Rnnk . qFG 
 
School-Houses. 
 
 Y£5 
 
 By James Joho]S"]^ot. 
 
 Architectukal Designs 
 
 S. E. HEWES 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 J. W. SCHEEMEKHORN & CO. 
 
 18 71. 
 

 Entered according to Act of Confn"08s, In the year 1871, by 
 
 J. W. Schcrmerhorn & Co., 
 In tbo Ofllco of tlio Librttrliin of Congress, at Wasblngton. 
 
 By I'ranafer 
 
 NOV 16 -926 
 
 Little, Rknnie & Co., 
 
 Stcrcotypers, Eloctr<it.vpei-s, ami Trlntors, 
 
 Nkw Yokk. 
 
DEDICATION. 
 
 To lloa. EziiA Cornell, 
 
 Founder of Cornell University : 
 An Institution which, resting upon our Common School System, 
 is its perfect supplement ; which, discarding the narrow formalism 
 of a single course of study, recognizes the activities and interests of 
 cvery-day life as vital parts of its instruction ; which makes culture 
 wait upon use, and furnishes opportunity to multiform aspiraiion ; 
 and which proposes ultimately to furnish instruction to " any person 
 in any study," making questions of race, color, or sex irrelevant and 
 impertinent ; — this work is respectfully inscribed by 
 
 The Author. 
 
PREFACE. 
 
 The work of the author upon " Country School-Houses," 
 published in 1858, was the first effort made in this coun- 
 try to apply the principles of architectural 
 science to the construction of school-houses. 
 The reports received from State Superin- 
 tendents, and from various other sources, 
 show that this work has contributed ma- 
 terially to the improvement of school-house 
 architecture within the past ten years. 
 
 The cons tan tl}^ increasing demand for a 
 better class of school-houses in country dis- 
 tricts has led to the preparation of the present^ volume. 
 An endeavor has been made to make it as complete as 
 possible, using all the best material of the former work 
 and all the recent improvements in the construction of 
 school-houses and school furniture. 
 
 It contains a great variety of plans and elevations, with 
 full and accurate descriptions, so that varied tastes may 
 
6 PREFACE. 
 
 be gratified, and any carpenter can construct a building 
 precisely as described. Tt also contains a full description 
 of the most approved school furniture and apparatus, so 
 that a school may be supplied with everything necessary 
 to its highest success without recourse to untried and 
 costly experiments. 
 
 To make the work of greater value to every school dis- 
 trict, hints and suggestions in regard to school arrange- 
 ment, and the care and use of school furniture and 
 apparatus, have been frequently interspersed through its 
 pages. 
 
 With the hope that it may contribute to the improve- 
 ment of our common schools, this work is respectfully 
 submitted to teachers, school-officers, and all who are 
 interested in the cause of education. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTEE I. 
 
 GENEKAL SURVEY. 
 
 Progress of Architecture — School-Houses — Log Houses — Necessity of Good 
 School-Houses — Present Defects — Unsightliness — Poor Construction — 
 Smallness of Size — Want of Ventilation — Inadequate Yards and Play- 
 grounds — Want of Necessary Out-buildings 13 
 
 CHAPTEE IL 
 
 EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Principles to be obsei-ved — The Location — Avoidance of Malaria — Central 
 Situation — The Lot — Size— Form — Position of the School-House — Out- 
 side Structure— Entrances — Wood-House — Walks-^Fence 30 
 
 CHAPTEE HI. 
 
 INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 Size of the School-Room — Freedom of Movement — Breathing Room — Shape 
 of the Room — Seats and Desks — Double and Single Desks — Seats and 
 Desks Facing the front— Side Rooms — Ventilation — Spaces — Cleanliness 
 — Place foi Blackboards — Platforms , 26 
 
 CHAPTEE IV. 
 
 Want of Care in the Arrangement of Light — Results of Recent Investiga- 
 tions — Defects of Present Systems — Dim Lights — Glare of Light — Proper 
 An-angement of Windows— Cross Lights— Height of Windows— Groups 
 of Windows — Blinds — Size of Glass 34 
 
O CONTENTS. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 TAGB 
 
 Problems to be Solved — Economy of Fuel — Equal Distribution of Heat — 
 Plentiful Supply of Pure Air — Composition of Air — Sources of Carbonic 
 Acid Gas — Sources of other Impurities — Amount of Air necessarj' — Ven- 
 tilation Indispensable — Responsibility for Neglect — Radiation of Heat — 
 Conduction of Heat — Capacity of Bodies to receive Heat — How Air is 
 heated — Effects of Heat upon Air — Impurities in the Room — Fire-places 
 — Stoves — Windows — Openings in the Ceiling — Double Openings in the 
 Ceiling — Hot- Air Furnaces — Mistakes in Arrangements — The Best Ar- 
 rangement — Chimneys and Flues — Stoves — Operations of the Stove and 
 Chimney — Operations of the Hot Air — Perfection of Action — Moisture — 
 Conclusion 38 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 Building and Architecture — Uses of Building — Materials — Workmanship — 
 Responsibility for Bad Construction — Architectural Appearance — Greek 
 Architecture — Characteristics and Uses — Loss of Room — Gothic Archi- 
 tecture — Modern Architecture — Leading Ideas in the Construction of 
 School-Houses 53 
 
 CHAPTER VII. 
 
 PLANS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 General Designs — Cheap Houses — More Elaborate Buildings — Shape and 
 Size of Rooms — Design I., with Three Elevations— Design II., with 
 Four Elevations — Design III., with Five Elevations — Design IV., with 
 Five Elevations— Design V., with Six Elevations — Union School-Houses 
 — Defects of Ungraded Schools — Advantages of Gradation — Primary 
 Schools— Intermediate Schools— High Schools— The University— Nor- 
 mal Schools— Work Schools— Houses adapted to Union Schools— De- 
 sign VI., with Six Elevations- Design VII., with Seven Elevations — 
 The Use of Concrete for Building— Design VIII., with Three Elevations- 
 Design IX., with One Elevation— Design X., with One Elevation- 
 Design XL, with One Elevation 60 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 Importance of Good Furniture— Health, Comfort, and Convenience of Pu- 
 pils—General Furniture— Scrapers — Mats— Brooms and Brushes— Pails 
 —Umbrella Stands— Clothes Hooks— Fire Apparatus— Clock— Ther- 
 mometer— Special Furniture— What is Demanded— Direction for Con- 
 structing Desks— Table of Heights lUO 
 
CONTENTS. 9 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Mistaken Notions— Simple Apparatus — General Apparatus— Blackboards- 
 Direction for Making — The Slated Wall— Paper Surttice— Liquid Slating 
 — Stone Slates — Blackboard Erasers— Globes — Apparatus for Primary 
 Schools — Objects to be gained— Natural Objects— Form— Geometric 
 Solids — Specimens of the Animal Kingdom — Plants and Trees — Minerals 
 and Crystals— Size — Measures — Tables of ]\Ieasure — Applications — 
 Weight— Balance^Color — Objects illustrating Color — Order — How cul- 
 tivated—Classification—Results — Cabinet — Metals — Minerals— Chemical 
 Products— Vegetation— Grains— Food— Products of the Sea— Animal 
 Products — Manufactured Articles — Applications — Slates — Paper Slates — 
 Playthings — Cards — Pictures— Stereoscopic Views — Numerical Frame — 
 Special Apparatus — Maps— Philosophical Apparatus— Tellurian — Magnet 
 —Orrery 205 
 
 CHAPTEE X. 
 
 OUT-BUILDINGS. 
 
 General Neglect of Proper Out-buildings— Extract from New York Reports 
 — Extract from Connecticut Reports — Number of Privies — Situation — 
 Character— Principles to be observed— Necessity of a School Lot — Re- 
 forms needed — General Construction — Privy for Girls' Yard — Privy for 
 Boys' Yard — Care ' 319 
 
 CHAPTER XL 
 
 ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 
 
 Grounds, why needed- Place for Exercise— Necessity for Exercise— Health 
 —Mental Development— Systematic Exercise — Character and Importance 
 of Playgrounds— Gymnastic Apparatus— Ornamenting Grounds— Trees 
 —A. J. Downing upon Trees— Elements of Beauty and Variety — Eflect 
 of Trees— Selecting Trees— Varieties that harmonize with the Landscape 
 —Kinds of Trees— Arrangement— Straight Rows— Single Trees— Groups 
 —Principles of grouping— Openings— Shrubs— Hedges— How arranged 
 — Flowers — Conclusion 225 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE. 
 
 Uses of Buildings— Province of Architecture— Taste— Material Pursuits- 
 Refinement— Change of Sentiment— Evidences of Change- Influences 
 that affect Taste— Architectural Ideas— Proportion— Symmetry— Va- 
 riety— Harmony— Unity— Architecture in the Old World— Effect of 
 Beautiful Forms— Principles of Taste 2'6'3 
 
10 ' CONTENTS. 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 PAOB 
 
 Town System versus District System — Comparative Incompetence of Dis- 
 trict Officers — The Town the True Unit for Educational Purposes — 
 Changes of Teachers — Equalizing Taxation — Importance of Classifica- 
 tion — Effects of grading Schools — Expenditure — Testimony of Hon. 
 Henry Barnard — Faults of District Organizations — Anticipated Difficul- 
 ties removed — Opinions of Mr. Boutwell, Secretary of Massachusetts 
 Board of Education — Summary of the Advantages of the Town System 339 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 Ventilation in general — Stoves — Their Faults and their Uses — Advantages 
 of Stoves on the score of Economy — Heat as a Sanitaiy Agent — Dr. 
 Franklin's Stove — Use of Ventilating Stoves during the War — Use of 
 Stoves in the School-room — Heat, how transmitted — Indifference of 
 People to the subject of Ventilation — Deaths from Foul Air — Compara- 
 tive Cheapness of the True System of Ventilation — Ventilation of Pub- 
 lic Buildings ; Tests of Purity of Air— Temperature of Churches and 
 Public Halls — Natunil Ventilators— Forces to be considered in devising 
 any System of Ventilation — Pure Air of more importance than Food — 
 Sunshine Nature's Great Disinfectant ; Importance of Direct Sunshine 
 to the School-room; Folly of Thick Curtains and Closed Shutters — 
 Light regulated by Blinds — Objections to Sunshine and Air — Too much 
 Vitality and Strength resulting 361 
 
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 PAGES. 
 
 Book Rest 30. 
 
 Chimneys 17, 31, 38, 49, 50, 51. 
 
 Cornice 19. 
 
 Cupola and Gables 18, 20, 23, 39, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 58, 59, 60, 62, 85, 
 
 98, 115, 122, 128, 131, 132, 156, 184, 187, 188, 
 
 218, 233, 234. 
 
 Dilapidated School-house 16. 
 
 Doorways 13, 21, 23, 26, 30, 57, 61, 128, 133, 137. 
 
 Elevations in Perspective .... 63, 66, 69, 72, 75, 78, 81, 84, 87, 90, 93, 96, 99, 102, 
 
 105, 108, 111, 114, 117, 120, 123, 126, 129, 136, 
 
 139, 143, 145, 148, 151, 154, 157, 160, 163, 166, 
 
 169, 172, 176, 179, 182, 185, 189, 193. 
 
 Fences 24, 25. 
 
 Ground Plans 27, 57, 73, 86, 103, 116, 143, 155, 161, 178, 184, 
 
 188, 192. 
 
 Log School-house 14. 
 
 Old-fashioned School-house... 15. 
 
 Out-buildings 219, 222, 223. 
 
 Plan of Grounds 225,230. 
 
 Seats and Desks 28, 29. 
 
 Settee 33. 
 
 Stove 44. 
 
 Teacher's Desk 32. 
 
 Ventilation 47, 48. 
 
 Windows 34, 35, 36, 37, 40, 44, 45, 61, 73, 131, 134, 138, 
 
 236, 387. 
 
OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 GENERAL SURVEY. 
 
 For the past few years architectural science has made 
 rapid and decided progress. In nearly every kind of 
 buildings, improvements have been made, 
 both in regard to external appearance and 
 internal arrangement. Evidences of this 
 progress may be seen in the superior elegance 
 of the modern public edifices and private 
 residences of our cities and villages, and in 
 the greater comfort and convenience of the 
 later farm-houses in the country. The in- 
 crease of architectural knowledge has cor- 
 respondingly developed the general taste, 
 which in its turn demands a greater knowledge. Thus 
 one step in improvement leads to others still further in 
 advance. 
 
 Of all buildings, however, the last to feel this progress- 
 ive impulse were school-houses. In cities and large vil- 
 lages, where the necessity exists of erecting large and 
 costly buildings, it is true that public attention has been 
 
 PiK. 1. 
 
14 
 
 OTTR SCHOOL-HOUSES 
 
 turned in this direction, and there has been developed a 
 distinctive architecture which applies the principles of 
 science to the wants and necessities of the school. But 
 in the rural districts generally too little attention has 
 been given to the matter. The principles developed in 
 the building of large union schools are not applicable to 
 the wants of the smaller school districts. 
 
 The old log school- 
 houses can be remem- 
 bered by most of the older 
 inhabitants. It was a 
 necessity of primitive 
 times, and was on an 
 equality with the dwell- 
 ings of the people. A 
 better kind of structure 
 has succeeded it. though 
 we find in the last report 
 of the Superintendent of 
 New York that one hun- 
 dred and twenty log school-houses are still in existence 
 in the Empire State. 
 
 The reports of the Superintendents of several States, 
 within the past few years, show that an improvement has 
 gone on in many sections, indicating a genuine educational 
 revival. And yet a large proportion of the school-houses 
 in the country are but illy adapted to meet the high 
 requirements of modern educational ideas. Even the 
 newer and costlier houses are often built without a proper 
 knowledge of the wants and necessities of the school, 
 while a very large number of the older houses are utterly 
 unfit for human occupancy. 
 
 That good school-houses are indispensable to the very 
 existence of good schools is a proposition that needs no 
 
 Fig. 2.— LOG SCHOOL-HOrSE. 
 
GENERAL SURVEY. 
 
 15 
 
 demonstration. It is universally accepted by educators, 
 and is beginning to be apprehended by the community at 
 large. But with all the progress that has been made, 
 school-houses are still deficient in the following re- 
 spects : 
 
 1. They are unsightly in appearance. A traveller 
 passing through a section of country can readily distin- 
 guish the school-house by these distinctions. It is situ- 
 
 Fig. 3. — OLD FASHIONED SCHOOL-HOIISK. 
 
 ated in a forlorn and lonely place. It exhibits every 
 mark of neglect and dilapidation. It is entirely exposed 
 to the depredations of stray cattle and unruly boys, by 
 being situated in the street and not protected by a 
 fence. It is unpainted, and nearly half unglazed. Its 
 style is nondescript, being too small for a barn, too 
 deficient in the elements of just proportion for a dwell- 
 ing, and too much neglected for the out-buildings of a 
 farm — in short, too repulsive in all respects, exhibiting 
 too many marks of parsimony to be anything but a school- 
 house. 
 
 It seems to have been erected simply for shelter, and 
 with the smallest cost in the outset ; to call it cheapness 
 or economy would be a misnomer. It stands a vile 
 
16 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 ofifence against good taste, and an ugly excrescence upon 
 .the landscape. It makes no appeal to the higher senti- 
 ments, and, consequently, no effort can preserve the 
 building or fixtures from disfigurement and ruin. Every 
 teacher knows the difficulty of protecting the school- 
 house and furniture from the ubiquitous Yankee jack- 
 knife. The result is, that the building, unsightly when 
 new, becomes more so through the rudeness which 
 its very appearance stimulates. The busy fingers of 
 time may soften its outlines and spread over its sur- 
 face sober tints of brown ; but the innate ugliness of 
 the structure defies all efforts to make it other than a 
 monstrosity. 
 
 2. They are poorly built. The foundations are often 
 so imperfectly laid that they soon tumble, and the build- 
 
 •^ jS^ 
 
 
 -t ■j'.iM^i 
 
 
 
 Fig. 4. — DILAPIDATED SCHOOL-HOUSE. 
 
 ings are racked to pieces or stand askew. The frames 
 and finish are of the cheapest kind, and soon- the winds 
 find their way through in every direction. The desks 
 and benches are ingeniously inconvenient and uncom- 
 fortable, producing pains and aches innumerable. Most 
 I)eople of the present generation have a vivid and painful 
 recollection of the seats of our old school-houses, without 
 
GENERAL SURVEY 17 
 
 backs, and often -too high to permit the feet to touch the 
 floor. The suffering and uneasiness so produced were 
 ahnost equal to the punishment of exposure at the pillory 
 or confinement in the stocks, bestowed in olden times 
 upon criminals. The whole construction of the building, 
 both external and internal, were such that it merited 
 and received no repair, and soon lapsed into a mass of 
 ruins. Although great improvements have been made 
 within the present generation, the ideas concerning the 
 construction of school-houses are still crude in the ex- 
 treme, and poor buildings are the rule rather than the 
 exception. 
 
 3. They are not of sufficient size. The room is so 
 confined that the pupils are forced into uncomfortable and 
 inconvenient proximity to each other. Their work is 
 interrupted and their personal rights are violated. The 
 young, the weak, and the innocent are forced into the 
 immediate atmosphere of coarseness and impurity, with- 
 out a possibility of counteracting influences. Again, the 
 ceilings are so low that there is an inadequate supply of 
 fresh air, and,' as a consequence of all this, physical as 
 well as moral disease is engendered. Proper discipline 
 in such schools is impossible, as the inexorable laws of 
 nature oppose the teacher's work. 
 
 4. They are not properly ventilated. The quantity 
 of air, limited at first, shortly becomes impure, and there 
 are no means of changing it. A poisoning ^^n^ 
 process then commences, the virulence of ^^W 
 which is in direct ratio to the tightness of J 
 
 the room. A badly built or dilapidated Jp,_ 
 school-house, under these circumstances, be- ^^■|"^^ 
 comes a positive blessing, by preventing the r Py-j^^ 
 exclusion of air from without. Besides the ^'s-s- 
 
 injury to health, the vitiated air of the school-room, by its 
 
18 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 stupefying action on the brain, prevents intellectual ac- 
 tion, and so defeats the purposes of the school. 
 
 5. They have inadequate yards and play-grounds. 
 Even in country places, where land is very cheap, the 
 school-house is frequently placed directly on the line of 
 the street, and generally at the corner where several 
 roads meet. Not one inch of ground is set apart for the 
 use of the pupils when out of the school-room. There is 
 no place for recreation or privacy, all being exposed to 
 the public eye. The street is the only play-ground, and 
 tilth, within doors and without, is the consequence. With 
 such an arrangement, it is impossible to inculcate those 
 lessons of neatness and refinement which are among the 
 most important objects of education. 
 
 6. They are destitute of the necessary^ out-build- 
 ings. In many cases there is no privy, and in many 
 
 others there is at best but one 
 for a large school of both sexes. 
 A man in a Christian land, who 
 would erect a house for his home 
 and not provide a privy, would 
 be considered worse than a hea- 
 then ; yet, in multitudes of our 
 country districts, this indispen- 
 sable adjunct of civilization is al- 
 together omitted, although in a 
 ^'s-^- school both sexes are brought 
 
 together without the purifying and restraining influence 
 which belongs to the household. Every feeling of refine- 
 ment and decency is outraged by the exposure here 
 indicated, and, in some measure, the same results ensue 
 from having but one small exposed privy for a large 
 school. 
 
 From these facts it will seem that there is a neces- 
 
GENERAL SURVEY. 19 
 
 sity for reform in the construction of school buildings. 
 Indeed, it is the united testimony of superintendents, 
 committees of investigation, and boards of school visitors, 
 that in many sections of country the pupils in school are 
 worse provided for in all things pertaining to comfort, 
 convenience, and the cultivation of good manners and 
 morals, than the inmates of our pauper-houses, or the 
 prisoners in our penitentiaries. 
 
 An attention to these considerations is of primary 
 importance in any scheme for the advancement and per- 
 fection of our school system. The idea is becoming quite 
 prevalent that manners and conduct should receive due 
 attention in a true system of education, and that the 
 claims of these vastly outweigh those of any branch of 
 mere rote instruction, or, indeed, of any science. This 
 idea forms a basis for the criticism of the systems of in- 
 struction now in vogue, and is the key-note of the new 
 education which the age demands. A large share of the 
 neglect in these most vital of all departments of education 
 is attributable to the want of attention to the physical 
 comforts of pupils in the construction and furnishing of 
 school-houses. 
 
 The remedy for these evils will be shown in the suc- 
 ceeding chapters. 
 
 Pig. 7. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 In the construction and arrangements of school-houses, 
 certain fundamental principles must be observed. These 
 principles, in the order of importance, are 
 
 HEALTH, CQMFORT, CONVENIENCE, and COST. 
 
 It requires no argument to show that when 
 this order is inverted, and cost is made the 
 first consideration, the higher interests of 
 the school must be neglected and true prog- 
 ress rendered impossible. 
 
 The preservation of health should be- 
 considered of prime importance. Cost, 
 comfort, and convenience should be subor- 
 dinated to this. Unless our children can be 
 educated in a way compatible with the preservation of 
 their health, it were better at once to tear down our 
 school-houses and abolish our school system. 
 
 The location. — The location of the school-house should 
 be at a distance from all sources of malaria. The foul, 
 breath of decaying vegetation, or of stagnant water, be- 
 comes a fruitful source of disease and death. Unseen, 
 it insidiously does its work, and spreads the atmosphere 
 of the charnel-house as far as its influence extends. The 
 diseases seeming to be epidemic, which sometimes break 
 out in schools, may often be traced to some neighboring 
 swamp or marsh or heap of decaying vegetables. Some 
 
EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 21 
 
 manufactories generate disagreeable gases which, if 
 breathed for any considerable time, are deleterious in the 
 extreme. The school-house should be placed . 
 
 at a distance from all these sources of disease. f 
 
 It should also be situated away from the noise & 
 
 and dust of the street. There is scarcely any- M/m\ 
 thing more annoying or unAvholesome than the Mj^^\ 
 clouds of dust which are driven along the iL 
 highway. Let the location, if possible, be upon m 
 a hill-side, where it may be free from these 
 annoyances, and where the purest air is supplied 11 
 in unstinted measure. For the moral health of d ftn-^n,, 
 the pupils, let the school-house be placed at a ^'^'^' 
 distance from the places where scenes of brutality or 
 debauchery are ever exhibited. If no natural obstacle 
 oppose, the centre of the district would seem to be the 
 best location for the school-house ; this centre having 
 reference, of course, to population as well as distance. 
 If an acre of land is taken, perhaps it might most conve- 
 niently be laid out in a plot sixteen rods front and ten 
 deep. Any other form might be adopted, and, under 
 some circumstances, another might be preferable. 
 
 Of the situation of the lot, in reference to scenery, etc., 
 more will be said in the chapter upon ornamental grounds. 
 
 The lot. — A large and commodious school-lot is of 
 prime necessity. Without it, it is impossible to attain 
 some of the most essential ends of education. A little 
 attention on the part of trustees will secure an ample 
 lot at very little expense. When public attention has 
 been sufficiently turned to the importance of this subject, 
 it will be comparatively easy to secure the donation of a 
 school-lot, or, at least, the purchase of one at a small 
 price. When the wants of the school, and the necessities 
 of education are taken into consideration, one acre of land 
 
22 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 at least, is required for every school ; and when such a 
 lot can be obtained, a school-house should never be erected 
 upon a smaller one. 
 
 It sometimes happens that the owners of land near the 
 centre of the district refuse to sell for school purposes at 
 any price. Such narrowness and illiberality is at present, 
 in most of our States, without remedy. But we think, as 
 popular education is now recognized as one of the func- 
 tions of the State, it would be well to provide for taking 
 the land at an appraisal by disinterested persons, as land 
 for highways, railroads, and other public purposes is now 
 taken. A law allowing the trustees of districts and the 
 town authorities to locate the school-house lot, with or 
 without the consent of the owner of the land, would be a 
 highly salutary one, and would prevent strife, while ren- 
 dering an important service to the schools. 
 
 A law substantially embodying the views given above 
 has been enacted in the State of New York, and we be- 
 lieve in some of the other States, and the results have 
 been beneficial. By this law the schools are placed be- 
 yond the caprice or obstinacy of those who may possess 
 the land most desirable for the site of the school-house. 
 
 Position of the buildings. — In a lot sixteen rods by 
 ten, the house should stand very nearly in the centre. 
 This would be at a sufficient distance from the street to 
 avoid noise and dust, with room enough in the rear for 
 the necessary out-buildings. It would also divide the 
 yard into two parts, for boys and girls. In any lot, the 
 house should be placed in the middle as to width, and at 
 a distance from the street, so that the out-buildings may 
 be thrown into the back-ground. 
 
 Outside structure. — Buildings of small size, and con- 
 sisting of but a single room, in these designs, admit of 
 but little architectural display, within the limits of sound 
 
EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 23 
 
 Fig. 10. 
 
 economy. In deciding upon the size and plan of the 
 buildings, and the arrangement of the doors, windows, 
 and roof, the first care should be to 
 provide for health and comfort. Be- 
 sides this primary consideration, due 
 attention should be given to the dura- 
 bility of the structure, and to the ob- 
 servance of the laws of architecture 
 in the proportion and arrangements 
 of the building and its several 
 parts. 
 
 In the plans and details of this work 
 an attempt has been made to carry 
 these ideas into practical execution. 
 A sufiQcient variety of elevations has 
 been given to permit the exercise of 
 different tastes. The parts have 
 been arranged so as to meet the requirements of archi- 
 tectural law, but outside appearance has been subordi- 
 nated to practical use. 
 
 In most cases it will be observed that separate en- 
 trances for boys and girls have been provided. This 
 arrangement is regarded as highly impor- 
 tant. It prevents improprieties between 
 the sexes, while passing in and out of the 
 school-room. The room in the lobby is also 
 used for a clothes-room, at a manifest saving 
 of expense. 
 
 In most of the plans proposed, the wood- 
 house is placed directly in the rear, so that 
 a portion of it may serve for a back hall. This arrange- 
 ment contributes to harmony of external appearance, and 
 prevents the out-door air from flowing directly into the 
 school-room ; thus, serving a double purpose, the wood- 
 
 Fig. 11. 
 
24 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 house is very desirable. A basement, however, might be 
 prepared for the storage of fuel. 
 
 Walks. — That is a false economy which refuses or 
 neglects to furnish the necessary walks in and about the 
 school premises. Generally but a step removed from the 
 carriage-path in the street, and without walks of any 
 description anywhere in the vicinity, except a single path 
 of the native soil, the wonder is that the school-house is 
 not more rather than less offensive. During some seasons 
 of the year the children must wade through mud and 
 water to reach the school, and not one foot of dry space 
 is provided where they can cleanse themselves until they 
 enter the house itself. 
 
 The consequence is that dirt is everywhere, and tidi- 
 ness is impossible. To remed}^ this, arrangements should 
 be made to preclude the necessity of getting into the mud 
 within the school-yard, and to enable the pupils to re- 
 move it from their shoes when coming in from the street. 
 A plank or gravel path should be laid from the front gate 
 to the front door. The steps at the door should be large 
 and commodious. These steps, and perhaps also a portion 
 of the walk, should be provided with scrapers. Plank 
 walks should also extend from the back entrance to the 
 privies, and perhaps around the sides of the school-house. 
 
 iUU LiUULIi 
 
 nnnnnnn 
 
 Fig. 12. 
 
 Fence. — The school-lot can never be kept in order 
 unless it is inclosed by a good and substantial fence ; this 
 
EXTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 25 
 
 fence should be built of good materials, and put up in a 
 substantial manner. A picket, or a post-and-rail fence, 
 would answer every purpose. The gates should be built 
 strong and heavy, and so arranged as to shut themselves. 
 It might be well to set posts within the gates in such a 
 manner that cattle could not get in, even if the gates 
 should be left open. The fence that divides the yard 
 should be of matched boards, and from eight to ten feet 
 high, faced on the boys' side. The wood-house door 
 should open into the boys' yard. In a succeeding chapter 
 the subject of out-houses will be treated more at large. 
 
 Fig. 13. 
 
CHAPTER ITT. 
 
 IN'I'KKNAI- AK1{AN(JKMKNTS. 
 
 Fi.'. 14. 
 
 In ihc iirrniiLiHMiKMil of \\\v inUM'ioi' of (lie scliool-room 
 
 the sumo principles should !)C considorcd as in (lie oxtor- 
 
 -T-T-'v iKil slriu'luro, and in tlie same oihUm-, viz., 
 
 : ■ 4| \ lioallli, comfort, convtMuenco, and cost. A 
 
 1 mistake made may not only in the (Mid be 
 
 exceedingly costly, but may go far to defeat 
 
 the ends of education. 
 
 Si/i<: OK 'I'UM SI11I00I--K00M. — This is a 
 consideration of great importance. Every 
 pupil should have sunicient room to sit 
 and move without being conlined or Jostled. 
 There should bo sulliciont space in the room 
 lor a. largo reservoir of air. Packing children close to- 
 gether, so that the breath and atmosphere of each is shared 
 by his neighbors, is an unmitigated evil. Every child has 
 a right to his own ])ers()nality and his own share of nneon- 
 taniinatiHl air, and whatever doi)rives him of these be- 
 comes an outrage. T'his is often done, however, by the 
 closene.^s oi' contact with others inti> which he is forced, 
 ami bv the limited capacity of the a}>artmeiit in which he 
 is compelled to sit. 
 
 A school-room should also be sulViciently lai'go to fur- 
 nish each i)upil with space enough for a desk and chair, 
 and for iVoo and unobstructed movement. There should 
 also bo room for the i)orsonal accommodation of the 
 
INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 27 
 
 teacher, and for purposes of recitation. The height of 
 the smallest school-room should never be less than twelve 
 feet, and this should be increased to sixteen feet in the 
 larger houses. Comfort and convenience in sitting and 
 moving about depend upon the area of the room ; the 
 quantity of air, upon the area, and the height combined. 
 In the plans furnished in this work, eighteen feet area, 
 and nearly two hundred and fifty cubic feet of air, have 
 been appropriated to each pupil. 
 
 Shape of the room. — Of all rectangular forms, a square 
 room will give the greatest amount of space, in j)roportion 
 to the extent of 
 outside walls. 
 Many teachers, 
 however, prefer | 
 a room one- 
 fourth or one- 
 fifth longer than 
 its width ; and 
 probably no 
 better form can 
 be devised than this, or one between this and square. 
 When the parallelogram is used, it will be found more 
 convenient to leave the space for the teacher's desk, and 
 recitation benches, upon the end, instead of the side. The 
 octagonal form is thought by some to be peculiarly 
 adapted to school purposes, and specimens have been 
 presented in this work. 
 
 Seats and desks. — For the health and comfort of the 
 pupil, the height of the seats should be so graduated as 
 to enable him to set his feet squarely upon the floor. A 
 contrary custom often produces suffering and a distortion 
 of the lower limbs. Seats without backs are also to be 
 deprecated. To relieve the overstrained muscles unnatu- 
 
 Fig. 15. 
 
28 
 
 OUR SCIIOOL-nOUSES. 
 
 ral postures arc assumed, and a crooked spine is the very 
 probable consequence. 
 
 Fig. 16.— CORNELL PRIMARY SETTEE AND BOOK REST. 
 
 In a majority of the country schools the onl}" seats used 
 are wooden benches with fiat surfaces and straight backs. 
 
 Fig. 17.— NEW AMERICAN SCHOOL DESK AND SETTEE. 
 
 They are furnished because they are cheap. No thoudit 
 is given to the constant weariness and discomfort of the 
 
INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 29 
 
 pupils who occupy them, nor to the annoyance which the 
 uneasiness engendered occasions to the teacher and school. 
 Yet no principle is more firmly established than that 
 physical comfort is a necessary condition to the highest 
 state of mental and moral improvement. The details of 
 the form, size, and structure of seats and desks is given in 
 the chapter on school furniture. 
 
 Many methods for seating school-houses have been pro- 
 posed, and many experiments have been made to econo- 
 mize room and to secure the greatest convenience. It 
 now seems to be generally conceded that the best arrange- 
 ment is that of single or double desks, placed in parallel 
 rows, with aisles between of sufficient width to permit 
 passage. By this plan the pupils all face one way, and 
 the teacher can see them all at a glance. When the seats 
 are arranged upon the sides of the room, with the open 
 space in the centre, this is impossible, and discipline is 
 almost out of question. Double desks are more econom- 
 ical than single ones, as they cost less and take up less 
 space in the room. 
 
 The desks should always be placed so that the pupils 
 may face the entrance. The reasons for this arrangement 
 are obvious. The en- 
 trance and exit of pupils 
 or visitors will be sure to 
 attract attention, and it 
 is impossible to prevent 
 this by any proper sys- 
 tem of discipline. If the ^ 
 backs of the pupils are 
 toward the entrance, they 
 will turn about whenever 
 
 the door opens or closes. Fig. is.— new American settee (folding). 
 
 presenting an unseemly appearance, as well as seriously 
 
30 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 interfering with study and recitation. Tliis habit of turn- 
 ing once formed, will be practiced upon other occasions, 
 to the great annoyance of the teacher and the subversion 
 of discipline. Again, when strangers or others visit the 
 school, or call at the school-room for any purpose, the 
 teacher is obliged to receive them at the rear end of the 
 room, instead of the front, which is awkward and incon- 
 venient. It is as though the entrance to the parlor of a 
 dwelling should be made through the kitchen. With the 
 pupils facing the entrance, when the 
 doors open, a glance is sufficient, with- 
 out a change of posture or suspension 
 of business, to satisfy the most vagrant 
 curiosity. The teacher can receive his 
 visitors at once, and in the proper place, 
 without parade and without difficulty. 
 Finally, the door or doors leading to the 
 wood-house or back yard should be in 
 the rear of the room, and this can only 
 be when the front of the room is next 
 to the front entrance. 
 Side rooms. — In every school-house there should be a 
 separate room for depositing hats, cloaks, etc., and in 
 larger houses, another for library and ap- 
 paratus. For the sake of economy and 
 convenience, in the plans here given, the 
 porch has been so arranged as to serve the 
 double purpose of entr^^-way and clothes- 
 room. In the smaller houses a single porch 
 will be sufficient ; but in the larger ones a 
 double porch should be provided, so that 
 there may be ample room for the uses to 
 which it is to be put, and a complete separation of the 
 sexes. These rooms should be well provided with hooks 
 
 Fig. 19. 
 
 t'i" 20. 
 
INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. Ol 
 
 and shelves. In the smaller houses a case for books and 
 apparatus, answering every purpose, can be constructed 
 upon one side of the school-room, in the place designated 
 in the ])lans. In houses designed to accommodate more 
 pupils than any one teacher can instruct, an additional 
 room for recitation should be provided. A separate room 
 for the teacher to occupy during recess and intermission, 
 and to retire to when wearied and perplexed with the 
 cares and duties of the day, is also very desirable ; but 
 we fear this reasonable luxury will not be realized until 
 public sentiment is made more liberal in educational mat- 
 ters. 
 
 Yentilation. — No school-room should be constructed 
 Vv'ithout ample provision for the admission and circulation 
 of pure air. This is habitually neglected, s^^^- 
 
 and, inconsequence, the pupils suffer from i| J\i 
 
 a constant diminution of their vital ener- |li|ji 
 
 gies as well as from positive disease. The -^^% 
 cost of an entirely adequate system of vcn- "^^1 |ii^. 
 tilation is very inconsiderable, and no per- ,__^^^^fe 
 sons in the erection of school-houses can Fig.^i. 
 
 afford to neglect this most important arrangement. In the 
 chapter upon ventilation the whole subject is discussed, 
 and directions are given in detail for ventilation under all 
 circumstances. 
 
 Spaces. — Pupils should not be crowded too much to- 
 gether, and so ample spaces are necessary in the school- 
 room. The appearance of the room is greatl}^ improved 
 by wide spaces, and the health of the pu|)ils is promoted 
 by the greater supply of air. Roominess is also a neces- 
 sarj" condition of quietude and orderly industry. The 
 space in front of the desks should be sufficiently large for 
 purposes of recitation ; not less than ten or twelve feet in 
 the smallest rooms. 
 
32 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 A space of two or three feet should be left in the rear 
 of the room for convenience of passage and for classes 
 upon special occasions. The side aisles should be three 
 or four feet' wide ; those between the rows of desks might 
 vary from one and a half to two and a half feet. 
 
 Cleanliness. — It scarcely comes within the province of 
 this work to descant upon the importance to health of keep- 
 ing the person and clothing clean ; yet it is a subject inti- 
 mately connected with that of the wdiolesome ordering of 
 
 Fi":. 22.— teacher's desk. 
 
 the school-room. As health cannot be preserved without 
 habits of personal neatness, so it is useless to inculcate 
 these upon pupils while the dirty condition of the rooms 
 which they are obliged to occupy forbids the acquisition 
 or preservation of those habits. Besides, the fine dust 
 which accumulates in a school-room, and which is thrown 
 into the air by every motion, is breathed into the lungs, 
 and there acts mechanically upon the delicate little air- 
 cells, producing irritation, which may end in inflammation 
 and consumption. 
 
INTERNAL ARRANGEMENTS. 
 
 33 
 
 In the construction of the school-room, cleanliness 
 should be kept constantly in view. The floor should be 
 well planed, smoothed, and matched, and carefully nailed. 
 The blackboards should be provided with ample troughs 
 to catch the chalk-dust. The desks and seats should be 
 so constructed as to permit the floor to be easily swept 
 and washed. The teacher's desk should be movable, 
 while the recitation settees and extra seats for visitors 
 should be movable or folding, for the same reason. Spe- 
 cial apparatus for preserving cleanliness will be noticed 
 in subsequent chapters. 
 
 Fig. 23.— THE NEW AMERICAN FOLDING SETTEE. 
 
 Miscellaneous suggestions. — The methods of ventila- 
 tion recommended require the stoves to be placed in the 
 front part of the room, and near the corners. The front, 
 sides, and back of the room should be occupied by black- 
 boards or black-walls. There is little danger of too much 
 blackboard space. If a platform is used it should not be 
 more than six or eight inches in height. In school-houses 
 with a single room, an unbroken level floor is much bet- 
 ter than any platform, as it allows a greater freedom of 
 movement, and a greater amount of air in the room. 
 
 3 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 LIGHT. 
 
 Fig. 24. 
 
 Too little attention is given to admitting light into 
 school-rooms. Windows arc placed to be out of the way 
 of the furniture, and at the conventional 
 distance apart ; but the thought that the 
 admission of light exerts an important influ- 
 ence upon the health and comfort of pupils 
 seems rarely to occur to the builders of 
 school-houses. 
 
 In Germany, late scientific investigation 
 has proved that a large proportion of the 
 pupils of the intermediate and advanced 
 schools have defective sight. In this coun- 
 try the same fact has been noticed. While this may be 
 attributed in part to improper postures and the small type 
 of books, much the greater part is the direct result of 
 mismanagement in the admission of light. 
 
 Defects of present systems. — In cities 
 it often happens that school-houses are so 
 shut in by other buildings that it is impos- 
 sible to obtain suflicient light. In country 
 places there is a want of light through 
 negligence. In rooms dimly lighted the 
 eye is unnaturally strained in endeavoring 
 Fig. 25. ^Q j,g^^| ^j. |.() observe minute objects. In- 
 
 flammation of the eyes, or near-sightedness, is often the 
 result. Another defect is a glare of light that strikes 
 
LIGHT. 35 
 
 directly into the eyes. Still another is the arrangement 
 which produces cross-lights. Curtains, shades, and blinds 
 are often omitted, so that there is no way to control the 
 light. Windows are sometimes improperly constructed 
 by being placed too low, so that the light comes in nearly 
 on a level with the pupil ; and sometimes they are too 
 small. These defects can all be easily obviated. 
 
 Much has been said and written about the superiority 
 of the north light and the skylight, and school-houses have 
 sometimes been built so as to make use of light from these 
 directions exclusively. But the wisdom of this course is 
 seriously called in quc^stion. The north light is the most 
 unvarj^ing of all side lights, and the skylight is the strong- 
 est of all applications of light to interiors ; but both ex- 
 clude the direct rays of the sun. Sunshine is as necessary 
 to health as air, and besides, it has a direct effect upon the 
 nervous sj^stem, allaying irritability, and diffusing a happy 
 spirit through the school, when its summer intensity is 
 properly subdued by blinds or curtains. 
 
 Proper arrangement of light. — Windows should 
 never be so placed that pupils will be compelled to sit 
 with their faces to them. It makes an 
 unpleasant glare of light, and sometimes 
 induces "squint eyes." Windows should 
 not be placed on two sides of a room, at 
 right angles with each other, producing 
 "cross-lights." The effect upon the eye 
 is exceedingly unpleasant. When the ^'^- ^^• 
 
 muscles and lenses of the eye are adjusted for one light, 
 they are out of focus for the other, and the eye becomes 
 wearied and pained in its vain efforts to be in harmony 
 with the two lights. 
 
 Height of windows. — Windows should always extend 
 upward as far as is consistent with the proportions of the 
 
36 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Fiff. 27. 
 
 room, so that the light may come partially from above. 
 They should be large enough in the aggregate to afford 
 sufficient light in the darkest days, and then 
 the light may be modified to suit the bright 
 days. Light may with propriety be admitted 
 in the rear of the room, but in case it is, it 
 should be excluded from the sides, so as to 
 avoid cross lights. 
 
 In the plans contained in this work, the 
 windows are placed in the two opposite sides 
 of the room, with a blank wall in front and 
 rear of the pupils. In. several of the series 
 of elevations the windows are grouped together, so that a 
 broad light, unbroken by shadows, fully illuminates the 
 interior of the room. This arrangement is economical, 
 affording the best possible admission of light, and at the 
 same time gives opportunity for fine architectural effects. 
 Blinds. — The windows should always be provided with 
 blinds or curtains. Blinds are much to be preferred, and 
 they should be placed inside. Outside blinds 
 afford but little protection to the glass in any 
 case, and none against malicious injury, while 
 they are liable to be broken by the winds. 
 Inside blinds are less liable to injury ; they 
 are more easily adjusted, and the light is 
 more easily regulated. Window sills are 
 sometimes placed so high as to be a de- 
 formity to the building. This may be in- 
 tended to prevent pupils from looking out of the windows ; 
 but the real effect is to court the very evil 
 which is sought to be avoided. School- 
 boys and girls are bound to surmount all 
 ;^ physical obstacles put in the way of their 
 enjoyment of the largest liberty. The 
 
 Fig. 29. 
 
LIGHT. 
 
 37 
 
 vagrant gaze and curiosity of pupils can be much, more 
 easily restrained when the windows are placed in their 
 proper places. 
 
 In the construction of windows, large panes of glass 
 should be used rather than small, as the light is more 
 uniform and unbroken. Select a good quality of glass, 
 free from waves and imperfections. 
 
 The window is one of the most noticeable and effective 
 of the architectural features of a building. It has about 
 the same relation to the structure of which it forms a 
 part, that the eye has to the human countenance. It can 
 be made a perpetual deformity, or it can give beauty and 
 expression to the whole building. Due attention should 
 therefore be given to the form, the finish, and the situa- 
 tion of the windows, to the end that their appearance 
 may be a source of continuous pleasure, and a contribu- 
 tion to the educational resources of the school. In the 
 designs given in this work, the importance of windows in 
 producing fine architectural effects has been fully con- 
 sidered, and an effort has been made to give suitable and 
 satisfactory forms, and, at the same time, those that are 
 simple and inexpensive. 
 
 Fig. 30. 
 
CHAPTER Y. 
 
 HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 In devising methods for heating and ventilating rooms, 
 three problems are presented, each of which must be 
 satisfactorily solved before any system can 
 be successful. These are economy in the use 
 of fuel, equal distribution of heat through 
 1: the room, and a plentiful supply of pure 
 ^ and properly tempered air. To solve these 
 Fig. 31. problems many costly experiments have been 
 made, and a great variety of ingenious apparatus has 
 been invented. Many of the systems which have been 
 put in use have their good points, though none of them 
 have come fully up to the required conditions ; and nearly 
 all of those are too costly for adoption in common schools. 
 Before entering upon a detailed examination of the 
 various methods of heating and ventilation now in use, 
 we will discuss the necessity of ventilation, with the 
 principles upon which it is founded ; and the nature of 
 heat, with the laws of its transmission. 
 
 Composition of air. — Pure air contains 79 parts nitro- 
 gen, 21 parts oxygen, .0005 parts carbonic acid gas, and 
 a variable quantity of water. The proportion of the con- 
 stituent gases is very nearly uniform all over the world. 
 Oxygen is the life-sustaining principle, while nitrogen 
 seems to be merely a dilutent to render oxygen less 
 active. Carbonic acid gas sustains vegetation, but de- 
 

 Fi,/.:j. 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION. 
 
 39 
 
 stroys animal life. The small amount found in the atmos- 
 phere is not dangerous ; but when the proportion is sen- 
 sibly increased, man and the higher 
 animals are injuriously affected. 
 
 Sources of carbonic acid. — Car- 
 bonic acid gas is chiefly produced by 
 combustion and by the breathing of 
 animals. From these two sources thou- 
 sands of tons of this deleterious gas are 
 thrown out daily into the atmosphere 
 in each of our great cities. But the 
 currents which are constantly sweeping 
 through this vast atmospheric ocean 
 dissipate the poison as fast as it is 
 generated, rendering it impossible for carbonic acid to 
 accumulate to any considerable extent.'"' 
 
 When air is confined in rooms where combustion and 
 breathing is going on, carbonic acid gas rapidly accumu- 
 lates, and means must be devised for carrying it off, or 
 the air is soon rendered unfit to sustain animal life. 
 
 Source of other impurities. — Besides the carbonic 
 acid a large quantity of effete matter is thrown off 
 through the skin by insensible perspiration. The aver- 
 age amount of this decayed animal substance is about 
 twenty ounces per day from each adult. When a num- 
 ber of persons are confined within a room, this becomes a 
 fruitful source of impurity in the air. If not removed this 
 
 * In the city of Manchester, England, where more than two mil- 
 lions of tons of coal are consumed annually, and where the smoke 
 hangs like a dark cloud over the city and adjacent country, the air 
 was analyzed twenty-eight different times, and the greatest amount 
 of carbonic acid found was respectively .0015, .0013, and .0010; 
 while the average was about .0007, or but little more than the aver- 
 age of the entire atmosphere. 
 
40 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 animal excretion is taken into the 'system through the 
 lungs, producing disease. It is absorbed into the walls 
 and ceiling of the room, whence it is given back to the 
 air, causing the offensive odors so prevalent in ill ven- 
 tilated apartments, even when not occupied. 
 
 Amount of air necessary. — It is stated upon the 
 highest authority, that in breathing, an adult destroys the 
 vitality of eight cubic feet of air every minute. In a 
 school-room twenty by thirty, and ten feet high, forty 
 pupils would render the six thousand cubic feet of air 
 unfit to breathe in less than half an hour. The only rea- 
 son why life is not destroyed in many of our school-houses 
 is, that the buildings are so loosely constructed that there 
 is constantly a kind of circulation of air. In a tight 
 room, however, the air frequently becomes so poisonous 
 that the pupils suffer both from a diminution of power and 
 ability to work, and from positive disease. 
 
 Ventilation indispensable. — Frequent changes of 
 air cannot be neglected with impunity. It is estimated by 
 those who have given the subject most 
 attention, that more than one-half of the 
 diseases that afflict the human race can be 
 Fig. 33. Fig. 34. (j[j,gg^]y traced to the breathing of foul air. 
 
 Proper attention to ventilation will go far to secure good 
 health, while neglect will certainly produce disease to a 
 greater or less extent. In the more modern treatment 
 of disease, pure air is considered one of the most potent 
 of the remedial agents ; and the ravages of contagious 
 diseases have been arrested by supplying it in unlimited 
 quantities.* 
 
 * " One of the most striking illustrations of this, and perhaps one 
 of the most wonderful cures of the cliolera on record, was that of the 
 New York workhouse, on Blackwell's Island. It lasted only nine 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION. 41 
 
 Responsibility for neglect. — Iii the construction of 
 every school-house where ventilation is neglected, some- 
 body is responsible for the vile odors which pervade the 
 room ; for the restlessness and nervous irritability of both 
 teachers and pupils ; for the headaches, bronchitis, and 
 weak lungs so prevalent ; for the sluggish vital action 
 which robs the pupils of half their mental activity ; and 
 for the weariness and exhaustion of all the members of the 
 school during the latter half of each day. 
 
 Before entering upon the subject of securing the sim- 
 plest and most economic ventilation, it will be necessary 
 to consider the nature of heat and its effect upon air. 
 
 Radiation of heat. — By radiation heat passes out- 
 ward from a heated body in all directions. The intensity 
 of radiated heat is inversely as the square of the distance 
 traversed. Radiated heat does not raise the temperature 
 of the air through which it passes. This is shown by the 
 
 days, but in that brief period one hundred and twenty out of eight 
 hundred inmates died. I visited the building with Dr. Hamilton 
 on the third day after its appearance, but the hospital then con- 
 tained sixty or seventy patients, and some twenty-five or thirty had 
 died within twenty-four hours. Dr. Hamilton attributed the rapid 
 propagation and fatality of the disease, after it once had gained ad- 
 mission, mainly to confinement and crowding. It was observed that 
 the cholera was confined for several days among the women, who had 
 the smallest apartments, and were most crowded in their cells, while 
 the men were mostly employed out of doors. 
 
 " The Doctor's prescription was very short and simple. A slight 
 change was made in the diet, disinfectants Avere used, and at night 
 a slight stimulant was given to each patient. But the great means 
 that the Doctor relied upon for success was pure air all the time. 
 The patients were kept out of doors from morning till night, and all 
 tfte windows were kept open day and night. Although in the hot 
 weather of summer, fire was made in the wards to insure a more 
 perfect ventilation. In six days after the initiation of these simple 
 hygienic measures the epidemic entirely disappeared." L. W. Leeds. 
 
42 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 fact that the upper atmosphere is much colder than the 
 stratum of air iu immediate contact with the earth, whereas 
 it would be warmer as we go toward the sun if the air 
 was heated b}^ radiation. 
 
 Conduction of heat. — By conduction heat is trans- 
 mitted from a heated body to substances in immediate 
 contact with it, which in turn transmit it to others, and 
 so on, the intensity constantly diminishing as it passes 
 away from the centre of action. Different bodies have 
 the power of conducting heat in different degrees. Iron 
 and the metals generall}^ are good conductors, and clay, 
 water, wood, and air are poor conductors. A good con- 
 ductor both receives and gives off heat much more rapidly 
 than a poor conductor. In the construction of the outward 
 walls of buildings, a poor conductor of heat should always 
 be used, to avoid the otherwise inevitable loss of heat. 
 
 Capacity of bodies to receive heat. — The capacity 
 of bodies to receive heat greatly varies. To raise a cubic 
 foot of water to a given temperature requires seventeen 
 hundred times the amount of heat that it does to raise a 
 cubic foot of air to the same temperature. The capacit}^ 
 of air to receive heat is relatively small, and hence there 
 is little loss of heat from a perfect sj'stem of ventilation. 
 
 How AIR IS heated. — Air is heated by being brought into 
 immediate contact with a heated surface. The air of a room 
 is heated in part by contact with the heating apparatus, 
 and in part by contact with the walls, floor, and ceiling of 
 the room. The parts of the room and the furniture are 
 heated by direct radiation from the heating apparatus. 
 
 Effect of heat upon air. — Air, when heated, expands 
 and becomes lighter. Owing to the derangement of equi- 
 librium, the cooler and heavier air sinks and forces the 
 warmer and lighter air upward. Whenever heat is 
 more developed in one place than another, currents of air 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION. 4d 
 
 are always produced, and heat is distributed by this pro- 
 cess, which is technically called convection. 
 
 Movement op air in a room. — When confined in a 
 room the cold air sinks to the bottom, and the warm air 
 rises to the top. If the room is perfectly tight, and a 
 small opening is made in either the top or bottom, no 
 change takes place within the room, as there is no force 
 to establish motion. If an opening is made in both the 
 top and the bottom, the cold air flows in below and the 
 warm air escapes above. If two openings are made 
 above, or a single flue is divided into two parts, there will 
 be an ascending current in one and a descending current 
 in the other. 
 
 Impurities in a room. — Carbonic acid gas is heavier 
 than air, and when generated in considerable quantities 
 at the same temperature of the air, it first sinks downward, 
 but in a short time it becomes diffused through the air. 
 
 In a room at the temperature of 70° the carbonic acid 
 of the breath at the temperature of about 90° rises, but, 
 speedily giving off its extra heat, sinks again and accu- 
 mulates at the floor. The carbonic acid generated by the 
 burning of lamps, first rises to the top of the room, but 
 the heat which carries it upward soon dissipates, and it 
 then sinks downward. When air colder than the tem- 
 perature of the room is admitted, it sinks to the floor, and 
 the vitiated air lies in the stratum immediately above. 
 But the tendency of gases is toward diffusion, and we may 
 safely state that in rooms occupied by a large number of 
 persons, the vitiated air will either be found well distrib- 
 uted through the room, or accumulated at the bottom. 
 With these facts and principles before us, we are prepared 
 to examine the different methods of heating and ventila- 
 tion, and determine how far each goes to the solution of 
 the problems which we named. 
 
44 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Fire-places. — With the open fire-place a current of 
 air is always setting in toward the fire, making the ven- 
 tilation very nearly perfect. The heat, however, is trans- 
 mitted by radiation, and hence is unevenly distributed, 
 and the current of hot air which constantly ascends 
 through the chimney causes a great waste of heat. 
 
 Stoves. — By the use of stoves we have a greater econ- 
 omy of fuel, but the heat is still radiated, and consequently 
 unevenly distributed, and there is no ven- 
 tilation connected with the process of heat- 
 ing, except the very small current escaping 
 through the draft of the stove. 
 
 When stoves are used ventilation is 
 sought to be accomplished in a great variety 
 of independent methods. 
 
 Windows. — When windows are opened 
 at the top for the admission of air, a cold 
 current immediately flows in, which settles 
 to the bottom of the room, where it serves 
 to keep the feet of the pupils uncomfortably 
 cold. On Its way it strikes the unprotected necks and 
 shoulders of the pupils who are seated near, causing colds 
 in the head, rheumatic pains, and other 
 forms of disease. The danger of sitting in 
 draughts is abundantly set forth in the 
 most elementary treatises upon hygienic 
 science, and yet, to this day, people are 
 found who contend that ventilation is suf- 
 ficientlj' secured by the abominable practice of opening 
 windows from the top.* 
 
 Fig. 35. 
 
 Fig. 36. 
 
 * Windows may be opened from the top just sufficient to allow the 
 escape of hot air, but not to admit cold air, while pupils are exposed 
 to the draught. "While the children are seated care should be taken 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION. 45 
 
 Opening in the ceiling. — A second method of inde- 
 pendent ventilation is by having an opening in the ceiling. 
 When the opening is merely into a room 
 above, no currents are created and no ven- 
 tilation is induced. But when the outlet is 
 through a flue directly into the outer air, the " Fig. 37. 
 hot air at the top of the room is drawn off, and the equally 
 foul air below remains. This method changes the air but 
 little, and causes great waste of heat. 
 
 Double openings in the ceiling. — A more modern 
 method of ventilation is to provide two separate flues 
 from the ceiling, or to divide a single ventilating chimney 
 into several parts. It is found that generally, while there 
 is an ascending current through the one, there will be a de- 
 scending current through another, causing a change of air 
 throughout the room. This will always be the case when 
 the room is perfectly tight, but when a door or window is 
 opened the descending current at once ceases, while the 
 hot air continues to escape. There is the same objection 
 to this method of admitting cold air as to windows opened 
 at the top, exposing pupils to draughts and to cold feet, 
 and at the same time there is a great loss of heat. 
 
 These plans for the change of air in a room are all faulty, 
 and so far stoves and good ventilation seem inconsistent 
 with each other. 
 
 Hot-air furnaces. — The most philosophic apparatus 
 for heating which has yet been invented is probably the 
 hot-air furnace. By its use the air is properly tempered 
 before being admitted to the room, and cold draughts are 
 rendered impossible. If adjusted so as to secure proper 
 
 to open the windows opposite the wind only. The windows may 
 be opened' at both the top and bottom at recess, and while the pupils 
 are engaged in physical exercise. 
 
46 OUIl SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 distribution uihI an economic method of ventilation, it 
 conies nearer to solving onr three j)rol)lcnis than any 
 oilier. 
 
 Mistakes tn ahhangement. — In the construction of 
 (lie hot-air a})})aratus many amusing mistakes have been 
 uKuh'. Tiie cold-air box sometimes has been entirel}'' 
 oini(((Ml, uiid registers for tlie admission of liot air have 
 been placed in the top of the room, or half-way down, 
 instead of at the bottom, where they belong. The venti- 
 lating flues have sometimes been entirely omitted, and 
 have sometimes been placed at the top of the room, when 
 they served the })urpose only of carrying oil" the hot 
 air, and so wasting heat. The ventilating flue, when in 
 ils proper position at the bottom of the room, has often 
 been placed so near the hot-air register that a limited 
 {'irculadoii only was produced, and tlie heat was far IVom 
 being eveiil}' distributed. 
 
 The niwr aiuianoement. — From these mistakes, and 
 a very long series of experiments, a most excellent ar- 
 rangement has been devised. The hot air is admitted 
 at the bottom of the room, and the ventilating registers 
 are jdaccd at the farthest distance from the hot-air regis- 
 ters also, and at the bottom of the room. 
 
 The (lues from the ventilating registers are made to con- 
 ne(.'t wilh (he draught of the furnace, and the circulation 
 is thus made complete. Hot-air furnaces, however, arc 
 too costl\' for use in common schools, and it remains for 
 ns to devise a system which shall be inexpensive and at 
 the same time shall have all the excellences of the costly 
 a],)paratus described. The details of the })lan are as 
 follows : 
 
 Chimneys and elites. — Tn rooms of considerable size, 
 chinHie3'S should be built in each of the front .corners, 
 commencinii; at the foundation. In smaller rooms a 
 
Fiij, -y>. 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION. 49 
 
 single chimney is sufficient. They are placed in front 
 to avoid the long stove-pipe which otherwise would be 
 necessary. These long pipes ,are disagreeable from the 
 radiation of heat downward upon the heads of the pupils, 
 and from their tendency to smoke, drij), and 
 get out of place. Each chimney should have 
 two flues, separated by the thinnest possible 
 partition : one for smoke and the other for 
 ventilation. The results sought by this ar- 
 rangement can be effectively attained by hav- 
 ing a pipe for the smoke carried up through 
 the centre of the flue which is used for ven- 
 tilation. From the ventilating flue of the chim- fsj^'-ss- 
 neys air-tight horizontal tubes should be laid under the 
 floor to the opposite sides of the room, terminating in 
 registers opening through the floor or base-board. 
 
 Stoves. — The stoves used may be ordinary box stoves 
 for wood, or upright cylinders for coal. When coal is 
 used, the self-feeding stove should be obtained if possible. 
 The stoves should be placed in the corners of the room, 
 where they are most out of the way, and each one should 
 be inclosed by a double case or jacket of sheet-iron, or 
 some other material of like character, for the double pur- 
 pose of preventing the intense primary radiation, and for 
 providing space for the heating of air. A cold-air tube 
 extending from the side of the building should be laid 
 under the floor, and open directly beneath the stove.* 
 
 * A convenient and economic method of admitting cold air would 
 be to place a partition or floor in the smoke flue of the cliimney a 
 little below the opening for the stove-pipe; make an opening from 
 the outside into the flue below the partition ; and to connect the flue 
 below with the cold-air tube opening beneath the stove. This 
 arrangement will secure a constant supply of air taken so far above 
 
 4 
 
50 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Operation of the stove and chimney. — When a fire 
 is kindled in the stove, the heat escaping from the chim- 
 ney raises the temperature in the adjacent 
 wst ventilating flue and establishes a current 
 ly u})ward. This causes a draught which acts 
 
 '^W* "pon the air of the room through the regis- 
 *^ ters at the extremity of the ventilating tube, 
 ^ ■' })umping the cold air from the bottom of the 
 
 Fig. 39. j.Qo,^^ 
 
 Operation of the hot air. — The fire in the stove 
 heats the stratum of air which surrounds it, and a hot 
 current is produced, which enters the room next the floor, 
 from between the outer and inner coats of the jacket, 
 serving to keep the floor warm in the immediate vicinity, 
 and alfording a convenient place for warming feet. The 
 hot air then rises to the top of the room, where it accumu- 
 lates, and pressing downward upon the cold air, forces it 
 out through the registers, thus directly aiding the draught 
 of the ventilating flues. 
 
 Perfections of action. — The pure air, heated and 
 properly tempered, soon has entire possession of the 
 room. The ventilating registers attract it to the farthest 
 part of the room, and the heat is evenly distributed. No 
 warm air can escape from the room while there is any 
 cold air in it, and so, no heat is wasted. The currents 
 through the room are continuous, and the foul air is car- 
 ried off as i\ist as generated. The whole system is brought 
 directly under control by having adjustable registers at 
 the opening into the ventilating tubes and in the cold-air 
 tubes, and by proper dampers in the stove. 
 
 Moisture. — If the air is found too dry when it is 
 
 the svirfiicc ;is to be free from the impiu'ities which often emanate 
 from tlie ground. 
 
HEATING AND VENTILATION". 51 
 
 admitted into the room, it may be properly tempered 
 with moisture by having a basin of water placed beneath 
 the jacket in such a manner that it can be filled from the 
 outside. GJ-reat care should be taken that both the basin 
 and the water are always clean. 
 
 Conclusion. — It is believed that the sj^stem of heating 
 and ventilation here described fully meets the require- 
 ments demanded in the outset. The apparatus costs but 
 little more than that in ordinary use. The extra cost of the 
 jacket for the stove, and of the ventilating tubes, but a 
 few dollars at the most, will be more than saved in fuel in 
 a single winter. The use of fuel is more economic than 
 that of the most approved air-tight stoves ; for the neces- 
 sity of opening doors and windows is entirely obviated. 
 The distribution of heat is as perfect as that of the most 
 approved hot-air furnaces, and the ventilation as thorough 
 as with the old-fashioned fire-places. It has all the excel- 
 lences of these several systems without their defects. 
 
 Fio-. 40. Fig. 41 
 
CHAPTER VT. 
 
 GENERAL CONSTRUCTION". 
 
 The terms Building and Architecture, though often 
 used synonymously, are in meaning essentially different. 
 
 Building has reference to utilit}-^, 
 while architecture aims to produce 
 beauty. The object of building is 
 accomplished when the ends of use- 
 fulness are attained ; but archi- 
 tecture is not satisfied until it 
 has created in the mind emotions 
 of pleasure. The construction of 
 walls, roofs, windows, and all the 
 necessary parts of an edifice is the 
 p business of a builder ; the office of 
 the architect is to dispose and 
 arrange these parts in the most 
 ^'^' '^'^- liarmonious and attractive manner. 
 
 The two most obvious uses in all buildings designed for 
 the occupation of man are shelter and warmth. These 
 conditions are found, by savage or barbarous nations, in 
 natural or artificial caverns, in hollows of trees, and in 
 rude huts of sticks and mud. At the ver}- dawn of civil- 
 ization the art of building began to receive attention. 
 Rude at first, it gradually improved as the wants of man 
 were developed, until it has reached a state of compara- 
 tive perfection. In every stage of its progress, however, 
 
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 53 
 
 shelter and warmtti have been the principal ends to be 
 attained. We might class with these another scarcely less 
 important, viz., durability. Hence, the strength and sta- 
 bility of walls, the tightness of roof, and outside covering, 
 are matters of prime interest, and if neglected in the out- 
 set, no subsequent expenditure of skill or labor can pro- 
 vide a remedy. 
 
 Materials. — The materials used should be excellent in 
 quality. It is false economy that consents, under any 
 circumstances, to use inferior materials. 
 There may be, in the beginning, a small 
 saving of cost, but the result will be pre- 
 mature decay, and consequent expense for 
 rebuilding. The greatest care should be 
 taken to procure bricks properly burned, 
 straight-grained timber for frames, sound 
 roof-boards and siding, floor-boards with- 
 out knots, shingles of the first quality, and 
 fresh -burned lime. These precautions can- 
 not be too strongly urged. A single stick 
 of bad timber will sometimes ruin a whole 
 building ; and many a brick wall has fallen 
 in consequence of using lime which has been too long 
 exposed. The money annually expended in repairs occa- 
 sioned by the use of poor materials is more than triple 
 that increase of the first cost, which would have entirely 
 obviated the difficulty. Every part of the materials 
 should be carefully examined by competent persons, and 
 all, except the very best, should be rejected. 
 
 Workmanship. — The work should be well done. Job- 
 work, as it is usually termed (often another name for work 
 miserably performed), cannot be too earnestly deprecated. 
 With the best of materials a careless or unskillful work- 
 man will construct a worthless building. Lumber of the 
 
 Fig. 43. 
 
54 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Fig. 44. 
 
 best kind may be worse than wasted by a slovenly manner 
 of framing and adjusting it. Shingles poorly laid will be 
 
 followed by leaks, which must seri- 
 ously damage the plaster and inside 
 finish. Foundations insecurely built 
 will rack and destroy every other 
 part of the building. Window- 
 frames imperfectly constructed, sid- 
 ing and floors loosely laid, and doors 
 with yawning joints, all allow the 
 entrance of cold and storms, and thus 
 become the source of unnecessary 
 expenditure for fuel, as well as of 
 serious injury to the entire structure. 
 Lath and plaster badly put on last 
 but a short time, and constant patch- 
 ing presents an unsightly appear- 
 ance, besides being a cause of annoyance and expense. 
 Surely no further specification is needed to satisfy the 
 most reluctant, that the truest economy demands such an 
 expenditure for labor in the outset as shall secure the best 
 
 possible construction. Faults 
 in workmanship should be care- 
 fully provided against. Every 
 part of the work should be sub- 
 jected to the closest scrutiny. 
 
 But workmen are not alone 
 to blame for improper construc- 
 tion. It is quite as often the 
 result of false economy or par- 
 simony on the part of owners. 
 The estimates of mechanics are 
 often cut down without an intelligent reason, upon the as- 
 sumption that they are not made in good faith. In cons.'- 
 
 Fig. 45. 
 
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 55 
 
 quence, the workmen, who perhaps are forced by circum- 
 stances to undertake the job, are obliged to slight their 
 work to save themselves from loss. The injury resulting 
 does not end with the work imperfectly done. It impairs 
 that confidence in man, which is the basis of all true 
 humanity, and leads to a regular system of deception on 
 the part of employer and workmen. Let those having 
 charge of the construction of buildings, therefore, beware 
 of offering a premium for j^oor work by paying less than 
 good work is worth. Let them remember that "the 
 laborer is worthy of his hire," and that to extort labor for 
 less than its value is only a safe and legal species of rob- 
 bery. 
 
 Architectural appearance. — The style of architec- 
 ture in school-houses should receive its share of attention. 
 Some general principles should be fixed as a 
 guide for those intending to build. The old 
 style, or, rather, no style, we put out of the 
 question, as its whole object was to provide 
 the cheapest possible shelter, without refer- 
 ence to true utility, and none whatever to 
 beauty. What shall take its place is a ques- 
 tion of present and pressing interest. Many 
 styles have been proposed, but none as yet 
 have been generally adopted. The two which 
 have attracted the most attention, and which 
 have most frequently been described in works 
 upon the apparatus of education, are the Greek and the 
 Grothic. These styles are now frequently found in places 
 where considerable attention has been paid to improve- 
 ment in schools, and they have been strongly recom- 
 mended by those who have written upon the subject. 
 Some inquiry into their respective claims may not be out 
 of place here. 
 
 Fig 40 
 
56 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 FiiT. 47. 
 
 Greek architecture. — When we speak of scliool-houses 
 ill the Greek style, we mean those in whose construction 
 some features of the Greek architec- 
 ture have been displayed. For ex- 
 ample, we often see the Greek cornice 
 extending around the building, with 
 the tympanums upon the gables ; pi- 
 lasters, surmounted with capitals in 
 imitation of the Greek columns ; the 
 Greek pitch to the roof; and, in 
 many cases, the Greek portico. All 
 these forms are beautiful in them- 
 selves, and, in their original combi- 
 nations, unrivalled in architecture. 
 But their adaptation to the purposes and uses of a school 
 edifice may well be questioned. 
 
 The Greek architecture was developed chiefl}^ in the 
 construction of temples for religious worship, which were 
 not designed so much for use as to please the eye. Only 
 the outer and inner colonnade were covered ; the god to 
 whom the temple was dedicated was supposed not to need 
 a roof, and hence none was provided. All the marvellous 
 skill and energy of this remarkable people were emploj^ed 
 in developing this style of architecture, and the result 
 was very nearly perfection. The impression which such 
 a building makes upon the mind is that of sublimity. But 
 an indispensable element in this sublimity is magnitude. 
 A diminutive structure can never call up the emotion of 
 the sublime ; and hence, when the Greek forms are used 
 in the construction of small buildings, the old maxim is 
 illustrated, that " there is but one step from the sublime 
 to the ridiculous." 
 
 Not only were Greek temples roofless, but they were 
 usually windowless ; and when we reduce them to modern. 
 
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 57 
 
 every-clay uses, wc arc obliged to depart from the model 
 
 in these two important particulars. Originally, genius, 
 
 labor, and treasure were all expended upon 
 
 the colonnade ; but little attention was given 
 
 to the interior, and therefore it has been found 
 
 impossible to adapt forms so developed to 
 
 buildings in which the interior is the most 
 
 important part. When the Greek temple is 
 
 copied entire, it is found that the immense 
 
 colonnade occupies a large share of the most 
 
 valuable space, and hence the form is the very 
 
 worst that can be devised for use. If only 
 
 certain features are engrafted upon other forms, 
 
 the results are defective and incongruous. ri-.48. 
 
 Another consequence is a great expenditure of labor 
 and material, without any adequate return, either in 
 convenience or beauty. For example, if the Greek 
 cornice and tympanum are used with the ordinary pitch 
 of roof, the laws of proportion are palpably violated ; but 
 if the original pitch is preserved, and shingles are used, 
 the roof is too flat and soon decays. The horizontal 
 cornice across the gable, which forms the base of the 
 tympanum, is entirely useless, as are the capitals upon 
 the pilasters. When any of these ornaments are used in 
 the construction of ordinary school-houses, they always 
 wear a pretentious appearance. We are inclined to adopt,, 
 as an incontrovertible principle, that Greek forms should 
 never be used except in large and costly buildings. 
 Their introduction into school-house architecture was 
 unfortunate, and we trust the time is not far distant when 
 they will fall into disuse. 
 
 Gothic architecture. — The full development of the 
 Gothic architecture is found only in temples, where mag- 
 nitude is an indispensable element. In the construction 
 
58 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Fig. 49. 
 
 of these buildings the interior was considered of the most 
 importance, and everything was subordinated to the per- 
 fection of its finish. The steep roof was 
 thrown up to give opportunity for the high 
 pointed arches inside, which, in the dim, 
 shadowy light, excited emotions of solem- 
 nity and awe. When we interpose ceil- 
 ings in Gothic structures we depart from 
 the original idea, and the high meaning 
 of the style is lost. 
 
 In modern times a great variety of 
 small Grothic buildings have been con- 
 structed, peculiarh^ beautiful to the eye ;. 
 but when the style has been Gothic 
 throughout, the beautiful effect has been 
 produced at the expense of economy and 
 convenience. In the details of building, 
 however, Gothic forms can be often used to advantage in 
 combination with other architectural arrangements. 
 
 Modern architecture. — The best buildings constructed 
 for modern use have usually a composite style. Beautiful 
 
 forms are adapted from an 3" of the 
 classic styles, and all the combina- 
 tions are arranged to meet the re- 
 quirements of convenience. The 
 architect can no longer follow the 
 lead of sentiment and fanc}^ and 
 create structures which excite as- 
 tonishment and wonder, but he is 
 bound b}^ the laws of utility, and 
 his work of fanc}' must be always 
 Fig. 50. subordinated to the useful. 
 
 The designs in this book have been constructed with 
 this idea of utility constantly in mind. The comfort and 
 
GENERAL CONSTRUCTION. 
 
 59 
 
 convenience of the pupils have first been secured, and 
 even the claims of so-called economy have been subordi- 
 nated to these. 
 
 The next leading idea has been to secure the finest ap- 
 pearance at the least cost. With each of the plans a pro- 
 gressive series of designs have been given, commencing 
 with the plainest and cheapest, and successively becoming 
 more elaborate and costly. 
 
 No features have been added for the purpose of mere 
 ornamentation, but beautiful appearance has been secured 
 by the shaping and harmonious disposition of the neces- 
 sary parts. The shape, size, and position of doors, 
 windows, chimneys, gables, and cupolas have all been 
 made to conduce to this end, and when one of the designs 
 shall be selected, it should be carried out in the details, 
 or otherwise the builders may be greatly disappointed. 
 In the descriptions it will be noticed that certain features 
 of different designs are interchangeable, but great care 
 should be exercised in making changes, so that general 
 effect shall not be incongruous. 
 
 Fi2. 51. 
 
 Fi-. 52. 
 
CHAPTER VII. 
 
 DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 The plans and elevations in this ^yo^k have been made 
 with special reference to the present wants of district 
 schools in the conntry and of primary 
 schools in cities aiid villages. In 
 size iliey are designed to accommo- 
 date all grades of schools consisting 
 of from twenty-five to three hundred 
 pupils. With each plan several eleva- 
 tions have been given, to allow selec- 
 tion in regard to taste and to conform 
 to different ideas of economy. 
 
 In each series the clieaper eleva- 
 tions are as plain and economical in 
 structure as is compatible with the health, comfort, and 
 convenience of the pupils. Poorer and cheaper structures 
 may be built, but they can never fully answer the pur- 
 poses for which they are designed, and the efficicnc}' of 
 the school must sulTer in consequence. In the long run it 
 will be found that parsimony is not economy. 
 
 From the cheapest possible form the series rise in regu- 
 lar gradation to the more complex and ornamental. Beau- 
 tii'ul forms in themselves are educational inlluences, and 
 the rudeness of pupils may, in a great measure, be modi- 
 fied and subdued by a due attention to beauty in the 
 school-house and furniture. Wherever the circumstances 
 
 Fig. 53. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 61 
 
 of the district will warrant the outlay, some of the more 
 elaborate elevations should be chosen, and it will be found 
 that the highest interests of the school will be served in 
 the direct ratio to the expense incurred. 
 
 In all the designs sufficient size has been given to the 
 rooms to afford an adequate supply of air, and to allow 
 sufficient freedom of movement on the part of 
 pupils. The shape of the rooms has been made 
 to conform to the principles laid down in the 
 chapter upon Internal Arrangement. The light- 
 ing and heating is according to the most advanced 
 scientific knowledge upon these subjects. 
 
 In regard to materials of construction, styles adapted to 
 wood, brick, and stone, have been given. Most of the 
 elevations may be constructed with either of these mate- 
 rials. Brick or stone is to be preferred to wood on many 
 accounts. Houses of these materials, properly constructed, 
 are warmer in winter, cooler in summer, and more dura- 
 ble than those built of wood. 
 
 Fig. 55. 
 
62 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 DESIGN I. 
 
 ^■^-J 
 
 In many i)arts of New England, and several other of 
 the northern States, a popular form 
 of a school-house is that of a build- 
 ing with a side to the street, with a 
 smaller building used for a wood- 
 house, extending along in a line 
 with the main building directly upon 
 the street. Usually, the entrance 
 is through an open doorway into 
 the wood-house, and thence directly 
 into the school-room. 
 Tiic advantages of the plan are cheapness of structure 
 and convenience of access to the fuel. In regions where 
 the storms of winter are severe and the snows are deep, 
 the situation of the building directly upon the road-side, 
 with but a single entrance to both the wood-house and the 
 school-room, favors economy in the removing of snow and 
 in the construction of paths. The wood-house also affords 
 protection to the entrance of the school-room, and may be 
 considered as an excuse for an entr3^-wa3^ 
 
 But this arrangement is faulty in several particulars. 
 The long, continuous roofs, or one gable falling beneath 
 another, gives to it an unsightly appearance, and there is 
 no visible outside door to the main building. There is but 
 one entrance for the two sexes, and no lobby for deposit- 
 ing hats and outer garments. In the elevations given, an 
 effort has been made to preserve the main features of this 
 plan, but to so modify it in details as to correct some of 
 the most obvious faults. At best, however, this can only 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 63 
 
06 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 67 
 
 be done partially, as some of the most serious faults are 
 essential parts of the plan. 
 
 In the plan given, Fig. 57, the wood-house is entirely- 
 inclosed, and a front door is constructed for a main en- 
 trance into the school-room, and a side door for the ad- 
 mission of wood. A partition has been made to extend 
 
 D^' 
 
 m 
 m 
 
 ^laiB 
 
 msre 
 
 simm^ 
 
 Fig. 57. 
 
 through the wood-house, cutting off the front part for an 
 entry-way and a lobby for hats and cloaks. In the school- 
 room a space has been left for a fire-place ; but in case a 
 stove is used it should be placed in the front corner far- 
 thest from the door. The wall in front, then, may be 
 used as a blackboard. 
 
 The size of this building is immaterial, as the same 
 general plan may be made to accommodate from twenty to 
 one hundred pupils. For all but very small districts, the 
 houses having two entrances are much to be preferred. 
 
 Elevation No. 1. — This is a very plain elevation of a 
 wood structure furnished with clap-boards. The arrange- 
 ment of the wood-house, narrower and lower than the 
 main building, and the construction of the doors, give to 
 the building an idea of proportion, and make it a great 
 improvement upon the open wood-house style. 
 
68 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 The windows in the main building are grouped together 
 for the triple purpose of economy in construction, finer 
 architectural appearance, and a better disposition of light. 
 The separate windows, however, can be used if preferred. 
 The large ornamental chimney is a feature which gives 
 character to the whole structure, and which ought not to 
 be omitted. Its large size is for the purpose of affording 
 room for both smoke and ventilating flues. 
 
 Elevation No. 2. — The principal difference between 
 this and No. 1 is that the roof of the main building is 
 turned in the opposite direction, and is at right angles 
 with the roof of the wood-house instead of parallel with 
 it. Architecturally, this is a better arrangement, as one 
 gable ought not to come directly beneath another. In 
 the picture this building is finished with battens ; but clap- 
 boards may be used if preferred. In case battens are 
 used, the boards should all be narrow, not exceeding 
 eight inches in width, and the battens only wide enough to 
 cover the joint, and they should always be nailed through 
 the middle. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — In essential features it is like No. 2. 
 The roof. is of the same general description, but less steep. 
 The cornices of the two buildings are upon the same level, 
 and an ornamental cornice extends across the gables. 
 The windows are represented as separate, but they may 
 be grouped as in 1 and 2. The finish of this design is in 
 brick, though either brick or wood may be used for either 
 of the elevations. This design is specially adapted to a 
 level country, where if is in harmony with the scenery. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 69 
 
OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 73 
 
 DESIGN II. 
 
 A small school may be well accommodated by a plan like 
 that represented in Fig. 59. It consists of a school-room 
 with a single porch in front, and a wood- 
 house in the rear. The room represented 
 contains seats for twenty-four pupils, but 
 by increasing the length three feet there 
 will be room for one more row of scats, and 
 for thirty pupils, and by increasing its 
 width four feet, it will contain still another 
 row of desks, and seats for forty pupils. 
 
 The porch is a single room, but of suffi- 
 cient size for a lobby for clothes. The 
 stove is to be placed in one of the nitches 
 in front, while the other nitch may be used 
 for a closet. The ventilators in this, as in all the designs, 
 are placed in the rear of the room, but each one is con- 
 nected with the chimney by a tube under the floor. 
 
 Fi''. 59. 
 
 The wood-house in the rear serves the double purpose 
 of back hall or entry-way and a place of storage for fuel. 
 
74 Olfll S(!II()()l,-IIOtJHHS. 
 
 'riic doors upon llic sides should open i'('S]KM'(iv(dy inio 
 I lie hoys' and <j,ii-ls' plii.y -grounds. 'V\n) IVoni piirl, of (lio 
 wood-house slioidd Ik; pn)vid<Ml vvilli ;i pliiUoi'iii ii|)oii ii 
 h'V(d vvilli tin; school-house; lloor, ;it Icnsi lour liicL wide. 
 
 This ,L;(Mi(>r:i,I phui is superioi* to Design I., ))y li;i,vin^" 
 buck MS well ;is IVoul, cidniiiccs, s<> llia,l. access may l)e liad 
 lo (he play-,i!;i-ounds and oul-l)uildiiiji;H without disturbance 
 lo classes, or lo the t^'ciuM'aJ ordei" of (Ik; scliool-i'ooni. 
 The nioN'eiiienIs of pupils arc; not so conspicuous us th(;y 
 woidd be if, in llieii' eidra,iic(; and exit, they wei'o always 
 obli^'cd to pass lliroui;li I he IVont door. 
 
 I^!1lkva'I'I<>n No. 1. This (devation is a. sinipl(Min(l inex- 
 pensive building', with wid(; projeclinii; eaves tluit «2;ive to 
 it an appearance (tf comlort and solidil}'. ^Plu; porcli is 
 linished wilh a, tent-roof, lo obviate I he necessity of a. <j;a,blo 
 under a. ,!i;able. It is liL;hlc(l by a, small window upon Ihc 
 side, as tlu; hei<2;ht of the; roof would hardly admit of a 
 head-window over tlie door. The windows are ;;roupe(l 
 lo<;'(dher, and the whole design produces a ver}^ pleasing 
 ellect. 
 
 If a lai'.t;"er house is l)uilt upon (his plan, the outside 
 appearance; m:iy remain the same by simj)ly increasinj;" all 
 tlu* parts in proportion. If thre^e feet be added to the 
 lenmtli no othei' chaiiire ihmmI be mad(\ but if llu* addition 
 is made to the width the poi-ch should be enlarged in 
 |)ro|)oi-|ion. 
 
 Mri'iv A'i'ioN No. 'J. In this elevation the r(»of of the 
 m:iin building is placed a,t right angles with the roof of 
 the porch and wood-hous(\ giving a line architectural 
 elVecl lo the grou|). The corni(;es of the three pa.rts aro 
 upon the; saiiu' le'ved, anel an e)rnanKMital ee)rnice extends 
 ae're)ss the; gable'. This feature may be e)mitteel, anel llio 
 rools mav be' ai-raiige<l in the' same' manner as the)se in 
 Mlevalie)n No. 'J of De'sign I. In case' the galde' e'ornice is 
 
DESIGNS AND KLEVATIONS. 
 
 75 
 
OUll SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 79 
 
 omitted the cornices of the porch and wood-house should 
 drop below that of the main building. The porch is 
 lighted by a head-light above the door. The materials 
 of this building may be either brick or wood. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — This elevation is more ornamental. 
 The corners of the gable are cut off, and a small gable is 
 erected over each of the large windows in the sides. The 
 porch is finished with a common gable. The ornamental 
 filigree work of the gables may be omitted, and the cornice 
 made wide and j)lain, like that of Elevation No. 1. The 
 only extra cost of this elevation is raising the gables over 
 the windows, and in cutting down the corners of the roof, 
 the whole of which ought not to exceed a few dollars. 
 This elevation is represented as finished with battens, but 
 clap-boards may be used, or the house may be built of 
 brick. The superior appearance of this design will more 
 than warrant the additional expense. 
 
 Elevation No. 4. — In villages and country places 
 near cities, where the dwellings are of fine architectural 
 appearance, the school-house should be in harmony with 
 the surroundings, and there is a demand for ornamental 
 designs. Elevation No. 4 has been prepared to meet 
 this demand when a small school-house is wanted. The 
 general features are Gothic, but the whole is chaste and 
 neat and not excessively expensive. The steep gables 
 all terminate in minarets or pinnacles. An ornamental 
 bell-tower surmounts the front. The porch has an orna- 
 mental tent-roof, sloping down from the front gable. 
 Gables are erected above the side windows, and a beauti- 
 ful ornamental chimney extends upward from one side of 
 the porch. The material may be brick or stone, the finish 
 of the gables being a stone coping instead of a cornice. 
 This coping may be made of wood with a covering of tin. 
 This elevation might also be used as a session-room for a 
 
t 
 « 
 
 80 oint, SdiiooL-iiousKH. 
 
 cliurcli, iiiid loi* ;i variety of oilier public pm'poscs. The 
 roof .should b(^ <'()V(M'(m1 vviili shilc. 
 
 ill ,s(tiii(' |);m'I,s oI" IIi(> coimd'y (he siiiiill iiiiiiilxM" ol" pupils 
 ill I he (lislrici is <^iwv\\ ;is ;im excuse foi- a, iiiiseniblo sehool- 
 lioiisc. TIk^ liict of a limited iiuiiiher of pupils uuiy be ti 
 suHicieiil I'easoii lor lli(» coiisl ruction of a small school- 
 house, hill, not lor a. poor one. The educalioiKil wants of 
 a small dislrici and ora.sina.il niimher of childfcn a.r(\just 
 as pr(>ssin.i!; as tlioujj;h the territory and th(> numlier wei'e 
 indelinilxdy inci-eased, and a. nej^leet to sii[)ply them is just 
 as d(>li-iiiienlal in the one ease as in the other. 11" this 
 excuse were a, 5:;ood one tli(> Slate would be Jnslilied in 
 withholdinji; the public runds on the same ^I'ound. 
 
 r>iit., a.,<;"a,in, it, is a.ri;iied that, the smallei" tlistricts a,ro 
 ol'len too poor to er(>ct a, respectable appea.rini;' and com- 
 I'orlable school-house. It. may be that, many ol' the dis- 
 ti'icls are veiT poor, and in that case they are lar too 
 poor to siibiect their children to exposures and conse(|U(Mit 
 disease*, and so a, i;'0()d school-house becomes indispensable. 
 l<]a,ch district that partakes of the public money of the 
 Slal(» is morally bound to pro\ide all the appliances 
 nec('ssa.ry for lli(> proper expiMidilni'c of the money so 
 obtained; and the poorer the district the t;rea.ter is the 
 necessity for all possible means lor moral and physical 
 advancement. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 81 
 
 
84 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 85 
 
 DESIGN III. 
 
 Fis;. 60. 
 
 Country schools generally need accommodations for 
 from forty to eighty pupils. In the plan given for Design 
 III., sixty seats are provided. The 
 room is thirty-four by thirty-eight 
 feet, and by slight changes in size 
 it may be contracted or expanded. 
 By adding three feet to the length 
 space is given for ten additional 
 seats, and by making the building 
 four feet narrower there would still 
 be sufficient room for four rows of 
 desks, accommodating forty-eight 
 pupils. 
 
 In this design two entrances are provided in front, each 
 of which opens into a room which is at once an entry-way 
 and a lobby for clothes. The space between the two 
 entry-ways can be used for recitations, and a room may 
 be finished in the basement, or added to the rear, for the 
 storing of fuel. 
 
 This design is well adapted to districts in wliich the 
 attendance is large during one portion of tlie year and 
 small at other times. The recitation-room gives an 
 opportunity for the employment of an extra teacher when 
 the school is crowded. The front and back walls of the 
 school-room, between the two doors, should be occupied by 
 a blackboard. The stoves are placed in the front corners 
 of the I'oom and the ventilators in the opposite corners, in 
 accordance with the principles laid down in the chapter 
 upon heat and ventilation. This room is supplied with 
 
8G 
 
 OUll SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 two back entrances opening respectively into the boys' 
 and girls' play-grounds. 
 
 Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 
 
 The roof has 
 
 but neat and substantial building of wood 
 
 ^/<^>.^ll«^y^fiE|^^^_ U=C ^i==l^^!A 
 
 Flsr. 61. 
 
 the plain, wide, projecting cornice and eaves which protect 
 the walls of the building, and at the same time give it an 
 ai)})earance of comfort and solidity. The linish may be 
 of battens, as in the engraving, or it may be of clap-boards, 
 or substantially the same building may be made of brick. 
 This elevation is represented as standing on a hill-side 
 which slopes downward and backward from the house. 
 In situations of this kind the back entrance may be omit- 
 ted, and the basement may be fitted up for a wood- 
 room. The nearly s(iuare form of this elevation, the 
 perfectly plain (inish, the arrangement of everything 
 beneath a single roof, and the entire lack of ornamenta- 
 tion, render this one of the cheapest buildings which can 
 be erected. If anything cheaper is attempted it will be 
 l)y the use of poor materials, by scrimping just propor- 
 tions, or by diminishing the size, so as to deprive pupils of 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 87 
 
90 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 91 
 
 tlieir due proportion of pure air, and of their freedom of 
 movement. In either case the interests of the school will 
 suffer and present saving will be effected at a fearful 
 future cost to the children. 
 
 Elevation No. 2. — This is another very plain and 
 cheap structure of wood, finished with clap-boards. The 
 bell-tower gives dignity to the building, but it may be 
 omitted. The roof is the ordinary pitch and may be 
 covered with slate or shingles. 
 
 In finishing wood structures in this manner, the clap- 
 boards should be laid with but little exposure to the 
 weather. This arrangement gives tighter joints, and 
 makes the building much warmer. In some sections 
 buildings designed for habitation are covered with a coat- 
 ing of tarred paper before the siding is laid, and this 
 renders them almost air-tiorht. This coverino; is recom- 
 mended for school-houses built in our northern climate, 
 and in exposed locations. By its use the school-room 
 will be made more comfortable, and a large saving in 
 fuel will be made. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — This building, in form, is but a slight 
 variation from No. 2. The corners of the gables have been 
 cut off" and the form of the cupola changed ; but otherwise 
 it is substantially the same. The finish in the engraving is 
 made to represent brick, but wood or stone may be used. 
 
 In the erection of brick walls care must be tak(m to 
 have the walls hollow, or formed so that a space of air 
 may be confined Avithin them, otherwise the walls will 
 be damp and the room unhealthy. The precaution should 
 also be taken to have the foundation laid in hydraulic 
 cement as high as the water-table to prevent the moisture 
 of the ground from permeating the entire walls of the 
 building. The effect of tlie moisture is not onh' deleteri- 
 ous to health, but, combined with the action of frost, it 
 
92 Ol'll SCUIOOL-IIOlIMKrt. 
 
 Ii;is ;i, l(Mi(l(nu;y to cmck ami desLroy Uic walls of (lie 
 bnildiiit;". 
 
 i^'iLi'iVATioN No. 4. — This elevation li:is been vai'i(Ml l)y 
 the iiitrodiictioii of the ai'ched windows nnd eoi'iiei' but- 
 tresses. 'I'hes(5 I'eatnres <;iv(» to tlu; biiildini;' a strong' :iiid 
 sid)st;intial ai)|)eai'an<'e. 'Vhc enpola is a s(|iia?'e struetni-e 
 snpportcd by a projeetinu;' IVaincnvoi'k beiieiith, ;ind in 
 keepini;' with Ww ,t!;ener;il architcetnre of the houses The 
 nudiM'ial rejtresentvd in the |)i('tnre is stone, though brick 
 may })c used. 
 
 The ])()inted jirehes in windows are always ele^'ant, and 
 may be nnich nioiH^ commoidy used in bnildin,i>;s to the 
 manilest, improvement ol' ;u'ehiteetni-e. The window 
 heads and sills should be of cut stone, but a lino elleet 
 may Ix^ pi-odueed })y makini;' the arches of brick and 
 stone, or brick of two colors hiid nltcrnately. ^Fhe strinjj;- 
 course at (he basi^ of the window-caps uuiy be omitted 
 eidirely, and llu^ windows linished in the ordinaiy manner. 
 The buttresses should always terminate in pinnacles, or 
 otherwise the structure would appear bald and unlinished. 
 Ill case brick is usimI in the erection of this buildini:,', a 
 fine impression nuiy be nuide by usin^i;- common bi-ick for 
 the principal walls and |)ressed or Milwaukee brick Ibr 
 the butti'csses and ornanuuds. 
 
 b]i;KVA'noN No. 5. — This elevation represents a stone 
 buildiui;- of ((uaiut dcsij^u, of line ap})earance, and ofcheai) 
 construction. Tlu^ walls are made high and the roof 
 stee}). The front [)ortion, containing tlie })orches and 
 recitation-room, luis a lower wall and a roof which comes 
 directly und(>r the cornice of the uuiin building and abuts 
 against the gable. The angles of the main roof are cut 
 oil", and a [)lain stone cu})ola or bell-tower rises in front. 
 I'he wimlow-heads are circular arches, and nuiy be con- 
 structed with cut stone or ol" the ordinaiT building stone 
 
DESIGNS AND KLKVATIONS. 
 
 9:{ 
 
96 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 97 
 
 ronglily fitted to its place. Courses of brick might be 
 made to inclose the windows so as to produce a more 
 picturesque effect. 
 
 In this design the fine appearance is entirely owing to 
 the disposition of the several parts, each of which is 
 necessary to the full effect. To give room for sufficient 
 height in the porches, the main walls of the building must 
 be carried up rather higher than usual ; but the extra 
 height of the school-room will be all the better for the 
 pupils, as it affords them a greater amount of air. The 
 bell-tower, though a simple wall of stone, with an opening 
 for a bell, has a fine outline and is a necessary part of the 
 building. Such a structure would be considered orna- 
 mental in any part of the country. 
 
 Wherever stone can be easily and cheaply obtained a 
 building of this description may be put up at a moderate 
 expense. 
 
 In constructing a stone building, extra care must be 
 taken that the foundations are securely laid below the 
 action of frost. The walls should be hollow or furred. 
 
 Elevations 4 and 5 would be appropriate designs for 
 small churches, and be much more expressive in their 
 architecture, while no more costly than many of the 
 country churches now erected. 
 
98 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 DESIGN IV. 
 
 The plan of this design represents another of the 
 medium-sized school-houses. It is rectangular in form, 
 and the school-room has seats for sixty 
 pupils. By changes like that described 
 in Design III., it may be made to accom- 
 modate more or less, according to the 
 requirements. In the rear of the main 
 building is a smaller structure, which may 
 be used as a wood-room, recitation-room, 
 or both. In it are the back entr^'-ways. 
 The windows are put into one grouj) on 
 each side, for reasons given in the de- 
 scription of Design 11. The door in the 
 front partition* of the school-room may be omitted, and 
 the entrance to the front recitation-room made through 
 the front halls. The stoves and ventilating flues are 
 arranged as in Design III. The recitation-room may be 
 made wider by a slight increase in the length of the 
 building. 
 
 We would call special attention to this design and the 
 several elevations accompanying it. It perhaps combines 
 more than any other the essential requisites of country 
 school-houses. It is cheap. No room is lost, and no 
 expense is wasted upon superfluous features. It is simple 
 in construction, so that any carpenter can build it who 
 has wit enough to put building materials together. It is 
 exceedingly neat in appearance, as will be seen by re- 
 ferring to any of the elevations given ; and this beauty 
 will appear greatly enhanced when these elevations are 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 99 
 
OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 101 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 103 
 
 compared to the houses now ordinarily found in country 
 places. 
 
 It affords ample accommodation for the school and 
 freedom of movement for both teacher and pupil. It 
 admits light in the most effective manner possible, and if 
 properly furnished with adjustable inside blinds, the light 
 can be properly tempered and distributed. Ample ar- 
 rangements are made for a perfect system of ventilation, 
 and an unlimited supply of fresh air in the disposition of 
 
 ^feM^i/^^^y.gg^i^^r -^-i;^:— [] — -isp^ j^^^^p 
 
 Fig. 63. 
 
 the stoves, chimneys, and ventilating tubes. If intelligent 
 care is bestowed upon them, pupils need never suffer from 
 the effects of foul air. Provision has also been made for 
 ample summer ventilation in the large openings on the 
 four sides of the house. 
 
 Again, by having an extra recitation-room the plan is 
 an adjustable one, admitting of the employment of an 
 extra teacher during the season when the school is most 
 crowded. If either of the elevations of this design is 
 adopted, and the building erected as described, it will 
 last for several generations, and will afford ample and 
 excellent accommodation for all. 
 
104 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 One of the rooms in the rear or the recitation-room in 
 front may be used for the district library, or it may be 
 fitted up as a cabinet for the reception and preservation of 
 such specimens of natural history as are beginning to be con- 
 sidered indispensable to the highest success of any school. 
 
 In making choice between the different elevations 
 given, unless cheapness is considered the chief requisite, 
 preference should be given to one of the more elaborate 
 structures ; and wherever a choice can be made in build- 
 ing materials, brick or stone should be used in preference 
 to wood. A good stone house of this description, well 
 furnished, would leave scarcely anything more to be 
 desired in the form of school accommodation. 
 
 Elevation No. 1. — This is the plainest possible eleva- 
 tion of the plan of Design TV. It is a wood building, 
 having a plain roof with the ordinary pitch, and wide 
 projecting cornice. The finish may be battens or common 
 siding ; the former, however, is to be preferred on the 
 score of appearance. The chimney is high and substan- 
 tial, and in buildings of this kind, the chimney, being the 
 only projection from the roof, should be built with care. 
 The windows, which are grouped together in the elevation, 
 may be arranged in the usual manner, in which case a 
 side window would open into the porch, and the head-light 
 above the door might be omitted. 
 
 Elevation No. 2. — This elevation, represented as 
 finished in brick, may be built of wood. It is a modifica- 
 tion of Elevation No. 1, with a change in the shape of the 
 window-heads, the addition of a cupola, and the introduc- 
 tion of small mullion windows to light the porches. The 
 finish is plain, and the general effect is good. The cupola 
 may be omitted if desired, in which case the chimneys 
 should be made broader. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — This elevation is similar to the last, 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
OUR SCUOOL-UOUSKS. 
 
 107 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 109 
 
 the changes being mainly in detail. The window-heads 
 are square instead of circular, and narrow ornamental 
 hoods are placed above the windows and doors. The 
 windows of No. 2 may be used, if preferred. The main 
 feature of difference is the cupola, which in this design 
 apparently grows out of the structure beneath, and hence 
 is an integral part of it ; while in No. 2 the cupola seems 
 to be put on in such a way that it is not an essential part. 
 The materials of the building should be brick, and it 
 would appear much better to have the roof and base of 
 the cupola covered with slate. 
 
 Elevation No. 4. — This is an ornamental design for 
 village and suburban places. The cupola is light and 
 elegant, and a gable is thrown up over the windows to 
 give a greater architectural effect. The chimney is pro- 
 jected outside of the main wall, to break the monotony 
 of the blank wall between the windows and the front 
 corner of the building. The materials may be brick or 
 stone. By the introduction of the gable over the windows, 
 the walls are made lower, and the roof comes much nearer 
 the ground than in the other designs. Instead of a cornice, 
 the gables are finished with a coping of stone or of wood 
 covered witli tin. 
 
 This elevation would make an elegant design for a coun- 
 try church. Its fine architectural appearance is owing 
 entirely to the general style of finish, the proportions 
 observed, and the disposition of its several parts. No 
 one feature has been added for mere ornament, though 
 each of the necessary parts has been made ornamental. 
 The roof should be of slate. 
 
 Elevation No. 5. — This elevation represents another 
 ornamental brick or stone building, with a slate roof. 
 The cupola, like that of No. 3, is made to grow out of the 
 structure. The windows and doors have pointed Gothic 
 
110 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 arches, and over each of the side windows a gable has 
 been erected. The whole grouping produces a very 
 pleasant effect, and the design would make a most excel- 
 lent school-house or a snug little church. 
 
 In erecting structures of this kind, great care must be 
 taken to make the foundation secure. The underpinning 
 should be laid upon concrete, and placed below the action 
 of frost. The stone should be laid in hydraulic cement, 
 and every care taken that the whole foundation should be 
 of sufficient strength to support the weight which must 
 rest upon it. 
 
 Objection is sometimes made to the erection of school- 
 houses with cupolas and fine windows and doors, because 
 they look so much like churches. This objection, however, 
 is far from being a logical one. The school and the 
 church are both engaged in the same work, and they are 
 complementary rather than antagonistic. There is, there- 
 fore, no good reason why the fine forms invented to orna- 
 ment places of worship should not be considered as 
 legitimate when used .to ornament places of instruction. 
 As a work of art, and as an elevating influence in 
 community, a fine architectural structure would be the 
 same in either case ; but in a school-house its beauty 
 would have a more practical and enduring influence, as it 
 would become intimately associated with the impressible 
 hearts of childhood. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 Ill 
 
OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 113 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 115 
 
 DESIGN V. 
 
 Fi-. 64. 
 
 The plan of this design represents a building somewhat 
 larger than any of the preceding, and one approaching the 
 size of the smaller Union Schools. As 
 represented, the school-room has seats for 
 seventy pupils, and by a slight addition to 
 its length and breadth, may be made to 
 accommodate from eighty to one hundred. 
 The entrances are from the sides, and the 
 two sides are finished exactly alike. This 
 will give a large and commodious lobby 
 for each sex, and a fine recitation-room 
 for a second teacher. The entrance to the 
 recitation-room may be from the porches, 
 and the door in front of the school-room 
 omitted, leaving the entire space directly in front for 
 blackboard. The heating and ventilation of this room 
 is like that already described. The rear doors ma}^ be 
 omitted if thought best. 
 
 Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 
 wood building finished with ordinary siding. The win- 
 dows are placed in the ordinary manner, the roof is made 
 with as little pitch as is compatible with the use of shin- 
 gles. No ornamental work has been admitted. The 
 cornice is plain and substantial, and the building is as 
 cheap as materials can be put together to answer the 
 purpose of a good school-house. The small porch over 
 the steps is a very desirable feature for the comfort of the 
 pupils and for the cleanliness of the house. It affords 
 protection from rains while the pupils are cleaning their 
 
UG 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 fei't, iind at (lie same time it relieves in some measure the 
 monotony of the architecture. A glance at the engraving 
 
 ii^Dl^ 
 
 Fig. CD. 
 
 will show that, for just ])ro])ortions, the roof of the porch 
 is too low, and that when built, it should be elevated as 
 far as the cornice permits. 
 
 In northern climates the foundations of buildings of this 
 kind should be solid and continuous, both to give solidity 
 to the structure and to ])revent the circulation of cold air 
 beneath the building. In the Southern States, liowever, 
 it would be best to rest the building u})on })iers, to give 
 a free circulation of air beneath the entire buildiug. This 
 will make the school-room cooler in warm weather, and 
 will tend to preserve the timbers from decay. The piers 
 should be iirmly and securely built, or the building will 
 be racked. 
 
 Elevation No. 2. — This elevation represents a wood 
 building with a batten finish. An inex})ensive hood is 
 })laced above the windows, and a cupola surmounts the 
 roof. This last feature may be omitted, as it is not an 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 n 
 
OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 110 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 121 
 
 essential part of the building. The roof of the porch is 
 thrown up into a gable, producing a fine effect at little 
 cost. The roof has a plain projecting cornice of the cheap- 
 est form. The same form of building may be finished 
 with clap-boards, or it may be built of brick. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — This elevation represents the plain- 
 est form of a brick building. The roof is about the usual 
 pitch for shingles, and the only extra feature is the cupola, 
 which may be omitted. 
 
 Elevation No. 4. — In this elevation the roof is made 
 steeper than the last, the cornice lighter, and the exten- 
 sion of the cornice across the gable has been omitted. 
 The doorway is covered with a porch, which rises in the 
 main roof in the form of a gable. The material may be 
 brick, stone, or wood. The bell-tower is made smaller 
 and lighter than that of No. 3. 
 
 Elevation No. 5. — This elevation in general form is 
 like No. 4, but with several modifications in details. The 
 pitch of the roof and the form of the cupolas are essen- 
 tially the same. The corners of the gables are cut off, 
 and the window-heads are rounded arches. In the en- 
 graving the finish is represented as brick or stone, with 
 cut-stone groins, window-heads, and sills. 
 
 Elevation No. 6. — This is the most elaborate design 
 of the series, and makes a highly ornamental school- 
 building. It should be built of stone and have a slate 
 roof. The doors and windows have pointed arches, and 
 the roof and gables all terminate in similar arches. The 
 corners of the roof are cut off, and the front is ornamented 
 with a plain and substantial cupola. The stonn porch 
 over the door terminates in a gable, and all the gables 
 are finished with stone copings. This elevation wouid 
 make an admirable design for a small country church. 
 
rj2 
 
 OVR S(MI()()I--1I()IISI':S. 
 
 UNION MdllOOL-MOUSKH. 
 
 'riic i;r(';i,(('s(, ikmmI of (he ('omiiioii schools ol" this couiili-y 
 
 is ;i wrlI-(»r<;;i,iii/,(M| sys((Mu ol" iiisl niclioii. II. is obvious 
 
 lo every one tliiit n course of study 
 
 iidjipted (() \]w. (';i|)!ieily of the more 
 
 luivjineed pupils eiinnot he sueeessCidly 
 
 pursued by llie pi-iin:i!-y ehisses ; and ii 
 
 ou,Li,lil. (o be jus(. us obvious (hat the sys- 
 
 Icui of (b'sei])lin(^, iind Ihe uu'lhods of 
 
 inipui'liui;' iusl ruction in Ihe two ciises, 
 
 should be diJl'ei'eut. l^]duca(ors have 
 
 h)iii;' silicic deuiouslr;i,te(l that certuiu 
 
 fixed |)i'iuciples, both of iustnictioii aiul 
 
 discipliiu', ui'c adapted lo Ihe dilVerent 
 
 aL!;es aud (levelo|»uieut of jiupiis ; and 
 
 they have shown tlial a, philosophical 
 
 svsleui of education will riH'oi^'iiizo these 
 
 ''''"'''' dilV(M-eiiees, aud apply the |)rineiples in 
 
 Ihe aiTaii!;-euuMit of schools and in (he couslruetion of 
 
 school-houses. 
 
 When pupils of all a<2;(\s and stales of advaneonient are 
 bi'oULiht loL!;elher iulo one I'ooui for the purposes of educa- 
 tion, as ill our ordinary district schools, tlu» work of in- 
 struction is very iiuperlectly luuToriued. The (piietness 
 aud attention lo study iu>cessai'V to the |)roii;iH'ss and hiuh- 
 (\st success of an advanced school cannot be (Mdbrc(Ml in 
 prinuiry chisst\s without seriously injuring' the pupils, both 
 |)hysically ami lucntally ; and couvei'scdy. (lie frequent 
 chanu-e of posi(ioii and nois(> incidcud (hereon, indispensa- 
 ble lo primary classes, cannol be permitted in a more 
 
DKSIGNS AND FJ.KVATIONS. 
 
 123 
 
 jaSS*— ^ 
 
OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 125 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 127 
 
 advanced school without a relaxation of discipline and an 
 interference with study incompatible with its highest in- 
 terests. 
 
 Again, the kind of instruction and the methods of im- 
 parting it are essentially different in the two cases. With 
 primary classes the instruction should be confined princi- 
 pally to the elements of science objectively presented, and 
 made interesting by appealing directly to the senses. The 
 subject of instruction should be gradually developed, and 
 the lessons principally oral. In the higher schools this 
 system is changed. The primary knowledge having been 
 gained, the exi)anding minds instinctively seek generaliza- 
 tions and principles. This requires (juiet for thought, 
 study, and reflection ; and this quiet is not attainable in 
 a room when i)rimary instruction is properly going on. 
 Our schools can never reach their highest state until 
 these two incompatible states of discipline and instruction 
 arc finally and effectively separated. 
 
 Among the other faults of ungraded schools may be 
 enumerated the following : 1st. The difficulty of having 
 the school-room properly seated so as to accommodate 
 all sizes of pupils. 2d. The great range of studies neces- 
 sary to be pursued at the same time, rendering it difficult 
 for the teacher to reach a high degree of excellence in the 
 teaching of any. 3d. The great number of classes, allow- 
 ing the teacher an entirely inade([uatc portion of time to 
 each, and causing him to hurry from one to the other so 
 rapidly that he cannot do justice to any. 4th. The 
 confused and desultory manner in which instruction is 
 carried on renders the school unattractive both to pu[)il 
 and parent, and, consecjuently, there is little interest 
 manifested in its welfare. 
 
 These difficulties will never be entirely removed until 
 our schools are graded, and tliere has been developed 
 
128 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Fi-. 07. 
 
 and ai){)lied a complete and thorongli system of instruc- 
 tion. This system should embrace, substantially, the 
 whole course now pursued in our common 
 schools, academies, and colleges, open to all, 
 but allowing each individual to take only such 
 portions of the advanced course as suits his 
 inclination and circumstances. The applica- 
 tion of the different portions of this system to 
 the different grades of schools, and the nice 
 adaptation of its progressive parts, are 
 problems which demand the highest wisdom 
 combined with the largest experience ; but 
 when once solved, they will be of incalculable benefit to 
 education everywhere. 
 
 When such a system of instruction 
 becomes established, the schools must be 
 more efficient, and pupils will advance 
 with greater rapidit3\ Teachers will not 
 be left in doubt as to what course to pur- 
 sue ; for a specific work, arranged for each 
 term and j'ear, must be accomplished. 
 Teaching will progress according to well- 
 defined principles, instead of being left to 
 individual caprice. The gradation, thor* 
 ough system, and division of labor, will 
 effect a saving of time equal to one-half of 
 the entire period now allotted to the school- 
 room, thereby doubling the educational advantages of our 
 children. The means of a liberal education will be 
 brought within the reach of all, at a cost but little greater 
 than that of our present imperfect and inefficient course. 
 
 A full enumeration of the advantages of the proposed 
 improvements, and of the changes necessary to effect it, 
 would fill a volume. A very brief view of the main 
 
 Fig. 68. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 129 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 13] 
 
 Fiff. 69. 
 
 Intermediate Schools should 
 
 features of the system, as far as they relate to the general 
 organization of schools and the building of school-houses, 
 is all that we need attempt here. 
 
 Primary Schools. — Primary Schools should 
 embrace a five years' course of study, extend- 
 ing from the age of five to ten years, with 
 pupils of the average ability. They should 
 take the place of the present District Schools, 
 and be brought within the reach of every home 
 in the land. The instruction should proceed 
 in a regular course, and the pupils should be 
 advanced, year by year, into higher classes, 
 until the whole five years' course is thoroughly 
 mastered. 
 
 Intermediate Schools 
 embrace a four years' course of study, continuing the 
 work of instruction to the age of four- 
 teen. They should be made up of a 
 sufficient number of pupils from the 
 Primary Schools to furnish the requi- 
 site number of a proper grade. The 
 instruction here should be systematic, 
 and the pupils advanced, year by year, 
 as in the Primary Schools. The course 
 of study in these schools would be about 
 the same as that now pursued in our 
 academies and in the higher classes of 
 our common schools. 
 
 High Schools. — High Schools should ^'^- ''^• 
 
 embrace a four years' course, carrying on instruction to 
 the age of eighteen. Such schools might be composed of 
 the pupils from a dozen or more intermediate districts. 
 The instruction in these schools^ would be equivalent to 
 that of our ordinary colleges, though perhaps of a more 
 
132 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 immediatel}' practical character. This would complete the 
 system of strictly public schools, though, beyond them, 
 those of a special character would be 
 established, — all necessary to the per- 
 fect development of a scheme of Na- 
 tional education. Prominent among 
 these would be the following : 
 
 The University. — The University 
 should be devoted to professional in- 
 struction in the departments of Science, 
 Language, G-eneral Literature, Law, 
 Medicine, and Divinity. It should be 
 the crowning glory of all, carrying in- 
 /^^■liiiiin struction to the highest point attain- 
 
 able in our present civilization, and 
 Fig. 71. elevating civilization itself. It should 
 
 present the golden opportunity to the scholar in pursuit of 
 the highest culture, and prove the perpetual fountain from 
 which knowledge would flow downward 
 through all the grades of schools, until it 
 reaches every inhabitant of the land, and 
 elevates humanity to a higher level. The 
 graduates of the University would naturally 
 fdW become the teachers of the High Schools, and 
 vimi from these last would come the great mass of 
 the teachers of the Intermediate and Primary 
 Schools. 
 
 Normal Schools. — Normal Schools, for 
 
 the professional instruction of teachers, would 
 
 find their appropriate place. Such persons 
 
 Fig. 72. Qj-^iy g^g 1^^^ mastered the High School course 
 
 should be admitted to the Normal Schools, and the two or 
 
 three years spent in them should be devoted to the 
 
 examination of the laws which underlie all systems of 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 133 
 
 instruction, and the best methods of putting in practice 
 the principles so developed. Then teaching would no 
 longer be left to the caprice of ignorance, but would be 
 intelligently and systematically carried on by persons 
 masters of their profession. 
 
 Work Schools. — All pupils should be obliged to take 
 the course marked out for Primary and Intermediate 
 Schools, but beyond this, entire freedom might 
 be allowed. The great mass of pupils would 
 probably not wish. to obtain a liberal educa- 
 tion, and would desire immediate entrance into 
 some branch of industry. For the accommo- 
 dation of this class, Work Schools should be Fig. 73. 
 established, in which they could obtain a knowledge of 
 the fundamental principles of the business in which they 
 are to be engaged. These Work Schools would include 
 Mechanical, Agricultural, Mercantile, Manufactures, and 
 Mining Schools, Schools of Design, etc. 
 
 When this system of graded schools becomes the ruling 
 policy, and there shall be established Professional and 
 Work Schools to perfect it ; when all these are consoli- 
 dated and crystallized into a great national system, reach- 
 ing from ocean to ocean, and so ubiquitous and Argus- 
 ejed that no child in the Republic can evade its sight or 
 escape its influence ; then will labor, organized into sys- 
 tem, be respected and honored by all men ; then will 
 each individual have the opportunity and all the neces- 
 sary aids to secure the development of his peculiar talent 
 in the direction that nature designed ; and then we may 
 expect a higher and more beneficent civilization. 
 
 In cities, villages, and the more thickly populated por- 
 tions of the country, the systematic gradation of schools 
 can be easily adopted, and the great advantages arising 
 therefrom at once secured. Indeed, the system is now 
 
134 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 substantially adopted in most of our larger cities. In the 
 more sparsely settled portions of the country it is difficult 
 to establish any general system that is 
 entirely unobjectionable ; but even there, a 
 steady policy of consolidatingdistricts instead 
 of dividing them would be beneficial, while 
 F'K-74. the entire benefits of graded schools might 
 
 be realized by the abolishment of districts and the substi- 
 tution therefor of town schools. This matter is considered 
 of such importance that an elaborate article upon the 
 subject, from the very able report of the Secretary of the 
 Vermont Board of Education, is inserted in the Appendix. 
 Where the gradation of schools has been established, 
 two or more grades are often united in one building, 
 under the distinctive name of "Union Schools;" and 
 Union School-houses have become one of the "institu- 
 tions" of the land. These houses, of necessity, must be 
 larger and more costly than the common District School- 
 houses ; yet the cost must be far less than the aggregate 
 cost of several separate houses affording the same accom- 
 modations. The lot, out-buildings, and general surround- 
 ings of a Union School-house will cost no more than those 
 belonging to each of the smaller houses ; so the argu- 
 ment, on the score of economy, is entirely in favor of 
 Union School-houses. 
 
 The comparison is sometimes made between the cost 
 of a large, well built, and commodious Union School- 
 house, possessing all the modern improvements, and that 
 of several of the old-fashioned, ill-constructed, and miser- 
 abl^'-furnished houses, where children were packed almost 
 to suffocation, and the balance has been in favor of the 
 latter ; but it is unnecessary to say that such a comparison 
 is one-sided and unfair, and that to make it of any value, 
 the same conditions must be preserved in the two cases. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 135 
 
 . j.,r 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 137 
 
 Several of the succeeding plans are well adapted to the 
 wants of consolidated districts, and of Union Schools of 
 two or more departments. No effort, however, i 
 has been made to give a complete series of | 
 Union School-houses, as such a series would 1 
 be incompatible with the general design of this ^L 
 work. Plans for larger and more elaborate Union ^^S^^^ 
 School-houses are left for a subsequent work, "^jSi'lV 
 in which the whole subject of village and city 
 school-house architecture shall be fully discussed. 
 The series here given includes houses with ac- 
 commodation for sufficient pupils to require the 
 
 employment of from one to four or five teachers. ^ig. 75. 
 
 An effort has been made to present designs which will 
 not only answer for immediate use, but will be permanent. 
 In the construction of school-houses, it has too often been 
 the case that present necessities alone have been provided 
 for, and, in consequence, the structures have been of the 
 most transient character, causing the whole school system 
 to appear equally transient and unstable, and rendering 
 necessary a heavy outlay for rebuilding. 
 
 In Massachusetts, where the old system of independent 
 districts has been in operation for nearly two centuries, 
 the schools of each town have recently been consolidated 
 into a Union district with its primary, intermediate, and 
 high schools. The result of the experiment has been 
 satisfactory in the extreme. A genuine educational re- 
 vival has taken place. Much more attention is paid to 
 schools on the part of communities, a constant demand is 
 made for better qualified teachers, and large numbers of 
 new and improved school-houses have been erected. All 
 parties interested unite in commendation of the new system, 
 as greatly superior to the old in efficiency and in the 
 economic expenditure of money. 
 
OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 DESIGN VI. 
 
 The plan of Design VI. is like that of Design V., with 
 the addition of a building in the rear, and the grouping 
 of the windows together. The school- 
 room is thirty feet square, and has seats 
 for seventy pupils. By increasing its 
 length respectively three or six feet, it 
 will be made to accommodate eighty or 
 ninety pui)ils, and by increasing its length 
 six feet and its width four feet, there 
 will be room for one hundred and eight 
 seats. The rear building may be used 
 as a wood-room, or it may be made into 
 one or two recitation-rooms. 
 
 The entrance to the recitation-room 
 may be from the school-room or from the 
 halls. The recitation-room may be heated 
 Pig. 76. ^y ^ hot-air pipe, extending from one of 
 
 the stoves in the school-room. 
 
 Once more special attention is called to the arrange- 
 ments of the windows and the ventilation of this building. 
 The windows are grouped together, and it is believed that 
 this arrangement will be considered the best possible for 
 a school-room, after it has received a fair trial. It 
 furnishes a broad unbroken light, and in summer it will 
 permit cooling draughts to circulate through the room 
 whenever the air has any motion. 
 
 In winter the doors and windows must be kept closed, 
 so that the air may be permitted to circulate in the chan- 
 nels provided for it. In this way the room will be kept 
 
DESIGNS AND ELB]VATIONS. 
 
 139 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 141 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 143 
 
 warm in every part, a strong current of pure air is con- 
 stantly entering the room, and the foul air is as constantly 
 flowing out. We cannot too often or too strongly urge 
 the importance of providing for this perfect ventilation in 
 the construction of school-houses. 
 
 oil |o 
 o 
 
 Fig. T7. 
 
 Designs Y. and YI. each have two fronts, with separate 
 entrances for the sexes, but one might be omitted if 
 thought advisable, and the space of the entry-way might 
 be used as a clothes-room or extra recitation-room. It 
 would be better, however, to retain both entrances. 
 
 Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 
 wood building finished with battens. The roof is suffi- 
 ciently steep for either slate or shingles. The plainness 
 of the cornice has been relieved by ornamental scroll- 
 work, which may be omitted. The windows are grouped 
 together in the whole series, giving broad and continuous 
 light. 
 
 The hoods over the doors and windows are simple, and 
 they give an additional beauty to the structure. This 
 
144 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 building, with some simple changes, might be made of 
 brick. If built of wood, it can be finished with the ordi- 
 nary siding. 
 
 Elevation No. 2. — In this elevation we have a more 
 ornamental design. A cupola has been added for a bell- 
 tower, and gables have been erected over the doors and 
 windows, to relieve the monotony of the outline. The 
 gable over the door affords an opportunity for the con- 
 struction of a ver}^ desirable open porch. The window- 
 gable allows the window to be treated in an elegant 
 manner, and the finish of both the sides and end gives to 
 the building a very fine appearance. It will be noticed 
 that, in the picture, the roof is slightly curved toward the 
 eaves. This feature adds to the architectural beauty of 
 the design, but it may be omitted, and still a good effect 
 be produced. This design may be of wood, brick, or 
 stone. If built of wood, the batten finish would be most 
 in keeping with the general style of the structure. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — This elevation in general resem- 
 bles No. 2, but is changed in many of its details. The 
 roof is straight, and comes down much lower. The win- 
 dows and door-gables are elegant in design, and they are 
 finished with simple stone copings. The cupola grows 
 out of the structure, and is an integral part of it, which 
 cannot be omitted without destroying the general symme- 
 try of the design. The materials of this building should 
 be brick or stone, and the roof should be slate. The 
 pointed arches for the window-heads and doors give to 
 the design a richness of appearance which fit it admira- 
 bly for a village school, to occupy a prominent and sightly 
 position. 
 
 Elevation No. 4. — This design is more elaborate and 
 quaint than any of the preceding. It has several of the 
 features of the older Gothic forms. The roofs are high 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 145 
 
DESIGNS AND KLMVATIONS. 
 
 147 
 
 Si:€)>— 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 149 
 
 and pointed, and each gable ends in a pinnacle. The 
 pinnacle of the front gable forms the bell-tower, and this 
 tower commences with a stone projection just above the 
 window-heads. The gables are all finished with stone 
 copings instead of cornices. The doors and windows are 
 projected outward from the sides of the building, and the 
 door-gable terminates in the chimney, the flues of which 
 are carried up in the door-projection. The rear of the 
 door-gable is carried up straight, like similar projections 
 in this style of architecture. The roof conies down below 
 the gable copings, making the walls of the building com- 
 paratively low. 
 
 Elevations Nos. 5 and 6. — These elevations represent 
 substantially the same kind of architecture as No. 4, with 
 changes and modifications in details. They represent a 
 later style of architecture, but still one quite ancient. The 
 modifications of the gables, cupolas, door-ways, window- 
 heads, and general style of finish are represented in the 
 engraving, and need no verbal description. 
 
 These designs are more costly than the plain ones, but 
 in districts where there is sufficient wealth to warrant the 
 outlay, there can be no doubt in regard to the propriety 
 of erecting buildings of this kind. They are ornaments 
 to the village ; they assist in educating the community to 
 a higher appreciation of architectural forms, and of the 
 beautiful in art ; they are attractive places, and children 
 are easily taught to take pride in them, and in their pres- 
 ervation. In No. 5 the pinnacles upon the gables have 
 been omitted to show how important they are in the full 
 development of the Gothic designs. The elevation ap- 
 pears bare and unfinished when compared with those in 
 which the pinnacles are admitted. In Gothic forms the 
 only proper way to avoid the use of pinnacles is to droj) 
 the corners of the roof, as in Elevation No. 3, Design III. 
 
150 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Either of the five preceding designs would make a fine 
 country church, cliapel, or session-room. The materials 
 for the construction should be brick or stone, and the 
 copings of the gables should be cut stone. In designs of 
 this cliaracter no attempt should be made to reduce the 
 cost, by changes of form, or by the use of cheap and poor 
 materials. Where economy is essential, some of the 
 cheaper forms of buildings should be adopted, and no 
 effort wasted in endeavoring to build elaborate structures 
 at little cost, or to produce line architectural effects with 
 inadequate materials. In each of these structures great 
 care must be taken to have the foundation lirm and secure. 
 The roof, also, being a very prominent feature, should be 
 accurately made, and, if possible, covered with slate. 
 
 In making choice between these different elevations, 
 care should be taken to select such as will be found to 
 harmonize best with the surrounding scenery. Pointed 
 gables and i)innacles will generally be found best adapted 
 to a hilly country, while the broad roofs and projecting 
 eaves will be more in harmony with the scenery of a level 
 region. Again, there will be ample opportunity for the 
 display of taste in deciding upon fitness in regard to 
 situation, whether upon the hill-side or valley, whether in 
 the village or strictly rural region, and whether in an 
 open exposed place or nestled in some sheltered woody 
 nook. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 151 
 
DESIONH AM) Kf-KVATIONR. 
 
 15:5 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 00 
 
 DESIGN VII. 
 
 The plan of Design VII. represents a building with 
 two school-rooms, and another large room which may be 
 used as a single recitation-room, or divided into two. 
 The school-rooms are separated by sliding doors, so that 
 they may be thrown into one when occasion requires. 
 Each room may be made to accommodate forty-two, fift}^- 
 six, or sixt3^-four pupils, without essentially changing the 
 appearance of the building. The porches in front are 
 ample for entry-ways and cloak-rooms. By a little addi- 
 
 Fig. 78. 
 
 tion to the width of the front projection, room would be 
 obtained for staircases, and the building might be made 
 tv/o stories in height. 
 
 Elevation No. 1. — The roof of the main buildin"; is 
 
156 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 put on at right angles to the roofs of the front and rear 
 projections, and all these are finished with gables. The 
 eaves of the three buildings are of the same 
 height, and an ornamental cornice is made 
 to extend across the gables. The cornices 
 have a moderate projection and are finished 
 with modillions. The pitch of the roof is 
 as little as is compatible with the use of 
 shingles. The window and door heads are 
 rounded arches, and a string-course is 
 made in the wall at the base of the window 
 and door caps. These caps should be made 
 of stone of two different colors, and cut to 
 conform to the circle of the arch. A good 
 effect may be produced by making these of 
 brick and stone combined. The cupola is 
 needed to give completeness to the building, but it may be 
 omitted. The materials of this building should be brick 
 or stone. 
 
 Elevation No. 2.- — This elevation represents a very 
 plain building, which may be built of wood, brick, or 
 stone. The nTain building has a square hip-roof, and the 
 projections have ordinary roofs with the corners cut off, 
 and each side is relieved by a vertical projection. The 
 cupola is a necessary part of the structure. The window- 
 heads are square, to correspond with the general charac- 
 ter of the elevation. If built of wood the finish mioht be 
 of battens or clap-boards, but the former would best 
 accord with the general st^de. The low roof, the brack- 
 eted cornice, and the general structure of this building 
 admirably fits it for a prairie region. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — This is a plain wooden structure, 
 finished with battens. The projecting cornice is orna- 
 mented with filigree-work, which mav be omitted. The 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 15^ 
 
DEfllClN'.S AND ELKVATIONS. 
 
 ir,o 
 
 ! , Jill. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 161 
 
 windows and doors are ornamented with simple projecting 
 hoods, put on in the form of gables. 
 
 Elevation No. 4. — This elevation represents a struc- 
 ture with several features of the Grothic architecture. The 
 roofs are all steep, and the gables terminate in pinnacles. 
 The window and door heads are pointed arches, and the 
 cupola is finished in similar forms. A sill-course extends 
 around the building level with the window-sills. The 
 materials should be brick or stone, and the roof should 
 be slate. 
 
 Fig. 80. 
 
 Elevation No. 5. — In this elevation we have another 
 design with high steep roof and pointed gables. The 
 window-heads, however, are square, and the gables are 
 finished with a stoDC coping, which gives the structure a 
 
 11 
 
162 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 rich appearance. To break the monotony of the roof. 
 little gables are projected over the doors and over the 
 windows of the rear building. The cupola and ornamen- 
 tal chimneys are essential parts of the building. The 
 materials should be brick or stone, and the window orna- 
 ments and copings should be cut stone. This elevation 
 would be a fine design for a suburban or village dwelling, 
 the only change necessary being in the inside structure. 
 
 Elevation No. 6. — This elevation represents a ver}' 
 plain and cheap structure of wood, the plainest form in 
 which this general design can be represented. The finish 
 is with battens. The roof has a plain and wide projecting 
 cornice, giving a comfortable appearance to the design. 
 The corners of the projections are made to fall below those 
 of the main building for cheapness of structure and for 
 variety in appearance. The windows of the school-rooms 
 are grouped together. A bell-tower may be added to the 
 centre of the roof if needed. This is a fine design for 
 prairies and level country places, and it would by no 
 means be considered out of place in a village. 
 
 Elevation No. 7. — This, the last of the series, is a 
 very plain and substantial building. Its various features 
 are happily blended, and its general appearance is fine. 
 The roof is steep, but the gables, instead of terminating in 
 pinnacles, are cut off, and the windows terminate in pointed 
 arches. The large window in the principal gable is fin- 
 ished in a comparatively cheap form, yet it is so arranged 
 as to become a prominent and beautiful feature in the 
 building. 
 
 The materials should be brick or stone, though wood 
 may be used. The cupola is an essential part of the 
 building, and cannot be omitted. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 163 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 167 
 
 CONCRETE FOR BUILDING. 
 
 In erecting houses of considerable size and cost, due 
 attention should be paid to durability. If the present 
 generation leave as a legac}^ to their descendants excellent 
 school buildings, the next generation may be supplied 
 with the apparatus and physical appliances necessary to 
 secure the highest success of the scliool. If, on the con- 
 trary, our children must be heavily taxed for school- 
 houses, the era of school improvement in regard to 
 methods, libraries, and cabinets, must be postponed for 
 another generation. 
 
 Wood is the material most commonly used in the con- 
 struction of school-houses, on account of its cheapness ; 
 and it answers a very good purpose for the building of 
 small houses and for those that are designed to be tem- 
 porary. Permanent houses, however, should be built of 
 brick or stone ; and this especially should be the case in 
 the construction of the more elaborate elevations of the 
 designs given in this work. 
 
 Stone is the best material for building which nature has 
 furnished, and, in localities where it can be procured at 
 little cost, it should always be used in the construction of 
 school-houses. Walls of stone, well laid upon permanent 
 foundations reaching below the action of frost, never 
 crumble or crack, never shrink and shrivel in the rays of 
 the sun, nor warp out of position ; but they stand firm and 
 erect, affording shelter and protection to man}^ genera- 
 tions of children. Tender associations have time to 
 cluster around such a building, and the spot where it 
 stands becomes hallowed by the vivid and ineffaceable 
 
168 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 recollections of cliildliood. The clinging mosses and the 
 gray lichens that clamber over its surface and nestle 
 lovingly in every seam and crevice ; and the sombre tints 
 of brown that time spreads over its entire exterior, make 
 it an object of admiration and an influence at once ele- 
 vating and ennobling. 
 
 Brick may be used when good building stone cannot be 
 procured, but it lacks the solidity, beauty, and durability 
 of stone. When brick is used an effort should be made 
 to relieve the dreary monotony of the color by the use of 
 stone for door and window trimmings and for corners. 
 Brick walls, however, left hollow or well furred out, afford 
 a much better protection from the weather and are much 
 more durable than wood. 
 
 In many country' places building stone cannot be ob- 
 tained and brick is too expensive for economic use. In 
 such localities substantial walls may be made of cobble- 
 stone, gravel, and sand, which will be at once cheap and 
 durable. Such walls are known as concrete, and when 
 correctly built have all the solidity of the best stone. 
 
 When it is designed to build a concrete house, the site 
 should be located near a bank of clean gravel, to lessen 
 the expense of transporting materials. Excavations 
 should then be made for the foundation walls below the 
 action of frost. The concrete should be made of clean 
 sand four parts and hydraulic cement one part, thoroughly 
 mixed when dry, and then wet to the consistency of a thin 
 mortar. In the use of coarse gravel, one part of cement 
 should be used to ten parts of gravel. The excavation 
 should be filled with this mixture, taking care to use 
 enouo-h of the sand mortar to fill all the interstices 
 between the coarser materials. Stones of any size or 
 shape may be used, only each should be thoroughly 
 bedded in the mortar. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 169 
 
 't ' 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 171 
 
DESIGNS AND EL?]VATIONS. 173 
 
 About one foot in height of this wall may be built per 
 day in drying weather. From the surface upward curbs 
 of plank, well stayed so as not to spring or warp, should 
 be used ; and, as each portion of the wall below sets, the 
 curbs may be elevated to receive the new portion. The 
 hydraulic cement should be used exclusively to a 
 distance of one or two feet above the su;'face, after 
 which cement and quick-lime should be mixed in equal 
 proportions. 
 
 The door and window frames should be set in their 
 proper places, and the concrete built around them as in 
 ordinary stone or brick walls. Care should be taken to 
 continually pack the mortar by tamping it with a stick 
 prepared for the purpose, so that no openings will be left 
 in the wall. Moulds of any form may be used for the 
 window-sills, and for the window and door caps. Orna- 
 mental projections may also be made at the corners if 
 desired. 
 
 As fast as the work progresses the outside should be 
 covered with a thin coat of plaster, made of clean sand 
 and hydraulic cement, so that all the little interstices may 
 be filled and a smooth exterior finish secured. When the 
 building is done it will be one solid stone from the lounda- 
 tion to the top, and if properly built will be almost inde- 
 structible. 
 
 In the use of concrete several cautions must be observed. 
 The cement and lime used must be fresh and of good 
 quality. The sand should be moderately coarse and clean. 
 Neither with the sand nor gravel used should any dirt be 
 admitted. The curbs should be moved with care, and the 
 work built no faster than the mass below sets. 
 
 Where sand, gravel, and cobble-stone are easily ob- 
 tained, a concrete building can be erected more cheaply 
 than any other. The whole of the work may be done by 
 
174 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 unskilled laborers under the direction of one competent 
 foreman. 
 
 The use of this material in building largel}' obtains in 
 niiiii}' pai'ls of Europe. The late acjueducts and sewers 
 of i*aris have been made of stone manufactured in this 
 manner, and the stone used in the construction of the Suez 
 Canal was made from the sands of the desert through 
 which it passes. In the vicinity of Paris a church has 
 been erected of this material, which is one solid stone 
 IVom the foundation to the top of the cross which sur- 
 mounts the spire. 
 
 This concrete may also be used economically for a great 
 variety of useful purposes. For drains and sewers it is 
 as durable as the most costly and solid masonry. For 
 floors to cellars and out-buildings, where solidity and pro- 
 tection against dampness are desirable, it is the best 
 material that has yet been devised. It can be readily 
 moulded into any desirable form for window and door 
 caps and sills, and the ornamental stone-work of archi- 
 tecture. When uKule into blocks it may also receive any 
 desired color ; and in this manner the beautiful in form 
 and variety in color can be secured at small cost. 
 
DESIGN'S AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 175 
 
)• 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 177 
 
 DESIGN VIII. 
 
 The plan of Design YIII. represents a large building, 
 with two commodious school-rooms, and a large recitation- 
 room, which may be divided into two. The halls in front 
 are sufficiently spacious for wardrobes, and for staircases, 
 if an extra story is needed. In front, opening into the 
 front halls, are two small rooms, which may be used for 
 fuel : they are so arranged that no dust need get into 
 the rooms. The stoves are placed in niches in the front of 
 the rooms, entirely out of the way. The ventilating flues 
 are in the corners diagonally opposite. With due care in 
 construction, the ventilation of these rooms will be perfect. 
 
 The light is admitted to the school-rooms upon one side 
 only. In the rear of the school-rooms are two small rooms 
 for apparatus, or, if there is a supply of running water, 
 for water-closets. The small halls in the rear open both 
 into the recitation and school-rooms. The large windows, 
 properly supplied with blinds, will afford a strong and 
 evenly distributed light, and one that can be tempered 
 and controlled at will. 
 
 Elevation No. 1. — This elevation represents a plain 
 substantial building, with steep roofs. The gables are 
 plain and terminate in pinnacles. The cupola on the 
 centre is all that is strictly ornamental, and even this may 
 be omitted, though the building will appear much better 
 with it. The doors and windows terminate in round 
 arches. The group of windows, opening into the school- 
 room, gives a fine architectural appearance to that side of 
 the house. In front, the blank wall is relieved by blank 
 windows. The materials for the building may be wood, 
 brick, or stone. If wood is used the finish should be 
 
 12 
 
178 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 with battens, so that the lines may be vertical. If brick, 
 the ornamental work around the windows and doors 
 should be of cut stone, of at least two different colors, or 
 of brick and stone. The roof should be of slate, though 
 shingles may be used. 
 
 Fig. 81. 
 
 Elevation No. 2. — This is another very plain and sat- 
 isfactory design. The roof has a steep pitch, but the cor- 
 ners of the gables are cut down, avoiding the necessity of 
 using pinnacles. The front is ornamented by the two 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 179 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 181 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. iod 
 
 stately doorways, which terminate in pointed arches, and 
 the blank side-walls are broken by the projection of the 
 chimneys. The large window in the side is a combination 
 of fine forms, and the whole design is chaste and elegant. 
 The cupola and ornamental chimney-tops are necessary 
 parts of the building. 
 
 It should be built of brick or stone, thcmgh wood may- 
 be used. With brick as the material, the windows and 
 doors should be finished with cut stone of diflerent colors, 
 or of stone and brick alternately, as represented in the 
 engraving. 
 
 A fine effect would be produced by using stone in a 
 rough state for the walls, and ornamenting the windows, 
 doors, and corners by projections, the courses alternately 
 of different-colored cut stone. It may be built of wood, 
 in which case the finish should be with battens. The fine 
 effect of this building is owing to the judicious arrange- 
 ments of the parts, as it is exceedingly simple, and would 
 cost but little more than the plainest form that can be 
 devised. The extra cost is in the roof and window-heads. 
 
 Elevation No. 3. — This elevation represents Design 
 YIIL, finished with a French ,or Mansard roof. In the 
 centre a square hip-roof terminates in a cupola, and on 
 the sides the steep French roof comes down to the cornice. 
 The top of the steep portion is surmounted by an orna- 
 mental open balustrade. The walls, windows, and doors 
 are like those of Elevation No. 1. 
 
 The French roof, in general, is not well adapted to 
 buildings of one story, but this design would be an ad- 
 mirable one for a level country, or for hot climates, where 
 it is necessary to have considerable space between the 
 room occupied and the direct rays of the sun. If an 
 extra story should be given to this building, the French 
 roof would appear to better advantage, and the design 
 would prove admirable. 
 
184 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 DESIGN IX. 
 
 Ill 
 
 huilil 
 
 some sections of tlic country the octagonal form of 
 ings is popular, chiefly on account of economy. The 
 same amount of walls and roof, in an octagon, 
 will inclose a greater area than any rectangu- 
 lar form. The great objection to this building 
 is its unsightly appearance, and indeed, an oc- 
 tagon, witli a plain hip-roof, and no projections 
 to relieve the dead monot(^ny of its walls, has 
 about as much architectural beauty as a joint 
 of stove-i)ipe set u})right. In the elevations 
 given, an eflbrt has been made to obviate the 
 difllculty by varying the outline by projections, 
 by carrying the roof u}) in gables. The plan is 
 
 Pig. 83. 
 
 admirably adapted to the wants of a small school. The 
 room is compact, well lighted, and easily ventilated. In 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 185 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 187 
 
 warm weather, the windows and doors can be opened 
 upon seven sides, insuring a circulation of air. Upon 
 two sides, porches for entrances have been built, and the 
 doors to these are on the sides rather than in front. 
 
 The elevation of this design is so placed that we stand 
 directly in front of one of the porches, and have a view 
 of the front of the building and the door of the other 
 porch. The chimney is projected from the wall so as to 
 relieve the blank space, and the top is finished for a bell- 
 tower. The materials may be of wood, brick, or stone, 
 and the finish of any kind that is used in architecture. 
 The only special caution necessary in constructing this 
 building is that the roof shall be well made. The gutters 
 must be lined with metal, which should be held in its 
 place by the projecting ends of the shingles, but not nailed. 
 If nailed, water will find its way through the nail holes, 
 and the frost will tear the metal asunder. , 
 
 fig. 84. 
 
188 
 
 OUll BOlIOOL-llOUSES. 
 
 DESIGN X. 
 
 This 
 front. 
 
 Fitr. Hh 
 
 Design 
 
 design represents iin oetagon witli ii projecting 
 Tlie walls arc sixteen feet, and the room has ani- 
 |)le accommodations for sixt}'^ jmpils. In the 
 front are two fme porches, and in the rear is a 
 lai'ge recitation-room and two sm;ill triangnlar 
 hack i)assage-ways. The room is admirably 
 lighted l)y the windows npon the two sides, and 
 ill every way is convenient for a school. 
 
 The elevation of this design represents the 
 fonr o])p()site sides thi'own np into gables, all 
 ending in piiniacles. The corners of the gables 
 may be cnl down as in Filevation No. 7, of 
 yjll., if desired. The materials may be wood or 
 
 Fiff. 86. 
 
 brick. Tf wood is nsed, (he linish shonld be with battens. 
 If brick, (he window-sills shonld be cnt stone, and the 
 
DESIGNS AND laj'lV ATIONH. 
 
 180 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 191 
 
 window-caps, stone, or projecting brick arches. The 
 cupola is a necessary part of this building, and should not 
 be omitted. 
 
 An examination of this plan and elevation will show 
 that it is admirably adapted to the purposes of a school. 
 The school-room is sufficiently commodious to accommo- 
 date a sufficient number of pupils to give employment to 
 one or two teachers. It is well lighted and ventilated. 
 The arrangement of seats, blackboards, stoves, and pas- 
 sage-ways secures at once comfort and convenience. The 
 ventilating ducts are placed at the farthest extremity of 
 the recitation-rooms, and openings are left in the partition 
 at the bottom so that both rooms are heated and ventilated 
 b}^ the same apparatus. 
 
 The elevation will admit of many changes in details. 
 The window and door caps may be finished in pointed 
 arches, and the cupola may be made more 0{)en, like some 
 of the preceding designs. In the construction of octagon 
 buildings, relatively a greater saving can be effected by 
 using concrete than in any other form. The curbs used 
 for the walls can be as easily fitted for the corners as 
 though they were right angles ; while by the use of brick 
 or stone a considerable expense would be incurred by the 
 extra mason-work in shaping the corners. 
 
192 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 DESIGN XI. 
 
 The plan of this design is very much like that of Design 
 VIII., but with the front halls broadened so as to admit 
 
 Fig. 87. 
 
 of the construction of a staircase in each, in case a two- 
 story building should be needed. 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 
 
 193 
 
DESIGNS AND ELEVATIONS. 195 
 
 Each floor consists of two large school-rooms, and a 
 recitation-room, which may be divided into two if neces- 
 sary. The broad light coming in npon one side only is in 
 accordance with the latest scientific authority, and the 
 ventilating apparatus will furnish fresh air continually and 
 in abundance. 
 
 The elevation of this design is a cheap affair, and is 
 given rather as a hint than as a design to be copied. For 
 a building of the size a plainer finish could scarcely be 
 devised. Should a more elaborate roof and finish be 
 desired, either of the three elevations of Design YIII. 
 might be copied. The Mansard roof of Elevation No. 3, 
 Design VIII., would appear much better on a two-story 
 building like Design XL 
 
 This elevation is the last of the series in this work, and 
 it serves as a connecting link between the smaller houses 
 adapted to country districts and the more elaborate and 
 varied architecture demanded b}^ village and union schools. 
 
 In most villages where two or three teachers are con- 
 stantly employed, a two-story house much larger than is 
 required for the daily needs of the school should be 
 erected. The lower floor of this edifice should be de- 
 voted to the schools, and the upper floor should be made 
 into a public hall. In this manner provision can be made 
 at little expense for the accommodation of school exhibi- 
 tions, public lectures, and the like, and the whole would 
 be under the control of the school trustees, and would 
 thus become a part of the educational influences of the 
 community. The profits arising from letting the hall, in 
 most cases, would pay the interest on the money invested, 
 and in a series of years would supply the school with 
 apparatus and a library. 
 
CHAPTER yill. 
 
 FURNITURE. 
 
 All effort at reform in the building of school-houses 
 will fall far short of accomplishing its object, unless it 
 comprehends a radical change in school-house furniture. 
 In a great majority of our country districts the furniture 
 used is of the very rudest description, and does not 
 answer the purposes of its construction. Even in sections 
 of the country where education has received considerable 
 attention, and the appearance and condition of the school- 
 house have been improved, the old desks and benches 
 are too often retained. We have already alluded to the 
 positive evils resulting from this state of things. Not 
 only are the pupils rendered physically uncomfortable, 
 but their bodies are often permanently injured, and their 
 mental improvement seriously retarded. 
 
 The whole philosophy of this subject seems to lie in the 
 proposition, " That the furniture of the school-house should 
 be such as will conduce to the health and comfort of the 
 pupils, and to the general convenience of the whole 
 school.'' Anything less than this would be a positive 
 wrong, and ought never to be tolerated. It is also very 
 desirable to take one step farther, and make the whole so 
 attractive that it will have a direct tendency to cultivate 
 good taste and refinement. 
 
 School-house furniture is of two kinds, the general and 
 the special : the former comprehending all the articles 
 
FURNITURE. 197 
 
 needed for preserving order and cleanliness, and the 
 latter including that which is peculiar to the school-room, 
 such as desks, seats, tables, and the like. 
 
 GENERAL FURNITURE. 
 
 By general furniture we mean all the apparatus neces- 
 sary for convenience and cleanliness, but which is not 
 necessarily peculiar to the school-room. Were it not 
 for an almost culpable negligence on the part of school 
 officers generally, it would not be necessary to speak of 
 these matters in a work of this kind ; but teachers and 
 pupils are often seriously incommoded, and schools mate- 
 rially injured, by inattention and neglect in such little 
 things. All of the following articles are absolutely indis- 
 pensable to the highest interests of the school. 
 
 Scrapers. — For the purpose of affording facilities for 
 removing mud from the feet, plank or stone walks should 
 be constructed, and steps of like materials should be put 
 up at all outside doors. These walks and steps should be 
 supplied with scrapers, so that a large number of pupils 
 can use them at the same time. A strip of band-iron 
 securely nailed to the edge of a plank, so that the edge 
 of the iron may rise half an inch above the surface of the 
 plank, will make an excellent and economical scraper. A 
 great variety of portable scrapers are manufactured, and 
 can be easily and cheaply procured by those who prefer 
 them. 
 
 Mats. — Every outside door should be provided with 
 one or more coarse mats, and the inside doors with those 
 of a finer character. Mats made of the husks of maize are 
 well adapted to the former situation, and pieces of rag- 
 carpet, or something of the kind, would answer well for 
 
198 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 the latter. Coarse rope matting is more costly, but more 
 durable than husks. In school-houses of more than one 
 story, it would be well to carpet the staircases with rope 
 matting to deaden the sound of j)assing feet. 
 
 Brooms and hrusiiks. — Having taken measures to pre- 
 vent the accunndation of dirt in a school-room, there next 
 should be provided means for removing that which will 
 collect in s})ite of ;U1 })re('auti<)ns. Every school-room 
 should be thoroughly swe})t every day, and tlie lloor 
 should be well scrubbed at least once a week. For these 
 purposes a broom, a floor brush, and scrubbing-brush or 
 mop should be provided. A small Hoor brush is indis- 
 pensable in removing tlie dirt from under the seats and 
 desks. 
 
 Pails. — A mop-pail must necessarily accompany the 
 mop or scrubbing-brush ; and there should also be pro- 
 vided a i)ail and (;ups, for the })urpose of furnishing the 
 pupils with drinking-water when necessary. 
 
 Wash-basins, etc. — In the back hall there should be a 
 sink or bench, iurnished with wash-basins and towels. 
 As personal cleanliness is a cardinal virtue, and as chil- 
 dren cannot always avoid becoming dirty while at school, 
 the means for removing the dirt becomes a matter of prime 
 necessity. With these facilities, teachers need never 
 allow pupils to enter the school -room with dirty hands 
 and faces ; and the result of elforts bestowed in this direc- 
 tion will be fixed habits of })ersonal neatness, which will 
 not only add to individual health, but to public morality. 
 
 Umbrella stands. — A water-tight box, or half of a 
 tight barrel, should be placed in each of the front halls to 
 I'cceivc umbrellas, and to })revent the annoyance arising 
 from their dripping upon the lloor. 
 
 Olothes-hooks. — Pupils should never be allowed to 
 bring their hats, bonnets, and extra clothing into the 
 
• FURNITURE. 199 
 
 school-room when the school-house contains a hall. In 
 this hall substantial clothes-hooks should be placed to 
 afford ample accommodation. These hooks should be 
 numbered, so as to prevent the confusion arising from 
 having several claimants for one hook. Pins made of 
 hard wood might be used for clothes-hooks ; and, indeed, 
 such pins would be much better than the common iron 
 hooks, which are too easily broken. 
 
 FiKPJ AFFARATUH. — Bcsidcs thc stovc, scvcral other fire 
 utensils are necessary for convenience and safety. When 
 wood is used, there should always be furnished a shovel, 
 pair of tongs, and a sheet-iron ash-pail. When coal is 
 used, a scuttle, poker, and screen, in addition to the 
 above. An iron ash-pail is indispensable to afford pro- 
 tection against fire. Many a school-house has been 
 burned in consequence of storing ashes in barrels or other 
 vessel of wood. 
 
 Clock. — All system in school operations must depend 
 upon the proper observance of time, and hence a good 
 time-piece should be provided. A clock placed in sight 
 of all the pupils is much preferable to a watch in the 
 hands of the teacher. The cost of a good clock is incon- 
 siderable, and no good reason can be assigned for not 
 providing one for every school-house in the land. 
 
 Prociramme clock. — A school clock has lately been 
 invented and brought into use, so constructed that it may 
 be set to strike at any times desired. When the teacher 
 has made out his programme, he can set his clock to strike 
 at the close of each exercise. Teachers and pupils are 
 thus automatically reminded of the school order, and no 
 one is obliged to watch the time, and so have his attention 
 diverted from the work on hand. This clock would be a 
 desirable acquisition in any school. 
 
 Thermometer. — For the preservation of health, a nearly 
 
200 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. « 
 
 uuiform tempei'ature should be preserved. But our owu 
 sensations of heat and cold cannot be depended upon, as 
 they are seriously affected by our physical condition. A 
 thermometer should be provided as a guide, and to pre- 
 vent the alternate broilings and freezings to wliich chil- 
 dren are so frequently subjected. 
 
 In most cases the teacher can succeed in obtaining these 
 articles of general furniture by properly presenting the 
 matter to the trustees or committee. He can also see that 
 they are all put to their proper use. In the matter of 
 cleanliness, especially, he can produce radical and much 
 needed reforms by a little care and attention. B}^ pre- 
 cept and example he can create a public sentiment in 
 his school, so that an end will be made of that iilthi- 
 ness which is so common in our country school-houses, 
 and lasting habits of neatness may be formed by his 
 pupils. 
 
 Another important lesson in connection with furniture 
 may be enforced by the teacher, viz., that useful articles 
 should be used and not abused. The destructive propen- 
 sities of children should be checked at an early period, 
 and they should be taught to take care of ever^^thing 
 provided for their education. Indeed, this care becomes 
 an important element of education, leading to wise econo- 
 mies and habits of self-restraint. Children at quite an 
 early age may be taught that saving is as important as 
 earning, and that economy is a virtue that can be always 
 shown in thoughtful care. 
 
 SPECIAL FURNITURE. 
 
 In the construction of seats and desks the following 
 general principles should be observed : 
 
FURNITURE. 201 
 
 First : They should be substantial, not easily broken or 
 disarranged. The furniture of a school-room, of neces- 
 sity, is subjected to comparatively rough usage, and if 
 made weak, its frail appearance invites and stimulates the 
 rudeness which destroys it. Strength, then, is a necessary 
 condition, not only to preserve it from ruin, but to repress 
 the element which is usually precociously developed in 
 children. 
 
 Second: They should be easy and comfortable. 
 Churches are usually furnished with cushioned seats, 
 although occupied but a limited portion of one day in the 
 week, while the school-house, which is occupied five days 
 in the week, is supplied with rough, ill-shaped benches. 
 This custom, to say the least, is not philosophical. There 
 is no good reason why tlie seats in our school-houses 
 should not be more comfortable than those in our churches. 
 This general rule of comfort would preclude the use of 
 seats without backs of suitable form. Tlie spines of chil- 
 dren have often become distorted from lack of su^^port 
 while sitting in the school-room. The sufferings which 
 those little frames have undergone would cast in the shade 
 the horrors of the "middle passage." 
 
 Third : The seats should be graded to the different sizes 
 of pupils. This principle is often practically violated, and 
 school-rooms are provided with seats all of the same size. 
 In consequence, either the larger pupils are seated much 
 too low for comfort, or the smaller ones are perched so 
 high that their feet cannot touch the floor, and they arc 
 obliged to maintain a constant watchfulness lest they 
 should fall from their dizzy eminence. With this latter 
 class, "to sit" becomes an exceedingly active verb, and 
 restlessness, aches, and distortions often result. 
 
 Fourth: They should be constructed so as to afford 
 accommodation to the pupil and to all his educational 
 
202 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 apparatus. A shelf should be provided for packing away 
 books, slates, maps, etc., and a permanent inkstand, to 
 prevent the frequent injury and disfigurement resulting 
 from overturning the ink. 
 
 Fifth : They should be neatly finished, so as to be 
 ornamental as well as useful. In this case beauty serves 
 the strictly utilitarian purpose of protecting from injury 
 as well as a higher and perhaps more important one. The 
 rude furniture of the olden time was soon covered with 
 ink-spots, cuts, and scratches innumerable. Elaborate 
 jack-knife carvings overlaid each other every term, until 
 the original form and complexion was entirely obliterated. 
 Whenever poorly made or unpainted furniture is used, a 
 like result must follow. Well-finished and elegant furni- 
 ture, on the contrary, has often been in constant use for 
 years, without receiving a single scratch, the beauty pre- 
 serving it, as well as serving to inculcate habits of order 
 and carefulness. School furniture should be finished like 
 fine cabinet-work. 
 
 In their arrangement the seats and desks should be so 
 placed that each pupil can freely pass to and from his seat 
 without disturbing others, and so that every part of the 
 room is accessible to both pupil and teacher. 
 
 To meet all these requirements, single or double desks 
 are generally used. The former are preferable on many 
 accounts, but as thej^ are more costly and occupy more 
 room than the latter, they will probably not come into 
 general use. Double desks answer all the demands of 
 education, are more economical, and will therefore be 
 usually adopted. In the seating of all the designs in this 
 work the double desk has been used, and all calculations 
 in regard to the number of pupils which each room will 
 accommodate have been made with reference to them. 
 
FURNITURE. 203 
 
 DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING DESKS. 
 
 Clear, well-seasoned, hard wood, like birch, or cherry, 
 or ash, or Connecticut Yalley and Canada chestnut, second 
 growth, is the best material of which to construct desks, 
 as it is firm and solid, and readily admits of a beautiful 
 finish. Desks made of pine or other soft wood are too 
 easily scratched and damaged. 
 
 Double desks should be three feet to four feet long, 
 and from ten to twenty inches wide, depending on the size 
 of the pupils to be accommodated. 
 
 All edges and corners should be carefully rounded, and 
 all the work should be smoothed and well finished. 
 
 About two and one-half inches of the farther side of 
 the top should be level, and the rest slightly inclined. 
 
 A groove should extend across the level surface to pre- 
 vent pencils, etc., from rolling off, and provision should be 
 made for the insertion of a permanent inkstand. An 
 opening in the farther edge has been sometimes made for 
 the purpose of receiving a slate, but of late this arrange- 
 ment has been abandoned, as no practical good results, 
 and the appearance of the room is injured. 
 
 About five inches below the top of the desk a shelf 
 should be placed, two-thirds as wide as the top, and 
 slightl}'- inclined backward. 
 
 The standard that supports the desk may be wood or 
 iron, and the peculiar manner of constructing each will be 
 fully illustrated in the diagrams found in the Appendix. 
 "Wood is cheaper, but iron more durable and less liable to 
 get out of repair. 
 
 A modern style of seat and desk is made to fold up, to 
 
204 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES, , 
 
 allow free passage between the desks, to permit pupils to 
 rise immediately in their places, and to afford a better 
 opportunity for sweeping. This desk will be more particu- 
 larly described hereafter. 
 
 The following table shows the height of the seats and 
 desks of the different grades as adopted by most of the 
 school-furniture manufacturers : 
 
 Height of Desk. Width of Desk. Height of l^eat. 
 
 (1) Children's Desk and 
 
 Settee 
 
 18 in. 
 
 lOi 
 
 in. 
 
 ^m 
 
 (2) Small Primary " 
 
 (( 
 
 20 " . 
 
 lOi 
 
 a 
 
 11" " 
 
 (3) Primary « 
 
 a 
 
 22i " 
 
 12' 
 
 a 
 
 12 " 
 
 (4) Intermediate " 
 
 a 
 
 25 " 
 
 15 
 
 a 
 
 13|- " 
 
 (5) Grammar School " 
 
 a 
 
 26i " 
 
 15 
 
 a 
 
 15 " 
 
 (6) High School " 
 
 a 
 
 27i " 
 
 15 
 
 a 
 
 16| " 
 
 (7) Academic " 
 
 (I 
 
 29|- " 
 
 15 
 
 a 
 
 17 " 
 
 The desk height is measured at front — back edge should 
 be one and a half inches higher. Seat height is measured 
 at front — pitch of seat should be one and a quarter inches. 
 
 Lengths of desks to seat two pupils of the Primary and 
 Intermediate grades should be three feet, and for the 
 higher grades they should be three feet and six inches. 
 Too much care cannot be taken to avoid having the seats 
 too high. This is a common fault, and is very injurious to 
 children. 
 
 In the Supplement to this volume we shall give elaborate 
 illustrated descriptions of the best modern school-furni- 
 ture. 
 
CHAPTER IX. 
 
 APPARATUS. 
 
 In country districts the opinion is quite too frequently 
 entertained that when a school-house has been constructed 
 and furnished with seats sufficient to accommodate the 
 pupils, nothing more is needed to insure the success of the 
 school. The necessity and importapce of apparatus, for 
 the purpose of establishing facts and illustrating principles, 
 is so little understood and appreciated that the majority 
 of schools are as destitute of these appliances of instruc- 
 tion as though no advance had been made for the last 
 hundred years. 
 
 On the other hand, teachers, and sometimes trustees, 
 with more zeal than discretion, purchase indiscriminately 
 everything that offers in the form of apparatus, and so 
 waste money in useless articles. It is a mistaken notion 
 that a large amount of costly apparatus is necessary to 
 the success of a school. In our academic institutions 
 quantities of different articles are frequently found which 
 have cost large sums of money, and are useless from not 
 being complete or from misuse and neglect. 
 
 These extremes are to be avoided. No money should 
 be wasted in the purchase of useless articles in incomplete 
 sets, but the things essential should always be furnished. 
 Fortunately most of the indispensable apparatus is inex- 
 pensive and within the reach of all. The ingenious 
 teacher will usually explain and illustrate his lessons by 
 
200 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 the aid of such common things as can be readily obtained. 
 He can also do an excellent work by so presenting the 
 snbject that the pupils themselves will be induced to make 
 their own experiments with apparatus of their own 
 devising. 
 
 GENERAL APPARATUS. 
 
 Blackboards. — The first article of general apparatus 
 indispensable in every school-room is a blackboard. 
 There is scarcely a single exercise in the school but may 
 be made more clear and interesting by the use of the 
 blackboard and chalk. With it large classes are taught 
 with as much facility as individuals are without it, and 
 there is not a moment in the day when its aid may not be 
 required to elucidate some dithcult point, or to teach to 
 the eye what the mind docs not distinctly comprehend 
 through the avenue of the ear. A teacher who under- 
 stands drawing can make it compensate in a great measure 
 for the lack of almost ever}^ other kind of apparatus. We 
 look upon the blackboard as a school-house lixture almost 
 as important as the roof or foundation-stones ; and in this 
 age of the world there is scarcely a corner of the country 
 so benighted where an elfort Avould be made to dispense 
 with its use. 
 
 The blackboards should be sufticient in number and in 
 size to permit all the members of an ordinary class to 
 work at the same time. The^^ should be about five feet 
 wide, placed two feet above the floor, and should extend 
 entirely around the walls of the rooms. A trough should 
 always be placed beneath the board to catch the dust and 
 to serve as a shelf for chalk and wipers. In all the 
 designs given in this work, the blackboard surface has 
 
APPARATUS. 207 
 
 been intended to occupy all the available space not taken 
 up by doors and windows. The very best and cheapest 
 blackboard surface is made by apjjlying the Eureka Lifjuid 
 Slating to a thoroughly well made and smooth hard-fniished 
 wall. Care should be taken to have a firm, substantial, 
 smooth, and dry wall. The Rival Liquid Slating answers 
 about the same purpose and is somewhat cheaper. In the 
 Sui)plement will be found descriptions of blackboards and 
 all the necessary accessories. 
 
 Globes. — The next indispensable article of general 
 apparatus is a globe. Without a globe a teacher cannot 
 succeed in explaining to the comprehension of children 
 the peculiarities of the earth upon which they live, or the 
 ordinary phenomena resulting from the earth's shape and 
 motions. With its aid he can accomplish all this, and can 
 also clearly illustrate and define such geographical terms 
 as children very seldom understand, and can correct errors 
 which almost inevitably result from the exclusive use of 
 maps. A comparatively small and cheap globe, with the 
 full outline of the natural divisions of the earth, will 
 answer in the absence of one of the larger and more 
 expensive globes. 
 
 APPARATUS FOR PRIMARY SCHOOLS. 
 
 That facts must precede principles, and that the object 
 of primary instruction should be mainly to awaken the 
 attention and develop the powers of observation, is be- 
 ginning to be fully recognized by modern educators. The 
 old system of commencing the process of instruction by 
 forcing children to learn mere abstractions, is well-nigh 
 exploded. It is now considered by all who have given 
 much attention to this subject, that it is much more im- 
 
208 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 portant that a child should be able to observe all that he 
 sees, hears, or feels, than that he should be able to repeat 
 by rote all the text-books used in the school. In culti- 
 vating the powers of perception and observation, it is much 
 more effectual to speak to the eye than to the ear ; and 
 by children, experiments and ocular demonstrations are 
 much more easily comprehended than any statement of 
 principles or processes of logical reasoning. 
 
 To carry out a system founded upon these principles, 
 it will be necessary to change the course of instruction 
 at present adopted for our primary classes, and to furnish 
 our rooms with such tangible objects as will convey im- 
 portant lessons, and furnish the proper foundation for a 
 philosophical course of education. Nature has furnished 
 these objects of sense in lavish profusion, and there is no 
 district in the country too poor to have a bountiful supply 
 of them. But here the labor of the teacher is indispensa- 
 ble, for nature never betrays her secrets unless they are 
 sought for, and the minds of children need directing until 
 they are sufficiently developed to investigate and experi- 
 ment without aid. 
 
 We might, with propriety, denominate this system of 
 instruction, "The education of the senses by means of 
 lessons drawn from real objects." To make it at once 
 intelligible and practical, we will examine it under the 
 following heads, viz. : 
 
 Form. — Almost the first thing that the child perceives 
 and comprehends is difference in form, and the primary 
 room should be furnished with a great quantity of appara- 
 tus to illustrate these differences. Forms very dissimilar 
 should first be taken, and the pupils should be gradually 
 introduced to those more nearly alike, until they are able 
 to accurately discriminate between those that have but 
 very slight differences. They will always be interested 
 
APPARATUS. 209 
 
 in these exercises, as the idea is taught through the sense 
 of sight, and can be fully comprehended without any rea- 
 soning process. Care should be taken to insure perfect 
 accuracy of observation during every step of this process, 
 and the scientific names should be given to each of the 
 different forms. Apparatus for the teaching of form might 
 consist, 1st, of blocks representing geometric solids ; 2d, 
 different specimens of the animal kingdom ; 3d, the differ- 
 ent forms of the stalks, leaves, and seeds of plants ; and 
 4th, of the different forms assumed by minerals and 
 crystals. 
 
 The use of the geometric solids will introduce the 
 facts and first principles of geometry ; and where that 
 science is taken up as a study, the pupil will be already 
 familiar with the terms used, and will look upon it as an 
 old friend rather than a new acquaintance. The inspec- 
 tion of the different specimens of the animal kingdom 
 will excite an interest in the subject of natural his- 
 tory, and the transition would be easy from an observa- 
 tion of the forms of animals to that of their habits and 
 peculiarities. The examination of the forms of plants, 
 while exceedingly interesting in itself, and presenting a 
 great variety of useful information, will lead directly to 
 the study of botany, in which is enfolded the whole 
 science of the vegetable kingdom. To understand the 
 peculiar forms of minerals and crystals requires a higher 
 development of the powers of observation and a more 
 mature judgment ; but the subject can be easily taught 
 if rightly presented, and the pupil will at once become 
 interested in mineralogy. By this system the child, in 
 time, will become perfectly familiar with all kinds of 
 forms, and will be able to accurately describe the shape 
 of anything that he sees. 
 
 Size. — Nearly the same objects that are used to illus- 
 
 14 
 
210 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 trate form may also be used to illustrate size, and the 
 results will be nearly the same. At this stage there 
 should be introduced the conventional standards of meas- 
 ure, audi the pupils should be taught the tables of measure 
 practically and inductively. The apparatus necessary 
 would consist of an inch, foot, and yard rule for long 
 measure, blocks representing a square inch and foot for 
 square measure, cubical blocks for solid measure, and a 
 variety of measures, like gill, pint, and quart cups, gal- 
 lon, peck, and bushel measures, etc. 
 
 The tables should then be taught in the following man- 
 ner : An inch measure is put into the hands of a child, 
 and he is required to draw a line upon the blackboard 
 just as long as the measure, then to the end of this he is 
 to add another inch, and rei)eat the process till he has 
 drawn a line twelve inches in length. He is then in- 
 structed to call this whole measure a foot ; and with a 
 foot as a basis, he can then measure a yard, rod, etc. So 
 with each one of the measures, take the least denomina- 
 tion as a basis, and teach its name, use, and the number 
 of times it is to be taken to make one of the next higher 
 denomination before the name of that denomination is 
 given. A box or barrel of clean sand should be furnished 
 to experiment with in the measures of capacity. After 
 becoming acquainted with the denominations and tables 
 of measure in this practical manner, the jiupils should be 
 encouraged to continually apply their knowledge in the 
 measurement of everything within their reach. They 
 might measure the dimensions of the school-house, the 
 lengths of the neighboring fence rails and posts ; and in 
 time they might measure the distance from the school- 
 room to their respective homes, and the distance around 
 farm lots, thus taking the first practical lessons in sur- 
 veying. 
 
APPARATUS. 211 
 
 Weight. — The difference in the weight of objects should 
 next be considered. In this, as in form and size, almost 
 every natural object, from the pebbles in the street to 
 the most delicate organization, can be used for illustra- 
 tions and experiments. Conventional weights and the 
 tables should also be introduced, and a balance should be 
 procured as an article of apparatus. The pupils should 
 be taught the denominations inductively, as in the tables 
 of measure ; and they should experiment, by weighing 
 everything in the balance, and lifting it to judge of its 
 weight, until the muscles would be educated to determine 
 the weight of any object with a considerable degree of 
 accuracy. 
 
 Color. — The differences in the color of objects should 
 receive early attention, and every school-room should be 
 furnished with apparatus illustrating the primary colors, 
 the intermediate shades, and the neutral tints. In all the 
 seasons but winter, objects illustrating all the endless 
 varieties of shades of color may be obtained from among 
 leaves and flowers ; and by their aid not only would the 
 senses be educated, but a taste for the beautiful would be 
 cultivated. 
 
 Order. — Order can be systematically taught by the 
 use of objects already enumerated. Every variety of 
 thing may be classified in regard to form, size, weight, 
 and color, and each class may be put in its appropriate 
 place. Exercises of this kind will cultivate habits of 
 external order, and will lay the foundation of that sys- 
 tematic arrangement of ideas indispensable to the highest 
 progress in science and art. 
 
 A child thus trained to habits of observation will see 
 and hear much more than one educated in a different 
 manner ; and when are added habits of critical investiga- 
 tion into the origin, uses, relations, and causes of things^ 
 
212 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 there is little more to accomplish. He will then be able 
 to enter into a scries of original and independent examin- 
 ations, and he can see 
 
 " Books in the running brooks, 
 Sermons in stones, and good in everything." 
 
 There is not an object in all art or nature but for him 
 will have its lessons of wisdom. 
 
 Cabinet. — A cabinet of curiosities and common things 
 should be collected to form a never-failing reservoir of 
 objects from which important lessons may be derived. 
 This cabinet should contain specimens of the different 
 metals, such as iron, lead, copper, tin, and zinc ; of the 
 principal minerals which enter into the composition of the 
 rocks, such as quartz, mica, hornblende, limestone, and 
 gypsum ; of the most common chemical products, such as 
 salt, saltpetre, copperas, alum, and soda ; of all the 
 minerals in the neighborhood, such as pebbles, fragments 
 of the rocks, clay, sand, and especially such rocks as con- 
 tain fossils ; of the vegetable world, consisting of the 
 leaves and flowers of all the plants and trees of the 
 vicinity ; the different kinds of wood, both with and with- 
 out bark ; the different grains, like corn, wheat, rye, oats, 
 barley, and rice ; other articles of food, like sago, tapioca, 
 Irish moss, capers, etc. ; and the different articles for 
 household use, like flax, hemp, cotton, gums, spices, and 
 fruits ; of the products of the sea, such as shells, sponges, 
 coral, whalebone, and a great variety of other articles ; 
 of the most common animal products, such as wool, hair, 
 wax, bones, ivory, etc. ; and of manufactured articles, 
 as silk, linen and cotton fabrics, leather, pa})er, parch- 
 ment, crockery, porcelain and glass ware, and, indeed, 
 everything used in the domestic arts and in common 
 household operations. 
 
APPARATUS. 21 3 
 
 The lessons to be derived from the specimens of the 
 metals and minerals might include an examination of their 
 peculiar properties and qualities: how the members of the 
 diiferent classes differ from each other ; where they are 
 obtained, the process of obtaining them, and the agents 
 necessary to effect this object ; their relative value, and 
 their several uses in the economy of the world and in* 
 science and art. The examination of vegetable and 
 animal products would include the peculiarities of organi- 
 zation, the conditions of life and growth, the geographical 
 distribution of plants and animals, their origin and history, 
 a description of the processes of both nature and art in 
 collecting and preparing them, and their uses to the world. 
 The lessons to be derived from manufactured goods would 
 lead to the examination of still higher subjects, and would 
 include much of geography, history, mechanics, chemistry, 
 and the like. It will be seen that in every school there 
 can be collected a cabinet of this kind at little or no 
 expense, which will furnish an inexhaustible fund of in- 
 formation, requiring only an intelligent teacher to eluci- 
 date and make it available. 
 
 Slates. — Besides the articles which have here been 
 enumerated, each pupil in a primary room should be 
 provided with a slate. This will afford unfailing amuse- 
 ment, and the pupil, if properly instructed, can acquire 
 by its aid the first rudiments of drawing. There is 
 scarcely an exercise in the school in which it cannot be 
 used to advantage, and it becomes a source of great relief 
 to a child from the wearisome monotony of a school day. 
 Slates with attachments containing drawing and writing 
 lessons have lately been prepared, and are most excellent 
 for use in primary rooms. It is very desirable that slates 
 should be supplied with rubber corners, to prevent noise 
 and scratching of desks. 
 
 14 
 
214 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 Paper slates. — In many respects the paper slates 
 lately introduced into our schools are a great improve- 
 ment. They are light, noiseless, and not easily broken. 
 They can be shut up and carried inside of a book, and in 
 almost every particular they are more convenient than 
 the stone slate. It is also claimed for them that they are 
 tolerably durable and comparatively cheap. 
 
 Playthings. — The primary room should also be sup- 
 })lied Avith a variety of articles properly termed "play- 
 things." These might consist of dissected maps, objects 
 for counting, blocks, and a great variety of things of like 
 character. Blocks four inches long, two inches wide, and 
 one inch thick, would perhaps be the most convenient of 
 any for the building of houses and the like. All these 
 should be arranged in a proper place, and the little chil- 
 dren should be permitted to use them when tired of sit- 
 ting still, or when not engaged in specific school duties. 
 There is scarcely anything that the intelligent teacher 
 may not make available to amuse, interest, and instruct 
 his pupils. 
 
 Cards. — A great variety of cards are now prepared 
 for the use of schools, and many of them are valuable. 
 The alphabet, the elementary sounds of the language, and 
 the elements of reading may be profitably taught by the 
 use of cards. The classification of science and of natural 
 history may also be taught in a similar manner, and in 
 nearly every branch of instruction cards may be made 
 useful. 
 
 Pictures. — In objective teaching, when the object it- 
 self cannot be obtained, pictures are indispensable. They 
 convey instruction through the e^^e as well as the ear. 
 Geographical and historical information especially can be 
 illustrated and made instructive by the use of well- 
 selected pictures. 
 
APPAKATUS. 215 
 
 The appearance of natural scenery, such as mountains, 
 glaciers, rocky ravines, volcanoes, cataracts, tropical, 
 fruits, and a great number of other things of like character, 
 can be understood better through pictorial illustrations 
 than through elaborate descriptions. Pictures should be 
 chosen with care, and such only taken for use as repre- 
 sent something important. In the study of natural history 
 pictures become indispensable, for scarcely any idea of 
 the peculiar shape and appearance of animals can be 
 gained from mere description. In selecting pictures for 
 schools, avoid the coarse, cheap lithographs of the shops, 
 for they will have a tendency to deprave taste rather 
 than elevate it. 
 
 Stereoscopic views. — A series of stereoscopic views 
 would be of the greatest value in teaching many branches 
 now imperfectly taught or entirely neglected. A few 
 characteristic views of the natural features of each country, 
 of works of art, and of the costumes of the people, would 
 give more accurate and vivid geographical knowledge 
 than can be obtained from any verbal description. The 
 principles of architecture and of natural science can be 
 illustrated in the same manner, and the driest of studies 
 can be made interesting. 
 
 Numerical frame. — A small frame, known as the 
 "numerical frame," consisting of ten rows of little balls, 
 and ten balls in each row, strung upon wires, on which 
 they move easily, is a valuable auxiliary to the teacher 
 in giving instruction in the first principles of numbers. 
 The simple rules of arithmetic, and many things of a more 
 complicated character, can be readily illustrated by it, 
 and the whole class can be instructed at once. 
 
216 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 SPECIAL apparatus- 
 Maps. — Every school-room should be supplied with a 
 map of the town, county, and State in which it is situated, 
 as well as with the maps representing the grand divis- 
 ions of the globe. The first real knowledge of geography 
 is derived from those objects in nature which arc known 
 to the pupil, and this is followed by making a map of this 
 known portion of the earth. From the special map the 
 pupil becomes familiar with maps in general, and is able 
 to understand the relative position of places. For use in 
 the school-room, outline maps, in which pliysical features 
 are represented by color, and political divisions by faint 
 outlines, are much to be preferred to those that contain 
 names in full. Maps or charts upon which is given a map 
 and a picture of each of the natural divisions of land and 
 water, are of great value in primary schools. 
 
 Charts. — Variety is rest. The active-minded pupil 
 finds relief from study, not in blank idleness, but in seeing 
 and thinking about something else, something different 
 from the arithmetic or grammar of which he is weary. As 
 affording the best avaihible material for turning this ne- 
 cessary diversion of mind into recreative stud}'', charts 
 make the most approi)riate as well as most useful decora- 
 tions that can be introduced into the school-room. They 
 relieve the dead blankness of naked walls, and instruct 
 while they adorn. Silent yet entertaining, they are the 
 most efficient helps that the teacher can call around him. 
 Atfording legitimate relief from study, they prevent the 
 pupil's activity from overflowing into illegitimate courses, 
 as mischief ; thus they are aids to discii)line as well as 
 
APPARATUS. 217 
 
 instructors. No room is complete as a school-room with- 
 out them. 
 
 Philosophical apparatus. — Much costly apparatus 
 has been prepared for illustrating principles of natural 
 philosophy, which may be very good in its way ; but from 
 its costliness is beyond the reach of country school- 
 districts. Almost every necessary experiment can be 
 performed with articles that the teacher can procure at 
 little or no expense. For example, the mechanical 
 powers can be illustrated by such machinery as can 
 be obtained at any farm-house. The lever, the com- 
 pound lever, the pulley, the wheel and axle, the in- 
 clined plane, the wedge and the screw, are all easily 
 obtained. The common steelyard and a couple of pul- 
 ley-blocks, a wheel or two from an old clock and a 
 wooden screw, which can be procured at any carpenter's 
 shop, are all that are really necessary for this purpose. 
 Hydrostatics and hydraulics can also be illustrated by 
 apparatus equally simple. A few tin tubes or bits of lead 
 pipe, and vessels of wood or tin will do, if the teacher 
 has zeal and a little genius. We have not space for all 
 the details of the use of common things in the illustration 
 of principles ; but will close by repeating that all neces- 
 sary experiments can be made by the use of apparatus 
 that is cheap and within the reach of all. 
 
 Miscellaneous. — The following articles would be found 
 useful and convenient : a tellurian to illustrate the revolu- 
 tions of the earth and its relation to the sun and moon, 
 the changes of the seasons, the phenomena of day and 
 night, the ebb and flow of the tides ; a magnet and small 
 galvanic battery, to illustrate magnetism and electricity ; 
 and an orrery to show the relative size of each of the 
 planets in the solar system, the periods of their revolution, 
 and their respective distances from the sun. A few lenses 
 
218 
 
 OUIl BOIIOOL-IIOUSKS. 
 
 and luiiwors, plane, concave, and convex, and a prism, 
 Avliicli can })e procnred at liKle cost, are desirable to as- 
 sist in simplilying tlie abstruse subject of optics. 
 
 The scliool should always be suj)plie(l with fixtures to 
 make (he apparatus available, and to j)reserve it from 
 injury. Hooks should be placed upon the walls, upon 
 which maj)S and cliarls may be susj)ende(l, and pointers 
 should be provided for recitations upon ma})S and black- 
 boards. A closet should be ])rovided for j)reserving the 
 a})paratus when not in use. 
 
CHAPTER X. 
 
 -Ai.-.J?fe*S->-»: 
 
 o[;T-Ju;rLDTxos. 
 
 The ffoneral form and location of all the out-build inprs 
 nccos.sary to a school have already heen described, and 
 nothing more need be added 
 in regard to the porch, wood- 
 house, etc. Privies have 
 also been briefly noticed, 
 but, in consequence of a gen- 
 eral apathy upon this sub- 
 ject, we devote this entire 
 chapter to the further con- ^ 
 sideration of their character, 
 location, and arrangement. F\g. so. 
 
 We are fully persuaded that, in consequence of a culpable 
 nc;glect in this direction, all efforts for the improvement 
 of the social and moral condition of our schools are, in a 
 great measure, neutralized, and that from the same source 
 arises much of the disinclination that parents have to 
 sending their children to the public schools. 
 
 In some districts, even at the present day, there is no 
 privy ! The following extract from the annual report of 
 Hon. John C. Spencer, Superintendent of the Common 
 Schools of New York, to the Legislature, in 1840, very 
 forcibly shows the folly, wickedness, and brutality of this 
 practice : 
 
 " A man who should build a good dwelling-house, but 
 provide no place for retirement when performing the 
 most private offices of nature, would be thought to give 
 
220 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 the clearest evidence of a coarse and brutal mind. Yet 
 respectable parents allow their children to go to a school 
 where this is the case, and where the evil is greatly 
 aggravated hj the fact that numbers of both sexes are 
 collected, and that, too, at an age of extreme levity, and 
 when the youthful mind is prone to the indulgence of a 
 prurient imagination. Says one of the school visitors, 
 ' In most cases in this town the scholars, male and female, 
 are turned promiscuously and simultaneously into the 
 public highway, without the shelter of so much as a stump 
 for a covert to the calls of nature. The baneful effects of 
 this barbarous custom on the young and pliant sensibili- 
 ties are truly lamentable.' " 
 
 The Superintendent of the Common Schools of Con- 
 necticut, in 1850, holds ihQ following language : " An 
 appalling chapter might be written on the evils, the 
 almost inevitable results of neglecting to provide these 
 indispensable ajDpendages to school-houses in our State. 
 Who can duly estimate the final consequences of the first 
 shock given to female delicacy from the necessary expos- 
 ure to which the girls in the public schools are inevitably 
 subjected ; and what must be the legitimate results of 
 these frequent exposures during the school-going years 
 of 3'outh ? What quenchless fires of passion have been 
 kindled within the bosoms of the young of both sexes by 
 these exposures ; fires that have raged to the consuming 
 of personal happiness, to the prevention of scholastic 
 improvement, and to the destruction of personal charac- 
 ter ? Again, what disgust has been created in both sexes 
 by not having the appropriate retirements which nature 
 imperiousl}^ demands? And, finally, may not the disin- 
 clination, the aversion of large numbers of families, of 
 mothers especially, to sending their daughters to the 
 public schools, have been created by the sufferings they 
 
OUT-BUILDINGS. 221 
 
 themselves have endured from the above cause ; and an 
 unwillingness to subject the delicacy of their daughters 
 to the obnoxious trial ?" 
 
 The evils here so vividly and truthfully pointed out are 
 not confined to the districts where no privies are built, 
 but they apply in an almost equal degree to country dis- 
 tricts where there is only one small, mere apology for a 
 priv}^ In a majority of cases, a slight building, made 
 of rough boards, is erected, of such a character that it 
 answers no purpose of privacy, and is only useful as a 
 very poor and inadequate screen. It is usually situated 
 directly upon the highway, in close proximity to the 
 school-house, and is completely exposed to public ob- 
 servation. Only one building is furnished for the accom- 
 modation of the two sexes, so that there can be no surety 
 that the delicacy of young girls will not be outraged by 
 the contact of grossness and brutality. Again, it is usu- 
 ally built with a very shallow vault, with no conveniences 
 and no guards against abuses, and it soon becomes the most 
 offensive and disgusting object in itself that it is possible 
 to conceive, and a positive nuisance to the school and 
 neighborhood. We believe that the picture here given of 
 the condition of our country districts, and the evils result- 
 ing from that condition, are not overdrawn, and that they 
 are of such a character as to demand immediate attention. 
 
 In arranging privies for a school, the following princi- 
 ples should always be observed. They should be com- 
 modious, and constructed so as to avoid offensive odors. 
 They should be placed at a sufficient distance, * so that 
 they could never become offensive to the school. They 
 should be screened from public observation. It will be 
 seen at once that a school-lot is necessary to afford a 
 decent location for a privy. As long as school-buildings 
 are erected in the street, or upon a lot large enough to 
 
222 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 conlaiii only the scliool-lionsc, it will be impossible to bring 
 about rclbrin. There can be no place protected from ob- 
 servation, or where the building itself will not constantly 
 be liable to abuses. In a lot containing an acre, the 
 school-house should be ])laced in its centre, and a high, 
 tight board fence should extend from the centre of the 
 rear of the building to the farther edge of the lot, divid- 
 ing the rear yard into two parts. The privies shonld 
 be situated near the centre of the back part of the re- 
 
 imiiiiiiMiiiiiiiiiimiMiiiiiiiii" y 
 
 :lffi3"'3;|!i!ifttisS 
 
 l,-^.^,x-Xf 
 
 Fiji. UO. 
 
 spective yards, carefully guarded by screens of wood, or by 
 living hedge. They should bo supplied with large, well- 
 stoned vaults, at least six feet deep. It possible, a drain 
 should lead from the vaidt to a distance, and a stream 
 of running water should be permitted to flow through it. 
 The buildings themselves shonld be well plastered and 
 painted, and linished in the same general style of architec- 
 ture as the school-house. The seats shonld be provided 
 with lids hung with butts, and all the walls should be left 
 hollow, opening into a ventilating chimney above to carry 
 otf the gases. The plaster should be Icl't very rough, and a 
 
OUT-JilJIIJHNOS. 
 
 223 
 
 9.;;mM^ 
 
 heavy coat of coarse sand should be mixed with the paint 
 to render scribbling and obscene figures impossible. 
 
 Great care should be taken to so construct the seats 
 that defilement becomes almost impossible. In this mat- 
 ter, however, reference need only be made to that pro- 
 vided for boys, because girls' privies are seldom abused 
 in this way. Besides the lids hung with butts, which 
 should be placed in all privies, in that of the boys a 
 strong brace of plank should be firmly aflixed to the 
 frame of the building, so that the covers cannot be opened 
 beyond an angle of sixty degrees, thus rendering it im- 
 possible to stand upon the seat. Fig. 91. ^^^^^ 
 represents a privy suitable for the girls' 
 yard. It consists of one apartment, fur- 
 nished with the requi.^ite number of seats. 
 The size ^f the building must depend 
 u[jon the size of the school. This build- 
 ing should be neatly finished and painted. 
 
 The privy for the boys is more troublesome. The 
 diflicult}^ of keeping them clean is well known to every 
 teacher. We apprehend that this trouble arises princi- 
 pally from the fact that urinals are not provided, and 
 consequently the seats are often wet, and thus rendered 
 unfit to sit upon. Fig. 92 ^^^.^^j^AJ^^^yy^^^^^^ 
 represents a privy for boys, 
 arranged to guard against 
 this evil. It is fourteen 
 feet by ten feet, and divided 
 into two apartments by a 
 close partition. The part A 
 is supplied with seats sepa- 
 rated by partitions ; and the part B with a trough, divided 
 into stalls by partitions, in a manner similar to A. This 
 arrangement is fiuch that there cannot be the sbVhtest 
 
 FiL'. 01. 
 
 \nr.\-'- ; -ir : 'i , 
 
 f^-^-^-^-^ 
 
 im 
 
 Fig. 92. 
 
224 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 excuse for any abuse of any part of the building, and 
 teachers would have very little difficulty in keeping it 
 scrupulously neat, and free from every kind of defilement 
 and injury. 
 
 Locks should be placed upon all the doors of privies, 
 so that they cannot be entered except during hours when 
 the teacher can have them under his own personal super- 
 vision. When privies are thus perfectly constructed, the 
 teacher should always be held responsible for keeping 
 them in good order. He can do this very easily by per- 
 sonally inspecting the buildings every day, and promptly 
 noticing the very first violation of the rules of decency. 
 Thus the teacher may accomplish a great good, by teach- 
 ing habits of decency and modesty, and by repressing all 
 exhibitions of grossness. He may also inculcate impor- 
 tant hygienic laws in this connection, which will be of the 
 greatest importance to the pupil through life. It is the 
 custom of many excellent teachers, principals of some of 
 our most noted union schools, to frequently look into the 
 privy while the boys are in it, thus rendering the abuse 
 very difficult, and its detection almost certain. In this 
 way all the out-buildings of the school are kept as fastidi- 
 ously neat as those connected with our best dwellings. 
 Let all interested in schools contrast such a state of things 
 with that usually found in country districts, and decide 
 whether the advantages gained would not outweigh the 
 expense incurred. 
 
CHAPTER XI. 
 
 ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 
 
 ,^^ 
 
 Fig. m. 
 
 Ample school-grounds are needed for a great variety 
 of purposes ; and when the philosophy of instruction shall 
 
 be fully understood, large , ^. 
 
 3'ards will be considered \^^ 
 indispensable as affording ^ 
 opportunities for physical i 
 exercise, and for displaying # ^^:^'^ 
 the beauties of nature. Phy- ^ ^ 
 sical education is now too j ^ ^ 
 often neglected, and, indeed, ^^,^ 
 the circumstances and sur- 
 roundings of the majority 
 of our schools are such that 
 a regular course of physical discipline is impossible. The 
 necessity and importance of exercise are forcibly ex- 
 pressed in the following extract from the Family Gym- 
 nasium, by Dr. Trail : 
 
 "It is as natural for a child to exercise as to breathe. 
 When unrestrained, nearly all children are distinguished 
 for restless activity. Nature bids them exercise, and they 
 obey the mandate, often in spite of ignorant parents, 
 nurses, and teachers, who scold and whip them for rest- 
 lessness. Teachers are often more disposed to consult 
 their own convenience than to study the laws of nature 
 as applicable to their young charge ; and, by dint of 
 praising quietness and blaming activity, the poor child's 
 
 15 
 
226 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES, 
 
 nature is smothered ; and pale cheeks, diminutive muscu- 
 lar development, weakness, dyspepsia, consumption, and 
 death are the fruits of the oft-repeated command, ' Keep 
 quiet.' 
 
 " Exercise is as essential to development as air is to life. 
 No person can acquire a large, compact, muscular organi- 
 zation without it. 
 
 " ' But you would not have girls run and romp over hill 
 and dale, and laugh boisterously, like boys?' Let us ex- 
 amine the subject, and see what Nature, the great teacher, 
 will say concerning it. Do young female animals frisk, 
 jump, and play like males ? and do little girls instinct- 
 ively laugh loudly, and run and play like boys ? If so, 
 we may safely infer that Nature has established the same 
 general law of exercise — not for animals merely, but for 
 both sexes of the human race. 
 
 " Rousseau observes : ' If you wish to develop the mind 
 of a pupil, develop the power which mind has to govern — 
 exercise his body, make him healthy and strong, that you 
 may make him prudent and reasonable.' 
 
 "Systematic gymnastic exercises, which give energy 
 and precision to muscular movements, are not only useful 
 in the development of bodily vigor, but are also efficient 
 auxiliaries in mental education by inducing habits of 
 order, exactness, and directness in the mental opera- 
 tions." 
 
 To render this systematic exercise possible, there must 
 be considerable space ; and it will be seen that this space 
 is not designed for mere amusements, but in reality be- 
 comes one of the most important educational auxiliaries. 
 The ground devoted to play and exercise should be free 
 from obstructions, and hence trees, flower-beds, etc., would 
 be out of place in that portion of the school-yard. Differ- 
 ent kinds of gymnastic apparatus should be provided for 
 
ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 227 
 
 these yards, so as to give variety to exercise, and to de- 
 velop every muscle of the body. Teachers should under- 
 stand the science and art of physical development, so as 
 to be able to encourage the adoption of such plays as will 
 be most likely to secure the desired result. 
 
 Having made the best possible disposition of the school- 
 buildings, and secured the desired open spaces for play- 
 grounds, the subject next to consider is that of "orna- 
 ment." While answering strictly utilitarian purposes, 
 the whole grounds may be so arranged as to become 
 educational influences ; first, by being attractive to the 
 pupils ; second, by affording them constant pleasure dur- 
 ing their school-days ; and third, by cultivating in them 
 a taste for the beautiful in nature. For the purposes of 
 ornament, trees are at once the most beautiful and the 
 most enduring. They can be procured at a very trifling 
 cost, wherever school-houses are built, and, unlike most 
 of things connected with schools, they increase in value and 
 beauty each successive year, nature assuming the cost, 
 and lavishing upon them her rarest beauties of color and 
 form. A. J. Downing, the great lover of nature, in his 
 work upon "Landscape G-ardening," thus speaks of trees, 
 and of their influence upon the mind : 
 
 "A tree, undoubtedly, is one of the most beautiful 
 objects in nature. Airy and delicate in its youth, luxuri- 
 ant and majestic in its prime, venerable and picturesque 
 in its old age, it constitutes in its various forms, sizes, and 
 developments, the greatest charm and beauty of the earth 
 in all countries. The most varied outline of surface, the 
 finest combination of picturesque materials, the stateliest 
 country house would be comparatively tame and spiritless 
 without the inimitable accompaniment of foliage. Let 
 those who have passed their whole lives in a richly-wooded 
 country — whose daily visions are of deep, leafy glens, 
 
228 onii sciiooL-iionsKS. 
 
 forest-clad liills, ;iii(l plains luxuriantly slnulcd -traii8|)ort 
 thomselvi's for a, nionicnl to tlu^ (h^scrt, wlH'r(^ but a few 
 stunlcd l)nsli(>s i-aisc (licir licjids above tlie earth ; or to 
 those wild steppes wlierc^ (he eye wanders in vain for 
 some 'leafy i2;aruiture' — where the suu strikes down with 
 j)ar('hiu[2; heat, or tlie wind sweeps over with unl)roken 
 fury, and (liey may, perhaps, eslinialc, by conli'ast, (heir 
 beauty jiiid vahic. 
 
 " Wood, ill its many shapes, is then one of the i;i'eatest 
 sources of interest and character in landsejipes. V' ariety, 
 which we need scarcely iillnde (o ;is a ferlile source of 
 bcjiuty, is crcMlcd in a woiuUM'ful deii;ree by a natural 
 ju'i-anjACMueid of trees. To a pile of bnildini2;s, or even of 
 ruins, to a i>;rouj) of rocks or animals, Ihey coniuuinicate 
 uew lite aud sj)irit, by their irrei»nhir outlines, which by 
 partially concealing; sonu' portions, and Ihrowinii' others 
 into stroni^'cr li.i;ht, contribute ji;reatly to produce intricacy 
 .and vari(>ty, and conliM-an (Expression which, without these 
 latter <pialities, nu^hl, in ;i i;-r(>at uunisure, be wautinii,-. 
 J>y shuttiuii; out sonu^ |)Mrls and inclosinti; others, they 
 divide (he exieni (Mnbi';ic(Ml by (he (\V(e into a hundred 
 dilferiMd landscapes, inslead of one tame scene boundml 
 by (he horizon. 
 
 "The dilferenl seasons of (he year, (oo. are inseparably 
 coniKM'led in our minds with (lu* elVecls pi'oduced by (hem 
 on woodland scciumt. Sprinsi; is joyous aud enliveniuL;- 
 to us, as nature IIumi puis on her fresh livery of oreen, 
 and (he trees bud and blossom wi(h a renewed beauty 
 that s[)eaks wi(h a mult^ and ^ende eloiiuence (o (he 
 lieart. In sununer (hey olVer us a gra(e(ul shelter under 
 (heir umbra<j;i>ous arms aud leafy branches, aud whisper 
 uuwritleu nuisic (o (he passing breeze. In autuuui we 
 feel a ineUuicholy thoughd'ulness as 
 
 * We stjiiid among the falling leave!?,' 
 
AIM{AN(MN(; AND OIIN A M KNTI N(J (liaXINDH. 229 
 
 jirid ^^',\:/,(\ upon (licir dyiii^ ii;l()ri('.s. y\ii(l in wiii(,(;r w(^ s(!« 
 in (li(5in I.Ik! silc.iil, rcsi of iiiiliii'c, iuid behold in iJicir Ic;),!"- 
 l(\ss sprays and HC(!inin«i,ly (hisul limbs an annual lyjx; of 
 tli;i,( (\(',v.\HW in3's(,(;i'y -the, <l('!illd(;ss sI(m;[) of all b(Mn^'. 
 
 " l»y Lli(^ judicious cniploynKMil of Inu^s, wo nniy vAYavX 
 the pjroatest alterations :i,n<i improvc^iiKuds within the 
 s('-()p(! of hindscapo <;:ii,rd(Hiin,t2;. iJuiidint^s whicJi ;m-(! lame, 
 insipid, oi' even mean in jippciiiranee, may be made inter- 
 esting-, jirul (!ven })i(;tures(ju(!, by n, |)rop(;r disposition of 
 trees. I<]dilie(;s, or parts of th(;m, that iii'e unsightly, or 
 which it is desirable [)artly or wholly to eoiux^al, can 
 readily Ix; hidden or improvcMJ by wood ; and walks and 
 roiuls, whic^li otln^'wise would be but simph; ways of 
 ii,|)[»roa(Oi from om; poird; to another, 5ir(i, by an (de^;aut 
 ;M'r;ui^(un(!iit of tribes on their inar^^in, oradjac(;nt to them, 
 made llie most in((;i"(!stinM; ;ind |)l(!asinp; portions of the 
 resid(!nce." 
 
 '{'here is an oj)portunity lor the exercise of ;i ji,r(!at 
 diversity of tastes, both in sehscting and in ar-ran^in^ 
 tr(!es lor ornamenting school-grounds. In s(d(!(;ting, tfu! 
 Ibliowing principles should ))e tjikcui as guides : First, 
 such tre(!S shoidd ho chos(!n 5is will harmoni/(! with the 
 g(!neral (eatur(\s of tin; landscape!. For (ixainph; : in a 
 hilly or V(!ry brok(^n r(;gion tlu! tidl, spii'y-to|)ped treses, 
 like the pine, (ii', spruc(!, and hendock, would be in k(!ep- 
 ing with the; mituraJ scen(;ry, but upon a wide;, ext(!nded 
 plain, they would app(!ar coini)aratively mean and incon- 
 gnious. The rourul-toj)ped and synim(!trical trees, like 
 th(; oak, ma,pl(!, and becsch, arcs much bett(!r ada[)ted to 
 \hv. (juiet Kcenery of a level i-(!gion than to the irr(!gular 
 outlines of a rough, mountainous surfacM!. Second, the 
 dillerc^nt varieties of trees s(dect(;d should harmonize with 
 each other. Although a vaiiedy is always desirable, yet 
 tlie dineresnt kinds chosen loi" any given s()ot or group 
 
230 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 € 
 
 should be somewhat similar in shape, so as not to present 
 too great a contrast. For example, a group consisting of 
 a maple, beech, and oak would be harmonious, while one 
 consisting of a Lombardy poplar, weeping-willow, and fir 
 would be incongruous. 
 
 For different purposes, also, different trees are to be 
 chosen. Some are selected to border an avenue or path, 
 ©- ^-^.... and some for mere shade ; some 
 # are to be placed singly, and 
 ^ some disposed in groups ; and 
 i different varieties of trees are 
 ^ particularly adapted to each 
 ease. For single trees, where 
 there is to be left sufficient space 
 for their entire expansion, in a 
 level or moderately hilly region, 
 there is no tree in grace or 
 beaut}'^ can surpass the drooping 
 elm. The maple is a noble tree, 
 
 -'^--^ jiSiJ and is admirably adapted for 
 
 either a situation as a single tree, 
 or as a member of a group. The oak and chestnut are 
 among the largest and noblest of all our trees, and either 
 may be taken for the central object of a group. The 
 weeping-willow appears best as a single tree, and in a 
 level tract of countr3^ The spruce, hemlock, ash, and 
 beech, from our common forests, all make beautiful shade 
 trees. Among other shade trees that can be easily pro- 
 cured in some sections of the country are the horse- 
 chestnut, locust, and hickory, the magnolia and cotton- 
 wood of the Southern States, and the buckeye and black 
 walnut of the West. The soft maple is highly valued as 
 an ornamental tree, on account of its red blossoms of early 
 spring, its dense green foliage in summer, and its beautiful 
 
ARRANGING AND ORNAMENTING GROUNDS. 231 
 
 dress of deep crimson after the first frost of autumn. To 
 conclude, there is scarcely a tree of our forests that would 
 not become a beautiful ornament, if transplanted and 
 nurtured with proper care. 
 
 The arrangement of trees should be the subject of 
 careful study. They are usually set out in straight rows, 
 without any regard to beauty of grouping, and effecting 
 no result except that of furnishing shade. The stiff for- 
 mality of their position goes far to destroy the effect of 
 their beautiful outlines, and thus the most important 
 objects of their culture are lost. When we bring into 
 immediate contrast the stateliness and formality of an 
 estate planted with trees in straight rows, with a 
 natural landscape, with trees and groves promiscu- 
 ously scattered over it, we can at once appreciate the 
 immeasurabty superior beauty of the latter scene over the 
 former. 
 
 Trees should be planted singly or in groups. Single 
 trees should be such as have a graceful and beautiful out- 
 line, and convey to the mind the feeling of completeness, 
 as the drooping elm, weeping-willow, and horse-chestnut. 
 Groups may consist of several kinds of trees, that are 
 harmonious in character, planted so closely together that 
 at a little distance they have the appearance of a single 
 object. They should always be composed of one principal 
 tree, larger and taller than the rest, with the others 
 grouped around it as subordinates. 
 
 These single trees and groups should be so disposed 
 about the school premises as not to interfere with the 
 play-grounds, and at the same time to produce as great a 
 variety as possible in the appearance of the landscape. If 
 the situation is a fine one, openings should be left to afford 
 views of distant objects, such as a lake, river, or moun- 
 tain, all of which objects will appear much more beautiful 
 
232 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 seen through a vista, bounded by the shifting foliage and 
 waving branches of the trees. 
 
 Shrubs that are commonly used for hedges should also 
 be thickly planted in gracefully curved lines, in such a 
 manner as to completely screen the approach to the out- 
 buildings, and to cover up such portions of the buildings 
 as should not be exposed to public gaze. Flowers might 
 also be cultivated to a limited extent, but, as a general 
 thing, they would not receive sufficient attention in our 
 country districts to insure their successful culture. 
 
 School-grounds arranged in this manner would become 
 great powers of refinement and important influences for 
 good. When trees are once planted, the winds, the sun, 
 and the rains carefully and assiduously nurture them, 
 supplying their ever}' want, and converting their puny 
 stalks into giant forms, until 
 
 " They stand massy, and tall, and dark, 
 Fit shrine for humble worshipper to hold 
 Communion with his Maker." 
 
 The first school impressions of childhood would be 
 associated with their graceful outlines, the wnving of their 
 branches, and the struggling of light down through green 
 leaves. Lessons of wisdom and beauty, which would 
 endure forever, could be continually gathered from their 
 trunks, their leaves, and their blossoms. The men that 
 planted them would perform a work directly aiding in the 
 elevation of humanity, and long after their forms have 
 mouldered in the dust, whole generations of children would 
 " rise up and call them blessed." 
 
CHAPTER XII. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE, 
 
 Ordinary use is not the only value of buildings. They 
 may be so constructed as to appeal to the higher senti- 
 ments, and render important aid in develop- 
 ing the better and finer feelings of our 
 nature. This is the proper province of 
 architecture, and the work of the architect 
 is to so fashion our buildings and arrange 
 their details, that while they answer the 
 purposes of their erection, they may, at the 
 same time, satisfy that love of the beautiful, 
 the symmetrical, and the harmonious. 
 
 In this country too little attention has 
 yet been given to those things which elevate 
 and refine. The entire energies of our peo- 
 ple were early and exclusively devoted to 
 subduing the wilderness and providing the necessaries of 
 life. They could bestow no time on pursuits which did 
 not directly conduce to the simplest ends of human exist- 
 ence. Consequently, their descendants are a prompt, 
 resolute, and vigorous race. But the arts of refinement 
 which were, at first, through absolute necessity, neglected, 
 are now habitually despised or disregarded. No people 
 on earth who have attained to an equal degree of intel- 
 lectual and moral culture, evince so little taste and refine- 
 ment. 
 
 Fig. 95. 
 
234 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 We begin, however, to discern the dawning of a better 
 day. We begin to feel that there are wants in our nature 
 that are not to be satisfied by mere material appliances. 
 We begin to appreciate the beautiful, and its influence in 
 developing our higher powers. P]vidences of this change 
 of public sentiment ma}' be found in the attention now 
 paid to art, in the patronage bestowed upon artists, and 
 in the improvement of the architecture of public buildings 
 and private residences in many parts of the country. The 
 results of this improved sentiment react upon the com- 
 munity, softening the sharp features of our national char- 
 acter, multiplying those little amenities which give grace, 
 beauty, and diguit}' to our life, and even aiding to develop 
 the Christian virtues of faith and charity. 
 
 Numerous and potent are the influences furnished by 
 literature for the cultivation of the taste ; but impressions 
 more vivid and lasting may be made by the presentation 
 to the senses of sublime or beautiful objects, such as 
 natural scener}^ landscape improved by art, and the best 
 productions of sculpture, painting, and architecture. 
 
 Of the various influences which tend to mature and 
 refine the taste, we have occasion, in this work, to refer 
 only to those of architecture. The importance and neces- 
 sity of this art to the great work of education 
 we shall endeavor to show. 
 
 Architecture, primarily, deals only with 
 forms which address the eye. It embodies 
 ideas of proportion, symmetry, variety, har- 
 mony, and unity. 
 
 By Proportion is meant that due relation 
 
 which should exist between the different dimen- 
 
 Fig. 96. sions of a building, in order to convey the idea 
 
 of correctness. We frequently see buildings in which 
 
 this principle is violated, and are pained at the want of 
 
AECHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE. 235 
 
 taste so prominently displayed. Buildings too long for 
 their height, too high for their length, or too wide for 
 either, appear to be the "rule," rather than the "excep- 
 tion j" yet a well-proportioned structure is immediately 
 and. almost universall}'' recognized as such, and cannot 
 fail to afford general satisfaction and delight. 
 
 Symmetry requires a proper balance of parts. The 
 regular placing of doors and windows, and the disposal of 
 all the details, so that none shall seem out of place, are in 
 obedience to this principle. 
 
 Variety is the opposite of monotony, and would induce 
 us to relieve blank walls in some manner, and to break up 
 long horizontal lines, so as to produce an agreeable effect, 
 like that made by a diversified landscape, or a number of 
 views in nature, each differing from the other. This would 
 lead us also to obviate sameness in a range of buildings, 
 and, within certain limits, to give diversity to details. It 
 would forbid the erection of those vast square or oblong 
 piles of brick and mortar, which now so frequently bur- 
 den, without adorning, the face of the earth. 
 
 Harmony may be defined as the limit of variety. It is 
 that peculiar relation which all the parts should have to 
 each other, producing in the mind a sense of completeness 
 and adaptation. It allows no incongruities, and indulges 
 in no conceits. Harmony in architecture, as in music, so 
 arranges and blends the different parts, that each seems an 
 indispensable element of a perfect whole. 
 
 Unity refers to the evident design which pervades the 
 structure ; the one idea, which has not only harmonized 
 the parts with each other, but adapted the whole to its 
 uses. In accordance with this principle, while all the 
 other laws of taste in architecture should be observed, 
 they should be subordinated to the object of the con- 
 struction. 
 
236 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. ^ 
 
 As the mind becomes familiar with beautiful objects, 
 and with the laws of beauty, its sensibility to moral excel- 
 lence is cultivated, the manners are conformed to 
 the principles of harmony, and the effects pro- 
 duced upon the whole man are of the most bene- 
 ficial and lasting character. The influence ascribed 
 by Plato, in his Republic, to a musical education, 
 Fig. 97. may be predicated with equal truth of a judicious 
 culture in this department of art. It is essential, he says, 
 "because it makes rhythm and harmony to settle deeply 
 in the inner soul, and take strong hold of it, carrying 
 with them comeliness, and making a man comely-minded. 
 Also, because one so nurtured will have the quickest per- 
 ception of all faults and imperfections in art or nature, 
 and, regarding them with just aversion, will admire and 
 love the beautiful. This he will receive with joy into his 
 soul, will feed on it, and assimilate his own nature to its 
 beauty, will learn to censure and hate deformity, even in 
 early youth, while yet incapable of under standAng the reason 
 why, and when the reason comes, will embrace it gladly, 
 as a familiar thing." 
 
 In those countries where architecture has reached its 
 highest development, taste and refinement exert their 
 greatest influence. As an instance of the refining effect of 
 beautiful objects, the fact might be mentioned that, in 
 many of the old countries, sculptured decorations in 
 architecture have remained for ages uninjured, save by 
 the elements ; and that even after the edifices they once 
 adorned have fallen into ruin, veneration seems to have 
 shielded these trophies of art from profanation. In our 
 more logical and practical communities, the destructive 
 passion would be restrained by no such sentiment ; and 
 not twent3"-four hours would elapse after an old building 
 of celebrity had been abandoned, before fragments would 
 
ARCHITECTURE AN EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE. 237 
 
 be chipped off for mementoes, or pounded to pieces, to 
 satisfy the analytical spirit of some ruthless traveller. 
 Beauty of form, however, seems, in some measure, to 
 afford protection. An old or mean-looking building, 
 deserted or unoccupied, is a target for boys, and even for 
 children of a larger growth ; and every one feels an 
 instinctive desire to rid the earth of such deformity. But 
 a complete and beautiful structure generally enjoys a 
 longer, if not an entire, exemption from injury. When 
 taste is really and universally cultivated, there will be no 
 danger of the wanton desecration of beautiful objects. 
 
 In the erection of every school-house particular care 
 should be taken to observe the rules of taste as regards 
 form. In our country districts, where a small 
 and plain building only is demanded, we need to 
 consider proportion and symmetry alone ; the 
 other principles of architecture applying chiefly 
 to larger and more pretending structures. If ^'"' ^** 
 this is done, if our school-houses all conform to these 
 two fundamental laws, they cannot fail to become strong 
 educational influences. The advantages of obeying the 
 principles of architecture in the construction of school- 
 houses may be summed up in a few words : 
 
 1. If the building is an object of beauty, the very sight 
 of it inspires emotions of pleasure. 
 
 2. It adorns and beautifies the landscape of which it 
 forms a part. 
 
 3. It becomes an attractive place to children, and does 
 not repel them by its deformity. 
 
 4. It practically teaches ideas of proportion and sym- 
 metry, and new and exalted conceptions of beauty of form. 
 
 5. It throws over property the shield of beauty, and so 
 checks, and finally eradicates the rudeness which is stimu- 
 lated by deformity. 
 
238 
 
 OUR SCHOOL-HOUSES. 
 
 6. It forms one of those influences which have most 
 power over the heart and affections, directly aiding the 
 teacher in the most difficult and important part of his 
 work. 
 
 Let this principle be remembered by all : " That school- 
 houses, however small, should never be built without 
 conforming to those general principles of taste which are 
 universally recognized by cultivated people," so that if 
 they do not exert a positive influence in elevating taste, 
 at least they will have the negative excellence of not 
 violating it. The work of education in those higher de- 
 partments, which recognizes beauty both of form and 
 morals, and the subtile and mysterious relations which 
 exist between the two, at best, is an onerous and difficult 
 one, and every external influence which assists in for- 
 warding it becomes a positive benefit. 
 
 Fig. 99. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 GRADED SCHOOLS. 
 
 The general consolidation of separate districts into town schools 
 must give a renewed impulse to the bnilding of school-houses. The 
 supervision of schools passing into the hands of more experienced 
 and thoughtful men cannot fail to exert a beneficial influence in 
 this direction. The following extracts, from the report of the Hon. 
 A. E. Rankin, Secretary of the Vermont Board of Education, in 
 1869, contain unanswerable arguments in favor of the abolishment 
 of the old, isolated district system. Although designed specially 
 for Vermont, the same arguments will apply to other parts of tlie 
 country as well. 
 
 TOWN SYSTEM VEESUS DISTEICT SYSTEM. 
 
 While we strive assiduously so to economize as not to increase 
 the expense of our educational system, we do not take proper pains 
 that the money which is annually expended shall be so applied as 
 to secure the largest return. 
 
 Let me enumerate some of the prominent obstacles which are in 
 the way of the greater efficiency of our schools : 
 
 1. Total lack of or insufficient supervision. 
 
 2. Constant change of supervision. 
 
 3. Poorly qualified teachers. 
 
 4. Constant change of teachers. 
 
 5. Lack of interest in schools on the part of patrons. 
 
 6. Employment of relatives and favorites without regard to 
 qualifications. 
 
 Y. Too small schools in many districts. 
 
240 APPENDIX. 
 
 8. Too short schools in small districts. 
 
 9. Employment of immature and incompetent teachers in small 
 districts. 
 
 10. Poor school-honses. 
 
 11. Irregular attendance. 
 
 12. General lack of facilities to aid the teacher. 
 
 13. No schools at all in many districts. 
 
 14. Lack of proper classification. 
 
 15. Pupils study what they choose, and not what they ought. 
 
 These twice seven and one plagues of our common-school sys- 
 tem will be recognized by every one who has had any experience 
 in connection with the public schools of the State. 
 
 If it could be shown that this nest of evils which so impairs the 
 efficiency of our schools could in some measure be removed by a 
 radical change of system, no one surely would oppose such change. 
 
 I am confident that these evils may in very great measure be 
 alleviated by a change in our system of public schools. I believe 
 that the adoption of what is called the town system, in contradis- 
 tinction from the district system, would tend largely to diminish 
 them. 
 
 I know there are obstacles in the way of the consummation of 
 so desirable an end as the reduction of the number of schools. 
 But if it can satisfactorily be shown that there can be not only a 
 large saving in expense, but that our schools can be increased in 
 efficiency, I doubt not these obstacles can be removed. Let us, in 
 a somewhat general way, discuss some of the disadvantages which 
 result from the present system. 
 
 Teachers understand how impossible it is to secure in a small 
 school, or in a small class, that healthful and proper stimulus which 
 is almost an incident to the large school or the large class. One 
 who has himself ever been an entire class, or one of two or three 
 constituting a class, will remember how difficult it was to create in 
 himself any such measure of interest as would make the labor of 
 preparation other than a dreary task. And this evil extends to the 
 teacher as well as to the pupil. He, too, needs stimulus. 
 
 The small district fails to secure that aggregate of interest on 
 the part of the inhabitants toward the school which is essential to 
 make it successful. This aggregate of interest is the sum total ot 
 individual interest. Five families have less interest in a school 
 
APPENDIX. 241 
 
 than have ten, ten less than fifteen, and so on. The teacher tlius 
 receives less stimulus from his surroundings in small than in large 
 districts. So with the pupils. 
 
 A careful examination of the statute will disclose the fact that 
 the duties imposed upon the school committee are the most im- 
 portant duties committed to the citizens of the State ; that in their 
 keeping are the highest interests of the State. Properly to dis- 
 charge the duties of this office, one should possess high moral 
 character, great natural endowments, large measure of mental dis- 
 cipline, an unusual degree of intelligence, good practical common 
 sense, broad and liberal views, sound judgment, and a fervent love 
 for the welfare of the State, quickened by the recognition of the 
 fact that its permanence and security depend upon the efficiency 
 of its schools. 
 
 Under the present system, the educational interests of the town 
 are in the keeping of from thirty to one hundred officials, consist- 
 ing of prudential committee, district clerks, the town clerk, and 
 the superintendent. What town in the State can furnish this 
 maximum number of men, competent to hold this important trust ? 
 How many of the two hundred and forty-three towns of the State 
 could furnish the maximum number ? How many could not fur- 
 nisli five men who, by native gifts and acquirements, are fitted for 
 these duties ? 
 
 Is not our present system defective in that it requires too many 
 officers ? The average number of individuals in each town, who 
 are the school officers of the town, will be found to be from fifty 
 to sixty, if we estimate three prudential committees to each dis- 
 trict ; the whole number of school officers in the State, something 
 more than twelve thousand. Such an army ought to do the work 
 well, we say. Yet, who does not believe that one-fifth the number 
 would do it far better ? This gives one school officer for every 
 seven school children. What an absurdity ! Who believes in this 
 multiplicity of supervisors, which almost inevitably results in no 
 supervision at all ? Why not elect a board of selectmen, fifty in 
 number ? Who would care to live in a town thus supervised ? Is 
 it not that three men are found better than fifty, that three are 
 elected ? Six men competent for the duties of the school depart- 
 ment of the town would be infinitely more efficient than fifty, even 
 if it were possible to secure fifty men as competent as the six. 
 
 16 
 
242 APPENDIX. 
 
 But this large number of scliool officers necessitates the selec- 
 tion of incompetent men, many of whom have little interest and 
 less ability. The average ability of six of the best men of a town 
 is, let us say, twice as great as the average ability of the best 
 twelve, and four times as great as the average ability of the best 
 twenty-four, and eight times as great as that of the best forty- 
 eight. This is not perhaps the exact ratio, but it illustrates what 
 is meaiifc, that within certain limits, just in proportion as you in- 
 crease the size of your board, just in that proportion do you di- 
 minish its aggregate of ability and efficiency. Six men of inferior 
 ability, associated with six men of superior ability, give for a re- 
 sultant a mean between the two ; this is when they are properly 
 disposed and work with some degree of harmony ; when not so 
 disposed, the former may and often do neutralize the efficiency of 
 the latter. I believe, then, in this regard, that our system is radi- 
 cally defective, that it necessitates a train of evils which cannot be 
 averted while it exists ; that in no other department of the govern- 
 ment can be found such inefficiencyj misjudgment, mismanage- 
 ment, and general demoralization. It may seem presumptuous in 
 me to attack a system which has been in operation for so many 
 years, and to which the people have become attached, which has 
 resulted in so great good to the State, and has given Vermont a 
 prestige in which her sojis may well feel an honest pride. But it 
 is unwise to allow the success of the public schools of the past to 
 blind us to the defects of our system. We must not forget that 
 the position of the State, like that of the individual, is relative. 
 "While our sister States were reaping a lesser percentage of profit 
 than the percentage which, by the faithfulness of the friends of 
 education, was secured to Vermont, in spite of our monstrous and 
 hydra-headed system, we held a position of honor and eminence. 
 But to-day, when other States, by abolishing or modifying old sys- 
 tems, and thereby utilizing a larger percentage of their working 
 power, that very position which was but just now one of superi- 
 ority has become one of inferiority. 
 
 The State is a unit, for certain purposes. The county is a imit, 
 for certain purposes. The town is a unit, for certain other pur- 
 poses. For the purposes of education the district has been re- 
 garded as a unit. For almost every other purpose the town has 
 been found to be the true unit. Indeed, in several respects, in the 
 
APPENDIX. 243 
 
 educational department even, the town district system prevails. 
 Would it not be wiser to make the town a unit for educational 
 purposes ? This question merits further discussion. 
 
 It is quite natural to think that a teacher who can be secured for 
 a small stipend will answer for a " small school," so that small 
 schools will in general be taught by teachers who could not secure 
 situations in larger ones, and would fail if they did. 
 
 Small districts will be likely to have poor school-houses. The 
 expense of building and repairing falls heavily upon ten or a dozen 
 tax-payers. And the old school-houses, many of them unfit even 
 for stalled cattle, will have to serve till that time when we have 
 grown wiser and adopted a new order of things ; for there is no 
 hope under the present system that the future will afibrd relief. 
 The population, except at business centres, is year by year gradu- 
 ally growing less. 
 
 Small districts are far less likely to furnish those facilities for 
 illustration and reference so necessary to the teacher. Indeed, 
 everything which involves an expenditure is likely to remain un- 
 done. The committee-man feels like being very economical when 
 he reflects that he will be assessed one-tenth of any expenditure ; so 
 that globes, dictionaries, and maps, and all school-apparatus, arc 
 excluded from the school. 
 
 Change from the district to the town system would result in a 
 more efiicient supervision. Almost every town can select a board 
 of men competent to look after the interests of the public school. 
 This is not true of one-half of the districts of the State. A choice 
 from ten men gives poorer chance of proper supervision than a 
 choice from three or five hundred. 
 
 Such change would result in a more permanent supervision. 
 Small communities are more severely democratic than larger ones. 
 Every man must have his share of the honor, and take his turn 
 at the wheel, without regard to competency. 
 
 Making one central board of supervision would render possible 
 competitive examinations, which are now practically impossible. 
 Such examinations would immediately shut out the most incom- 
 petent of our teachers. They would discourage girls, scarcely 
 beyond the age which the law designates as infancy^ from seeking 
 places in om* schools as teachers, when they should be there as 
 pupils. 
 
244 APPENDIX. 
 
 Fewer daugliters, and nieces, and wives' sisters would be em- 
 ployed. Even w4ien they are thoroughly competent, their employ- 
 ment is often seen to aAvaken such spirit of antagonism as will 
 impair the efficiency of the school. Nepotism is as baneful an 
 evil in the politics of the school district as in the broader field of 
 the State and the nation. 
 
 Again, a better class of teachers would be secured in the smaller 
 districts. It could not be expected that all the schools of a town 
 would be of equal size. The larger ones, the village schools, as 
 now, would secure the best teachers without regard to expense. 
 The lesser communities, noticing that they were obliged to help 
 support good schools and pay large prices to the teachers of the 
 larger schools, \vould very soon begin to feel that if they were 
 obliged to help support good schools for their townsmen, it would 
 be wise for them to compel their townsmen to help sustain good 
 schools for them. 
 
 This change of supervision would tend to remove the evil of a 
 constant change of teachers. Permanency of supervision would 
 result in permanency of teachers. The frequency of change in 
 teachers is a most alarming evil with us. It breaks up all con- 
 nection between one term and another. Each teacher has his own 
 w^avs, and it takes some time to get out of the old ways and into 
 the new, and quite a portion of each term is spent in getting 
 started. It thus often happens that a terra is one-third spent 
 before the work is well begun. It requires a term of ordinary 
 length for a teacher to become familiar with the peculiar charac- 
 teristics of his pupils. No very efficient work can be done till this 
 is Icnown. He has first to learn their needs and their capacities 
 before he can adapt his instruction to the necessities of each pupil. 
 An ordinary teacher, who has taught a school for one terra, will 
 do more for that school than one of superior endowments and 
 acquirements who is an entire stranger to the wants of the school. 
 Perpetual change of teachers and inspectors of schools utterly 
 ignores the value of experience. I can conceive of no remedy for 
 these evils which will be Ukely to prove so efficient as this change 
 of system. 
 
 Again, this change would result in a democratic equalization of 
 the burden of supporting schools. It now costs each tax-payer in 
 .a small district more to support a poor school than it costs the tax- 
 
APPENDIX. 245 
 
 payer in the larger district to support a good school. Statistics 
 show that the expense per pupil increases in the inverse ratio as 
 the size of the school diminishes. 
 
 Why should not taxation for the support of schools be equal- 
 ized ? Equity demands that it should. Every reason which can 
 be urged in favor of good schools demands that it should. 
 
 The district system stands in the way of the introduction of the 
 graded system. I make tliis statement upon the supposition that 
 there is no probability that district lines will be changed until 
 some other than the district system is adopted. True, this might 
 be done. Districts might be reorganized and their geographical 
 boundaries changed ; but they never will be while the old system 
 remains. 
 
 JSIo one, I suppose, at this day assumes to doubt the wisdom of 
 the application of the principle of division of labor, as applied to 
 the mechanical pursuits. The manufacturer who should require 
 each workman to make all parts of a watch, would find that he 
 could not compete with his rival who put each workman upon a 
 single piece. Even in the manufacture of boots and shoes, where 
 no great mechanical genius is required, it is found to be economy 
 to allow each man to do a distinct part, so that the boot or shoe is 
 not the work of one hand, but of several. Confined to one class 
 of work, the workman becomes more skillful, and turns off work 
 more rapidly ; his tools are fewer and ready at hand, and there is 
 no loss of time in changing from one piece to another. If this be 
 economy in the mechanical pursuits, how much more apparent is 
 the wisdom of applying this principle to the more delicate and 
 responsible work of developing and training the human mind ? 
 
 Now this i& the principle upon which the graded school is based. 
 It is found that the teacher who teaches a few branches, and con- 
 centrates all his time and efforts upon these branches, can give 
 more efficient instruction than the one who attempts to teach all. 
 It is upon this principle, in part, that each college professor has 
 his distinct department. To this may be added the reasonable 
 expectation that if one has to teach but one department or grade, 
 he will be likely to work in that department or grade where he 
 can work with the most ease to hinaself, and consequently with 
 the greatest profit to the school. Teachers who are eminently 
 successful in one grade, are oftentimes eminently unsuccessftil in 
 
246 APPENDIX. 
 
 another grade of the same department ; so that they, like other 
 workmen, soon ascertain what their special province is, and adapt 
 themselves to it. 
 
 This, however, is not the most substantial argument in favor of 
 grading schools. A graded school is simply a classified school. 
 Every one knows, who is at all familiar with schools, that their 
 success depends very largely upon their classification. It requires 
 just as much time to instruct one individual as to instruct a class 
 — just as long to instruct a class of three as a class of twenty. If 
 your school has as many classes as individuals, and this often hap- 
 pens in small schools, the teacher's time is frittered away to little 
 purpose. No school whose curriculum comprises all the studies 
 from the A B C to the highest branches taught in the common 
 school, can be thoroughly classified without having more classes 
 tlian the teacher can well instruct. 
 
 If your district has one hundred and twenty-five pupils, it is 
 evidently good economy, instead of dividing them without regard 
 to advancement, and thus making the curriculum of each school 
 as comprehensive as the curriculum of the whole would have been, 
 to divide them with reference to advancement, thereby diminish- 
 ing the number of classes in each department to one-third or 
 one-fourth the number which would otherwise be required. And 
 probably it will be found that the number of pupils which would 
 require four teachers without proper classification, would, when 
 classified, be well taught by three teachers, at a saving of one-fourth 
 the expense, and with far better results. 
 
 Every teacher knows how difficult it is to make an impression 
 upon a heterogeneous mass grouped together and called a class — 
 made up of pupils pursuing the same studies, indeed — but of 
 diverse age, diverse capacity, and diverse acquirement, as is usual 
 in an ungraded school. 
 
 The more gifted and accomplished are held back, while those 
 of lesser gifts and acquirements are dragged on beyond their 
 strength. The former grow lazy and indift'erent ; the latter dis- 
 couraged and disgusted. The former acquire an overweening 
 confidence in their own abilities ; the latter fail to cultivate that 
 healthful self-appreciation essential to success, which is naturally 
 developed by association with one's peers. Thus it happens that 
 all stimulus, both to the bright and the dull, is removed. 
 
APPENDIX. 247 
 
 Besides, it is impossible for any teacher to adapt his instruction 
 to the varied capacities and diverse accomplishments of unclassified 
 classes. This is difficult enough in a class which has been selected 
 and grouped with reference to like capacities and similar acquire- 
 ments. If he adapts his instruction to the more advanced, it will be 
 beyond the comprehension of those less advanced. If, on the other 
 hand, it is adapted to the needs of those less gifted, it becomes 
 tedious and uninstructive to the others. Thus will all the intei-est 
 be dissipated, while, if well classified, each individual spirits the 
 other. Mutual labor and mutual sympathy are powerful stimu- 
 lants, especially to the young. Each spurs and supports the other, 
 and industry and diligence is secured in all. 
 
 Again, the graded school furnishes additional inducement to 
 eflbrt in this way : Each class has its specific work, and no 
 advancement to a higher grade can be secured until that work is 
 done. Each grade is a position which cannot be reached except 
 by passing step by step all the intermediate ground. The pupils 
 in each grade have the perpetual incitement of their more advanced 
 associates. From one grade to another is to them a long stride. 
 It seems a thing worthy to strive for. !N^ow these stimulants are 
 especially needed by slow and not over-gifted minds, and to this 
 class a majority of children belong. The result is that progress 
 is far more rapid and thorough in a graded than in an ungraded 
 school. 
 
 Still, again, the graded system secures a systematic course of 
 education. Each pupil does not for himself, nor can his parents 
 for him, elect this study or that, as whim or caprice may dictate. 
 He must take each in due time and order. That course of study 
 is prescribed which will secure the best and most symmetrical 
 mental development, embracing those studies a knowledge of 
 which is likely to prove of the most practical benefit to the pupil 
 in the business pursuits of after-life. 
 
 People sometimes wonder that academies do not flourish as they 
 did years ago. They are not only dying out in Vermont, but all 
 over the country. Massachusetts has but few left, and these are 
 for the most part graded academies. The same process is going 
 on in New York. Within the last few years one-third of the 
 academies in this State have become extinct. The truth is, the 
 old academic system is dead, and the sooner it is buried beyond 
 
248 APPENDIX. 
 
 resurrection, the better. It served in its day and generation, but 
 belongs to the past. While we honor it for the good it has done, 
 if we are wise, we shall lay it away in a napkin. It has been sup- 
 planted by something which is better. I speak only of ungraded 
 academies. 
 
 The material difference between the academy and the graded 
 high-school is, that the latter is classified, while the former, gath- 
 ering its pupils as it does from a large circuit, and changing in its 
 elements from term to term, cannot be classified. 
 
 The graded school has also this other advantage, that it is dem- 
 ocratic. All must contribute to its support, and all may avail 
 themselves of its advantages. 
 
 These graded schools have been established in many of the large 
 towns of Vermont. There are many other towns which desire and 
 are working to secure them. A large proportion of the villages 
 of the State have, within a radius of a mile and a half, pupils in 
 sufficient numbers to make from two to four grades. The obstacles 
 in the way are the old district lines. They are held in a sort of 
 reverence. I don't know but the people somehow connect them 
 with that passage of Holy Writ which pronounces maledictions 
 upon those who remove ancient landmarks. It would be about as 
 easy to remove the equator as to disturb one of these ancient lines. 
 Yermonters seem to hate everything which savors of innovation. 
 But we must not forget that dislike of innovation is often a serious 
 obstacle to progress. The people will be slow to move in this 
 direction. It is the duty of the legislature to step in and take the 
 responsibility, if it can be seen to be a measure which should be 
 secured. 
 
 It is thought that these schools are more expensive. But a greater 
 percentage of profit is often secured by a greater expenditure. 
 And it must not be forgotten that there is an element of profit 
 which cannot be directly and positively estimated. It is that in- 
 fluence which a good school ha§ upon the prosperity of a place. 
 It is often of more material advantage than a manufacturing 
 company. 
 
 It may be doubted if the aggregate of expenditure for educa- 
 tional purposes is greater in a village where there is a well-organized 
 and judiciously-managed graded school, than in a village of the 
 same size where the old system exists. For, from the expense of 
 
APPENDIX. 249 
 
 the graded school, if it be what it should be, may be deducted the 
 expenditure of the support of a dozen, and oftentimes more, chil- 
 dren, who from lack of proper educational facilities at home, are 
 compelled to go abroad. And beyond doubt, home is the place to 
 educate children. Besides, a good graded school has an income 
 secured by the attendance of pupils from abroad. We must also, 
 in this connection, remember that the many whose means will not 
 allow them to send their children away to better schools, are 
 abridged in the privileges which they might enjoy, had they all 
 the facilities they are entitled to at home. 
 
 This is the material view of the case. Go into any of our towns 
 which have been blessed with a good school for forty or fifty years, 
 and you will find the aggregate of intelligence to be far greater 
 than in those towns which have enjoyed less educational facilities. 
 Is the intelligence of its inhabitants nothing to a town ? Is not 
 the expenditure which shall secure this a good investment ? True, 
 we cannot estimate it in greenbacks ; yet it is an investment that 
 will make its return in kind. It is an invariable rule that the per- 
 centage of increase of valuation of property in any community is 
 in the direct ratio of the increase of intelligence and virtue. 
 
 Every citizen of extraordinary intelligence, or extraordinary vir- 
 tue, enhances the value of all property of the town in which he 
 lives. By iust so much as you add to the virtue and intelligence 
 of the inhabitants of the town, do you add to the value of its 
 acres. It is thus that it is true that " every man's sin is every 
 other man's business." It is just as true that every man's igno- 
 rance is every other man's business. 
 
 Hon. Henry Barnard thus sets forth the evils that result from 
 the lack of proper classification of schools : 
 
 " From the number of class and individual recitations, to be at- 
 tended to during each half-day, these exercises are brief, hurried, and 
 of little practical value. They consist, for the most part, of sense- 
 less repetitions of the words of a book. Instead of being the time 
 and place where the real business of teaching is done, where the 
 ploughshare of interrogation is driven down into the acquirements 
 of each pupil, and his ability to comprehend clearly is cultivated 
 and tested ; where the difficult principles of each lesson are de- 
 veloped and illustrated, and additional information imparted, and 
 the mind of the teacher brought in direct contact with the mind 
 of each pupil, to arouse, interest, and direct its opening powers ; 
 
250 APPENDIX. 
 
 instead of all this and more, the brief period passed in recitation, 
 consists, on the part of each teacher, of hearing each individual 
 and class, in regular order and quick succession, repeat words from 
 a book, and on the part of the pupils, of saying their lessons, as 
 the operation is most signilicantly described by most teachers, 
 when they summon the class to the stand. In the mean time the 
 order of the school must be maintained, and the general business 
 must go forward. Little children, without any authorized employ- 
 ment for their eyes and hands, and ever active curiosity, must be 
 made to sit still, while every muscle is aching from suppressed 
 activity ; problems must be solved, excuses for tardiness or absence 
 received, questions answered, whisperings allowed or suppressed, 
 and more or less of extempore discipline administered. Were it 
 not a most ruinous waste of precious time, — did it not involve the 
 deadening, crushing, distorting, dwarfing of immortal faculties and 
 noble sensibilities, — were it not an utter perversion of the noble 
 objects for which schools are instituted, it would be difficult to con- 
 ceive of a more diverting farce than an ordinary session of a large 
 public school, whose chaotic and discordant elements have not 
 been reduced to system by proper classification. The teacher, at 
 least the conscientious teacher, thinks it anything but a farce to 
 him. Compelled to hurry from one study to another, requiring a 
 knowledge of methods altogether distinct ; from one recitation to 
 another, equally brief and unsatisfactory, one requiring a liveliness 
 of manner that he does not feel and cannot assume, and the other 
 closeness of attention and abstraction of thought, which, he cannot 
 give amid the multij)licity and variety of cares ; from one case of 
 discipHne to another pressing on him at the same tiAe — he goes 
 through the same circuit, day after day, with a dizzy brain and 
 aching heart, and brings his school to a close with a feeling that 
 with all liis diligence and fidelity he has accomplished but little 
 good." 
 
 It may be urged against the abrogation of this old system, that 
 the people will not willingly surrender these powers which the 
 statute has conferred upon them, — the controlling of their own 
 schools. But they surrender no power. It still remains in their 
 hands. The only difierence is that they act upon the matter 
 in a larger assemblage, and under certain restraints which will be 
 likely to insure better results. 
 
 A small minority in a district meeting often, by preconcerted 
 action, can prevent the having schools at all, or limit them to the 
 shortest possible time, or impair their usefulness when in opera- 
 tion. Now these ends could not be obtained in the town meeting. 
 
APPENDIX. 251 
 
 It is far more likely that wise and judicious measures will be 
 adopted in a town than in a district meeting, both on account of 
 the healthful counterbalance which is always found in a larger 
 assemblage, made up of many who have no personal and direct in- 
 terest in the matter upon which they act, as well as from the fact 
 that the controlling minds in the former are likely to be wiser and 
 of greater experience. I think it is true, as Mr. Boutwell suggests 
 in a paper which I append, that the district system is thoroughly 
 anti-republican. It may secure what is thought to be the greatest 
 good to the greatest number, but it often utterly fails to secure the 
 gi'eatest aggregate of good to all, which is the end that true re- 
 publicanism aims to secure. 
 
 It may be objected that it would not be right to compel chil- 
 dren to go so far to school, as would be necessary if districts were 
 consolidated. It certainly would be right if thereby greater good 
 would come to the State. The State certainly has the right to 
 regulate and control in all matters upon which the efficiency of its 
 schools depends. Nor is it simply a right ; it is a sacred duty. 
 "Which is better for the child, that he shall go a half-mile to a poor 
 school, or that he should go twice or thrice that distance to a good 
 school ? It would be far cheaper for those residing in the remote 
 parts of a district to carry their children — each taking his turn, or 
 together hiring some one to do this — than to support a school by 
 themselves. 
 
 The following remarks upon this point, which I have chanced 
 upon since writing the above, from the Report of the Agent of the 
 Board of Education for Massachusetts for the year 1869, are wor- 
 thy of perusal : 
 
 " In one district a school has been kept for a single scholar at an 
 expense of between $60 and $70. In almost every town that I 
 have visited I am satisfied this difficulty could be remedied, with- 
 out great inconvenience, by reducing the number of schools, thus 
 giving to each a larger number of pupils, and with no more, but 
 perhaps even less, money than has heretofore been annually appro- 
 priated, securing for them all a longer period of instruction and a 
 better class of teachers. It was said very truthfully, a few years 
 since, by the committee of a town in Franklin County, — the one to 
 which I have referred as quite recently manifesting such opposition 
 to the legal requirement, — in which, with one hundred and twenty- 
 three school children, there were ten districts, some containing 
 
252 APPENDIX. 
 
 * not more than four or five scholars,' such a ' town ought to appro- 
 priate more money, or reduce the number of districts.' ' Ixeducing 
 the number of schools from ten to six, which we think mii^ht be 
 done without g-reat inconvenience to the people, would save the 
 exj^ense ot' maintaining fom* schools, and the schools would in our 
 opinion be greatly improved, a better class of teachers employed, 
 and the intellectual, social, and moral condition of the schools 
 would be promoted. It will be said that in a spai'se population 
 like ours, the trouble of collecting all our scholai-s into six schools 
 would more than balance the advantages, especially in winter. 
 This objection is more specious than solid. In almost all the dis- 
 tricts, those who have fenuile scholars attending, convey them to 
 and from school in their sleighs or sleds, and when the horse is 
 harnessed it makes but little ditference whether you drive him one 
 mile or two ; at the same time j'ou are beating the snow and open- 
 ing good roads to the traveller, and bettering the social condition 
 ofVour neighborhood. But one practical trutli is more convincing 
 than many theories. How do we act when the money is drawn 
 directly from our own pockets, as it is in supporting private or 
 select schools 'i "Would the town sustain ten private schools to 
 save travel ? Do they not devise ' ways and means' to get to 
 school beyond the limits of their own districts i Suppose there 
 were lifty' scholars in town to attend those schools, would any one 
 tliink it worth M-hile to have live schools, because it might save a 
 little travel or other inconvenience i AVhy should we be more 
 careful o^ money when we pay it voluntarily, than when it is 
 drawn from us in the form of taxes ?" 
 
 Now I assume that every tax-payer of Vermont has a direct in- 
 terest in any change which will insure the best possible schools at 
 the least expense, and will not refuse to countenance and encour- 
 age any change which will secure better schools at a less cost ; for 
 we are proverbially a thrifty people. 
 
 "Wise men learn from the experience of othei-s. If the experi- 
 ence of othei-s is less impressive than our own, it has at least the 
 advantage of being tar cheaper. 
 
 Sevenil of our sister States, which had formerly a district system 
 similar to om- own, have abolished that system and substituted 
 therefor the system of town supervision, which places the schools 
 of the town under the control of a town board, elected by the 
 town. In some instances this change has been secured gradually 
 — legislatures authorizing towns to change when they vote so to 
 do. Of course this gradual change is slow. I cannot ascertain 
 
APPENDIX. 253 
 
 that any State which has once inaugurated the movement has been 
 wining to go back to the old order of things. And it is stated by 
 Secretary Jjoutwell that no town in Massachusetts, tliat had tried 
 the new order for two years, ever turned to the old. These facts 
 are significant. 
 
 I append an extract from one of Mr. Boutwell's annual reports, 
 made to the Massachusetts Board of Education when he was 
 Secretary of tliat body. Tliese remarks were thought so con- 
 clusive and of such value that they were printed by themselves as 
 a circular and distributed throughout the State. I am glad to 
 append them, because I am compelled to treat the subject altogether 
 in a general way and upon general principles, being entirely with- 
 out experience or observation. I feel that the opinion of Mr, 
 Boiitwell, based as it is upon thorough knowledge of the results 
 of both systems as they were tried side by side, will have 
 greater weight than any arguments I can urge : 
 
 " The laws of 1859, abolishing the district system and transfer- 
 ring the duty of selecting teacliers from the prudential to the 
 superintending committees, having been repealed by the same 
 legislature, at its autumn session, there has been but little oppor- 
 tunity for testing the new system. The history of the proceedings 
 of the legislature of 18.59 furnishes abundant evidence of a desire 
 to promote the interests of learning, and the passage of the meas- 
 ures in question was in harmony with that desire. 
 
 " When the committee on education were considering the ex- 
 pediency of abolishing the district system, I expressed the opinion 
 that the people were not prepared to accept the change without 
 serious opposition in some counties. I was myself unwilling to 
 make an educational measure the subject of public controversy in 
 the State, and much more unwilling to connect our educational 
 policy, as a Commonwealth, witli the fortunes of any political party. 
 Under these circumstances, I could not advise the passage of the 
 law, yet I did not for a moment doubt the patriotic and laudable 
 puq^oses of the committee, or the real wisdom of the change con- 
 templated, if the people were prepared to accept it. And I am 
 now constrained to declare, as the result of extensive correspond- 
 ence and interchange of sentiment with the pjeople of the State, 
 that their attachment to the district system is not as strong as 
 I formerly supposed, and that a large majoi'ity are prepared to 
 accept its unqualified abolition. It may not, however, be wise to 
 legislate upon the subject immediately ; but I deem this a lit oc- 
 casion to invite the inhabitants of the towns where districts still 
 
254 APPENDIX. 
 
 exist to take the matter into their own hands, and reconstruct their 
 school system upon a basis which will admit of economy, progress, 
 and efficiency. I entered upon the duties of the office I now hold 
 with some faith in the district system ; my observation and ex- 
 perience have destroyed that faith entirely. It is a system admi- 
 rably calculated to secure poor schools, incompetent teachers, 
 consequent waste of public money, and yet neither committees, 
 nor districts, nor towns be responsible therefor. 
 
 " It is unquestionably true that the best schools are found where 
 the district system does not exist ; and the charge, in a few in- 
 stances made or suggested, that there has been no improvement for 
 twenty-live years, is limited in its origin and in its truthful appli- 
 cation to those towns which are divided into districts. Whenever 
 a town has established the municipal system, and adhered vj it for 
 two years, there has never within my knowledge been a serious 
 effort in favor of the restoration of the district system. These 
 facts are so encouraging and so conclusive, that they ought, without 
 argument, to convince the most skeptical. The great object of the 
 people is the establishment of good schools at the least cost, and 
 they have no interest in the district system when it fails to secure 
 these ends. 
 
 " Practically, the district system denies the value of experience. 
 Each year sees a new prudential committee-man, and each term a 
 new teacher. The experience of a year is rendered valueless by 
 the election of a new committee ; and the teacher labors for a 
 single term, commencing without a knowledge of what the pupils 
 have previously accomplished, and ending without an interest in' 
 their future. 
 
 "Under these circumstances, it is not strange that district 
 schools are kept, term after term, and year after year, without an 
 appreciable increase of power. 
 
 " The quality of the school depends upon the character of the 
 teacher ; and the character of the teacher depends upon accident, 
 or the caprice, prejudices, or convenience of the committee-man. 
 Each teacher brings into the school his own ideas of teaching, and 
 after two, three, or four months, he goes away, and his place is 
 taken by a stranger, who introduces new methods, without the 
 judgment of anybody concerning their relative value. The suc- 
 cessive terms of school in the same district have not, usually, any 
 personal or educational connection with each other. Each term is 
 an experiment which proves nothing but its own failure or com 
 parative success ; and it does not even furnish, either in its failure 
 or its success, a basis for future operations. 
 
 " The district itself is a questionable organization. More fre- 
 quently than otherwise it has no legal existence ; and whenever a 
 vote authorizing the levy of a tax is resisted, the courts usually 
 Und it difficult to sustain the proceedings of the district. 
 
APPENDIX. 255 
 
 " There are in the cities and towns of Massachusetts three dis- 
 tinct school systems. First, the municipal system. Where this 
 exists the towns erect and support the school-houses, and confide 
 to the superintending committees the selection of teachers. This 
 system exists in eighty or a hundred cities and towns, which to- 
 gether probably contain more than one-half of the population of 
 the State, and, in the character of their schools, they are far in 
 advance of the rest of the Commonwealth. 
 
 " In the second class, about fifty in number, the town erect and 
 support the school-houses, but the territory is divided into districts, 
 and the power to select teachers is confided to prudential commit- 
 tees. 
 
 " The third class comprises those towns whose territory is 
 divided into districts, and in which each district is charged with 
 the duty of selecting its teachers and providing a school-house. 
 
 " In most towns where this system exists, the districts are too 
 numerous, the school-houses are poor and inconvenient, and the 
 number of pupils is insufiicient to constitute a good school. Dis- 
 tricts containing less than twelve pupils each, may be enumerated 
 by the hundred. It is quite likely that in the sparsely peopled 
 sections of the State, a necessity for small districts occasionally 
 exists ; but it is a manifest public right to require pupils to travel 
 from one to two miles to school, according to circumstances, rather 
 than incur the expense of sustaining small, and, of course, poor 
 schools. Moreover, the interest of the family is the same. A 
 good school, even though the distance be considerable, is infinitely 
 more important than the immediate neighborhood of a poor school. 
 These small districts are tenacious of existence, and the only 
 means by which they can be destroyed is for the towns to assume 
 exclusive jurisdiction, including the burden of the houses, and 
 then, from time to time, as occasions arise, pass judgment upon 
 the expediency of continuing schools for the accommodation of 
 a small number of persons who may often enjoy better educational 
 advantages elsewhere. And in behalf of weak districts, whose 
 pecuniary means are inadequate to the erection of suitable school- 
 houses, I appeal to the towns, and ask them to reassume a burden 
 which they ought never to have thrown off. To the town the 
 erection of a school-house is usually a small matter ; to a weak 
 district it is often a burden far greater than all its other public 
 contributions combined. 
 
 " The district system is an obstacle to the establishment of 
 graded schools. There are many villages, in towns where the 
 district system exists, that are divided into districts, which, if 
 united, would furnish pupils for a school of two, three, or four 
 departments. In all these cases there is great waste of money and 
 of teaching force. The object of our school system is to get a 
 competent teacher into every school ; but the district and the 
 
256 APPENDIX. 
 
 prudential committee systems are the best seem-ity wliicli the 
 pubhc can take that that object shall never be attained. Admit 
 that all the inhabitants of a district are disposed to do what is 
 right and proper, and what are the chances of success ? Rotation 
 in office is the law of their public action. This is often a necessity. 
 Each citizen feels the burden of the duties, and he therefore claims 
 that others shall bear their share. Often there is a public senti- 
 ment which at once demands for and concedes to every man the 
 right to hold the office in turn. In either case the one all-essential 
 requisite of experience is wanting. And though the prudential 
 committee may be a good citizen, a good farmer, a good mechanic, 
 or a professional man in regular standing, he yet lacks knowledge 
 of the business which he is to transact. His acquaintance with 
 teachers also is limited ; and he finds, moreover, that the towns in 
 which the prudential system does not exist, having always a com- 
 mittee competent to make contracts for a year in advance, have 
 secured the services of the most competent persons. Thus, by the 
 unnecessary multiplication of districts and schools in the sparsely 
 peopled towns, the small number of pupils in each school, the lack 
 of experience in prudential committees, and, on the other hand, 
 the existence of superior schools, the payment of higher wages, 
 the larger experience of committees where the municipal system 
 exists, there has arisen a difierence between the towns of the Com- 
 monwealth which admits of no other explanation than that sug- 
 gested in this report, l^or ought the statement of the fact to be 
 omitted, that the course pursued occasionally, where the district 
 system exists, is open to the gravest objections. District meetings 
 are not generally attended by even a majority of the voters. It 
 therefore happens that it is possible for a minority to elect the 
 officers and control the policy of the district. Hence it is true of 
 nearly every town, that once at least in its history, the organization 
 of a district has been seized by a small number of men who enter- 
 tained schemes inconsistent with the welfare of the schools. As- 
 sembled by concert, in the shades of evening, in a dimly lighted 
 house, they have proceeded, without serious opposition, to consum- 
 mate their schemes ; and a prudential committee, in their interest, 
 has been elected, who at once makes a contract with a relative, 
 friend, or favorite, without regard to the intellectual or moral wel- 
 fare of the children who are to be members of the school. 
 
 " Nor, under such circumstances, is it often in the province of 
 the superintending committee to resist the scheme, or to redress 
 the grievance. These evils come from the exceptional and anti- 
 republican character of our school districts. There is no other 
 department of government in the Commonwealth, or under its 
 authority, in which it is possible for a single person, acting in the 
 name of the people, to proceed without consultation, without 
 deliberation, without agreement, and bind his constituency in 
 
APPENDIX. 257 
 
 matters affecting their nearest rights and dearest privileges, and 
 all without regard to any influence or opinion but such as pro- 
 ceeds from his own whims, passions, prejudices, or errors. 
 
 " Kor can it be assumed that ' the district system is, even in the 
 least degree, a promoter of popular liberty. It does nothing for 
 education that might not be better done by other agencies ; and, 
 as a system, it exerts no influence, not even in the most remote 
 degree, over the civil or political fortunes of the people. Ex- 
 perience is a great teacher, and neither the district system nor any 
 system analogous to it, exists in the larger number of American 
 States, and yet popular liberty is not confined to Massachusetts. 
 Moreover, at least half of the people of the State have voluntarily 
 abandoned the district system, and are not aware of any loss of 
 liberty. 
 
 " JS^or is it true that more interest in schools is manifested where 
 the district system exists, but the greater interest is observed where 
 good schools are found. The quality of the schools and the interest 
 of the people act and react upon each other. A generous and in- 
 telligent public interest renders the establishment of good schools 
 necessary and easy, and good schools are calculated to widen, 
 strengthen, and deepen the interest of the people. Therefore it is 
 absurd in reasoning, and false in history, to assume that a system 
 under which poor schools are the rule, and good ones the excep- 
 tion, is adapted to increase the interest of the people in learning, 
 or in the institutions thereof. 
 
 "In concluding this part of my report, I earnestly invite the 
 inhabitants of the towns where the district system still exists, to 
 make faithful trial of the municipal system for the period of two 
 or three years. And be it everywhere understood, that the aboli- 
 tion of the district system, whether by a law of the State, or the 
 action of the towns themselves, works no concentration of power 
 in the hands of any body outside of the respective municipalities 
 interested. The legislature takes nothing, the Board of Education 
 takes nothing, but the towns reclaim and exercise certain authori- 
 ties, and perform certain duties, primarily, originally, and always 
 their own, until they saw tit to transfer them temporarily and for 
 certain purposes, to the districts, whose existence even was due to 
 and always dependent upon the action of the towns. The re- 
 assumption of these duties and authorities is entirely consistent 
 with the original policy of the Commonwealth, which regarded 
 the towns as the responsible managers of the common schools. 
 Nor can there be any safer depository of this power. If anywhere 
 under the canopy of heaven, and among men, there is a perfect 
 democracy, it is in a New England, a Massachusetts town meeting. 
 There, in the light of day, and in the presence of the world, where 
 the power of each man, without regard to social, sectarian, pecu- 
 niary, or industrial distinctions, is equal to that of any other man, 
 
 17 
 
258 APPENDIX. 
 
 the people proceed to legislate upon all their municipal concerns. 
 And is there one of higher moment than the management of their 
 public schools ? And is there danger to popular liberty when the 
 power to take the initiative in the selection of a teacher is trans- 
 ferred from the evening meeting of a minority of a school district, 
 to the inhabitants of a whole town, assembled in the light of day 
 to legislate upon all matters of local and municipal importance ? 
 
 "It is a principle in our government, that whoever contributes 
 to the public burdens has a right to be heard by himself, or by his 
 representative, in the expenditure of the public money ; and it 
 therefore follows that as long as the schools of a town are supported 
 by the taxation of all its citizens, each citizen has a right to a 
 voice in the expenditure of money for educational purposes. This 
 voice must be heard in the choice of a committee authorized to 
 select the teachers, or it cannot be heard at all. The superintend- 
 ing committees are chosen by the people, one-third each year, and 
 therefore there is annually an opportunity for the expression of 
 pubKc sentiment. Under the municipal system the entire respon- 
 sibility is upon the committee, and under the pressure of this re- 
 sponsibility, with a large and constantly enlarging experience, 
 there can be but little doubt of their disposition or their ability to 
 meet every reasonable expectation. Led to retain those teachers 
 who have succeeded, and forced to put aside those who are com- 
 paratively incompetent, the standard of qualifications would be 
 gradually elevated, and the schools proportionately improved. 
 
 " I have been thus earnest and minute in this exposition of the 
 district system, in the hope that the inhabitants of those towns 
 where it still exists may be led to make a trial of the municipal 
 system, which, I am persuaded, will render their schools at once 
 more valuable and more economical. It is practicable for many, 
 even of the smaller towns, to consolidate their most populous dis- 
 tricts, establish graded schools with two or three departments, the 
 higher of which shall furnish training equivalent to that usually 
 given in good English High-Schools, without much addition to 
 their present appropriations." 
 
 Let us now see if we can gather up some of the results that 
 would grow out of this change which is advocated. 
 
 1. It would secure just as many schools as the necessities of the 
 community demand, each being an integral part of one central 
 organization, and adapted to the wants of each individual com- 
 munity. 
 
 2. It would dispense with a large number of school ofiicers. 
 
 3. It would establish a uniform rate of taxation. 
 
APPENDIX. 259 
 
 4. It would furnish more uniform and equal advantages and 
 privileges to every citizen. 
 
 5. It would allow the child to attend school where his own in- 
 terests would .be best conserved, with no restraint save what the 
 general, interests might require. 
 
 6. It would prevent strife about district lines. 
 
 7. It would diminish the aggregate expenditm"e for schools. 
 
 8. It would secure a more elhcient system of school inspection 
 and supervision. 
 
 9. It would secure permanency of supervision. 
 
 10. It would secure greater permanency of teachers. 
 
 11. It would secure a better class of teachers. 
 
 12. It would secure better compensation to competent teachers, 
 and less employment for incompetent ones. 
 
 13. It will secure better school-houses. 
 
 14. It will secure greater facilities to teachers for reference and 
 illustration. 
 
 15. It will enable towns to establish graded schools. 
 
 16. It will secure uniformity of text-books in the same town. 
 lY. It will result in more uniform methods of teaching. 
 
 18. It will secure the establishment of a course of study, and 
 will tend to keep pupils longer in school. 
 
 19. It will secure to the State department more reliable 
 statistics. 
 
 20. It will insure schools in every district, and prevent a bare 
 majority from depriving a respectable minority of school privileges. 
 
 21. It will tend to diminish neighborhood quarrels. 
 
 22. It would insure the employment of fewer nephews and 
 nieces, sisters and sisters-in-law. 
 
 23. It would insure a larger aggregate of interest on the part of 
 the community in each school. 
 
 24. It would render possible competitive examinations. 
 
 It may be asked, would not this radical change in our school 
 system interfere with their present and immediate usefulness? 
 Would it not so disorganize and break up the system that the 
 schools would be impaired for some time to come ? 
 
 I think not. The material change would be simply the sul> 
 stitution of a town board of school managers in place of the 
 
260 APPENDIX. 
 
 various district boards. This substitution need cause no break in 
 the working of our schools — scarcely a jostle. The prudential 
 committee would continue to discharge their duties until the elec- 
 tion of the town boards, at which time all district supervision 
 would cease ; all school property would come into the possession 
 of the town upon such conditions as the statute should provide. 
 
 ISTot a school need be closed or interrupted, not a teacher dis- 
 charged, not a contract vitiated or annulled. The educational 
 machine would work right on without obstruction, but more 
 smoothly and with greater efficiency, because of the greater sim- 
 plicity and unity of the new system, and its better supervision. 
 Without shock, without confusion, almost without attracting obser- 
 vation, the change would be wrought, and we should wake up 
 some* morning and find ourselves possessed of a more compact, 
 more simple, and more efficient, though less expensive, school 
 organization. One need scarcely be reminded of change, save as 
 it is suggested by the munificence of the blessings it secures. 
 
 It may be asked what shall be done with the school property 
 which now belongs to the districts. It would pass to the posses- 
 sion of the town, each district being credited with the amount of 
 its valuation on appraisal, less the amount of indebtedness of said 
 district. That is, the town would practically purchase the school 
 property of each district and assume its indebtedness. 
 
CHAPTER II. 
 
 VENTILATION. 
 
 The following extracts from the works of Mr. L. W. Leeds upon 
 ventilation are of great value. The chapter upon Heating and 
 Yentilation in this work, with slight modifications, is the embodi- 
 ment of principles which Mr. Leeds so ablj advocates. The modi- 
 fications are necessary to secure an apparatus at once cheap and 
 adapted to the wants of common schools. 
 
 VENTILATION AND WARMING. 
 
 " That great American institution, the cast-iron stove, is in dis- 
 grace. It has been, we think, unjustly and unmercifully per- 
 secuted. There is a strenuous efibrt being made to exonerate our- 
 selves from just censure merited by our many sins of omission and 
 commission, by endeavoring to cast the blame upon this most faith- 
 ful servant of almost every laboring man's home. 
 
 " That great and successful laborer for the improvement of 
 American homes, A. J. Downing, devoted no stinted portion of 
 the brilliant delineations of his gifted pen to the unmeasured con- 
 demnation of this peculiar American institution. Charles Dickens's 
 fertile brain seems almost exhausted in gathering up expressive 
 adjectives of condemnation to hurl at that 'eternal, accursed, 
 suffocating, red-hot demon of a stove, so commonly found in 
 America.' 
 
 " This Dr. Harris quotes approvingly, and thinks the better 
 health of the foundling hospitals of Paris is because this ' accursed 
 stove' is unknown in those public institutions. 
 
 " Catharine E. Beecher, and an unnumbered host of other very- 
 able writers, strive not to be outdone in condemning the poor 
 object that they suppose to be the great source and cause of those 
 foul-air diseases that seem to have increased so fearfully of late and 
 are causing such devastation in our modern American homes. 
 
262 APPENDIX. 
 
 Now, add to all this Dr. Derby's very able arguments intended to 
 call attention to the great harm probably arising from the escape 
 of that intense poison, carbonic oxide, from burning anthracite 
 coal, and the very learned discussions and experiments of the 
 French Academy of Sciences, showing that the virulent poison 
 pays no attention to the simple, crude attempts to contine it by 
 cast-iron, but passes through such obstructions at will, with almost 
 as much ease as a squirrel would through a post-and-rail fence; 
 and after all this, one can scarcely perceive what will be the result 
 of attempting to plead its cause, to advocate the general or almost 
 universal use of this despised and persecuted article, the American 
 stove. 
 
 '' But w^e will do it, not in the interest of the stove manufac- 
 turers — for we have no friend in the business, and the stove is too 
 much in disgrace to afford to pay for its advocacy in that way — 
 nor yet from mere compassion, as many take the part of any per- 
 secuted object, but from sincere conviction of its intrinsic worth, 
 because it Is our belief that its universal use, if used properly — not 
 abused — would ])e of inestimable value to the American people. 
 We believe that they are of mucli more value to us than all the 
 gold mines of California and Nevada. The value of the shipping 
 that sails from our ports and dots the ocean in every clime is but 
 a drop in the bucket compared with the value to us of the proper 
 use of our American stoves. Now, we will endeavor to give our 
 reasons for entertaining an opinion so singular and unpopular. 
 
 " Accepting as a truth that saying of the great Dr. Franklin, 
 that Tublic" Health is Public AVeatth,' and which an eminent 
 hygienist of England lately said should be inscribed in letters of 
 gutd over every school-house and public building throughout the 
 land, it becomes a question of the gravest importance as to how the 
 best conditions of public health can be obtained. 
 
 " We must not take a casual and superficial glance only at a few 
 of tlie prominent members of society, who by their wealth and 
 position nuiy be able to attract more attention Irom the public 
 than a whole factory full of men and women who labor from seven 
 in the morning until six at night ; because these wealthy men, if 
 they lose an hour, or a day, or even a month, by sickness, have no 
 fear of losing their situations and the entire support of a dependent 
 family. But it is the men and women upon whose strong muscles 
 the country is dependent for all its numual labor whose health 
 must be looked after and pi'eserved — it is the health of these that 
 forms the great wealth of a nation. 
 
 "Now, one of the great fundamental conditions of our existence 
 is, that we nuiintain a uniform temperature of our body, the stand- 
 ard of which is commonly much above that of the surrounding 
 atmosphere ; and this must be secured at all times, or existence 
 itself ceases. Upon the manner of supplying this artitical heat, 
 
APPENDIX. 263 
 
 and the supply of fresh air which more or less accompanies it, 
 depend the health, wealth, prosperity, and happiness of the nation 
 on one hand, and the sickness, poverty, and wretchedness of it on 
 the other. In the early settlement of a country, when wood is 
 very abundant, the open wood-fire is not only the cheapest and 
 simplest form of obtaining the required artificial heat, but it is in 
 many respects the most advantageous to health of any known 
 means. But in large cities and thickly-settled countries, wood is 
 too expensive for ordinary use for a large majority of the people — 
 and the wealthy even neglect to use wood-fires, from ignorance, 
 propably, of their real sanitary value. Fires of coal in open grates 
 are the next mosi; simple arrangement, and although not without 
 their inconveniences, yet they have some excellent sanitary quali- 
 ties ; and it is our opinion it would add greatly to the health and 
 happiness of many families, even in moderate circumstances, to 
 have an open fire to sit by, should they have to substitute an old- 
 fashioned rag-carpet to cover the floor instead of a more expensive 
 one. 
 
 " But notwithstanding the many advantages of the open fires of 
 wood and coal, yet they are expensive, as they consume from 
 three to five times as much coal to produce the same amount 
 of heat in a room as can be produced by a good stove. The 
 question is not so much. Shall the laboring classes use stoves, 
 or shall they have open fires? as it is. Shall they have stoves, 
 or shall they go without artificial heat altogether? If Charles 
 Dickens were to visit the forty thousand paupers said to dwell 
 in one portion only of London, he would not, to be sure, find 
 them crowded around that ' peculiar American institution,' the 
 ' infernal red-hot stove ;' but, far worse, he would find them 
 crowded together in some cold, damp, chilly room, perhaps a 
 few hovering over same smoking embers, but the majority liud- 
 dled together in a corner, covered by all the old rags they had 
 left after calking all the cracks of the doors and windows, to 
 keep out, if possible, any breath of air. 
 
 " Heat is a great and valuable sanitary agent, and if it can be 
 made available more cheaply by the use of the stove than in any 
 other way, it is the duty of the sanitarian to teach the people how 
 to use that, and not to spend his time in abusing it simply for the 
 faults resulting from its misuse. The want of a proper supply of 
 fresh air when heating by the stove is one great cause of this hue and 
 cry against the poor stove. It does, of course, allow a small room 
 to be shut up almost air-tight, and if crowded with filthy people, 
 with a kerosene lamp smoking in the room, there is no doubt what- 
 ever that a very foul and offensive atmosphere may be thus manu- 
 factured. A bright, open fire scarcely allows of this abuse. But 
 it is the simplest thing in the world to remedy all this, and it can 
 be done with the stove much cheaper, and frequently with more 
 
264 APPENDIX. 
 
 satisfaction, than with the open fire. All that is required is to 
 bring in a good supply of fresh air from out of doors, and discharge 
 it on the top of the stove. 
 
 '' But in attempting to do this it is qnite strange how many very 
 intelligent persons will commit the fatal error of supposing that all 
 that is^necessary is to cut a hole through the floor, and the fresh air 
 will flow up around the stove itself, instead of which it will simply 
 flow out over the floor, being heavier than the air in the room. It 
 must always be conducted to, and discharged on top of the stove, 
 and then \t simply falls down and mingles with the heated air 
 arising around the stove. This introduction of fresh air around 
 the stove was very fully explained by Dr. Franklin and most 
 enthusiastically advocated by him, and he introduced it largely 
 during his lifetime through the world-renowned ' Franklin stove ;' 
 yet owing to the stupidity, or ignorance, or whatever we must call 
 it, of the people as to tlie value of or necessity for fresh air, this 
 valuable feature of this celebrated stove — in fact, all the Franhlin 
 — wa^ omitted, and the simple skeleton, without the spirit, handed 
 down with his name. 
 
 " We have taken much pains to inquire of recent prominent 
 writers who have urged the use of the ' Franklin stove' if they 
 knew what a ' Franklin stove' was I They are apt to be quite in- 
 dignant at the suspicion of such ignorance ; but on inquiring how 
 they propose supplying the fresh, external air to their stove, they 
 want to know what is meant. We have found scarcely a single 
 writer thus questioned M^ho had the correct idea of a Franklin 
 stove. There was a large number of these Franklin or ventilating- 
 stoves used during the war, and when, to the liberal supply of 
 fresh air was added an abmidant supply of moisture, an artiflcial 
 atmosphere was produced which for genial warmth, freshness, and 
 purity could scarcely be excelled by any artificial means of heating 
 now known. The success of this manner of warming the hos- 
 pitals during our late war has given a great impetus to the rein-- 
 troduction of Franklin stoves. Their introduction into the 
 hospitals and barracks of England is urged by the surgeons and 
 inspectors. The Sanitary Committee of the Paris Exposition 
 spoke in the highest terms of this system of heating and ventila- 
 tion as adopted in the United States. 
 
 '" Owing to the necessity in schools of the children sitting very 
 close to the stove, most of those made for such positions are 
 entirely surrounded by the casing, thus forming an air-chamber 
 around the whole stove. This greatly obstructs that portion of 
 the heat that gives the great superiority to open fires and stoves 
 over hot-air furnaces. We mean the direct radiation. The eflects 
 of heating by direct radiation and by currents of circulating 
 warmed air are very diflerent. You may be sitting in front of an 
 open fire from which the rays of heat will be thrown out so strong 
 
APPENDIX. 265 
 
 that you "sdll be kept comfortably warm, and at the same time 
 there may be a current of air snrroimding you, and from which 
 you are breathing, which passes by you into the fire at a tempera- 
 ture many degrees below that indicated by the thermometer. 
 
 " On the contrary, in a room heated exclusively by hot-air cur- 
 rents you are surrounded by and breathing air heated hotter than 
 indicated by the thermometer; because the cold walls and cold 
 windows are constantly absorbing the heat of the solid bodies in 
 the room by radiation. 
 
 " When we consider how much more active and vigorous the 
 system is when breathing the cold, bracing air of winter than 
 when breathing the warm debilitating air of summer, we can 
 readily understand how much more wholesome would be an at- 
 mosphere in which a large proportion of heat would be derived 
 from the direct radiation of a hot stove or open fire, than where 
 all the air was vitiated by overheating for the pui-pose of securing 
 the required warmth in that way. 
 
 " The loud and universal complaints against all hot-air furnaces 
 have fully demonstrated the entire impossibility of producing a 
 comfortable and satisfactory atmosphere in a room by that means 
 only. With the open fire, the highly heated and vitiated air is 
 carried directly up the chimney. Much heat is thus wasted, of 
 course ; but this may be far better than the wasting of the health 
 by attempting to breathe it. In heating by the stove, the air that 
 comes in contact with the hot sides, and is thus heated and conse- 
 quently vitiated, is frequently retained in the room ; this makes a 
 stove-heated room more unpleasant than when warmed by the 
 open fire. But suppose there should be sufficient ventilation to 
 carry out of the room directly this warmed and vitiated air, and 
 depend mostly upon the radiation from the stove for heating, that 
 would be still much cheaper than the open fire, and far more 
 wholesome than the heat from a miserable hot-air furnace. 
 
 " To continue our comments still further upon this topic, we 
 may remark that the radiation from the hot-air stove would act in 
 all directions equally — one must remember the rays of heat are 
 thrown as much to the floor as to the ceiling ; it is only the cur- 
 rents of w^armed and vitiated air that rush to the ceiling, while the 
 currents of cold, and generally purer, air flow along the floor. 
 But if the pure external air is brought in on top of the hot stove 
 and falls over it, the radiation from the stove is sufiicient to keep 
 up an equal temj^erature over the whole room ; and if the supply 
 of air by the stove is sufiicient to fill the room and allow for what 
 is carried oft" for ventilation, there will be no cold air sucking in 
 under the door and around the windows, which creates those cold, 
 unpleasant draughts so much complained of. Now a word about 
 that dreadful poison, 'carbonic oxide,' that passes through the 
 iron stove so easily. It is our belief that many hundreds and 
 
266 APPENDIX 
 
 thousands die every year from the escape of this gas ; but prac- 
 ticallj the amount that escapes through the soKd iron is probably 
 a rery small fraction compared with what escapes, or rather is 
 expelled, through the open joints of stoves and furnaces, or from 
 open hres, by badly constructed flues. Here is the great trouble 
 with most of our heating arrangements. We believe that poorly 
 constructed and entirely choked flues are the cause of more sick- 
 ness and deaths in the United States than cholera, yellow fever, 
 and small-pox comluned. Few persons who have not made a 
 general investigation of this subject have any conception of the 
 very large number of flues in dailj^ use that are either entirely 
 choked or totally inadequate to carry oft" the gases and smoke from 
 the fires which they are intended thus to relieve; hence the very 
 frequent annoyance from gas and smoke daily met with." 
 
 VENTILATION AND WARMING. 
 
 " A kind of chronic confusion and bewilderment seems to have 
 taken possession of the public mind in regard to ventilation. The 
 disappointment (consequent upon the failure to realize the wonder- 
 ful results anticipated by the sanguine inventors of many new con- 
 trivances for ventilation, seems to have cooled the ardor of not a 
 few of the young and enthusiastic advocates of that science. Older 
 and more indift'erent ones have quietly closed up all openings that 
 produced so many draughts, and seemed to have supposed, like the 
 i3ird of the desert, that by hiding their eyes to their great enemy, 
 they could thus escape his attacks. The results are related in 
 every morning's paper in the record of the large number of deaths 
 resulting from foul air. There have been so many failures in what 
 might be termed scientific ventilation, or special schemes and con- 
 trivances of theoretical men, that any modest, industrious man, 
 though of good ordinary intelligence, shrinks from a proposition to 
 investigate the mysteries of this subject with as genuine a shudder 
 as he would from a request to explain the wonders of spirit-rap- 
 
 " ^ow, the first thing that presents itself to the utilitarian mind, 
 when asked to step out of or beyond the regular routine of daily 
 life, is, ''' Will it pay, or is it necessary ?" then, " How can it be 
 done, and what will it cost f That there is need of some improve- 
 ment in the ventilation of most of our buildings is now very 
 generally acknowledged ; but a willingness to spend the necessary 
 money to secure good results, and a belief that such expenditure 
 will pay, are still generally wanting. There seems to be a prevail- 
 ing belief that what is needed is some new invention that is going 
 to supply all the time, summer and winter, pure fresh air, without 
 any further thought in regard to the matter. This is a very en-o- 
 
APPENDIX. 267 
 
 neons suppoBition. It is also a very unfortunate one, because, 
 while it is impossible that it shonld ever be realized, its constant 
 anticipation prevents that care and attention to the proper use of 
 the appliances for ventilation which are accessible to all. If, there- 
 fore, the public were to cease altogether from looking for new in- 
 ventions, and wasting money on them, and each one w^ere to devote 
 his whole attention to making the best use of whatever he had for 
 ventilation and warming, real progress would soon be made on a 
 good and substantial foundation. This popular longing for new 
 things has taught many utterly to despise all arrangements hereto- 
 fore in use, because, as they are expecting that the true theory of 
 ventilation is yet to be discovered, and that it will be entirely 
 diiferent from anything they have ever thought of, therefore, what- 
 ever they have seen before must necessarily be good for nothing. 
 Instead of this, to-day, all the essential means of ventilation and 
 warming likely to be developed for a long time to come are really 
 at hand. Improvements will consist in increased knowledge as to 
 the use of them to the best advantage. 
 
 " While it is very true that there are many exceedingly uncom- 
 fortable buildings, and that the atmosphere in most modern houses 
 and public buildings is very unwholesome, yet it is equally true 
 that there are, even at the pi-esent time, many well-ventilated and 
 well- warmed buildings. One of. the first things to learn is to be 
 able to tell when a building is properly ventilated and warmed, 
 and when it is not. The perfection of ventilation consists in the 
 unconscious satisfaction of all the inmates — a condition in which 
 they think nothing about it. The contrary, however — that is to 
 say, a constant complaining of a want of proper ventilation in a 
 public room — by no means proves that those complaints are just. 
 One often finds attending the same services of a Sabbath, persons 
 of exceedingly different habits and constitutions. JN^ot unfrequently 
 a young lady may be observed entering with glowing countenance 
 and in the full bloom of health. Accustomed to be in the open 
 air, taking her ride, walk, or skating every day — rain or shine, 
 sleet, snow, or hail — and accustomed as well to sleep in a perfectly 
 cold room, with windows open all winter — as the strong, pure 
 blood, courses through her veins, there is a pleasure and a delight 
 in her very appearance. To enter a room at a temperature of 70° 
 Fahrenheit is to her oppressive ; and she throws back her furs, 
 commences fanning, and begs the sexton please give them a little 
 fresh air, or she will certainl}^ smother. But, perhaps, on the very 
 next seat behind her may be seated a poor, emaciated victim 
 of foul air — a lawyer, perhaps, or the secretary of some life insur- 
 ance company — whose poor, thin blood has almost ceased to per- 
 form its legitimate function, and whose deep cough and short 
 breath but too plainly indicate his long abuse of the great funda- 
 
268 APPENDIX. 
 
 mental principle of all healthy existence — an abundant supply of 
 pure air. The very sight of him sends a cold, creeping ague over 
 you. He has scarcely taken his seat wlien he buttons up his coat 
 and wants to know if they intend to freeze everybody to death ; 
 concluding with the remark that, if they cannot manage to keep 
 the building warm, he will have to quit attending, as it is impossi- 
 ble to avoid taking a severe cold every time he ventures there. 
 This is the ver}' common experience of every one who has ever 
 had the care of any large public building. 
 
 "' Now, it would be quite difficult so to warm and ventilate a 
 building as perfectly to satisty botli these extremes. The great 
 value to be derived from a thorough personal knowledge of the 
 theory and practice of ventilation is the ability to adapt one's self 
 to the conditions that necessarily surround us, 
 
 " If the young lady directly in front of you in a railroad car insists 
 on having the window open with the thermometer at zero, of 
 course it would be utterly useless to attempt to explain to her that it 
 is not necessary. It is, therefore, better to put on your overcoat, wrap 
 your shawl around your feet, and endeavor to hnd a seat in front 
 of her. Or, if you have been so foolish as to attempt to deprive 
 your poor body of a good night's rest by taking a berth in a 
 sleeping-car, and have been waked up after half an hour's restless 
 sleep just in the middle of some horrid dream, raise your window 
 a little and put your folded newspaper under it, and draw the 
 blinds down over it to prevent its being discovered by the attend- 
 ant. Then, by putting your face close to the opening, even if it 
 is small, you will have sufficient })ure air to give you a good night's 
 rest, perhaps, if not too much disturbed by the awful snoring and 
 growling of yom* fellow-passengers, tossing about m the foul at- 
 mosphere of other parts of the car. Thus, there are many very 
 simple ways of securing good ventilation, no matter how unfavor- 
 able the surrounding conditions may be. But it is entirely im- 
 possible — this word imj)ossible should be used with caution — that 
 one should be always surrounded with conditions not admitting of 
 the advantageous use of a little correct knowledge of the general 
 principles of ventilation and warming. 
 
 " Perhaps the very best patent that could be obtained for anything 
 connected with this subject would be the application of a little 
 common souse to the use of our ordinary contrivances. This cer- 
 tainly would be sufficiently novel to secure the granting of the 
 patent at once. One of the very common causes of failure with 
 many of the contrivances for ventilation, is the neglect of those 
 adopting them to take a full, complete, and comprehensive view 
 of all the circumstances surrounding them. They fail to compre- 
 iiend the force and power of the ever-varying currents of the 
 external atmosphere. The pressure of a strong wind amounts to 
 
APPENDIX. 269 
 
 many tons on the side of an ordinary building. Now, tlie whole 
 of this pressure may be exerted one moment, and almost entirely 
 withdrawn the very next. Or, it may be pressing on one side of 
 the building one hour, (;reating a partial vacuum on the other, and 
 the next hour both the pressure and vacuum may be reversed. 
 These are great controlling conditions ; and yet one sees, daily and 
 almost hourly, in the offices and rooms of persons of good ordinary 
 intelligence, a lamp or a gas-light burning in one corner of a large 
 apartment, which, it is confidently expected, will thoroughly ven- 
 tilate the whole building. Or, perhaps, a little toy-wheel, at times 
 whirling around in the Mnndow-pane, and at other times motion- 
 less, is designed to answer tlie same purpose. The little woolly 
 lap-dog, as he bellows out at the express-train with all the energy 
 and force of his little lungs, scarcely presents a more ludicrous 
 waste and misapplication of power. One must first learn to com- 
 prehend these great controlling natural forces ; and, whenever it is 
 possible, work with them instead of attempting to oppose them. 
 It will be seen at a glance, however, that all contrivances for ven- 
 tilation must necessarily be varied frequently, owing to the con- 
 stantly altering conditions with which one is surrounded. An open 
 window is very agreeable on *a warm spring morning, but quite 
 the contrary when admitting the keen, piercing wind of a cold 
 winter's day. Windows and doors are our great natural ventila- 
 tors ; and many persons, in . speaking of ventilation, overlook the 
 important part they really play in the ventilation of buildings. 
 Occupants exercise ' considerable thought and care in opening and 
 closing these according to the ever-shifting conditions of the at- 
 mosphere, and ought to exercise the same intelligence in regulating 
 other contrivances for ventilation. The difficulty is, that many 
 f)ersons seem to be anticipating the discovery of some system of 
 ventilation that will require no thought and no intelligence to 
 regulate. When they can control the external temperature, and 
 keep it forever at one uniform standard, and cause the wind to 
 blow forever with the same force and in one direction, this may be 
 done, Init not before. 
 
 " Important as windows and doors are for general ventilation, yet, 
 in every building, and in almost every room, it is very desirable to 
 have some other provision for ventilation — some contrivance that 
 may be frequently and easily regulated according to the veering 
 of the wind and the alteration of temperature, as well as according 
 to the relative temperature of the external atmosphere and that 
 of the room. 
 
 " When the public shall have comprehended that one breathes 
 more than ten times the number of pounds of air that one eats of 
 food, and that it is of ten times the importance to have pure air 
 than it is to have pure food ; and further, when the public shall 
 
270 APPENDIX. 
 
 ]iave determined to make a liberal expenditure of time, money, 
 and tliouo-lit to jtroeure this constant siip])ly of pnre air, tlu^i it 
 will be in a condition to examine critically the many contrivances 
 ottered for that pm-pose, and will probably soon learn that there has 
 been an exceedingly small ainonut of common sense applied to the 
 accomplishment of the object aimed at. At the same time, con- 
 siderable valuable ingenuity has been wasted for want of taking 
 an enlarged, clear, antl comprehensive view of the whole subject 
 before startin*;." 
 
 SUNSHINE 
 
 " Sunshine, the great motive power of atmospheric movements, 
 is the motive power of natural ventilation. It is also Nature's 
 great disinfectant ; and if there is one place more than another in 
 which its influence cannot be dispensed with, that place is the 
 school-room. 
 
 '' From the disregard of sunlight — direct sunlight — so noticeable 
 in the construction, not only of school-houses but dwellings, it is 
 to be feared that few persons realize how soon the walls, carpets, 
 and other porous objects in a, room become foul by the absorption 
 of ett'cte matter exhaled from the bodies of the occupants. A free 
 cinnilation of air is of great value. Us well for removing these 
 exhalations before they can be deposited as for supplying fresh air 
 for breathing. P)Ut mere change of air is not suthcient : a more 
 powerful agent is re^piircd. Every lady knows, unfortunately, how 
 soon direct sunlight fades the bright colors of her carpets and 
 u})holstery. Too few appear to know that the same blessed agent 
 is etpially energetic in dissipating the fever-breeding, consuni])tion- 
 causing air that pervades and clings to her carefully-shaded furni- 
 ture. We want fewer heavy curtains and closed shutters, and 
 more sunshine in our public and private apartments. 
 
 " Many attempts have been made to secure the thorough ventila- 
 tion of buildings by currents of air ])roduced by artificial means, 
 to the entire neglect of natural ventilation ; but always with dis- 
 a|)i)ointnient. Ventilating engineers are apt to commence by cal- 
 culating first how much each person will inhale or exhale in a 
 minute, and then, by making what seems to be a liberal allowance 
 for the contamination of the surrounding air, endeavor to provide 
 for the re(]uisite suj)ply of pure air. The results obtained almost 
 invariably fall short of what is actually recpiired. Especially in 
 mild' or close weather do these artificial arrangements fail. Then 
 nothiug sh(.)rt of the full sweep of the external air will answer. 
 For rooms in which large numbers of persons are to be collected, 
 it is a primary requirement that there be openings on every side, 
 
APPENDIX. 271 
 
 80 that any outside currents of air, froni wliatever direction, may 
 be made use of. 
 
 "Objections may be made to our an-anj^emcnt of windows be- 
 cause of the great amount of light that would enter at them. 
 That, of course, could be i-cgulated by means of blinds. The 
 dii-ection of the light that strikes the pupils' books can be regulated 
 in the same way. Blinds sliould be used on all the windows, be- 
 cause they are far superior to curtains in admitting a free circula- 
 tion of air, while excluding the direct rays of the sun ; and the 
 blinds should be (jreen, because that is the color most agreeable to 
 the eyes. At intermissions, and ])efore and after school, the blinds 
 should be opened to admit direct sunlight, the purifying etiect of 
 which is absolutely indispensable in keeping the scliool-room 
 wholesome. 
 
 " The only objection that we can see to our school-house thus 
 overflowed with sunshine and fresh air, is that the children would 
 so luxuriate in these essentials of physical health and vivacity, that 
 they would be as restless and mischievous as the boys and girls of 
 an old-fashioned country school kept in an over-ventilated log- 
 house. They would need a very diiferent treatment, it is true, 
 from that required to spur into activity the poor, pale-faced, auto- 
 matic dolls that go through the routine performances of many of 
 our public schools ; yet we must confess a strong liking for the 
 spirit oi' the country school-boy." 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL —Part L 
 
 SCHOOL DESKS etc 
 
 oj^c 
 
 OOi^TTIBilSrTS, 
 
 Absolute Requisites for Good Furniture, 
 Accommodation Desks and Folding Chairs, 
 American School Desks and Settees, 
 Assembly-room Desks and Settees, - 
 Box Desks, with Lids, double, - 
 Box Desks, with Lids, single. 
 Caution, - . . . - 
 
 Combined Desks and Settees, 
 Cornell Settee, for Primary Classes, 
 Important to all who use School Furniture, 
 Independent Desks and Settees, 
 Introduction, - - ... 
 
 New American Desks, - - - 
 
 New England Desks and Folding Chairs, - 
 Old Style Desks and Chairs, 
 Popular School Desks and Settees, - 
 Single Desks with Chairs, 
 Sizes of Desks and Settees, - - . 
 
 Wall Desks, - - - - - 
 
 PAGE 
 
 7 
 11 
 12 
 14 
 16 
 17 
 
 4 
 12 
 
 8 
 
 4 
 12 
 
 5 
 12 
 10 
 15 
 
 9 
 18 
 
 6 
 18 
 
Important to all who Use. Buy, Sell, or 
 ]\Ianiilacture School Furniture. 
 
 IViunr all pen Ini thfcic Jvcsicutsi, I'liat I, Aauox IT. Allen, 
 
 of Boston, Massaormsetts, hi oonsidoration ot", and pni-snant to, an Iiulontuiv nuulo 
 anil oxoontod on tho SixtiHMUh dav ot Sojitombor, lSt>9, by mo and J. W. Scukk- 
 MKKUOUN & Ci>., ot'tlio City. County, and Stoto of Now York, do dootaro tliat I 
 liavo gnvntod to thonv tho solo right and jn-ivilogo of Mannfaotuiing and Soiling 
 School I'l umtiuk, made aoooiiling to Lottovs Tatont of tho Unitod Statos, for 
 Tilting Soais siij^portod by tho t-ovor. graiitod to nio on tho 5th day of Dooonibor, 
 1S54. — lie-issnod on tho 15th aay of Jannary, ISGl, — and oxtondod .«•(•<» yoars fn>ni 
 tho 5th day ot Dooombor, ISGS, and snbjoot to tho tonus and conditions in said 
 Indontniv oontainod. 
 
 In witnoss whoivof, I havo horonnto sot uiv hand and soal, this F.iuhtoonth i ~''^ ) 
 
 li.S. *■ 
 day of Soptomtior, a.i>. 1S69. ( ^^^ ) 
 
 (Sigiietl) A. 11. ALLEN. 
 
 (Wituossod) 
 
 Tho nndoi^igncd CAl'TIOX all ]iorsons against tho nso of infringements of tho abovo- 
 namod Tatonti' — which, wo boliovo, cover all tho Folding-seat School Fnrnituiv now in 
 use, supported directly or remotely on the Lever priuciple. All who may use the same 
 without license tivni us aiv liable for damages. 
 
 Wo rosiiectfully solicit tho names of persons who are using infringements, without our 
 license, and shall ehoorfully pay for suoli intornuition. 
 
 AVo do not dosiiv to annoy school otlicors and others who may have innocently pur- 
 chased violations of our patents; and yet it is our plain duty to protect our rights under 
 the patent laws. Wo have secured Allen's Opera-seat Patents, at givat expense, tor 
 our own trade ; and wo must insist upon our rights. 
 
 Suits against tho Cities of Now York and Bix^oklyn aiv now ponding, and prcliminar)' 
 proceedings are iu progress in several other eases. 
 
 J. W. Schermerhorn & Co., Proprietors 
 Of Alleu's Oponi-Soat TattMits, 
 
 (As applied to School Fiiniiti\reV 
 
INTRODUCTION. 
 
 Too many of our schools have rude, unsightly, and uncomfortable 
 furniture; and yet Americans may congratulate themselves upon 
 having their schools supplied with better furniture than the schools 
 of any other country. The school furniture of Great Britain is to- 
 day not superior to ours a quarter of a century ago, and England's 
 school furniture is somewhat better than we find in most European 
 countries. 
 
 A contemporary seriously describes school furniture consisting 
 of "a bench with legs long at the one end and short at the other. 
 The large scholars sat upon the higher end, and the smaller were 
 graded down to the lower end." We have never seen any furniture 
 like this, and must confess that the contemporary dates farther back 
 than we can. We do, however, distinctly remember the old-fashioned 
 "bench," hastily constructed from a pine slab, fresh from the 
 neighboring saw-mill. The flat, unplaned side was considered good 
 enough for the seats of the urchins of those days. Cuttings from 
 a sapling were inserted, bracingly, for supports. There was nothing 
 to rest the wearied backs of the boys and girls of that period. 
 "Writing and ciphering" facilities for the larger pupils were made 
 by arranging boards slopingly around the walls of tlie house. A 
 " slal> bench" was x>laced under the edge of this writing-desk, and 
 those occupying the same would "face to the wall" when at work, 
 and " face about" when the teacher wanted to lecture them, or display 
 them to " the committee." This arrangement had its advantages as 
 well as its disadvantages. If active-minded pupils were intent upon 
 "eating apples," j-eading story-books, or making caricatures of the 
 watchful schoolmaster, they might be "caught" by that individual 
 approaching quietly from the rear. 
 
 That style has now passed away, giving place to modern school 
 furniture. Even our rural schools are demanding furniture of the 
 better kinds. And our manufacturers of school material have been 
 compelled to fall out of the ranks, or intelligently study the construc- 
 tion of school furniture as " a fine art." 
 
Absolute Requisites for Good School Furniture. 
 
 First— COMFORT. 
 
 The seats and backs must be curved to precisely lit the natural curves of the 
 bodies of the pupils. An iudilTereutly curved seat is not enough— both seat atid 
 back must be curved, and properly mt'ved. 
 
 Second— FOLDING SEATS. 
 
 Pupils must be able to take and leave their seats iriiJiout difficulty and disturbance; 
 the teacher must know that he can call up every pupil promptly, at a given signal ; 
 the school-room must have eapacity for \\ght gymnastics; fre^; passages across the 
 room must be allowed, with ample opportunity for cleaning the floors. 
 
 Third— DURABILITY. 
 
 This quality must be secured by the use of the best material, skilled toorkmen, 
 and correct construction. 
 
 Fourth— GOOD APPEARANCE. 
 
 This quality, besides making the school-room attractive, will protect the furni- 
 ture from the attacks of penknives and other destructive instruments. Good 
 appearance is necessary to aid in educating taste. 
 
 Fifth— COMFORT, First and Last. 
 
 Correct pnysiological principles must be observed in the construction of all 
 modern school furniture. 
 
 Besides these absolute requisites, school furniture should be (1) 
 economical as to price — the best need not be the most expensive; 
 (3) readily taken apart, for safe and cheap transportation — the 
 patented manner of '^dove-tailing" the several parts permits this, 
 besides rendering the effects of sJirmkinff, sweUing, and warping 
 impossible. 
 
S iz e S'. 
 
 The sizes of all our styles .of School Furniture are uniform, as shown in the 
 followinfj tabic. The lengths arc for desks and settees for two pupils, and are commonly 
 called Double Desks and Settees. The furniture called " Children's," Ls adapted to 
 pupils in infant schools; that called " Small Primary," is adapted to pupils aged from 
 5 to 7 years; "Primary," to those aged 7; ,to IQ years; "intermediate," 10 to 13; 
 "Grammar," 12 to 15; "High School," 15 to I'J; "Academic," to adults. Due 
 allowance should be made for the variable sizes of children in different. latitudes. Great 
 care should be used to avoid selecting sizes too large .for. the grade of the pupils. This 
 mistake occurs more frequently than that of grading.tlie. desks and settees too low. We 
 all know that we rest better in a low chair than in a high one; 
 
 
 L£N(iTU. HEIGHT OP DESK.'. 
 
 WIDTH'OF DESK 
 
 HEIGHT OP SEAT. 
 
 Children's, 
 
 3G 
 
 inches. 
 
 18 inches'. 
 
 
 
 10^' inches; 
 
 9j, inches. 
 
 Small Primary, 
 
 36 
 
 
 20. 
 
 
 
 
 10 
 
 
 11 '" 
 
 Primary, 
 
 30 
 
 
 22f 
 
 
 
 
 12 
 
 
 12 " 
 
 Intermediate, 
 
 30 
 
 
 25 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 I3i " 
 
 Grammar School, 
 
 42 
 
 
 26i 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 15 " 
 
 High School, 
 
 42 
 
 
 27i 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 I6i " 
 
 Academic, 
 
 42 
 
 
 29| 
 
 
 
 
 15 
 
 
 17. " 
 
 Settees for rear rows- 
 
 -any size, to 
 
 match the 
 
 desks. 
 
 
 
 
 Desk height is measured at front— 
 
 -back 
 
 edge 
 
 is 
 
 U 
 
 inches 
 
 higher.. 
 
 Seat height is 
 
 ineasurcd at yron<, with a comfortable pitchofaboutl^^inche's 
 
 Single Desks intended for one pupil, have same dimensions as double desks, except 
 length, which varies from 18 to 24 inches. 
 
 The average space required on 'the! floor. of the. school-room for Children's, Small 
 Primary, Primary, and Intermediate sizes,,'is 25. by 36'inches. 
 
 The Grammar, High School, and^ Academic,- require'about 28 by 42 inches.\ 
 
 The width of the aisles must depend^pon.circumstance^. Folding seats require less 
 waste of space for aisles than fixed seats. 18 to 24 inches is ample. 
 
 Of each style of desks and seats we have the sizes named at the bottom of the page on 
 wliich the said style is described. 
 
 Price Lists will be sent on application .with stamp, j,. In calling for price lists, it is 
 well to mention the number and grade of pupils requiring furniture. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 STYLE A. 
 The American Settees, with Slate-Rests and Book-Boxes. 
 
 1. The " Coruell" Settee, for Primary and Intermediate Classes. 
 
 The men and women of to-day can readily reeall the aelios and pains inflicted upon tlicni 
 by the ill-shaiied furnituiv of thirty years ago. The school officers of that period were apt 
 to consider anything good enough for " the smaller scholars," and to act with disivgard to 
 the comfort of children, which has done more to civate positive "hatred of school" than 
 any other one cause. 
 
 The style illustrated in the cut is as easy and comfortable as it is possible to construct 
 school furnituiv. The shape of the seat and back is pivcisely adapted to tit the natural 
 outlines of the persons of pupils. This shape, together with the jiropcr pitch of the seat, 
 tends to coni]Hi an cnrt posture, which is sure to induce better health and habits than can 
 be expected when uncomfortable furnituiv is used. 
 
 Stj/lf A is intended moiv especially for those in the childivn's and primary departments, 
 and for those in the intennediate department who have not yet attained tt> the " copy-lH>ok'' 
 degree. The arm, or " slate-n?st," is sufficient for sujiporting the books and slates of the 
 children, who can rest upon it when they lean forward. The book-boxes beneath the seat 
 arc ample for putting away books, slates, etc., when not in use. 
 
 This stylo is economical as to price and as to space reqniivd. It is constructed under 
 the dove- tailed patent, hence is very substantial, and being easily taken apart ("knocked 
 down"), may l>e cheajdy shipped, and readily jnit together at its destination. 
 
 It is made of thnr ha'iihts — 1, Cuildukn's; 2, Tkimaky; and 3, Ixtermedi.kte ; in 
 lengths of 3 ft., 4^ ft., 6 ft., T.J ft., and ft., with slate-rests for two, tluvc, four, five, or six 
 pupils ivspix'tively. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 Popular School Desks and Settees. 
 
 STYLE B. 
 
 {Munger's Patents, and Allen's Oj^era Seat Patents.) 
 
 The inventor of The New American School Desks and Settees, which have 
 become so widely famous, devised this style in response to the demands of school officers 
 who want good school furniture at cheaper rates ifuin any heretofore nvule. At the same 
 time, in this cheaper style many of the superior points of the original invention have been 
 preserved, substantial wood ends being used in place of the expensive iron frames. 
 
 They are comfortaJAe — the backs and seats having the proper curve. They have the 
 indispensable folding seats. They are constructed under the " dove-tailing" patent, and 
 hence may be shipped flat, and readily put together by unskilled persons. No more sub- 
 stantial desks than those are made. Some may object to the wood ends, which certainly 
 are not as light and graceful as the iron frames. In many sections, however, they have 
 found great favor, and are pronounced as good as the more expensive furniture. 
 
 The following are the regular sizes by name and by number ; the dimensions in detail 
 are given in another place : 
 
 4. Children'fs Desk and Settee— for two Pupils. 
 
 5. Primary, " " 
 
 6. Intermediate, " " 
 1. Grammar, " " 
 
 8. Uvih School, " 
 
 9. Academic, " " 
 10. Settees for Rear Rows " " 
 
 4i. Children's D. and S.— for one Pupil. 
 
 5i. Primary. " " 
 
 6|. Intermediate, " '* 
 
 'l\. Grammar, " " 
 
 8i. High School, " " 
 
 9i. Academic, " "/ 
 
 lOj. Settees for Rear Rows " " 
 
10 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 STYLE C. 
 
 The New England School Desks, 
 
 WITH FOLDING CIIAIES. 
 
 This stylo is so callod boonuso School Desks of similar appoaviinoo have long been 
 popular in many parts of Now England. 
 
 The dosk, simplo and ooonomioal in oonstruotion, has its sovoral parts joined on the 
 " doYC-ttuled" plan, so that it may bo paekod ontiivly tlat, and put up at its destination. 
 Hence its transportation is exceedingly cheap. The several parts tit perfectly, and the 
 application of a little glue to the dove-tailing pai'ts when they are put together, makes them 
 perfectly tirni and substantial. 
 
 The Folding Chaik is a Novelty, which grj\tifies the wants of those who demand 
 the itidivuiiuil as well as the foldhuj seat. The curves of the backs and seats ai"c the same 
 as those of our " New American Pesks and Settees." 
 
 Those chaii-s ai"o made foliiiiii], under the patents of A. H. Allen, the inventor of the 
 famous Opera Seat. We have puR'hased the exclusive xise of his patents, in their applica- 
 tion to school furnitun\ at a great expense. Toachoi-s and school othcors who have most 
 caivfuUy and intelligently studied the wants of modem schools, demand Folhino Se.vts. 
 
 Stijic C may bo ivcouuneiuled for giMieral utility and aviwmi/, but not for beauty. 
 Though hotter, in appearance, than the cut ivprosents, yet it cannot Iv depended npon 
 to improve the taste of the rising generation. 
 
 There aa^ five sizes, for two pupils: — 11. Primary, — 12. Intermediate, — 13. 
 Grammar, — II. High School, and 15. Academic. Also five sizes, for one pupil : — 
 lli^. Primary, — 12^. Intermediate, — 13J. Grammar, — 14^. High School, — ISJ. 
 Academic. The dimensions are the same as appear in the table of standanl sizes. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 STYI^E I>. 
 
 The Accommodation School Desks, 
 
 WITU TUE WILCOX FOLDING CIIAIltS. 
 
 11 
 
 This style (D) h a considerable improvement on style C, and is somewhat more ex- 
 pensive. 
 
 The Dksk has strong iron frames, wliieh g^ive it a light and graceful appearance. All 
 the iron parts dovetail into the wood-work, making it convenient to pack \i flat, and put 
 it together at its destination. This manner of joining the parts strengthens the desk, as 
 tli(; wood and iron mutually brace and stiffen each other. 
 
 The Chaik, devised by Mr. Wilcox, is a success. It has the proper comfortable shape — 
 both back and seat being curved ; it affords independent seats for eaeli pupil — which some 
 tca^;hers prefer ; and its ajjpearance is good. 
 
 Its merits, compared with the "pedestal chair," need not be seriously discussed. Ped- 
 estal chairs invariably become loose because of the severe strain ujfon the screws which 
 (at first) fasten them to the floor. Their construction permits this — and they then prove 
 very noisy and annoying. The Wilcox chair can have no difficulty of this kind. It« 
 construction renders It absolutely firm under all circumstances. It is well balanced, and 
 even without screws, it will do quite as well as ordinary household chairs. Morwjver, it ia 
 FOLDING — the many advantages of which need not be named here. Well-informfA eduai- 
 tors fiverywhiKre (hrwirul fobhny umls. 
 
 Of this style there are the following, whose dimensions are given in the "table of stand- 
 ard sizes." 
 
 16. Primary Dock and Chairs— for two Pupils. 
 
 17. Intcrrncdiate, '" " 
 
 18. (irammar, " " 
 
 19. HiKh Hchool, " " 
 
 20. Academic, " " 
 
 1 Bf Primary T), and Chair— for o«« Pnpll. 
 1 7i. Int<;rrn(;diatc, " 
 
 1 Hi. Grammar, 
 1 9i. Hi{,'h School, 
 20i. Academic, 
 
12 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 STYLES E & F. 
 
 The New American School Desks and Settees. 
 
 (lUunger's Patents, witli Allen's Opera-Seat Patent.) 
 
 E. Combined Desk and Settee. 
 
 F. Independent Oesk and Settee. 
 
 The exact physiological curvature of the seat and back has not been easy to 
 find. — Miicli time was spent in gnidual approaches to this curve. Different models were sub- 
 jected to the criticism of teachers and school-cliildren, and the still severer test of use. The 
 faults of each fomi were carefully noted and corrected, until their various and often obscure 
 defects were eliminated and the proper curve determined. That it was no easy task to 
 discover the shape universally adapted to tlie persons of old and young — which would su])- 
 port the body just where it needs supporting, and leave it free at every other point — is well 
 
 attested by the almost universal failure of cabinet-makers 
 and upholsterers to devise a chair, settee, car-seat, or 
 church-pew that one can sit on half an hour without 
 positive discomfort. The commonest faults (where a 
 cuiTc is attempted) are too great a curA'ature, or a mis- 
 placed one — a cinxc that strikes the back too high up, 
 gouging the sitter under the shoulder-blades, or one bear- 
 ing upon the shoulders like a yoke. Fig. .r represents a 
 seat, curiously contrived to miss the end intended. It is a 
 copy of a ])ortion of the engraved illustration of a certain 
 " Sofii-backed" school seat. A more elaborate contrivance 
 for forcing children to sit on the small of the back would 
 be hard to find. Every one of the curves is just the reverse 
 of what it should be. We have seen School Furniture 
 mth a boasted " curved back," having the edges of the back rudely " rounded off" a little, 
 regardless of the natural outlines of the bodies of the pupils. That, however, is a farce 
 which can hardly satisfy the enlightened wants of the educators of the ])resent day. 
 The cur^^es «f the backs and seats of Styles E and F are faultless. [over] 
 
 Pig. X (Bad Form). 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 13 
 
 The folding seat is the nicest adaptation of Allen's Opera-scat patent 
 yet conceived of. It is perfectly simjile and noiseless. The lever works in a mortise, 
 
 inaccessible to the fingers or dress of the 
 children. And whether the seat is down, 
 or folded up, it rests upon rubber cush- 
 ions, which, besides making it noise- 
 less, yield a grateful spring to the occu- 
 pants. It is difficult to show on paper 
 the nice points of this folding scat. The 
 accompanying cut may perhaps give some 
 idea of it; but the thing itself must be 
 seen and used to be perfectly understood 
 and appreciated. 
 
 The doie-taiiing patent is 
 used for attaching fhe wood and iron. 
 This prevents all warping or checking of 
 the wood, and allows the furniture to be 
 Independent Settee, with Book-Box. readily taken apart and safely packed for 
 
 shipment, at about one-fifth of the usual freight charges on set-up furniture. 
 
 Style E is the best Combined Desk and Settee made. Its great 
 width of base ; the perfect balance of all its parts, rendering it steady even without the use 
 of floor screws ; and the rigid union of the wood and iron, make it so strong and firm that 
 the chief, if not the only objection to combined desks and settees, liability to "joggle," 
 is reduced to almost nothing. 
 
 Style F has been prepared for those who have insuperable objections to combined desks 
 and settees. Such persons will recognize a special triumph in the Independent 
 Desks and Settees. These will give the same appearance to the School Room as 
 Style E. The Desks and Settees stand close together, are perfectly symmetrical, and yet 
 are entirely distinct. No space is wasted, and no desk and settee touch each other. 
 
 In Styles E and F the space for books is ample on a shelf beneath the desk-top. In 
 the double desks this shelf is divided in the middle by a partition. The ends of the desks 
 arc open-work to permit easy inspection by the teacher, and prevent the introduction of 
 contraband articles. 
 
 These styles are considered complete to the minutest details. They are careful and 
 artistic combinations of all the ab."3olute requisites of perfect School Furni- 
 ture. They are unrivalled in comfort, in strength and durability, in finished 
 workmanship, and in graceful and elegant appearance. 
 
 Men of the best mechanical ideas and those who have given most study to modern School 
 Furniture are the loudest in their pr.iises. 
 
 The Combined has the following dimensions in '"table of standard sizes :" 
 for two Pupils. 
 
 21. Children's Degk and Settee 
 
 22. Primary, " 
 
 23. Intermediate, " 
 
 24. Grammar, '• 
 
 25. Hijrh School, " 
 
 26. Academic, " 
 
 27. Settees for Rear Rows, 
 
 28. Ditto with Book-Box, 
 
 21}. Children's D. and S.— for one Pnpil. 
 
 22*. Primary, " " 
 
 23J. Intermediate, " 
 
 24i. Grammar, " " 
 
 2.5|. HiKh School, 
 
 26*. Academic, " " 
 
 271. Settees for Rear Rows, " 
 
 28*. Ditto with Book-Cook, " 
 
 The Independent : 
 
 29. Primary Desk and Chairs— for two Pupils. 
 
 30. Intermediate, " " 
 
 31. Grammar, " " 
 
 32. HiRh School, " " 
 
 33. Academic, " " 
 
 34. Settees for Rear Rows, " 
 
 35. Ditto with Book-Box, " 
 
 29*. Primary D. and Chair— for Ortf Pnpil. 
 30*. Intermediate, '; 
 
 31*. Grammar, " " 
 
 32*. High School, " " 
 
 33*. Academic, " " 
 
 34*. Settees for Rear Rows, " 
 
 35*. Ditto with Book-Box, " 
 
u 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 STYLE a. 
 
 Assembly-Room Desks and Settees 
 
 (Muuger's Patents Avith Allen's Opera-Seat Patent.) 
 
 It is often necessary that the School-room be used for a general Assembly-room — for 
 Sunday-school, Public Lectures, and other purposes. Hence Furniture which will permit 
 tlie §c]iooI-rooin to toe readily traiisforincd into an Asseinbly- 
 room, has long been desired. Inventors in this Country and in Great Britain have 
 tried their skill ; but with clumsy and expensive results. The achievement illustrated in 
 the cuts is a decided success. 
 
 Economy of cost and space ; strength and simplicity of construction ; ease and rapidity 
 of changing a School-room of Desks into an Assenibly-rooni of Settees : all 
 
 have been considered and accomplished. With this 
 Furniture it is easy for the School-room to serve the 
 double purpose of School and Publfc Hall. 
 
 The top is easily let down by the pupils, 
 while seated in their places. The book-boxes 
 are located as shown at A A A, extending the entire 
 length of the Desks, giving ample book and slate 
 room. When the Desks are folded tlie book-boxes 
 are closed, keeping out the dust. Book-boxes may 
 also be attached beneath the seats — as shown on 
 Settees on another page. When desired they may 
 be supplied mth locks. 
 
 When Desk and Seat are both folded, less than 
 one foot in width is occupied, leaving ample space for 
 gymnastic exercises, passages, etc. (See Cut.) 
 The folding Seat (Allen's Opera-seat patent), with 
 the Comfortable Curves of both back and seat, which have made the Wew American 
 School Desks and Settees so mdely famous, do good service in this style. 
 The Assembly Desks and Settees have five sizes, see table of standard sizes : 
 
 36. Primary Desk and Settee— for two Pupils. 
 
 37. Intermediate, " " 
 
 38. Grammar, " " 
 
 39. High School, " " 
 
 40. Academic, " " 
 
 41. Settees for Rear Rows', " 
 4*. Ditto with Book-box, " 
 
 36J. Primary D. and Settjee— for (?;i€ Pupil. 
 
 37j. Intermediate, " 
 
 38i. Grammar, " 
 
 3 9 J. Hi?h School, " 
 
 40i. Academic, " 
 
 4li. Settees for Rear Rows, 
 
 42f. Ditto with Book-box, 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 15 
 
 STYLE H. 
 
 '*01d Style" Desks and Chairs. 
 
 We are ready to supply the " Old Style" Desks and Chairs, though we do not care to 
 recommend the uncomfortahle and inconvenient chairs, and do not deny that distant cus- 
 tomers will find the transportation expenses a very important item. Yet, many School 
 Officers have long endured this style of Furniture, and many others may find no insupera- 
 ble objections to it : and some- 
 times, for special reasons, may 
 [irefer it. 
 
 The iron-work is strong and 
 plain, having no points nor angles 
 to tear the dress and catch the 
 dust. 
 
 Besides the chairs which appear 
 in the cut above, the " Circular 
 Back Pedestal" chairs, and the 
 " Extra School" chairs are appro- 
 priate for use with these desks. 
 The three styles are about the 
 same price. 
 
 Circular Back Pe- 
 destal Chair. 
 
 Extra School Chair. 
 
 [Sometimes we have of this and eimilar styles second-hand lots, but little used, and " as good as 
 new," which we can supply " at bargains." School Ofllcers desiring to exchange them for modern 
 styles, place them in storage for us to dispose of at " a sacrifice." We will not attempt to sell 
 them to customers who cannot call and examine them for themselves.] 
 
 There are five sizes : 
 
 43. Primary Desk and Chairs— for two Pupils. 
 
 44. Intermediate, '" "■ 
 
 45. Grammar, " " 
 48. High School, " 
 
 47. Academic, " " 
 
 43 J. Primai-y D. and Chair— for o?!« Pupil. 
 44|. Intermediate, '• " 
 
 45*. Grammar, " " 
 
 46*. High School, " " 
 
 47}. Academic, " " 
 
16 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 STYLE I. 
 
 Bo:: Desks with Lids. 
 
 This style is an old favorite, yet in fair demand. It suits certain tastes, and meets the 
 requirements of certain circumstances which other styles may not seem to satisfy. 
 
 We make these desks as handsomely as their construction will permit. The iron sup- 
 ports are substantial and plain — entirely without angles and jioints to tear the dress and 
 afford lodgement for dust. They are fitted to screw fast to the floor, though they may be 
 used without the floor-screws. They arc well braced — (our artist has not clearly shown 
 the braces in the cut). 
 
 Tlie box jiart is well made of thoroughly seasoned wood. Tlie lids have brass hinges, 
 and close on rubber cushions to avoid noise. 
 
 The book-box beneath the lids is divided into two compartments in the double desks, 
 each of which is supplied with a little shelf for pens, pencils, etc, and each lid has a brace 
 for holding it when open. The top is properly inclined for writing. The level part of the 
 top is grooved for pens and pencils, and is bored for inkwells. 
 
 The Lids are made plain, and finished in the usual manner, or they are covered with 
 green enamelled cloth, as may be ordered. 
 
 Any chairs, movable, fixed, or folding, may be used with these desks. Chairs are sold 
 separately. 
 
 There are five sizes — heights are given in table of standard sizes 
 
 4S. Primary Box D. with Lids— for ^era Pupils. 
 
 49. Intermediate, " 
 
 .50. Oraminar, " " 
 
 .'il. niph School, " " 
 
 52. Academic, " " 
 
 48^ Primary B. D. with Lids— for One Pnpil. 
 40^ Intermediate, 
 50J. Grammar, 
 51*. ITiirh School, 
 52i. Academic, 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 17 
 
 STYLE I— (Continued). 
 
 Single Box Desks with Lids. 
 
 The cut represents the Box Desks with Lids ndapted to one pupil. They arc con- 
 structed precisely like those intended for two pupils, with same dimensions except as to 
 length. Any kind of chairs may be used with these desks : — we have chairs to suit all 
 
 tastes, and all purses. 
 
 Most educators appreci- 
 ate the varied advantages 
 of the folding chairs, and 
 insist on having them. Of 
 these there are two kinds — 
 the new American fold- 
 ing chair and the Wilcox 
 folding chair — both of 
 which are made under the 
 Allen Opera- Seat Pa- 
 tents. 
 
 Five sizes of these desks 
 and chairs, uniform with 
 heights in table of standard 
 
 New American Chair. 
 
 Wilcox Chair. 
 
 [Chairs appearing on these two pages (representing Box Desks with Lids) are named as follows— 
 we enumerate them in the order in which they appear: (a) Circular Back, Cane seat; 
 (b) Circular Back, Wood seat; (e) Kxtra. Seliool ; (d) Curved Back, Cane 
 seat; (e) New American Folding; (f) Wilcox Foldin;^.] 
 
 .^3. Primary B. D. with Lid— for me Pupil. 
 
 54. Intermodiate, " " 
 
 55. Grammar, " " 
 
 5e. Hish School B. D. with Lid— for one Pupil. 
 57. Academic, " " 
 
18 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 Single Desks, like Style D, with Chairs. 
 
 Econom}' of cost and space, and sometimes other considerations, induce school officers 
 and teachers generally to purchase double desks, to accommodate two pupils. However 
 desks for single pupils are frequently called for. Hense, all of the desks shown in thi: 
 catalogue are made single, for one pupil, as well as double, for two pupils. 
 
 It is not necessary to occupy our pages to show the several styles of single desks, since 
 the views which we give of tlie double desks are sufficient to give correct impressions of th( 
 appearance of tlie desks when made for one pupil instead of two — the difference being in 
 length only. 
 
 The above cut represents tiie single desk of Style D, shown on page 11. 
 
 Anj' style of chairs to suit the requirements of the case may be used. We have alreadj 
 illustrated several kinds of movable, fixed, and folding chairs — to which we would 
 now refer. Sizes are uniform with Style D. 
 
 STYLE J. 
 
 Wall Desks. 
 
 Desks like that shown in the accompanying cut are 
 occasionally very convenient for placing around the 
 walls of the school-room, or in spaces which may 
 sometimes be required to be cleared for aisles. The 
 top readily folds down, like the tops of the " Assem- 
 bly-Desks," to make a free passage when required. The 
 top, in folding down, incloses the book-box A. They 
 are made to order in any required lengths. 
 
 There are five sizes : 
 
 58. Primary. 
 
 59. Intermediate. 
 
 60. Grammar. 
 
 61. Hiph School. 
 
 62. Academic. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 19 
 
 STYLE K. 
 
 Ths New York Desk-Settee. 
 
 Tlie Patent Desk-Settees, illustrated above, are used very extensively in the Public 
 Schools of New York City. They have been in use since 1864, and have been very 
 severely and satisfactorily tested. 
 
 They have two seats — the upper seat being arranged to turn up and over to forni a 
 desk, the lower seat being occupied by the pupil when writing, and the upper scat when 
 the top is folded down, to convert the desks into settees. 
 
 This cut gives 
 the same desks in 
 another position, 
 and shows the 
 sliding frame for 
 holding books, 
 slates, or copies for 
 drawing, etc., etc. 
 When not in use, 
 the frame is passed 
 down behind the 
 seat. They all 
 have book -boxes 
 beneath the seat, 
 book-racks attach- 
 ed to the backs, 
 inkwells, etc. 
 They are very substantially constructed. When desired, they will be supplied with 
 
 plain backs, in place of the balluster backs shown in the cuts. There are the usual sizes- 
 
 for all grades of schools : 
 
 63, Primary; 64, Intermediate; 65) Grammar; 66, High School; 67, Academic. 
 
'20 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 Normal and Collegiate Desks. 
 
 68. Plain Box Desk, with Lid aud Brace for holding it open, 
 
 Substantiiil iron supports, thoroughly braced. The top is grooved for pencils and pens, 
 and is boivd for ink-wells. It is made of ash or cherry, with plain or cloth top as may be 
 dcsiivd. 
 The Chair shown in the cut is Oak, Curved Top, Cane Seat. 
 
 69. Similar to 68, with more elaborate iron supports. Same price. It is exjxx-ted that 
 chairs will be selected to suit the wants of the purchaser. These desks are quite as well 
 adapted to one style of chair as another. 
 
 The Cliair shown in the cut is the Wilcox Folding Chair. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 21 
 
 Normal and Collegiate Desks. 
 
 70. Turned Post, Box Desk, 
 With lid and brace, enamelled cloth top. It is usually ma^lc of Black Walnut, but will 
 \xi supplied in Ash or Cherry, when desired. It is specially desiraWc when the desks are 
 require! to be movable. The Chair shown is the Extra School. 
 
 71. The New American Collegiate Desk 
 Ifl a very superior desk, with a drawer, book-rack, etc. The Chair is the New American 
 Folding Chair. Of course any chairs may be used with 70 and 71. 
 
 The four preceding desks, Nos. 68, 09, 70, and 71, are supplied double, for two pupils, 
 as well as single, as shown in the cuts. 
 
 Besides the desks here enumerated, all of our many styles are made large 
 enough to adapt them to Normal and Collc^ate unch. 
 
22 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 Lecture-Room Settees for Seminaries, Colleges, 
 
 KOEMAL SCHOOLS, AND UNIYEKSITIES. 
 
 72. The Cornell Lecture-Room Settee 
 
 V/as originally devised and constructed for Cornell University. Its use there has been 
 highly approved by the president, fiiculty, students, and visitors. And it is in most satis- 
 factory use in several of the first Colleges, Theological Seminaries, Normal Schools, and 
 other prominent institutions. 
 
 The settee itself is the same as our New American Settee. To this is .attached, at 
 intervals to suit the circumstances of the case, desks, suitable for students' tise in taking 
 notes. Tliese are strongly supported by ornamental cast-iron brackets, front and rear. 
 
 Settees arc estimated by the foot at prices shown in our price lisf. When book-box is 
 attached (as in cut) 20 cents per foot additional is charged. Writing desks (with 
 brackets) for each student, $1.00. 
 
 They are shipped flat, or " knocked down," making transportation expenses scarcely 
 one-tenth of that on ordinary settees. 
 
 The Cornell EJKamination Table 
 
 Was constructed at the suggestion of Hon. A. D. White, President of Cornell University. 
 It contains no drawer for the concealment of papers, and folds flat for compact storage 
 when not required for examination purposes. A hundred may be put away in a moderate 
 size closet. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 23 
 
 READING STANDS. 
 
 36. 
 
 The Cuts 36 and 37 illustrate Stagg's Patent Revolving Reading Stands. 
 
 Cut 36 shows a stand entirely folded up. It is thus adapted to a variety of school, 
 library, office, or household uses. 
 
 37 shows it with book -rack elevated and occupied by a book. The top serves as a 
 brace, as well as a sloping desk on which the reader may make his notes and memoranda. 
 The book is held open by nicely-adapted fingers. Price, $10.00. 
 
 The Lecturer's Reading Stand (38) 
 
 Is a complete book - rest for the public 
 reader. It is readily adjusted to any height, 
 and to any inclination of desk. It has elas- 
 tic fingers to retain the book or manuscript. 
 It is substantial in construction and elegant in 
 appearance. It is a useful and ornamental 
 article for the private and public library. 
 
 In the public schools of New York city 
 it is used as a Bible stand. For general 
 utility it has no equal. 
 
 For use in Sunday-schools, lecture-rooms, 
 and public halls there is nothing to equal this 
 reading stand. It has had fair trial, with 
 satisfaction. 
 
 The feet are of iron, shaped to give great 
 stability to the stand, even when occupied by 
 a heavy book. 
 
 For shipment the feet are readily taken off 
 to render transportation safe and cheap. 
 
 Price of Lecturer's Reading Stand, 
 $15.00. 
 
24 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Adjustable Stand 
 Artists, Drauglitsiiieii, and Students. 
 
 This Staiul can be adjusted to any rctnurcd heiulit. lis toji can be set at any inclina- 
 tion, and by turning;- back the screw at the right, it is allowed to rotate to bring cither 
 side in front. All adjnstnients aiv easily made, thns allowing it to be used when slttlne: 
 or staiitllii";, with equal facility, as artist's easel, dranghtsmau's stand, or study 
 tjvble. It is good for holding large books of reference. 
 
 [t is the best thiwj for drawjlttsmni, because it enables them to turn or incline their work 
 at pUvisnro. And it is (i most complete artist's easel, lor, by a touch, the light on the pic- 
 ture may be entirely changed. 
 
 It is mado almost entirely of iron, with substantial wood top, and its tasteful apiK^ar- 
 anco makes it equally acceptable in the office, counting-room, library, or school-room. 
 
 PRICKS, KTC. 
 
 Pine Tor, st.aincd, 21x04, plain J;10 00 
 
 Bl.\ck Walnut Tor, 2ix\!(i, casters 11 00 
 
 Black Walnut Tor, 22x2(), monldod cdgo, castings richly bronzed. 13 50 
 
 Bl,ack Walnut Tor, 'i^xSO, moulded edge, gold bi-oiized and oruameuted. . 15 00 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 25 
 
 Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 
 
 PUBLIC HALLS, &c. 
 
 82. Oommon Wood, Plain Seat, Settee — Stump Arm. 
 
 83. Turned Spindle Back, Scooped Seat, Settee— Scroll Arm. 
 
 84. Flat Spindle Back, Fancy Rail, Double Rounds, Scooped Seat, Settee- 
 Fancy Brace Arm. 
 
26 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 
 
 PUBLIC HALLS, &o. 
 
 85 Fancy Flat Baluster Back, Double Fancy Turned Rounds, Scooped 
 Seat, Settee — Fancy Brace Arm. 
 
 m^ 
 
 86. Slat Back, Cane Seat, Settee — Scroll Brace Arm, 
 
 87. Grecian, Cane Seat, Flat Front Brace, Settee — Fancy Brace Arm. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 27 
 
 Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 
 
 PUBLIC HALLS, &o. 
 
 ^-. 
 
 88. Flat Fancy Baluster and Rail, Caue Seat, Settee — Fancy Brace Arm. 
 
 89. Fancy Cane Back and Seat, Square Rear Posts — Fancy Turned Double 
 Rounds, Settee, Spindled Arm. 
 
 90. Flat Baluster Back, Scooped Seat, Settee— Bent Arm, Spindled; with 
 Folding Book-Shelf attached. 
 
28 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 Settees for Eecitation Eooms, Sunday Schools, 
 
 PUBLIC MALLS, &c. 
 
 91. Reversible, or Railroad Plain Spindle Back, Plain Seat, Settee— Bent 
 ^ Arm, Spindled. 
 
 92. Reversible, Turned Spindle, Scooped Seat, Settee— Iron supports and 
 
 Arms. 
 
 93. Reversible, Plat Baluster, Plain Seat. Fancy Turned Posts, Settee- 
 Bent Arms, Spindled. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 29 
 
 Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 
 
 PUBLIC HALLS, &c. 
 
 94. Reversible, Curved Slat Back, Curved Seat, Settee— Iron Arms and 
 Supports. Style to correspond with the New American Settee. 
 
 Settees with reversible backs, cnaljlin;; the occupants to face either way, are not nn- 
 common. They are known in the Iccturc-room, and in the Sunday-school, and more 
 particularly in the railway car. But, hitherto, they have not been constructed with 
 adjmldljle seats, as well as l^acks. It is undeniable, that; a seat, to be comfortahle, must 
 pitch downward from the front edge. Comfort and physiological considerations alike 
 demand this. 
 
 >'o. 9.5. •• --. CO. 
 
 95. Joeckel'8 Reversible, Spindle Back,- Pitching Slat Seat, Settee — Iron 
 
 Arm.s and Supports. 
 
 96. Joeckel's Reversible, Baluster Back, Pitching Slat Seat, Settee — Iron 
 
 Arms and Supports, w^ith Book-Box. 
 
 4 
 
 Mr. Joeckel's Patent Settees have this advantage besides the back is reversed 
 without turnin;^ it over. It is suspended on a pivot, like a pendulum, and is easily 
 changed, at the same time giving the seat the proper pitch, and holding it securely in 
 position. Strength and elegance have not been overlooked. 
 
30 
 
 SCUOOL FUUNITUIIK. 
 
 Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 
 
 1^ U li 1^ I C HALLS, & c . 
 
 97. The Wilcox Settee has a Folding Seat, (mulor Allen's Opera-seat patent), 
 cun-od slat back and iron sujiports. It is a elioapor form of the New American 
 Settee described in another pVicc. It lias the same <;eneral advantages as the New Ameri- 
 can, and ean be shipped — "knocked down" — just as safely, and cheaply. 
 
 New American Settee — Seat folded up. 
 
 The Wilcox Settee folds just as compactly as the New American shown in 
 the cut, giving ample space for standing, or for passages, sweeping, etc. 
 
 And again, if the hall is to be clcanni of settees lor any special jinrposes, these settees 
 may4)e most compactly stored, each settee reqniring only two inches of space in width. 
 
 The Wilcox Settee, and the New American Settee are graded to suit children and adults 
 of all si/.es. The regtdar lengths of these settees are 6 feet, 7 feet, 8 feet, 9 feet, and 10 
 fcot. All other lengths made to order. 
 
SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 31 
 
 Settees for Recitation Rooms, Sunday Schools, 
 
 PUBLIC HALLS, &c. 
 
 98. The New American Settee has a curved fancy slat back, and a curved 
 seat — the curve being the same as that which has made the New American Scliool 
 Desks and Settees so widely famous for their comfort. The wood and iron are dove-tailed 
 together under Mr. Hunger's patents — the advantages of which are obvious. The 
 §eat is folding, under Allen's Opera-scat patent. 
 
 The several peculiar advantages of this settee make it without an equal, and greatly 
 superior for many purposes. 
 
 The lever device for folding, as now constructed, is more clearly shown in the accom- 
 panying enlarged cuts. The lever is pivoted on a strong bolt, and works noiselessly in a 
 mortise, inaccessible to the fingers or dress : and whether the seat is up or down it rests on 
 rubber cushions. 
 
32 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 New American Settee for Primary Schools, 
 
 ALSO SETTEE WITH FOLDING ARMS. 
 
 99. New American Settee, Primary-j Folding Seat, Book-Box. 
 
 For primary schools these frequently supply a convenient, comfortable, and economical 
 pui-pose. Sometimes a book-rack is attached to the back of the settee. 
 
 100. New American Settee, Folding Seat, and Folding Arms. 
 
 This style was constructed at the suggestion of William Ballantyne, Esq., of Washing- 
 ton, D. C. It has peculiar advantages for those who want a Folding Settee with 
 Anns which readily fold with the Seat. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL— Part II. 
 TEACHERS' DESKS, Etc. 
 
 oonsrTE3:Nra?s- 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Bells — Academy, School, and Church, .... - 49 
 
 Book Shelves— Portable, -------- 50 
 
 Portable, with Writing-desks, .... 51 
 
 Chairs for Teachers : — 
 
 Windsor, Bent Top, Extra School, - - - - - 34 
 
 Curved Top, " Bell," English Cottage, etc., - - ... 35 
 
 Grecian, Continental, Prescott, etc., •• - - - - 36 
 
 Library, Revolving — Four Styles, - ... 37 
 
 Students', Classical, Cornell, - - - - - - 38 
 
 Desks for Teachers : — 
 
 Black Walnut, Turned Posts, No. 3, - - . - 39 
 
 Brewer Desk, No. 13, - - - - - - ' ^^, 
 
 Commissioner's Desk, No. 19, - * - - - - 45 
 
 Department Desk, No. 17, - - - - - - - 45 
 
 Guilford Desk, No. 6, 41 
 
 Home Desks, Nos. 31, 32, 33, - - - - - - 48 
 
 Household Desks, Nos. 34, 35, 48 
 
 Library Desk, or Flat Top, No. 11, 43 
 
 Maydo Desk, Plain, No. 1, - - - - - - 39 
 
 Maydo Desk, Cloth Top, No. 2, 39 
 
 Model Desk, No. 8, - - 42 
 
 New American, Small, No. 4, ------ 40 
 
 New American, Larger, No. 5, - - - . - - 40 
 
 New Model, No. 9, 42 
 
 Organ Desk, No. 36, - - - - - - " 49 
 
 Todd Desk, No. 7, - - - - , - - - 41 
 
 Tremont Platform Desk, No. 15, - . - - - 44 
 
 Library — Cases, .-------- 46 
 
 Chairs, .-------37 
 
 Tables, 46 
 
 Tables for Teachers, Seven Kinds, ....-- 47 
 
 Teacher's Lamp — St. Germain, .... . - - 52 
 
 Teacher's Waste Basket, .--...- 38 
 
TEAOHEKS' CHAIRS. 
 
 1. Common Windsor, Wood Seat. 2. Windsor, Wood Seat. 
 
 (Too common and cheap for regular school (Somewhat better than No. 1, but not recom- 
 use.) maided.) 
 
 3. Bent Top, Wood Seat. 
 (A cheap and Btix)ng chair.) 
 
 4. "Extra School." 
 (A well-known chair improved. 
 
TEACHERS' CHAIRS. 
 
 35 
 
 5. Curved Top, Cane Seat. 6. "Bell" Bannister. 
 
 (A very good chair, much used in schools.) (Similar to No. 5, costing a little more.) 
 
 7. " Square" Top, Cane Seat. 8. Wood Seat, Bent Arms, with Rods. 
 
 (Somewhat better than Nos. 5 and 6.) (A style not preferred by ladies.) 
 
 9. English Cottage. 
 
 10. Oane Seat, Bent Arms, with Rods. 
 
 ( Similar in style to No. 8.) 
 
36 
 
 TEACUEKS CUAIKS. 
 
 11. Grecian, Half Arms. 
 
 13. Continental, Cane Seat. 
 
 12. Continental, Wood Seat. 
 (A durable and coinfortalile eliair.) 
 
 14. Banister. 
 
 15. Prescott Arm-Chair. 
 (A favorite in New York City schools.) 
 
 16. Brace Arm. 
 (A good chair for ladies.) 
 
teachers' chairs 
 
 37 
 
 19. Common Arm, Wood Seat. 
 (Revolving pivot.) 
 
 18. Library, New Style. 
 
 20. Douglas, Bent Arms. 
 (Revolving pivot.) 
 
 21. Library, Cane Seat and Back. 22. Crescent Cane Seat, Spindle Back. 
 (Revolving screw.) (Revolving screw.) 
 
38 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Teachers' and Students' Chairs, etc. 
 
 student's Chair. 
 
 Student's Classical Chair. 
 
 23 is an old favorite, made in a very thorough and substantial manner. 
 
 24 has a wider and larger desk attached, which moves on a bolt passing through the 
 arm of the chair. It is intended to hold a lexicon, grammar, and another book or two, 
 and will be found specially convenient for students studying classics. 
 
 25. "Cornell" Chair. 
 
 Waste Paper Basket 
 
 25 is a vciy strong chair, with desk attached. It may be screwed to the floor ; but will 
 stand well without the screws. For shipping it can be taken apart, and packed flat. 
 
 It will be found useful as a Teacher's Chair in the School Room, a Study Chair at home, 
 or a Student's Chair in the College or University Lecture Room. In lengths for several 
 students it is used with great satisfaction in Cornell University, in Rutgers College, in 
 several Theological Seminaries, and in other first-class Educational Institutions. 
 
 26. The Waste Paper Basket is a necessary companion to the desk of teachers and others 
 who value tidiness. The cut illustrates only one style, made of " round wjllow, crossbar 
 work, plain" — several sizes — price 60 to .75. 
 
 There are elaborate fancy styles and shapes, colored, varying in price $2.00 to $5.00. 
 
TEACHEKS' DESKS. 
 
 1. Maydo Desk, Plain Top. 2. Maydo Desk, Cloth Top. 
 
 (Size, 18 in. by 24 inches.) (Size, 18 in. by 24 inclies.) 
 
 These are the smallest, plainest, and cheapest desks made for teachers. The supports 
 may be taken off for shipment, making transportation cheap. They are recommended 
 only in cases where the argument of economy must prevail. 
 
 3. Black Walnut, Turned Supports. 
 
 (Size, 22 in. by 12 inches.) 
 
 This is a neat desk, with more capacity than Nos. 1 and 2, and yet very cheap. How- 
 ever, eveiy teacher should have a larger desk than this. 
 
40 
 
 teachers' desks. 
 
 4. New American, Small Size, One Drawer. 
 
 (Size, 25 in. b3- 27 inches.) 
 This is specially adapted for use in small class-rooms. It occupies very little space, and 
 has unusual capacity, considering its size. It is thoroughly braced, and stands very 
 tirmly. It is precisely like No. 5, fully described below, except that it is shorter, having 
 only one drawer, while No. 5 has two. The discrepancy in the appearance of the two 
 arises irom the fact that No. 5 is drawn on a sniallcr scale. 
 
 5. New American, Regular Size, Two Drawers. 
 
 (Size, 25 in. by 42 inches.) 
 An excellent desk foi- the class-room. The book-rack is original, sunple, and convenient. 
 It allows the teacher reference books at hand, yet never in the way, while globe and call- 
 bell, and the indispensable Dictionary, have places within easy reach. Drawers, with 
 locks and keys, aiford security for private papers, stationery, records, etc. It is pro\'ided 
 with two ink-wells, one for black and one for red ink, so placed that ink cannot get from 
 them into the drawers. This desk has met with general favor in the schools of New York 
 City and elsewhere. It is economically packed for shipping. It has been patented. 
 
TEACHERS' DESKS. 
 
 41 
 
 6. The Guilford Desk. 
 
 (Size, 24 in. by 45 inches.) 
 
 This is a very convenient and graceful desk, with fair capacity. It contains two drawers 
 and a book-box. It has all the necessary qualities of a good desk, and can be recom- 
 mended for the purpose to which it is adapted. Its iron supports can be readily taken oif 
 for safe and cheap shipment. 
 
 7. The Todd Desk. Two Drawers and Book-box. 
 
 (Size, 24 in. by 45 inclies.) 
 
 This desk has two drawers and a book-box of unusual capacity beneath the lid. Besides 
 the two drawers and pigeon-holes shown in the cut, the book-box is divided into small 
 compartments under the level part of tlie top, for putting away papers, etc. It is an ex- 
 cellent desk for school purposes, and has had large demand. 
 
42 
 
 TEACHKHS DESKiS. 
 
 8. The Model Desk. Four Drawers and Book-Box. 
 
 ^Si.A'. 01 in. by i"<0 iiu-hos.') 
 This is a hamlsoiuo ilosk. It is lUiuio of ash. trinnnod witli black walnut, tinishod in 
 panols, tivnt. ivar. and onds. havin^: a roniarkabiy -j-aootid and livolv appoaraiioo. It 
 has four drawers, wido book-ln^x bouoath the lid, with ample spaeo for'books aud papei-s 
 on both sules of the wvitiinr surface. 
 
 9. The New Model Desk. 
 
 It has the size and ca]iaoity. with the general appearance, of No. S, thon-:h plainer and 
 stronger. For this reason it will generally be prefenvd. 
 
 10. The New Model Desk, made of Black Walnut. 
 
teachers' dksks. 
 
 43 
 
 11. Teacher's Desk, with Flat Top, Eight Drawers. 
 
 (Size, SM in. by 02 inclicH.) 
 This is an elaborately finished desk, intended for the principal's platform, the side to tlie 
 school bcin^ inclosed. It is made of beautiful grained ash, trimmwl with black walnut, 
 and panelled in front and at the ends with fine black walnut trimmings. It has eight 
 drawers, of varied sizes, while the flat top gives ample space for papers, etc. Enamelled 
 cloth covers the top. 
 
 12. The Same, made of Black Walnut, Billiard Cloth Top. 
 
 13. The Brewer Desk. 
 
 (Size, 24 in. by CO inches.) 
 This desk can be shipped in three sections. It seems complete in all the essential requi* 
 sites of a first-class principal's desk. It is made of ash, tastefully paaellcd and trimmed 
 with fine black walnut mouldinirs. 
 
 14. The Same, made of Black Walnut. 
 
44 
 
 TEACUERS' DESKS. 
 
 15. Tremont Principal'.s Platform Desk. 
 
 (Size, 3{) in. by 108 indies.) 
 
 This is an eliiboratc and elegant desk, of very great cnpaeity. Its size is about three 
 foot wide by nine feet long. The front contains closets for storing the books of the pupils, 
 thus supplying the place of book-cases for an entire school. The doors of these closets 
 arc so nicely arranged that when closed they will not be observed. 
 
 It was originally designed and constructed for the schools of Tremont, N. Y., credit 
 being due to Mv. William Herring, of the School Board, and Mr. George II. Albro, Prin- 
 cipal of School No. 1. 
 
 It is made of finely grained ash, i)anelled and trimmed with black walnut. 
 
 The bright color and beautiful grain of the ash, which is used in constructing most of 
 our teachers' desks, show to extra advantage in this desk. It is finislied, as usual with all 
 our work, in shellac, and grows brighter and harder witli age. No jierson of good taste 
 will l)e likelv to select for school furniture such woods as grow dark and sombre. 
 
 Rear view of No. 15. 
 
 Besides the ten drawers and the middle place for reconls, which show in the cut, there 
 are two large book-boxes under the lids. For the purposes intended we think this desk has 
 no equal. Its appearance would be creditable to any first-class school-room, and would 
 harmonize with the best modern ideas of school furniture. 
 
 16. The Same, made of Black Walnut or Mahogany. 
 
SCHOOL officers' DESKS, ETC. 
 
 45 
 
 17. Desk for " State Department of Instruction," Office of Board of Edu- 
 cation, or Trustees' Room. 
 
 18. Same, of Black Walnut, Billiard Cloth Top. 
 
 This extensive desk is required in cities and in large towns. It is built for occupation 
 on both sides. It has many compartments and drawers to accommodate vast business, 
 with ample places for putting away records and account-books, and filing many papers. It 
 is constructed in five parts, for convenience in shipping and in setting up. Being made to 
 
 order, its size will lie varied to suit the dfiniv d. 
 
 19. " Oommissioner's" Desk, Carved Black Walnut, Enamelled Cloth Top. 
 
 (Size, 23 in. l)y 25 inchcH.) 
 
 20. Same. Carved Black Walnut, French Polished, Cloth Top, with Gilt 
 
 Border. 
 
 This desk is an improvement on a desk which has been greatly admired. It is a beau- 
 tiful and convenient article of office or household furniture. It has a capacious box under 
 tlic lid fur books and pajjcrs, and a closet on each side, with shelves, etc. It is panelled on 
 all sides. 
 
46 
 
 LIBRARY CASES, TABLES, ETC. 
 
 21. The Class-room Library Case. 
 
 Size, four feet high above the brackets, three feet four inches wide, with movable shelves 
 for books. Panelled doors. 
 Other sizes and styles made to order, at reasonable prices 
 
 22. The Library Table. 
 Size, three feet by five feet. Four drawers. Made of selected ash, black walnut trim- 
 mings, octagon legs. 
 
 23. Same, made of Black Walnut, Billiard Cloth Top. 
 
 Other sizes and stvles made to order. 
 
teachers' tables. 
 
 47 
 
 24. Teacher's Table. Plain Top, no Drawer. 
 
 (Size, 20 iu. by 28 inches.) 
 
 25. Teacher's Table. Plain Top, One Drawer 
 
 (Size, 24 in. by 36 inchei?.) 
 
 26. Teacher's Table. Enamelled Cloth Top, One Drawer, with Lock and 
 
 Key (like Cut). 
 (Size, 24 in. by 36 inches.) 
 
 27. Same, in Black Walnut, Enamelled Cloth Top, with Gilt Border. 
 
 28. Teacher's Table. Plain Top, Two Drawers, with good Locks and Keys. 
 
 (Size, 24 in. by 42 inches.) 
 
 29. Teacher's Table. Cloth Top, Two Drawers, with Locks and Keys 
 
 (like Cut). 
 (Size, 24 in. by 42 inches.) 
 
 30. Teacher's Table. Cloth Top, Two Drawers, Black Walnut. 
 
 (Size, 26 in. by 36 Jj.ches.) 
 
 Any size or style to order, at proportionate prices. 
 
48 
 
 SCHOOL FURNITURE. 
 
 Home Desks for Children and Adults. 
 
 31. A neat Home Desk for Children, black walnut, with Lock and Key. 
 
 32. Ditto, larger, size between 31 and 33 which the cuts illustrate. 
 
 33. For Young Ladies— large, with interior Compartments. 
 
 34. Is a pretty and convenient desk, with larijc drawci in lower part. The upper part 
 Contains two little drawers, and several compartments for hooks, writing materials, etc. 
 The top has two shelves for books, ornaments, etc. The lid is hinged, and ek)ses upward 
 like 35. 
 
 35. Is larger and more elaborate, having in addition a closet underneath, with nicely 
 panelled dom's. Both these desks arc ornamental as well as useful, and are highly appre- 
 ciated by ladies. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 The Desk Organ, 
 
 49 
 
 '(•A'ri-;\"n I >.) 
 
 36. Complete Teacher's Desk and Double-Reed Organ $1 10.00. 
 
 This Teacher's Desk has a Douljle Reed Groan attached, bo that it docs not interfere 
 with the uses of the Desk, occiipyin;,' no space appropriated to books, pajfcrs, etc., wliile the 
 Or^^an, by tiirninj; a key, can he driiwn out all ready for use, as shown in the cut. 
 
 Its advantages are : 1 . Economy of Hjiace, no more being required than for the desk alone 
 2. Economy of cost ; the price sIkjws this. 
 
 The Organ is made by Mason & Hamlin. 
 
 Any of Mason & Hamlin's School, Household, and Church Organs, at manufacturers' 
 best rates $55.00 to $750.00. 
 
 Illustrated Circular, with prices, sent on aj^plication, with stamp. 
 
 37. Academy, School, and Church BELLS, 
 
 in great variety, from the best Bell Foundry in the country. Illustrated Catalogue sent on 
 application with stamp. 
 
50 SCHOOL MATKUIAL. 
 
 Portable Book Shelves- 
 
 I. The Gardner Patent Book Eacks, Walnut, Plain Ends. 
 
 No. '2. Si/.K— Width Vi inouks, llEuaiT PJ imuks, '^ Suki.vks— PiticK ^O.IO 
 
 3. •« " IT) '• " ir. •• i •• " 1.00 
 
 •1. >' •• IS '• " IS " :5 *• " 1.50 
 
 .-,. " '• --U " " SI '• S " " l.SO 
 
 i;. '• " 21 '• " 24 " 3 " " . . 2.20 
 
 7. " " 27 " " 37 " 3 " " 2.85 
 
 S. " " 30 " " SO " 3 '' " 3.G5 
 
 9. •' " Sli " " 3(i " 4 " " 5.20 
 
 10. " " -"Jl " " -IS '■ •'■' " " 0.45 
 
 11. " " 3(i " " tU •' (i " " 7. SO 
 
 12. '' " 8G " " 70 •• 7 " " 9. Go 
 
 11. 
 
 The Gardner Patent Portable Book Back, Fancy Enas 
 
 (Like cut). 
 
 HT 19 INCHES, 2 Shki-tks— Price ^1.00 
 
 No. 13. Si7 
 
 E- 
 
 -\\ 
 
 IDTH 
 
 1-2 
 
 NCHES, 
 
 IlEI 
 
 14. 
 
 
 
 •• 
 
 15 
 
 
 
 15. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 IS 
 
 " 
 
 
 16. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 21 
 
 " 
 
 
 17. ' 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 24 
 
 " 
 
 
 18. ' 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 27 
 
 " 
 
 
 19. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 SO 
 
 " 
 
 
 20. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 SO 
 
 " 
 
 
 21. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 34 
 
 " 
 
 
 22. 
 
 
 
 •• 
 
 30 
 
 " 
 
 
 23. 
 
 
 
 " 
 
 30 
 
 " 
 
 
 15 
 IS 
 21 
 24 
 27 
 30 
 80 
 4S 
 04 
 70 
 
 1.30 
 l.SO 
 2.15 
 2.45 
 3.20 
 4.00 
 5.50 
 6.90 
 8.25 
 10.2 5 
 
SCHOOL MATKJIIAL. 
 
 51 
 
 Portable Book Shelves, 
 
 Combined with Writing Desks. 
 III. The Patent Book Case and Portable Writing Desk, 
 
 Plain Ends. 
 
 No. 24. WiuTO 30 INCHES, IlEiunT 6(( incheb, 6 Shelveb— Price $11.7^ 
 
 "26. " 86 " " 76 " 7 " " 12.76 
 
 n. The Book Case and Writing Desk combined, Fancy Ends 
 
 (Like cut). 
 
 No. 2«. WioTii ?A iNcuEs, nEmiiT 06 inches, 6 Shelves-Price $12.50 
 
 ^^- ■' '^^ " " 76 " 7 " " 1.1. r,o 
 
 WITH LOCKS, 50 Cent* Extra. 
 
 They can be taken apart instantly, without turning a screw or drawinj,' a nail, and 
 can be packed as compactly for transportation as a few short Ujards. And a(,'ain, 
 they may be put up for use almost as qr'V;kly. For students, teachers, libraries.'and 
 many general uses, they must prove most accMjptablc. Teachers and students l>eing 
 migratory, will readily appreciate their advantages. 
 
52 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 The Teacher's Lamp. 
 
 The studious, fliithful teacher requires a foitliful light to aid him in his jircparation for 
 his duties. Wc have found none equal to 
 
 JVM mmf mummm, w ©erivcam sTEsoiissfiTf^s laivip^ 
 
 It gives a superior, steady light, and with ordinary care will emit neither smell nor smoke. 
 One-twelfth or one-eighth of a heavier oil — sperm, lard, or olive — mixed with kerosene, 
 makes the best and safest oil. Pratt's Astral Oil is recommended for use in this lamp. , 
 
 Professor Joseph Henry^ of the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, I). C, considers 
 " it the safest and pleasantest article of the kind he has ever used. It gives a brilliant, 
 unwavering light, very agreeable to the eye. It is safe, since the va])or of the petroleum 
 is entirely cut off from the flame, the reservoir being at a distance from the burning point, 
 and the supply tube constantly filled with the liquid." 
 
 These lamps, being imported, may vary in price, depending upon the price of gold. We 
 give prices for the i)resent only : 
 No. 1.— BRASS SLIDING LAMP, 13 line burner, 7 inch shade, and chimney 
 
 com])lete, ........ $8 50 
 
 No. 2.— BRASS SiLlDING LAMP, 11 line burner, 6 inch shade, and chimney 
 
 complete, ........ 7 50 
 
 No. 1 a.— BRASS SLIDING LAMP, double burner, 7 inch shades, and chimneys 
 
 same as No. 1 single, . . . . 16 00 
 
 No. 1 b.— GERMAN SILVER SLIDING LAMP, 13 line burner, 7 inch shade, 
 
 and chimney, . . . . 16 00 
 
 Box and packing for shipment will cost $1.00 extra. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL— Part III. 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 ^^Mens Sana in Corpore Sano. 
 
 jj 
 
 Our Gymnastic Apparatus 
 
 Is made of well-seasoned wood, varnished and polished. Dumb-bells and Indian Clubs 
 
 are made of maple; "Wands of white ash or black walnut ; Hand-rings are very strongly 
 
 made of three sections— black walnut, cherry, and maple. Besides great strength, they 
 
 have the merit of beautiful appearance. 
 
 Dumb-bells — four sizes : price list. 
 
 Nos. 1 and 2, for children per pair, $0.60 
 
 Nos. 3 and 4, for youths and adults " • • ^ 
 
 Rings — two sizes . 
 
 No. 1 , for children " .''5 
 
 No. 2, for youths and adults " .'''5 
 
 Wands — in required lengths, nicely turned each, .30 
 
 same, with metallic balls " .^S 
 
 Indian Clubs — five sizes of short clubs : 
 
 No. 1, weight about 2 pounds per pair, 1.25 
 
 No. 2, " 3 " " 1.50 
 
 No. 3, " 4 " " 1.75 
 
 No. 4, " 5 " " 2.00 
 
 No. 5, ". 6 " " 2.50 
 
 Six sizes of long clubs : 
 
 No. 1, 7 to 8 pounds " 3.00 
 
 No. 2, 10 " " 4.00 
 
 No. 3, 12 " " 4.50 
 
 No. 4, 14 " " 5.00 
 
 No. 5, 16 - " " 5.50 
 
 No. 6, 20 " " 6.00 
 
 Any size or style to order. Liberal discount on quantities. 
 
 Eehoe's Book on use of Clubs, illustrated 2.50 
 
 Croquet, etc., etc. 
 
Gymnastic Apparatus. 
 
 APPARATUS is now regarded by educators almost as indispensable in 
 pliysical training as agricultural implements are in successful farming. 
 The demand, bowovcr, is not so much for the costly, fixed apparatus of the 
 gymnasium, as for a few light and simple implements, which are cheap and 
 easily obtained ; which may be used with ecpial fiicility under cover, or in the 
 open air — in a calisthonic hall, or in a bedroom ; which may be employed by 
 persons of all ages, either individually or in classes ; and which insure 
 generous emulation alike in the family, the school, and the g/mnasium. 
 
 The four jiieces of apparatus which most completely fulfill these con- 
 ditions, and consequently are most deservedly popular, are Wands, DumlJ- 
 tells, Indian Clubs, and Rings. With these an almost unlimited number 
 of varied, powerful, and graceful movements may be executed, bringing into 
 play, under healtliful conditions, every muscle, joint, and member of the 
 human body. 
 
 How should this apparatus be constructed, with reference to form, size,' 
 and material ? In answering this important question, let us bear in mind 
 the fact that the oVject of gymnastic exercises is to secure beauty of form and 
 grace of movement, as well as muscular strength ; and that we aim not so 
 much to acquire the power to bear heavy burdens — the power important for 
 porters, hod-carriers, and coal-heavers — as for the qualities required in the 
 more usual vocations of life, such as flexibility, poise, grace, ease, rapidity 
 of muscular action, and a general diffusion of muscular vigor. 
 
 The primary object of gymnastic apparatus is not to serve as a test of 
 strength, but to afford facilities for exercise, "We employ it to secure greater 
 variety and precision of movement, more rapid development, and prolonged 
 interest. 
 
 The pieces here described are all made of wood, varnished with shellac, 
 at least three coats, and well polished. 
 
 Wands furnisli an extended course of beautiful and peculiarly effective 
 exercises. For diversity in movements, as a promoter of digestion, and as a 
 curative for dyspepsia, the wand, properly constructed, is not surpassed by 
 any other piece of gymnastic apparatus. 
 
 The wand should be made of well seasoned white ash or black walnut, 
 j)erfectly straight and smooth, seven-eigJdlis of an inch thick for men and 
 women, and three-fourths of an inch for boys and girls. "When hold vertical 
 by the side, it shoxild extend from the floor to the lobe of the ear, as in 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 55 
 
 Fig. I. 
 
 Fig. 2. 
 
 Fig. 1. It should be exactly of tins length, as a large majority ol the most 
 valuable movements, as shown in Fig. 5, can not be well executed with 
 a shorter one. 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
56 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Fig. s- 
 
 The wand is sometimes loaded at the ends with metallic balls — usually cast 
 iron, well japanned. It not only aftords an almost unlimited number atid 
 variety of movements by individuals, but also a most interesting and extended 
 course of combined exercises for students, arranged 
 in couples, as shown in Fig. 5. 
 
 Dumb-bells are regarded by many gymnastic 
 instructors as incomparably superior to any other , 
 piece of apparatus, as a means of physical culture. 
 Properly constructed, and in the hands of an adept, 
 dumb-bells go beyond their usual province, and 
 answer the purposes of "Indian clubs, gymnastic 
 rings, parallel bars, a wand, a foil, — in short, 
 almost the entire apparatus of the gymnasium. 
 
 The dumb-bell most approved at the present (j 
 
 time, is turned from wood. Fig. 6 will serve as a 
 model. As will be seen, the handle has shoulders. 
 It is long, bulged and beaded at the center, and well 
 adapted to wrist movements (see Fig. 7), as well 
 as aflfording every facility for free and easy motions 
 of the hand, wrist, and forearm. The balls are 
 moderate in size, beaded, and specially con- 
 structed with reference to the 7)aU grasp, which 
 adds greatly to the number and variety of its uses. 
 
 (See Fig. 9.) 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 57 
 
 Indian CIuTds, in our judg- 
 ment, stand first in excellence. 
 No other piece of gymnastic 
 apparatus affords so many facili- 
 ties for a marked, rapid, and 
 systematic development — for so 
 happy a combination of dash, 
 daring, and skill : no other , 
 
 insures so absorbing and con- 
 tinuous an interest. While clubs 
 enforce to a wonderful extent 
 the simultaneous activity of the mental and physical powers, they are in 
 the beginning accessible to the meanest capacity. The mastery of their 
 alternate, reciprocating, and double movements, their beautiful devices, 
 
 Fig. 8. 
 
 Fig. 9. 
 
58 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Fig. lo. 
 
 ■ik^. 
 
 and almost as delicate and complicated as those of 
 a Thalberg, or an Ole Bull, much depends on the construe- ^ ' 
 tion of handle. The club is sometimes held with the 
 thumb and a single finger, sometimes with the whole c ■ 
 hand, and sometimes it is guided merely with the tips 
 of the fingers. In this model, there are, for practical pur- ^7 
 poses, really four handles: the entire handle from a tod, , . 
 the space between a and c, between c and cZ, and above 
 the shoulder at e. 
 
 This model answers both for 
 lonff clubs and for sJiort ones. 
 The length of the club is deter- 
 mined by the length of the arm. 
 The long club, when held upon 
 the arm extended horizontally, 
 should reach to the point of 
 the shoulder where the arm and 
 shoidder join, as in Fig. 13. 
 
 The short club in the same 
 position should extend nearly 
 
 two inches above the elbow. 
 
 Eings afford opportunities for 
 
 50 many graceful positions and 
 
 effective movements in comlnna- 
 
 tion for botli sexes, and persons • 
 
 Fig. 12. of all ages and degrees of 
 
 and their endlessly varied and 
 delicate combinations, would 
 afibrd employment for the leisure 
 hours of a lifetime : demanding 
 the union of those superior, innate 
 qualities which insure superiority 
 in billiards and chess. No other 
 piece of apparatus requires more 
 skill in its construction. The poise 
 should be so adjusted that, when 
 in motion, the central forces may 
 harmonize, requiring only the 
 guiding will of the gymnast. 
 
 The model here given (Fig. 11) 
 is believed to be superior to all 
 others. As the manipulations in 
 this exercise should be as perfect, 
 
 Fig. II. 
 
PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 59 
 
 Fig. 13 
 
 strength, that 
 they ai"e justly 
 classed with 
 the most de- 
 sirable articles 
 of gymnastic apparatus. The best ring 
 is turned from three sections of wood 
 glued together, the grain running in 
 contrary directions. This makes them 
 very strong. Light and dark colored 
 wood in alternate sections, highly 
 polished, make very handsome rings. 
 Our apparatus, devised by Prof. J. 
 Madison Watson, has proved very 
 satisfactory to our customers, and is 
 having very large demand for schools 
 and social clubs. Even more than 
 dancing, light gymnastics — social 
 gymnastics would be a better name — 
 may be called the poetry of motion. 
 
 Fig. 14. 
 
 Possessing none of the objectionable features of dancing, and liable to none 
 
 Fig. IS. 
 
 of its abuses, these exercises combine all that is desirable in that popular 
 amusement — music, rythmic motion, and the exhilaration of muscular 
 activity — with an infinitely greater variety of movements. They are at once 
 enjoyable and healthful. The foregoing illustrations are from Prof. "Watson's 
 well-known "Hand-took of Gymnastics." — [See Price List on 53fZ. ^ja^^e. 
 
60 
 
 PHYSICAL EDUCATION. 
 
 Croqiiet— Field and Parlor. 
 
 FIELD CROQUET. 
 
 1. — Substantially good set for the school grounds — made of maple, in a neat 
 and durable manner, plain finish. Eight balls and mallets, regular size, 
 in a strong wood box, with book of directions price, $4,50 
 
 2. — Manufactured of rock maple, in a neat and durable manner, plain finish. 
 
 Full size and number of parts, in a neat box 5.00 
 
 3. — Manufactured of rock maple, in a neat and durable manner, finished in 
 
 oil. Bradley's patent sockets for bridges. Chestnut box §.00 
 
 4, — Rock maple mallet-heads, banded; rock maple patent indexical balls; 
 plated bridges, with Bradley's patent sockets; record dials, polished; 
 elegant chestnut box, oil finish 12.00 
 
 5. — Boxwood mallet-heads, banded ; improved linen plaited mallet-handles ; box- 
 wood patent indexical balls ; plated bridges, with patent sockets ; record 
 dials. Genuine French polish. Elegant chestnut box, oil finish 20.00 
 
 6. — ^Boxwood mallet-heads, banded ; improved linen plaited mallet-handles ; 
 patent indexical rubber-covered balls ; plated bridges, with patent sockets ; 
 record dials. Elegant chestnut box, oil finish 25.00 
 
 CARPET CROQUET, for in-door use. 
 
 1. — ^Youth's; 4 mallets and 4 balls, turnposts and starting pins, 10 arches, 
 
 clips, slate, and rules, in pine box 4.00 
 
 2. — Same ; in walnut box 6.00 
 
 3. — Maple; 8 mallets, 8 balls, starting and return posts, 10 arches, clips, rules, 
 
 and slate, in walnut box 10.00 
 
 4. — Boxwood ; best finish, and complete, with 8 mallets, 8 balls, starting and 
 
 return posts, 10 arches, clips, rules, and slate, in walnut box 14.00 
 
 This list of apparatus for Physical Education is necessarily very much 
 abbreviated. We intend to supply all kinds of suitable apparatus for the 
 amusement and exercise of youths and adults— believing that the proper 
 development of the physical powers is no less important than the cultivation 
 of the intellect. 
 
 Hence "books of sports," and implements for Archery, Base Ball, Cricket, 
 Croquet, Quoits, and all other aids for out-door and in-door games and sports 
 properly belong to this line of business. 
 
 Another catalogue, now in preparation, will also give illustrations of 
 instructive toys for boys and girls. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL,— Pakt IV. 
 
 GLOBES, etc, 
 
 o>Ko 
 
 OOZSTTEIOSTTS 
 
 Atlases, Charts, etc., .... 
 Bible Maps, . . . . = 
 
 Celestial Indicator, . . . - 
 
 Chart and Map Support, . . » . 
 
 Concentric Globes, 
 
 Franklin & Joslin Globes — Terrestrial and Celestial, 
 Franklin Thirty Inch Globe, 
 
 Geographical Charts, . . - - 
 
 Geoselenean, . . . . » 
 
 Historical Maps, . - . - . 
 
 Maps — Outline, Physical, Political, et al. 
 Orrery, or Planetarium, .... 
 
 Our New School Globe, .... 
 Perce's Magnetic Globes, . . . - 
 
 Planispheres, . . - - . 
 
 Schedler's School, Scientific, and Library Globes, 
 Season Machines, .... 
 
 Slate Globes, ..... 
 
 Tellurians — Long's Patent, 
 
 PAGE 
 
 75 
 
 • 76 
 71 
 
 • 75 
 72 
 65 
 66 
 75 
 73 
 
 ■ 76 
 75 
 
 ■ 71 
 62 
 
 ■ 67 
 68 
 
 • 63 
 73 
 
 - 67 
 70 
 
62 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Globes 
 
 "A Good Globe is as essential in everj- school-room as an English Dictionarj-, or a 
 Blackboard." 
 
 OUE NEW SCHOOL GLOBE. 
 
 Probably the principal reason why so few of our schools are supplied with a globe is 
 
 that there has been no good globe to be ob- 
 tained at a moderate price. 
 
 Our ne-w five inch Terrestrial Globe 
 will precisely supply this want. The map is 
 new — clearly ajid finely engraved — ^prepared 
 expressly for taking the place of the large and 
 expensive globes. The " Grand Divisions" 
 are boldly colored. The water is white, dis- 
 tinctly showing the principal Islands, Penin- 
 sulas, Capes, Gulfs, Bays, etc., etc. 
 
 It is mounted in a light and durable manner, 
 strong brass mountings, inclined axis, on a 
 neat black-walmit stand. 
 
 Securely packed in box with sliding cover. 
 Price $2.25 
 
 A Hemisphere Globe (made by cutting 
 a solid five inch globe through the Poles), 
 showing also the two Hemispheres on a flat 
 surface, will be found a great convenience to 
 the teacher. The two parts are united by a 
 brass hinge. Price $2.00 
 
 Schedler's American Globes — 12 Inches — Nos. 1, 3. 2. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 63 
 
 Globes. 
 
 ' A Good Globe is as essential in every school-room as an English Dictionary, or a 
 
 Blackboard." 
 
 Schedler's Globes took the 
 First-Class Prize Medal at the 
 Paris Exhibition in 1867, and at 
 the American Institute Fair in 
 New York, 1869. 
 
 They have been introduced in 
 the Public Schools of New York, 
 and many other cities, and are 
 highly recommended by Dr. J. 
 E. Hilgard, in charge of the 
 Coast Survey at Washington ; 
 Prof. C. H. r. Peters, of the 
 Litchfield Observatory of Hamil- 
 ton College, New York ; Prof S. 
 M. Capron, of the High School, 
 Hartford, Conn. ; Prof. R. Von 
 Schlagintweit, the celebrated 
 traveller, and many others. 
 
 These globes are superior in 
 accuracy, durability, and in 
 correctness and fullness of in- 
 formation. The latest geo- 
 graphical discoveries, territorial 
 changes, etc., are laid down on 
 the maps. 
 
 The mode of manufacturing 
 the ball is Mr. Schedler's inven- 
 tion, secured by patent. It com- 
 bines a perfect spherical form, 
 with great strength and dura- 
 bility. 
 
 Schedler's School Globe, 20 inch. (4.) 
 
 1. Schedler's 12 inch Terrestrial, plain iron stand $15.00 
 
 2. Schedler's 12 inch Terrestrial, bronzed stand, full meridian, inclined 
 
 axis . '.".'' 
 
 3. Schedler's 12 inch Terrestrial, low bronzed frame, with horizon, meridian, 
 
 hour circle, and quadrant 
 
 4. Schedler's 20 inch School, bronzed pedestal frame, fall meridian, inclined 
 
 5. Schedler's 20 inch School (extra), bronzed pedestal frame, 42 inches high, 
 horizon, meridian divided in half degrees, hour circle and quadrant. . . . 
 
 1§.00 
 25.00 
 50.00 
 65.00 
 
64 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Globes. 
 
 «A Good Globe is as essential in every school-room as an English Dictionary, or a 
 
 Blackboard." 
 '' ^^^^-^^^ Schedler's Scientific 
 
 /:T^-f A^^^S^J^^^ Globes, as well as Lis Libra- 
 
 _^^^ ' ^'"^ . V^VVK ^ Globes, distinctly show 
 
 //;i'irf^^==tr/^ - - ^"' '"t?^ '^^ ^^"^^*^ °^ ^^^ *^^^^ stream, 
 
 liiflJ^A\^''^^^^>^ ' - '^' 11 ^"'^ °^'^^'-' Oceanic Currents, 
 
 TTt-.-^i-^ jS^ U ^^^^ ,1 ^ ^ Deep-sea Soundings, the lines 
 
 .JC: /!^'^^. _r^^^ ^^ '^qa^l Magnetic Variation, 
 
 tf T V''^~~^^"'^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^^ Oceanic Conamunication, 
 
 and of Submarine Telegraphs. 
 V*:3r^ ~ ' M^Kj" W-W These globes have met with the 
 i ' i^f^'^"^ •^r ^af T^ost flattering reception, and 
 ^^i-i#^^ ^^' ft^^ ^^^ ^^^^ worthy the examina- 
 "^ SStayS§^ v<^^^ *^°^ ^^ ^^^ interested in the sub- 
 lb^ ..^^ ject. 
 
 RECOMMENDATIONS. 
 
 I have examined your twenty 
 ^S iich Terrestrial Globe, and 
 
 have no hesitation in commend- 
 ing it to the attention of all 
 who desire a superior article of 
 the kind, either for school or 
 for a library. 
 
 Henry Barnard, 
 Late Commis'r of Education, 
 "Washington, D. C. 
 
 ^^^ ^ As an object of art, Schcd- 
 
 '^^'^'^ ler's 20 inch Terrestrial Globe 
 
 _. ^, ._^ „ ^ - is really beautiful, and for the 
 
 3^=- I ^SS^^^'^^*""^ ~ purpose of scientmc study it 
 
 could hardly be improved. 
 S. M. Capron, 
 Principal High School, 
 Hartford, Conn. 
 Schedler's Library Globe, 20 inch, (8.) 
 
 6. Schedler's 20 inch Scientific, bronzed pedestal frame, with full meridian 
 
 and inclined axis $60.00 
 
 7. Schedler's 20 inch Scientific, bronzed pedestal frame, 42 inches high, 
 
 with horizon, meridian divided in half degrees, hour circle, and quad- 
 rant 75.00 
 
 8. Schedler's 20 inch Library, fine bronzed pedestal frame, 42 inches high, 
 
 with horizon, brass meridian divided in half degrees, hour circle, quad- 
 rant, and magnetic needle. It is a useful and beautiful ornament for the 
 library or parlor 175.00 
 
 Celestial Globes of same styles and same sizes, at same prices, are in 
 preparation. 
 
 Packing boxes for shipping these globes are supplied for the 20 inch globes, 
 each 4.50 
 
 For the 12 inch, each , 2.50 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 65 
 
 Globes. 
 
 The Franklin & Josliu Globes have been long known, and highly esteemed. The 
 
 6, 10, 12, and 30 inch globes have been recently re-cngraved, and the following important 
 additions and corrections made. 
 
 Pacific Railroad; Erench Submarine Cable; Alaska, Sitka, and all territories of which 
 the correct bounderies can be obtained ; the present Russian, Prussian, and Austrian 
 bcunderies; important places, rivers, lakes, mountains, especially in Africa and New 
 South Wales, and the correct names of countries that have been changed recently. 
 
 The 10 inch Terrestrial ani Celestial Globes will be found of good service in 
 schools and families, to illus- 
 trate Geography and Astron- 
 omy. The Terrestrial gives 
 the boundaries in the United 
 States and Territories, from 
 the latest and best authorities, 
 and exhibits the boundaries of 
 other countries as laid down 
 by the most eminent Geog- 
 raphers, 
 The 12 inch Terrestrial and Celestial 
 
 Globes are the most popular for the larger Schools 
 
 and Academies. They are not surpassed in accu 
 
 racy and beauty of finish by any other globe of its diameter. 
 We beheve that the use of globes in teaching has been undervalued. For example, 
 
 many pupils get (he idea from the map that Australia and New Zealand are at the two 
 
 extremes of the earth, instead of learning that they are near neighbors, no farther apart 
 
 than Ne\^ York and Cuba. It is essential that every pupil should receive lessons from the 
 
 globe, as well as the map. 
 
66 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Globes. 
 
 The Franklin 16 inch Globes (Terrestrial and Celestial), are especially valuable 
 globes. They are very finely engraved, and are, unquestionably, more useful for daily 
 reference than a map, showing, at a glance, the relative positions of different countries, 
 their boundaries, and theif latitude and longitude. 
 
 The Franklin 30 inch Globe (Terrestrial only) is very plainly engraved, and hand- 
 somely mounted on a solid Mahogany frame. It is the largest ever made in this country, 
 and presents quite an imposing appearance ; it is appropriate for public rooms, literary 
 institutions, hotels, saloons of steamers, as well aa for the large schools and colleges. 
 
 "FEANKLIN" GLOBE: SIZES AND PKIOES. 
 
 6 inch wood frame (no quadrant) per pair $ 1 8 tOO 
 
 9i inch wood, eemi-frame (no quadrant) _ " 24.00 
 
 10 inch wood frame (with quadrant) i " 36«00 
 
 10 inch bronze frame " , " 40.00 
 
 12 inch wood, eeml-ftame (no quadrant) " 34oOO 
 
 12 inch wood frame (with quadrant " 44>00 
 
 12 inch low bronze frame " " 50.00 
 
 12 inch bronze pedestal frame " (case and packing, cacA globe extra, $17ZS) " 75.00 
 
 16 inch wood frame " " " " " 1.60 " 80.00 
 
 16 inch bronze pedestal frame " " " '• " 2.00 " 125.00 
 30 inch Terrestrial, quadrant and compass, on Mahogany frame, with casters, 
 
 (case and packing, $8 extra) " 275.00 
 
 Terrestrial and Celestial, separate, at half-price " per pair," and quadrant charged extra 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 67 
 
 Globes. 
 
 Perce's Magnetic Globes are peculiar in illustrating gravitation. They are metal- 
 lic, and by the use of magnetized objects, repre- 
 senting Men of different races, Animals of different 
 climes. Light-houses, Steamers, Ships, the actual 
 Uving, moving veorld, with much of its most 
 interesting and instructive phenomena, is presented 
 V\/ /X.^!jC;^^W i i^ miniature to the mind of the pupil. 
 
 Styles and Prices. 
 
 Five inches in diameter, plain stand $6.00 
 
 Five inches in diameter, semi-meridian S.OO 
 
 Seven inches in diameter, plain stand 12.00 
 
 Seven inches in diameter, semi-meridian 1 5 .OO 
 
 Seven inches in diameter, full Meridian 20. OO 
 
 Twelve inches in diameter, plain stand 20.00 
 
 Twelve inches in diameter, semi-meridian 25.00 
 
 Twelve inches in diameter, full meridian 3 5.00 
 
 One dozen magnetic objects, representing Men 
 of different races, Ships, Steamers, Lio-ht-houses, 
 and various Animals, and Mrs. Smith's Globe 
 Manual, accompany each globe without additional 
 cost 
 
 They are securely packed for shipment. 
 
 Slated Globes are now finding a place, 
 hitherto unoccupied, in every grade of school, from 
 Primary to University. Their varied uses as 
 "Spherical Blackboards," make them as much a 
 necessity to intelligent teaching as common flat 
 blackboards. 
 
 If for no other purpose than for laying a sure 
 foundation for a right understanding of Geography^ 
 they are entitled to first rank in school apparatus. With them the teacher of Geography 
 may begin objective instruction at the outset, showing the tilings themselves, not inaccur- 
 ate pictures which the well-trained mind may imagine to represent them. Pupils thus 
 learn not merely names of geographical lines, but what they are, what they are for, and how 
 to draw them; and more, how to draw by them. Map-drawing becomes intelligent 
 work, not mere mechanical transferring of unmeaning marks from one paper to another. 
 
 Multitudes of facts and phenomena can be illustrated and explained so simply and 
 clearly that any child can understand them. The most obscure theorems and problems 
 of Spherical Geometry, Trigonometry, and Navigation become, when studied in connection 
 with the Sphere, perfectly intelligible. 
 
 As now made, these Globes, or Spherical Blackboards, are an improvement of the original mven- 
 tion of Professor Shepard. Size? and prices : 
 No. 1.— On handle, very convenient, size 4 inches in diameter $1.50 
 
 2.— Brass meridian, 
 3.- 
 
 wood frame. 
 
 6 
 9 
 
 4.— " " bronzed frame, 12 
 
 5.— " " " 15 
 
 6.— High bronzed frame, with casters, 18 
 
 5.00 
 
 9o00 
 
 15,00 
 
 20.00 
 
 30.00 
 
68 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 The Pocket Planisphere. 
 
 The simplest of all apparatus for " Easy Star Studies," is illustrated, full size, in the 
 
 accompanying cuts. 
 
 The Pocket Planisphere is the Cheapest and most convenient means ever 
 devised for Identifying the Fixed Stars. 
 
 It consists of (a.) A light, strong card, about four inches square, carrying an accurate 
 circumpolar Star-map, surrounded by a circle of the months subdivided for the days ; and 
 ( b.) A smaller circular card, carrying the hours of the day, and an open space, representing 
 the horizon. These two cards are attached at the centre, so as to turn one on the other. 
 
 This form — a simplification of Baudin's improvement of the original Planisphere 
 invented by the celebrated astronomer Bode, in 1786 — answers the same purpose as the 
 large Planispheres, costing twelve times as much. In addition to cheapness, this Plani- 
 sphere has the further advantage of being so small and light as to be easily carried in the 
 pocket. 
 
 The Pocket Planisphere is used as follows : To bring to view the principal Stars visi- 
 t)le at any given night and hour, turn the upper card so as to bring the hour of observation 
 to correspond with the given time of year on the lower card. The open space will then 
 exhilai; the stars of the first and second magnitudes above the horizon at the specified time. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 The Pocket Planisphere. 
 
 69 
 
 If the card be held face downward above the head of the observer, with the N. point toward 
 the north, it will exnibit the stars in tneir positions relative to the real horizon. 
 
 The stars of the first magnitude are numbered on the Star-map, in the order of their 
 brilliancy, from 1 to 15. The key to the identification of the stass is given on the back of 
 the Planisphere. 
 
 Price Prepaid, by mail, 30 cents. 
 
 Maltby's Improved Correct Planisphere — diameter about 15 inches, mounted 
 
 in a superior style — ^Imported — price, $5.00. 
 
 [The publication of the Pocket Planisphere induced a certain charlatan to demand from 
 its publishers the payment of money for — say, an mfringement of his fancied rights. His 
 demands not being satisfied, he, aiaed by a peculiar affidavit from one Barnes, not un- 
 known to fame (?), began suit for an injunction in deftnce of his "peculiar interests'' in 
 this little instrument, nearly a century old. Ot course he got no " injunction" ; but the 
 court got some novel lessons in astronomy.] 
 
70 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Long's Patent Tellurian. 
 
 This apparatus took the first medal and diploma, at the great fair of the American Insti- 
 tute, in 1869, and has recently been adopted by the Board of Education, of New York. 
 
 Explanation. — S, rcjircscnts the Sun; E, the Earth; M, the Moon; I, I, the Indicator, 
 supported on the pivot arm ; C, its connecting rod ; F, its joint, which may be unscrewed ; 
 P, the Earth's pointer; N, the Sun's pointer. 
 
 It is calculated for every-day use in all schools where Greography is tauglit, and the rela- 
 tions of the Earth to the Sun and Moon need to be illustrated. 
 
 It will commend itself to the favorable judgment of teachers, because of the following 
 considerations : 
 
 1. Size. — The Earth is represented by a five-inch globe, which makes all the illustra- 
 tions on so large a scale, that they can be easily seen by a class. The Earth may also be 
 used separately as a globe. 
 
 2. AccnRACY. — It is operated by gearing, and moves regularly, and with certainty. 
 The Indicator shows, not only the limit of day and night, but also the IMeridian, the 
 Plane of the Ecliptic, and the part of the Earth to which the Sun is vertical on any day, 
 all with scientific precision. 
 
 3. DnRABiLiTT. — It has no appearance of a toy, or a fragile instrument. Every part 
 IS of good size and strongly made. It is, therefore, always ready for use at a moment's 
 notice, and pupils may safely handle it to any reasonable extent. 
 
 A circular of the illustrations shown by it will be sent on application, with stamp 
 
 Price, best style brass mounting, boxed $30.00 
 
 ■^ key, giving full description, is inchided without charge. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 71 
 
 Bryant's Celestial Indicator. 
 
 This is a new apparatus for facilitating the study of astronomy. It is intended to 
 illustrate clearly to children and to adults the various phenomena of the heavenly bodies : 
 the motion of the earth around the sun, and the changes of the seasons ; the earth's axial 
 motion ; the precession of the equinoxes ; nutation ; tides ; eclipses, both solar and lunar ; 
 the change of the pole star ; changes in the declination and right ascension of stars ; the 
 difference between the siderial and tropical years ; the retrogradation of the signs of the 
 zodiac ; the revolution of the moon's nodes, etc., etc. 
 
 Accompanying the apparatus is a short Treatise on Astronomy, descriptive of the same, 
 and illustrating how to use the instrument. An hour's time will enable the teacher to 
 become familiar with the subject and with the instrument, and impart more information 
 by illustration, with the INDICATOR, than is usually gained by pupils during theii 
 entire course. 
 
 The apparatus is niade of brass ; is simple and durable in construction ; not liable to 
 get out of order. It occupies about a cubic foot, and is carefully boxed for shipment to 
 any part of the country. 
 
 PRICE, I^acqnered, - - - $30.00 
 
 " Nickel Platcrd, - - ^ 40.00 
 
 Among the many favorable opinions received, are the following : 
 "The Celestial Indicator, invented and constructed by Mr. Henry Bryant, if a simple appar- 
 atnH which illustrates with great cleameps many important aBtronomical pheiiomeua. I am of 
 opinion that it well deserves a place in our schools, where the elements of astronomy are taught 
 and 1 know of no other similar apparatus, now in use, that contains such an amount of accurate 
 illustration, at so smaH a price. 
 
 "JOHN BROCKLESBY, 
 
 " Professor of Mathematics and Natural Philosophy, 
 " in Trinity College, Hartford, Conn." 
 
 " I desire to recommend it, unhesitatingly, to the attention of all interested in astronomy, par- 
 ticularly teachers. Mr. Bryant's apparatus being quite unique, and different from all others, 
 deserves a place in every good collection of ecientiflc apparatus, on ita own peculiar merits. 
 
 "S. M, CAPRON, 
 "Principal of H, P. N. b., Hartford, Conn." 
 
72 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Williamson's Concentric Celestial and Terrestrial 
 
 Globes. 
 
 Tlicse Globes present to the mind of the Icflrner a faithful representation of the relations 
 of the earth to the heavens, while all the geographical and astronomical problems arc 
 solved with great simplicity and perspicuity. 
 
 The Celestial Globe consists of two hollow hemispheres of glass, held in position by a 
 brazen equinoctial, which is graduated into degrees and hours. Within this hollow globe 
 is an ordinary Terrestrial Globe, whose diameter is about one-half that of the Celestial 
 Globe, both globes turning on a common axlo and having a common centre, but so 
 arranged that cither may be revolved at pleasure, independent of the otlicr, by means of 
 milled heads at the Northern and Southern extremities of the axle. 
 
 On a i)latform attached to the tripod is a mariner's compass, by the aid of which the 
 globe may be placed in its proper position. 
 
 On the inner surface of the Celestial Globe the stars of the first, second, third, and fourth 
 magnitudes^ are gilded; the ecliptic, colures, meridians, and parallels laid down ; and the 
 outlines of the constellation figures, with their names, are artistically painted, not, how- 
 ever, so as to obscure the Terrestrial Globe within. 
 
 Price, with a " Manual of Problems on the Globes," $100.00 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Moore's Geoselenean. 
 
 73 
 
 Moore's Geoselenean is a new instrument intended to illustrate the pnnciiial 
 motions and phenomena of the Solar System much more perfectfy, its in- 
 ventor claims, than with the Tlanetarium or Tellurian. It is desif,med by 
 John G. M(X)Tv,, M. S., Teacher and Lecturer in Friends Central lh<^h 
 School. A printed description of 18 pages accompanies each instrument. 
 Price ; • i'*'*'''^ 
 
 The Tellurian, or Season Machine, shows the Sun, Earth, and Moon, with 
 the })hcnomena of the Seasons. Improved geared, brass, with compass and 
 burnished Sun. Trice ^ ^£».WW 
 
 The School Orrery, or Planetarium, represents the Planets in their regu- 
 
 lar order. Best, brass. Price * ^* AO 
 
 Second quality material and finish t OAft 
 
 Common, and wood in place of brass 12.WI 
 
74 
 
 SrilOOl, MA'PKUIAL 
 
 The Tcllurion Globe 
 
 This instnnuoiu {{\w iuvoulion ofJ. L. Nai!*li, 15.A.) solves astrouomioal jmiMoms with 
 tiU'siiiiilo ilhisivations, uivinj; (with oxnot nniouuts), n ooiuploto analysis ot'tho Kiiuatiou of 
 'riiuo. and othorwiso surpasses the onlinavv clobe both in faoilitv of use ami f;vncnU scope. 
 
 EXTRACTS FROM TESTIMONIALS.— " InvaluaWe to leetiiivrs niul f<\-u-luMs." Sm UOP- 
 KUMl'K MlUc'lUSON. nr,.<. 0/ Hri(i.<ft (.Vtvmi/'/lJiM/ ^tw " Miu'h uioro eonii>leto than iiny former 
 uifiins in use. The luiiialioti of Time Is 'made perfeetlv ii\telUi;lble." -I»i:v. Pit, WtUU.l.KY, 
 i>in\-!i>r or' hMiiaition, to Ilrilifh Aiiiniruliij. " Shows wlli\ eleaniess the solutions of i^eo.ciatihieal 
 ai\il asfroiioinioal questioiia."— (.'om. T. K. f^ANPS, ^l//l^ T. N. Adcwi Olk-Yrrnlon/.—Oifirlai AV/ivV. 
 " lias >:reat merits ; tlio two causes in tlio Kquation of Time are very clearly chown."— Lt. (."omim!. 
 .1. A. IIOWKI.L, /'. N. Xan/. ll,\til 0/ /V/>^ 0/ Anttvnoinij and yavl<7athvi, l'. S. XanU AtMiUiiu/, 
 Ariiuinit^'i.t. " AthniraMe u\ecl»anieal combination— *imj>lo but etVeetivo instrument."- I'nov. 
 SAMl KL MOlxSK. "Very be.auiirtil and inir<nilons."— \\ . O. TKOK. fiv/. AKtiviwmt/, l\\'iii)if>Hi 
 (\\Vt(/f . *• A very in.::ei\ious invention, ami elicited the admiral ion of nil."— ,lMt/ii«nm, May '.), 18(>S. 
 
 rrico liiSO.00 
 
{Special Geographical List.) 75 
 
 Atlases, Charts, Globes, Maps, etc. 
 
 C 
 
 Adjustable Chart and Map Support, Price «I0. 
 
 The cut pretty fully tihowB the coriKtruction «»1 
 the Bupport. The Htaudard Ih (jrooved to huh- 
 taio a movable "T." the cronH-picce of wlilcb 
 bears two Blidlng arms, provided with hookc, 
 for BUBtalning the map or chart. The Suppobt 
 is raised or lowered by means of a knob, the po- 
 sition of which in indicated by the dotted line 
 from A. This knob aluo governs a 8prirj({ which 
 holds the "T" in place. The cut shows the top 
 raised one notch and the arms slij^htly extended 
 tf> receive the lar;je map shown by the dotted 
 outlines. It will as nicely support the largest 
 map as the smallest chart, and is so stiff and firm 
 that some are using it for a b!a/;kboard support. 
 
 The merit of this 8ui'I'0BT cannot be consid- 
 ered relatively, for there is nothing else like It. 
 It i« the sole occupant of the field ; and It an- 
 Bwers Its puqjose perfectly. Setting aside Its 
 convenleiice. It must commend Itself to every 
 teacher on the swjre of economy. It will save 
 Its cost in a single year by preventing the ntjces- 
 slty of subjecting maps to the soiling Incident to 
 their exposure on the walls. 
 
 .T£. A S—COLTON'S— General, Geographical, BUtistical, and Hifitorical. 2fXJ Maps and Plans. 
 
 Imperial Folio. Cloth, monj<xo backs $20 00 
 
 MITCHELL'S— New General. 98 Maps and Tlans, with valuable statistical tables. Folio, 
 
 clotli, morocco ba<;k8 11 00 
 
 OP THE UNION, with all the States and Territories. States colored In counties— Rail- 
 roads and principal towns located — Populations, etc 3 80 
 
 HARTS :— WARREN'S PHYSICAL AND OUTLINE. 14 Plate8«n seven boards. The 
 
 Set in portfolio, with liand-book 18 00 
 
 POLITICAL AND OUTLINE. For Common Schools. 8 In series, on muslin 10 00 
 
 G 
 
 LOBES I— "FRANKLIN." Terrestrial or Celestial, separate, at half price " per pair," and 
 quadrant ext-ra. 
 
 6 In. Terrestrial, plain stand, new map each 2 25 
 
 6 in. wood, semi-frame (no qua<Jrant) per pair 10 WJ 
 
 6 in. wood (full) frame do do 18 (X) 
 
 9i in. wood, semi-frame, no quadrant do 
 
 10 in. wood frame wlUi quadrant do 
 
 lOin. bronze, frame do — ■^ — do 
 
 12 in. wood frame do do 
 
 12 in. low bronze frame do do 
 
 12 in. bronze pedcEtal frame do (case and packing, each globe extra, $1.75 . . do 
 
 10 in. wood frame do do do do 1.50 do 
 
 10 in. bronze pedefttal frame do do do do 2.00 do 
 
 aij in. Terrestrial, quadrant and compass, on mahogany frame, with casters (case and 
 
 packing $8 extra) . oach 275 00 
 
 24 00 
 30 00 
 40 00 
 44 00 
 
 5fj m 
 
 75 fXJ 
 8<) 00 
 126 00 
 
 G 
 
 liOBKS :— PERCE'S MAGNETIC, Terrestrial, each- 
 Sin, plain stand $0 (X) I 12 in. plain stand ....20 00 
 
 6 in. semi-meridian 8 (X) I 12 in. semi-meridian — 2.5 00 
 
 7 in. plain stand 12 (Xi 12 in. full meridian ....3500 
 
 7 IiL semi-meridian 15 (XJ | 12 in. ctjmplete, high stand, hour circle, etc. 76 00 
 
 12 Magnetic Objects, representing the Races, Animals, Ships, Light-houses, ale., free with each Globa 
 
76 Atlases, Charts, Globes, Maps, ite. — Continued. 
 
 S 
 
 M. 
 
 liATE GL.OBES. Invaluable in "Objsct Tsachimo," Matbkkatioai. GEOOiiArnT, &c. 
 
 No. 1.— On haiuilo, very couvoniont, size 4 in. diaiuetor $1 BO 
 
 S.— Brass moridiau, wooil framo, tj in. do 5 00 
 
 8.— do. do. 9 in. do 9 00 
 
 4.^ do. bronzed frame, l"i in. do 16 00 
 
 5.— do. do. 15 in. do 90 00 
 
 6.— nigh bronzed IVame, with castors, IS in. do 80 00 
 
 I'IaP of AMKKICA. Our wliole Country, large scale, 72 m. X so $10 00 
 
 United Statks or Amkuica, from Ocean to Oceaii, 31 in. x 87 8 00 
 
 1 HYSIOAl. AND POIilTICAL. QUYOTS NEW WALL-MAPS. 
 
 No. 1 .-PUIMAKY SKHIES— ou Muslin, in Portfolio. Sold in sets $18 00 
 
 Ihiited Slates in sections size -18 in. xGO 
 
 Hemispheres do. Stiin. x4S 
 
 North America do. *t in. x St) 
 
 South America do. 84 in. x 3t> 
 
 Central Europe do. 84 in. x Sti 
 
 Europe 84 in. x 86 
 
 Asia 34 in. X 36 
 
 Afri«B 34 In. X 86 
 
 Oceanica 34 in. x 36 
 
 World ^Mercator'8 Proj.) 34 in. x 86 
 
 No. a^THE COMMON SCROOL SEHIES. Packed in a. ueat box. Per set $25 00 
 
 Length c/RoUer. Pffth cf Map. 
 
 The United States 04 iuches. 4S inches. 
 
 Tlie Heniispliere 63 " SS " 
 
 North Anierion 28 " S3 " 
 
 South America 28 " S'J " 
 
 Africa. 28 " S2 " 
 
 Length cf RolUr. Depth of Map. 
 
 Asia — S3 inohos. 25 inches. 
 
 Tlio World (Mer. Proj.) 8« " 26 " 
 
 Oentvnl Kurope. 86 " 25 " 
 
 Europe S6 " 25 '• 
 
 Austiiilia and Oceanica— 30 " 26 " 
 
 No. 3.— fNTERMEDIATE SERIES, on Cloth and Rollers, sold singly or in sets. 
 
 United States size 4S in. x (K) $4 IX) 
 
 Hemispheres OtHu. x TO 7 50 
 
 North America 48 in. x tk) 4 50 
 
 South America 4Siu. xGO 8 50 
 
 Europe size 48 in. x(W $4 50 
 
 Asia 4Slu. x()0 5 00 
 
 AtVica 4S in. X 60 4 50 
 
 Oceanica 4Siu. xOO 5 00 
 
 No. 4.— LARGE SERIES, on Cloth and Rollers, sold singly or in sets. 
 The World, Mercator's Projection— size 7"3 iu. x l->0 
 
 United States size T'Jin.xOO $8 IX) 
 
 North America 60 in. x 73 6 50 
 
 South America 60 in. x 72 6 50 
 
 Central Europe 72 in. x % S 50 
 
 Key to Guyot's Maps 
 
 |;^2 QQ 
 
 Euixipe size 73 in. x 96 $8 00 
 
 Asia 72 in. X 96 10 00 
 
 Africa 63 in. x 72 6 50 
 
 Oceanica 4Siu.x60 5 tX) 
 
 1 00 
 
 No. 5,— CLASSICAL, on Cloth and Rollers. Roman Empike, 73 iu. x 84 $15 00 
 
 . .. . , .... ,.., .,. ^^^ 
 
 S4 15 00 
 
 
 
 H 
 
 Anciknt Gukeck iinchulinir City of Attiens) 72 in. x 84 'l6 00 
 
 Italia, including Map of City ol Ancient Rome, 72 ' 
 
 riXlNK OTAPS. 
 
 CoKNELx's, 13 maps on muslin, in portfolio, and Key 15 00 
 
 Mitchhi.l's New Ovitline. 7 maps on miislin, in portfolio, and Key. 10 00 
 
 Pki.ton's, 72 in. x 85, on dot li and rollers. Complete set 26 00 
 
 do. do. on heavy paper. do 15 00 
 
 Key to Pelton's Outline Maps 75 
 
 ISTOniOAl.. Kicpert's largo Mural Maps of Ancient History. 
 
 Roman Emtiuk, 67 in. x H)3 $12 00 
 
 Ancient Italy, 72 in. v< i^' 11 00 
 
 Ancient Gueeci, 70 in. x 84 i) 50 
 
 Would, at time of Persian and Macedonian Empire, 48 in. x 96 8 00 
 
 TuK Environs op Rome, SS iu. x 45 tall on Clotn and Rollers) 4 00 
 
 IJibLE: map. Map oftho Lands mentioned in the Bible. 74in. xB3 $T 60 
 
 Area embraced includes both New Testament and Old Testamont countries, taking in Rome on the 
 West. Egypt on the South, and the mouth of the Euplirates on the East. Lettering is bold and easily 
 read from every part of a cUiss-room. It gives ancient and modern names of towns, rivers, mountains, 
 etc. Routes of St. Paul in liis missionary tours are plainly indicated by distinct colored Hues. All 
 missiouiiry stations are shown by spots of color, tlius adding a very Interesting feature. 
 
 M. 
 
 ISCEIili.lNKOrS. 
 
 Apgar's Geograplucal Drawing Book 94 
 
 Ai»i:ar's Map Drawing Ctmis. Complete set, in envelope IS 
 
 do. Superior ixualitv 26 
 
 Guj'Ot's Eureka Slated Map Drawing Cards. Complete set, in portfolio 1 50 
 
 Paper Map DrawiUiT Cards. do. do 76 
 
 Ueographlcal Deflnitious. Illustrated, on chart, 34 in. x 44 4 00 
 
 Geographical Cards (six sheets on boards), 21 iiL x 31 6 00 
 
 Geographicjil Dictionary: Lippincott's Pronouncing Gazetteer of the World 10 00 
 
 Historical Cliart tLy man'sl. and Key ." 2 60 
 
 Stream of Time, or Chart of Universal History, 33 in. x 43 6 00 
 
 OXT-BOOKS ON GEOGRAPHY, of all kinds. snppUod at thb Pcblishers' wholb 
 SALE uatss. Sent by Mail, postage prepaid, at retail prices. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL —Part V. 
 BLACKBOARDS, OBJECT-TEACHING AIDS, etc. 
 
 OOlSTTEiaSTTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Abacus, or Numeral Frame, ....-- - 84 
 
 Alphabet Blocks, Charts, etc., . - - . - - - 8.3 
 
 Aids to Neatness, ....---■• 90 
 
 Aids to School Discipline, -- .----92 
 
 Arithmetical Solids, ... - - - - 85 
 
 Barometers, ..------- 89 
 
 Blackboard Easels, Supports, etc., ------ 80 
 
 Blackboard Kubbers, ...----- 81 
 
 Call Bells, - . - 86 
 
 Clocks for Schools, - - . - . - - - - 88 
 
 Color Cubes, ..-..----• 84 
 
 Compasses and -Crayons for Blackboards, - - - - - 82 
 
 Cone, Dissected, ..------- 84 
 
 Crayon Holders, Dividers, and Pencil Holders, - - - - - 82 
 
 Cube Root Blocks, - 84 
 
 Dissected Mathematical Blocks, - - - - " " - 84 
 
 Door Mats, .-------- 90 
 
 Dusters, . - - - ----- 91 
 
 Eureka Liquid Slating, 
 
 78 
 
 Eureka Wall Slates, - - ' '[^_ 
 
 Forms and Solids.— -New— For Object Teaching, - - - • 
 
 Geometrical Forms, --•---"" 
 Globe Clock— Timby's, . - - - • - . - 
 
 Gonigraph, -----•-"" 
 
 Hand Bells, • - - " 
 
 Honor Rolls, • --_--"" 
 
 Kindergarten Blocks, .----""" 
 Mathematical Blocks, .--•--- 
 
 Medals, ._--•-•""' 
 
 Numeral Frames, _---""■" 
 Object- Teaching Forms, ..---- 
 
 Rain Gauge — Smithsonian ----""" 
 Rogers' School Groups, .---*•-" 
 Shades, Hat racks. Sweepers, etc., ----'' 
 Shoe Scrapers. ' .-•--'"* 
 
 Spelling and Sentence Sticks, • - 
 
 Tape Measures, Patent Spring ----""" 
 Thermometers, - - ■--■"" 
 
 85 
 85 
 88 
 85 
 87 
 93 
 84 
 84 
 92 
 84 
 85 
 89 
 94 
 91 
 90 
 63 
 87 
 89 
 
EunEKA Liquid Slat^g 
 
 (Munger's Invention. J. W. Schermerhobn & Co., Sole Manufacturers), 
 
 MAKES A SURFACE WHICH RIVALS THE BEST STONE SLATES. 
 
 It is perfectly Black ; never Crumbles ; always remains Hard and Smooth. 
 
 It is successfully applied to board, paper, or wall, and is invaluable in renovating old 
 Blackboards. Its Durability is proved by eighteen years' severe use in the best schools 
 of New England and New York. The Surface seems to improve with use and age. Any 
 teacher, observing "Directions," can apply it, making perfect slate surface, un- 
 rivalled in color, smoothness, and durability. 
 
 PRICE: Pints, $1.50; Quarts, $2.50; Gallons, $9.00. 
 
 One quart will cover 100 square feet, one coat. Hence it makes cheap Blackboard. 
 For old Boards, one coat i« enough ; new surface requires two. It is put up in tin cans, 
 and safely sent by express. 
 
 CAUTION. — Eureka Liquid Slating is the Original Liquid Slating — the first 
 Liquid Blackboard ever sold. Its success has called out imitations ; but none produce 
 the perfectly smooth, enduring, dead-black surface of the Eureka. It is 
 
 THE ONLY slate SURFACE WHICH WILL NOT GLAZE. 
 
 Prominent Educators almost everywhere can speak for Eureka Slating ; and we 
 
 will ^varrant it. 
 
 ♦ 
 
 Testimony for the EUREKA SLATING. 
 
 The Eureka Liquid Slating will always give satisfaction when properly applied. 
 
 JOHN D. PHILBRICK, Supt. Public Schools, Boston, Mass. 
 
 We have used Eureka Slating on our blackboards since 1864 ; I do not hesitate to say that they 
 are superior to the best stone slates. 
 
 C. G. CLARK, Master Bigelow Grammar School, S. Boston, Mass. 
 
 I have used it fifteen years, and it seems to improve. From my own experience 1 think it will 
 last FiPTT TEARS. E. ROBINS, Principal, New Haven, Conn. 
 
 The Eureka is the best surface for Blackboards we have used in ten years' teaching. 
 
 GEO. D. BROOMELL, Principal Haven School, Chicago. 
 IRA S. BAKER, Principal Skinner School, Chicago. 
 
 Your Eureka Slating is wonderftil. I applied it to old blackboards. They are like stone slate. 
 
 O. R. WILLIS, Principal Alexander Institute, White Plains, N. Y. 
 Office Superintendent Public Schools. Cleveland, Ohio, 1867. 
 Eureka Liquid Slating covers over twelve thousand feet of our blackboards, at a cost of about 
 $1000. We are weU paid. It is far superior to anything which I know. ANSON SMYTH. 
 
 Eureka Slatino- is on blackboards in my school. They are hard, do not reflect the light, and are 
 smoother than natural slate. A. J. RICKOFF, Principal, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
 
 I have used it ten years. It is slate-color, smooth, and never becomes glossy 
 
 O. S. COOK, Principal No. 2, Dayton, Ohio. 
 
 For fifteen years I have used blackboards of every sort, those made of wood and well coated 
 with various preparations. I have tried quarry slate. For six years I have used Eureka Slating, 
 
 and find it superior to any other surface. „^„tt, t. • -r^ -r^ 4. /^u- tt • 
 
 "I' J ALONZO J. HOWE, Pnn. Prep. Dept., Chicago University. 
 
 Albion Commercial College, Michigan, May Z,-imi. 
 We find Eureka Slating surface equal to the best stone slates. (Hon.) IRA M AYHEW, Prest. 
 
 National Business College, Chicago, May ^5, 1866. 
 We have used it in our four College buildings, on common walls and on old boards It exceeds 
 our hopes in fineness and durability? H. G. EASTMAN, LL.D., Prcsl., D. K. ALLEN, Secy. 
 
 Indianapolis Female Institute, Ind., March n, 1866. 
 For four years we have used Eureka Slating with complete ^^""^^f/'o^rtranHrotunbrokln 
 walls, and hard finish. I prefer it to real slate, because it is as good, wil'^^^'^^^^^-^g^'j^resident 
 surfaoe to any extent. ^. ■ i 
 
 St. Joseph, Missouri, Aug. 28, 1865. 
 It is easily applied, and makes a beautiful and perfect ^l^^^^^^'-^^^^j^f ^Y, Supt. Public Schools. 
 
 Minnesota State Normal School. Winona. March 13, 1866. 
 Our blackboards are of Eureka Slating. It leaves nothing to be desired. It is eqnal to best 
 Vermont and Lehigh slates, besides being cheaper. I commend it to the teachers of the Northwest. 
 
 WM. F. PHELPS, Principal. 
 
 Besides above, w^e can refer to tbonsands of the most intelligent 
 teachers and school officers in the land. 
 
Eureka Wall Slates. 
 
 Ready made Standard Sizes, PERFECT Slate SUEPACE, in neat ash frames : 
 
 IVo. 1, S 
 
 3, 
 
 3, 
 4, 
 
 5? 
 6, 
 
 r, 
 
 9, 
 
 o a 
 
 •5-d 
 
 K o 
 td>i 
 X 
 
 ze, a X 3 ft., finislied on botb. sides (giving la Sqr. ft. of Surface) $3 50 
 
 a|x3|« 
 
 3 X4 " 
 
 3 X4|" 
 
 3iX5 « 
 
 4' X 5 " 
 
 4 X6 « 
 3X6 " 
 
 18 
 
 ar 
 
 33 
 35 
 40 
 
 48 
 
 5 2!: 
 
 r 00 
 r 75 
 
 9 50 
 10 35 
 
 13 00 
 
 14 00 
 
 SB 
 
 neatly lined for Music 13 50 
 
 ANY SIZE MADE TO ORDER. Black "Walnut frames Extra 1 00 
 
 They are so framed that they are free to shrink or swell without possibility of splitting or warping. 
 
 ^- -= 
 
 The utility of the blackboard is beyond discussion. It is an admitted necessity 
 wherever teaching is to be done. The day-school teachek, Sunday-school teachee, 
 Lectueeb on Science, and Peofessoe in college, each has constant need of it. 
 
 It being indispensable, the question is. What blackboard is best ? The verdict 
 of Science and testimony of teachers agree on the EUREKA. This surface is incom- 
 parably THE BEST. The most costly natural slates do not equal it. It is finer and 
 harder and blacker than slate. It is also smoother, and yet it never becomes glazed, 
 and marks upon it are perfectly legible from any direction. ^ 
 
 The portable Eurelta Slate is unrivalled. It is light, easily and safely handled, 
 less liable than slate to breaks and scratches, more convenient to' use, much cheaper, 
 besides being safely transportable. The surface, though hard as flint, never checks 
 or separates from the wood. This elasticity of the Eureka Slate is one of its 
 peculiar and most valuable properties. 
 
 331aclt "boards. Spherical, or '* Slated Glol>es."— Invaluable 
 
 in " Object Teaching," Mathematical Geography, etc., six sizes ^1 50 to ^30 OO 
 
 BlaclcTaoard. Easel— KENDALL'S. New and Perfect. Patented 3 OO 
 
 KlaclilJoard. Support— HAMMOND'S, very substaptial. 
 
 Size adapted to any one of our Standard Blackboards, $6 ; same, made of black-walnut 7 SO 
 
 I51aclcl)Oard. Iluljl>ers— 8 varieties. See Special Circular. Per doz.$l 50 to .5 50 
 
 Blacltljoai'cl Pointers— Lengths from sj^ to s ft. each 30 
 
 Crayons — White, per gross .—. 30; Colored, per gross - 1 35 
 
 I doz. White, in neat paper box — 10 ; Do. colored—-. 30 
 
 Crayon Holders — Recently invented, neat and economical, each. -^^ ^ 
 
BLACKBOARD EASELS, SUPPORTS ETC. 
 
 Kendall's Black-board Easel is specially suited for class-rooms, lecture-halls, Sun- 
 day-schools, and places where economy of space is an 
 object. When not wanted, it can be folded up in a 
 moment, and put away like an ordinary board. Its. 
 portability, the little room it occupies when packed, and 
 consequent cheapness of transportation make it a most 
 convenient and economical Easel. It is Patented. 
 
 Price, Ash, ^S.OO 
 
 " Black Walnut, 3.60 
 
 
 The Revolving Black-board Easel, for t^e Teacher's Desk or Table, hai 
 for some years answered a good purpose in the schools of 
 New York City, and is now first offered to the public. The 
 first cut represents it occupied by a Black-board, the 
 second cut shows its construction. ^rice, $5. 00, 
 
 '■'- // '/( /iYf J' on/(/(J(rf^'' ^ff/ 
 
 I''- CCCMe-i/.TC 
 
 Hammond's Black-board Support, 
 
 Obviating the disadvantages of movable black- 
 boards, has become deservedly popular. The 
 iron feet are sufficiently heavy to insure stability. 
 It is rigid and substantial. There are no glued 
 joints ; all the parts are firmly bolted together, 
 and are taken apart for shipping. It has lock- 
 pins for holding the board in position. It may 
 be revolved either way — on horizontal or per- 
 
 Eendicular axle — as shown in the cut. The 
 oard touches the Support only on these pins, 
 and is noiseless. Beneath the board is a shelf 
 for crayons, and for the falling particles of chalk. 
 It is a serviceable and ornamental piece of furni- 
 ture for the school or lectu e-room. 
 Size adapted to any one of our Stand- 
 ard Wall Slates ^6 00 
 
 Same, of black walnut, 7 50 
 
 BlaclC Board It\lbl>ers, 8 varieties, Perdozen, $1.50 to 5.50 
 
 DE2virelca "Wall Slates, neatly framed, 9 standard sizes Each, 3.50 to 13.50 
 
 ©lated Glotoes, for Mathematical Geography, etc., 6 sizes " 1.50 to 30.00 
 
 BlaolC Board Pointers, Black Board Compasses, Crayons, Crayon Holders, ete. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 81 
 
 Blackboard Rubbers, 
 
 For Erasing Marks from Blackboards and "Wall Slates of all Mnds. 
 
 The dusty rag for clearing blackboards of marks, is disappearing with the slovenly 
 teachers who were known in the past. No tidy teacher can permit the scattering of dust 
 about the school-room, defiling the furniture, books, and dresses of pupils, besides damage- 
 ing the health of teachei's and pupils. To meet the increasing demand for Erasers or 
 Blackboard Rubbers, we manufacture the following varied styles : 
 
 No. 0. Size 2 in. by 3 J in. The block is ash or other suitable wood, properly grooved 
 for grasping with the hand. It is covered with sheepskin, usually " Shearling." The 
 skin is securely fastened to the block and bound with binders' cloth. Price, perdoz. 1.50 
 
 No. 1. Size 2 in. by 7 in. This is made in same manner and of same material as No. 0, 
 differing only in length. Per doz 2.40 
 
 No. 2. Size 2+ by 7 J in. Is covered with first-class lambskin, having heavy and dur- 
 able wool. The binding is leather. Per doz 3.00 
 
 No. 3. Is made of A 1 extra lambskin, having very fine long bleached wool, bound 
 with red morocco. Per doz 4.00 
 
 No. 4. "Brussels." This -rubber is made like No. 3, except that a good quality of 
 Brussels carpeting takes the place of lambskin. Per doz 4.50 
 
 No. 5. " Tapestry." This is covered with fine heavy velvet Tapestry carpeting. It 
 is a handsome and efficient rabber, highly esteemed in young ladies' seminaries and 
 colleges. Per doz 5.00 
 
 No. 6. " California Rubber," Is made over an elaborate block, in three parts, screwed 
 together, peculiar to this style. It is larger than regular size, and covered with superior 
 heavy Red Plush. It requires no binding. Per doz 5.50 
 
 No. 7. " The Chamois Rubber" — patented — consists of a series of strips of Chamois 
 skin, securely fixed in hard-wood block, properly grooved. It is so arranged that the series 
 of Chamois edges come in snug contact with the blackboard, most effectually removing 
 every particle of dust, gathering it up between the folds. When filled, the dust may be 
 entirely discharged by rubbing two rubbers briskly together — thus all the wasted chalk 
 may be conveyed out of the school-room. It proves durable and is very highly appreciated. 
 Per doz 5.00 
 
 We claim that our Blackboard Rubbers are the very best manufactured. We will 
 pay liberally for any new inventions or improvements on these articles. 
 
 The Chamois Slate Eubber. 
 
 "a gem foe the school-room 
 
 It dispenses with sponge and water in erasing marks from the slate. No more need 
 
 the teacher hear the frequent question, " Please, sir, may I go to wash my slate V Nor 
 
 need the child spit upon his slate to erase the marks. 
 
 It is made of wood and Chamois skin, arranged to bring a series of edges of skin 
 
 snugly against the surface of slate. 
 
 Every teacher will recommend it because of its real convenience and neatness. Every 
 
 pupil will buy it. It costs no more than a good sponge. 
 
 No. 1 — size 1 in. by \\ — price, per 100 5,00 
 
 No. 2 — size 2 in. square — per 100 8.00 
 
 (Specimens, by mail, of No. 1, 10 cents— of No. 2, 15 cents.) 
 
82 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 The Slate Pencil Holder. 
 The cut represents it about half size. It is made of wood, bored to receive a regular 
 four-inch slate pencil — a six-inch pencil broken in halves answers the purpose. Its size 
 obviates the difficulties of other inventions, which are too small for the regular slate pen- 
 cils offered for sale. Its advantages are too manifest to require enumeration here. Every 
 teacher knows how desirable it is to have a device which is large enough and long enough 
 to prevent the irregular bits of slate pencils from cramping the chil^rens' fingers and injur- 
 ing them for writing. The pencil is held securely in place on the same plan as the crayon 
 in the crayon holder, fully illustrated below. It can be used as a pen holder. 
 
 (Specimens mailed for 10 cents.) Price, eacli 5 cents. 
 
 The Crayon Holder, Full Size. 
 
 Its length is adapted to receive an entire crayon (which should be inserted small end 
 first). Its great merit, hitherto unattained, is that it is short enough to be held easily and 
 naturally in the hand, as a crayon. It is light and pleasant to the touch, and cannot soil 
 the dress and fingers. Being made entirely of wood, it will not scratch the blackboard. 
 It will quickly save more than its cost in utilizing the small pieces of crayons which cannot 
 be held in the fingers. 
 
 (Specimens »iai7ec^ for 15 cents.) Price, each 10 cents. 
 
 The New Blackboard Dividers 
 
 Are made to receive and hold crayons in the same manner as the 
 
 crayon holder. Each leg is adapted to receive a crayon, which is 
 
 frequently a great convenience, in drawing parallel lines, and for 
 
 various other purposes. In the cut one leg of the dividers is 
 
 occupied by a piece of wood with a sharp metallic point. This 
 
 renders the length of the leg adjustable. The head is fitted with 
 
 a strong set-screw, which cannot get out of order. These dividers have no equal, and arc 
 
 cheaper than the common articles. The same patent covers the slate pencil holder, the 
 
 crayon holder, and the new blackboard dividers, or " crayon compasses." 
 
 Price, . . . . $1.00 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 83 
 
 Object Teaching Aids. 
 
 THE SPELLINO STICK AND THE SENTENCE STICK. 
 
 rat JmleUtt 
 
 The Spelling Stick consists of a piece of wood properly fashioned and grooved for 
 holding the letters. It has a handle as shown in the cut. It is accompanied by letters on 
 card-board — one set of Capitals, and a " three-a font" of lower-case letters. 
 
 Teachers of primary classes, with the aid of this simple device, will find it easy to fix 
 the attention of their pupils, teach the forms of the letters, and how to combine them into 
 words. By its use words and their spelling may be taught to a large class with less 
 outlay of time and patience than is required for teaching a single pupil with the book alone. 
 
 The Sentence Stick has precisely the same construction. It is accompanied by 135 
 common words, on card-board. It is useful in teaching primarians to construct sentences, 
 just as the Spelling Stick aids in constructing words. The first principles of grammar 
 and composition may be pleasantly illustrated, and attention may be called to the common 
 errors of speech. In the hands of a skillful teacher its uses may be greatly extended and 
 multiplied. 
 
 These Simple instruments have been successfully tested by many teachers, and are highly 
 esteemed for their practical utility. Their rank, as to efficiency in the school-room, is 
 equal, or superior, to the Numeral Frame. 
 
 Spelling Sticks, or, '• Word-making" Sticks for Primarians, each $0.25 
 
 Fonts of letters, on card-board, for 8ame, in box 0.50 
 
 Sentence Sticks, for Primarians "to build up sentences" 0.25 
 
 Seta of Small words, on card-board, for same, in box 0.50 
 
 Alphabet Charts, 24 x 40 inches, heavy Manilla, with rollers :— 
 
 No. 1. Capital Letters and Arabic Figures (75 cts. each) i . 
 
 No 2. Small Letters, Points, aud Roman Numerals (75 cts. each) j *°*' P"^^"^ * *"" 
 
 Alphabet Charts, Indestructible, 24 x 36 inches, with rollers, These are entirely 
 new, being printed w» doth, in oil colors, by Dr. Johnson's patent process : — 
 
 No. 1. Capital Letters and Arabic Figures (75 cts. each) i 
 
 No. 2. Small Letters, Points, and Roman Numerals (75 cts. each) f '"° P'"'' 
 
 1.50 
 
 Alpliabet Blocks, Hill's. No. 1, per box 0.25 
 
 No. 2, 35 cts. ; No. 3, 40 cts. : No. 4, 60 cts. ; No. 6, $1 ; No. 6 l.a& 
 
84 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Object Teaching Aids. 
 
 Color-Cubes, with direction for use $1.25 
 
 This set of Color-Cubes comprises eight Cubes : — six of which contain six colors on 
 each — red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple. The other two Cubes contain white, 
 black, drab, russet, citrine, blue, on each. The set is put up in a paper box, with a sheet 
 of directions for use. 
 
 Kindergarten Blocks, au Proebel, per box $1.00 
 
 Miss Peabody suggests that the teacher can find nothing better than these blocks to aid 
 in conveying elementarj- ideas of Foem. They are easily susceptible of reduction to a 
 great variety of forms, such as Arches, Arcades, Bridges, Castles, Chairs, Churches, 
 Columns, Gateways, Houses, Sentry-boxes, etc., etc. 
 
 NUMERAL FRAMES 
 
 OF SDFEBIOB STYLE AND WORKMANSHIP. 
 
 No. 1— With 100 BaUs $1.25 
 
 No. 2— With 144 BaUs 1.50 
 
 The Abacus, or Numeral Frame, is now a 
 very popular and almost indispensable aid in 
 teaching children to count, and in giving them 
 correct ideas of numbers, and of their first 
 lessons in addition, subtraction, etc. 
 
 Valuable and ingenious hints for its use may 
 be found in "Calkins' Classified List (illustrated) 
 of Object Teaching Aids, for Home and Schools." 
 (Price, 10 cents.) 
 
 MATHEMATICAL BLOCKS, DISSECTED. 
 
 1. The Cube Root Block — " To one place," in neat box $0.60 
 
 This may be mailed (letter postage) for SI .25. 
 
 2. The Cube Root Block— "To two places" O.SO 
 
 3. The Cube Root Block— " To two places, larger 1.00 
 
 These are accurately dissected blocks, invaluable in illus- 
 trating the rule of Cube Root. One of them should be in the 
 hands of every teacher who attempts to instruct pupils in that 
 usually troublesome part of Arithmetic. 
 i. Dissected Cone— sections of diiferent colored wood— for illus- 
 trating conic sections. Large size, 8 inches high, 4| mches 
 
 diameter at base 2.60 
 
 Melville's Complete Drawing and Building Blocks. Elaborate and 
 
 very supt^rior §16.00 
 
 For use in Art Schools, Scientific Schools, Colleges, Academies, and High Schools. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 85 
 
 New Forms and Solids 
 
 FOE OBJECT TEAOHINa. 
 
 Containing sixty-four pieces — there being forty-eight Plane Forms, fifteen 
 
 Solids, and a six-inch Rule, among which are several NEW 
 
 Forms and Solids, not included in any other set. 
 
 Each Form is stamped with its Number in the List. 
 
 1 . Eciiiilateral Triangle. 
 
 2. Eight Angled " 
 
 3. " 
 
 4. Obtuse " " 
 
 5. Curved " 
 
 12. Rhomboid. 
 
 13. Trapezium. 
 
 14. Trapezoid. 
 
 15. Pentagon. 
 
 16. Hexagon. 
 
 6. Triangle— one curved side. I'j;, Heptagon. 
 
 7. Isosceles Triangle. 18. Octagon. 
 
 8. Scalene " 19. Nonagon. 
 
 9. Square. 20. Decagon. 
 
 10. Oblong. 21. Circle. 
 
 11. Rhomb. 22. Semi-Circle 
 
 PRICE (neatly put up in substantial wood bos), $2 
 
 A complete illustrated description of these Forms and Solids 
 
 Classified List of Object Teaching Aids (price 
 
 23. Quadrant. 
 
 24. Segment. 
 
 25. Sector. 
 
 26. Ring. 
 
 27. Crescent. 
 
 28. Ellipse. 
 
 29. Oval. 
 
 30. Sphere. 
 
 31. Hemi-Sphere. 
 
 32. Prolate-Spheroid. 
 
 33. Oblate. 
 
 34. Ovoid. 
 
 35. Cylinder. 
 
 36. Cone. 
 
 37. Conoid. 
 
 38. Cube. 
 39o Square Prism. 
 
 40. Triangular Prism 
 
 41. Hexagonal " 
 
 42. Square Pyramid. 
 
 43. Triangular " 
 
 44. Six-inch Rule. 
 ,75. 
 
 appears in Calkins' 
 10 cents). 
 
 Greometrical Forms and Arithmetical Solids. 
 Each Piece is stamped with its Number, as in the List. 
 
 1. Sphere. 
 
 2. Hemisphere. 
 
 3. Prolate Spheroid. 
 
 4. Oblate Spheroid. 
 
 5o Pyramid and Prustrum. 
 6o Cone and Frustrum. 
 •Jo Cylinder. 
 
 8. Triangular Prism. 15. Parallelopipedon. 
 
 9. Square Prism. 16. Parallelopipedon. 
 1 Oo Hexagonal Prism. 1 7. Parallelopipedon. 
 
 1 1 . Cube. IS. Oblique Prism (3 pieces). 
 
 12. Cube (Eight times No. 11). 19. Parallelopipedon. 
 
 1 3. Cube (Eight times No. 12). 20. Parallelopipedon. 
 
 14. Parallelopipedon. 21. Carpenter's Theorem (4 pieces). 
 
 Twenty-sis Pieces, in substantial wood box, $2.50. 
 
 Parallelogram. 
 The Goiligrapll is a small instrument resembling somewhat a jointed carpenter's 
 rule, but made so as to bend in only two directions. It is made with several short rulers, 
 or joints of iron or brass, fastened together by pivots. With it may be formed all the 
 geometrical figures that consist of straight lines and angles, some of which are illustrated 
 by the accompanying engravings. 
 
 Square. 
 
 ^ Rhomb. 
 
 Pentagon. 
 Price, in wood, 25 cts. | whalebone, 40 cts. ; metal, 50 cts. 
 
 Triangle. 
 
 Octagon. 
 
CALL-BELLS. 
 
 r I iHE old-time School-master, emphasized his COM- 
 -*- MANDS by heavy thwacks of a ruler — sometimes on 
 the desks, and sometimes on the sconces of his terri- 
 fied pupils. The Call-Bell is a better instrument, and 
 has become as indispensable as the ruler or strap used 
 to be — much to the relief of both teachers and taught. 
 The bells shown in the cuts are silver-plated, and of fine tone. The 
 cuts represent one-fifth size. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 IVo. 2, 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 5. 
 
 No. 6. 
 
 No. 7. 
 
 No. S. 
 
 No. 9. 
 
 No. 10. 
 
 No. I, 
 
 PRICE LIST. 
 
 Fancy Bronze Base $ go 
 
 Fancy Base i oo 
 
 Fancy Bronze Base i lo 
 
 Black Marble Base i 15 
 
 Fancy Bronze Base 1 25 
 
 Fancy Bronze Base 145 
 
 Black Base i 60 
 
 Bronze Base . . i 75 
 
 Black Base i 8s 
 
 White Marble Base i 95 
 
 Bronze Base 2 05 
 
 Black and Gold Base 3 50 
 
Silver Plated Hand-Bells, 
 
 Jio. 1. Gong 
 Sliape. 70c. 
 
 No. 3. 70c. 
 
 No. 3. 50c. 
 
 No. 4. 70c. 
 
 No. 5. $1.70. 
 
 Hand-Bells of Pure Copper and Tin, 
 
 No. 
 
 1, Extra 
 
 2, «' 
 
 3, " 
 
 4, " 
 
 5, " 
 
 6, " 
 
 7, " 
 
 8, " 
 
 9, " 
 10, " 
 12, " 
 14, ^' 
 
 Warranted superior in tone ; twelve sizes. 
 
 Diameter. 
 
 Polish, 2g inch. 
 
 " 21 " 
 
 .3^ 
 
 .31 
 M 
 .5 
 
 .6 
 
 M 
 .61 
 .7 
 
 Height. 
 3g inch. 
 4i " 
 5i " 
 6i " 
 61 " 
 7i " 
 84 " 
 8i 
 9^ 
 
 10 
 
 lOi 
 
 11 
 
 ^0.20 
 .25 
 .SO 
 .4-5 
 
 .7^ 
 .90 
 /./.? 
 7.60 
 2.00 
 2.4.0 
 3.00 
 
 Patent Spring Tape Measures. 
 
 Three Feet Measures, in Silver Plated Cases, Price, 45 CentsL 
 
 Five " " " " " " 50 " 
 
 Six " " " " " " 55 
 
 Three " " in Lacquered Brass Cases, " 46 '• 
 
 Five " " " " " "50 «♦ 
 
 Six " " " " " " 55 " 
 
 Three ' " in Nickel Silver Cases, " 65 " 
 
 Five " " " '• 70 " 
 
 Bix " •' '♦ '« "75 " 
 

 
 OCHOOL L^LOCKS. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. I. Octagon Marine, one day, 
 6 in. Dial $4.00 
 
 No. 2, Drop Octagon, Spring,Eight 
 day, Height 25 in 6.00 
 
 In response to frequent calls from teachers 
 and School Officers for clocks suitable for 
 school use, the foregoing styles have been 
 selected as best adapted for that purpose. 
 
 These clocks are of the best American manufacture and are reliable time- 
 keepers. 
 
 Timby's Globe Time Piece, 
 
 l^or illustrating t?te reltt" 
 tions of jDovffitiede and Time, 
 
 The Time Piece consists of an eight- 
 day clock, with a globe so mounted as 
 to make one rcvohitiou every twenty- 
 four hours, thus bringing each meri- 
 dian directlj' under the sun (represented 
 by a gilded ball), once a day ; while the 
 pointer, which shows on the moving 
 dial our time, points constantly to that 
 part of the earth crossed by the noon 
 meridian. The time at every other 
 part of the earth may be ascertained 
 from the meridians. The Dial en- 
 circles the Globe, and revolves with it. 
 The globe may be turned either way 
 without injury to the clock-movement. 
 The whole apparatus may be placed 
 on its back or in any position desired 
 for the study of the globe, or for illustrating the relations of longitude and time. 
 The Clock is simple in consiruction, strong and durable, and is offered at a price but 
 little greater than is asked for an ordinary clock of corresponding finish. The bal- 
 ance-wheel is set in jewels, and every care is taken to ensure a first-class Time Piece, 
 
 Price, (Box for packing 75 cts.) $2.').00. 
 
 tBONF VIbW 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 89 
 
 Thermometers, Barometers, etc. 
 
 " The teacher cannot trust his own feelings to regulate the temperature of the 
 school-room." 
 
 Our Thermometers arc mantrfkcturefl by one of the oldest establishments in the country, 
 whose reputation is not surpassed T5y any in America or in Europe. These standard 
 instruments are used by the Smirtisonian Institution, at Washington, D. C. 
 
 List of sizes, styles, and prices. — Liberal discounts by the dozen. 
 
 7 Inch, White Tube, Tin Case each, 
 
 8 
 10 
 12 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 8 
 10 
 
 Mahogany Case " 
 
 t( <i it 
 
 Rosewood Case " 
 
 Standards. 
 
 10 Inch, White Tin Oaae, Single Degree Ruby 
 12 " " " " " 
 
 12 " " " Half D gree Rubv . 
 
 0.50 
 .55 
 .60 
 .T5 
 .80 
 .S5 
 .90 
 
 1.00 
 
 Rain Gai^e — the Smithsonian 
 
 Glass Hydrometers, of usual styles, at manufacturers' prices. 
 Barometers, Aneroid and Mercurial, several styles, at usual rates 
 
 , " 1.25 
 1.50 
 2.25 
 
 price, 5.00 
 
90 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Aids to Neatness and Cleanliness. 
 
 ' ]|7in<erf>' mat/ be requisite for the >ieatne,-!S anil t/wd orda- of a prirnte residence, cannot be 
 out of place, for the same purpitses, in a Schix^l -House." 
 
 Shoe Scrapers, with Patent Revolving Brushes. 
 
 No. 1. — For fastoning to wood steps, price, 
 
 No. 2. — For fasteniug to stoue steps, price, 
 
 $2.00 
 2.00 
 
 No. 3.— Oval Pan Shoe Scraper, with Revolving Brushes, 
 
 $2.50. 
 
 No. 4.— Square Pan Shoe Scraper, with Revolving Brushes, 
 
 Door ITIutii Three Sizes, 17 iu. by 25 in. ; 18 in. by 33 in. ; 
 
 Jute, each, $0.65 $0.75 
 
 Coir, ordinary " .90 1.10 
 
 Coir, solid " 1.25 1.50 
 
 Rope, " 1.25 1.65 
 
 Modem School Officers require no arguments to convince them 
 for articles such as those in every school. Live teachers will sec th; 
 stantly used wlicn provided, and school children v>'\]\ acquire habits, thr 
 these articles, which will adhere to them through their lives, and make 
 women of them. 
 
 - $3.00. 
 
 19 in. by 36 in. 
 
 $0.90 
 
 1.10 
 
 1.75 
 
 3.00. 
 
 of the necessity 
 
 at they ore con- 
 
 •ouph the use of 
 
 better men and 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL, 
 
 91 
 
 Shades, Hat Racks, Dusters, and Sweepers. 
 
 " It is most important that the school-room be kept perfectly comfortable, cheerful, and 
 clean." 
 
 For School-room Windows the Rustic Shade is rwommended 
 on account of its flimplicity, durability, and cheapness. It is 
 furnished complete, rca<ly to be put up with two nails or screws. Tbey 
 may be had in any colors — brown, blue, buff, pearl, green, or oiled 
 walnut. The last two arc generally required for school puqjoses. 
 They arc made for windows of any size. In sending dimensions for 
 
 ordering the " Rustic Shades," give the full length and width of the 
 
 window, allowing on the width aljout one inch over on each side. 
 Circular with prices, sent on application. 
 
 ^yfffi 
 
 Hat and Oloak Racks. Four sizes, 4 to 8 hooks on each; price, 50 CtS. tO $1.00. 
 
 The frames are made of lilack walnut, held together by screw rods ; the hooks are iron, 
 nicely coppered and well lacquered to prevent tarnishing in any climate. 
 
 School Furniture Dusters. 48 kinds, varying in size and color, 
 each, 15 cents to $3.50 5— Colored, 25 cents to $4.00. 
 
 Plain, 
 
 The Champian Dustless School-House Floor Sweeper, large size, price §3,00« 
 
Aids to School Discipline: 
 
 A sri>sri ir no i.\>k 
 
 Sclio©! Kecords, Jieporfs, ana rrizes. 
 
 NEW AM) ArritOritlATE DEISIUKS, rKlNTEl) IN COLOKS. 
 
 An accurato ivsristor of doportmont aiul scholarship pixtinotos hoalthy omuhuion. Yot 
 such a rciiistcr is raivly kept. Teachers eanunt iveonl each recitation as it occurs, hence 
 the tveonl is nei^jKvTcil tor the time, ami afterwanl niaile fnnn memory. IVrfici aeciiracv 
 being intpossiMe, conniinuY in the ircord is tirnkriuit (lud its wf^nilforrr lost. The Aid's 
 secure the jixiod n'sults of accurate ivcords and ivports, witii h\ss expense ot' time. 
 
 The Aids natnrallv and inevitably aw.iken a lively paternal inteivst, for the pupil 
 takes home witli him tlu- witness of' his Jai/i/ conilurt and proijirss. 
 
 The Aids may lie used in various ways. This is convenient : In the morning give each 
 pupil a Card (."i merits), ivpn.>senting a i><rt'a-t ihii/, to he forfeited for ujisdemeanor, or fail- 
 ure in iveitation. Single Merits and Half-Merits are for pupils who fail to retain (heir 
 Cards and yet are wortliy of some credit. Five Cards held bv any jnipil are exchanged 
 fur a Check {'2'i merits), represeutiug a perfect School MV<A-. Four Checks uiv ex- 
 chaugctl for a Certificate of Merit, ix'presentiuix IW merits, or a perfect Month. These 
 Certificates bear the pupil's name, and arc signed by the teacher. The number held 
 slunvs the pupil's standing. 
 
 If pri/.es or medals are awarded at close of session, theiv can bo uo jnistakc in deter- 
 niiuiug to whom they lielong: the decision being matle by each pupil exhibiting his Cards 
 and Certificates, no idea of favoritism can arise. 
 
 It is needless to discuss the value of proper incentives, for either childivn or adidts. 
 The use of Millions of these Aids, with the unbounded apj)tx)val of Teachers, Parents, 
 and Pupils, assures us that they are doing great gooil. 
 
 Thev are neat in design, "printed in iwcsr l\iIors. The Certificates aiv jn-izes 
 whieirpnpils will cherish. Single Merits and llaU'-Merits are printed ou card-board; 
 Cards and Cheeks on heavv paper, and may be used many times — heiu'c the system is 
 Clioap. Thev are put up in sets of 500, "there being 80 Certificates, 120 Checks, 
 200 Cards, 100 Siuglo Merits and Half Merits. " rrifo, por sot (milUoil) $1.25. 
 
 Sii|>i>Iictl separately (liy mall): 
 
 $iii;:'lo Merits, per humlreil .15 
 
 Cards (tivcs^ per bimdred .15 
 
 Ilall-I»Ierlts, per hundred 15 
 
 dieekx it'»*eiity-llves'> per humlreil, ..JO 
 CertHleates* JiiiiKlredw) per huuilred, ,60 
 
 ■ri3LO IKTox'^r JSol^ool 3\Xoci.«X 
 
 Is here shown, on both sides. It is made of a Superior White Metal, and will not easily tarnish. 
 On one side, above the word "E.xcellence," is opportunity to ensjrave the (/d^c of presenting the 
 Medal. On tho other side, the pupil's name may be engraved on the Scn^l. (The engraving costs, 
 in New York, three cents a letter or llj:ure ; ou receipt of tho money, we will set It done at that rate. 
 In most localities, some jeweller can be found to do it quite as well.) This is tlio best Seliool 
 Medal now made, and is highly appreciated. Price, .25; by iiinll, prepaid, .35. 
 
8CH00L mati;kial. 
 
 'J'.i 
 
 The Scliool Index, or "J{oll of Ifoiior." 
 
 ** Honor and nhume frtym no condif/lf/n rinfi : 
 Act weM ytyu/r imrt, tJtere all the hfrntyr lien.'^ 
 
 To t(:'M,]it:rn who kcjqi a T(j-A>ri\ of the wr^rk i><:rionuiA \iy tlicir 
 (■Annnaa, and art weary of writin;^ out, wc<;k afu.r w(;';k, t}ic riatncn 
 and relative nieritH of eaf;h of their pupil-f, the School Ishkx will 
 fx; welw^rne, on iUJ-Jtuul of the eaw; with whieh, by its aid, they ean 
 iiiTJ/Tiii)\in\i what has hitherf^ \x^m an arduous tank. Its c/matruo 
 tion ih clearly illustrated in the a/xt'^rnpanying cut. It vj/tiniiitn of a 
 frame in whicli are arranjj*^] hmall pif;/'/;(> of w'^jd, on which the 
 narrieH of the pupils are to \><: writt<;n. Thew; can U; taken out and 
 moved at pleasure. One hide of the frame is ]i]u'^<-A to ivlnih of its 
 ]n-jrti: opened when any chan;^c in the position of a nam(j-strip h 
 rc/jiiircd. On the Otb(;r uldc, wJiich in Ujy.cA, are nuni}x;rs, as shown 
 in the cut. 
 
 In ct>nxm:Ut>n with the AId>» to HfJlool OiHCiplfnc, the 
 
 K(;llool ItifJcx furnishes an a/;eurate and reliable means of 
 showin;^ the standin;,' of every pupil. The " Aids" and the " Index" 
 U^j.^ether, fomi a ]n:rfi-/:t System of School V<.(^j>r(\i. Af the expira- 
 tion of a "quarter" or any s[><;cified time, each pupil produ%« hU 
 Cards and Certificates, and his rank lx;injj determined by the nurn- 
 lx;r of thes<: in his possession, his name can easily ly; put in its proper 
 place in tlie Index. If any error in arrangernrmt is ilihcjjvtrcil, it 
 can \)b easily fArrf;/;f:d. In this rftS]:>ect, the sujx;riority of the School 
 Index over the ordinary Merit Koll is r</dA.'i\y wxn. Where the Aiilu 
 are not ubc^I, the In'lex can >xs rn^ule to take the yjlace of the " Merit 
 Il^oll" or " Sch'xjl K«x»rd," — the preparation of wliich Jias always 
 caused a waste of much valuable time and ef&^rt. 
 
 The Index may fxj used to show the standing of ea^.h pupil 
 as t/> Hf;holarhhip alone, or s<;holarhhip U^gether with dej/mrnf^nt and 
 HtUindnncji. As it is to hi displays! in a prominent plaf*, where it 
 can Ui ht-JiTi and examinwl not only by the pupils but by parents and 
 othcTs who visit the mh(><jh, it will nwxissarily liave a R'neficial 
 influencMj on the conduct and diligence of the classes. 
 
 If desired, it can hi uscl to show the rank of ea/;h pupil as U) Jx;ha- 
 vior alone, and in this casf;, will U: a j/jwerful aid in school govern- 
 ment — hv.JSfi FiKHT dejx;nding on JiK/.vo ooojj, every one will nat- 
 urally strive to exw;l in gcx^d conduct. 
 
 The School Index is simple in fy;instruction; easily man- 
 age] ; can never get out of ordCT, thenj UHng no " rnaf-diinery" what- 
 ever a>>out it; can }xi intr^yluc^;^! without making any changes in 
 the manner of governing or marking.; is neat in design ; and Is light, 
 f/^rtable, and cJif/ip. 
 
 Wherever introdur>f;d, its use has Umu attended with the hap- 
 plent re»Mlt«», and has callwl forth the praise of ir/.y-.n'-.uwl 
 teacher-,. 
 
 Price, plain, ^2.00 
 
 Price, made or black vialnut, 82. oO 
 
94 
 
 WORKS OF ART. 
 
 Rogers' School Groups. 
 
 'Works of art are invaluable hi educating the taste of the young." 
 
 The School Examination. — One of the School Committee has come to examine the 
 school, and is pointing out, good-naturedly, on the slate, the mistake the little girl has 
 made in her " sum," while the teacher stands by to encourage her. 
 
 Height, 20 inches. — "Weight, when packed, 80 pounds. — Price 15.00 
 
 Uncle Ned's School. — An old negro booLulack is keeping school, but one of his 
 pupils, a mulatto girl, has asked him a puzzling question, while a lazy little bo}] is mis- 
 chievously tickling his foot, which he feels, but is too much occupied to attend to it. 
 
 Height, 20 inches. — Weight, when packed, 90 pounds. — Price 15,00 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL —Part VI. 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY, etc. 
 
 OOKTTElKrTS- 
 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Artists' Material, ...... 
 
 103 
 
 Blotters and Blotting Paper, . . 2 - 
 
 . 106 
 
 Book Carriers and Book Rests, . . . - 
 
 113 
 
 Bristol Board, T . . . . - 
 
 . Ill 
 
 Calendars, --..... 
 
 110 
 
 Composition Books and Composition Paper, 
 
 - 105 
 
 Drawing Books and Drawing Papers, - - 
 
 111 
 
 Envelopes, .--_.-. 
 
 - 109 
 
 Erasable Tablets, ...... 
 
 111 
 
 Erasers, ....... 
 
 - 106 
 
 Exercise Books, ...... 
 
 105 
 
 Initial Papei-, - • - 
 
 - 107 
 
 Ink — Fancy, ....... 
 
 100 
 
 School and Record, ..... 
 
 97 
 
 Inkstands — Teachers', w . . . . . 
 
 100 
 
 Ink Vents, --..... 
 
 99 
 
 Ink-Wells and Ink- Well Covers, - . . - 
 
 98, 99 
 
 Lead Pencils, - . ,. . . 
 
 - 103 
 
 Lettsr Clips and Board Clips, ..... 
 
 lOS 
 
 Lunch Boxes, - - - - . 
 
 - 112 
 
 Manuscript Paper, --.,... 
 
 107 
 
 Mucilage and Mucilage Stands, . .' . . 
 
 - 108 
 
 Papers— Note, Letter, Cap,- ..... 
 
 107 
 
 Paper Weights and Folders, .... 
 
 - 108 
 
 Pencil File, - - . - «. . . 
 
 103 
 
 Penholders, - " - . > . 
 
 - 106 
 
 Pen and Pencil Baskets and Racks, • - 
 
 104 
 
 Pens — Spcncerian Steel, . - . . . 
 
 - 101 
 
 Propelling Pencils, - - 
 
 103 
 
 Post-Office Boxes, *'.-.- 
 
 - 110 
 
 Reward-of-Merit Cards and Testimonials, 
 
 114 
 
 Rulers, - ...... 
 
 - 106 
 
 School Bags, ........ 
 
 112 
 
 Slates — Common, Book, and Fancy ... 
 
 96 
 
 Slate Pencils, --.-... 
 
 96 
 
 Slate Pencil and Penholder, . . . . . 
 
 - 103 
 
 Rubbers, -.-.... 
 
 96 
 
 Spenceriau Penmanship, . . . . . 
 
 - 102 
 
 Steel Pens, - - .... 
 
 101 
 
 Stationer's Gum, ..... 
 
 - 103 
 
 Stationery Cases, --.... 
 
 - 107,110 
 
 Writing Books, --.... 
 
 105 
 
96 
 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 Slates, Book-slates, Fancy Slates, Slate Pencils, 
 
 SLATE RUBBEBS, Etc. 
 
 Size, 
 
 New Oval or oval edges with 
 
 oval round comers. 
 
 [ X 6 iuches.. .price per doz., $1.30 
 
 ) X 7 " " " 1.50 
 
 1x9" " " 2.10 
 
 ]i X 10 " " " 2.20 
 
 : X 11 " " " 2.40 
 
 i X 12 " " " 2.90 
 
 I X 1.3 " " " 3.50 
 
 3} X 14 " " " 4.80 
 
 Size, 
 
 Round Corner Counting-House Slates. 
 Two Slates, united with brass hinges. 
 
 9 inches, price per doz., $6,87 
 
 8.28 
 S.90 
 10.68 
 11.75 
 12.75 
 12.75 
 13.00 
 19.15 
 25.50 
 
 6 
 
 X 9 inc 
 
 7 
 
 X 11 
 
 H 
 
 X 14 ' 
 
 8 
 
 X 12 ' 
 
 7 
 
 X 15 ' 
 
 9 
 
 X 13 ' 
 
 « 
 
 X 16 
 
 a* 
 
 X 14 ' 
 
 11 
 
 X 16 ' 
 
 12 
 
 X 18 ' 
 
 Contents of Assorted Cases of New Oval. 
 
 Sizes. 
 
 5x7 
 
 6x9 
 
 6|xl0 
 
 7x11 
 
 8x12 
 
 9x13 
 
 
 Per Case. 
 
 No. 1 
 No. 2 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 1 
 
 
 
 DOZ. 
 
 $i2$.00 
 22.40 
 
 Liberal discounts on quantities, and by the case. 
 Book Slates. — The following contain three slates each, hinged together, and 
 covered with stifP covers, like a book. 
 Sizes in inches, 3| x 6| price each, $0.67 
 
 .SO 
 1.15 
 
 1.75 
 
 41x73- 
 
 " 5^x9 
 
 Fancy Double Slates, — Superior quality and finish, set in fine wood panelled 
 cases, polished and highly oniamented, brass hinges, imported. Eight sizes. 
 
 Price (variable with gold) each, .§5 to 
 
 SLATE PENCILS. — At lowest rates, which are variable with gold. 
 
 German. — Five, six, and seven inches, in wooden boxes per hundred, 
 
 Soapstone. — Four, five, and six inches, paper boxes " " 
 
 Composition. — Six inches, wooden boxes per gross, 
 
 SLATE RUBBER.— Chamois— "a gem for the school-room." 
 
 It dispenses with sponge and water, in erasing marks from the slate. No more need 
 the teacher hear the frequent question, " Please, sir, may I go to wash my slate V Nor 
 need the child spit upon his slate to erase the marks. 
 
 It is made of wood and Chamois skin, arranged to bring a series of edges of skin snugly 
 against the surface of the slate. 
 
 Every teacher will recommend it because of its real convenience and neatness, 
 pupil will buy it. It costs no more than a good sponge. 
 
 No. 1— size 1 x H inches price per 100, 
 
 No. 2 — size 2 inches square " 
 
 (Specimens, by mail, of No. 1, 10 cents — of No. 2, 15 cents. 
 
 Every 
 
 5.00 
 §.00 
 
SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 97 
 
 School and Record Ink. 
 
 Our School Ink is specially put up 
 for school use, and is better adapt- 
 ed to all school purposes than any 
 other ink that we can get made. It 
 flows freely, and flows jet black 
 from the pen ; it has no sediment ; 
 it does not " gum up" the pen and 
 inkstand; it is unsurpassed in 
 color, and it is cheap. 
 
 It is neatly and substantially put up, 
 smallest size in glass cones; the half- 
 pints, pints, and quarts in good glass 
 bottles ; and the half-gallons and gal- 
 lons in square tin cans, for compact and 
 safe shipment to any distance. 
 
 Price List of onr Scliool IiiL 
 
 Octagonal Cones, glass, per dozen, $0.60 
 Half-pints, - " " 
 
 Pints, - - " " 
 
 Quarts, - • " " 
 
 Half-gallons, square tin cans, each, 
 Gallons, " " " 
 
 On Draught, $1.50 per gallon, 
 of keg or barrel to be added. 
 
 1.75 
 3.50 
 6.00 
 1.00 
 2.00 
 Cost 
 
 Comress RecorJ IiiL 
 
 No. 1 Stands per gross, $6.00 
 
 N0.3 " " 10-00 
 
 Half-pints per dozen, 2,75 
 
 Pints " 4.00 
 
 Quarts " 7.00 
 
 (Two-thirds size.) 
 
 Arnold's Writing Fluid— all sizes. It being imported prices fluctuate with gold. 
 
 All other kinds of ink supplied at lowest rates when called for. 
 
98 
 
 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 Ink-Wells, Ink-Well Covers, etc. 
 
 Glass luk-wells are in very great 
 
 demand. The points to be regarded in selecting 
 them are few. First, it is neces- 
 sary to secure the largest pos- 
 sible capacity, and yet have 
 them fit the usual bore of school 
 desks. Second, good glass is 
 necessary, in order to avoid 
 waste from breakages, and 
 consequent damage to books. 
 Such an ink-well is illustrated, 
 ftlll size, in the cut. It is 
 shoAvn beneath a cast-iron cover, 
 japanned and hinged. 
 
 is struck out of sheet-brass, and lacquered. Instead 
 
 The New Brass Ink-well Cover 
 
 of having a hinge, it revolves on 
 a screw, and is noiseless. It is 
 very neat, and gives a bright and 
 ornamental appearance to the 
 desk. It must be admitted that 
 whatever contributes to the good 
 appearance of school furniture, 
 is of advantage. We cannot do 
 too much to make the school- 
 room look pleasant and cheerful, 
 and thus cultivate the taste of 
 pupils. 
 
 The Non-corroding Metallic Ink-well, shown, full size, in the cut, was 
 invented in 1868. By a new process the 
 interior is made insoluble by ink, securing 
 all the advantages of glass, with increased 
 capacity, strength, and durability. The loss 
 and annoyance of breakage in handling and 
 by frost is entirely disposed of 
 
 The metal may be kept bright, giving an 
 ornamental appearance to the desk. The 
 cover is thoroughly secured with a brass 
 hinge. It is made of standard size, to fit 
 the usual bore of school desks. 
 
 Non-corroding Metallic Ink Sock- 
 ets, being the same as shown in the cut 
 without the cover, are supplied for use 
 with the ordinary iron covers, or with the 
 new brass covers. They are durable and 
 economical. The size is adapted to the 
 usual bore of school desks. 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 99 
 
 Ink-Wells, Ink- Well Covers, Ink Vents, etc. 
 
 The American Iiocking Ink-well Cover is a new invention, intended to supply the 
 
 need of a locking cover for the common glass 
 ink-wells, or any of the ordinary ink sockets. 
 It is easily and readily fixed to any desks 
 without the use of screws, letting in flush 
 with the desk top. It is made of iron, and 
 is japanned. The cut exhibits top view. 
 
 The opening in the top is sufficient for 
 any size pen. It also admits the key for 
 locking the cover securely fast to the desk. 
 The size and peculiar shape of the opening 
 is not liable to be fitted by any knife or other 
 instrument which pupils are likely to have 
 about them. 
 
 The pen opening is tightly closed by a little pivoted cover which keeps out the dust, and 
 prevents evaporation of the ink. 
 
 In short, this device has more real advantages than any of the complicated and expen- 
 sive " patent locking ink-wells ;" it can be used with the glass ink-wells already on hand ; 
 and is simple, having no screws and no hinges ; it is durable and it is cheap. 
 
 Scarlett's Ink Vent for filling Inkstands and Ink-wells. — With this vent, a 
 steady stream may be poured, and cut off promptly. All overflow- 
 ing inkstands and wells, and dripping of ink upon clothing and 
 furniture, is thus avoided. The ink escapes at a. Should a drop 
 cling to the orifice, instead of falling on furniture or floor, it is con- 
 ducted back to the bottle, through the inclined gutter c. At b there 
 is a small passage to the interior of the bottle. This is too small to 
 permit perceptible evaporation, and yet admits sufficient air to canse 
 the ink to flow from a. 
 
 The convenience of this invention will be appreciated by all who 
 have had experience in filling inkstands in the old-fashioned way. 
 The cork is made tapering, to fit the mouth of ani/ ink-bottle. 
 
 Specimens may be sent by mail for 25 cents. 
 
 PRICE LIST OF IM-fELLS, COVERS, 7ENTS, ETC. 
 
 Glass Ink-wells, or Sockets, shown incut per dozen, 
 
 Iron Covers, japanned, with hinge 
 
 Brass Covers, lacquered, new and extra neat 41 
 
 Non-corroding Metallic Ink Sockets « 
 
 Non-corroding Metallic Ink-wells, wih covers 
 
 American Locking Ink-well Cover « 
 
 Britannia Ink-wells, glass lined « 
 
 Ink Vents, Scarlett's Patent, for filling Ink-wells " 
 
 $0.75 
 .76 
 1.00 
 1.00 
 1.75 
 1.00 
 2.35 
 2.40 
 
100 
 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 Teachers' Inkstands 
 
 Reservoir Inkstand. Calendar Inkstand. 
 
 Morgan's Patent Reservoir and Calendar Inkstands are well adapted for use in 
 the school-room, on the teachers' desks. The dipping cup is constantly supplied with 
 pure ink at a uniform depth. The sediment is prevented from flowing into the dipping 
 cup by a bar between it and the reservoir. 
 
 A convenient calendar, and a tasteful pen-rack are combined with the Reservoir Ink- 
 stand (No. 1), to make the Calendar Inkstand (No. 2). 
 
 1. — Reservoir Inkstand price each, $0.25 
 
 2. — Calendar Inkstand, with calendar and bronze pen-rack i . " " ,90 
 
 3. — Reversible Inkstand " " 1 .OO 
 
 No. 3, — The Teachers' Reversible Inkstand consists of a glass pot with a ground 
 
 shoulder, into which fits a water- 
 tight funnel with a hollow stem and 
 rim. The air which is forced down 
 upon the ink causes it to rise the 
 required height in the stem. 
 
 I T~ /C j^lp''^ ~^ ^^^ When the stand is reversed, the 
 
 f — ^i—^r^ irar^^ I i"^^ ^^^^ '^^ already in the stem, and 
 
 ^^"^^^^^^^^^ no more, will flow down into the 
 
 hollow rim, where it stays till the 
 stand is again brought to its up- 
 right position. Its chief points are : 
 "THE INK can't GET OUT." 1- The ink cannot be spilled. 2. 
 
 The pen will always reach just enough to fill it. 3. The ink is protected from the dust 
 and evaporation. 4. The entire funnel can be removed to replenish with fresh ink. 
 5. It is simple, being made entirely of glass. 6. It is cheap, costing but $1.00. 
 
 Fancy Inks. —Writing and Copying combined. 
 
 Violet, Perfumed, 2 ounce octagon conos per dozen, $0.75 
 
 Violet, square stands, flint glass " 1.25 
 
 Carmine, superior, flint glass draped stands ... " \J79 
 
 Carmine, superior, flint glass draped stands, ground glass stoppers " 2.50 
 
 Assorted, Twelve Colors, square stands, |lint glass " 1.50 
 
SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 101 
 
 The Celebrated Spencerian Steel Pens. 
 
 The well-known durability and perfect action of these pens, arc owing to a peculiar 
 process in carbonizing ; and the main secret of their popularity is the fact that they are 
 manufactured under the supervision of the Original Inventor of steel pens, whose 
 great experience, combined with the aid of the most skilled vrorkmen in Europe, 
 enable us to offer an article as yet unsurpassed in all the qualities that are required in 
 pens adapted to every style of writing. They are a nearer approximation to the real 
 Swan Quill than anything hitherto invented. These pens are indorsed, and constantly 
 used by the best penmen in the country. They are used exclusively in all the first-class 
 Commercial Colleges in the United States and Canadas. They are more largely used 
 than any other pens by Cashiers, Tellers, Book-keepers, etc., in the principal hanking 
 houses throughout the country. They are used by all who have given them a trial. They 
 comprise fiftegn numbers, viz. : 
 
 PRICES BY MAIL: 
 
 No, 1, COLLEGE PEN. Point Fine ; Action Perfect Price per Gross, $1.25 
 
 No. 2. COUNTING-HOUSE PEN. Point Fine and Flexible " " 1,25 
 
 No. 3. COMMERCIAL PEN. Point Medium " " 1,25 
 
 No. 4, LADIES' EXTRA PEN. Point Extra Fine and Flexible " " 1,40 
 
 No. 5. SCHOOL PEN. Point Fine. Medium in Flexibility " "• 1.25 
 
 No. 6. FLOURISHING PEN. Point Long, Flexible, and Medium in 
 
 Fineness " " 1,25 
 
 No. 7 . QUILL PEN. Point Medium, QaiU Action " " l ,60 
 
 No. 8. CONGRESS PEN. Medium Point, and very Flexible " " 1,40 
 
 No. 9. BANK PEN. Point Long and Flexible " " 1,40 
 
 No. 10. CUSTOM-HOUSE PEN. Point Medium " " 1.60 
 
 No, H. UNIVERSITY PEN. Point Medium, very Smooth and Flexible " " 1.60 
 
 No. 12. EPISTOLAIRE PEN. Point very Fine and very Flexible. . . •' " 2.50 
 
 No. 13. ENGROSSING PEN. Point Blunt and Smooth •' " 1.25 
 
 No. 14. ARTISTIC PEN. Flexible, with Extra Fine Point " " 1.60 
 
 No. 15. THE QUEEN. Point Extra Fine and Even •' " 1.60 
 
 Caution. — We caution all who desire the genuine article against purchasing any 
 " Spencerian" Pens, which have not the initials "I., P., B. & Co.," or, "Ivison, Phinney 
 & Co.," on each Pen. 
 
 ^ FOR SALE BY DEALERS GENERALLY. 
 J^^ Sample Card, containing all the 15 numbers, artistically arranged and securely- 
 inclosed, sent by mail on receipt of 35 cents. 
 
102 SCHOOL MATERIAL. 
 
 The American Standard Penmanship. 
 
 The Spencerian Penmanship was first published in 1848, and has worthily maintained 
 its position since then as the most original and most practical system of writing extant. It 
 claims superiority over other systems in analysis and method; in systematically and 
 progressively arranged copies ; in simplicity of style ; in correct ruling ; in its movement 
 exercises ; and in its adaptability to rapid and elegant business writing. 
 
 It is the accredited source from which the best penmen of the country have derived their 
 knowledge and skill in the art. It is used in more Normal Schools and Business Colleges 
 than all other systems combined. It is 7nore generally used than any other system. 
 The COPY-BOOKS are comprised in Four Distinct Series :— 
 I.— SCHOOL SERIES, Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5. 
 
 n.— BUSINESS SERIES, Nos. 6 and 7. 
 
 in.— LADIES' SERIES, Nos. 8 and 9. 
 
 IV.— EXERCISE SERIES, Nos. 10, 11, and 12. 
 INTERMEDIATE BOOK. 
 Retail Price, 1 5 cents each. 
 All the letters, small and capital, with twelve short sentences, are contained in the Inter- 
 mediate Book. It is ruled to regulate the relative length of letters, and is undoubtedly the 
 most practical and popular Copy-book published. 
 
 The Spencerian Key, 
 
 For the use of Teachers, Pupils, and Professional Penmen. Containing one hundi-ed and 
 seventy-six pages, and hundreds of Illustrations. 
 
 Price, by mail, in cloth $1.50 
 
 Cloth extra, tinted paper 2.00 
 
 Spencerian Charts of Writing and Drawing. 
 
 SIX IN NUMBER. 
 Large size, 24 by 30 inches ; on three cards. 
 Small size, 19 by 24 inches ; on three cards. 
 ^=' They are so printed as to present the appearance of Superior Blackboard 
 Writing. The letters can be seen across the school-room. 
 
 A Series of Drawing Lessons is also represented upon the Charts, which, with the 
 Letters, make them by far the most attractive and instructive Charts ever presented to 
 the public. 
 
 Large size, mounted, per express » $3.7.'» 
 
 In sheets, per mail 2«50 
 
 Small size, per express 1.80 
 
 In sheets, per mail 0.90 
 
 Teacher's G-uide 
 
 To the proper use of Spencerian Copy-books and Charts. In pamphlet form. 30 pages. 
 
 Spencerian Exercise Card, and Oblique Lines, 
 
 Containing Fifty Exercises for confirming the hand in correct positions, and imparting 
 to it free movements. The oblique lines regulate the slant in writing. Price, by express, 
 50 cents per dozen ; by mail, 5 cents each. 
 
 ' Most liberal terms given on Copy-books furnished for Examination or Introduction. 
 
SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 103 
 
 Lead Pencils, Pencil Piles, Holders, etc. 
 
 LEAD PENCILS, FABER'S.-AU Grades. 
 
 Imported — prices variable witli gold. 
 
 4 Grades. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, in paper box. 
 
 5 Grades. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, in wooden box. 
 5 Grades. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, with knife and rubber, 
 
 in wooden box. 
 7 Grades. — ^Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, in wooden box. 
 10 Grades. — Very finely graded, in wooden box. 
 
 Any grade in dozen or gross packages. 
 Eagle Pencils. — Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4, and varied styles, 
 in boxes. 
 
 ! i 
 
 Pencil File, with Dust Box.— squires' Patent, for Lead and 
 Slate Pencils. Price, 25 cents. 
 
 The New Slate Pencil and Pen-Holder 
 
 Is a new device, large enough to receive the regular slate pencils which are 
 sold everywhere. It is long enough for a regular four inch slate pencil — the 
 six inch may be broken in two. Every teacher knows how desir- 
 able it is to have the children use a regular handle or holder when 
 they write with slate pencil or pen. The irregular bits of slate pen- 
 cils cramp the fingers, and injure them for writing. 
 
 The cut illustrates it somewhat larger than regular size. 
 
 They are put up in paper boxes, 100 in each box. Price, 5.00 
 
 Specimen sent by mail for 10 cents. 
 
 Propelling Pencils. 
 
 Red Wood, with German silver slide. 
 Black Wood, " " " 
 
 Red Wood, ivory tips, German silver slide, 
 Black Wood, " " 
 
 per dozen, 1.75 
 1.75 
 2.25 
 
 - " 2.25 
 
 Stationers' G-um. 
 
 White Rubber. — 4, 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 40, 60, 80, to the pound. 
 Black Rubber.— 8, 12, 16, 20, 24, 30, 40, 60, 80, to the pound. 
 
 Artists' Materials of all kinds, at best rates. 
 
104 
 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 Pen and Pencil Baskets and Racks, etc. 
 
 ^lylc A. 
 
 Style B. 
 
 The Pen and Pencil Baskets are neat, light, and durable. They are imported. 
 
 Style A has three sizes. Price, each 75, 1.00, 1.25 
 
 Style B, only one size. " 1,88 
 
 Squire's Patent Pen and Pencil Rack is intended for collecting, protecting from 
 loss or injury, and distributing pens, lead pencils, and slate pencils in schools. Each 
 pupil will get his own, without trouble or contention. It obviates the annoyance arising 
 rom pupils having no pen, or a poor one — no pencil, or a short one. It is durably made 
 of japanned tin. 
 
 Directions for use. — Let one pupil pass the rack for each pupil to put his pen or 
 pencil in the hole whose number has been previously assigned to him. Distribute in simi- 
 lar manner. Price, by express (not mailable) 1.50 
 
 Teachers' Pen Eacks. 
 
 No. 1. 
 
 No. 3. 
 
 No. 2. 
 
 No. 1, Adapted to ordinary inkstands each, .35 
 
 2, French pattern, single, heavy for paper-weight " .40 
 
 3, Bronze, new style " .50 
 
 Many other styles to suit all tastes. 
 
SCHOOL STATIONERY. 105 
 
 Writing, Exercise, and Composition Books, 
 
 AND COMPOSITION PAPER. 
 
 Blank Writing Books. — Superfine white paper, fancy paper covers, assorted colors. 
 
 No. 1 — American School, 12 leaves. per dozen, 1^0.75 
 
 No. 2.— High School, 14 leaves " 0.95 
 
 Exercise Books. — Superfine white paper, plainly ruled. 
 
 JTo 1. — Cap quarto, flexible covers, 16 leaves. " l.dO 
 
 No. 2.— " " 24 leaves " 2.25 
 
 No. 3.— " " 36 leaves " 8-00 
 
 Composition Books. — Superfine white paper, cap quarto. 
 
 No. 1. — Quarter bound, stiff cover, 24 leaves " 2.00 
 
 No. 2. — Half bound, red .sheep, morocco paper sides, 50 leaves.,. . " 4.'S'5 
 
 No. 3.— Half bound, " " " 84 leaves.... " ?,00 
 
 No. 3x. — Full bound, " cloth sides, 84 leaves.... " 7.50 
 
 No. 3(J. — Full bound, imitation morocco, gilt edges, 84 leaves... . " 12.50 
 
 No. 4. — Half bound, red sheep, morocco paper sides, 112 leaves " 9.50 
 
 COMPOSITION PAPER.-Eider's. 
 
 The teacher who would improve his pupils in "good English," has invaluable aid in 
 Mr. Rider's method of correcting compositions. Under the old plan, weary hours are 
 passed in writing out corrections, which may not be understood by the pupil, even if he take 
 trouble to read them. 
 
 Rider's Composition Paper makes the pupil, not the teacher, correct the composition. 
 At head of sheet is table of rules and laws which are usually neglected, each appropriately 
 numbered. The teacher underlines errors, and places in margin a symbol directing pupil 
 to proper item in table. The pupil can examine and analyze the principle violated and 
 make corrections. Thus he inevitably becomes technically and thoroughly familiar with 
 the requirements of the English language. 
 
 First Series is for beginners in Composition who may be careless in penmanship, in 
 spelling, in use of capitals, etc. Its proper use will prevent little faults, easy to acquire, 
 but difficult to mend. 
 
 Second Series reviews the greater points of the first, and attends to selection of words, 
 grammatical construction, formation of sentences, paragraphing, condensing, etc., etc. 
 
 Third Series has reference to rhetorical correctness and elegance, and the cultivation 
 of the best style of finished English composition. 
 
 As a time-saving invention it is most important, besides reducing composition to orderly 
 method. 
 
 The tables are neatly printed at the head of letter-paper, properly ruled with blue and 
 red lines. 
 
 Specimen sheets, by mail, pre-paid, 5c, Price per qnire, by express $0.30 
 
106 
 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 Our School Rulers. 
 
 These Rulers are made specially for school purposes. They are well made 
 of good, hard wood, polished. They are accurately marked in inches, half- 
 inches, quarter-inches, and eighth-inches, stamped in black. One edge is 
 properly bevelled. There are two sizes— one twelve inches long, and the other 
 fifteen inches. The latter is recommended as most useful. 
 
 Price, each 
 
 (Specimen mailed, letter postage, 20 cents.) 
 Liberal discount on a gross. 
 
 .10 
 
 O 
 
 Moore's Cushioned Blotters. 
 
 Walnut, small, plain each, 
 
 Cedar, " " « 
 
 Rosewood, polished " 
 
 Paper, small, for each of above per packet, 
 
 Walnut, large, plain each. 
 
 Rosewood, large, polished " 
 
 Paper, large per packet. 
 
 ^0.50 
 .60 
 .§5 
 .10 
 .75 
 
 1.25 
 .10 
 
 Blotting Paper. 
 
 Parker's Treasury, 80, 100, 120 pounds to ream, white or 
 
 colored per quire, 1.20 to ^2.25 
 
 Blotting Pads (12 pieces in packet) per packet, .10 
 
 Erasers. 
 
 Green's Patent Ink Erasers price per 100 pieces, $5.00 
 
 Erasing Knives. — Joseph Rodgers & Sons' wood handle, 
 
 bone handle, ivory handle, imported. Price variable 
 
 with gold. 
 
 Penholders. 
 
 Accommodation, steel tips per gross, $0.60 
 
 Double Conic, Cedar, small, steel tips " 2.20 
 
 " " " medium, steel tips " 2.6?' 
 
 " large, " " " 3.00 
 
 Pen Racks of varied styles, prices each, 20 to 60 cents. 
 
 O) 
 
 -1 
 
SCHOOL STATIONERY. 107 
 
 Papers— Note, Letter, Cap, Manuscript, Initial, 
 
 AND STATIONERY CASES. 
 
 The following are white wove, ruled, supei-fine, highly finished. They are neatly put 
 up in manilla outside wrappers, with the numbers and weights marked on each package. 
 The note and letter papers are in quarter-ream packages, and the cap papers in half-ream 
 packages. 
 
 Octavo Note— 3Va pounds to the ream price per ream, $1.25 
 
 4 " '• " " " 1.40 
 
 5 " " " » " 1,75 
 
 Conunercial Note — i pounds to the ream " " i ,49 
 
 5 " " '• " " 1.P75 
 
 6 " " " " " 2.10 
 
 '^ " " " " " 2.45 
 
 Letter Paper— 8 pounds to the ream " " 2.80 
 
 9 " " 3.15 
 
 10 " " " " " 3.50 
 
 12 " " " " .' 4.20 
 
 Foolscap— 10 pounds to the ream " " 3.50 
 
 12 " " " " " 4.20 
 
 14 " " " " " 4.90 
 
 Broad Bill Cap— 10 pounds to the ream " " 4.00 
 
 12 " " " " " 4.80 
 
 '■ 14 " " " " " 5.60 
 
 Legal Cap — 10 pounds to the ream " " 4 00 
 
 12 " " " '.'....'.'.'.'. •' " 4!80 
 
 14 " " " " " 5.60 
 
 Manuscript Papers. 
 
 A carefully prepared set of rules for properly preparing manuscript for the press accompanies 
 
 Nos. 2 and 3. 
 
 Na 1.— Students' Manuscript, size S^/^ x 8 inches, flat sheets for pencil, with three perfora- 
 tions at top for affixing to the eyeletted case — ruled on one side per ream $1 .00 
 
 No. 2.— Editors' Manuscript, size 5 x 10 inches, flat sheet, with three perforations at top of 
 
 sheet for tying them together in parts or chapters • per ream 1.20 
 
 No. 3 Contributors' Manuscript, like No. 2, somewhat thicker " 1.80 
 
 Na 4. — Authors' Manuscript, size 6 x 10 inches, flat sheet, otherwise like No. 3.. . " 2.25 
 
 Initial Stationery. 
 
 This is very handsomely put up in paper boxes, containing one quire ladies' note, with envelopes 
 to match. 
 
 Wo. 1 Everett, white wove per box, ,25 
 
 No. 2.— Siddons, rose tint, ornamented box, perfumed " .30 
 
 No. 3.— Oriental, auburn tint, hinged neck box, ornamented with colored plates. . . " .60 
 
 No. 4 — Offered and Accepted, lavender tint, ornamented with large colored plates, " .45 
 
 No. 5.— Galaxy, white wove, ornamented box " .30 
 
 This initial stationery will he mailed for 10 cents extra for postage. 
 
 Stationery Oases. 
 
 No. 1 — With three apartments ; for letter paper, note paper, and envelopes each, 1.56 
 
 No. 2 — With fonr apartments, and drawer for containing stamps, etc " 2.50 
 
 Wo. 3 — With three apartments, and small traye for holding pins, stamps, wafers, pen- 
 cils, etc " 2.'J'0 
 
108 
 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY, 
 
 Paper Weights, Folders, Clips, Mucilage, etc. 
 
 Paper Weights. — Bronze, glass, iron — various styles and sizes ... .each, ,20 to $1.75 
 Paper Folders, and Check Cutters. — Japanned tin, 2 to 4 inches wide, each, .20 
 Ivory Polders, and Paper Knives. — 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and 10 inches long, 
 
 each 15 to ,75 
 
 Letter Clips. 
 
 A variety of styles and sizes, each, 
 j$0,15 to 1.25. 
 
 Board Clips.— Olotli Sides. 
 
 Cap, Iron $0.75 
 
 Letter, " 63 
 
 • Note, " 52 
 
 lOHr ^'^P' ^""^^s *^ 
 
 m^^^ Letter, « 70 
 
 Note, " 60 
 
 These clips are supplied with the spring either on the side or on the end, as may be desired. 
 
 mmMMm 
 
 a<ffliiiil_. '^^'^^ 
 
 No. 1. No. 4. 
 
 Morgan's Patent Eeservoir Mucilage Stands. 
 
 No. 1. — Pressed Flint Glass, with brush each, $ 1.50 
 
 2.— Flint Glass, with brush " .40 
 
 3.— Flint Glass, with brush " .40 
 
 4. — Pressed Flint Glass, with brush " 1.50 
 
 Stickwell & CO.'S Mucilage.— Made from pure Gum Arabic. 
 
 Three Ounce Cones, with cup and brush per dozen, 1,75 
 
 Eight Ounce " " " " ^'**^ 
 
 Pints, glass bottles " 6.00 
 
 Quarts, glass bottles " 11.00 
 
SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 109 
 
 Envelopes. — Letter and Official Sizes. 
 
 
 
 
 Size:!. (. 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 6} 
 
 Ci 
 
 7 
 
 8J 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 
 N. Gov. 
 
 3}x5J 
 
 3f x6 
 
 Six 6} 
 
 3|x6f 
 
 3ix8f 
 
 3|x8| 
 
 
 No.Pa'r 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 MATJILIJi, 
 
 
 115 
 
 $1 50 
 
 $1 70 
 
 $1 90 
 
 $2 20 
 
 
 $3 00 
 
 $3 on 
 
 
 
 
 180 
 
 1 65 
 
 1 80 
 
 1 90 
 
 2 30 
 
 $3 30 
 
 3 20 
 
 3 30 
 
 
 
 X X 
 
 225 
 
 3 20 
 
 3 GO 
 
 3 80 
 
 4 00 
 
 
 5 80 
 
 6 00 
 
 GOLD, 
 
 
 
 203 
 
 2758 
 
 1 40 
 1 90 
 
 1 CO 
 
 2 20 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3757 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 60 
 
 3 CO 
 
 4 30 
 
 4 40 
 
 4 60 
 
 
 
 
 1475 
 
 2 15 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 CO 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 
 5 00 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 475 
 
 2 35 
 
 2 70 
 
 2 90 
 
 3 40 
 
 
 
 5 30 
 
 
 JM'e 
 
 X X 
 
 2040 
 
 2 70 
 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 80 
 
 
 
 6 00 
 
 
 i M'8 
 
 X 
 
 5040 
 3245 
 
 2 85 
 2 50 
 
 3 30 
 2 90 
 
 3 50 
 3 10 
 
 4 00 
 
 
 
 6 50 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 4245 
 
 2 10 
 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X X 
 
 1575 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 50 
 
 3 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X X 
 
 575 
 
 3 25 
 
 3 75 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 
 
 
 LIGHT BUi'i", 
 
 
 206S 
 
 1 90 
 
 2 20 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 90 
 
 
 
 4 50 
 
 
 
 
 3776 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 60 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 4 40 
 
 4 60 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 4545 
 
 2 35 
 
 2 70 
 
 2 90 
 
 3 40 
 
 4 80 
 
 5 00 
 
 5 30 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 477 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 90 
 
 3 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X X 
 
 635 
 
 2 85 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 50 
 
 4 00 
 
 
 
 6 50 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X X 
 
 563 
 
 3 00 
 
 3 50 
 
 3 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 4^75 
 
 2 70 
 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 80 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 20 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X X 
 
 5635 
 
 3 25 
 
 3 75 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 7 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 7 50 
 
 
 } M's 
 
 XXX 
 
 6600 
 
 3 SO 
 
 4 40 
 
 4 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 CORN, 
 
 
 X 
 
 495 
 
 2 35 
 
 2 70 
 
 2 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 I M's 
 
 X X 
 
 5030 
 
 2 t;5 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 50 
 
 4 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X X 
 X 
 
 530 
 1495 
 
 3 o;) 
 
 2 50 
 
 3 50 
 2 90 
 
 3 70 
 3 10 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 4950 
 
 2 711 
 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 80 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 20 
 
 
 } M's 
 
 X X 
 
 5725 
 
 3 25 
 
 3 75 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 7 00 
 
 7 50 
 
 7 50 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 XXX 
 
 7700 
 
 3 SO 
 
 4 40 
 
 4 GO 
 
 
 
 
 
 OAITARY, 
 
 
 
 3036 
 
 2 10 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 60 
 
 3 00 
 
 
 
 4 60 
 
 
 
 
 1045 
 
 2 35 
 
 2 70 
 
 2 90 
 
 3 40 
 
 
 
 5 30 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 2045 
 
 2 50 
 
 2 90 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 60 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X X 
 
 1515 
 
 3 (lO 
 
 3 50 
 
 3 70 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 1*2 
 
 2 70 
 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 80 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 20 
 
 
 } M's 
 
 X 
 
 515 
 
 3 25 
 
 3 75 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 
 
 7 50 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 XXX 
 
 5500 
 
 3 80 
 
 4 40 
 
 4 GO 
 
 
 
 
 
 ORANGE, 
 
 
 X 
 
 340 
 
 2 70 
 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 80 
 
 
 
 
 
 } M's 
 
 X X 
 
 504 
 
 3 25 
 
 3 75 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 
 
 
 MELON, 
 
 } M's 
 
 XX 
 
 595 
 
 3 25 
 
 3 75 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 
 
 
 WHITE, 
 
 
 
 128 
 
 1 90 
 
 2 20 
 
 2 40 
 
 2 90 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3136 
 
 2 70 
 
 3 15 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 80 
 
 5 50 
 
 6 00 
 
 6 20 
 
 
 
 X 
 
 215 
 
 2 35 
 
 2 70 
 
 2 90 
 
 
 
 
 5 30 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X X 
 
 532 
 
 2 85 
 
 3 30 
 
 3 50 
 
 
 
 
 6 50 
 
 
 i M's 
 
 X 
 
 1340 
 
 3 10 
 
 3 60 
 
 3 75 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J M's 
 
 X 
 
 134 
 
 3 25 
 
 3 75 
 
 3 90 
 
 4 50 
 
 7 00 
 
 6 40 
 
 6 60 
 
 
 J M's 
 
 X X 
 
 13 
 
 3 60 
 
 4 00 
 
 4 25 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 J M's 
 
 X X 
 
 106 
 
 3 75 
 
 4 20 
 
 4 40 
 
 5 00 
 
 7 20 
 
 7 80 
 
 8 00 
 
 
 J M's 
 
 X X 
 
 I'JfiO 
 
 3 75 
 
 4 20 
 
 4 40 
 
 5 00 
 
 
 
 
 
 i- M's 
 
 XXX 
 
 126 
 
 4 40 
 
 5 15 
 
 5 40 
 
 
 
 
 
 Envelopes not designated as " \ M's" are put up in i; M's. For \ M's add 15c. per M. 
 to price of ^ M's. Envelopes designated as " ^ M's" can be put up in A M's at 15c. per 
 M. less. 
 
 Note. — " M." represents one thousand. 
 
 X 's are arbitrary marks, representing thickness of paper. 
 
no 
 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY, 
 
 Post-office Boxes, Stationery Cases, and Calendars. 
 
 Post-office Boxes. 
 
 !',fi! "I n I I'll itm 1 1 iim II I 
 
 rnsrcmn.: r\c\rr rM/ifKKi 
 
 "Hl 
 
 No. 1, One part, " Post-office," each, .§4 
 
 2, Two parts, " Test-office and Delivcrv," " 1.20 
 
 3, Three parts, " Post-office, Packet, and Delivery," " 1,50 
 
 Stationery Cases. 
 
 No. 1, Is a very convenient article for holding let- 
 ter and note paper, and places for envelopes ; 
 also, with a drawer for containing stamps, etc., 
 each 2.40 
 
 No. 2, With three compartments, for billheads or 
 papers; also, contains small trays, for holding 
 pins, stamps, wafers, pens, lead pencils, etc., 
 each 2.60 
 
 No. 3, With three compartments, for letter paper, 
 note paper, and envelopes each, 1.50 
 
 Calendars. 
 
 No. 1, Showing day of month each, .40 
 
 2, Showing month, and day of month " .50 
 
 3, Showing month, day of week, and day of month " .65 
 
SCHOOL HTATIONERY. 
 
 Ill 
 
 Drawing Papers, Bristol Boards, Drawing Books, 
 
 ANI> ERASABLE TABLETS. 
 
 DrajWing Papers. — Whatman's English, imported. Prices variable with gold. 
 
 Cap, 
 
 Demy, 
 
 Medium, 
 
 14 X 17, rough or smooth, 
 17 X 22, '• " 
 
 Jioyal, I 'J X 24, rough or smooth, 
 
 Kupcr Royal, 19 x 27, " " 
 
 Imperial, 22 x 30, " " 
 
 Cap, 
 
 Demy, 
 
 Medium, 
 
 G-erman Drawing Papers.— Variai>io with gold. 
 
 14 X 17, 
 1 .5 X 20, 
 17 x22. 
 
 Koyal, 19x24, 
 
 Super Royal, 19 x 27, 
 Imperial, 22 x .30, 
 
 Cap, 
 
 Demy, 
 
 Bristol Boards.— Reynolds & Son's best. Variable with gold. 
 two sheets thick. - - • Medium, two sheets thick. 
 
 three 
 
 four 
 
 two 
 
 three 
 
 four 
 
 Royal, 
 
 three 
 
 four 
 
 two 
 
 three 
 
 four 
 
 Drawing Books. — interleaved with tissue paper. 
 
 per dozen. 
 
 No. 1. — Demy, 4to. printed covers, 8 leaves, 
 No. 2. " " " " 16 " 
 
 No. 3. " " " " 24 " - 
 
 $1.00 
 1.40 
 1.75 
 
 First-Olass Cold Pressed Drawing Paper. 
 
 Interleaved with tissue paper. 
 
 No. 1. — Cap, 4to fju.'irter bound, 12 leaves, - - per dozen, 1.88 
 
 No. 2. " " " " 24 " - - " 3.75 
 
 No. 3. " " full doth gilt, 48 " - - - - " 6.00 
 
 No. 4. — Demy, " fjuarter Ixjund, 1? " - - - " Si. 38 
 
 No. 5. " " full cloth gilt, 24 *• - - - - " 4.50 
 
 No. 6. " " " " 48 " - - " 8.75 
 
 No. 7. — Medium, " f]uartcr bound, 12 " - - - - " 2.75 
 
 No. 8. " " " " 24 " - - " 5.50 
 
 No. 9. " " half " 48 " - - - " 10.00 
 
 Erasable Tablets.— white.— (Use a .soft lead j)encil— erase with 
 a damp cloth oi* sponge.) 
 
 Elementary Drawing Tablet, .... per dozen, 3.00 
 
 Progressive " "..... " 3.00 
 
 Elementary Writing "..... " 3.00 
 
 Leaf Tablet, size 4i x 7 inches, ....-" l.OO 
 
 Spelling Tablet, ruled for 40 words, size .5x8 inches, - - " 1.20 
 
 A variety of styles for the pocket and office. 
 
112 
 
 SiMlOOl, MATKUIAL. 
 
 Lunch Boxes, School Bags, etc. 
 
 1 
 
 FOLDED FLAT 
 
 Tlio Patout Foldiug Luuoli Box. 
 
 Tliis is !\ uovolty, iiml, doubtloss, will lio in hrisk tliMiisuul, luM'siiiso, when ii'liovcil of tlio 
 il.'uly nitions, it is liaiuly mu\ vom]>!U't. It folds n|> to onh thivo tinios tho thioknoss of tlu' 
 tin of which it is iwiulo 
 
 Ti-ii-o 0.50 
 
 l.ihonvl discount >\hoii (jii!Uilitic< arc imrcliiiscil. 
 
 Tho Froiicli School Bags 
 
 an'' mailo of vorv lit:;ht and dmablc material. There ai\> two kinds — white and eoUm'd — 
 
 fonr si/.cs of each kind. 
 
 No. I . price 0.6d 
 
 • -. • 75 
 
 •• ;t, 1.00 
 
 •• 4. l.Sift 
 
 Oval I'alm lAiil School Vali.sc. . 
 Ni{uaiY r!>]mlA\»f SchiHil Vnliso. 
 
 
HOIIOOJ. MA'J'KUIAh. 
 
 113 
 
 Eook-Carricrs, Easch, Rests, etc. 
 
 THE PATENT BOOK-OAKRIER, for Ikyn and Qirlfj 
 
 The vlarna((fc which \x>i>kH rw/;ivc lx;tw<:<;n 
 horrift urid wiliool iH j^rtnU-.r tliari IhoiT riw;<;»- 
 hitry w<;ar and tear when in regular liw;. The 
 w>rrimori JM«>k-Ktraj) in a mnmuiMuji U\ kx-xping 
 bookH together; hut i» ttadly <J«;MtructJve to the 
 bindingH. 
 
 The cut reprewjritH an invention u> o[(vi;it< 
 this (liflieulty. It findH great favor with 
 tcacherH, pupilH, and parentK, and h j^roving :>. 
 tmei-AiHH. 'J'he cut hIw^wb it jntrtly filiwJ wiU. 
 iMMjkn and Hlutc. It in MirnpJe and durable. 
 
 J'rie* 
 
 «>.5<> 
 
 Moore'H Needio Gun Book- 
 Olamp iH a latvcj invention for the 
 :,;ifne purj^ow;. Jt wind»i up with a 
 w)i<:/;l, h/;]d hy a rhU-.iuA under the 
 handle. When OfK;rat/!/J it rnakeo a 
 l/yi:n]uir " \i<irw. fiddle" noiw;, whieh 
 if, ¥M\>]i<>mA, \iy ?/)Ui';, U) \)i; ffjUDU; t^; 
 
 the ean» of w;h'x;l childnjn. 
 
 \'r\i-M 
 
 OAO 
 
 KENDALL'S BOOK-REST, for the Desk or Library Table. 
 
 The tjiiTiv(^i'u;niA oi & w<t]]'BAa,]ivA r»*t 
 for the UkA, and the a/lvantag<;« of a 
 prof;<;r angle for ea»sy virion, are U)*) fully 
 ri;(ii>inn/j-A \iy all readcrm t*; r<^pjire rib 
 cuitbion here. 
 
 Kkhuam/h Rkut for the fKx>k M»ai<^» t/t 
 <WK nrrifdi; af/'fiarfjJ.UH aJi t.liA ri'ipilmUM i,j a 
 l)(crf*'/i Ixx/k rt-M — for any mv, <ii U/f^k. 
 
 It <Jin-,h\.n of thr«;<; standard-, unit»;d at 
 the top hy a rnetalli/; hea/1, whiefi allow*! 
 the outHide titandard>« t/> of^f^n like tb; hrgts 
 of a ry,mpas!», while the middle If^ tnm^ 
 l»arrk. To thi» trifKxl Jm atta^;hwl the c.helf 
 wliieh Carrie), the fingfrrH or HjmngH for 
 holding the fxxA ./^K^n. The whole can 
 
 f"; " unHhipf,<^l" in a w^x.nd, and fohM flat, a^ etutily m h carr^en t/;r'* 
 mailable.) ' i - 
 
 Prir« 
 
 rule. fN<»( 
 ... 1.00 
 
y^/^ 
 
 ((. 
 
 114 
 
 SCHOOL STATIONERY. 
 
 Rewards. 
 
 EEWAED-OF-MEEIT OAEDS. 
 
 No. 1, 
 
 size. If X 2f, in one color, for day-schools. 
 
 per hundred 
 
 0.30 
 
 " 2, 
 
 " 
 
 l^x3f, 
 
 " - - - 
 
 - 
 
 .40 
 
 " 3, 
 
 " 
 
 2^^ X 3f , in two colors. 
 
 «< _ _ 
 
 " 
 
 .70 
 
 " 4, 
 
 " 
 
 2i X 3i 
 
 Sunday-schools, 
 
 - 
 
 .70 
 
 " 5, 
 
 " 
 
 2| X 5, 
 
 day-schools. 
 
 - 
 
 .S4 
 
 " 6, 
 
 « 
 
 3 x5i 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 1.12 
 
 " 7, 
 
 " 
 
 3 x5i. 
 
 Sunday-schools, 
 
 - 
 
 1.12 
 
 " 8, 
 
 " 
 
 2f X 4|, illuminated, " 
 
 day-schools, 
 
 - 
 
 2.00 
 
 " 9, 
 
 « 
 
 2f X 4i 
 
 '« 
 
 . 
 
 1.50 
 
 " 10, 
 
 " 
 
 2^ X 4, in one color. 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 .67 
 
 " 11. 
 
 " 
 
 3 x5i 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 .90 
 
 " 12, 
 
 « 
 
 2^ X 3i 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 .72 
 
 " 13, 
 
 " 
 
 1% X 4i, illuminated. 
 
 " 
 
 - 
 
 2.22 
 
 " u, 
 
 " 
 
 2^ X 3^, in one color. 
 
 Sunday-schools, 
 
 - 
 
 .50 
 
 " 15, 
 
 " 
 
 2| X 4^, illuminated, 
 
 " 
 
 <« 
 
 1.40 
 
 " 16, 
 
 
 2| X 3|, colored, 
 
 day-schools. 
 
 - 
 
 .95 
 
 " 17, 
 
 
 2\ X 4^, illuminatea, 
 
 Sunday-schools, 
 
 n 
 
 2.44 
 
 " 18, 
 
 
 2| X 4i 
 
 " 
 
 . 
 
 1.70 
 
 " 19, 
 
 
 3 X 5i, colored. 
 
 day-schools. 
 
 " 
 
 1.40 
 
 " 20, 
 
 
 2 X 3^, in one color, 
 
 Sunday-schools, 
 
 - 
 
 .50 
 
 " 21, 
 
 
 2| X 4i, 
 
 « 
 
 - 
 
 .72 
 
 " 22, 
 
 
 If X 2i 
 
 Jlay-schools, 
 
 - 
 
 .40 
 
 " 23, 
 
 
 2| X 3i, 
 
 « 
 
 « 
 
 .62 
 
 " 24, 
 
 
 2| X 4^, illuminated, 
 
 j« 
 
 " 
 
 2.44 
 
 " 25, 
 
 
 1\ X 3|, in two colors, 
 
 Sunday-schools, 
 
 " 
 
 .64 
 
 Thfc illuminated kinds are put up in envelopes, 10 cards in each envelope. 
 A discount allowed when ordered by the 1000. 
 
 TESTIMONIALS —Appropriate Designs. 
 
 Neatly lithographed on heavy white paper. 
 No. 1, size, 62 in. X 9? m. 
 " 2, " 8 in. X 10 in. 
 " 3, « 10 in. X 12 in. 
 
 per dozen, 0.50 
 .60 
 .72 
 
 Special Testimonials or. Diplomas to order.