feet apart each way, and are triraed up ibe n qui-site height. When they become too thick, every other iree, in each fow, is taken away. They may also be planted along the bai'ks of^diichos, for this purpose. The sets f-re seven or eight feet long vv^hcn planted. The same Author observes* that every kind of willow is easily raised from sets jpr 'cuiings, which readily take root, either in the Spring, op 'Fall. WINDGALLS. These are %dtiBt' swellings on the bodies ol Horses; but most comironly they are seated on botbi; sides of the back sinew, above the fetlocks of this ani- mal j Sometimes they are in the joints and tendons.' They are generally iiUed with air and tl^m watery matter. Where they appear in the interstices of the large muscles, which then appear blown up like bladders, they ate principally filled with air, and may be safely opened and treated as a common wound. When they first appear, they are usually cured with re» slringents, and bandages drav/n very tighily round them; for j|hich purpose, let the swtiimg be bathed twice a da^ with vinegar, or verjuice, or fomented with a decoctiortof oak-barli, pomegranate, and allum, boiled in verjuice, and let the bandage which binds the windgall be soaktd in the same. If this should fail, the swelling may be drawn'^bflf by blis' ,1^ tering, and applying the blistering ointment, repeating it at times, till the humor is all drawn off. Some, however, cut open these swellings, wheiever they be situated, and treat them as a wound. Bur, perhaps, where they are in the joints, the blistering is the safer remedy, as the joints may be stiffened by imprudent management. |» WIND-MACHINERY. The saving of labor by the use of the winds, seems to have been but little attended to; and > yet it is believed that great advantages might be. derived to the Farmer, from this source. 54 426 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Suppose, for instance, that an apartment were made under the roof ot the barn, at one end ; in the middle ot which should be properly fixed an upright shaft, extending up through the highest part of the roof, with four horizontal arms on the upper end, and on these sails fixed for turning the shaft when the winds should blow : Could there be any doubt, that this could be made to turn different kinds of niachines, to be used for different purposes ? In this way, a threshing-machine and a cornshelling- machine might be moved with a great saving of manual labor. The cuting^of straw and hay, for feeding cattle, could thus be almost entirely performed, and the no-less importaffl business of grinding different kinds of grain, for feeding and fating of cattle, could be performed with equal ease. Perhaps, also, the breaking and. cleaning of flax and hemp could be executed in this way, to advantage. The raisifig of a constant supply of water from wells, for supplying cattle, is also easily performed in this way ; and it is a matter of nb dsflicult invention so to contrive the machinery, that it will stop raising water when the trough into which, it is emn^d shaU be filled to a certain height. Churning may alsib^W|l> tbts performed, with a very small expense, when the wind will answer. It is but a trifling objection against all this, that the w^i^nds are inconstant, and that they blow unsteadily. The work required to be thus performed requires no great steadiness of operation; and days can always be chosen for performing most of these labors, when the winds blow most steadily. The machinery for some of the purposes before mention- ed should be so contrived as to be turned by hand, when the winds should not serve. It is immaterial what quarter the winds come from, where the ^ils are fixed on a hori- ^htal wheel, as above intended, as the wheel will stilLtura the same wyy. The sails may be of very cheap matemls, and the cost of the whole machinery need not be^ much. Any minute description ot the machinery is here omited ; because verbal descriptions of such are necessarily prolix, and at best difficult to be understood; and because any one, wishing io test the efficacy of this method of saving labor, need not be long ignorant of the best means of puling his wishes into ex^'^uriyn. It is believed* that Pasmore*s machine for cuting straw is the best that is used in Gs carbritain. His machine for crushing different Jkinds of grain, between rollers, is also good, as being ve!7 txptditious ; but probiibly those ma- chines \yhich g;rind the grain, in the maimer ihat coffee is ground in sninM hand-mills, are the best. Descriptions and plaies exhibiting his machines, as well as those of Salmon*s and Macdougars strawcuters, may be seen in a new JBritish FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 427 Work, which has been often mentioned in this, called * The Comfilete Grazier* Either of these niachi()e;|i! might be easily adapted to the purpose of being turned by wind. WINE. The presses used for making this liquor are similar to our screw-presses for making cider, though they are executed with muchineater workmanship. To make good wine, the grapes of the same vine should be gatnered at d'flpcrent times. The first should be of the ripest clusters ; and let them be cut.qlose to the fruit to avoid the taste of the stalks. The green and roten grapes are to be rejected. f In due season, the second gathering takes place, when all that are ripe and soind are taken as before. The same may be observed of f^last gathering, the grapes of which will be the poorest. To make wine in the greatest perfec- tion, however, the grapes are all striped from the stems be- fore they are put into the vat. yi i* . Wines of different colors are made from the same grape. The French make their white and redone from the black- grape. . W To make white-wine, grapes sufficient for a pressing are gathered early in a damp, misty morning, while the dew is on. This increases the quantity of wine, but renders it weak#r. Wuen the sun comes out warm, the gathering is discontinued. The grapes gathered are carefully carried in panniers, on Horses, to the press, into which they are immediately pur, and the first pre^jhing is given witi:out delay; which should be gentle, for fear of discoloring the liquor. The wine from this pressing is the most delicate, but not the strongest. After the first pressing, the press is raised, the scattering graphs are laid on the cake, and the second pressing is giv- en, in which more force is used than before. T'le second runing is but little inferior to the first, in flivor or color, while it is stronger and will keep longer. Sometimes the wines of these two pressings are mixed together. , After these pressings, the sides of the cake are cut down perpendicularly with a steel spade, so far as they exceed the upper part of the press that is let down on the cake. The eatings are laid on the top of the cake, and the third press- ing, which is called the first cuting, is given. The juice pressed out at this time is excelent. A second and tiiird cuting is in like manner given the cake, 'with pressings, till the juice ceases to run. ' ' The liquor of the culings becomes gradually more red, from the liquor contained in the skin of the grapes. The wines of these different cutings are collected 'Vparately, 428 FARMER'S ASSISTANT, and afterwards mixed, according as they contain the quality thai IS want]^. The pressings for the whi'.e-wine should be pertormed quickiy, that the grapes m^iy noi have lirn%)to n^ uf, and that th- Uquor may i»ot remain luo long on the murk- In makins^ red-wincb oi the s^me. grapes, ir.cy are to b© gathered wh-n th»' sun shines ihe hotest They are to be selected and gathered lu the manner before directed. Whea bioughi home, as betoie, tiiey are »nasbed in a vat, and. are then io l*«J m the liquor ior a Ungih ol nme, Which must depend on the heat ot the weather, the flavor of the mits9l[ and tlie hetg t of color inicnded to be given. They aie i,o be stircd irtqaenil), the better to raise a fer- meotalion and reden the hquor tijp- -^ The Authors oi the * Mai son Rustics say, that, for the Coulangc ivine^ four hours is sufiicieiii for the grapes to lie in the iiquor; and that, tor the Burgundy iviney a wnolc day should be allowed. Others allow a much grt^dter length of time. Perhaps this point will be best ascertained by expe- rience, in different citmates. When the musi^ 6r liquor, has lain as long on the husks in the vats as is thought proper, It is poured off, strained, and put into casks. Afterwards tiie murk, or remainder of the grapes in the vat, is pwt into the press, and undergoes the pressings and cuvings before mentioned. The liquor thus obtained, especially it the pressing be so hard as to crack the seeds ot the grapes, has a stronger bodv than the first runing ; but has not its fine, high, delicate flavor. Some oi it is, however, frequently mixed with the other wines, to make them keep belter. Some pour water on the murk in the vat, after the Ucjuor is drawn off, which should be done without delay, lesuthe miirk sour, and leave it in this situation till they fin* the water pretty well col -red, and judge that it has incorporat- ed most ot the remaining strength of the murkj they then draw off the water and press out the murk as dry as possi- ,, ble, and mix the iiquor thus pressed out with the water, and barrel it. It will keep no longer than the following Win- ter ; but is brisk and pleasant, while it keeps good. The 7mcrk is used to mend wines, whether old or new, which want either color or strength. They are to be turned out of the casks on the murk, after the 7mist has been drawn off, and then; Well siired up, and let stand twenty-four hours, if new wine^ or tvrelve hours if old When a suffi- cient color is thus given the wine, and it is no longer too sweet, but agreeable to drink, draw it off, barrel it, and put ' the murk to the press. New and old wines are, however, pot io by. jiiixcd in this operation. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 42» The unripened grapes, that were rejected at former gaiherings, are to hang till ihey become a liigfi IVost-biten, and may then b^made into wine which will answer to mix with other cour^'red-wines. When the murk has been fully pressed, it will still yield, when diluted with water, termented, and distilcd, a spirit tor medical and domestic uses. In some parts of Germany, where the grape does not come to full maturity, the Makers of wine have stovts in their wine-cellars, by which they arc kept warm during the fermentation of their wines, and this, by heightening the fermentation, meliorates them, and renders them«more fine. Exposing the casks, to the sun will have the same efiiect, in wines which are toc^crid to ferment sufficiently. The People of .dmampaigne and Burgundy supply the want of fermentation, or of an insufficient one, in their late- made wines, by rolling the casks. Alter drawing the wines off from the first lees, three weeks alter being first pui up, Ihey roll the casks backward and forward, five or six un>es a day, for four or five days successively; then two or ihree limes a days for three or four days; then twice a day for four days more; then once a day for a week, and afterwards once in four or five days. This rolling is continutd alio- gether for about six weeks, where ihe grapes were pressed very green ; but a less time, if they were tolerably ripe. The finest wines will work the soonest, and the fci ment- ation will take ten or twtlve days, according to the kind of wine, and the season of the year. Those that are back- ward m termenting may be quickened, by puting into ihem a little of the forth or yeast that works from others. During lermentaiion, the bung-holes of the casks are to be left open, and should be closed when it abates, which is known by the froth ceasing to rise so fast as before. The t isk is also then to be filled to within two inches of the top. and a vent-hole is to be tefi open to carry off all that is thrown up by further fermentation. The filling of the cask should be regularly done every two days, for about twelve days, in^ order that the foulness thrown up by the continued ler- mentation may be thrown out at the vent-hole, or it will fall back into the wine and prevent its be,coming clear. After this the cask should be filled to within an inch of the bung, every fifth or sixth day, for a month ; and then once a fort- night, for three months longer. When the fermentation is entirely over, the casks are lo be filled up, and this is to be repeated once a month as long as they remain in the cellar, in order to prevent the wine growing flit and heavy. They^ should be filled with wine of the same kind which they con^ tain, which may be kept in bottles for the purpose ; and the vent-hole should be stoped when the fermentation is over. 430 FARMER^s AS^IST^NT. The fi''st drawing off from the lees is done about the middle of E||&cember, and the casks containing the liquor drawn off' should stand without the least , disturbance, by shaking, until the middle of February, "i&en the liquor should be again drawn off into other casks. It there be then still so much lees as to endanger ihelr contracting a putrid taint, let the wine be agam drawn off in due season. Sometimes it may be necessary to repeat the racking sev- eral limes; but Kt the casks be kept lull, and let no wines of dissimilar qualities be mixed. The lees are to be collected together, and, after settling, the thiner«part may be distiled. Brandy is often added to wine, when about to be trans- ported, to prevent any further fermentaUpn. Fumigating the casks with burnt brimstone will answePl^s purpose better; but it is said this will destroy the red color ot wines. The colors of wine are, however, mostly artificial A deep- yelJow may be m.ide by burnt-sugar, and a deep-red, by redwood, eidferbernes, Sec. Turbid wines are fined by isinglass, by puting a pound or two of fresh bloody meat into them, and by other means pointed out under Cider. Where wine has become sour, let some salt of tartar be mixed with it, just before it is used, which will neuiralze the acid. In Summer, cool, clear days, with northerly winds, are the best times for drawing off wines, to^ prevent their fret- ing or frothing. For making currant -ivine^ see Currants. Goose berry -luine is made in the same manner as currant- wine. « ^ Raisin-wine is made as follows: Take tliirty gallons of , clear rain or river- water, and put it into a vessel that will hold a third more ; add a hundred weight of Malaga raisins picked from the stalks ; mix the whole A'cll together, and cover it over partly, but not entirely, with a linen cloth, and let it stand in a warm phce, if the season be not warm. It will soon ferment, and must be well stired about twice in twenty-four hours, for twelve or fourteen days. By this lime, if tlie liquor has lost its sweetness, and if the ferment- ation has nearly abated, which will be perceived by the the raisins lying quietly at the bottom, the liquor must be strained off, and the juice of the raisins pressed out, first by hand and afrcrwards by press, which may easily be con- trived, by having two boards, and weights laid on the upper- most. All the liquor is then to be piit into a good sound Svinecask, well dried and warmed, together with eight pound of suglir, and a little yeast; except that a little of the wine sho\i!d be reserved in bollles, to be afterwards FARMER^ ASSISTANT. 431 added during the fermentation, which will take place again. During this second fermentation, the cask must be kept nearly full, so that the froth or yeast will run out of the bung- hole. ^VtfefiBthe fermentation has ceased, which will be at the end dRrthonth, the cask is to be stoped tight and kept a year, or more, and then bottled off. This wine will be very good at the end of a year and a halt; hut will improve much by being kept four or five years; as it will then be equal to any ot the strong cordial foreipfn wines, and by proper substances, to give it color and flavor, may be made to resemble them. This is the most perfect of artificial wines, but others may be made cheaper ; such, for instance, as supplying the place ot every four pounds of raisins by one pound of sugar, so that only a fourth 'of the quantity of raisins above men- tioned may be rc^quir^d ; or by adding "a proportion ot wcll- reciificd whiskey to the cask when closed, in which case less raisins and less sugar would be requisite. Any kind of large raisins will answer as well as Malaga; but the thiner the skin, and the sweeter the pulp, the better the wine will be. To make Bircfi'ivlne. After collecting the sap of the birch, it is to be made into wine before any fermentation takes place ; and for this purpose, a pint of honey or a pound ot sugar is to be added to every gallon of the sap, the whole to be well stired up, and then boiled for about an hour, with a few cloves and a little lemon-pee!; during which, the scum is carefully to be taken off. When cool, a few spoonsful of new <)iskey, also, when divested of its essen- tial oil, may in like mani*tT be turned inco a pleasant brandy, after it has acquired sufficient age. WO AD. The leaves of this plant, when reduced to a paste, by a proper degree of heat and fermentation, and the mass then sufficiently dried, is used by Ditrs, together with indigo, for making the best blue dies. U.tder Milkweed, it will be seen that the leaves of that plant have been suc- cessfully used as a substitute for woad, and |>i^obabiy may be found less difficult and expensive in cukivation. By a communication of Mr. Parish, of Greaibritain, who is himselt a Dier, and a Cultivator of woad, it seems, how- ever, that the cultivation of this plant has made fortunes to several in that Country, when grown on suitable lands; and that it is an excelent preparative for a crop of wheat. The soil, he says, which suits it best, is a fertile moist loam, and if underlaid with clay the better; that ground of this kind, which has long lain in pasture or meadow, is much preferable to land constantly tilled with grain, a** b • g more clear of weeds; that it is vain to expect a good crop of this plant, and of good quality, on poor shallow land; for that, if the crop on such land should even be abundant, as it may be by manuring; still such lands can never impart to the woad its essential qualit-y to make it valuable for dyirsg; and more especially if the season be wet and cold. Warm showery seasons, neither too dry nor too wet, are the most suitable for its growth. Mr. Pariah says he once had occasion to purchase woad that was grown in a very wet season, and'lourui, on using it an his vats, that it was impossible to regulate cheir ferment- ation ; thai, on experiencing this difficully, he purchased woad that was grown in a more genial season, and then he succeeded; that he kept the other three or four years, and then found it more steady in its fermentation; but that it then required double the quantity, and even with this its effects were not so beneficial, as when good woad was used. 55 434 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. Let the sward be broken in the Fall, and the ground ploughed and harrowed again in the Spring. The crop should be put in as early as the ground can be properly prepared. Where the sward can be completely turned over, this may be done as early in the Spring as possible, and the crop sowed or planted, as the case may be, on the sward, after it has first had about twenty-four bushels of lime to the acre, and this harrowed in. The seeds may be sown in the broadcast way, and the plants afterwards thined in hoeing, similar to the common method of cultivating turnips; or they may be drilled in rows, or planted in the quincux way; and for this latter purpose a board, with pegs set into it diagonally, at the distance of twenty inches, or twenty-four, if the soil be very strong, is used to make the holes for the seed, and into each hole three or four seeds are to be droped, and covered with the roller, or the harrow. Mr. Parish says he has been most successful in this latter mode of planting. Lind cannot be too rich for the crop; and it often fails when cultivated on land not sufficiently strongs or moist, or when the hoeing is not well attended to, and weeds are sufferud to rise. In hoeing, some earth should be drawn round the plants. If the season will admit of puting the seeds into the ground so early, as to have the plants strong before dry weather comes on, there will be almost a certainty of a good crop, where the land is of the right kind, sufficiently rich, and well cultivated. Previous to commiting the seeds to the earth, they should be soaked in water, with a mixture of fresh-slaked lime and soot, until they begin to vegetate, and break the pods in which each seed is enclosed. If the ground b© moist^, the young plants will appear in a few days. Mr. Parish also advises, to strew more fresh-slaked lime on the surface of the ground, after planting, or sowing; when, if showers invite^ grubs or snails to eat the young plants, this manure will destroy these insects. But perhaps this may as well be omited, until it be seen whether the young plants become infested with these enemies ; and, on their first sippearance, strew on the lime, as before mention- ed, and this will soon destroy them. He also says, that he once cultivated this crop^ for three years successively on the same ground; but found this to be an error ; for, after the plants came up strong and healthy, they were soon observed to decay and wither; and on exam- ining the roots he found them attacked by the wireworm. He, ^however, destroyed these by applying forty- eight bush- C els of fresh-si ked lime to the acre, and harrowing it in, which gave him a good crop. FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 4S5 He advises, therefore, never to cultivate more than two crops successively on tlie same ground, from an opinion that the want of a cnange m this crop, and some others, is the cause of their becoming more liable to the depredations of insects. Be this as it may, we have no doubt but that a proper solution of salt and water, applied to tne roots of the plants, would have destroyed the wueworm as efliectually as the applicaiion of the lime. See Insects The leaves oi ihis plant, when grown on good land, and in a good season, grow very large und long; and when thny should be gathered, a brownish spot, inclining to a purple towards its centre, appears near the ends; while the other parts ot the leaves still appear green, but a little tinged with yellow. The leaves are to be gathered from two to four, and even five, times in a season, as Mr Parish once experienced; and tor the next Spring he saved an acre for seed, ot which he had a good crop. H^ also picked off the young seedling sprouts from what he had thus saved tor seed, and mix- ed them with his first gathering of what was newly sown, which he found to answer very well. But at another lime, when he let these sprouts grow too long, they became too hard, and were of little value. When a second crop is to be taken from the ground, it should be ploughed up in ridges in the Fall, after the last gathering of the leaves; but, where Wheat is to follow, the ploughing for that crop rtiust be sufficiently early for sow- ing it in season. After describing tl^ common method of preparing woad, he proceeds to describe the process he pursues for this purpose, which he says is beyond comparison the best, and jfis as follows: After gathering the leaves, they are to be put to dry, and to be turned so often as to prevent their heating so much as to be reduced to a paste. In wet weather, a stove is to be used for this purpose. When a quantity is sufficiently dried, which in England requires about a week (but less time vtould probably answer here) it is to be thrown into a heap, where, if not too dry, it will begin to heat and ferment; if too wet, it will rot, but not properly ferment, n6r readily become in a condition for the Dier. If the heap is too dry for fermenting, it is to be moistened with limewater, applied by a wateringpot. When the heat increases too rapidly, the heap must be turned, and very fine flour-lime strewed between different layers. That which requires most lime to preserve a temperate degree of fermentation, and takes most time in fermenting, is the 436 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. best, * so that at lengih it comes to that [.eat which is indis- pensable to the producuon of good woad.* Whtn the leaves bt gn to be reduced to a paste, the surtace of the heap must be kept as smootb as passible, and tree irom crai.ks ; as this prevents the escape ot much carbonic acid gas, vvnich is furnished by the hnje, as well as by .he iermeniaaon ; 'and it also preserves it irom the fly, magors, and worms, wnich olun are seen in those parts v/here the heat is not so great, or the lime is not in suffi- cient qu uituy to destroy them. It is surprising to observe what a degree of heat they will bear. This alteniion to rendering the surface ot the couch (the heap) even and compaci, IS essentially necessary, and to turning the woad as a dung exactly, digiqg perpeiidicularly to the botiom. The couching-house (where ihe heap is made) should have an even floor ot stone or brick, and the walls snould be the same, and every part ot the couch of woad should be beaten with a shovel, and trodcn, to render it as compact as possible/ « The Grower of woad should erect a long shed in the centre of his land, facing the south, the ground lying on a descent, so as to admit the sun to the back part ; and here the woad should be put down as gathered, and spread thin at one end, keeping Children to turn it towards the other end,' and * the couch should be at the other end* Mr. Parish supposes the degree of heat, * necessary to produce that change of smell which is necessary to finish a couch ot woad properly tor the Dier, to be about from one hundred to one hundred and twenty degrees ot Fahrenheit, and that it cannot be regularly obtained but by temperance and time.' ' »Good woad, such as the richest land produces, will be of ^ a blackish green and mouldy; and, when small lumps areF pulled asunder, the fractures and fibres are brown ; and these fibres will draw apart like small threads; and the more stringy they are, and the darker the external appear- ance, and if of a green hue, the better the woad; but poor land produces it of a light brownish green. Tsie fibres only serve to show that it has not suffered by putrefaction.' When the couch or heap of woad ^ has attained its due degree of fermentation, it is to be opened, spread, and turn- ed, until regularly cooled; ajid then it is in condition for sale : But the immediate use of wood new from the couch is not advised by Diers who are experienced; for new wood is not so regular in its fernt^entation in the blue-vat,' We have thus given the substance of the communica- *tion of Mr. Parish, partly in his own words, and partly in our own, where we supposed we could be more explicit and FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 43r concise. What has been said will, as we believe, enable any one sucessfuUy to raise this plant, and prepare it ior the Dier; especially with the aid ot a little experience in the ,-^uUure and process of preparation. WOLVES. For the method of preventing their killing Sheep, see Sheep. Wolves are easily caught in traps, and, as many froniier towns are in the habit of offering consideruble premiums for every Wolf that may be killed, we will suggest a me- thod of destroying them, which it is believed would be successiul. Build a close board-pen out in the wilderness, where the Wolves most frequent, so high that they cannot gn ever it; let it be about twenty feet square; leave a hole in each side of it just large enough for a Wolt to thrust his htud kuo; put three or four -3heep into the pen and feed them ih^re; Take pieces of tainted mtat and drag them alor.g on the ground, off for miles, in different directiojis from ihe pen. The Wolves coming across the scents made by ihcbe trails ' will follow them to the pen, and when there they miU stick their heads through the holes to get at the Sleep. Let the Sheep be prevented from coming too close to these holes. All then that is further to be done is to conrrive traps, which, as they run their heads througn the holes, will either kill them, hang them, or otherwise fiold them last till tney can be killed or taken; and the dsff. icnt methods ot doing this, any Hunter of common ingenuity can easily contrive for himself. This plan would be equally useful where the Farmer folds his Sheep every night, to keep off the Wolves. WOODHOUSE. Every Farmer should provide himself with this building; and into this let him every Winter store away wood sufficient for the ensuing year, so that he may have a constant supply of dry fuel. Any kind ot wood, even that which is much decayed, will burn well when dry ; and half of any given quantity of dry wood will give more heat than the whole where it is wet and green; so that there is a considerable saving of wood in having it dry, to say nothing of the greater pleasure and convenience it affords. A house twenty feet square and ten feet high will hold fifty cords of wood ; but if the Farmer will be at the pains to have his rooms warmed, and his culinary business per- formed, in tlie most approved and economical manner, he will find the one-half of this yearly quantity ot wood suffi^ cient for all his purposes ; and thus make a saving in this 438 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. article alone to the amount of at least thirty dollars a year, and, where fuel is dear, to pt'rhaps double that amount. See Warming of Rooms. In cuiing wood bnort, alter it is carted home, a saw should|^ be used; as this makes a great saving of the wood, and is at the same time equally expeditious. WOUNDS. Mr. Bartlet directs, where Horses or other cattle receive any large wound, the first step is to sow it up, if it be in such part of the body as will admit of this; for in some parts the wound will be drawn open by the lying down, or rising, of the animal. Where the wound is deep, let the stitches be proportionately deep, so as to bring the lower parts of it together. The stitches may be halt an inch or more apart. If an artery has been opened, let it be secured by pass- ing a crooked needle underneath and tying it up. If this cannot be done, apply a button of lint or tow, diped in a strong solution of biue vitriol, close to the mouth of the bleeding vessel, and be careful that it be kept there, by a proper compress and bandage, till an eschar is formed. The lips of the wound being brought together by the needle or bandage, it needs only to be covered with rags dipcd in brandy. Where the blood of the animal is, how- ever, \x\ a bad slate, which may soon be known by the aspect of the wound, and its not healing, the biood should be rec- tified by internal medicines. The wounded purl should be kept as free from motion as possible. All wounds of the joints, tendons, and membraneous parts should be dressed with terebinthine medicines, to which may be added honey, and the tincture of myrrh. All greasy applications should be avoided. Fomentations and poultices are also of great use here. YEAST. For the best yeast, see Beer. A method of milking what may be called a portable oi* durable yeast, is as foilows : Take a quantity of hops, suitable to the quantity of yeast you intend to make, boil them well, and strain off the water fii which they are boiled; into this water stir* a suitable quantity of Hour, and considerable salt, and then ad(ito this FARMER'S ASSISTANT. 439 a proportionate quantity of good yeast ; let this mass rise as much as it will ; then stir in fine Indian meal till it is so thick as that it can be made into small cakes of the size of a dollar or larger. When the cakes are thus made, dry ithem in the sun till they are hard, minding to turn them frequently to prevent their moulding, and then lay them by in a dry place, for future use. When you wish to have yeast, take one of these cakes, crumble it to pieces, pour warm water on it, and let it stand in a warm place, and it will soon rise sufficiently to make good yeast. A quantity of these cakes may be thus made at once, which will last for six months or more. YELLOWS. In Neat-cattle this disease is usually called the overflowing of the gall; in Horsts, it is called the yel- lows or jaundice. See Neat cattle- When Horses are troubled with this disorder, it is known by the yellowness of the eyes and of the inside of the mouth. The animal becomes dull and refuses to eat. The fever and the yellowness increase together. His urine is voided with difficulty, and looks red after it has lain some time. The ofif-side of the belly is sometimes hard and distended. If the disorder be not checked, he becomes frantic. In old Horses, when the liver has been long diseased, the cure is hardly practicable, and ends fatally with a wasting diarrhoea; but, says Mr. Bartlet^ when the disease is re- cent, and the Horse young, there is no danger, if the fol- lowing directions are observed : First, bleed plentifully and give the laxative clyster, as Horses having this disorder are usually costive; and the next day give him a purge of an ounce and a half of cream of tartar, half an ounce of Castile-soap, and ten drachms of succotrine aloes. Repeat this two or three times, giving intermediately the following balls and drink : Take Etbiop's mineral, half an ounce; millepedes, the same quantity; Castile-soap, one ounce ; make this into a ball, and give one every day, and wash it down with a pint of this do- coction : Take madder-root and turmerick, of each four ounces; burdock-root, sliced, half a pound; Monk's rhu- barb, four ounces; boil the whole in a gallon of forge-water down to three quarts; strain it off and sweeten it with honey. Balls of Castile-soap and turmerick may also be given for this purpose, three or four ounces a day, and will in most cases succeed in effecting a, cure. By these means, the disorder generally abates in a week, which may be seeiija the alteration of the Horse's eyes and * ^« 440 FARMER'S ASSISTANT. mouth ; but the medicines must be continued till the yel- lowness is removed. Should the disorder prove obstinate, you must try more potent medicines, viz. Mercurial physic, repealed two or three times, at proper intervals, and then the following balls : Take salt of tartar, two ounces ; cinna*^ bar of antimony, four ounces; live millepedes and filings of steel, of each, four ounces; Castile-soap, half a pound; make these into balls of the size of hen's eggs, and give one of them night and morning with a pint of the above drink. On the recovery of the Horse, give him two or three mild purges, and if he be full and fut put in a rowel. APPENDIX, [The following articles were not receiverl in time \o be inserted in their proper ^places iiv this Work; the}' are therefore added a« an Appendix.] APPLES. Mr. P;Ti'/072, of Pennsylvania, says tliat apples, kept over Winter, ai-e most inclined to rpl diuiiig' the time thgit apple- trees are in blossom. Hd directs that, when the frost is, over, tl\ey, should be spread on a floor for some time, and that those inclining" to i"ot should then be taken out. 'Afier tlfis, he sa} s, tliey will shrivel somewhat; but that those, of a i^ood kind to keep, may be kept>ound till the nest crop of apples ripens. BREAD. I}r. Dat-nvin asserts, that the starch ,w-hicl> may be ex- tracted from any g-iven raiinbev of pounds of raw potatoes,' added to as many pounds of th.ls root when boiled, will r.iake bread equal to that made' froin the best wheat flotu". The boiled potatoes are to be * mashed line, with tiie starclij in^ its wet state, added to them, and tlien to be ji^ade ia the manner of wheaten bread. Kw equdl' num- ber of ])oiii-»ds of wheat fioupj, and of boiled potatoes, wei| mashed, will also ;ttake gyod bread. Ok,' instead of potatoes, iboiled turnips, Avell mashed, and the juice mostly squeezed out, will answer very well; but in such c-ise the byead is t6 be kej5* about tv\enty-four hours, before eating, by whi<5h;,time it will lose tlie taste and smell of the tiwnips. They are to be peeled bef6re boiling; 'aj^d the po- tatoes to be skined before they are used, TaKe twelve ounces of rice, boil it^^tiil (j^uite soft, strain off the liquor (which makes the best of starch) add the rice to four' pounds ©r wheat 'flour,*" and the whole,, when made tnta bread in the usual way, will weigh seven pourjds; so that this a(idition of boiled rice gives upwards of a poiind more ot bread, than if four pounds twelve ouncp^..jol;;. flour had been used for the purpose ; the bread "made with the^&dflition of the rice is eqirally good as that n;ade entirely of flour, and will t:eep moist considerably longer. It, howe^ver, Requires a little longer time in the process of rising .' ■ ^heve is also a still greater addition to b^e made to the weight and quantity of wl> eaten bread, by bodijig thq braji, which is sejkrated from the flour in bolting, and kneading- tip the whole boiled mass with the .fl,oun Tjje bran shou-^dUe boiled about twenty mintites, by wjiich operatic!) its weight and its nutrimental ,qualities are greatjy incrtjascd; and^ when copied to lulvewiirmness Jtmay be add- ed to the flour ^o be made .into bread. Or the wat€r iii^ which the bran is boiled may jse.p^Bessed out and added to the flour; and this of itself will make a vn-y ■;.»;'' iM ' ''•.■.n to the woig-ht an*] quanUty of the bread . 442 APPENDIX. Stale bread is more wholesome than that which is newly baked, as the latter contaiiji a larg-e proportion of indigfestible paste ; which mov, however, be rendered less hurtful, by toasting-. To make bread loith f)alt. Take as much of this article as i? ne* cessary for the quantity- of bread to be made ; dissolve the salt ih% quaiUity of warm water sufficient to mix the flour intended to be' baked; mix some flour in this water, and set it in a pot near the fire; but notso near a^o btlrn the flour: A vellow water will soon rise on the top, whiclrR' to be taken off', and the rising will begin ; then mix the contents of' the pot wi'th the floury add more warm water, if necessary, and in less than an hour tlie mass will be ready for baking; and wlun baked will be found as well raised und tasted as bread raised with yeast. From three to f(nir hours are requisite in this process, from the time of fii'st preparing the salt and water. BUKNET-GRASS.' Mr. Deai^e.m speaking of -this grass, sa;^s, < I h,a\ e had a bed of this grass for two years past on a hungry sancL It has grown luxuriantly, the stems rising to the lieight of three feet; and the seeds ripened the } ear it was sovvn, tliougli it was not sown till the end of May. The second year the seeds ripened, I think, in ,iS(r June;. Tlie severity of our Winter-frost neither killed any of it, nor so much as altered tliie- verdure of the stetns or leaves. Some of it was cut up and given t'b cattle, as soon as the snow was oft", which they ate very greedily. 'I thiiik tlVis-phuit bids fair to be a profitable grass in this Coutitry, where frost occasions the confining our stocks to dry fodder for six or seven months. For. oh a pasture of this grass, Cattle, Florses, and Sheep ma}' feed till the ground is covered with snow ; and again in the Spritfg, as soon as the ground is bare. It-is also excelent for soil- ing, oi- to give green to.cattle in racks; and when it is made into hay, the leaves are not apt to crumble, or any part of the hay to be wasted. « They who wish to propagate this grass may be assured, that there is not the least difiicidty in doing it; for it is not only a most hardy plant,. but' I have not found it to be at all liable to be hurt by any kind of insects. The •English Farmers recommend' keeping it clear of weeds during the first Summer, or till it is so large as to cover the ground. This' may be done partly by harrowing; for, as it is a strong tap-rooted plant, the teeth of the harrow will not injure the roots.* CABRAGE. Mr. Peters, of Pennsylvania, plants his cabbages in September, when he intends them for an early supply for the next year; and in this way' he })riugs. them earlier forward, than those raised in hotbeds. He drills in the seed, on ridges raised for the piiipose,>and lets the plants stand%xposed to the Winter.- Some of these are killed by the frost; but as they stand pretty thickly,^ as they are left in the Full, a sufnciency of them stirvive the Winter,' to be thined out the next Spring for growing at proper distances. CAMEL. There are four different species of this aniiDal, the J'actvkm Q'AmQ\, the Dromedary, the Lamar and the Cameleofiard. Tiie three former, l>aving long been domesticated, are eminently serviceable for carrying burdens, and for travehngvvith great speed. The latter has n«ver been subjected to the dominion of Man. •The Dactrjan is the larg,est, and can conveniently carry about half a ton «t a time, with which he will easily travel tKirty miles in a day. The Chinese Inive a '. ariety of this speci^^- which they call Fong -Kyo Fo, or Camels vvitli feet of the^wind ij^pne of which will carry > its Ridpr one hundred and fifty miles, a day;' The common kind of APPEND IX., 443 this species rtiay be rode one hundred mijes in that time. It h^s two large protuberances on its back. . '' ^ 5|t,i' ' The Uromedary is smaller, has but one, atjid carries about six ' hundred weight. . ,^ ^ The^ Lamu is much smaller than either of these, and carries a burden proportionately less. •■>. ^^ The species first mentioned is considered the most serviceable. For the most promine?it uses, for which the» two former aie filed by, "^ Nature, viz. for carrying bo.rdens, and for e?:peditious traveling, they are by far the most'valuable an;nii^- the 4U APPENDIX. pound. They require little cul|are, and this may be performed eitb^ with ih^ plough o%hoc. 'Die princijjul work is tlie g-utherini^ of tW fruit, as it forms. Kvery plant must be picked ever, other day, fiom the, last of June ,uniil the middle of October. But this is the wotrk of Women and Children. This piunt does well in an) kind of soil,' which is dr_v, or even in walls, where there is no soil; and they last the'life of a Man,* Toulon would be the tproper port to apply for them.' ' # ' Dr. i1>/f«6r says, «'!J"he .seeds must be brou.s^bt wer in their cap- sules, as they will keep mach bette"- tiian wuhoui tiicin-; but the;?©' should be secured from insects, tjy wrapinc?': tiiem in tobacco-leave.s which are well dried.** Without this precaution, the t;eeds vvdl be destroyed before they arrived' CARROT. The orange-colored carrot is tl^e best for cultivatio*)i., Mr. (^oo/zer, of Newjcrsey, raised eight hundred bushels of these to an acre. The crop may be mowed twice durmg; its g-rovvih ; the mowinjii's will somewhat assist the i^'rowih of the Toots'; and the tops thus taken off are much relished by cattie. It is contendetl by some, that the bccis for the drills of carrots should be underlaid with rualiure, in the mauner of turnips. See TuRiJrrs, ^ INSECTS, The g'rub is prcpagatj^d by the beetle, or black -bug-, which, durint^' Sumjner,.-js constantly to be seen rolling little balls composed of cow or horse-dung. Thes^; brills are deposited in holes in the ground, and contain tlie materials tor a numerous prog'eny of gurbs, which are brought forth the nexbSpring, and, in due season, are metamorphosed inio beetles." A .Writer, in a i^aper published at Raleigh, Nortli-carolina, 'sayi^, that he has never found any thing so eifectual for preventing the ravages of grubs in Indian corn, as Fall-ploughing; a practice \\ hich he parti'criiiarly recommends, as being of singular use for this pur- pose, as ijvell as for its excelcnt eli'ect en the growth of the crop which is to follow. [The Agricultural Society of Albany county, Newyork, having ofTer- ed foi'ty dollars for the best Essay on a Rptalion of Crops, and oil Manures, and their most profitable application, tiie premium was awarded to the Author oi' this Work. It was not confined to Residents, of the count}-, but was offered for the he^\^ Essay on these subjects. The Author has forv/arded it for insertion in the Ap})endix to this Work, from a belief that the Rotation of Crops, therein proposed, is the best that can be devised ; aftd also that, on'the Subject of tlie most profitable a/i/iikation ofraalCures, he" has, in this Essay, been more explicit than in the article Ma- Konrs, in the body of this Work.] • ROl ATION OF CROPS, &c. Some soils are peculiarly adapted for the growth of particulav plants, and in such case many successive yearly growths of them may be raised, without manure, and without • 3uaterial diminution of product. WejYave known an instance of four- teen good crops of wheat raised successiyeiy on the same ^ground; another, of eighteen crops of oats; other§, of at least ten of barley, •and nearly twenty of rye : IJut these were peculiar soils ; and al- though this sameness of ctdture was found su"cc(*ssful, no inference is t^jirefore to be drawn that it was the most pr^j^table, or that such soils would not eventually tue of thdr fuvorite' crops, an^ then be APPENDIX. 445 found exhausted and unfit for others. Generally speaking, we conceive that one of the most-iniporVuMt points in' hubbandjjy is a judiilioiis ro- tation of such crops us are most profitable for culture, and at the same time best adapted for the particular soils which are to be culti- vated. Lands seenmaturally to require a ciuing-e of growths. Wlicre the oak has disappeared, after it had lifted its iicad to tiie Sjjilngs of ages, another oak will not naturally ris% but somt- other vrce. In- stances have been known of lands covered solelj, wi'h trees of/deci- duous growth, vvherejthe knots of the pitch-pine were stjll to be found; a'proof that pi«e vvas'once a tenant of the soil. In the South- ern States, where lands have been exhausted with injuilicious crop- ing", and then thrown out to Ql^imon, they so(fii become covered #ith growths of trees diHerent frorft those they originally bore. Soiue plaiits are so unfit for long continuance in any particular' pilace ths^t they are endowed with migratory powers, either by their winged seeds, which are' wfefted abroad by the winds f by their roots, by which they change thesir places of growth beneath the surface ; or t)y their vines,; by vwhich they travel above grouiul, and thus locate themselves in diflerent situations. Of the first description are the varieties of .the thistle, the milkweed, and the fireweed; of the second, the potatoe and some other: bulbous-rooted plants; of the third, the strawberry, the blackberH', the dilierenl species of the gourd-tribe. The stalks of erect plants fall when they ripen, and thus, the seed readies the ground at a distance Irom the roots wliich produced them. There seerns,A indeed, to be generally a disposition in the earth to require changes'in the plants it nourishes, m orcier that it may impart the food that is best adapted; for each; and Provi- dence, in his ii>linite. wisdom, has endowed these, while growing iji a j^tate of Nature, vvith'such properties as are best calculated to eflcct the changes!. Let the Cultivator, therefor^, study Nature, and follow her dictates, if he Mshcs either, success '"or applause in his em- ployment. In regard to changes of crops, a general rule has been rfecQpmend- ed of alternate growths of leguminous and culnoiferous kinQs^ and of green-crops and gram-crops ; but perhaps it would be quite as philo- sophical to insist upon aiteiiiate growths of fibrous, and taprooted plants; thetJFbrmer deriving,th^ir food from the surface of tJie earth, the latter fVom greater depths. But the value of crops,^ and' the ex- pense of raising each, should he duly "estirnated, iii ifiakjng selections ^for rotations. Let-vUs say, for instance, that the average crops of wheat, bStley, and Indian corn,, at the greatest extent, may average fifty dollars in value to the acre, after ^he gram is ready for market; crops of rye, oats, and peas, not rnore,tlum two-thirds of this amount; bucj|Mdieat,^ considerably less. Fiom lands suitable for ruta-baga, or mai^^-wurtzei, it would seem that from five to six hundred bushel* to til^fcre may be expected, with good culture; which, at eighteen cents per bushel, a,g;Vi^e certainly not beyond the propprtionate value we have just given "to.; the grain-crops, will average about one hun- dred dollars as the value of an acre. The entire expense of either of these crops of roots, wlien ripady for use, is not essentially greater than the expense incured in producing gra!n'-(grop.s; of course, ifc must be evident that^these afford from thirty to fifty ddlhars an acre less of clear profit than a crop of either of the roots just mentioned. With a proper application of the requisite qitantity of manwi'e to ruta-baga, it may be, successfully grown on almostany dry soil, \vheij> well and deeply jni^p^wed, from *lie ^andy to the deep rich Ipams. Soils ofthe latter description are best adapted for mtirigle-whrtzel. -i^ither of these roots, when iteamboilcd, and especially with the ad- W ti 446 APPENDIX. djition of some meal, will answer all the purposes for which grain lA" iised foi^eeding- cattle of all sorts, from the Horse dow^i to the Hog-^ Even stag-e-horses, wliicli, from the severity of their labor, require the moSt nourishing food, have been kept in England on hay and steamboiled ruta-bag-a. - ,, Mr. Cobbett says^' ' a Hog' of a good sort may be sufficiently .fat^^ with this root, when steaH)W)iled.' Allowing, what we believe can hardly be admited,' that a bushel of oats contains as much nutriment as thrce^t)f this root; still it is evident that the usual product of one acre of it will go as far m ktJeping Horses as four of oats. * Neither of those root-crops requires any considerable expenditure in seed;. ami'oH this account, if on no other, tl^y are pi-eterable to ci'ops of the polatoe and of the Jerusalem artichoke, which in thfe article of seed are perhaps the most expensive of any wh tever. We, however, consider crops even of these roots more profitable than those o|!~ grain, and fiartlcuiarly the potatoe, when judiciously cultivated 4'n climates most suitable for its growth. For^the various uses of Nthis- root, f )r culinary purposes, it stands indeed without a rival. In point of profit, w<^ would also give to the carrot, the parsnip, andthe onion, a preference to crops of grain; but the soils well adapted for them are more hmited, and their cultWe is more expensive ; and although they should ft^rm a part of the products of the farm, we cannot re- commend them as being in all instances proper for a judicious rota- tion of crops. The common turnip, and the cabbage, are also enti,- tled to attention. The. pumpkiit is as nutricious as the same weight of any root or vegetable whatever, and its culture as-clVeap.; but •whether its product, in weight, can be made to compete wjth that of roots, is a m.atter of which we are not ihfonig^d. If fifteen tons to the acre could be usually obtained of this Species ofi^gdurd, we should be induced to pronounce the crop, in point of profit an^l use, ;< unrivaled as a preparative for a crop^of Winler -grain. The crop- would be found among those whicli are le1)st expensive in seed, m culture,, 4nd in gathering; none would occasion less exhaustion of soil,, noi* require less for manure, as a little gypsum to the hills, or driHs,: will be fouiid to have a powerful efl'ect on its growth; but of its more complete cultivation we siiall presently speak. In Pennsylvania, and farther to the south, a successful mode of cuitur^e has been put in practice <)f growing Indian corn and potatoes in alternate rows x>r drills ; and in tiiis way aoout a sixth more of pro- duct, in tlie aggregate, is obtained from tlie ground, than if these two sorts of crops were cultivated separately. Such is found tcf be the fact; and the reason for it sgems to^ ^e, that each crop has, in this way, more space given for the exten^i^ii of its roots in search of its favorite foe>d, and each has the like room above c'roimd for driving from the aS* the nutriment tliat is most suitable. Corn, in para^lar, it is well known, is liable to much injury, if planted too dtds^ely. There is, indeed, a variety of ca&es where this mingling of growths is found vei">' advantageous, and whenever we shiill venture to re- commend the practice, it will be founded on k cojiviction of it« utili- ty. There are Jtlso some instances, even in this northern latitude, in trtvhich two crops ms^ be had in a season from the some ground, and any case whe're it may be advisable shall be duly noted. It should farther be observed, that in suggesting what may he deemed the most suitable changes of crops, no reference will be had •io the actual state of farming among us, but merely what tlie state of farming ought to be; and in pursuance of tliis course we shall, in a great%easure, discard the idea, too long prevalj^nt- iu' tliis. Country, that we should make the most of "our labtor, not the most of our laixi: APPENDIX. . ur We shall, on the contrary, insist that, g-enerally speaking-, making- the i^ost of our lands, under a proper course of husbandry, is the ,rig^ht ^ay to realize the most from our laboi*. We shall thcrefote begin with the most usual soil of this Country, the. dry, arable lands; which are usually suited for a va"iety of crops. Of the stiff" clays, the ^ard gravels, and light sands, soils which abound but little here, we sliaU s|ieak in particular. la ploughing-, we shall advise that the usual depth be about six inches, "or about a third deeper ,tl)an our Farmers commonly plough; but that the depth shoultl sometimes be greater than this, and sometimes les^. We shall also insisi on the ploughing- being done in the,most perfect maimer, and'not in the sliglit way too 0ften practised: and we shall farther premise, th^ the plan of cul- d wm\ th \ure "we recommend is necessarily connected with tlie busint the dairy, to greater or less' extent ; and with that of tlie Grazier^n feeding and fating cattle of every description. Such we conceiv^to ^|l be the only true and profitable cotirse to conduct farming in thi« Country; but deviatioitsfrom this may in some cases be found equal- ly profitable. In general, however, we advise to this course of farm- ' ' ing; for in this way the greatest quantity of manure is-afforded ; and for most lahds manure is essential for obtaining the greatest crops, 4<«nd of course for realizing the greatest profits. %: We shall begin witli the ground in wheat or rye-stubble, as at thcj^ i^ttpd of oar course we propose to leave it. Let the stubble-ground be^ '"#^11 turned over ni the Full, to the depth of, say, six iriches. It "^, should not be turned under until-a sward of white-clover has covered ^* tlie ground, which is- to be produced by giving it a top-dressing of , gypsum in the Spring. Under the s-vjbject of manures, the reasons for this will be explained, when treating cf g'y'psum. In the Spring, give the ground one or two ploughings more, as the nature of the ^ soil may re'quire, and of the same depth, and let the last ploughing be jitst -before the proper time for plantiiig Indian corn? for this crop, with an intermixture of other plants, is v,'hat w.e propose to begziji , with. Say, for instance, that the intermixture shall consist of the potatoe, of the pumpkin, and of the common turnip, a third part of each. ; We propose planting these crops in drills, in preference to hills, fi'om a well-founded conviction that in tlie former method considerably more may be obtained from the ground. J.et furrows be run, at a good depth, for the drills, at the distance of about every three and a hulf feet. ^n4hese furrows- lay of the. shortest and best of the fresh barn-dung, .at the rate of ibofit /twenty wagon-loads to the acre* For the drills intended for potatoes the longer sort of barn-durjg is as good us any other. If tiie different sorts of barn-dung can be applied to the soils nnost suitable for each, as is mentioned in speaking of manures, tliis'should always be attended to; that is, sbe«p aftd horse-dung for the moister parts of tiie land, and cow- diti^for the drier. - AWast as the dung is laid, it shoidd be well covered, by a furrow, inoderately deep, thrown over it from each side; but, where pota- toes are to form the alternate drills, iQt the seed for these be laid on the dung, previohs to covering; and, for this purpose, let t!ie po- tatoes be cut in halves, lengthways, so as to give each about an equal number of eyes, and then wret-them and roll tlj.em in gvpsum before laying them down, W'hich should be at the di-stauce of about fifteen inches. The potatoe-driils being thus coye.red, by the, furrows thro\^n from each side, the same process, serves to cover the i^r-p; in -the other furrows, and thus the beds are fornjed for planting tl> other crops in th#diHll -method. Indian corn may be drilled in at one operation by.#:djUl-machine for the pu$os,e; the 'same may be 443 APPENDIX. observed of the turnip-crop, and probably of the pumpkin; though attended \yith more l&bor, it may usually be expected they will be drilled in by mnnual operation. We^should advise '• the seed in the turnip-drills be liberally strewn, in order that ifpaf^ of the .plants be destroyed by the flies, tenoug-h may still be Icftj,, The corn and pumpkin-seed muy be droped at the distance c(f six inches, and tinned at the first hoeing, so as to have the growing: . plants of the fonx^;^? about a foot apart, aitl the latter about eighteen inches. If any vacant* places should happen in any of these drills, such vacancies may readily be supplied by transplanting sets, taken from parts where more plants are standing than are necessary. A]^ young plants nvdx be transplanted after they have attained a SuitsiB^ s^, which is nsiially in from two totfour^weeks growth. The yacan-* c^ may be quickly filled by transplanting, and it is a.matter well / worthy of attention. _ . ' ^ . ■ The pi-actice, lately introduced, of laying barn-dung at a good depth, and then coveing it with mould to the depth of about three or four inches, and phintmg the seeds over the manure thus covered, seems to answer the best purpose for every drilled-cr<^p, except po- tatoes; and we would therefor^ recommend this method' of using barn-dung in preference to e/ery other, as far as it jfi^y be wanted^ .. for drilled-crops. In this way this manurp may be profitably applledl '^ while fresh; but in many instances we consider it more efficaciotfs- I when applied after ^li^ process of roti'ng or fermentation^ bas corii- 'F- mcnced. Such is the theory of Sir luiim/i/n-cy Davif, and-we h&ve fid' conlidence in its correctness. When thus buried in the earth, the grov/ing plants, placed above the manure, have the utmost means of absorbing all its gaseous and soluble parts, while the process of its' decomposition is going on. In preparing seeds, we would,' as a general rule, advise to their being soaked :ibout twelve 4»ours in a strong solution of s;dtpetre, or ■ of common salt, and then rolled in gypsum !)efoi'e being cdmmited to the earth. The effect of this, mode of/ preparing the seed seems to be, that the young plants start with more vigor^ "and grow larger, tlTan they do where this treatment of the seed is neglected^-^'.and the solution of saltpetre has the furth-er effi^ct of bringing plahts to ma- turity from, one to two weeks sooner than they otherwise wduld rrpc^n. Ih sejectlng seed for the corn-crop, take sucii s ai'rs as bear two ears, apd select the best ear from each qf such stu'ks, the grains on each ei)d;to he rejecte* ^ise them to run too nruch to vines. 'Fo the corn, and pumpkiiqt-criop apply some of this latter manure, aftet" the plants are up. What ciitcl it has on turnip^, we have never understood. "n ploughing between the drills, let it be tea good depth, first Hining the furrows, from the plants, runing about 4 inches from them, and then -turning the furrows back, whe^, the hoeing and hand-weeding are to follow. The second ploughing should be similar APPENDIX. 449 ♦ • to the first, but farther from the plants; and 5n g-eneral, we^believe, it will be found advantac^eous to ploug-li and lioe the crops the third time. Wc have seen it highly recommended to plough among Indi- an corn, as late as in August. Frequejii^t deep ploughing is certainly the best mean of keeping the ground maist, and should never be omited in case of drought. Ground that nas beconsje. quite dry will be found moist after a thorough deep ploughing. At all events, the ground sfioidd be so cultivated as to prevent any weeds from going to seed in the Fall; for if this be suffered the ground will remain constantly stocked with the seeds of weeds. We advise to the cultivation of the common turqip, the potatoe, and the pumpkin, in the manner we have mentioned, for the pur- pose of affording the early supply of food for feeding and fating cat- tle in the Fall and the forepart of Winter, before the ruta-bagacrop fijhould be used, of which we shall presently speak. We also advise to this variety of crops, in order tliat the cattle may have a greater variety of food ; a matter of considerable importance in feeding and fating cattle. For this purpose, also, the culture of the cabbage is worthy of attention. Horses, and all sorts of cattle, faten well on pumpkins; but for Swine tliey should be steamboiled, and the seeds taken out, as these prove injurious to those animals, by causing too great a secretion of urine. The seeds attbrd an oil equal to that of the olive, a^d are well worth preserving for this purpose. As soon as the ears of the corn -crop have somewhat hardened, the crop may be cut up and set in shocks, with the tops tied closely to- gether to keep out the rain, in which way the grain will harden as ■well as in any other, ai\d a great addition of fodder may thus be acquired. During the next season, we propose to take two crops from the ground, to wity a crop of ruta-baga, preceded by such Spring-crop jis ripens sufficiently early to be hai^vested in time for preparing the ground for a full growth of this root. In the meridian of Newyork, Mr. Cobb fit says that from the 26th of July until some of the first days in August, is the proper time to transplant this crop, the plants for the purpose being previously grown. The method of cultivating the crop by transplanting, he insists, is the preferable way; and from our own experience we are fully disposed to agree with him. Advancing to the northward, from Newyork, the seasons are shorter, and of course the crop should be transplanted earlier, while at the same time the Spring-props are later in ripening. At Newyork, bar- ley could Be taken from the ground in time sufficient to prepare for ruta-baga: Farther to the no^^ this could not be the case. In the more northerly yjarts of this Sp^e, it would, perhaps, be difficidt to find any crop, now raised in this Country, with the exception of flax, that would be sufficiently early. The ^t is, we want a pai'ticular crop for this purpose ; and that wouJd^lfem to be the new sort of Spring-wheat lately introduced into France, which is there called le ble de mai, in English, the wheat of May. It is said to be a very productive species of wheat, affording a grain from which flour is made of about a medium whiteness between that of rye and wheat, and in that Country it is fit to harvest in the latter end of May. In this State, it would probably ripen no where later than tl>e first of July, which^puld be in time sufficient for the crop of ruta-baga. Until we^^n procure this wheat, we can only recoijimend that the preceding crop be such only as will ripen sufficiently earljs and, where none can be had for the purpose, to be content with raising the crop of^uta-baga ^^tly in the course of the season. W'here pre- vioiis Spring -crops can, however, be obtained, let them be tak«n 57 450 APPENDIX. from the ground as quick as possible, and the ground deeply turned over, unci mellowed by three deep ploughing-s, then furrowed at the distance of about thirty inches, the manure laid in, and covered by furrows tlirown over it from each side, and the plants of ruta-baga immediately set on tlie rid^s, by transplanting', at the distance of about a foot f''^ each <8ther. From our own experience, yve are fully convincf^that the plan of transplanting- is, in the end, much the cheapest„and most advisable. We would, however, recommend not to transplant before the appearance of a heavy shower, but at any time afterwards; that the plants be of good size, say, of five or six ■weeks growth, and that, in seting-, special care be taken to have the Jow^er parts of the roots well enclosed with earth. For further par- ticulurs, in regard to the culture of this crop, the time and manner of using it, and of saving it, we refer the Reader to Mr. Cobbeti's book on the subject, from a conviction that it is the best essay that has ever been published on the culture and use of this valuable plant. It will be seen, however, that we differ from Mr. Cobbett in the distances in which the plants are to be set, and in the manner of forming the ridges. He forms his by four gathering-furrows, by which the ridges are each about four feet in breadth. We propose to form them by two gathering furrows, and at the distance of thirty inches. In England, the plan we recommend is geriet^Uy pursued, and the ridges are usually b#t twenty seven inches wit4©# In the Spring of the third year, we propose to sow the ground ■with barley, after two or three plou^hiogs; seed, two and a half busliels to the acre. At the sanie time, also, give the groujid at least twelve pounds of red clover-seed to the acEe, which may be carefuly mixed with the barley, and sown together. HSrrow the ground be- fore sowing, and harrow in the seed, after it has been prepared in the manner before directed ; then, if the Farmer is in possession of the roller, let this be passed over the ground, particularly if it be somewhat dry; for, in such case, barley, being covered with a husk, requires a close envelopement with earth, in order that the progress of its germination be not pither partially or wholly retarded. Next Spring, give the ground a top-dressing of gypsum, of from one to two bushels tf) the acre, as circumstances may seem to i^equire. Two clover-crops are to be expected this season'. The next, either one or two may be taken, according to the clim^e, but usualW one only in more northerly regions; and in this caSe let the second growth be laid prostrate, by the roller p;issirtg over ft in the same direction in which the plougii is to follow, in order that the growth rftay be care- fully turned under, which, will form^ttfexcelent lay for Winter wheat, or for rye, if the climate is not adaplp to the growth of tlie former In suitable climates, wlSH^will succeed on a good clover-laiy, even on light sandy lands. It disbelieved, however, that the species of wheat which is considerably cultivated in Pennsylvania, called spelt ( friticiuh sfielta) may be^successfidly cultivated in any part of the Northern States where wheat of the common sorts does not flourish. When the sward has been thus turned under, let the surface be level- ed by ruiiing the harrow ligiitly over it, in the same direction the plough runs, and then cover the seed with the harrow^, mn in a simi- lar direction. Let the seed-wheat be prepared in the :ABiner before describ 'd, and4et it be free from any mixture of rye, w the seeds of cockle or other weeds. Next Spring, give the ground another top- dr-jssin?; of gypsum, in-order that a growth of white clover may rise after harvest, as this will afford considerable"rall-feed, 'and a fresh APPENDIX. 451 sward to be turned under in the latter part of the Fall, the effect of whicli will be expiuuit'd when sptaking- of munurcs, &.c. Thus our rolaiion rcquii'cs sia seasons lor its conipletion, and i? composed of six or more dilferenl and successive crops! In exhibit- ing our pian, wc jntencl il merely as an oitllme of what we deem at least one ot the best and most profitable systems ol" culture vhal can be pursued in g^ood arable lands, wheie all obstructions to the most complete culture have been removed. Other courses may probably be devised which may be as g-ood ; but we feel confident there can be none better. We consider this rotation as comprehending a suf- ficient vanet) of crops for every purpose of affording the land rest by changes; and although a course oi rotation might be made to in- clude a greater variety of crops, still tlie profits ot them, in the ag- grregale, would probably be less than in the plan we propose. We insist much on the culture ot root-crops for the greatest possible profits. In some instances, for the growtiis of roots and vines we propose, as well as of the grain-crops, others nnght be substituted, and sometimes, for the sake of further variety of growths, pariicuiarly ot roots, it migiit be advisable ;all this must, however, dej)end on the soil, and on other circumstances. If the soil be rich and deep, per- haps the mangel-wurtzei suould have a preference to the common turnip, and tl^^iJump kill, i" the first years crop, and perhaps in such soil the cabba^-culiure should sometime come ui for a share. We shoul^'Wrdly advise that crops of carrots or of parsnips should ever enter the list of a general roiation of crops, as they require pe- culiar soils, and uncommon pri paration. they are very valuable crops for particular purposes; but their uses, tor feeding and fating cattle, seem to be m a great measure superseded by the less exyjens- ive culture ot the crops before jnentioued. There are, liowever, some mellow fertile soils, of sandy texture, where these roots, par- ticularly carrots, may be cultivated with great advantage. A very serious objection to the culture of parsnips is, that, m the soils must suitable for them, they extend so deeply that their extraction from the earth is a matter of no small difficulty. In recommending the alternate culture of the pumpkin with the corn-crop, we have been influenced -by two considerations; firstly, from an account we have lately seen of a trial made of the culture of the large sort of pumpkin by itself, in which ai the rate of twenty- five tons to the acre were raised; and, secondly, we are of opnuon that in cultivating the crop, in the way we propose, nearly as great a product may be obtained as if the ground were planted entirely with this crop. Growing in (kjjts hy itself it will not impede the growth of Uie corn; nor do we^nceive that this crop will be injured by the extension of the pumpkin-vmes over the ground ; whereas, if the two crops were planted together in.^te same hills, or drills, as is commonly practised, the growth of t'ie d^^must, in a great measure, serve to rob the other of its dtie share of nutriment. The large sort of pumpkin, to which we have reference, has been raised of the weight of upwards of one hundred and fifty pounds ; but it is proba- bly less nutritious, because less sweet, than pumpkins of the common sorts. Another large sort, which we have seen exhibited in this county, of more than four feet in length, is probably entitled to a^ preferenc^lH&r culture, as it appears to be as sweet as pumpkins of the smalle^Kinds. In selecting seed for the pumpkin-crop, take such plants as bear the greatest weight of pumpkins, and from the largest of these let the seed be preserved.' 452 APPENDIX. We have next to speak of the rotations proper for clayey lands, or those which have mort; or less alumin in their composition. Lands of this description are various, as well in regard to their natural fer- tility, as to their Ijeing n)ore or less inclined to a superabundance of moisture. Sorae are naturalfy too wet for cultivating even grain- crops with success; and should therefore be kept for mowing and g'razing-lands. Some again m-xy be merely too v/et for crops of Win- ter-grain, and in such case Spring crops should be substituted; while at the same time the lands should be more apphed to the business of the dairy, and of the Grazier. \n the mean time, let the Possessor of lands wiiich are naturally too wet, proceed to laying at least a part of them dry, by !>.ollow-drains; and then by makhig his barn-dung principally into heaps of compost, in which hme and sand sl^all be considerably vised as additional ingredients, and applying such com- post-manure to the drilled crops before mentiontd, and in the man. ner before directed, he will find no dithculty wimtever in pursuing the course of crops we have recommended, nor of raising them of luxuriant growth. Where clayey lands are naturally dry enough for Winter-crops, we advise to a similar course of crops, with the manure prepared and used in a simda" manner. In ail stiff soils, however, an important point in husbandry is to keep the ground, while under a course of crops, in a mellow crumbly state; and for- this purpose nothing is more conducive, than frequent tieep plougi^r\|'s, and rais- ing the ground into high narrow ridges, as v/ell to liSrsi that state during Winter, as for the culture of all the drilled crops in particular. The ridges are to be formed by four gathering-furrow's; and in cleav- ing the ridges down new ones are formed, with the middle or highest part of each where the last furrows were of the former ridges. When, therefore, the manure is to be used for the drilled crop, it is to be laid in the furrows, between the rii^ges, and then covered over with two gathering-furrows run on each side, and thus the beds or ridges for the crop are prepared. If, however, it should still be found that some clays, even with this management for the purpose of ameliorating them, should still be found unsuitable for Indian corn, and for the turnip and ruta-baga- crops, we can only advise that, for the former, the Winsor-bean, and, for the two latter, the mangle-wurtzel and the cabbage-crop, be made substitutes. The Winsor-bean is considerably cultivated in the clay- lands of Greatbritain ; and Mr. Dearie^ in his Farmer's Dictionary, says its growtli on such lands in this Country is luxuriant. Perhaps in place of this species of the bean, another, v/hich is cultivated in the Southern States, and is there Galled the cowpea, should be pre- fered. '#^ It should be further observed, that gypsum, v/hen applied as % top-dressing to clay-lands, Jttrticularly those which are too wet, has but very little ettect; but |Pen they are laid dry by hollow-drains, and thrown into ridges, as before mentioned, the effect of this ma- nure upon them is nearly the same as in other dry arable lands. And. as we conceive it essentially necessary that all clay-lands which are to be cultivated for Spring-crops, as well as all other soils which are naturally too wet, should lie in ridges during the Winter, we advise that, at the begining of the rotation we have mentioned,. such lands have a second ploughing in the Fall, for the purpose offing laid in such ridges. When thus laid, tiiey are easily retluced^ a mellow ■■ state in the Spring; but, if this be neglected, they will usually be found, more or less, in hard baked clods, a state very unfit for good cultivation. APPENDIX. 453 In Greatbritam, it is found essentially requisite that clay -lands should be eliectually Summer-fallowed, as often as every sixtlj year; as well for the purpose of extirpating gvowllis of weeds, as for Uiel- lowing the soil, and rendering it more lively. A fallowing- there is performed by many repeated ploughings and harrowings duiing the Summer. But it should be reniembered, that the chmaLof Ihat Country is very different from this. Their wheat-harvesi li in Au- tumn; their Summers being wet and cool. Here we have tinie, c>fter the harvest is over, to cleanse and enhven the soil" by repeated ploughings and harrowings. On hard, gravelly lands, which are unfit for any crops of roots, ex- cept perhaps potatoes, i>o very extensive rotation can be had to ad- vantage, without plentiful manuring. Gypsum has a powerful etttct on such lands, and with the aid of this^nanure alone, even the poor- est of gravels may be made to yield good crops of buckwheat and of red-clover; and on a lay of this ialter crop, turned under, a tolerably good crop of rye may be had. Saintfoin, and some other taprooled grasses, flourish in such soils better than might be expected. Gra- velly lands require very deep and frequent plouglinigs, in order to make them suthciently retentive of moisture. They are usuail> much assisted by compost-manures, where clay, mud, upland-marle, See. form u considerable share ot the ingredients. But as there are different degrees o^ fertility in gravelly lands, according to the nature of the gravel, and it^ greater or less predominance in the soil, we can lay down no definite course of crops thaj^in all cases would be found most advisable.- Say, however, that wHth etlectual deep ploughings, and plenty of suitable manure for the drills, the first crop shall be Indian corn, intermixed with the potatoe and the pumpkin-growths, las before mentioned ; next Spring, oats, or barley, if the ground will answer for this crop. ' As soon as this crop comes off, turn the stub- ble under, and harrow in buckwheat for a green-dressmg, in tbe manner mentioned in treating ot manures; and on this growth, turn- ed under, sow rye, if the ground is too gravelly for wheat. Sow the cloverseed the next Spring, in the quantity before mentioned, and then harrow the ground, which will serve the purpose of covering the seed, and also of assisting the growth of the crop of wheat or rye, as the case may be. The advantage derived from harrowing these crops in the Spring has been well ascertained by experiment. After the second years growth of clover has been fed or mowed off^ turn over the ground in the Fall, to commence the rotation anew. When we speak of gravelly lands, we do not mean to include those which are, propei-ly speaking, gravelly loams ; for soils of this de- scriptio!! are generally well fitea for the rotation first mentioned. By gravelly lands we mean those where gravel is mostly predomi- nant, as we call those lands sandy where silex forms the greatest proportion of the soil; and of these something is now to be said. As a specimen of what may be called light sandy lands, we will re- fer to much of those lying between Albany and Schenectady. These, like the gravelly lands just mentioned, are not, in their natural state, calculated for the production of many different crops in perfection; nor indeed for any, without manure. With the aid of gypsum alone, however, good crops of peas, and of buckwheat, may' be had on most of these lands ; tolerable, of red-clover ; and on the lay of clover, turned under, middling crops of rye may be had. Probably, with this manure, valuable crops of pumpkins might be raised on themj Lauds of this description have, however, very essential properites, which gravelly lands do not possess; they are much easier cultivated than the harder soils, and, in proportion to their natural fertility, no 454, APPENDIX. lands are better adapted for root-crops of almost every sort, or for the grasses whose roots extend deep into the earth ; among- which are clover of different kinds, Saintfoin, lucerne. Sec. Such lands are least adapted for crops of w heat and Indian corn ; but, v/hen suffi- ciently ni£&»ured with clay, or upland-marle, which is better, they will yield tolerable crops of the latter, and also of the former, when raised on a lay of red-clover. Where little else than the contents of the barn -yard and gypsum can be had, for manuring sandy lands of the above description, the conVmon turnip and ruta-baga culture would not, perhaps, be ad- visable ; but the rotation should be something like the following: First year, potatoes and pumpkins in alternate drills, manured and treated as before described; second, peas, soaked in the solution before mentioned, and rolled in g}psum before sowing, with a top- dressing of that manure; third, buckwheat, treated in the same manner, and clo\ erseed sown with the crop; third and fourth, clo- ver, with a top-dressihg of gypsum each Spring; fifth, rye, on the clover turned under, as before described, which completes the course. But where upland-marle, or even clay, can be had, for the purpose of forming compost-manures with the barn-dung and the addition of some lime, as is described under manures, &c. we should advise to the rotation first described, or sometliing similar, in w-hiohthe root- crops should form a prominent part; and, in such case, let the ma- nure be plentifully applied tov^-the drilled crops. At first, periiaps, some of the crops would not be' so abundant ; but, uftder this man- agement the soil would be constantly improving, and of course the crops increasing. At first, perhaps, rye should be substituted for the wheat -crop; but each addition to the, soil, of the aluminous and cal- careous matter of wliich the compost is principally composed, would render the land better adapted for grain-crops of every description. It is a matter of the first importance to the Cultivator to possess an adequate knowledge of the different substances which may be used with advantage for fertilizing his lands, of the different soils to which such substances are best adapted, of the j)roper quantities to be used, and of the most advantageous time and manner ot their application. There is but little even ol the richest earths that will not become ex- hausted with constant croping without manure ; and soils are seldom so sterile, but that, with a proper application of suitable manures to them, they may be made the residence of plenty. Manures are of diff^erent kinds : Of animal, of vegetable, of fossil, and of mixed; of each of which notice wjll be taken in their order. The flesh of animals is an escelent manure for all soils, and is used to a considerable extent on the seacoast, where fish are caught in plenty. It is believed that fieali is used to most advav.tage in com- posts, and the same may be observed Vvith n^pre certainty in regard to the use of the blood. The sb.avings of the horny substances of animals, have very durable effects as a manure, in dry soils, by en- duing such with a greater power to retain moisture; and the same may also be observed of the hair and wool. The bones, when cal- cined, are also valuable, as they are principally phosphate of lime. The miasma, produced by the putrefaction of the ffesh and blood of anim'ls, is also food for plants, or at least its presence assists their growth. The urine is a fertilizer principally by reason of the salt it Contains, and probably also by its producing miasma. When animals die, it is uAual to let them lie above ground, to the annoyance of the Public: !)ut, if covered with earth, this, together with the flesh, &.c. of the animal, would be converted into good manure. APPENDIX. 455 Of vegetable substances, it may be ffcnerally observed, that almost ev«ry sort of vt-getuble, not of wood) texture, buried in the soil while green, is more or less efficacious as a manure ; and that many sorts of these, when turned under where they grew, and while in a green state, will add much more fertililv to tlie*soil than their growth extracted from it; but that the same growth, when sufVer^ll to ripen on the ground, and then turned under, after the exhausti^i of its juices, will not generally repay the soil the nutriment it extracted from it while growing. It would seem that the 'ripening of plants is the principal cause of the exhavistion of soils, and, for this reason, green-dressings, that is, ploughing of green crops under, lias been found advantageous in enriching lands. Where green-dressings are resorted to, as a manure, such growths should be selectc d for the purpose as are cheap in the article of seed, and at the same time quick and bulky in their growths. Buckwheat has been much used for the purpose, though perhaps some other plants should be prefer- ed. The growth should be turned under wlien in blossom; and, in order that this be done efl'ectually, it shoidd be laid prostrate, by runing the roller over it, in the same direction in which the plough is to follow; after which, the ground should not be stired again till this manure has sufficiently roted. Genendly, we think it would be most advisable to sow on the lay or furrow, by which the green-crop is turned under. There may be some instances where manuring with green-dressings may be advisable, paiticularly where it can be clone without prevent- ing the growth of any intervening cr<^. Where this is not practi- cable, we should hardly advise to this method of manuring, unless in cases where other manures were not to be obtained. One case we will however mention, wljiere a green-dressing might be given to advantage. Suppose, for instance, a crop of rye, oats, or barlev har- ^'ested, and the ground cleared of the crop, by the 2Uth of July; in that case, let the stubble be in)mediately turned under, and the ground harrowed in with buckwheat; by the 20th of Se]btember this growth- would be fit to be turned under, when a crop of wheat might be sown on the lay. It should be understood, that rye is one of the best crops to precede a crop of wheat, or to follow it. In the same manner, therefor% the crop for a green-dressing may be raised in the wheat-stubble turned under, and the green-crop turned under for a crop of rye. *• But the contents of the barnyard, and the excrements of cattle, are the principal sources of manure of the vegetable kind; and of these it is necessary to treat particularly, as well of the qualities of the different sorts, as of their most advantageous applications to soils. The sorts of dung or excrement to be noticed, are those of Hnrses, Neat-cattle, Sheep, and Swine. The dung of Swine is most valuable, where properly apphed; that of Sheep is the next; that of Cows ranks in the third degree; and that of Horses in the fourth. Tgie dung of the latter, if suffered td'lie in aheap till it becomes thonMighly heat- ed, assumes a whitish or mouldy color, and is then of but little vakie. It is of a warm nature, and is best adapted for being well buried in jnoist or clayey soils; cow-dung, on the contrary, is most suitable for dry soils; sheep dung answers best on the soils for which that of Horses is best suited; but is very valuable for almost any soil. Hog-dung should only be applied to dry arable lands, and is most powerful in those of a sandv or gravelly nature. Dung, of all sorts, loses much of its valuable qualities by exposure to frequent rajns, 1 particularly when lying at but little depth over a considemble 456 APPENDIX. svirface. Its good qualities are best preserved by lying in large heaps, and if under cover so much the better. The stercorary is the most effectual method for preserving barn- dung, and it is believed that every Farmer will find his money well expended in the erection of this receptacle for the contents of that part of his barnyard, which is not used in the Spring. The sterco- rary may serve for a sheep-fold during Winter, and will thus ajiswer a twofold purpose. Jt may be, for instance, forty feet in length, six- teen in breadtli, and of suitable height. The floor is to be made of a layer of clay, with the surface smootldy paved with small stones, and highest in the middle, so that the juices of the dung may run off to the sides, where a gutter i-eceives this liquid, and carries it into a reservoir, sunk at one end, into wliich a pump is to be fixed to raise the liquid and throw it back over the heap. The floor, gutter, and reservoir are on a plan similar to those of a cider-press. The liquid that runs from the lieap is the most valuable part, and slu)uld never be lost : This plan is therefore calculated to preserve it; and, for the purpose of absorbing the whole of it, any dry vegetable matter, or rich earth, may be laid over the heap, and this liquid t)iro\vn on that, which will serve to convert the whole into good manure. The juices of the soluble and gaseous parts of the excrements of cattle, together with the stale, are what principally aflbrd nutriment for growing plants; and every mean by which these can be saved, by their being absorbed in other substances, of rich earthy or vegetable' matter, would seem to be well worthy of attention. We will next designate what is usually considered the^methods most proper for the applica- tion of duiig. Wiiere lands are in grasses of the fibrous-rooted kinds, it is the generally-received opinion of the best CiAtivators, that barn-dung, as veil as manure of every other kind, should be applied as a top- dressing, that is, by spreachng it on the surface; but that for tap- rooted grasses, or those whose roots extend deeply, as well as for all grain and root-crops, this manure should be buried in the soil, at Such de])ths as are best suited to the nature of the roots of the plants to be cultivated. The operation of barn-dung, and of all vegetable and animal substances used in manv.re, seems to be this : If laid at a certain depth beneatli the surface of the soil, in the progress of their decomposition their soluble parts pass into the form of gas, or vapor, and of course rise to the surface, and in their ascent are more or less absorbed by the roots of the plants; on the contrary, if these ma- nures be laid on the surface, these soluble parts, in the progress of decomposition, never become aeriform, but are washed downwards, in their liquid slate, where they are in like manner al)Sorbed by the roots of the plants. This is ])robably as correct an explanation as can be given of tlie effect of these manures. It is well known that ground, long used as a graveyard, becomes very fertile, notM'ithstand- ing tlie suMltances, which are the cause of such fertility, are laid at a very great depth. It has been held by some English Writers, that barn-dung should be well rot>2d previous to its apidicalion as a manure ; ':)ut this opin- ion is rejected by Sir Humphrey Davy, one of the mo3t scientific Agriculturists of Greatbritain; and also by Arthur Yowig, Esq. Mr. I)avy contends, that this manure may in most instances be as well apphed fresh as in any other way, by its being laid at a proper depth beneath the surface, "and that in scarcely any instance is it advis ble ^hat it should undergo more than the first stage of decomposition be- fore it is used. WHien well roted it is, however, more efficacious for a sljigle crop ; but its use is of much slioner duration. It seems, APPENDIX. 457 also, to be generally agreed, that using- this manure for di-yi-crops, burying- it a good depth, and raising the plants over the du!ig thus buried, is the best possible way in which it can be used. We lately saw an account published of upwards of one hundred bushels of In- dian corn to the acre being raised by this mode of culture. The success of Mr. Cobbctt, and others, in raising great crops of ruta- baga by this method of using this manure, seems to demonstrate its utility, if evidence were wanting further than what appears in Eng- lish publications on the subject. The plan that we would therefore recommend is, to apply the fresh barn-dung to all drill-crops which are to be put in the ground in the Spring, and for these we refer to what has been said under rotation of crops. The shortest dung should be used for these pur- poses, except for potatoes; and it should, as far as practicable, be applied to the soils best adapted for each kind of dung, as has belbre been mentioned. The longer or more strawy parts of the dung, we should advise to be laid in the stercorary, if this building has been provided, or else somewhere under cover; or, if no cover caji be afforded, let it be thrown in a heap about three or four feet high; and, wherever it be laid, let it be stired up from the bottom in the course of about five or six v/eeks after it has been thus heaped or otherwise stored away; after which it will soon be found well fited for being used for the crop of ruta-baga. It is also advisable to cover the heap with a layer of good earth, which will serve to absorb and retain much of the steam or gaseous matter that rises from the heap, and when saturated with this, and mixed with the mass of dung, will be found a valuable addition. Of manures-w'hich may be termed fossils we will mention the vari- ous kinds of calcareous substances; the stony matter called pyrites, •coal, saltj peaty substances ; silicious and aluminous earths. Lime- stone, gypsum, chalk, and marie, are the calc*eous substances w« shall notice, and each in its order. « Limestone (carbonate of lime) has always more or less aluminous or silicious earth in its composition. Frequently also it contains magnisia. Limestone of this latter description, when calcined, makes what the* English Farmers call hot lime, which is more powerful in its effects, and therefore less'of it should be applied at once to the soil. That without any mixture of magnesia is considered more durable in its operation, but less powerful. Magnesian limestone is known by its effervescing but little, when plunged in ni|,ric or other acid; while limestone tliat is not magnesian, when thus immersed, produces a strong effervescence. The magnesian, also, when im- mersed in diluted nitric acid, or aqua-fortis, r^fders the liqitvd of a milky appearance. It is usually of a brownish or paK^'yellow color. Reing- more caustic, when calcined, than common limestone, it is more efficacious in decomposing peaty earths, and is best adapted for soils wiiich have too much either of peaty or vegetable T^atter in them. Where lands have been injured by too plentitvd an applica- tion of this lime, peaty earth should be applied to them, to correct the evil. The trials of lime in this Country have been quite limited, and confined mostly to the Middle States, particularly Penns} Ivania. It has usually been applied there at the rate of about forty bushels to the acre ; but, whether the lime used there is magnesian, we have never imderstood. Lime may be applied as a top-dressing, <5r mixed with the soil. Its application has been found most successful, when the first succeeding crop was Indian corn : Afterwards, wheat is grown to advantage. Instances are mentioned, in the Memoirs »f the - >8 45S APPENDIX. A.sjricultural Society of Philadelphia, where gypsum had no effect on wornout; lands, till they were first manured with lime. British Writers say that lime may be applit^d with equal advantage, either when newly slakecl or afterwards ; that its ettects are not always the same,, particularly where soils are different; but that usually it is a very dui'able manure. A much larger quantity is, how- ever, applied in Greatbritain, than has been usual here ; but perhaps the coolness of the Summers there renders more requisite. We pretend to advise to no particular rules in the application of lime in this Country, farther than that about forty bushels to the acre be. first tried; but le|s for sandy sojls, and perhaps more for those which are stiff clays, would be advisable. In clays of tins description, lime is particularly useful in destroying the adhesive quality of such soils, and thereby rendering them a mere friable loam. Such has been its effects on the clay-lands which abound so much in England. Where the lime is magnesian, let trials be made of about twenty bushels to the acre. That Country abounds much in the calcareous matter denominated Chalk, which is also converted into lime by calcination, and used as a manure. It forms a weaker sort of lime. As this substance, how- ever, is hardly to be found in this Country, it will be unnecessary further to speak of this manure. Gypsuni (sulphate of lime) is a most powerful stimulant to the growtli of many crops, in all dry soils in this Country ; but with the following exceptions : It has no sensible effect on lands newly clear- ed, on those in the vicinity of the ocean, nor on those which have been completely exhausted by severe croping. Tn soils of this latter description, some pabulous matter must be given them for the gyp- sum to digest or act upon ; and this may be a previous manuring with lime, marie, bog-earth, barn-dung, or perhaps any substance that is calculated to improve the condition of the soil. It should also be observed, that the application of gypsum frequently fails entirely of producing its effects, if followed by uncommon drought, or unusually wet weather. It is generally most poweiful, when ap{)lied to growths of leguminous plants, to tliose extending in vines, such as the vari- ous species of the gourd-tribe, the strawberry, 8cc. and to several sorts of the green -crops, particularly potatoes, clover-grasses, lu- cern, &c. On fibrous rooted grasses,-, and those grain-plants most ijearly related to them, such as wheat, rye, oats, barley, &,c. it has no sensible effect, when applied as a top-dressing to the growing «.' plants. OiVjJBuckwheat it is very powerful, and for Indian corn it is also valuable. Judge Peters, of Pennsylvania, whose exp^ience of its uses has been long aocl extensive, says, that although he has found this ma- nure of little use to many sorts of plants, when applied to them as a top-dressing; yet he has invariably found that all plants derive bene- fit from^ieir seeds being rolled in gypsum, after being soaked in some liqifid before sowing or planting. As a manure, however, for wheat, or grain-crops of similar kinds, immense benefit, may be de- lived from it, by applying it to the sward, as a top-dressing, as uitable length of time before the ground is broken up. In this way, two bushels of gypsum may be made to give an additional increase of eiglit or ten bushels of wheat to the acre. Take, for instance, land which in its natural state, and with the usual culture, will only yield ten bushels of wheat t^ the acre ; in the Fall, or early in the Spring, (1, give it a top-drt ssing of two bushels of gypsum to the acre; by the middle of June follow ing the land will exhibit afresh green-sward, principally of white-clover; and when land is thus clothed in ver- APPENDIX. 459 dure, it Is a sure indication of a great addition to its fertility, and that a .,ood crop may tlien be expected. When, therefore, the green-sward is thus tunned, turn it under, and tlicn, with tlie usual culture, twenty bushels of wlieatto the acre may be expected, wliere only ten would have been had without tins application of g-} psum. Yet the same quantity of this manure, applied as a top-dressing to the growing crop ot wheat, would have had no sensible ellect. It should therefore be understood, that for all growths which derive little or no benefit from gypsum, when applied as a top-dressing to the growing plains, the ground should be previously •enriched by applying this inaaure to the sward, a suiiab.e length of time betore it is to be broken up, which will usually be truni two to three months. At all events, as soon as the sward fully exhibits the etiects of the gypsum it may be turned under. Wherever a sward is to be turned under, this practice siiould be invariably pursued, that the gvound may be renuered more fruitful for the crop that is to tbllow. In this Country, g\ psum is«i great source of wealth, wherever soils are sensible to its eitects. It has tended much to equalize the value of lanus, by impartiiig an artificial fertility to those naturally more sterile, and that hi a small expense. But gypsum alone is by no means sufficient tor keeping lands in the improved condition that is necessary for raising th(i uesi crops, ami of course deriving the great- est profits, riie Farmer siio^ld attend also to making the most of such other manures as come conveniently within his reach. We are, however, no Advocate for obtaining manures at any price : I'hey may cost too much ; but almost every Farmer, whose lands are of suitable- quality, 'and who stocks tliem with as many cattle as he can keep m good order, and then makes the best use of the manure they afiord, may usually, with the judicious use otgvpsum, added to good culture, keep his lands in an improving conditiom But some soils are so constituted as to be of diminished value, without a suitable mixture oi other earths, and in such case are per- manently benefited by such additions. If lands, for instance, a.re too sandy, or graveil}, the addition of clay to them, or, what is l^eU ter, of upland-marle, will permanently improve the soil ; and wliere these earths can be lound withm reasonable distance it will usually be labor well expended. We will state a case in point. In the rear of the city of Albany lies an immense body of calcareous earth, which may properly be called a schistic-marle. It is commonly call- ed blue-clay. I'hi's, when mixed with a due proportion of sand, forms a very fertile and durable soil. Further west of the city lie large tracts of ^andy lands, which require suitable proportions of this marie to render tiiem fit for good culture, and with such additions much of them would be found very valuable. Where they he suffi- ciently level, and are not too sandy, it will probably be' found that from lialf a ton to a ton, for every rod square, would be sufficient to render them very fertile, and fited for the most profitable rotations of crops. This sort of marie, which may be found in various parts of the Country, and very frequently under tracts of sandy lands, is a valua- ble and permanent manure in all dry soils which are deficient of cal- careous matter, and have not already too great a proportion of clay. This manure should be laid on the land as a top-dressing, that it may- be completely pulverized before it is mixed with the soil. U/: land- marie is sometimes found of silicious texture, in which case it is good for stifi' soils, as well as for others. It is also found of different colors, when combined with argilaceous matter, and of different qualities; that containing, most lime or calcareous matter 460 APPENDIX, being always the best. Maries of this description are often very vai- liable in forniuig a principle ingredient in composts, of which we shall presently speak, and the same may be nbserved of the superior sorts of this manure found in bog-swamps, of winch something shall now be said. This sort of marie is found, at greater or less depths, beneath the surface of mnny bog-swamps, and is of a whitish, a grayish, or a brownish color. The wiiltest is the most pov\ ej-fviJ, hnving most lime in it; the grayish is next m quality. Tlie superstratum is either a bog-eavth, to nvit, vegctal>ie mutter totally decomposed; or it is a peaty substance, or vegetable matter in a partial state of decomposi- tion. The bog-earth is good manure of itself, and nvay be used separately, or mixed with the jnarle; the peaty substance must under- go a further decomposition, before it is rendered valuable as a ma- nure, it being then rendered similar to bog-earth. These manures, when applied to growing crops, are somewhat similar in their effects to thost; of gypsum. The} are valuable as top-dressings, or for mix- ing with the soil. Their effects are very powerful on Indian corn, and they are more or less valuable when applied to almost every sort of upland-crop, with the exception of wheat, rye, and barley. For these they are to be applied to the sward, a suitable time before breaking it up, as has been mentioned in Regard to/ gypsum. It should, however, be observed, that neither* decomposed peat, nor bog-eanh, should be applied to soils which already contain too great a proportion of decomposed vegetable matter. The condition of clay-soils is also permanently improved, by mix- ing a due proportion of sai>d in them. The most durable and perfect soil is chiefly composed of certain proportions of sand, clay, lime, and vegetable matter in a state of decompositioii ; and, whenever any soil is destitute of a due proportion of any of these, the addition of such earthy substance can never fail to serve as a manure. The stony earth called pyrites, when pulverized by the aid of a proper degree of calcinntion, is much used, and hig-hly esteemed, in Flanders, as a top dressing for grass-lands, as is mentioned in a com- mumcation of the late Chancellor Livingsto?i to the Society for the promotion of the useful arts in this State. We will refer the Reader to the second volume published by that Society, for the manner of preparing this manure, and the quantity to be used, &c. Of Coal, we shall merely state that, from the results of experi- ments made by the late Mr. MuhlcJiberg, of Pennsylvania, about forty bushels to the acre of this substance, pulverized in the manner of gypsum, v/as found a good manure, when applied as a top-dressing. Common Salt, pulverized, and applied as a top-dressing, at the rate of from two to four bushels to the acre, has, in many instances, power^il effects as a manure. Sea-water is peculiarly adapted for this purpose. Mr. Deane, in his Farmer's Uictiouury, mentions an instance where a crop of potatoes, and another of flax, were greatly increased in product by an apj)lication of sea-water to them while growing. About a pint of the water was applied to each bill of po- tatoes, and for the fiax-crop the water was sprinkled- over the ground. Some trials have been made in this Country of burnt'day, as a manure, and its use is recommended, particularly for all dry arable lands, not inclining to clay. The first step in preparation foi*^burning ^' clay is, to have a considerable quantity of xhis earth dug up in spits, and laid to dry in tiie sun : When pretty well dried, you prepare for burniHg by raising a little pile of dry w'ood in the shape of a pyramid, say-j four or five feet high ; »ound tliis you build up the dried spits APPENDIX. 461 «f clay, leaving a hole at the bottom, for the entrance of the air, and another at the top, for it to pass oli'. Such, at least, was the method formerly practised in Greatbritain ; but the modern improvement of retaining the smoke within the mass, agreeably to the plan spoken of by Mr. Cobbett, for burning earth, ought also to be pursued in burning clay. After the fire has been set to the wood, you continue diging up fresh clay and piUng it around and over the heap, as last as the fire penetrates the mass; taking care, however, not to pile on so much at once as to extinguish the fire. If there be danger of its be- coming extinguished, it may be advisable to make one or more holes in the sides of the heap by runing a pole into it. The fresh earth is to be added during pleasure, or until -a sufficient quantity is burn- ed. After the heap has cooled it is fit for use, by nuxing with the soil, as directed by Mr. Cobbett, for applying burnt-earthy- of which we will next speak. By a late improvement, earths, other than those of clay, are suc- cessfully converted into good manure, by the process of burning. It is effected by retaining the smoke within the mass of eartli, while in a state of ignition. Mr. Cobbttt says he has tried this manure for the ruta-baga-crop, and found it as efficacious as barn -dung. His manner of preparing it, and which we believe would also be the best method of preparing burnt-clay, is as follows : < 1 make acircle (says Mr. Cobbett) or an oblong square. I cut sods and build a wall ail round, three feet thick, and four feet high. I then light a fire in the 'middle with straw, dry sticks, boughs, , or such-like matter. I go on making this fire larger and larger, till it extend over the whole bottom of the pit or kiln. 1 put on roots of tree^ or any rubbish-wood, till there be a good thickness of strong coals. I then put on the driest of the clods that I have ploughed up round about, so as to cover all the fire over. The earth thus put in will burn. You will see the^ smoke coming out at little places here and there. Put more clods wherever the smoke appears. Keep on thus, for a day or two. By this time, a great mass of fire will be in the inside. And now you may dig out the clay, or earth, any where round the kiln, and fimg it on without,cereniony, always taking care to keefi in the smoke; for, if you suffer that to continue coming out at any one place, a hole will soon be made ; the main force of the fire will draw to that hole ; a blaze, like that of a volcano, will come out, and the fire wdl be extinguished. * A very good way is, to put your finger into the'top of the heap here and there ; and, if you find the fire very near, throw on more earth. Not too much at a ti?ne, for that weighs too heavilj^on the fire, and keeps it back; and, Sitjirst, will put it partially out. You keep on thus augmenting the kihi, till you get to the top of the walls, and then you may, if you like, raise the walls, and still go on. No rain will affect the fire, when it is become strong. * The principle is to keep out air, whether at the top or the sides, and this you are sure to do, if you kee/i in the smoke. I burnt, the last Summer, about thirty wagon-loads in one round kiln, and never saw the smoke at all, after the first four days. It put in my finger to try whether the fire was near the top ; and, when I found it ap- proaching, put on more earth. Never was a kiln more completely burnt. ' Now, this may be done on the skirt of any wood where the mat- ters are all at hand. This mode is far preferable to the above grouni'% burning in heaps. Because, in the next place, the smoke escapes there, which is the finest part of the burnt matter. Soot, we know well, is more powerful than ashes, and spot is composed of the 462 APPENDIX. grossest fiarts of the smoke. That which flies out of the chimney is l4»e, best part ot ail. » In case ot a want of wood wherewith to beg-in the fire, the fire may be ligated precisely as in the case o\' flaring and burning. If the kiln be large, the oblong square is the best fignire. About ten J'eet ividey because then a Man can fling- the earlti easily over every part. The mode th^y pursue in England, when there is no wood, is to make a sort of building in the kiln with turfs, and leave airholes at the corners of the walls, tdl the fire be well begun. But this is tedious work; and is in this Country wholly unnecessary. Care must, however, be taken, that the tire be well lighted. The matter put in at Jirat should be such as is of the ligluest description ; so that a bt>ay of earth on fire may be obtained, before it be too heavily loaded. '" « The buFTiing being completed, having got the quantity you want, let the kiln remain. The fire will continue to work, until all is ashes. If you want to z^se the ashes sooner, open the kiln. They will be cold enough to ren^ove m a week.' A practice has long prevailed in Europe, of paring and burning soils, for the purpose of improving their texture and rncreasing their fertility. On clay -lands, and such as contain, too much vegetable matter, we conceive the process might be advisable, if not too ex- pensive. Its effect on clays is to destroy the adhesive quality of the soil, as the earih burned becomes rather of a sihcious texture; and at the same time the surface is much enriched by the operation. In the other case, it is calculated to reduce the redundancy of vegetable matter, as v/ell as to enrich the soil. The operation is performed in the following manner: When the ground is in a good sward of grass let it be carefully turned over with the plough; the irons of which should be well sharpened. Let tJie plough run about three inches deep. Then cross-plough with a very sharp coulter, and the sward will all be cut into squares of about ten or twelve inches. Set these square chunks up edgways, by leaning two together, and they will soon dry. When well dried, build a part of them up in the form of little ovens, at the distance of about eighteen feet each way. These are all to have a little opening or door, at a common windward side, for the air to enter, and another opening above, for the smoke to pass off. On some dry day, when the wind is fair for blowing into the holes below, place some straw or other dry rubbish into the holes, and set fire to it. As soon as the fires have got fully going in each of the heaps, let the holes in the tops be sroped up, for the purpose of retaining the smoke, and keep gradually building up the heaps as the fire pene- trates them, until all the chunks of eanh are piled up round them; and when the 1^-aps have fully burned, and sufficiently cooled, they are to be ^'^enly spread over the ground, and ploughed in. In some parts of Greatbritain it has been the practice to burn peat- earth, in a manner very similar to that before described for burning clay, and the ashes were used for top -dressings; but we believe this practice has mostly given way to that of roting or decomposing peat in compost; as follows: You form the compost-heap of about one- half of peat, a fourth of lime, and a fourth of barn-dung, and these are ^ to be separately laid along in a manner most convenient to be after- wards thrown into the compost-heap in their proper proportions, "ifpu commence at one end with spreading a layer of, peat on tlie ground, say, ten feet square and four inches in depth ; then a layer of lime on this, and another of barn -dung, each two inches thick; then another layer of peat, as before, and then the lime and bara- APPENDIX. 463 dung", as before, until in this way the heap is raised about four feet high, and let the last layer be of peat : Then commence another len- feet square alongside of this, and raise it, as before, till you raise it to the same height; then with another ten-feet square, at the end of this mass, and so on, till the heap is completed. After the heap has stood a while, it will heat, and when the heat begins to subsidt-, you commence again at one end of the heap and cut the wiiole down to the bottom, with the spade, and form a new heap, throwing the ex- terior parts of the heap, thus cut down, into the middle of the other. A second heating of the mass will then commence, and when that subsides, the peat will be foimd sufficiently „ decomposed, and the whole an excelent mass of manure. In this Country, peaty substances are usually to be found in mo- rasses; as the suptrstratum of marie, as betbre mentioned; as the principal ingredient of the salt-marshes cojitigvious to tlic ocean; and as the superstratum of tracts of cold lands which are cdlered with g-rowths of evergreen trees. In making composts with upland-marle, b^ore mentioned, the proportions of the marie, with that of the lime and dung, may be similar to those just mentioned for the peat-composts, or perhaps the marie may be in greater proportion. The layers of each may be as before described, but the heap only raised to such height that it may be cleft down to the bottom with the plough, then thrown to- gether in a ridge again with this implement; and let these operations be repeated,*at intervals, tijlthe wliole becomes well mixed, pulve- rised, and in a state of fermentation ; when it is fit for use, and shjpuld be immediately applied to the soil, in the manner before mentioned. ., < The use of wood-ashes, as a manure, is well known. It is good for almost all crops,' and is to be used as a top-dressing. It is much more efficacious a^ a manure in some pa^rts of the*Country than others, particularly on Longisland. It is most valuable on light dry soils, particularly those which' are sandy. Soot, as a top-dressing, is much more valuable than ashes, and is proper for almost all arable lands. It is most efficacjq'Us when well pulverized before its appli- cation. ,, * The dung of fqwils of every sort has much calcareous matter in it, and is very efficacious applied as top-dressings. Malt-dust is good in the same way : Forty bushels of it is* a' proper allowance to the jVights/iade should be rmxed with earth, say, two-thirds of the latter to one of the former? and in the course of a few months it forms an excelent manure, in most European cities this excrement is carefully collected, for manure ; while in this Country its use has been neglected. , Many liquids* are furnished from every domicile, and particularly' the kitclien, which, mixed ^ith earths, and other substances, woidd form valuable masses of manure. The liquids to'"'i|hich we principally refer, are Ihe soapsuds, dishwater, ferine of nieat, urine, &c. These should all be preserved, by being absorbed in rich earthy substances, together with the contents of the hogsty; and in this way a large heap of good manure may be made, that is commonly lost for want of attention in saving these ingredients. ERRATA. In page 5, for rulkd the storm, read r^il'd tht storm. Page 15, for a7id cro/i-filoughed, read a?jd cross-filong'hed. Page 28, for a kind of diahoeay read a kind of diarhoea. Page 38, for deaded the fires, read deaden the fires ~ Page 40, for Scoth, read Scotch. Page 62, for Fioria, read Fiorin and Guinea-gras§. Page 66, for lacua- tions, read lacerations. Page 80, fov froms hells, read from shells. Page 93, for stiff fiarUcularly, read ^^z^ c/ai/5 particularly. In page 103, in the last sentence of the thh-d paragraph from toj), the two middle lines are to be transposed, in order to render the sentence intelligible. Page 115, for taking of read taking off. Page 128, for Anthox An'thum, read Anthoxanthum. Same page, for se~cere clod, read se-uere cold- Page 157, 10th line from bottom, for see Sivinet read see Stcamboiler. Page 168, for acid of lime^ read aid of lime.. «■ ■ • ♦ ^ INDEX. INTRODUCTION Page 3 Recommendation 7 Air • . ^ 9 Apples 10 8c 441 Appletre» 11 Apricot Ash Aslies A sparagus Ass B. Barley Barn Barnyard Bean » Beer ^Bees Beet Bog-meadows Borecole, or Coleseed 13 15 16 17 ib. 19 35 34 P.otworm* ^ Bread Buckwheat Bull !}urn-baking Bovnct gras/8 Bu rut-clay Butter c. Cabbage ^ .. 40 Sc 442 Calves 41 Camel 442 Canker 41 Canker- wormi * ib. Caper * '* 443 Carriages • * 41 Carrot 43 & 44^. Caterpillars , 45 Cattle ib. Change and Improvement of ^ Seeds li * %. Change of Crops 47 Cheese • 52 Churn 54 Cider Clay Clearing of Land* Clin-iatfe *^^ Clover ,- Composts Cornslieller Cotton . , . , Cows Ct^ibappl^lree Cream Cucuniber C'.»rvant Cutiner's ib. ib. ib. 13 36 441 37 38 ib. 442 39 ■ib. 55 <30 «1 62 ib. 64 ib^ 65 67 ib. 63 69 70 71 D. Dairy 73 Dew 2b. Ditch. *,.. 74 Divisions of'a Farm "^ . ib. Dressing • 7)5 Drill D r ought i[^- Dung,a)unghill«, &c« Dying of Clothe, &c. <• Earth! J| film ^^ 79 91 ■ ^^' 5 Enclosure* Experim^ttlM 9 75 76 77 ik. A6& INDEX. F. rallo-vying- of Land" Page 92 Fodder and Foddering PagelOG Fi^ise Qu^ner ■-*••• 99 Folding" of Land 107 Tavcy -" id. Food ot Plants 108 Fences id. Forest ^ Foundering of Horses 109 Fc.-'iientation 1U2 111 Fli-u ib Freezing- 112 Flux 103 Fruit-trees 113 FnM.ding" of Lands 305 l'"uel 117 Fouls, or Colts ib. Fulktr's Thistle 120 G. Gardens * 121 Grasses 126 GaVi^et 122 Gi-avel 140 G:-S lb.. Green-dressiil^ ib. G!.,;,der» ib. Greens '^ ib. On His ib. Gieen-scouring ' 141 (-■..■•■-..e . 123 Gripes ^ Groves^ ib. G(;i«s-'berry ib. ib. Graf iiig- ib. Guinea-corn 142 Grainfiouse, or Granar/ 125 Gjpsum id.' H. ; Harrows and Harrowing- ll3 Hills «ndiS,VaUeys 155 H.Hvve^ing- ^ Haws, or Hooks 144 Hoe aTid Hociug- 156 ib. Hugsty ib. Hi.yn.aking 145 Hog-s _. * 157 Hc(ig-es 147 Hollow-drains ib. Htrtip 152 Hop 161 Herdsgrass 155 Horn-distemper 163 Hessiwt ily ib. Horse »» , - Horseshoe J* * ib. Hidebound ib. 167 « Improvement of Land ^ w. Tndig-o 185 Iiuirclniig- , ^ Indian Cqjrn ^ Iiiaculatiner, or Budinsr 187 ^ ib. I'TjIects" -^ 189 & 444 Indiati Hemp, 184 J- JftUfidice 196 1 Jerusalenu Artichoke 196 * ^ . K. Kil]"i:vgt)f Beasts ''' 1 A ' I. am pa's 197 Loam 198 A avers 198 Locust - ^ ib. }Jcc ib. \ Loflibardy "Poiplar 199 Limestone ib. Luceriie ib. #■ INDEX. ^67 M. Madder Page 199 Milkweed Page 23S Mang-el-wurlzel 20KJ Ml) let 233 WaiHires 2w6 >£os&.> ib. Maple 22/ Mowing 334 Miives « 228 viowing-grouiTd ib. Marie 229 \Uul, ' 23* ''Meadows ib.. Mulberry ib. Melon •« 230 VUde ib. •MeTheKlin ib. Mustard 336 Mildew . >"" 231 Myrtle //^. • • N- Neat-catt»' 237 Niwsery 263 Krttle 261 Nutriment of Food 3«4 Uew Horse-hoeing Husbandry 262 Oak Oats Olive o. 265 267 268 Onion Orchard Overtiov^ing of. the Gall 268 278 Painting of Buildings, &c. 278 Parsnip ' . :., 279 Pasture ' ib. Picture of Plants 281 Pea * . : 282 Peacluree 284 Peartree 287 Perry « * ' ■ " 288 Plaiictree, or Butt on wood ■ib< Plough ' V 289 Ploughing Plumtree Pollfcvil I'ouds i'oppy Potato* Poultry Purvipkiii I Pyrites S93' 398 ib. t 299 ib. soo so* ?I0 Quincetree 110 R. ■Rabbits Raihsh Rats , Red-top Rice RidgMng 310 311 ib. 312 ib. 315 Rollei* and Rollinf Roots Rotation of Cropi, JiC. Runet, or Renet Rye % ib, 444 316 Sir Salsafy Salts • . •♦ Saltiiijof Mc3^t W§^ Sand •"■ ^ >%19 I Sap '320 I ScratchHs 'I 468 INDEX. Silkworms Page 340 Steamboiler Fage SS5 Slips 345 Stercorary 356 Smut ib. Stock 357 Snow 346 Stones 359 Soiling of Cattle 347 Stooking, or Shocking 360 Soot . 350 Strain, or Sprain ib. Sowing •351 Strawberry 361 Spiuiii • 352 Stubble • 362 Spaying 35o Snft-urcane ..^^ ib. Spelt if). Sunflower ■ 364 Spiky-roller ib. Surfeit ^ 365 Sprouts 354 ^^^^^ 366 Spur ib « Swine ^ - ^ '*^* 367 Stable and Stalls ib. ib. Staggers 255 « ' T. Taurino 01oth 373 Timothy .grass 38S Teams 374 I'obacco ib. TliD, or Tea-tree ' o77 Transplanting 384 * Thorn * 379 I'rench-ploughing ib. Ihreshing ib. Tumors 386 TiUa-e . . 380 Turnip 1 ib. Timber 382 i^ * u. 'Ulcers 398 1 Urine 399 V. Vegetable Oyster^ 599 Vine and Vineyard 401 Ventilating of GrAiii ib. Vinegar 406 Verjuice < * Vetch • * 4C(:' Vive* ik. ib. * . w. Wagon 407 Wheezing 433 Wails ibt^ Whey ib. Walnut '408 VVild-rice 424 W|trrninff of Rooms, &c 409 Willow ib. Water ' 411 vvindgalls 425 Waier-chesnut 413 Wind-machinery ib. Wat0i--lilly, of China 414 Wine 427 Weeds ib. 4Voad 433 Weevil 419 Wolves 437 Well ib. Wood house ib. Wheat ib. Wounds 433 Yeast 433 1 Yejlcv--? • 439 'HE. MO^' 19 1909