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Digitized by the Internet Archive 
 in 2010 with funding from 
 The Library of Congress 
 
 http://www.archive.org/details/thingschinesebeiOOball 
 

 BEING 
 
 NOTES ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS CONNECTED WITH CHINA, 
 
 BY 
 
 J/ DYER BALL, M.R.A.S., 
 
 H.M. CIVIL SERVICE, HONGKONG. 
 
 AUTHOR OP 
 
 'CANTONESE MADK EASY,' 'HOW TO SPEAK CANTONESE," 'HOW TO WRITE CHINESE,' 
 
 'HAKKA MADE EASY,' 4C., &C,, &C. 
 
 THIRD EDITION. 
 
 HevisecL ctrid ErilctrgecL, 
 
 lylf/r 
 
 SAMPSON LOW, MARSTON and COMPANY, LIMITED. 
 
 -i-O^'i- 
 
 ICEXili-r & "W-^XiSH, Lid. 
 MONGKOXG, SHANGHAT, YOKOHAMA AND SINGAPORE, 
 
 1 900. 
 
 ^All Rights Jtfs^rvedJ 
 
 '^r 
 
 ^ 
 
#r-^^ 
 
 
 COPYRIGHT AT STATIONERS' HALL, LONDON. 
 
 Registered in accordance with the Provisions of Ordinance No. i 
 of i888, at the Office of the Registrar-General, Hongkong. 
 
 4i094i3 
 1.1 '31 
 
OTHER WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR. 
 
 Pricet 
 
 ' Cantonese Made Easy,' 3rd Edition (in the press) ... — 
 
 * How to Speak Cantonese,' 2nd Edition (in the press) — 
 
 'Readings in Cantonese Colloquial' $3.00 
 
 ' The Cantonese Made Easy Vocabulary,' 2nd Edition 1.00 
 
 ' An English-Cantonese Pocket Vocabulary,' 2nd Edition 0.75 
 
 ' Easy Sentences in Hakka, with a Vocabulary ' 1.00 
 
 ' Hakka Made Easy,' Part I 2.00 
 
 ' How to Write the Radicals ' 0.75 
 
 ' How to Write Chinese,' Part I. (out of print) — 
 
 'The San Will Dialect' 0.50 
 
 'The Tung Kwun Dialect' (out of print) — 
 
 'The Hong Shan or Macao Dialect' 0.50 
 
 ' The Enghsh-Chinese Cookery Book,' 2nd Edition (in 
 
 the press) -«• 
 
PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION. 
 
 The author regrets that different circnmstances 
 have unfortunately delayed the appearance of the 
 Third Edition of this book for a very considerable 
 length of time, thus causing it, when the Second 
 Edition was exhausted, to be out of print. 
 
 A glance at the present volume will show that 
 considerable additions have been made to the sub- 
 ject matter : the new articles are Ascending on 
 High, Agriculture, Arms, Banks and Bank Notes, 
 Betrothal, Birth (Customs connected with,) Buffalo, 
 Camphor, Cosmetics, Cotton, Dogs, Doctors, 
 Ginger, Ginseng, Kites, Larks and other Songsters, 
 Phigue, Tenure of Land, and Tigers — nineteen in 
 all. The Second Edition contained a little over 
 500 pages ; this one has well on for 700 pages, the 
 increased size representing not only the new 
 articles mentioned above, but extensive additions 
 to many of the others, while at the same time, 
 alterations, improvements and corrections, where 
 necessary to bring the book up to date, will be 
 
 found all through the book. 
 
 h 
 
— 2 — 
 
 Mr. C. Ford, F. L. S., kindly looked over the 
 proofs of the article on Botany. 
 
 China has come so much into evidence of late 
 years that the apathetic indifference to the country 
 and its teeming millions is giving way in our 
 Western nations to a desire for a knowledge of the 
 land and its people ; and an interest is being roused 
 as events, pregnant with weal or woe to the future 
 progress of the world, are rapidly developing in the 
 Far East, all trending in the direction of a closer 
 knitting together of the ends of the earth. Whether 
 we will or not, every day shows that the peoples 
 who are in the van of civilisation must lead the 
 way in the development of the Middle Kingdom, 
 the erstwhile centre of Eastern Asia, and direct the 
 incipient strivings of her foremost spirits in the 
 direction of truth and righteousness, which alone 
 will exalt the nation to a position commensurate 
 with her size, population, ancient traditions, and 
 future aspirations. Opinions are divided at present 
 as to the best way to accomplish this vast pro- 
 gramme for the betterment of a third of the world's 
 inhabitants and rival interests seem often to paralyse 
 action. In recent years, what to some appear hazy 
 spheres of influence are discussed, and open doors, 
 which to many appear closed and locked, have 
 their advocates, while missioners of progress and 
 advancement have for long striven to leaven the 
 nation with the principles, which have been the 
 
— 3 — 
 
 making of the West. Tkese efforts are begin- 
 ning to show fruit, visible to those who look 
 behind the scenes, though the inert mass to be 
 moved is so great that the results appear almost 
 insignificant when all the facts of the case are not 
 taken into consideration. The question in many 
 minds is whether the regeneration of China is to 
 be a gradual process, or whether a mighty 
 cataclysm, overturning the whole empire to its 
 foundations, shall sweep away the corruption, 
 cleanse ' all under heaven,' purify the atmosphere, 
 and prepare the way for a new heavens and a new 
 earth. 
 
 Our horizon viewed from the standpoints of 
 Europe and America has extended : the East to 
 our fathers loomed large and dwarfed what lay 
 beyond ; in our day the Far East is the cry. 
 
 The author hopes that this book will continue 
 to excite interest in the present theatre of events, 
 in the actors, the stao'e accessories that surround 
 them, their environment, their play and by-play, 
 the motives that influence their utterances, their 
 posturing and acting ; and furnish likewise the 
 chance of peeps behind the scenes where the 
 waving plumes, and embroidered robes are cast 
 aside, the exaggerated strides and falsetto tones are 
 given up, the clasli of mock warfare, crash of gong 
 and clang of cymbal are stilled, the make-believe 
 
— 4 — 
 
 and mock heroics of the meagre stage are gone, and 
 John Chinaman stands revealed, still most highly- 
 interesting in his reality and in all his surroundings, 
 when stripped of the false glamour and meretricious 
 tinsel that has gathered round him in the dim 
 visions of the past. 
 
 J. DYER BALL. 
 
 Honghong, 1st Decemher^ 2899. 
 
PREFACE TO TEE SECOND EDITION. 
 
 »N#V^\#%#>#\^V 
 
 In presenting the Second Edition of ' Things 
 Chinese ' to the public, the author must express his 
 thanks for the cordial reception accorded to the book 
 on its first appearance, thus enabling a revised and 
 enlarged edition to be issued so shortly after the first. 
 
 Considerable additions have been made to 
 the present edition by the insertion of the following- 
 new articles : — Bamboo, Boats, Embroidery, Eng- 
 lish from Chinese Pens, Firecrackers and Fire- 
 works, the Foreigner in Far Cathay, Jade, Jews, 
 Mandarin, Mohammedans, Pagoda, Pawnshops, 
 Population, P6-tsz and other Games of Chance, 
 Shuttlecock, Stamps, Suicide, Tombs, and Torture — 
 nineteen in all. There are very few articles that 
 have not been retouched and, in some cases, 
 largely added to. All this has, of course, increased 
 the number of pages very considerably, but the 
 seventy-eight additional pages do not fully re- 
 present the actual increase in the size of the book, 
 as by the judicious use of small type, a considerable 
 quantity of information has been compressed into 
 a small compass, and thus introduced, which 
 would have had to be excluded. 
 
— 6 — 
 
 It has been the endeavour to bring up the 
 facts to date. If one or two of the more recent 
 events have not been taken notice of, it must be 
 remembered that some time elapses between the 
 printing of the first pages of a book and the last, 
 and, that an article once printed, it is impossible 
 to take cognisance in it of what may have happened 
 subsequently, even though the book may not have 
 been issued in its entirety from the press. 
 
 Mr. C. Grant suggested to the author the 
 preparation of the new articles under the letter P, 
 as well as that on Tombs. To Mr. J. B. Coughtrie 
 the author is indebted for the suggestions which 
 led him to write the articles under the headings 
 of Embroidery, Firecrackers, Mandarin, and 
 Torture ; two paragraphs from Mr. Coughtrie's 
 own pen are also included under the heading of Art, 
 and several emendations in the same article are due 
 to his critical acumen, and artistic taste ; the greater 
 part of page 153 [in the third Edition parts of 
 pages 206 and 207,] is from the same source. 
 To Mr. R. Markwick, Jr., the author's thanks are 
 also due for the correction of some slight inaccuracies 
 which otherwise would have crept into the account 
 of the Customs. 
 
 J. DYER BALL. 
 
 Hongkong^ 28th Fehruary, 1893. 
 
PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION. 
 
 On the appearance of ' Things Japanese,' it 
 was suggested to the author that he should prepare 
 a book on similar lines with regard to Chinese 
 subjects, and the present volume is the result. 
 
 The author's thanks are due to Mr. B. H. 
 Chamberlain for the courtesy and kindness which 
 accorded him a ready assent to the request that the 
 classification and plan of arrangement used in 
 ' Things Japanese ' might be copied in ' Things 
 Chinese,' as far as was compatible with the sub- 
 ject-matter of the latter. 
 
 The book is neither a glossary nor an ency- 
 clopsedia ; and while, therefore, containing more 
 than could be found in a mere word-book, yet, on 
 the other hand, it would be impossible in the limits 
 of such a small work to treat exhaustively of the 
 different things touched upon. At the same time 
 it is hoped that sufficient has been written under 
 each heading to give the reader a good idea, as 
 well as a fair one, of the subject dealt with. 
 
 Thirty years in China have given the author 
 many opportunities of observing and studying the 
 
— 8 — 
 
 Chinese in almost every aspect of their life and 
 character ; and he has largely availed himself of his 
 personal experience of them and of their curious 
 habits and customs in the production of this book. 
 He is, however, also indebted to many writers on 
 China, whose opinions on certain subjects are well 
 worth reproducing and who are competent to give 
 information. Where quotations have been made, 
 many of them will be fouod to be extracted from the 
 books recommended at the end of the articles : in 
 such cases it seemed unnecessary to acknowledge 
 explicitly in each instance the source from which 
 the quotation was derived, and such acknowledge- 
 ments would have unduly encumbered the pages 
 with foot notes ; it has been thought sufficient to 
 indicate other quoted matter simply by inverted 
 commas. 
 
 The advice of Mr. Ford, F. L. S., was sought 
 on several points connected with the short article on 
 Botany ; and to any others— English or Chinese — 
 from whom a suggestion may have been received 
 or a fact gleaned, the author desires to express his 
 best thanks. 
 
 J. DYER BALL. 
 Honglwng^ lltli December^ 1891, 
 
Things Chinese. 
 
 zr- w - -^ 
 
 ABACUS. — The abacus, or countini^-board, is as much 
 a necessity in a merchant's office, or shroff's counting-room, 
 as his account-books: without the abacus lie would l)e at a 
 complete loss to make up his accounts, and his books would 
 therefore be unnecessary. Aritlimetic form> no part of a 
 school-boy's work : no little lieathen Chinee ever has to sing — 
 
 'The rule of three, it bothers me, 
 ^nd fractions drive me mad,' 
 
 as both the one and the other are utterly unknown to him. 
 Not even the simplest knowledge of arithmetic Mill ever be 
 learned by him as a lesson, unless he is destined for a 
 mercantile life, or to 4)6 a tradesman, or hawker, &c. ; even 
 then he learns only just as much as it is absolutely necessary 
 for him to kno^v as a part of liis business training. What 
 little idea of figures he does possess, he picks up when 
 bargaining for food or toys, or when staking a few cash for 
 sweetmeats at the wayside stall. The ordinary Celestial is 
 content to get through life with as scanty a knowledge of 
 addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division as would 
 serve an English youngster of six or eight years of age. 
 A very little goes a long way with him, but nearly every 
 man can finger the abacus to a greater or lesser extent; 
 and those who have much to do with accounts get very 
 dexterous in the use of it, going through the calculation.«i 
 most rapidly. We once had the curiosity to time a Chinese 
 accountant from a native shipping office when turning different 
 
 A 
 
2 TIIfyGS CHINESE. 
 
 items expressed in taels and their decinials — items of four, 
 five, and six figures — into dollars aud cents, and we found he 
 Avorked these sums out in from ten to fifteen seconds. 
 
 The modus operandi is as follows: — Patting his abacus 
 down on the table before him, and his books a trifie more to 
 the left, the accountant commences his calculations, using 
 the thumb and forefinger of his right hand to fl^ick the little 
 balls up r,r down as he requires, only using his other three 
 fingers, when, his sum done, he sweeps the upper balls to the 
 t(jp of the board, and the lower ()nes down to the bottom — 
 the positions they occupy Avhen nut in actual use. The 
 principle is simply that of the framework of wires with 
 coloured beads" used in England to teach children to count. 
 With the Chinese, however, it is an oblong tray with bars 
 running from top to bottom, and a transverse partitiiju 
 running from one side to the othei', dividing the board into 
 two unequal divisions. On each bar are seven balls, two in' 
 the upper division and five in the lower, each of those below 
 stands for one. each of those above, for five; so, if one is to be 
 represented, one of the lower ones is pushed up against the 
 i-ross-bar, or if two, two are placed in the same position, and 
 so on till four, after which all the lower balls are pushed 
 back again, and one of the upper ones is brought down to 
 the middle partition to stand f(jr five. If six is to be 
 represented, one of the lower balls is pushed up to the cross- 
 bar, on the other side of Avhicli is the upper ball, for five 
 and one make six. The other lower balls are added one 
 after the other to represent seven, eight, and nine re- 
 spectively, while for ten, one on the next bar to the left is 
 used, the calculation going on in the same way as before. 
 The operator fixing then on one of the upright bars as 
 representing units, the next bar to the left stands for tens, 
 the next one for hundreds, the next for thousands, and so 
 on, while in the opposite direction, to the right hand, the 
 decimals — tenths, hundredths, thousandths, and so on, are 
 represented on the consecutive bars. 
 
 The great defect of the abacus is, that it simply 
 represents the ,proce,ss of calculation as it proceeds, for, as 
 
ABATEMENT. 3 
 
 •can readily be understood, eaeh step in the calculation calls 
 new combinations of balls into play, and' has the effect of 
 obliterating the previous step; so that, if a mistake has been 
 made, the whole process has to be gone over again. The abacus 
 is simply used, therefore, to record the results of the mental 
 calculations as they proceed. . The processes by which these 
 results are produced are not shown, and, while each new 
 •operation is being recorded on the board, it naturally follows 
 that — the balls which have been used for the last answer 
 being taken as the reckoning goes on to show the new 
 answer — as each computation. is gradually, or quickly, set 
 down as it goes on, so, as it .proceeds, i?aH passu, the 
 ^preceding answer is as gradual!}-, or as quickly, as the case 
 may be, effaced. 
 
 The Chinese merchants or traders so habituate them- 
 selves to tlie use of the abacus that they become quite 
 dependent on it and it is amusing to see the utter helplessness 
 they often display in trying to add tAvo simple numbers 
 together Avithout an abacus. 
 
 When, at daylight, the shutters are taken down from the 
 shop-fronts in Canton, the shopman ensures, as he thinks, good 
 luck for the day by shaking the balls of the abacus to and 
 fro; at hrst sloAvly, but gradually increasing in speed until 
 iinally a continuous sharp clicking sound is produced. 
 
 AJiATEMENT.—^QtxxXy every Chinese tradesman, or 
 ■^nerchant, states the price of his goods Avith a vicAv to an 
 abatement being made. The only exceptions amongst purely 
 jiative establishments are Tea, Cake, and Druggists' shops, 
 for at such places there is no need to haggle. Exception 
 must also be made in favour of the shops dealing almost 
 •exclusiA^ely Avith Europeans, where many are beginning to 
 <;onform to foreign customs and have a iixed price. 
 
 A Chinese Avill take as much as he can get, but as a 
 general rule it is quite safe to suppose that he is asking a 
 quarter or a third more than he expects to receive; conse- 
 <_[uently offer him half of Avhat he asks, then, Avhile he 
 gradually falls in his price, as gradually rise in the offer 
 
 A 2 
 
4 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 made to him until neutral ground is reached, when split the- 
 difference and he will probably be glad to take what you give 
 him. But this must all be done with a perfect nonchalance: 
 no eagerness to obtain the object must be shown; no words 
 of praise must fall from your lips ; any little defects in it 
 must be pointed out: —'It is naught, it is naught, saith the- 
 buyer: but when he is gone his way then he boasteth.' 
 
 When in doubt as to the value of anything, a very good 
 plan is to go about beating down the price in several different 
 shops. A pretty shrewd guess may then be made as to what 
 is a fair value for the article ^ for when a shopman sees a 
 customer on the point of leaving his shop, he will come down 
 to nearly, if not quite, as low a figure as he is prepared to 
 accept. 
 
 A Chinaman dearly loves a bargain, and he finds a 
 positive pleasure in chaffering over the price, which the 
 foreigner (to whom time is money) can scarcely appreciate. 
 Looked at from a Western standpoint, it is simply appalling^ 
 to think of the hours, days, Aveeks, months, and years, which 
 must be wasted in the aggregate in China over the carrying- 
 out of this eastern trait of character. 
 
 There is an amusing skit, translated by Giles in his 
 'Historic China and other Sketches,' which is an admirable 
 parody on the language of the market and the shop, and 
 holds up this custom of the Chinese to ridicule. It is styled 
 'The Country of Gentlemen,' and represents an ideal state 
 of society where the tables are turned — the buyer cracking up 
 the goods he is purchasing, and offering and insisting on the 
 seller taking a higher price than is demanded for them, "while 
 the latter depreciates his wares, asking far too little for them, 
 the two haggling over the price at great length — as in the 
 every-day world in China— the only difference being that 
 buyer and seller have changed places. 
 
 ABORIGINAL TRIBES.— The present race of Chinese 
 is supposed to have come into the country some four thousand 
 years ago. They were not the first occupiers of the soil,, 
 however, and it has been only very gradually that they have 
 
ABORIGINAL TRIBES. 5 
 
 succeeded in driving out the Aborigines, for large tracts of 
 country in the south and south-west of the eighteen provinces 
 are still possessed by the former inhabitants, who hold their 
 own against the Chinese, and are reported in some parts to 
 even have thousands of the latter as slaves in their inaccessible 
 fastnesses, thus retaliating on the Chinese, who some cen- 
 turies since exposed them to the same treatment. 
 
 The provinces in which these representatives of former 
 races are found, are Kwei-chau, Sz-chuen, Yun-nan, Kwang- 
 tung, and Kwang-si, and the Island of Hai-nan. 
 
 In Sz-chuen a considerable portion of the west and south- 
 west of the province is sparsely inhabited by some forty or 
 fifty native tribes, of whom little is known : some are very 
 warlike, and constant depredations are committed by them. 
 They have their own chiefs, languages, customs, and manners. 
 The late Mr. Colborne Baber, of the Consular Service, obtained 
 a specimen of the written language of the Lolos — one of 
 these tribes. It is a most peculiar sort of caligraphy, and 
 presents no point of resemblance to the Chinese language or 
 any other that one is familiar a\ ith. 
 
 In Kwei-chau they appear to be scattered all over the 
 province; and the same may be said of Yun-nan, where about 
 two-thirds of the inhabitants consist of various tribes of 
 Lo-lo, Li-su, ]\Iu-su, Man-tzu, and Miao-tzu. In Kwang-tung 
 they are located in the north-west of the province, and in 
 Kwang-si, in tlie north-east. 
 
 In the Island of Hai-nan, the aboriginal Le tribes have 
 maintained their independence against the Chinese for nearly 
 two thousand years having, been driven from the coast 
 into the mountains in the interior. They are divided into 
 civilised and uncivilised Les, and are physically strong and 
 well developed. They have the art of M'riting, Avhich is 
 described by the Chinese as like th,e wriggling of worms. 
 There is so great a diiference in some of the languages 
 spoken by the different tribes, that they converse with each 
 other in Chinese. The women are tattooed and wear skirts. 
 There are also some of the Miao-tsz amongst them; these 
 Miao-tsz being found largely in other parts of China. 
 
6 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 To show the number and extent of these remnants of ic 
 fonner race and civilization in China, it may be pointed out 
 that in the provinces of Hu-nan, Kwei-chau, Kwauf^-si, Yun- 
 nan, and Sz-chuen. the aboriginal tribes — Miau-tsz and 
 others — occupy an area of country equal to that of Francel 
 and are some millions in number, representing numerous 
 tribes; as many as one hundred and eighty being mentioned,, 
 though perhaps not so many are in existence now. They 
 are supposed to have come through Burmah into China. As 
 is the case with most of these aboriginal inhabitants oF 
 China, the dress of tlie AV(nnen is more distinctive than that 
 of the men. 
 
 Out of the 11,000,000 inhabitants of the province of 
 Yun-nan, two-thirds are 'culti^^ated savages,' i.e., Lo-lo. 
 Li-su, Mu-su, Man-tzu and Miao-tzn. 
 
 In the Lln-chaii prefecture of the Kwang-tung province, 
 and the south of the Hu-nan province, are to be found the- 
 lu tribes, who were brought in the twelftli century from 
 the Kwang-si province, and settled on the mountains. Their 
 hair is worn long : they are short in stature ; and have scanty 
 beards. They, as well as other aboriginal tribes, wear 
 cloths bound round their legs from the knee to tlie ankle. 
 No foreigner is allowed by the Chinese t<j penetrate into their 
 haunts, which are now restricted in extent to what they were 
 originally, for the more civilised Chinese have confined 
 them within recent times to the high and inaccessibl€^ 
 mountains. They have no written language, and their 
 speech is quite distinct from tlie Chinese. Their number is- 
 perhaps 50,000. 
 
 It has been suggested that the Japanese are descendants 
 of the Man or Mian tribes, who crossed over from the south of 
 China to their future island home. At the time of their 
 emigration they Avere the only inhabitants of the south of 
 China. 
 
 So little is known about many of these communities of 
 primitive man scattered here and there throughout China, 
 their mountain homes are so inaccessible, the accounts of 
 their curious customs, simplicity, origin, and peculiarly 
 
ACUPUNCTURE. 7 
 
 ■written languages — when they have such, — the harsh and 
 
 cruel treatment they have received from the Chinese, their 
 
 patriotic stand for hearth and home against these invaders : 
 
 such, and many other reasons, all combine to make these 
 
 people objects of interest to the man of science, the traveller, 
 
 the philanthropist, and the niissionary. 
 
 Jioohs rrroniiiiL'itdc'fl . — •Travels and Re^^earches in Western Oliiua,' by 
 E. Colborne Baber. Chapters 4 and o. "Liui,' Nam." by B. ('. Henry, 
 chapt rs 9, 20-25. contain interesting notices of tlieni. Se'vera! articles 
 liaA'e also appeared in the '(Jhina Keview,' and Essays in the. 'Records of 
 the Missionary Conference held at Shanghai, ISidi.' In a paper in the 
 'Chinese Repository,' re-pnblished in the 'Chinese and Japanese Repository' 
 for October, 18S3. a munber of tribes and cnstonis are noticed. A very 
 interesting work is extant in manuscript in Chinese, profusely illustrated 
 with coloured pictiu'es showing the costumes, &c. 
 
 ACUPUNCTURE. — Acupuncture is one of the nine 
 branches of practice recognised in medical science among the 
 Chinese, and is of most ancient origin, having been in use 
 from time immemorial. If we are to believe tradition, the 
 Emperor, Hwang-t(, was the originator of it. In the sixth 
 century, B. C. Pien Ts'iao was skilled in its application; and 
 there is extant to this day a ^^"ork written in the third or 
 fourth century, B. C, which treats of it. Some six hundred 
 or more years ago, i.e., during the time of the Sung dynasty, 
 it may be said to have been reduced to a science; for one 
 of two copper figures of the human body, made in 1027, 
 A.D., by order of the then ruling Emperor, with markings 
 to illustrate its principles, still exists. There are 367 of 
 these markings, every square inch on the surface having 
 its own name and being assigned some relationship, purely 
 imaginary, Avitli the internal parts. Acupuncture is exten- 
 sively treated of in the medical works of the Chinese and 
 is a very common remedy. Many directions are given as 
 to the manner of its use, and the user is cautioned against 
 wounding the arteries, for which purpose he should knoNv 
 the position of the blood-vessels. The operator has a 
 manikin full of holes, and by close study of this he learns 
 where to drive his needle, the latter being driven into parts 
 of the body which may be pierced without fatal results. 
 Sometimes heat is applied to the outer end of the needle^ 
 
8 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and this is called hot acupuncture; but it is never 
 heated before insertion. In some cases the needle has been 
 known to break in the body of the patient, and has had to 
 remain there till extracted by the skill of the Western 
 practitioner. 
 
 The needle used looks very much like a sewing-machine needle, 
 but is longer and coarser than that. Some of the Chinese doctors 
 have needles two feet long, and are supposed by ardent admirers to be 
 able to drive these instruments entirely through the patient's body ; 
 but the great size of the needles is in reality intended to represent 
 the greatness of the owner's skill and reputation. The needles 
 used are of nine forms, as follows: — The arrow-headed, blunt, 
 punccuring, spear pointed-, ensiform, round, capillary, long, and great. 
 The point of insertion, the depth, and the direction are all important 
 o o c ,|,-,fj jj^g method is usually to drive them through the 
 distended skin by a blow from a light mallet. They are frequently 
 made red-hot, and occasionally are left in the flesh for days together. 
 
 It is ct)nsidered to be an universal panacea. It was 
 ■carried over from China to Japan before the dawn of 
 history; scarifieal^ion and acupuncture being the peculiar 
 forte of tliese two nations. Dr. Lockhart says that Acu- 
 puncture is very dexterously performed by the Chinese. 
 It is largely resorted to for rheumatism, deep-seated pains 
 -of all kinds, sprains, swelling of the joints, &c. It was 
 introduced into Europe from China by a Dutch surgeon 
 named Ten-Rhyne in the 17th centary. 
 
 BooJm rt'ciinimrn fieri. — A long account is given of the practice in 
 Remnsat's " Noiiveaux Melanges Asiatiques, Tome I., p.p. 3.")8-380. On 
 page 229 of • The Chinese A? They Are' by Tradescant Lay. woodcuts are 
 given of the instruments used for this purpose by the Chinese. See also 
 ;i. paper in the 'China Medical Missionarj' Journal, f(n' December 1892, by 
 Dr. J. C. Thomson, entitled ' >Surgery in China.' 
 
 ADOPTION. — It is a matter of the first importance 
 that a man should have a son to offer sacrifices at the 
 Ancestral Hall and to worship at his tomb. The cry with a 
 •Chinese is not 'Give me children, or else I die,' but 'Give 
 ' me a son, or I cannot die in peace,' and, failing a son of his 
 own, he adopts one. It is impossible, with our ideas on the 
 subject, to understand what a matter of prime importance 
 this is with a Chinese. To show how it enters into the very 
 essence of family life in China, we quote from the learned 
 
ADOPTION. 9 
 
 and interesting brochure by Parker on 'Comparative Chinese 
 Family Law,' as follows: — 
 
 'The Chinese doption of agnates, is * * * not a matter of 
 choice * * '', but of compulsion. The brother, when living, 
 may demand a nephew, and, when dead, a nephew is given to him 
 unasked. It is not only in his interest, but in that of the whole 
 family, that the succession should be continued. So unfortunate are 
 those considered who have no heirs, that in each town there is. a 
 public larariuni dedicated to orbate persons deceased, and the 
 officials sacrifice periodically to their manes. 
 
 Again, there is absolutely no distinction between such adopted 
 son and a natural-born son. He cannot be disinherited, at least for 
 any reason not equally applicable to a natural son ; he mourns for 
 his adoptive father as a natural son would mourn, and for his 
 natural father as a nephew. Once adopted, he cannot be adopted 
 by another. It is a family arrangement, and needs no magisterial 
 authority. What seems a curious feature in it, to our ideas, is, that 
 it may be made without the knowledge of the deceased adopter, 
 whether he is married or not (provided he is over sixteen years of 
 age^.) and even after his death. 
 
 But this curious feature is explained when we remember 
 that the adoption does not take place for the individual 
 adopter in China, but for the benefit of tlie family — the 
 family being the unit of society, and the individual no one, 
 except a fractional part of the smallest integer of society — 
 the family, 
 
 'In treating of adoption in China, it is important to distinguish 
 between the adoption of persons bearing the same surname and 
 those bearing a different surname. If a Chinese has no son, he 
 adopts, if possible, a nephew, who is the son of one of his brothers. 
 If there are no nephews, then he adopts the grandson of one of his 
 uncles, or the great-grandson of one of his granduncles. In other 
 words, he endeavours to obtain a pure agnate. If there are no 
 agnates of a suitable generation or if there are agnates of a suitable 
 generation, but not of a suitable age, he next looks to the children 
 of his sisters, or the grandchildren of his aunts. It is generally only 
 when neither agnates nor cognates of suitable age and generation 
 are accessible that he adopts a perfect stranger, and, even then, 
 he endeavours to find one of the same surname * '•■ '"' 
 Adoption of an agnate is generally effected during the lifetime of the 
 adopter, who is considered entitled to choose any nephew (except the 
 ■eldest son of the next brother', before an assembly of agnates, and 
 an entry is made in the genealogical register of the family. A rich 
 man, of course, in practice, finds it easier to obtain the object of his 
 •choice than a poor one, and the handsome son of a rich brother is 
 similarly less easy to secure as an heir than the plain son of a poor 
 brother * * *. Each elder brother can continue to adopt the 
 sons of his younger brethren until he finds an heir who will live ; and 
 
 1 A Chinese is of age at sixteen. 
 
10 TJIINGS CHINESE. 
 
 elder brothers are in duty bound to give a son in posthumous 
 adoption to a younger brother who lias died childless '■■. "'- '-. Aa 
 adopted agnate or cognate takes his place before natural sons 
 subsequently born to the same father. An adopted stranger is liable 
 c o to exclusion by the agnates of his deceased adoptive father.' 
 
 About f) [jer cent, of Chinese families, it is considered, 
 adopt children; 70 per cent, of them being males. In some 
 provinces and districts strangers are frequently adopted, and 
 in Amoy the traders have a peculiar custom of adopting a 
 son to act for them as a commercial agent abroad. Iix 
 ado[)ting strangers, the child is generally purchased, from 
 parents too poor to keep their own offspring, while sometimes 
 kidnappers make a profit by the sale of the poor innocent 
 victims they have inveigled into their toils. 
 
 There is a secondary species of what might be termed 
 pseudo-adoption. As true adoption amongst the Chinese is 
 generally due to a certain amount (jf superstition connected 
 Avith ancestral worship, so tlie spurious adoption, as a rule, is- 
 even more dependent upon the superstitious beliefs of this 
 credulous people. There are different varieties of this, the 
 parties to one kind being sometimes called godparents and 
 godchildren by Europeans. 
 
 The custom has its foundation in the superstition that 
 it is possible U) cheat the malignant spirits to whose evil 
 machinations are due the death or illness of children. If the- 
 parents, then, are afraid that they will not be able to bring up 
 a child, (jr that falling short of that, disease may attack it, or 
 ill-luck fall to its lot, they hit upon the expedient— sometimes- 
 suggested by the fortune-teller — of this semi-adoption. 
 Presents are made by the child's parents to the so-called 
 adopter, and return presents are received. The adoptive- 
 parent takes a considerable interest in his or her adopted 
 child, presents and visits being made by both parties on the 
 respective birthdays of the primarily interested parties, and 
 at feasts, &c.: but. beyond this, there are no definite duties 
 incumbent on the so-called godparent. The child still 
 remains in its natural parents' house, and, in the event of its 
 parents dying, the so-called godparent is not bound to take 
 the child into his or her keeping, even if left destitute. On 
 
ADOPTION. II 
 
 the other hand.' the chihl, if its so-called godparent dies, is 
 bound to wear mourning, not deep, as in the case of its own 
 parents, but only half-mourning. It is supposed that the 
 spirits will be deceived into the belief that the child has 
 really been adopted into the new family, and the disease. 
 death, disaster, or ill-luck, that would otherwise ensue, are 
 effectually prevented, while at the same time the boy's or 
 girl's family retain their child, and. if an eldest son. will 
 have an heir to sacrifice to them after death. 
 
 Sometimes this spurious adopti(.)n takes place between 
 families that are friendly merely with the object of drawing 
 them nearer to each other, but it is oftener the result of the 
 superstitious belief already mentioned. 
 
 This super.stitiun gives rise to other varieties of false 
 adoption, such as giving a child in adoption to a banyan tree, 
 or a bamboo, or to a bridge, or an idol, or a stone lion in 
 front of a temple. (These stone lions are objects of worship 
 by barren woman in tlie hopes of obtaining ofts])ring.) In 
 all these cases it, is believed that the spirits inliabiting these 
 several objects —their guardian deities-- will take the child 
 under their protection and ensure it immunity from thc^ 
 ills that flesh is heir to. On a small piece of red pajier 
 is written: '(jiven in adoption,' then f dlows tlie \\(»rd "male* 
 or 'female,' and the surname and n;uno of the cliiUl. This 
 is pasted u[)on the object wliieli is selected, and three 
 incense sticks, joss pap..'r, wine, pork, chicken, and cooked 
 rice are offered ; bffeiings arc also made at the end of the 
 year for protection rendered, as m ell as at the New Year, 
 and, in the case of idols, on their birthdays. The piece 
 of red paper once put up is not renewed, as the spirit is 
 thus supposed to be sufficiently informed by the one notice. 
 The mother of the cliild, or sometimes a 'praying woman." 
 as she is called, peri'orms the ceremony, offering up a prayer, 
 informing the spirit that the child is placed under its 
 protection. These proceedings are sometimes undertaken at 
 the instigation of the fortune-teller. 
 
 When an idol is selected, it is generally that of some 
 favourite god, or goddess, such as Kwiiu Yam — The Goddess^ 
 
12 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ■of Mercy,— or Kwan Tai—The God of War, -or T'ln Hau— The 
 •Goddess of Heaven, — or Man Ch'ong — The God of Literature, 
 — or even The Tutehiry Spirit (Lares) of the Bridge, or The 
 Tutelary Spirits placed at the two entrances to a village, 
 but not those of the house. In the case of a god being 
 selected, part of his name {i.e., one of the characters forming 
 his title or designation) is combined with that of the child, 
 forming a new name for the child, which is, however, only 
 used by the parents. The god selected is worshipped on 
 his birthday, and styled ' the adopted father.' 
 
 The bamboo is preferred to other trees as it is a prince 
 amongst trees (the Chinese do not know the bamboo as a 
 grass), and is so useful. Were no other proof available of 
 the slight esteem in which girls are held by the Chinese, 
 it would be shox^n by tlie difference in the estimated 
 percentage of those of each sex who are the subjects of 
 this false adoption ; for in the extreme south of China it is 
 believed that 50 per cent of boys are thus subjected to 
 adoption, and only 10 per cent of the girls. 
 
 AGIUCULTUEE.-The glory of the farmer is that, 
 in the division of labours, it is his pai-t to create. All trade 
 rests at last on his primitive activity. Thus Emerson 
 begins his *' Essay on Farming.' It is with a feeling of this 
 nature that the Chinese have classed the tillers of the 
 ground as next to the scholar, and before the merchant and 
 the artisan: these' being the four estates into which the 
 people are divided by them. From the earliest dawn of 
 legendary history, agriculture has been regarded by the 
 ■Chinese as a high and ennobling calling. This all, of 
 course, from a theoretical point of view — on paper, in books, 
 documents, proclamations, precepts, and exhortations — -while 
 in actual everyday life, the boor (in the original meaning of 
 the word), i.e., the rustic, clownish countryman, sinks to a 
 subordinate position as compared with that of the relatively 
 more cultivated town resident. Yet, notwithstanding this, 
 a high idealistic position for the cultivator of the soil is 
 fostered by not a few of the institutions and habits peculiar 
 
AGRICULTURE. \3 
 
 to the Chinese. As an instance of this there is the example 
 set by each Chinese Emperor of" plonghing in the Temple of 
 Agriculture in Peking at the Spring Equinox every year, 
 thus inaugurating the commencement of the farming season. 
 The viceroys or governors of the different provinces perform 
 the same ceremony annually. An object lesson is thus 
 given to the people throughout the empire and a 'deep 
 sense of the importance of agriculture to the public welfare '' 
 typified. Important it is in a threefold sense : — firstly, 
 because of its regular supply botli of food and labour to the- 
 people; secondly, the needs of the Government are met by 
 moderate taxes, although, unfortunately owing to faulty 
 administration and probably to the rapacity of the officials,- 
 they are frequently increased to six times the nominal 
 assessment; thirdly, an agricultural population, it has been 
 found, is easier governed than a purely mercantile or warlike 
 community. 
 
 Not only does the Sou of Heaven show an example to^ 
 the meanest agricultural labourer by guiding the plough 
 with his royal hands; but the Chinese Government poses 
 as a benefactor of the humble farmer, and to a great extent 
 carries into benevolent action the fostering of this most 
 important branch of labour. With this end in view, the 
 taxes imposed are in relative value to the productiveness of 
 the soil under cultivation ; the reclamation of fields on the 
 river banks or the sea shore is easily effected, the terms not 
 being onerous; and waste land, whether on the hill sides or 
 level ground (if poverty of soil requires a lengthened time 
 for the recouping of the industrious fiirmer for capital 
 expended), is untaxed until ample time has elapsed for 
 his labours to prove remunerative with an assessment 
 superimposed, five harvests being allowed to the farmer who 
 thus reclaims from a state of nature. And yet with all 
 this encouragement to tillage many tracts of country still 
 lie waste, some of it the most fertile in the country; partly 
 because the people have not the skill and capital to drain and 
 render it productive, partly because they have not sufficient 
 prospect of remuneration to encourage them to make the 
 
11. TllIXGS ClIJXESi:. 
 
 necessary outlay, and sometimes from tlic outrages of local 
 banditti making it unsafe to live in secluded districts. 
 
 Shin-nung, the Divine Husbandman, is credited Avith the 
 invention and introduction of husbandry into China. This 
 mythical or semi-mythical monarch reigned B.C. 2700. 
 
 Professor Rein commences his magnificent work on 
 'The Industries of Japan ' as follows: — 
 
 'In contrast with the nomadic rac'_^s of Central Asia, the in- 
 liabitants of the monsoon region have for thousands of years been 
 tied to the soil. They are intensely devoted to a^^riculture, especially 
 in China and Japan. Little opportunity is left in these countries for 
 cattle-raising ; and since meadows and pastures are wanting, milk 
 butter, and cheese — the principal food of the nomadic mongolian 
 peoples — were unknown to the Chinese and Japanese. Eggs, and 
 the products of fishing and the chase, play a far more important role 
 than the flesh of domestic animals. '■' * ''■■' Since sheep were but 
 seldom found in China '■■' "■■' ■■■ wool was formerly of small con- 
 sideration in the matter of clothing. Hemp and cotton goods, and' 
 silk among the rich, especially in the winter, are the stuffs with 
 which the population is clothed.' 
 
 As would naturally be expected, the diverse climatic 
 conditions of such a vast empire---extending from the plains 
 of Manchuria to the mephitic vales of Yun-nan, and from the 
 sea-coast provinces to the high mountains and great table- 
 lands of Tibet — result in various and dissimilar products, 
 from the different regions embraced under the name of 
 China; but diverse as these productions are, the large 
 l^roportion of them are cultivated for food purposes. Cotton, 
 hemp, indigo and mulberry for silk are almost the only 
 important plants that are grown which are not alimentary. 
 The basin of the Yang-tsz forms the great cotton region; 
 hemp is largely cultivated north of the Mei-ling and it 
 also grows in Fuh-kien ; the southern provinces produce in 
 large quantities the rice which forms the staple of food for 
 millions of Chinese; while the northern, colder regions are 
 more suited to the maturing of millet and corn. Again the 
 tea plant is unknown in the northern provinces, the sun- 
 shine and the moist temperature to be found between the 
 twenty-third and thirty-fifth degrees of latitude suiting it 
 better; the sugar-cane is only to be seen growing in the. 
 south and south-eastern parts of China; and the poj)py i.s 
 
AGHICULTUHE. 15 
 
 unfortunately fast extending its area of cultivatif^n through 
 •different provinces — east, west, north, and south, and 
 actually constituting a third of the whole cultivation of 
 the jDrovince of Yun-nan. 
 
 The never-tiring industry of the Chinese is fully 
 exemplified in the unremitting toil of the farmer: in tlie 
 sweat of his brow docs he earn his daily bread; week in, 
 week out, ffom morn till night, is he to be found; now with 
 his primitive plough upturning the soil; now with unsavoury 
 concoctions of manure assisting the growth of the plant, 
 {for Chinese manuring is applied more to the growing 
 plant itself than to the soil) ; now with the assistance of 
 his son Morking the tread-mill water-wheel to fill his arti- 
 ficial water-channels; or with quick step or half-trot 
 Avending his way with water buckets (gigantic watering 
 pots) through between his rows of vegetables and supplying 
 artificial rain to his crops. Nor do his ingenious con- 
 trivances for irrigation stop here; for natural brooklets are 
 defected from their wanton course and trained here and 
 there down the hill sides, reviving the thirsty terraced fields 
 as they go; large wheels with buckets fixed to them turn 
 slowly and raise some hundreds of tons of water each day 
 from the streams, which, while giving the motion to these 
 wheels, are thus assisting in each revolution to rob them- 
 selves of their watery treasures; well-sweeps, (the slidduf oi 
 Egypt) ladle out the contents of pools constructed for the 
 gathering of rain-water; and even a pail or shallow^ vessel 
 with ropes attached to each side, is used to scoop up the 
 precious fluid from the running brook, a man standing on 
 ■each bank and with a swinging motion skimming the vessel 
 just enough under the surface to take up sufficient water, 
 when it is ]"aised and with a jerking motion emptied, this 
 all being done Avith a remarkable rapidity and smoothness 
 of motion. Man's labour is thus utilised and supplemented 
 in various ways by different contrivances, even the cattle 
 are sometimes employed to turn the water-wheel, and, as 
 we have seen, the stream itself is yoked into the same 
 service. All this obtains in the southern provinces. 
 
16 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 'In the north of the country, where wheat, millet, and other 
 grains are largely grown, the rain supply in summer and the snow 
 in winter furnish all the moisture which the farmers require in 
 O'dinary years.' 
 
 Few, if any, carts are to be seen in the farm yard in 
 the southern or eastern provinces of China; man is 
 essentially the beast of burden, aided, of course, by woman, 
 though in some districts, women are not employed in field- 
 labour at all. 
 
 The convenient carrying-pole with a bucket, or pail, or 
 basket, or bamboo loop, us the exigencies ..of the case may 
 require, suspended from each end, serves all j)urposes of 
 porterage, and is amply sufficient for conveying root- 
 crops, grass, water, manure, and anything else that may 
 require to be transported short or long distances. To such 
 an extent does man perform labour Mhich is relegated to the 
 horse or ox in other lands, that the Chinese farmer may 
 even be seen carrying his plough off' from, or on to, the 
 field, though the buffalo (water-buffalo) is yoked to it 
 when it is used to scrape the soil: the same animal pulls the 
 harrow in its course over the surface of the ground or a& 
 it stirs up the miry bottom of the semi-aquatic rice-field. 
 These uncouth, unwieldy looking animals are driven to and 
 from their work, as well as guided in it, by boys, and it i& 
 interesting to see the complete control which these tiny 
 youths have over these huge, ungainly, and stupid-looking 
 beasts. 
 
 The agricultural implements of the Chinese are few in 
 number and of simple construction ; in all probability, if not 
 invented by the redoutable Shin-nung himself, these tools 
 of the farmer have been in use for centuries with no altera- 
 tion or improvement effected in them. One writer thus 
 describes the Chinese plough and harrow : — 
 
 'The plough is made of wood, except the iron-edged share, 
 which lies flat and penetrates the soil about five inches. The whole 
 invention is so simple and rude that one would think the inventor 
 of it was a labourer, who, tired of the toil of spading, called the ox 
 to his aid and tied his shovel to a rail ; — fastening the animal at one 
 end and guiding the other, he was so pleased with the relief, that he 
 never thought of improving it much further than to sharpen the spade 
 
AGIUCULTUllE. 17 
 
 to a coulter and bend the rail to a beam and handle. The harrow is 
 a heavy stick armed with a single row of scout wooden teeth, and 
 furnished with a framework to guide it; or a triangular machine,, 
 with rows of iron teeth, on which the driver rides to sink it iji 
 the ooze.' 
 
 These two instruments are employed in rice cultivation.. 
 a broad hoe being used in the dry fields and soft lands; the 
 impetus of the blow is increased by the weight of its large 
 wooden blade edged with iron, or by. a blade made entirely 
 of iron. The spade is but sparingly had recourse to as 
 compaied with its constant employment in western lands 
 As the seed is not sown br(.)adcast, the farmer is able with' 
 busy hoe to loosen the soil and keep his fields bL'uutifuUv 
 clear of weeds. No machinery, except such as has alieadv 
 been named, is found in the farmyard. Besides the above 
 there are mattocks, rakes made of bamboo, bill-hooks which 
 do duty for scythes, pruning knives, and sickles. Flails 
 are used on thrashing floors (made of chiinam and containing' 
 a few square feet each) for thrashing rice, peas, mustard, 
 turnips, and other seeds from the stalks, or unshod oxen 
 are employed for the same purpose. 
 
 The Chinese farmer, as a general rule, is more a peasant 
 proprietor, or, if not that, a peasant farmer rather than 
 a farmer in our sense of the term, though here and there 
 large farms are to be met with on the frontier provinces 
 and up north. So minute are the sub-divisions, that at 
 times a ridge or two of potatoes or vegetables in a field 
 will belong to (me person and the rest of the field Mill be 
 parcelled out in equally small portions. In this connection, 
 the following extract from a Report on Agriculture in China, 
 published by the Department of Agriculture at Washington, 
 Avill be of interest : — 
 
 'Thus in Kwong Tung '"■ "••■ one-sixth of an acre will 
 
 support one person, and the proprietor of two acres of good land, 
 having a family of five, can live without work on the produce of his 
 little property. Seven acres constitute wealth, as it is reckoned in 
 China, and few landowners have a hundred acres.' Emigration 'and 
 infanticide * alone prevent such overcrowding as would 
 
 render existence on the land impossible for the population as a wliole. 
 In the north, where the soil is less fertile, the holdings are larger, 
 and the standard of comfort among the people is higher. In 
 Manchuria farms of 500 acres are not uncommon, and there are some 
 
 B 
 
18 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 much larger estates ; but the great farms are cultivated in common 
 by families, some of which consists of two hundred members. Even 
 in the north, it is said that a family of six or seven persons can live 
 on three acres of land, and that five acres constitute comfort, or 
 Avhat is so considered among people satisfied with the bare necessities 
 of existence.' 
 
 The authority for the statement as to the Kwong Tung 
 province seem to be an account by Miss Fielde of farming 
 matters in the Swatow di.strict, and this same authoress also 
 
 says :— 
 
 'At this rate of production and consumption, the arable land in 
 the State of New York, with a reduction of one half its returns on 
 account of its more northern latitude, would support the total 
 population of the United States at the present time; and the occupied 
 arable land of the United States, with its producing power diminished, 
 ■on account of climate, to one half that of land at Swatow, would feed 
 .a population ecjual to that of the whole world, or over 1,400,000,000.' 
 
 Another author says : — 
 
 'The Chinese are rather market gardeners than farmers, if 
 regard be had to the small size of their grounds. They are ignorant, 
 too, of many of those operations whereby soils naturally unfruitful 
 are made fertile, and the natural fertility sustained at the cheapest 
 rate by proper manuring and rotation of crops ; but they make up for 
 the disadvantages of poor implements by hard work.' 
 
 The hill sides are often terraced for rice, and places 
 which would otherwise only be waste land are utilised for 
 the production of this useful cereal as will as other plants; 
 but it is erroneous to suppose that the whole of China is a 
 A\ast garden, or that every hill is cut into a succession of 
 steps from base to summit. Rice, being the staple of food 
 in the south, is largely cultivated, the fields lying under 
 water for a considerable portion of the year on that account. 
 Little foot-paths, only wide enough for one pedestrian at a 
 time, divide these rice-fields from one another. The flat low 
 grounds formed of the alluvial deposits from rivers are a 
 favourite and suitable situation for such fields, large 
 retaining banks protecting the chess-board mass of fields 
 from the incursions of the river. Another foot-path (wider 
 than those in the centre of the fields) runs along the tops of 
 these banks, and the sloping sides are utilised for the culti- 
 vation of fruit-trees, such as plantains, lychees, whampeas, 
 &c. Two or three crops of rice are produced in one year 
 
AGRICrLTURE. 19 
 
 as well as a crop or two of fish, which latter, introduced in 
 a young stage into the enclosed water lying on the fields, 
 •are grown to a size fit for food in a short time. In some 
 districts of country, pea-nuts, sugar-cane, and native tobacco 
 are cultivated. A numerous variety of vegetables is also to 
 be seen. These are mostly of a poorer quality than European 
 Tegetables and are often of a kind unknown to the western 
 world. Much of their agriculture consists in rearing them. 
 The sweet potato, the yam, taro, beans, cucumbers, pumpkins, 
 squashes, M'ater-melons, vegetable marrows, brinjals, &c., &c., 
 &c., all engage the attention of the Chinese agriculturist, 
 and provide him and many of his fellow-countrymen a relish 
 to take with their plain-boiled rice; a small modicum of 
 salt, or fresh fish, or meat sometimes giving a little additional 
 savouriness to their daily fare. For on such frugal diet, or 
 •on even a scantier one, does the Chinese farmer and millions 
 of the labouring classes perform their daily tasks. 
 
 The Chinese are adepts at manuring, and keep up 
 the character of the soil in this way instead of by a 
 constant rotation of crops, though this is also said to be 
 always practised in some parts at least. The night-soil 
 ■of the cities — nay of every little liamlet even, and the 
 •contents of the primitive way-side urinals, are carefully 
 liusbanded and utilised, to the disgust of the olfactory nerves 
 of those unaccustomed to such an ancient mode. Other 
 materials are gathered for the same purpose, the motto in 
 China being to waste nothing, and nothing almost seems to 
 come amiss: mud from the rivers, canals, and tanks — a 
 splendid fertiliser in a country like China Avhere the rivers 
 act as main sewers and dust-bins, and their tributaries feed 
 the main channels with sufficient material pilfered from the 
 •crumbling banks to form rich alluvial deposits — the sweepings 
 from the streets, hair from the barbers' shops, the refuse 
 paper «S:c. from fire-crackers after being exploded, lime and 
 plaster with years of wood soot impregnating it, gathered from 
 kitchens and old buildings, soot itself, old bones, the refuse 
 of fish and animals, castings from animals and fowls, all 
 are eagerly gathered from every spot and made use of; and 
 
 B 2 
 
20 THINGS CRINESK. 
 
 so also is vegetable rubbish whicli is charred under turf.. 
 the residue is a rich black earth, wliich is laid upon the 
 seeds themselves when planted; the refuse left after expressing 
 the oil from ground-nuts, beans, vegetable. tallo\\ , tea. and 
 cabbage seeds, &c., is mixed with earth and made into cakes, 
 to be sold to farmers. 
 
 To one accustomed to fields laid down in grass and 
 clover, it is curious to notice the absence of these features so 
 common amongst tis : what might be pasture (jr meadow 
 lands such as the bottom of valleys and fiat land are used for 
 rice and other crops. 
 
 The spring and summer in the south is characterised bv 
 a relatively high temperature, light winds, dampness, and 
 frequent rains alternating with dry spells, but the early 
 winter is the dry season in which for several months clear 
 skies prevail, accompanied by a cold temperature \vhich. 
 increases as the winter progresses and the new year comes- 
 in, till in January, February, and March the temperature is 
 keen, and is rendere<:l intensely disagreeable by the dampness 
 Avhich is apt to be present to a considerable extent in the 
 shape of rain, mists, and fogs. The typhoons which bring 
 torrents of rain in their train are often frequent visitants 
 in the summer months wlien the sotith-west monsoon is- 
 blowing, the north-east monsoon being the winter wind. 
 Vegetation and agriculture, of course depend largely upon 
 these climatic conditions, the copious rains, bright stmshine. 
 and mountain mists, all have their share in producing the 
 rapid growth of the plant; but nature tends her own products 
 with a careful hand, for fogs and mists, followed by April 
 showers, commence the irrigation of the land parched and 
 dried with the moistureless year-end; these lighter show-ers 
 are succeeded, as the hardened earth is gradually moistened 
 and better able to drink in the heaven-sent floods, by heavier 
 thunder-storms and drenching rains, to be again succeeded by 
 the torrential downpours following in the "wake of the dreaded 
 cyclonic typhoon. No frosts of any appreciable influence, as- 
 a rule, occur in the neighbourhood of Hongkong and Canton ; 
 but the case is different further north in hiijher latitudes. 
 
AGRICULTURE. 21 
 
 The cost and difficulty of transport no doubt exerts a 
 deterrent effect on the development of Chinese agriculture. 
 
 The Chinese farm-house is not, as a general rule in the 
 south, to be found in the centre of tlie ground which the 
 farmer has under cultivation, but at some distance, i)erhaps. 
 from the fields, forming with all the other farm-houses of the 
 neighbourhood a little hamlet or village, from wliich tlie 
 men issue at early dawn to proceed to the scene of their 
 labours, and to whicli. they return when their work is over. 
 This economizes space and affords more security to the 
 •denizens of the little communities from the attacks of robbers, 
 though it is a Avonder what temptation can exist for attacks 
 from such when tlie farmers are so little removed themselves 
 from the abject de[)ths of poverty. The small holdings and 
 farms are sometimes rendered still more fractional in size 
 with the death of each proprietor, as on his demise his 
 ■possessions are often divided amongst his family, such being 
 tlie general outcome of tlic l;i\v of succession. Disputes as to 
 the inheritance of land give rise to many feuds and crimes. 
 Such family quarrels often form the principal incident on 
 M'hich the stories in many a Chinese novelette hinge. 
 
 To find a pirallel to the agricultural condition of the country, we 
 must look to our Colonial Empire, where settlers apply for uninhabited 
 .lands, and receive the rights over them in exchange for small annual 
 payments. This is the principle on which lands have been appropriated 
 in times past, and still are leased out to farmers. As a rule, the land 
 so let is taken up by a clan, the members of which cultivate it much 
 ■on the principle of tlie village communities '■■' * '■ . Ten families 
 •constitute, as a rule, a village holding, each family farming about ten 
 acres. To such a community is allotted a common village plot, 
 which is cultivated by each family in turn, and from which the 
 ^tribute grain is collected and paid. The surplus, if any, is divided 
 between the families. Towards the end of the year a meeting is 
 held, at which a division of the profits is made on one condition. Any 
 farmer who is unable to produce the receipt for the income-lax on 
 his farm ceases to be entitled to any benefit arising from the village 
 plot. 
 
 liook.s rrcinnmcndcd. — Williams's • Middle Kiusrdoiii.' Vol. 11. , pp. 1-14. 
 Douj^Ias's 'S:>fiety in ('hina,' pp. 120-136. Lay's 'Thft Chinese As They 
 Ave,' Chap XII. • Husbandry of the Chinese.' 'A Corner of Oatliay' by 
 Miss Fielde. Chapter on ' Farm Life in China.' Jour. Ch. Br. R. A. S. New 
 ■Series, Vol. XXIIL, No. 2. 1888. See Articles in this book on Buffalo, 
 Land Tenure, Silk, Tea, and Rice. For an account of the Emperor plough- 
 ing, xec the Hongkong daily papers for the 24th and 2oth of April, 18H3. 
 
22 THINGS CIHNESB. 
 
 AMUSEMENTS. -The Chinese, though u hard- workings 
 and industrious people, are not behind other nations in their 
 love of amusements, and enter with great zest and gusto into 
 the enjoyment of them, most heartily assisting, in the- 
 French sense of the term, at shows, processions, «&c. It 
 needs but a saunter through the crowded and busy streets of 
 a Chinese city to see tliat, though there is much bustle and 
 unceasing toil, there is, on the other hand, an unfailing 
 provision for the relaxation of the tired workers and the 
 delectation of the younger members of society. Theatres are 
 crowded, though the performances last for long weary hours, 
 if not days. The various birthdays of the gods, or religious 
 festivals, are hailed with delight, for then the streets are 
 matted over and hung with puppets gorgeously dressed in 
 mediaeval costume, representing historical scenes; while 
 glittering chandeliers, ablaze with light, shed a bright 
 radiance on the ere-while gloomy streets and transform them 
 into a dazzling vision of light. All these illuminated streets 
 converge to one centre, Avhere, in fronc of the temple in 
 honour of whose god the exhibition is being held, a grand 
 temporary structure, towering in height above all the other 
 surrounding buildings, is erected, gorgeous with painted 
 scenes in many coloured hues, brilliant with clusters of 
 crystal lights, and all the magnificence of ceremonial and 
 gaudy show, and the paraphernalia of heathen worship. 
 Here all the grandeur is centred, radiating out through all 
 the surrounding streets, and here it is that the crowd is at 
 its thickest, — a compact mass, open-mouthed, gazing to their 
 heart's content, enjoying to the full all the entrancing sights, 
 the celestial music of clashing cymbals, twanging guitars^ 
 harsh flageolets, and shrill flutes. 
 
 The annual Regattas of the Dragon Boat Feast give ai> 
 outing to many a child and lady, who, attired in their 
 holiday best, line the banks of the rivers, and watch the 
 narrow snake-like boats, dashing up and down in impromptu 
 races and spurts with their rivals from neighbouring 
 Aillages. [See Article on Dragon Boats). 
 
AMUSEMENTS, 2S 
 
 Anotlier great oviting is that on the clay for 'Ascending' 
 on High;' many who can afford the time, go to the summit 
 of some liigh mountain or lofty hill, in reniombrance of the 
 deliverance of a family in olden times from destruction by a 
 similar action. {See Article on Ascending on High.) 
 
 The Full Moon Festival, when indigestible moon-cakes 
 are seen at every confecti(jner's stall and shop, is kept gaily. 
 Everv boat hangs out one or more tasteful paper lanterns, 
 which, suspended from bamboo poles, make a general 
 illumination over the dark waters of the deep and murky 
 river, and, overhead, the full-orbed moon in harvest splendour 
 shines down from the clear sky on a scene of tropical, 
 oriental beauty. The faint glimmer of the tiny craft i.s 
 eclipsed anon by boats, all ablaze with one glow of light 
 from innumerable lamps. Tliese larger vessels slowly float 
 down the stream in the distance. 
 
 Visits to, flower gardens give a variety to the monotony 
 of every-day life, and even the sombre worship at the tombs, 
 after the prescribed ceremonials are through, is transformed 
 into pleasant picnics, and happy family reunions. 
 
 Besides these out-door entertaiirments, there are different 
 games of cards, dominoes, chess, &c., the two former bjing- 
 almo.st invariably associated with gambling. [See Article 
 on Gambling). Numerous other games are played, whose 
 whole end and object is gambling pure and simple: amongst 
 which mav be noted jjames with dice, enc umters of fiiifhting 
 crickets, and quail matches. The jeiinesse don'e of a 
 literary (U- artistic taste also amuse tliemselve.s and while 
 away the passing hour by wine parties, at which capping 
 of verses takes place. Their leisure moments are sometimes 
 beguiled by pen and ink sketches on fans, by inscriptions- 
 on the same articles of necessity for a warm climate, or by 
 the composition of antithetical sentences, which are inscribed 
 on scrtjlls and presented as souvenirs to friends. 
 
 Out-door sports are not in vogue with the Chinaman. 
 When one sees anything appr(jaching the kind going on. 
 there is almost always sure to be some utilitarian object in 
 view, as in archery, which is practised for the military- 
 
24. TIIfXGS CHINESE. 
 
 examinations. (Sei Article on Army, and last paragraph of 
 Article on Examinations.) The gymnastic exercises with 
 heavy weights are underbtken with the same object. Very 
 rarely one may see a few young Celestial swells paddling 
 together in a canoe, but this is uncommon enough not to be 
 a typical sight 
 
 As to out-door games, the most violent in which adults, 
 engage is sliuttlecock. (See Article on Shuttlecock.) A 
 iiiore sedentary pastime is that of flying kites. {See Article 
 on Kites) in which grown-up men indulge, while youngsters 
 stand by and look on. Very ingenious are the diffc^rent 
 forms and shapes of kites made, and some, like birds, are so 
 well manipulated, when in the air, as to deceive one at first 
 sight. 
 
 Blind singing girls perambulate the streets at night, 
 ready to accompany their song with the guitar (p'ei-p'a), 
 itinerant ballad-singers of the other sex can be hired by the 
 day. Story-tellers are pretty sure to get a good crowd round 
 them while interesting episodes in Chinese history are 
 recounted to their listeners. In any open space, or lining 
 the bro-id^'r streets, are peep-shows, the more crude native 
 production being repLiced in many cases, during the last 
 twenty or thirty years, by stereoscopic views. Jugglers, 
 and Punch and Judy shows, performing monkeys, as well 
 as gymnasts, are always certain of a circle of admiring 
 spectators. 
 
 The ladies join in a few of these amusements, as has 
 already been pointed out, but are debarred from the great 
 majority of those which cannot be enjoyed in the privacy of 
 their dwellings. They kill time by playing cards and 
 dominoes, occasionally going to the theatre, gossiping, and 
 visiting — when they are quickly carried in closed chairs 
 through the narrow streets invisible to everyone, and every- 
 one and everytiiing nearly invisible to them. 
 
 As to childrens' toys and sports, though one writer in 
 iin English periodical very sapiently (?) remarks that there 
 are no toys in China, yet it needs but a few steps in a 
 Chinese city, in the south at all events, to show the absurdity 
 
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP. 25 
 
 ■of the statement. Besides taking their share in the enjoy- 
 ments of their elders, they have more especially for their 
 benefit, tops, paper lanterns in the shape of fish, iron marbles, 
 toy cannon and weapons^ and a thousand and one different 
 games and toys with which the ingenuity of the caterers for 
 their amusement fills the toy- shops, and covers the stalls at 
 the street corners. 
 
 As yet no borrowing of modern, western out-door sports 
 has taken place. The boys which congregate round the 
 cricket-ground in Hongkong may be seen playing a s'treet- 
 boy's game of cricket where any stick does for a bat and 
 .anything round for a ball; and in Singapore a few Chinese 
 have begun to play this essentially English game, many of 
 them being babas, i.e., Straits-born Chinese : but it will 
 probably be many a long day before English sports and 
 games are introduced to any appreciable extent in China 
 itself amongst the natives. They are too violent for 
 respectable Chinese to engage in. and consequently not 
 -dignified enough in their character, looked at from an 
 oriental stand-point. The Chinese school-boy is not brought 
 lip in an atmosphere of athletics and physical education as 
 English youths are. If with us such a training is sometimes 
 ■carried to an excess, there can be no doubt that the Chinese 
 err in the opposite direction. The motto drummed into 
 the Chinese youngster is that — 'Play is of no benefit a' all.' 
 
 ANCESTRAL WORSHIP.— Ancestral worship is 
 filial piety gone mad. True to their practice of retaining 
 •customs and habits for centuries and milleniums, the Chinese 
 nation has not given up this most ancient form of worship, 
 and the original worship of ancestors, like the older 
 formation of rocks on the earth's surface, is strong as the 
 everlasting hills, and, though overlaid by other cults, as 
 the primary rocks are by other strata, is still at the 
 foundation; nearly all the other methods of worship being 
 later additions and accretions. The worshipping of ancestors 
 thus underlies most of their religion, and many of their 
 -every-day acts and deeds. Social customs, judicial decisions, 
 
26 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 appointments to the office of prime minister, and even the- 
 succession to tlie throne arc influenced by it. A magistrate, 
 for instance, will punish a criminal much more lightly if he- 
 is the eldest or only son, in case one or both of his parents 
 have recently died, than he otherwise would, for fear of 
 preventing him sacrificing to the dead. An Emperor 
 on accession to the throne must be younger than his 
 predecessor, in order to worship him. Ancestial worship 
 has been defined as including not only the direct worship of 
 the dead, but also whatever is done directly or indirectly for 
 their comfort; also all that is done to avert the calamities 
 which the spirits of the departed are supposed to be able to 
 inflict upon the living, as a punishment for inattention to 
 their necessities. Under sucli a description as this, the 
 actions which it gives rise to will be found to permeate 
 nearly every phase of Chinese life:— concubinage, adoption, 
 house-building (both of private dwellings and clubs), the 
 institution of the Tung-wa Hospital, the laying out of 
 streets, modes of revenge, and methods of capital punishment, 
 all are partly due to the same c;iase. The consuming desire 
 to have sons, and the despising Of daughters centre in this, 
 and many of their superstitions and beliefs take their motive 
 force from it. This worship is the only one that is entitled 
 to the name of the National Religion of China, as the dead 
 are the objects of worship of poor and rich,^y-oung and old. 
 throughout the length and breadth of this immense empire. 
 The Chinese are willing to relinquish every other form of 
 worship and religion, but this is so interwoven into the 
 texture and fabric of their every-day life, and has such a 
 firm hold on them, that scarcely anything, short of the 
 miraculous, forces them to give it up, with such tenacity of 
 purpose do they cling to it. The Roman Catholics, with 
 more worldly wisdom than piety, allowed their converts at 
 one time to. retain this worsJiip — though not now; the 
 Protestant missionaries find it the most formidable obstacle 
 to the introduction of Christianity; the Mohammedans in 
 China do not allow it; and it is one of the strongholds of 
 opposition to all Western progress and science. 
 
ANCESTRAL WORSHIP. 27 
 
 Believing that the spirits in the next world stand iii: 
 need of the same comforts and necessities as the inhabitants 
 of this world, they hold it is the bounden duty of friends- 
 and relatives of the deceased to forward these to them; 
 but with that curious trait of the Chinese mind which 
 believes in large promises, but small fulfilments — in great 
 sho\Y and little reality — the articles sent into the spirit 
 Avorld for the use of their departed relatives, instead of being 
 the veritable articles used in this stage of existence, are, like 
 so many Things Chinese, shams. For houses, boats, clothes, 
 sedan-chairs, bills of exchange, mock-silver dollars, and 
 every conceivable object of use in this mundane sphere of 
 existence, have paper and bamboo models made of them. 
 Expense of course, is not spared in the production <;)f these 
 objects, but still it aaIU readily be understood that objects 
 made of such flimsy materials cannot be worth a tenth or a 
 hundredth, nor even sometimes a thousandth part of the 
 genuine article. These are forwarded into the next W(.)rld 
 by being burned. They proceed even further, fir they send! 
 supplies to the beggar spirits, who may have been neglected 
 by living relatives, or who may have no relatives living, 
 and to the spirits of those who have died at sea, in war, 
 of starvation, or abroad. They believe that nearly all tlie 
 ills to which flesh is heir, such as sickness, calamity, and 
 death are inflicted by these unfortunate and demoniacal 
 spirits. 
 
 The usual, if not universal belief with the Chinese, is,. 
 that a man possesses three souls. After death one goes into- 
 the Ancestral Tablet prepared for it, where it receives the 
 worship of the man's descendants at proper and stated times : 
 at such times also, worship is paid at the grave to another 
 soul; while the third goes into the nether world to receive 
 the rewards or punishments of the deeds done in this, finally 
 to return to the upper world again as a god, a man, a beast, 
 a bird, or a reptile according to its merits. This third soul 
 can also be worshipped at the City Temple, the god of which 
 is the ruler of departed spirits, and has an entourage of 
 oflicials, lictors, and attendants, like the Governor of a Chinese 
 
28 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 City. Bribery and corruption reign rampant there amongst 
 tlie spirits, just as in the venal workl of" China. 
 
 The Ancestral Tablet is generally a plain, oblong piece 
 ■of hard MOod. split nearly the whole way up. and stuck into 
 a small transverse block of wood. On one of the inner 
 surfaces and on the front outer surface, are written the name 
 and age of the deceased with other particulars. Incense is 
 ^hurnt night and morning before the tablet, and the near 
 relatives prostrate themselves before it for forty-nine days, 
 at those times. 
 
 The following is the story of the origin oi the custom: — 
 
 'The custom of erecting a tablet to the dead is said to have 
 •originated during the Chau dynasty (B.C. 350) when one, Kai Tsz-chui, 
 attendant on the sovereign of Tsin, cut out a piece of his thigh and 
 caused it to be dressed for His Majesty, who was fainting with hunger. 
 Kai Tsz-chui, not being able to continue his march from the pain he 
 suffered, concealed himself in a wood. This prince on his arrival at 
 the state of Tsi sent soldiers to take care of him, but they, being unable 
 to discover him, set fire to the wood where he was burnt to death. 
 The prince, on discovering the corpse, erected a tablet to his manes 
 which he begged to accompany home, and there caused incense to be 
 offered to him daily.' 
 
 The Tablets used by the boat people in Canton are 
 smaller, and differ in other respects also from those used on 
 shore. Immediately after death, plain ones are in vogue 
 amongst the floating population, but after three years or so 
 they arc ornamented and painted. A very curious custom 
 -also prevails amongst this tan-k't people in connection with 
 this mattei". Images are made of deceased members of the 
 family, and, what is still more curious, these images are of 
 the children wlio have died — curious, because cliildren are 
 not ancestors, and the Chinese do not erect tablets to anyone 
 under twenty years of ago \vho has not been married. The 
 boys are usually represented in these cases as riding on lions 
 or white horses, and the girls on white storks. 
 
 The Man-tsz Aborigines, in Western Sz-Chuen, take an 
 unburnt piece of wood from the funeral pyre; on the smooth 
 surface they picture a rude likeness of the head of the 
 family who has been there cremated, and place this in 
 the house as the Ancestral Tablet. 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 29- 
 
 When a Chinese directs in his will that a certain 
 portion of his estate is to be reserved for the carrying out of 
 ceremonies at his grave, in accordance with tlie principles of" 
 ancestral worship, English Courts of Law, in the cases that 
 have conic before them, have decided that such a bequest is 
 void, as tending to a perpetuity, and money cannot be bound 
 up for an indefinite period, which is not intended for a 
 charitable purpose. {See cases of Yip Cheng Neo *'. 
 Ong Cheng Neo, L. R. 6 P. C, Appeals 381 ; also Hoare v. 
 Osborne, L. R. 1. Eq. 585. The latest decision is, 'In the- 
 matter of the estate of Tio Wing Yung (Judgt.).' reported in 
 *China Mail,' of 6th May, 1891.) 
 
 JidoJm rt'comincndcd. — 'An Pjssay on Ancestral Worship." by Kevd. 
 M. T. Y'ates, D.D.. dealing with it generally, and another 'The Attitude uf 
 Chri:<tianity toward Ancestral Worship.' dealing with it historically. 
 
 ARCHITECTURE.— The Chinese have made but small 
 advances in architecture: they have not proceeded beyond 
 the first steps of architectural construction. The first 
 principle which they have acted upon appears to be that 
 of raising two side-walls to support the beams of the 
 roof. The length of these beams, in buildings of any size, 
 necessitates the adoption of rows of pillars to support them. 
 To obviate the too great multiplicity of these pillars, what 
 has been described as a very pretty system of ' king ' and 
 •queen' posts have been contrived, by which the pressure- 
 of several beams is transmitted to a single pillar. These 
 are often beautifully carved, and there is much scope for 
 variety. Tradescant Lay, from whom we have already- 
 quoted, further says : — 
 
 'A lack of science and of conception is seen '■■' *, but 
 
 fancy seems to have free license to gambol at pleasure, and what the 
 architect wants in developing a scheme, he makes up by a redundancy 
 of imagination.' Williams says: — -'In lighter edifices, in pavilions, 
 rest-houses, kiosks, and arbours, there is, however, a degree of taste 
 and adaptation that is unusual in other buildings, and quite in keeping 
 with their fondness for tinsel and gilding rather than solidity and 
 grandeur.? Another Sinologue says : — 'Their ornamentation is often 
 beautiful. But, even in their ornamentation, the Chinese rarely, if 
 ever, exhibit congruity of detail. The details are often perfect, but 
 they are seldom in such full harmony with other details as to present 
 to the spectator the pleasing aspect of a harmonious work of art. 
 
^0 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Tlieir constructiijn is bad; very little regard is paid to 
 •outline, except in pagodas, roofs of temples, and bridges, 
 •but the ornamentatifjn is the plcasantcst feature, on whicli 
 the greatest care is bestowed. 
 
 We have often heard from an old resident in China a 
 •description of the impressions produced by the first sight of 
 •Canton. Before reaching China, accounts had been received 
 of the destruction by fire of a Chinese theatre, and the loss 
 of life of thousands of natives. Arrived in front of the city, 
 a remembi'ance of the frightful catastrophe led the new- 
 -comer to suppose that the torn-down look of the houses and 
 sheds was the result of the destructive element; the idea 
 never occurring to him that the usual habitations of the citizens 
 ■of such an enormous city were such as these. The magnificent 
 ■churches and cathedrals, the stately edifices, the superb 
 mansions, are all wanting in a Chinese city; instead of the 
 broad streets, spacious avenues, and large squares— congeries 
 of narrow lanes, a maze of alleys (scarcely one entitled to 
 the name of a street, according to our acceptation of the 
 term); and the few open spaces in front of the temples — not 
 worthy to be dignified with the title of squares. Lining 
 both sides of the way, if in a family street, the Avails arc 
 formed of bluish-grey bricks, neatly pointed in mortar with 
 granite foundations reaching several feet above the surface 
 of the ground. Two or three long steps of granite, extending 
 from wall to wall of the house, lead up to the front, which, 
 with the exception of the door in the centre, presents a 
 blank wall to the passer-by. There are no Avindows, only 
 a plain, massive, double-leaved door of thick planks fastened 
 by two wooden bolts. These doors are often left open during 
 the day, and the privacy of the inmates ensured by two 
 outer, lighter constructed doors, also of wood, only reaching 
 a little more than half-way up the door-way. The side 
 walls of the house project a couple of feet or so, and support 
 the eaves, Avhich are carried out a corresponding distance, 
 and shelter t,he few feet in front of the entrance. The 
 walls are generally the thickness of the length of a brick, 
 and after ei^ht or ten courses, a course of bonders is laid. 
 
AliClUTECTURE. 31 
 
 The door once entered, over tlie liigh wooden threshold, one 
 "finds one's self under a small introductory roof, which 
 shelters the porter's room, and facing one is a row of large 
 doors, made of boards, in sets of three pairs or so, reaching 
 from wall to wall; beyond these is a small court, open in the 
 ■centre to the sky, where some green glazed pots of ornamental 
 ■flowers or plants are standing on similar flower-stands. The 
 whole house is now before one, the separate apartments 
 being under different roofs, the foremost being the reception 
 hall; for a Chinese residence is a collection of small buildings, 
 except amongst the poorest classes. 
 
 A ground floor is all that many houses can boast of, and 
 this is generally tiled ^\ ith red flooring-tiles, a foot square 
 and an inch in thickness. Marble tiles are occasionally laid 
 on the ground, but they are not highly polished. If there 
 are first floors, they are usually under one or more of the 
 inner roofs. 
 
 In some of the houses, more especially in the hongs 
 and godowns fronting the river in Canton, there are as 
 many as six, eight, ten, or twelve separate roofs, one behind 
 another, all in a row, with courtyards between each, 
 and covered passages on each side of these open spaces ; 
 the latter serve the double purpose of giving light and 
 ventilation, taking the place (.)f windows. Avhich are mostly 
 confined to the interior of the houses, where they open on 
 the courtyards. 
 
 The tent, it has very generally been thought, has 
 furnished the model for the construction of the roof in 
 kiosks and other buildings; but one or two writers have 
 lately dissented from this opinion.. 
 
 Ceilings are but seldom seen in Chinese houses, nor are 
 the walls plastered or papered. The roof-tiles are laid in 
 alternate row^s of roll and pantile, or small semi-cylindrical, 
 and broad, slightly concave ones, the traces it has been 
 pointed out, of early, split-bamboo roofing, and not of the 
 tent structure. In good roofs, a second layer of these is 
 put on above the other, or even a third on the top of 
 all. 
 
32 TIIIXGS CHINESE. 
 
 The habitations of the poor are often the merest hovels^ 
 and many workmen, as well as the poorest classes, live in 
 matsheds, the framework of which is made of bamboo, and 
 tlie walls and roofs of oblongs formed of bamboo leaves 
 fastened together. These matsheds, built of the ' attap,' as 
 it is called by the Malays, are very convenient, since they are 
 easily and quickly put up without a single nail, the bamboo 
 poles being tied together with long strings of split rattan, 
 and even more easily taken down when done with, for the 
 fastenings are cut instead of being undone. They are 
 largely used as temporary structures for religious festivals 
 and for many otlier objects, one of the most curious being 
 the construction of one over a house in the course of erection ; 
 to ]:)rotect it and the Morkmen from the heavy tropical 
 rains. 
 
 Along the banks of the rivers, over the mud-tlats, are 
 found many of the poorest sheds and shanties, of a nondescript 
 character — old boats often forming the foundation, and the 
 superstructure made of anything and everything, reminding- 
 one of Mr. Peggotty's famous ark, as described in ' David 
 Copperfield.' 
 
 The houses of the better classes have much ornamentation 
 about them. Stucco-work, representing human figures, birds, 
 animals, and flowers, is often found over the front of a house, 
 as on a frieze, and below the projecting roof; or the same 
 kind of decoration is found on inner walls, and affords a 
 pleasant relief to the plain monotony of the otherwise bare 
 brick walls. In Swatow, the whole front wall is often adorned 
 by six or seven large medallion-like pictures, which lend a 
 brightness to the otherwise plain surface. In fact, ordinary 
 buildings are more highly ornamented up the coast than is 
 the case further south. Variety is also given by the octagonal, 
 circular, and peai'-shaped door-ways, which pierce the walls 
 in the suites of apartments, and in gardens, and rockeries of 
 the superior class of houses; a quaint picturesqueness is 
 added to the general effect by the geometrical patterns of the 
 combination of door and window in one, the rows of which 
 serve as screens or partitions between the different rooms, as 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 33 
 
 well as by the fixed open-work partitions of like construction.. 
 Carvings of fruit and flowers and gaudy paint-work also 
 add their bizarre attractiveness to the toute ensemble. 
 
 The roofs of shops are built like those of private 
 houses, the shape being that of a Y turned upside down; 
 but instead of sheltering themselves behind a plain brick 
 wall, as in the case of the dwelling houses, they are quite 
 open to the street, and often have an upper story supported 
 in the front bv a broad brest-summer. The whole shop is 
 open to the street, and is closed up at night by shutter-doors. 
 (In Swatow the shutters over the counter are transverse 
 and not upright; they fold up from tlie counter and down 
 from the roof, meeting in the space in tlie centre.) A 
 granite counter occupies a portion of the space in front, 
 and a hard-wood counter runs at right angles to it back 
 into the shr)p. Behind the shop proper is the counting- 
 room. The sigu-bjards, though not strictly speaking au 
 architectural feature of the buildings tlicmselves, add much, 
 by the brilliancy of their reds and greens and gilding, to 
 the picturesqueness of the business streets, and relieve the 
 sameness which would otherwise result from the want of 
 architectural decoration. The sign-boards (the largest ones 
 are ten or more feet in length) are suspended at each side 
 of the shop front; some are set in stone bases, others hang 
 over the entrances or in the shop itself. A glance down a 
 street full of shops with its scores or hundreds of many- 
 coloured sign-boards is quite kaleidoscopic, as the glare of 
 the tropical sun flashes on their variegated hues; while 
 in the softer shades of the covered-over streets they serve to 
 lighten up the semi-religious gloom. 
 
 In the construction of the temples and public buildings 
 Avhere space is not so restricted, the main structures — two 
 or three in number — stand isolated, with stone-paved paths 
 and steps leading up to terraces of the same material on 
 which they are built, venerable trees shading the otherwise 
 open spaces. The dwellings of the abbots and monks, or 
 the subsidiary buildings, are at the sides or behind, with 
 numerous corridors leading to the apartments or suites of 
 
 c 
 
34 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 rooms. Most of what has been written above applies to 
 ■Canton and its neighbourhood, for of the inhabitants of 
 the various provinces (sometimes even of districts) of China, 
 it may be said with truth, to a greater or lesser extent, hi 
 omnes lingua, institutis, * * * inter se differunt, and 
 their dwellings, though in the main constructed on the same 
 general outlines, have peculiarities of their own in different 
 parts of the country ; for instance in Amoy, many of the 
 houses have an upward curve at each end of the top of the 
 roof, quite foreign to the extreme south of China. 
 
 There is nothing more incomprehensible to a foreigner than an 
 official residence, with its gates, folding doors, halls, side-rooms, • 
 balconies, carved and frescoed pillars, lattices, and matted ceilings 
 * " *. The frescoes are gaudy, and represent every conceivable 
 subject, from genii walking among clouds to a moth upon a peach. 
 The roof is a tangled mass of Asiatic glory. The Sz-chuane?e houses 
 excel in their exterior decorations ; the ridges, gateways, and corners, 
 are beautifully trimmed with broken bits of blue and white porcelain, 
 which, at a distance, have a most pleasing effect * * ""\ The 
 houses, except in the large cities, are flimsy affairs, with walls of 
 pounded earth, and roofs thatched with straw. 
 
 The principal material f<jr house construction in 
 Swatow and its neighbourhood is earth, or river sand, or 
 decomposed granite, mixed with lime in the proportion 
 of seven parts of the former to three of the latter. This is 
 rammed in between boards, hardens, and appears to be most 
 durable. 
 
 The roof has been considered the chief feature of Chinese 
 architecture ; and there is no doubt that a great amount of 
 decorative art is expended on the massive roofs of the larger 
 and finer temples and public buildings. The lightness and 
 grace of the curve of these heavy roofs is worthy of all praise; 
 they are sometimes constructed double, or in such a manner 
 as to give the appearance of two roofs. The rbject in this 
 is to lend an air of greater richness and dignity. The roof, 
 it will thus be seen, does not occupy, in public buildings 
 and temples, the subsidiary position that such a part of the 
 structure takes in the West. It is the most striking object 
 in this class of buildings, and with the numerous varnished 
 timbers and posts, the green glazed tiles and glazed dragons, 
 
ARCHITECTURE. 35 
 
 pearls, &c., and unhidden by plastered ceilings, it looks 
 most picturesque. On the other hand, the roofs of private 
 ■dwellings are simply for use. 
 
 It would naturally be expected that in such an ancient 
 land as China, the whole land would be full of old ruins. 
 Such is, however, not the case ; even the Great Wall has been 
 re-constructed once or twice. There are some structures still 
 standing that have stood for more than a thousand years ; 
 but to find older ones than this, it is necessary to excavate 
 the mounds— the tombs of ancient cities — where a few stone 
 buildings may be found: one, built seventeen centuries ago, 
 was recently discovered. Cave and rock dwellings are also 
 to be seen in some parts. The great majority of buildings 
 are modern, in the sense that that word has when applied to 
 anything in China ; for many things that are classed under 
 that category would be considered to be mediaeval or ancient 
 in the West. The reason for this paucity of relics of 
 antiquity is not far to seek : much of the material employed 
 is not fitted to withstand the ravages of ages, and, when it is, 
 the flimsy style of construction does not insure that durability 
 which it might otherwise hope to attain ; added to which 
 the humidity of the climate, and the insidious attacks of 
 insects, all militate against handing down to posterity the 
 works of its forefathers ; furthermore, the glance of the 
 Chinese has always been a retrospective one — back to 
 the hoary ages — and the tendency has not been to build 
 for future times. It is a curious feature in Chinese building 
 construction that so little stone has been employed. The 
 streets are paved with it ; the city walls are partially built 
 of it ; the foundations of houses are constructed of it ; so 
 are the end counters in .shops, as well as some of the outer 
 columns in temples ; but otherwise it is a rare thing to find 
 it entirely used in the building of any structure, except 
 commemorative arches and bridges. The Chinese have been 
 acquainted with the arch from very early times, though they 
 make comparatively little use of it. Many elegant bridges 
 have been constructed in different parts of the empire, some 
 of great length. 
 
 c 2 
 
36 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Commemorative arches, as these peculiar quaint portals- 
 may be styled, are generally put up by imperial command or 
 permission, to commemorate the virtuous and brave. They 
 consist of a large centre and two smaller side gateways, the 
 material employed in the south of China being generally 
 granite, and in the west soft, grey sandstone. There is a 
 considerable amount of ornamentation about them, usually 
 in the way of carving, and in the^^vest of China the flo%vers 
 and figures carved in relief are of marble, delicately fitted 
 and highly polished. In tlie streets over which they are- 
 erected, they at all times form a pleasant contrast to the 
 otherwise common lack of architectural adornment. They 
 are embellished with inscriptions, setting forth the virtues 
 of the individuals whose deeds are immortalised by their 
 erection. The pagoda is one of the most graceful specimens 
 of Chine.se architecture. [See Article on Pagodas.) 
 
 The cupola or dome is almost entirely unknown. 
 Mohammedan architecture deserves some mention, and it is 
 possible that the superiority of the Ming architecture may 
 be traced to it. 
 
 Boohs ri'comviendctl. — ' The Chinese As They Are,' by Tradescant La)',- 
 Chap, on ' Architecture.' Jour. C. Br. K.A.S. New Series. Vol. XXIV.. 
 Ko. ?>. Article on ' C!hinese Architecture, by Dr. Edkius, and Article 
 in the same number, by S. R. von Fries on 'The Tent Theory of Chinese 
 Architecture,' and the Report of the Discussions on the two Papers in the 
 same number. 'L'Art Chinois,' lieading of • Architecture,' by M. Palelogue'. 
 Same subject in Williams' ' Middle Kingdom.' and in most text-books on 
 China. An account of Ca\'e Dwellings is found in Williamson's 'Travels 
 in North China. 
 
 ARMS. — To find a counterpart to the arms which the 
 Chinese have used in the past, and which are still not 
 obsolete amongst them, one must turn to some of the 
 weapons employed amongst us in the west in the time, for 
 instance, of the Tudors, the Stuarts, and the Coramon- 
 Avealth; for the antiquated spears, pikes, and halberds, like 
 those of mediaeval Europe, are still modern instruments of 
 warfare amongst this ancient people, and, though fast being- 
 superseded, they have not yet been entirely laid aside. 
 
 Of spears, there are a number of varieties ; among which 
 may be noticed one similar to the partisan of the time of 
 
ARMS. 37 
 
 James I., called a Icik; another is like the pike of the time 
 of Cromwell, called a t'iii; and yet another, somewhat like a 
 voulge or boulge, of the time of Henry TIL 
 
 Of halberds, there are several different kinds, known as 
 Via fa fit: some of which resemble the halberds of the times 
 of Henry YIIL, Charles H., and the double axed halberd 
 of the time of Charles I. ; while another variety, known as 
 the pun, ijilt fit, from the crescent on one side, resembles 
 one of the time of Henry VII. ; another, also called a hih, 
 is like one used during the reign of William IH. 
 
 All these halberds and spears, with the exception of the 
 A'oulge and the pike, are also ancient weapons amongst the 
 Chinese. It seems curious that there should be such a 
 similarity between the ancient weapons of nations so widely 
 separated by distance from one another. A trident, a 
 formidable weapon, is also amongst the arms of the Chinese. 
 
 Swords and dagsjars are thus distinii-uished in China: 
 a sword (kin\) is two-edg_ul; a dagger [to) has only one 
 edge. Further, swords are always single, while daggers may 
 be single or in pairs ; in the latter case, one side of each 
 ■dagger is flat, so that tlie two may lie close together and fit 
 into one scabbard or sheath; thus occasionally a Chinese 
 •dagger would, by us be termed a sword. The common sword 
 amongst the Chinese is like a Roman sword, but probably a 
 little longer. At one time the Chinese officers carried 
 swords, while the men were armed with daggers. A second 
 kind of sword, but coming under the category of daggers, 
 has a flat belly, or blade, wliich tapers away to a sharp 
 jpoint. The sword would seen to be guardless, having a 
 transverse bar simply, the hand grasping the short hilt 
 above it, being entirely unprotected, while in the flat bellied 
 sword mentioned above, and in many daggers, a guard runs 
 from the bar at the hilt, forming a semi-circle with the rest 
 of the handle; this cross piece being only on the edge side. 
 
 Bows and arrows also form part of the equipment of 
 soldiers are who not armed with western weapons of pre- 
 •cision, though it is said that in modern times they are more 
 for show at examinations than for use in battle. The bows 
 
38 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 are made of horn and bamboo. Cross-bows have also been 
 employed by the Chinese in warfare. 
 
 Dr. Williams thus describes the matchlock and 
 cannon : — 
 
 The matchlock is of wrought iron and plain bore ; it has a longer 
 barrel than the musket, so long that a rest is sometimes attached to 
 the stock for greater ease in firing ; the match is a cord of hemp or 
 coir, and the pan must be uncovered with the hand before it can be 
 fired, which necessarily interferes with, and almost prevents its use 
 in wet or windy weather. The cannon are cast, and, although not 
 of very uniform calibre from the mode of manufacture, are serviceable 
 for salutes. 
 
 The cannon in use before recent years were all muzzle- 
 loaders, some on the city walls in Canton being more than 
 two hundred years old. Of late, breach-loaders and rifles of 
 modern European construction have been coming into use, 
 as portions of the Chinese army are being provided with 
 them [See Article on Army); but many of the Chinese 
 mandarins are wedded to their old style, and when reverses 
 occurred in the recent war with Japan, believing that they 
 were due to the use by their own soldiers of rifles and 
 modern arms, they proceeded to cast thousands of gingals, 
 so as to provide their army with them and ensure victory. 
 Gingals, or jingals, are long tapering guns, six to fourteen 
 feet in length, borne on the shoulders of two men and fired 
 by a third. They have a stand, or tripod, reminding one of 
 a telescope. By means of these stands, they are set in the 
 bulwarks of boats, when employed in naval warfare, or for 
 the protection of peaceful merchantmen, and being less liable 
 to burst than cannon, they form the most effective gun the 
 Chinese possess. 
 
 Two men jingals are a little over ten Chinese feet long, and are 
 of large bore. When ready to be fired, the front rank man grasps 
 hold of the middle of the barrel as it rests in the hollow of his right 
 shoulder, while the rear man takes aim and draws the trigger. 
 Formerly the flash-pan was used, but with the introduction of 
 percussion caps, the jingals have been fitted with nipples. These 
 weapons are claimed to have conquered China, being introduced by 
 the Manchus when they invaded the empire of the Ming dynasty, 
 and with jingals, Chinese Turkestan was conquered by the Emperor 
 Chien-lung's armies in the 17th century. The ordinary charge for 
 
ARMY. 39 
 
 a jingal of this sort is a good handful of gunpowder, with a two- 
 and-a-half ounce bullet. Sometimes on the battle-field, the jingals are 
 loaded with an extra allowance of gunpowder, and three bullets — 
 often four — are rammed in to create as much destruction as possible. 
 
 Another weapon of attack used in naval warfare, and 
 especially by pirates, is what is known amongst English- 
 speaking people as the stink pot: — 
 
 'This unsavoury name conveys a wrong impression, as the article 
 so described, bears but little resemblance, in shape or material, to its 
 namesake used some centuries ago by pirates on the Atlantic side. 
 The proper name for them is "hand-bomb" or "hand-grenade." 
 They are simply earthern pots, large enough to contain from two or 
 three pounds of powder ; the opening at the top is very small, and 
 after they are filled with gunpowder, the lids are cemented on with 
 chunam, which renders the whole air-tight and impervious tO' 
 damp. Around the pot, and on the lid of it, a lot of slow matches 
 are attached. The man who throws the "hand-bomb," stands on the 
 yard of the foresail, at the foremast head, in the same way as a 
 leadsman does with a hand lead when taking soundings. At the 
 right moment he lets it go, so that it will fall amongst the men on 
 the opposing vessel. The concussion, when it strikes, causes it to 
 break, when the powder comes into contact with the burning match 
 and explodes. Junks defend themselves against these "hand-bombs" 
 by spreading a fishing net or something similar, tightly drawn about 
 seven feet above the deck. When the "hand-bombs" strike the net, 
 its elasticity causes them to re-bound, and fall overboard before they 
 explode. The only smell observable in the explosion of these 
 "hand-bombs" is that of ordinary gunpowder. The powder used 
 contains more charcoal and less saltpetre than ordinary powder, 
 hence it explodes with less force and rapidity. The special virtue of 
 these "hand-bombs" in defence and attack, is that in exploding, they 
 throw the pieces of the pot about with great force, the hot fragments 
 inflicting severe wounds and burns on anyone within range. They 
 are a mild kind of bombshell, being much slower in operation and 
 less deadly in effect than the ordinary shell. The deadly smell 
 supposed to be connected with them is all a fiction.' 
 
 BonJts ri'commended. — Scc next Article. 
 
 ARMY — The military elements, which may be grouped 
 together under the general term of the Chinese army, are 
 various in number and different in composition. The three 
 main, but quite distinct, divisions are : — 
 
 (1) The eight banners, comprising 'all living Manchoos 
 and descendants of the Mongolian and Chinese 
 soldiery of the conquest.' These furnish guards 
 for the palace and garrisons in various chief 
 cities and other places. 
 
40 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 (2) The Chinese provincial army of the * Green Standard/ 
 
 comprising the Lmd and marine forces. The 
 former numbers 400,000 or 500,000, and is 'an 
 effete organisation discharging the duties of 
 sedentary garrisons, and local constabulary.' 
 
 (3) The braves or irregulars, enlisted or disbanded 
 
 as required, and used for actual warfare. No 
 approximate guess can be made of their numbers. 
 A later return from a native newspaper gives the 
 following as the troops garris(jned in the eigliteen provinces 
 of China Proper, not counting those in the ]\ranchurian and 
 Mongolian provinces, and the New Dominion ; but it must 
 \)Q remembered that in China, returns on paper as to numbers 
 of troops in existence are ver\' different from the reality, or. 
 in other words, the soldiers for whom pay is di'awn are 
 considerably more in nnmber than those who actually receive 
 the money, fn- here, as in every brancli of the Chinese 
 service, peculation by the officials is to be f )und. We give 
 the numbers, however, for what they are worth: — 
 
 Chih-li 
 
 . 42,532 
 
 Shan-tuno^ 
 
 .. 20,174 
 
 Shan-si 
 
 . 2),531. 
 
 Ho-nan 
 
 . 13,835 
 
 Kiang-su 
 
 . 50,13i 
 
 Ngan-hui 
 
 .. 8.T2S 
 
 Kiang-si 
 
 . 13,832 
 
 Fu-kien 
 
 .. cn,3ot 
 
 Che-kiang 
 
 . 39,009 
 
 Hu-pch ... 
 
 .. 22,740 
 
 Hu-nan 
 
 . 35,590 
 
 Shen-si ... 
 
 .. 42 260 
 
 Kan-su 
 
 . 55,819 
 
 Sze-chueu 
 
 .. 33,188 
 
 Kuang-tung . . 
 
 . 69,052 
 
 Kuang-si 
 
 .. 23,408 
 
 Yun-nan 
 
 . 42,549 
 
 Kwei-chow . 
 
 .. 48,490 
 
 Making a total of 650,178 
 
 We learn from still another authority, that the Chinese 
 army in time of peace is supposed to number 300,000 men ; 
 that there are 500 in a camp, and that from three to fifteen 
 camps are to be found in the neighbourhood of a city or 
 village with generals in command. 
 
 Bodies of the troops are being trained, in the European 
 style of warfare, at Peking and other important centres; the 
 
ARMY. 41 
 
 bugle-call is now heard in the north at Tientsin, as well as 
 in the heart of the empire at Hankow, and in the south it 
 is also making itself familiar to ears which, a few years 
 since, only knew the sound uf the gong and drum; but the 
 numbers so drilled form, as yet, but a small proportion of 
 the whole armed force of China. Matchlocks, gingals, bows 
 and arrows, spears and lances, are still the weapons of many. 
 Sometimes foreign arms are put into the hands of the soldiers 
 without proper instruction, and at other times costly weapons 
 rust and are rendered completely useless from neglect. 
 
 It is said, that for five years previous to 1892, 50,000 
 men with European weapons were stationed on the coast of 
 the Gulf of Chihli, and that part of the number were 
 instructed by European officers, who were mostly German. 
 
 The foreign officers, however, are not, as a rule, employed 
 for any other purpose than to teach the soldiers their 
 drill and the use of their weapons : as a German writer 
 remarks, ' kein fremder Offizier erhillt ein Commando oder 
 •die Befugnisse cines Generalstabs-offiziers oder Adjutnnten.' 
 The notable exceptions h;ive been the cases of Generals 
 Gordon and Mesny. 
 
 The old-fashioned native forts which mostly do duty 
 throughout the len<2:th and breadth of the land, and wliich 
 until lately were the only fortifications to be found, are 
 ridiculous, looked at from a European military stsindpoint. 
 Long rambling walls of brick are to be seen cHuibing up 
 the hill sides (as at the old Bogue Forts at the entrance to 
 the Canton River), crenellated for the muzzle-loading cannon, 
 a few specimens of which perhaps do duty in time of peace, 
 to be hastily supplemented in time of war by others ; or at 
 other places, on more level ground, smaller square forts may 
 be seen, which would perhaps have done well enough in the 
 mediaeval ages for the purposes for which they were built, 
 being strong enough, doubtless, for the internal well-being 
 of the country, and as a protection against Chinese rebels 
 armed with Chinese weapons. On the coast, at the diff"erent 
 treaty ports, as well as at some other places, such as at Port 
 Arthur, and the Bogue, already mentioned, fortifications after 
 
42 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the European style have been constructed, and breech-loading- 
 guns, of modern European make, have been provided, Krupp 
 guns, it was stated several years ago, were being made in 
 Yun-nan, and as time goes on the establishment of more 
 arsenals will probably be of use in meeting the present wants 
 of the Chinese soldier in the way of arms. 
 
 The Chinese * * have several batteries of breech-loading 
 artillery attached to their Manchu forces distributed over the Empire. 
 Every province has a contingent of foreign-drilled troops, who have 
 been taught by native instructors who learned their drill from German 
 soldiers. 
 
 There is unfortunately, however, but little hope for the 
 present, of military reform being carried out in China on 
 any large scale, at all events, to be of utility in the defence 
 of the country against wanton attacks in the future. 
 Since the Japanese war, the question of the reorganisation of 
 the army has naturally been supposed to be one of the fii'st 
 steps that would be taken. That there was a necessity for 
 it seemed patent to every eye. After such a severe blow it 
 was thought by many that China would take immediate 
 steps to bring herself into line Avith her more warlike 
 neighbour, and thus, by a visible readiness against attack, 
 provide against such a contingency. However, no eifective 
 steps would appear to have been taken yet with this end in 
 view. There is no national army in China in the modern 
 sense of the term, and no common arm provided for the 
 various provincial forces, nor is the training uniform, nor 
 their organisation on the same basis. Decentralisation i& 
 the order of the day with regard to those small forces which 
 are armed with modern weapons of precision. A few of the 
 Viceroys, more progressive than the old school of Chinese 
 officials, engage officers to instruct small bodies of men ; but 
 there is no uniformity of purpose in the matter, and the 
 same Viceroy will sometimes engage instructors from different 
 countries who, of course, have been trained in different 
 schools. As to their troops, there is no commissariat, and 
 there are no stores of ammunition or other necessaries. 
 
 The uniform of the comnion Chinese soldier consists of 
 a loose jacket andliDOse trousers: the formal- brown, yellow^ 
 
ARMY. 4a^ 
 
 or blue, with a wide facing on the edge of another colour ; 
 the trousers are usually blue. In a big circle, on both front 
 and back of the jacket, are Chinese characters denoting the 
 branch of the service they are connected with, &c. The 
 common cloth shoes and a conical, small, bamboo hat com- 
 plete the outfit. 
 
 The pay of the soldiers is very small : insufficient in fact 
 to support the men, and they are forced, in order to provide 
 the necessaries of life, to engage in civil employment or private 
 work, though in the expenditure of the empire is put the 
 sum of 21,600,000 Taels, being the pay of 600,000 infantry 
 at the rate of three taels a month, half in money and half 
 in rations, and 11,616,000 Taels for the pay of 242,000 
 cavalry at four Taels a month, but, with all the peculations 
 that take place before it reaches the hand of the private 
 soldier, and the months of pay he is often in arrears, the 
 reality does not come up to the statements on paper. There 
 does not appear to be a uniform rate of pay, for in important 
 places where the soldiers are under foreign methods of 
 instruction, as at Tientsin, Foochow, and the Bogue, a higher 
 rate prevails, ranging from |12 to |20 a month, and it is 
 more regularly given. The soldiers in the retinue of a 
 Viceroy are also better paid, but the ordinary Chinese private 
 gets very little. A dollar may be given to him once every 
 ten days, being at the rate of ten cents a day, while another 
 ten cents is held over by the Mandarin and perhaps given 
 to him in a lump sum at New Year's time, or at the different 
 festivals. It may be interesting to compare the pay of the 
 Chinese soldier with tliat of the British and German private 
 in English money. The German soldier gets 4^d. a day ; the 
 British soldier, Is.; and the Chinese, when be gets what is 
 due to him, as above, say about 3^d., and supposing also all 
 his deferred pay to be given to him, often a most unlikely 
 thing, the whole may amount to the rate of about 7d. a day. 
 It must be remembered that the 3^d. a day supplies him with 
 all the food he gets. No pension nor invalid allowance is 
 provided,* nor is there any medical staff corps nor army 
 medical corps, and the sufferings the Chinese soldier- 
 
U THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 undergoes in the field, not only from the horrors of war, but 
 also from malaria and disease, are dreadful to contemplate. 
 
 In imitation of the Civil Service examinations in vogue 
 in China there has been introduced during the present 
 dynasty, a series of examinations for the army. A gradation 
 similar to those for the literary degree has been established, 
 the successful candidates at the higher of which are awarded 
 the same titles of Sla-ts'ai, Kil-jin, and Tsin-sz; the highest 
 degree! is also competed for at Peking. [See Article on 
 Examinations.) No knowledge of letters in general is 
 required of the candidates, though the Literary Chancellor^ 
 before conferring tlie title of Siu-tsai on them, tests them 
 on their literary attainments. What is required for a 
 successful pass is muscle, as shown in the lifting of lieavy 
 weights, ssvordsmfinship, and skill in archery. The latter 
 is sliown both on foot and on horseback. A straight 
 trench, a foot or two in depth and wide enough for a 
 pony to run in comfortably, is dug in the parade ground, 
 and, mounted on horseback, the aspirant for militaiy 
 honours galhjps or trots at a brisk pace along this. As 
 the pony has simply to go straight along the trench, tlie 
 liorseman is able to devote his whole attention to his archery. 
 Provided with a sufficient number of arrows he thus s\viftly 
 passes the targets, three in number, and about fifteen or 
 twenty feet distant from iiim as he passes, and lets fly an 
 arrow at each, the distance between them being s ) fixed as 
 "to give liim time to pull an arrow from his quiver and fix 
 it on the string. A gong is beaten at each target, on a 
 successful hit being made, to apprise the examiner who is 
 seated in a pavilion at the end of the course. 
 
 Though the successful candidates are rewarded witli 
 the same degrees, if one may be allowed to use the term, 
 as those conferred on civilians, yet, as it is merely by bodily 
 strength and a quick eye that they g'ain them, the people, who 
 most wisely do not valu'i military distinctions, attach but little 
 honour to such, and a military officer is considered to be of 
 a much inferior grade to a civil one. The naval officers 
 -are selected from the same successful candidates. As one 
 
ARMY. 45 
 
 writer has well said: — 'No knowledge of tactics, gunnery, 
 engineering, fortifications, or even letters in general, seems 
 to be required of them; and this explains the inefficiency 
 of the army, and the low estimation its officers are held 
 in.' An acquaintance with the theories of Sun-tsz, Wu-tsz, 
 Sz-ma, and other venerable and antique authors, is expected 
 of candidates for a military degree. These are a study 
 for the philosopher and disciplinarian rather than for the 
 tactician . 
 
 The Chinese is not a fighting animal. Pitted against 
 Europeans, his tactics have been often like those of the 
 native dog — ^much bluster, but little done, and easily driven 
 off. It is said Chinese soldiers are brave in flight, for the 
 word 'brave' is written on the back of their jackets, but it 
 is also written in front, and when properly drilled, armed, 
 and led, they are not wanting in courage, as the Ever 
 Victorious Army, under General Gordon, gave proof. 
 
 The Chinese army of 1876-7, which reconquered eastern Tur- 
 kestan, acknowledged to have been a most brilliant achievement, 
 was officered and led by Chinamen. They conquered Kashgar with 
 an army armed with European weapons, and showed considerable 
 science in the art of war. Their soldiers were drilled according to 
 foreign methods and marched in obedience to officers trained in 
 European principles, and their Geneials manoeuvred their troops 
 in accordance with the teaching of the most advanced military 
 authorities. 
 
 Besides, their history is as full of brave deeds and 
 desperate valour on the field of battle as that of any other 
 people. The Chinese nation possesses the raw material to 
 turn out Avhat are known as good soldiers; but they possess 
 scarcely any, or but very few, native officers capable of 
 developing this raw material into efficient warriors, fit to 
 stand before an army trained in western warfare ; and 
 further the whole Chinese system, or rather want of system, 
 added to the corruption in the ranks of those who pretend 
 to lead them, militates entirely against the Chinese Tommy 
 Atkins being anything but a coward before the Avestern foe, 
 and a desperado and robber in the piping times of peace 
 amongst his own countrymen. The quiet and peace-loving, 
 home-abiding Chinaman, may well say, ' Defend us from our 
 
46 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ■defenders.' Martial law prevails in the Chinese army, and 
 very summary justice is dealt out to any soldier detected 
 in any flagrant crime; for he has short shrift, his superior 
 officers having the power of life and death in their hands, 
 without the necessity of referring to the Emperor for 
 •confirmation of the sentence. The Chinese soldier thus 
 holds his life in his hand in times of peace as well as in 
 times of war. 
 
 The following estimate of the qualities of the Chinese 
 as soldiers may prove of interest in this connection : — 
 
 The old notion is pretty well got rid of, that they are a cowardly 
 people when properly paid and efficiently led; while the regularity 
 and order of their habits, which dispose them to peace in ordinary 
 times, give place to a daring, bordering upon recklessness, in times 
 of war. Their intelligence and capacity for remembering facts make 
 them well fitted for use in modern warfai-e, as do also the coolness 
 and calmness of their disposition. Physically, they are on the average 
 not so strong as Europeans, but considerably more so than most of 
 the other races of the east; and on a cheap diet of rice, vegetables, 
 salt-fish and pork, they can go through a vast amount of fatigue, 
 whether in a temperate climate or a tropical one, where Europeans 
 are ill-fitted for exertion. Their wants are few; they have no caste 
 prejudices, and hardly any appetite for intoxicating liquors. Being 
 of a lymphatic or lymphatic-bilious temperament, they enjoy a re- 
 markable immunity from inflammatory disease, and the tubeixular 
 diathesis is little known amongst them. 
 
 The soldiers are often employed in China in duties 
 which would be considered by western military authorities 
 as outside their proper functions. Construction of the 
 Government railway in Formosa, building walls, and even 
 scavenging may be given as examples of the extra military 
 labours which they are called upon to perform at times. 
 
 Boohs recotmnendcd. — Mayer's 'Chinese Government.' 'Account of 
 the Arm}' of the Chinese Empire,' by Sir Thos. Wade, in Chinese 
 Repository,' Vol. XX., pp. 250, 3U0, and 363. ' Memoiies sur les Chinois,' 
 torn. VII., gives a translation into French of the Chinese text books for 
 juilitary candidates, accompanied by remarks upon movements adorned 
 with numerous engravings illustrating both arms and armed array.' 'Die 
 tJhinesische Armee,' von Major a. D. Pauli, an article in 'Schorers 
 Familienblatt' Heft 7, 1892. 'China, von einem friiheren Instiucteur in 
 der Chinesischen Armee,' Leipziz, 1892, a small pami-hlet, containing some 
 ten pages on the Chinese arinj-. The 'China Mail' of 22nd Juh', 1892, 
 contains an account of scavenging by soliliers, and the 'Hongkong Daily 
 Press' of 11th October, 1893, notices the praying to the spirits to direct 
 the aim of the guns. See Article on Arms. 
 
ART. 47 
 
 ART. — Painting is still in a backward stage in China; 
 
 the laws of perspective, and light and shade, are almost 
 
 unknown, though the former is occasionally honoured with 
 
 a, slight recognition. Height usually represents distance 
 
 in a Chinese painting, that is to say, distant objects are 
 
 put at the top of the picture, and nearer ones below them, 
 
 while but little difference is made in the size. As regards 
 
 light and shade, no shading is put into many Chinese 
 
 landscapes, though M. Paleologue states that native artists 
 
 have sometimes attained to the expression of the most 
 
 artistic and delicate effects of light and shade, instancing 
 
 the grand landscape school of the T*ang dynasty as 
 
 producing perfect works under this class. The arrangement 
 
 of objects, and the grouping of persons in natural attitudes, 
 
 would appear not to be taught according to our ideas on the 
 
 subject. Symmetry is the object aimed at; the subsidiary 
 
 parts are treated Avith as much care as the principal; the 
 
 smallest details are elaborated with as much minuteness as 
 
 the most important. Figures are nearly always represented 
 
 full-faced; and the heads are often stuck on at a forward 
 
 angle of forty-five degrees to the rest of the body ; this being 
 
 the scholar's habitual attitude and one indicative of much 
 
 study. What the Chinese delineator considers of prime 
 
 importance is the representation of the status occupied by 
 
 the subject : as his rank in the official service, or grade in 
 
 the literary corps, or social position. The presentation of 
 
 a living, feeling soul, revealed in its index, the face, sinks 
 
 into utter insignificance in comparison with the exposition 
 
 of the external advantages of rank and fortune, or of the 
 
 tattered rags of the old beggar fluttering in the breeze. 
 
 Rough outline sketches, in ink, of figures and landscapes are 
 
 much admired. In these, impossible mountains, chaotic 
 
 masses of rock, flowers, trees, and boats, are depicted in 
 
 such a manner as to call forth but little enthusiasm from 
 
 the Western observer. 
 
 As draftsmen, their forte lies in taking the portrait of some 
 single portion of nature's handiwork. Many of these they have 
 analysed with great care, and so well studied as to hit off a likeness 
 with a very few strokes of the pencil * * *. There is a peculiarity 
 
48 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 among the Chinese which has risen from the command they have 
 over the pencil — they hold it in nearly a perpendicular direction to 
 the paper, and are therefore able, from the delicacy of its point, to 
 draw lines of the greatest fineness, and, at the same time, from the 
 elastic nature of the hairs, to make them of any breadth they please. 
 The broad strokes for the eyelash and the beard are alike executed 
 by a single effort of the pencil. 
 
 It has been pointed out tliat the exigencies of Chinese 
 writing demand an education of the eye and hand, analogous 
 to that required in designing. The handling of the hair 
 brush — the Chinese pen — every day gives a facility and 
 readiness of touch and expression 
 
 Tlie Chinese artist has learned a lesson which has only 
 within the last few years been understood by us in our 
 natural history museums — he copies all the parts of a bird 
 in detail, and then, it has been aptly said; 
 
 He studies the attitudes, and the peculiar passions of which atti- 
 tudes are the signs, and thus represents birds as they are in real life, 
 c- o c- though they may be rudely executed in some of their details. 
 Nor is this fidelity confined to birds alone, neither is it a new advance 
 in their art, as we find it recorded of Ts'ao Fuh-hing, a famous painter 
 of the third century, that, having painted a screen for the Sovereign, 
 he added the representation of a fly so perfect to nature that the 
 Emperor raised his hand to brush the fly off. 
 
 We ourselves have seen a cat go up to examine a bird 
 which was drawn standing on a spray in a most natural 
 manner. These stories point out one of the most striking 
 characteristics of certain Chinese painting — its graphic 
 character — and remind us of Apelles' horse which the living- 
 horses neighed to, as well as the other famous story of a 
 horse trying to eat a sheaf of corn on the canvas. -With 
 equally minute care they faithfully copy flowers, bamboos, 
 and trees, noting carefully the minute ramifications of 
 branches, as well as the action of each particular kind of 
 wind on the objects painted; Avhile, however, all these 
 points are being attended to with a patience worthy of the 
 highest commendation,, as it produces a sort of fidelity to 
 nature, yet at the same time the Avhole perchance is vastly 
 deficient in correspondence and proportion. This entering 
 into the mysteries of nature and the reproduction of some of 
 them with an approach almost to photographic fidelity, 
 
ART. 4i> 
 
 scarcely to be expected from them, judging by some of the 
 other productions of tlieir pencils, is of interest and use to 
 the botanical student, since the illustrations in such a native 
 work, for instance, as the great Materia Medica, rhe' Peri 
 Ts'ao, give a far better idea from their, in many instance?, 
 great truthfulness, than the mere letter-press would convey 
 to the foreign student. Their attempts at depicting animal 
 life result in rude, uncouth forms, but the conventionality of 
 the attitudes of the human figure frequently lends a charm 
 which does not attach to many of their products. The 
 proportion and grouping together of the componenr parts of 
 a picture are defined by a conventional canon, to the rigid 
 adherence of which is due much of the unreality so con- 
 spicuous in their attempts at portraying the human passions,' 
 and they have remained at the same in)perfect development 
 of this branch of their art for many centuries; (tiiis stage 
 has been compared to that of Italian painting in the time of 
 Giotto and Simone Memmi), added to which is their entire 
 ignorance of anatomy, the result of this ignorance being- 
 often a caricature of the human body. At the same time 
 all praise must be given to the delicacy of their colouring, 
 which, without any scientific laws to guide them, they seem 
 intuitively to know hoj^vto apply. They are very fond of 
 their works of art, and the mansions of the wealthy are 
 hung with scrolls depicting landscapes and sprays of flowers, 
 with birds, and insect life, etc. Even the poorer classes 
 adorn their humbler dwellings with cheaper specimens of 
 pictorial art, and scarcely a boat of any pretensions on the 
 Canton river but is ornamented with a few pictures, while 
 the sellers of sketches in black and white find a ready sale 
 for their Avares in the streets. 
 
 It is necessary, however, to remember that our commend- 
 ation is awarded to purely native art, the bastard productions 
 of those daubers who seem to thrive in Hongkong and some 
 of the Treaty Ports being altogether beneath contempt. 
 
 The Chinese, in some localities, are clever at fresco or 
 encaustic painting, which they employ upon their temples 
 and better class houses in the form of panels and friezes 
 
 D 
 
50 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 l)oth inwardly and externally. {See Article on Architecture.) 
 ^ever, so far as we can learn, have they made any use o€ 
 oil as a medium for their pigments, but it must, of course, 
 be remembered that the latter addition to the painter's 
 Tesources was equally unknown in Europe down to the 
 fifteenth century. 
 
 The native pigments are very primitive, and their cakes, 
 or sticks, of water-colour are on a par with the very cheapest 
 toy outfits of an English juvenile. Their Chinese ink, 
 however, is admirable and superior to any other in the world. 
 Their pencils and brushes, also, leave little to be desired, 
 being exactly adapted to their manner of work. It would 
 be impossible, however, for an English water-colourist to 
 produce his effects with such tools, and it would be idle to 
 <3xpect the celestial to make any advance in art until he 
 throws over his conservatism and adopts the paper, colours, 
 and brushes of modern Europe. 
 
 Religion, nature, history, and literature, have all in- 
 :spired the Chinese artist with a UKjre or less varying degree 
 of success. 
 
 If implicit credence were to be given to the accounts of 
 the Chinese themselves, painting was first practised B.C. 2 6()0, 
 but the art in China lia? quite a veirerable enough' antiqtiity 
 without ascribing to it such a hoary one. Mural decoration 
 appears to have been the first application of it, and the 
 Chinese Emperors frequently had the walls of their palaces 
 so adorned. In the third century before the Christian era, 
 paintings were made on bamboo and silk, whether pen and 
 ink sketches, or in colour, it is difficult to say ; but a great 
 impetus was given to the art, when, in the first century of 
 our era, paper was invented. 
 
 The first painter of whose labours mc possess any 
 ■definite record, belongs to the third century of the 
 Christian era, over six hundred years after the period of 
 Zeuxis, thougii Dr Anderson, from wlumv we quote, imfornis 
 us, that a passing allusion to a portrait is found in the 
 works of Confucius. The same authority says that the 
 Oliinese must have attained to sonic profi:;iency in the art 
 
ART. 51 
 
 of drawing before the Buddhist era : it is probable that 
 the liigher development of painting in China was due to 
 the influence exercised by specimens of Indian and Greek 
 art introduced with the Buddhist religon. At the head 
 of the list of Chinese painters stands then the name of 
 Ts'ao Fuh-hing, the memory of those who preceded him 
 liaving been lost, a retainer of the Emperor Wu Sun K'iian 
 (A.D. 24-0-251). He was famous for Buddhist pictures and 
 sketches of Dragons, and he is the hero of the marvellous 
 story of the fly. Another story is that of a dragon which was 
 painted by him and preserved until the Sung dynasty, when 
 it produced rain in a time of drought. The second artist 
 Avhose name has been preserved is tliat of Chang Sang-yiu. 
 He painted Buddhist pictures for the devout monarch Wu 
 Ti' (A.D. 502-5i9). Anderson thus writes concerning him:— 
 ' It is doubtful whether any of his works are now in 
 existence, but his style has been handed down by followers, 
 amongst whom arc numbered many famous masters of the 
 brush.' Another wonderful dragon story is narrated of him. 
 It 'credits him with the delineation of a dragon of such 
 miraculous semblance to ••nature" that with the final 
 touches the pictured monster b3camo suddenly inspired with 
 life, and in the midst of sable clouds and deafening peals of 
 thunder, burst through the walls to vanish into space ' 
 
 The second epoch commences some time after the intro- 
 duction of Buddhism into China. This religion exerted a 
 beneficent effect on the stagnant state of ancient art with 
 the new vistas it opened out, and the new fields for fresh 
 achievements. Buddhism was vigorous in those days, and 
 Buddhist monasteries were multiplied to such an enormous 
 extent, that in A.D. 845 there were more than four millions 
 of them. They were schools of literature and art, and many 
 paintings were executed on long rolls of silk illustrative 
 of the life and death of the founder of Buddhism and 
 Buddhistic subjects. 
 
 Other schools arose which also devoted themselves to 
 religious, as well as other kinds of art. Between A.D. 265 
 and A.D. 618. Chinese authors mention about five hundred 
 
 D 2 
 
52 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 painters of celebrity, in addition to those of the religious- 
 school. Besides the subjects belonging more especially to- 
 the latter, the delineation of the human face, of the animal 
 creation, and of landscape, engaged tlie attention of the artist. 
 One example alone may be mentioned as an instance of the 
 high position which art held at that period: — One of the 
 members of Mo Ti's (AD. 502-550), Privy Council was 
 appointed to adorn the Imperial Temples with paintings. 
 
 When we come to the seventh century, we find two 
 brothers, famous painters, named Yen Li-teh and Yen 
 Li-pun, the latter of whom is especially remembered for a 
 series of historical portrait-studies of ancient paragons of 
 loyalty and learning. 
 
 Wu Tao-tsz is the name which merits most attention. 
 in the eighth century. He attracted the notice of the 
 Emperor Ming Hwang, ' with whom he remained in high 
 favour till his death. His style is said to have been formed 
 upon that of Chang Sang-yiu, whose spirit was believed to 
 have reappeared upon earth in the person of his follower. 
 His chief renown was won in religious art, but his land- 
 scapes were remarkable for picturesque feeling and strength 
 of design, aiid of his life-like portraitures of animals.' 
 
 Also worthy of mention, though not of such renown, 
 are the names of Wang Wei, a landscape painter holding 
 high rank in court (A.l). 713-742), and Han Kan, ?i protege 
 of the last, remembered chiefly for his painting of horses. 
 Amongst other names, famous during the T"'ang dynasty as 
 painters, may be mentioned Li Tsien and his son Li Chung- 
 ho, noted for drawings of figures and horses; Yuen Ying, 
 best known for his minutely drawn representations of insect 
 life; Kiang Tao-yin and Li Cheng, landscape painters. 
 
 The artistic appreciation of natural scenery existed in 
 China many centuries before landscape played a higher part 
 in the European picture than that of an accessory. 
 
 The third epoch of Chinese art commences with the 
 T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-960) and ends Avith that of the 
 Sung. At the beginning of this period, Chinese painting- 
 divides itself into the northern and southern schools, sa 
 
ART. 53 
 
 named from the respective parts of the country in which 
 those belonging to them resided, the chief distinction 
 between the two being that the southern Avas less trammelled 
 by the canons of art to which the northern school rigidly 
 adhered. To the former belonged Ouan Mo-kie, described as 
 one of the most original artists of China. Like many of 
 China's artists, he was not painter alone, but poet and 
 musician too, for the beauties of nature's landscapes, which 
 were his special forte, were not only interpreted by his 
 brush, but sung by his muse as Avell. He reduced his 
 methods to writing, and for two centuries afterwards, viz.: — 
 'the eighth and ninth, they led the artistic world to go direct 
 to nature as their mistress and model. The most brilliant 
 painter of this epoch is Au To-huan. ^Mountains with 
 pagodas, convents, and Buddhistic scenes were what he 
 delighted to paint. Daring the ninth and tenth centuries, 
 the painting, in all their various movements, of animals and 
 flowers, occupied the attention of all the artists, but at the 
 same time the Buddhist school still pursued its course and 
 produced works of great merit. In the tenth century, two 
 artists of the first rank deserve mention — King Hao and 
 Hoang Tsuan. There are two specimens of the latter's style 
 in the British Museum. 
 
 The fourth epoch is that of the Sung dynasty, and is 
 marked by a rejuvenescence of literature and art after the 
 troubled periods which immediately preceded it; but owing to 
 the disfavour under which Buddhism fell, the religious school 
 of art also lapsed into a state of decadence in the twelfth 
 and thirteenth centuries, though a few artists of great ability 
 are still to be found in this branch. The Sung dynasty 
 was rich in famous artists. We may call attention to Muh 
 Ki, Liang Chi, Kwoh Hi, the Emperor Hwei Tsung, Li 
 Lungyen, Ma Yuiin, Hia Kwei, Yuh Kien, Hwui Su, and 
 Mih YuiJn-chang. Ngan Hwui, who lived in the thirteenth 
 century, is usually associated with the great painters of the 
 Sung dynasty. The school of landscape artists, started on 
 the right track under the former epoch, rose to the highest 
 point of art. The beauties of spring-time with its joyous- 
 
54 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 bursting of bud, leaf, and flower; the sweets of summer; the 
 sadder traits of autumn, and the snow-clad beauties of 
 winter, all engaged their brushes. Amongst the masters of 
 this style may be mentioned the two Li Cheng, one the 
 chief of the northern school, and the other belonging to the 
 southern; the former was followed by numerous artists during 
 the eleventh, twelfth, and part of the thirteenth centuries, 
 but unfortunately, in the devotion to their master, they 
 began to copy the style of the man rather than to follow 
 him in his sincere admiration of nature herself In conjunc- 
 tion with a new tendency, which manifested itself, each 
 school, each studio, took as a speciality the production of a 
 certain picturesque detail, and ceased to see landscape in its 
 whole. As examples of this tendency may be instanced the 
 two brothers. Ma Yuen and iMa K"'on, avIio confined themselves 
 to pines, cypresses, cedars, and steep rocks; another only 
 cared to reproduce the effects of snow ; others confined their 
 attention to the feathery bamboo with its stiff stems, tender 
 green leaves, and the graceful curves of the topmost boughs ; 
 another speciality was clusters of flowers in the spaces 
 between glazed tiles on a roof, — surely a singular taste; 
 bull-finches, bamboos, and rocks are named as the objects 
 on which Li Ti exercised his brush; snow-laden pines and 
 clumps of trees were what another artist loved to reproduce ; 
 while plum-trees and flowers were what Chong Jen singled 
 out as worthy of his skill ; other jjainters had the good sense 
 not to confine themselves to one speciality. Some wonderful 
 productions of birds, life-like and natural, were painted 
 during this period. 
 
 The fifth epoch is that of the Yuan, or Mongol dynasty. 
 The Mongol conquest of China stirred up the comparatively 
 stagnant pool of Chinese native life, and introduced a stream 
 of vivifying influence from the more western nations. Other 
 styles of art were introduced to the Chinese, who had for 
 some centuries seen but little from outer lands to inspire 
 their genius, or spur on their adaptive eff"orts. These influ- 
 ences from abroad, more felt in other branches of art, did not 
 make such an impression on painting as one might suppose,. 
 
ART. 55- 
 
 though some traces of such influence are to be found- 
 Coupled with this, there was also a renaissance of Buddhism, 
 which the tide of Mongol rule brought in with it, and which 
 made itself felt in the artistic world, as well as elsewhere. 
 The divisions, which we have noted in the Sung period, still 
 continued. The characteristic of the painters under the 
 Yuan dynasty is the taste for bright and brilliant colours. 
 A tiger and cvibs, executed by one of the artists of this, 
 dynasty, is to be seen in the British Museum. 
 
 The sixth epoch is that of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368- 
 1643). Painting benefited in the first years of this dynasty 
 by the improvements in technical art which took place, though 
 a<rain no^t to such an extent as in some of the oth<3r branches 
 of art, and it, during this epoch, began to decline from about 
 the middle of the dynasty. Consequently, it is convenient 
 to divide this epoch into two periods, lasting respectively 
 from A.D. 1368 to 1488, and from 1488 to 1643. The style 
 of this first period of Ming dynasty ait may be characterised 
 as without much originality, but with other characteristics 
 of first importance : a style of art without great eminence, 
 but without decay. 
 
 There were, however, as late as the fifteenth and sixteenth, 
 centuries, many painters of great merit; but tlie best of these, 
 including Lin Lian^j and Lii Ki, were avowed imitators of the older 
 masters. The one exception to the general decay in later centuries 
 was a style which, so far as we are aware, numbered only two 
 important followers— Ch'eng Chung-fu and Li-kin Kii-sze '■' '' '•■. 
 These artists, seeking better results in the painting of portraits, than 
 had been found attainable by pursuing the caligraphic ideal, ventured 
 to represent the outlines and shadows of the face as they saw them. 
 
 In the second period of this epoch begins the decline of 
 
 Chinese painting. The causes of this decadence commenced, 
 
 centuries previously, when, for a study of nature at first hand,. 
 
 was substituted a servile imitation of some master-hand, 
 
 whose inspiration was derived from the faithful communion 
 
 with nature herself, which his disciples neglected. That snare 
 
 of the Chinese in so many branches of their learning and. 
 
 knowledge, the blind following of set rn^es and canons, again 
 
 showed itself in their reproduction of the phases and aspects 
 
 of nature in her revelations to man, for instead of lifting up 
 
56 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 their eyes and seeing the fields ripe for a harvest, ready for 
 those who would reap it, they contented themselves with the 
 achievements of the past, and let the golden opportunities 
 slip. 
 
 The difference between these two periods (the first and 
 second halves of the Ming dynasty) is marked, and the 
 beginning of a new style is seen, which prevailed in the 
 seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. 
 
 The seventh epoch is that of the present dynasty, and 
 under it the decadence, previously foreshadowed and com- 
 menced in the preceding dynasty, becomes iin fait accompli. 
 The absence of inspiration is seen, and for it is substituted 
 the use of certain illustrated works, which serve as diction- 
 aries to the aspirant for fame, from which the painter 
 copies the different figures or objects, already prepared for 
 his use in all possible situations of ordinary Chinese life ; 
 he has degenerated into a copyist, for it only remains for 
 him to group them. Under the third Empei'or, Yung Ching 
 (A.D. 1723-1736), there was a tendency towards improvement, 
 but the b;Hinds of tradition were not burst : it sttjpped short 
 of a renovation of the whole art. The Jesuit missionaries 
 at Peking attempted to introduce the principles of Avestern 
 art as applied to painting, but, though they executed 
 numerous works, the Chinese were not far enough advanced 
 to adopt such a complete reversal of all their preconceived 
 ideas and canons of art. In the south, George Chinnery, an 
 English artist, who painted many scenes of Chinese life, 
 exerted, in the first half of the present century, some influence 
 on the painters patronised by the foreign residents of Canton 
 and Macao ; and the copying by these of foreign portraits 
 has doubtless modified their modes of expression and im- 
 proved their style to some extent, but the body of (Chinese 
 painters has not been affected thereby. 
 
 In conclusion, to sum up the whole matter, we perhaps 
 cannot do better than supplement the quotations we have 
 already made from ^i^cle^'son by another one : — 
 
 There is, perhaps, no section of art that has been so completely 
 misapprehended in Europe as the pictorial art of China. For us the 
 
ART. 57 
 
 ■Chinese painter, past or present, is but a copyist who imitates with 
 laborious and indiscriminating exactness whatever is laid before him, 
 xejoices in the display of as many and as brilliant colours as his 
 subject and remuneration will permit, and is original only in the 
 creation of monstrosities. Nothing could be more contrary to fact 
 than this impression, if we omit from consideration the work executed 
 for the foreign market — work which every educated Chinese would 
 disown. The old masters of the Middle Kingdom, who, as a body, 
 united grandeur of conception with immense power of execution, 
 cared little for elaboration of detail, and, except in Buddhist pictures, 
 sought their best effects in the simplicity of black and white, or in 
 the most subdued of chromatic harmonies. Their ail was defective, 
 but not more so than that of Europe down to the end of the thirteenth 
 century. Technically, they did not go beyond the use of water- 
 colours, but in range and quality of pigments, as in mechanical 
 command of pencil, they had no reason to fear compai'ison with their 
 contemporaries. They had caught only a glimpse of the laws of 
 chiaroscuro and perspective, but the want of science was counterpoised 
 by more essential elements of artistic excellence. 
 
 In motives they lacked neither variety nor elevation. As land- 
 scape painters they anticipated their European brethren by over a 
 score of generations, and created transcripts of scenery that for 
 breadth, atmosphere, and picturesque beauty can scarcely be 
 surpassed. In their studies of the human figure, although their 
 work was often rich in vigour and expression, they certainly fell 
 immeasurably below the Greeks ; but to counterbalance this defect, 
 no other artists, except those of Japan, have ever infused into the 
 delineations of bird life one tithe of the vitality and action to be seen 
 in the Chinese portraitures of the crow, the sparrow, the crane, and 
 a hundred other varieties of the feathered race. In flowers the 
 Chinese were less successful, owing to the absence of true chiaroscuro, 
 but they were able to evolve a better picture out of a single spray of 
 blossom than many a western painter from all the treasures of a 
 conservatory. 
 
 If we endeavour to compare the pictorial art of China with 
 that of Europe, we must carry ourselves back to the days when the 
 former was in its greatness. Of the art that preceded the T'ang 
 dynasty we can say nothing. Like that of Polygnotus, Zeuxis, and 
 Apelles, it is now represented only by traditions, which, if less precise 
 in the former than in the latter case, are not less laudatory ; but it 
 may be asserted that nothing produced by the painters of Europe 
 between the seventh and thirteenth centuries of the Christian era 
 approaches within any measurable distance of the great Chinese 
 masters who gave lustre to the T'ang, Sung, and Yuen dynasties, 
 nor — to draw a little nearer to modern times — is there anything in 
 the religious art of Cimabue that would not appear tame and gi'aceless 
 by the side of the Buddhistic compositions of Wu Tao-tsz, Li Lung- 
 yen and Ngan Hwui. Down to the end of the Southern Empire in 
 1279 A.D., the Chinese were at the head of the world in the art of 
 painting, as in many things besides, and their nearest rivals were 
 their own pupils, the Japanese "'' "'■■ •'■. Japanese culture has lent 
 many elements of poetry and grace to the parent art [i.e., in Japan 
 
58 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 itself, not in China], in the Shi-j6 school it added something in touch ; 
 and chiefly through the Yamato and U Kiyo-ye schools it contributed 
 numberless original features in motive ; but in strength the palm 
 must still rest with the iVIiddle Kingdom, and China may claim as its 
 own every main artistic principle that guided the brushes of Kanaoka, 
 Meicho and JVIotonobu. It is, indeed, often difficult for any but an 
 expert to distinguish a work of the earliest Japanese leaders of the 
 "Chinese school " from a Chinese picture, and many a design that 
 adorns the modern porcelain and lacquer of Japan is to be traced 
 almost line for line to a Chinese original of eight or nine centuries 
 ago. * '■■' In the last hundred years, while the Chinese have 
 
 been content to rest upon the achievements of their forefathers — 
 who would despise them for it could they live again — the energy of 
 their quondam pupils has brought Japan before the world as the 
 sole heir to almost all that is most beautiful in the art of the great 
 Turanian race. 
 
 Tliidlta n'rovDiiouJed. — The Chapter on Art in Tradescant LayV, 
 ' The Chinese As They Are.' Most of the text books contain articles more 
 or less meritorious, but one of the most interesting- and ai)preciative accounts 
 is to be found in 'L'Art Chinois', bj' M. Faleologue, to which we are 
 indebted for much of the information siven above. A most interesting 
 nioiiojrraph on Chinese Art is to be f(nmd in the m;r:j;nificent volume 
 entitled. "The Pictorial Arts of Japan,' by VV. Anderson. F.R.C.S., London, 
 tSanipson. Low & Co., 1S8(). 
 
 ASCENDING ON HIGH.— This half-feast, half-holi- 
 day, brings itself more prominently int(^ the notice of the 
 foreign resident in Hongkong than is the case with some 
 of tlie other semi-religious observances of the Chinese. 
 Ages ago, a Chinese received a warning that a dreadful 
 catastrophe would happen to him and liis family. To avert 
 it he escaped to the heights; and in commemoration of 
 this event, on the ninth day of the ninth moon, many 
 Chinese take a holiday or a few hours excursion to some 
 neighbouring hill, or mountain. The Peak tramway in 
 Hongkong, providing a convenient mode of reaching a summit, 
 is largely availed of, to the wonderment of the English 
 traveller, who is at a loss to understand why such an exodus 
 of natives from the town is taking place. About 3,000 
 usually take advantage of this convenient mode of ascent, 
 though on a wet day (such as occurred in 1894) the 
 number may be reduced to one half of that, trams running 
 continuously throughout the day for their accommodation. 
 Dressed in their gala-day best, with silks and satins galore, 
 and with happy faces, family groups may be seen wandering 
 
ASIATIC SOCIETY. 51> 
 
 along the mountain roa,cls, while troups of friends and 
 acquaintances mny be noticed chatting their loudest and 
 enjoying the treat of a whiff of fresh air after months of 
 confinement in narrow streets and close shops. Up at the 
 Peak itself, the base of the flag-staff is black witli human 
 beings, who, from tlie distance, look like ants on a lump 
 of sugar; and on the road slowly meandering their zig-zag 
 course up the hill are clusters of pedestrians; other black 
 specks on the path are home-bound Avanderers wearily 
 wending their downward course, though many patronise 
 the tram again and besiege the empty cars like excursionists 
 in England, the disappointed ones, who have to Avait for 
 the next trip, nearly blocking the station. 
 
 This Ch'ung Yong festival is looked upon more as a 
 partial holiday than as a feast in the strict sense of the 
 term. Many Chinese, though per]ia])s not five per cent of 
 the Avhole population, avail themselves of this opi^ortunity 
 for a little relaxation from business; those who do so being 
 such as are blessed Avith leisure, or who desire an ouling, or 
 Avho are specially superstitious. In connection A\ith its 
 celebration a feAv fly kites from these elevated po.sitions. 
 The Avriter, himself, has seen remnants of kites at the Peak 
 and the block-house; he has also seen joss-paper lying about, 
 though, on the Avhole, fcAv make it a day of worship. 
 
 ASIATIC SOCIETY (China Branch of), was started 
 in Hongkong in 1848, and continued in existence until 1859. 
 Before it was defunct, a ' Shanghai Literary and Scientific 
 Society ' Avas commenced in 1857, Avhich Avas shortly after 
 changed into the ' North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic 
 Society;' a fcAv years since the Avord 'North' Avas dropped: 
 out of the title. These societies have published a number 
 of 'Transactions,' forming a set of some scores of thick 
 and thin hroclmres full of most interesting and valuable 
 information on China and Chinese subjects, the result of 
 much research and study. The present 'China Branch of 
 the Royal Asiatic Society ' holds its meetings in Shanghai; 
 the membershijo is considerable; the subscription is five 
 
60 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 dollars a year, which may be commuted by a payment of 
 iifty dollars, entitling the subscriber to be a life member. 
 Those who wish to belong to the Society should apply to 
 the Secretary in Shanghai, ^rembers receive the 'Journal 
 of the China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society ' free, and 
 have the privilege of purchasing back numbers at a reduction 
 of 40 °/q on the published prices, while the public are 
 allowed a discount of 10 °/o if a complete set of the ' Journal/ 
 as far as can be supplied, is purchased. The annual sub- 
 scription to the latter, for the Journal, is f5. A classified 
 index to the articles in the Journal of the N. C. Br. of 
 the R. A. S., from the formation of that society to the 
 31st December 1874, is to be f(nind in the Journal, New 
 Series, No. IX. 
 
 AUDIENCE. — During recent years the audience by the 
 
 Chinese sovereign of foreign ambassadors, envoys, &c., has 
 
 been one of the burning questions of the day in the Far 
 
 East. As a writer in the •' Times ' well says : — 
 
 'Perhaps, in course of time, they [the Chinese] will begin to see 
 the absurdity of shutting up their Emperor from the foreign ministers 
 accredited to him. There may have been good and substantial 
 reasons, from the Chinese point of view, in refusing to present 
 foreigners to the Empress Uowager when she acted as Regent ; but 
 there is no reason whatever — even a Chinese reason — for persisting 
 in keeping the Emperor and the foreign ministers apart. In the last 
 century the Emperor of the present dynasty received foreigners, and 
 condescended to be instructed by them. The present Emperor 
 receives his own ministers in audience every day, and is not treated 
 as a semi-divine being, on whose face ordinary mortals may not look, 
 as the Mikado of Japan was in former times. There is no reason in 
 principle or Chinese practice why the sovereign should not receive 
 the ministers at his Court, and, not to speak of earlier Emperors, 
 there is the precedent of T'ung Chi, his predecessor, who granted an 
 audience to the Corps Diplonmliqiie. It is the absence of reason 
 about the business, the obstinate persistence in withholding this usual 
 mark of mutual respect, that renders it so irritating.' 
 
 To get some idea of wliat the Chinese standpoint of view 
 
 was, it must be remembered that through ages past it has 
 
 been the theory — a theory well sustained by practice, and 
 
 where practice failed to support it, well bolstered up by 
 
 Chinese historians — that China was the Suzerain State, and 
 
 all other kingdoms its vassals, who, if they did not pay 
 
AUDIENCE. 61 
 
 tribute, were in a state of reb;^llion, and should present this 
 open and visible sign of fealty. All presents from other 
 sovereigns were styled 'tribute'; and to such a length was 
 this carried, that when China was divided by two reigning 
 houses, and when the so-called vassal ivingdom was in reality 
 the leading state in China, and the so-called Imperial family 
 ruled over but a small moiety of the Empire, yet all presents 
 from the more powerful state were classed as tribute in 
 history, while the presents from the Emperor, Avhich, as 
 given to a more influential state by a weaker and inferior 
 one, were in reality more entitled to the name of tribute, 
 were classed as presents. It must further be remembered 
 that China has been the leading nation of Eastern Asia 
 for many centuries past, Avhile the rest of the world was 
 comparatively unknown; all surrounding nations have been 
 their inferiors, who have looked up to the Middle Kingdom 
 as the centre from which their letters, literature, knowledge, 
 art, and science have all originated and emanated. It is 
 owing to all these causes, and for all these reasons that the 
 preposterous claim of the Chinese has been founded. 
 
 The receiving of all their envoys and ambassadors at the 
 Courts of Europe, to which they have been accredited for 
 the last twenty years, Avas not sufficient, in face of these, 
 antiquated views, to move them from their position; for, 
 judged from the same standpoint, it was only to be expected 
 that China's envoys should be received with every mark of 
 respect and honour — nay more, their theories would natur- 
 ally lead them to expect that they should be received 
 with that homage accorded to them by their neighbours^ 
 such, for instance, as by Corea in past times — a homage 
 rendered to them as representatives , of the Son of Heaven 
 — a homage given by virtue of the claim of the latter to 
 universal sovereignty. 
 
 Whatever may have been the private opinion of the 
 handful of enlightened officials, the belief held by the ma- 
 jority of them, namely, the theory already enunciated above, 
 had to be upheld at every cost; for such beliefs die hard in 
 China. And if the pressure of foreign opinion rendered 
 
u/ 
 
 <)2 THINGS ClimBSE. 
 
 necessary some sliow of alteration, plausible excuses were 
 put forward, or subterfuges resorted to; and eventually we 
 find the representatives of the most powerful nations on the 
 earth received twice — long ago once, and again in 1891, 
 after years of a refusal to grant it — in an Audience Hall, 
 especially reserved for the audience of tributary nations, a\ ith 
 ■only a statement, on the last occasion, that such should 
 not be the case again. The Emperor, by a decree of the 
 12th December, 1890, expressed his intention of fixing a day 
 every year for tlie reception with honour^ of all the Foreign 
 Ministers resident in Peking. After the general reception, 
 mentioned above, the Austrian-Hungarian Minister was 
 j*eceived in another out-building, which was also associated 
 with humiliation. 
 
 The Chinese seemed indisposed, to put it mildly, to 
 receive Foreign Ambassadors in the ImpeTial Palace. Out- 
 buildings were made to do duty for these functions. The 
 point, of course, was that until the Chinese Emperor received 
 Foreign Ambassadors on exactly the same footing that our 
 ■.Sovereign receives the Chinese acredited to tlie Court of 
 St. James, and until every disposition to shirk this proper 
 mode of dealing with the Audience Question was gone it 
 -^vould still remain unsettled. The future only will reveal 
 whether the reservations, equivocations, and evasions of the 
 past will be resorted to again ad nauseam. At the same 
 time it is worthy of note, as a sign of progress, that the 
 iiumiliating ceremony of 'kow-tow' has not been demanded 
 at the last receptions, for the very good reason, doubtless, 
 that the Chinese are well aware it would not be performed. 
 And as a straw showing a slight change in the current of the 
 rstupid pride and arrogance of tiie past, it is pleasing to see 
 that the Czarewitch, on hiii visit, a few years since, to the 
 high officials in Canton, had an Imperial-yellow sedan-chair 
 provided for him — an honour never previously granted to a 
 European, and' an honour only reserved in China for the 
 Teigning family. 
 
 The Audience Question would appear to be approaching 
 :a . satisfactory solution. As indicative of some of the first 
 
BAMBOO. 63 
 
 signs of this change, for the better, may ba noticed the fact 
 that the bite British ^[inister to Peking (Mr. O'Connor), 
 presented his credentials in person to the Emperor in the 
 Cheng Kuaug-tien and not in the 'Han of Tributary Nations/ 
 The Austrian Ambassador hafl previously also been received 
 in a proper manner, and the other lepiesentatives of their 
 respective countries have since been accorded receptions more 
 befitting the nations whoso interests they have in hand than 
 has been the case for many years past. 
 
 7>.^.1/Z>00.— What iron is to the English, such is the 
 useful bamboo to tlie Chinese. Not by any means that the 
 use of iron is unknown in China, far from it; it is largely 
 used for many purposes; but bamboo is even more 
 extensively employed, not only for the purposes that iron 
 is ill fitted for, but also for many for which that metal is 
 well adapted. Bamboo has been called the universal 
 material. There are few things which cannc^t be made of 
 it. The question is not what it is used for, but what is it 
 not used for; and after a lengthened residence in China 
 with the discovery every now and then of some fresh article 
 of bamboo, the answer, with but little reservation, would 
 appear to be that it is it?ed for nearly evei-ything. 'J'o the 
 Chinese it is, perhaps, the most valuable product of their 
 land. They excel in its manufacture. The last thing that 
 one would suppose it to be fit for is food : the hard silicious 
 culms lock anything but tempting to an epicure, it is, 
 however, not these in their hardened mature state, but the 
 fresh young sprouts as they come out of the ground that, 
 cooked till tender, form a fine vegetable, or, otherwise treated, 
 make a pickle, or comfit. The graceful slender stems — 
 strong, but light — serve an infinitude of purposes: the frame- 
 work of mat-sheds is almost entirely constructed of them, 
 whether they be the gigantic temporary structures erected for 
 religious festivals which tower above all the other buildings 
 (See Article on Amusements); or the more modest dwellings 
 of the poorer classes ; or the complicated network of scaffolding 
 round the rising house or the building under repair. Their 
 
ei THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 long tubular structure adapts them admirably for water-pipes^ 
 when the thick septum at each joint has been brokers 
 through. The street-coolie, or tlie chair-coolie, wuuld be 
 badly off without the bamboo: it provides carrying-pjles for 
 the first, whilst the whole frame-work of the sedan-chair, and 
 the shafts are often of this material. The boatman's pole for 
 his boat, the ribs for the sailor's mat sail, and the sampan 
 woman's awning for her small craft, are all constructed or 
 the bamboo. Could the bamboo age that now reigns in China 
 be suddenly abolished by some magician's enchantment, the 
 whole of the fairies that ever peopled Fairyland would find 
 their hands more than full to provide substitutes for all the 
 household articles, the agricultural implements, the toys for 
 the children, and the innumerable objects of every-day use 
 which are made of this ubiquitous plant. The roots make 
 the divining blocks lying on every temple altar, while the 
 divining sticks that keep them company are slender slips, 
 of bamboo contained in a bamboo .vase; the mats for the 
 worshippers to kneel on are made of its dried leaves; the- 
 incense sticks have a thin slip of bamboo, round the upper 
 part of which adhere the fragrant spices brought from Araby" 
 the blest and the Sandal-wood Islands (Sandwich Islands). 
 We can scarcely keep our eyes off bamboo in China whether 
 in-doors or out. Rain-hats or sun-hats, large sized and 
 small (the large ones having the spread of an umbrella, of 
 which the handle is the man or woman who uses it, or 
 when a youngster claps one on his head, we have a walking 
 mushroom, so overshadowed is he by his gigantic head-gear)^ 
 the policeman's or soldier's conical small hat, constructed 
 to ward off strokes and parry blows — these are all made of 
 bamboo. The native umbrella, handle and ribs and spring,, 
 is ingeniously constructed of it as well, while oiled paper 
 serves in the place of silk or cotton. The Robinson Crusoe- 
 like rain-coat of the extreme South is made of leaves — a 
 garment of leaves — of this gigantic grass sewn together. 
 The old man's staff, the blind beggar's stick, the sewing^ 
 woman's pole to which to fasten her seam, the washer- 
 woman's clothes-lines, are bamboo. The rake of the farmer^ 
 
BAMBOO. 65 
 
 the foot-rule of tlie carpenter and tailor, the measures of 
 the rice shops, and many chopsticks are made of it. Rags 
 are too precious in China to be ^\■asted on the manufacture 
 of paper, for when the decent garment begins to show the 
 wear and tear of the merchant jji'ii^ce, it descends in the 
 social scale, serving in turn the shopman and coolie, and 
 finally, when all i-espectability is gone out of it, forms a 
 covering for the wretched beggar, if any ability to cover 
 remains in it at all. In lieu of rags, the bamboo, soaked 
 for a length of time and reduced to pulp, then dried and 
 made into sheets, furnishes paper for the student's class- 
 book, the merchant's account-buoks, and the author's scrib- 
 bling paper. The latter writes with a pen, the handle of 
 which is a fine bamboo tube; the vase for holding his pens 
 is of the same material. Chairs, tables, stools, conches^ 
 ornaments, stands, images, lantern-handles, canes, instruments 
 of torture, handles of spears, cages for birds, hen-coops, 
 musical instruments (such as flutes and fifes and fiddles, &c.), 
 pillows, dutch-wives, ladders, lattice-Avork, bars of doors and 
 windows, primitive-looking lamps and lanterns, nutmeg 
 graters, pepper-dusters, floats, watering-wheels, rafts, bridges, 
 watch-towers, tobacco and opium-pipes, ropes, window-blinds, 
 curtains, brooms^ brushes, baskets of all and every kind, 
 cricket-traps, snares to catch game, combs, tallies for 
 checking cargo, summonses for secret society meetings,, the 
 frame-work and handles of fans, are all of this cane ; but we 
 must stop, or we should have to make an inventory of much 
 that is in common use by John Chinaman, and which he 
 would sadly want Avere he deprived of his bamboo. It even 
 supplies him Avith medicine in the shape of tabasheer, a 
 silicious concretion found inside the joints; while the green 
 outer surface of the young bamboo is scraped oflf and used 
 as a cooling drink (being boiled \\\i\\ water) for fever in 
 combination with other medicines, or alone. The green bvids 
 (of the leaves) are also employed in the same way and for 
 the same purpose. Order is maintained throughout the 
 whole empire by it, and a sprig of it is borne in the van 
 of the funeral procession. 
 
 E 
 
'Throughout life the Chniaman is almost dependent upon it for 
 support, nor does it leave him until it carries him to his last resting 
 place on the hill-side, and even then in company with the cypress, 
 juniper and pine it waves over and marks his tomb.' 
 
 Inhere are many varieties uf the bamboo; some twenty 
 or more in the south of China; one Chinese writer describes 
 sixty varieties. They are of different sizes and colours — 
 green, yellow, and black — with large and small leaves, from 
 the tiny dwarf bamboo which, Avhen full grown, is only large 
 enousrh to form a low hedo-e, and is o-lorified with the name 
 of the Goddess of Mercy Bamboo, up to the larger sizes, 
 whose feathery sprays rise to a height of fifty or even some- 
 times seventy feet. It is a most graceful object, touching 
 with rare beauty every few yards of the Chinese landscape, 
 a,nd has inspired many a poet and artist. If the bamboo 
 is kind to the Chinaman, he returns it with interest, as some 
 of his best work is bestowed upon it, and it forms the motif 
 in numerous works of art. What would many a hideous 
 carving be but for its saving grace; the paintc- would be 
 lost but for its lines of beauty, while its tawny yellow or 
 bright green stems and waving top plumes of duller green, 
 the whole object, so delicate in tint and shape, soft of hue 
 * * *, indefinite in outline * '^' *, like wonderful 
 grey-green lace against the opalescent sky, appeals not only 
 to the raosk aesthetic side of the Celestial's nature, but also 
 to that of the matter-of-fact Western traveller. 
 
 The flowering of the bamboo is considered to be a very rare 
 occurrence. Once in eighteen, twenty, and even twenty-five years 
 does it flower, and still less seldom does it produce seed. Externally 
 the seed resembles a pear in shape and is of a deep olive greea 
 colour, gradually changing to a dark or rifle green. On opening the 
 seed longitudinally, a thick coat of coriaceous matter is found covering 
 the germinal centre. It has a strong vegetable smell. 
 
 In two recent years, has the bamboo flowered in Hong- 
 kong, though ordinarily one may live many years in China 
 without noticing it. A spray of it in flower looks some- 
 what like a head of oats, but much smaller. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — 'Ling Nam, by Kev. B. C. Henrv. M.A., D.D., 
 pp. Ill, 135, 136. 'The Middle Kingdom; by liev. S. Wells Williams. 
 L.L.D., Vol. I., pp. .358-360. An interesting account appears in the ' China 
 Mail' ind Hongkong Daily Press,' of tlie 9tli and 10th June, 1893 
 respectively, of an eccentric mandarin who was about building a house and 
 furnishing it with nothing but bamboo. 
 
BANKS AND BANK-NOTES. 67 
 
 BANKS AND BANK—NOTES.— There are no 
 
 'chartered banks in China, but private banks are very 
 common. If we include branches of the same establishment, 
 rthere were a few years since, 300 in Tientsin. Their number 
 is large in proportion to the business of a town, their 
 capital, in many cases, also being small, amounting to a few 
 'thousand taels. The native banks do not appear to have 
 hit upon the device of cheques ; a foreign bank in Hongkong, 
 the National Bank of China, having been the first to 
 introduce these convenient orders for money to the Chinese 
 in their own language in that Colony. The native banks, 
 however, issue circular letters of credit to travel through 
 ithe Empire, and the system of remittance by drafts is as 
 complete as in Europe; the rates charged are high, however. 
 IPromissory Notes are largely availed of by the native banks 
 and their customers in their dealings with each other. A 
 very carious feature in these transactions is that the interest 
 is often not stated in the note itself, but is written on the 
 •envelope in which the note is enclosed, though in the 
 trdinary joromissory note it is inserted in the note itself. 
 
 As Chinese cash, the common copper mite and only 
 Jaiown coin amongst the Chinese, is lieavy and difficult to 
 transport in any quantities, it was only natural that, keen 
 merchants as they are, the Chinese should have early 
 invented bank notes. The date seems to have been about 
 A.D. 800. The earliest specimen known to exist in 
 any country was purchased in 1890 by the British 
 Xuseum, where it may be now seen by anyone in the 
 .King's Library placed under a glass case. The label 
 attached to it states that it is 300 years earlier than the 
 'establishment (at Stockhohn) of the first European bank 
 which issued notes. This wonderful note is abovit the size of 
 a piece of foolscap paper and is almost blackish in colour. 
 It was issued durins^ the reign of Huns: Wu, A. J). 1368-1399. 
 Each money shop has its own device, though the general 
 features are the same : an ornamental border surrounds the 
 ■oblong paper, and since the Chinese printing is in columns, 
 the greatest length is from top to bottom and not from side 
 
 E 2 
 
G8 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 to side as in the English bank-note; the name of the bank 
 or shop issuing it is put in large characters, transversely,, 
 as a heading; below this are several rows of characters, the 
 centre one often being somewhat to this effect — 'on 
 
 production of this note pay cash,' and the other columns 
 
 containing necessary particulars, such as the number of 
 the note and date, &c. ; besides which, some moral sentences 
 very often adorn the note. 
 
 'The check on over-issue of notes lies in the control exercised 
 by the clearing-house of every city, where the standing of each bank 
 is known by its operations. The circulation of the notes is limited 
 in some cases to the street or neighbourhood wherein the estab- 
 lishment is situated ; often the payee has a claim on the payer of a 
 bill for a full day if it be found to be counterfeit or worthless — a 
 custom which involves a good deal of scribbling on the back "•' '■' '■- 
 to certify the names. Proportionally few counterfeit notes are met 
 with, owing more to the limited range of the notes, making it easy 
 to ask the bank, which recognises its own paper •- "••■. Their 
 
 face value ranges from one to a hundred tiao, or strings of cash, but 
 their worth depends on the exchange between silver and cash, and 
 as this fluctuates daily, the notes soon find their way home. 
 
 A tlao is 1,000 cash, but the author possesses a set of 
 cancelled Poochow notes ranging in value from 100 cash, 
 to 1.000 cash and !|il. Great inconvenience is sometimes 
 caused by the failure of tlie firms which have issued this 
 paper money. 
 
 These bank-notes are not used in the extreme south of 
 China, though they are very common at Foochow and in, 
 tlie north. 
 
 The issue of these notes at the present day is due 
 entirely to private enterprise, but the Government have acted 
 as bankers more than once in this one respect. Marco Polo, 
 the celebrated Venetian traveller, was in China at such a 
 time and, speaking of Kublai Khan's piarchases, he thus 
 describes them : — 
 
 ' So he buys such a cjuantity of those precious things every year 
 that his treasure is endless, while all the while the money he pays- 
 away costs him nothing at all. If any of those pieces of paper are 
 spoilt, the owner carries them to the mint, and by paying three per 
 cent on the value he gets new pieces in exchange.' 
 
 The total issue during Kublai Khan's reign of thirty- 
 four 5'ears, amounted, it is estimated, to the sum of 
 
BETROTHAL. 69 
 
 :§624<, 135,500. This,, however, Avas carried too far by the 
 subsequent Mougol Emperors, and added fuel to the flame 
 •of discontent felt by the Chinese against their foreign 
 rulers, yet the new Chinese dynasty (the Ming) which 
 •succeeded to the throne, were obliged at first to issue notes 
 for nearly a hundred years. The present dynasty of 
 ]Manchus has also had recourse to them during the great 
 Tai-p'ing rebellion, but their circulation did not extend 
 beyond the metropolis. 
 
 JjiHilix rrnnn mended. — "WilliainsV • Middle Kingdom.' Vol. JI. [)p. >n5, 8(5. 
 WesleA'iiu Methodist MagaziiK^ -July ISiMJ. contains a. woodcut of a Chinese 
 bank-note. Sir also Iloleonibe's • The Eeal Chinaman." \i\). :U8-:-i4G. 
 
 BETROTHAL. — Betrothals are generally negotiated — 
 for they are matters of business and not of sentiment — •by 
 the go-betA\eens, who are mostly women and who make it 
 their business to find out a suitable parti. They are 
 commissioned by the parents, the parties themselves having, 
 as a general rule, no voice in the matter, often being of too 
 tender an age to understand what it means. Unborn infants 
 are even sometimes informally betrothed, i.e., the parents 
 agreeing that the children when born, if of opposite sexes. 
 shall in future life be husband and Avife ; this is carried so 
 far that married couples occasionally promise that if they 
 ever have children of different sexes they shall be given in 
 marriage to one another; but the usual age for betrothals 
 in many parts of tlie country is ten, twelve, or even older. 
 
 The go-betweens are generally women of the status of 
 elderly servants who have the free entree into the houses of 
 those desirous of contracting matrimonial alliances, in the 
 same manner that an ordinary broker Avoukl — in fact they are 
 marriage brokers. Sometimes they are specially sent for by 
 the parties desirous of their services, and at other times they 
 visit families unsolicited on account of having received 
 information. These go-betweens have a hand in the matter 
 from beginning to end, and are responsible for the proper 
 •conduct of the whole affair; they are not employed only to 
 brins: the families contractinsr marriage tosrether. The first 
 
70 ' THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ceremonials consist in the :jo-between beins; commissioned' 
 by the young man's family to obtain from the girFs family 
 her name and the moment of her birth; this is done that the 
 horoscope of the two may be examined by a fortune-teller in 
 order to ascertain whether the proposed alliance will be a 
 happy one. These particulars are written on paper, and 
 should the fortune-teller give a favourable replv to the 
 inquiries, the second ceremonial takes place, that of sending 
 the go-between back with an offer of marriage. The assent 
 in writing is asked for, and forms the third ceremonial. 
 Fourthly, presents are sent to the girl's parents. Fifthly, 
 the go-between requests them to choose a lucky day for the- 
 Avedding. The preliminaries are concluded by the bride- 
 groom going in a procession to bring the bride home. The 
 Chinese speak of three covenants and six ceremonies, which 
 may be stated to be as follows :-— 
 The three covenants are : — 
 
 The Contract of Marriage, 
 
 The Receipt of Betrothal ^loney, 
 
 The Deed of the Delivery of the Bride. 
 The six ceremonies are : — 
 
 The Small Presents. 
 
 The Inquiry for the Name of the Bride, 
 
 The Payment of the Betrothal Money, 
 
 The Request to fix the Day, 
 
 The Sendins: of a Goose. 
 
 The Fetching of the Bride. 
 Betrothal presents are called clrd lai, tea presents, or 
 ceremonials. They consist of a present of tea^ cakes, betel- 
 nuts, and money, given by the future husband's family to the 
 family of his future wife. The go-between takes, or accom- 
 panies, these presents (to the girl's family) which are carried 
 in hop, or round flat boxes made of wood. A few dollars are 
 also put into the boxes. With concubines, money alone is 
 most generally given. The Chinese have a phrase, sJiik iimi 
 ■ch'd lai, which means that these ceremonial presents have 
 been accepted and eaten, and consecjuently that the daughter 
 is betrothed. If there are no presents, there is no betrothal. 
 
BETROTHAL. 71 
 
 Betrothals are most binding: and it \v(juld seem that 
 on the woman's side they cannot be broken without the 
 consent of the man, accompanied by a money salve. No 
 misconduct, however flagrant on the side of the youth at 
 least, is held to be a release from the covenant. 
 
 From the time of engagement until marriage, a young lady is 
 required to maintain the strictest seclusion. \Vhene\er friends call 
 upon her parents she is expected to retire to the inner apartments, 
 and in all her actions and words guard her conduct with careful 
 solicitude. She must use a close sedan whenever she visits her 
 relations, and in her intercourse with her brothers and the domestics 
 in the household maintain great reserve. Instead of having any 
 opportunity to form those friendships and acquaintances with her own 
 sex, which among ourselves become a source of so much pleasure at 
 the time, and advantage in after life, the Chinese maiden is confined 
 to the circle of her relations and her immediate neighbours. She has 
 few of the pleasing remembrances and associations that are usually 
 connected with school-day life, nor has she often the ability or 
 opportunity to correspond by letter with girls of her own age. 
 Seclusion at this time of life, and the custom of crippling the feet, 
 combine to confine women in the house almost as much as the 
 strictest laws against their appearing abroad; for in girlhood, as 
 they know only a few persons, except relatives, and can make very 
 few acquaintances after marriage, their circle of friends contracts 
 rather than enlarges as life goes on. This privacy impels girls to 
 learn as much of the world as they can, and among the rich their 
 curiosity is gratified through maid-servants, match-makers, peddlers, 
 visitors, and others. Curiosity also stimulates young ladies to learn 
 something of the ciiaracter and appearance of their intended 
 husbands, but the rules of society are too strict for young persons 
 to endeavour to form a personal attachment, though it is not 
 [absolutely] impossible for them to have a look at each other if 
 they wish. 
 
 As to relations with the betrothed, there are none. The 
 two are as utter strangers to each other as any other man 
 or woman, if not more so: no courting:: no moonlight 
 rambles; no gradually getting better acquainted with each 
 other and thereby getting better fitted to live together. It 
 is simply a business transaction in almost all cases, the 
 active parties, in which are the parents, while the most 
 interested parties are simply passive. The children are 
 supposed never to meet or speak to each other, and it avouM 
 be unpardonably bad taste were the parents representing 
 the one side ever to discuss the subject with those of the 
 other side. Under these circumstances there are, of course, 
 
72 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 no engagement rings, nor for that matter is a wedding ring 
 worn by Chinese hidies when married. 
 
 What has been stated above is in I'egard to the 
 betrothal of a chief or legitimate wife. With concubines, 
 or secondary wives, it is quite different. In their case a go- 
 between may be employed or not. In such a betrothal, 
 all that generally takes place in Canton is for the woman 
 to pour out a cup of tea for her future husband to drink, 
 and a parcel of money, wrapped up, of course, in red paper 
 and containing two, or three, or ten dollars or so, is placed 
 on the tray for her; but in other places there may not be 
 as much ceremony about it as that. The bargain money 
 may even be paid right into her own hands, but this is only 
 the case with very low people, as it is not thought tlie right 
 thing for either party to liave direct dealings with one 
 anotlier. 
 
 In the Macao district of country the course of procedure 
 with regard to concubines is as follows: — a man taking a 
 fancy to a domestic slave for her good looks or for her 
 capacity for work, approaches her mistress on the subject 
 through a ^o-between or a mutual friend, who sees the 
 master, if he is a man, or the mistress, if she is a woman 
 {for men and women, as a general rule, have no dealings 
 together in China). The friend may even commission his 
 wife, if she knows the mistress, to transact the business; 
 preliminary enquiries iirst being made, the bargain money 
 then passes through the hand of the friend to the master 
 or mistress. Should the money required be :§ilOO — then 
 the bargain money would be |10. This is really a purchase, 
 though disguised under the name of baj-gain or earnest 
 money. In the Macao district, the tea pouring out takes 
 place occasionally, but is not a regular practice. 
 
 Bool' recommctuh'd. — Williams's Mi'ldle Kiuiiddiii, Vol. II., pp. 78."). 
 786. Sec Article on Marriage. 
 
 BIBLIOGRAPHY.— mmendorfTs ' xManual of Chinese 
 Bibliography ' is a most valuable work of reference with 
 regard to European books, essays, and articles on China 
 
BIRDS' NESr SOUP. 73 
 
 down to the year 1876: it contains 4,639 titles. There is 
 also the encyclopsedic work of M. Henri Cordier, "Bibliotheca 
 Sinica: Dictionnaire Bibliographique des Ouvrages Relatifs 
 i\ I'Empire Chinois,' in two large volumes of 1396 pages; 
 it is a perfect storehouse of information on books relating 
 to China, and a supplement has either been, or is about to 
 be, issued to bring it up to date. As to native works, 
 Wylie's 'Notes on Chinese Literature' is invaluable: it 
 treats of 1,74-5 Chinese books. For an account of the 
 immense compendiums of former works, made by authority of 
 •different Emperors, one should refer to ]\rayers's Bibliography 
 of the Chinese Imperinl Collection of Literature,' published 
 in the 'China Review,' Vol. YL, pp. 223—286. 
 
 BIRDS' ^EST ,S Of 'P.— Birds' nest soup is even more 
 of a luxury in China, than turtle soup is in England. An 
 old resident in China thus writes of them :— 
 
 ' Perhaps the costliest dainty of the Chinese cuisine 
 and is as much prized by Chinese gourmands as turtle is 
 in England. It is not nasty, but it is. to a European palate, 
 ■exceedingly insipid: it is a white, soft, slippery substance, 
 not unlike a badly made junket, or flummery, and tlie taste 
 for it is certainly an acquired one.' 
 
 The nests from which the soup is prepared are not like 
 an ordinary nest made up of sticks and twigs, hay and grass, 
 but are of a gelatinous substance, secreted by the bird itself 
 for the purpose, or, as it has been Avittily put, the bird makes 
 them 'all out of its own head.' Darwin puts it in plain 
 English : — • The Chinese make soup of dried saliva ' ; in 
 scientific language, they are described as being produced 
 from the 'inspissated mucus from the salivary glands'; 
 these nests are constructed in caves on the sea-shore, the 
 swiftlet which makes them being a native of ]\L\laya and 
 Ceylon. Gomanti are the largest birds' nest caves in the 
 world * * from which there is an out-turn of over 
 i^ 15,000 worth yearly.' The nests are gathered at con- 
 siderable risk, and the best quality commands a high 
 price, ranging from three to thirty dollars a pound, while 
 
74 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the inferior grades are mixed more or less with twigs, &c. 
 
 The Chinese consider it strengthening and stimulating, and 
 
 it forms the first dish at all grand dinners. Here is a receipt 
 
 for preparing Potage cmx Nids cV Hirondelles, translated 
 
 from the Chinese: — • 
 
 ' Take clean white birds' nest shreds, or birds' nests, and soak 
 thoroughly. Pick out all feathers. Boil in soup or water till tender, 
 and of the colour of jadestone. Place pigeons' eggs below, and add 
 some ham shreds on tcp. Boil again slowly with little fluid. If 
 required sweet, then boil in clear water till tender, add sugar-candy, 
 and then eat. This is a most clear and pure article, and thick (or 
 oily) substances should not be added. It should be boiled for a long 
 time ; for, if not boiled till tender, it will cause diarrhcea." 
 
 BIRTH. — (Customs coxxfxtI':d with.) There are 
 quite a number of su|;erstitions connected \a itli the birth 
 of children. As an instance of them it may be noted that 
 certain coins are worn by Avomen before the event, as they 
 are thought to ensure an easy delivery. Midwives are- 
 nearly always in attendance; they are utterly ignorant 
 women, and sad are the tales that many a foreign doctor 
 could tell of the wretched plight Chinese women have been 
 reduced to under their unskilful treatment, or ■want of 
 treatment. They are engaged a month beforehand except in 
 very poor cases. 
 
 Shortly before birth, when the birth-pangs come on. 
 the mother-in-law and midwife worship all the household 
 gods (all the gods that may be in the house) and the 
 ancestral tablets, but there is no going to the Temple or 
 Ancestral Hall for the purpose. These acts of worship 
 consist in burning incense before the objects of adoration 
 and extempore prayer (there being no form of prayer for 
 the purpose) for a quick and happy delivery, and for the 
 welfare of child and mother; the woman herself does not 
 offer any prayer. 
 
 One of our inf«n"niants tells us that, from his experience, 
 the new born infant is washed with warm water at once 
 (whether this is due to foreign influence or not we cannot 
 say), Avhile from other sources w-e learn that such an idea is 
 scouted. No daintv little babv garments are ready for the 
 
BIRTH. 75- 
 
 stranger, worked with the expectant love of the motlier, or 
 given by friends in anticipation of the interesting event, 
 but ]iis tender little limbs and body are wrapped up in 
 swaddling bands which consist of old warm clothes both of 
 men and women— a little bundle of old clothes, awkward and 
 uno-ainlv for the tinv mite inside them. After this, the new 
 born babe may probably not be washed again thoroughly 
 (if he has ever yet been subjected to such an operation ) for 
 the first month, for fear the child should get cold, he cr 
 she niay be wiped over with a cloth ; but after that time the 
 luxury of an occasional wash, such as it is, may be indulged^ 
 in. A special kind of fine little cake, sweet and delicate in 
 taste, is sometimes the only food the little stranger is regaled' 
 with for the first few days. For the first month, the mother 
 must have ginger and vinegar with everything she takes. 
 She eschews lier ordinary food — chicken boiled with ginger 
 and vinegar, or (if too poor to afi'ord the fowl, cheap enough 
 though it be in China), duck's eggs boiled with the same- 
 condiments, and pig's feet boiled with the same articles form 
 her diet : and these she eats twice or thrice a day. Such 
 a dietary is considered to be tonic, and after the month is 
 np, she returns to her ordinary food. 
 
 And now comes a most important event— the shaving 
 of the child's head. A lucky day is selected for it. It must 
 not be after the thirtieth day, but it may be before or on 
 the day itself, i.e., the shaving takes place on the completion 
 of the month (the month of course has sometimes 29 days 
 and sometimes 30 dnys) if that should prove to be a lucky 
 day, if not, an earlier day is selected, never a later one. 
 After the shaving is over (on the same day — never before 
 the operation), the ancestors first are worshipped and then 
 the household gods, thanks being offered to them for the 
 addition to the family and prayers for the prolongation of 
 the life newly bestowed. The Temple and/or Ancestral Hall 
 are often also visited for the same purpose by those who are 
 making a great fuss over the event. Offerings are, of course, 
 made. The mother-in-law, or some relative, goes to perform 
 these religious acts and not the father or mother : it is very 
 
76 THINGS GlimEHE. 
 
 ravely, if over, that the iiK^tlier goes <)ii tlicse o'.jcasion.s. 
 The (;hn(l. h(.)\vevei, dressed in its best is cariiud in the arms. 
 Avlien this worship takes place. On the first occasion when 
 a child is shaved, which necessary operation from a Chinese 
 stand[)oint takes place, as we liave already seen, Avhen 
 the baby is either a month or nearly a month old; eggs, dyed 
 red, are sent round to relatives, friends and acquaintances. 
 The number to be sent is not fixed by custom, nor is it 
 necessary f)r any written communication to accompany 
 them ; a verbal message that they are from so-and-so is 
 :suffi.cient. The recipients are expected to give a j^i'esent to 
 the cliild on its being a month old, when a feast is held, to 
 which they are invited. These red eggs are sent, in the 
 south of China, irrespective of the sex ; whether a distinction 
 exists in the north and only a boy is entitled to them, and 
 ■of the boys of a family, only the first born, w'e are unable to 
 say; but ^\\. Giles in his 'Chinese Sketches,' p. 159,' states 
 that such is the case amongst the Chinese. The custom 
 amongst the Cantonese is as stated above: so that it is 
 possible ^Ir. Giles's remarks simply refer to the north, since 
 customs differ so widely in China. 
 
 The Chinese have almost as great a love fjr dinners 
 as the English, and it is only natural that a feast should 
 take place when the child is a month old, called Kijiig fs'o. 
 ginger and vinegar. Cards of invitati<)n ai-e issued to this 
 Kong chbk, or ginger dinner, to which the guests are both 
 friends and relatives. Unless the family is poor, the male 
 friends go to a restaurant for their feast: if poor, and there 
 are onlv two or three relatives, it may be given in the 
 house. The women's repast, on the other hand, is spread 
 in the h(juse. 
 
 If, however, there are many friends and relatives, two 
 feasts are held: the first is for the relatives and is at the 
 house, even if they are males ; the second is for friends, and 
 is at a restaurant. In such eases the relatives are invited on 
 the day of the shaving even if it takes place before the 
 month is up; the invitations are sent out the before day, or 
 ;to those at a distance, earlier; and the friends also, whether 
 
BOATS. 77 
 
 invited at the same, or anotlier time, may also be asked 
 as well before the month is up. The feast may be held 
 at another time than the shaving date either for relatives^ 
 or friends, or both, the chief thing seems to be to celebrate 
 the event by a feast. Two dislies are on the tables : the 
 one containing the pickled ginger which gives the name 
 to the entertainment, and the otlier red eggs dyed with 
 vin chi, Chinese rouge, or with foreign dye stuffs. The 
 invited guests make presents of gold and silver jewellery, 
 or articles of clothing, to the infant, accompanied with 
 lai-chi (cash or siher folded within red paper), the latter 
 is given if nothing else is, more presents, of course, being 
 given to a boy than to a girl. 
 
 The swaddling bands being discarded, the little mainkin 
 (or the ' little wifie ' to a lesser extent) comes out gorgeous 
 in scarlet and red — bright with colours; amulets and charms 
 adorn him and safeguard him from e-sil spirits and demons : 
 a tiny mirrow flashes, perchance, from the front of his 
 forehead to dismay the ugly devils by a sight of their 
 hideousuess; a row of gilt deities benignly encircle his brow 
 to guard him; silver locks and chains bind him, so that no 
 harm may befall him : many and wonderful are the means 
 used to protect him by such and other mysteiious and 
 occult expedients and devices from all injury, while common- 
 sense rules of health and cleanliness are unknoM'n and 
 ignored. The tribute paid by childhood, from the very 
 moment of birth and onwards to the insanitary conditions- 
 that surround it must be enormous, not only in the 
 immediate sacrifice of life, but in the way of sowing seeds 
 of future disease and weakness. It is wonderful that so- 
 many children escape with a fair amount of health to carry 
 on the increasing round of human life and toil in this 
 populous land of China. 
 
 BOATS. — Leaves floating on the water first suggested' 
 the idea uf boats to the Chinese, so some native writers 
 inform us: other accounts ascribe their origin to the sight 
 of drift wood, or to a natural development from the more 
 
78 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 primitive raft. Whether or not fallen leaves — the leaves 
 of the f(jrest when autnmn hath blo^^'n — Avere the first hints 
 of future possibilities, the boats of China might almost be 
 ■compared to the leaves of the forest in number, and their 
 varieties arc about as great as that of the foliage of China. 
 Boats large and small, boats long and short, boats broad 
 and narrow, boats for hawkers, boats for fishing, boats for 
 pleasure — boats ready for any and everything; boats for 
 smuggling, boats for pirates, boats for honest tradesmen, 
 boats for lepers, boats for beggars, boats for everyone; 
 boats for passage, for ferries, for bridges, for marriages, 
 for feastings, for theatres, or rather for theatrical troupes 
 and their properties. Is there anything that boats are not 
 provided for in China? 
 
 It has been said there are more boats in China than in 
 all the rest of the Avorld put together. The extensive sea- 
 board, and the innumerable rivers and streams are a 
 -suificient reason for this multiplicity of boats. 
 
 If we credit what the natives themselves say, boats 
 were first built in the third century before the Christian era. 
 
 One account ascribes the invention to Ho Sin Kwii, a pious 
 ■woman, who became one of the eight Taonist genii. Her first craft 
 was a mere raft, without means of propulsion. But one daV when 
 she was washing clothes in the river, she took a hint from a fish that 
 was rowing with its fins and steering with its tail, and she then put 
 oars and a rudder upon her boat. 
 
 In medioQval times the Chinese not only held their own, 
 but took the lead, in adventurous voyages to distant shores 
 {See Article on Chinese Abroad), which awaken the surprise 
 and admiration of those who have investigated the subject; 
 but gradually these voyages have been discontinued; and 
 even in modern times, within the memory of the author, 
 they have shrunk into short passages between different sea- 
 ports on the coast of China and closely adjacent countries. 
 The voyages in native craft to the Straits Settlements and 
 neighbouring lands and islands being bitt few; while the 
 long trips to India, and other distant lands, in the large old 
 junks carrying from three to ten and twelve sails (the 
 present sea-going junks seldom have more than three or 
 
BOATS. 79 
 
 four sails) and a crew of 250 or more men, mentioned by 
 the medieval travellers, Friar Jbrdanns, Ibn Batuta, and 
 Marco Polo, are now entirely a thing- of the past. The old 
 must die out before the new, and the modern steamship is 
 running, in fact has run, the heavy lumbering junk off many 
 of its old established sea-routes; even a commencement has 
 been made in inland waters in the same direction, and 
 ■eventually the picturesque clumsy old craft are bound to 
 disappear in the ^vorld's march of progress which even now 
 influences distant Cathay. Notwithstanding their uncouth 
 shape and clumsy-looking sails, they undoubtedly are 
 picturesque objects, and look as if they had been commenced 
 in some antediluvian age and never finished off. Their 
 bizarre hulls, high sterns further augmented by the ginger- 
 bread work, the divergent rake of their masts, their large 
 nut-brown matting sails, topped sometimes with a gay red 
 pennant, all lend a distinct charm and piquant flavour of 
 their own to the jnnk, and make it a su I generis, not to be 
 found anywhere else in the -wide world. They offer very 
 effective objects for the painter's brush, whether as brown 
 sails speckled on the sun-lit sea; or whether the diverse 
 style of their build with their queer-shaped hulls are more 
 carefully studied; or whether, all tattered and torn, the 
 ragged sail f" the weather-beaten craft on its return voyage 
 suggests a conflict with stormy winds, while a more forlorn 
 Appearance still is apparent when dismantled they are 
 undei going repairs, or when heeled over on the sand for 
 breaming, jr when cast high and dry on the beach or 
 stranded on the rocks with their bare poles of masts, and 
 gaping sterns, out of which stick their queer-shaped 
 enormous rudders. Still more picturesque is the sight of a 
 squadron of w^ar-junks with briglitly painted hulls and 
 many-coloured banners, of all shapes and sizes, and stream- 
 ing pennants like the old mediaeval galleys of Europe, lying 
 ready to sta-t on an expedition to subdue the rebellious 
 subjects of His Imperial Majesty the Emperor of China. 
 
 A book, nay scores of books, might be written on the 
 many-featured sides of life to be found on boats in China: . 
 
80 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 their liistory from earliest times to the present; their shapes 
 unci sizes and builds and rigs, from the curious Hakka boats, 
 with their nine or a dozen sails spread fan-like on an 
 improvised frame-work of bamboo poles, doM n to the tiny 
 fislier's canoe. 
 
 What interesting chapters could be indited anent 
 thousands and millions of human beings, whose Avhole lives 
 are spent on the rivers and canals, which flow past, or cut 
 through, so many Chinese cities — inhabiting dwellings 
 without foundations (and for which the occupants pay no 
 ground-rent) as the flowing stream supports them in more 
 senses than one ; the strange and varied experiences to be 
 found in travelling by boat will still afford material for 
 many a volume of novel adventure in the future as they 
 have in the past; the origin of some of the boat populations, 
 their curious customs, habits and superstitions, these all 
 have been but lightly toiiched upon as yet, and present an 
 interesting field to be worked by the ethnologist, the com- 
 parative mythologist, and the lover of folklore. 
 
 The following extracts from consular reports, by 
 Mr. Byron Brennan, are interesting as showing how an 
 attempt has been made to copy tlie paddle-wheel in one 
 species of boat in Canton, and how steam-launches are 
 making their way into use : — 
 
 The evolution of the Chinese passenger boat is proceeding 
 cautiously. Twenty years ago sails and sweeps were the powers 
 used ; then came stern-wheel boats worked by manpower, these are 
 still extensively used. The next stage was a tow boat lashed along- 
 side a passenger boat and the next, it may be hoped will be the 
 amalgamation of the tug and the tow. 
 
 The stern wheel passenger boats are a striking feature on the 
 busy river at Canton. They are long, low, box-looking craft, the 
 largest being of about loo tons measurement. The inside of the box 
 is divided into compartments into which the passengers lie down or 
 squat, for there is not head room. The roof is flat, and on this sit 
 a crowed of passengers sheltered from the weather by stiff bamboo 
 mats. At the stern is the compartment, where the men work. The 
 largest kind of boat has twenty-four men. The machinery on a large 
 boat consists of four shafts laid across the boat at a distance of 3 feet 
 from each other. At each end of these shafts six men work a sort of 
 treadmill ; they hold on to a cross bar above with their hands, while 
 their feet work the three wooden pedals which are fixed on three iron 
 arms ladiating from the centre ; there is thus an angle of 120 degrees 
 
BOOKS OX CHINA. 81' 
 
 between two pedals. The pedals along the shafts are so dispersed 
 that the six men do not keep step. As No. i puts his foot on one 
 pedal, No. 2 is already half way through his step, and so on. These 
 series of treadmills are connected with the stern paddle-wheel by 
 means of cranks, so that one revolution of the tread-mill makes one 
 revolution of the stern wheel. The stern-wheel is 8 feet in diameter 
 and has 8 floats, and when the men are working easy it makes 16 to 
 18 revolutions a minute, and the speed attained is 3 J miles to 4 miles 
 an hour. On a long journey the men rest in turn, three working to 
 one resting, and in this way the boat is kept going during the whole 
 of the day. 
 
 The number of native owned steam launches running between 
 Canton and the numerous towns to the delta is constantly increasing. 
 Besides their use by officials, and in the customs, likin, and salt 
 preventive services, they are constantly employed to tow passenger 
 boats ; but, in this case, only to and from fixed stations. The 
 launches engaged in towing are taxed, and ply under severe pains 
 and penalties. However, since the opening of the West River in 
 1897, steam traffic on the Canton waterways has been placed under 
 the control of the Imperial Maritime Customs. 
 
 At Swatow and other places in China, such as between 
 Soo Chow, Hang Chow, and Shanghai, steam-launches are- 
 plying as passenger boats, and it is hoped that as time goes 
 on they will be increased, as notwithstanding the multiplicity 
 of boats and the magnificent rivers in many parts, inter- 
 communication is slow. 
 
 BOOKS ON CHTNA.— The books written on China are 
 numerous and are constantly being added to (See Article on. 
 Bibliography). Nearly every one that has taken any interest 
 in the country or people has written about one or both. 
 Missionaries, merchants, military and naval men, scholars, 
 professors, teachers, interpreters, consuls and vice-consuls, 
 ambassadors and diplomats, statesmen, travellers and globe- 
 trotters, the literary man, reviewers, novelists and poets, as 
 well as the Chinese themselves, have all contributed their 
 quota to instruct Europe and America as to things Chinese; 
 and the views presented from such varied standpoints are 
 naturally diverse. The books produced range through all 
 branches of the subject: the languages and peoples, the 
 history, geography, natural history, government, customs,. 
 
 F 
 
82 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and manners, books, arts and industries, religions, politics 
 and commerce— all come in for their full share of attention. 
 
 We do not propose to give a complete list of the 
 best books on China^ but the perusal or study of the 
 following ten will give a very good idea of this interesting 
 people : — 
 
 (1.) Williams's 'Middle Kingdom,' — To those who wish 
 to get a general idea of the Empire, and all that concerns it 
 and its people, there is not a better book. It is a perfect 
 repository of information for the general reader, and the last 
 edition, which has been brought up to date will doubtless 
 maintain its position as a text book on the subject for many 
 years to come. 
 
 (2.) Archdeacon Gray's 'China.' — A book in two 
 volumes, profusely illustrated by Chinese dra^dngs, and 
 giving much information, not in the style of a text-book, 
 but in the form of a personal narrative of what the author 
 liimself saw during his long residence in China. 
 
 (3.) 'Historic China and other Sketches,' by H. A. Giles, 
 late H.B.M's. Consular Service. — An octavo volume of 400 
 pages, containing short sketches of the different historical 
 periods, and essays, all written in a light and pleasant style, 
 and containing much information. 
 
 ( k) Doolittle's ' Social Life of the Chinese.' — A book 
 full of all the curious superstitions, strange ceremonies, and 
 customs of the Chinese, more particularly those pertaining 
 to Foochow. 
 
 (5.) 'Ling-nara,' by Rev. B. C. Henry, M.A., d.d. — A 
 pleasant, brightly-written book of travels in the Canton 
 Province, Avith descriptions of its beautiful scenery, fine 
 rivers, and thickly populated districts. 
 
 (6.) Miss Gordon Cumming's 'Wanderings in China,' is 
 light, pleasant reading, and gives the general reader a good 
 idea of the coast ports. 
 
BOOKS ON CHINA. 83 
 
 (7.) 'Journeys in North China,' by the late Dr. Williamson, 
 ■ contains an immense amount of reliable information, prin- 
 cipally about that portion of China. 
 
 (8.) Professor Douglas's ' Society in China ' is even 
 better than his former work ' China,' Avhich we recommended 
 in a former edition as being well fitted to give a good general 
 idea of China and its people within compact limits. 
 
 (9.) Journals of tlie North China Branch of the Royal 
 Asiatic Society', [See Article on Asiatic Society.) 
 
 (10.) Professor Legge's 'Chinese Classics' contain the 
 Bible of the Chinese nation, which every school-boy is taught 
 to learn by heart, and on Avhich the government of the whole 
 empire and the fabric of Chinese society is based. 
 
 The above books might be increased to ten times ten 
 ■easily enough; nor, by placing these first, do we intend to 
 imply that many of the others Avould not equally claim to be 
 mentioned with them. With such an enibarras de. riehesses 
 it is difficult to know where to begin. Of books of travel, we 
 may instance • Old Highways in China.' by Mrs. Williamson, 
 as a light and readable book, containing a good deal about 
 the women and children. 'J_jife among the Mongols' is a 
 true picture of thece nomads. Quite a literature is springing 
 ■up on Western China; Mrs. Bryson's 'Child Life in China' 
 treats of Hankow and tlie neiohbourhord of the Yano;-tsz; 
 so does Rev. W. A. Cornaby's 'A String of Chinese Peach 
 Stones,' in the way of tales and folk-lore, finally ending in a 
 story of the Rebellion of Rebellions in modern times in 
 China, the great T'ai P'ing Rebellion; E. Colborne Baber's 
 * Travels and Researches in Western China,' published as a 
 supplemental paper of the Royal Geographical Society, 
 Vol. 1, pt. I, 1882; Hosie's 'Travels in Western China,' and 
 Rev. V. Hart's 'Western China' are all most interesting 
 books and well worthy of perusal. In this connection there 
 is also Mr. Little's 'Yang-tsz Gorges.' 
 
 Still treating of particular parts of China is Baron 
 ■Richthofen's splendid work, which deals with the northern 
 part of the empire, and contains much valuable information 
 
 f2 
 
84 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 by a traveller ' of great scientific ability,' whose explorations 
 have been described as ' at once the most extensive and the 
 most scientific of our age.' It is written in German. 
 
 Concerning Canton, one may read Archdeacon Gray's 
 ' Walks in the City of Canton,' Avhich, besides giving much 
 information, is also useful as a guide book. Mention should 
 also be made of the Rev. Hilderic Friend's ' Willow Pattern,' 
 written by one who lived amongst the people, and took the 
 greatest interest in all their habits and customs ; it is 
 consequently a very truthful picture of Chinese life, told in 
 the guise of a tale. 
 
 Macao has been treated of in a book, now rare and out 
 of print, viz. : — Sir Andrew Lungstedt's 'Macao and China,*^ 
 over the production of which the author spent much labour 
 and research. 
 
 Swatow customs, people and folk-lore are treated of in 
 a trio of books by Miss Fielde, entitled ' Pagoda Shadows,' 
 'A Corner of Cathay,' and *' Chinese Nights' Entertainment.' 
 
 Archdeacon Moule's ' New China and Old,' has some- 
 thing to say of Ningpo, Hangchow, and Shanghai ; besides 
 treating of Chine.se subjects in general. 
 
 The transition from these to a lighter class of reminis- 
 cences of olden days, may be made by the reading of an 
 "old resident's" recollections of earlier days, under the names 
 of ' Bits of Old China,' and ' The Fan-kwai in Canton.' 
 
 A vast amount of learning, erudition, and research are 
 shown in many of tlie books published on China, especially in 
 the China RevieAv,' 'Transactions of the N. C. Br. of the 
 E. A. S.,' already mentioned, and in the twenty volumes of the 
 'Chinese Repository.' Any one who will take the trouble xo 
 make himself acquainted with most of the Articles and Notes 
 contained in these three periodicals, to say nothing of 'Notes 
 and Queries on China and Japan,' and 'The Chinese Journal 
 and Missionary Recorder,' and 'Journal of the Peking 
 Oriental Society,' will find that there is scarcely a subject 
 
BOOKS ON CHINA. 85 
 
 -connected with China that has not been most learnedly 
 •discussed in tliese pages. 
 
 To those who are fond of the marvellous, treated in a 
 sober manner, let us recommend Olythical ]\Ionsters,' by 
 •Charles Gould, son of the gifted and renowned ornithologist. 
 
 From myths to Avorship is an easy transition, and here 
 we have a whole host of books, especially if under this 
 category we include books dealing with the philosophical 
 systems. • The Dragon, Image, and Demon, or the Three 
 Religions, will give an idea of the multiplicity of objects of 
 worship : it deals primarily Avith the neighbourhood of 
 Soochow, though much is applicable to all parts of China. 
 Edkin's 'Religion in China,' and his "'Chinese Buddhism,' 
 ]jegge's "The Religions of China,' and Real's 'Buddhistic 
 Literature in China,' treat full}' of these subjects. To those 
 wlio are content with comparatively short essays, there is 
 Douglas's ' Confucianism and Taouism,' containing two 
 admirable monographs on these two religions, or philosopliies. 
 Then there are the works of Dr. Faber, noted for sound 
 scholarship: 'The .Mind of JMencius, or Pi^litical Economy, 
 founded upon Moral Philosophy,' and • A Systematic Digest 
 of the Doctrines of Confucius,' besides his other works 
 in both German and English. The Bible of the Taouists, 
 'The Tao Teh King,' is translated by the learned sinologue, 
 \)x. Chalmers ; there are besides two translations of the 
 Taouist philosopher by Balfour and Giles respectively, and 
 .latest of all Professor Legge's translation in the •' Sacred 
 Books of the East ' series. 
 
 There are numbers of volumes containing short papers 
 or essays, amongst which we may mention the admirable 
 ' Hanlin Papers, or Essays on the Intellectual Life of the 
 •Chinese,' 2nd series, by Dr. Martin; 'Balfour's Leaves from my 
 Chinese Scrapbook'; and Sir Walter ^Medhurst's 'The Foreigner 
 in Far Cathay'; amongst these also might be classed the 
 interesting work ' Chinese Characteristics,' by A. H. Smith, 
 now in a second edition. A second edition of Walter's 
 'Essays on Chinese Literature' has just been published. 
 
86 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The gift to see ourselves as others see us will be granted by 
 a perusal of 'Those Foreign Devils': a Celestial on England 
 and Englishmen, translated by W. H. Wilkinson of H.M's.- 
 Consular Service. 
 
 For the Historical student there are Boulger's ' History 
 of China, ' in three large volumes ; Ross's History of the 
 Manchus/ and the same author's ' Corea, ' which necessarily 
 deal largely with China. Tiiere is also Dr. Hirth's learned 
 brochure 'China and the Roman Orient: Researches into 
 their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as represented in old 
 Chinese Records.' Parker's 'A Thousand Years of the Tartars/ 
 Rev. J. Macgowan's 'History of China,' and his 'Pictures of 
 Southern China' ; Mrs. Bishop's 'Korea and Her Neighbours' ; 
 Mr. J. J. M. de Groot's 'Religious Systems of China'; 
 and Dr. H. A. Giles' ' Biographical Dictionary ' are amongst 
 the latest works published on China. 
 
 Those who are interested in the part that different 
 European nations have played in the Far East, and in the 
 political out-look in that part of the world will doubtless 
 find the following books to their taste, viz.: — 
 
 'Problems of the Far East,' by the Rt. Hon. G. N. 
 Curzon; and 'The Peoples and Politics of the Far East,' by 
 Mr. H. Norman. 
 
 A pleasant taste of Chinese literature may be obtained 
 from Mr. Giles's ' Gems of Chinese Literature,' being gleanings 
 from all times and periods. 
 
 Those fond of poetry will find it treated of in Sir John 
 Davis's monograph on the 'Poetry of the Chinese' ; and those 
 delighting in rhymes, will find Stent's 'Entombed Alive, 
 and other Songs and Ballads from the Chinese,' a lively book 
 to beguile a pleasant half-hour; 'Pidgin-English Sing-song/ 
 by Chas. G. Leland, is amusing. Freemasons and those 
 interested in Secret Societies will find Schlegel's ' Thian Thi 
 Hwui,' of great interest. 'A Collection of Chinese Proverbs/ 
 by W. Scarborough, will suit another class of readers. The 
 translation of the Ch'cug Yii K'ao, ' A Manual of Chinese 
 Quotations, ' by the Hon. J. H. Stewart Lockhart, c.M.G., is 
 another work of value. 
 
BOOKS ON CHINA. 87 
 
 Philologists have their tastes provided for in Edkins's 
 ' China's Place in Philology,' and ' The Languages of China 
 before the Chinese/ by Professor Terrien de Lacouperie. 
 
 The Collector of China has had some aids provided in 
 Dr. Birth's ' 'Ancient Porcelain: A Study in Chinese Mediaeval 
 Industry and Trade/ and Dr. Bushell's ' Chinese Porcelain 
 before the Present Dynasty.' It is a pity that the illustrations 
 of this last work could not have been reproduced. Numis- 
 matists will find their tastes catered for in the Hon. Stewart 
 Lockhart's 'The Currency of the Farther East from the Earliest 
 Times up to the Present Day.' 
 
 Not a few books in French have been issued from the 
 press dealing with China, and ranging from the learned works 
 of Julien to the recent light literature by Tcheng Ki Tong. 
 The other principal languages of Europe have all been 
 requisitioned to describe this people and their country, such 
 as German, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Russian, and even 
 Latin. 
 
 But we have already occupied more than enough space 
 
 in this rapid survey of books treating of China and the 
 
 Chinese, and ha\e necessarily left many works unnoticed. 
 
 We cannot, however, close without a passing reference to 
 
 Marco Polo, the celebrated Venetain traveller of the middle 
 
 ages, the pioneer of the army, which, with ever increasing 
 
 numbers, has visited the ere-while Kingdom of the 'Grand 
 
 Khan,' Kubhii Khan; but the present itinerants, unlike their 
 
 great predecessor, who resided for years in the country, are 
 
 content to 'do' China in a few days or mouths, and then 
 
 hasten to instruct the ignorant world in bo<jks and pamphlets, 
 
 which, often amidst interesting and sprightly narratives of 
 
 stirring events, contain a mass of crude and undigested 
 
 second-hand information of the people they scarcely kno'v, 
 
 and of the country they have skimmed through, 'or rather 
 
 passed by,' so rapidly. 
 
 Books n'roniDicndcil. — ' Bibliotheca Sinica : Dictionnaire BihliogTa- 
 phique des Oiivrageii Kelatifs k TEinpire Chiuols, ' par Henri Cordier. 
 ' Manual of Chinese Bibliography,' being a list of works and essays relating 
 to China, by P. G. & 0. F. vou Molleiidorff. ' Collectanea Bibliographica,' 
 appearing of late years in the ' China Fieview." 
 
88 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 BOOKS FOR LEARNING CHINESE.— Begixmers 
 -are often at a loss to know what bo(jks to get to learn the 
 different so-called dialects, or rather spoken languages of 
 "China; and we often have enquiries made on this subject. 
 We therefore give some directions as to tlie books to get : — 
 
 Amoy. — For a phrase-book, get Macgowan's '^Manual 
 of the Amoy Dialect,' and for Dictionaries, English-Amoy: 
 the same author's 'English-Chinese Dictionary in the Amoy 
 Dialect,' price ^10. For Amoy-English Dictionary, 'Chinese- 
 English Dictionary of the Vernacular or Spoken Language 
 of Amoy, with the principal variations of the Chang Chew and 
 'Chin Chew Dialects,' by Rev. Carstairs Douglas, M.A., L.L.D. 
 Besides these books, there is a large assortment — the largest 
 in the country — of Romanized Colloquial books prepared by 
 "the missionaries. 
 
 CaxtONESE. — For learning the language properly, 
 ■get 'Cantonese Made Easy,' 2nd edition, price ^3. 'The 
 Caiitonese 3[ade Easy Vocabulary,' 2nd edition, price ^1. 
 ■'How to Speak Cantonese,' price ^3; and 'Readings in 
 •Cantonese Colloquial,' price ^3 ; all by the present author. 
 The two varieties of Dictionaries required, are EiteFs 
 Cantonese-English Dictionary, price $10; and Chalmers's 
 'English-Cantonese Dictionary,' price ;|3. For a mere 
 smattering — for the acquisition of a few phrases — there is a 
 small book specially prepared, freed as much as possible 
 from all difficulties; it is 'An English and Cantonese Pocket 
 Vocabulary,' also by the present author, price 75 cents. 
 
 FOOCIIOW. — Maclay's ' Manual of tlie Foochow Dialect.' 
 and Maclay and Baldwin's ' Chinese-English Dictionary.' 
 
 //.iZ.v,l.Y. — The Gospels in Romanized Colloquial. 
 
 Hakka. — The present author's 'Easy Sentences in 
 the Hakka Dialect with a Vocabulary,' price $1 ; this is 
 prepared simply for those who wish to acquire a mere 
 smattering of Hakka; for others there has just been prepared 
 by the same author, 'Hakka Made Easy,' Pt. I, There are 
 
BOOKS FOR LEARNING CHINESE. 89 
 
 /also the R(jnianized Colloquial books prepared by the German 
 Missionaries, as well as tlie New Testament in Character 
 Colloquial. 
 
 MAyjJAlUX [Pekixgese). — Sir Thomas Wade'fs 'Tzu- 
 Erh-Chi — Colloquial Series,' price $\o. Giles's ' Chinese with- 
 out a Teacher/ price ^1. Edkins's 'Mandarin Grammar/ 
 price $3. A new book, highly recommended, is Dr. Mateer's 
 ' Mandarin Lessons ' ; price, in one vol., $8. There is also 
 one by a Japanese, Goh— called the 'Kuan Hua Cliih Nan/ 
 jprice $\ ; and a translation by L. C. Hopkins, called 'The Guide 
 to Kuan Hua,' price $2. This book has been lately translated 
 into Cantonese by the Hon. F. H. May. Dictionaries. — Stent's 
 "A Chinese and English Vocabulary in the Pekingese Dialect/ 
 price ;$6 ; and William's •'Syllabic Dictionary of the Cliinese 
 Language,' price $15. There is also the new Dictionary by 
 Dr. H. A. Giles, costing ^\lb, and containing, as well as the 
 -Mandarin pronunciation, that of a number of the so-called 
 Dialects. 
 
 A'/.v^'/v?.— Morrison's "Anglo-Chinese V(jcabulavy of 
 the Ninpgo Dialect*: and many Romanized books. 
 
 SUAXaHAI. — Dr. Edkins's 'Grammar of the Shanghai 
 Dialect,' price %2; and alsohis Vocabulary in English-Chinese,' 
 price %2. 
 
 S C//0 ]]'.— -Ijyon' s 'Introductory Lessons in the Soo- 
 chow Dialect,' price 50 cents. 
 
 SU'A TOW. —The simplest is Giles's 'Hand-book of the 
 Swatow Vernacular Dialect, with a Vocabulary,' price ^L 
 Avery good phrase-book is Lim's ' Hand-book of the Swatow.' 
 For an English-Chinese Vocabulary get 'English-Chinese 
 Vocabulary of the Vernacular or spoken Language of 
 Swatow,' by Rev. W. DufFus, price ^.5. The only Chinese- 
 English Dictionary is Miss Fielde's, but unfortunately the 
 English spelling of the Chinese words is not the same as in 
 the other books, price ^8, unbound. For a combination 
 
90 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 of phrase book and grammar, there is ' Primary Lessons in: 
 Swatow Grammar, (^Colloquial),' by Rev, W. Ashmore, d.d.,. 
 price ^1, unbound. 
 
 TaI-CHOW. — Book of Psalms. 
 
 To read Chinese. — A good knowledge of the Colloquial 
 should precede all attempts to learn the Book Language, 
 except for scholars in America or Europe, who simply learn 
 Chinese as they would Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Sanscrit, or 
 any other language for which they have no colloquial need. 
 
 The present author's 'Readings in Cantonese Colloquial.' 
 leads from pure and simple colloquial by easy stages to a 
 semi-mixed style of colloquial and book language. 
 
 A very good book is William's 'Lasy Lessons in Chinese.' 
 Another aid to beginners will be found in the ' Chinese 
 Chrestomathy,' an old book, which, with all its faults, is an 
 excellent one in many respects. Both these books are out 
 of print. 
 
 An admirable Avay ro learn the Book Language is to 
 follow the plan of Chinese school-boys by going through the 
 school-books, commencing with such as the Third, Pourth.^ 
 and Fifth Character Classics, reading aloud after the teacher 
 so often that whole pages of the books can be repeated off 
 by heart. A translation of the two first-named by Mr. Giles 
 is to be had : and Dr. Eitel has also more lately published 
 translations of them. Some knowledge might be acquired 
 of the 'Four Books' and 'Five Classics,' — the 'Four Books,' 
 at all events; if there is time for it. learned in the same 
 manner as the simple school-books, mentioned above. 
 Legge's • Chinese Classics ' should be used here. Those 
 published with Chinese text, English translation, and notes,, 
 &c., are five volumes in number. The *Li-Ki,' without the 
 Chinese text, is published in the same series in 2 volumes. 
 For those who are to be connected with the Consular 
 Service, nothing can be better than a thorough mastery of 
 Wade's 'Tzfi Erh Chi,' Documentary Series, price ^i. For 
 
BOTANY. 91 
 
 those in the Imperial Maritime Service, there is, further, the 
 admirable series of papers and documents collected by 
 Dr. Hirth, entitled •' Text Book of Documentary Chinese,' 
 price $4. Besides these two compendiums there is the more 
 recent 'Text Book of Documentary Chinese,' by G. T. Hare ; 
 which contains many Chinese documents, such as petitions,. 
 bills, agreements, memorials, letters, &c., &c., with English 
 tables of contents. Hirth's 'Notes on Documentary Style' 
 is also a very useful book. After going through the whole, 
 or a portion, of the books mentioned above, the learner Avill 
 know pretty well Avhat is best adapted for his requirements 
 should he intend to proceed further. 
 
 Writixg. — To learn liow to form the Character in the 
 correct Avay, there is the present author's 'How to Write 
 Chinese,' — Part I., price $;2. 
 
 BOTANY. — There is still a great deal for Botanists to 
 do in China^ in the way of collecting, examining, and making 
 known to the world the result of their labours, for there are 
 yet vast regions unexplored. 
 
 ' The Chinese flora is extremely rich. Forests, in the European 
 sense, are rare ; but evergreens, flowering shrubs, and especially 
 resinous plants, are found in great variety. Proceeding southwards, 
 the transition is very gradual from the Manchurian to the tropical 
 flora of Indo-China. Hence in some of the central districts there is a 
 remarkable intermingling of species belonging to different zones, the 
 bamboo flourishing by the side of the oak, while wheat and maize- 
 crops are interspersed with paddy-fields, sugar, and cotton plantations. 
 In general, the cultivated species are everywhere encroaching on the 
 wild flora.' 
 
 We quote the above from A. H. Keane's 'Asia," edited, 
 by Sir Richard Temple. 
 
 Owing to the monsoons, there is 'a more regular 
 distribution of the rainfall,' and a rainy season in spring ; the 
 result is an 'extremely regular succession of seasons, which 
 * * * is favourable to a careful garden-like agriculture.' 
 In the North, wheat and millet are cultivated, while in the 
 South, rice, sugar-cane, mulberries, the tea-plant, and oranges 
 are grown. Cotton and indigo are also produced in China. 
 
-92 THI^GS CHTNESE. 
 
 One of the most mavkecl differences, noticeable to the 
 new arrival in China, cspocially in the Sonth, is the absence 
 of meadows and pasture lands. ' Hongkong, in its more 
 sheltered valleys and ravines, presents an extraordinary 
 varied flora,' closely connected with that of Sikkim, Assam, 
 Khasia, and North-East India, "and will probably hereafter 
 prove to be connected witli it by a gradual transition across 
 South China.' Many other species are more tropical, like 
 those of the Indian Archipelago, Atalayan Peninsula, and 
 •even Ceylon and Africa. 'Northwards of Hongkong the 
 Tegetatiou appears to change much more rapidly. Very few 
 of the species known to range across from the Himalaya to 
 Japan are believed to come much further south than iVmoy, 
 where, with a difference of latitude of only two degrees, the 
 tropical features of the Hongkong flora have (as far as we 
 know) almost entirely disappeared.' It is quite wonderful 
 what a "very large total amount of species are crowded upon 
 so small an island' as tliis little colony of Hongkoiig. There 
 are over 1,000 species, and 550 genera of phanerogamic plants 
 ■described in Bentliam's 'Flora Hongkongensis.' Since this 
 was published, about 210 additional species have been dis- 
 covered in Hongkong, bringing the total number of indigenous 
 plants in this island up to about the same number as is 
 known in the whole of the British Islands. 
 
 In a new work (now being published in separate parts as 
 the papers appear in the Linnean Society's Journal) entitled 
 'Index Florae Sinensis,' consisting of an enumeration of 
 all the plants known from China proper, Formosa, Hainan, 
 ■the Corea, the Luchu Archipelago, and the Island of 
 Hongkong, by F. B. Forbes, P.J...S., and W. B. Hemsley, F.R.S., 
 .F.L.s. There are over 120 orders, more than 1,000 genera. 
 and about 5,000 species. The book when completed will 
 probably contain some 7,000 or more species, representing 
 ■the whole number of plants at present known to exist in 
 •China. The number is being constantly added to by zealous 
 botanists in different parts of the country, as many as a 
 ^thousand, or even more, having been discovered in six years. 
 
BO TAX Y. 
 
 93^ 
 
 We give a list of some 
 in species : — 
 
 Clematis. 31. 
 Anemone, 16. 
 Ranunculus, 15. 
 Nasturtium, 9. 
 S tell aria, 16 
 Camellia, 14 or more. 
 Ilex, 20. 
 Euonymus, 19. 
 Vitis, 24. - 
 Acer, 15. 
 Crotalaria, 14. 
 Indigofera, 14. 
 Astragalus, 21. 
 Desmodium. 25. 
 Prunus, 21. 
 Spiraea, 19. 
 Rubus, 41. 
 Potentilla, 26. 
 Rosa, 17. 
 Pyrus, 14. 
 Saxifraga, 20. 
 Sedum, 28. 
 Eugenia, 14. 
 Viburnum, 27. 
 Lonicera, 34. 
 Hedyotis, 21. 
 Vernonia, 12. 
 Aster, 31. 
 Artemisia, 22. 
 Senecio, 35. 
 Saussurea, 28. 
 Lactuca, 21. 
 
 of the genera most numerous- 
 Rhododendron, Q)0. 
 Primula, 43. 
 Lysimachia, 35. 
 Ardisia, 18. 
 Symplocos. 18. 
 Jasminum, 15. 
 Ligustrum, 14. 
 Cynanchum, 24. 
 Gentiana, 57. 
 Ipomoca, 26. 
 Solanum, 13. 
 Veronica, 14. 
 Pedicularis, 94. 
 Plectranthus, 18. 
 Scutellaria, 17. 
 Amarantus, 9. 
 Chenopodium, 9. 
 Polygonum, 63. 
 Rumex, 1 1 . 
 Aristolochia, 10. 
 Piper, 9. 
 Chloranthus, 1 1 . 
 Machilus, 16. 
 Litsea, 23. 
 Lindera, 20. 
 Wikstrcemia, 13.. 
 Elceagnus, 12. 
 Loranthus, 14. 
 Euphorbia, 23. 
 Phyllanthus, 11. 
 Glochidion, 10. 
 Mallotus, 1 3. 
 
94 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Some of the orders numerous in species are : — 
 
 Ranunculacea), 107. Asclepiacleae, 59. 
 
 Leguminosee, 301. Gentianacee, 81. 
 
 Saxifragacoa), 70. Convolvuiaccre, 49. 
 
 Umbelliferee, 56. Scrophularinea;, 200. 
 
 Caprifoliacese, 78. AcanthaceEe, 5 1 . 
 
 Rubiacece, 106. Verbenacese, oQ. 
 
 Compositas, 325. Labiatre, 136. 
 
 Ericaceae, 79. Polygonacece, 30 
 
 Primulaceae, 97. Laurinete, 73. 
 
 Oleacefe, 52. Euphorbiacene, 131 
 
 Besides these, there are many species of Solanaceae 
 Amaryllidete, Liliaceae, Aroideee, Orchidese, Labiatiie and 
 Coiiiferse. Many gramineous and alliaceous plants, are 
 cultivated for food, but Ave must stop, for if we once 
 enter on the food products of China, volumes might be 
 written on its extensive economic botany. We cannot 
 pass from Chinese plants without a notice of the bamboo in 
 its many varieties, useful for food, for dress, for furniture, 
 for boat and ship-building, for the erection of houses, and 
 for almost everything, that man needs or human ingenuity 
 can apply it to. {See Article on Bamboo.) Worthy also of 
 mention are the fan palms of the South of China from which 
 so many of these articles of necessity in a warm climate are 
 manufactured, not only for home consumption but for 
 extensive exportation to America and other countries. The 
 pea-nut and the plant from which the cool grass-cloth is 
 manufactured are largely cultivated. 
 
 Chinese botany, if the thing is worthy of such a scientific 
 name, is quite unscientific in its methods. Some of the 
 illustrations in botanical works are so truthful that, if the 
 genera are known, they afford a moans of ready identification; 
 but no pains are taken to specially represent the seed-vessels 
 and flowers, so that it is well nigh impossible to tell what 
 species a plant so depicted belongs to, unless it is already 
 known. The plants are not divided according to their o-rders, 
 genera, or species, but the classification is more of this style : — 
 
BRONZE. 95 
 
 Five Divisions of the Vegetable Kingdom, viz. — Herbs, 
 Orains, Vegetables, Pruits and Trees. These are again 
 sub-divided into families, though the plants grouped under a 
 family are very dissimilar. The same word is used for the 
 lowest division, and at times might signify a genus, a species, 
 or even a variety. Herbs are divided into nine families; 
 'Hill-plants, odoriferous, noxious, scandent or climbing, 
 aquatic, stony and mossy plants, and plants not used in 
 medicine.' This will give some idea of the mode of classifi- 
 cation, for Ave cannot follow them through the other four 
 grand divisions. 
 
 BRONZE. —The Chinese appear to have possessed the 
 art of both making and ornamenting bronze-work from a 
 high antiquity; for even at the time of the Shang dynast)-, 
 (B.C. 1783 — 1134) the work bore evidence of having arrived 
 at an advanced stage. It was intimately connected Avith 
 their ancient beliefs, for bronzs vases and other vessels 
 were in use in those most primitive of cults, which have 
 still full sway over the Chinese mind: the worship of 
 Nature in its visible manifestations of heaven and earth, the 
 stars, winds, streams, and mountains, formed the official 
 religion of the Chinese, and was confined to the governing 
 classes; it was supplemented in the case of individuals and 
 families by the worship of ancestors. Unfortunately the 
 rigid cast of the Chinese worship of antiquity and of set 
 forms, has so bound them down to a faithful copy of all that 
 Jias been done by their predecessors, that these bronze 
 vessels are copied to the most minute particular at the 
 present day. and have been for a score or more centuries. 
 The artistic mind was thus hampered and confined to a 
 reproduction of wiiat have been considered the masterpieces 
 of antiquity; play of individual taste and fancy has been 
 restricted and shut up within its own country, with but little, 
 if any, inspiration from external sources ; Chinese art thus 
 remained till the first century, when a new influence exerted 
 a beneficial effect: on it. 
 
96 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 But before passing on to a consideration of the influence 
 of Buddhism, it is interesting to notice the presence of a 
 decorative design, which in the West has been styled 'the 
 Greek,' on account of its being found in Greek and Etruscan 
 art. The questions naturally present themselves as to 
 whether: (1st.) This design has been copied by the Chinese 
 from the Greeks; and the answer is that this seems 
 improbable. (2nd,) Whether the design has been arrived at 
 independently by both nations; and the answer is that this is 
 not improbable, for the design of the Chinese seems slightly 
 different from that of the Greeks, and it has been suggested 
 that it has arisen from the representation of the two 
 pervading principles of nature, the Yin and the Yang. (3rd.> 
 Whether the design is of such remote antiquity that it may 
 have been carried from some cradle of the human race, and 
 thus been common originally to both; it would appear in 
 our present state of knowledge, that this question must be 
 left unanswered. 
 
 At first, animal forms were the original models for the 
 Chinese in their sacrificial vessels, but they were not confined, 
 to the representation of animals, for vases of curious and 
 antique forms are found, and libation vessels like a reversed 
 casque mounted on three feet. Ancient bronze work was 
 made for other purposes besides the two already named, 
 being used by the Emperor for bestowal as presents. 
 
 Buddhism, which we have already referred to, introduced 
 in its train objects of virtu and art for the native Chinese to 
 copy; and it served as an incentive in presenting a broader 
 field for the Chinese art-worker to roam over, less fettered 
 than the narrow limits confined him to. Many of the 
 treasures of art, which owe their origin to its inspiration, 
 have doubtless perished in the iconoclastic persecutions- 
 which this religion has met more than once since its 
 establishment in China; for the human figure now formed 
 a subject for the Chinese artist, and gods and goddesses 
 innumerable were depicted, and it is here that the best 
 samples of Chinese art are to be found, the finest specimens 
 
BUDDHISM. 97 
 
 being pvoduced about A.D. 1426, and from A.D. 1621 to 
 1643, reaching their highest excellence under the reign of 
 K-ang Hi, A.d! 1662. 
 
 Taouist idols and symbols have had their share in 
 providing objects of art to the Chinese bronze-worker. 
 Arabian, or Persian art, has also, in the time of the Mongol 
 rulers of China, exerted some influence on Chinese bronze 
 art, by giving it certain beauties of form which it had not 
 previously possessed, as well as new decorative and ornamental 
 designs; and in this connection one must mention the bronze 
 astronomical instruments in Peking, made for the Observatory- 
 there, during the time of Kublai Khan. We can only refer 
 en passant to the incrustations of gold, or the beautiful 
 ornamentation Avith delicate scrolls and flowers in niello 
 Avork of silver or gold wire, inserted into grooves cut in the 
 metal on bronze work, Avhich greatly enhances its beauty ; 
 nor can we do more than call attention to the damaskeen 
 work, probably introduced from India, as well as the gilded 
 bronze, due to Buddhist influence on Chinese a]'t. 
 
 Biiolt rcro mm ended. — 'I/Art C'hinois.' by M. raleologiie. 
 
 BUDDHISM. — Cirina presents the unique spectacle of 
 three powerful so-called religions, holding sway concurrently 
 over the teeming millions of its inhabitants ; and though 
 strong opposition has been shown to the younger members- 
 of this trinity of religions by the older one — Confucianism 
 — yet there is now an outward pax. Each of them is a 
 complement of the other, and attempts to meet a diiferent 
 want in human nature; Confucianism appeals to morality 
 and conduct; Taouism is materialistic; and Buddhism, 
 metaphysical. Two only are indigenous : Buddhism is foreign, 
 introduced in A.D. 61, for the Emperor dreamt of a gigantic 
 image of gold, and sent to India in search of the new 
 religion : but some believe it Avas known in China before 
 that. The first centuries of its arrival were marked by the 
 translation into Chinese of numerous Buddhistic works; and 
 there was considerable progress in making proselytes, for 
 
98 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 in the fourth century nine-tenths of the inhabitants of China 
 were Buddhists. It is impossible* to give an estimate of 
 the number at the present day, as every Chinaman, who is 
 not a Mohammedan or Christian, is a Buddhist, as well as a 
 Toauist and a Confucianist, often at one and the same time. 
 The eclectic nature of the Chinese, and the mutual adaptation 
 of the systems — a give and take — to one another, in the 
 course of centuries of combined occupation of the Chinese 
 religious mind, have rendered the outcome more of an- 
 amalgamation, or rather a mechanical combination of the 
 three ; for their partnership is not of that intimate character 
 that it can be compared to a chemical union, where the 
 different elements combine to produce a new substance. All 
 three are likeAvise established faiths in China: their sages 
 and divinities are admitted into the state pantheon and 
 honoured by state patronage. One is tempted to illustrate 
 this combination of the three, so intimately are they some- 
 times blended together, as a tripartite union of body, soul, 
 and spirit : Confucianism with its ever present essence, 
 permeating the whole body politic, and social system, 
 forming the soul; but here the comparison must stop for it 
 cannot, Avith any approach to truth, be carried further except 
 to say that there are two other members of this partnership. 
 
 Buddhism is divided into two great branches, tlie 
 Northern and Southern. The Buddhism of China, Nepaul, 
 Tibet, Mongolia, Corea, Japan, and Cochin China belong to 
 the Northern ; that of Ceylon, Bui'mah, and Siam to the 
 Southern. There are several points of diff"erence between 
 them: the sacred books amongst the Northern Buddhists are 
 either in Sanscrit, or translated from it; while amongst the 
 Southern, Pali is the sacred language. The Northern 
 Buddhists have the story of the Western Paradise, perhaps 
 evolved from the human mind as the result of longings for 
 some tangible residence of future bliss, which the doctrine 
 of Nirvana does not satisfy with its absorption into a 
 passionless state. In this pure land of the West, the saints 
 are exempt from suffering, death, and sexual distinction. 
 
BUDDHISM. 99 
 
 surronnded by the most beautiful scenery, and 'live for 
 seons in a state of absolute bliss. The Goddess of Mercy, 
 who takes very much the same place as the Virgin Mary 
 amongst Roman Catholics, belongs to this division of 
 Buddhism. In the Southern branch the Hindoo traditions 
 in respect to cosmogony and mythology are adhered to more 
 rigidly ; while in the Northern branch a completely new and 
 far more extensive universe, with divinities to correspond, 
 is believed in. 
 
 Thougli these three, especially Taouism and Buddhism, 
 are so blended and mixed together, the latter obtrudes itself 
 more on the view than the other two. Its temples, as well 
 as its priests, are more numerous. It is very interesting to 
 notice the various phases which this wide-spread form of 
 religion has developed in different lands. In China, it is 
 polytheistic, and has borrowed and adopted deities from 
 Taouism. In fact. Buddhism has adapted itself to circum- 
 stances, and finding certain beliefs prevalent amongst the 
 ■Chinese, instead of combating them, has taken them under 
 its wing, and thus gained by accretion, not only beliefs, but 
 numbers. 
 
 Nor does Buddhism seem only to have borrowed from 
 Taouism, and in this connection the following extract from 
 a paper by Professor Max Miiller in the Fortnightly Review 
 for July, 189G, may be interesting : — 
 
 Hui and Gabet, Avhile travelling in Tibet felt startled 
 at the coincidences between tlieir own ecclesiastical ritual 
 and that of the Buddhist priesthood in Tibet. They pointed 
 out, among other things, the crosier, the mitre, the dalmatic, 
 the cope, the service with two choirs, the psalmody, 
 exorcism, the use of censers held by five chains which shut 
 and open by themselves, blessings given by the Lamas in 
 extending their right hand over the heads of the faithful, 
 the use of. beads for saying prayers, the celibacy of the 
 priesthood, spiritual retreats, worship of saints, fastings, 
 processions, litanies, holy water — enough it would seem to 
 -startle Roman Catholic missionaries. They ascribed them 
 
 g2 
 
100 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 to the devil who wished to scandalise pious Roman 
 Catholics who might visit Tibet. **«-*;= We cannot 
 escape from the conclusion that this large number of 
 coincidences proves an actual historical communication 
 between Roman Catholic and Buddhist priests. And such a 
 channel through which these old Roman Catholic customs 
 could have reached Tibet can be shown to have existed. It 
 is an historical fact that Christian missionaries, chiefly 
 Nestorians, were very active in China from the middle of the 
 seventh to the end of tlie eighth century. Their presence 
 and activity in China during these centuries are attested 
 not only by the famous monument of Hsian-fu, but likewise 
 by variovis Chinese historians, and we have no reason 
 to doubt their testimony. The Nestorian Christians had 
 monasteries and schools in different towns of China and 
 were patronised by the Government. We know that one of 
 the monks in the monastery at Hsian-fu was at work under 
 the same roof with a well-known Buddhist monk from 
 Cabul, trying to translate a Buddhist Sanscrit text into 
 Chinese. The prosperity of the Nestorian missions in Cliina 
 lasted till the year 84' 1, Avhen the Emperor Wu tung issued 
 his edicts for the suppression of all Buddhist and likewise of 
 all Christian monasteries. While Buddhism recovered after 
 a time, Christianity seems to have been rooted out, and when 
 Marco Polo visited Hsian-fu, he tells us that the people were 
 all idolators. 
 
 Referring to many of the ethics of Buddhism being, 
 identical with the precepts in the Holy Scriptures, it has been 
 pointed out that it is erroneous to suppose that Christianity 
 has borrowed them from the Buddhists, as they were freely 
 taught by Moses and the Prophets centuries before Buddha 
 existed :— 
 
 The ethics of Buddhism were evidently derived from those 
 nations with whom the inhabitants of India had commercial and 
 other relations, including the Jewish, which was in its greatest 
 prosperity 500 years before Buddha was said to have existed. * * "' 
 Evidence has been given by Strabo and other ancient writers to the 
 great commercial intercourse existing in the tenth century B.C., 
 between India, Persia, Parthia, Media and the countries south of the- 
 
BUDDHISM. 101 
 
 Tiuxine, as well as the ancient traffic by sea, which recent research 
 had shown to have existed. "■■ *- "■■■, carried on from India round 
 
 Ceylon and up the Red Sea, the ships being mostly manned by 
 those intrepid mariners, the Phoenicians. 
 
 On the other hand Roman Catholicism seems to have 
 borrowed a little from Buddhism, Buddha himself having 
 been made a saint. 
 
 The Buddhism of the first few centuries of the Christian 
 ■era in China was a vigorous immigrant, fresh and lusty with 
 life ; eager to attempt great things in its new chosen home, 
 with strength and vigour, prepared to spread its principles : 
 and I'eady to endure the fiery baptisms of persecution through 
 which it had later on to pass. A very differeirt thing to the 
 emasculated descendant that now occupies the land with its 
 drones of priests, and its temples ; in which scarce a worthy- 
 disciple of the learned patriarchs of ancient days is to be 
 found. Received with open arms, persecuted, patronised, 
 smiled upon, tolerated, it, with the last phase of its existence, 
 has reached not the halcyon days of peace and rest, but its 
 final stage, foreshadowing its decay from rottenness and 
 corruption ; for it has long passed its meridian. It was at 
 the zenith of its power in the tenth and twelfth centuries, 
 not only being popular, but exerting great literary influence. 
 It excites but little enthusiasm at the present day in China ; 
 its priests are ignorant, low, and immoral ; addicted to opium ; 
 despised by the people ; lield up to contempt and ridicule; 
 and the gibe and joke of the populace. The nuns likewise 
 hold a very low position in the public estimation. The 
 belief in the transmigration of souls ; the desire for the merit 
 of good works in charity bestowed on priests, and gifts to 
 the large monasteries, so frequent throughout the length and 
 breadth of the land ; as well as the superstitious beliefs in 
 charms and masses for the dead; faith in the worship of the 
 Goddess of Mercy, and a trust in the efficacy of other gods : — 
 all these may be looked upon as the strong supports of 
 Buddhism in China at the present day ; but the scoff of the 
 infidel, and the sneer of the atheist is slowly undermining 
 some parts of this religious structure; and a better religion 
 
102 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and a purer, -svhich will stand true to its colours, Avill have- 
 more chance of success in future than Buddhism has had in 
 the past. The Light of Asia is setting in obscure darkness, 
 while the first glimmering rays of The Light of the World 
 are chasing that darkness away, and The Sun of Righteous- 
 ness is arising with healing in his wings. 
 
 BooJ/.i reroinmciKh-d. — -Rhys David's 'Buddhism,' ])iiblished by the 
 Society for Promoting Christian Knowledsje, gives the best account for the 
 general reader of Buddhism, as a religion. Eitel's ' Three Lectures on 
 Buddhism,' give, in a iiopular form, and in a few pajres, an account of 
 Chinese Buddhism, which is more lengthily treated of in Kdkins"s 'Chinese 
 Buddhism'; Beal's •Buddhism in China' is interesting and smaller than the 
 last. Edkins's ' Religion in China' contains much on Bufldhism. Beal's 
 ' Buddliist Literature in China' treats of works translated into Chinese. 
 Eitel's ' Hand-book for the student of Chinese Buddliism ' is a dictionary 
 of the Sanscrit terms used in Chinese, their translations into the latter, 
 ■with an account of their meanings. For an interesting account of a paper 
 dealing with the etliics of Buddhism .syv ' Hongkong Telegraph,' Ivth Feb., 
 1896. Also ,svr 'Chi])sfroma German Workshop,,' Vol. IV.. pp. 445-458. 
 for a stranofe account of the canonisation of Buddha himself as a Roman 
 Catholic saint. 
 
 BUFFALO (WATER-BUFFALO).— Th\s animal is 
 called by the Chinese the water ox, or cow : by naturalists. 
 Bos huhalus. Crauford and Dr. Dennys thus describe it: — 
 
 The same useful, powerful, ugly, sluggish, and unwieldy animal 
 which exists in all the warm countries of Asia, and which was intro- 
 duced into Greece, Egypt and Southern India in the middle ages. It 
 is only, however, within ten or twelve degrees of the equator that it is 
 found of great size, strength and vigour. * ''- *- The flesh of this 
 semi-aquatic animal is coarse. * "'" * The wound inflicted by an 
 enraged buffalo is fearful. The victim is generally gored in the thigh, 
 the femoral artery being ripped open. 
 
 The buffalo is a dangerous animal for Europeans to 
 approach, as it has a repugnance to strangers, but Avith its 
 friends is thoroughly docile, and in perfect control of the 
 little boys who have the task of driving them to and from 
 the fields, and of guiding them when pulling the harrow and 
 plough, often riding on their backs. So common is this 
 sight that the metaphor of a lad astride a buffalo's back, 
 blowing the flute, frequently enters into Chinese descriptions 
 of rural life, and the buffalo with the herd-boy thus engaged 
 appears in paintings and is used for decorative designs, &c. 
 
CAMPHOR. 103 
 
 The buffalo can scarcely be said to be covered with hair,. 
 a few straggling ones being all that Nature has vouchsafed 
 to it ; one author describing it as having ' a hairless hide.' 
 Through this scanty pretence for a covering the light black 
 colour of the skin shows without any concealment. Each 
 horn is nearly semi-circular, and bends downward, while the 
 head is turned back so as almost to bring the nose 
 horizontal. This peculiar carriage of the head enables the 
 animal to submerge nearly the whole of the body and head 
 under the surface of the water in the pools and ponds in 
 which they deliglit to lie, to cool themselves or to get rid of 
 the gnats. It is very curious to see a herd of them thus 
 immersed with only the tips of their noses showing. The 
 habits of this animal make it cheaper to keep him in good 
 condition, while he can do more "work than the ox. The 
 milk of the buffalo cow in the South of China is richer than, 
 that of the cow in that part of the Avorld. 
 
 CAMPHOR.~Yh{& useful drug is the product of the 
 camphor tree, a species of laurel, which grows abundantly by 
 in Fuh-Kien and Kwong-tung, and is met with as a timber- 
 tree in Kiang-si, Hu-peh and other provinces to some extent. 
 The tree attains a large size, is of much use, and gives 
 employment to many carpenters, shipwrights and boat- 
 builders, the Avood being valuable for the manufacture of 
 trunks and chests of drawers. The odour of the wood is 
 pleasant, and when fresh and strong of some utility in 
 keeping away moths and insects from clothing, the wood 
 itself not being subject to the attack of white ants, &c. 
 Vessels are also constructed partially or wholly of it as well. 
 
 The drug is employed medicinally by the Chinese, and 
 another use they make of it is for thinning lacquer. The 
 Chinese are not careful in the preparation of the drug which 
 is very impure. Williams thus describes the preparation 
 of it : — 
 
 The gum is procured from the branches, roots, leaves, and 
 chips by soaking them in water until the liquor becomes saturated; a 
 gentle heat is then applied to this solution, and the sublimed camphor 
 received in inverted cones, made of rice-straw, from which it is. 
 detached in impure grains, resembling unrefined sugar in colour. 
 
104 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Dr. Porter Smith tells us : — It is met with in granular lumps 
 or grains, of the colour of dirty snow, and having a strong terebin- 
 thinate odour, and a warm, bitter aromatic taste, with an aftertaste 
 somewhat cooling. It is not so strong as the English drug, but it is 
 more volatile. Very good camphor is brought from Tsiuen-chau fu 
 in Fuh-kien. 
 
 Rein says : — Japanese camphor is much purer and more 
 valuable, and therefore commands a higher price than Chinese. 
 
 More than one variety of camphor is procurable in the 
 Chinese drug shops ; the common dirty stuff, sold at a cheap 
 rate, being of little use. The better qualities are either 
 from abroad, or have had more care taken in the preparation. 
 A variety called icicle-flakes is procured from a different 
 species of tree, is said to come from Chang-chau fu, in Fuh- 
 kien, and the tree yielding it, * * * * is described as 
 growing in Canton province. 
 
 Since the loss of the Island of Formosa, the Chinese 
 production of camphor is confined to that of the mainland. 
 In a British Consulate Report from Foochow occurs the 
 following passage : — 
 
 Camphor trees grow in this neighbourhood, and I cannot but 
 think that if the Chinese were sufficiently long-sighted to take proper 
 care of the existing trees, and to plant young ones, a considerable 
 trade in camphor might be fostered. Heretofore Formosa has been a 
 camphor-producing country. Now that this has been transferred to 
 Japanese rule, the Chinese, unless they take measures to prevent it, 
 will lose the camphor trade entirely. 
 
 Camphor has risen enormously in value lately. It has 
 been erroneously thought that this was due to the extended 
 use of it in the manufacture of smokeless powder ; but it was 
 only employed experimentally at first for that purpose which 
 could not have affected the market value. It is, however, 
 extensively used in the manufacture of celluloid. 
 
 CAPITAL CITIES.— The country now included in 
 ■China has been the scene of so many different states in 
 ancient times, due to the vicissitudes incident to conquest 
 and war as well as to other causes, that various cities have 
 been the capital of the empire at different periods of its 
 existence. 
 
CAPITAL CITIES. 105 
 
 flangchow is one of the most famous of these. Marco 
 Polo waxes eloquent in his praise of it : The noble and 
 magnificent city of Kin-sai,, a name that signifies '■'the 
 celestial city," and which it merits from its pre-eminence to 
 all others in the world, in point of grandeur and beauty, as 
 well as from its abundant delights, Avhich might lead an 
 inhabitant to imagine himself in paradise. All writers 
 agree in praising its situation, and the beauty of the 
 surroundings, as well as the richness of the city, though they 
 do not go into the ecstacies of the mediaeval Italian. Hang- 
 chow was the metropolis during the latter part of the Sung 
 dynasty (A.D. 1129-1280), when the northern part of the 
 empire was in the hands of the Kin Tartars. 
 
 The ancient capital of Shan-tu, rendered famous by 
 Coleridge's exquisite poem : — 'In Xanadu did Kubhii Khan/ 
 ■ — is now in ruins. 
 
 The chief city of Shan-tung is Chi-nan-fu. once the 
 capital of the ancient state of Tsi (B.C. 1100-1230). 
 
 Kai-fung-fu, or Pien Liang, had the honour of being the 
 metropolis from A.D. 960 to 1129. 
 
 The After Hans had their capital at the chief city of 
 Sz-chuan, where their rule extended over the West of China. 
 
 Si-ngan-fu, has been the capital of the empire for more 
 years than any other city. 
 
 Nanking, I.e., the Southern Capital, has been the 
 metropolis of China several times during long periods of her 
 history, once from A.D. 317 to 582. It was here that the 
 seat of government was established in the former part of the 
 Ming dynasty, A.D. 1368-1103, though Hung Wu, the 
 founder of that dynasty, intended Hwui-chow to be the 
 capital. The famous porcelain tower was here (at Nanking), 
 and here it was too that the T'ai P-ing rebels made their 
 head-quarters for many years. The Southern Mandarin was 
 the court language of China, until displaced by the Northern, 
 owing to Nanking being the capital. 
 
106 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Peking is the Northern Capital, and has been so for 
 many centuries, but it was not the capital of the whole of 
 China until the time of Kublai in A.D. 1264. On the fall 
 of the Mongol dynasty, the centre of government was 
 transferred to Nanking until A.D. 1411, when Peking again 
 became the metropolis, and has remained so ever since. It 
 is owing to Peking being the capital that the Northern 
 Mandarin is spoken in Peking, otherwise an insignificant 
 dialect is the Court language of China. 
 
 Jiockft rccoiiinieH<lcd. — In 'Notes and Queries on Cliina ami .Japan,' 
 Vol. I., p. 00, there is a list of capital cities. Sre also the iiitei-estiiig article 
 in 'China Mail' of 3rd 8ep.. 18!I2. on '8oine Chinese Capitals.' 
 
 CARVING. — Carving seems to be an art just designed 
 for the patient persevering toil of a Chinaman; for no labour 
 is too great to bestow on the most minute undertaking, and, 
 in a country where time enters so little into the essence of 
 life, days and months are lavishly spent on what would be 
 thought elsewhere to be unremunerative work. 
 
 Over the fronts of certain shops, such as eating-houses, 
 it is common to have a broad piece of wood-work highly 
 decorated with carvings of figures, houses, flowers, richly 
 gilded, all in alto relievo; and in private dwellings there is 
 some carving to be found on the large doors which serve as 
 partitions. There is also an amount of it to be found in 
 certain boats, especially on the so-called flower-boats, which 
 have a screen of carved wood-work, rising to considerable 
 proportions, over the entrances of the larger ones. 
 
 Bamboo vases for holding pens are a common article 
 for the decorative artist to exercise his skill on. 
 
 Wood, bamboo, stone, ivory, and seeds, all form fit 
 subjects for the untiring industry of the Chinese; but all 
 this carving in wood, bamboo, and olive seeds, is, according 
 to Western ideas, often rendered grotesque in the extreme 
 by a rigid adherence to the canons of Chinese art; for 
 perspective is ignored, and the harmony of proportion between, 
 the different objects is lost sight of. 
 
CARVING. 107 
 
 Religion causes the production of countless numbers of 
 carved images, in wood and stone, in all attitudes and 
 positions, decked out in all the different insignia of office, 
 or armed v/ith weapons. The best specimen, perhaps, of all 
 this motley group is the God of Literature, represented as 
 standing on one foot on a monster's head, while one arm is 
 stretched to its utmost extent, the hand holding a Chinese 
 pen: there is a certain amount of abandonment and freedom 
 from the stiff conventionality of the sedate or hideous 
 imbecilities which do duty as Chinese idols, the flowing 
 drapery and slender form of this personification of Literature 
 having lent tliemselves readily to the artistic eye of the 
 carver, who has not failed to take advantage of them. 
 Specimens of the Eiglit Genii arc also sometimes found, as 
 well as other carvings of the same class as that last mentioned, 
 in Avhich the natural twistings of the roots or fibres have 
 been utilised with skilful touches here and there to heighten 
 the effect, or supplement what Nature has left undone. 
 
 Boles of trees are also sometimes made x;se of as curios, 
 Mhile stands for ornaments and vases under the skilful 
 manipulation of a ^^■orkman, blessed with a certain play of 
 fancy, become as curious objects of art as the carved stone 
 vessels they support. Chinese ebony, or blackwood, as it is 
 likewise called, is largely used for the above purposes and is 
 carved into the imitation of lotus leaves, seed-vessels, and 
 many other objects. The white-wood carved work of Ningpo 
 is much admired; frames for pictures, little models of boats, 
 carts, figures of men and animals, and many other objects 
 are produced in it. 
 
 The carving in ivory and sandal-wood is perhaps better 
 known in the West, as such large quantities of it are made 
 for exportation. The concentric balls of ivory have attracted 
 much interest and speculation ; there is, however, no trickery 
 in their production, but, like most things of the kind amongst 
 Chinese, they are the result of patient toil, the balls being 
 carved in situ one within the other : the outside ball is first 
 carved, and, through the holes thus made, instruments are 
 
108 THINGS CHINESE, 
 
 introduced and gradually the outside crust, as it were, forming 
 the outermost ball, is detaclied from tlie remaining interior 
 mass, while, by the same means, the surface of this interior 
 mass is carved. This process is repeated with every successive 
 ball until a globular mass of intricate hollow balls is the 
 result of the ingenuity of the Chinese artist-workman. 
 
 The carved soap-stone ware of Foochow is well known 
 amongst the foreign residents in China : models of pagodas, 
 shoes, Chinese graves, plates, memorial arches, and many 
 other things, are produced in it. The hard seed of the olive 
 is elaborately carved in the South into models of boats and 
 other objects. Wood carving is of very ancient origin in 
 China, though the influence of Buddiiism in the second 
 century gave an artistic life to what had before not been 
 raised much above a mechanical art. No signatures or dates 
 are borne on Chinese carvings ; it is therefore difficult, if not 
 imj)ossible, to assign a date to them. 
 
 Bank rfU'diiniu'iidi'd. — " L • Art Chinois,' by M. Paleologue. 
 
 CHESS. — Chess is an ancient game in China, and is 
 said to have been invented by the first emperor of the Chow 
 dynasty, Wu Wang, B.C. 1120; though it is questioned 
 Avhether this Chow dynasty does not refer to one four hundred 
 years later. Chess is mentioned in the Chinese classics, but 
 the game in olden times appears to have been somewhat 
 different to the present one. which came into general use 
 after the Sung dynasty. , 
 
 Chess has always been looked upon as a mimic warfare, 
 and the likeness is more marked in Chinese chess, for there 
 are the general, the secretaries, the elephants, horses, chariots, 
 cannon, and soldiers ; the two armies are also divided by a 
 river. The similarities between the game as played in the 
 West and China are obvious ; but the resemblances between 
 that played in China and in other Eastern countries are of 
 such a nature as to point to a closer relationship. There are 
 sixty-four squares, as on the English board, with sixteen 
 pieces on each side ; but here the general points of resemblance 
 
CHESS. 10^ 
 
 cease, for there is a river running through the middle of the 
 board, and the squares are uniform in colour, the pieces not 
 being placed on them, but on the intersections of the lines; 
 nor are they placed in two rows of eight each, but the first 
 row contains nine pieces, consisting of the principal ones, 
 while a line of five soldiers is deployed in front near the river, 
 and these are supported by two cannon a little to their rear. 
 The knight, in the English tour of the board, can only have 
 sixty-four moves, and in the course of that number has touched 
 every square on the board, but were the Chinese equivalent of 
 the knight, viz., the horse, to go on such a round, he would 
 have nearly half as many moves again, for the intersections 
 of the lines, being the resting places for the pieces, increase th& 
 number of such positions to a total of ninety. The general and 
 his two secretaries are confined to four squares, Avhich, iinlike 
 the other squares on the board, are crossed by diagonal lines ; 
 along these lines, and on them alone, the secretaries move, 
 but only across one square at a time ; the general also only 
 moves one square at a time, in a straight line, but not diagon- 
 ally. Though these pieces are confined to the four squares 
 they have on account of their positions, being placed at the 
 intersections of lines, more than four places that they can 
 occupy ; the general has nine points he can rest on, and the 
 secretaries five. The elephants, which flank the secretaries 
 on each side, are also restricted in their movements, being 
 confined to their own side of the board, not being allowed to 
 cross the river, but they have more freedom of motion within 
 such limits, being permitted to move diagonally through two 
 squares, both back and forward. The horses, which are th& 
 next pieces, have the curious combination of movement 
 peculiar to the Knight in the Western game, viz.: — a straight 
 motion followed or preceded by a diagonal one, but, unlike 
 tlie English game the Chinese equivalent of the Knight, can 
 only move one point forward, sideways or backward, and one 
 diagonally ; nor can the horse jump over any other piece. 
 
110 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The chariots take the place of the castles in the English 
 game, occupying the same position on the board, having the 
 same moves, and they are the most powerful of all the pieces ; 
 from the restricted moves of the general (==King), castling is 
 impossible. The cannoniers have the same power of move- 
 ment as the chariots, but, curiously enough, take, only when 
 a piece intervenes, leaping, like an English Knight, over the 
 obstruction. The five soldiers move like the English pawns, 
 only forward in the first brunt of battle ; they gain increased 
 power of motion on crossing the river into the enemy's 
 territory, when they move sideways as Avell; there is, however, 
 no merit in their reaching the extreme end of the board, for 
 they can never move back, and there is no changing them for 
 a higher piece. 
 
 The chessmen are called red and black, but the black 
 ones are the natural colour of the wood — white. They are 
 not carved to represent what they stand for, but have the 
 names cut into the top of the wood, being otherwise exactly 
 like English draughtsmen. The carved ivory chessmen, 
 made by the Chinese workers in ivory are simply meant for 
 the foreign market. 
 
 The longitudinal lines are numbered, but not tlie trans- 
 verse, and by the use of the names of the chessmen, and of 
 the expressions forward, backward, and sideways, a game 
 can easily be played from the book, or a game recorded as 
 it is played. 
 
 In taking pieces, the captured one is removed, and the 
 ■capturing one is placed on the point the captured occupied, 
 except in the case of the cannonier. The object, as in the 
 Englisli game, is to checkmate. The general, though con- 
 fined to head-quarters, i.e., the four squares already named, 
 is in check if no piece intervenes between him and the 
 opposite general on the same straight line. He cannot be 
 captured, and, like the English king, cannot move into check. 
 
 The limited power of movement of a number of the 
 pieces, as well as the want of a queen, due naturally to the 
 low estimation that woman is held in, in the East, restrict. 
 
CHILDREN. Ill 
 
 it is said, the combinations in Chinese chess more tlian in 
 the Western game. Notwitlistanding all, the Chinese game 
 lias its own elements of skill. The equilibrium of power 
 is not so greatly displaced as at first sight might appear, 
 because, of the sixteen chessmen, eleven are principal pieces, 
 and only five soldiers, though, with the exception of the 
 •chariots, the power of each chessman is less than in the 
 Western game. 
 
 Literary men and women often play chess, and it is 
 •quite a common subject of Chinese paintings; but it is not 
 the pastime of the common people to the great extent it 
 appears to be in Japan. 
 
 Different sorts of chess have been played at different 
 times in China ; and there is still another game in vogue, 
 perhaps of even earlier origin than the common chess, 
 which is called ivai-k'et, or ' blockade chess.' There are 324« 
 squares, or 361 positions on the board, and 300 pieces, which 
 are black and white, and stand as in the common chess, on 
 the crossings of the lines. We have not space to go into a 
 full account of this game, but will content ourselves with 
 saying that the pieces are placed by each player alternately 
 on the board, and the object is to surround the opponent's 
 men and their crossings, or neutralise their power over 
 those near them. 
 
 There is also a three-handed game played upon a 
 three-legged board. * * * The "chess of the Three 
 Kingdoms." 
 
 Books recommended. — Journal X.C. Br. R.A.S., New Series, No. III.. 
 Art. 8, which contain-; a description of ('liinese chess and two printed 
 games. The same Journal, New Series, No. Vi ., A rt. (j, compares the Chinese 
 game with that played by Western nations. Giles' ' IJistoric China and 
 other Sketches,' Article on ' Wei Ch'i,' or the Chinese ' Game of War.' 
 
 CHILDREN.— China is alive with children. If France 
 is at one extreme as regards the proportion of children to 
 adults, China is at the other, and the whole Chinese nation 
 
112 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 will quite agree with the sacred HebreAv Psalmist when he 
 sang 'Happy is the man that hath his quiver full of them/ 
 though they would qualify the statement by changing the 
 Avord ' children ' into ' boys.' Yes, the whole land is swarm- 
 ing with them, and not the land alone but the water also. 
 The small boats in Canton, that paitly take the place of cabs 
 and carriages in the West, will not only have representatives 
 of a past generation, typified by an ancient grandame almost 
 too antiquated to wield an oar, of the present generation in the 
 buxom mother, but also of the future generation, which last 
 is represented by half a dozen boys and girls of all ages and 
 sizes, from the little pickaninny (who is carried pick-a-back 
 by a sister not much bigger than himself) to the eldest sister, 
 who, being fifteen, is engaged, and at the transition stage 
 between girlhood and womanhood. A -walk on shore will 
 bring one, at every village and hamlet, into a swarm of 
 youngsters, almost as numerous as the swarms of gnats and 
 mosquitoes over one's head. The wonder is where they 
 come from, and where and how they live. Clothing does not 
 cost much; for a number of old rags for swaddling bands is 
 all that is provided for the new arrival at first, and then in 
 the country side, in summer at all events, a single jacket 
 is enough, or in many cases the nut-brown skin of the little 
 ones is considered sufficient. Clothing is added with additional 
 years, being delayed longer in the case of boys than in that 
 of girls. 
 
 Childhood does not appear so charming to our Western 
 eyes when surrounded by all the squalor and dirt incident 
 to Chinese village and city life ; but, amidst all their filth and 
 wretchedness, children will still be children the wide -world 
 over, and they have, even amongst the seemingly stolid Chinese^ 
 the faculty of calling forth the better feelings so often found 
 latent. Their prattle delights the fond father, whose pride 
 beams through every line of his countenance, and their quaint 
 and winning ways, and touches of nature, are visible even 
 under the disadvantages of almond eyes and shaven crowns. 
 
CHILDREN. lis 
 
 The relative position of the two sexes, at their start in 
 life, is clearly shown by the following well-known quotation 
 from the classics : — 
 
 'Sons shall be his, — on couches lulled to rest. 
 
 The little ones, enrobed, with sceptres play ; 
 Their infant cries are loud as stern behest ; 
 
 Their knees the vermeil covers shall display. 
 As king hereafter one shall be addressed ; 
 
 The rest, as princes, in our states shall sway. . 
 
 And daughters also to him shall be born. 
 
 They shall be placed upon the ground to sleep ; 
 Their playthings, tiles ; their dress, the simplest worn ; 
 
 Their part alike from good and ill to keep. 
 And ne'er their parent's hearts to cause to mourn ; 
 
 To cook the food, and spirit-malt to steep.' 
 
 For a month a Chinese baby is nameless ; then, emerging 
 from the state of being a mere unit in babydom, it has a 
 feast given in its honour ; a tentative name is bestowed on it, 
 or rather, in the expressive phraseology of the Chinese, it 
 has its name 'altered' from that of 'Baby' or 'Love' 
 to something more distinctive ; and its head is sliaved, — a 
 most wise provision in a country where parasites are accepted 
 as an infliction of providence to teach patience. Severity is 
 held up as a proper treatment for children ; natural affection, 
 however, often carries the day, so that there is, as the out- 
 come, a constant conflict between the two principles, such as 
 the Persians represent as existent between the principles of 
 good and evil ; neither, in the case under question, being, 
 however, an unmitigated good or an unqualified evil. If 
 the child cries, as a rule everything it wants is given to it. 
 At other times the parents give way to violent fits of 
 temper in their efforts to bring the child to obedience, when 
 it is beaten with great cruelty, on the liead, or anywhere, 
 Avith sticks of firewood, or anything that comes handy, and, 
 like a typhoon, these violent outbursts upset everything. 
 
 Notwithstanding all these trials, as well as the theory 
 that play is a waste of time, the Chinese child has a fair 
 amount of enjoyment, which it fully appreciates, and makes. 
 
 H 
 
114 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 good use of. Marriages galore and funerals, conducted on 
 the most approved Salvationist principles., with bands of 
 music ; processions and feasts ; toys, primitive in construction 
 and cheap in material to be sure- —and what child does not 
 know how to enjoy toys--are all specially provided for his 
 delectation, and how he eaters into the spirit of everything 
 Avith true zest needs only to be seen to be understood. 
 
 New Year's time is the most glorious of ;ill for 
 little John Chinaman ! In ,all his fine tosfa^ery he trudsres 
 along at his father's side to pay his New YeajV's calls, his 
 little brain busy ,at w()rk calculating how many cash he will 
 get in presents from his father's acquaintances, while the 
 old gentleman himself is thinking of the good bargains that 
 this year will bring. ' Kung-hei, fat ts'oi,' here they are, the 
 little man bowing and scraping and shaking his chubby little 
 fingers in exact imitation of his elders. A veritable chip of 
 the old block, he takes his pleasures gravely, but the visits 
 over, he evidently enjoys the fun to the full, as with lighted 
 joss-stick, as assiduously as a chifonnier. he carefully turns 
 over the mass of smoking paper fragments, tlie renniauts of 
 the long string of crackers his big brother has just let off, to 
 be rewarded by half a dozen which have missed fire. 
 
 But before many years the boy's free childhood is over 
 and his education is commenced; his name is again 'altered' 
 to a new one, though at the same' time he keeps his child- 
 hood's name, or ' milk name' as it is expre5sed sometimes, 
 through life. 
 
 CHINA, — The origin of the name by which this country 
 is known to the nations of the West is not certain. If we 
 are to take the evidence of some ancient Indian books, 
 such as the laws of Manu, the name China was in use in 
 the twelfth century B.C. It has also been supposed to be 
 derived from the family of Tsin, but this would give a later 
 origin to it. , The chief of this family obtained eventually, 
 after having made history for some centuries, sway over 
 
CHINA. 113 
 
 
 tlie whole of China, and even long anterior to that period, 
 the kingdom subject to this sept, being situated at the 
 north-west portals of China, might have had its name given 
 by strangers to the rest of the land. 
 
 Cathay is a designation of a much later date, being 
 derived from the Ki-tah, or Khitan, (hence Khitai, Khata, or 
 Cathay) Avho ruled the North of China in the tenth century. 
 This name was used for nearly a thousand years by the 
 inhabitants of Central Asia, and from them it spread to other 
 nations. The Russians still call China Khitai. It is 
 interesting and curious to notice the pairs of names which 
 have been applied to China, those that used them being 
 often ignorant that they Avere one and the same country : 
 one being 'the name of the great nation in the Far East 
 as known by land,' and learned from overland travellers, 
 the other its name as known by sea, and learned from 
 navigators. We cannot do more hei'e than just name them 
 in couples,^ — Seres, Sinae : Khitai, ]\Iachin ; Cathay, China. 
 Xone of these names are used by the natives themselves, 
 riie 'Celestial Empire' has some Chinese excuse for its 
 origin; 7'''in-C/(OW, which Williams translates as 'Heavenly 
 Dynasty,' being used to a slight extent in the sense of the 
 'Kingdom Mhich the dynasty appointed by heaven rules 
 over,' but not being a term of general application among the 
 common people. The latter use several names : Chung Kivok, 
 ' The Middle Kingdom' — and it is possible to obtain native 
 maps of the world with China not only in the middle, but 
 monopolising nearly the whole of the map, while England 
 and other countries are represented as small islands or single 
 cities lying round its borders. Another common name is 
 Tong Shan, 'The Hills (or Country) of T-ong '; the T-'ong 
 (T'ang) dynasty being one of the most celebrated in ancient 
 history, the name in all probability took its rise then. 
 From the same source the usual name in vogue, in the South 
 of China, for the people, is T'ong Yan, ' the men of T-'ong/ 
 while in the North it is Han Jin, 'the men of Hiin,' Han 
 again being the name of another ancient dynasty. 
 
 11 2 
 
116 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The following names also appear for the people and 
 country in literature, viz., Lai Man, or Hhe black-haired 
 race'; Chung ]Va Kiuok, 'The Middle Flowery Kingdom/ in 
 contradistinction to n^joi tei, ' the outlying lands.' 
 
 An old name for China is Wd Hd, 'The Glorious Ha;' 
 Ha again being an ancient dynasty, while the most modern 
 name is Tai Ts'ing Kwoh, ' The Great Pure Kingdom/ so 
 named after the present, or Ts'ing dynasty. 
 
 Different religions have also bestowed their appellations 
 on this mucb named country : the Buddhists have called it 
 by the Hindoo name of Chin Tan, or ' Dawn,' and Chin Nd ; 
 and the Mohammedans Tung To, or 'Land of the East.* 
 The former, Edkins says, ' may be the Chinese of Ptolemy.' 
 Th^ general concensus of opinion now is that the 'Land of 
 Sinim,' mentioned in the Book of Isaiah, is China. In. 
 modern Latin, that used by learned men in modern times.. 
 Lingua sinica is the Chinese language ; and the term sino- 
 logue is one applied to scholars of the Chinese language. 
 Again the Seres of the Greeks and Romans are also considered. 
 to be the Chinese. 
 
 Bool's yrconnncmJeih — Edkin's •Buddhism.' Williams's 'Middle King- 
 dom.' Gillespie's 'Lund of Sinim.' Siu- also Yule's 'Travels of Marco Polo/" 
 Vol. I., iutrodnctioii. p. 11. For the arguments in support of the Sei^et^ 
 "being the Chinese. «r Anthon's ' Classical Dictionar.y,' Article Seres, where 
 luimei'ous authorities are quoted. Koman authorities are also given iu 
 Andrew's ' Latin-English Dictionary,' as well as in Cordier's ' Bibliotheca 
 -Sinica.' 
 
 CHINESE ABROAD. — Bow well adapted John 
 Chinaman is for going abroad, the following quotation from 
 Sir Walter Medhurst's pen will show : — 
 
 'The phases of character in which the Chinese possess the 
 most interest to us Western peoples, are those which so peculiarly 
 ht them for competing in the great labour market of the world. They 
 are good agriculturists, mechanics, labourers, and sailors, and they 
 possess all the intelligence, delicacy of touch, and unwearying" 
 patience which are necessary to render them first rate machinists 
 and iiianufacturers. They are, moreover, docile, sober, thrifty, 
 industrious, self-denying, enduring, and peace-loving to a degree.. 
 
CHINESE ABROAD. IIT 
 
 They are equal to any climate, be it hot or frigid : all that is needed 
 is teaching and guiding, combined with capital and enterprise, to 
 convert them into the most efficient workmen to be found on the face 
 of the earth. '■' Wherever the tide of Chinese emigration 
 
 has set in, there they have proved themselves veritable working bees, 
 iind made good their footing to the exclusion of less quiet, less 
 exacting, less active, or less intelligent artizans and labourers.' 
 
 It is not only in recent years that the Chinese have gone 
 abroad : they go now as emigrants, but records show that 
 they were as enterprising and daring in their expeditions 
 in former periods as any Western nations were at such times. 
 The use of the mariner's compass enabled the Chinese to 
 put to sea with a confidence they would otherwise not have 
 possessed; for it came in as a dernier ressort when fogs 
 obscured the head-lands by day, or mists clouded the stars 
 ut night. The compass was first usad by the geomancers 
 (See Article on Fung Shui), Avho even observed its variation. 
 A simpler kind was employed at sea, as all the surrounding 
 concentric circles, with the names of the zodiacal signs, 
 &c., &c., &c., Avere unnecessary there ; and this compass^ 
 so primitive in its construction — and it is interesting to 
 notice that it was originally a floating compass — has been 
 used by the Chinese 'for about eight hundred years.' They 
 took voyages to Japan and Corea — one to the latter country 
 being undertaken three hundred and seventy years before 
 Christopher Columbus launched his frail barques in search 
 of the new world across the Atlantic. 
 
 They not only went in their own vessels, but during the 
 T'ang dynasty, in the ninth century, the Chinese merchants 
 at Canton were in the habit of chartering foreign — probably 
 Arab — vessels with foreign sailing masters to trade between 
 Canton and Colombo. * * * * They took carrier 
 pigeons with them and sent back word by them to their 
 charterers. 
 
 The Mongols, ruling at one time in both China and 
 Persia, carried on intercourse between these two countries 
 by sea- -thus semi-circumnavigating Asia — in large fleets 
 
118 TJIIXGS CHINESE. 
 
 carrying ambassadors and merchandise. Aided by the 
 compass, and taking advantage of the north-east monsoon, 
 they started on their long and hazardous voyage, returning 
 Avith the favouring gales of the south-east monsoon. Traffic- 
 was even kept up to recent years, within the memory of the 
 write]', with the numerous ishinds to the south-east of Asia 
 in the neighbourhood of the Straits Settlements, Borneo and 
 Celebes, and the same navigation was carried on between the 
 North and South of China till the steamer traffic drove the 
 slow and unwieldly junk from the trade. In olden days, how- 
 ever, not only Java, but India, Ceylon, the Gulf of Persia, and 
 Arabia were all visited by tlie enterprising and commercial 
 Chinese. All this was done before the days of Vasco de 
 Gama, and the credit of the first use of the mariner's compass 
 must be awarded to the Chinese. The Arabs borrowed 
 it from tliem, and it then passed to the Red Sea and the 
 Mediterranean. 
 
 The strong, unreasoning opposition to the Chinese in 
 America has drawn special attention to them in that quarter 
 of the globe, but, notwithstanding so much talk about them, 
 the numbers that have gone over are not so large as one 
 would naturally have expected, for in the United States, in 
 1880, there were only 105,642, and in 1890, 107,475. 
 In 1894, 105,312 registered themselves, out of what was 
 .stated to be, in round numbers, 110,000. About 8,000' 
 registered in the Pacific States, 6;247 in New York, and 
 1,784 in Pennsylvania, New York has 1,000 Chinese 
 laundries in 1895. There is a regular Chinese town within 
 the city of San Francisco with a jJopulation of 30,000. Two 
 theatres, sixteen opium dens, and one hundred and ten 
 gambling dens. The Chinese are found as far north as Alaska. 
 The greater number of them seem to be in the Western 
 States. In 1890, 96,844, or 9011 per cent, were in the 
 Western portion of the country. The rate of increase since 
 1870 has been as follows: 1860 to 1870, 80-91 per cent.: 
 1870 to 1880, 66-88 per cent.; 1880 to 1890, 1-91 per cent.,. 
 or an increase of 2,010. 
 
CHINESE ABROAD. W^ 
 
 There were 4.383 Chinese in Canada in 1881. Despite the poll- 
 tax of $50.00 Gold per head, which is exacted from every Chinaman 
 entering Canada, "•- "'•■ '■ 14,000 Chinese immigrants have arrived 
 in Canada since the tax was instituted in 1886, yielding nearly 
 $700,000 to the federal treasury. As domestics,, market gardeners, 
 and laundrymen, they fill so important a place in the life of British 
 Columbia that repeated agitation for increased restrictions upon their 
 entry has as yet failed to produce any effect .at Ottawa. * * A 
 
 monster petition has [in July, 1896] been got up, asking the Dominion 
 Government to increase the poll-tax to §500 — which has beefi^tidely 
 signed in the province, reciting that Chinese labour is driving out white 
 labour in the mining, salmon fishery, and other industries. * * '•' 
 The new Canadian Premier is, it is said, pledged to carry out the 
 wishes of the province. 
 
 The numbers that entei'ed the Dominion have fluctuated 
 in dift'erent years : for the fiscal year ending 30th June, 1891, 
 it was 2,114; while the next year it was 3 276. They are 
 pretty ' numerous ■ in Bi'itish Columbia and Vancouver. 
 Eleven year's ago, there were some 5,000 Chinese in the city 
 of Victoria alone. It was with their aid that the Western 
 section of the .great :• Canadian Pacific Railway, wag con- 
 structed, and they have been, the pioneers of, or aids to> 
 many valuable industries and enterprises being opened up. 
 The construction of the railroaid across. the United States .was 
 also largely duetto- their.ihelpJ^Mir- ■• ••• : • ; ''.i,-.' 
 
 In Trinidad there were, about twenty years ago, 4,000 or 
 5,000 Chinese, but they have decreased to probably about 
 2,000 or 3,000. They used to work in sugar plantations, but are 
 now principally shopkeepers, &fc. There were three Chinese 
 males in Grenada in 1891, out of a population of 53,209. 
 In the Leeward Islands, by the census of 1891, there were 83 
 males and 39 females, natives of China, making a total of 122. 
 In Antigua the numbers were G6 and 3, making a total of (39. 
 In Jamaica, in 1891, they had increased to males 373, females 
 108, total 481, of '^vhdiii"347'w^re Borhifl China; thus lising 
 from -02 of the total population in 1881, to -08 in 1891. 'In 
 Cuba and'Porfo Rr<!;o, in' '1877, 'there AVerfe' 43,8 11 'Chinesfe- ' 
 
 In Bi'itish lijuiana, by the, cen&us,. of 18,81) ither^i .were 
 4,393 Chinese', while their estimated n,umber, in 1887 ^yia.s 
 males 2,115, females 1,061, total 3,176; and in 1888, 3,074, 
 
120 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 In 1893, there seem to have been about the same number, 
 viz., 3,000, for in the same year the l^egislature of British 
 Guiana offered a bounty of %2o a head for 5.000 Chinamen 
 from the United States. They were wanted to work under 
 contract on sugar plantations and in gold mines. 
 
 In Surinam or Dutch Guiana, Avith a population of 
 .57.000 inhabitants, there is a sprinkling of Chinese. 
 
 In Chile, in 1885, the Chinese numbered 1,164. 
 
 In Peru there are 50,000 Asiatics who are chiefly Chinese. 
 
 In Mexico, in 1893, there were said to be about 3,000 
 Chinese, of which number 600 were employed in the mines in 
 the State of Sinaloa. 
 
 In Hawaii, in 1884., there were 17,939 Chinese. In 1890 
 there were lo.OOO. Until 1886, Chinese labourers were 
 largely employed in the sugar plantations of Hawaii ; after 
 that, Japanese took the places they had filled. As sugar 
 fell in price, the Chinese, being cheaper labourers, were 
 taken on again, and hundreds of them arrived in the 
 Islands for that purpose, until, in 1893, there were 40,000 
 tsettled in the Sandwich Islands. Many Chinese hold very 
 good positions, including several Chinese lawyers. 
 
 In Mauritius and its dependencies by the census of 1891 
 there was a total of 3,151 Chinese, of whom 9 were females, 
 being a decrease in numbers, as the previous census showed a 
 Chinese population of 3,558. 
 
 In 1890 they were increasing largely in numbers in 
 Kimberloy, having established themselves in 75 shops, many 
 •<5f them being employed as masons, carpenters, and painters. 
 
 In India and Ceylon there are some Chinese to be found, 
 and there is said to be unmistakable evidence of their presence 
 in the Mysore in ancient times. Quite recently, even further 
 ■evidence of their work, it is considered, has been discovered, 
 for while sinking a main shaft in the Harnhalli gold mine, a 
 number of mining implements of various kinds were found 
 which had been used by the old workers in their work a 
 
CHINESE ABROAD. 121 
 
 thousand years or more ago, and it is supposed that the 
 workings were made by Chinese. The tools are said to be 
 ■like Chinese ones and unlike Hindoo ones. 
 
 In Burmah they are numerous. Sir L. Griffin considers 
 that the future of Burmah belongs to the Chinese. A great 
 proportion of the trade of Rangoon is in their hands. They 
 are numerous in all the commercial towns up country, such 
 as Mandalay, &c., and have increased very rapidly — none 
 of the indigenous races, such as the Burmese, Taliens or 
 Karens, have multiplied so greatly. They are wanted in 
 such places where the population is small. They possess the 
 very qualities, which the Burmese lack, and are respectable 
 citizens. ^ * * * They ore the best of all immigrants in 
 the East. For centuries past the Western Chinese have 
 had commercial intercourse with Burmah, and a few hundreds 
 were settled as merchants in Bhamo, Mandalay, Fangyan, 
 and other places, but the British annexation of the country 
 has increased their number : so that there are now probably 
 3,000 or 4,000 Yun-nan and Sz-chuan men, living in Burmah, 
 who are in the habit of taking Burmese wives, the sons of 
 these unions ffoinof to school in Yunnan to learn Chinese, 
 and learning Burmese in the land of their birth. From 
 South-Eastern China the immigration has lasted many years, 
 but in small numbers until recently, when British rule 
 afforded greater security. There are now probably some 
 25,000 Chinese from the Eastern coast in Burmah, which, 
 witli the 3,000 or 4,000 already mentioned as from the West 
 of China, would make not far short of 30,000 Chinese in 
 Burmah, there being 10,000 in Mandalay, while there are 
 probably 16,000 or 18,000 in Rangoon, though we have seen 
 it stated that there are 40,000 in the latter city alone. 
 
 There were about 1,000 Chinese settled in Haiphong 
 about ten years ago, where they have monopolised every 
 pursuit requiring skill, perseverance, and commercial acumen. 
 In Haiphong, in 1890, out of a population of 15,000, 5,600 
 were Chinese. 
 
122 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 In the City of Hue, in the capital of the Kingdom of 
 Annani, 800 are Chinese, the total population being estimated 
 at 100,000; and in Touiane, Haiphong, and other ports 
 in Tonkin, the trade is chiefly in the hands of the- 
 Chinese. 
 
 The populati(ai of Cochm-China, in 1889, was 1,864,214. 
 of which 56.528 were Chinese. In Saigon, cnit of a population 
 of 16,213, there were 7.346 Chinese. 
 
 In the town of Cholon, four miles from Saigon, there 
 were, in 1889, 14,94 1< Chinese, out of a population of 37,441. 
 
 The people [of Cambodia] are apathetic and indolent. 
 and have allowed the trade to fall into the hands of the 
 Chinese 
 
 Tliere are nearly one million and a half of Chinese 
 subjects resident in Siam, and the general revenue is farmed 
 out to them. The whole population of Siam is estimated at 
 from six to ten millions. Bangkok is occupied by a mixed 
 Siamese and Chinese population, estimated at from 400,000 
 to 500,000 [a later estimate puts it at 350,000]. As in so 
 many other parts of Further India, the Chinese have here 
 almost monopolised the local trade. 
 
 We point with just pride to the great Chinese trading com- 
 munities of Hongkong and Singapore, which have gi-own up under 
 our fostering care. The annual immigration from South China 
 amounts to over 200,000 per annum, while about three-fourths of that 
 number annually return to their native land. In and around the 
 Straits Settlements we are supposed to have at least 600,000 Chinese. 
 not counting those in Borneo, the Dutch colonies, or the Philippines. 
 If all territory under direct British rule be included, they slightly 
 outnumber the children of the soil. 
 
 For scores of years they have been pouring into Malaysia, 
 and all surruunding islands. An early intercourse between 
 China and these islands is known to have existed. One 
 work ascribes the beginning of this to the fifth century of 
 the Christian era, and this intercourse was afterwards renewed 
 in the tenth century. When the Portuguese first arrived in. 
 this part of the world in the sixteenth century, they found 
 Chinese junks lying at Malacca, and what was evidently a 
 
CHINESE ABROAD. 123 
 
 prosperous trade being carried on by the Chinese. From all 
 that can be gathered they seemed in these early days to 
 have been simply birds of passage. At all events there is no 
 evidence to show that they settled down amongst their new 
 surroundings and became inhabitants of the land. As to- 
 the present day : — 
 
 The annual influx of Chinese emigrants into the Peninsuhi 
 cannot be ascertained ; but some notion of its amount may be formed 
 from the the number which lands in Singapore. This, on an average 
 of years, is about loo.ooo, (in 1894 it was over 137,000) of whom about 
 one-fourth settle in the island, the majority being sent on to Penang 
 or dispersed among the neighbouring States. The number that 
 return yearly to China from the same port is aboui 70,000, most of 
 them resorting to it from neighbouring countries for the convenience 
 of a passage. 
 
 The emigrants from China are all from the four maritime 
 proviaces of the empire— Kwongtung, P'okien, Chekiang and 
 Kiangnan. Four-fifths of the whole number come from Amoy and 
 Swatow, and about a tenth part from Canton ; the emigrants from the 
 two more northerly provinces forming but a very small fraction. 
 Nearly all the emigrants consist of the labouring classes — fishermen, 
 artisans, and common day-labourers. They usually arrive at their 
 places of destination in great poverty, and are obliged to mortgage 
 their labour to their resident countrymen in consideration of their 
 passage-money. 
 
 From the nature of the emigration, the proportion of males 
 io females is always great. In Singapore the males are to the females 
 in the proportion of five to one. The result, of course, is tliat the 
 increase of the Chinese population by natural means is very slow. 
 
 The Chinese women have increased by 18 per thousand 
 in ten years. This paucity of women is one of the peculiar 
 featui'es of Chinese emigration. Naturally children are also 
 absent, for if those going to try their fortunes abroad have 
 wives and children they are left at home, where they are 
 considered to be more the adjuncts of the ancestral abode 
 than the peculiar property of the individual himself, to say 
 nothing of being companions of the father and husband. 
 No doubt the abject poverty of most of the emigrants is also- 
 one cause for all home ties being sundered ; for none of the 
 middle or upper classes are to be found amongst them. 
 
 The total population of the Straits Settlements, in 1891. 
 ■was 512,905. The increase of the Chinese, from 1881 to 
 1891, was 53,662 or 307 per cent., while the Malays and 
 
124 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 other natives only increased 9 5 per cent. There are 4,450 
 
 Chinese in every 10,000 of tlie population. They are Hok 
 
 Kiens (nativ(\s of the Fuk Kien province). Teo CiieAvs (natives 
 
 of the neighbourhood of Swatow), Cantonese, Hakkas (see 
 
 Article on Hakkas), or Khehs (as the Hakkas are called in 
 
 the Amoy or Swatow speech), Hylams (natives of the Island 
 
 of Haiuam), and Straits-born Chinese. The census of 1891 
 
 gives the population of Singapore Island as 184,o44, the 
 
 Chinese being 121,908 and the Malays 35,992. Penang had 
 
 87,920 Chinese, and Malacca 18,161" 
 
 The population of the State [ofjohore] is remarkable for con- 
 taining a larger number of Chinese than of Malays. The exact 
 figures have not been ascertained, but probably come to 200,000, 
 viz.: Malays, 35,000. Chinese, 150,000, and Javanese, 15,000. More 
 than half are to be found within 15 miles of the Singapore Straits. 
 The Chinese are chiefly found as cultivators of gambier and pepper, 
 spread over about this range of country in the extreme southern end 
 of the Peninsula, nearest to Singapore, of which Johore has been 
 described as the "back country." These cultivators go from Singapore, 
 the capitalists for whom they cultivate are Singapore traders, and all 
 their produce and most of their earnings find their way back to 
 Singapore again. 
 
 In Negri Sembilan, a group of nine small states, the 
 entire population in 1891, was 41,617, of whom about 5;511 
 were Chinese, and amongst them 37 females. Of them, Dr. 
 Dennys says, 'The number of Chinese engaged in tapioca 
 estates and in mines have greatly increased, and, for years 
 to come, there must be a perceptible monthly increase.' 
 
 In Sungei Ujong, with a total population in 1891 of 
 23,000, 18,000 were Chinese. In Jelebu also, the Chinese 
 form a large proportion of the population. 
 
 In 1891, the census gave the population of Selangor as 
 81,592, of whom 50,884 were Chinese. They, both as 
 traders and miners, form the most important element of the 
 population, and are emigrants from the south of China, 
 being chiefly composed of Hakkas (Khehs) 'and Cantonese. 
 
 At Larut, and at the chief mining settlements in the 
 interior of the state of Perak, the Chinese form a large 
 part of the population. In Perak, in 1891, there were 
 94,345 Chinese, or 44 per cent, of the whole population. 
 
CHINESE ABROAD. 125 
 
 They have increased 363 per cent, since 1879, and are nearly 
 equal to the Malay population which, in 1891, was 96,719. 
 The total population of the state was 214,254. In Pahang 
 there were, in 1891, 3.241 Chinese out of a total population 
 of 57,462. 
 
 The Chinese who have been settled in most Bornean 
 towns for generations, conduct all the trading operations, 
 the natives being indolent and wanting in enterprise. 
 Sandakan, the capital of British Xorth Borneo, had a 
 population of 7,132 in 1891, of whom 3,627 Mere Chinese. 
 In Labuan they number over 1,000, are the chief traders, 
 and most of the industries of the Island are in their hands, 
 the total population being under 6,000. The Chinese seem 
 destined to be the future inhabitants of this part of the 
 world ; the demand for them is increasing. They land as 
 coolies, but their industry and superior qualities to those 
 of the natives raise them speedily to the position of planters, 
 shopkeepers, and merchants. These Chinese are mostly 
 Hakkas, Cantonese, Hainanese, Swatow, and Amoy men. 
 
 The population of Java, in the year 1890 "•■■ *, amounted 
 
 to over 24x00,000, of whom the Chinese mustered only 242,000. 
 In the islands lying beyond Java the Chinese are less numerous, 
 numbering about 210,000, and of these 80,000 are settled in Deli 
 and on the East coast of Sumatra. There are 24,000 in Rhio, mostly 
 employed in cultivating the pepper and gambler gardens of the- 
 Sultan and other native chiefs. In Banca and Billiton there are 
 35,000 engaged in tin-mining. In the western division of Borneo, 
 there are 32.000, who earn a living by mining, cultivation and trade. 
 In all these islands the Chinese are found to be not a dangerous but 
 a highly useful element in the population. Without Chinese labour, 
 tobacco growing in Deli and tin-mining in Banca and Billiton would 
 certainly not have reached the development they have now attained. 
 As to the western division of Borneo, where the Chinese were 
 formerly so turbulent and rebellious, their pride has been so 
 thoroughly taken down bv military force that during the last forty 
 yeai's the Government has effectually kept them in check. In tbe 
 outlying islands, the natives are of a harder stamp than the 
 Javanese, and do not allow themselves to be turned to undue 
 profitable account by the Chinese. In Java, this is otherwise, and 
 the Chinese through their control of the revenue farming system 
 have a wide field for extortion and " sciueezing " among the people. 
 Danger from the Chinese in Java arises not from their number,, 
 but from the power thus put into their hands. 
 
126 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 In the Anamba Islands there Avere, in 1892, it is said, 
 about 1,500 Malays and 600 Chinese. 
 
 It is estimated that there are 100 000 Chinese in the 
 Philippine Islands, of which, upwards of 40.000 dwell in 
 the capital and its environs. During the year 1892, 5,273 
 Chinese arrived in Manila in excess of those who left during 
 that year. The number, in 18i)0, was 8,867 arrivals in excess 
 of departures. 
 
 The total number of Chinese in Japan, in 1888, was 4',.805. 
 In 1890, Yokohama had a Chinese population of 2.625, 
 out of a foreign population of 4.218, and Nagasaki 684, 
 out of a total of 1,004 foreign residents. In 1889, Hakodate 
 had 33 Chinese residents out of a total of 69 foreigners. 
 Osaka had 135 Chinese, and Kobe 767. The war has 
 doubtless altered all these figures, and it has also taken 
 such of the Chinese population of the Island of Formosa 
 as remained there under the Japanese fl.ag. 
 
 In Corea there were, a few years ago, only 100; but 
 immigration has been extensive enough to add \evy mate- 
 rially to their number, so that there were, in 1890, 1,057 
 Chinese, and in 1894, 1,234. 
 
 In Siberia, they are swarming along the auriferous 
 banks of the Upper Yenisei River. From tlie 1st of January, 
 1893, till the 23rd of April of the same year, when any 
 further arrivals were stopped, 10,260 Chinese coolies entered 
 ATadivostock with passports from Chefoo. The Chinese in 
 Vladivostock numbered 30,000, in 1895, and carry on 
 various businesses in a small way. 
 
 If it had not been for Chinese industry and Chinese labour 
 and enterprise, many parts of Australia would have remained worth- 
 less to the present time, and, after all, the Chinese competes with 
 the European in Australia in comparatively few trades. By the 
 Chinese in Australia the heavy poll-tax is felt to be too restrictive, 
 more especially to Chinese having places of business in two or more 
 cf the Australian Colonies, [for they are restricted in going from 
 one colony to another] while it is contended that serious hurt is 
 done to the shipping interests on account of the veto practically 
 establised against Chinese immigration from Hongkong and adjacent 
 ports. Mr. Way Lee maintains that the plea set up by our 
 
CHINESE ABROAD. 127 
 
 Australian cousins that the Chinese work too cheaply is altogether 
 fallacious. No Chinaman, he says, will work for less than ^i per 
 Aveek in Australia ; where, as on the other hand, Japanese labour 
 can be obtained for 30 shillings per month, and Kanaka labour for 
 the astonishing low figure of £6 a year per man. Added to this, 
 each Chinese landing in New South Wales has to pay a poll- 
 tax of ^100; in Queensland ^30; in Victoria, South Australia, 
 Tasmania, Western Australia, or New Zealand, ^lO; and in some 
 of these Colonies they are not allowed to work in the mines. 
 
 In Western Australia, further legislation, we understand, 
 has been taken against the Chinese, who numbered in that 
 Colony, in 1893, 1,378. 
 
 The total population of Australia is about 4,000,000, out 
 of which there are some 40,000 of Chinese race — about 
 one Chinaman in every hundred of the population. 
 
 In Queensland, in 1890, there were 7,242, of whom 92 
 
 were females ; the proportion of Chinese to the total estimated 
 
 population has steadily decreased in numbers for more than 
 
 five years, for, in 1884, the proportion was 4-16 percent.; in 
 
 1885, 375 per cent. ; in 1886, 2-87 per cent. : in 1887, 2-50 
 
 per cent. ; in 1888, 2' 13 per cent. ; in 1889, 1'89 per cent. ;. 
 
 and in 1890, 1'71 per cent. The death rate of Chinese in 
 
 Queensland is lower than that of the European races. Two 
 
 Chinese women were mari'ied in 1890 in Queensland, and, 
 
 considering the animus felt against the Chinese there, it is 
 
 not surprising to find that they were married to their own 
 
 countrymen, but of the 24 Chinamen married during the same 
 
 period, 22 were married to natives of Queensland, and English, 
 
 Scotch, and Irishwomen. 
 
 In the period extending from iS65 to 1S85, 295 Chinamen 
 married in Victoria alone. Of their brides, only four were from their 
 own country. Of the remainder, 138 wers nativ^es of the colony — all, 
 with five exceptions, white women— 49 were born in other Australian 
 colonies, 53 in England and Wales, 15 in Scotland, 34 in Ireland, 2 in 
 Germany, and 2 in the United States; while France and Spain had 
 the distinction of each furnishing a lady unconventional enough to 
 ally herself with a swain from the Flowery Land. 
 
 In Victoria, the Chinese are likewise decreasing in 
 numbers. In 1881, they numbered 12,123, while in 1891 
 the figures were, including half-castes, 9,377, of whom 605 
 ■were females. 
 
128 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 In South Australia, in 1891, there Avere 2,734-. They 
 are found in Northern Australia, where, the Earl of Kintore 
 says, they have had the greatest share in its development, so 
 far as it has gone ; and it is considered that they are in- 
 dispensable for its further development. In the Northern 
 Territory of South Australia there were in 1891, 3,392 Chinese- 
 out of a total population of 4,898. 
 
 The entire population of New South Wales, by the 
 census of 1891, was 1,132,234, of which the Chinese number 
 14,150. The first genuine Chinese paper printed in Aus- 
 tralia was started in Sydney in 1895 under the title of 
 -'The Chinese Australian Herald." 
 
 There Avere 844 Chinese in Tasmania in 1881. 
 
 There were 4,585 Chinese in New Zealand in 1889, but 
 the poll-tax of £10 imposed, in 1881, on every Chinese new 
 arrival, who intended to be a resident reduced the immigrants 
 from 1,029 in 1881 to 23 in 1882. The figures rose again 
 to 354 in 188T, but they again fell off"; and, in most of the 
 Australian Colonies, they have decreased in numbers — the 
 Northern Territory is an exception — owing to the restrictive 
 legislation against them. 
 
 There have been 178 Chinese naturalised in New Zealand 
 during the ten years ending in 1889, more than 9 per cent 
 of those naturalised during that time being Chinese, they 
 occupying the fourth place on the list of those naturalised ; 
 Germans, Danes, and Swedes taking the lead. 
 
 There were three Chinese in British New Guinea in 
 1890-1891. 
 
 It will thus be seen what numbers of them are scattered 
 over the Avorld. Even London has a fluctuating population 
 of them, chiefly sailors and firemen of the steamers trading 
 with China. The 'Pall Mall Gazette' suggested, a few years- 
 ago, a solution of the modern, ever-present, 'servant girF 
 
CHINESE PEOPLE. 129^ 
 
 difficulty to be found in their employment by the harassed 
 English matron, as household servants. It has been said 
 that :— 
 
 'Many native labourers in Germany have been displaced by 
 Chinese,' while a Mecklenburg paper is stated to have ' regularly 
 advertised contracts for Chinese labour, the prevalent term of agree- 
 ment being for ten years, a cash payment of 200 marks being made 
 in advance.' The Germans in East Africa have imported Chinese 
 labour ' for agricultural purposes, as the natives will not work more 
 than is absolutely necessary to earn a bare subsistence ;' 24.0 Chinese 
 coolies having been sent from Singapore. 'The planters in 
 Portuguese Africa have resolved to engage a large number of Chinese 
 contract labourers for their fields in that couutry, owing to the great 
 want of labour.' 
 
 ' In German New Guinea, experience has taught * that 
 
 for plantation work no other labourers can compete with the Chinese.'' 
 The coolie traffic of Holland with China is nearly ' half a million per 
 annum ; while that of England is under 50,000 ; of Portugal, a few 
 hundreds ; of Germany, Hawaii, and the South American Republics, 
 hardly as much.' 
 
 Like the Briton, the Chinese are found nearly every- 
 where; like him, the Chinaman has the faculty of making 
 himself at home abroad ; and. like the Briton, he looks 
 forward, after making his pile, to return to his home and 
 spend the remainder of his days in ease and comfort ; and 
 again, like the Briton, the countries he blesses by his presence 
 OAve, in some cases, their salvation, and in others incalculable 
 benefits to him. 
 
 BooliS recnmincnded. — The information, wliere not original, has been 
 L-uUed from an immense variety of sources too numerous to particularise.. 
 Interesting: information about the Chinese in the Straits Settlements is 
 given in Dr. Dennys's 'Descriptive Dictionaiy of British Malaya' The 
 Census Returns of the Straits Settlements and other British Colonies may 
 also be mentioned. 
 
 CHINESE PEOPLE, Characteristics of.— Wii]\ 
 regard to the physical characteristics, the Chinese belong 
 to the Mongolian family, possessing its yello^vish .skin, 
 lank, coarse, black hair, and almost rudimentary beard and 
 whiskers, and scanty hair-growth on the rest of the body, 
 prominent cheek-bones, eyes almost invariably black, lack- 
 lustre in expression, and obliquely sloping towards the nose, 
 there being either no bridge to that organ, or in other cases 
 scarcely any, and board nostrils; there is also 'a small flap of 
 
 I 
 
130 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 skin of the upper eyelid overlapping just above the inner ' 
 angle of the eye, at least, in South China. The face is round; 
 they have small hands and feet, and long tapering fingers. 
 The ankles of many of the common boat-women are very 
 neat. 'They are well built and proportioned, but short in 
 stature, especially in the South, where a man of six feet 
 in height is such a rarity as to be nicknamed "giant." ' The 
 average height in the North is a few inches above that in 
 the South ; and difference exists as to complexion in the 
 different parts of the empire and between different classes, 
 owing to exposure to the sun and the weather, which falls to 
 the lot of some, and which others escape. This is most 
 strikingly manifest in the skin of the Cantonese boatman, 
 which will be well browned all over the body, except round 
 his waist, where, being constantly covered by his rolled up 
 trousers, it is of a considerably lighter hue. The Swatow 
 fisherman is often swarthy almost to blackness, nor is there 
 a mid-region round his loins of a lighter shade, as he 
 works in the garb of old Adam minus the fig leaves. The 
 faces of some of the ladies are fairer, shielded as they are 
 from all exposure, than those of many of the inhabitants of 
 the South of Europe. With a dark skin one scarcely expects 
 to find soft texture, but that of even the common women 
 is soft. To a stranger, newly arrived from Western lands, 
 there appears a remarkable sameness in all the people — all 
 are black-haired, black-eyed, with clean-shaven heads and 
 faces, except the elders who cultivate their scanty beards, 
 and all exemplifying the same general characteristics — they 
 present so much uniformity to one unaccustomed to such a 
 mass of an unknown and distinct type that the question 
 often presents itself: — How do those who are brought into 
 intimate relationships with them distinguish one from the 
 other? And a ready answer presents itself in what seems to 
 the uninitiated the, analogous case of a shepherd knowing 
 each sheep under his care. A few months residence and 
 familiarity with the new type shows that amidst the general 
 uniformity there are many points of difference, and a slight 
 
CHINESE PEOPLE. 
 
 131 
 
 appreciation of what constitutes Chinese beauty is occasionally 
 awakened. That these crude opinions of Chinese physical 
 sameness are far from the truth it needs but to instance the 
 similar opinion held by the Chinese as to ourselves. 
 
 In an examination of Chinese for colour-blindness, 1,200 
 men and women were tested with these results : — Colour- 
 blind, 20; completely green-blind, 14; completely red- 
 blind, 5 ; and one partially so. The Chinese are often unable 
 to distinguish between green and blue, their language follow- 
 ing suit to a great extent, for there is one word which 
 means both green and blue. 
 
 Notwithstanding the insanitary conditions of their life, 
 many of the Chinese appear to attain to a good old age ; the 
 hard life and exposure to which many of the labouring 
 classes are subject, age many of them, on the other hand, very 
 soon, especially is this the case with the women, Avho are 
 scarcely passed the bloom of girlhood before coarse features 
 show the strain on their physical powers. 
 
 After this general description of the physical character- 
 istics of the Chinese, we give a scientific account of the Ideal 
 Mongolic type compared with the Ideal Caucasic type, for 
 which we are indebted to Keene's 'Asia,' edited by Sir 
 R. Temple : — 
 
 Shape of Head ... 
 
 Facial Angle 
 
 Features 
 
 Cranial Capacity 
 
 Cheek-bones - - 
 Ears 
 
 Mouth ... - 
 
 Nose 
 
 Ideal iloNGOLic 
 Type. 
 
 Xoruially brach3''ceplialic, 
 ■i.e.^ round horizontally. 
 
 Prognathous, index Nos. 
 76 to 68. 
 
 Square, angular, and 
 flattened. 
 
 1,200 to 1,800 cubic cen- 
 timetres. 
 
 High and prominent. 
 
 Large and standing out 
 from the head. 
 
 Large with thick lips. 
 
 Broad, flat, short, and 
 somewhat concave. 
 
 Ideal Caucasic 
 Type. 
 
 Xormally dolichocephalic 
 Le., long horizontally. 
 
 Orthognathous, index Nos. 
 82 to 76. 
 
 Rounded oft' and oval. 
 
 1,.S00 to 1,400 cubic cen- 
 timeti'es. 
 
 Low and inconspicuous. 
 
 Small, well-formed, close 
 to the head. 
 
 Small, with bright-red, 
 moderately-thin lips. 
 
 Long, n ar r w , high, 
 straight or somewhat 
 convex — tip projecting 
 beyond the nostrils. 
 
 I 2 
 
132 
 
 THINGS CHIXESE. 
 
 foreheai> 
 Eye - - 
 
 C'HIX - - 
 
 Neck - - 
 Figure - 
 
 Hakds and Feet 
 Stature - - - • 
 
 Complexion 
 
 Hair 
 
 Low, receding, narrow. 
 
 Small, aliiioml-r^hapeil, 
 obli<iiie upwards and 
 outwards, orbits wide 
 apart, iris black. 
 
 Very small and receding. 
 
 Short and thick set. 
 
 Squat, angular, heavy, 
 muscular, inclining to 
 obesity. 
 
 Disproportionate!}' sinall. 
 
 Below the average — 5 ft. 
 to 5 ft. 4 inch. 
 
 Pale-yellowish, tawnj- or 
 olive, inclining to a 
 leathery-brown and 
 cinnamon — no red or 
 ruddy tinge. 
 
 Dull-black, long, coarse, 
 stiff, and lank, cylin- 
 drical in section. 
 
 Heard- - - - 
 Eyebrows - - 
 Expression - - 
 
 Temperament - 
 
 A'"ery scanty or absent. 
 
 Straight and scanty. 
 
 Heavy, inanimate, mono- 
 tonously uniform. 
 
 Dull, taciturn, morose, 
 lethargic, but fitfully 
 vehement. 
 
 Straight, broad below, 
 
 fully developed. 
 Large, round, straight ; 
 
 orbits rather close set ; 
 
 iris normallj' blue or 
 
 grev. but ven' variable. 
 Full" ' and 'slightly 
 
 projecting. 
 Long, slender, and 
 
 shapely. 
 Sj'mmetrical, slim, active, 
 
 robust. 
 
 Medium-sized or large. 
 Medium or above the 
 
 average — 5 ft. -l inch to 
 
 5 ft. t| inch. 
 Fair or white, inclining 
 
 to brown and swarthy — 
 
 normally with ruddy 
 
 tinge. 
 
 Long, wavy, and normallj' 
 light brown, but very 
 variable — glossy jet- 
 black, liaxen, red, etc, 
 elliptical in section. 
 
 Full, bushy, often very 
 long. 
 
 Arched and full. 
 
 Bright, intelligent, in- 
 finitely varied. 
 
 Energetic, restless, fiery, 
 and poetic. 
 
 An ethnological study and comparison of the inhabitants 
 of different part of China would afford much interest and 
 instruction. We have not been able to find any statistics on 
 the subject, though we understand one or two have made 
 some researches in the matter. Through the kindness of the 
 Hongkong Government we have been allowed to inspect the 
 books in Victoria Gaol, and we find the following was the 
 Jieight of 1000, Chinese Male prisoners, (the fractions of 
 inches have been omitted) : — 
 
 4 fe 
 
 et 6 
 
 ■i 
 
 , !) 
 
 4 
 
 . 10 
 
 4 , 
 
 . 11 
 
 5 . 
 
 , 
 
 5 
 
 , 1 
 
 i> 
 
 , 2 
 
 5 
 
 , :^ 
 
 inches ^ 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 
 11 
 
 17 
 
 44 
 
 77 
 
 112 
 
 172 
 
 5 feet 
 
 4 inches 
 
 = 178 
 
 5 
 
 = i(;4 
 
 6 
 
 = 117 
 
 7 ,. 
 
 = 62 
 
 8 .. 
 
 = 28 
 
 9 -, 
 
 = 13 
 
 10 „ 
 
 ^= 2 
 
 11 „ 
 
 = 1 
 
CHINESE PEOPLE. 133 
 
 We discarded from our investigations all under the age 
 of 21 by Cliineso reckoning, which is a year or two less than 
 by English computation, but maturity is early attained in 
 a hot climate. Neither does the fact that the measurements 
 are those of prisoners on their admission to gaol militate 
 against them being reliable as average statistics for Chinese 
 in this part of China, as the majority, if not all the 
 prisoners, form a very good sample of Southern Chinese. 
 The great proportion of them are artisans and coolies, 
 and are typical of the whole of their class ; a few of the 
 better class of Chinese are also to be found amongst 
 them. 
 
 The height of 100 female prisoners was as follows ; — 
 
 4 feet <i inches := 1 
 
 4 „ 7 „ = 5 
 
 i .,, >< „ = i 
 
 4 ,, 9 ,, = i) 
 
 4 ,, 10 ., = 11 
 
 4 ,. II ., =14 
 
 feet inches ^ L'7 
 „ 2 ., =ia 
 
 » -^ » = " 
 ."•) .. = 1 
 
 The average height of the Chinese is said to be 5 feet 
 4 inches, while the averasre for Ensrlish is 5 feet 61 inches. 
 
 As regards their mental characteristics, much might be. 
 and has been, written ; the latter largely tinctured by the 
 mental media through which the various observers viewed 
 their idiosyncracies. 
 
 One of the most marked peculiarities is their wonderful 
 memory in the way of study. Trained for centuries in this 
 particular groove, the result has been that books are easily 
 learned by heart and repeated from beginning to end without 
 mistake. Their patience, perseverance, and industry are 
 deserving of all praise ; no task is considered too trivial, no 
 labour too arduous to engage in. Their politeness, peaceable- 
 ness and dread of giving offence are often carried to an 
 extreme. Their economy, credulity, lack of sincerity and 
 sympathy are all characteristics on which page after page 
 might be written. 
 
134 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 As has been said of the Japanese, so may it be said 
 equally well of the Chinese : — 
 
 ' His very politeness may compel him to hide a disagreeable 
 truth or, at the utmost to express it in very indirect language. His 
 native tongue, with its elaborate impersonal forms of address and 
 even of command, reflects the whole social sentiments of the people. 
 It abounds in *'■■ * negations, in honorifics to the person addressed, 
 in deprecatory phrases concerning self, or selfs belongings.' 
 
 These assist the fatal want of veracity so noticeable 
 amongst the Chinese, for it must be confessed that the 
 obligations of truth are not so binding with them as with us. 
 This trait of character is constantly exhibited in the courts 
 of justice. They are, however, not worse than most Orientals 
 in this respect ; in fact they are better than many. 
 
 Having thus lightly touched upon a few of the charac- 
 teristics of this wonderful, little understood, much lauded, as 
 well as much decried people, we Avill ourselves retire to the 
 background and present a symposium of opinions of residents, 
 authors, statesmen, missionaries, travellers and others. 
 
 'It is an abuse of terms, to say that they are a highly moral 
 people * * '■■' '■■' A morality that forgets one half of the decalogue 
 must be wonderfully deficient, however complete it may be in the 
 other '■■" * '•' I think, however, we may affirm '"• ""' "'■' that the 
 moral sense is in many particulars highly refined among them. * * '- 
 Respect to parents and elders, obedience to law, chastity, kindness, 
 economy, prudence, and self-possession are the never-failing themes 
 for remark and illustration. * * * * * The happiness and 
 general prosperity of the Chinese are so conspicuous that they merit 
 a short analysis. Let us see then of what elements they are 
 compounded : — 
 
 (i) An habitual readiness to labour. (2) Frugality in the use 
 of worldly goods. (3) Skill competent to enable the people 
 to turn all advantages to the best account. (4) An exact 
 conception of money's worth.' — (Tyadescaiii Lax). 
 
 ' In the Chinese character are elements which in due time must 
 lift her [China] out of the terribly backward position into which she 
 has fallen and raise her to a rank among the foremost of nations. 
 Another ground of hope * * * lies in the matter-of-fact habits 
 of the Chinese, their want of enthusiasm and dislike of chansre, 
 Avhich are rather favourable than otherwise to their development as- 
 a great community.' — (Dr. Wells Williams). 
 
CHINESE PEOPLE. 135 
 
 ' The mental capacities of the people are of no inferior order. 
 Their administrative powers are remarkable. Sir Frederick Bruce is 
 reported to have said that "Chinese statesmen were equal to any ha 
 ever met in any capital in Europe." '■■■' *■■' * Certain it is, they hold 
 their own with our British diplomatists. Chinese merchants cope 
 successfully with our own in all departments of trade ; in fact, are 
 gaining ground on them. {See Consul Medhurst's "Report on the 
 Trade of Shanghai," i^/?^^ ^(w/^ [China], No. 7, 1870.) * * "■ *■- 
 Their literati are equal to any intellectual task Europeans can set 
 before them * * •■■ *. The common people are shrewd, pains- 
 taking and indomitable ; and the more I have travelled among them 
 the more have I been impressed with their mental promise, docility, 
 and love of order * * * * *. The Chinese have always been 
 the imperial race in the Far East ''■' "- *' *. It is true that at 
 present they are in a most deplorable condition. Their old principles 
 of government are disregarded; the maxims of their classics utterly 
 ignored by the generality of their rulers ; rapacity and corruptions 
 pervade every department of the State. * '■' -■- * Absence of 
 truth and uprightness and honour, — this is a most appalling void, 
 and, unfortunately, it meets one hi all classes and professions of the 
 people. I do not refer to money matters, for, as a rule, they stand 
 well in this respect. * * * * The Chinese are not naturally 
 an anti-progressive people. They are peculiarly amenable to reason, 
 have no caste, and no powerful religious bias. Their history shows 
 that they have adopted every manifest improvement, which has 
 presented itself, for these many centuries. * * * The truth is, 
 the Chinese have all the mental, moral, and religious instincts of 
 our common nature. "•" •" * * The fact that they have preceded 
 us in many of the most important discoveries of modern times, such 
 as the compass, gunpowder, printing, the manufacture of paper, silk, 
 procelain, &c., proves their inventive genius. * * "' * They are 
 peaceable and civil to strangers. — (Dr. Williamson.) 
 
 Hei'e are a few extracts from older Avriters : — 
 ' Generally speaking, they have all the cunning, deceit and intrigue 
 of the French, without any of their good qualities.' — Dr. Morrison. 
 
 ' Such Europeans as settle in China, and are eye-witnesses of 
 what passes, are not surprised to hear that mothers kill or expose 
 several of their children ; nor that parents sell their daughters for a 
 trifle, nor that the empire is full of thieves ; and the spirit of avarice 
 universal. They are rather surprised that greater crimes are not 
 heard of during seasons of scarcity. If we deduct the desires so 
 natural to the unhappy, the innocence of their habits would correspond 
 well enough with their poverty and hard labour.' — Preniare. 
 
 'The Chinese are so madly prejudiced in favour of their own 
 country, manners, and maxims, that they cannot imagine anything, 
 not Chinese, to deserve the least regard. — Chavagnac. 
 
 ' So unwilling are the Chinese to allow themselves to be 
 surpassed, or that any other people possess that of which they cannot 
 boast, that they fancy resemblances where there are none, and, after 
 striving in vain to find them, they still hope that such there are, and 
 that if there should happen to be none, they are of no importance, or 
 surely they would have been there.'— Z>r. Mibie. 
 
136 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 'The superiority which the Chinese possess over the other 
 nations of Asia is so decided as scarcely to need the institution of an 
 elaborate comparison. "•■•' '■■ ""' * It may be considered as one 
 proof of social advancement on the part of the Chinese, that the civil 
 authority is generally superior to the military, and that letters always 
 rank above arms. ''' * * The Chinese are bad political economists. 
 o c- o o The advantageous features of their character, as mildness, 
 • docility, industry, peaceableness ; subordination and respect for the 
 aged, are accompanied by the vices of specious insincerity, falsehood, 
 with mutual distrust and jealousy * i- * * 'f he superior character 
 of the Chinese as colonists in regard to intelligence, industry, and 
 general sobriety, must be derived from their education, and from the 
 influence of something good in the national system. * * * >» 
 The comparatively low estimation in which mere wealth is held, 
 is a considerable moral advantage on the side of the Chinese * * * * 
 Poverty is no reproach among them. * * * * The peaceful and 
 prudential chai^acter of the people may be traced to the influence 
 and authority of age. •■" "■'• '■' ■'• The Chinese frequently get 
 the better of Europeans in a discussion by imperturbable coolness 
 and gravity. * * It is the discipline to which they 
 
 ^re subject from earliest childhood, and the habit of controlling their 
 ruder passions, that render crimes of violence so unfrequent among 
 them. * "•■'■ '■■ '■■' Hereditary rank without merit, is of little merit to the 
 possessor.' — Sir ydiJi Davis. 
 
 ' As a direct refusal to any request would betray a want of good 
 breeding, every proposal finds their immediate acquiescence : they 
 promise without hesitation, but generally disappoint by the invention 
 of some slight pretence or plausible objection : they have no proper 
 sense of the obligations of truth.' — Barrozv. 
 
 ' The Chinese * 'f- * are in general of a mild and humane 
 disposition, but violent and vindictive when offended,' — Sir George 
 Stainiton. 
 
 'Genius and originality are regarded as hostile and incompatible 
 elements.' — Gillespie. 
 
 And again some extracts from later writers : — 
 
 ' Ingenuity is a gift largely bestowed upon the Chinaman ; it is 
 indeed one of his most marked characteristics, — but it is ingenuity 
 of that peculiar kind which works with very slender materials. 
 « Almost every Chinaman is, by a kind of natural 
 
 instinct, good both at cooking and at bargaining.' — Archdeacon Cobbold. 
 
 ' This mysterious race, which with the Anglo-Saxons and the 
 Russians will divide the earth a hundred years hence. * '■' '■' Hard- 
 working, frugul and orderly when their secret societies are kept under 
 due control, they are admirable aud trustworthy men of business, 
 while as artisans their industry is only exceeded by their skill and 
 versatility.' — Sir Lepel Griffin. 
 
CHINESE FEOPLE. 137 
 
 ' The love of antiquity is inborn in the Chinese, they h've in the 
 past. * * * * To them the past is not a mass of musty 
 records filled with the suffocating odours of decay, as it appears often 
 to us, but a rich treasure-house fragrant with the aroma of purest 
 wisdom and noblest example. '■' * * " They are exclusive to 
 the extremest degree. "' '■■■' '"'' * Conservatism has been carried to 
 such an extreme that the whole nation has become fossilised. * * * * 
 Closely connected with this spirit of exclusiveness is an overweening 
 pride and absurd conceit in their own superiority and an unreasoning 
 hatred of everything foreign. "■'■ '■■■ "•'■■ '■' Taking the people as a 
 whole, their fundamental qualities of industry, stability and readiness 
 to submit to authority, contain the promise of cheering results in 
 the future.' — Rei'. B. C. Henry. 
 
 ' The Chinaman and the mosquito are the two great mysteries 
 of creation.' — H. Norman. 
 
 'One of the most remarkable national peculiarities of the Chinese 
 is their extraordinary addiction to letters, the general prevalence of 
 literary habits among the middling and higher orders, and the very 
 honourable pre-eminence which from the most remote period has 
 been uniyersally conceded to that class which is exclusively devoted 
 to literary pursuits. '■' '' '" * I have left the country with the 
 conviction that the Chinese nation, as a whole, is a much less vicious 
 one than, as a consequence of opinions formed from a limited and 
 unfair field of observation, it has been customary to represent it ; 
 further, that the lower orders of the people generally are better 
 conducted, more sober and industrious, and, taken altogether, 
 intellectually superior to the corresponding class of our own 
 countrymen.' — Dr. Rcnnic. 
 
 'I find here a steady adherence to the traditions of the past, a 
 sober devotion to the calls arising in the various relations of lite, an 
 absence of shiftlessness, an honest and, at least, somewhat earnest 
 grappling with the necessities and difficulties which beset men in 
 their humbler stages of progress, a capacity to moralise withal, 
 and an enduring sense of right and wrong. These all form what 
 must be considered an essentially satisfactory basis and groundwork 
 of national character. Among the people there is practical sense, 
 among the gentry, scholarly instincts, the desire for advancement, the 
 disposition to work for it with earnestness and constancy. Amongst 
 the rulers, a sense of dignity, breadth of view, considering their 
 information, and patriotic feeling. Who will say that such a 
 people have not a future more wonderful even than their past.' — 
 G. F. Seward. 
 
 ' The moral character of the Chinese is a book written in strange 
 letters, which are more complex and difficult for one of another race, 
 religion, and language to decipher than their own singularly com- 
 pounded word-symbols. In the same individuals, virtues and vices, 
 apparently incompatible, are placed side by side. Meekness, 
 gentleness, docility, industry, contentment, cheerfulness, obedience 
 to superiors, dutifulness to parents, and reverence for the aged, are in 
 one and the same person, the companions of insincerity, lying, 
 flattery, treachery, cruelty, jealousy, ingratitude, avarice, and distrust 
 
138 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 of others. The Chinese are a weak and timid people, and in 
 consequence, like all similarly constituted races, they seek a natural 
 refuge in deceit and fraud. But examples of moral inconsistency are 
 by no means confined to the Chinese, and I fear that sometimes too 
 much emphasis is laid on the dark side of their character, * * "" '* 
 as if it had no parallel amongst more enlightened nations. Were 
 a native of the empire with a view of acquiring a thorough knowledge 
 of the English people, to make himself familiar with the records of 
 our police and other law courts, the transactions that take place in 
 what we call the "commercial world," and the scandals of what we 
 term "society," he would probably give his countrymen at home a 
 very one-sided and depreciatory account of this nation.' — Archdeacon 
 Gray. 
 
 I find the Chinese most polite. * ■■■■ * '- The only thing 
 no man can accuse the Chinese of is love of change. — Mrs. Gray, 
 
 'The earnest simplicity and seriousness with which an amiable 
 and lettered man in China will sit and propound the most prepos- 
 terous and fantastic theories that ever entered a human brain, and 
 the profound unconsciousness he shows of the nonsense he is talking, 
 affect one very curiously. ■•' * * * There are few things in which 
 the Chinese do not claim pre-eminence, and it is this habit of self- 
 complacency which renders them so very much averse to being 
 enlightened on those points on which they habitually are found 
 wanting. The belief in their own infallibility cannot but be a standing 
 obstacle to the progress of the people in all departments where it 
 prevails, and the difHculty of getting a Chinaman to acknowledge that 
 he is beaten in an argument is but another phase of the same 
 phenomenon. It is a sufficient answer, for him, that, however useless 
 or hurtful a given practice may be, it is the " custom " of the country ; 
 and the belief that all the customs which have descended from 
 generation to generation are, for that very reason, incapable of 
 improvement, renders him a very hopeless subject to deal with 
 <! o s c- There are few things more amusing, and at the same 
 time more exasperating, to a European than the utter confusion of 
 thought which characterises the Chinese as a race. * * ''■'' There 
 seems a looseness of reasoning ; a want of consecutiveness, in the 
 mental process of the Chinese which argues an inherent defect in 
 their constitutions.' — Balfour^ 
 
 John Chinaman is a most temperate creature. * * '■' *' 
 During the whole course of my many years residence in the 
 country, I do not remember to have seen a dozen instances 
 of actual di'unkenness. * * ■■' They are a sociable people 
 
 amongst themselves, and * '■■ * their courtesies are of a most 
 laboured and punctilious character. * * * The Chinese are 
 
 essentially a reading people. * '•'' *'■* The Chinese have not, it is 
 
 true, that delicate perception of what the claims of truth and good faith 
 demand, which is so highly esteemed among us westerners, but they 
 know and prize both characteristics, and practical illustrations thereof 
 are constantly observable in their relations one with another, and 
 with foreigners. '^ * * "- Honesty * * * is by no means a 
 rare virtue with the Chinese. * * * * As regards the question 
 of courage, again it must be admitted that the Chinese possess more 
 of the quality than they have hitherto had credit for. * '■'' '■' 
 
CLAN. 139 
 
 Both kindliness and cruelty, gentleness and ferocity, have each its 
 place in the Chinese character, and the sway which either emotion 
 has upon their minds depends very much upon the associations by 
 which they are for the moment surrounded. When in their own 
 quiet homes, pursuing undisturbed the avocations to which they have 
 been accustomed, there are no more harmless, well-intentioned, and 
 orderly people. They actually appear to maintain order as if by 
 common consent, independent of all surveillance or interference on 
 the part of the executive. But let them be brought into contact with 
 bloodshed and rapine, or let them be roused by oppression or fana- 
 ticism, and all that is evil in their disposition will at once assert 
 itself, inciting them to the most fiendish and atrocious acts of which 
 human nature has been found capable. * * * * There is no 
 more intelligent and manageable creature than the Chinaman, as 
 long as he is treated with justice and firmness, and his prejudices are, 
 to a reasonable extent, humoured.' — Sir Walter Medhurst. 
 
 ' There exist no more honourable, law abiding and industrious 
 citizens than the Chinese.' — Earl of Kiiitore. 
 
 Here are opinions then as diverse as possible. What 
 
 more pat than the following: — 'The Chinese must be a 
 
 strange people from the varying accounts which are given of 
 
 them by different observers. They are over estimated in some 
 
 things and undervalued in others, misunderstood in most.' — 
 
 What is the truth? We believe it to consist in a true mean. 
 
 If a man or woman will view this people with a mental 
 
 calmness, not on the one hand carried away with too great 
 
 an enthusiasm — a fault easily committed, owing to the 
 
 wonderful antiquity and many good points in their character 
 
 — and on the other hand, if prejudice is resolutely banished, 
 
 these good points will be seen, while their failings will also 
 
 ^be noticed. 
 
 (7Z(^i\^.— This division of the people in China is 
 analogous to that of the Scotch clan in many respects, and 
 is productive of feud and disaster to themselves and others 
 sometimes, as well as of protection at other times to those 
 belonging to the same clan, as a few generations ago was 
 the case among the Highland clans of Scotland. The 
 nucleus round which the clan gathers is the ancestral temple 
 and worship; here are the head-quarters for all who are 
 descendants of a remote ancestor. Genealogies are kept, 
 often Avith the greatest care, in which are noted all the 
 migrations of the family; and so particular are the Chinese 
 
140 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 with regard to this point, that on the tombstones, in some 
 places, are put the numbers of the generations since the 
 family came to that country side. 
 
 In many villages all belong to one clan, just as in the 
 Highlands of Scotland one part of the country will be found 
 almost entirely peopled by one clan alone. As in China the 
 unit of the population or nation is not the individual, but the 
 family, it may be easily understood of what paramount im- 
 portance the clan is ; and it is one of the greatest disgraces 
 possible for a man to be disowned or put out of the clan, 
 even if it be only temporarily. It is worse, of course, to be 
 punished for a generation, and worst of all if the punishment 
 is for ever, that is to say, if his branch of the family is 
 excluded from the clan for ever. 
 
 Disputes often take place between members of different 
 clans, and lead to quarrels, reprisals, and fights, into which 
 the whole clan is dragged; and, eventually, the soldiery, 
 after perhaps some lives have been lost on both sides, are 
 sent to put a stop to the internecine strife; in fact these 
 petty wars are waged so fiercely, that in some instances 
 they approach the vindictiveness displayed in the Italian 
 vendetta. 
 
 It should, however, be observed that the system of clans 
 is more marked in the South of China, and most especially 
 so in the Kwang-tung and Kwang-si provinces. 
 
 The secret societies, especially in the Straits Settlements,. 
 take tlieir rise in the clan system to a great extent. 
 
 Books recommenfh'd. — Two articles on the comparative history of ekius 
 
 'by Rev. Hilderic Friend, in the ' Chinese Recorder and Missionarj' Jonrnal," 
 
 - entitled ' Tguiuj txuh cM lai I'tlt,^ Vol. IX, Nos. 4 and 5. Williams's ' Middle 
 
 Kingdom,' Vol. I., p. 482 et seq. Also see ' Chinese Repository,' Vol. 4, p. 411. 
 
 CLIMATE. — In a land of such vast dimensions, it may 
 readily be understood that the climate varies with each part 
 of the country, and almost any variety of climate may be 
 found in different parts of China. The extremes of cold and 
 heat are not only found in the extremes of the North and 
 ■ South, but in the North are even found together; for China, 
 like the eastern sea-board of the Northern States of America, 
 
CLIMATE. 14 F 
 
 has a wintei- in the North approaching- an arctic one for 
 severity, while the summer heat is tropic in its intensity, even 
 greater for a short period than it is in many parts far south. 
 
 In some places the atmosphere is saturated with mois- 
 tnre during a large part of the year, while in other regions, 
 except in the rainy season, the air is dry and clear. 
 
 The climate at Newchwang is more moderate than at 
 some of the ports further down the coast. It is said 
 that both Chefoo and Japan 'have a much higher average 
 temperature * * *; the thermometer rarely goes above 
 88° and the nights are always cool : often chilly.' The 
 climate of Chefoo has been described as ' scarcely different- 
 from that of New York, Boston, or Edinburgh." 
 
 The extremes of range in Peking are 104° and zero 
 Fahrenheit. The rainfall is generally lower than 16 inches in 
 the year, but little snow falls, and it does not remain on the 
 ground more than a few days, the rivers are locked in ice for 
 three months. As the heat increases, sand and dust is blown 
 about with great force, forming dust-storms. September 
 and October are the two most delightful months at Peking. 
 
 Of Ningpo it has been said that the winters may be 
 compared to the winters in Paris, and the summers for a 
 short season, to those of Calcutta. The climate is very damp^ 
 the ground being marshy, and the extremes are greater than 
 at Shanghai. The range of the thermometer is from 24° to 
 107°, and a fall or rise of 20° in two hours is not unusual. 
 
 In Shanghai the great heat, while it lasts, is very trying^ 
 but fortunately it is not of long duration. 
 
 The riverine ports are very hot in summer : Kiukiang 
 gets the name of being 'the hottest place in all China,' the 
 heat in the month of August there is dreaded, for there is 
 ' a succession of cloudless and intensely hot and oppressive 
 weather.' At the end of July, 1892, the thermometer was at- 
 102° in the shade. It is also very hot in Nanking in July 
 and August. These hot dog-days last for about 30 days, 
 but, after they are over, the nights get cooler. As an^ 
 
142 TIIIAGS CHINESE. 
 
 instance of the degree of heat experienced at such times, 
 we may mention that at the end of July, 1892, the 
 thermometer kept pretty regular at 96^. 
 
 Towards the end of July, 1892, the thermometer, at 
 Hankow, at midnight, registered 97°. 
 
 Of the West of China a recent writer says : 
 
 ' Rains are frequent, and heavy clouds cover the heavens three- 
 fourths of the year ; and, in absence of clouds, a smoky mist veils the 
 earth from the piercing rays of the sun. The climate is equable, and 
 even the summer, although long and severely hot in July and August, 
 is modified by frequent showers. ■■'" * The winters are very mild : 
 while frost is seldom seen, and snow is almost unknown, except upon 
 the mountains. Experience shows the climate to be fairly ' healthy, 
 ^and no more trying than that of Central China.' 
 
 The climate of Amoy has been described as ' delightful.' 
 
 But the word ' delightful ' must be taken as comparing it 
 
 with the climate of some other parts of China less fortunately 
 
 situated. The thermometer ranges from 40° to 96°. The 
 
 author spent three months in that port in the summer of 
 
 1889, and experienced what the temperature was at 93° for 
 
 a day or two ; the heat was intense, but fortunately it was 
 
 a dry heat. This dry heat in Amoy is generally moderated 
 
 by a fresh sea-breeze which springs up nearly every day in 
 
 the course of the forenoon and dies down in the evening. 
 
 The heat during the night is very great, until the sea-breeze 
 
 rising with the tide slighty cools the atmosphere. 
 
 At Swatow the heat is great in summer, ranging nearly 
 as high as at Amoy. The author also experienced a few days 
 of it during June, 1892, when the thermometer was 
 between 90° and 92|^°; but, as in Amoy, sea breezes spring up 
 and make the heat more bearable, while at Double Island, at 
 the entrance to the bay on which Swatow is situated, the 
 evenings are cool in summer, though the days are hot. 
 
 The heat at the three cities of Hongkong, Canton, and 
 Macao, is of long continuance, but not of so excessive a 
 character as further up the coast, Avhere its duration is 
 shorter. In Canton, the thermometer ranges from about 40° 
 or 50° to 88° or thereabouts. It rarely rises above or falls 
 below. The sea air moderates the climate at Macao and 
 
CLIMATE. 14-3 
 
 Hongkong. The rainfall of the latter place is greater than 
 at Macao and Canton, and occasionally attains the extra- 
 ordinary figure of 30 inches in 24' hours. The annual mean 
 for 21 years being over 86 inches ; for 1891, it was very 
 abundant, the total for the twelve months being 117'30. 
 Drought occurs in some seasons and rain does not fall for 
 months to any appreciable extent. The climate in Hong- 
 kong in summer is often of a hot muggy nature, and while 
 it lasts, harder to bear than a dry heat of even higher 
 temperature. In the mountain-sheltered town, and on the 
 lower levels, the thermometer will rarely rise higher than 
 88° and 89°, though it very occasionally registers, on two 
 or three days, 93° in the hottest part of Queen's Road, while 
 on the Peak levels, free to the sea-breezes, and cooled by the 
 high elevation of from 1,500 to 1,800 feet, the mercury falls 
 from 4 to 10 degrees lower according to the season of the 
 year, the greatest different between the two levels being in 
 summer. These higher levels are, however, subject to 
 mountain mist and fog. Fogs rarely visit Macao. The 
 winter months in these three ports form the most delightful 
 season of all the year, especially is this the case in October, 
 November, and December, and even in January. Clear cool 
 weather, with Italian skies, provides the beau ideal of 
 existence. The Peak climate is said to be even finer than 
 that of Chefoo — the sanitarium for foreign residents in the 
 North of China. 
 
 The climate of China, especially in the North, is also 
 said to have moderated considerably from what it was some 
 centuries or thousands of years ago. On the other hand, the 
 reckless denudation of the hills of wood and forest, by the 
 inhabitants, has doubtless had a considerable effect in 
 increasing the dryness and parched aspect of everything 
 during certain seasons of the year in China. It has been 
 noticed that, in Hongkong, since extensive tree-planting has 
 been carried on, the summers appear to be somewhat cooler. 
 
 The mere range of the thermometer does not form a fair 
 •criterion in this land of the heat, as it affects the human 
 
144 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 frame. Humidity and other considerations have to bo taken 
 into account. 
 
 In the South of China the climate seems adapted^ 
 as a rule, for children of foreign parents up to the age 
 of eight or ten, but after that they are inclined to shoot 
 lip like hot-house plants, and require a more bracing air. 
 The climate in China gets the blame of much that should be 
 laid to indiscretions in diet, and careless exposure to the sun, 
 or neglect of a fair share of exercise. If all these points are 
 carefully attended to, a man or woman may, and often does, 
 with of course some exceptions, enjoy very good health. 
 Some constitutions appear unable to stand the climate, while 
 occasionally others thrive better than in their own lands. 
 
 The Chinese, as a race, are physically weaker than the 
 English, but this should not all be laid to the account of 
 the climate ; insanitary surroundings, ignorance of the laws 
 of health, no Sunday rest, and other causes also having a 
 share in it. 
 
 CONFUCIUS AND CONFUCIANISM.— One feels a 
 certain amount of difficulty in approaching such a vast subject, 
 for ConfuciaiTtism is so entwined and blended with all that 
 concerns China, that it is hard to know where to begin or 
 where to leave off. We will simply preface our account by 
 saying that Confucianism is a system of philosophy and 
 ceremonial observances to which its founder and followers 
 ascribe the highest possibilities, if carried out rigidly and 
 faithfully to every minute jot and tittle. Its originator was 
 par excellence the sage of China. 
 
 Confucius's father ' was a military officer eminent for his 
 commanding stature, his great bravery, and immense strength.' 
 The birth of the sage has been surrounded by mythical 
 legends. ' From his childhood he showed ritualistic ten- 
 dencies,' and ' delighted to play at the arrangement of 
 sacrificial vessels and at postures of ceremony.' He ' bent his 
 mind to learning.' He married young, his experience of the 
 married state not being a happy one, nor did he appear to 
 
CONFUCIUS AND CONFUCIANISM. 145 
 
 bestow much affection on his son. Confucius early took 
 public service in the state, holding different offices at different 
 times, such as Keeper of the Stores of Grain, Guardian of 
 the Public Fields and Lands, Magistrate, Assistant Super- 
 intendent of Works, and Minister of Crime ; and applied his 
 principles to the government with the most signal success. 
 
 These appointments were not all held in succession, but 
 were interspersed and followed by years spent in imparting 
 instruction to disciples (at one time as many as 3,000), in 
 gaining knowledge himself, and in the compilation and editing 
 of books, as well as in journeyings amongst the different petty 
 states into which the China of that time was divided, in the 
 hope that the rulers would give him the opportunity of 
 putting his principles of government to the test, when, such 
 confidence had he in them, that he was convinced that, instead 
 of anarchy and confusion, peace and harmony would reign 
 supreme. He died, feeling that he was unappreciated, at tlie 
 age of seventy-two. His disciples had the highest admiration 
 for him, and exhausted attributes in the expression of it. 
 
 The best title which has ever been bestowed on hia), is 
 that of 'The Throneless King.' 
 
 ' Probably no man has been so contemned during his life-time, 
 and at the same time so worshipped by posterity, as Confucius. In 
 both extremes there has been some exaggeration. His standard of 
 morality was high, and his doctrines were pure. Had he, therefore, 
 had an opportunity of exercising authority, it could but have resulted 
 in good to an age, when the notions of right and wrong were strangely 
 confused, and when both public and private morality were at the 
 lowest ebb. On the other hand, it is difficult to understand the 
 secret of the extraordinary influence he has gained over posterity, and 
 the more the problem is studied the more incomprehensible does it 
 become,' when viewed from a European standpoint. 'His system of 
 philosophy is by no means complete, and it lacks life (if we may 
 venture to say so), in face of the fact that it has supplied the guiding 
 principles, which have actuated the performance of all that is great 
 and noble in the life of China for more than twenty centuries.' 
 
 It is impossible in the short i space of this article to 
 give a. digest of the doctrines of the sage. We will . content 
 ourselves with giving a summary of the essential points as 
 
 K 
 
146 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 adapted to the requirements of modern every-day Chinese 
 life by the great Emperor K'ang Hi : — 
 
 'i. Esteem most highly filial piety and brotherly submission, 
 in order to give due prominence to the social relations. 
 
 2. Behave with generosity to the branches of your kindred, in 
 order to illustrate harmony and benignity. 
 
 3. Cultivate peace and concord in your neighbourhoods, in 
 order to prevent quarrels and litigations. 
 
 4. Recognise the importance of husbandry and the culture df 
 cne mulberry-tree, in order to ensure sufficiency of clothing and food. 
 
 5. Show that you prize moderation and economy, in order to 
 prevent the lavish waste of your means. 
 
 6. Make much of the coHeges and seminaries, in order to 
 make correct the practice of the scholars. 
 
 7. Discountenance and banish strange doctrines, in order to 
 exalt the correct doctrine. 
 
 8. Describe and explain the laws, in order to warn the ignorant 
 and obstinate. 
 
 9. Exhibit clearly propriety and yielding courtesy, in order to 
 make manners and customs good. 
 
 10. Labour diligently at your proper callings, in order to give 
 settlement to the aims of the people. 
 
 1 1. Instruct sons and younger brothers, in order to prevent them 
 from doing what is wrong. 
 
 12. Put a stop to false accusations, in order to protect the 
 honest and the good. 
 
 13. Warn against sheltering deserters, in order to avoid being 
 involved in their punishments. 
 
 14. Promptly and fully pay your taxes, in order to avoid the 
 urgent requisition of your quota. 
 
 15. Combine in hundreds and tithings, in order to put an end 
 to thefts and robbery. 
 
 16. Study to remove resentments and angry feelings, in order to 
 show the importance due 10 the person and life.' 
 
 These, with commentaries, are read to the people on the 
 1st and 15th of the month. 
 
 Divine honours are paid to the sage by the Emperor, 
 twice a year, and by every school-boy throughout the length 
 and breadth of the land. 
 
 Confucius is generally represented in the temples to him 
 by a wooden tablet with his name and titles on it, but in 
 some cases there is an image of him. There is a temple in 
 every district city and one in every departmental city, 
 
CORMORANT FISHING. 147 
 
 •consequently there are three in Canton : in two of these there 
 
 •is a tablet, in. the third, an image. In the district city of 
 
 Kit Yong, in the Ch'ao Chau Department, the author saw 
 
 both an image and a tablet. The image represents the sage 
 
 as black as a negro, for he is described as being of a swarthy 
 
 complexion. Besides Confucius himself, his disciples, to the 
 
 extent of some hundred and seventy, are also honoured by 
 
 images or tablets in the immediate presence of ' The Perfect 
 
 Sage ' himself, or in the precincts of the same temple that 
 
 'lie occupies, and they are likewise worshipped. 
 
 Books recommended. — ' Confucianism and Taouism,' by Professor 
 Douglas. Professor Leg-ge's ' Eeligions of China.' The same author's 
 ' Imperial Confucianism,' and his master-work, ' The Chinese Classics.' 
 'The three Religions of China,' by Uu Bose. Faber's 'Digest of the 
 Doctrines of Confucius,' and a review of the latter in the ' China Review.' 
 Tol. 1, page 260. ' Confucius, The Great Teacher.' by Major- General 
 'G. G. Alexander. 'A Guide to the Tablets in a Temple of Confucius." 
 by T. Watters'. 
 
 CORMORANT FISIimC—The Chinese have long 
 
 used cormorants for fishing purposes; for the journal of the 
 
 friar Odoric (A.D. 1286-1331) mentions this strange method 
 
 ■of fishing, and it is largely carried on at the present d^y 
 
 in some parts of China. To show the admirable adaptation 
 
 of this bird for the pursuit, we quote from a lengthy article 
 
 in 'The Encyclopoedia Americana.' 
 
 'The cormorant is most admirably adapted for swimming, 
 o c- « having the great toe united to the others by a common 
 membrane, * * * yet they are among the very few web-footed 
 birds capable of perching on the branches of trees, which they do 
 with great ease and security.' Cormorants, of which there are quite 
 a number of species distributed over different parts of the world, 
 are closely alUed to the pelicans in conformation and habits. 
 They ' are very voracious feeders. * * * * They dive with great 
 force, and swim under water with such celerity, that few fish can 
 •escape them. ''■' * * Should a cormorant seize a fish in any other 
 way than by the head, he rises to the surface and, tossing the fish 
 .into the air, adroitly catches it head foremost as it falls, so that the 
 fins, being properly laid against the fish's sides, cause no injury to 
 the throat of the bird.' 
 
 Their use is not confined to one part of the country. 
 
 Amongst other places where they may be found at work 
 
 may be mentioned the North River above Canton, the 
 
 .river above Ch'ao-Chau-fii and the river above Foochow. 
 
 Though we have seen a small catamaran-like boat, witk 
 
 K 2 
 
148 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 several cormorants on it, in one of our trips into the interior^ 
 
 Ave have not actually seen them employed; we therefore copy 
 
 at length from Miss Gordon-Cumming's •' Travels in China ' 
 
 as to their fishing : — 
 
 'The simplest foi-m of fishery i.s when a poor fisherman has 
 constructed for laimself a raft consisting only of from four to eight bamboos 
 lashed together. On this he sits ])oised (crowned with a large straw hat), 
 and before him are perched half-a-doze7i of these odd nncannj'-looking 
 black birds waiting his command. The cage in which they live and the 
 basket in which he stores his fish complete his slender stock-in-trade. 
 The marvel is how he contrives to avoid overturning his frail raft. Some- 
 times several fishers form partnership, and start co-operative business. 
 They invest in a shallow punt, and a regiment of perhaps twenty or morft- 
 of these solenm sombre birds sit on perches at either end of the punt, each 
 having a hempen cord fastened round the throat just below the pouch, to- 
 prevent its swallowing any fish it may catch. Then, at a given signal, alL 
 the cormorants glide into the water, apparently well aware of the 
 disadvantage of scaring their prey. 
 
 Their movements below the surface are very swift and graceful as- 
 tliej'- dart in pursuit of a fish or an eel, and giving it a nip with their- 
 strong hooked beak, swallow it, and continue hunting. Sometimes the^" 
 do not return to the surface till they have secured several fish, and their 
 capacious pouch is quite distended, and sometimes the tail of a fish pro- 
 trudes from their gaping bill. Then they return to the surface, and at the 
 bidding of their keepers disgorge their prej% one bj^ one, till the pouch is 
 cmiity, when they again receive the signal to dive, and resume their pursuit. 
 
 Some birds are far more expert than others, and rarely fail to secure 
 their prize, but sometimes they catch a fish, or more often an eel, so 
 awkwardly that they cannot contrive to swallow it, and in the effort to 
 arrange this difficulty, the victim manages to escape. If one bird catches 
 a large and troublesome fish, two or three of its friends occasionally go 
 to the aid of their comrade, and help him to despatch it. Such brotherly 
 kindness is, however, b}' no means invariable, and sometimes, when a 
 foolish young bird has captured a fish, the old hands pursue and rob him of 
 his prize. At other times a bird fails in its trick, and after staying under 
 water for a ver}' long period, comes up quite crestfallen without a fish. 
 
 When the birds are tired the strap is removed from their throat and 
 the}' are rewarded with a share of the fish, which they catch as it is throwai 
 to them. It is reckoned a good day's fishing if eighteen or twenty 
 cormorants capture a dollar's worth of fish ; and as so many birds represent 
 about half-a-dozen owners, it is evidently not a verj' lucrative business. 
 
 The birds are quite domestic, having all been reared in captivity.. 
 Curiously enough, the mothers are so careless that they cannot be trusted 
 to rear their own j'oung ; and furthermore, the said yoitng are so sensitive 
 to cold weather that only the four or five eggs laid in early spring are 
 considered worth hatching, as onlj' these can be reared in the warm 
 summer. They are taken from the cormorant and given to a hen, who 
 apparently must be colour-blind, as she calmly accepts these green eggs in. 
 lieu of her own. She is not, however, subjected to the misery of seeing 
 her nurslings take to the water, as they are at once removed from her care, 
 when, after a month's incubation, the poor little fledgelings make their 
 appearance. They are then transferred to baskets which are kept in a 
 warm corner : the young birds being buried ' in cotton wool and fed with. 
 I^ellets of raw fish and bean-curd. 
 
COSMETICS. 149 
 
 When they are two months ohl their nursery days are over, and the 
 sorrows of education must begin. They are therefore offered for sale, a, 
 female bird being valued at from 3.y. to hs.. and a male bird at double the 
 price. This difl'erence is due to the superior strength of the latter, which 
 enables it to cajiture larger tish. Thenceforth the professional trainer takes 
 them in hand ; and fastening a string to one leg, he drives them into the 
 water and throws small live fishes, which they are expected to catch. They 
 are taught to t>'o and return subject to different calls on a whistle, obedience 
 being enforced bj'^ the persuasive strokes of a bamboo — the great educational 
 factor in China 1 When thoroughly trained, a male bird is valued at from 
 205. to 30*., and its fishing career is expected to continue for five years, 
 .after which it will probably become old and sulky.' 
 
 Cormorant fishing was practiced in both France and 
 Enghand in the seventeenth century ; and an attempt to 
 revive it has lately been made in England. 
 
 COSMETICS.— "These are largely used by the Chinese, 
 no girl or woman above the very menial classes being 
 considered as dressed without a plentiful application of 
 rouge to the lips and patches of it on the cheeks. A sign, 
 ■even if others were wanting, that the present race of Chinese 
 have descended to the warmer regions of the south of China 
 from a climate where rosy cheeks and ruby lips were natural. 
 No art is dispUiyed in applying the rouge, nor is concealment 
 ever dreamt of At the first glance, a Chinese lady is seen to 
 be painted by the coarse big daub on each side of her face. 
 On festivals and gala occasions it is even more freely applied. 
 White powder is also used to render their dark faces more 
 fair. The lavish use of cosmetics spoils whatever complexion 
 a. Chinese lady may possess. 
 
 COTTON. — The introduction of cotton as a textile plant 
 into China is an interesting subject. It has been supposed 
 that the ancient Shii King (The Book of History) mentions 
 ■cotton, but ' the Aveight of proof is, however, strongly 
 adverse to this view,' There is no doubt that a historical 
 notice^ about A.D. 500, * refers to cotton robes,' and in A.D. 
 670 we find it bearing the name of Kih-pei, derived from 
 the Sanscrit Karpasi. This early knowledge of cotton 
 amongst the Chinese was confined, it would thus appear, to 
 what was brought into the empire as tribute, for it was not 
 until the Sung dynasty that the plant was grown in China. 
 
150 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ' Early in the eleventh century the plant was brought over and 
 cultivated in the north-western provinces by persons from Khoten. 
 
 * " ■■'■ The opposition to cotton cultivation on the part of silk 
 and hemp growers was so persistent that the plant had not fairly 
 won its way into favour until the Yuen dynasty. The great cotton 
 region is the basin of the Yangtsz Kiang, where the white and yellow 
 varieties grow side by side. The manure used is mud taken from the- 
 canals and spread with ashes over the ploughed fields, in which seeds 
 are sown about the 20th of April. The seeds are planted, after 
 sprouting, five or six in a hole, being rubbed with ashes as they are put 
 in, and weeded out if necessary. After the winter crops have been 
 gathered, cotton-fields are easily made ready for the shoots, which, 
 while growing, are carefully tended, thinned, hoed, and weeded until 
 the flowers begin to appear about August. As the pods begin to ripen- 
 and burst, the cultivator collects them before they fall, to clean the 
 cotton of seed and husks. The weather is carefully watched, for a 
 day summer or a wet autumn are alike unpropitious, and as the pods 
 are ripening from August to October, it is not uncommon for the crop 
 to be partially lost. The seeds are separated by a vvheel turning two 
 rollers, and the cotton sold by each farmer to merchants in the towns. 
 Some he keeps for weaving at home ; spinning-wheels and looms, 
 being common articles of furniture in the houses of the peasantry. 
 Cotton is cultivated in every province, and most of it is used where it 
 grows. Around Peking the plant is hardly a foot high ; the bolls are- 
 cleaned for wadding to a great extent, while the woody stalks 
 supply fuel to the poor. Minute directions are given in Su's 
 ' Encyclopaedia of Agriculture ' respecting the cultivation of this plant, 
 whose total crop clothes the millions of the empire.' 
 
 ' The durable cotton cloth made in the central provinces called 
 Nankeefihy foreigners, because Nanking is famous for its manufacture, 
 is the chief product of Chineselooms. It is now seldom sent out of the- 
 country, and the natives are even taking to the foreign fabric in its. 
 stead. Cotton seed in that part of China is sown early in June, about 
 eighty pounds to an acre ; in a good year the produce is about two 
 thousand pounds, diminishing to one half in poor seasons. It is manured 
 with liquid bean-cake, often hoed and the bolls gathered in October, 
 usually by each family in its own plot. The seeds are separated by 
 passing the pods between an iron and wooden roller on a frame, which 
 presses out the seeds and does not break them. The clean cotton is 
 then bowed ready for spinning, and the cloth is woven in simple 
 looms by the people who are to wear it after it is dyed blue. The- 
 looms used in weaving cotton vary from twelve to sixteen inches in 
 width ; they are simple in their construction ; no figures are woven, 
 in cotton fabrics, nor have the Chinese learned to print them as 
 chintz or calico. '■■' * '■■' * The only attempt to estimate the- 
 product has been in Kiangnan, at 28,500 tons, a figure below rather 
 than above the truth.' 
 
 The cotton plant is grown all over China at the present 
 day. It has been thought that it may have been introduced 
 
 • by foreigners trading with the Chinese ' ' by way of the- 
 southern sea ' ' as well as by the Mongol usurpers coming ia 
 
COTTON. 151 
 
 from the north-west/ for, though first cultivated during the 
 Sung dynasty, it was only under the Mongols that it was 
 grown to any extent. One writer describes the spread of 
 the cotton plant in China as being very rapid on account of 
 its being able to stand the northern winters and the southern 
 mildness of climate. So common has it become now that it 
 is the staple article for dress in China, especially amongst the 
 poorer classes, as it can be more cheaply made than silks. 
 Not content with their own native produced article, cotton 
 and cotton goods form the largest import into China, and 
 an import which is continually increasing in value. In 1892 
 it was represented in value by 53,290,200 taels, grey and 
 white shirtings from England accounting alone for 15,693,081 
 taels of that amount. (See Article on Trade.) The Indian 
 yarn thus imported ' is suited to make coarse fabrics 
 which are strong and wear well.' ' China greatly values 
 cheapness and if she procure these [Indian yarns] she will 
 supply her own coarse textile fabrics for the time by the 
 cottage loom system and suit her own taste in strength and 
 quality.' But a new phase has recently come over the 
 cotton industry, and mills fitted with the latest appliances for 
 tlie manufacture are now springing up at Shanghai and a few 
 other important centres of trade and industry in China; this 
 is accompanied by an increased cultivation of cotton. It 
 would seem that the Indian yarn is better suited for manufac- 
 ture than the native. 
 
 'Mr. Tratman referring to the manufactures of the Hupeh 
 cotton mill at Wuchang says: — "These goods have had a fair trial 
 throughout these provinces during the past few years, but they are 
 not appreciated to anything like the same extent as similar goods of 
 foreign manufacture. The yarn is short and difficult to work with 
 the primitive apphances in use here. The shirtings have not the 
 same toughness as even the most common kind of English goods and 
 they tear very easily. This inferiority of the Hupeh goods is not, 
 I am told, to be in any way attributed to the manufacture, but simply 
 to the fact that the cotton used is much below the standard of Indian, 
 cotton." ' 
 
 Though of short staple, Chinese cotton ' is suitable for 
 mixing with other qualities.' The Hon. T. H. Whitehead,. 
 
152 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 from whom we have qiioted the last sentence, in his speech 
 
 at the Royal Colonial Institute in 1895, proceeds to say : — 
 
 'In the Shanghai River in December 1893, there were at one 
 time no less than 5 ocean going steamers taking in cargoes of China- 
 grown cotton for transportation to Japan, there to be converted by 
 Japanese hands into yarn and cotton.' ' The Chinese have millions 
 of acres of land admirably adapted to the cultivation of cotton.' 
 
 The starting of these cotton mills, to Avhich we have 
 already referred, will obviate the necessity of carrying the 
 cotton to Japan and then bringing the yarn back to 
 China, since the conversion of it into yarn can be carried 
 out on the spot. Shanghai, being the centre of the cotton 
 growing districts, bids fair, if the industry is not throttled 
 by Chinese officialdom and officialism, to 'be one of the 
 greatest manufacturing centres in the world ' It has already 
 proved a commercial success in Shanghai, and companies 
 for starting mills at other places are every now and then 
 being promoted; sometime ago it was announced that a 
 * weaving enterprise on a somewhat large scale ' would 
 ' shortly be inaugurated in Honam, Canton.' There are now 
 (1898) fifteen mills running in Shanghai and at outports. 
 
 In the last-mentioned city, there are over 1,000 em- 
 ployed in the native primitive method of weaving cotton- 
 cloth. It takes ;ibout twelve days to make one piece of 
 1 1 chdng in length (about 43 yards), and the pay for this is 
 3S0 cash, the masters providing board and lodging for the 
 workmen but charging them for it. The cotton is carded 
 by means of a large bow several feet in length which is 
 held by, or fastened to the body of, the workman, who 
 vibrates the string amidst the cotton, thus producing a very 
 light floss. 
 
 The cotton tree is not to be confounded with the cotton 
 plant. It is a large splendid tree growing to a considerable 
 size with immense limbs branching out from it. and in 
 spring it has a large red flower. A Avhite silky down covers 
 the seeds, whence its name. This cotton is ' equally good 
 looking ' as the true cotton, its staple is too short to be woven 
 into cloth ; consequently it is only used to stuff cushions, &c. 
 
CREMATION. 153 
 
 A rough cloth is capable of being produced from it, so 
 it is said, but this statement is doubtful. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — Williams's 'Middle Kingdom.' Dr. Porter 
 Smith's 'Chinese Materia Medica and Natural History,' and Dr. Edkins 
 ' Modern China.' 
 
 CREMATION. — Cremation is opposed to the principles 
 of the Chinese. They believe that unless the whole body 
 goes intact into the next world, it will not be in a perfect 
 condition in a future state of existence. It is only Buddhist 
 monks whose bodies are thus disposed of at the present day. 
 It was. however, a common practice, in some parts of China, 
 at all events, during the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, for 
 Marco Polo says : * The people have paper-money, and are 
 idolaters and burn their dead.' Ibn Batuta also says: — 'The 
 Chinese are all infidels: they worship images, and burn their 
 dead just like the Hindoos.' A memorial was presented 
 against it in A. D. 1261 to the Emperor 'praying that the 
 erection of cremation furnaces might thenceforth be prohi- 
 bited.' It is a great pity that the practice was not continued, 
 as the neighbourhood of a Chinese city is converted into a 
 vast necropolis, to say nothing of solitary graves scattered 
 over the hills and mountains, even at a distance from human 
 habitations. There is no intramural burial. No places of 
 Avorship are turned into charnel houses to the detriment of 
 future living worshippers as with us, but an equally, or even 
 more, reprehensible custom is in vogue of preserving the 
 coffin in the house or some convenient temple for weeks, 
 months, and years, until either a favourable site with propi- 
 tious inflnences is found, or until the family can afford the 
 expenses of a funeral befitting their social position. This is 
 in the South; in the central portions of China, as at Shang- 
 hai, one sees coffins standing even in the corners or centres 
 of fields All these insanitary customs would have been done 
 away with had the more scientific and health-preserving 
 practice of cremation been allowed to continue. The Man- 
 tsz aborigines in Western Sz-chuen cremate their dead. The 
 •bodies are placed in a sitting position and bound with cords. 
 
154 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The funeral pyre is built, and after the body is burned the- 
 ashes and unburned wood are buried on the spot. 
 
 Archdeacon Gray thus describes a cremation at Honam 
 Temple : — 
 
 ' As I entered the inner gates my attention was directed to an 
 apartment, the doors of which were crowded by a number of priests 
 arrayed in sackcloth, and wearing white bandages round their 
 foreheads. The corpse, attired in a cowl, and with the hands fixed 
 in the attitude of prayer, was placed in a bamboo-chair in a sitting 
 posture, and carried to the pyre by six secular monks. All the monks, 
 were in attendance, and walked two abreast, immediately behind 
 the remains of the departed friar. As the long procession advanced, 
 the walls of the monastery echoed with the chanting of prayers and. 
 the tinkling of cymbals. When the bearers reached the pyre, they 
 placed the chair containing the corpse upon it, and the fagots were- 
 then kindled by the chief priest. Whilst the body was enveloped in 
 flames, the mourners prostrated themselves upon the ground in 
 obeisance to the ashes of one with whom they had been accustomed 
 to join in prayer and praise. When the fire had burned itself out, 
 the attendants collected the charred bones and placed them in a 
 cinerary urn, which was then deposited in a small shrine within the 
 precincts of the monastery. The cinerary urns remain in this shrine- 
 until the ninth day of the ninth month, when the ashes which they 
 contain are emptied into bags of red cloth, which are then sewn and. 
 thrown into a large ossuary, or species of monastery mausoleum. 
 These edificies, built of granite, are called by the Chinese Poo-Toofig- 
 Tap, and are upon an extensive scale. That belonging to the 
 monastery of Honam is a noble piece of masonry, and is divided inta 
 compartments, one being for the ashes of monks, and the other for 
 those of nuns. The bags of red cloth, with their contents, are 
 consigned to these receptacles through small apertures just sufficiently 
 large for their admission.' 
 
 CURRENCY. — China presents the curious spectacle of 
 an empire without a gold or silver currency in general 
 use throughout the land. For centuries, with but slight 
 exceptions, the medium of exchange has been the cash, a 
 small copper coin of the size of an English halfpenny, but 
 only a half or a third as thick, with a square hole in its 
 centre for convenience in stringing. It has a raised broad, 
 rim round the circumference as well as one round the square 
 hole in the centre. In the sunk space between these two 
 rims are, on the obverse, four Chinese characters, two of 
 Avhich are the style of the Emperor's reign, and two are 
 the equivalent of 'current coin.' At the present day ther 
 
CURRENCY. 155 
 
 majority of the coins also have on the reverse two Manehu- 
 characters, one denoting the provincial mint at which the 
 coin has been cast, and the other the equivalent of the word 
 •'currency.' For some centuries before Christ, and until the 
 present time, this has been, in its general features, the 
 circulating medium of China. Larger coins of the same 
 character have also been coined, but, as a rule, it may be 
 said that China has had no gold or silver coinage. A few 
 attempts to coin silver have been made once or twice, 
 but they have been failures. Edkins says 'Arabian trade 
 brought to China the use of silver by weight, as European 
 trade at a later period brought the dollar.' ' A thousand 
 years ago the people in Central China kept their accounts in 
 copper cash.' It is now the general practice, at all events 
 in the South, for accounts to be kept in silve'r — taels, mace,, 
 candarins, and li (a decimal system : ten 11 making one 
 candarin ; ten candarins, one mace; and ten mace, one tael) ; 
 there being actually no such coins in existence. Paper notes 
 have at different times been issued by the Government, and in 
 later times by private firms. They have been much in use in 
 certain parts of China — Foochow for example. Marco Polo 
 devotes a whole chapter to an account of the paper-money 
 in use in China in his time, [See Article on Banks and' 
 Bank-notes.) The Chinese readily used the Mexican, South 
 American, and other dollars, — half a century ago Spanish 
 dollars took the place that the Mexican subsequently held, but, , 
 except in the neighbourhood of Hongkong, and often there 
 as well, they always weighed them, and they were generally 
 stamped, as they passed through the hands of merchants and 
 shop-keepers till they fell into pieces and became what is 
 known as broken silver, and had to be weighed as each 
 transaction took place to know their value. For this purpose 
 a small money scale is a part of the equipment of everyone 
 going shopping, in time, no doubt, a regular silver coinage 
 will drive this practice out. The Japanese, Hongkong, and. 
 Straits Settlements subsidiary coins, such as the five, ten and 
 twenty cent pieces, are also much in circulation, especially in. 
 
156 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Hongkong and its neighbourliood. The Japanese yen and 
 Hongkong dollar are also used. Within the last few years a 
 mint has been established at Canton. Tiiis mint is a very fine 
 one, and in one respect, that of stamping machines, is the 
 largest in the ^vorld. It is under the superintendence of a 
 Scotchman, but all the other officials and workmen are 
 natives. The following extracts from Consul Brenan's 
 Report may prove of interest in this connection : — 
 
 'This mint has not so far [1893] taken upon itself the duty of 
 providing the people with a standard of value at the expense of the 
 Government. It only cares to work at a profit. * * '■■' '■' -No 
 assayer is employed, and the provincial treasury silver is taken to be 
 pure, the Canton dollar [few of which have been coined] is not of 
 even fineness. Some of the first dollars coined there were found in 
 the London mint to be actually <SS4 instead of 900 fine. ■•■'■■ '"' '" 
 There is a steady demand [for the subsidiary coins] because of the 
 convenience, their passing above their intrinsic value being an 
 exemplification of Ricardo's proposition that the value of a coin 
 depends on demand and supply. * * * '" There is certain to be 
 in time an immense demand for such small silver pieces all over the 
 Empire.' 
 
 The coins issued by this mint have been dollars, half 
 dollars, twenty, ten, and five cent pieces in silver, copper cents 
 and cash. The Government of the Fokien Province had a 
 large quantity of silver coins minted for them at this establish- 
 ment in Canton. The same Viceroy, Chang Chih-tung, who 
 introduced this first mint into China, also established one at 
 Wuchang for the benefit of the Hupeh and Hunan Provinces. 
 The Central Provinces will probably be supplied from Nanking 
 with a new coinage, while the Northern Provinces are also 
 minting their own silver money, Anhwei for one having a 
 mint of its own. Indeed, so rapidly have these new mints 
 been springing up in China within the last few years that it 
 is difficult to keep count of them all. Other mints will soon 
 doubtless supply other portions of the empire with silver 
 coins. The ten and twenty cent pieces issued by the Canton 
 mint are largely in circulation in Hongkong, though not 
 now received at the Government offices, such as the Post 
 office, &c. 
 
CUSTOMS, IMPERIAL MARITIME. 157 
 
 CUSTOMS, IMPERIAL MARITIME.— In 1853, 
 
 owing to the T'ai P"ing rebels capturing Shanghai, the 
 collection of customs duties on foreign bottoms entering that 
 port was placed in the hands of foreigners, as a temporary 
 measure until order should be restored; but Avhat was intended 
 as a modus vivendl for the time being, proved so well adapted 
 for the purpose, tliat it became a permanency, and has 
 increased with the extension of trade and the opening of 
 new treaty ports until it is now a most important department 
 with a large and efficient staff recruited from most of the 
 European nations, though the English are in the majority. 
 
 The following is the personnel of the establishment: — 
 At the head of all are the Inspector-General and the Deputy 
 Inspector-General ; immediately below them are the 
 Commissioners, 36 in number, who are generally in charge 
 of each Custom-house. They are assisted by Deputy Com- 
 missioners, of whom there are 17 ; the next ranks being 
 Chief, first, second, third and fourtli assistants, of whom 
 there are 139; clerks number 14; under the headins: 
 of Miscellaneous there are 13 names; and there are 26 
 surgeons connected with the Customs, who have private 
 practice as well, making a total of 220 Indoor-staff, and 
 surgeons 26. The out-door staff number 476, the ranks beino- 
 Tidesurveyors, Assistant Tidesurveyors, and Boat officers ; 
 Chief Examiners, Examiners, and Assistant Examiners; 
 Tidewaiters, and Watchers, t&c. There are also five armed 
 cruisers built in England, most of them by Armstrong, 
 commanded and officered by Europeans (43 in number) 
 and manned by Chinese. A small fleet of armed launches 
 is also employed with 22 officers. The lighthouses also on 
 the China coast, with the exception of those kept up by the 
 Hongkong and Macao Governments, owe their inception and 
 maintenance to this same department. There is also a Marine 
 Department, which includes the Lighthouse and Harbour 
 . Departments, and a small Educational one, as well as a Postal 
 Department. Over 4,000 Chinese are in the Customs employ, 
 and some 850 Foreigners, or rather more, for the numbers, of- 
 
158 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 course, fluctuate from year to year, and, with the opening of 
 new treaty ports and the extension of the postal system 
 their numbers are increased. The Nationality of the stafl" is, 
 roughly stated, as follows : — there are about 550 British, 
 about 125 Germans; American, 80; French, about 40; 
 Danish, 30 ; Norwegian, some 30 or so ; Portuguese, nearly 30 ; 
 Swedish, 20 ; Russian, Spanish, Italian, Belgian, Austrian, 
 Dutch, Siamese, Turkish, Hungarian, and Venezuelan are 
 below 20 each, some nations having only one in the service. 
 
 About £4*00,000 a year was allowed by the Chinese 
 Government for the support and up-keep of this entire service 
 of the Imperial Maritime Customs, but the sum has doubtless 
 been increased, as the establishment is constantly growing 
 and the expeijses increasing. The patronage is in the 
 hands of the Inspector-General whose nomination is required 
 for appointment. 
 
 Mr. H. N. Lay was the former Inspector-General, but he 
 came to grief in 1863 over the Sherard Osborne fleet, and 
 was succeeded by Sir Robert Hart, Avho has conducted the 
 
 'Onerous and multifarious duties connected with his position 
 witli great tact and ability, winning not only the good 
 opinion of the Chinese government, but that of the mer- 
 cantile community in China as well. The receipts of a 
 most important department are thus handed over intact to 
 the Chinese, and notwithstanding the large salaries neces- 
 sarily paid to the foreign employes, the Chinese government 
 reaps a larger benefit from it than it would from one in 
 
 .purely native hands, so difficult is it for money once in 
 the hands of Chinese Mandarins to leave their possession 
 without a large percentage being deducted for the benefit of 
 each one who has had to do with it. This revenue is likewise 
 
 iionestly collected, a thing impossible of accomplishment 
 were natives employed, as bribes and presents are in con- 
 tinual use in China. Could this same system be enlarged 
 
 -and extended to the collection of the whole of the Customs 
 revenue of China, it would prove of incalculable benefit 
 
 i;o the nation. 
 
CYCLE. 159 
 
 A further advantage of this service is the moral lesson 
 it gives to Chinese officials. Hong Yau Wai, the leader 
 of the Chinese Reform Party, speaking of the enormous 
 loss of revenue that occurs in China, stated that in his own 
 native district, that of Namhoi, out of a total amount of 
 |240,000 a year, only something over |20,000 reached 
 the Imperial Purse. It is also exerting an improving 
 influence on the government system of keeping accounts. 
 An accuracy and care is now exercised on them, supposed 
 to be the result of the publication quarterly of the Foreign 
 Customs accounts; and public accounts 'are now frequently 
 printed in the "Peking Gazette," which is a hopeful novelty.' 
 
 CYCLE.— YYom a remote antiquity the Chinese have 
 used a cycle of 60 years. This sexagenary cycle is formed 
 of two sets of characters : one set consisting of twelve and 
 the other of ten, which are combined together in sets of 
 two, /. e. each year of the sixty is represented by two 
 characters which distinguish it from the other fifty-nine. A 
 ■sexagenary division also existed in early times in India and 
 Babylon. 
 
 The Chinese employ both this cycle as well as the 
 year of the reign of the sovereign. The latter is preferable 
 as at times the use of the former causes some uncertainty. 
 For example, if a book has the name of one of the years of 
 the cycle on the title page as the date of its being Avritten or 
 of its publication, the question may arise as to which batch 
 -of sixty years the date refers — whether it is the year in the 
 present cycle of sixty or the year in the last, or a former, 
 cycle of sixty years. There is not the precision about it 
 under any and every circumstance which there ought to 
 be in anything connected with dates. 
 
 DECORATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS.— Mayers, 
 who is the great authority on all matters connected with 
 Government titles, &c., says most justly that : — 
 
 ' Although rewards for distinguished service, or marks of 
 Imperial favour the conception of which resembles in some degree 
 that of the Eurpean system of Royal or National Orders and Medals 
 
160 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 of Distinction, are to be found in China, nothing in the shape of an 
 actual Order of Merit approximating to the European type has been 
 adopted by the Chinese Government. * * *■' '■■■' Isolated distinctions 
 have indeed been conferred in China on foreigners of various 
 nationalities, principally for services x-endered in the command of the 
 drilled troops during the T'ai Ping rebellion, and subsequently in 
 the collection of the customs' revenue, '" '"' '■' but as these are 
 bestowed for the most part by provincial authorities, and without the 
 sanction of any establised rule or recognised statutes, such as are 
 required to constitute what is commonly known as an "Order," the 
 badges thus conferred can scarcely be regarded as having a reaL 
 value as authentic marks of distinction.' 
 
 There is, however, of late years tlie newly established 
 Order, in its various grades, reserved solely for foreigners, 
 namely, the Order of the Double Dragon ; it is divided into 
 five grades, the first, second, and third being sub-divided 
 into three classes. Sir Robert Hai t, the distinguished and able 
 head of the Imperial Maritime Customs in China, has the 
 decoration of a First Class of the Second Division of this 
 Order, and many of the Customs ofiicials have the different 
 classes o-f it. Major von Henneken and several of the 
 Europeans employed as officers in the Chinese navy were 
 decorated Avith it during the war with Japan, and Mr. 
 Matheson received it in recognition of his excellent services 
 in the construction of the Formosan Railway. The officers 
 of the ill-fated German gunboat 'litis,' Avhich was lost recently 
 in a typhoon, had the Order of the Duuble Dragon conferred 
 upon them for having rescued a number of Chinese soldiers 
 from the 'Kow Shing.' 
 
 The purely native decorations and privileges are many 
 in number. We note a few of them below : — 
 
 The Riding Cape or Yellow Riding Jacket (ma kw'a) 
 though so styled is not necessarily, but at the present day is 
 generally, of that colour. It is only worn ' when in personal 
 attendance upon the sovereign, in the field, or uponjourneys.' 
 Only two Europeans have been honoured with its bestowal — 
 General Gordon and M. Giquel. ' It is in colour of a gorgeous, 
 golden hue, lined with sleeves of peacock blue- —all of the 
 richest silk. It is very capacious * * * reaching down 
 -far below the. waist.' . 
 
DECORATIONS. 161 
 
 Another honorary distinction, conferred upon eminent 
 public functionaries, is the privilege of being allowed to ride 
 on horseback ' for some distance within the outer gateways 
 of the palace, when summoned to an audience ' 
 
 Another class of distinctions is that of the feather. The 
 feathers allowed are those of the peacock and the crow. 
 They are placed in the back of the hat and stick out, sloping 
 downwards. The peacock feathers are three-eyed, double- 
 eyed, or single-eyed. The first is conferred on Imperial 
 princes, ' nobles of the higher degrees, or for the most signal 
 military achievements;' the second is reserved for lower 
 officials or dignitaries; and the third 'is bestowed as an 
 ordinary form of reward for public service, and during the 
 last few decades has been indiscriminately obtainable by 
 purchase.' The Crow Feather or Blue Plume is for the 
 soldiers of the Imperial Guards, and officials of the seventh, 
 eighth, and ninth degrees of rank are rewarded by it. The 
 peacock feather has been conferred upon Europeans, amongst 
 its recipients being Sir Robert Hart and his brother, Mr. 
 James Hart, of the Imperial Maritime Customs Service, and 
 some of the foreign officers of the Chinese navy. 
 
 A peculiar feature in connection with these distinctions 
 amongst the Chinese is the withdrawal of them as a sign 
 of Imperial impatience or displeasure. A notable instance 
 of this lately was in the case of the Viceroy Li Hung 
 Chang in connection with the troubles with Japan, his 
 three-eyed peacock feather and yellow riding jacket were 
 the honours of which he was deprived temporarily ; for 
 * the slight is often quickly repaired,' not only by tlie 
 re-bestowal of the lost honours but by the fresh granting of 
 even greater ones. 
 
 General Yeh, who distinguished himself in battle, was 
 ordered by the Throne to be rewarded with ' Imperial gifts 
 consisting of a white peacock-feather-holder, a small knife, 
 a pair of large purses, and a couple of tinderboxes.' 
 
 L 
 
162 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The Bat'uni Distinction derived from the Manchu word 
 for ' brave ' is something like the French Legion d'honneur, 
 ^and is conferrcnl solely for active service in the field.' There 
 is no outward sign of its possession, but each recipient gets 
 a distinguishing title either in Manchu, Mongolian, or Chinese, 
 the first being the most honourable. The title given, for 
 instance, might be ' Bat'uru with the title Magnanimous 
 Brave.' The bestowal of the title gives the right to wear 
 the peacock's feather, though the brave soldier has generally 
 obtained that privilege before. Enhanced allowances are 
 also the result of the Bat'uru, when on active service. General 
 Mesny, who is in the service of the Chinese army, is the 
 only European who has obtained this honour; it was bestowed 
 on him for services in the province of Kwei-chow. 
 
 Another privilege is the Manchu one, of having the 
 sword-scabbard covered with yellow bark from the Rohinia 
 pygmcea — a tree belonging to the acaciae family. The Seventh 
 Prince, on the accession of the Emperor, Kwong Sui, had this 
 bestowed on him. 
 
 Another honour granted is 'the permission to use 
 scarlet or purple reins when riding * * * q^ horseback 
 * * * and to use the same colour for the props of the 
 sedan-chair.' These privileges ' were believed to be reserved 
 exclusively for the Imperial family,' but the Viceroy Li has 
 had them conferred on him. Yet another honour bestowed 
 -on the same high official is a robe made of throat-skins of 
 sables, sent as a birthday present to him by the Empress 
 Dowager; special permission from the throne is required for 
 the wearing of such. 
 
 In this connection it may be interesting to notice two 
 distinctions conferred on Sir Robert Hart: the Inspector 
 General ' will^ however, receive a piece of silk with the names 
 of his three ancestors inscribed thereupon in five colours. 
 This is a higher honour than the yellow jacket.' Another 
 special decree also ' conferred buttons of the first rank ' on 
 liis immediate three ancestors 'for his able administration. 
 
DECORATIONS. 163 
 
 of the Customs.' Again *the Emperor of China has by 
 Imperial Kescript ' done similar honour to the three genera- 
 -tions of ancestors of Sir Halliday Macartney, the Secretary 
 of the Chinese Legation in London. These are the only two 
 .Europeans who have been thus honoured. 
 
 The title of 'Instructor of the Emperor' is a posthumous 
 one and it is said ^is never given a man in his lifetime, and 
 only to the most distinguished officers after death.' The 
 great Tseng kwo-chuan, deceased, and his brother had it : • it 
 is unprecedented in liistory that two brothers should be so 
 honoured.' 
 
 Among the honours conferred upon the late energetic 
 Admiral (and General) Fong by the Throne was the Order 
 of the Yellow Flag — ' an honour possessed only by some 
 half-dozen recipients in the whole Empire. It carried with 
 it the despotic power to order the execution of any subject, 
 if of subordinate rank, without reference to Peking.' 
 
 Presentations or testimonials to officials by the people 
 take a different form in China to what they do in the West. 
 
 There is the presentation of the official umbrella which 
 is a distant cousin of the Italian Baldacchino . It is a 
 circular canopy with a deep border and fringe dependent 
 from it. 
 
 'It is made of scarlet silk, and on the deep borders which 
 encircle it are embroidered in yellow or black silk the names of the 
 donors.' 
 
 'At other times, tablets bearing complimentary inscriptions 
 are given as testimonials, and these are much prized by the recipients, 
 and used to decorate their best receiving rooms.' 
 
 'Another and more comical method of exhibiting the public 
 estimation of official probity and worth is for a deputation of the 
 inhabitants to wait upon a mandarin at one of the gates of the city 
 at the moment of his making his farewell exit, and to beg the gift 
 of his boots, which are thenceforth reverently cherished in some 
 temple as public property.' 
 
 DEMONIACAL POSSESSION— The Chinese believe 
 that madness and many forms of disease are due to possession. 
 -by evil spirits. 
 
 L 2 
 
164 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The idea of evil spirits and their Avicked machinations- 
 pervades the whole of Chinese society : it crops up in all 
 sorts of unexpected places, and permeates and pervades their 
 whole round of existence. Does a parent's love go out towards 
 some little child, and, as year by year goes by, increase in 
 strength, until suddenly some disease takes the little darling 
 away from the home it has made bright and happy ? Then 
 the miserable solace the bereaved parents have, is that it was 
 not a proper child of their own at all, but some spiteful spirit, 
 that, after ingratiating itself into their affections, ruined all 
 their fond hopes, and dashed their anticipations of future 
 bliss by suddenly showing itself in its true colours in 
 returning whence it came. 
 
 Some twenty years since some most curious instances of 
 apparent demoniacal possession forced themselves upon the 
 attention of the missionaries and their native assistants in 
 the South of China, bearing seemingly, a close analogy to 
 those mentioned in the New Testament in the time of Christ. 
 Some of the native preachers treated these cases in the same 
 way that the Apostles did, and in several instances with, 
 marked results of improvement. 
 
 At Foochow, according to Doolittle, yellow paper charms 
 are used, with different devices on them, in a number of 
 various ways, to counteract the evil influences when sickness 
 is believed to be caused by an evil spirit ; and, in the same 
 part of tlie country, whips made of branches of the peach or 
 willow, or a scourge, made, in the shape of a snake, out of 
 hemp, are employed to beat the bed, and drive away the 
 evil spirit. 
 
 There are several diff'erent kinds of demoniacal possession 
 according to the Chinese. There is, first, the possession of the 
 body produced by demons, who are capable of inducing any 
 of the ordinary diseases to which flesh is heir in China. 
 Vows and off'erings to the gods are the remedies for those who 
 suffer thus involuntarily. The next form is more serious, 
 for the demon in this class is supposed to actually dwell 
 ivithin the possessed, whose case is, however, diagnosed by 
 
DEMONIACAL POSSESSION. 165 
 
 the sapient (?) Chinese as being different from that of an 
 ordinary lunatic. Dennys in his 'Folklore of China,' quoting 
 from an article by Mr. Gardner, treats at some length of 
 these, and his account tallies in several respects with those 
 given in the Bible of the demoniacs in the time of our 
 Saviour. A still worse case is that of those who, thus 
 possessed, yield to the demon, the consequence being that 
 on their worship of him riches flow in, but, notwithstanding 
 all, ill-luck, in the way of retributive justice, follows such ; 
 and the ill-gcxtten gains take to themselves wings and flee 
 away. There are besides ' devil-dancers ' or spiritual media, 
 who profess to be possessed, going into ' a sort of ecstatic 
 frenzy, and, when in this state, they answer questions as to 
 the disease and remedies to be applied for the relief of those 
 on whose behalf they are consulted.' They also believe 
 in demons, who to all outward appearance are mortals, 
 and who are missionaries from the nether Avorld to warn 
 mankind amongst whom they live of the evil consequences 
 of indulgence in wrong-doing. 
 
 China would appear to present a better field for the 
 ananifestation of such delusions, as the people are so 
 ignorant and superstitious and are naturally susceptible. 
 Mania, dementia, and hysteria will probably account for all, 
 or nearly all, so-called instances of demoniacal possession. 
 
 'Many of these cases of possession are, doubtless, due to 
 suggestion. Persons of susceptible temperament, seeing or hearing' 
 of others so afflicted are tempted to worry or annoy their friends, and 
 are carried away and frightened by their own emotions into an 
 hysterical state bordering on actual mania.' 
 
 Story after story might be given under these different 
 heads, as well as of superstitions about foxes, which last 
 prevail more in the North than in the South of China, but 
 for the latter see the article on Fairy Tales. 
 
 JSooJtn recoinmnided. — Denny^i's 'Folklore of China,' Chap. 8. 'Chinese 
 Recorder,' Jan. -Feb. 1881, p. 16. ' Chinese and Japanese Repository,' ISep- 
 tember 3rd, 18(i3. Doolittle's ' Social Life of the Chinese.' Giles's 'Strange 
 :Storief8 from a Chinese Studio,' Vol. 1, pp. 25, 26, 168 ; Vol. 2, p. 300. 
 ' The Chinese, their Present and Future ; Medical, Political, and Social,' by 
 R. Coltinan, Jr., M.D., pp. 149-151. 'Demon Possession and Allied Themes,* 
 Jby Rev. J. L. Nevius, d.d. 
 
166 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 DIALECTS. — When one travels on the continent of 
 Europe one expects, every few hundred miles, to find a 
 different language spoken, but because an extent of country 
 larger than Europe is all part of one empire, it is generally 
 supposed that one language (the Chinese) is spoken through- 
 out its length and breadth. It is quite true that it is Chinese 
 that is spoken in Peking, as well as in Canton, and it is 
 equally true that the inhabitants of Shanghai, Foochow, and 
 Amoy as well, all speak Chinese; but it is also true that not 
 one of the inhabitants from any of those places could under- 
 stand those from the others any more than a Londoner could 
 a Berliner; or a Parisian, a Dutchman; or a Spaniard, an 
 Italian. It might convey a livelier sense of the difference to 
 suppose that the speech in Liverpool was as different from> 
 that in London as one European language is from another,, 
 so that any merchants from London, who settled in Liverpool, 
 would have to learn the language of the people of that city,, 
 and Avould be strangers in a strange land, as far as the speech, 
 was concerned. Again, suppose that Gaelic was the speech in. 
 Edinburgh or Glasgow, a native of those cities settling in 
 London would find that to be understood he had to pick up 
 the language of the South of England. Again, let Welsh be 
 the only language spoken in the principality, a Welshman 
 Avould then not be understood in York, or anywhere else in 
 England or Scotland. 
 
 Such, then, represents the position of the Chinaman in- 
 his own land, for different so-called dialects are spoken in it. 
 It it a pity that they have received this name, for it gives 
 such a wrong impression as to their range, the number of 
 people that speak them, and the very great difference that 
 exists between them. 
 
 As the lamented, but talented, Carstairs Douglas says in- 
 speaking of one of them : — 
 
 'But such words as "Dialect" or "Colloquial" give an 
 erroneous conception of its nature. It is not a mere colloquial 
 dialect ox patois ; it is spoken by the highest ranks just as by the 
 common people, by the most learned just as by the most ignorant > 
 learned men indeed add a few polite or pedantic phrases, but these- 
 
DIALECTS. 16T 
 
 are mere excrescences (and even they are pronounced accordina" 
 to the,' so-called dialect of that part of the country) ' while the main 
 body and staple of the spoken language of the most refined and 
 learned classes is the same as that of coolies, labourers, and, 
 boatmen. Nor does the term " dialect " convey anything like a 
 correct idea of its distinctive character : it is no mere dialectic variety 
 of some other language ; it is a distinct language, one of the many 
 and widely differing languages which divide among them the soil of 
 China. * * -■' ■■■ They are cognate languages bearing to each a 
 relation similar to that which subsists between the Arabic, the 
 Hebrew, the Syriac, the Ethiopic, and the other members of the 
 Semitic family ; or again between English, German, Dutch, Danish, 
 Swedish, &c.' 
 
 To generalise then, there are throughout Cliina the 
 following main divisions of speech or language, generally 
 called dialects. We arrange them with some attempt at 
 relative age, or the greater or less remains of age contained, 
 in them : — - 
 
 1. 
 
 The Cantonese. 
 
 5. 
 
 The Hainanese 
 
 2. 
 
 „ Hakka. 
 
 6. 
 
 „ Shanghai. 
 
 3. 
 
 „ Anioy. 
 
 7. 
 
 „ Ningpo. 
 
 4. 
 
 „ Swatow, 
 
 8. 
 
 ., Mandarin. 
 
 (In the Straits Settlements No. 2 is known as the Kheh, 
 No. 4 as Till chiu, and No, 5 as Hylam), in this pronunciation 
 following that of the Swatow and Araoy people.' 
 
 Mandarin and its cognate branches being the youngest, it 
 will thus bo seen that another fallacy,- viz., that Mandarin is 
 the language of China, and the others dialects of it, is unten- 
 able. Cantonese being more akin to the ancient language of 
 China (spoken about 3,000 years ago) than the Mandarin, 
 while the Hakka also contains traces of a high antiquity, and i& 
 supposed to mark a period long anterior to that represented 
 by Mandarin, but, in some respects, subsequent to that period 
 of which the Cantonese contains remains, although, in other 
 points it has traces of as high, or nearly as high, an 
 antiquity. This is true also to some extent of Swatow, 
 Amoy, and Shanghai, as well probably as of others ; so that 
 it may rather be said that the languages spoken in the 
 South-East of China have traces of the ancient speech, 
 whereas the Mandarin is modern ; in fact, one appears to have- 
 
168 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ^ elements in it which seem to be remnants of a dialect of 
 greater antiquity than even the ' Cantonese ' can boast of.' 
 
 Having thus spoken of the grand divisions, we have 
 further to draw attention to the fact that, besides these main 
 divisions, there are lesser ones, into which they are sub-divided, 
 for which, if we give the main divisions the name of 
 languages, we have the more fitting term of dialects ; for to 
 adapt what we wrote some years since in ' Cantonese Made 
 Easy/ they have their real dialects, some of which are spoken 
 by tens of thousands or hundreds of thousands of natives, 
 and which, if they were spoken by the inhabitants of some 
 insignificant group of islands in the Pacific, with only a tithe 
 of the population, would be honoured by the name of 
 languages. We quote again from a monograph by ourselves 
 (on the San-Avui Dialect): — At the same time, however, there are 
 wheels within wheels in the matter of these Chinese dialects: 
 that is to say, the dialect of one district is not one homo- 
 geneous whole, though the district may be so small as geogra- 
 phically to equal in square miles a few English counties 
 only. It will readily be understood that there is scope foi' 
 a considerable variation, without this variation being so 
 marked as to become a separate dialect or sub-dialect. 
 Considerable changes can thus be rung, while }^et the changes 
 are not so great as to put the dialect or sub-dialect out of 
 harmony with the general characteristics of the particular 
 dialect, or language, of which it is a branch. Every now and 
 then one comes across villages and towns, which seem almost 
 a law to themselves as to their speech, for all the peculiarities 
 of the district are so accentuated, and so many new varieties 
 of pronunciation introduced, new idioms and words used, as 
 well as a diflference in the tones employed, as to result in a 
 lingo more or less unintelligible, even to inhabitants of the 
 same district, and a perfect jargon of unmeaning sounds to 
 a stranger to that part of the country. 
 
 It will thus be seen that the ramifications are numerous, 
 for after the division of dialects proper, are the lesser divisions 
 of sub-dialects, variations and \ocdX patois. The most minute 
 
DIALECTS. 169 
 
 ■divisions of all are those which present a curious spectacle 
 when found to exist in a city itself, as, for instance, there are 
 two or three of these minute sub-divisions found in the City 
 of Canton, with a population estimated sometimes at a 
 million. It is as if about a dozen different minute divisions 
 of English were to be found in London : the inhabitants of 
 1;hat City south of the Thames having certain peculiarities, 
 which would mark them out as different from those in other 
 parts of London, while the West End, the City itself, the 
 East End, and, not to carry the comparison any further, half 
 a dozen other districts of London would each have some few 
 local peculiarities of pronunciation distinguishing them from 
 'the rest of London. 
 
 The above will help to explode another fallacy, that if a 
 man knows one of the so-called dialects, such for instance 
 as Cantonese, he is then perfect master of all that may be 
 said by people speaking that language. The real facts of the 
 case will be better understood if one instances the bewilder- 
 ment of a cockney, when landed amongst a crowd of York- 
 ^hiremen speaking the Yorkshire dialect in its broadest. 
 
 So many are the changes in the language in China that 
 it may be said that every hundred miles the language differs 
 to a more or less material extent — in some places every 
 twenty miles — and a rough estimate has been made th;it 
 there are as many dialects in China as there are days in the 
 year. The word China, when applied geographically, covers 
 such an aggregate of country, that practically a knowledge 
 of one of the languages of China is sufficient to carry one 
 over hundreds and thousands of miles, though, Avhen it comes 
 to a minute and accurate knowledge of all that is said, much 
 is left to be desired, and ludicrous mistakes occur. 
 
 It may be of interest to have some general idea, im- 
 perfect though it must necessarily be, of the range of the 
 •different languages and some of the more important dialects. 
 To begin then with Mandarin as being the most widespread. 
 It is the speech, in one form or another, in fourteen or 
 
170 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 fifteen out of the eighteen provinces into which China is^ 
 divided. Mandarin is divided into the northern and southern ► 
 The standard dialect of the former being Pekingese, omng to 
 the accident of Peking being the seat of the Central Govern- 
 ment, while Nankingese holds the same position with regard 
 to the southern division. A third marked variety is that of 
 Western China, which has its centre in Ching-tu in the 
 Sz-chuan province. Besides these, there are a number of 
 smaller divisions, such as the Hankow, but, amidst all these 
 varieties, there appears to be a better chance of one being 
 understood through a much wider extent of country in that 
 part of the empire, where Mandarin is spoken as the language 
 of the people, than is the case in other parts of China. Taking 
 the population of China as 360 000,000, a population say of 
 300,000,000 are Mandarin speaking. This is of course a mere 
 rough estimate, and, to be accurate would require a considerable 
 amount of adjustment, as there are large Hakka speaking com- 
 munities amongst them, while on the other hand, there are 
 Mandarin speaking people amongst some of the other provinces. 
 In the city of Canton alone there are 1 00,000 Mandarin speakers. 
 All high officials require a knowledge of Mandarin, those 
 who do not know it have therefore to learn it, and the 
 consequence is that almost all who aspire to office, or to come 
 in contact with official life, acquire it to a greater or lesser 
 extent. Many of the plays put on the stage are in Southern 
 Mandarin, consequently ardent play-goers have a more or less 
 smattering of that variety of it. 
 
 The other languages of China are spoken by smaller 
 populations, but by still large enough ones to command 
 respect. For example, the people who speak Cantonese, in 
 some form or another, number 20,000,000, a population 
 falling not far short of that of Italy. This language is in. 
 use throughout the larger part of the Kwang-tung, or Canton 
 province ; one authority considers that 12,000,000 speak it 
 there. It has been estimated that about one-third of the 
 people of the province speak Hakka, while in the north-east 
 of the same province there is a considerable population 
 speaking the Swatow and its variations. The Cantonese 
 
DIALECTS. 171 
 
 speakers then are in the majority, but they are aot confined 
 to this province, for in the next, the Kwang-si, it is also 
 largely spoken, especially in the South, some of it being 
 of a comparatively pure type, while in other parts it is 
 mixed Avith Mandarin. 
 
 It is impossible, without writing a book specially 
 dealing with the subject, to give an account of all the 
 dialects coming under each separate language. The following 
 short notice of some of them in Cantonese may give an idea 
 of what may be expected to be found under each grand 
 division. The Cantonese has numerous dialects and groups 
 of dialects. One group consists of the San-wui, San-ning, 
 Yan-p'ing and Hoi-p'ing, a most peculiar class of dialects, 
 containing much that is very different from the pure 
 Cantonese, and any one of which, when spoken in all its 
 broadness, is to a great extent difficult of comprehension. 
 Another group consists of the Tung-kwun, San-on, Pok-lo, and 
 Tsang-sheng dialects. Besides these, there are a number of 
 other dialects such as the Hong-shan, or Macao, the Shan-tuk, 
 the Shfii-hing, and others too numerous to mention, each 
 district having more or less differences which segregate it and 
 its inhabitants to a greater or lesser extent from the neigh- 
 bouring districts. It must be remembered that each of these 
 dialects have, as has already been said, smaller divisions or 
 subdivisions. For example, the San-wili dialect may be 
 divided into three, whilst besides this three-fold division 
 there are numerous smaller divisions still. The ramifications 
 are most minute ; not only are there several slight variations 
 in one city or even in one town ; not only does the speech 
 of the boat-people differ from that of those on land ; not 
 only is there baby-talk ; but there are even certain words, 
 which are used by women and never by men — in fact, 
 the men would be laughed at if they used them. 
 
 With regard to the Hakka, there do not appear to be 
 such differences between the speech of those living in different 
 parts of the country, in Kwang-tung at least, as there is 
 amono;st the Cantonese. To mention some of these Hakka 
 
!T2 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 dialects, there are the Ka-yin-chu, the Sin-an, the Ch^mg-lok, 
 and others. Again, with regard to this language, we have 
 constantly been met with the supposition that a knowledge 
 of" Hakka means a thorough knowledge of Hakka in all its 
 dialects. Such knowledge is almost impossible for one man 
 to acquire, be he native or foreign. The difference between 
 the dialects of Hakka is still sufficiently marked to 
 confuse one considerably, until familiarity with speakers 
 from different parts of the country overcomes the difficulty. 
 In the Canton Province alone not a few millions speak this 
 language, roughly estimated at say about the population of 
 Portugal and all her Colonies combined ; perhaps about four 
 millions says one authority, but this same curious people are 
 found in other provinces as well ; at present there is no 
 accurate knowledge of their number as a whole. 
 
 The next so-called dialect up the coast is that of the 
 Svvatow and neighbouring districts, which is spoken by some 
 millions, perhaps three, in one or other of its variations or 
 dialects, such for example as the Hoi-fung, Luk-fung, &c. 
 
 Next after this comes the Amoy, which has about the 
 same affinity to the Swatow that Spanish bears to Portuguese. 
 There are numerous dialects of it, and it is spoken by a large 
 population of say 9,000,000 or so — a larger population than 
 that of Belgium and Ireland combined. Again, further up 
 the coast, but still in the same province, is the Foochow ; it is 
 spoken throughout an extent of country of approximately 
 130 miles by 270, and by a population of 5,000,000, consider- 
 ably more than that of Sweden spread over a larger extent 
 of country than Wales. Like all the others, it has 
 variations, some twenty or so main ones. Of it, as spoken 
 a few hundred miles inland, a writer says : — ' But what 
 a Babel of tonsfues and dialects there is among these 
 wild mountaineers ! A native can hardly pass the limits 
 of his own village but his speech, will betray him.' This 
 is, of course, what one would expect in such a moun- 
 tainous district ; the country which the Mandarin occupies 
 is, much of it, of a more level type. 
 
DIALECTS. 173 
 
 Besides these, there are the languages of Shanghai and 
 
 Ningpo, and otliers less well known to the foreigner, and 
 
 consequently whose divisions into dialects have been less 
 studied. 
 
 The Hainanese is spoken in the island of Hainan, where 
 numerous other speeches are in use, Hainanese being, however, 
 the lingua franca; it has also numerous vaiiations, the 
 dialect of Kiung-chau being the standard. It is allied to the 
 Amoy and Swatow, but is very different in some respects, 
 having some peculiarities, incident also to the Japanese, in 
 the change of letters in the pronunciation of a word. It is 
 spoken by three millions of jDeople, being used in the 
 Luichow peninsular. 
 
 The number of syllables in some of the different speeches 
 of China are as follows :- — 
 
 1. Amoy, 846. 
 
 2. Cantonese, 780. 
 
 3. Foochow, 7S6. 
 
 4. Hakka, 700. 
 
 5. Hankow, 316. 
 
 6. Ningpo, 444. 
 
 7. Pekingese, 430. 
 
 8. Shanghai, &60. 
 
 9. Swatow, 674. 
 10. Wenchow, 452. 
 XI. Yangchow, 415. 
 
 Mr. E. H. Parker, a great authority on Chinese dialects 
 says :— 
 
 'It is plain that 1,500 years back the Chinese dialects had for 
 centuries been almost as numerous as they are now,' and he says 
 further, 'from the earliest historical times, widely different dialects 
 have been spoken in China.' ' Between the dialects of Peking, 
 Hankow, .Sz-Ch'uan, Yangchow, Canton, Hakka, Foochow, Wenchow, 
 and Ningpo, * * * there is complete homogeneity; and though, 
 the variations between this and that dialect are often greater * '•■' ■■' 
 than the differences between Portuguese and French (as one extreme), 
 and no greater than between Flemish and Dutch (as another extreme), 
 yet the rigid adherences of all to theoretical standards is more perfect 
 than in the European languages or dialects.' 
 
 The so-called, dialects are, however, in many respects as 
 different as one European language from another. These 
 differences are partly due to climatic and telluric influences, 
 individual, and local peculiarities of utterance which have 
 been perpetuated, and the effects of succeeding waves of 
 migration from different parts; possibly the influence of 
 preceding residents, as well as other more obscure causes 
 
174 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 have also been responsible to some extent. Some of the 
 reasons for these divergences in languages or dialects can be 
 seen, but the whole subject is one that would repay study. 
 We may here draw attention to a few of the causes : tlie 
 mixture of people speaking different dialects produces a new 
 form ; old forms are retained in one dialect, while other 
 dialects may discard these and retain others ; localisms are 
 perpetuated, and new terms are sometimes brought back by 
 those who have been in other districts and find a permanent 
 home away from their original habitat ; migrations take 
 place from, and to, different parts of the country, so tliat 
 districts Avide apart are more similar in their speech than 
 the intermediate country is to one or the other. 'There can 
 be little doubt that the corruption of old Chinese into the 
 modern "Mandarin" dialects was caused chiefly by the 
 immense admixture of Tartar and Thibetan blood during 
 the period 300—900 A.D.' 
 
 It is a dream of some Chinese to introduce a uniform 
 language in place of the numerous so-called dialects that exist 
 throughout the length and breadth of the land. About 200 
 years ago the Emperor Kang Hi caussd schools to be 
 established in Canton, and elsewhere, for this purpose. We 
 question if the result the scheme was meant to accomplish is 
 much nearer fulfilment now than at that time. In the future, 
 doubtless, it will be brought about to a greater or lesser extent, 
 but by other means than that, for there is but little reasonable 
 doubt that when the railway shall have drawn the distant 
 parts of China together by the meshes of its network, the 
 unification of the language Avill proceed with more rapid 
 strides, as the nation by it, and other means dependent upon 
 and accelerated by it, becomes welded into a homogeneous 
 whole. 
 
 What then will be the speech that will succeed to this 
 confusion of tongues in China? We believe if, that is to say, 
 China is not subdivided, but continues as one empire in the 
 future, in the course of time (it may take centuries to accom- 
 plish it) one language will gradually, either take the place 
 
DIVORCE. 175 
 
 of the others, or the others will, modifying the one, give 
 place to a new language, which will perhaps contain the best 
 features of all, and be an advance on any now spoken. The 
 language that bids fair to take this prominent position in 
 the future .would seem to be the Mandarin, at all events it 
 stands as good a chance as any, if not a better than many, of 
 taking this enviable position. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — Numerous articles have appeared in the ' China 
 Review ' and " Missionary Recorder,' amongst which may be instanced those 
 by E. H. Parker, by Don, and by the present writer. Also see the 
 'Philological Essay' by E. H. Parker in Giles's new 'Chinese English 
 Dictionary.' 
 
 DIVORCE. — There are seven reasons for whicli, 
 •according to Chinese law, a man may divorce his wife ; they 
 are barrenness, lasciviousness, jealousy, talkativeness, thievery, 
 disobedience towards her husband's parents, and leprosy. 
 These seem sweeping enough in all conscience ; and to those 
 unacquainted with the inner life of the Chinese, it would 
 seem simple enough for a man to bring his Avife to book under 
 one or other of these, and rid himself of an uncongenial 
 companion, but such is not the case in practice. The wife's 
 relations have to be considered in the matter ; and again, if 
 she has no parents, she cannot be put away, as they are not 
 living to receive her back again; further, for the lesser offences, 
 he cannot put her away if he be in mourning for a parent ; 
 and, yet again, it is much simpler for a Chinese, (and causes 
 much less ill-feeling to all parties concerned) in case no sou 
 is born to him, to take a concubine or secondary wife (not 
 a second wife except by courtesy, for a Chinese has only 
 one legal wife, see Article on Marriage) and increase the 
 number, one after the other, until he obtains the longed-for 
 heir or future worshipper at the family tombs, or failing 
 this, he may adopt a son. [See Article on Adoption.) All 
 these different expedients and restrictions nullify, or render 
 unnecessary, the provisions as to divorce, which, like every- 
 thing Chinese, is theoretically easy of accomplishment, but 
 in practice is something very different. Statistics are difficult 
 to obtain in China, and, when obtained, are very unreliable 
 owins: to the inexactitude of the Chinese mind — one of their 
 
176 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 most common characteristics. No statistics, as far as the- 
 author is aware, are obtainable on this particular subject; 
 but, judging from a long residence amongst the people, he 
 would say that divorce is not any oftener resorted to than 
 in England, probably less often by far. 
 
 Besides Avhat has been said above, a married couple may 
 mutually agree to separate ; again, by law a husband is liable 
 to be punished if his wife is convicted of adultery, and he 
 does not put her away. But there is as high a standard of 
 chastity among many classes of Chinese married women as 
 there is among women of the West, and such a rule among 
 the middle and higher classes, at least, does not often require 
 application. 
 
 This is the law and custom as between husband and 
 wife. It is very different, however, when the wife has to 
 complain of her husband. She has then practically no 
 redress or safeguards (unless he break her bones, when 
 he is amenable to law), except the small and uncertain 
 modicum of public opinion, which may keep her husband 
 from transgressing too much, or better still, the punish- 
 ment which his wife's family will take in hand, should 
 he act so as to bring disgrace on them. 
 
 The case is quite different with the so-called secondary 
 wives. They are not a man's wives in the sight of the 
 law, that is to say they do not stand on a footing of 
 equality, though recognised as concubines, for there is 
 only one first legitimate wife; and a man is free to 
 dismiss these concubines from his bed and board and 
 treat them in a way he would not dare to act towards 
 his first wife (though a man may be cruel enough to her 
 in China, as well as in England, if he choose). This treat- 
 ment may be modified more or less by the prospective 
 counteraction of the so-called wife's relations and her 
 social position, presuming she has any. If she has none, 
 or if her position is of no account, as is more then likely 
 often to be the case Avith a secondary wife, beggary or 
 
DOCTORS. 177 
 
 prostitution stares her in the face,, unless she is fortunate 
 
 enough to enter another family in a similar position. 
 
 Boolis recummeiidefl. — 'The Status of Women in China.' bv Rev. 
 E. Faher. Dr. Theol. Most books on China also contain longer or shorter 
 paragraphs on the same subject ; si'c, for example, Williams's ' Middle 
 Kingdom ' and Gray's 'China;' also see Articles in this book on Marriage^ 
 and Women. 
 
 DOCTORS. — The native doctor is a curious character : 
 he passes no examination ; he requires no qualification. He 
 may have failed in business and set up as a physician for 
 which he requires no stock in trade, medical instruments are 
 almost unknown {See Article on Acupuncture.) If he can 
 get an old book of prescriptions from another retiring 
 practitioner, so much the better for liim. He is uow fit to 
 kill or cure as chance may will it, or as his ignorance or 
 fortuitous circumstances may decree. The doctor most 
 entitled to confidence in the sight of his countrymen is the 
 man whose father has been one before him and tlie confidence 
 increases should his grandfather have followed the same 
 calling. This it might be supposed was due to an ignorant 
 belief in the influence of heredity ; but, as it is stated bv the 
 Chinese, the value in their eyes consists in the son or grand- 
 son possessing all the books of prescriptions of his sires. 
 Thus provided, he is ready to begin his empirical career. 
 Fees vary according to the class of man and his patients, and 
 according to the place of residence, whether it be a fashion- 
 able quarter or poor suburbs, or whether it be town or 
 country. The enormous sum of perhaps thirty cents or half 
 a dollar may be charged per visit if he comes in his sedan to 
 see his patient, and of this amount a large proportion would 
 go for tlie chair and the rest for the doctor himself. Should 
 he belong to the humbler ranks and come on foot, his fee is 
 proportionately cheaper. He puts on a solemn air and has 
 quite an o\vl-like look, as he peers out of the semi-darkness 
 of a Chinese bedroom through his great. goggle-shaped glasses 
 — each lens of which is two inches across and set in huije 
 uncouth, copper fraiues. The thing of the greatest importance 
 is feeling the difi"erent pulses of the human system, of which 
 the Chinese count a number. The pulse at each wrist is felt, 
 
 M 
 
178 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and each is divided into three, which, according to the light 
 or heavy character of the pressure, indicates a different organ 
 of the body, so, by thus feeling the pulses, the states of a 
 dozen real or imaginary organs are determined. Having 
 then learned by the pressure of these three at each pulse the 
 seat of the disease, a few questions may be asked by 
 the doctor, but these are scarcely considered necessary. A 
 prescription, sometimes composed of the most horrible and 
 nauseous compounds, is prepared in large doses, for the native 
 idea is that the larger the dose, the more likely it is to prove 
 efficacious. In prescribing for natives, the foreign doctors 
 have to be most careful, as most ludicrous cases have occur- 
 red, such as the paper being swallowed by the sick ignoramus, 
 as well as the powder or pill it contained. 
 
 Amongst their medicines besides some that are to be 
 found in our Western Materia Medica are snake skins, fossils, 
 rhinoceros or hart's horn shavings, silk-worm and human 
 secretions, asbestos, moths, oyster shells, &c., &c. Almost 
 anything that is disgusting is considered good as a medicine. 
 Apothecaries' shops abound where the doctors' 2:)rescriptions 
 are made up or where the patients themselves procure medi- 
 cines as they think they require them. Quack advertisements 
 are placarded on almost every blank well. 
 
 The manner in which the Chinese treat their physicians 
 is rather peculiar. Should a speedy cure not result from the 
 doctor's treatment, the patient calls in another, and, if no 
 better, yet another, and so on in rapid succession, until, 
 all human aid failing, he perchance at last goes to his gods, 
 if he has not already tried them before. 
 
 It is not an' uncommon sight to see a woman waving a 
 child's jacket in her hand in the street, Avhile she croons in 
 a monotonous voice to the spirit of the sick child to return 
 to the body from whence, the child being in an unconscious 
 or comatose condition, it is supposed to have fled. 
 
 In seasons of epidemic, large processions are got up by 
 the different commercial guilds, every shopkeeper and house- 
 holder being called upon for a subscription. 
 
 Books recommended. — Williams's ' Middle Kingdom.' 
 
DOGS. 179 
 
 DOGS. — The clog is so much in evidence in China that 
 he deserves an article to himself. From the erroneous im- 
 pression that dogs form one of the principal items of a 
 Chinaman's diet, the common variety has been dubbed the 
 * chow dog.' A glance at one of this species is enough to 
 show its great likeness to that depicted in books of Arctic 
 travel, and known as the Esquimaux dog. This Chinese dog 
 approaches much nearer to the original wolf type than the 
 more highly bred species to be found in our western lands. 
 That they are not more highly developed is doubtless due to 
 the apathy of the Chinese with regard to them, for though 
 kept by many families as a watch dog, the animal is not 
 petted and made so much of as would be the case amongst 
 us ; for instance he is not made a companion of his master's 
 walks, nor when his owner often does not appreciate the 
 luxury or necessity of a bath, is it likely that his dog would 
 be given one. He lies at the outer-door, or in the shop, or 
 prowls about the street very much uncared for according to 
 our ideas of the treatment of our pets, dogging the steps of 
 the foreigner, scarcely ever attacking him boldly but retreat- 
 ing before him in a cowardly manner, and seeking safety at 
 his master's door to be re-inforced with fresh courage as the 
 stranger passes, when he issues out behind his back Avith 
 his irritating bark, which has been described as a 'short, 
 thick snap, very unlike the deep, sonorous baying of our 
 mastiffs.' He begins with several of these and runs off into 
 a quick succession of them for a few seconds, a series of 
 these short refrains producing a most monotonous effect, 
 especially when lasting for a long time. The vigorous greet- 
 ing thus received from the whole pack of village dogs is 
 extremely unpleasant Avhen one is out for a country walk ; 
 though apparently very fierce, there is generally but little 
 danger to be apprehended. The chow dogs are all about the 
 same size, a foot in height and about two feet in length. 
 The colours are uniform in one individual and consist of 
 light brown, black, and creamy yellow. A writer in '' Home 
 ITotes ' on dogs thus describes them : — 
 
 ' Black chows, or the edible dogs of China, are very fine animals 
 
 M 2 
 
180 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 of the size of a small collie, and of the Pomeranian type, the desirable 
 points being almost identical. The tongue and roof of the mouth are 
 black, and the eyes very small and keen. They are faithful creatures, 
 and become greatly attached to their owners.' The good points in 
 Pomeranians are 'thick long hair, a well "feathered" tail (styled the 
 plume ), long hair on the back of the forelegs, small ears, fox-shaped 
 head, and a frill of thick fur round the neck.' 
 
 The ears do not hang down, but are sharp and upright, 
 except in a variety to be found in the province of Ngan- 
 hwui, which 'has pendent ears of great length.' One pecu- 
 liar feature in these dogs is the abrupt rise of the tail from 
 the insertion, whence it curls up over the back, never hang- 
 ing down. This is so marked that a wag has said that thfr 
 tail almost assists in lifting the legs from the ground. 
 This abrupt rise is heightened doubtless in appearance by 
 the unusually straiglit hind legs, giving a somewhat un- 
 gainly look to the animal. The chow is not a very rapid 
 runner, probably this style of hind legs handicapping it.. 
 The bitch has dew-cla\\'s on her hind legs, one on each, but 
 the male has none. The Chinese sav of the dog that it ' can 
 go on three legs.' 
 
 ' The dogs of Peking are very clannish, and each set jealously 
 guards its own street or yard ; they are fed by the butchers in the 
 street and serve as scavengers there, and in all large towns. They 
 are often mangey, presenting hideous spectacles, and instances of 
 plica polonica are not uncommon, but, as among the celebrated street 
 dogs of Constantinople, hydrophobia is almost unheard of.' 
 
 There is another breed of dog, the Pekingese pug, or 
 sleeve dog ; the latter name has been given to it from the 
 masters carrying this pretty little pet in their capacious 
 sleeves. Dr. Rennie says of it : — 'The breed is a very pecu- 
 liar one, something between the King Charles and the pug/ 
 What are termed in England ' Japanese spaniels/ which ap- 
 pear if not identical with, to be very similar to the Pekingese 
 dog, and some specimens of which were taken from the 
 Summer Palace at Peking to England, are thus described : — 
 
 ' They are docile, playful, and affectionate, and of unusual intelli- 
 gence. Their long silky coats, delicate and finely formed paws, large, 
 lustrous eyes, massive heads, and long, feathery tails, proudly curled 
 over their backs make them beautiful pets. * * '■■. Smallness is an 
 important point as they are carried in the large sleeves of Japanese 
 ladies and called 'sleeve dogs.' 
 
DRAGON. 181 
 
 A writer in * Cornhill ' for July, 1896, speaks about 
 
 'A large chow-dog from Northern China, which a freak of fashion 
 "has decreed shall be kept as a pet by English ladies. These dogs are 
 not suited either by nature or training for domestic pets. They are 
 only half-civilised dogs, very excitable, often savage, and so little con- 
 sidered as household companions in their native Manchuria that they 
 are bred for the sake of their fur, and killed, like seals when the fur is 
 in season. Hut they are born sledge-dogs, immensely strong in the 
 shoulder and short in the neck, with pulling powers far greater than 
 those of any of the breeds used in Holland and Belgium for drawing 
 carts. If the laws against the use of dogs for draught are repealed 
 just as the laws against road-engines and steam-carts are about to be 
 repealed, the "chows" would form the basis of a new breed of cart 
 dogs for minor traffic' 
 
 There is a large breed of clogs in Thibet which are 
 mentioned by tiumerous authors : — 
 
 ]\Iarco Polo says of them. — 'They have dogs of the size of asses, 
 strong enough to hunt all sorts of wild beasts, particularly the wild 
 oxen, which are "•■' '■"' * extremely large and fierce.' Turner 
 describes them as — 'Huge dogs, tremendously fierce, strong, and 
 noisy ■■•' * '■- so imperiously furious, that it was unsafe, unless 
 the keepers were near, even to approach their dens.' Again he says. — 
 ' Up started a huge dog, big enough '■- '■■' ■■- to fight a lion.' Captain 
 Raper describes one. — 'A remarkably fine animal as large as a New- 
 foundland dog, with very long hair, and a head resembling a mastiff's. 
 His tail was of an amazing length, like the brush of a fo.x, and curled 
 h.df-way over his back.' Mr. Hosie speaks of them as — 'Fine, 
 powerful dogs. * The animal brought to me for inspection 
 
 required the whole strength of a Thibetan to keep him in check. 
 Had I bought the dog, which was offered for ten taels, I should have 
 had to engage his keeper also.' 
 
 Bnol-x i-rcovniwndrcl. — William's 'Middle Kingdom,' Gray's 'China, 
 Hurt's 'Western China,' 'Asiatic Researches,' Vol. XI., p. .529, Turners 
 'Embassy to Thibet,' pp. 155-21.5, Hosie's 'Three years in Western China,' 
 p 134. 
 
 DRAGOy. — The dragon is the Imperial emblem of 
 China — the emblem of Imperial power — and is symbolical of 
 what pertains to the Emperor: his person is called 'the 
 •dragon's person', his countenance, 'the dragon's face'; his 
 ■eye, 'the dragon's eye'; his hands are 'the dragon's claws'; 
 his sleeve, 'the dragon's sleeve'; his children are 'the 
 dragon's seed'; his pen, (that is the Emperor's autograph) 
 'the dragon pen'; his throne is 'the dragon's seat,' when he 
 mounts it, the action is spoken of as 'the dragon's flight'; 
 
182 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 his bed, 'the dragon's bedstead'; his decease is euphemisti- 
 cally termed' the Emperor ascended upon the dragon to be a 
 guest on high'; and his ancestral tablet is called ' the dragon 
 tablet.' 
 
 The dragon, which is reserved for Imperial use in de- 
 signs on furniture, porcelain, and clothing, is depicted with 
 five claws ; that in use by the common people has four. A 
 Chinese author thus describes the dragon : — 
 
 'Its head is like a camel's, its horns like a deer's, its eyes like a. 
 hare's, its ears like a bull's, its neck like a snake's, its belly like an 
 iguanodon's, its scales like a carp's, its claws like an eagle's, and its 
 paws like a tiger's. Its scales number eighty-one, being nine by nine, 
 the extreme '^odd or) lucky number. Its voice resembles the beating 
 of a gong. On each side of its mouth are whiskers, under its chin is 
 a bright pearl, under its throat the scales are reversed, on the top of 
 its head is the poh slian, which others call the wooden foot-rule. A 
 dragon without a foot-rule cannot ascend the skies. When its breath 
 escapes it forms clouds, sometimes changing into rain, at other times 
 into fire.' 
 
 Having thus given an accurate description of this 
 wonderful creature ( one of the four supernatural [ or spiri- 
 tually endowed] creatures, according to the Chinese, the 
 others being the Tortoise, the Lin and the Feng), it only 
 remains to be said that 'it wields the power of transforma- 
 tion and the gift of rendering itself visible or invisible at 
 pleasure.' Another Chinese authority informs us that ' the 
 dragon becomes at will reduced to the size of a silkworm, or 
 SAvollen till it fills the space of Heaven and Earth. It desires 
 to mount — and it rises till it affronts the clouds ; to sink — 
 and it descends until hidden below the fountains of the deep.' 
 The Chinese most thoroughly believe in the existence of this 
 mysterious and marvellous creature : it appears in their an- 
 cient history; the legends of Buddhism abound with it; 
 Taouist tales contain circumstantial accounts of its doings ; 
 the whole country side is filled with stories of its hidden 
 abodes, its terrific appearances ; while it holds a prominent 
 part in the pseudo-science of geomancy ; its portrait appears 
 in houses and temples, and serves even more than the 
 grotesque lion as an ornament in architecture, art designs, 
 and fabrics. 
 
DRAGON. 183 
 
 There are numerous dragons — too numerous to enter 
 even into a succinct account of them in the space of a short 
 article. Volumes might be filled with a history of this 
 wonderful antideluvian creature, embalmed in Chinese 
 literature and memory. 
 
 Among other roles that the dragon fills is that of a 
 modern Neptune to the Chinese. In this character he occu- 
 pies a palace made of pearls at the bottom of the sea, sends 
 rain, and waters the thirsty land. 
 
 ]\Iany years ago, in England, the writer came across an 
 old gentleman, interested in China, who was firmly of the be- 
 lief that the Chinese worshipped the devil because they paid 
 divine h(jnours to the dragon. Only another instance, out 
 of many, of the fallacy of reasoning on Chinese subjects fr(;m 
 European premises. They worship the dragon, but it does 
 not follow that their dragon is ' that old dragon,' the devil. 
 
 Another dragon is the bobtailed dragon, which causes 
 whirlwinds ; a frightfully destructive one in Canton city a 
 number of years ago was believed to be due to his agency. 
 
 The district of country on the mainland immediately 
 opposite the English colony of Hongkong is called Kau-lung 
 (generally written, Kowloong, or Kowloon), or the Nine 
 Dragons, probably so named from the numerous ranges of 
 hills, which like gigantic monsters spread their sinuous 
 course along the coast, the nine dragons being a favorite 
 number with the Chinese, and represented in some of their 
 ancient works on standards. The national flag of China 
 adopted with, and by, the navy of. foreign-built ships, was 
 a triangular yellow flag with a dragon on it, now changed 
 to an oblong one more in keeping with the shape of other 
 national flags, but with the same device. 
 
 The conventional representations of the dragon, as 
 we have already said, are commonly divisible into two. 
 On Imperial China we see a snake-like body mounted on four 
 legs, with an enormous head, the feet are five clawed. This 
 is sprawled over the dish, or whatever it may be, and covers 
 
184 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the greater part of it. On vases used by the people as 
 ornaments, a scope is given for ingenuity by the introduction 
 of a number of similar saurians (but only Avith four claws) in 
 different positions on the vase — front views being given as 
 well, in which the tAvo horns are seen. On mural pictures and 
 in paintings on wood, inserted above doorways, the rain dragon 
 is the one usually represented. Here what is seen of the 
 hideous monster conveys more the impression of an enormous 
 python, as folds of a very thick and large snake-like body 
 are visible amongst masses of clouds, the half suggestive 
 revelation of what is seen increasing, if anything, the impres- 
 sion of size, while a frightful head fronts one, full-faced, 
 with all its gigantic repulsiveness. In books printed under 
 Imperial sanction or auspices, two dragons encircle the title, 
 striving, not like the lion and the unicorn for the crown, but 
 for a pearl. There are again two kinds of dragons carried in 
 some of the processions of which the Chinese are so fond. 
 They are at such times represented as long serpentine crea- 
 tures of great girth, and 150 or 200 feet long, made of 
 lengths of gay, bright-coloured crape and sparkling with tiny 
 spangle-like mirrors. Every yard or so a couple of human 
 feet — those of the bearers —buskined in gorgeous silk, are 
 visible, the head and shoulders of the men being unseen. 
 The Avhole is fronted by an enormous head of ferocious 
 aspect, before the gaping jaws of which a man manoeuvres a 
 large pearl after which the dragon prances and wriggles. 
 The difference between the two kinds is that the one is 
 resplendent with gold scales, while the other gleams with 
 silver ones. That this difierent way of representation is 
 not due to simple fancy, appears from the fact that in India 
 they distinguish three varieties of dragon : one of which 
 lived in the mountains and had golden scales ; and the other 
 in caves or flat country and had silver scales ; while the third 
 dwelt in marshes and fens and was of a black colour The 
 rain dragon used in mural representations, appears more like 
 the last. We give the following account of the supposed 
 
DRAGON-BOAT FESTIVAL. !85 
 
 origin of the dragon from tho learned pen of Mr. Cliarles 
 Gonld : - ' 
 
 'It [the dragon] is more likely to have once had a real existence 
 than to be a mere offspring of fancy. * * '■" '■-' We may infer 
 that it was a long terrestrial lizard, hibernating and carnivorous, with 
 the power of constricting with its snake-like body and tail; possibly 
 furnished with wing-like expansions of its integument, after the fashion 
 of /^/Vic "•(»//?;/.';, and capable of occasional progress on its hind legs 
 alone, when excited in attacks. It appears to have been protected 
 by armour and projecting spikes, like those found in Moloch /torrufns 
 and Mci^alania prisca, and was possibly more nearly allied to this last 
 form than to any other which has yet come to our knowledge. 
 Probably it preferred sandy, open country to forest land, its habitat 
 was the highlands of Central Asia, and the time of its disappearance 
 about that of the Biblical Deluge. •'' ''■•' "•■' Although terrestrial, it 
 probably, in common with most reptiles, enjoyed frequent bathing, 
 and when not so engaged, or basking in the sun, secluded itself under 
 some overhanging bank or cavern. The idea of its fondness for 
 swallows, and power of attracting them, mentioned in some traditions, 
 may not impossibly have been derived from these birds hawking 
 round and through its open jaws in the pursuit of the flies attracted 
 by the viscid humours of its mouth.' 
 
 lioolts recontmnided. — ■ Mythical Monsters,' hy C. Gould, B.A. ' Scraps 
 from Chinese Mythology,' in ' China Review,' Vol. 13, by Rev. Dj^er Ball, 
 M.A., M.D.. annotated by J. Dyer Kail. 
 
 DRAGON-BOATS AND THE DRAGON BOAT 
 FESTIVAL. — This festival is the nearest approach to an 
 annual regatta that the Chinese possess. It is held on the 
 fifth day of the fifth moon, but the preceding days shadow 
 forth the feast day as well. 
 
 It took its origin in the commemoration of a virtuous 
 minister of state whoso remonstrances were unheeded by his 
 unworthy sovereign, and whose only reward was degradation 
 and dismissal some 450 years B.C. He committed suicide, 
 and on the first anniversary of his death the ceremony of. 
 looking for his body was commenced; it has been continued 
 on succeeding anniversaries ever since, and has resulted in 
 this festival. Little packages of boiled rice, done up in 
 bamboo leaves, are eaten at this time, as such offerings were 
 €ast into the river by the fishermen who tried to recover the 
 body. 
 
186 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The dragon-boats are long narrow boats from fifty tO' 
 one hundred feet in length, broad enough to seat two men 
 abreast. The craft is propelled rapidly with paddles, accom- 
 panied by the sound of a drum and gongs which are placed 
 in the centre of the boat. Impromptu races are got up, not 
 unattended with accidents at times, as the boats are slight 
 and dangerous when paddled by well nigh a hundred excited 
 Chinamen, Avild with enthusiasm and unsteady with spirits. 
 Large crowds of spectators line every vantage ground on the 
 banks of the rivers; and prizes of no intrinsic value are 
 often offered by them, which are eagerly contested for, the 
 bare honour of winning spurring them on in their efforts; the 
 crews are occasionally treated by wealthy hongs on the 
 banks. For hours and days nothing is heard but the 
 unceasing monotonous clang of the gongs, and the boom of 
 the deep-toned drums in the numerous boats. 
 
 This Dragon-Boat Festival is one of the four festivals at 
 Avhich settlements of accounts take place amongst the Chinese; 
 the others being New Year's Eve, occurring sometime in our 
 January or February; the Moon Festival on the loth day of 
 the 8th moon, in September or October; and the Winter 
 Solstice Festival, a variable festival in the 11th moon, 
 November or December. The Dragon-Boat Festival is the 
 second of the series, occurring on the 5th day of the 5th 
 moon, in June or July. 
 
 Bdolis vccovimcnded. — Archdeacon Gray's "China,' Vol. I., p. 258 et 
 seq. Ddolittle's ' Social Life of the Chinese,' Vol. 2, p. 55 et seq. Maj'ers's 
 ' Chinese Reader's Manual ' p. 107. 
 
 DRESS. — The foundation, or starting point, of all 
 Chinese dress is the loose pair of trousers and the almost 
 equally loose fitting jacket; with these two articles on, a 
 Chinese is completely dressed: all the rest are not necessaries, 
 but luxuries. The fundamental idea is simply displayed 
 in these two ; the other articles which are piled on in a 
 greater or lesser degree, owing to the weather, or the length 
 of the owner's purse, are merely, with the exception of the 
 headgear and that for the feet, an elaboration of that simple 
 
DRESS. 18T 
 
 idea. Take any article of male attire. Tlie long gaberdine 
 or robe is only the jacket whicli has overgrown to the 
 ankles, instead of stopping short a little below the middle of 
 the body : it has not an entirely diiferent shape, as with our 
 various shapes of coats and jackets, or what difference there 
 is, is but slight; and even, what, t'ov want of a better term, one 
 calls a waistcoat, is not quite another style of article, but 
 simply a short straight jacket without sleeves, buttoning up as 
 the common, close-fitting, sleeveless one (worn occasionally 
 by the labouring classes) does. There are two varieties of it : 
 one so buttoning ; and one fastened at the side. A riding 
 jacket has wide sleeves, but is still a jacket. The jackets of 
 the women are of a different shape from that of the men, being 
 longer, reaching well towards the knees, and having much 
 wider sleeves. 
 
 If one proceeds to the lower extremities, there are, as 
 said above, the loose-fitting trousers. These sometimes are 
 tucked into long stockings, which are neatly bound with 
 garters below the knee, and presto ! our boy or waiter is in 
 knickerbockers — the same pair of trousers doing duty for 
 both styles of dress. Is the weather cold? Then a pair of 
 leggings is put on. These are simply single legs of peg-top 
 troupers diminishing gradually in calibre, as they proceed 
 downwards till their extremities are tied round the ankles. 
 They are fastened up to the girdle at the waist ; but there is 
 a void space beliind, where they do not meet, and where the 
 inner jacket hangs in folds, presenting a most untidy 
 appearance unless a long robe is worn over all to hide it. A 
 woman's trousers are exactly the same shape as a man's 
 They do not wear knickerbockers, but the middle and upper 
 classes often wear, especially when dressed up, what, for 
 want of a better name, are called skirts. These are the very 
 embodiment of the divided skirt, for the simple reason that 
 their different component parts have never been united, and, 
 at the same time, they have a trace of the trousers still 
 about them ; trousers unfinished, as it were, for one piece 
 hangs in front down to the ankles, like an apron, and 
 
188 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 anotlier piece hangs behind in the same way ; they are but- 
 toned up at one side, and open at the other, while embroid- 
 ery and numerous pleats in vertical lines adorn them. 
 
 There are several varieties of dress besides those named 
 above, adapted to different uses, as well as to the changes of 
 weather. For instance nature's garb appears to be often all 
 sufficient for the Swatow fisherman or farmer, and even many 
 of the boatmen at the city of Tie Teong, near Swatow, wear 
 nothing else at times. In other parts of China the savage 
 state is not so nearly approached except in the case of young 
 children of the poorer classes, who run about naked for 
 several years, the several years being of longer duration, 
 wlien they are boys. In Amoy and Swatow it is not at all 
 uncommon to see a boy with nothing on at all but a purse. 
 It, must, however, he explained that the purse is more of an 
 apron or pinafore than with us, and is fastened round the 
 neck, covering as much of the front of the body as decency 
 requires in a hot climate — though this last is not always even 
 attended to. The common coolie or labourer considers himself 
 sufficiently attired for his work in hot weather, with a loin 
 cloth and a pair of straw sandals, but the latter are optional. 
 •Others make shift with a pair of short trousers, only reach- 
 ing half-way down the thighs, or roll the longer trousers up 
 that length, or as far as they will go. In the pure native 
 dress nothing in the form of a shirt or cinglet is worn, 
 though now of late years, from contact witli foreigners, the 
 iatter is being adopted by a few, and must be much more com- 
 fortable in cold weather than the loose fitting jacket. Coats, 
 jackets, and trousers, varied only by robes, and leggings, are 
 piled one on the top of the other as the weather gets colder. 
 The upper garments are readily cast off in the middle of the 
 day, or in a warm room, thus offering a great advantage, in 
 this one particular, to our style of dress, where a top- 
 coat is the only thing one can throw off on entering a 
 house. 
 
 The women's innermost garment is of thin stuff, close 
 .fitting, and closely buttoned up the front, but above this, the 
 
DRESS. 189 
 
 usual piling on of jackets takes place if the Aveather rcijuires 
 it. The women wear no long robes. 
 
 Loss care is taken of the legs with both men and women,, 
 and fewer thicknesses appear to satisfy" them there. There 
 is a considerable variety displayed in sandals, boots, and shoes. 
 Besides the straw ones, already mentioned as worn by men, 
 simple soles of leather, with a loop for one of the toes, and 
 strings to tie them round the ankles, are worn by those of 
 both sexes, who labour out-of-doors in carrying burdens, &c. 
 Mens' and womens' shoes on the contrary are quite distinct. 
 One of the most marked differences being in the thickness 
 of the sole. The large footed women are perched up on a 
 thick white sole, two or three inches in height. Of late 
 years, Shanghai shoes with thin soles have come into 
 vogue amongst those who are well dressed. And again 
 a curious style is in fashion : it consists of the whole 
 foot being poised on a round pedestal a few inches high, 
 fixed in the centre of the sole. Common shoes are made 
 of cloth, but silk and satin and embroidery are also largely 
 employed. The cramped-up little feet are enclosed, after 
 being wound up in long bandages, in small shoes of from 
 three to. four or five inches in length, coming to a point at 
 the toe. No stockings can be put on wdth such feet, but 
 they are worn on the natural feet by Avomen as well as by 
 men, or rather, to be correct, socks and stockings are both 
 worn by men, the former principally in summer, and socks 
 are generally used by women, though stockings are also 
 put on. Those of foreign manufacture are coming into use 
 at treaty ports; the native ones consist of pieces of calico 
 sewn together. It may be mentioned that both sexes wear 
 a girdle of cord round the waist to fasten their trousers up, 
 by hitching them over it. There are no openings in the 
 trousers, except for the legs and waist. A collar, or rather 
 stock, made of satin, is worn round the neck by men in winter, 
 and when in ' dress.' 
 
 Before marriage a Chinese girl's hair is plaited in a queue, 
 but on marriage it is done up into a curious shaped coiffure.. 
 
190 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The ladies wear no bonnets or hats, neither do the common 
 women as a rule, except those who are out in the sun and 
 •exposed to the weather, their hair is combed and plastered 
 with a gum, and, thus made up, forms a svifficient head 
 covering in a hot climate ; but an endless variety is seen in 
 this style of head-dress : now a modest set of protuberances 
 •in connection Avith the tea-pot handle-like coiffure at the 
 back of the head ; now enormous butterfly wings project 
 from the side of the head, or lie closer to it; again back 
 wings project to a greater or lesser degree ; and yet again 
 various adjuncts are added to eke out the quantity of 
 hair, or to raise it like a small horn on the head. In some 
 places the styles differ in every bit of country-side. One 
 of the best places the author has ever seen for noticing 
 these is Swatow, where, in a group of from twenty to 
 forty women, nearly a score of different coiffures were seen. 
 The boat-girls in Macao, and some in Hongkong, go with a 
 "bright coloured handkerchief over their heads, tied under 
 their cliins. The Hakka women also often bind a cloth 
 round the head, looking something like an old-fashioned 
 bonnet. In Swatow and the surrounding country a number 
 of different kinds of head cloths are worn by tlie women 
 according to the districts they come from. The author saw 
 a curious one in use at the district city of Tie Yeong, near 
 Swatow. It was a long narrow cloth thrown over the head 
 and the ends were brought round the face when its wearers 
 wished to hide their countenances from the passers by. 
 In winter a broad band, either plain or embroidered, is 
 often bound across the forehead by women, and prevents 
 that cold aching feeling which intense cold produces. The 
 men wear a skull-cap of satin with a cord button of 
 red or black on the top in winter, but go bare-headed in 
 summer. Felt hats are likewise seen ; they have a turned 
 up brim, and some of the better kind have gold thread on 
 the edge ; their use is restricted to the lower classes. In very 
 cold weather a peculiar headgear is worn by some. It 
 -jconsists of a pointed cap, which, with a flap falling down 
 
DRESS. 191 
 
 behind and buttoning under the chin, covers up not only the 
 neck but the whole head with the exception of the face, little 
 boys are often seen with these on, as well as some men and a 
 few women. Large bamboo hats, nearly a yard in diameter, 
 •effectually shed the rain off, and as effectually protect the head 
 from the rays of the sun. Several other varieties of bamboo 
 hats are worn, some by men alone; others by women alone; 
 while others are patronised irrespective of tlie sex of the 
 Avearer. In rainy weather the lower classes in the South, put 
 on a cloak made of bamboo leaves sewn together, presenting 
 a veritable Robinson Crusoe appearance; but in Swatow a 
 similar one made of coir fibre is substituted, looking some- 
 what like the capude palha, or straw cloaks, worn by the 
 peasantry, in the northern provinces of Portugal. At such 
 times labourers go bare-footed, as for that matter thev 
 do at nearly all times; shop-keepers and others splash about 
 through the mud and rain on shoes with wooden soles a 
 couple of inches thick (for the usual felt sole acts as a sponge 
 in wet weather), a poorer style consists of a ruder chump of 
 Avood with a network of string for tlie toes. A still better 
 class, such as official underlings, and some gentlemen, put 
 on boots made especially for damp and wet, reaching half- 
 way, or even further up towards the knees. Wooden clogs, 
 Avith leather uppers, are used by Avomen and girls. 
 
 We have already spoken of jackets, robes, Avaistcoats or 
 sleeA^eless jackets, and close fitting ones. There are besides, 
 double jackets or lined ones, and fur jackets. A dress-suit 
 consists of a robe opening at the bottom of the centre line, 
 both before and behind, Avith sleeves shaped like a horse's 
 hoof, a jacket is Avorn over this, and satin boots Avith thick 
 Avhite soles, a sash round the waist, and an official hat Avith a 
 button at the top, are put on. 
 
 Earrings are quite a part of Chinese female dress ; eA^ery 
 Avoman and girl Avears them ; and so accustomed does one 
 get to see them in a Avoman's ears, that it looks almost as 
 queer to see a Chinese Avoman Avithout these indispensables, 
 as it would to see an English lady going barefoot ; and a 
 
192 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Chinese woman would feel as ashamed to appear in the 
 one condition, as an English lady would in the other. The 
 earrings differ in style in different parts of China, and there is 
 as great a dissimilarity between them as there is between 
 those of one country and another. Among the Hakkas, a com- 
 mon earring is a silk tassel. The Foochow Avomen have enor- 
 mous rings, several inches in diameter, in their ears. The 
 Cantonese earring is often formed of two parts : the earring 
 proper — a round metallic (gold, silver, or brass) ring, broad- 
 ened out into a flat ornamental surface in front, into which a 
 flat ring of jade, or other stone, or composition, is hung. 
 
 Fashions in dress do change in China, but so slight and 
 gradual are the changes- -except when some dynastic over- 
 throw revolutionises everything — that to the foreigner na 
 difference is visible, but to the initiated into these mysteries 
 aa extremely gradual change is perceptible, so that, in the 
 course of forty or fifty years, ladies' sleeves are noticed to be 
 wider than before, and, in the course of a quarter of a century, 
 quite a new style of dressing ladies' hair is seen. 
 
 The style of dress, it should be noticed, is not quite the 
 same in different parts of China. What has been writen above 
 applies principally to the South of China, in the neighbourhood 
 of Hongkong, Macao, and Canton : even in these neighbour- 
 hoods the dress of the Hakkas is not quite the same as that 
 of the Cantonese [see Article on Hakkas). The mode of doing 
 up the hair by the women, the kind of earrings worn by 
 them, as Avell as the dress itself, are so distinct as to mark 
 anyone, at the first glance, as coming from some other part 
 of China. The men's dress has, however, but little or 
 nothing to differentiate it, the greatest exception being in 
 the case of the Swatow and Hokkien men, who often wear a 
 turbaUj Avhereas other Chinese are seldom seen with it. The 
 short jackets of these same men are sometimes longer than 
 .those in the extreme south. 
 
 The colour of the clothing worn, also differs. White is 
 •never seen as an oviter 2:arment on women in Canton or 
 
EARTHQUAKES. 193 
 
 Hongkong, except to please Europeans. This colour being 
 reserved alone for under-garments, in which, of course, a 
 woman would be ashamed to appear in public. In Amoy, how- 
 ever, this does not seem to be the rule, and in that part of the 
 country bright red, and other colours are worn by young 
 ladies, a thing which is never seen in Canton amongst 
 respectable women. In Swatow white also is worn, but the 
 young ladies do not appear to come out in such brilliant hues- 
 as in Amoy. These may be taken as instances of the varia- 
 tions in style of dress in China. 
 
 Though the Chinese men go often in a state of semi- 
 nudity, the women make up for it by a severe modesty in 
 their dress. There is no exposure of their person, as there is 
 in the evening dress amongst European ladies ; neither is 
 tight-lacing a vice amongst the Chinese. They sedulously 
 hide all the contours of the figure, and in fact tie down the 
 breasts. 
 
 EARTHQUAKES. — An earthquake is not a phenome- 
 non often experienced by the foreign resident in China. Very 
 slight shocks have been felt a few times in Hongkong, but 
 so insignificant have they been as to be unknown to the 
 majority till the next day's papers contained a notice of 
 them ; but in some other parts of China they are not such a 
 trivial matter. They are recorded as of frequent occurrence 
 in Hainan; earthquakes in conjunction with storms, famine, 
 and pestilence having materially decreased the population at 
 one time ; but as a general rule earthquake shocks would 
 appear to be infrequent in China, and not of serious import. 
 We give a short, but unfortunately not a complete list, as the 
 subject has not yet received the study and attention it merits. 
 
 A.D. 1037. — A severe earthquake 'that afifected Honan and 
 Shansi and caused the death of 22,000 people and the wounding and 
 maiming of between 5 and 6,000 more.' 
 
 A.D. 1295 — 1308. — During the latter years of this period 'severe 
 earthquakes in T'ai-yuan and Ta-tung in Shansi. In the former 
 town over 800 houses were thrown down and a large number of people 
 were killed. Ta-tung however suffered still more severely. There 
 5,000 houses were shattered into ruins and 2,000 people were buried 
 beneath them.' 
 
 L 
 
194 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 A.D. 1334 — Earthquakes, and also during the next few years. 
 
 In the early days of the Ming dynasty (this dynasty lasted from 
 A.D. 1368 to A.D. 1643), a 'terrible earthquake visited the plain of 
 Chien-ch'ang. * * * The old city of Ning-yuan sank bodily into 
 the ground, and gave place to the large lake which lies to the south- 
 east of the present city.' 
 
 A.D. 1662. — One in China, when 300,000 persons were buried 
 in Peking alone. 
 
 A.D. 1 73 1. — Another when 100,000 persons were swallowed up 
 at Peking. 
 
 A.D. 1847. — November 13th, an earthquake at Shanghai. 
 
 A.D. 1850. — The city of Ning-yuan, in western China, already 
 mentioned, was again ruined by an earthquake. 
 
 A.D. 1852. — December i6th, there was a shock of some violence 
 at Shanghai at 8.13 p.m., and another slight shock at 10 p.m. There 
 were no serious effects. These were felt at Ningpo at 8.09 p.m., and 
 three hours later. There were other shocks at Shanghai on two 
 subsequent days. 
 
 A.D. 1854. — A shock felt in Canton, and about the same year at 
 Chin-kiang where people were thrown on their faces. 
 
 A.D. 1867. — A sharp shock at Ningpo at a few minutes after 
 10 a.m. on the 17th December. Bells were set ringing, clocks stopped, 
 ■chandeliers swayed and water in earthern jai's rippled violently. A 
 slighter shock was felt at Shanghai. 
 
 A.D. 1871, April nth. —A severe earthquake to the west of 
 Sz-chuen, at about 11 a.m., at Bathang, when 'government offices, 
 temples, granaries, store-houses, and fortilications, with all the 
 ■common dwellings,' were overthrown, and most of the inmates killed. 
 Flames burst out in four places, and were beaten down on the 
 i6th, but rumbling noises underground continued like distant thunder 
 and the earth rocked and rolled. In about ten days the earth 
 quieted. For several days before, the water had overflowed the 
 ■dykes, the earth cracked, and black fetid water spurted out. The 
 region affected by this earthquake was over a circuit of four hundred 
 miles, and it 'occurring simultaneously over the whole of this region'; 
 2,298 people were killed. ' In some places steep hills split and sank 
 into deep chasms, in others mounds on level plains became precipi- 
 tous cliffs, and the roads and highways were rendered impassable 
 by obstructions.' 
 
 1874. — June 23rd, a slight shock in Hongkong. 
 
 1890. — Five distinct shocks during the year in the province of 
 Shansi ; the heaviest was in the spring, and upwards of a 100 persons 
 were killed in it. On the 15th October two shocks were felt at 
 Fenchow-fu. This year was exceptional. It is said that earthquake 
 shocks are only felt once in 10 years in that province. 
 
 1891. — April I2th or 13th, three shocks of earthquake felt during 
 the day at Taiyuen-fu in Shansi. 
 
EARTHQUAKES. 195 
 
 1S91. — April 17th, a severe earthquake shock occurred at Fen- 
 chou-fu in Shansi at half-past six o'clock in the morning, the worst 
 that has happened in that region within thirty years. A number of 
 houses were thrown down in the city and suburbs, and some eight 
 or ten persons were killed. There was a great destruction of houses 
 in the villages. The shock extended at least 100 li in all directions. 
 ' It is somewhat surprising that more damage was not done, as the 
 whole country rocked like a ship on a wave of the sea. The earth- 
 quake lasted one minute only, but some of the houses that were 
 shaken by it fell during the following afternoon. The people say 
 that earthquakes are caused by a large fish, which wakes up after a 
 sleep of some years and gives a flop.' 
 
 1 89 1. — July 2 1st, an earthquake felt at the Peak and Kowloong 
 at 6.40 a.m. 
 
 1 891.- -August 3rd, a slight shock felt by a few residents at 
 Hongkong at 2.10 p.m. 
 
 1892. — April 22nd, a distinct and continuous series of shocks 
 lasting for a few seconds in Hongkong, with lateral vibrations and a 
 rumbling sound, but doing no damage ; also felt in a number of the 
 other coast ports in China. 
 
 1892. — July 2 1 St, a slight shock felt at the Peak and Kowloong 
 at 6.40 a.m. 
 
 1892. — July 28th, a heavy earthquake shock at Hoihow 'that 
 shook the whole place, houses being seen and felt to stagger and 
 shake in a most terrifying manner, "••■ "•■■ accompanied by a 
 
 subterranean roar far louder than thunder. •■' * * It is said by 
 .the natives that Hoihow has not been visited with a similar shock for 
 a century : even a slight one is an unusual occurrence.' 
 
 l892.-^August 4th, a slight shock in Hongkong. 
 
 1892. — December l6th, a shock at 3 a.m. at Amoy, by which 
 people were awakened, and lasting for several seconds. 
 
 1893. — 29th August, an earthquake of great magnitude devastating 
 an area of 9,000 square miles in the Tibetan district of Kada, border- 
 ing the province of Sz Chuan. The Dalai Lama's Grand Monastery 
 of Hueiyuan and 7 small Lamaserais were buried in ruins and 804 
 houses, belonging to the native and Tibetan soldiers and their 
 .families, met the same fate. 74 Lama priests and 137 Chinese and 
 Tibetans were killed with a large proportion of wounded. 
 
 1893. — October 17th, severe repeated shocks at Taipeh-fu in 
 Formosa, and on the i6th a strong shock was felt in Amoy and 
 Kulangsu at 2.30 a.m. 
 
 1893. — December 8th, a severe shock at Foochow at 11. 10 p.m. 
 
 1894. — June 20th, a sharp shock of earthquake felt in Amoy and 
 Kulangsu at 6.30 or 6.45 a.m. ; a very slight shock had been noticed 
 two days previously at about 2 p.m. Three houses were wrecked. 
 
 1894. — August nth, there were slight shocks at Hongkong at 
 .10.55 ^•'^'^- 'ind 1.20 p.m. 
 
 L 2 
 
196 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 1895. — August 30th, earthquake shocks were felt in Hongkong,, 
 Swatow, Waichow, and Haifung. The earthquake was severe at Swatow 
 where it occurred at ten minutes to six p.m. It was preceded by an 
 excessively hot day with a dull, oppressive feeling in the air, rain falling 
 heavily just before. It lasted between fifteen and twenty seconds by 
 one account, and two minutes by another ; a slight shock had been 
 experienced about 3.30 p.m., a continuatioii of minor shocks followed 
 it as well, up until 3.15 a.m. on Saturday. Considerable damage was 
 done on shore to native property, and a little to foreign in the way of 
 cracked walls and ceilings. The vessels in harbour were shaken from 
 truck to keelson, the colour of the water in the river was changed 
 from blue to brown by the agitation of the mud, and the sea had a 
 very confused appearance south of the Lamocks. The direction was 
 from E. to W. It was the severest shock ever felt in Swatow. It 
 was thus described in Hongkong: — 'Horizontal vibration between 
 E. and W. roughly ; there was no vertical motion, and ha<«dly any 
 perceptable travelling direction. The first distinct oscillation was- 
 felt a minute or so before a quarter to six, and lasted about 30' 
 seconds. Fainter tremors were felt for some minutes afterwards ; 
 and another distinct shock occurred about 1 1.30 p.m.' Persons sitting 
 or lying down felt it plainly, and it interfered a little with writing. 
 It was felt most in high buildings. Two gentlemen in upper floors of 
 the Hongkong Hotel felt dizzy and thought the place was coming 
 down. Bottles and glasses rattled in some buildings. A coolie 
 sitting on the pavement in the streets rushed into the roadway 
 shouting that the houses were falling.' 
 
 1895 — August — October. Earthquake shocks at Kit Yeung, 30^ 
 miles from Swatow from the 30th August till nth of October 'the* 
 country round for eighteen miles seeming to be within the district of 
 disturbance.' Two small shocks were felt towards the end of Septem- 
 ber at Swatow, but no damage was done. A different tale, however, 
 came from Tsing Hai City in the Chao Chow Prefecture, where 
 there were several earthquake shocks with disastrous consequences^, 
 more than a hundred houses falling and about forty persons being 
 killed by their collapse, the shocks in Kit Yeung being slight ini 
 comparison. 
 
 1896. — July 22nd. A pretty severe shock at Tientsin about 
 8.52 p.m. 'A tremor, accompained by a rumbling or grating noise as- 
 if a large quantity of bricks had been shot from carts, was, after an 
 interval of two seconds, followed by a very distinct earth oscillation 
 which lasted for two or three seconds. * "' '■■■' " The most severe 
 shock that has been felt at Tientsin since 1888."' 
 
 1 89S. — November 1 2th. A shock of earthquake felt in the city of 
 Shi'ii Hing (about 70 or 80 miles from Canton) and the surrounding; 
 villages. Houses, windows, furniture, and hanging lamps were seen 
 shaking with a creaking noice as if they were going to fall down ; and; 
 people were startled from their sleep by a phenomenon which ihey 
 had never experienced before. The elders of the village made- 
 enquiries as to whether it portended good or evil. 
 
EDUCATION. 197 
 
 EDUCATION.— ^\ie Chinese owe everything to their 
 rsystem of education. It is this which, amidst all the changes 
 of dynasty, has kept them a nation ; it is this which has knit 
 together the extremes of this vast land, and has caused the 
 same aspirations to rise, and the same thoughts to course, 
 through people differing in vernacular, and in many customs 
 and habits ; it is this that has been the conqueror of the 
 conquering hosts that have swept over the land, and set up 
 an alien dynasty more than once in her history. 
 
 f^e Chinese child is heavily handicapped when he 
 commences his educational course, for ' the language of the 
 fireside is not the language of the books ; ' nor has he all the 
 auxiliary aids which first launch a child on the sea of 
 'learning, and make the acquisition of knowledge a pleasure, 
 in happy Western homes, with the present-day beautifully 
 illustrated books, and language simplified to encourage the 
 youthful beginner : there is no ' Reading Made Easy,' no 
 •Laugh and Learn,' no 'Peep of Day,' nor any of the other 
 numerous books, which are the delight of the little ones 
 amongst us. Though one often sees a bright intelligent 
 infant among the Chinese, the absence of all aids, similar iu 
 their design to those mentioned above, must be a terrible want 
 to the poor little Celestial. Were the first book put into the 
 youngster's hands named ' Reading Made Difficult ' it might 
 then convey some idea of the nature of its contents ; for, 
 barring the fact that it is in rhyme and in lines of three 
 words each, there is nothing in it to smooth the rough path 
 for little feet. It commences with a statement that might 
 tax all the mental powers of a philosopher to fathom, to 
 wit : — ' Men at their birth are by nature radically good ' ; after 
 this tough introduction, instances are adduced of youthful 
 learning and precocity, all tending to show the necessity of 
 ■education. Categories of the numerical series, of which the 
 Chinese are so fond, follow, such for example as the three 
 powers — heaven, earth, and man ; the five cardinal virtues ; 
 and sijf kinds of grain. A list of books to be learned is 
 next enumerated, followed by an epitome of Chinese history 
 
198 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 in the tersest form possible ; and the book ends with what,, 
 if it were only in an intelligible form for the boy, would 
 be the most interesting part of all, viz. : — instances of the 
 pursuit of knowledge under difficulties, which are used to 
 goad the future aspirant for literary fame on his course. 
 
 At first scarcely anything he reads is understood by him, 
 but he has to learn it off by heart, so as to say it without 
 a single error. The first is, of course, a mistake ; the second 
 is not ; for experience shows that such a metliod is the best 
 for learning Chinese. The author, himself, when a boy, 
 learned the first book and others in this way, so as to be able 
 to repeat long screeds of them by heart, and later years have 
 only deepened the impression that, given time to do so, this 
 is the only way to learn Chinese thoroughly. In fact, if we 
 Westerners were not always in such a hurry, and so pressed 
 for time, it would prove an excellent plan in the first stages 
 of learning a European language ; the author has tried it 
 with French and found it produced excellent results. But to 
 return to our Chinese boy in the midst of his difficulties. 
 These may perhaps be better appreciated by the foreign 
 reader from the following illustration : — We remember 
 readyig of a school for teaching the English language to 
 Gaelic-speaking boys. The schoolmaster ordered the scholars 
 to read from one of their English lesson-books, which they 
 did beautifully, but Avhen an English visitor began to- 
 question them on what they had read, he found blank faces 
 staring at him in amazement, and not a single reply could he 
 get. The master then informed him that the boys had only 
 been taught to read English, not to speak it ; their pronun- 
 ciation was perfect, but not a word did they understand of 
 what they had read. Our Chinese boy is in pretty much the 
 same plight at first; for four or five years he learns the 
 names of the Chinese characters, but the great majority of 
 them are meaningless signs to him. Book after book has 
 he to get up in this wearisome manner, and page after page 
 of copy-book characters has he to trace in a listless round, 
 which knows no Sunday, nor Wednesday, nor Saturday half- 
 
EDUCATION. 19^ 
 
 holiday : a Chinese school is for work and not play ; play 
 is considered a waste of time, and, as such, to be discouraged 
 as much as possible ; no variety of studies ; nothing to break 
 the monotony from daylight till dark, only enough time 
 to take meals being allowed. Verily it is no wonder that 
 the Chinese school-boy appears heavy and dull, grave and 
 dignified, and that he has his company manners always at 
 hand, appearing the pink of propriety like all the fossilised 
 youngsters he has read about. At last a little light is 
 allowed to glint into this mental darkness, for he is initiated 
 into the mysteries and privileges of knowing what the 
 thousands of seemingly arbitrary signs mean. And here is 
 the reason why, though nearly all Chinese (at least in the 
 more civilised parts of the empire) can read to a greater or 
 lesser extent, so many of them understand but little of what 
 they read ; for many of them are unable from poverty to 
 pursue their course of education beyond the initial stage. 
 Many of them are in the position of Milton's daughters : 
 the blind poet taught them to read Latin to him — simply 
 to read it, without a knowledge of what it meant; and the- 
 Chinese that is spoken in every-day life is nearly as different 
 from much of that contained in the books, as a dead language 
 is from a living one. 
 
 There is no class system in Chinese schools ; each boy 
 forms a class by himself: there are as many classes as there 
 are boys. A dull scholar is thus not drawn on faster than 
 he is able to go by the quicker boys, nor do the brighter 
 pupils have a drag on their progress in the persons of the 
 dull ones. As each boy learns his lesson he goes up to say 
 it, the long school hours also making it necessary for him to 
 learn the greater part, if not all, of his work in school-time. 
 A Chinese school makes itself heard long before it is seen : a 
 confused babel of sounds warns you of your approach to 
 it ; for each boy is learning his task off" by heart, repeating 
 it over and over again, till fixed in the memory, in a loud 
 sing-song tone of voice ; the effect of thirty or forty boys 
 (for few schools are fortunately much larger than that) all 
 
200 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 doing their best to out-voice each other in this maimer, 
 being better imagined than described, and, once heard, never 
 forgotten. In England, schoofe are a nuisance to their 
 neighbours at play-time; there is no play-time in Chinese 
 schools — they are, on the contrary, a nuisance Avhen the boys 
 are at their lessons. 
 
 If a boy's studies are continued, he is taught, as we 
 have said, the translation of this wonderfully recondite 
 literary style into more intelligible language. Besides this, 
 the following ■subjects find a place in the curriculum : com- 
 position, where rules of grammar are conspicuous by their 
 absence, and position is everything, and precedent or 
 ancient usage establishes the proper collocation of words. 
 Intimately connected with this is the construction of 
 antithetical sentences, where meaning, word, and phrase, as 
 Avell as tone, are matched together with wonderful care, 
 precision, and musical rhythm. One or two other forms 
 of composition are also taught, and the scholar learns the 
 art of letter writing, where almost every possible idea is 
 already provided for in cut and dried expressions redolent 
 with the flowers of allusion, classic lore, and fable. This is 
 a most important branch of Chinese education and requires 
 special study. We ourselves were present at a meeting 
 at which a letter was read from a gentleman, expressing 
 his regret at not being able to be present, and containing 
 good wishes for the members and the Society to which 
 they belonged. Such a letter in English would require 
 no explanation to an English audience, but the Chinese 
 secretary of this Society considered it necessary to explain 
 its contents to the members present, though they Avere 
 all fairly well educated in Chinese. Belles-lettres also 
 take a place in the more extended course of study. A 
 collection from ancient authors, forming a course of Chinese 
 literature, is placed in the hands of the student ; a smatter- 
 ing of Chinese history, valuable for the sake of allusions 
 it places at a writer's disposal, is acquired ; artificial verse- 
 making claims a share of attention ; and the composition of 
 
EDUCATION. 201 
 
 those wonderful essays, where the reasoning proceeds in a 
 circle, and ends where it began, which are valuable as pre- 
 paring the student for the Civil Service examinations ; this 
 last being the final stage for which all the preceding has 
 been preparatory ; this, the goal which has necessitated all 
 the arduous toil, with, in the event of success, its resultant 
 office-holding. [See Article on Examinations.) 
 
 The whole of the classics (the Four Books and the Five 
 Classics) are mastered, as well as the commentaries thereon 
 in the school and collegiate course, extending over some 
 years. It will thus be seen that geography, arithmetic, 
 algebra, mathematics, and all branches of science, are utterly 
 unknown in a Chinese educational course. What then is 
 the result of the whole thing ? Not the acquisition of 
 knowledge, or the training of the mind, so much as the 
 turning out of successful essayists ; a marvellous training of 
 the memory, and the extraordinary development of the 
 imitative faculty — these two at the expense of everything 
 else — no originality, no scope for individuality ; the produc- 
 tion of literary machines, the manufacture of mental type- 
 writers, where the stereotyped forms of antiquity are repro- 
 duced with but scant variety. It speaks well f(jr the Chinese 
 nation, that, with all this tight lacing of healthy aspirations, 
 with all this binding of the feet, of progress, it has been 
 impossible to entirely curb all individuality, to check all 
 variety. It has been well said that though this system 'has 
 considerable educative value ' it yet Mimits the mental and 
 moral vision to the horizon which confined the mind of 
 Confucius twenty-four centuries ago, cramps the intellect? 
 stunts the groAVth of moral feeling, and bends the will into 
 an antagonism to everything non-Chinese.' It has also 
 been stated with truth that, "the vast majority of the educated 
 men in China do not know to this day what is the meaning 
 of the most common terms in our educational vocabulary, 
 and much less do they know the use and value of the things 
 -designated, or how they are to be studied.' 
 
202 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 China has no school-boards, nor even anything in the- 
 place of the National and British schools in England. 
 Schools are opened by masters to gain their living, or 
 established by the gentry, or one tutor is employed by 
 several families to conduct a private school for their children,, 
 while colleges, or, strictly speaking, higher schools, established 
 on pretty much the same principles, abound in all cities. 
 
 We have thus far only mentioned boys, and we might 
 close without any reference to girls; for the attitude of the 
 nation, as a whole, with regard to the education of this sex, 
 is almost that of complete neglect. Notwithstanding this, 
 not a few instances are adduced in Chinese history of blue- 
 stockings; and at the present day, in some parts of China 
 at least, a very small minority of the girls either manage to 
 pick up such a smattering of the characters as to be able 
 to read cheap novels, or, very rarely, have the advantage 
 of a teacher provided by their parents, who are stimulated 
 to give them an education, in some cases by the example 
 of the mission schools. From personal contact with 
 thousands of natives in the course of his official duties,, 
 the writer is able to say that it is the rarest thing that a 
 woman is able to sign her own name, and when that is 
 laboriously accomplished, it is perhaps all that she can write. 
 Whereas, on the other hand, a preponderating majority of 
 men in the extreme south of China, in the cities at alL 
 events, are able to sign their names. To state it broadly : 
 it is a great exception if a woman can sign her name, while 
 it is an exception if a man cannot. 
 
 It is very hard to form an estimate as to the number of 
 men who can not only read, but mentally understand what 
 they read. The proportion differs in different parts of the 
 empire, and even in the same part, it will vary greatly in 
 town and country. Dr. Martin, of Peking, estimates it at 
 one in twenty. An account of education in China would 
 not be complete without a closing allusion to the dawn of 
 better days. Mission schools and colleges are to be found 
 at the different centres, and these have done a good and 
 
EDUCATION. 203 
 
 appreciable work ; there are likewise the schools in 
 Hongkong, under the fostering care of the British Colonial 
 Government ; and, what is more encouraging still, there 
 are, here and there at several important centres, either 
 schools established, more or less under the auspices of the 
 Chinese Government, such as the T'ung Wan Kwen, at 
 Peking and Canton, where a thorouglily good training is 
 given in English ; or again, such establishments as naval 
 and other colleges, in connection with arsenals, where 
 a technical education is imparted ; and, lastly, a most 
 significant fact, at one of the provincial examinations in the 
 City of Wu-chang, the examinees were asked to give a 
 comparison between ancient and modern mathematical 
 methods, the former being native, and the latter foreign; 
 other centres of examination have taken the same subject 
 up, doubtless in consequence of the decree issued some seven 
 years ago by which the Literary Chancellors of the provinces 
 were ordered 'to admit candidates to a competition in 
 Mathematics at each annual examination for the first degree.' 
 If successful, these were to undergo a special examination at 
 Peking, in Physics, Applied Mathematics, Practical Mechanics, 
 Naval and Military Tactics, Gunnery and Torpedo Practice, 
 or, instead of these, in International Law, Political History, 
 &c. * If successful they shall be admitted to competition for 
 the second degree in Peking, which shall be conferred in the 
 ratio of one to twenty, the total not to exceed three in one 
 year. Those who obtain the second degree may compete 
 for the third.' [See Article on Examinations.) As an 
 instance of this introduction of a new subject in the stereo- 
 typed Chinese examination the following will be found 
 interesting : — 
 
 In Western Shantung in the Tung Ch'ang Prefecture, two 
 problems were propounded at the examination for the hsiu ts'ai degree 
 in 1892, the first, or B. A., 'one of which asked for the superficial 
 area of a globe eighteen inches in diameter. The other was of a 
 more complicated character, and adapted to fit the aspirants for the 
 post of Grain Commissioner. Problem.— If eight thousand piculs 
 of rice are canied at thirteen tael. cents per picul, and if the freight is 
 paid in rice at taels two and a half per picul, how much rice is 
 expended for the freight ? It is said that this question was propounded 
 
201 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 to not less than ten thousand students in the Tung Ch'ao Prefecture 
 and that only one man tried to give any answer at all, and he was 
 snubbed by the Chancellor for an ignorant pretender. Yet if any one 
 could have given the correct answer which a western lad of ten years 
 would be ashamed not to be able to do in three minutes, he would 
 probably have been passed on that account ! The result, as often 
 happens in such cases, has been a great increase in the number of 
 applicants to the foreigner for a formula which will evolve 
 
 correct answers. The absurdity of proposing problems in regard to the 
 nature of which students have had no opportunity of learning must be 
 evident to the Chancellor as to the candidates. But by another three 
 years, some mathematical books will have probably been pored over 
 not in vain.' 
 
 Another hopeful sign is the resumption of the plan for 
 
 sending students to western lands to prosecute their studies 
 
 in the modern centres of learning and thought. The young 
 
 Emperor himself began the study of English some years since. 
 
 'The Tsung-li Yamen have promulgated [1896] a verbal edict 
 of the Emperor to the provincial authorities, commanding that the 
 study of foreign mathematics and the various branches of poly- 
 technical science shall from henceforth be compulsory in all colleges of 
 the country. Candidates at the literary examinations will now have 
 to qualify in at least one of the latter subjects, while mathematics 
 must be one of the standing subjects at these competitions for literary 
 degrees.' 
 
 This gradual progress in the betterment of this wonderful 
 system of examinations was followed by orders from the 
 Emperor for a radical change, only to be again upset by the 
 reactionary measures of the Empress Dowager. This is all 
 a matter of history of the year 1898. 
 
 Boohx reeommcnded. — Martin's ' Han Lin Papers.' Also see Extract 
 from a paper by Rev. J. C. Fertruson in the 'Hongkong Daily Press' of the 
 7th of January, 181t2. Most of the text books on China also contain more 
 or less full accounts of the Examination system of China. 
 
 EMBEOI DEBT. —The Chinese are famous for their 
 skill in embroidery. Men and women are both employed in 
 the production of numerous articles for home consumption, 
 as well as for exportation. Official robes for Mandarins and 
 their wives ; petticoats for ladies ; purses for rich and poor ; 
 shoes for men and women with natural feet, as well as for 
 those with golden lilies — -the cramped-up deformities which 
 ilo an imperfect duty in place of the natural growth ; caps 
 for men and boys; adjuncts of dress, such as spectacle- 
 cases and numerous other articles are all adorned and 
 
EMBROIDEUY. 205 
 
 ornamented with embroidery. Banners, altar-clotlis, the 
 gorgeous robes donned by tlie ragged boys in a procession, 
 are all rich with it. 
 
 'There are many styles with thread, braid, or floss, and 
 an infinite variety in the quality, pattern, and beauty of the 
 work.' The • motives ' are of the usual style of Chinese 
 art work — heavy bats, long convoluted dragons, splendid 
 phoenixes, geometrical patterns, insignia of the genii, fruit, 
 flowers, and butterflies; these are blended together in a 
 galaxy of richest colours or studded in more diff'use splendour 
 on glowing backgrounds of cerulean blue or emerald green, 
 or numerous other shades in which the gorgeous East 
 delights to clothe itself But it should be mentioned that, 
 owing to the introduction of aniline colours, the loveliness 
 has, in a great measure, departed, and harmony of tint 
 almost entirely, from the needlework of the present day. 
 
 Girls are taught to embroider as an accomplishment 
 and a necessary duty, for their own tiny shoes are worked by 
 themselves, and not bought ready-made in the shops, Avhile 
 many a woman, seated in the narrow street at the door of 
 her humble dwelling, adds to the slender means of her family 
 by her skill in fancy work of this description. Peddlers go 
 through the streets whirling a small rattle, and, from the 
 stock-in-trade of these peripatetic dealers, the domestic stocks 
 of silk for embroidery are generally replenished. Most lovely 
 shades of the finest floss silk, running through, the whole 
 gamut of the richest colours, are displayed in the numerous 
 small drawers of these itinerant merchants, while gold and 
 silver thread are also for disposal, to be added to the needle- 
 work to enhance its beauty. 
 
 Numbers of men are employed in the production of 
 shawls, table-covers, and fire-screens for exportation. The 
 latter are made 'of divers colours of needle-work on both 
 sides,' the screen at which the men work being set upright 
 between the two who are producing the piece, and the needle 
 pushed through from one man to the other alternately, and 
 thus the same pattern is produced on both front and back. 
 
-206 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Time is of no consequence when effect aud beauty are to be 
 the results, while patience and perseverance are the two 
 principal factors employed without stint by the Chinese in 
 all their industrial arts, nor are they absent in the production 
 of embroidery. It is said that, in a spectacle-case, six inches 
 by two, there will sometimes be not less than 20.000 stitches; 
 and theatrical costumes, mandarin robes, and ladies' dresses 
 will take ten or twelve women four or five years constant 
 work to finish. Under such conditions it will be readily seen 
 that fashions cannot change from year to year. ' Wall hang- 
 ings made of such work are very costly. In Canton where it 
 is carried to its highest development, they have frequently 
 brought several thousand dollars. Nevertheless such extra 
 fine work is rare. The buying public demand good, effective 
 tableaux at prices not over $100 each and the supply 
 naturally equals the demand.' 
 
 Large stores of old embroidery are to be found in the 
 pawn-shops of Chinese cities ; nor are the robes, there to be 
 seen, all of modern make, but some splendid specimens of a 
 style no longer in fashion, or ordinarily procurable, are 
 occasionally met with. Many foreign ladies who would not 
 touch a Chinaman's clothes yet buy these old and soiled 
 robes, and diflferent articles of dress worn by generations of 
 Chinese, and utilise the embroidered pieces in ornamenting 
 cushions, chairbacks, &c. 
 
 These may appear cheap, and they are certainly 
 "'nasty,' yet it is the fashion in this least suitable climate 
 to drape the furniture and walls of drawing-rooms with the 
 equivalent of what a greasy old-clothes man at home carries 
 off" in his bag. How much more sensible it would be if 
 ladies sought after specimens of the Art made years ago for 
 Art's sake, two of which stand out in the writer's memory 
 as most excellent of their kind. Both were circular and 
 about a foot in diameter; one representing a white eagle 
 perched on the rugged branch of a pine tree, with a stanza 
 in beautiful characters in a column on one side, and so 
 
EMBROIDERY. 207 
 
 exquisite was the work it was almost impossible to discover 
 that they were not written with a brush and the richest 
 ink. Every feather of the bird was articulated, every needle 
 of the pine was given in natural shades. The other, probably 
 more interesting, was a dancing female figure, her robes and 
 ribbons fluttering in the air, whilst all manner of flowers 
 strewed the ground, a marvel of delicate work and refined 
 colouring. But, alas ! the features of this Nymph or God- 
 dess were, as is not unusual, painted upon the satin ground, 
 and the artist was not in touch with the embroiderers. The 
 face was quite one-fifth of the whole figure and very un- 
 beautiful, with, shocking to relate, a nose of Bardolphian 
 proportion impossible in nature and execrable in Art, but in 
 every other resp^sct this work was a masterpiece. 
 
 'Embroideries, ancient and modern, are always in demand 
 among Orientals, the former being much more expensive. Many- 
 skilful artisans take advantage of this fact and by an accurate 
 imitation of colours faded by age and also by secret chemical 
 treatment turn out embroideries which seem worn with age. The 
 counterfeits are not easily detected. Even when they are, the 
 discovery is to the benefit of the dealer and not the collector. A 
 bogus antique of this class was recently sold in Hongkong for $500 
 for which two weeks previously the dealer had paid $15 to the maker. 
 As a matter of fact, modern embroideries in China are just as good 
 as ancient, so that it is folly to pay ten times for one picture what 
 you might for a second of equal merit and beauty. This is especially 
 true when a fine embroidery is to be exposed in the drawing-room of 
 a house which uses coal and gas. "'' * So ruinous are the gases 
 
 produced bv the combustion of both coal and illuminating gas that 
 the only safe rule is to frame embroideries air-tight between glass 
 plates. Thus protected they will retain their brilliancy unimpaired, 
 where left exposed they become dull and dingy in a few years.' 
 
 There are a number of diflerent stitches employed. In 
 one a fine raised effect is produced by winding the thread 
 round the needle and then taking the stitch. No one, as far 
 as we are aware, has made a special study of this subject, 
 and though we have made a point of enquiring of those 
 interested in Chinese embroideries as to the stitches, we 
 must confess we have not yet penetrated to the inner arcana 
 of their mysteries, but must perforce be content with stand- 
 ing on the threshold, and admiring the skill of the Chinese 
 in producing such marvellous fantasies of colour. 
 
208 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ENGLISH FROM CHINESE PENS.— To the Chinese 
 the acquisition of our language is a terrible task ; nearly, if 
 not quite, as appalling to contemplate as the idea of learning 
 Chinese is to the average Englishman. To the majority who 
 undertake it, time and money are of more importance than 
 a thorough knowledge of the subject, and * maskee, can do ' 
 is the motto of the tyro who thereupon proceeds to inflict 
 his outrageous attempts at writing English on the English- 
 man, with generally most ludicrous results. 
 
 Perhaps Wan Chi wishes some favour from you, and 
 as an introduction, he sends you his English calling-card 
 with an invitation on it as follows : — 
 
 Mr. Wax Chi 
 
 Requests the pleasure of Mr. William Jones for a Dinner party 
 at the Chinese Hotel (Hang Fa Lau), Queen's road central, to- 
 morrow at 6 P.m. 
 
 Hongkong, 17th October 1892. 
 1st top floor. 
 
 Again here is a business notice : — 
 EXPRESS. 
 
 NOTICE. 
 
 We beg to inform, Gentlemen, all of you that we have 
 commenced business of establishing a new Printing Office hern as a 
 substitution for the Printing Office of T. S. Marchmont but we have 
 been selected with best arrangement of new and approved Machine 
 for quickness of improvement. 
 
 Expresses, Bills, Programmes, and any kind of Joping and 
 Stationery, that we have choose too with great care a department of 
 fashionable, current and suitable calon's Type for printing. We beg 
 leave to inform, Gentlemen, as my own experience as a printer enable 
 us to forward the most approved order as cheaply as any of the long 
 established printer here. We request every confidence trust by all of 
 your Company and we shall be glad to give all of you the satisfaction 
 of printing, but we hope earnestly, may all your Company prepared 
 orders to bestow on our printing department and we having referred 
 already to all of your Factory the perfected and completed business 
 of our preparation. 
 
 N. B. Hoping sincerely all of your Company will see no objection 
 to this notice. 
 
 A Shang Printing Press. 
 
 Po Man Tap, John. 
 Shau Chow, January, 1893. 
 
ENGLl^fl FROM CirmESE PEXS. 209 
 
 It is to be feared that if Po Man Tap, John succoedccl 
 in commencing the ' business of establishinjT a new Printin<T^ 
 Office hern as a substitution ' for the former one that his 
 compositors would not be able to ' give * * * the 
 satisfaction of printing ' in any better style than the follow- 
 ing which the Chinese printer who set it up doubtlcsa 
 thought was perfect : — 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 The shades of night were falling fast, as through. An alpine 
 village passed a youth, who how, mid snow and ice, a banner, with 
 the Strang device. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 His brow was sad ; his eye beakers. Flashed like a falcion 
 from its sheath, and like a silver clarion bung. The accents of that 
 unknown tongue, 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 In happy homes he saw the light bright. Of household fires 
 gleam warm and abouce, the spectral glaciers shone, and from his 
 lips exaped a green. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 " Try not the pass ! " the old man said ; " Dark lowers the 
 tempest overhead. The roanug tarrent is deep and wide " and loud 
 that clarion voice replied, 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 " O shay " the marden said " and rest " Thy weary head upon 
 my breast ! " a tear stood in his bright blue eye. But still he answered 
 with a sight. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 " Beware the pine-tree's withered branch Beware the awful 
 aralanche ! " This was the peasant's lass Good night, a voice replied, 
 far up the height. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 At break of day, as heavenward The pions monks of Saint 
 Bernard Uttered the aft repeated prayer, a voice cried through the 
 startled air. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 A traveller, by the faithful hound. Half-baried in the snow was 
 found, still grasping in his hand of ice, That hammer with the strange 
 device. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 There in the twilight cold and gray, Tepelers, but beautiful, he 
 lay, and from the sky, serene and far, a voice fell, like a falling star. 
 
 M 
 
210 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 Tradesmen's bills are very amusing, so utterly regardless are 
 they of spelling and plurals ; you are charged for : — 
 
 1 doz. Table Knife. 2 lbs. funch plum. 
 3 large cup and saucers. \ doz. Egg cup. 
 
 3 Eggs cups. 2 pieces plate. 
 
 2 lbs. Dried Apple. i Pen Glass. 
 
 Or has your tradesman given your wife a bad article by mistake, 
 he may write her a letter like the following : — 
 Mrs. W. S.MITH. 
 
 Madam, 
 
 I am very sorry these ball which I give you the another 
 day was new & has not been play before I do not know why should 
 broked so I sent another one not charge to obliged for you only & I 
 got all goods from Ingland I will try better nextime & obliges. 
 
 Your Faithfully 
 
 YAN LOI. 
 
 Our shoemaker knows but little of leggings and describes 
 
 them in his bill as ' armorial articles for the legs.' 
 
 Hei-e is a notice that we received on a torn scrap of 
 
 paper from our washerman, 
 
 Sir, 
 
 Now, your cloths is much larger than before ; will you be 
 candly give me @ $2.50 per cent. 
 
 Your trily, 
 
 WO SHING, 
 
 Washerman. 
 
 The folloAving will explain itself and is of higher order 
 
 •of production than the last. 
 
 Thomkins Simpson & Co. 
 
 April 19th, 1892. 
 To John Brown Esq. 
 
 Dear Sir. 
 
 Our manager Mr. White gave me your note and the man 
 you recommended and I will do some things for him in the future at 
 present we have enough of men at work but we will increase the 
 coolies by next month if the weather will be hot enough to use of 
 jiiore of our ice. So I have tell him to come to see me by next 
 jnonth. I think I may use him. 
 
 I am Sir, 
 
 Your ob. Servant, 
 
 YEUK MAN HING. 
 Compradore of ThoinHns Simpson & Co. 
 
ENGLISH FROM CHINESE PENS. 211 
 
 The orisfinal is not ice but we do not intend to give 
 away our correspondent : so for the same reason we have 
 altered the names appearing in the original documents we 
 have reproduced in tliis article. 
 
 Replete as the Chinese language is with terms of direct and 
 indirect address graduated to different degrees of position and 
 rank, the native feels the want of such terms in the English 
 language and supplies the deficiency to the best of his ability. 
 Our English officials receive letters and petitions which 
 confer such an exalted status on them as they never hoped 
 to attain. One complaint about a subordinate officer ad- 
 dressed to a higher official, after stating the subject of 
 grievance, goes on to say, * should the business at the present 
 time be not so dull, I shall not trouble your majesty' &c., 
 &c. 
 
 Another letter commences, ' Most Noble Sir.' 
 
 The Chinese lad is not behind his European or American 
 confrere when he commences to describe, in his own unique 
 and expressive language, ideas which appear tame and com- 
 monplace when translated and transcribed in the language 
 of his elders. A Chinese youth, writing on the Emperor of 
 •China taking up the study of English, remarks : — ' I am 
 pleased to hear that our Emperor is studying English — it 
 will enable him to govern move neatly,' while another de- 
 scribed the usual light refreshment at a clerical meeting as an 
 * Ecclesiastical carousal.' 
 
 But confusion gets worse confounded when our half- 
 instructed Chinese takes the role of a preceptor upon him 
 and proceeds to teach his compatriots English as he fancies 
 it is spoken ; then it is veritably a barbarian lingo. The 
 following sentences are from a book with that object in. 
 view : — 
 
 'I cannot Chinese speak.' 'To do good virtues become rich and 
 know.' ' Diligent learn of English words no difficult.' ' He himself 
 no have got.' 'Why you cannot want mistake.' ' Fear inside have 
 little false.' 'Run come too much refuge.' 'Can do biting.' 'Ac- 
 comulate bliss.' 'Accomulate many, confidentor, etc' 
 
 M 2 
 
212 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Many of the attempts, however, of our own fellow- 
 countrymen to speak Chinese (for but few of them are ever 
 able to write it) might call forth as much harmless merriment 
 from John Chinaman as his attempts to write our difficult 
 language produce in us. 
 
 Many of the Chinese in the neighbourhood of Hong 
 Kong and the Treaty Ports have evinced a great desire to 
 learn English, as the Celestial is shrewd enough to see that 
 tlie potentialites of wealth are present in a knowledge of the 
 foreigner's tongue ; but of late years the desire has spread, 
 and the Chinese Government itself has taken the movement 
 under its fostering care. As long ago even as 1898— 
 
 'The Peking Government •••■ * issued instructions to the 
 
 various Viceroys and Governors of the Empire to estabhsh schools 
 for the teaching of the English language and Wastern sciences ia all 
 the principal cities of the country. According to the wording of one 
 clause in the General Instructions, the reason for this was that China, in 
 order to keep herself on terms of equality and in touch with the Great 
 Powers of Europe, '' must educate the masses and encourage inventive 
 genius and foreign learning amongst her people, together with that, 
 love for country and home and that devoted patriotism so con- 
 spicuously ingrained in the hearts of those who have studied such, 
 languages and sciences,'' etc' 
 
 The sovereign lias set the example to his subjects by 
 himself taking lessons in English, in his palace. 
 
 ETIQUETTE. — The Chinese have an elaborate system 
 of etiquette, which is most punctiliously observed on state 
 occasions and at festivals, and on the whole there is more 
 polish and outward politeness than is common with English 
 or Americans ; it approaches more to the French style. The- 
 suavity of manner and urbanity with Avhich common street 
 coolies address one another, and even the beggars, is most 
 noticeable, and the graciousness with which the boat-women 
 accost each other when shouting orders and requests to 
 different craft in the intricate navigation of the crowded 
 lixers, is most pleasant to hear. The like is never 
 seen in the West, though, at the same time should 
 a quarrel arise, the choicest 'Billingsgate' and a rare 
 collection of obscene epithets is employed, these latter 
 
ETIQUETTE. 2VS 
 
 taking the place of profane oaths in the West. We cannot 
 call it with mock, because it is with real, solemnity that 
 young John Chinaman copies his ekiers in his ceremonious 
 observances, especially in his bows at New Year's time, 
 performed with all the gravity of an old man with the weiglit 
 of many years on his shoulders, and the full sense of the 
 responsibility of a due and right performance of all the rules 
 of etiquette. 
 
 Chinese etiquette has many points quite different from 
 English, as the following examples will show : — - 
 
 Scene. — A breakfast table at which is seated a new 
 arrival who has not yet spent a winter in Hongkong. Enter 
 the boy, his shaven pate graced with the usual Chinese 
 winter skull-cap. 
 
 Tlie foreigner loquitur : — ' A-sam ! What foh you puttee 
 on that piecee cap come waitea table ? That no b'loug 
 plopah ; no b'long polite ! ' 
 
 Answer hy A-sam — ' ! that b'long numbah one plopah, 
 
 numbah one polite. S'pose you see ]\listah 's boy, he hab 
 
 got cap all same same.' 
 
 ^lore than forty years ago a party of six young 
 Englishmen went out for an excursion in the country in the 
 neighbourhood of one of the Treaty Ports. They were 
 entirely ignorant of China etiquette and custom, and while 
 walking along one of the narrow paths at the side of a paddy- 
 field, they met an old man carrying a load, whom they thought 
 very rudely insisted on the path being given up to him 
 and his burden, until he had passed with it. They pushed 
 him out of the way, and struck him Avith their sticks for 
 his rudeiiess, entirely unaware that they were the offenders, 
 and gross offenders too. The path being narrow and there 
 being no room for the encumbered and the unencumbered to 
 pass at the same time, the Chinese, with commendable com- 
 mon sense allow the burden-bearer in such cases, the right- 
 of way, while the unencumbered, Avho can easily step on oft 
 the way, do so ; those carrying a lighter weiglit make way for 
 
214 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the more heavily laden, as for instance, one man bearing a. 
 burden Avill step out of the way for two men carrying a sedan- 
 chair. In this case the foreigners were further guilty of dis- 
 respect to an old man, whom the Chinese reverence — the old 
 man also being an elder of the neighbouring village, further 
 increased the offence. The villagers, indignant at the insult, 
 rose, took the young Englishmen into custody, and avenged, 
 their wrongs by putting them to death, after some days of 
 imprisonment. 
 
 The Chinese are very fond of sending presents as 
 acknowledgements of favours received. They often consist 
 of a multitude of different articles of tasty food, fruit, or tea, 
 &c., and when received from a native, who knows nothing of 
 foreign customs, a selection is only intended to be made by 
 the receiver. An acquaintance of ours was in the habit of 
 keeping the whole assortment, no doubt to the disgust of the 
 sender, who also, doubtless, formed a very low opinion of 
 the ffreed and rudeness of foreis^ners. 
 
 We here give a few unwritten rules of Chinese etiquette,, 
 which will serve to give an insight into the subject : — - 
 
 Standing. — In standing, stand at attention with or 
 without the heels touching each other, and the hands down 
 at the sides. Do not stand at ease with one foot placed at 
 right angles to the other ; nor with arms akimbo. In talking 
 to a man in a position superior to yours (such as a high 
 official, while you are a lower one), do not keep your eyes- 
 fixed on his, but let them rest on the button on the lapel of 
 his coat at his left breast, only occasionally raising them to 
 his face. 
 
 Entering a room. — In entering a room with a number 
 of persons seated in it, do not bow to each separately ; but 
 give a grave bow first to the right, then to the left. If a 
 particular friend of yours happens to be in the company he is 
 at liberty to advance two steps towards you, and you, in like 
 manner, may advance two steps further into the room, each, 
 then saluting the other with clasped hands and a bow. 
 
ETIQUETTE. 215 
 
 Sitting down. — The left hand is the phice of honour. It 
 is given to the guest, and the host takes the right ; but the 
 greatest caution is necessary, in sitting down, not to do so 
 before your guest ; and if either should got up, or even rise 
 slightly, the other must follow suit at once. It is most 
 amusing to see how Chinese visitors bob up and down at the 
 least movement of their foreign host. Another important rule 
 is never to sit while any one else who is your equal is standing. 
 
 Ansivers to Questions. — Like the French, the Chinese do 
 not consider it always polite to simply answer ' Yes ' or ' No/' 
 but often turn the interrogative form of a question into the 
 affirmative, using the same words, as far as possible, in the 
 reply that have been used in the questions. Foreigners 
 are apt to think that Chinese are boorish when they answer 
 in this manner, but they are only acting in accordanc? 
 Avith their code of politeness. 
 
 Enquiries as to Age, iSfc. — It is not considered rude for a 
 Chinese to make most particular enquiries as to a stranger's 
 personal affairs. In fact, the making of such enquiries 
 often evinces great politeness. -'How old are you?' *Are 
 you married ? ' ' How much money do you make a year ? ' 
 ' Where are you going ' ' What are you going to do ? ' ' How 
 much did you pay for this ? ' These questions and others 
 of the same character are constantly on a Chinaman's lips. 
 
 Dwming. — It is not considered polite to ask a man, 
 whom you may meet in the street, for a debt due by him 
 to you. One of the most polite forms in which to request 
 repayment is to ask your debtor for a loan of money for 
 your own use. 
 
 Aloises, §r. — Guttural sounds, hawking, clearing the 
 throat, spitting, using the fingers to blow the nose, and 
 eructations, are not necessarily considered impolite by the 
 Chinese. It must be remembered that they look upon such 
 things in quite a different way from what we do now-a-days. 
 We say now-a-days, for it is not more than a few centuries 
 ago that a book was published in England containing, among; 
 
■216 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 otliev things, directions how to bh)w the nose neatly with 
 the fingers. But we will not offer any mjre remarks on such 
 a nauseating subject. 
 
 Want of dress. — A Chinese official will not allow liis 
 c'lair-bearers to carry him in the half-naked manner which 
 the Chinese coolie so delights in. The Mercantile classes 
 and others are not particular in this respect. 
 
 Spectacles. — It is considered impolite to wear spectacles 
 before a guest or superior. A short-sighted man must 
 be ready to submit to any amount of awkwardness rather 
 than infringe this rule of etiquette. It is very amusing to 
 see a witness in a Court of Justice looking at some document 
 which he is unable to see properly, not daring to put on his 
 glasses lest it should be construed into a sign of disrespect 
 to the judge, perhaps mildly saying he is short-sighted, but 
 in other cases never giving a hint that he cannot see properly 
 without putting them on. If it is absolutely necessary that 
 something should be looked at, and an apology having been 
 oifei'ed, or permission having been given to put them on, 
 they must be taken off as soon as possible afterwards. Some 
 even hesitate to put them on when told to do so. 
 
 Hats. — There are great differences in Chinese hats, some 
 may, or rather must, be tolerated in a room or house, and 
 others under no consideration whatever. The common skull- 
 cap with a red or black knotted knob (or blue if the wearer 
 is in mourning) is au fait. It should be worn in winter, 
 in-doors or out, and is only dispensed with in summer for 
 the same reason that Indian judges do not wear wigs in that 
 country. The official hat, with the button indicative of the 
 rank of the wearer, is dress, and is hastily donned to receive 
 a visitor ; neither do the official hats of the mandarins' 
 servants need to be removed on entering a house ; but the 
 case differs in toto when we come to the ordinary rain and 
 sun-hats, whether they are as large in size as an umbrella, or 
 only about the size of a gong, or the small conical ones worn 
 by the native soldiers and coolies, like those provided for 
 
ETIQUETTE. 217 
 
 the Chinese policemen in Hongkong. The same holds good 
 of the felt hats used in Avinter by coolies and tradesmen, &c. 
 Hoods also sliould not be kept on inside one's house. If the 
 hat is only of the right kind, it is politeness for a Chinese 
 gentleman to put it on to receive his guest ; to appear 
 bareheaded before a visitor is considered impolite. 
 
 Queue. — Unless the nature of his work, such as carrying 
 a chair or washing the floor requires, or makes it convenient 
 for his queue to be wound in a coil round his neck or 
 shoulders, or to be done up in any fashion in a bunch at the 
 top or back of his head, no Chinese servant or inferior ought 
 ever to appear so before his master or superior, but the queue 
 should always hang down bshind. 
 
 Finger-Nails. — Long finger nails are not considered a 
 sign of dirtiness, but of respectability, and of being above 
 manual labour, which, if necessary, would of course prevent 
 them from attaining such length as an inch and a half, two 
 inches, or even three, though it is seldom one sees them all of 
 equal length on all the fingers. It is well that such is the 
 case, as two or three on one or both hands give such a claw- 
 like appearance to the fingers as to make them sufficiently 
 repulsive ; fortunately hand-shaking is not in vogue in 
 China, as it would be extremely unpleasant to feel the long 
 talons gripping one's hand. 
 
 Shaking Hands. — A Chinese clasps his two hands to- 
 gether and nioves them up and down a few inches in front 
 of himself several times. When excessively polite they are 
 raised up as high as his forehead, while he makes a profound 
 bow. Ladies do not do this, but clutch the left hand sleeve 
 with the right hand, and imitate the same motion. 
 
 Handing Things. — Both hands are used to pass any- 
 thing, therefore a Chinese is not to be considered clumsy 
 who hands any small articles, such as a cup of tea, in this 
 manner : it would be thought the height of rudeness to 
 do otherwise, for it Avould evince an unwillingness to take 
 the little trouble necessary. The same rule of etiquette is 
 observed in receiving anything from anyone. 
 
218 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Meals. — At meals men and women never eat together^ 
 unless the women are bad characters, even a husband and a 
 wife should take their meals separately. This is the strict 
 rule, but it is occasionally more honoured in the breach than 
 in the observance. The children, or younger members of 
 the family, wait till the grown-up people are seated, the- 
 latter nod an assent to ' a show of asking permission to eat.* 
 Each one has his own bowl of rice, and he picks up pieces 
 of meat and vegetables, &c. from the common dishes in the 
 centre of the table, but it is considered polite only to help- 
 oneself from the side of the dish nearest to one. 
 
 After each meal it is the custom to wipe the face and 
 hands with a wet cloth wrung out of hot water. In the 
 family circle each one will leave the table and do this wash- 
 ing ; but at a dinner party the servants will bring a cloth, 
 so wrung out, to each diner, a separate one being given to 
 each if the guests and hosts are not very familiar, otherwise 
 the same cloth may be used. In the Chit-kong province 
 (where Soochow is) the same basin and cloth are used, as it 
 shows that they are brotherly. 
 
 One having finished may ask the others to 'eat 
 leisurely,' which is the equivalent of saying 'excuse me,' 
 • and he is then at liberty to leave the table. It is etiquette 
 to remain sitting at meals till all have finished, but, in the 
 event of urgent business, &c. demanding one's attention, a 
 guest may, before the others have finished, lay his chop- 
 sticks across his empty bowl, this being an indication of his 
 desire to leave ; the host on observing it, lifts them down, 
 places them on the table and says * ho hang ' (which is 
 equivalent to our ' good bye,' though it really has the mean- 
 ing, if freely rendered, of 'I hope you will have a safe walk,') 
 to the guest, who is then free to depart. 
 
 The above form of procedure takes place with strangers, 
 or when everybody is on their best behaviour ; for, though 
 it is incumbent on all to sit down together at the same time 
 to their meals, it is unnecessary, in unceremonious inter- 
 course, that all should rise at the same time. At formal 
 
ETIQUETTE. 219 
 
 dinners or meals, however, the host cannot leave the table 
 till he sees that all his guests, having all finished, wish to 
 do so. 
 
 V/SITLYG. — Tea Drinking. — The etiquette about tea 
 drinking in connection with paying visits is curious. 
 When paying a visit to an official if a servant should bring 
 in a cup of tea there is no necessity to take any particular 
 notice of it ; allow the servant to put it down where he likes 
 near you, and continue your conversation with the man- 
 darin. Should, however, he consider you a good friend, oi-, 
 even in the case of a first call, should he desire to treat you 
 with great respect, or evince his great pleasure at seeing 
 you, he may hand you the cup of tea with his own hands. 
 In such circumstances it is incumbent upon you to rise to 
 your feet and take it from his two hands with both of yours, 
 
 A cup of tea in an official call (be you either a civilian 
 calling on an official, or even if you are both officials) is 
 destined to play an important part. Your business over, or 
 your conversation done, you invite your host to diink tea 
 (ts'ing ch'a), which he thereupon proceeds to do with you, 
 and the visit is over. Should you, however, be taxing the 
 patience of your host by overstaying your welcome, or should 
 a pressure of business make it necessary for him to bhorteu 
 the call as much as possible, he begins to touch the cup with. 
 his fingers, expecting you to take the hint. Are you such 
 an obtuse individual that hints are entirely lost upon you ? 
 Then he may sometimes- —though it is not quite the correct 
 thing for him to do so — give you the invitation to take tea 
 with him, when you will have to retire, feeling mortified at 
 having transgressed the rules of politeness, and at being 
 treated with rudeness in return. It must be remembered,. 
 however, that this tea is never to be touched until it is time 
 to go. These rules as to the conge do not hold good with 
 people who are officials. 
 
 Marks of Friendliness. — When seeing a Mandarin in 
 his hall for transacting business, should he invite you into 
 
220 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Iiis private apartments, then any subjects can be discussetl, 
 ;ind any amount of freedom, consistent, of course, with self- 
 respect, may be enjoyed ; coats even may be thrown oft' till 
 a state approaching nearly to the in i^uris naturalibus, 
 so congenial to the Chinese in hot weather, is arrived at. 
 
 Whispering. — The Chinese mode of using the hand to 
 cover the mouth when whispering to any one is different 
 from the Western style ; for, instead of simply covering the 
 mouth with the hand spread open, the fingers of the hand 
 are bent towards each other just as if a very large orange 
 were being held in the hand, and in a position midway 
 between a clenched fist and an open hand. The ends of 
 the fingers are put close up to the mouth, or touching the 
 lips, thus muffling the sound. This muffling is intensified 
 it it is cold weather and a number of sleeves come over 
 the hand. 
 
 Beckoning. — In beckoning, the Chinese do not use one 
 finger pointed upwards and curved towards one, as we do, 
 but the hand is reversed, the finsrers hancjincr down and the 
 Avliole liand is used to beckon towards one with a sweeping 
 motion, in a most energetic manner. 
 
 Names. — A curious rule holds good with regard to 
 names in a family : it is against Chinese etiquette to name 
 a child after liis father or grandfather, in fact the name of 
 any member of a former generation must not be used 
 by a descendant. The ' Peking Gazette ' some years since 
 contained an application forwarded by the Viceroy of Canton 
 from General Hsieh Hung-chang to be allowed to alter his 
 name to Hsieh Te-lung, as it had been discovered from 
 his family register that a remote ancestor of his had a 
 name identical with his own. 
 
 IVives. — The way in wliich a Chinese treats a wife is, 
 according to our Western ideas, peculiar. One or two in- 
 stances of it have already been noticed. It is not amongst many 
 Chinese considered a proper thing to write a letter to one's wife 
 if absent from home. The family idea conies into play here as 
 
 I 
 
ETIQUETTE 221 
 
 it (Iocs in so iii;iny nuittcrs connpcted with Cliiiioso so(n;il and 
 domestic life. The man's inorlior is tlie liead of tlic family 
 when 'he is away from the 'family h.ouse.' What then, ac- 
 cording' to this Chinese way ot' Lutking at things, more 
 natural and proper than that he should write to his mother ? 
 The next best thing is to write to his son, thougli an infant, 
 or even to his daughter, for all signs of affection between 
 husband and wife are to be deprecated, not that such 
 indications are simply bad forni^ but they are looked upon 
 as even indelicate. Failing any proper person to send his 
 letter to, the Chinese may send to the one whom the 
 Englishman would think first of all of writing to ; even in 
 this case, however, the letter must not be addressed on the 
 cover to his wife though it may be inside, but the envelope 
 is directed 'To be handed to the family.' Some of the 
 Chinese are better than their rules of etiquette or propriety 
 and write direct to the wife, even if there be a mother or 
 child. A wife again in Avriting to her husband does so in 
 the name of a son, or failing a son, of a daughter. 
 
 The following extract will show how incongruous the 
 Western and Eastern codes of etiquette are : — 
 
 'Foreign ignorance of the customs of the Chinese is another 
 cause of a feeHng of superiority on the part of the Chinese. Tliat any 
 one should be ignorant of what they have always, known, seems to 
 them to be ahiiost incredible. Many Chinese unconsciously adopt 
 toward foreigners an air of amused interest, combined with de- 
 preciation, like that which Mr. Littimer regarded David Copperfield, 
 as if mentally saying perpetually, " So young, sir, so young ! " '- 
 * *". * * There are multitudes of details in regard to social matters, 
 of which one must necessarily be ignorant, for the reason that he 
 has never heard of them, and tliere must loe a first time for every 
 acquisition. * '•' ^■' *' '■' * * Inability to conform to Cliinesc 
 ideas and ideals, in ceremony, as well as what we consider more 
 important matters, causes the Chinese to feel a thinly disguised 
 contempt for a race whom they think will not and cannot be made 
 to understand "propriety." It is not that a foreigner cannot make a 
 bow, but he generally finds it hard to make a Chinese bow in a 
 Chinese way, and the difficully is as much moral as physical. The 
 foreigner feels a contempt for the code of ceremonials, often frivolous 
 in their appearance, and he has no patience, if he has the capacity, 
 to spend twenty minutes in a polite scuffle, the termination of which 
 is foreseen by both sides with absolute certainty. The foreigner does 
 not wish to spend his time in talking empty nothings for ' an old half 
 
222 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 day.' To him, time is money, but it is very far from being so to a 
 Chinese, for in China every one has an abundance of time, and very 
 few have any money. No Chinese has ever yet learned that when he 
 kills time, it is well to make certain that it is the time which belongs 
 4:0 him, and not that of some one else. 
 
 With this predisposition to dispense as much as possible with 
 superfluous ceremony because it is distasteful, and because the time 
 which it involves can be used more aereeably in other ways, it is not 
 strange that the foreigner, even in his own eyes, makes but a poor 
 figure in comparison with a ceremonious Chinese. Compare the dress, 
 bearings, and action of a Chinese official, with long flowing robes and 
 graceful motions, with the awkward genuflections of his foreign 
 visitor. It requires all the native politeness of the Chinese to prevent 
 them from laughing outright at the contrast. In this connection it 
 must be noted that nothing contributes so effectively to the instinctive 
 Chinese contempt for the foreigner, as evident disregard which the 
 latter feels for that official display so dear to the Oriental. What 
 must have been the inner thought of the Chinese who were told that 
 they were to behold the "great American Emperor," and who saw 
 General Grant in citizen's costume with a cigar in his mouth, walking 
 along the open street .'' Imagine a foreign Consul, who ranks with 
 a Chinese Taot'ai, making a journey to a provincial capital to inter- 
 view the Governor, in order to settle an international dispute. 
 Thousands are gathered on the city wall to vvatch the procession of 
 the great foreign magnate, a procession which is found to consist of 
 two carts and riding horses, the attendants of the Consul being an 
 Interpreter, a Chinese acting as messenger (t'ing ch'ai), and another 
 as cook ! Is it any wonder that Orientals gazing on such a scene, 
 should look with a curiosity which changes first to indifference, 
 and then to contempt .'' ' 
 
 Biwhs recommended. — Some interesting papers have appeared lately in 
 -the Chinese Recorder for 1898, entitled 'Notes on Chinese Etiquette,' by- 
 Rev. G. G. Warren. 
 
 EURASIANS.— l^he children of European fathers by 
 Asiatic mothers or vice versa, are, by a union of the first 
 syllables of both words, called Eurasians. Some dress in the 
 foreign style and some in the native: the former look more 
 like their Chinese mothers than their fathers ; the latter 
 look very white and foreign-like. Their eyes are generally 
 black, though the results of the second and third generations 
 of such alliances are often very fair, have brownish hair, and 
 occasionally lighter-coloured eyes. The union of the two 
 bloods seems, as far as the men are concerned, to produce a 
 more sprightly race than the Chinese, and one whose organs 
 of speech are better adapted to pronounce English than those 
 of pure Chinese breed ; for it is a very rare thing for a 
 
EURASIANS, 223 
 
 Chinese to speak English accurately, as vavo almost as for 
 an Englishman to speak Chinese like a native, though he 
 may liave resided for years in Cliina in the one case, or in 
 England in the other. Some of the girls who liave a 
 preponderance of English blood in them are very pretty and 
 fair. Unfortunately the majority of the daughters are brought 
 \\p to lead an immoral life, and sold like slaves into it. 
 
 There is a Eurasian school in Shanghai, a great number 
 of the children in the Diocesan Home and Orphanage in 
 Hongkong belong to the same class, and there are a very large 
 number of them in the Government Central School (now called 
 Queen's College) in the same Colony. They are drafted 
 from these establishments into the lawyer's and other offices, 
 where they make very useful clerks and interpreters, from 
 their knowledge of both Chinese and English, 
 
 It is not all the half-castes that come under this class, 
 as numbers of them are swallowed up under the name of 
 Portuguese, which, in the Far East, is not restricted alone to 
 those worthy of that name, but is used to designate all, 
 who, having some drops of foreign blood in their veins, 
 elect to call themselves such, dress in foreign clothes, and 
 talk a smattering of the patois glorified with the name 
 of Portuguese, but which, in reality, is a sort of pidgin- 
 Portuguese, and not understood by new arrivals from Portugal, 
 who require an interpreter to explain it to them. Macaoese 
 would be a better term, as the majority of them are either 
 born in Macao or have descended from residents it that city. 
 They are of all shades of colour, and their complexions show 
 traces of Indian (Goa), Chinese, Japanese, and European, 
 ancestry in all degrees of proportion. The mercantile offices 
 are full of them. They write a good hand, and act as clerks, 
 but seldom rise to any position of great trust and confidence. 
 They work as a rule for a mere pittance, and the poorer 
 classes herd together after the manner of Chinese. A very 
 few are ensraored as merchants in business. 
 
224 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 EXAMINATIONS.— ^Q have treated of the end and 
 aim of education in China in a former ai'ticle {See Article 
 on Education). It now falls to our lot to write more fully 
 of the final step to this goal, namely, the system of Civil 
 Service examinations in China. In the matter of competitive 
 examinations the Chinese present one of those unique 
 spectacles which are alike the wonder, as Avell as the 
 admiration, of those who understand them. 
 
 In this strange land there has been in vogue for centuries, 
 and even millenniums, a system of examinations, which, 
 originally started with testing the ability of those already 
 in office, has gradually widened in scope till at this time it 
 is all-embracing in point of geographical extent, and is the 
 test of ability which all have to undergo who desire admission, 
 into the Civil Service of this immense empire with its 
 thousands of officials ; with this end in view, boys are incited 
 to learn their lessons and be diligent; with this aim, men 
 pursue their weary course of study, year in and year out. till 
 white hairs replace the black, and the shoulders, wliich at 
 first merely aped the scholarly stoop, eventually bend beneath 
 the weight of years of toil. No other country in the world 
 presents the curious sight of grandfather, father, and even 
 son, competing at the same time. Failures seem only to 
 spur on to renewed trials, until, after many times having 
 formed a unit amongst the annual two millions that pass 
 through one or other of the ordeals of this gigantic 
 examination scheme, the old man of seventy or eighty, who 
 has been unfortunate enough not to appear among the small 
 percentage, of one or two out of a hundred, that is allowed 
 to pass, finally attracts Imperial notice, and, as an honour, 
 and the meed of his untiring perseverance and indefatigable 
 toil, receives the coveted reward. 
 
 The scheme is widespread as the empire : every petty 
 district city even has its Examination Hall, where the 
 •initial trials are conducted under the supervision of the 
 Imperial Chancellor, a sub-chancellor being in residence, who 
 subjects the candidates to a preliminary examination. Out of 
 
EDUCATION. 225 
 
 the two thousand or so, only twenty of the best receive the 
 degree which the Chinese term ' Siii-ts'ai,' meaning 'budding 
 genius,' but which for convenience is generally termed by 
 foreigners the B.A., though, except for the analogy of being 
 the first degree obtained in both East and West, there is 
 scarcely any point of similarity, and so it is throughout the 
 whole series of degrees. An original poem and one or two 
 essays by each candidate on the subjects assigned to them 
 are the exercises of this examination. A night and a day 
 are spent in their production. The results to the successful 
 student are as follows : — no office or appointment, but 
 admission is granted him into the charmed circle of those 
 who are entitled to wear the lowest grade of gold button, 
 on the tops of their hats, and who are protected 'from 
 corporal punishment; it raises him above the common people, 
 renders him a conspicuous man in his native place, and eligible 
 to enter the triennial examination for the second degree,' 
 held in the provincial capital, the successful candidates at 
 which take the second degree, styled the 'Chii-jin,' or 
 •' promoted scholar,' or M.A. This examination lasts through 
 ' three sessions of nearly three days each.' The examiners 
 are the Imperial Commissioner and ten provincial officers. 
 Some six thousand, more or less, according to the size of 
 the province, enter for this examination. Essays in prose- 
 and verse are required, but of course there is mucli 
 more given to be done, and a higher style is required 
 than in the former, and much strictness is exercised 
 with regard to the slightest errors in the essays. The small 
 percentage that pass still get no appointment, nor office, but 
 rise higher in the public estimation, wear a higher grade of 
 gilt button, when in dress, and put a board over the front 
 doors of their houses with the mystic characters of 'Promoted 
 Men/ as well as the date of attaining this distinction. One 
 step more entitles the scholar to eventually obtain office. 
 This next higher degree is taken at Peking. It is termed 
 ' Tsun-sz,' or Entered Scholar, or L.L.D. Lots are drawn for 
 vacant posts, and the successful candidate may, perchance, 
 begin his official career as a district magistrate. 
 
 N 
 
226 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Another degree may, however, be taken, success in the 
 examination for which entitles to admission to the Hanlin 
 College. The members of this College are * constituted poets 
 and historians to the Celestial Court, or deputed to act as 
 Chancellors and Examiners in the several provinces.' The 
 highest on the list, after two special examinations in the 
 Emperor's palace and in the presence of the Emperor 
 himself, is styled the ' Chuang-yuen ' or ' Laureate.' 
 
 This then is a rough sketch of this wonderful system ; 
 the details of which, as regards the subsidiary examina^ions, 
 might be filled in at great length. Enough has been written 
 to convey some idea of the system as a whole, but it is 
 difficult to describe the enthusiasm which pervades the whole 
 country with regard to the examinations. Congratulations are 
 showered on the successful students ; they dine with the highest 
 officials after the event, and the Emperor himself entertains 
 the most celebrated of all. It is naturally to be excepted 
 that the family of the successful candidate should feel 
 honoured, but those who take the highest honours are looked 
 upon as conferring distinction on their native places; and it is 
 quite a sight, on going through a Chinese City, to see the 
 red boards, with gilt characters, placed over certain doors, 
 proclaiming to all passers by the degree, or degrees, taken by 
 the inmates, separate boards being used for those who have 
 taken the higher positions, such as senior tripos, »&c., in 
 each respective examination. On the blank walls of the 
 fronts of the houses will often also be seen large yellow 
 or red papers with red or yellow letters on them; for it is 
 customary when any one has been successful at an exami- 
 nation to send a poster with large characters on it announc- 
 ing to all one's friends and relatives the fact. For examina- 
 tions at which one has been successful in the provinces, red 
 paper is used with yellow characters, bat for those held in 
 Peking yellow paper with red characters is used. 
 
 Besides the legitimate interest taken in these literary 
 contests, they form the Goodwoods and Derbys of China; for 
 not only is the news of success spread far and wide as fast 
 
EDUCATION. 227 
 
 as swift messengers, vapid boats, and fleet couriers can carry 
 it to waiting friends and expectant relatives ; but it is as 
 eagerly received by utter strangers, who, having staked on 
 the issue, are in excitement to know the result. 
 
 Like everything Chinese, these trials of literary skill of 
 the future governors of the people are held in far diff'erent 
 surroundings from Avhat a Westerner would expect. The 
 buildings cover a large extent of ground, that in Canton 
 occupies sixteen acres. After the main entrance (which is 
 within the entrance of the outside wall) is passed, a broad 
 avenue leads up to a congeries of buildings for the use of the 
 Examiners and others connected with them and their work. 
 On each -side of this main avenue are narrow lanes, giving 
 access to the 8;653 cells in which the students are confined. 
 These cells are five feet nine inches bv three feet eijrht 
 inches wide, their height being a trifle over that of a 
 man. There are two grooves in the wall for two planks ; 
 one forms a table, the other a seat for the solitary student 
 shut up in each cell. It is a species of imprisonment, no 
 communication being allowed with the candidates under 
 penalty of severe punishment. They enter the Examination 
 Hall with provisions, fuel, caudles, bedding, and writing 
 materials, being searched to see that no 'cribs,' or other 
 means of assisting their laboui-, are smuggled in, it being 
 the constant practice for some to do tiiis : a specially small 
 miniature edition of the classics is printed for the purpose 
 and secreted about the person. The confinement must be 
 irksome and disaa^reeable in the extreme ; deaths occasion- 
 ally occur from excitement, the privations and exposure 
 being greater than old age can endure. In other places 
 the Examination Hall is not of the same construction. 
 The author visited one in the district city of Kit Y(ing, 
 near Swatow, where the students had long forms and tables 
 provided for them. In the departmental city of Ch'au- 
 chau-fu, the Examination Hall is fitted up in a similar 
 manner, judging from the peep into it from outside which 
 the writer had. 
 
 N 2 
 
228 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The Chinese have been wise in thus giving the people a 
 share in their own government, nor is it in the way of 
 pandering to the democracy; but it is bestowed as a right on 
 those who are fitted for it by an education, which, though 
 not on a par with a modern western course of study, is by 
 no means to be despised when compared with that in vogue- 
 in Europe a few centuries since. Thus ambitious spirits 
 have a career open before them, which may lead them up 
 to the very foot of the throne itself; the extra exuberance of 
 youth is toned down by a course of study which must have a 
 great effect in producing the grave and reverend seniors, Avhich 
 Chinese mandarins are. It produces likewise a conservative 
 element, as it is to the interest of the whole body of literati 
 to conserve the existing polity and resist all violent change 
 which might overthrow their position and prospects. For this 
 reason, if for no other, progress in China will be comparatively 
 slow, and probably none the less sure on account of its 
 slowness. China has also by this admirable plan — admirable,- 
 taken as a whole, alike in its conception, development, and 
 working — prevented herself from being overburdened by an 
 aristocracy, with all its concomitant evils, which, had it existed, 
 would, as in most European countries, have monopolised alL 
 that was worth having in the government until driven inch 
 by inch from its unfair position, — a Avork long in operation,- 
 and difficult of accomplishment. 
 
 Here then is a mighty system, complete in all its 
 details, ready, as soon as western science takes a fair grasp of 
 the nation, to be used as a means of disseminating scientific 
 knowledge and methods throughout the length and breadth of 
 the land, as well as literary style and polish. Some faint 
 indications that such may eventually be its function have 
 already been given. 
 
 Besides the literary examinations, military examinations 
 for officers of the army are held, in which skill in gymnastic 
 exercises, such as lifting heavy weights and shooting with 
 bows and arrows, are the tests required. But the Chinese 
 have shown their wisdom in considerins: warlike exercises as 
 
EXTRATERRITORIALITY. 22i> 
 
 far inferior to literary ability : military officers, as compared 
 ■Avith civil functionaries, are despised, and under the heading 
 ■of military officers are included naval officers as well. 
 
 Of late years, as has been remarked above, there has been 
 
 a tendency to introduce a few mathematical and other 
 
 questions at some of the centres of examination, and this 
 
 attempt to employ western knowledge culminated in an edict 
 
 by the Emperor Kwong Sui, dated the 23rd of June 1898. 
 
 directing that at the literary examinations from those of 
 
 ■doctor down to those for licentiates the candidates should 
 
 write short practical essays instead of using the Chinese 
 
 classics entirely as heretofore. A similar attempt, made 
 
 by the Emperor Kanghi, to vivify with the touch of knowledge 
 
 tlie stagnant pool of Chinese ancient lore, resulted in a short 
 
 time in a return to the old state of affairs, as public opinion 
 
 was against any innovation ; and an even quicker reversal of 
 
 the Emperor's plans has taken place in this case, for the 
 
 Empress Dowager, with, as far as can be seen at present, a 
 
 fatuity fraught with the greatest danger, has upset this as 
 
 well as the other beneficent plans inaugurated by Kwong 
 
 Sui. 
 
 ' The standard essay — Wen-chang— has been the chief cause 
 of the working of the minds of the literati and causing them to 
 labour ceaselessly in the same old tread-mill. It has held absolute 
 sway for a millennium over China's intellectual life, and its baneful 
 effects can be seen everywhere in the literature of the last three 
 dynasties. Scholars have learned what they could not afterwards make 
 use of in actual life, and they have had no time left for learning 
 what could be used. The scholars of the Sung dynasty bequeathed 
 in this legacy of the Wen-chang a burden of such weight upon the 
 mental life cf China that it has been steadily crushing out its very 
 existence. Originated to perpetuate classical learning it has been 
 the liveliest factor in suppressing the desire for such knowledge. It 
 has absolutely nothing to be said in its favour unless the remark of 
 an eminent living statesman of China be given to its credit that "it 
 has repressed rebellion by keeping the minds of ambitious men 
 cramped by the pursuit of useless knowledge." The main reason 
 that has kept it alive has been that it was supposed to be the essence 
 of orthodox Confucianism.' 
 
 EXTRATERRITORIALITY.—As the laws and judicial 
 system in force in China partake more of the character of 
 those in operation in Europe in the middle ages, Europeans 
 
230 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and Americans in China, as well as in otiier Asiatic countries, 
 have insisted on being amenable to their own laws, and' 
 exempted from the legal process of the country in which 
 they dwell. 
 
 There is a Supreme Court, with a Chief Justice and other 
 officeis under the Foreign Office of England, which sits in 
 Shanghai, and proceeds in circuit to the different treaty ports 
 when cases arise, demanding its attendance amongst British 
 subjects or in which one party is British. The Consular 
 Courts, presided over by the British Consuls, take cognisance 
 of the smaller cases, or hold a preliminary enquiry in the 
 more important ones. The posts of Chief Justice and Consul- 
 General have been amalgamated, and the Consul-General at 
 Shanghai, has in addition to his other duties, performed those 
 of Chief Justice. 
 
 On the other hand, if a Chinese is sued by an English- 
 man, the trial takes place in a Chinese Court, at the instance 
 of the English Consul. In Hongkong, of course, this rule 
 does not hold good, for, being an English Colony, it is an 
 integral part of the British Empire. Chinese criminals 
 sometimes escape from the mainland to this island. Before 
 their rendition to the Chinese authorities, an inquiry is held 
 by the Police Magistrate, Avho, ou j^i^i^^^'^ facie proof of the 
 crimes, sends up the cases to the Governor of the Colony, 
 who decides as to whether the criminals are to be handed 
 over to the Chinese or not. Applications have been made 
 to the Supreme Court of the Colony, on a Avrit of habeas 
 corpus, for a release of the prisoners on some alleged technical 
 flaw; but these have rarely succeeded. Nevertheless the 
 Chinese authorities at Canton have felt a considerable amount 
 of soreness on the subject, as it is difficult for them to under- 
 stand (with their system of torture of prisoners and Avitnesses, 
 and the forced confessions extorted from the fornaer and 
 even at times from the letter), the importance of unshaken,, 
 truthful evidence, and of genuine eye-witnesses. The un- 
 certainty of English law, and the jealous care exercised. 
 
FAIRY TALES. 231 
 
 ■over the prisoner in case he should be innocent, are incom- 
 prehensible to them. 
 
 Books rrt-om mended. — ' Exterritoriality, The Law relating to Consular 
 Jurisdiction and to Residence in Oriental Oonntries,' l)y F. T. Piyirott, M.A., 
 Ll.M. 'Jurisdiction et P]x.territorialite en Chine,' par J. Helenius Ferguson. 
 
 FAIRY TALES.— Theve are many fairy tales to be 
 found in Chinese literature, but different in detail to those of 
 the West. The animal world, like the wolf in Red Riding 
 Hood, comes in, but in a more artistic form than in the old 
 nursery tale, as the foxes assume human shape at will, not 
 being detected till well on in the story, and they are bene- 
 ficent as well as malignant. ' Our Chinese foxes, \vhich are 
 represented as the frequenters of the ancient sepulchres, tui-n 
 into the Elves of the Forest, and by moonlight imbibe the 
 ethereal essence of heaven and earth. They dig up the graves 
 of the dead and place their skulls on their foreheads. They. 
 then look up to the North Pole and bow to the Starry Host. 
 If the skulls do not fall off while they perform this rite, they 
 change into lovely and fascinating females.' Love often 
 plays an important part in some of these stories, showing 
 that, though not considered proper by the prudish Chinese, 
 humaii nature and the ruling passion Avill yet reveal them- 
 selves even under the most repressive circumstances. Besides 
 this class of fairy tales, much of the Taouist mythology 
 miulit be classed under this category, when the marvellous 
 and miraculous doings of the gods, demi-gods, and genii, are 
 told at garrulous length and with, tedious detail. 
 
 In China it is n(jt only tlie children that believe in 
 
 sprites, fairies, dryads, nymphs, demons, and goblins, but the 
 
 children of an older growth nearly all firmly believe in them ; 
 
 for the whole universe to the average Chinaman is peopled 
 
 with unseen denizens, who occasionally appear to the good 
 
 or evil, and reward or punish them in quite the orthodox 
 
 story-book style. 
 
 /?()((/.'.< r(co))iviriidrd. — 'Strange Stories from a Chinese Studio,' trans- 
 lated and annotated by Herbert A. Giles. 2 vols, De la. Rue & Co. "The 
 Fairy Foxes,' published by Messrs. Kelly and Walsh. Ld. 'Scraps from 
 Chinese Mytholoiry,' in different numbers of the 'China Review,' by Rev. 
 Dj-er Bali, m,a., m.d,, annotated by J, Dyer Ball, 
 
-232 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 FANS. — There can scarcely be any other nation on 
 earth that uses such quantities of fans : amongst us. the use 
 of the fan is confined to the gentler sex. and it would be 
 considered effeminate, or at all events singular, for a gentle- 
 man to sport one. With the Chinese, fans are used as much 
 by the one sex as by the other, and particular makes or 
 forms are confined in their use to the male sex. All sorts of 
 materials are employed in their construction, the palm leaf, 
 which nature seems almost to have designed as an object 
 lesson and a hint, being one of the most commou ; silk, 
 paper, bamboo, feathers, and other things, are also used. 
 The largest size of palm leaf, nearly a yard in diameter, of an 
 orbicular shape, has a neat rim braided round it, the stalk 
 formintr the natural handle This gigantic size is placed in 
 the hands of slave-girls, and other female domestics, to 
 perform the duty which the poet inveighed against so 
 strongly in the well-known lines : — 
 
 ' I would not have a slave to till my ground, 
 To carry me, to fan me while I sleep. 
 And tremble when I wake, for all the wealth 
 That sinews bought and sold have ever earned.' 
 
 The smaller kind of the same shape, and of which such 
 large quantities are exported to America — the common 
 palm-leaf fan — is used by the lower classes, and it is curious 
 to notice the variety of uses to which this fan is put in 
 China : it serves to blow up the wooden or charcoal fire in 
 the earthenware furnaces instead of a pair of bellows ; old 
 torn-down looking seamstresses pin it on the top of their 
 hair to serve as a hat ; it also does duty as a sunshade ; it 
 is used, in common with other fans, as a duster to fan or flap 
 away the dust off a seat, or to cool the chair before offering 
 it to a visitor; to drive out the mosquitoes out of the 
 .mosquito net ; to fan the restless baby to sleep ; to cool the 
 hungry youngster's food ; and it comes in handy for many 
 another purpose. 
 
FANS. 233 
 
 There is a great variety of fans, and the foHowing 
 classification embraces many, thougli not all of them, viz.: — 
 Feather fans, folding fans, and screen fans ; the latter are of 
 a variety of shapes, ' round, octagonal, sexagonal or 
 ■polygonal.' The young Chinese exquisite in his robes of silk 
 and satin, generally carries, at the proper seasons, one of 
 them in his hand, the gift perchance of some artistic and 
 literary friend, who has embellished it with a landscape in 
 black and white, and/or a few lines from his pen in either 
 prose or poetry. We give an inscription on one of these 
 fans which was presented to a European. It not only gives 
 an idea of what such inscriptions may be, but also shows 
 what a Chinese complimentary letter is like. We have 
 changed the names from what they were in the original : — 
 
 ' The noteworthy visit you paid me some time ago has filled my 
 humble cottage with glory. I believe you are a virtuous man whose 
 object it is to benefit the world with your kind heart, which is ready to 
 afford free services to the distressed it comes in sight of. This being 
 its policy, many a poor sufferer has had his chronic disease removed 
 and got immediate relief from great difficulties. How greatly in need 
 is this class of people ! Furthermore, our unexpected iTieeting has 
 quickly made us bosom friends. That a man so forsaken by the 
 world as myself can gain so true a friend as you is rare. It has given 
 me great consolation to hear of your promotion to the post ot Chief 
 Medical Officer. Your success is the result of your repeated good 
 deeds which always multiply one's blessings : The Eye of Heaven 
 clearly sees our human actions. Though I am not worthy of your 
 friendship, I sincerely hope you will not forget me after you have lel't 
 here for your new appointment. Send me advice and instruction to 
 amend my defects. True affection forbids me to forget you or to cease 
 thinking of you. May there still be a time lor our future meeting and 
 companionship is my earnest prayer. 
 
 Kwong-sui, 1 6th year, 9ih moon in autumn. Written in the 
 Tsing Ming Tai Tak Fort, Kwong-tung province, for the use of Dr. 
 Cheung-lei. Scribbled by Chau Yau (z//.'Z5 Sik Ping.' 
 
 The silk of which some of these fans are made is 
 actually spun by the silkworm on the bamboo frame which 
 surrounds the fan. This may seem incredible, but the 
 writer has in his possession a small disc of silk, a few inches 
 in diameter, spun in the lid of a tin canister, and given to 
 him by a friend in whose house it liad actually been 
 produced. It therefore requires no credulity to believe that 
 
234 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 a fail somewhat larger could be thus made. The folding ftui 
 is universal throughout China, from the cheap affair, of 
 course bamboo splints and black paper with a few splashes 
 of gilt, to the more expensive kinds ; though the gorgeous 
 folding fans that are sent to Europe and America are not 
 used by the Chinese themselves — they are simply made to 
 please the outside barbarian. In Canton simple white ones 
 can be bought witli maps of the city on them ; the Chinese 
 map-maker has, however, adapted his map to the shape 
 of tlie fan. Many of the feather fans are lyre-shaped, 
 with a white bone or ivory handle, and eight, ten, 
 or a dozen long feathers ranged in order — a fan fit to 
 meet the requirements of fastidious gentlemen. A lady 
 sports one in which, perhaps nearly a score of feathers are 
 emfiloyed, and which, unlike the gentleman's long narrow 
 shape, is broader than long. In Amoy the writer procured a 
 curious fan which came from Formosa, a fibrous, somewhat 
 lyre-shaped, leaf having a few leaves or sprays as ornamen- 
 tations burnt into it with a hot iron. The Swatow fan is 
 another sort that is well-known : a bamboo tube, about the 
 thickness of a small finger, serves as the handle; to form the 
 framework, the bamboo above the handle is split into very 
 thin slips; the surface is paper, pasted over these slips, on 
 which some elegant figure or two, a bird, or some scene from 
 Chinese history, or mythology, is depicted ; the top is slightly 
 bent over. Tljis is one of the best of open fans to use. 
 
 It is amusing to see the vigorous Avay in which a 
 Chinese fans himself: not content with a languid stirring 
 of tlie air in front of his face and chest, he inserts the fan 
 under his jacket, both front and back, and applies it 
 vigorously till cooled, when his legs and arms will come iu 
 for an equal share of attention. 
 
 The ordinary way to carry a fan is in the hand, but 
 
 another convenient place for a folding one is the back of the 
 
 neck, or it is sometimes stuck by a tradesman into the top 
 
 of his stocking. It takes the place of a walking-stick with a. 
 
 . Chinese gentleman, as it gives him something to hold iu his 
 
FANS. 235 
 
 hand, and to flutter and Avave and gesticulate with, when 
 excited. With schoolmasters, it is constantly at hand to rap 
 a boy over the head or to call attention by t;ip[)lng the desk 
 with it. It serves to give point and emphasis to the public 
 speaker's periods ; when he has M-armed up to his subject and 
 his heated oratory has had its effect, and a cooler frame 
 and quieter manner will suit his next periods better, he 
 opens its folded ribs and with a few leisurely motions brings 
 down his temperature to its desired state ; it adds grace to 
 the faultless get-up of the jeanesse doree; while the youthful 
 bride is sheltered from the too inquisitive stare of the crowd 
 by her attendant's fan ; the over-heated coolie cools himself 
 with it as he rests a moment or two from his arduous toil ; 
 and the sweltering half-naked blacksmith has his apprentice 
 fan him Avhen engaged before the glowing forge ; the man- 
 darin has a huge imitation screen-fan of wood carried in his 
 reiiniie, which comes in useful when he meets a fellow 
 official with whom he has no time to waste in salutations 
 by the way, for their attendants interpose these wooden 
 fans, and neither official has seen the other, thus obviating 
 the necessity of stopping the processions and descending 
 from the sedan-chairs. 
 
 Folding fans may be used at any time of the year ; but 
 certain other fans are only to be used at certain seasons. 
 Thus palm-leaf fans and those made of goose feathers are for 
 summer. while wlien the weather is neither very cold nor 
 very hot — as in autumn, and likewise towards the latter part 
 of spring — circular silk fans are seen. Winter has no dis- 
 tinctive fans assigned to it, for the obvious reason that fans 
 arc not generally required in cold weather. 
 
 Fans are used in decorative art : open work spaces are 
 left in walls of that shape; papers for fans are painted, 
 mounted, and framed as pictures. Even the gods and genii 
 are sometimes represented with these indispensables of a hot 
 climate., some of them being capable of all sorts of magic. 
 
236 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 A deserted wife is, by that happy periphrasis so con- 
 stantly employed by the Chinese, known as 'an autumn fan ' 
 from the inscription written on a fan, and sent to her royal 
 master, by a lady of the Court, who found herself in this 
 unenviable position two thousand years ago. The pathetic 
 lines written on this memorable fan have been rendered into 
 English by Dr. Martin, as follows : — 
 
 LINES INSCRIBED ON A FAN. 
 
 (Written by Pan Tsieh Yu, a lady of the Court, a?id presejited to the 
 Emperor Cheng-ti of the Haji Dy?iasty, B.C. i8.) 
 
 Of fresh new silk, all snowy white, 
 
 And round as harvest moon, 
 A pledge of purity and love, 
 
 A small, but welcome boon — 
 
 While summer lasts, borne in the hand, 
 
 Or folded on the breast, 
 'Twill gently soothe thy burning brow, 
 
 And charm thee to thy rest. 
 
 But ah ! when autumn frosts descend, 
 
 And autumn winds blow cold. 
 No longer sought, no longer loved, 
 
 'Twill lie in dust and mould. - 
 
 This silken fan, then deign accept, 
 
 Sad emblem of my lot. 
 Caressed and cherished for an hour, 
 
 Then speedily forgot. 
 
 B whs recommended. — An article "On Chinese Fans' that originally 
 appeared in 'Fraser's Magazine' and also in 'Historic China and other 
 Sketches' bj^ H. A. Giles, published by De la Rue & Co., p. 294. For an 
 amusing skit on the fickleness of the female sex and on marriage, one is 
 referred to Davis's 'China and the Chinese,' Vol. 2, p. 119 et seq., where 
 the story of a widow fanning her late husband's grave is given. 
 
 FILIAL PIETY.— Yi\m\ piety is the greatest of all 
 virtues in the Chinese eyes, while disobedience is the greatest 
 of all crimes. From his early childhood the child is trained 
 up, as far as books are concerned, in this idea, while at the 
 same time he is spoiled by the doting love of fond parents, 
 mixed with such a portion, however, of severity, that the 
 ■compound of bitter-sweet treatment produces on the whole 
 
FILIAL PIETY. 237 
 
 better results than might reasonably be expected ; the bitter, 
 generally coming after the sweets of" spoiled infancy, has 
 some effect in toning down the over-indulgence so lavishly 
 acted on. Filial piety is very wide-reaching in its applica- 
 tion among the Chinese. It concerns itself with a proper 
 care of their bodies, as these being received perfect from 
 their parents, it is their duty to preserve them. As regards 
 one's parents, it is, according to our Western ideas, most 
 exacting, though at the same time there is no doubt that if 
 the Chinese have erred too much in going to one extreme, 
 we have likewise erred in going to the other. Confucius 
 said, ' while a man's father is alive, look at the bent of his 
 will ; when his father is dead, look at his conduct. If for 
 three years he does not alter from the way of his father, 
 then he may be considered to be filial.' He also taught that 
 filial piety should be accompanied by reverence, and that its 
 duties should be performed with a cheerful countenance. It 
 is thought to militate against rebellion, and is considered to 
 be the sovirce of loyalty to the Sovereign. The way in which 
 it works is thus expressed in the ' Classic of Filial Piety ' : — 
 
 ' Filial duty is the root of virtue, and the stem from which 
 instruction in the moral principle springs. * '■' * •". The first 
 thing which filial duty requires of us is, that we carefully preserve 
 from all injury, and in a perfect state, the bodies which we have 
 received from our parents. And when we acquire for ourselves a 
 station in the world, we should regulate our conduct by correct princi- 
 ples so as to transmit our name to future generations, and reflect glory 
 on our parents. This is the ultimate aim of filial duty. Thus it 
 commences in attention to parents, is continued through a course of 
 services rendered to the prince, and is completed by the elevation of 
 ourselves.' 
 
 As Archdeacon Gray remarks in his book, ^China' : 'The 
 Chinese Government is only to be understood through the 
 relation which exists between a father and his son.' 
 
 Instances of extraordinary self-denial are constantly 
 occurring amongst the Chinese on the part of children 
 towards their parents. They undergo imprisonment at times 
 in their stead, but, what is still more strange, they cut out 
 pieces of their own flesh, cook it, and give it to them to eat,- 
 
238 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 when seriously ill and when other remedies have failed; it 
 seems to be a never-failing cure to judge from the accounts 
 that appear in t!ie native newspapers concerning it. The 
 youths are incited to these and other acts of devotion by the 
 recital of instances of self-denial on behalf of parents. There 
 are twenty-four of these stories of paragons of filial piety. 
 One thawed through the ice on a pond, by lying naked on it, 
 and then caught carp, of which his mother was fond. 
 Another went into the bed at night to let the mosquitoes 
 liave their fill on him before his parents should retire to rest- 
 Another, though seventy years old, played like a child to 
 amuse his aged father and mother. As an instance of the 
 great lengths to which the Chinese go in this respect, a 
 father was preparing to bury alive his only child of three 
 years of age, as poverty was so pressing that there was a 
 ^difficulty in supporting his mother ; Heaven intervened, how- 
 ever, for when digging, he came across a pot of gold. One 
 sees in ancestral worship the full development of filial piety 
 when the parents and ancestors are deifi.ed and divine honours 
 are paid to them, with, however, it must be confessed, a very- 
 selfish feeling for the great part, for the raison cVetre of 
 ancestral Avorship is founded mainly upon a desire to pro- 
 pitiate the departed spirits, and thus ensure prosperity to 
 themselves. ^^See Article on Ancestral Worship). 
 
 A great deal of filial piety is mere ceremonial observance 
 
 with but little real heart at the bottom of it, and there are 
 
 as unfilial sons to be found in China as in our own land, still, 
 
 at the same time, it must be good for the youth of this vast 
 
 empire, teeming with future men and women, to have such a 
 
 high standard, on the whole, held up for their guidance. 
 
 Bo(ili'!< rc'C(ym in ended: — Legge's 'Chinese Classics.' ' Tlie Sacred 
 Edict' translated by Rev. W. Milne. 'Chinese Eepositorj-,' Vol. X.. j). 1<)4. 
 Doolittle's ' Social Life of the Chinese,' Vol. I., p. 4i"j2 et seq. 
 
 FIRECRACKERS AND FIREWORKS.— The Chinese 
 are essentially a noisy people- —all Orientals are. Spending 
 so much time out of doors has doubtless something to 
 do Avith their noisy way of talking ; for they will shout 
 
FIRECRACKERS AND FIREWORKS. 239 
 
 nt each other when a quiet whisper w<juld servo tlieir 
 purpose as well, if not better. Their music, much of it at 
 least, is noisy — what with clash of cymbals, clang of gongs, 
 the loud sounding drum, the harsh untuued flageolets and 
 the shrill flutes, and the entire absence of piano effects, one 
 must suppose that the constant forte and fortisshno is 
 as entertaining as the softest and sweetest song without 
 words is to our ears. And the crackers — the firecrackers — 
 here is a perfect apotheosis of noise. A perfect carnival 
 of uproar and deafening sound is produced, especially at 
 New Year's time, by their almost continuous discharge, for at 
 that joyous season a perfect pandemonium reigns rampant. 
 Woe betide the foreigner in a native city then, or even in 
 the British Colony of Hongkong itself where their discharge 
 is limited to a certain period of shorter duration than the 
 unrestrained jubilation of the unfettered Chinese is content 
 wdth. Sleep is almost out of the question at night while 
 house after house and shop after shop lets off" its strings of fire- 
 crackers, the rattling of the small artillery being accentuated 
 by a louder boom every little while from a bomb of larger 
 size. The only grain of comfort to the foreigner, while this 
 uproarious din is in full swing, is that the foul spirits of 
 disease are exorcised by the plentiful supply of sulphur 
 fumes floating in the air and penetrating into every nook and 
 cranny. His matter-of-fact nature refuses to believe that the 
 monotonous fusilade of crackers will put to flight the fell 
 and foul spirits that love to lurk about the haunts of men; 
 for such is the supposed rationale of their use by the Chinese, 
 therefore, at all joyous events — such as marriages, proces- 
 sions, saints' days, and feasts — immunity from ill has to be 
 purchased by their explosion. In the Hong Shan District 
 they are even discharged at the grave after the burial. The 
 cylindrical stem of the bamboo has, perhaps, given the idea 
 of the form of the firecrackers, and the crack made by the 
 splitting of bamboo may also have been suggestive. The 
 manufcicture of the universally used firecracker occupies tha 
 time, and helps to fill the purses, of many women and children 
 
240 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 in some parts of the country. The cracker frames are 
 tied, ends up, in bundles of the shape of a wheel, and the 
 women and girls fill in the powder. Numbers of them may 
 be seen thus employed, as well as busied with the other pro- 
 cesses of the manufacture, in Macao, 
 
 The following description of a pyrotechnic display will 
 give an idea of Chinese fireworks : — 
 
 'The Chinese are proficients in the pyrotechnic art, and the 
 fireworks which were exhibited at the end of this entertainment were 
 chefs d'amvre of skill— the four elements having been called into re- 
 quisition to furnish animals, birds, fishes, and reptiles, both real and 
 imaginary ; from whose bodies issued streams of flame. Five dragons 
 ascended into the air, and were metamorphosed into fire vomiting lions; 
 a huge bird, of some unkown species, fluttered in the air in a sheet of 
 flame, presently a huge serpent crawled from out of the beak of the 
 bird, and was lost to view in many tinted flames ; one large lantern 
 ascended, in a mass of fire, from which smaller lanterns issued, v\-hich 
 in their turn sent forth various and innumerable forms. On the back 
 of an enormous fish was seated a portly mandarin, from whose al- 
 dermanic corporation burst forth streams of fire, which appeared to 
 cause intense delight, and excite the greatest merriment amongst the 
 spectators. The last firework was by far the most beautiful and per- 
 fect, being completely artistic in its details ; this represented a man- 
 darin's house with the whole of the adjacent buildings belonging to 
 the residence, the roofs being ornamented with bells and figures ; this 
 burned for some time, and then changed into a mandarin seated in 
 his sedan-chair, with the usual train of attendants, bearing flags, 
 beating gongs, and carrying lanterns ; the effect of this mass of 
 many-coloured flames, defining the outline of the various forms, baffles 
 description ; and as the last sparks died away, we could have been 
 tempted to follow Oliver Twist's example and asked for more.' 
 
 FLOWERS.— The inhabitants of the 'Mowery Land,' 
 as China is called, are fond of flowers. No lady is dressed 
 without sweet-scented beautiful flowers stuck in her glossy 
 black hair, and the lower classes are glad to copy their 
 superiors whenever a holiday, or any event out of the 
 common, gives them the chance to bloom forth in Nature's 
 own adornments. Failing the natural, they have recourse to 
 artificial flowers some of which are very well made, especially 
 the pith flowers at Amoy, for which the place is famous. In 
 most houses, and even shops, a vase or two is found, if no- 
 where else, at least in front of the idol's shrine, where some 
 lovely chrysanthemums, white, yellow, or red, add a touch of 
 
FLOWERS. 241 
 
 colour ov beauty to the formal primness of the set and stifT 
 furniture. 
 
 At China New Year, flowers are all the rage. The 
 beautiful white and yellow narcissus with its long lance- 
 shaped stiff green leaves is par excellence the New Year's 
 flower. It is considered lucky to have the first bud open on 
 New Year's Day. Another variety has the leaves all gnarled, 
 being trained like crab's claws, and the plant, instead of 
 being tall and upright, is reduced by art into a curled and 
 curious-shaped looking object. Another essentially New 
 Year's flower is the fiu-chimg fu (Enkyanthus reticulatus). 
 Each blossom, about half an inch in length, hangs down like 
 a miniature bell from the woody branches, while the delicate 
 green of the new springing leaves forms a fine shade of 
 contrast to the pink and white of the innumerable tiny 
 flowers. These are not grown in the house, as the first is, 
 but branches of them are stuck into the quaint looking vases. 
 A branch of flower culture which we quite neglect in the- 
 West is that of fruit-blossoms. The Chinese cut off the 
 branches of fruit trees as they burst into bud, and the del- 
 icate tints of the peach, the white flowers of the plum, and 
 the tender blossoms of the almond, are all eagerly sought f )r, 
 to decorate their homes at that festive season of the year 
 Another common form of flower decoration is the employ- 
 ment of flower baskets. A wire framework, made into the 
 shape of a basket, is used, and the buds and blossoms 
 artistically arranged on it so as to completely hide it. These- 
 are hung up in the room or at the doors, and diffuse a 
 grateful od(nir through the heated apartments on a warm 
 summer's day. They are largely employed at weddings, as 
 well as at other times, nor are the designs confined only to 
 flower baskets. 
 
 There are no window plants, so esteemed by the better 
 class of artisans amongst us, as well as by others higher in 
 the social scale, but their place is sometimes taken by a- 
 solitary plant, often some woody non-flowering shrub, which 
 has been dwarfed with much ingenuity, and is tended witlx 
 
 
 
24.2 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 constant care — the ivhole object only some six inches in 
 lieight. but a perfect little tree in his way. This idea is 
 further developed at times, and a little rockery is produced, 
 frightful in its ruggedness, — an idealised bit of mountain 
 scenery — on projecting points of which toy arbours in 
 earthenware are perched, little paths meander from one to 
 the other, crossing the lilliputian gorges and ravines on 
 -equally small earthenware bridges, while below, and in front of 
 all, lies a tiny piece of water, in which gorgeous and grotesque 
 goldfish swim about. The heights above are covered at 
 -every vantage point with small clumps of dwarf bamboo, and 
 numerous other equally small trees and shrubs clothe with 
 greenness the bare masses of the dry rugged rock, all in 
 proportion with the minuteness of this morsel of quaint 
 imitation of nature's beauties looked at from a Chinese stand- 
 point — the whole affair only being a foot or two in height. 
 Infinite care and tender pains are taken in planting, watering, 
 and tending, this microcosm of a landscape, thus revealing 
 that the Chinese are not wanting in a love of Nature as seen 
 through their goggle-like spectacles. 
 
 Amongst flowers the tree-peony is highly esteemed, being 
 called ' the King of Flowers.' The skill of the Chinese has 
 been exercised in producing many varieties. Another flower 
 much thought of is the lotus. There is a white, as well as a 
 Ted, variety, and they are so highly cultivated as to cause the 
 petals to spring from the seed-holes even. They are magni- 
 £cent flowers with their delicately veined petals, quaint- 
 shaped seed repositories, and curious peltate leaves. They 
 are much used in Chinese decorative art, and form a fine 
 throne for a god or goddess to sit on in a state of ecstatic 
 and nirvana-like contemplation. 
 
 It is impossible to even enumerate all the beautiful 
 tlowers in Avhich the Chinese delight : the white tube-roses 
 laden at the evening hour with heavy perfume, roses with 
 but little scent, beautiful, double dahlias, lovely sweet-smelling 
 magnolias, pure white lilies, superb camellias, chrysanthe- 
 mums of different shades, and many others with no English 
 
FOOD. 243 
 
 names, a mere list of which would fill pages, and the use of 
 such terms as Tahemcemontrtna Coronarki jiore plena would 
 frighten the majority of our readers. 
 
 Most Chinese cut flowers are short-lived compared with 
 those in the West. Bouquets and button-holes have not 
 reached the Far East yet, as far as native use is concerned. 
 Many Chinese flowers have been introduced into the lands of 
 the West, and it is to be hoped that as foreign residents 
 have many varieties of English flowers in their own gardens, 
 the natives will in time add them to their stock of cultivated 
 plants, the best of the floral productions of both sides of the 
 globe being thus given in exchange. 
 
 Much attention is bestowed on plants by the Chinese, 
 and not a few monographs on flowers, such as the peony, 
 and chrysanthemum, have been written describing the 
 varieties and mode of culture, «&c., &c. 
 
 Books rec'omvwnrh'd. — See Article on Botany. 
 
 FOOD. — Most erroneous notions are current as to the 
 food of the Chinese, for it appears to be a generally received 
 -opinion that their common food consists of rats, cats, dogs, 
 and mice. It would be almost as true to say that the only 
 meat the French live on is that of horses, or that the English 
 are fond of snails, because some people in both these countries 
 esteem such as delicacies. Pork is the chief meat of the 
 Chinese in the south — in fact, in some of the southern 
 languages of China, the word meat is used to mean pork. 
 The consumption of fish, both fresh and salt, is enormous. ^ 
 Fowls are, also a favourite article of diet, and a little beef is ^ 
 also eaten. 
 
 There are one or two restaurants in Canton where dogs' 
 and cats' flesh can be bought. The writer has seen the 
 former hung up for sale in a shop, but both are rarely 
 consumed in comparison with other kinds of meat and food. 
 Our cats in Canton used to disappear, and one of them came 
 iome one day all wet, as if it had just escaped from the pot, 
 
 o 2 
 
244 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 but then we lived on the banks of the river, and the 
 boat people, like the gypsies, are not very particular as to 
 their food. Many of the respectable Chinese would feel as 
 much disgust at the idea of eating dogs, cats, rats, and mice, 
 as we do. We had at one time in our employ at Canton a 
 boy, a young fellow named A-ling, Avho got the sobriquet 
 of 'ratty A-ling' from his fellow servants, probably for the 
 twofold reason of his father being a rat-catcher, and because 
 when at home, he used to enjoy a meal of which the 
 chief dish consisted of these rodents; but none of the othe;' 
 servants would have touched one. , It is not an uncommon 
 sight to see dried rats hung up in shops with dried ducks 
 and a number of other dried-meats. A favourite dog of ours 
 was once killed by a snake, and Vvhen committmg his body 
 to the river, in Canton, a miserable leper seized 'hold of it 
 and took it into his wretched little sampan, notwithstanding 
 our warning as to the cause of the dog's "death. But in spite 
 of all these facts, Avhich only show that some Chinese eat 
 such food, we again repeat, it is not the case that dogs, cats, 
 rats, and mice, form the staple articles of diet of the people 
 as a whole. ■ ' f ; 
 
 At the same time, there are other articles of food whicli 
 to us appear as disgusting as our fondness for butter and- 
 cheese does to the Chinese. It is not every foreign stomach 
 that can stand the sight of hundreds of greenish-brown 
 worms, fresh from the rice fields, hawked about the streets 
 for sale ; nor do salted and pickled eggs, getting discoloured 
 by age, and eggs high, from long keeping, prove agreeable to 
 our palate, though why, we should so take our game and turn 
 with disgust from an egg in a similar condition is a mystery 
 to a Chinese. Silkworm grubs do not sound very tempting 
 to a foreign ear, yet the Chinese are very fond of them. 
 
 In some parts of China the poor people eat snakes ; for 
 instance, in the neighbourhood of Amoy; but as far as the 
 author could learn, it was the non-venomous ones that were 
 eaten. In some districts of the Canton province, the same 
 horrible reptiles form articles of diet, but it is a question 
 
FOOD. 245 
 
 nvhether, under the same name, other reptiles of a simiarl 
 shape and form may not be included. In Swatow, the author 
 saw a man hawking long, brown snakes, in a basket, for food. 
 There were three or four of them tied with strings round the 
 neck, the strings being fastened to the top of the basket to 
 prevent their escape. They are rather an expensive article 
 of diet, costing about seventy cents each. They are used to 
 make soup. 
 
 Birds' nests, sharks' fins, and fish maws, come more 
 under the name of curious articles of diet, than disgusting : 
 for the first are gelatinous and not like 'ordinary birds' nests 
 (See Article on Birds' Nests) ; and the second and third are 
 so cleaned and washed that they are as clean as any articles 
 eaten by us. 
 
 In the South of China rice is the principal vegetable 
 food, but instead of vegetables being an adjunct to the meat, 
 as with us, the meat is taken as a tasty article with the rice, 
 which is the staple article of diet. Either dried, salt, or 
 fresh vegetables are eaten at nearly every meal. 
 
 The Chinese, like the French, have nominally two meals. 
 One about 8 or 10 o'clock in the morning, and the other at 5 
 or 6 in the evening, or thereabouts. With the poorer classes 
 these consist of a number of bowls of rice — cooked till so dry 
 that each grain is separate- — a little pork or fish, salt or 
 fresh, and some fried vegetables. Everything of meat kind is 
 choped up fine, as- the Chinese would think it barbarous to 
 cut up anything at the tableland also to enable the chop- 
 sticks to pick it up it has to be in little pieces. A drink of 
 tea from the rice bowl finishes the frugal meal. The dinner 
 is the same as the breakfast. This then is the ordinary 
 everyday food of millions in the South of China, and costs only 
 about a couple of dollars a month. The more a man has, 
 the more he expends on liis food both as regards quality and 
 quantity, and as a cons.equence he has a more varied fare. 
 Though nominally only taking two set meals a day, nearly 
 every one talf,es, a snack about the middle of the day, it may 
 
246 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 be only a few cakes, as the Chinese clerks in the Government- 
 offices in Hongkong indulge in ; it may be a bowl of fish 
 congee, or some other tasty soup or dish from the numerous 
 restaurants, or from some of the many refreshment stalls, 
 stationary and peripatetic. 
 
 Some of the hard-toiling labourers, when there is a con- 
 stant demand on physical strength or muscle, take a number 
 of meals to prime them up for their work, such for instance 
 as some of the boatmen on the rivers in the South of China, 
 who work from daylight to sunset, and to whom fi.ve meals a 
 day are allowed, when in work. 
 
 Chinese food, like Frfnch, does not consist of roasts, but 
 of a multitude of made-up dishes. Peanut oil and soy are- 
 added to them, and soups and broths are much taken. 
 
 The Chinese as far as their own food is concerned, are 
 born cooks. Among the lower classes almost any man can 
 turn his hand to preparing the simple dislies, and in workraens'' 
 messes it is the youngest hand (the apprentice) who has the 
 drudgery of the cooking to do. 
 
 The dinners to which the foreign residents or travellers 
 are sometimes invited by the Chinese, bear about the same 
 relation to an everyday dinner, that a Lord Mayor's or Fish- 
 mongers' Hall dinner does to an ordinary one given by pater- 
 familias in the bosom of his family. As a sample of these grand 
 dinners in Hongkong the menu of the one to which the Duke of 
 Connaught was invited will be found below. We must, 
 however, state that some of the dishes were added for the 
 benefit of the foreign visitors who wanted something more 
 substantial than the numerous broths and slops of a Chinese 
 fine dinner, for one rises from such a function with a vague 
 feeling of having tasted of an infi.nite variety of unknown 
 dishes, but, notwithstanding the hours spent at the table,, 
 with an unsatisfied feeling that would require a good. 
 English dinner of solid food to remove. 
 
FOOD. 24>r 
 
 MENU. 
 
 1. Birds' Nest Soup. 2. Stewed Shell Fish. 3. Cassia Mushrooms. 
 
 4. Crab and Sharks' Fins. 5. Roast Beef (i\ I'Anglaise). 
 
 6. Koast Gliicken and Hani. 7. Pigeons' Eggs. 
 
 8, ' Promotion ' (Boiled Quail, &c.) 9. Fried Marine Delicacies, 
 
 10. Roast Turkey and Ham (il I'Anglaise). 
 
 11. Fish«glills. 12. Larded Quails. 13. Sliced Teal. 
 
 14. Peking Mushrooms. 15. Roast Pheasant (A, I'Anglaise). 
 
 1(5. Winter Mushrooms. 17, Roast Fowl and Ham. 
 
 18. Beche-de-Mer. li). Sliced Pigeon. 
 20. Snipe (a, I'Anglaise. 21. Macaroni (k la Peking). 
 
 SIDE DISHES. 
 
 Cold Roast Sucking Pi?. 
 
 Cold Roast Fowl. Cold Roast Duck. 
 
 Cold Roast Mutton. ■ 
 
 Table dishes. 
 
 Cold Sausages. 
 
 Prawns. Preserved Egg's. Livers. 
 
 &c., &c., &c. 
 
 FRUITS. 
 
 Preserved Apples. 
 
 Citrons. Tientsin Pears. Pomegranates. Carambolas. 
 
 Greengages. Pine Apples. 
 
 &c., &c., &c. 
 
 . (PASTRY. 
 Sweet Lotus Soup. Almond Custard. Rice. 
 &c., &c., &c. 
 
 WINES. 
 
 Champagne (Krug). 
 
 Claret. Orange Wine. Rice Wine. Rose Dhu. 
 
 • Optimus ' Wine. Pear Wine. 
 
 We give a few Chinese receipts which we have trans- 
 hited from a Chinese Cookery Book : — 
 
 Steamed Sharks' Fins. 
 
 The manner of washing sun-dried sharks' fins is [as follows] : — 
 First take the fins [as bought] and place in a cooking pan, add wood- 
 ashes and boil in several waters. Then take out and scrape away the 
 roughness [on the fins]. If not clean, boil again, and scrape ag:ain, 
 until properly clean. Then change the water and boil again. Take 
 out, take away the flesh, and keep only the fins. Then boil once 
 again. Put in spring water. Be careful in changing water, and 
 thoroughly soak them, for it is necessary that the lime-taste should 
 be taken out of them. Then put the fins into soup, stew three times- 
 
-248 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 till quite tender. Dish in a bowl, placing crab meat below them, and 
 add a little ham on the top. The taste is clear and chiirty (i.e. neither 
 tender nor tough, something like the taste of pomeloes at times). 
 
 Chicken with the liquor of Fermented Rice. 
 
 Take the bones out of a chicken and steam till just ready. 
 Take out and let it cool. Cut into thin slices. Take gelatinous rice, 
 which has been fermented with yeast and water add||l, and cook with 
 this far two hours, afterwards add the juice expressed from fresh 
 ginger, soy, sesamum, and oil, of each a little. Mix together with 
 boiled peanut oil. Dish and add fragrant herbs. 
 
 Genii duck. 
 
 Take a fat duck. Open and clean. Take two mace of salt and 
 rub over it both outside and in. Put into an earthen dish and take 
 oi/afi spirits one cup, and put the cup with the spirits inside the duck. 
 Do not let the spirits spill on to the duck ; only the vapour of the 
 spirit is wanted. Steam over water till quite tender. Lift out the 
 wine-cup into a bowl. Done in this way, there is no need of minor 
 vegetables. 
 
 THE FORETGNER IN FAR CATHAY.— \i the 
 
 record of Chinese intercourse with the West is interesting, it 
 must be admitted that the accounts of the adventures and 
 travels of foreigners in the distant land of Cathay are also 
 full of interest and adventure. Are they not to be found 
 Tecorded in the innumerable volumes published during the 
 past few centuries; are they not chronicled in the old- 
 fashioned language of mediseval writers, so full of wonders 
 as to astound their contemporaries who often would have 
 none of these travellers tales, and treated them as Baron 
 Munchausens? 
 
 The achievements of commerce, though in the general 
 written in a soberer strain, sometimes almost approach the 
 interest of a romance. There are fragmentary records of the 
 early trade of the Chinese with neighbouring and distant 
 nations in the dim remote periods of antiquity; but the 
 origin and earlier transactions of this primitive period are 
 lost in the hazy oblivion of ancient times. The Serica vestis 
 tempted the practical Roman merchants to undergo hardships 
 and difficult journeys of which the majority of our present- 
 day merchants know but little; nor less adventurous were 
 the long journeys of the Arab traders. The Portuguese, who 
 took such a leading position in the van of nations in the 
 
THE FOREIGNER IN FAR CATHAY. 219 
 
 sixteenth century, had the honour of being the pioneers of 
 modern European commerce to China, in the-year A.D. 151G. 
 They were followed in later years by the Spanish, Dutch, 
 and Russians. 'The intercourse of the English with China, 
 thoucjh it commenced later than other maritime nations O'f 
 Europe, has been far more important in its consequences, 
 and their trade greater in amount than all other foreign 
 nations combined.' It commenced in A.D. 1635. American 
 trade with China began in A.D. 1784-. {See Article on Trade). 
 
 At the present day there are different settlements of 
 foreigners at different ports on the coast and on the large 
 rivers, while, scattered here and there throughout the empire, 
 may be found some solitary individuals and families. 
 
 The larger proportion of foreigners in China at the 
 
 present day are British subjects. In 1890 the different 
 
 nationalities in China were represented as follows : 
 
 French ....589 
 
 Germans 64S 
 
 Italians 74 
 
 Japanese 883 
 
 Portuguese ...'...610 
 Russians 131 
 
 making a total of 8,081. 
 
 It mtist be remembered that Hongkong and Macao are 
 not included in this return, as they are not a portion of the 
 Chinese empire politically, though as far as geograpliy is 
 concerned they are. The total of Europeans and Americans 
 in the British Colony of Hongkong, by the census of 1891, 
 was 8,54^, or total British and Foreign community 10,44<6. 
 According to returns made in 1879, there were 4,476 
 Portuguese in Macao, and 78 of other nationalities not Chinese. 
 
 An interesting subject to enlarge upon would be the 
 
 benefits that this foreign intercourse with China has conferred 
 
 •on her, as well as a view of the other side of the case, but, 
 
 though tempting, we must forbear. 
 
 Batiks rc'CODnjiendad.^Ainongsi, othev books that might be named as 
 containing interesting notices of foreign intercourse Avith China, maj' be 
 mentioned William's ' Middle Kingdom,' ' The Chinese Repository,' and 
 ■* The China Review.' 
 
 Austrians 65 
 
 Brazilians 2 
 
 Belgians 28 
 
 British 3,317 
 
 Danish 81 
 
 Dutch 4.1 
 
 Spanish 304 
 
 Swedes and ) 
 Norwegians J "" ■'•' 
 United States, \ . ,., 
 Citizens ot the J ' ^-^ 
 
250 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 FORFEITS.— The Chinese have a noisy game of 
 forfeits often played at the dinner-table at feast times. It 
 consists in the player flinging out one or more fingers of the 
 hand, and shouting out a number, when the other, who is 
 playing with him, must instantly fling out as many of his 
 fingers as will, if added to the number mentioned by his 
 opponent, make up the total to ten, and while doing this he 
 also shouts out the number of his fingers that he throws out. 
 If a mistake is made, the one who makes it has to drink a 
 cup of spirits as a forfeit. As they proceed, the party of six 
 eight, or ten, at table, get more and more excited and 
 boisterous, and the shouting at the top of their voices proves 
 very exasperating to any Europeans who may unfortunately 
 have their residences near to those of the Chinese. Such a. 
 nuisance is this noisy game, that the playing of it after 11 
 o'clock at night is prohibited in Hongkong by Ordinance. 
 
 Looking at it from another point of view, this game of 
 ehdi-mui (chai mooee) is a most interesting one, as the- 
 Italians have a similar game, whicli they call morra, in 
 France it is known as mourre, while the ancient Egyptian^j^ 
 had some corresponding game as represented on their sculp- 
 tures, and the Romans had their onicare digitis over which, 
 butchers and their customers gambled for bits of meat, from, 
 which game descended the Italian one already mentioned. 
 
 FRUIT — One of the advantages of living in a hot 
 climate is the quantity of fruit that one gets. After a long 
 residence in the East, one notices on a i-eturn to Europe- 
 unless it be in a plentiful strawberry season, how much more 
 readily one can get fruit morning, noon, and night in the 
 East than in the West. There is quantity in the East, but 
 quality (with regard to many fruits) in the West; for after all 
 few fruits are superior to those grown in hot-houses in England. 
 This is, however, not so much the fault of the fruit, as the 
 fault or misfortune of the cultivator ; for it is often due to 
 circumstances over which he has no control. As a rule, 
 unless the fruit is plucked Avhen yet unripe it will spoil 
 with the heat before.^he alow means of locomotion available 
 
FRUIT. 25! 
 
 would allow of its being conveyed to its destination. One 
 can try to imagine what would become of our vaunted 
 hot-house productions were they all plucked wliile green — 
 pears picked while hard, strawberriers gathered before they 
 were ripe, and a week taken in carrying them to the market. 
 
 In the South of China, at Hongkong, Canton, and Macao 
 (for in some other places, such as Ainoy, fruits are scarcer, 
 though in Swatow they seem plentiful and of fine quality) 
 there is a succession of fruit nearly the whole year through ; 
 for not only is there such a variety of it indigenous to the 
 soil, but so many different kinds liave been introduced during 
 the last few centuries from foreign countries, that before 
 one has had time to get tired of one sort, another has 
 succeeded it— sometimes all too soon. Oranges are very 
 common in the South, having been introduced from that 
 part of China into Europe in A.D. 1548 by the Portuguese. 
 The German name, Apfelsina, shows their origin, while the 
 Italian name, Portugallo, points out their introducers in the 
 West. The common coolie orange, however, differs rather 
 from those brought to England from Spain at the present 
 day, perhaps tlio change of soil, climate, and cultivation, 
 have caused a difference in the fruit. The small kat-Uai, as 
 they are called in China, but erroneously named ' mandarin 
 oranges ' in London, have a fine acid taste, and were only 
 brought into Europe in the present century. The real 
 mandarin orange, or chil-shd kat, is a much larger fruit — 
 larger even in diameter than the common coolie orange, 
 which last is the shape and size of the ordinary kind in 
 England. It is the finest of all, having a skin of a cinnabar 
 red colour very loosely adherent to the fruit itself, the 
 segments of which are much larger in every way than the 
 small kat (though the shape of the two varieties is much 
 the same), and without the acid taste, but very juicy and 
 sweet. It is much dearer and rarer than the smaller one, or 
 than the coolie, or ' tight skin.' 
 
 Of plantains there are numerous varieties, amongst 
 which may be named the coarse large ones — almost unfit to 
 
252 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 eat raw — the ' dragons' tusks/ ' fragrant plantains,' ' over-the- 
 hill plantains,' and others. One sort or another, with but 
 few breaks, carries one through the year, while the oranges 
 are a winter fruit. 
 
 Amongst other indigenous fruits in the Canton province, 
 may be named : — first, the whampee, as it is generally spelled, 
 a yellow skinned fruit, as its name implies, and pendent 
 in clusters from the glossy-leaved trees which produce it, 
 about the size' of a grape, tart, and nearly filled with two, 
 three, or four, comparatively speaking, large and greenish 
 stones. Second, the li-chi, better known in England by 
 the dried ones, which are exported there in some quantities, 
 but the pulp of which, being shrivelled into a dryish, sweetish, 
 black substance round the dark stone, gives no idea of the 
 taste of the fresh fruit. The skin, when fresh, is more like 
 a shell, being rough and of a bright, red colour, like a very 
 large round strawberry, when seen at a distance. Inside this 
 is a thin white membrane, enclosing the watery translucent 
 pulp of a sweetish taste surrounding the brownish-black ovoid 
 stone.- The colour of the fruit is like that of a glass of water 
 with a few drops of milk mixed in it. There are two or three 
 kinds of li-chis, the best variety has a very small stone. Third, 
 the lung-ngan or 'dragons ' eyes,' is a fruit about the size of a 
 li-chi with a yellowish-green skin, a large stone, and a watery 
 pulp of a disagreeable, rawish taste, though the Chinese and 
 a few Europeans are fond of it. Fourth, the lo-quat, which 
 Williams describes as a kind of medlar. There is a thin 
 yellow skin adherent to the fruit, and within, in a cavity in 
 the centre of the fruit, is a seed or two. The fruit is not 
 unpleasant in taste. 
 
 The peaches, when ripe, are good, though smaller than 
 the English hot-house ones. There are two or three varieties 
 of the common kind, one being the Eagle bill, with the point 
 prolonged and a curious kind, somewhat like a very small apple 
 in shape but more flattened, the stone inside partaking of the 
 spheroid form. - 
 
FRUIT. 253 
 
 There are two varieties of pear ; one lianl, like a turnip, 
 rather sweet in taste, but better when cooked, and srrowin"- 
 in the South ; the other conies fVoUi Tien-tsin, and is much 
 nicer, being sweeter and more juicy in its turnipy Substance. 
 Grapes are also brought from the North, a few are grown in 
 the South, but very different are both pears and grapes fnjm 
 English ones. Apples come from the North of China, but 
 are very spongy in taste. 
 
 The mango is a flattish, oblong fruit of»a bright, yellow 
 gold colour and very nice, having, however, a slight tur- 
 pentine taste. It is a fruit overflowing in its juiciness. 
 The best come from Saigon and Manila, whence they are 
 brought over in steamers. 
 
 China has not only given the orange to Europe, but has 
 on the otlier hand benefited by the introduction of not a few 
 fruits from other parts of the world, amongst which may be 
 mentioned the pineapple, which was cultivated as early as 
 A.D. 1594, in China, 'to which it was brought from the 
 Western shore of America through the Philippines.' The 
 custard apple also, as it name in Chinese— /cm-^ai-c/it, 
 foreign li-chi — implies, is a foreign introduction, and is 
 identical with the sweet sop of the West Indies. Besides this 
 there is that most curious of fruits, the carambola, called 
 by the Chinese the ydng-t'b, or foreign peach, though why 
 this name should have been selected is a mystery, for when 
 cut through, it looks like a star with five rays. By Europeans 
 it is also known as the Cape gooseberry. There is another 
 variety called the sdm-nirn, which is sourer than the other. 
 
 There is also the guava, having a smell something 
 like onions. The Amoy pumelo is ^ fine fruit, the shaddock 
 of the West Indies. There are two or three varieties 
 of persimmons ; a yellow hard kind, a bright red, soft 
 sort, about the size and shape of a middling sized apple, 
 and a small, red variety somewhat like a small egg. There 
 are also several varieties of plums, and the sour arbutus, 
 which, however, is sweeter and better at Swatow than at 
 Canton. The jack-fruit is also found in China, and the 
 
254 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 roseapple, a highly scented fruit about the size of a small 
 apple and of the form of a hollow sphere, the seeds being inside 
 the hollow part. The pomegranite. as produced here, is not 
 eatable, consisting mainly of a dry mass of seeds. In the north 
 of China the fruits are more of the European type — apricots 
 and strawberries, besides some we have already mentioned. 
 
 GARDENS. — Here is again a word, like many other 
 words, which represents a different idea in China from what 
 it does in the West. One who comes to China prepared to 
 see the beautiful beds, the grouping of colours, and blending 
 of shades, the massing of foliage, the parterres, the trim 
 gravel Avalks, the grass lawns, and the tout ensemble that 
 goes to make up the idea represented by the word garden 
 amongst us, must be prepared to be disappointed. In their 
 place are fantastic masses of artificial rockwork, or pools 
 filled with the large, rich, green, disc-like leaves of the lotus 
 while the formal but lovely red flowers give some warmth or 
 colour to the scene. A Chinese garden must have a sugges- 
 tion, at least, of water : if nothing else, a tiny pond with 
 artificial rockwork and a bridge — a veritable arch — up which 
 one climbs to its top and descends on the other side. At 
 times, as on the earth's surface, water abounds more than 
 the dry land, for numerous sheets of water take up the space 
 which would be occupied in Western lands by flower beds ; 
 but still the flower beds are not foregone : in other words, 
 the Chinese have no flower beds on land, but their flower 
 beds are in the water; for the still surface of the ponds is 
 embellished with the large, round, peltate leaves of the lotus, 
 having a stiff beauty of their own, relieved in the summer 
 months by the many petaled, purple, chalice-like flowers borne 
 on their long, green stalks above the leaves, and rising from 
 the underlying mud — a Buddhist emblem; for 'as it lifts up 
 its buds out of the slimy ground to a greater or less height 
 above the water, unfolding its leaves and flowers, on whose 
 spotless petals no traces are to be found of the mire from 
 which it has sprung, so the souls of men * * rise from the 
 .slime of sin, by their own power and eflFort, to difierent 
 
GARDENS. 255 
 
 lieights. and reach the blessedness of Nirvana.' Later on 
 when the petals are scattered and have floated aMay like 
 tiny boats, the green an(;l curious shaped seed vessels are 
 seen. Bridges, as we have said, cross these ponds, while 
 kiosks, or summer-houses, are placed here and there, in the 
 midst of the water or on land, as fancy suggests. Here 
 picnics or summer parties are held, and the literary tastes of 
 the guests are met by the quotations from the classics hung 
 up by the hundreds under the roofs of the sheltered walls, 
 while the votaries of the histrionic art have their tastes pro- 
 vided for by a stage erected especially for that purpose. 
 Larger buildings are scattered about the grounds, fitted with 
 the straight-backed and antique-looking blackwood chairs, 
 matched with teapoys and sofas, while rustic-looking 
 stools stand about, formed each of a mass of rock, supported 
 on a wooden stand of three legs. Those who have not been 
 in the tropics know nothing of the luxury of one of these 
 cold, smooth, stone seats on a hot summer's day. 
 
 The plants are ranged in rows in hundreds of coarse, 
 earthenware pots, or at the best, green glazed ones supported 
 on similar stands or on' wooden ones. Very few, if any, 
 flowers are planted in the ground. Plants of privet are 
 trained into figures of animals and men, to which eyes, hands, 
 feet, and hats of earthenware are added. Long rows of these, 
 interspersed with flowers and shrubs, all in flower pots, line 
 the walks. Trees are allowed to grow in certain places, but 
 there are no ferneries, no glass-houses, and, though the 
 minutest care is taken in the cultivation, the results do not 
 produce what we would look upon as a garden. Gardens, in 
 this Chinese sense of the terra, are attached to temples, to 
 ancestral halls, or form the pleasure grounds of wealthy 
 gentlemen, and are sometimes, in the latter case especially, 
 of considerable extent. ]\[ost Chinese who can afford it, or 
 who have the space for it, have a few flowers, or shrubs, in 
 pots, some rockery work, and a little water with gold fish, in 
 the inner part of their house, or congeries of buildings which 
 do duty for a mansion. 
 
256 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 GEOGRAPHY.— The China of to-day is not the China 
 of ancient times ; its boundaries have extended greatly while 
 the history of the Middle Kingdom was being made. Unlike 
 England, which had to go beyond the sea to add to her empire, 
 the nucleus of the Chinese people had all around them their 
 grand future, and having acted well up to their possibilities^ 
 these have developed into the actualities of their present 
 extended dominions^ — dominions which, with all their 
 tribute bearing neighbours, form the most extensive 'ever 
 swayed by a single 'power in any age or any part of the 
 world.' The germs of this mighty realm are supposed to be 
 found some thousands of years before Christ in a nomadic 
 people in the present pi'ovince of Shen-si. Settling in villages, 
 they become tradesmen and agriculturists, and from the dim 
 mists of myths and tradition, amidst which scarce anything 
 can be seen clearly or Avith certainty, we find the empire 
 growing, getting the sea-board as a boundary, and extending 
 its limits, We do not intend in the course of "this short 
 article to give a historical account of the geographical growth 
 of the empire. It would lead us, were we to do so, far 
 beyond our limits, and its scope would necessitate an account 
 of all the petty states into which, at times, China was divided. 
 Suffice it to say, that for many centuries China did not extend 
 beyond the great River, the Yang-tsz-kiang. Eventually 
 , an offshoot was sent south into the eastern portion of 
 the present Kiang-nan, and, like the rootlets from the banian 
 tree, grew and formed finally another trunk to support the 
 tree of empire, which was destined to gradually cover the 
 whole land. For a long period the extreme South of China 
 was not embraced in the realm except as a tributary state 
 or with spasmodic attempts at Government, but at last the 
 bonds which united it with the northern portion were 
 strengthened until it formed an integral portion of China. 
 
 The present dynasty has recovered much of the territory 
 that was lost under the last, the Ming, till now it is nearly 
 equal to what it was under Kublai Khan, when Marco PoL> 
 writes of him 'in respect to number of subjects, exteiit of 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 25T 
 
 territory, and amount of revenue, he surpasses every sovereign 
 that has heretofore been or that now is in the world,' In' 
 184<0. it was estimated that the Chinese Emperor ruled over 
 5,300,000 square miles, from lat 48° 10' N, to long. 144-° 50' 
 E. in the N.E. part of the empire, to the island of Hainan in 
 the south, in lat. 18^ 10' N. and on the extreme West to 
 long. 74° E. It has since lost about half a million square 
 miles, which have gone to add to the dominions of the other 
 colossal empire of the world, Russia, which is China's neigh- 
 bour in the North, while more is apparently going the same 
 way in the shape of Manchuria. England and France in the 
 colonial empires also touch her territories in the south, * Of 
 the 12,000 miles which form the land girdle of China, 6,000 
 touch Russian territory, 4,800 British territory, and only 400' 
 French, while 800 miles may be described as doubtful.' Japan 
 has also, with the last war, by the acquisition of Formosa, been 
 brought into near neighbourhood to China. Since the 
 greater part of the above was written, Germany has likewise 
 established herself on the coast of Shan-tung at Kiao-chao, 
 Russia has obtained Port Arthur, and the French lay claim to 
 Kwong Chau Wan in the South. England has also obtained 
 a lease of laud at the back of the Kauluns; Peninsular and 
 some islands. What the near future has in store for China 
 remains to be seen. Will this great empire so loosely knit 
 together remain intact or will it fall to pieces from the 
 combined pressure from without and the corruption and 
 disintegrating forces from within ? 
 
 In shape, the Chinese empire approaches a rectangle, 
 whose circuit is 14,000 miles, or more than half the 
 circumference of the world ; her coast line is roughly 
 stated to be 4,400 miles. Tliis vast empire naturally 
 divides itself into the three divisions of China proper, 
 Manchuria, and the Colonial Possessions. 
 
 China proper embraces the whole of the eighteen 
 provinces, as well as the large island of Hainan ; Manchuria 
 lies to the North of Corea and part of China proper ; and the 
 Colonial possessions include Mongolia, Hi, Kokonor, and. 
 Tibet. 
 
 p 
 
258 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 These eighteen provinces cover about 2,000,000 square 
 miles. It would take seven Frances, or fifteen Great Britains 
 and Irelands, to cover the same extent of ground. China 
 is surrounded by different mountain chains, forming a wall 
 almost all round it, with their different ranges, such as the 
 Altai, the Stanovai, the Tien-shan, and others; also four large 
 chains occur inside the boundaries, assisting in delimiting 
 territory, the highest peaks of some of which are snow-clad 
 ihe whole year through ; some of the mountains in Yun-nan, 
 in the south-west of the empire, are the same. 
 
 A great part of China is divided into three great basins, 
 -drained respectively by the Yellow River, say 2,500 miles 
 long, the Yang-tsz-kiang, 3,000 miles long, while the Canton 
 Hiver and its numerous tributaries drain 130,000 square 
 miles. We cannot mention the other rivers, though they are 
 by no means insignificant nor few, for ' the rivers of China 
 are her glory, and no country can compare with her for 
 natural facilities of inland navigation.' 
 
 Among the lakes may be mentioned the Tung-ting, 
 about 220 miles in circumference, and the picturesque 
 Po-yang, with it numerous islands, 90 miles long by 20 
 in breadth. 
 
 Besides the three basins drained by the three great rivers, 
 there is the Great Plain of 700 miles in lenirth, varvinsr in 
 -width from 150 to 400 miles, having the same area as the 
 plain of Bengal, drained by the Ganges. It supports an 
 enormous population; in 1812, the number was 177,000,000 
 that is two-thirds of that of Europe, being the most densely 
 settled portion ' of any part of the world of the same size.' 
 
 China may likewise be ' divided into the mountainous 
 and hilly country and the Great Plain.' ( See Article on 
 •Geology). The mountainous is nearly half of the whole of 
 China, the hilly is in the southeast, another Great Plain is 
 in the north-east. 
 
 From the Yang-tsz to Hainan, the whole coast is studded 
 with numerous islands and rocky islets. 
 
GEOGRAPHY. 259 
 
 The most important Channels are that of Formosa, 
 'between tlie Ishmd of Formosa and the mainland, and the 
 Straits of Lui-chau, between the Island of Hainan and the 
 Promontory of Lui-chau. 
 
 The must noteworthy gulfs or bays are the Gulf of Liang- 
 tung in Manchuria, the Gulf of Pe-chih-li in the province of the 
 same name, and the Gulf of Tonquin in the extreme south. 
 
 Among the principal promontories may be named that of 
 Liang-tung, forming the Gulf of the same name, the Shantung 
 promontory, and the Lui-chau promontory, already named. 
 
 The principal seas are the Yellow, between Corea and 
 China; the Eastern, between Japan and the Lew-chew Islands 
 and China; and the China Sea to the south. 
 
 In political geography, China proper is divided into the 
 eighteen provinces, these again are subdivided into prefec- 
 tures, the latter are formed of different kinds of districts, 
 which may be compared to the counties in England. It is 
 not an uncommon thing to group two of the provinces 
 together for administrative purposes, such as the two Kwang 
 — Kwang-tung and Kwang-si; the two Hu — comprising 
 Hu-peh and Hu-nan. 
 
 Of the principal cities, it is impossible to give an 
 
 •enumeration, so numerous are they. The capital of each of 
 
 the eighteen provinces would come under this category, some 
 
 of them boasting of a million of inhabitants, such as Peking, 
 
 Canton, arid others, while every province has numbers of 
 
 important centres of commerce and government, such as the 
 
 district cities and marts : the former taking the place of 
 
 country towns and often having tens or hundreds of thousands 
 
 of inhabitants; the latter forming centres of commercial 
 
 activity and distributing centres for agricultural produce, &c., 
 
 to the surround country districts. 
 
 Boohs rrroni mended. — 'Historical Atlas of the Cliinese Empire,' by 
 E. L. Oxenhani, gives maps of China during successive dj-nasties and 
 shows in a striking form the geographical growth of the Empire, while the 
 preface is most interesting. Several works are in existence dealing each 
 with one province, such as 'La Province Chinois du Yiin-Nan,' par Emile 
 Rocher. and 'Shan Tung : A Chinese Province' by A. Armstrong, f.e.i.s. 
 
 p 2 
 
260 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 GEOLOGY. — The geology of the Chinese empire has- 
 not been fully investigated. When it is remembered that vast 
 tracts of country have not yet been trodden by the man of 
 science, it will be seen how much remains to be done towards 
 the acquisition of a full knowledge of the geological conditions- 
 of the large portion of the globe ruled over by the Chinese. 
 
 In the centre of China is the great alluvial plain pro- 
 duced by the large rivers, the Yang-tsz-kiang and the 
 Yellow River, as Egypt has been created by the Nile. The 
 great quantities of silt brought down by the Yellow River,, 
 combined with other causes, such as deforestation, &c., 
 produce the periodical floods and cause 'China's Sorrow,' as 
 it has been aptly termed, to seek new means of reaching the 
 sea. The Yang-tsz-kiang, which has been styled 'The Girdle 
 of China,' carries its silt more out to sea than the Yellow 
 River does. The land it has made during its existence must 
 have been enormous, for it has been estimated that it dis- 
 charges 770,397 cubic feet of water per second into the sea, 
 and the 'amount of suspended material carried down every 
 year to the sea at 6,428,858,255 cubic feet.' An island 32: 
 miles long by 10 broad has been formed since the fourteenth 
 century in the estuary of the Yang-tsz. This mighty river 
 takes the third place in the list of the largest rivers in the 
 world, the Amazon and the Congo heading it, and the Miss- 
 issippi coming fifth. It has been calculated that the Y'^ang- 
 tsz, the Yellow River, and the Pei Ho, would in sixty-six days 
 form an island a mile square in the sea, and in 36,000 years 
 the Gulfs of Pe-chih-li and Liau-tung, the Yellow Sea, and 
 the Eastern Sea as far south as about half way between 
 Ning-po and Wen-chow, and as far east as about mid-way 
 between the coast of China and Japan, would become solid 
 ground. Passing from the future to the past it has been 
 reckoned that it has taken 20,000 years for the delta of 
 this gigantic river to be formed. The oscillations of land 
 level do not appear to have had much share in its formation, 
 as they, in this portion of China, seem to have been of the 
 slightest, during this period at all events. 
 
GEOLOGY. 261 
 
 Even during the historical period, the changes appear 
 to have been great, for the Shii Xing, which contains the 
 most ancient account of Chinese geography, mentions three 
 mouths of the Yang-tsz, though only one now remains. At 
 the time of Christ a 'great part of the Shanghai plain was not 
 yet reclaimed from the sea ; and the Woo-sung River or 
 Soo-choAv Creek was also anciently a large river twenty li 
 (6 or 7 miles) broad at what is now the city of Shanghai.' 
 The land has extended further out into what was then the 
 ,sea by fifty miles. With regard to the underlying stratum 
 or strata. Dr. IMacgowan says : * Whether it rests immediately 
 'Upon granite, which forms the basis of the nearest mountain ; 
 or immediately upon new red sandstone, of which some of 
 tlie adjacent hills are composed ; or upon limestone, which is 
 found protruding at the Great Lake (Tai-hii), it is impossible 
 for us without more imformation to determine.' In A.D. 
 1865 an artesian well revealed at a depth of 248 feet gray 
 sand beneath 10 feet of loam, and a few feet lower pebbles ; 
 at 240 feet a fragment of limestone. 
 
 At one time the Shan-tung promontory Avith the con- 
 tiguous mountainous portion of the province was an island, 
 and the province of Kiang^su had no existence. The 
 steppe-like plains of Pe-chih-li show their recent elevation 
 above the sea. On the other hand, there are evidences of the 
 encroachments of the sea on the land to a no less remarkable 
 extent. The eastern border of the continent has experienced 
 a slight depression, and the real eastern border included 
 Sumatra, Java, Borneo, the Philippines, Formosa, tlie Liu 
 Chiu Islands, Japan, and the Kuriles, to Kamtschatka. 
 
 Among the most interesting features of the geology of 
 North China is the loess. It covers a vast extent of country 
 'extending over thousands of square miles and often hundreds 
 of feet in thickness,' and is a brownish-coloured earth; it is 
 split up into numerous clefts ; is of a terrace formation, and 
 steppe-like contour ; but admirably adapted for agricultural 
 purposes ; and lends itself to the picturesque most effectively. 
 •One opinion about it is that ' it is a sub-aerial deposit, dating 
 
262 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 from a geological era of great dryness before the existence- 
 of the Yellow and other rivers of the northern provinces.' 
 Another, and the latest, is that it is a sedimentary deposit,, 
 and probably of marine origin. 
 
 In Southern China, between Canton and Hankow, the 
 succession of rocks is first, granite ; second, grits and slates ; 
 these are covered by old limestones, on which rests another 
 series of limestone strata, and over some coal-beds lies red 
 sandstone. Of this part of the country it has been written : — 
 
 ' The whole country is *'■ * "■•' divided into several isolated 
 basins any one of which can be studied by itself, whilst in most 
 instances, the lines of demarcation follow roughly the political divisions 
 of the empire. Amongst these natural divisions of the country, we may 
 adduce the provinces of the two Kwaiig, Kiang-si, Fuh-kien and Che- 
 kiang, Ngan-whui, Kwei-chau, Kiang-su, &c., — all forming separate- 
 districts, divided by ranges of mountains and distinguished each by 
 geological characteristics.' 
 
 ' The central and eastern portions of Kwang-tung, contain, 
 within a limited area, a connected sequence of formations, ranging 
 upwards from the early paleozoic rocks of Hongkong and the adjacent 
 coast and islands, to the new red sandstone of Canton and the delta 
 of the Pearl River, intermixed with some traces of still later formations,, 
 and being accompanied by masses of rocks of igneous origin extending 
 probably over a still more prolonged epoch.' ' From the neighbour- 
 hood of Canton to the sea, the rocks are composed of red sandstone 
 resting on granite, until, on reaching the clusters of islands that line 
 the coast, these are found to consist of a coarse granite only, crossed' 
 by perpendicular veins of quartz, over the irregular surfaces of the 
 islands, and at the summits of the highest, are strewn immense 
 rounded blocks of the same rock. They are generally imbedded in 
 the coarse earth, which is a disintegration of the general substance of 
 the islands, and, as this is washed from under them, roll down the 
 steep declivities until they reach a level space, and commonly stud 
 the sandy margin of the islands with a belt of piled rocks, some of 
 them many tons in weight. The scenery of these islands has often 
 been compared to that of the Hebrides, and is quite as barren.' 
 
 ' The island of Kulangsu (Amoy) is typical of the coast formation 
 of Southern China ; granite is its principal feature, and it seems to be 
 a general, but by no means unexceptional, rule that along the coast, 
 from South to North, the granite becomes coaser grained, less- 
 micaceous and more felspathic' 
 
 The following is an account of the country north of 
 
 Amoy : — 
 
 * Considerable diversity of the geological structure of the district 
 from Amoy to Tam-Si, — the most northern portion of the province 
 visited, — obtains ; this is not, however, the case with the Physical' 
 
GEOLOGY 263 
 
 (Geography, as in the latter respect the whole country is a series of 
 high mountains, the general character being physically very persistent 
 although geologically ranging from the ingenite or granitic, plutonic, 
 and volcanic rock at Amoy (as observed along the greater portion 
 of the East Coast of China and typically represented in the island of 
 Hongkong) the Transition or Metamorphic sedimentary rocks being 
 developed in proceeding northwards, culminating in the Derivate 
 rocks, the Subaqueous containing the whole series of the Paleozoic 
 period, the Devonian, Carboniferous, and Permian systems being 
 highly developed, particularly the Carboniferous ; and the Sub-aerial 
 being represented in the Mesozoic period, principally by the upper 
 new red sand-stone in the Triassic system. The whole country must 
 have been subject, long after the Mesozoic period, to extraordinary 
 convulsions of nature. One "fault" in the Carboniferous Group, 
 which the writer had a good opportunity of studying, extended a 
 distance of 8 miles; the mountain in which ihe '"fault" appeared 
 being over 1,500 feet above the adjacent valley, standing at a scarped 
 angle of about 8 degrees, exposing, amongst other groups of the 
 system, the coal measures in numerous seams fully 300 feet thick. 
 
 Shan-tung is a moet interesting province from a geological 
 point of view. 
 
 The following extract from ' Across Shan-tung,' by 
 S. B. J. Skertchly, F.G.S., M.A.I., puts in a succinct form an 
 account of the geological formation of the Eastern portion of 
 China : — 
 
 ' Travelling northwards from Hongkong by Amoy, Foochow, 
 Ningpo, Shanghai to Chefoo, we pass, speaking generally, from older 
 to newer rocks. The granites of Hongkong with their associated 
 beds of diorite and felspar porphyries are the oldest rocks of China, 
 the backbone, geologically speaking, upon which has been laid down 
 the newer beds which take the surface over by far the greater part of 
 this vast empire. These rocks are again seen at Amoy and Foochow, 
 are hiddden beneath newer volcanic rocks at Ningpo where the 
 beautiful mottled volcanic agglomerate yields the fine building stone 
 which adds such beauty to the architecture of .Shanghai ; then 
 the land sinks down to the broad plain of the mighty Yangtsz, to be 
 succeeded by old crystalline rocks, probably ofLaurentian age which 
 run all the way to Chefoo on the Gulf of Pechihli, whose northern 
 shores in Manchuria and Chihli are largely made up of beds 
 belonging to the Carboniferous system. 
 
 Travelling inland a similar series of rocks is found, the granites 
 being overlaid by crystalline schist and gneiss and quartzites, over 
 which again lie the carboniferous beds, with patches of volitic rock 
 here and there, yielding as in Eastern Shantung beautiful fossil fishes. 
 
 The granite rocks rise in bold hills and mountains, weathered 
 into rounded masses, which oft-times become quite isolated, and stand 
 like boulders upon the hill sides, or lie embedded in the well-known 
 " decomposed granite " '-' *' ••'■ ; these boulders are simply harder 
 
264< THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 masses of granite which have withstood the dissolving action of the 
 elements ; they tell neither of frost-bound coasts, nor changes of level, 
 nor volcanic outbursts but are stolid witnesses of the silent forces of 
 rain and river, of tropic showers and burning suns and chilly nights. 
 
 In marked contrast to the swelling contours of the granite series, 
 are the jagged and gnarled hills and mountains of the crystalline 
 schists, which beautify the landscape with every variety of crag and 
 peak and sierra, the rocks themselves bent, twisted, and crumpled as 
 though instead of being tough enough for neither millstones they were 
 plastic as dough. 
 
 Very different again are the limestone hills of the carboniferous 
 system with their gentle flexures, fretted into picturesque castellated 
 ramparts, and running in long lines along the dip.' 
 
 The province of Shan-si is rugged. The southern part 
 * presents a geological formation of great simplicity * * * 
 There are coal formations and limestone,' and a plateau of 
 later rocks — sandstones, shales and conglomerates of green, 
 red, yellow, lilac, and brown colours. Some granite peaks 
 rise to a height of 8,000 feet. " On the eastern side * * * 
 rocks are made up of ancient formations or deposits of the 
 Silurian age.' 
 
 There are most extensive coal fields in China'. ' Most of 
 the rocks belong to the paleozoic or early secondary ages ; 
 the later deposits in the central and seaboard provinces at 
 least being confined to a few sandstones and clays.' The 
 great coalfields of China stretch from ' near Peking along the 
 frontiers of Pe-chih-li and Shan-si, and thence through Ho- 
 nan and Hu-peh, into the great coal and iron district of 
 Hu-nan' 'The less important fields are those of Kiang-si, 
 .Hu-peh, Ngan-hwui, Kiang-su, Cheh-Kiang, Fuh-Kien, and 
 Kwang-tung.' They all belong Ho the true "coal measures" 
 of the carboniferous system.' 
 
 All kinds of minerals and precious stones are found in 
 
 China. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — There are numerous articles on the g'eology of 
 certain districts and coal formations, &c.. &c., iu the ' Chinese Kecorder and 
 Missionary Journal,' the 'Journals of the N. C. Branch of K.A.S.' and 
 * Notes and Queries on China and Japan : ' as well as notices on geology in 
 Williams's 'Middle Kingdom.' For North China, the great work in 
 German by Baron von Richthoven, 'China,' is the standard work. See 
 also 'Across Shan-tung ' by S. B. J. Skertchly, consisting of a series of 
 Articles in the 'Hongkong Daily Press ' in September and October, 1892. 
 
GEOMANCY, OR FUNG-SIIUL 2(>5 
 
 GEOMANCY, OR FUNG-SHUL— This superstition 
 in connection with the worship of ancestors has the greatest 
 hold on the Chinese mind. To them the whole of Nature is 
 alive with influences for good or evil, revealed to those who 
 have made their indications a study : the course of a stream, 
 the trend of a mountain, the position of a clump of bamboos, 
 the curve of a road, the site of a grave, and a number of 
 •other things too numerous to mention, all form the visible 
 manifestations to the initiated eye, of Nature's future actions, 
 or the good and evil intentions of the departed dead. 
 
 The rudiments of this magic art are to be found in 
 ancient China, but it was not till the twelfth century that it 
 was elaborated into the system of science, falsely so-called, 
 that has now such a hold on the Chinese. Adopting what 
 was popular and attractive in the modern school of Con- 
 fucianism, and being already in consonance with the 
 Taouistic and Buddhistic philosophies, this system, based to 
 some degree on the rudiments of natural science, has subtly . 
 laid hold of the whole being and existence of the Chinese 
 people. They believe not only that the comfortable sepulture 
 of their ancestors will redound to their own comfort, but 
 that if the union of the elements, the nature of the soil, the 
 configuration of the ground, and all the other things which 
 enter into this fco'i'ago of nonsense are such as to produce a 
 felicitous combination, that riches, honour, and posterity will 
 be vouchsafed to them. It is these beliefs that cause the coffin 
 to be so often kept for months or years unburied, for a site is 
 being searched for which shall combine all that is productive 
 of good to the children and grandchildren. Even when the 
 eldest son has discovered such a site, and is confident that 
 happiness and prosperity will be his lot, it may be that 
 another son has found out that what will benefit his brother 
 will not be productive of good to him, but of evil; consequent- 
 ly the whole search will have to be gone over again till one 
 favourable to all parties can be discovered. So many different 
 elements come in, in determining the lucky sites, that the 
 professors of geomancy are easily able to make a living out 
 
266 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 of the gullibility of their employers. When it is added that 
 in building a house, in fixing on a site for an ancestral hall^ 
 in commencing a temple, and in numerous other projects and 
 businesses demanding the attention of the Chinese, these 
 doctors of geomancy have to be consulted, it may readily be 
 seen that, in the hands of clever and designing men, much 
 room is open for earning an honest (?) penny. 
 
 The compasses exposed for sale in such numbers in the- 
 streets in Chinese cities are not mariner's compasses, Avhich 
 are seldom to be met with, but geomancer's compasses, which 
 contain the elements of their mystic art, by the aid of which 
 they largely determine their judgments on sites and localities. 
 
 Just one instance of how Fung Shui is troublesome to- 
 Europeans in China : in the phraseology of this occult science- 
 ' when two buildings are beside one another, the one on the- 
 left is said to be built on the green dragon and the one on 
 the right on the white tiger. Now the tiger must not be- 
 higher than the dragon, or death or bad luck will result/ 
 Supposing now a European or American gets a site for a 
 residence next to, and on the right hand side of, a native 
 dwelling. Here then are all the elements ready for trouble ;, 
 for, to begin with, the foreigner will naturally desire to erect 
 a house more suited for habitation than the low abode whick 
 would satisfy the average Chinaman. 
 
 Another curious instance of the reasonings, or shall we 
 rather call them insane vapourings, that its professors 
 indulge in, will give a practical illustration of the workings 
 of Fung Shui : when it was proposed to construct a telegraph 
 between Canton and Hongkong, the ground of the opposition- 
 against it was as follows : — Canton is the ' City of Rams,* 
 or Sheep, the mouth of the river is known as the Tiger's 
 Mouth ; the District opposite Hongkong is the ' Nine Dragons' 
 (Kau Lung). What more unfortunate combination could be 
 found — a telegraph line to lead the Sheep right into the 
 Tiber's Mouth and amongst the Nine Dragons ! ! ! 
 
GINGER. 2()7 
 
 It is this pseudo science which has so strenuously opposed 
 the introduction of railways, telegraph lines, and foreign 
 innovations, in the past or was made to do duty as an objection 
 to them, but it has not been an insuperable obstruction, 
 for whenever the Chinese Government has made up its mind 
 to the introduction of any of the inventions of Western 
 science. Fung Shui has not been allowed to be an obstacle, 
 for, while pandering to its absurd ideas as far as is practicable 
 without hindering the feasibility of their scheme, yet the 
 populace, if obstructive, has usually been made to feel that 
 the will of the rulers has to be obeyed. 
 
 Boohs recomvu'Hdcd. — ' Fun^s Shui : or the Rudiments of Natural 
 Science in China, by Rev. E. J. Eitel, M.A., Ph. D. The chapter ou 
 ' Ancestral Worship ' in Rev. B. C. Henry's ' The Cross and the Dragon,' 
 and different pages under the heading of geomancy and geoniancers in 
 Rev. H. C. Dn Rose's ■ The Dra^'on, Image, and Demon,' Williams's 
 'Middle Kingdom,' Archdeacon Gray's 'China,' and Rev. J. Doolittle's 
 ' Social Life of the Chinese.' 
 
 GINGER. — Most of the ginger produced in the world 
 is furnished by the root of the Zingiber officinale (Roscoe) ; . 
 but that from China, as well as Siam is the product of another 
 plant, the Alpinia galangas ' yet, considering the wide 
 distribution o( Zingiber officinale it is quite possible that tlie 
 true ginger may also be cultivated in some parts of China.' 
 
 It is grown largely in the Kwang-tung Province where 
 it is found in nearly every part, the Miau-tsz aborigines 
 even cultivating large quantities of it. The best and most 
 in the neighbourhood of the city of Canton coming from the 
 Niim-hoi District itself, in a portion of which the provincial 
 city is partially situated. 
 
 In another district, some days journey from Canton, three- 
 tenths of the flat land and seven -tenths of the cultivated soil 
 in the hills are planted with ginger. 
 
 'A distinction is made between the flat land ginger '' * * 
 which is generally soft and tender, and mountain ginger *■"' •'■' '' 
 which is brittle and very pungent. This is generally used for home 
 consumption ; the Chinese pickle it in vinegar. The expensive '- ** 
 
 syrup ginger is almost exclusively consumed by foreigners or 
 
 exported.' 
 
268 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Ginger is also grown to a large extent in Hu-peh and 
 Kiang-si where it is largely eaten in the green state. This 
 ginger of mid-China is said to be very fragrant, but 'too 
 sticky ' to make ' a very excellent preserve.' 
 
 Ginger is used as a medicine in China. The author has 
 «een it cure a violent headache when applied in the Chinese 
 fashion, which is to heat fresh ginger in the fire, and slice in 
 thin pieces which are stuck on the forehead and temples. 
 
 The Alpinia galangas grows wild in Hongkong and 
 forms when in flower a conspicuous object in the glens and 
 on the hills sides with its narrow long: leaves and briijht 
 panicles of flowers,, each flower being nearly an inch in length. 
 
 GINSENG. — Kaempfer says that next to tea ginseng is 
 the most celebrated plant in the whole Orient on account 
 of its root. It has indeed well been termed the cure-all as 
 the Chinese have a most wonderful faith in its curative and 
 strengthening properties, for which reason it has been also 
 styled ' the cinchona of China ' It is considered to be ' a cure 
 
 for fevers and weaknesses of all sorts the chief and 
 
 most costly medicine.' 
 
 The plant belongs to the family of the Araliacete and the 
 
 scientific name for it is Pamax Ginseng. It is found ' wild 
 
 in the mountain forests of Eastern Asia from Nepal to 
 
 2tlanchuria.' It formerly grew in Fuh-Kien, Kiang-nan and 
 
 Shan-si; "their stock would seem to be extinguished or the 
 
 plan of cultivation by seed, described in the "Pen Ts'ao " 
 
 might have been given up in the face of the growing favour 
 
 of the Manchurian wild plant.' Ginseng is one of the 
 
 treasures of Manchuria. Dr. Lansdell in his book '' Through 
 
 Siberia ' thus writes of it : — 
 
 'Ginseng is found chiefly in the valleys of the upper Ussuri, 
 where it is cultivated in beds, planted in rows. The earth must be a 
 rich, black mould and loose; and when the plant has attained the 
 height of four or five inches, it is supported by a stick. The beds are 
 carefully weeded and watered and protected from the sun by tents 
 or sheds of wood Wild ginseng is said to be the best. From May 
 to September hundreds go out to seek the plant. '■'• * """ " The 
 prices named * * for this root were almost fabulous, a single root 
 being valued in Manchuria at from ^250 to ^300. I was told on the 
 
GIXSEXG. 2Gi> 
 
 river that ginseng sells for ^^3,0 per Russian lb., but that in a bad year 
 the Chinese count it as valuable as gold, and give up to ^40 per lb. *■' *-■ *- 
 The root is straight, spindle-shaped, knotty, and up to half an inch 
 in diameter, and eight inches in length. The leaves are cut off, 
 and the root is boiled in water, apparently to remove some injurious 
 quality : and when it has undergone fitting preparation its colour 
 is a transparent white, with sometimes a slight red or orange tint ; its 
 appearance then is that of a stalactite. It is carefully dried, wrapped 
 in unsized paper, and sent to the market. 
 
 Dr. Porter Smith, in the course of a long article on 
 
 ginseng, says: — • 
 
 'The root is carefully hunted for by Manchus, who boast that 
 the weeds of their country are the choice drugs of the Chinese. 
 The pieces, after carefully trimming with a bamboo knife and drying 
 in still air, are made to assume something of the form of the human 
 body. They generally do resemble a miniature human hand, the 
 larger pieces being of the size of a man's little finger, with some two 
 to four finger-like branching rootlets. They are yellowish, semi- 
 transparent, firm, brittle to some extent, and of a sweet mucilaginous 
 taste, accompanied with a slight bitterness. * " *. Fabulous 
 stories are told of the finding of special depots of this root which is 
 associated with guiding voices, stars, and other good and peaceful 
 omens. * * *. The trade in the drug is a speciality. Great care 
 is requied to preserve choice specimens from the effects of damp and 
 the attacks of worms, to which the drug is very liable. This drug is 
 prepared as an extract, or as a decoction, in silver vessels as a rule. 
 c- c- c!_ Several cases in which life would seem to have been at 
 least prolonged by the taking of doses of this drug, to as to allow of 
 intelligent disposition of property, indicate that some positive efficacy 
 of a sustaining character does really exist in this speciesof Ivywort.' 
 
 Manchuria does not supply sufficient quantity to meet 
 the constant demand for it, and Corea and Japan furnish it 
 as well, but they (the Japanese and Corean) are not considered 
 equal in quality to the first named variety. That found wild 
 in Chinese Manchuria is a government monopoly, and is 
 gathered • by detachments of soldiers detailed for this purpose.' 
 The Emperor sometimes makes presents of it to high officials, 
 as a mark of great favour. There is even a variety of it 
 which is indigenous in the Appalachian range and which is 
 exported from Philadelphia and Baltimore (U. S. A.) (and also 
 from the Western States as well) to China. In 1877 nearly 
 $700,000 worth were sent to the Celestial Empire. The trade 
 is not increasing, of late years remaining ' stationary, owing 
 to the gradual extinction of the plant [Panax Quinquefolius],^ 
 which cannot be grown artificially with success.' 
 
270 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 GOVERNMENT.— The Government of China is that 
 of an absolute, despotic monarchy. The Emperor rules by 
 virtue of a divine right derived direct from heaven, and he 
 is styled ' The Son of Heaven.' This divine right he retains 
 as long as he rules in conformity with the decrees of heaven. 
 When the dynasty falls into decay by the vices of its rulers, 
 heaven raises up another who, by force of arms, the virtue 
 of bravery, and fitness for the post, wrests the sceptre from 
 the enfeebled grasp of him who is unfit to retain it any 
 longer. This idea has exerted a beneficial effect on the 
 sovereigns of China, who feel that on the one hand they are 
 dependent upon high heaven for the retention of their 
 throne, and who humbly and publicly confess their short- 
 comings in times of floods and drought. On the other hand, 
 though there is no House of Commons to exercise a check on 
 the unrestrained power of the Sovereign, there is the general 
 public opinion of the people, who, being educated in the 
 principles that underlie all true Government, are ready to 
 apply them to their rulers when they forget, or act grossly 
 in opposition to, them. To see the system of patriarchal 
 Governmeat carried out in its entirety, one must come to 
 China. The Emperor stands in loco parentis to the common 
 people and his officers occupy a similar position. The prin- 
 ciples which have formed the framework of Government for 
 millenniums among these ancient, stable, and peace-loving 
 people, may be found in a study of the rule of the ancient 
 kings, Yao and Shun, and their successors, and in the precepts 
 inculcated by Confucius and Mencius. With all its defects, 
 their system appears tobe better adapted for the punishment 
 of the criminal classes amongst them and the prevention of 
 their fraudulent bankruptcies than our systems, which are 
 the outgroAvth of centuries of civilisation, not yet passed 
 through by the Chinese, who consequently are not yet 
 educated up to our standpoint. The unit in China is not 
 the individual but the family, therefore it is impossible for a 
 fraudulent bankrupt to settle his goods on his wife or family, 
 3,s the family must make good his losses ; in the same way a 
 
GOVERNMENT. 271 
 
 family is responsible for the good behaviour of its members : 
 a neighbourhood for its inhabitants ; and an official foi- 
 thosegoverned by him. Thus, results a system of ' mutual 
 responsibility among all classes.' This acts as a great 
 tieterrent of serious crime and defalcations ; and it is much t<> 
 be regretted that in our rule of the Chinese, such a system 
 could not have been carried out, with such modifications as 
 to free it from its defects, instead of introducing a new system 
 foreign entirely to their feelings and understanding. 
 
 The right of succession to the throne in China 'is here- 
 ditary in the male line, but it is always in the power of the 
 Sovereign to nominate his successor from among his own 
 <;hildren.' This nomination, most wisely, is not made public 
 during the lifetime of the reigning Sovereign, thus prevent- 
 ing intrigue and obviating all necessity for those bloody 
 scenes which disgrace the accession of so many Eastern 
 potentates to their thrones. 
 
 The Emperor has two councils to advise him and to 
 consult with. One is the Cabinet, or Imperial Chancery (the 
 Nui Koh). A more influential body is the Council of State, 
 or General Council, approaching more to the Ministries of 
 Western nations, though necessarily quite unlike them. It 
 meets in the Emperor's palace daily. Under these two 
 councils are the Six Boards — Luk Po — their names give a 
 pretty good idea of their functions : The Boards of Civil 
 Office, Revenue, Rites, War, Punishment, Works — and a 
 Naval Board has been added in recent years. 
 
 There are other departments of government, one of 
 which, the Censorate, deserves more than passing notice. 
 On account of its peculiar duties it has attracted much 
 attention from Western writers. In conjunction with some 
 of the other Boards it forms a Court of Appeal ; and, with 
 other departments of government, it deliberates on important 
 affairs of State ; it exercises an oversight over all criminal 
 <;ases ; and superintends the affairs of the metropolis. These 
 duties call for but little remark, but it is the extraodinary 
 powers that are vested in its members of censuring, not only 
 
272 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the manner in which other officials have performed or 
 neglected their duties, but even the conduct of the Emperor 
 himself — powers that are often availed of in the interests of 
 justice, with a boldness and courage most unusual under a 
 despotic rule, that at times meet with their reward, and at 
 other times call forth overwhelming censure and punishment 
 from the Sovereign himself. When rightly used by a high- 
 minded and conscientious official (for such are to be found in 
 China) in the consciousness of right, and with the best 
 ' interests of the country at heart, these extraordinary powers 
 must be productive of good, though many must be loath to 
 use these privileges of outspoken speech for fear of the 
 consequences which may recoil on their own heads, often 
 indeed so serious, as to make the best intentioned hesitate 
 before committing themselves. 
 
 For the government of the provinces there is a perfect 
 ramification of officials from superior to inferior, from the 
 ten or twelve Viceroys of one or two provinces each, down to 
 the petty officials. 
 
 One very curious feature in Chinese official life is the 
 manner in which judicial, military, naval, and fiscal duties 
 are performed by one and the same official at diff"erent stages 
 of his official life. He is transferred from one post to the 
 other, irrespective of former experience in the particular 
 duties of his appointment. With the introduction of Western 
 naval vessels and military armaments this eclectic system of 
 filling offices is bound in the long run to give way. Were 
 bribery and corruption absent from official ranks, this 
 complete system of officialdom, with all its business-like 
 methods of accomplishing work, would produce mucli more 
 beneficent results ; but a premium is put on ' squeezing,' as 
 no official is paid a sufficient salary to meet his necessary 
 expenses. Notwithstanding this, there are noble exceptions 
 to the general rule of corruption, and these honest mandarins 
 meet with the honour of the people who justly appreciate 
 such conduct. They have no other rewards but this, and 
 that of their own self-approving consciences, for such probity 
 
HAKKAS. 27» 
 
 brings no pecuniary benefits in its train, indeed it often lands 
 the noble man in the lowest depths of poverty. 
 
 HAKKAS. — Who the Hakkas are is a question of some 
 interest. We remember, when a boy, travelling in the in- 
 terior of China, and coming across a village where the people 
 spoke quite a different speech to that of the other inhabi- 
 tants round them ; it is like this that the Hakkas are often 
 situated in the midst of a population, quite distinct from them 
 in language, differing in customs, to a slight extent in dress, 
 and even in some of the idols worshipped. Those found in 
 the South of China were not originally of that region, but 
 their family genealogies show that they have come from the 
 north, settling in some cases in different places till they have 
 finally established themselves in their present surroundings. 
 In certain districts they have monopolised the whole countrj^- 
 side, as in the prefecture of Ka-ying-chow, in the Canton 
 province, ' which is entirely peopled by Hakka,' while in other 
 places they form a half, a third, or more, of the population, 
 being interspersed among the Pun-tei, as the older Chinese 
 inhabitants are termed. In. some places, partly peopled by 
 them, they have settled on the higher land, leaving the 
 Pun-tei to the low lying lands, and from this circumstance 
 they have been called Chinese Highlanders by some, but the 
 name is a misnomer, as it is only capable of local application, 
 for in other places they are spread over the plains as well 
 as the hilly- ground. They are not confined to the Canton 
 province, where they are considered to form a third of the 
 inhabitants, but are found in differents parts of China — in 
 Kwang-si, in Fuh-kien, in Che-kiang, and in Formosa ; it has 
 also been said that ' the chief part of the Kiang-si province ' 
 is Hakka, and that the language spoken in the Capital, 
 Nam-chang-fu, is Hakka. 
 
 Their language is more akin to Mandarin, being a half- 
 way house between Cantonese and Mandarin : * the Hakka 
 dialect is the remnant of a phase of transition through which 
 the common Chinese language passed in developing itself 
 from Cantonese to Mandarin.' It is perhaps spoken by about 
 
 Q 
 
^74 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 four millions of people in the Canton province alone ; but for 
 more about their speech we must refer the reader to our 
 article on Dialects in this book. The German missionaries 
 and English Presbyterians have some most successful missions 
 among this interesting people. 
 
 The sexes are not so strictly separated in domestic life 
 as is the case with some of the other Chinese ; nor do the 
 women bind their feet. Perhaps this last might be taken as 
 nn indication that they left their original home before 
 foot-binding came into vogue, and, not having practised it 
 at first, never took to it. 
 
 Taken as a whole, they are a poor people, having to work 
 hard for their living, though there are ricli men among them, 
 as well as literary graduates. In dress the women differ 
 somewhat from the Cantonese, their jackets being longer 
 and reaching down nearly to their knees; their shoes have 
 squarer toes ; they Avear a peculiar hat consisting of a broad 
 brim with a valance of cloth round it ; the bunch of hair, 
 done up on the top of the head, goes through the open 
 crown. The women's ornaments are somewhat dissimilar, 
 such as their bangles, which are made of thick silver, and of 
 different patterns from those in use among the Puntei 
 population. The earrings are also of curious construction; 
 one kind, of silver, hooking through the ear and thickening 
 up to the other end, while every short distance they are 
 embossed with rings of silver ; another kind of earring 
 is formed of tassels of silk. The Hakka children often have 
 a ring of silver round their neck ; Cantonese childen do nut 
 wear the same, but one or two of the attendants of the 
 Chinese idols have such a ring. 
 
 In the Straits Settlements there were, in 1891, as many 
 as 16,736 Hakkas out of a Chinese population of 227,989. 
 
 The Hakkas are a simple people, but very contentious, 
 and they show a litigious disposition in the few cases which 
 -occur in the English Courts in Hongkong ; for there are a 
 
JIAKKAS. 275 
 
 great number of them in this Colony : the barbers, stone- 
 cutters, and foreign ladies' tailors being mostly Hakkas. 
 
 The word Hakka means ' strangers,' and refers to their 
 origin. In the Straits they are known as Khck, or Kehs, so 
 called from the Swatow and Amoy pronunciation of the 
 word Hak. 
 
 We give a short summary of the history of tliis curious 
 people as far as is at present known about them : — 
 
 The North of China is •' the original home of the Hakkas' 
 where, about the third century before Christ, they were 
 located in Shan-tung principally, as well as to a slight 
 extent in Shan-si, and Ngan-hAvui. 
 
 They were subjected to a bloody persecution in the time 
 of the Ts'in dynasty ( B.C. 2^9-209), and this started them 
 off on their travels. Settling in Ho-nan, N2;an-hwui. 
 and Kiang-si, some changed their names, but a more 
 prosperous time followed. Another persecution under another 
 Ts'in dynasty (A.D. 419) finally scattered them entirely from 
 that part of China. This resulted in a general stampede 
 '' which carried some of them even into the mountainous 
 regions in the s outh-east of Kiang-si and to the very borders 
 of the Fuh-kien province.' At the beginning of the T'ang 
 dynasty (AD. G18) they were compelled to move again, the 
 majority took ' refuge in the mountains of Fuh-kien, whilst a 
 few hovered on the high mountain chains which separate the 
 Kiang-si and Kwang-tung (Canton) provinces.' 
 
 Under the Sung dynasties (A.D. 960-1278) many became 
 soldiers, and thousands of them perished with the last Chinese 
 prince of the Southern Sung, in A.D. 1279, Mest of ]\lacao. 
 when the Mongols were coming into power. Under these 
 last they ' made their first appearance within the borders of 
 the Canton province,' but not settling down permanently 
 here, or in large numbers, until the beginning of the Ming 
 dynast)' (A.D. 13(58) when tlie Fuh-kien Hakka?, after 
 centuries of residence there, were compelled by disturbances 
 to seek a new home. They came in such overwhelming 
 
 Q 2 
 
276 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 numbers ' that they drove everything before them ' in the 
 Ka-ying-chau prefecture, which has remained their head- 
 quarters ever since. About the same time others came from 
 Kiang-si and settled to the north-west of the Fuh-kienese 
 Hakkas. From these places they have spread more or less 
 over different parts of the province. 
 
 The change of dynasty, which resulted in the present 
 
 house being establish on the throne, caused them to spread 
 
 to the west and south-west of Canton. The nucleus of the 
 
 great T'ai-P*ing rebellion was formed of Hakkas from the 
 
 Canton province, and it was among them that it started. 
 
 ' During the present dynasty many have become soldiers and 
 
 have been employed by government, gaining admission to 
 
 the competitive examinations for both literary and military 
 
 degrees. A dreadful internecine strife, in which 150,000, at 
 
 least, perished, took place between the Hakkas and Pim-teis 
 
 in the south-western districts of the Canton province, from 
 
 A.D. 1864' to 1866, and arms and even armed steamers, were 
 
 procured from Hongkong by both parties. Finally, the 
 
 Chinese Government took vigorous measures, the half-hearted 
 
 schemes hitherto pursued having proved ineffectual, and, 
 
 Avith the aid of money to assist immigration of the Hakkas 
 
 to waste lands, succeeded in getting some of them to move 
 
 to the province of Kwang-si, the Island of Hai-nan, and other 
 
 parts of the country. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — A series of articles appeared in the Hongkong 
 ' Daily Press' for 1866, dealing with the customs of Hakkas, from a native 
 pen for the most part ; there is also a more interesting set in ' Notes and 
 Queries on China and Japan,' Vol. I,, written bj"- Rev. E. J. Eitel, M.A,, 
 Ph. D., and another article on their history hy the same author in ' The 
 China Review,' Vol. IL, p. 160, also see an article by Rev. Ch. Piton, in 
 same vol., p. 222. As to books for the study of the language of the Hakkas, 
 see Article on Books for Learning Chinese. 
 
 HISTORY. — Chinese history deserves more attention 
 than it has received from Western scholars ; it has both been 
 unduly lauded and unduly depreciated. Like all histories, it 
 may be divided into the mythological, ancient, and modern. 
 
 The line of demarcation between the first and second is 
 blurred and indistinct. The mythological period covers from- 
 
HISTORY. 277 
 
 45,000 to 500,000 years, and commences with 'the opening of 
 heaven and earth,' as the Chinese say. Different accounts 
 have been given of the creation, one of the most popular is 
 that of Pwan-ku, who is represented with hammer and chisel 
 bringing the rude masses of chaotic matter into shape and 
 form. His labours lasted for 18,000 years, and day by day 
 he increased in stature six feet, while the heavens rose, and 
 the earth expanded and thickened. His task completed, and 
 the earth roughly fitted for its future inhabitants, Pwan-ku 
 by his death benefited the world as much as by his life, for 
 as the story goes : — 
 
 * His head became mountains, his breath wind and clouds, and 
 his voice thunder ; his limbs were changed into the four poles, his 
 veins into rivers, his sinews into the undulations of the earth's surface, 
 and his flesh into fields ; his beard, like Berenice's hair, was turned 
 into stars, his skin and hair into herbs and trees, and his teeth, bones, 
 and marrow, into metals, rocks, and precious stones ; his dropping 
 sweat increased to rain, and lastly ( nasciUir ridiculus imcsj the insects 
 which stuck to his body were transformed into people ! ' 
 
 The Chinese believe that there were giants in the earth 
 in those days, for Pwan-ku was followed by three sovereigns 
 named the Celestial, the Terrestrial, and the Human, who 
 Avere of gigantic form. Another 18,000 years was occupied 
 by their reigns, during which numerous inventions and im- 
 provements were effected for the good of mankind, such as 
 good government, the union of the sexes, and, what must have 
 been of parahiount importance, men learned to eat and drink, 
 and sleep was invented. Two more Sovereigns succeeded 
 these, Yu-chau and Sui-jin ; the latter brought fire down from 
 heaven, and mankind had the blessing of cooked dishes. 
 
 The ancient or legendary history commences with 
 Fuh-hi : he and his four successors are called ' The Five 
 Sovereigns.' No\v begins the ' highest antiquity ' of the 
 Chinese, B.C. 2852 or B.C. 3322, according to different 
 authorities, which is about the same time as the commence- 
 ment of the Assyrian Monarchy. Amongst other blessings 
 conferred at this period was marriage; the bounds of the 
 kingdom were extended to the eastern sea ; and Fuh-hi's 
 capital was in the present province of Ho-nan. His successor 
 
278 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 was Shin-nung, who shortly changed his capital to Shan-tung-. 
 Fuh-hi and his seven successors reigned 747 years, or an 
 average of 93 years each. This period has, of course, much 
 of the mythical about it, but standing out very prominently 
 is the reign of Hwang-ti. He triumphed over his several 
 rivals, and divided his territory according to the decimal 
 system, as follows : — 
 
 10 to\vns = l district. 10 departments =1 province. 
 
 10 districts = 1 department. 10 provinces = the empire. 
 
 Weights and measures were also fixed on the same 
 principle. He is credited with having regulated the calendar, 
 and having introduced in the sixty-first year of his reign 
 the cycle of sixty years, which in its sexagenary periods 
 bridges over the thousands of years from that time (B.C. 2637) 
 to the present, namely, seventy-five revolutions of sixty 
 years. He made roads and built vessels for inland waters, as 
 well as for the open sea. He is looked up to as the founder 
 of the great empire, and his dominions are said to have 
 extended from Sha-chow, in the west, to the sea ; and from 
 the modern Pe-chih-li, in the north, to the Yang-tsz-kiang 
 in the South. He was succeeded by his son, and the latter 
 by his nephew, who is said to have widened the borders of 
 his empire to Tonquin in the South, and to Manchuria in the 
 North. 
 
 Two hundred and forty years (three reigns) intervened 
 between the periods of Hwangti and a galaxy of China's 
 greatest worthies, the Emperors Yao, Shun, and Yu. Con- 
 fucius and Mencius have held up to all future time the 
 perfect character and virtues of Yao and Shun — they are two 
 of China's greatest sages. During this period occurred the 
 great deluge in China, which the best authorities concur in 
 considering to be an overflow of the Yellow River, possibly 
 when changing its channel. Years were spent in coping with 
 this great disaster, which must have wrought terrible havoc 
 and destruction, and unremitting toil and energy were ex- 
 pended in remedying it. It is about this time that the first 
 Chinese settlers arrived in their future home, namely B.C. 2200, 
 
HISTORY. 279 
 
 driving out the earlier settlers into more remote parts of the 
 country where some of them are now still to be found as 
 aboriginal tribes (See Article on Aboriginal Tribes) . 
 
 The history preceding the time of Yao, it has been 
 suggested, must then be consideied either as that of the 
 previous inhabitants of the land incorporated into Chinese 
 history, or their own previous history brought over with them 
 to their new home ; for though much, if not a great portion, 
 of what is narrated of the present period under review is 
 mythical, unsubstantial, and unreal, we cannot help consider- 
 ing it the height of folly to agree with the sceptical school 
 of Chinese sinologues, who reject everything because the 
 greatest proportion is incredible. It seems wiser, in our eyes, 
 to believe that amidst all the chaff, some grains of wheat are 
 to be found. The great Yu was the founder of the Hia 
 dynasty (B.C. 2205-1818) ; and with this period the throne 
 becomes hereditary — having hitherto been more or less 
 elective— seventeen rulers belonged to the same family ; one 
 was dethroned by the people, and another by a minister, but 
 the heir apparent was preserved alive in a massacre that 
 ensued in an attempt to recover the throne, and, after many 
 vicissitudes, ascended the throne of his ancestors. (The whole 
 population of China at this time was only between one or 
 two millions', constituting, it is supposed of stations of colonists 
 dotted about amidst the aborigines. The greater part of 
 • China was then, except in Honan and along the Yellow 
 River, overrun by luxuriant vegetation.' Wild beasts 
 abounded, and their trails formed the roads. In certain 
 senses life must have been a harder struggle for existence 
 than at the present day). Yu's son was worthy of such a 
 sire, but the succeeding nine monarchs were of so little 
 account that but little record is left of their doings. In 
 B.C. 1818, Kieh-kwei and his consort spent all they extorted 
 in unbridled voluptuousness. A pond of wine was formed, 
 able to float a boat, at which 3,000 men could drink at once ; 
 when drunk, they were allowed to attack the pyramids of 
 delicate viands surrounding the lake ; and the vilest orgies 
 
280 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 were held in the palace. Public opinion was outraged, and 
 one of the ministers, a descendant of Hwang-ti, assumed the 
 throne, and founded the new dynasty of Shang in B.C. 1766, 
 which lasted for 644 years. The Shu King contains fragments 
 of the annals of this time which show the high standard 
 aimed at by China's rulers. Twenty-eight sovereigns, good 
 and bad, ascended the throne, the fortunes of the State 
 fluctuating in response to the hand that held the helm, the 
 wickedness culminating in the person of Chau-sin, the last of 
 the line. Two instances of his wanton cruelty may be noted: — 
 Several women who were gathering shell-fish, barelegged, 
 on a river's bank, one winter's morning, had their legs cut off, 
 that the inhuman monarch might see the marrow of those 
 who were so insusceptible to cold : and he, likewise, had the 
 heart of a bold minister, who reproved him, brought, that he 
 might see the difference between it and that of a cowardly 
 minister. Such conduct in China naturally produced its 
 inevitable result, the passing away of the dynasty ; and the 
 founders of the Chau dynasty (the Chau dynasty lasted from 
 B.C. 1122 to B.C. 660) were the agents in establishing a 
 better order of things. Some sinologues would blot out all 
 that precedes this dynasty and make this the starting point 
 -of Chinese history. We have already expressed our opinion 
 on the subject. 
 
 / The founders of the Chau dynasty, Wan Wang, Wu 
 /Wang, and Chau Kung, 'are among the most distinguished 
 men of antiquity for their erudition, integrity, patriotism, 
 and inventions.' Wan Wang united the principal men 
 against the reign of misrule, but, dying, left to his son the 
 completion of the work he had begun, while the uncle of 
 Wu Wang, Duke Chau, advised the actual sovereign. These 
 men were praised and held in the highest esteem by 
 Confucius. Notwithstanding all his ability and reverence 
 for the Supreme Ruler, Wu Wang committed a grand 
 political blunder by dividing the empire into petty states j) 
 and, harassed by attacks of the Tartars, a later sovereign/") 
 Ping Wang, committed an equally grave error of judgment 
 
HISTORY. 281 
 
 in abandoning his eastern capital to one of his nobles, to 
 
 form a buttress against the incursions of these nomads, 
 
 while he retired to the western capital, thus dividing it into ' 
 
 the Eastern and Western Chau. These fatal mistakes paved 
 
 the way for the weakening of the central authority, and the 
 
 result, of the first especially, was a multiplicity of feudal 
 
 states, little kingdoms in themselves, engaged in internecine 
 
 strife, the weaker succumbing to the stronger, and all 
 
 belittling the authority of the ruling sovereign. The 
 
 number of these states varied at different times, 125, 41, and 
 
 52 are numbers that are given. Begun so auspiciously, this 
 
 dynasty, like its predecessors, reached a period of decadence, 
 
 though it has the honour of having lasted for 873 years, 
 
 with 35 rulers, the longest time known in history. 
 
 'A series of wars, intrigues, diplomacy, conspiracies, and plots, 
 much resembling what has been occurring in the empires of Europe 
 during the last 200 years, ensued.' ' The Chinese Empire consisted 
 of Shan Si, Ho Nan, and Shan Tung, and it gradually threw out 
 tentacles to embrace the rest of modern China, just as Rome threw 
 out its tentacles, from Italy, Greece, and Spain, to embrace parts of 
 Asia, Africa, Teutonia, and Sclavonia.' 
 
 Eunuchs probably followed the introduction of the 
 imperial harem at the beginning of this dynasty, the tributary 
 princes copying the bad example of the emperors. .. 
 
 This period is, however, glorious for having given birth \ 
 to two of the most remarkable men the world has ever seen, 
 Lao-tsz and Confucius. Dissimilar as two men could 
 possibly be — the one, to his contemporaries, a wild visionary, 
 the other a man who occupied himself with ceremonies and 
 moral precepts — they were both destined to exercise an 
 important influence on the country. Nor must we forget 
 that Mencius lived during this time : — 
 
 'There can be little doubt that the competition in arms, in 
 diplomacy, in military discipline, in material civilisation, and in 
 education, caused the Chinese of that period to reach a very high 
 level of ability, of skill, and of material progress. It was so, under 
 similar circumstances, in Greece, in Arabia, in Italy, and it is so in 
 modern Europe ; and we can no more wonder at the fond pride with 
 which the Chinese regard that famous time than we can at the 
 European for his admiration of ancient Greece and Rome. Against 
 Plato and Aristotle place Confucius and Mencius ; whilst China had 
 then statesmen and orators not greatly inferior to those of antiquity.' 
 
282 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Millions were slain during the constant wars which 
 lasted during the whole of the 'Chau dynasty ; but out of all 
 this continued strife between the feudal princes themselves and 
 between them and their own subjects grew the material on 
 Avhich a greater China should be established, for before the 
 Chau, China was without doubt but of limited extent. The 
 end of that dynasty saw the soutliern border-line of the 
 Chinese empire extended to the south of the Yang-tsz. 
 
 Some foreign writers are again inclined to reject as 
 incredible the greater part of this period, but when 
 archaeological researches are carried on in a systematic 
 manner in China, confirmatory evidence of the Chinese 
 records may be found similar to the ten stone drums of the 
 period B.C. 827. 
 
 One of the most powerful of the feudatory states, that 
 of Tsin, subdued the sovereign; and the son of the conqueroi" 
 assuming the imperial power, destroyed the last vestiges 
 of the famous Chau dynasty, but died in three years, thus- 
 forming a dynasty with only one Emperor. His son 
 ambitious and powerful, took tlie name of the first Emperor, 
 Ch] Bwang-ti (B.C. 220-204), and was the first 'ofthe Ts'in 
 dynasty. A man of consummate skill and ability, he con- 
 solidated the empire, dividing it into thirty-six provinces.. 
 His name is known throughout the habitable world by the 
 gigantic work with which it is associated, viz., the Great 
 Wall of CJiina ; but this stupendous labour was not accom- 
 plished entirely during his reign, as the first beginning of it 
 seen to have been commenced in 240 B.C., and even as late 
 as the Ming dynasty, in the year A.D. 1547, between 250 
 and 300 miles of wall were added to that then in existence. 
 
 Were this the only work that had received the impress 
 of his genius, his name would doubtless have lived to all 
 time as that of one of the great benefactors of the empire, 
 but the restless activity of this Napoleon of China also expended 
 its energy in the construction of palaces, public edifices, canals,, 
 and roads. The latter, like, the Roman roads in England^, 
 
HISTORY. 283 
 
 remain during 2,000 years to this day. Again, had he 
 contented himself with these engineering triumphs and 
 architectural undertakings, supplemented by his vigorous 
 sway, his name and exploits would have been had in ever- 
 lasting remembrance; but one act of his has blasted his 
 reputation to all eternity in the eyes of the Chinese ; and 
 they have nothing but ill to say of him. Desirous of blotting 
 out all records of a former China, and wishing to pose before 
 posterity as the First Emperor, he ordered the destruction 
 of all classical works by fire, as well as of five hundred 
 scholars. 
 
 The texts were recovered by transcribing them from the 
 retentive memories of the literati, and a few copies were dis- 
 covered which had been secreted, To a literary nation like 
 the Chinese, such a crime was never to be forgotten, nor was 
 it to be forgiven. 
 
 On a complete survey of all the facts of the case, the 
 Emperor, though the act was cruel, was not so much to 
 blame as the Chinese make out, for the integrity of the 
 empire was jeopardised by the literati. His son reigned but 
 seven years, and was unable to cope with the feudal chief- 
 tains. With this period closes the ancient history of China. 
 
 A soldier of fortune, a commander of the forces of one 
 of the chiefs, captured the capital, and started the Han 
 dynasty (B. C. 206 to A. D. 25) and the modern history of 
 China. 
 
 In the North of China, Men of Han ( Han-jin), and Sons 
 of Han ( Han-tzu ), are still the names by which a Chinese is 
 knoAvn, thus perpetuating this glorious epoch, whether 
 looked at from a literary, historical, military, commercial, or 
 artistic point of view. Many public works were undertaken, 
 prominent among which were bridges. The capital, being 
 difficult of approach, had roads cut through mountains, 
 valleys filled up, and suspension bridges built to it. It was, 
 the 'formative period of Chinese polity and institutions, 
 official and formal.' 
 
284 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 / The present competitive examinations for which China 
 has been so famous were started (See Article on Examina- 
 tions), A penal Code was drawn up, which has formed the 
 model for subsequent Codes in China ( See Article on Law ). 
 This dynasty is famous for the introduction of Buddhism ; it 
 was •' one of the most popular which ever ruled the Chinese ; 
 years of peace, during which the nation prospered, alternated 
 with incursions by the restless Tartars. The modern Fuh- 
 kien, Yun-nan, and Canton, &c., and the greater part of 
 Sz-chuen became Chinese provinces, other territory was 
 incorporated with that of the empire, and tribute-bearers 
 came from remote countries. Chinese armies marched 
 across Asia, and China occupied a foremost position among 
 the nations of the world. 
 
 The short reign of a usurper, M'ho tried to found a 
 dynasty of his own, under the name of Sin, divides the Han 
 dynasty into the Western and Eastern Han (the Eastern Han 
 lasted from A. D. 25 to A. D. 220 ), Commercial relations are 
 supposed to have been established with the Roman Empire 
 at this period. The two Han lasted 467 years with a total 
 of 28 monarchs. 
 
 Contemporaneous with the latter part of the Han, and 
 extending to a later period, viz., from A.D. 220 to 277, is 
 .one of the m.ost interesting periods of Chinese history, and 
 it has been immortalised and a halo of romance thrown over 
 it by the famous historical novel called 'The History of the 
 Three States.' Were any instance needed of the utility of 
 works of fiction, it might be found in this entertaining 
 book which has spread a knowledge of what took place in 
 those troublous times in a way in which no cut and dried 
 history, though it might have proved more veracious, could 
 possibly have done. 
 
 The Tsin and Eastern Tsin dynasties ruled for 155 years 
 under 15 monarchs — a time big with disasters and wars. 
 The Tsin or Chin dynasty lasted from A.D. 265 to A.D. 419. 
 A General then succeeded to the throne, and started the 
 
HISTORY. 285- 
 
 dynasty of the Northern Sung, but, as at former times, the 
 country was divided among separate states, and it did not 
 always happen that the house which the historians have con- 
 sidered as the legitimate one was the most powerful. This 
 observation also holds good with regard to some of the 
 succeeding periods as well. This dynasty ended in a series 
 of crimes, and the Tsi followed it. Both of them were un- 
 interesting and inglorious, and this line was again extin- 
 guished in murders. This brings us to the year A.D. 502. 
 Three small dynasties succeeded, thus making five between 
 the Han and T*'ang. 
 
 We come, in the T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618-907) to 
 another of those most illustrious periods in Chinese history, 
 which lasted for nearly three hundred years. 'Under that 
 beneficent imperial sway, the peasant tilled his land and the 
 trader sold his goods in peace. The fiercer and more martial 
 spirits found an outlet for their energies in extending the 
 western boundaries of the empire, and the triumphs of war 
 and the tranquil pleasures of peace were sung and hymned by 
 some of the greatest poets which China has produced.' It 
 augured well for this dynasty that its founder did not cement 
 the foundations of his empire with the blood of his predeces- 
 sors, as was so frequently the case with those who started a 
 new house in China. Of the second Emperor, it has been 
 well said that :- — * no ruler of any country has had sounder 
 claims to the title of great.' His military exploits, with but 
 one exception, were always attended with success, while his 
 genius, military knowledge, and courage, were tempered 
 with the gentleness which maketh great. He gave peace and 
 settled government to the troubled land, while his conquests 
 ensured the same to some of the neighbouring peoples. He 
 patronised literature ; and it was during his reign that the 
 Nestorian tablet was erected. (See Article on Missions — • 
 Nestorians). It was during this dynasty that, after a century 
 of struggle and hard-bought victory, Corea became a posses- 
 sion of China ; and so powerful was China that even Persia 
 solicited aid from the Middle Kingdom. 
 
.286 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 We find the empire placed at this time in what would be 
 considered an anomalous position for China to be in, namely, 
 under the rule of a woman ; this however, was not so very 
 uncommon, especially in ancient times, but the most notable 
 . instance of it was the Empress Wu, who ruled with a 
 masculine hand, and whose reign, notwithstanding her 
 cruelties, was one of benefit to the people for more than forty 
 years. 
 
 The siege of Tai-yuen claims notice from the use of 
 cannon for its defence, which threw twelve-pound stone shot 
 to the distance of three hundred paces. Civil wars and 
 troubles with Tibet and other neighbouring nations — wars 
 which lasted for two centuries— dimmed the lustre of the 
 earlier reigns, and the vigorous hands which held the sceptre 
 were succeeded by weaker ones unable to grasp the kingly 
 power with regal grip and pass it on intact to their successors' 
 The eunuchs arrogated to themselves the character of king- 
 makers, and took far too much on themselves, as has often 
 been the case in the course of Chinese history. The closing 
 chapters of this period are melancholy — a desolate country, 
 ruined towns, and the capital in ashes. It had lasted for 259 
 years, and 20 emperors sat on the throne. 
 
 The people of the South of China have immortalised this 
 dynasty, and marked the time of their civilisation and 
 incorporation into the Chinese rule, by calling themselves 
 T'ong-yan, or Men of T'ong. 
 
 In contrast to the dark ages of Europe, China presented 
 the brightest spectacle to the nations of the world. JMoharn- 
 medanisni was introduced; the Greek Emperor, Theodosius. 
 sent an envoy, in A.D. 643, with presents of precious stones : 
 -as also did the Persians. 
 
 We next come to a series of petty dynasties — ''The Five 
 Dynasties' or 'Ten States' (A.D. 907 to A.D. 960), as the 
 Chinese call them; the centre of the empire on the Yellow 
 -River formed their arena, w^hile the rest of the country was 
 held by diflferent Generals, — 'a period of wasting and incessant 
 
HISTORY. 287 
 
 •civil war, discord, invasions, and commotions.' The whole 
 time occupied by them is less than sixty years; the most 
 noteworthy thing was the invention of printing. / 
 
 The SunJ(A:i). 960-1126) is another of the groat 
 dynasties of Chinese history. It is divided into two, the Sung 
 and the Southern Sung. There Avas a greater centralisation 
 of power in the Supreme Government, the almost autocratic 
 power of the governors of the provinces being curtailed, 
 and more peaceful times succeeded, though fierce wars were 
 still waged witli the Tartars. The empire was reunited, and 
 literature and tho arts of peace wore cultivated. Chinese 
 history contains the record of many great names as shedding 
 lustre on this period ; the Sung dynasty however, lacked 
 the military prowess to hold its own against the warlike 
 ancestors of the modern ]\Ianchu-Tartars, the Kins ; these 
 first acted as treacherous allies ; then showed their true 
 colours; and eventually founded a kingdom, (A.l). 1115- 
 1234) which M'as more powerful than that of the Sung; and 
 the two held concurrent sway in China. 
 
 The rise of the Mongol power prevented what might 
 perhaps have happened five centuries sooner, namely, tlio 
 establishment of a Manchu dynasty over the South as Avell 
 as the North of China. Constant wars took place between 
 the Chinese and the Kins, the latter compelling the conquered 
 people to shave their heads, as at the present day, until their 
 w-aning power sank before the rising glory of the Mongols, 
 who overthrew them, though they offered a stubborn 
 resistance. The Sung ruler allied himself with the Mongols 
 out of hatred to the Kins, but no sooner were the latter 
 conquered, than it became evident that the Chinese and 
 3Iongols could not rule together in China. After a war 
 carried on for many years (TO), during which parts of China 
 were subdued, the Mongols, under different leaders, but 
 finally under Kublai Khan, gradually conquered China. 
 Among many memorable battles the siege of Sian-yaug 
 Avhich was defended for four years, is Avorthy of note. After 
 the conquest of Hankow and its neighbouring cities, the 
 
288 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 conquerors proceeded in their victorious course, subdued the 
 country, and gained possession of the Yang-tsz-kiang, while 
 the Court retreated to the south of China. Mementoes of 
 the last Emperor's flight are to be found in British territory 
 on the mainland opposite Hongkong, while the last scenes of 
 his life were enacted in one of the estuaries of the Canton 
 River to tlie west of Macao, where, after a disastrous naval 
 encounter, one of his courtiers sprang into the sea with him 
 in his arms. Thus ended, after a possession of the legitimate 
 throne for a space of 309 years, the Sung dynasty in its two 
 divisions of Northern and Southern. This House was not 
 equal to that of T'ang. One very interesting feature was the 
 trial of socialistic principles after long discussion and 
 opposition. They, however, were not of such a nature as to 
 be adapted for a successful issue, and proved a failure. 
 
 The Mongol sway (A.D. 1260-1341) was a foreign 
 one to the Chinese, and the latter being the superiors of the 
 former in civilisation, though not in military prowess, the 
 Mongols very naturally allowed the Chinese laws to remain 
 in force, and retained all the advantages of the superior 
 state of the Chinese. To those who are anxious to learn 
 fuller particulars of the 'vigorous and magnificent' sovereign, 
 Kublai Khan, the gossipy pages of the mediaeval Venetian 
 traveller will afford many details of interest, both of the 
 vast domains and the splendour of the Court of the great 
 Khan at Peking ; this city was first made the capital, and 
 it and the Court, were at that time the most splendid in the 
 world. Not content with all his victories on the mainland^ 
 this born conqueror resolved to win Japan, but his efforts 
 only met with disaster and defeat; his armies, though 
 encountering a similar fate in Annam, were successful in 
 Burmah. He evinced a toleration of all creeds. The rule 
 of the invader (the Mongol dynasty was named the Tuen) 
 was not popular with the Chinese, but the grandson, Timur^ 
 who succeeded him, endeavoured, with some success, to make 
 it more so. A number of princes of the same house 
 succeeded to the throne, whose reigns were of short duration ;. 
 
HISTORY. 289 
 
 Mongols were put into office in disregard of the Chinese 
 rule of that event following upon literary distinction. This 
 innovation caused disgust to the natives ; abortive insurrec- 
 tions followed one another, gaining strength and force with 
 each renewed effort, until at length the heaven-sent man, 
 arose, and the Mongols were finally expelled, in A.D. 1368, 
 after a sway of 89 years over China. The dynasty had become 
 effete and powerless through luxury, misrule, and weakness, 
 and had to give way to one more vigorous and powerful — a 
 native dynasty that changed its capital to Nan-king. 
 
 The founder of the Ming dynasty (this dynasty lasted 
 from A.D. 1368 to 1628), having been left an orphan at 
 seventeen, and without any means of support, became 
 a Buddhist priest. He afterwards joined one of the rebel 
 forces as a soldier, and was soon in a forward position in 
 the strife between the Chinese and Mongols. In A.D. 1356, 
 he made himself master of Nan-king, and continuing 
 to extend his authority for some ten years, he finally, in A.D. 
 1366, commenced 'the war for the expulsion of the foreign 
 rulers.' Very little opposition was experienced, so that in a 
 short time Peking was captured, and the lust of the Mongol 
 emperors fled, though wars, necessary for the consolidation 
 of the power of the empire, lasted for some years longer, the 
 Mongols still giving trouble by their continued raids. 
 Hung-wu, as the first Ming ruler was called, was a man of 
 ability and prudence, Avisdom and moderation ; a man of 
 peace, he promoted literature, which the Mongol rulers, with 
 the exception of Kublai Khan, had foolishly slighted. 
 Among many other deeds conducive to this end, he caused 
 libraries to be placed in all the large cities ; not this act 
 alone, but many others, not least of which was the distribu- 
 tion of salt, showed he had the Avelfare of his people at heart. 
 
 Hung-wu was succeeded by his grandson, who, after a 
 short reign, was displaced by one of his uncles, who reached 
 the throne after a protracted and frightful civil war. His 
 son was Emperor for a few months only. The Ming dynasty 
 Avas more firmly established. Envoys bearing presents came 
 
 R 
 
■290 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 from Bengal and Malacca. The son of the last Emperor 
 succeeded to the throne, and during his reign Tonquin, 
 which had been a Chinese province for ten years, was given 
 up, owing to the difficulty of its administration. The next 
 reign but one gave another forcible illustration of the ill 
 effects of allowing a eunuch to hold the reins of power, for, 
 -owing to the incapacity of one of this class, the Emperor 
 was well-nigh brought to the verge of ruin, he even being 
 ^aken captive by the Tartars. 
 
 Periods of incessant warfare succeeded — wars with tlie 
 Tartars, insurrections, seditions, movements, and distur- 
 bances. One of the Emperors was foolish enough to start a 
 Council of Eunuchs — a species of Chinese star-chamber, but 
 the public outcry against it was so loud that it was suspend- 
 ed after five years. Another bad measure by the same 
 Emperor was the granting of lands to several members of 
 his family, thus tending to build up Feudal States. This 
 was one of the ' chief causes that operated towards effecting 
 the overthrow and destruction of the Mings.' The Court was 
 extravagant, and orders were given to work the gold mines 
 in Central China, but the result was next to nothing. Un- 
 dertakings that were of use must be noted, amongst which 
 was the repair of the Great Wall. 
 
 The difficulties that surrounded the Ming dynasty were 
 increasing : troubles in Cochin-China, further wai'S Avith the 
 Tartars, and raids by the Japanese, all kept them occupied ; 
 and the misfortunes culminated in the long reign of 
 Wan-lieh, when the troubles began with the Manchus, 
 though several Emperors succeeded to the throne before the 
 final overthrow of the native dynasty. The Portuguese 
 arrived in China in the reign of Kiah-tsing, and Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries in tliat of Wan-lieh. 
 
 A small Tartar tribe, presided over by a chief of ability, 
 gathered strength and amalgamated its power with other 
 branches, until, after a long and desultory Avarfare, the 
 opportunity arose in the success of a rebel chieftain who 
 
HISTORY. 291 
 
 ascended the Chinese throne, and the last of the Miner 
 Emperors committed suicide. Ng San-kwai, a renowned 
 (jeneral, called in the aid of the Manchus to expel the usur- 
 per, and they, in their turn, after a long contest of forty 
 years, succeeded in conquering the whole empire, notwith- 
 standing that several Ming princes were proclaimed Emperors 
 and fought against the conquerors. Numerous uprisings 
 also took place, but the Manchus were victorious over all. 
 A great part of the reign of the first Emperor (A.D. 1644) 
 of the Manchu, or Ts'ing dynasty, was occupied by these 
 wars ; and it is interesting as being the time when several 
 embassies from the West arrived in China. Shun-chi, for 
 that was the name by which the first sovereign of the 
 Ts'ing dynasty was known by on the throne, was succeeded 
 by the renowned Kang-hi. These two reigns were also 
 famous for the exploits of the semi-piratical and naval hero 
 Koshinga, who expelled the Dutch from Formosa. The 
 Jesuit missionaries held high positions on account of their 
 mathematical and astronomical knowledge. A bold rebellion, 
 headed by the redoubtable Ng San-kwai, complicated 
 amongst other things by a threat of the Mongols to attack 
 China, was quelled by the Manchus, and as a result Manchu 
 garrisons were placed in the cities, where they are still 
 maintained at the present day. Formosa was conquered, 
 and a protracted struggle took place Avith the Eleuths under 
 Galdan, but the Chinese army met with success. This Avas 
 foUoAved by much trouble Avith the Central Asian question : 
 and Chinese authority Avas rendered paramount in Tibet. 
 Kang-hi reigned for sixty-one years, during which period the 
 Manchu rule over China and the neighbouring States Avas 
 firmly established. 'The public acts and magnificent ex- 
 ploits of his reign * * * show him Avise. courageous, 
 magnanimous and sagacious.' ' In the smallest affairs he 
 seems to have been truly great.' 
 
 His son Yung-ching folloAved him, but his reign Avas 
 short compared Avith that of his father. He Avas a man who 
 cared not for military glory and aggrandisement ; his reign 
 
 R 2 
 
292 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 is noted for the restrictions placed on the growing power 
 and influence of the Jesuit missionaries, and after Kien-lung 
 succeeded to the throne they suffered persecution. The first 
 few years of this latter monarch's reign were tranquil ; but 
 they were succeeded by a long war in Central Asia, where his 
 authority was set up amongst the turbulent tribes ; and for 
 nearly a century and a half the wisdom of Kien-lung's able 
 and far-seeing policy has been visible in peaceful frontiers. 
 Wars were also carried on against the Burmese and the 
 Miao-tze with success, and also against the bravest of the 
 Indian tribes, — the Goorkhas in Nepaul, — who had attacked 
 Tibet. An insurrection in Formosa was put down, as well as 
 some others. This long reign of sixty years is also noted for 
 the close relations that were entered into between China and 
 the nations of Europe. We cannot leave our short summary 
 of some of the principal events of this period without adding 
 our tribute to the universal voice of praise of the eaergy and 
 thoroughness of this Emperor, and the assiduity with which 
 lie devoted himself to the subjects requiring his attention. The 
 Manchu power was brought to the zenith of its glory and had as 
 able rulers always sat on the throne as Kang-hi and Kien-lung,.. 
 much of the misery of later days might have been prevented. 
 
 The succeeding reign, that of Kia-king was not one of 
 peace and quiet : there were secret combinations against 
 the Goverment, and insurrections and piracies abounded; a 
 formidable force of pirates infested the coast of Kwang-tung 
 for some years; the Portugese assisted the Chinese in 
 attacking them, but the two piratical leaders quarrelled, and 
 finally submitted themselves to the Imperial Government. 
 
 Kia-king's son Tau-kwang was a more energetic and 
 just ruler than his father. Many local insurrections and 
 disasters took place, among which was the first war with 
 England, which, however, resulted in one good thing, the 
 opening of China to foreign trade. The frightful T'ai P'ing 
 rebellion broke out at the close of this Sovereign's reign, 
 and demanded the prowess of a Kang-hi or Kien-lung to 
 subdue it, but Hien-fung, who succeeded Tau-kwang, was- 
 
HISTORY. 293 
 
 not cast in the same mould as his grandfather or great- 
 great-grandfather. A second war with England took place, 
 and resulted in the country being still further opened to 
 Western nations. 
 
 In the next reign, that of T'ung-chi, the great T'ai- 
 P'ing rebellion was subdued, Chinese Gordon having a very 
 great share in the matter; this rebellion had lasted from 
 A.D. 1850 to 1864 and had desolated several provinces. A 
 Mohammedan rising was also quelled ; and diplomatic inter- 
 course was started with the Treaty Powers. 
 
 His cousin succeeded T'ung-chi, under the style of 
 Kwang-su. As far as can be judged by the imperfect light 
 of the historic past, China is better governed now, under the 
 present dynasty, than she has ever been. A slow progress 
 towards Western civilisation has commenced : the construc- 
 tion of railways has begun; cotton mills have been established; 
 mints have been opened for the coining of copper and silver 
 after the Western fashion; a navy of foreign-built vessels was 
 formei-l\-, and is now being again, acquired ; bodies of troops, 
 trained in the European style; arsenals, started; and various 
 other minor improvements effected. But the almost universal 
 corruption and inefficiency of the mandarins has resulted in 
 a series of disastrous defeats of the army and navy, the 
 results of which amongst other things are seen in the loss 
 of the magnificent Island of Formosa, the dismantling of- 
 Port Arthur, and in the destruction or taking of the 
 vessels of the Northern Fleet by the Japanese. All who are 
 interested in the future of this mighty empire are watching 
 with keen eyes every sign of progress, now rejoicing in in- 
 dications of foresight and prudence on the part of her rulers, 
 and now lamenting the apparent ineptitude and inability to 
 grasp the position of affairs on the part of those in power. 
 The future alone will show how the balance will turn. 
 
 What the results of the present condition of affairs will be 
 is hard to say. Russia is extending her hold over Manchuria 
 and holds Port Arthur; Germany has Kiao-Chau; Great 
 Britain, Wei-hai-wei. 'Spheres of influence,' and 'open doors * 
 
294 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and different plans to build up or pull to pieces the present 
 house are talked about by difierent persons, but no one knows 
 A^hat will really happen next. 
 
 We have thus traced in the shortest manner possible the 
 
 history of the Chinese nation fi'om a mythological period to 
 
 a mythical and semi-mythical one, until, under the House of 
 
 Chau, the facts of Chinese historj'' are more reliable. We 
 
 have seen the ebb and flow of dynastic changes : how, with 
 
 the new vigour of a fresh dynasty, the power of China was 
 
 extended for a few centuries, to be succeeded, when effete 
 
 rulers followed, by an ebb of dominion and influence, until, 
 
 with each successive change, a higher tide of power reclaimed 
 
 what weak hands had lost, iaud the boundaries of the empire 
 
 were again expanded with each rise of fortune to a greater 
 
 extent; how the Feudal States of China, with a nominal 
 
 paramount lord, were succeeded by 'the foundations of a 
 
 coherent empire' under the first Emperor of Tsin ; next, we 
 
 have seen ' the stately house of Han,' ' making vast strides 
 
 towards a more settled state of prosperity and civilisation; ' 
 
 the troublous times of the Three States and other dynasties 
 
 from which China rose in the brilliant epoch of the T'ang ; 
 
 another ebb and transition period of the Five Dynasties, when 
 
 the recurring tide of prosperity came in with the Sung, to be 
 
 followed by an efflux, and another stormy wave of conquest 
 
 under the Mongols, which quickly retired to return, with 
 
 renewed force, with the great Ming dynasty on its crest again, 
 
 to again retire, and with fresh energy, to once more return 
 
 with the conquering Manchu 
 
 Books recommended. — Boulger's 'History of China,' 3 vols. 'Historic 
 China and other Sketches,' by H. A. Giles. Williams's 'Middle Kingdom.' 
 Ross's ' Corea,' and the paine author's ' History of the Manchus.' ' Historical 
 Atlas of the Chinese Empire from the earliest times down to the close 
 of the Ming Dynasty,' by E. L. Oxenham, gives maps of China at different 
 periods and contains a most interesting summary of Chinese history. 
 To all of these we are more or less indebted in the preparation of this pnper. 
 Numerous sketches of different epochs of Chinese History will be found 
 treated of in different articles in the ' China Review,' and ' Missionary 
 Recorder,' amongst these particularly note ' China in the Light of Historj-,' 
 by Rev. E. Faber, Dr. Theol : A series of articles translated from the German 
 and published in the ' Chinese Recorder,' Vol. XXVII. ' Macgowan's History 
 of China ' is the latest history of China. The historic portion of WilliamsV 
 * Middle Kingdom ' has also been published separately as a volume. 
 
 ] 
 
HOK-LO. 295 
 
 HOK-LO. — This word is applied to the inhabitants of 
 certain parts of the North-eastern portion of the Canton 
 province, who differ in speech, manners, and customs, from 
 the rest of the population. Their language (See Article on 
 Dialects, under the word Swatow) is near akin to the Fuh- 
 kienese, but has several dialects, The Swatow is spoken 
 at that port, and the Hoi-fung and the Luk-fung in the districts 
 of country so named, and some other dialects would probably 
 be discovered were the subject fully examined into. 
 
 The Hok-lo occupy the whole of some districts, and ai-e 
 scattered through other parts, having migrated from the 
 Fuhkien province a few centuries since. It is estimated that 
 within the Canton province there are about three million 
 Hok-lo speakers. There are some traces of a very ancient 
 origin in this speech ; and it is not so soft and musical as 
 the Cantonese, having many nasal twangs. 
 
 In dress they differ slightly from the Cantonese, the 
 jackets of the men are rather longer at times, and they often, 
 in common with the Fuhkienese, wear turbans. They are a 
 rougher, wilder set of men than the Cantonese. There are other 
 points of difference between them, into which we cannot enter. 
 
 The American Baptist and English Presbyterian missions 
 have many stations in the Hok-lo country. 
 
 There are a number of Hok-lo in Hongkong, many of the 
 chair coolies belonging to that part of the country. They 
 make good bearers, being physically stronger than the natives 
 further South. Many Hok-lo have gone abroad, and are to be 
 found in different parts of the world. By the census of 1891 
 there were 43,791 Teo Chews in the Straits Settlements : 
 Teo Chews is the term applied generally to them in Singapore, 
 Penang, and the Malay States, while Hok-lo is the name by 
 which they are generally known by the Cantonese speakers in 
 China; the former name being derived from the Departmental 
 city of Ch'ao Chao fii (in the local dialect Tin Chiii fii, or Teo 
 Chew fu) to which the different districts, from which many of 
 the Hok-los come, belong ; while Hok-lo means Men from the- 
 Fuk (or, or as it is locally, Hokl province, ?.e.,Fukkien province. 
 
'396 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 INFANTICIDE.— The longer one lives in China the 
 more one feels the necessity for caution in saying what does 
 and what does not exist here. In our younger days we have 
 been guilty of dogmatically asserting that such and such 
 things were not done in China, to be sometimes confuted in 
 later years by the evidence of our own eyes and ears ; nor 
 are we singular in this respect, as doubtless many other old 
 residents in China could testify. Some authors have been 
 egregious sinners in thus writing about a small portion of 
 China in which they have resided : they have judged of the 
 whole of this vast empire, with its diverse inhabitants, 
 manners, and customs from a small part of it, reversing the 
 mathematical axiom that the whole contains its parts, into 
 ' one small part contains the whole.' 
 
 About no subject is this perhaps more strikingly true 
 than that of infanticide, for what holds perfectly good of 
 one small district, is entirely false when applied to other 
 large tracts. Also what happens at one time, an exceptional 
 period possibly, may not happen again, even in the same 
 district, for years. 
 
 To form an approximately correct estimate of this evil 
 and crime in China, a systematically carried out investiga- 
 tion, extending over a number of years, all over the land, 
 would be necessary. 
 
 To premise, as a general statement, it may be said that 
 in certain parts of the empire, and/or at certain times, this 
 •crime is only too alarmingly practised. One writer says, 
 * thousands of female babies are destroyed every year.' 
 
 That it is prevalent in some regions it is useless to 
 deny. There is a quasi sanction given to it under certain 
 circumstances by the tale of one who had not sufficient to 
 support his aged parent and his own family, and who thereupon 
 came to the resolve, with his wife, that the infant should be 
 sacrificed in order to have enough for its grandparent. 
 Taking the child for the purpose of burying it alive, the 
 misguided and wicked parent — but, according to Chinese ideas, 
 most dutiful son — was rewarded by heaven, and restrained 
 
INFANTICIDE. 297 
 
 from this act of filial piety by discovering a pot of gold in 
 the hole he had dug for his own offspring. And this is 
 held up as an example, it being one of the twenty-four 
 moral (?) tales to encourage others to a performance of filial 
 duties. What wonder if some follow the example thus held 
 up to them. Were it not also a known fact that infanticides 
 take place, proof of it might be found in the proclamations 
 which are sometimes issued against it by the officials. And 
 even another corroboration of its practice may be found in 
 the Chinese mothers, Avho have acknowledged putting their 
 own cliildren out of the way. Again the author has a small 
 tract issued under the imprimatur of the Goddess of Mercy, 
 which contains illustrations of the methods of committing 
 the crime, and inveighing against it. 
 
 On the other hand, it must not be supposed that all the 
 dead bodies of children that float down the rivers are the 
 victims of infanticide, nor that those which are found exposed 
 at the roadside or on the hills are necessarily thrown there 
 by heartless hands, for the Chinese do not go to the trouble 
 of burying little children with the same care that they do 
 older people, and the dead children are often thrown into 
 the river, or cast out in the country. 
 
 One of the great causes of infanticide is poverty ; 
 another is the low estimation in which girls are held, and 
 all the evils which necessarily ensue from such an inferior 
 position in the social status, for it is seldom, indeed rarely, 
 that boys are killed ; and that brings us to another reason, 
 for if a boy is made away with, it is probably due to some 
 physical defect, this reason also causing the death of some girls- 
 
 'In his pamphlet on "The Diseases of China," Dr. Dudgeon 
 says (on p. 56) : — "One thing is certain, infanticide does not prevail 
 to the extent so generally believed among us; and in the North, 
 whence Europe derived her ideas chiefly from the Jesuits of the last 
 century, it does not exist at all." These remarks do not apply to 
 Shan-si, where the practice is quite common. The teachers deny 
 that female infants are thus killed, but the common people readily 
 admit that they destroy many of their girl babies. There are 
 <;omparatively few old women of the poorer classes who have not 
 been guilty of this crime. The writer himself is aware of some 
 instances of the kind.' 
 
298 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Hankow there are many cases- 
 of it among the poor and rural population. It is also said 
 to be prevalent among the Hakkas. It is practised in Canton, 
 but is much rarer there than in some places. It seems to- 
 prevail in certain parts of the Fuh-kien province. From 
 enquiries made in some villages in that part of the country,, 
 it was ascertained that an average of 40 per cent of the girls 
 were thus murdered^ as we call it, but neither Chinese law 
 nor opinion seem to consider it as such. 
 
 At the prefectural city of Ch'ao Chau, near Swatow, the 
 author saw, outside the walls of the city, a basket placed 
 against a wall, looking from a distance something like a 
 cradle. A piece of matting was fastened above it, forming 
 a sort of pent roof to shelter it from the rain and sun. In 
 this basket, is put any baby whom its parents do not care 
 to preserve, and should any charitable person be so disposed, 
 he, or she, may lift out the forsaken infant and take it 
 home. Failing such rescue, the child ultimately meets the 
 fate of so many of the inhabitants of babydom in China. 
 The provision made for infanticide in a large and important 
 departmental city near Amoy is not so merciful, as it is; 
 simply a large hole in the city wall into which the infant is 
 cast. In the North of China baby towers are provided, 
 perhaps amongst other reasons, for the same purpose, though 
 they are principally used for receiving the dead bodies of 
 infants. Occasionally a separate hole is provided on different 
 sides of the tower to keep the sexes distinct, and thus prevent 
 any incentives to immorality amongst the ghosts of the little 
 babies. 
 
 INSECTS. — Insect life is rampant in China. To one 
 who is accustomed to its abundance in the East, it appears^ 
 as if man had to look for it in the West, the opposite beings 
 the case in China ; here the insects find out the man ; for 
 hide as he may from their advances, they follow him every- 
 where, and all his subterfuges to avoid them are unavailing. 
 There is no need for the enthusiastic entomologist to look 
 under stones for beetles, for beetles abound everywhere ; nor 
 
INSECTS. 299 
 
 need he sally forth at night to catch moths, the moths come, 
 attracted by his lamp, into the room to him ; and when the 
 white ants are in full flight, they fly in at the open window 
 in such quantities that the table is soon littered with the 
 wings which the pupa-like insects drop without the least 
 reluctance, at the slightest hint : they come off" in the hands, 
 they are shed on the lamp-globes, anywhere and everywhere, 
 while the wretched little creatures crawl over your book or 
 paper, and, if the lamp is not too attractive, they proceed to 
 explore the genus homo with a persistency worthy of abetter 
 cause. A grand thing is to set the lamps into large basins 
 of water, when hundreds of them lose their lives in the 
 moats which thus surround the lights. 
 
 And these same white ants, Avhen in another stage of 
 their existence, are a worse nuisance than ever, for they are 
 not simply an annoyance then, but a pest. Nothing is secure 
 from their depredations. Have you a trunk full of valuable 
 documents ? You may, after keeping them for years intact, 
 suddenly discover, on opening the trunk, that the papers 
 and pamphlets have been transformed into trash, glued 
 together into one mass and ridded with the tunnelled roads 
 of these indefatigable workers in the dark. Are you fond of 
 books and is your collection a valuable and priceless one of 
 old editions ? With all your care, you may discover some day 
 that these respecters of nothing have eaten up through one of 
 the legs of your bookcase, and run riot nere and there 
 throughout all the accumulated treasure of years. Is there 
 anything left untouched by white ants ? One's house is at- 
 tacked in the flooring and the beams of the roof, and sudden- 
 ly and unexpectedly collapses ; clothing, carefully packed 
 away for future use, is found, when wanted, to be eaten into 
 holes. 
 
 The only fault to be found with the white ant is, that 
 he has a superabundance of energy that is misapplied, but 
 unfortunately misapplied energy is not appreciated by man, 
 and thwarts his plans in a most aggravating manner. Were 
 the white ant amenable to instruction, he might be yoked in 
 
300 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the service of man instead of being his antagonist, but he 
 has views of his own on the subject, and probably prefers to 
 work on his own lines, instead of drilling holes in wood for 
 the carpenter, or making button-holes for the seamstress. 
 
 From white ants to ants is not a far cry, though they 
 are not relations, not even thirty-second cousins. We want 
 a Sir John Lubbock to study Chinese ants. We do not 
 know how many species there are, but the most casual 
 observer cannot help noticing that, at the very least, there 
 are several : black ants and red ants, tiny ants, small black 
 ants and large black ants. In a country where everyone 
 and everything is busy, the ants do not prove an exception 
 to their world-wide reputation for diligence. It is most 
 interesting to notice how these busy little scavengers 
 perform their work ; a dead cockroach will not lie long on 
 the floor before it begins to move, and an investigation 
 will show that tens of ants are supporting it and carrying 
 it off; also how carefully and systematically they bring up 
 the earth from the neat little holes, which are occasionally 
 ^een in one's path; one by one they bring up a small piece, 
 and, climbing up on the encircling mound, select a little 
 hollow, or what seems to be a suitable spot to them, to 
 deposit it — not dumping it down just anywhere. All sorts 
 of devices have to be resorted to, to keep these industrious 
 little creatures out of the stores : the sugar is black with 
 them, and all sorts of edibles are attacked. To keep tliem 
 away, the feet of cupboards are set in bowls of water, but 
 this water must be often changed, else a scum will coat the 
 top, and the ants cross over as human beings would on ice. 
 
 Cockroaches are even worse plagues than ants in many 
 places. They swarm everywhere, hiding in the daytime 
 in any dark corner, whence they emerge and run riot after 
 dark, running and flying all over the room, much to one's 
 discomfort. They attack clothing, especially that with 
 starch in it, as well as edibles, and books. Woe betide the 
 new-bought book, nicely bound in cloth, lying on your 
 table ; its fine bindins: will be blotched all over with stains 
 
IJ\' SECTS. 301 
 
 (if you have not already given it a dose or two of anti- 
 cockroach varnish), and a week of such treatment Avill reduce 
 the volume to so disreputable a condition, that it will look 
 as if a heavy shower of rain had besprinkled it. The female 
 cockroach displays a considerable amount of ingenuity in 
 her endeavours to hide her eggs. These consist of an oblong 
 case, with one edge serrated, of about half or three-quarters 
 of an inch in length and about three or four times as long 
 as broad. This is naturally of a dark, brownish colour ; but if 
 it is laid on a white pith hat, the mother collects some of the 
 whiting off the hat and partially covers the egg-case with 
 it to conceal it ; and to a lesser degree this is also done 
 where the colour of the substance on which the egg is 
 deposited differs much from that of the egg-case itself. 
 
 Insect life knows no rest in the East. Speak not of the 
 silent voices of the night here ! The voices of the night are 
 as many as the day, if not more. This is particularly notice- 
 able to the newcomer on his voyage out, when perhaps he 
 spends a night on shore at Singapore, and first realises 
 that insect life in the East is more intense, more persistent, 
 and universally prevalent. 
 
 We have seen a book called ' Songs in the Night,' but 
 the insect world in Eastern countries provides incessant 
 ' songs with words ' both day and night. 
 
 A walk along a country road after nightfall is through 
 a perfect chorus of chirps and chips, scissors grinding — but 
 sufficient words have not yet been invented in the English 
 language to describe accurately all the shrill little voices, 
 pitched in different keys ; soprano, alto, and tenor are present, 
 and, to make up for the want of a bass, the bull-frogs in the 
 neighbouring pond join in a deep, full, well-sustained note, 
 brought out at regular intervals. 
 
 All else being quiet, doubtless the insects have a better 
 chance of being heard. But the day is not silent either. It 
 is sufficient to mention the cicada, an insect about an inch 
 and a half to two inches long. The outline of its shape is 
 
-302 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 somewhat like that of the shot of a new breechloading cannon, 
 for its head is nearly straight across, and its abdomen tapers 
 to a point. In colour it is black, touched with brownish 
 orange, especially on its under surface, with four transparent 
 gauze wings, two long, and two short, and absurdly small 
 antennae for an insect of its size ; as to its voice — well, to put 
 it mildly, it is not pleasant, though we read in a recent book 
 of travels in Africa a charming account of its angelic notes ! 
 Solitude must have had a soothing effect on the family of 
 cicadas which settled in that dark land, and perhaps the cruel 
 treatment they receive from the Chinese boys has produced 
 an irritating one on those in the Celestial Land ; for young 
 John Chinaman delights, Avith a long bamboo pole, some 
 sticky substance having been placed on the end, to poke 
 among the upper branches of the trees and capture the 
 insect, which then does duty as a rattle, protesting with his 
 strident ' sz-sz-sz-sz ' when he is fingered; but it is when he 
 is at liberty ' on the tree-top ' that he is in full voice — no 
 other insect approaches him in that respect — and, as if 
 apparently rejoicing in a knowledge of what his voice is 
 capable of, he starts off" with a preliminary flourish, and then 
 settles down to business. This ear-deafening din is kept up 
 for several minutes, (its distressing nature is intensified if 
 half a dozen cicadas are within earshot) then, after a short 
 rest, he starts off" again with a wearying iteration through 
 the hot hours of the day. It is only the male which ' pos- 
 sesses the musical apparatus, consisting of two membranes 
 over air-tubes in its throat, with hollow-sounding cavities 
 behind each, which increase the volume of its notes.' 
 
 But time, as well as space, would fail us to bring all the 
 insect creation found in China before our readers : the useful 
 silkworms ; atlas moths, nearly as large as two palms of the 
 hands joined together; smaller moths, quaint in contrasts of 
 colours unusal in the West in such insects ; tiny mites of 
 ones like little pieces of marbled paper flying about ; lovely 
 butterflies like bits of rainbow floating in the breeze, and 
 fluttering over the flowers; gorgeous beetles of all shapes 
 
INSECTS. 30;j 
 
 tind sizes ; and the ubiquitous mosquito, (of wliich there 
 must be a good many species out of the 150 species which 
 are known to exist in the world), the plague of one's 
 nights — what aggravated torture and torment it is capable 
 of inflicting! — then the hosts of grasshoppers of all sizes and 
 modification of shape and habits, some tiny morsels about a 
 •quarter of an inch in length and Avhich walk sideways. What 
 myriads there are of them all ! Where do all these insects 
 -come from, and where do they all go ? Is it any wonder 
 with their ingenious habits, their wonderful adaptation to 
 their surroundings, their marvellous instinct, their wondrous 
 beauty — is it any wonder, we repeat, with all these, that the 
 •Oriental has endowed them with immortality, and has given 
 them a place in future stages of existence ? 
 
 As to the insects which it is not considered polite to 
 mention in respectable society, they also abound, and the 
 Chinese appear to have no scruples in speaking of them, or 
 in allowing them board and lodging free of expense, though 
 they try to keep down over-population by a judicious 
 thinning-out. The means employed to this end are not 
 always pleasant to a squeamish taste, as the operation is 
 carried on, especially by coolies and beggars, in the open 
 street, the lowest classes using their teeth as the executioners, 
 for the Chinese do not feel any shame at their persons being 
 inhabited. 
 
 As to the Westerner in China, personal contact with 
 these parasites is perhaps, if anything, less common even 
 than in England, where a ride in a. London 'bus may 
 introduce one to a stray member of their communitj', noletis 
 volens. 
 
 With the advance of medical science of late years it 
 becomes more and more apparent that man has more to dread 
 from insects, such as the mosquito, than the mere discomfort 
 of its bite or its buzz; for it is thought at least to be probable 
 that the mosquito spreads malaria. 
 
304 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 'Man * '-" may become infected by drinking water con- 
 taminated by the mosquito, or, and much more frequently, by inhaling 
 the dust of the mud of dried-up mosquito-haunted pools ; or in some 
 similar way' 'The later researches of Surgeon Ross of the British 
 army have not only proven that malaria can be acquired from a 
 mosquito bite, but that the malaria parasite is mostly one of insects 
 and only an occasional visitor to man. Particular species of malaria 
 parasites even demand particular species of mosquitos— a fact at least 
 partly explaining apparent vagaries in the distribution of malaria. 
 When all is known, Europeans may be able to live in climates now 
 made deadly by this pest.' 
 
 Flies and other insects may likewise help to spread that 
 awful disease the plague. 
 
 'One can understand how lice, fleas, bugs, and perhaps 
 
 flies may act as carriers of the virus from person to person, 
 inserting it with their bites. Yersin found that the flies in his 
 Hongkong plague laboratory died in great numbers, their bodies being 
 crowded with the specific bacillus. Sablonowski * *' remarked 
 that during the Mesopotamian epidemic (in 1884) a certain species of 
 fly appeared and disappeared concurrently with the plague ; he 
 considered that this insect was an active agent in spreading the 
 disease.' 
 
 Nor is the deadly list complete of the dreaded disease 
 which this apparently harmless, though troublesome; insect, 
 the mosquito, may disseminate, for elephantiasis is to be 
 considered as another. 
 
 'Mosquitoes infect water with the germs of the disease, to 
 pi'event it we have to keep the mosquitoes down, to prevent their 
 preying on already infected individuals, or, and this is the simple 
 plan, to keep them from getting access to our drinking water, or by 
 iDoiling or filtration to kill the germs which our drinking water may 
 contain.' 
 
 Books recommendecl. — ' Natural History of the Insects of Chinar 
 containing upwards of two hundred and twenty Figures and Descriptions,' 
 by E. Donovan, F.L.S., &c. See Manson's 'Tropical Diseases.' p. 17, 153. 
 Also see pages i&6-460 for an account of the way the mosquito is con- 
 jectured to infect man with the Jilaria sangubiis homhih. 
 
 JADE. — The mineral held in the highest estimation in 
 China is jade. Under the name Yuk (pronounced Yook) the 
 Chinese not only include ' the three varieties of the silicate 
 of alumina called jade, nephrite, and jadeite by mineralogists,' 
 but they also apply the same term to a number of different 
 stones. Sonorousness and colour are the two qualities 
 which enhance its value, the best coming from Khoten and 
 Yunnan. 
 
JADE. 305 
 
 *A greenish-white colour is the most highly prized/ 
 Williams gives the following description of jade : — 
 
 ' Its colour is usually a greenish-white, or grayish-green and dark 
 grass-green ; internally it is scarcely glimmering. Its fracture is 
 splintery ; splinters white ; mass semi-transparent and cloudy ; it 
 scratches glass strongly, and can itself generally be scratched by 
 flint or quartz, but while not excessively hard, it is i-emarkable 
 for toughness. The stone when freshly broken is less hard than 
 after a short exposure. Specific gravity from 2.9 to 3.1.' 
 
 The Chinese look upon jade as 'emblematical of most 
 of the virtues '; and from the excessive admiration they have 
 for it, it is natural that they should have largely used it in 
 their ceremonious language ; for instance, in addressing a 
 man, his daughter is styled 'a jade girl,' his hand is 'a 
 jade hand,' ' a jade foot ' means his coming, or 'I hope you will 
 transfer your jade' means 'I hope you will come,' &c. 
 
 It is the ambition of every girl and woman, amongst 
 the Cantonese, to have a pair of jade-stone drops for her 
 earrings, and a pair of jade-stoue bangles for her arms. 
 Failing the genuine article, imitation ones are worn. Long- 
 pins, six or eight inches in length, having from one to 
 four inches of jade forming the upper part, are stuck into 
 the hair of women ; hair-presses, a curious kind of ornament 
 holding up part of the coiffure ; rings for women : large 
 thumb-rings, an inch broad, for gentlemen ; vases, sceptres — 
 these and many other articles of jewellery, of ornament, and 
 of virtu, are all made of this stone. 
 
 The jade-stone shops are amongst the neatest and finest 
 looking Chinese shops. The jade in its different shades, 
 from rich green to white, as well as other specimens of 
 precious stones, already made up into the ornaments so 
 highly esteemed, are tastefully arranged on white paper in 
 glass covered boxes. Much labour and pains are taken in 
 the production of these different articles, time being of little 
 consequence to the Chinese lapidary, and expense being 
 lavishly incurred by the moneyed man for their purchase, for 
 the adornment of his many wives and numerous daughters. 
 
306 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 as well as for his own wear, and for seals and hric-d-hrac 
 of various kinds to be placed in the halls of his rambling 
 mansion. 
 
 The Chinese, it is said, will not purchase jade brought 
 from foreign countries. Williams says that a cargo load, 
 brought from Australia, was rejected by the Cantonese, owing 
 to its origin and colour. Giles says that 'whole shiploads of 
 it have been brought from other countries to China, but 
 have found no market, the Chinese declaring it was not the 
 same article as their own.' It was thought at one time 
 that jade was only to be found in three places : which were 
 New Zealand, the northern slopes of the Karakorum 
 mountains, and Northern Burmah, but it has since been 
 found in situ in Silesia, Monte Video, British Columbia, and 
 Alaska. It also probably exists or existed somewhere in the 
 Alps, as jade has often been found in the remains of Swiss 
 lake dwellings, which are supposed to be at least 3,000 years 
 old, and it has also been found in Asia Minor, in Mexico, 
 the West Indies, and South America — particularly in 
 Yenezuela and Brazil. 
 
 'The jade of Turkestan is largely derived from water-rolled 
 boulders fished up by divers in the rivers of Khotan, but it is also got 
 from mines, in the valley of the Kardkdsh River, * * "' * The jade 
 of Khotan appears to be first mentioned by Chinese authors in the 
 time of the Han dynasty under Wuti (B.C. 140-86).' 
 
 JEWS. — Considerable excitement was caused, a number 
 of years since, by the discovery of a colony of these ancient 
 people in the interior of China, in the city especially of Kai- 
 fung, a departmental city in the province of Honan. They 
 are said to have established themselves in Ciiina in the Hau 
 dynasty, though there is great uncertainty as to the time 
 of their arrival. 
 
 Several visits have been made to them in Kaifung-fu 
 and copies of Hebrew manuscript have been obtained from 
 them, but 'no variations of any consequence have been 
 found between the text of these rolls and that found in the 
 printed Hebrew Bibles of Europe.' These manuscripts have 
 
JINRICKSHAS. 307 
 
 been deposited in different institutions, such as the City 
 Hall Library in Hongkong, the British Museum, and the 
 Bodleian. 
 
 The descendants of this Jewish colony at Kaifung-fii have 
 sunk into a state of ignorance and poverty; not one of them 
 can read Hebrew ; their synagogue is no longer in existence ; 
 no services are held; and in a few years the last traces 
 of this Jewish community, of from two to four hundred souls, 
 will probably be lost in the mass of their heathen and 
 Mohammedan surroundings. This appears, since the above 
 was written, to have become almost true, if not quite so. 
 
 Books recommended. — In the Appemlix to ' Christian Progress in 
 China,' by Arnold Foster, b.a., the general reader will find a succinct 
 account of this interesting Jewish colony. Also see Williams's 'Middle 
 Kingdom.' 'The Jews in China,' by J. Finn. 'The Orphan Colony 
 of Jews in China,' by J. Finn, m.k.a.s. ' Fac-sinules of the Hebrew 
 Manuscripts obtained at the Jewish Synagogue in K'ae-Fung Foo.' 
 
 JINRICKSHAS.— Though, not used in the purely 
 native parts of China, yet these convenient vehicles are 
 largely employed in several of the Treaty Ports, as well as iu 
 Hongkong, not only by Europeans, but also by Chinese. 
 
 They appear to have been introduced in the Shanghai 
 foreign settlements from Japan, and some years later into 
 Hongkong where there are 500 or so. The streets of native 
 cities are not of such a character as to suit vehicular traffic 
 of any kind, and special roads would have to be prepared 
 if it were intended for them to run outside the foreign 
 settlements. This has been done in Nanking Avhere a good 
 carriage road has been constructed by the viceroy, Chang 
 Chih-tung, a great many houses having to be pulled down 
 for it. A score of carriages and a thousand jinrickshaws 
 are running on it. 
 
 The Chinese are not such good ricksha coolies as 
 the Japanese, who think nothing of drawing tandem a 
 heavy man fifty miles in one day up and down hill ; but still 
 the Chinese, though not such swift runners or possessing 
 such powers of endurance, make very fair ones. 
 
 s 2 
 
308 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 To those who have not seen it, the ricksha may be 
 described as a small two-wheeled vehicle capable of seating 
 one, or sometimes two, persons, with a pair of shafts, in 
 Avhich a coolie runs and drags the vehicle. Private ones have 
 sometimes two or three coolies, the other one or two pushing 
 from behind. They are fitted with hoods which can be raised 
 or lowered at pleasure, and waterproofs to cover the legs are 
 part of the outfit. The rates of hire in Hongkong are — 
 quarter-hour, 5 cents; half-hour, 10 cents; and one hour, 15 
 cents. In Macao the fares are even less. 
 
 One enthusiast has proposed that they should be in- 
 troduced into London. They are already half-way there, as 
 their use has not only extended to Singapore, Ceylon and 
 India, but even to South Africa. 
 
 KITES. — China is par excellence the land of kites.. 
 They are not relegated here to youthful hands alone and 
 considered as childish toys ; they are looked upon as fit 
 objects for children of an older growth — not scientific 
 apparatus such as Benjamin Franklin employed to bring the- 
 lightning down from the skies, or such as some present-day 
 aeronauts use for experiments in attempting to solve the 
 problem of a flying machine; but as simple objects to amuse 
 themselves Avith. 
 
 With this higher view taken of kite-flying, it is natural 
 that more pains should be employed in the construction of 
 kites and more ingenuity in their design than is usually the 
 case with us. 
 
 The convenient bamboo in its natural growth of different 
 sizes, tubular and light, easily split, should the whole stick 
 be too large, and almost as easily bent into circles, strong yet 
 flexible — seems specially adapted for tlie frame-work, be the 
 kite a crude and conventional imitation of a bird to amuse 
 a child (for the pastime of kite-flying is not entirely niono- 
 jjolised by those of matuier years in China), or be it a 
 Avonderful structure, the joy and admiration of not only its 
 owner, but of a gaping crowd and of the Avhole neighbour- 
 hood. The frame-work is covered Avith paper and silk, but 
 
KITES. 301> 
 
 no Chinese would think of using old newspapers for such a 
 purpose : any written or printed paper is reverently burned. 
 Such importance do the Chinese attach to this that men 
 perambulate the streets for the express purposes of rescuing 
 any scraps of such paper from being trodden under foot, 
 little Avooden boxes are also stuck up on the walls to receive 
 anything of that nature thrust into them. 
 
 But to return to kites — so lifelike are some of them 
 made, and so well does the trained hand manipulate 
 them (or rather their strings) in their tethered flight that the 
 simulated hovering of a bird of prey in the air is good 
 enough to deceive, at first sight, even a naturalist. It has 
 Avell been said that 'the skill shown in flying them is more re- 
 markable than the ingenuity displayed in their construction.' 
 Butterflies, lizards, gigantic centipedes, a pair of spectacles, 
 a huge cash, fish, men and many other objects may be seen 
 disporting themselves in mid air, while at the other end of 
 the strings will be found young men, or even middle aged 
 ones perchance, gravely enjoying themselves, and a group of 
 ■boys Avatcliing them and doubtless wishing they had grown 
 old enough to fly such beauties of kites. 
 
 The festival on which kite-flying is indulged in largely 
 
 is the ninth day of the ninth moon, and this throughout 
 
 China. 
 
 ' Doolittle describes them [the kites] as sometimes resembhng- 
 a great bird, or a serpent thirty feet long ; at other times the spectator 
 sees a group of hawks hovering round a centre, all being suspended 
 by one strong cord, and each hawk-kite controlled and moved by a 
 separate line. On this day he estimates that as many as thirty 
 thousand people assemble on the hills around Foochow to join in this 
 amusement if the weather be propitious.' 
 
 A delightful concomitant to the kite in Chinese eyes, 
 or rather ears, is a small contrivance which is so placed that 
 the wind rushing through it produces a humming sound. 
 
 We wonder if there is anything in China which is not 
 connected Avith their religion in some way or other, even the 
 thieves and prostitutes have their deities whom they devoutly 
 pray to for success and protection. What wonder then that 
 the innocent kite is often used as a species of scapegoat, as 
 
310 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 with string deliberately cut for that purpose, it floats on its 
 downward erratic flight, freighted with an imaginary load 
 of disasters thus carried away from those who otherwise 
 would bear the weight of ills unknown and dreaded. With 
 such a simple expedient to get rid of the dark to-morrow, 
 who need be unhappy even in wretched China ? 
 
 LACQUER-WARE.—^. Paleologue, in his admirable 
 Avork on 'L'Art Chinois,' while giving full credit to the 
 perfection to which the Japanese, originally the scholars of 
 the Chinese, have carried this art *une perfection que les 
 Chinois n'ont jamais egalee,' says further : — ' Mais, pour 
 relever d'un art moins eleve et d'une technique moins 
 parfaite, les laques Chinois comptent quelques specimens 
 qui sont remarquables par la qualite de la matiere, par la 
 douceur des tons, par la puissance de la composition, par la 
 largeur et la severite du style,' 
 
 The lacquer is originally a resinous gum obtained from 
 the varnish tree (Rhus verniciferaj, cultivated both in China 
 and Japan for the purpose. Its foliage and bark resemble 
 the ash ; it grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet ; and 
 at the age of seven years furnishes the sap, which is collected 
 in July and August from incisions made in the trunk of the 
 tree near the foot. These incisions are made at night, the 
 sap being collected in the morning. Twenty pounds from one 
 thousand trees in the course of a night is a good yield. 
 The lacquer sap is of a very irritating nature, especially to some 
 constitutions, the writer himself, when a boy, has suffered 
 from it by passing through a wood where varnish trees were 
 growing; and the Chinese, when preparing it in cakes to 
 enclose in tubs to send to the market, take the precaution to 
 cover up their faces and hands to prevent contact with 
 it, Lacquer 'in any stage, except when perfectly dry, is 
 capable of producing', the following symptoms: — 'Blood to 
 the head, swelling, violent itching and burning, and occa- 
 sionally small festering boils.' 
 
 The best kind of sap is of a tawny or dark-brown colour 
 when in its inspissated state, and tarred paper is used to 
 
LACQUER-WARE. 311 
 
 protect it from the air, but all lacquer turns jet-black on 
 exposure to the light. Other ingredients are added, as wood- 
 oils obtained from plants such as Auqia sinensis and others. 
 These, combined with the Rhus vernicif era, form the different 
 qualities of lacquer-ware. Sz-chuen, Hu-nan, and Kwang-si,. 
 produced the finest. 
 
 The preparation, of the best qualities especially, takes a 
 long time, and one reason asssigned for the deterioration in 
 quality supplied to the foreign market in China is the 
 ignorance, or ignoring, of this fact by Europeans, who, Avhen 
 giving orders, will not wait the necessary time for 
 producing a first-class article; and the Chinese manufacturer,, 
 from being forced to supply the articles required at short 
 notice, has got into the way of producing inferior workman- 
 ship, which meet with as ready a sale amongst the uneducated- 
 in the mysteries of lacquer as the better specimens did. 
 
 The varnish is prepared for use by the addition 
 of oil of the Vernicia montana or Camellia oleifera, 
 sulphate of iron, and rice vinegar, these ingredients vary- 
 according to the condition and transparency required .^ 
 Different tints are given to the lacquer, likewise, by the 
 introduction of different substances, such as pig's gall 
 and vegetable oil, ivory black, animal charcoal, and tea oil. 
 
 The wood to be varnished is first planed and polished, 
 the joints are stuffed with a kind of fine oakum, narrow slips 
 of paper are pasted over them, and fine paper, or thin silken 
 material is put over the whole surface. A mixture of emeiy 
 powder, red sandstone, vermilion, or of gamboge, and of 
 cow's gall, is then applied with a hard brush, and when dried 
 in the air it is polished with sandstone, pumice-stone, and 
 powdered charcoal. 
 
 This double operation is repeated several times. The 
 preliminary work, which takes several weeks to accomplish, 
 forms the foundation for the lacquer which is applied in a 
 room closed on all sides from wind and dust. A very fine, 
 flat brush is used to apply a slight and very equal film of it. 
 
312 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The drying room next receives the article, or articles ; here 
 the atmosphere must be fresh and damp, for it is under such 
 conditions that the lacquer dries most quickly. It next 
 receives a polishing with a kind of soft schist. Each layer of 
 lacquer is subjected to the same slow and minute operations : 
 the least number of layers applied is three, the most eighteen. 
 
 The ornamentation of figures, flowers, and gilding, &c., 
 is done in more than one way : — 
 
 ' The gilding is perfoi'med by another set of workmen in a large 
 workshop. The figures of the design are drawn on thick paper, 
 which is then pricked all over to allow the powdered chalk to fall on 
 the table and form the outline. Another workman completes the 
 picture by cutting the lines with a burin or needle, and filling them 
 with vermilion mixed in lacquer, as thick as needed. This afterwards 
 is covered, by means of a hair-pencil, with gold in leaf or in powder 
 laid on with a dossil ; the gold is often mixed with fine lamp-black.' 
 
 'Ouand, sur le fond uni de laque, I'ouvrier veut peindre un 
 decor, personnages, fieurs, arabesques, etc., il esquisse directement 
 au blanc de cei'use le sujet qu'il va traiter, ou bien encore il le 
 decalque en suivant avec une pointe de bois les Hgnes de son dessin, 
 sur lesquelles il a prealablement passe, au verso de la feuille de 
 papier, un trait d'orpiment liquide. II commence alors a peindre sur 
 ce croquis avec les couleurs dont dispose sa riche palette.' 
 
 Much skill, dexterity, lightness of finger, and long 
 practice are necessary to ensure that fineness and requisite 
 delicacy, which at the first touch will produce the effect 
 desired without repetition, for this last is not allowed, the 
 gummy colisistency of the lacquer likewise forbidding it : 
 notwithstanding all these difficulties, some of the lacquer 
 produced by the Chinese is characterised by distinctness of 
 line and a freedom of composition. 
 
 Besides gold and silver spangles, incrustations of ivory, 
 mother-of-pearl, jade, coral, malachite, and lapis lazuli, are 
 employed in the ornamentation of lacqtier-ware, rough 
 mosaics of flowers, animals, »&c., being formed of them, and 
 then varnished. 
 
 Foochow lacquer equals the Japanese ; the latter people, 
 it is said, having taught their original teachers, the Chinese, 
 the production of this superior quality. Some fine specimens 
 also come from Ningpo, and command a very high price. 
 
LA CQ IJER- WARE. 3 1 3 
 
 Cawed lacquer is either not now ( during the present 
 century) made, or but little is produced, as it requires great 
 labour, rendering its production too expensive. Its mode of 
 preparation is as follows : — A dark paste is made of Urtlca 
 nivea, of ' papier de broiissonctia.' and egg-shqlls ; these 
 are beaten together, pounded, and camellia oil added to 
 thicken them. After being applied to the wood and becom- 
 ing perfectly dry, it is carved by the artist, who requires a 
 firm hand, as no repetition is possible. Several coats of red 
 varnish, the composition of which is unknown, are afterwards 
 applied. The defect, to a European eye, in this style of 
 lacquer is the overburdening of the decoration with entangled 
 dragons, phcsnixes, the lotus, &:c. 
 
 There are no names of Chinese artists to mention as in 
 the case of the same art in Japan. In China it is not the 
 individual that is to be noted but the schools, differentiated 
 by style, tradition and tendency. At present, at all events, 
 but little has been discovered of the history of the art. Carved 
 lacquer was known during the early part of the Christian 
 era, though no very ancient specimens are extant, the 
 oldest being of the comparatively modern date of the end of 
 the 16th century (Ming dynasty). 'Les laquos sculptes de 
 cette epoque sont fort rares, et les Chinois les estiment a 
 tres haut prix : le vernis en est tres epais, le travail en est 
 ferme, d'un style sobre et severe.' 
 
 Great improvement was effected in the reign of the 
 Emperor Kang-hi (A.D. 1662) of the present dynasty, both in 
 quality of material and decoration ; and in Kien-lung's time 
 (A.T>. 1736-1796) some fine carved lacquer was produced, as 
 also some exquisite specimens of other lacquer, the best of 
 these being made in the imperial manufacturies. We cannot 
 resist the temptation to quote once more from !M. Paleologue's 
 interesting work •' L'Art Chinois ' as to the last :— 
 
 'M. de Semalle possecie une dizaine de pieces ayant, sans auciin 
 doute, cette origine ; ce sont des coupes formulees en calices lobes, 
 leg^res k la main et delicatement modelees : I'une est d'un bleu paon 
 a reflets verts, chatoyant et intense conime un email ; une autre est 
 d'un rose tr^s pale que rehausse un rose de corail, et I'cnscmble est 
 
314 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 d'une douceur de tons incomparable ; une autre encore est d'un noir 
 uni et profond, de ce beau noir si apprecie des Japonais ; signalons 
 enfin, dans la meme collection, un laque aventurine, d incrustations 
 d'or et d'argent figurant des lotus, qui est une merveille de gout et de 
 finesse. Ces pieces comptent k nos yeux parmi les rares objets de 
 laque chinoise p^inte qui meriteraient de figurer dans la collection 
 d'un amateur au Japon.' 
 
 Boohs rccommimdc'd. — ' L'Art Chinois.' par M. Paleologue. Williams'3 
 'Middle Kingdom,' Vol. 2, p. HO, et seq., to both of which books we are 
 indebted for information. 
 
 LANGUAGE. — We remember, some thirty years or so- 
 ago, trying to elicit from a lecturer on languages and liter- 
 ature his idea of the position held by the Chinese language 
 amongst that of others. After considerable humming and 
 hawing, he said that it held one of its own, outside of the 
 general scheme of languages as elaborated by philologists. 
 This position is practically the same that it holds to this 
 day amongst many of those who delight to classify language. 
 As the Chinese have been outside the comity of nations, 
 so their language has been relegated to a position of its 
 own with no certain relationship to the other speeches 
 of mankind; and as the exclusiveness of the nation, 
 is being slowly broken down, so it is to be hoped that, 
 before long, in response to the toil of not a few scholars, the 
 affinity of Chinese with that of other languages in the world 
 will be more clearly established and the wall of partition 
 separating it from the others be a thing of the past. Most 
 divergent views have been held on the subject and clearly 
 proved to the satisfaction of those who held and advanced 
 them, but not to the equal satisfaction of their readers. 
 
 There would appear to be some connection between 
 Chinese and the so-called Aryan languages ; to prove this 
 Edkins, Schlegel, and others, have laboured. The latest idea,, 
 that of Professor Terrien de Lacouperie, and his co-labourers 
 in the same field, is that of an affinity between the languages 
 of China and Babylon. These view^s still wait general 
 acceptance, the feeling of many being one of suspense : a 
 waiting till convincing proofs ai-e pnKluced before acquiescing 
 in any of the theories put forth ; and there are still immense 
 fields for the patient worker to explore. 
 
LANGi^AGK. 315 
 
 The connection between Chinese and the huif^uag-es of 
 some of the surrounding nations is deserving of further atten- 
 tion in order to fix with a greater amount of certainty the 
 relationships which exist between certain of them. 
 
 Some people go so far as lo say that ClTinese has no 
 grammar. If grammar only consisted of declension and 
 inflection, sucli a statement might be true; but the Chinese 
 most cleverly use the relative position of words to express 
 what we, to a great extent, and some continental nations to 
 a greater, and the dead languages of Europe to the greatest 
 extent, show by case, mood, tense, number, and person : 
 position is everything in the construction of Chinese sentences, 
 and does away with those troubles of school-boys, carried to 
 such an excess in the classical languages. 
 
 In addition to position, the use of auxiliary characters is 
 employed, and, in the written language especially, a general 
 symmetry of construction, and use of words in sentences and 
 clauses, which are either in antithesis or juxtaposition to 
 each other, assists materially in the correct development of 
 ideas. 
 
 Chinese is one of the simplest, while at the same time 
 one of the most difficult, languages in the world : most simple 
 from the almost entire absence of these inflexional forms ; 
 most difficult from the combination of different languages 
 under the one heading of Chinese ; such for instance as the 
 book language in its two or three diflerent forms, the 
 Colloquial or spoken language in its different vernaculars, 
 and in its tones, the bugbear and ruin of most Euopean 
 readers and speakers of it. 
 
 The Chinese have spent much time and labour in the 
 cultivation of their wonderful and interestino^ lano-ua<Te. 
 The Shu-king mentions writing as being practised in the 
 time of Shun (B.C. 2255-2205). Some doubt, however, has 
 been cast on the genuineness of these passages in the Shu. 
 
 There is no doubt that writing was in use a little later, 
 in connection with Government matters, and in the Chau. 
 dynasty it was in common use among the official class. 
 
316 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Colleges and schools existed, books were made and libraries 
 formed. Writing was a laborious task, the language at this 
 early period not having attained the rich collection of written 
 characters it now possess. The nucleus or prototype of the 
 first Chinese dictionary, the Urh-ya, is referable to this 
 period. 
 
 The violent attempt of the execrated monach Tsin Chi 
 Huang Ti to introduce one language throughout China, by 
 destroying all trace of the past, was unsuccessful. It was 
 about this time that the transition from the mainly pictorial 
 or symbolic representation of the language took place, and 
 more attention was paid to sound. 
 
 The period of the Han dynasty (B.C. 205-A.D. 200) 
 witnessed the commencement of the study of the language, 
 its exciting cause being the elucidation and determination of 
 the characters of the books which had escaped the whole- 
 sale destruction. Many of the works of the renowned scholai's 
 of these ancient times have disappeared during the lapse of 
 ages. Amongst two to be noted as still extant are the 
 Fang-yen, a comparative vocabulary of dialectic varieties, 
 and the Shuo-wcn, an etymological dictionary (A.D. 121), 
 which dealt with the writing of the character. The language 
 at this period ' acquired a considerable degree of exactness 
 and polish,' and many additions were made to the characters 
 in use. The Buddhist missionaries about this time also 
 assisted in bringing into general future use the spelling now 
 in vogue to explain the pronunciation of words. 
 
 During the troublous times even of the Three States 
 some sensible men busied themselves with the cultivation 
 of their native tongue. An epoch is marked in this 
 cultivation in the period known as the Northern and 
 Southern Dynasties (A.D. 479 to 557); and the study of 
 etymology began to flourish. The four tones were first 
 noticed in published works, though doubtless previously 
 known to scholars. The Sui dynasty (A.D. 589 to 618) still 
 saw much attention paid to tones and the sounds of charac- 
 ters. The T'ang dynasty (A.D. 618 to 906) gave an impetus 
 
LANGUAGE. 317 
 
 to this study so congenial to the Chinese nature. The 
 Emperors encouraged learning, and even cultivated it them- 
 selves. Renewed enthusiasm was shown in the study of the 
 classics: much learning and ability were displayed; the tones 
 and sounds of characters received much attention : and 
 acquaintance with such subjects was required from the 
 competitors for literary employment. Books were also 
 written on Sanscrit Grammar and its alphabet by Indian 
 Buddhist missionaries, or Chinese monks who had studied 
 the language in India, and the knowledge thus acquired was 
 of use to native authors in the study of their own language. 
 ' In several respects the period of the T"ang dynasty forms an 
 era of great importance in the history of the cultivation of the 
 language. It was the time in which China began to have a 
 popular literature. * * * Plays also now began to be 
 written and performed, and romances to be composed in a 
 style often hut little removed froin that of every day con- 
 versation.'' This fixed the style and made fashionable 
 the dialect — -the Mandarin — in which they were written. 
 Printing was first invented at this time in China, though it 
 was not till succeeding dynasties that it exerted its full 
 power. 
 
 It is under the Sung dynasty that the language 'is 
 supposed to have reached its acme ; to have become complete 
 in all its formal and material equipment, having everything 
 needful to make it an effective instrument for expressing 
 the national mind ;' and Avorks on philology of great and 
 permanent value were produced. 
 
 About the time that the jMongols prevailed, a book was 
 published which has been rendered into English under the 
 title of 'The Six Scripts.' 
 
 'The founder of the Ming dynasty (A.D. 1368-1399) 
 was a patron of all kinds of learning, aud promoted efforts 
 to recover and preserve the valuable treatises which had been 
 lost, or become very rare.' One of the most widely used 
 works, and the standard dictionary, of the present time, is 
 
318 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the Kang-hi dictionary, prepared by direction of the Emperor 
 of that name, A revived interest has been taken during the 
 eighteenth and nineteenth centuries in the philological works 
 of antiquity. 
 
 The Chinese, as far as at present has been ascertained, 
 have confined their studies nearly entirely to ' sounds, mean- 
 ings, composition, and history of the written characters ; ' 
 and the study is not generally pursued for its own sake, but 
 for the purpose of elucidating the * orthodox canonical 
 literature.' 
 
 'The Chinese language is very rich in * * * 
 nature sounds and " vocal-gestures ; " ' while the inter- 
 jectional element appears to have had its full share in the 
 formation of some portion of the language. Many of the 
 words and terms in use are imitative of sounds in nature, of 
 noises of falling objects, of calls and cries of animals, birds, 
 and insects ; and of actions by man himself : these have all 
 had their share, and still have, in forming the language. 
 
 On the whole, the Chinese, however, take comparatively 
 little interest in such researches. The Buddhist missionaries, 
 who introduced Buddhism, did a good work, first, in interest- 
 ing the Chinese in Sanscrit with its alphabet and grammatical 
 forms, and, secondly, in inducing a study among the Chinese 
 of their own language, leading them to examine it and 
 appreciate it. 
 
 The Chinese consider the faculty of speech to be man's 
 natural endowment : expressive sounds are uttered by the 
 promptings of nature; but for the development of speech 
 they believe that the most highly endowed men have been 
 its nursing fathers. 
 
 It would be highly instructive and interesting were a 
 history of the rise, development, and progress of the Chinese 
 language down to the present time possible. The materials 
 seem at present to be fragmentary. Doubtless with the 
 combined study of numerous scholars, much more may be 
 known of it than at present. The Chinese language retains. 
 
LANGUAGE. 319 
 
 to a great extent, the primitive simplicity of early speech ; 
 and this is what makes it of advantage to the student to attempt 
 to peer into its past depths, and to study its present state. 
 
 The Manchu, Mongolian, and Turkish tongues are 
 descended from one source, and this parent language may 
 likewise have been the progenitor of the Chinese, in common 
 with that of these other lanfijuages as well. 
 
 The speech of the Chinese was preceded in China by 
 numerous di.dects and languages of what are termed the 
 Aborigines. It seems impossible not to suppose that these 
 former speeclies must have had some eifect on the language 
 of the new comers, though if a policy of extermination was 
 adopted towards the former inhabitants that effect would 
 not be much. Traces are now found in some of the so-called 
 Chinese dialects of relics of some of these former languages. 
 In the Amoy language, a few words are instanced as being 
 remnants of a previous race, the same is supposed to be the 
 case in the Swatow language, and in Cantonese also a word 
 or two is spoken of as being thus taken over into the present 
 language. 
 
 The Chinese language would appear, at first sight, to 
 be, like the Chinese themselves, separated from the rest of 
 the world and self-contained; though tliis is true to a great 
 extent of the people as regards their communication with 
 Western nations, yet it must not be forgotton that there 
 has been considerable intercourse between China and the 
 countries whose borders are conterminous with her own; and 
 so, instead of the language having no admixture of foreign 
 words in it, some such words are to be found. These words 
 of foreign origin are generally of a technical character: names 
 of countries, official designations, names of fruits, spices, 
 woods, reminiscences of foreign intercourse, conquest, and 
 commerce. The use of these words has not been confined to 
 modern times, but imbedded in the language are found a few 
 fossil remains — relics of ancient foreign relations or wars, 
 now well-known matters of history. These word are met 
 with here and there in books and in conversation ; for example. 
 
320 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 to take a modern one, Ho-hm-shui, or Holland water = Soda 
 water, because it was first introduced by the Dutch. 
 
 Buddhism has introduced in its train many words into- 
 Chinese. They consist of Sanscrit words brought into the 
 language, translations into Chinese of such Sanscrit words, 
 and new phrases in Chinese due to Buddhism, but not 
 translations of Sanscrit words or terms. This religion, 
 has also given new meanings. to words and phrases whicK 
 were in use before. 
 
 The Han, the T'ang, and the present dynasties, have 
 especially increased China's knowledge of the outside word, 
 while other periods even bore their share, though a smaller 
 one, in exchange of the arts of peace, and at times of the 
 horrors of war, with the neighbouring states of Japan and 
 India; even distant Persia, as well as many other kingdoms,, 
 too numerous to mention, all being known to a greater or 
 lesser extent; and, latterly especially, the countries of Europe 
 have come within the horizon of Chinese ken. It is not 
 surprising therefore to find a small amount of terms derived 
 from the languages of some of these countries. ' Certain 
 terms even in a comparatively early period of the Chinese 
 lanffuasre * * * seem to have at least a common orisrin^ 
 with their equivalents in Greek and Latin ; ' Spanish, 
 English, Malay, Persian, Arabic, Turkish, Manchu, and 
 Mongolian, Tibetan, as well as Sanscrit and other Indian 
 languages, have each assisted in given new words in the past, 
 while with the advance of science and learning this must be 
 more especially the case in time to come. But after all that 
 can be said, these foreign v>^ords form but a very small 
 proportion of the whole. 
 
 The language of China may be divided as follows : — ■ 
 1. — The ancient style in which the classics are written : 
 
 sententious, concise, vague, and often unintelligible without 
 
 explanation. 
 
 2. — The literary style : more diffuse, and consequently 
 more intelligible ; it might be described as poetry written in 
 
LANGUAGE. 321 
 
 prose- on account of a ' rhi/thmus," as it has been termed, 
 in which it is written, the ancient language having less 
 of this — both forms having a number of particles either 
 difficult or impossible of translation into English. The 
 essays written by candidates at the literary examinations 
 are composed in this style. 
 
 3. — The business style which is plain enough to be 
 intelligible : it is prose without, or with but little of, the 
 poetry element, and few, if any, of the troublesome particles. 
 It is in general use for commercial purposes, legal documents, 
 official and business correspondence, and governmental, 
 statistical, and legal works are written in it. 
 
 4. — The Colloquial or the spoken languages. They are 
 divided into numerous dialects (See Article on Dialects) but 
 unfortunately they are despised, — there is scarcely even one 
 book written in them in the South of China, and yet it is 
 impossible to speak in any other language ; and to the great 
 majority of the lower classes, no other is intelligible in its 
 entirety. In nearly all Western languages when we learn to 
 speak them, we learn consequently to read them ; but a 
 knowledge of Chinese, as spoken, only places one on the 
 threshold of the Chinese of books. This has not inaptly 
 been compared to a man who knowns French fluently, but 
 who, if he wishes to read Latin, has, after his knowledge of 
 French, to apply himself to Latin; the French in this instance 
 being the colloquial, and the Latin the Language of the 
 book. Again, the ancient language as compared with the 
 business style, might be likened to the English of Chaucer 
 as compared with that of the modern writer. 
 
 The dift'erence between the book style and the colloquial 
 might be likened perhaps to the difference between a 
 common English book and some highly scientific or 
 technical work so bristling Avith scientific terms, or technical 
 expressions, or mathematical formul«?, tliat it would be 
 entirely, or nearly entirely, incomprehensible, except to one 
 who had been educated for years, and had made such a 
 subject a speciality. This way of putting the matter may 
 
_322 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 throw some light on what seems such a mysterious matter to 
 English-speaking people, and show how. difficult of com- 
 prehension the book language is to all except those who have 
 received a special and sufficient training. 
 
 Writers on the Chinese have differed as to the richness, 
 •or otherwise, of the language. Putting aside all prejudiced 
 statements, it may fairly be affirmed that in some respects 
 its vocabulary is very full, where some of our languages 
 .are poor, and vice versa. The Chinese have no difficulty in 
 expressing themselves so as to be understood by their own 
 •countrymen and others, though Europeans and Americans 
 have not sometimes the patience to -make the good listeners 
 which the want of mood, tense, and all inflections occasionally 
 requires in order to get at the meaning. 
 
 On the other hand, the statements are often more concisely 
 
 expressed than is the case in the general run of European 
 
 languages. What strikes a foreigner as strange in the 
 
 language, is the ease with which a word does duty as a noun, 
 
 or verb, an adjective, adverb, or proposition. Marshman 
 
 says : 'A Chinese character may in general be considered as 
 
 conveying an idea without reference to any part of speech : 
 
 :ind its being used as a substantive, an adjective, or a verb 
 
 depends on circumstances.' 
 
 Bonlts rfconivi end I'd.' 'Essay f. on the Chinese Languaj^^e,' by T. Watter^. 
 ' The Structure of Chinese Characters,' by J. Chalmers, M.A., L. L. D.. and 
 chapters on language ia standand works, such as Williams's ' Middle 
 Kingdom,' &c. 
 
 LARKS AND OTHER SONGSTERS.— The l^ivk Is 
 one of the most prized of song-birds among the Chinese. 
 Their fondness for birds and flowers, as Williams has well 
 noted, being 'one of the pleasant features of Chinese character.' 
 No Chinese gentleman, at least in the South of China,, takes 
 .a dog out to walk with him ; but on a fine day numbers may 
 be seen each with a lark in a cage in the outskirts of a town, 
 or sauntering leisurely along the streets, or standing in some 
 square, or squatting on their haunches on some green spot, 
 while their favourite bird enjoys himself, occasionally even 
 with a little ramble on the grass. His master cum dignitate 
 
LARKS AyD OTHER SONGSTERS. 323 
 
 gravely taking his pleasure in watching his pet, or even 
 unbending so far as to occupy himself with the pursuit of 
 grasshoppers amongst the turf, though more frequently such 
 a hunt is left to the boys or to the wretched grasshopper 
 hunters, who armed with a bunch of twigs and tiny baskets 
 to hold their victims, from dewy morn till darkest twilight, 
 wander up and down the hills, beating every tuft of grass for 
 the active, spi-inging, startled insects, which, when caught, 
 they sell for a cash or two a piece, to the bird shops or bird- 
 fanciers ; their ultimate fate, of course, to be gobbled up by 
 pet birds. Chinese houses are so often, in cities especially, 
 shut out from the breezes, that it must be a positive pleasure 
 to these active songsters to get such airings ; but caged up 
 as they are in close and narrow streets they may often be 
 heard pouring out their melodious sonnets from the purlieus 
 of some confined shop, trying in shrillest notes a musical 
 contest with some imprisoned neighbour — such emulation is 
 there that they get almost frantic at times. 
 
 The lark's cage is round, made of neatly rounded splints 
 of bamboo, and varnished brown, with a removable bottom 
 sprinkled with sand and furnished with a perch, in shape 
 like a large mushroom, the Chinese evidently knowing that 
 the lark does not alight on twigs or branches. 
 
 Williams informs us that 'the species of wagtail and 
 lark known amount to about a score altogether.' Amongst 
 them may be noted the field lark (Alauda codivox and 
 arvensis). Large numbers of Chihli larks are brought down 
 every year to the South of China where they are preferred. 
 The Mongolian lark commands a high price, ^25. --being a 
 common figure for a good one ; it is called the j^cik ling or 
 •'hundred spirits.' 
 
 Next in importance if not in equal favour as a songster 
 is the thrush. Amongst tlie most common in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Canton is the ivd met, a grayish-yellow thrush 
 (Garruliuvperspic'itatus), a 'well-trained bird is worth several 
 dollars.' The spectacle thrush derives his name from a black 
 • circle round each eye; it is very graceful and lively, though 
 
 T 2 
 
324. THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 not a very sweet singer. Another thrash (Sufhona ivehhianay 
 is kept for fighting — death or victory being its song. 
 
 The canary is a great favourite, large numbers being 
 reared and even exported as far as England. Its colour is not 
 only yellow but some seem to display a tendency to revert 
 to the dusky hue of the original bird in the Canary Islands. 
 It is comhionly known as the white swallow, its usual light- 
 yellow or canary colour being a near enough approach to 
 white to satisfy the Chinese philologist. The canary is 
 generally kept in a round cage made of bamboo and varnished, 
 with a removable bottom and perches of twigs. The cage 
 is rather larger than the English wire canary cage, but 
 smaller than the Chinese bird cage used for larks". Besides 
 this cage very neat canary cages of the same materials 
 are made in imitation of houses and boats, as well as large 
 squarish cages of unvarnished bamboo, these last being 
 especially useful for breeding purposes. 
 
 The prices of canaries vary with the season of the year. 
 In Hongkong about 70 cents is an ordinary price charged for 
 one to a European. It is said that large numbers of canaries 
 are sent to China every year from Germany. i 
 
 Many other birds, some of which might fairly be entitled | 
 to the name of songsters, as well as others which can only * 
 boast of one or two notes, are kept as pets by the Chinese. I 
 
 Book recommended. — Jour. N. C. Br. E. A. S., May 1859, p. 289. 
 LAWS. — It has been observed that : — 
 
 ' The laws of a nation form the most interesting portion of its 
 history.' 'The laws of the Chinese, if taken in the most comprehen- 
 sive sense of the term, framed, as they have been, by the wisdom and 
 experience of a long series of ages, and suitably provided as they are 
 for the government of an empire, unparalleled in the history of the 
 world in extent and population, must, it will readily be imagined, be 
 proportionally numerous and complicated. They are also, which is 
 still more embarrassing, generally intermingled in such a degree with 
 details, concerning the ancient history and actual condition of the 
 civil, political, and ceremonial institutions of the empire, that in- 
 dividual works on these subjects are sometimes extended to the 
 enormous length of a hundred volumes, and the aggregate is, of 
 course, enormous in proportion.' 
 
LAWS. 325 
 
 The Chinese code of penal laws has been described as, 'if not 
 the most just and equitable, at least the most comprehensive, uniform, 
 and suited to the genius of the people for whom it is designed, perhaps 
 of any that ever existed.' 
 
 'The civil and military establishments, the public revenue and 
 expenditure, the national rites and ceremonies, the public works, and 
 the administration of justice, are, each of them, regulated by a 
 particular code of laws and institutions ; but the laws of the empire in 
 the strictest and most appropriate sense of the term, and which may 
 be denominated Penal Laws by way of contradistinction, are the 
 peculiar and exclusive province of the last of these departments.' 
 
 The Chinese, as in nearly everything of importance that 
 concerns their commonwealth, carry back the first promul- 
 gation of their system of laws to a remote antiquity, namely, 
 the time of Yao (B.C. 2356) and his successor Shun, though 
 according to their account of that sovereign (Yao), there 
 would appear to have been but little need of any repressive 
 legislation ; for his rule was the beau ideal of perfect govern- 
 ment in China — a state of almost perfect blessedness due 
 to the virtues of the ruler or official, for such an one by his 
 conduct and precepts changes the thief into an honest man, 
 and produces such a state of security, that a bag of money, 
 dropped by the wayside, will be left untouched or carefully 
 put in a place of safety till the return of the loser. Yet, not- 
 withstanding the I'csplendent virtues of these early monarchs, 
 the second, Shun, is credited Avith having established the 
 following five punishments: — Branding on the forehead; 
 cutting off part of the nose and feet ; castration ; and death. 
 So innocent and virtuous, however, were the people at that 
 period, that many centuries are said to have passed before 
 it was necessary to enforce them. 
 
 Each change of dynasty in China may be compared to a 
 new geological period, for, notwithstanding the entire dis- 
 solution of the government and abrogation of the constitution 
 established by the preceding dynasty, yet, as in the deposit 
 of new strata, the same general conditions and principles are 
 adhered to in the formation, or laying down of the new laws, 
 a new code being generally made Avith each successive change 
 of family on the throne. That in present use came into force 
 
326 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 when the Manchu Tartars assumed the rule over China ; but,, 
 to again use the same illustration as above, imbedded in this 
 new code, as in the newer geological strata, are to be found- 
 remains of antiquity ; and, if a minute investigation be 
 substituted for a cursory survey, it will be found, as in the 
 material forming the later deposits on the earth's surface, 
 that the mass of the laws are of the same stuff and substance- 
 as the more ancient ones, codified and altered in conformity 
 with the changed conditions of time and life, some of the 
 older forms dying out. and more recent enactments, neces" 
 sitated by the progress of events, giving fresh life and vigour 
 to the whole. 
 
 The first regular code of penal laws is attributed to 
 Li-kwai, two thousand years ago. It is described as ' simple 
 in its arrangement and construction, having been confined 
 to six books only, two of which appear to have been 
 introductory, the third relative to prisons, the fourth to 
 the adminstration of the police, the fifth to the lesser or 
 miscellaneous offences, and the sixth to all the great 
 and capital offences against public justice.' This code is 
 supposed to have come into operation under tlie Tsin dynasty 
 (B.C. 249). Though codified at this period, the principal 
 characteristics belong to a remoter antiquity. Alterations 
 and enlargements took place with the advent of each 
 successive dynasty, both in the plan and divisions of the 
 code, viz. : — under the Han, Tsin, T'ang, Sung, Yuen, Ming, 
 and some of the lesser dynasties and the latest, under the 
 present one, the Ts'ing. 
 
 As in European codes, the building up of new material 
 on an old structure, and in conformity with an antiquated 
 plan, instead of pulling down and rebuilding on a new 
 scheme better adapted for the requirements of an altered 
 and progressive state of society, gives rise to ambiguity, 
 confusion, complications, intricacies, and inconveniences. 
 The artificial and complex construction of the code is another 
 cause of obscurity. It is not to be supposed that all thosfr 
 principles, some of which are excellent, contained in ouir 
 
LAWS. 327 
 
 English system of laws, the result of many years of a 
 progressive struggle towards the attainment of justice, and 
 the outcome of a different system of life and its surroundings^ 
 will be found in a body of laws produced under such different 
 conditions. Yet, on the whole, the Chinese Penal Code is 
 admirably adapted to the requirements of its teeming 
 population of law-abiding subjects, taking into consideration 
 the great difference of the fundamental principles on which 
 the superstructure is founded. 
 
 The parental authority is clearly seen as one of the 
 great conditioning causes in operation fVoni renaote times to 
 the present. From the small circle of the family of a few 
 individuals it spreads in ever Avidening circles to the clan,, 
 composed of the aggregate of many families, and reaches 
 its final limits in the Government Avhich is based upon the 
 same principle, that of parental authority ; and to this 
 principle is doubtless due, in union with some others, the con- 
 servative and preserving force, which has, amidst, and in spite 
 of, many heterogeneous elements, knit the Chinese people 
 together as one through so many past ages; and which 
 still preserves its unifying power, and may for countless 
 generations to come. 
 
 The following extract from a Chinese newspaper, published 
 in the Colony of Hongkong, viz. ; The Chung Ngoi San Po, 
 will give some idea of what process of law entails in 
 China. : — 
 
 'Governor Luk Chuen-him has given instructions to the Magis- 
 trates of Nam-hoi and PLin-yii districts that they are not to detain people 
 connected with the cases brought before them, whether the prosecutor or 
 prosecuted, except in cases of emergency. Theorder is warmly apprecia- 
 ted by all the Chinese, for the detention of people in the yamens pending 
 the investigation of the cases concerned ati:brded chances to the yamen 
 people to make their squeezes, and it is a fact that the Chinese are 
 willing to stand any amount of suffering rather than present them- 
 selves before the mandarines to be maltreated and squeezed by the 
 yamen people, who do not receive any wages from the mandarines 
 and simply watch for chances of squeezing. People ordered to be 
 detained by the Magistrate in the yamen are kept under the custody 
 of the yamen people, who lock them up in exceedingly dirty rooms, 
 * * *■ givine them no food and no bedding until their friends and 
 relatives come forward to amply bribe the custodians. Sometimes a 
 person is detained in the yamen for many years although the case 
 
.:328 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 may be only a minor one, if there is no influential Sansz to stand 
 bail, which bail is represented by influence and not by money. It is 
 not uncommon for the Chinese to successfully bribe the yamen 
 runners not to take them before the Magistrate, if a warrant is issued 
 for their arrest. 
 
 The prisoner, whether he may turn out to be innocent or 
 guilty, is not treated with that tenderness incident to our 
 nineteenth century civilisation ; every effort is not made to 
 prove his innocence, if possible, and points are not strained 
 in his favour, which would be dropped if against him. The 
 Chinese law would appear to be better adapted to ensure 
 the punishment of a greater number of guilty persons than 
 the English law ; but it is probable that occasionally an 
 innocent person is caught in its meshes, and, unable to escape, 
 is punished ; but English law is not free from this defect, 
 even when such a sacred thing as human life is at stake. 
 There is no doubt that, notwithstanding misfortune over- 
 taking a few innocent ones in China, the well-being of the 
 mass, on the whole, is better conserved than in a system 
 where sentiment is apt to get the upper hand. This for 
 the moment leaving out of sight the universal bribery and 
 -corruption prevalent and the infliction of torture. 
 
 The English principles of a man being considered 
 innocent till proved guilty, and of no man criminating 
 himself, are unknown ; but on the other hand, a prisoner is 
 required to confess before he can be punished ; for no criminal 
 case is complete without this confession. Unfortunately, how- 
 ever, the utility of this safeguard is somewhat, if not entirelv 
 nullified by the introduction of torture, if necessary, to induce 
 ■confession. The application of this must necessarily depend a 
 good deal upon the character of the official within whose power 
 the criminal chances to be. A cursory examination of the 
 penal code might lead one to infer that corporal punishment, 
 and, as a consequence, torture was universal ; but, before 
 arriving at such a hasty conclusion, several things which 
 have a tendency to modify such a decision have to be 
 considered : — In the first place, the Chinese should be 
 compared with other Asiatic nations, whose punishments will 
 ■often be found to be of a most ferocious character. Viewed 
 
LA WS. 329 
 
 under such circumstances, the use of torture to extract the 
 
 truth, does not seem so awful for an Eastern people ; it must 
 
 also be remembered that it is only a few centuries since torture 
 
 was in use in our enlightened lands in the West ; and, finally, 
 
 there are so many exceptions and grounds of mitigation, 
 
 that universality of corporal punishments, and consequently 
 
 of torture, will be found to be much affected thereby. 
 
 The law in China likewise interferes with many acts 
 
 which in Europe are without its pale ; on this point it has 
 
 been remarked that : — 
 
 'In a country in which the laws have not in any considerable 
 ■degree the active concurrence either of a sense of honour, or of a 
 sense of religion, it may perhaps be absolutely requisite that they 
 should take so wide a range. Experience may have dictated 
 the necessity of their interfering in this direct manner in the 
 enforcement of all those national habits and usages, whose pre- 
 servation, as far as they are of a moral or prudential tendency, must 
 undoubtedly be of essential importance both to the security of the 
 government and to the happiness of the people.' 
 
 We quote again from Staunton's 'Penal Code of China' 
 
 (Introduction) — 
 
 'Another object which seems to have been very generally con- 
 sulted is that of as much as possible combining, in the construction 
 and adaptation of the scale of crimes and punishments throughout the 
 Code, the opposit^ advantages of severity in denunciation and lenity 
 in execution.' 
 
 The laws are divided into the hit, or fundamental laws, 
 and lai, supplementary laws : the former are permanent; the 
 latter, which are liable to revision every five years, are the 
 ' modifications, extensions and restrictions of the fundamental 
 laws.' Each article of the fundamental laws has been like- 
 wise further explained or paraphrased by the Emperor Yung 
 Ching, 'and the whole of the text is further illustrated by 
 extracts from the Avords of various commentators. Tliese 
 appear to have been expressly Avritten for the use and 
 instruction of magistrates, and accordingly form a body of 
 legal reference directly sanctioned for that purpose by 
 government.' 
 
 The laws are classified as follows: — 'General, Civil, 
 Fiscal, Ritual, Military, and Criminal Laws, and those relating 
 to Public Works, comprised in 436 sections of the original 
 
330 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 laws, and a more numerous quantity of the supplemental laws, 
 or Novella?, Avhich bear the same relation to the code as tlie 
 judiciary law and subsequent enactments in France, and 
 the new laws and authoritative interpretations in Prussia, 
 respectively do to the Code Napoleon and Code Frederic' 
 
 Staunton characterises the Penal Code as remarkable 
 
 for the conciseness and simplicity of its style of language, at 
 
 the same time he calls attentioa to the difficulty, without 
 
 ' various references and considerable research,' of ascertaining 
 
 the punishment which a criminal ' is actually liable to suffer.' 
 
 He proceeds to say : ■ - 
 
 'That the sections of the Chinese Code may thus, perhaps, not 
 unaptly be compared to a collection of consecutive mathematical 
 problems with this additional circumstance of perplexity that a just and 
 entire comprehension of each section individually requires a general 
 knowledge of those that follow, no less than of those which precede it.' 
 
 ' By far the most remarkable thing in this code is its great 
 reasonableness, clearness, and consistency, the business-like brevity 
 and directness of the various provisions, and the plainness and 
 moderation in which they are expressed. There is nothing here 
 of the monstrous verbiage of most other Asiatic productions — 
 none of the superstitious deliration, the miserable incoherence, the 
 termendous Jion-sequitiirs and eternal repetitions of those oracular 
 performances — nothing even of the turgid adulation, accumulated 
 epithets, and fatiguing self-praise of other Eastern despotisms — but 
 a calm, concise, and distinct series of enactments, savouring through- 
 out of practical judgment and European good sense, and if not always 
 conformable to our improved notions of expediency, in general 
 approaching to them more neai'ly than the codes of most other 
 nations. When we pass, indeed, from the ravings of the Zendavesta 
 or the Puranas to the tone of sense and business in this Chinese 
 collection, we seem to be passing from darkness to light, from the 
 drivellings of dotage to the exercise of an improved understanding.' 
 The legal maxim de minimis no7i curat lex is not known in 
 China ; much minute attention is paid to trifles.' We scarcely know 
 any European code that is at once so copious and so consistent, or 
 that is so nearly free from intricacy, bigotry, and fiction. In every- 
 thing relating to political freedom or individual independence it is 
 indeed woefully defective ; but for the repression of disorder and the 
 gentle coercion of a vast population, it appears to be equally mild 
 and efficacious. The state of society for which it was formed 
 appears incidentally to be a low and wretched one ; but how could 
 its framers have devised a wiser means of maintaining it in peace 
 and tranquillity.' 
 
 'The people have a high regard for the code,' 'and all they seem 
 to desire is its just and impartial execution, independent of caprice 
 and uninfluenced by corruption. * '■■- '•'' '■■ It may be observed. 
 
LAWS. 331 
 
 as something in favour of the Chinese system, that there are 
 substantial grounds for believing that neither flagrant nor repeated 
 acts of injustice do, in point of fact, often, in any rank or station, 
 ultimately escape with impunity.' 
 
 ' Besides these laws and their numerous clauses, every high 
 provincial officer has the right to issue edicts upon such public 
 matters as require regulation, some of them even affecting life and 
 death, either reviving some old law or giving it an application to the 
 case before him, with such modifications as seem to be necessary. 
 He must report these acts to the proper board at Peking. No such 
 order, which for the time has the force of law, is formally repealed, 
 but gradually falls into oblivion, until circumstances again require 
 its reiteration. This mode of publishing statutes gives rise to a sort 
 of common and unwritten law in villages, to which a council of elders 
 sometimes compels individuals to submit ; long usage is also another 
 ground for enforcing them.' 
 
 'The Chinese customary law * undoubtedly rests, as 
 
 did the Roman Law before the publication of the Twelve Tables, 
 upon the mores )najoniiii, "that is," as Lord Mackenzie says of the 
 latter, upon "customs long observed and sanctioned by the consent 
 of the people." We are inclined to think it improbable that the 
 Chinese have added to, or more than superficially changed any of 
 their fundamental social principles since the compilation of the 
 "Ritual of Chau" by Chan Kinig, and that of the "Record of Rites " 
 by Confucius, both of which collections * *■'' most probably 
 reduced to a definite code the social principles of the Chinese, whilst 
 blending them with those of the then ruling dynasty, and to this day 
 continue to exercise a profound influence upon the Chinese mind. 
 We mean by fundamental principles, those such as the Patriarchal 
 Principle * *•• and the Fraternal Principle * *, which, 
 especially the former, apparently the progenitor of the others, pervade 
 the Law and Customs of the Chinese as completely as the Pdlriii 
 Potestas ever did the Jurisprudence of Rome. The Chinese Customary 
 Law furnishes a standing "caution" (in the language of Sir Henry 
 Maine) "to those who with Bentham and Austin resolve every law 
 into a coininand of the law-giver, and obligatiofi imposed thereby oa 
 the citizen, and a sanction threatened in the event of disobedience." ' 
 *The principle oi Iiiao, which, in its broadest sense, we think we may 
 take to include friendship, {si?i), and loyalty, {cJiitng), as well as filial 
 {/liao), fraternal, {yu and kung), or (/'z'), and conjugal piety, or duty, {shun), 
 is undoubtedly the substratum of the Chinese social and legal fabric' 
 
 'The Chinese Law, both Customary and Statute, furnishes an 
 immense amount of collateral evidence in support of Maine's theory, 
 that the movement of the progressive societies has hitherto been a 
 movement from Status to Contract, or from families as units to 
 individuals as units. It is particularly fruitful in illustration, perhaps 
 more so even than the Hindoo Customary Laws. * ** The 
 
 numerous illustrations are the more valuable, inasmuch as China has 
 not yet emerged from Status; and, as regards the Palria Potestas, the 
 Testamentary Power, the position of women and slaves, the fiction of 
 adoption, and the almost entire absence of any written law of contract, 
 
332 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 remains in the position of the Roman Law,— not of the latter Empire, 
 not even of the Antonine era; not even, again, of the early Empire, or 
 the Republic at its prime ; but of the Roman Law anterior to the 
 publication of the Twelve Tables, — 2,200 years ago. In fact, with the 
 Chinese law, as with the Chinese language, we are carried back to a 
 position whence we can survey, so to speak, a living past, and converse 
 with fossil men.' 
 
 ' The law secretaries ■'■•' * ■■■ whether Provincial or Metro- 
 politan' are 'the true and almost sole depositories in China both of 
 the life of the law and the life of official language. They are the 
 jurisconsults of the officials, as the Roman lawyers were those of the 
 people. True, most Chinese officials are thoroughly cognizant of the 
 main principles, and fairly acquainted with the details of their not 
 very voluminous codified law, but the law secretaries are they who 
 search out and apply the law in each case, and who draw up the 
 records for submission to the Courts of Appeal at Peking, — The Grand 
 Court of Revision and the Board of Punishment, "••'■ * "' and to 
 the Supreme Tribunal, consisting of the Emperor, either alone, or 
 aided by such commissioners as he shall see fit to appoint, — which 
 commissioners, again, are assisted by their secretaries. A highly 
 paid class, possessing immense indirect power, and usually plying 
 their vocation with the least possible outward show, they furnish not 
 unfrequently some of the ab.'est statesmen in the Empire. Tso Tsu?ig- 
 /'(Z«^, the strategist who *■' * * recovered Kashgaria to the Empire, 
 may be cited as an illustrious example ; and a * * * memorial 
 presented by him to the Throne, praying for posthumous honours to 
 be conferred on four of his secretaries, evidences the value which is 
 attached to the services of these men, and the important part they 
 take in the concerns of the Empire.' 
 
 The punishments now inflicted for an infringement of 
 the law are : — Flogging with the bamboo ; banishment Avithin 
 a limited distance for a limited time or permanently ; death — ■ 
 of which there are two modes — by strangling and decapitation. 
 
 Manacles of wood, and iron fetters are used, and the 
 cangue, a species of stock consisting of a heavy framcAvork 
 of wood in which the neck and hands are confined. Two 
 instruments of torture are legally allowed : one for compressing 
 the anklc-bonos and one for the finger>:, but others are used 
 as well, though perhaps not to tlie extent that is sometimes 
 supi^osed. 
 
 It is not every crime that is brougltt up before the courts 
 but some, sucli as trifling thefts, are summarily punished, 
 by the people of the neighbourhood, the thief being 
 whipped through the streets of the locality where his larceny 
 was committed. 
 
LA IVS. 33.^ 
 
 In cases coming before tlie officials, the prosecutor must 
 file his charge at * the lowest tribunal of justice within the 
 district' from which, it" not summarily dealt with, it may 
 proceed on to higher Courts. There are no lawyers in our 
 sense of the term, though there is a class of men who assist 
 the parties, unknown to the Judge, by preparing witnesses 
 and drawing up petitions, &c. : — 
 
 For these 'lawyers are a disreputable class in China, notrecognised 
 by law, and not allowed to appear in Court. They can simply prompt 
 their clients from behind the scenes, and write out their petitions and 
 counter petitions for them.' 
 
 'Everything connected with law and law matters is so different 
 in China that a European is in constant danger of misunderstanding 
 and misjudging the people in connection with such matters. In the 
 first place hearsay evidence is perfectly permissible and a man would 
 suffer the extreme penalty of the law even if such were the only 
 evidence against him. No oath is taken in a Chinese Court. The 
 oaths, if a matter is in dispute, take place in the temple before the 
 gods, or out in the open air in the presence of heaven, and consist of 
 worshipping and either the chopping off of a live cock's head, or the 
 burning of imprecations written on yellow paper. In the country 
 something earthern ' — a 'vessel is sometimes broken by way of an 
 oath. The appeal to heaven is undoubtedly the best.' 
 
 Consequently in our Courts of Justice in Hongkong 
 when a suitor fears his case is going against him, or sees 
 that his opponent as strongly sticks to his version as he 
 does to his, he often suggests a reference to Avhat are more 
 binding than the simple declarations, of our Courts, viz., 
 an oath on a cock's head, which is chopped off. 
 
 Again a Chinese suitor in a native court does not bring 
 his witnesses with him or subpoena them to attend. That 
 is the magistrate's or judge's duty, or function : he sends 
 his lictors for them if it appears, either in the cotirse of 
 giving evidence or earlier, that their presence is necessary, 
 consequently in our courts of justice, litigants are constantly 
 coming up without their Avitnesses and they often, more 
 Sinico, ask the judge to send for them. 
 
 A Chinese judge acts as prosecutor as "well as judge, 
 more in the French style (there being no lawyers in our 
 sense of the term, there is consequently no prosecuting 
 c(nmsel, or Solicitor-General, or Attorney-General), and he 
 
334- THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 • 
 sometimes allows the parties to set to and bandy words 
 and recriminate each other while he quietly sits by and 
 listens to see if he can pick up any more facts about the 
 case. 
 
 Amidst nil the anomalies of the Chinese administration 
 of justice there is one good point and that is that the 
 magistrate or judge endeavours, if not influenced by bribery, 
 &c., to give a reasonable common sense verdict. Though 
 there are both laAV and custom to guide him, he is not bound 
 by the iron bands of precedents, and la\v and custom, 
 M'ithin certain limits, may go to the wall should he be 
 sufficiently clear sighted to see a better and more reasonable 
 course to pursue. 
 
 The following extracts will illustrate one or two more 
 
 traits of Chinese character with regard to legal matters : — 
 
 'Though there is an elaborate Penal Code and there are 
 distinctions between different kinds of murder and homicide yet it is 
 all one to the common people and a life for a life is their cry. 
 However a money compensation often pacifies wounded feelings in 
 a case of accident. Though if the relations insist on revenge, the 
 matter must come before the mandarins.' 
 
 When a Chinese witness comes into the box he 'expects the 
 magistrate to ask him the name of his native district, his own name, 
 his age, the age of his father and mother (if alive), the maiden 
 name of his wife, her age, the number and ages of his children, and 
 inany more questions of similar relevancy and importance, before a 
 •single effort is made towards eliciting any one fact bearing upon the 
 subject under investigation. With a stereotyped people like the 
 Chinese, it does not do to ignore these trifles of form and custom ; 
 on the contrary the witness should rather be allowed to wander at 
 will through such useless details until he has collected his scattered 
 thoughts, and may be safely coaxed to divulge something which 
 partakes more of the nature of evidence.' 
 
 Boolis recommended. — ' Ta Tsin.a: Leu Lee ; Being the Fundamental 
 Laws and a Selection from the Supplementary Statutes of the Penal Codt^ 
 of China,' translated by Sir G.-T. Stauntan. Bart, F.K.S., Williams's -Middle 
 Kingdom,' vol. 1, p. 384 et seq., Giles's 'Historic China and other Sketches.' 
 p. 12.'> et seq., and Parker's ' Comparative Chinese Family Law,' to all of 
 which we are indebted in the above article. 
 
 LEPROSY. — One of the most loathsome diseases to 
 be met with in China is Leprosy ; and one that the civilised 
 world has had prominently brought before its notice of 
 recent years. ' As to the cause of its prevalence, the poverty 
 
LEPROSY. 335 
 
 of the great bulk of the people, poor food, overcrowding-, 
 generally dirtiness, absence of segregation [in some districts] 
 and the liot, moist climate, provide a chain of conditions verv 
 suitable for the propagation of leprosy.' China is not a land 
 where statistics are available ; the Chinese mind needs a 
 considerable tonic of western science and ideas before it will 
 be braced up to that definite and precise form of statement 
 Avhich will prepare the way for this useful branch of know- 
 ledge. At present the Chinese delights in a vague statement 
 of even facts well known to himself. He calls certain of liis 
 relations brothers, which term includes real brothers, cousins 
 of more than one degree, and clansmen. He tells you a thing 
 took place between 2 and 3 o'clock, when he might as well 
 «ay 2.15 p.m.; he says there were between ten and twenty 
 present, when he might as well say fifteen or sixten. Statistics 
 from such an individual, it can be readily understood, are 
 Avell-nigh impossible, else China would present a splendid 
 field for an array of facts on leprosy ; for not only is it existent 
 all over China, but it prevails extensively in the South, 
 especially in the Canton province, where cases are very 
 numerous in the silk districts. The Government has Leper 
 Asylums at different centres of population in the South for 
 the purpose of segregation, doles from the Emperor's bounty 
 being granted to the lepers. These asylums are badly 
 managed, as unfortunately most native charitable institutions 
 are. The village for lepers at Canton is situated about two 
 or three miles north of the City; there is accommodation 
 there for 400 or 500, but it is not sufficient ; they are allowed 
 in boats on the river as well, and outside the east gate of the 
 City. 
 
 The lepers in the leper village occupy themselves in 
 making rope of cocoa-nut fibre, and brooms, «&c., which, 
 though the inhabitants of the city are in mortal dread of 
 the afflicted inmates, yet find a ready sale ; females, who 
 have lost the outward symptoms of the disease, sell them in 
 the market. Lepers also waylay funerals and demand alms, 
 which are given, for fear that leper ghosts may torment the 
 
336 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 departed. The sums demanded are on a varying scale and 
 fixed by the lepers according to their idea of the rank and 
 wealth of the deceased. Such exorbitant sums are asked that 
 they are sometimes refused, and then the lepers leap into the 
 grave and prevent the interment. They accept promises of 
 payment, but, if not fulfilled, exhume the corpse and retain 
 possession of it until their demands are met. These demands 
 of the lepers always form an item in the funeral expenses. 
 
 In the leper boats, a single leper often resides wha 
 paddles about seeking charity ; in such cases the boats are 
 tiny little canoes with a mat-covering over the centre. They 
 sometimes strip the dead bodies that float down the river, 
 and, if they find one respectably dressed, occasionally advertise 
 it for the reward that they hope to obtain. In the silk 
 districts there would appear to be no asylums on land, 
 but the lepers are restricted to the boats, from which they 
 solicit cash by means of a long bamboo pole with a bag at 
 the end. In some of the districts they occupy certain shrines 
 on the river bank, and beg alms with rod and bag. 
 
 The Chinese at Canton will have nothing to do with 
 lepers ; and if the family of a rich man who has taken the 
 disease tries to hide it, the neighbours, as a general rule, soon 
 conipel his segregation. They are unable to cure it; and 
 ascribe it to different causes ; one reason given is the rain- 
 Mater dropping from a certain kind of tree on anyone ; 
 another is, that tlie droppings from spiders cause it. Thev 
 suppose it to work itself out in three or four generations, and 
 it Avould appear to be a well established fact that in some of 
 the large leper villages the proportion of lepers is but small, 
 the disease having died out in the course of a century or so. 
 Lepers in Canton marry amongst themselves, but not with 
 others. When the disease is well developed, the sight is 
 sickening ; the parts afi"ected, such as the face, ears, hand?, 
 and feet are enlarged, and red, smooth, and glossy. At 
 certain stages of the disease, spontaneous amputation of the 
 fingers and toes takes place, for they rot and drop ofi". An 
 improvement in diet, and tonics, better the condition of the 
 
LEPIiOS r. 33T 
 
 patient, but there is still much to be learned us to the 
 cause and treatment of this dreadful scourge. In two and a 
 half years 125 lepers presented themselves at the Alice 
 Memorial Hospital in Hongkong. 
 
 'Throughout the greater part of the province of Shantiuig 
 leprosy is seldom seen, and where it does exist it is mainly anicsthetic 
 leprosy. But in the prefectures of Yi-chou Fu and Yen-chou Fu 
 leprosy is quite common. The mr.jority of cases met with in 
 missionary hospitals through the province come from these two 
 prefectures, the one including the home of Confucius and the other, 
 Vi-chow, lying to the south of it. The cases exhibit all the 
 characteristics of true leprosy, and often in an extreme stage. It is not 
 uncommon for villages in Yi-chou prefecture to have several lepers. 
 Dr. Hunter, of Chining-chou, who has kindly furnished facts, regards 
 the causes of the prevalence of leprosy in one section of a province, 
 most parts of which arc free from it, to be mainly climacteric' 
 
 In Soochow the l(>pevs live in their own homes and 
 mingle with other people without any restriction. In tho 
 North of China there are no leper villages, and, it would 
 appear, no attempts at segregation whate\x'r. It is stated to 
 be ' comparatively rare in the northern provinces of China 
 excessively common in the southern.' 
 
 On the basis of the number seen at the Soochow Hos- 
 pital, a calculation has been made that there are probably 
 150,000 lepers in China ; but this must be very much a guess. 
 China is supposed to be the country in which there is the 
 largest number. * In India there are said to be 500,000.' 
 Again it is stated that 'according to the census of 1S91 after 
 making allowing for error, it is estimated that in British India 
 there were 105,000.' •' Judging from what is seen in the coast 
 towns and treaty ports [in China] the number of lepers there 
 i.? even greater than in India.' It is questionable whether a 
 ])lace such as Soocliow, where 'less than one in two thousand 
 (if the sick are afflicted with this dise.ise,' affords a reliable 
 basis to form an estimate of the prevalence of the disease 
 throughout China. (Another estimate puts down the number 
 in China, India, and Siberia as LOOO.OOO.) Another of 
 these attempts at guessing puts the lepers in China as 300,000. 
 As an example of districts where leprosy is more common, 
 it may be mentioned that during a week at Chao Chow-fu 
 
 U 
 
338 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 from two to three or four a day, so diseased, appeared amongst 
 about forty or more patients, and this was not an exceptional 
 week. In the tract of country round Swatow with a popula- 
 tion not much less than that of Scotland, it is estimated that 
 there are 25,000 lepers ; and, to one accustomed to the horror 
 the Cantonese have of the disease, it was extraordinary to 
 .see the utter carelessness the natives evinced in their contact 
 with the subjects of this loathsome malady. Just outside the 
 city of Chao Chow-fu the author saw a leper lad sitting at 
 the road side and eating out of a bowl which had evidently 
 been obtained from a hawker's stall, such a thing being 
 utterly out of the question at Canton. In a shop in one of 
 the principal streets of the same important city, a leper was 
 pointed out to the writer. He was busy at work in a tailor's 
 shop. The utter nonchalance with which the people in this 
 part of the country regard the lepers, and the utter absence 
 of all precautions in their intercourse with them is most 
 extraordinary. There are leper villages, so we were informed, 
 in some of which the disease has died or is dying out ; but 
 some poor miserable huts and temples are also tenanted by 
 lepers on the road side. 
 
 Leprosy does not appear to be on the increase in China, 
 though in some parts every opportunity is given for its 
 spread. Doubtless were every precaution taken against 
 the possibility of contagion from it, and a rigid system of 
 segregation enforced throughout the empire it might be 
 stamped out as it is said it was in England some centuries 
 since. 
 
 From historical references to it, it seems to have been 
 known in China some two or three hundred years before the 
 time of Confucius ; the sage himself had a disciple who died of 
 this dreadful disease. It is very curious to find some districts 
 of country quite free from this horrible infliction while other 
 parts in the neighbourhood are affected with it. It is a great 
 comfort to the European residents in China to find that its 
 power of contagion is comparatively speaking so slight. It is, 
 however, contagious and perhaps communicable in some way 
 
LEPROSY. 33» 
 
 or other as well, so that it behoves those that are brought 
 into contact with cases of it to take every precaution instead 
 of being so foolhardy as to ignore its communicability. The 
 author knows of one notable case where the disease was taken 
 by an American missionary, who died after some years in all 
 the horrors incident to it : the cause evidently, in this case, 
 being a Chinese who had the disease having his quarters in 
 the same dwelling as the missionary. After his removal 
 from the house a Chinese woman, who occupied the same 
 room that the leper had previously had, also took it. It is 
 said that some Euroj)ean women in Australia have taken 
 it from their leprous Chinese husbands. There are 19 
 Chinese lepers in Little Bay, N. S. W. lazar-house amongst 
 a total of 36. The bacillus of leprosy is l-100,000th of an 
 inch in diameter. ' In length it is from half to two-thirds. 
 and in breath about one-sixteenth, the diameter of a blood- 
 corpuscele.' 
 
 We close this article with a short extract from Dr. 
 Manson's recent work, 'Tropical Diseases ' : — 
 
 'Seeing that leprosy is caused by a specific germ, there must 
 have been a time in the history of every leper when the infecting 
 germ entered the body. In the case of many specific diseases * * * 
 the time of infection can usually be ascertained. So far as present 
 knowledge goes, this much cannot be affirmed of leprosy. * '■ * 
 We are eqally ignorant as to the condition of the infecting germ, 
 whether it enters the organ or organs through which it gains access as 
 spore or as bacillus ; and, also, as to the medium in or by which it 
 is conveyed. We cannot say whether it enters in food, in water, in 
 air ; whether it passes in through the broken epithelium, or whether 
 it is inoculated on some broken breach of surface, or, perhaps, 
 introduced by some insect bite. But, though we are in absolute 
 ignorance as to the process of infection, we may be quite sure that in 
 leprosy there is an act of infection, and that the infective material 
 comes from another leper. Leprosy has never been shown to arise 
 
 Sodlm rrnimmciifh'd. — 'Leprosy,' lij' G. Thin, Jr.D.. jip. 52-()l, spe.nks 
 about leprosy in Cliina. The Eejiorts of different Medical Missionary 
 Hospitals in South-eastern China have occasionally contained notes on 
 leprosy and accounts of treatments with more or less beneticial results. 
 'Leprosy in Hongkong,' by J. Cantlie, M.A., m.b., f.k.c.s., also contains 
 notes of cases and treatment at the Alice Memorial Hosi)ital in Hongkong 
 attached to a monograph on the subject. Gray's 'China,' Vol. 2, j). 51. 
 Some interesting papers on this disease, have appeared in 'The China 
 Medical Missionarv Journal ; ' see especiallv Vol. IL p. o'.K ' The Chinese, 
 
 u 2 
 
340 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 their Present and Future; Medical, Political, and Social,' bj' R. Coltman^ 
 ■Jr., M.D., Chiip. IX, Leprosy. ' Tropical Dii-eases : A Manual of the Dis- 
 eases of Warm Climates' by P. Manson, M.D., L.L.D. (Sec. Chap XXVI. 
 pp. 38B-422. 
 
 LIGHTHOUSES.— The lighthouse system in Chinese 
 waters is under a department of the Imperial Maritime 
 Customs, and is only one of the many advantages which have 
 resulted from a foreign staff being in the employ of the 
 Chinese Government. 'The light-houses on the China co:\st 
 have a luminous intensity equal to that of the best non- 
 electric lighthouses in the world. The lighting and main- 
 tenance are attended to with the greatest punctuality, and 
 tliere has never been a complaint as to the regularity of 
 working and amount of safety afforded.' Some of the most 
 important positions have been selected for their display; and 
 frmn jSTewehwang in the north to the Island of Hainan in tlie 
 south, and along the Yang-tsz and Canton Rivers, these 
 indispensable aids to the navigator extend. They are mostly 
 on land, though a few are lightships ; and they are either fixed,, 
 fixed aad flashing, or group flashing, revolving, or occulting ; 
 the illuminating apparatus is either catoptric or dioptric. 
 Besides these, there are a number of buoys and beacons. 
 The lights, &c. are being added to, and the department 
 increased as tine goes on. Since the first lights were 
 started in the years 1855, 1859, and 1863, up to 1895 or 
 1896, there have been but nine years in which a new light 
 has not been exhibited, Avhile in a few years the total of new 
 ones for the year rose as high as nine or ten. At the end 
 Lif 1897 there were 105 lights, 4 light-vessels, 82 buoys, and 
 ()5 beacons, making a total of 256 under the control of this 
 department of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs 
 Service. 
 
 Leaving out those on the Canton River as well as those 
 at Chinkiang, Kiukiang, and Hankow, there are approximately 
 about one light to every hundred and two miles of coast line. 
 A few years ago there was a lighthouse to every fourteen, 
 miles of English coast, one to every thirty-four of Irish coast, 
 and one to every thirty-nine of Scotch shore line. It must,. 
 
LITERATURE. 341 
 
 however, be remembered that about two-thirds of the Chinese 
 lights are at those ports mentioned above. The staff required 
 for the maintenance of the lights is composed of both foreigners 
 and natives ; the former numbering sixty-four and the latter 
 one hundred and ninety-six. 
 
 Besides these there are three lighthouses in the British 
 Colony of Hongkong, and one in the Portuguese Colony of 
 Macao. 
 
 LIl'ERATURE.—' Vntold treasures lie hidden in the 
 rich lodes of Chinese literature.' This may be considered a 
 sufficient answer to those who question if there is anything 
 worth seeking for in Avhat has been termed by another 
 equally learned sinologue the barren wilderness of Chinese 
 literature. 
 
 Numbers of books of great antiquity have left no 
 remembrance behind them but that of their names, or, at the 
 best, but little else. Some fragments are reputed to have 
 survived from before the time of Confucius (B.C. 550). The 
 sage said of himself that he was a transmitter, not an 
 originator, and, as such, he utilised material, that was in 
 existence to a great extent previously, in the production of 
 the works which are attributed to his hand. From the time 
 of Confucius onward, for some centuries, the numerous 
 writings produced by the different philosophers give evidence 
 of mental vigour, and activity. The power of the literary 
 class, backed up by their arsenals of learning, and their 
 muniments of classical lore, were forces that threatened to 
 thwart, by their conservative and other tendencies, the iron 
 will of the nionaich, who rendered himself infamous in 
 Chinese history by his despotic and cruel attempt to sweep 
 the obstructive literati and their books out of his path of 
 progress. Works on medicines, divination, and husbandry. 
 Avere the only ones that were exempt from the storm of 
 destruction that swept over the land with the exception of 
 those, not a few in number, that surreptitiously weathered the 
 tempest buried in mountain holes and hidden behind Avails, 
 •or stored up in the memory of some who prized them better 
 
342 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 than life itself. After the night of desolation rose the- 
 brighter dawn of the Han dynasty, when every effort was^ 
 made to recover the lost treasures, and Avith such success 
 that considerably over ten thousand volumes, or sections of 
 books, the work of some hundreds of authors, were gathered 
 together. But unfortunately this library, collected with such 
 care, was destroyed by fire at the close of the dynasty, and 
 other destructions of valuable imperial collections have taken 
 place more than once since. It has, however, been the pride 
 of succeeding dynasties to follow the example of the Han, 
 and every encouragement has been given to literature. 
 
 The T'ang dynasty especially deserves notice for its 
 patronage of letters. The classification now extant was 
 then adopted, viz. : — the four divisions of Classics, History, 
 Philosophy, and Belles Lettres ; but these are so numerously 
 subdivided, that a mere list of them would occupy a page 
 and a half. It will thus be seen that, except in a work 
 especially devoted to that purpose, it would be impossible to 
 give even a resume of the vast field thus covered. We must 
 content ourselves with the indication of a few of the mor& 
 salient points. 
 
 The Classical writings occupy the foremost position not 
 only as regards antiquity, but they are also regarded as the 
 foundation of all learning by the Chinese; and they have 
 been the cause of the production of not a small proportion 
 of Chinese books. 
 
 The 'Four Books ' and the ' Five Classics ' are the chief 
 amongst the classical works of the Chinese. The ' Four 
 Books' consist of 'The Confucian Analects,' 'The Great 
 Learning, 'The Doctrine of the Mean,' and 'The Works of 
 Mencius.' The ' Five Classics ' consist of ' Tlie Book of 
 Changes,' ' The Book of History,' ' The Book of Odes,' ' The 
 Book of Rites,' and 'The Spring and Autumn Annals.' The 
 last is the only one of which Confucius is actually the author, 
 though he compiled 'The Book of History ' and 'The Odes.' 
 ' The Book of Changes ' is regarded with almost universal 
 jeverence, both on account of its antiquity, and also for the- 
 
LITERATURE. 34-5 
 
 unfathomable wisdom which is supposed to be concealed 
 under its mysterious symbols. 
 
 •' The Four Books,' which rank next after ' The Five 
 Classics,' are, for the most part, the words, conversations, and 
 opinions of Confucius and Mcncius, as recorded by their 
 disciples. Around these, and a few other works, haa 
 gathered an immense collection of commentaries and works 
 elucidative of the Classics ; among these the Chinese class 
 dictionaries, over the production of whicli much labour has 
 been spent by eminent Chinese scholars in order to conserve 
 the purity of the language. 
 
 Historical works, or dynastic histories, are sub-divided 
 into a number of divisions. These have been compiled 
 dynasty after dynasty on a general plan, dealing first with the 
 Imperial Records, then the Arts and Sciences, followed by a 
 Biographical Section. The latest compilation of them is 
 called ' The Twenty-four Histories,' comprised in 3,264< books 
 by over twenty diiferent authors, commencing with Sz-ma 
 Tsin, the Herodotus of China. 
 
 Historical Annals. — This class of histories contains 
 a concise narrative of events on the plan of ' The Spring and 
 Autumn Annals.' Among the most celebrated of these is the 
 Tsz Chi Tung Kin, of the famous historian Sz-ma Kwang, in. 
 291' books, which occupied the author nineteen years in 
 writing. 
 
 Another division of historical Avorks is that of 'The- 
 Complete Records ' in which a general view of a particular 
 subject is taken, 'The Historical Classic' being taken as the 
 example. 
 
 Besides these, there are several other divisions of 
 Historical Works, such as 'Separate Histories,' 'Miscellaneous 
 Histories,' ' Official Documents,' and ' Biographies/ which last 
 are very numerous and some ancient, one being more than 
 two thousand years old. Added to these, are 'Historical 
 Excerpta,' ' Contemporary Records,' which deal with other 
 co-existant states, and ' Chronography.' this last heading 
 
34.1. THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ■comprising a small category, 'The Complete Antiquarian 
 Researches ot" ^la Twan-li'n/ A.D. 1275, is 'a most extensive 
 and profound work.' 
 
 Another division is that of Geographical and Topo- 
 graphical Works. Among these is the famous ' Hill and River 
 iylassic/ containing wonderful accounts of countries inhabited 
 by pigmies and giants ; of men with a hole through the 
 middle of their bodies, who when going out for an airing 
 have a pole thrust through it and are thus hoisted on 
 the shoulders of two men and carried along ; of one-sided 
 people, who have only one arm and one leg, and w^ho have 
 to walk in couples ; as they cannot stand alone ; of tiny 
 pigmies who, like alpine travellers, rope themselves together 
 to prevent large birds carrying them off; of numerous 
 wonderful and strange objects in the animal creation as well 
 as fish and snakes with many heads, and fish with many 
 bodies to one head. It is very amusing to look through 
 an illustrated edition of this book, and though it contains 
 many strange vagaries, it was probably originally a bona 
 Jide attempt at an account of Avhat were actually considered 
 to exist ; it is a work of great antiquity. In this connection 
 it is interesting to note that Pliny speaks of the Blemmyans, 
 an African tribe that were headless, the eyes and mouth 
 being in the breast — *Blemmys traduntur capita abesse, 
 ■ore et oculis pectori aifixis.' Historia Naturalis Bk. V. Ch. 3. 
 See also the ' Tempest ' Act. Ill, Sc. 3. . 
 
 ' When we, were boys, 
 
 Who would believe that there were * * * 
 
 * * ^ * * * * *such men 
 
 Whose heads stood in their breasts ? ' 
 
 Every small division of the empire has its topographical 
 work dealing with its own history, antiquities, towns, curi- 
 osities, and anything of interest connected with it ; one on 
 Kwang-tung, being a historical and statistical account of 
 that province is in 182 volumes. The late Dr. Wylie well 
 said of this department of Chinese literature : ' The series of 
 topographical writings in China are pl'obably unrivalled in 
 
LITERATURE. 3*5 
 
 any nation, for extent and systematic comprehensiveness.' 
 Works on the water-courses also find a place in this section. 
 
 There are categories under which come bibliographical 
 .find other works. 'One of the finest specimens of Bibliography 
 possessed by this or perhaps any other nations * * * is 
 a descriptive catalogue (in 400 books) of the Imperial Library 
 -of the present dynasty.' The Index Expurgatorius is also 
 contained in this division, and several tens of thousands of 
 volumes are prohibited in whole or in part. The Historical 
 division ends with the section of ' Historical Critiques.' 
 
 The third great division, that of philosophers, includes, not 
 only that class, but writers on Religion, the Arts and the Sciences, 
 Sec Original thinkers are found amongst the Chinese authors 
 who have not subscribed to the Confucian teaching, and some 
 of our modern Western ideas have already seen the light of 
 day in the Far East long before they were ever dreamt of by 
 our Western moral philosophers. 
 
 The immense mass of matter to be found under this 
 grand heading may be judged from its sub-divisions, viz. : — 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 3- 
 4- 
 5- 
 6. 
 
 Under this lieading come "The Sacred Edicts ' : moral 
 maxims written by the second Emperor of the present 
 <:ly nasty for the instruction of the people. Taking these 
 maxims for texts, a series of homiletic sermons were 
 composed on them by his successor, and they are read aloud 
 to the public on the 1st and loth of every month throughout 
 the empire. 
 
 Medical works claim attention from the numerous 
 writers on this branch. The oldest work was written several 
 centuries before the Christian era. It has been supposed 
 from their minute account of the human body that the 
 
 Literati. 
 
 8. 
 
 Arts. 
 
 Writers on Military Affairs. 
 
 9- 
 
 Repertories. 
 
 Writers on Legislation. 
 
 lO, 
 
 Miscellaneous Writers 
 
 Writers on Agriculture. 
 
 1 1. 
 
 Cyclopaedias. 
 
 Medical Writers. 
 
 12. 
 
 Essayists. 
 
 Astronomy and Mathematics. 
 
 13- 
 
 Taouism. 
 
 Divination. 
 
 14. 
 
 Buddhism. 
 
346 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Chinese, at one time, practised dissection. If so, however,, 
 the remembrance of it has long been forgotten, and their 
 medical works are characterised by groundless theories,, 
 which, considering the low state of science until recent 
 years even in the West, is not much to be wondered at. (Sec 
 Article on Doctors.) 
 
 Astronomy axd Mathematics.— The Chinese in 
 ancient times represented the starry firmament by three 
 different methods. First, as a concave sphere ; secondly, 
 a globe is taken to represent the universe, and stars are 
 placed on the outer surface ; the third method is not known 
 at present, but it is supposed to bear a close analogy to that 
 of the West. The Jesuit missionaries assisted the Chinese 
 materially in righting their calendar, and in other matters 
 connected with astronomy, contributing their quota also to- 
 the books on astronomy and other mathematical matters. 
 One of the native books on Mathematics has quite an 
 interesting history. It is supposed to have been in use in 
 the Chau dynasty, was destroyed in the general burning 
 of books by Tsin Chi' Hwang-ti, after which imperfect 
 fragments of it were gathered together during the Han 
 dynasty, when additions were made to them ; a commentary" 
 was written on it, and an exposition ; it was well known in 
 the T'ang dynasty, preserved as a rarity in the Sung, and 
 entirely lost in the Ming ; but fortunately it was possible to 
 gather up the fragments that were found in one of those 
 gigantic cyclopredias, which the Chinese have been so fond of 
 forming, containing copious quotations from thousands of 
 books and taking years of toil to compile. The copy now in 
 existence has thus been gathered together piecemeal in 
 this way and has been found to agree with quotations and 
 with the description given of the book. ' It is divided into 
 nine sections, viz. : — Plain Mensuration, Proportion, Fellow- 
 ship, Evolution, Mensuration of Solids, Alligation, Surplus 
 and Deficit, Equations, and Trigonometry.' It contains- 
 246 problems. The illustrations have unfortunately been 
 lost. 
 
 
LITERATURE. 34-7 
 
 Under the heading of Divination are not a few works ; 
 books on dreams coming under the same section, the counter- 
 parts of 'The Napoleon Dream-Book' and 'The Egyptian 
 Dream-Book' in English. 
 
 As to books on Arts, Wylie remarks :— - 
 
 'However the Chinese may dififer from Western nations in 
 matters of mere convention, the fact that they have methodical 
 treatises, of more than a thousand years standing, on Painting, 
 Writing, Music, Engraving, Archery, Drawing, and kindred sub- 
 jects, ought surely to secure a candid examination of the state of 
 such matters among them, before subjecting them to an indiscriminate 
 condemnation.' 
 
 Under Repertories of Science are Cyclopaedias. The most 
 remarkable under this heading is that prepared by direction 
 of the second Emperor of the Ming dynasty ; two thousand 
 two hundred scholars were employed on the work, which was 
 to include the ' substance of all the classical, historical,. 
 philosophical, and literary works hitherto published, em- 
 bracing astronomy, geography, the occitlt sciences, medicine, 
 Buddhism, Taouism, and the arts.' It was publised in 22,877 
 books, and the table of contents filled 60 books. Wholesale 
 .selections were made of some books : in this way '385 ancient 
 and rare works have been preserved, which would otherwise 
 have been irrecoverably lost.' 
 
 A fine specimen of the voluminous encyclopaedias the 
 Chinese so delight in. is to be found in the British Museum. 
 It consists of 6,109 volumes. The Museum authorities have 
 had it rebound into 1,000 volumes, which require ten table- 
 cases to accomodate it. 
 
 Essayists. — AVorks of fiction are despised, as a rule, by 
 the Chitiese literati, but they form a most interesting and 
 valuable portion of the vast body of literature which has, for 
 more than twenty centuries past, been in ever increasing 
 volume seeing the light of day. The most popular is the 
 historical romance. ' The San Kwok Chi,' dealing with the 
 period from A.D. 168 to 265. The plot 'is wrought out with 
 a most elaborate complication of details,' it abounds with 
 the marvellous and supernatural, and is laid amidst the 
 
348 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 stirring scenes after the fall of the Han dynasty. ' The Dream 
 of the Red Chamber ' is another popular novel dealing witli 
 domestic life, but not moral in its tone. Another holding the 
 highest estimation, in the opinion of all classes, from the 
 purity of its style, is ''I he Pastimes of the Study,' full of 
 tales of wonder and mystery. This has been translated into 
 English by Mr. Giles under the title ' Strange Tales from a 
 Chinese Studio,' in two volumes. Cliinese novels contain 
 much that would be considered tedious by an English reader. 
 Minute details are entered into about the characters and the 
 localities ; trifling particulars and lengthy conversations are 
 given ; long digressions, prolix descriptions, and sermonising 
 are all indulged in ; but the ' authors render their characters 
 interesting and natural.' The characters are well sustained 
 at times ; there is of course a plot, and much of what goes to 
 make up the main portion of a tale in Western lands is also 
 introduced, such as the troubles of the hero and heroine, 
 complicated by the evil machinations of the villain, and all 
 the accessories of plot and counterplot, and at last the grand 
 finale arrives in a happy marriage. All showing that 
 human nature is alike the wide world over, the surroundings, 
 of course, having on Eastern cast in the one case. There is, 
 however, a large class of this literature which cannot be 
 commended. 
 
 Buddhist Literature. — Buddhist books include many 
 translations of Buddhistic works from the Sanscrit, as well as 
 -original compositions. 
 
 Taoist Literature. — The Tao Teh King is the only 
 work known to be produced by Lo-tsz. The aspect of Taoism 
 has changed since its early days ; its votaries, who believed 
 in alchemy, and the subduing of animal propensities, have 
 been succeeded by a set of even worse charlatans (see Article 
 on Taoism). Books dealing with the gods and genii are 
 found under this heading. One of the most popular of all 
 Taoist works is 'The Book of Recompenses and Rewards' (of 
 a future state), which has gone through innumerable editions, 
 and is sometimes issued embellished with anecdotes and 
 
LITERATURE. 341>' 
 
 illustrated with wood'jut.s. It is thought ;i great act of merit 
 to distribute it. 
 
 Belles Lettres. in whicli arc included Polite Literature, 
 Poetry, and Analytical Works. There are numbers of divisions. 
 The class of ' Individual Collections ' deserves attention, as 
 it is "'one of the most prolific branches of Chinese literature/ 
 but short-lived. In this class may be noted the collections 
 of the two celebrated poets of the T"'ang and Sung dynasties, 
 Iji Tai-peh and Su Tung-po, comprised in 30 and 115 books, 
 and that of the celebrated historian and statesman Sz-mii- 
 Kwang in 80 books. IMost of the emperors of the present 
 dynasty have contributed their share to this branch of 
 Chinese literature. 
 
 Under the heading of ' General Collections ' are classed 
 selections of choice specimens of acknowledged merit from 
 the pens of various authors. One of 'the greatest enterprises 
 in the history of book-making' may be noted in this connection ; 
 it saw the light of day in the time of the Sung dynasty, 
 and consisted of 1,000 volumes, being an 'extensive collection 
 of all specimens of polite literature subsequent to the Leang 
 dynasty. * * * Nine-tenths of the whole were made 
 up of the writing of the T'ang scholars.' 
 
 Rhymes and Songs (see Article on Poetry). 
 
 Drama. — The Drama is not included in native book 
 catalogues, though considerable works are found of that 
 nature. It was developed at a comparatively late date — the 
 latter end of the T'ang dynasty saw its urigin. It continued 
 to improve until the time of the Yuan dynasty, Avhen the 
 best collection of plays was published as 'The Hundred 
 Plays of the Yuan Dynasty ' (See Article on Theatre). 
 
 Professor Douglas thus writes of Chinese literature as a 
 whole : — 
 
 • In the countless volumes which have appeared and are 
 appearing from the many publishing centres, we sec mirrored the 
 temperament of the people, their excellences, their deficiencies, and 
 their peculiarities. Abundant evidence is to be found of their activity 
 in research and diligence in compilation, nor are signs wanting which 
 point to the absence of the faculty of imagination, and to an inability 
 
350 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 to rise beyond a certain degree of excellence or knowledge, while 
 at the same time we have seen displayed the characteristics both of 
 matter and manner, which most highly commend themselves to the 
 national taste. 
 
 As a consequence of the very unplastic natin-e of the language, 
 there is wanting in the literature that grace of diction and varying 
 force of expression which are found in languages capable of inflection 
 and of syntactical motion. The stiff angularity of the written 
 language, composed as it is of isolated, unassimilating characters, 
 robs eloquence of its charm, poetry of its musical rhythm, and works 
 of fancy of half their power ; but in no way interferes with the relation 
 of facts, nor the statement of a philosophical argument. 
 
 And hence to all but the Chinese mind, which knows no other 
 model of excellence, the poetical and fanciful works of Chinese authors 
 offer fewer attractions than their writings on history, science, and 
 philosophy. Unlike the literatures of other countries, one criticism 
 applies to the whole career of Chinese letters. It is difficult to 
 imagine a nation of busy writers pursuing a course of literature for 
 more than 3,000 years, and yet failing to display greater progress in 
 thought and style than Chinese authors have done. That their works 
 vary in quality no one who has read two Chinese books can doubt ; 
 but the variations are within limits, and ''■' ■■- '■- the width of 
 thought and power of expression have in no wise increased, at least, 
 since the revival of letters under the Han dynasty, B.C. 206 — A.D. 25. r 
 
 It is unfortunate that many of the finest passages of 
 Chinese literature lose, when translated, their epigrammatic 
 force, the play of words loses its sparkle, the glittering 
 poetry is transformed into prosy periods, and what is full 
 of life and spirit falls flat and tame on the foreign ear. 
 The freshness of the flowers of speech is gone when the 
 ideas of the original are plucked and transferred into the 
 Englishman's receptacle of thought. In other words, just 
 as the Chinese himself looks best in his native costume, 
 the thoughts of his mind appear in their best when clothed 
 in his native language — the foreign dress often fits them 
 badly ; and, in short, many of the productions of a Chinese 
 pen have to be read in the original, if the reader would 
 appreciate to the full the brilliancy of some of these jewels 
 of the first water ; for not a few stray passages, ripe Avith the 
 love of the beautiful, are to be found scattered through the 
 pages of Chinese literature, instinct with true poetic genius 
 — glowing with the deep feeling caught from a communion 
 with the hills and mountains, rivers, streams and babbling 
 
LANGUAGE. 351 
 
 brooks, woods and forests, sunshine and storm, in solitudes 
 away from the busy haunts of men. These ecstatic raptures 
 ■of the true child of nature strike a responsive chord in the 
 breast of the Western barbarian. So charming are they in 
 their simplicity, so in unison with every touch of nature, that 
 one feels that the ardent lovers of the beauties of God's 
 beautiful world speak but one language, equally understood 
 by all who have revelled in such simple delights, and that 
 there is no place round this wide wdde Avorld ' where their 
 voice is not heard,' Avhether it be in the confines of the 
 Middle Kingdom, or in what was the Ultima Thule of bar- 
 barism when many of these fine passages were penned. 
 
 It is, however, in comparison either with the literature 
 -of other Eastern countries, or with our own some centuries 
 ■since, remembering at the same time their isolation and 
 the want, to a comparatively great extent, of the vivifying 
 influences of the competition of other countries pursuing the 
 same researches and branches of knowledge, that the most 
 just view can be taken of what Chinese literature is as a 
 whole. With the patient toil, love of research, and passionate 
 ardour for literary pursuits, it is an interesting speculation to 
 give rein to one's fancies — to wonder, in short, what would 
 have been the result had the Chinese possessed all the 
 advantages we have been blessed with in the West, instead 
 of presenting the unique spectacle of a nation self-contained 
 and self-sufficient in all its requirements. The few chances 
 they have had of assistance from the West, when once 
 appreciated (for the Chinese, unlike the Japanese, are slow 
 in accepting what is oflfered to them until fully proved and 
 approved of), have been accepted and made good use of, as 
 in the case of a knowledge of Sanscrit introduced by the 
 Buddhist priests, and more lately in the introduction of 
 Western knowledge and science, which no doubt is destined 
 eventually to exercise a wonderful efiect. One of the greatest 
 boons that can be conferred on this ancient and conservative 
 empire, will be the knowledge that true Avisdom consists in 
 the publication of books in the language of the people, and 
 
352 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 not in the book style — a style as remote from that of the 
 former almost as Latin is from that of English. Then 
 knowledge and learning will be the property of everyone 
 instead of being confined to the lettered masses. 
 
 Boolts rernvi'iiitndc'd. — H. A. Giles's ' Gems of Chinese Literatiii-e,' 
 contains a selection from all times and classes. ' Notes on T'hinese 
 Literature,' by the late Rev. A. VV)iie, L.L.D., is a list of hundreds of 
 Chinese books, classified according to their subject matter, with notes of 
 great interest on them, and a preface giving an account of Chinese literature. 
 We cannot give a list here of the native works which have been translated 
 into English and the other European languages : they are legion. 
 
 MANCHOOS.— The family that now occupies the 
 throne in China is not a native one, but one of ^Manchoo 
 Tartars, beinsc a small branch of the Tunsfusic nomads. 
 Their orijjinal habitat was in the neis'hbourhi^od of the Lonsr 
 White Mountain. Transplanted from thence by the ambition 
 of a capable leader, they have flourished in the wider area 
 of China, which has given greater scope to their abilities 
 tlian the narrow confines of Manchuria. 
 
 The history of the whole of the region is a long one, 
 and is blended with that of China through many generations 
 and dynasties. 
 
 Repeated weaves of incursions have swept into the North 
 of China, or beaten against its borders to be driven back, and, 
 losing their power for a period, have finally gathered strengtli 
 and united their forces for another effort; this, perhaps, proving 
 more successful than the last, has resulted in a partial or 
 complete sway over the Middle Kingdom, which with its 
 riches, has ever proved a tempting prey for its nomadic 
 neighbours. 
 
 The Manchoos have been known by various names: in 
 their quiescent periods by that of Sishim, Sooshun, or Niijin, 
 as well as by their numerous dynastic titles assumed when, 
 under the vigorous guidance of a skilful chieftain, their power 
 was consolidated and a simple tribal rule was developed into 
 that of an incipient state, having within its comparatively 
 small bounds the potentialities of mighty empires and 
 kingdoms. History has only repeated itself in their case. 
 
MANCIIOOS. 353 
 
 as in that of many others ; for the incursions of the Huns 
 are only the movements in Europe of the same species of 
 tribes who originated from the same neighbourhood, and 
 who, on account of their selection of modern Europe 
 as their stage in the one case, brought themselves more 
 prominently before the eyes of the Western historian than 
 the Manchu Tartars did when they overthrew the native 
 Chinese dynasty in the other case. That overrun of Europe 
 is more akin to the partial conquest of China — that 
 part of it lying to the North of the Yellow River — by the 
 Niijin or Sooshun, the ancestors of the present Manchus, 
 where they ruled as the Kin dynasty for more than a century 
 A.D. 1118 to 1235, contemporaneously with a native dynasty 
 in the South of China, until both were deposed by another 
 foreign dynasty, that of the Mongols under G^mghis Khan. 
 
 In common with the other nomadic neighbours of China 
 on her Northern frontier, the ance.'stors of the Manchu 
 'J artars play a conspicuous part in the history of ancient 
 China. Wars, intrigues, subterfuges, plots and counterplots, 
 treachery, cruelty, and lies, fill up the pages of this history 
 as much as they do those of the West, and, except to those 
 specially interested in such incidents, prove but dry reading 
 The Manchu power enlarged its realms, swallowing up 
 neighbouring states, until it extended between the Gulf of 
 Liau-tung and the Amoor ; and Manchuria was more populous 
 than at any subsequent period, though the immigration into 
 it now bids fair to raise it to an equally populous 
 condition. Nor at this time could it have been in a low state 
 of civilisation, as we are told that ' learning flourished and 
 literature abounded.' This strong and extensive kingdom 
 was battered to pieces by the Khitans ; and broke up into a 
 number of small independent clans under separate chieftains, 
 which, it would appear, relapsed again into a nomadic, rude, 
 and primitive style of life. Consolidating again under the 
 name of Niijin, they commenced activity once more and 
 became a force and factor in the ceaselese Avars with, and 
 against, the divided states of China, as well as the ncigh- 
 
 X 
 
354 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 bouring kingdoms. In passing, we may notice that 
 such seems to be the history of all the Mongolic tribes, viz. : 
 first, a nomadic, primitive state, followed by increase of 
 numbers and power, and a settled and highly civilised 
 condition, to be followed, on final defeat and overthrow, by 
 an abandonment of literature, cities, and agriculture, and a 
 return to the primitive nomadic condition. 
 
 But to return to the Niijin, who Avere rapidly developing 
 into the second condition when their chief took the word 
 Gold, Kin, for the title of his dynasty in contradistinction to 
 tliat of the Liao, or Iron dynasty, that of the Khitans or 
 Mongols, then ruling in Northern China, and whom he had 
 defeated in battle, 'for iron, if strong, rusted; while gold 
 always remained bright.' 
 
 By the combination of the Sung and the Kin, the Liao 
 dynasty was driven from the throne out of Northern China 
 and the Kin substituted for it. The Yellow River had been 
 the boundary between the Liao and Sung, whereas the 
 Yang-tsz was the boundary between the Kin and the Southern. 
 Sung, which succeeded the broken-down Sung. The Amoor 
 was the northern boundary of the Kin. They 'established 
 themselves at Peking in A.D. 1118, whence they were driven, 
 in A.D. 1235, by Genghis Khan, and fled back to the 
 ancestral haunts, on the Songari and Liau Rivers.' Their 
 modern descendants, after some centuries, again established 
 themselves at Peking, and have reigned longer than their 
 ancestors — from A.D. IGi^ to the present day — and over a 
 larger extent of country, for the whole of the China of the 
 present day is subject to them. We refer our readers to our 
 article on History where, under the Ts'ing dynasty, the name 
 they have elected to rule under, some short account will be 
 found of their doings. 
 
 Amongst the modern Manchus, Buddhism is in vogue, 
 and spiritualism is believed in — in the shape of the fox, the 
 stoat, or the tiger. They seem more religiously disposed 
 than the Chinese, and Christian missions have also met with 
 
MANCHV LANGUAGE. 355 
 
 success amongst them. They arc not so opposed to Western 
 innovations as the Chinese. 
 
 Their peaceful life and dependence upon charity has 
 eaten much of the hardihood and bravery out of the men as 
 a nation; but the rulers are still able men. They do not bind 
 the feet of the women. 
 
 BooJis recommended. — A series of articles .ippeaved in ' The Phoenix, 
 for 1871, entitled 'The Origin of the Manchus," by H. H. Howarth. 
 ' History of Corea,' by Rev. J. Ross contains a good deal about the early 
 history of the Manchus ; and the ' Manchus or the Reigning D)'nasty of China." 
 by the same author, gives a full account of their modern history. The 
 same author has written a short essay on them entitled 'The Manchus.' 
 published in the Records of the Missionary Conference held at Shanghai 
 1890. 'The Manchus in China,' in 'China Review.' Vol. 1'), p. 263, by 
 E. H. Parker. 
 
 MANCHU LANGUAGE.— The Manchu language be- 
 longs to the Turanian stock of languages, is entirely unlike 
 Chinese, and is polysyllabic. It has been inferred that all the 
 languages of Mongolia, Manchuria and Corea, were originally 
 one language — at all events they were polysyllabic 2,000 
 years ago. It will thus be seen that this language then 
 boasts of a considerable antiquity; but knots in strings, 
 notches in sticks, and such like devices of unlettered people 
 Avere the only means of record. When a pressing need of a 
 more intelligible mode of perpetuating their speech by visible 
 signs was felt, the Manchus, in the time of the T'ang dynasty 
 turned to the Chinese and studied Chinese letters and 
 literature ; a desire to have a Avriting of their own arose 
 amongst them, the Khitanes being the first to adopt some of 
 the Chinese characters to stand for the syllables of their own 
 language. This was in A.D. 920. Two kinds of characters 
 were employed, but, though it is not a thousand years ago, 
 not a trace of them, as far as is known, has been left behind . 
 
 It would appear, however, that the Khitans only perfected 
 former attempts made by others. The ancestors of the 
 present Manchus used both this Khitan and Chinese writing, 
 but, after conquering half of the Khitan empire, the Emperor 
 ordered a new style of writing to be devised, and, pretty 
 much in the same way as before, parts of Chinese characters 
 
 X 2 
 
356 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 were used to express the sounds. In A.L). 1119 and 1135, 
 two different styles were invented, and, as with the Khitans* 
 former essay, were extensively used. This second written 
 language was again forgotten and disused ; and the modern 
 Manchus only learned from Chinese history that their 
 ancestors possessed a written language of their own. Unfor- 
 tunately it also appears to be irretrievably lost. These two 
 written languages were written horizontally. The Mongols, 
 successors of these ancient Manchus, (Churchens or Niichen), 
 used Uigur writing for governmental matters, which is 
 very like the ancient Syriac, or Sab^an, (whether it was 
 introduced to this part of the world by the Nestorian 
 missionaries, see Article on Missions, or earlier, is not known); 
 and the Churchens or Manchus, who were subject to the 
 Mongols, used this Uigur writting. They also used the Mongol 
 language until the foundations of the Manchu empire were 
 laid, when they discarded it, still using the Mongol alphabet 
 to write the Manchu language ; but when many Chinese 
 Avorks had been translated into Manchu, it was found that it,, 
 the Mongol alphabet, was not a suitable medium to employ 
 in writing Manchu. Improvements were then introduced, 
 by which the ' Manchu writing acquired an alphabet distinct 
 from Mongol ; and, although for two hundred years no 
 further radical changes have been introduced, it has during- 
 that time, in the course of long and extensive use, developed 
 a roundness, elegance, and grace which still further distinguish 
 it from its rude parent.' The alphabet is syllabic. There 
 are six or eight vowels, eighteen consonants, and ten marks 
 used in rendering Chinese syllables into Manchu. Modern 
 Manchu is like Chinese, written in vertical columns. 
 
 Every effort was made by the Manchu Government to 
 foster the acquisition of their own language by Manchus : 
 books were translated from the Chinese, for they had no 
 literature of their own, and every means taken to make the 
 Manchus a literary race, but all to no purpose, for the 
 conquered race, the Chinese, have vanquished their conquerors. 
 Though numbering five millions in 1848, they live scattered 
 
MANDARIN. 357 
 
 in garrisons amongst the Chinese, and having to learn 
 Chinese, and possessing no indigenous native literature, they 
 have turned to Chinese books. 'There exist in all about 
 250 works in Manchu, nearly all of which are translations 
 from the Classics, some historical and metaphysical works, 
 literary essays, collections of famous writers, novels, poetry, 
 laws and regulations, Imperial edicts, dictionaries, phrase 
 books, &c. Most of these translations are excellent, but they 
 are all literal.' Not only with the common people, but with 
 the Manchu Government itself, Chinese Avas of more im- 
 portance, for what are five millions of people compared with 
 three or four hundred millions ; so the consequence has been 
 that Manchu is being rapidly forgotten, and is becoming an 
 extinct language in China, though probably spoken in the 
 wilds of Manchuria. 
 
 Bool-s recommended. — ' History of the Manchu language, from the 
 Preface to Professor I. Zacharoff's Manchu-Russian Dictionarj-, 1875, 
 translated from the Eussian by M. F. A. Fraser,' being two articles in the 
 March and April, 1891, numbers of 'The Chinese Recorder.' 'Essay on 
 Manchu Literature ' in ' Journal of China Br. of R. A. S.' Vol XXIV. (1890) 
 jip. 1 — 45. ' Translation of the T'sing Wen K'eung : a Chinese Gramtnar of 
 the Manchu Tartar language, with introductory notes on Manchu literature,' 
 by the late A. Wylie., Esq., L.L.D. ' A Manchu Grammar with Analysed 
 Texts ' by P. G. von MoUendorff. In an Appendix at the end of the last 
 work, is a list of the principal European works for the study of Manchu. 
 
 MANDARIN. — The nomenclature applied to certain 
 things Chinese has cast a glamour round them which a 
 simpler naming would have avoided. A case in point is the 
 term mandarin : with the rhythmic flow of this word and with 
 its foreign flavour, a certain soupgon of the poetic and the 
 mysterious is imported into it, so that the distant Westerner 
 is apt, when reading about mandarins, to picture in his 
 mind's eye some highly exalted and privileged class, the 
 members of which are born to the purple, and dwell amidst 
 halls of pleasure surrounded by affluence and luxury and 
 ministered to by the poor down-trodden populace. A better 
 appreciation of what mandarin means would doubtless have 
 resulted had the terms used been officers of governments, or 
 civil and military officials. 
 
 The methods by which the ranks of the civil and 
 military services are recruited, and some details about them. 
 
358 
 
 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 will be found in our articles on Army, Examinations,. 
 Government, and Navy. 
 
 The word mandarin is derived from the Potuguese- 
 •mandar, to command. The term mandarin is only applied 
 to such officials as are called kwiin (kvvoon) by the Chinese 
 and not to the subordinate class of officials. In other words 
 it is restricted in its application to those officials who are 
 entitled to wear a button. There are nine ranks of such 
 officials, the buttons which distinguish them aie as follows: — 
 for the first and second ranks, a transparent and opaque 
 (ruby and coral) red button respectively ; for the third and 
 fourth, a transparent and opaque blue (sapphire and lapis 
 lazuli) button respectively; for the fifth and sixth, a 
 transparent and opaque white (crystal and stone) button 
 respectively; for the seventh, a plain gold one; and for the 
 eight and ninth, a Avorked gold one. 
 
 These buttons, as they have been called in English, are 
 commonly of a round shape, about an inch in diameter, and 
 form a knob on the apex of the conical-shaped official, or 
 dress, hat. 
 
 The difi'erent grades of civil and military officials also 
 wear, as insignia of their rank, certain birds (in the case of 
 those in the Civil Service) and certain animals (in the case 
 of those in the Army and Navy), embroidered in a large 
 square, of about a foot in size in its two dimensions, on the 
 breast and back of their robes, as well as girdle clasps of 
 different materials^both branches of the service using the 
 same. The following is a list of these insignia ; — 
 
 
 
 Civil. 
 
 Army & Navy. 
 
 Girdle Clasps. 
 
 I St 
 
 rank Manchurian crane 
 
 Unicorn. 
 
 Jade set in rubies. 
 
 2nd 
 
 ;> 
 
 Golden pheasant. 
 
 Lion of India. 
 
 Gold set in rubies. 
 
 3rd 
 
 J! 
 
 Peacock. 
 
 Leopard 
 
 Worked gold. 
 
 4th 
 
 J5 
 
 Wild Goose. 
 
 Tiger 
 
 Worked gold with sill 
 ver button 
 
 5th 
 
 )» 
 
 Silver pheasant 
 
 Bear. 
 
 Worked gold with plain 
 siver button. 
 
 6th 
 
 39 
 
 Egret 
 
 Tiger-cat. 
 
 Mother of pearl. 
 
 7th 
 
 ;» 
 
 Mandarin duck. 
 
 Mottled bear. 
 
 Silver. 
 
 8th 
 
 3J 
 
 Quail. 
 
 Seal. 
 
 Clear horn. 
 
 9th 
 
 J3 
 
 Longtailed jay. 
 
 Rhinoceros 
 
 Buffalo's horn. 
 
MARRIAGE. 35& 
 
 IVIandavin, when applied to language, refers to the lingua 
 Franca in use throughout China in official intercourse and 
 in Courts of Justice; it is very poorly spoken by many, being 
 mixed up with, localisms; it is also the spoecli, in its various 
 dialects, in considerable parts of China. (See Article on 
 Dialects). 
 
 The word mandarin has also been used, by foreigners 
 in China, to distinguish a lovely species of duck of beautiful 
 plumage — the mandarin duck {anas galerkidata), which is 
 an emblem of conjugal fidelity with the natives. For the 
 same reason probably, that of superiority over others, it 
 has also been used to designate a species of orange, the 
 mandarin orange. (See Article on Fruit.) 
 
 i/- 1 /i/i' /.-1 6r^. —Marriage is the one end and aim set 
 forth for a girl : this is the goal to which she is taught to 
 look forward, or to which her parents look forward for her, 
 for it matters little about the girl herself She is almost a 
 nonentity in the matter: her wishes are not consulted; she 
 has often never seen her future husband ; she is even some- 
 times hypothetically betrothed to a contingent husband, thnt 
 is to say, two married couples agree that if one should have 
 a son and the other a daughtei-, they shall be married when 
 they grow up. From the last, it Avill be seen that the 
 man is not much better off than the woman in these 
 matters. Sometimes in the Swatow district, two families 
 change girls in order that when grown-up they may be 
 daughters-in-law in the respective families which have 
 adopted them in this way. A great advantage in this 
 method is its economy. It is not the parties themselves that 
 are consided so much —for the individual is nothing in China 
 — it is the respective families that are taken into account. A 
 man in China does not marry so much for his own benefit as 
 for that of the family: to continue the family name; to 
 provide descendants to keep up the ancestral worship; and to 
 give a daughter-in-law to his mother — to wait on her and be, 
 in general, a daughter to her. So far are these ideas carried 
 that if her future husband die before marriage, his intended 
 
-360 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 wife, if a model girl, will leave her own family and go and 
 live with that of her deceased betrothed, and perform all the 
 services which her position then requires of her. 
 
 Nearly all the fun of life, and very little she has at the 
 best, is gone as soon as a girl is engaged. She retires into a 
 stricter seclusion than ever, and has to be very circumspect 
 in her intercourse even with her own brothers. It would 
 not be human nature if she did not manage sometimes to get 
 a glance at her future husband, that is to say, it is not 
 always impossible for her to see him ; but as to love-making, 
 the prudery of Confucianism, and social customs and usages, 
 utterly forbid such a thing : it is highly immoral. 
 
 The marriage customs vary in different parts of the 
 country, but the essential ceremonials preliminary to, and 
 connected with, marriage are six; and even the details of 
 these vary greatly. (See Article on Betrothal.) 
 
 All having been satisfactorily arranged, and the money 
 agreed upon in the contract having been paid to the girl's 
 father, the final ceremonial which hands her over to her 
 husband is performed. She is dressed in her best, and, 
 when the procession comes for her, is placed in the grand, 
 red, marriage sedan-chair, in which she never rides again. 
 This chair is a heavy cumbrous article of wood, highly 
 ornamented with carving and kingfishers' feathers ; the 
 bride inside is completely secluded from profane gaze, and on 
 a hot summer's day the position cannot be an enviable 
 one, though a Chinese girl probably stands it better than 
 an English girl (so accustomed to fresh air and freedom 
 of motion) would; but even for Chinese girls the ordeal 
 is sometimes greater than they can bear, and when the 
 bridegroom opens the door, it is sometimes found that the 
 poor little bride has escaped from all the future troubles of 
 married life. At times the wedding chair has to cross a 
 river on its route, and woe betide the girl if the heavy chair 
 •causes the cranky boat to capsize. Should the bride elect 
 -die before her marriage, the future husband marries his 
 
MARRIAGE. 361 
 
 dead bride, but as the Chinese customs with regard to men 
 are different from those with regard to women, he is free to 
 marry again, Tlie young lady does not name the day, as 
 with us, but the father of the bridegroom does that. 
 
 Her trousseau is sent to her future home before her 
 marriage, and is made the occasion for a procession, the 
 bearers of the various objects being clad in red jackets, and 
 parading through the streets. For some days preceding the 
 wedding, the girl, with her sisters and friends, * bewails and 
 laments her intended removal from the home of her fathers.' 
 The bridal chair, which we have already mentioned, is 
 carried last in the wedding procession ; many carved wooden 
 pavilions (carved, open, wooden stands with, or without, 
 covers over them, as the case may be) with sweetmeats, and 
 the inevitable music, lanterns, and other objects which go 
 to make up a Chinese procession are not absent. It wends 
 its way to the bride's home, where the friend of the bride- 
 groom presents a letter to her, written on red paper tinged 
 with gold, urging the bride to come. This letter is carefully 
 kept by the bride, and is somewhat the equivalent of 
 * marriage lines ' in England. After certain ceremonials are 
 gone through, the bride makes her appearance, but her 
 features are concealed effectually, not by a white veil (white 
 is mourning), but by a piece of red silk. After saluting the 
 friend of the bridegroom, she enters the chair and is borne 
 with the clashing of gongs and the playing of the Chinese 
 Wedding March to the bridegroom's house. Preceding her are 
 the only equivalents of bridesmaids, female attendants ; and 
 her younger brother follows in an ordinary chair. Arrived 
 at her future home, the chair is set down. The bridegroom 
 is at the door with his fan, with which he knocks at the door 
 of the chair, which the bridesmaids open, and the red-veiled 
 bride, still with face unseen, steps out. 
 
 * She is placed on the back of a female servant, and carried over 
 a slow charcoal fire. * ""' '■-'' Above her head, as she is conveyed 
 over the charcoal fire, another female servant raises a tray containine 
 several pairs of chop-sticks, some rice, and betel-nuts. By this time 
 the bridegroom has taken his place on a high stool, on which he 
 
362 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 stands to receive his bride, who prostrates herself at the foot, and does 
 obeisance to her lord. This high stool is intended to indicate the 
 great superiority of the husband over the wife. •' * •■'■ Descending 
 from his elevated position, the bridegroom removes the veil of red 
 silk. Now for the first time he catches a glimpse of his wife's face. 
 It is still, however, more or less hidden by the strings of pearls which 
 han^^ from her bridal coronet. The bridal pair are conducted to the 
 ancestral hall, where they prostrate themselves before the altar on 
 which the ancestral tablets are arranged. Heaven and Earth, and 
 the gods of the principal doors of the house, and the parents of the 
 bride are the next objects of their worship. A further act of homage, 
 which consists in pouring out drink-offerings to the ancestors of the 
 family, having been duly performed by the bridegroom only, the 
 happy couple are escorted to the bridal chamber, where, they find 
 the orange-tree with its strings of cash, emblems of fruitfulness and 
 wealth, and the burning tapers, which formed a part of the procession, 
 placed on the nuptial couch. From the top of the bed are suspended 
 three long strips of red paper,' coiitaining good wishes : one being, 
 ' May you have a hundred sons and a thousand grandsons.' ' The 
 bridegroom having now saluted the bride, they sit down and partake 
 of tea and cake.' The bride tries hard at this time to get a piece of 
 her husband's dress under her when she sits down, tor, if she does, it 
 will ensure her having the upper hand of him, while he tries to prevent 
 her and to do the same himself. The strings of pearls which hang 
 from her coronet are now 'drawn aside by the maids in attendance, 
 in order that the bridegroom may have an opportunity of seeing the 
 features of his bride, who, that he may receive a correct impression of 
 them, has carefully omitted the use of rouge in her toilet operations. 
 «s o •» While the bridal pair are thus engaged, many of the 
 relatives and friends assembled to celebrate the wedding, enter 
 the chamber, and freely remark on the personal appearance of the 
 bride.' This must be a trying ordeal to a modest retiring girl, as the 
 observations are loud enough for all to hear. Her new relatives and 
 friends wish her many children ; and the bridegroom soon leaves her 
 to mix with his guests. 'At seven o'clock in the evening a banquet 
 in honour of her parents-in-law is prepared by the bride. When all 
 things are ready, the parents enter the banqueting-hall, where the 
 bride, after bringing the principal dish, or caput cccfmvi, from the 
 kitchen and placing it on the table with her own hands, assumes the 
 position of a waiting maid. Filling the cup of her father-in-law with 
 wine, she presents it to him with both hands, and whilst he is 
 drinking the contents, she kneels at his feet and twice knocks her 
 head upon the ground. To her mother-in-law, whose cup she now 
 fills, slie is equally reverential. The banquet over, and the parents- 
 in-law having washed their hands, the bride is called upon to partake 
 of a repast. On a table which her father-in-law orders the servant to 
 place at the top of the steps by which the dining-hall is approached, 
 various viands are set, and she is invited to occupy a chair on the 
 east side of the table. Her mother-in-law fills a cup of wine and 
 presents it to her. Before receiving it, however, she rises from her 
 chair, and kneeling at the feet of her mother-in-law, does obeisance by 
 twice knocking her head upon the ground. * '■ '•'■ In some of 
 
 the districts round Canton it is not unusual for the bride to be kept 
 
MARRIAGE. 363 
 
 up during the greater part of the night ' answering riddles put to her 
 generally by the bridegroom's relatives aud friends. The gentlemen 
 sometimes get drunk, and disturbances arise. 
 
 It only remains to be said that on tho third day the 
 ancestors are worshipped again, aud a visit is paid by the 
 young lady to her own father and mother, the bridegroom 
 also paying a visit on the same day. On the evening of the 
 fourth day, there is a dinner party for the friends of the 
 newly-married couple, women and men eating separately — 
 the bride and bridegroom waiting on their guests. This is 
 a brief account of some of the ceremonials attendant on 
 weddings in Canton. The boat p^^ople have different customs, 
 and each district of country differs more or less in these 
 matters. 
 
 In Swatow the bride does not ride in a red wedding- 
 chair like the Cantonese bride. The chair is not made of 
 wood, as it is in Canton, nor is the bride fastened up in it J 
 red cloth hangings are put over the chair and it is a larger 
 one than the one in common use, being like an official chair- 
 A catty or two of raw pork is hung by a string outside of 
 the door of the sedan chair. When she arrives at the 
 bridegroom's house she steps over a flare-up fire on the 
 ground, made by burning a few whisps of dry grass. The 
 idea is said to be to purify the bride from the contamination 
 of any devils or other dangers that she may have come 
 across on the road. The bride does not return to visit her 
 parents on the third day after marriage, but four months 
 after. On the third day after marriage, the Swatow bride 
 receives a visit from her younger brother or from some boy in 
 the neighbourhood of her parents' house in case she has no 
 younger brother. This younger brother or boy brings a 
 little peanut oil for lights (lamps). The Swatow bride goes 
 to worship at the Ancestral Hall, on the 15th of the 1st 
 moon, for the first three years after her marriage, (a woman 
 is a bride for three years); and in the first year men as 
 well as women, strangers as well as those who know her, 
 are all free to go and have a look at her. At such a time 
 she gives coolie oranges to the children to eat, and to the 
 
36i THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 grown-up people she offers tea ; while the married people 
 give presents of cash or silver in red paper parcels to her. 
 
 A curious marriage custom prevails in the province of 
 Yunnan. Chinese call it the woman marrying the man. It 
 has been described by a traveller as follows : — 
 
 ' The ceremonies attending this kind of marriage are on a smaller 
 scale than those observed in the case of ordinary marriages and 
 consist principally in the man coming to the woman's house, where 
 slie has her family and friends gathered for the occasion. The door 
 is shut and the man must knock. His intended then asks who is 
 there, in reply to which he gives his name and particulars. She 
 then asks him if he wishes to come to her house and stop with her, to 
 which he replies that he will come and live with her in good 
 partnership. The door is then opened, the man is admitted, and the 
 festivities commence. The wife, by marrying a man in this way, 
 agrees to keep her husband in everything, but contracts no other 
 obligation towards him. It is her house and she may do in it as she 
 likes. On the other hand, as long as the husband stops at home and 
 behaves like a good boy, he performs his part of the agreement, for 
 no work is expected of him. Such marriages take place where parents, 
 having only daughters, are sufficiently rich to keep their husbands 
 and wish for grandchildren, for the children take the wife's family 
 name and belong to her and her family.' 
 
 When a man is absent from home and unavoidable 
 circumstances prevent his return to be married, a strange 
 marriage by proxy takes place sometimes in some districts 
 of the Canton Province ; we are not aware whether it prevails 
 in other parts of the empire or not. But the curious thing 
 about it is that, instead of a man acting as the proxy, a cock 
 does duty for the bridegroom. This fowl is sent by the 
 latter to the marriage ceremonies, though it is not even 
 necessary that he should be sent by the bridegroom, the 
 :presence of the fowl at the wedding is sufficient. 
 
 A girl is but once legally married in China; she rides in 
 the bridal chair but once, and only if she is a legal, principal 
 wife. Not so the man, he can be married over and over 
 again. Only one woman in a man's household holds the 
 position of a proper wife ; all the others — and he may take 
 as many as he likes — are not principal Avives, or legal ones, 
 but secondary wives, or concubines, though their children 
 are on an equality with those of the first wife. The women 
 
MENDICANTS, 365 
 
 who are taken as concubines are sometimes told by their 
 husbands that they are to be considered as equal wives with 
 the first. 
 
 As to whether Chinese married life is happy or not 
 there is this to be said, that neither Chinese men nor 
 women know any other kind of married life. One fruitful 
 source of trouble is the ploygamy allowed by custom ; 
 for quarrels and fights, jealousies and envy, bickerings 
 and disputes, are more or less the inheritance of the 
 many-wived household ; and law-suits for property left by 
 the much-married Chinaman are rendered more complicated 
 by the different interests of the four, five, or six women who 
 all own the deceased as their late husband. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — Archdeacon Grays 'China,' Vol. 1, Chap. 7, 
 (contains most minute particulars about the ceremonials connected with 
 marriages in Canton, from which we have largely quoted. Doolittle's 
 • Social Life of the Chinese,' details the customs prevalent in Foochow. 
 An article in the ' China Mail ' of lOth July, 1890, would appear to be 
 written from a Northern standpoint. The marriage customs of the 
 Hakkas are noted in one of a series of articles on those people in the 
 ■ Hongkong Daily Press' for 1861. 
 
 MENDICANTS.— li numbers form any criterion, China 
 should be the happy hunting ground of beggars. Mendicancy 
 is reduced to a fine art — a science; backed up by the 
 charitable tenets of Buddhism, the Chinese beggar, armed 
 with an amount of assurance and audacity, proceeds to lay 
 siege to a Chinese city, not in a haphazard way, but with 
 a systematised organisation, which gives him a hold on the 
 shopkeeper, and a vantage ground to attack him with effect 
 and perseverance. In some, if not in many, cities, the beggars 
 are united together under a head, 'The King of the Beggars,' 
 who has complete authority over his subjects. The payment 
 of a fixed sum to the King by any shop will secure immunity 
 from all visits of his subjects; otherwise the collection of 
 their tax of one or two cash will be undertaken with that 
 pertinacity and disregard of time and convenience so char- 
 acteristic of the Chinese beggar. In Nanking there is a 
 royal order of beggars established by Hung-wu, the first 
 Emperor of the Ming dynasty. In this city the beggars are 
 
366 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 allowed to live in certain arches in the city wall, and 'their 
 chief is appointed by the police authorities of the district.' 
 
 Beggars in China may be divided into several classes, 
 viz.: — Those who go in strings of three or four; solitary 
 beggars, divided into stationary and peripatetic ones; those 
 who inflict wounds upon themselves ; those who are suffering 
 from sores ; and, last but not least, blind beggars. The 
 demarcations between these diff'erent classes are not always 
 strongly accentuated, as the one class may merge into the 
 other. 
 
 A business like this requires preparation; it is commenced 
 by some in early life, the youngsters generally being found 
 leading the strings of three or four blind beggars, otherwise 
 it is a case of the blind leading the blind, and, all things 
 considered, they appear to get on very well. It is not an 
 unknown thing, by any means, for mothers to deprive their 
 childern of eyesight in order that they may earn their 
 living as blind singing girls; and some of the beggars may 
 owe their blindness to the same cause. No doubt many 
 others have lost their eyesight from disease; for diff'erent 
 aff'ections of the eyes are very common in China, where there 
 is no proper knowledge of preventives, nor of curatives ; 
 the hot sun, bad air, poor living, and the reprehensible 
 practice of the barbers of scraping and cleaning the socket 
 of the eye must induce blindness in others. Next to blindness, 
 open and festering sores and wounds, and deformities of 
 limbs, of any and every kind, either form a good capital 
 to start on, or, shutting out all other means of gaining a 
 livlihood, reduce the suff'erer to beggary of position and 
 beggary as a calling. Failing genuine wounds, and armed 
 with a knife, a sturdy, impudent vagabond, with strength of 
 limb and body and good eyesight, may cut himself in a shop, 
 with noisy and wild yells, and thus gather a wide-mouthed 
 crowd, Avhich, flocking in and obstructing trade, draws a 
 cash or two from the accountant, the Chinese horror of blood 
 being also a sufficient ready-drawer of alms. The next shop, 
 or one a few doors further on, forms another stage for the 
 
MENDICANTS. 367 
 
 repetition of the performance. These nuisances, for whom 
 one feels no sympathy, but disgust, are fortunately not so 
 common as some of the other varieties of the crenius bcffiTar. 
 
 One of the most common is the string-beggar. Almost 
 always blind, this class goes about in small bands of three 
 or four, sometimes five, mostly females, but one or two males 
 are not uncommonly found in the string, each with a slender 
 long bamboo, the equivalent of the foreign beggar's stick. 
 They make their way, tapping Avith short quick taps, now 
 uncertainly feeling with their bamboos, which serve as 
 antennoe, lifting their sightless orbs in vain appeals for light, 
 raising their faces with that pathetic helplessness, though 
 possibly in the exercise of that facial perception with which 
 those born blind are accredited (a new sense vouchsafed to 
 those deprived of sight which enables them 'by some singular 
 insight ' to tell Avhen they are opposite some object, as to its 
 dimensions and characteristics, such as height, breadth, &c.). 
 
 Happy are these Bartimeeuses with their sisters, wives, 
 and cousins, if some bright-eyed youngster, not smitten with 
 the darkness of night in broad mid-day, is found to lead 
 their devious course through the crowded streets. Such an 
 one is also better able to see the white fan kivai, whose 
 pockets are filled with gold, or, who, at least, has not hoarded 
 up a store of bad cash to pass ofi" on the beggar tribe as their 
 countrymen have. As soon as he appears in sight, tlieir 
 monotonous Avhine is exchanged for more vigorous appeals, 
 and higher titles of respect follow each other in rapid suc- 
 cession in the hope of loosing the purse-strings of the young 
 clerk, Avho has instant brevet rank of Taipan, Cap-i-tan 
 (Captain), Worship, Honour, Lordship, and everything else 
 worth having. 
 
 Let us watch their modus operandi It is a combination 
 of street and shop begging — a general business not confined 
 to any one branch— each shop is most carefully and 
 religiously visited, unless exemption has been purchased by 
 a commuted sum paid to the ' Lord of All the Beggars.' 
 
368 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Should the shopkeeper be a good-natured man, a cash or 
 two may be flung to the string, who may get it without even 
 the trouble of going furtlier than the doorstep, but as often 
 as not, if not more often than not, more patient toil is 
 necessary to earn even a broken cash. Then the whole strings 
 file in, each holding on to the back of the other, and the 
 monotonous, whining, singsong appeal begins ; the shopmen 
 turn a deaf ear to everything, titles are thrown away, the 
 pearls are cast before the swine, who, in this one case, dare 
 not turn to rend them, perhaps for fear of vengeance ; though 
 also is not one string of beggars for half an hour better than 
 half a dozen strings of them in the same time ? And, as long 
 as one string is is possession of the place, the others pass 
 by. Wearied, sou^e of the band, if not all of them, crouch 
 down on the tiled floor, waiting for their opportunity, for it 
 is bound to come sooner or later ; and here it is at last, for 
 several customers of another sort stop in — purchasers, at 
 sound of whom the din and clatter of the besrsrars begin 
 with renewed energy, and the surly shopmen, whom no 
 amoimt of pity could move, hasten, for fear of losing a good 
 customer, U) get rid of the wearisome noise, by tossing a few 
 coins into the shallow basket of the mendicants, who renew 
 the same tactics at each shop in the street. 
 
 Better when the round happens at meal time, for then 
 the beggar will get some broken victuals to fill his empty 
 stomach, receiving them in the first place in his shallow 
 basket, or in his bowl, which latter Shakyamuni Buddha has 
 sanctified, and his numerous priest followers have hallowed 
 by the use of conturies. 
 
 The solitary beggar wends his way through the mazy 
 street, picking up an odd cash, here and there, from those 
 more charitably disposed than the rest, or from those who 
 seek immunity from the pest that the beggar is to the whole 
 of the respectable world. 
 
 Some select a space in a busy spot, sit down and wait for 
 alms, with a written out appeal spread before them, setting 
 forth that, natives of other provinces, they are stranded in 
 
MENDICANTS. 369 
 
 what is, to all intents, almost a strange land to them ; others 
 select some quieter spot, but where the stream of passers-by 
 is still sufficient to give a hope of an occasional dole from 
 unwilling hands, the donors hoping that merit for the deed, 
 tliough performed unwillingly, may mitigate the horrors of 
 a future hell. One feels a pity for some of these beggars — 
 stranded wayfarers; broken-down tradesmen ; ruined gamblers, 
 roues, with the punishment of all their profligacy on theni;- 
 and, saddest of all, some poor old woman whose undutiful 
 son has turned her out cm the street, penniless, and with 
 no shelter for her gray hairs, to depend on the uncertain 
 charity of her neighbours, who, though virtuous in their 
 indignation, give no, or but little, practical proof (jf their 
 sorrow, and who are in constant dread lest the old dame 
 should give up the ghost on their doorsteps ; harsh words 
 and angry rebuflfs, therefore, forbid her sheltering herself 
 under what were erewhile friendly roofs ; for would not the 
 economy of Chinese social life, as well as its judicial system, 
 render the teuder-heaited, who should overstep the limits 
 of prudence and on whose premises she might die, liable 
 at least, to the expense of a coffin and funeral ? The presence 
 of a ghost haunting the house would follow; and, even worse 
 still, some trumped-up charge of having caused her death 
 might bring the charitably disposed within the clutches of 
 the law — a law hard to escape from, with all its con- 
 comitants of torture and pre-Ho ward-day prisons. 
 
 It is curious how very polite the chair-coolies are to the 
 blind beggars in the street, addressing them as ' Sir,' when 
 requesting them to get out of the way — a nice trait in 
 Chinese character, due to their innate politeness, and perhaps 
 also to self interest, as a want of it might lead to bad 
 language. These beggars are not always most polite ; the 
 A\riter Avas once knocked, with not a light hand, by a woman 
 in the streets of Canton, but there was some excuse for her, 
 as she seemed to be crazy. Many of the beggars in Canton 
 sleep in an asylum in the east of the City, and go out by day 
 to ply their trade. 
 
 Y 
 
370 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 MISSIONS. — Ancient Missions.— Tradition points to 
 an early proclamation of Christianity in China. The apostle 
 ThoTnas has been mentioned as the first missionary to this 
 Empire; at all events, it seems that some of the first teachers 
 of the new faith must have selected China as their mission 
 field. It would be most interesting to have had some 
 particulars of this enterprise, but Ave must be content \\\t\\ 
 rumours and detached notices in ancient ecclesiastical writings, 
 which give but a vague and misty idea of the extent of the 
 ■work and its results. 
 
 Nestofman Missions. — The first really solid ground tliat 
 we have to rest upon is the historical fact of the Nestorians 
 having carried on missions in China. A thousand questions 
 present themselves to one's mind as to the work done 
 by these men, the extent of country they travelled over, 
 the numbers that came to China, their uwdiis operandi, the 
 success that attended their labours. But to these and many 
 others we get answers wljich only whet our appetite for 
 more information. 
 
 ' The time of the arrival of the Nestorians in China cannot 
 be specified certainly, but,' Williams states, ' there are grounds 
 for placing it as early as A.D. 505.' One of the most 
 interesting of the ancient monuments in Chiaa, while at the 
 same time 'the most ancient Christian inscription yet found 
 in Asia' is the Nestorian monument. It is 'the only record 
 yet found in China itself of the labours of the Nestorians.' It 
 was discovered in A.D. 1625 by some workmen in the suburb 
 of Ch'ang-an, a district city in Shen-si. In was erected in 
 A.D. 781. 
 
 'The contents are threefold : — Doctrinal, Historical, Eulogistic. 
 The first part gives a brief outline of the teachings of the religion, 
 and of the ways and practices of its ministers ; the second part tells 
 of its first entrance into China, and of the patronage extended to it 
 for the most part for nearly 150 years by various emperors; in the 
 third part, to which, though it be the shortest, the two others are 
 introductory, the Christians express, in verse, their praise of God and 
 their religion, and also of the emperors whose protection and favour 
 they had enjoyed.' 
 
3IISSI0NS. 371 
 
 From this inscription we learn that a priest, Olopun by 
 name, made his way through difficulties and perils from the 
 West, guided by the ' azure clouds ' to China, bringing with him 
 the 'True Scriptures.' He was favourably received by the 
 Emperor in the palace, in A.D. 635 where a portion of the 
 scriptures was translated in the library of the palace, and 
 approving of the new doctrine, with that eclecticism the 
 Chinese are so noted for, the Emperor gave special orders for 
 its propagation, and a proclamation issued a few years after 
 with regard to it ended with the words: — 'Let it have free 
 course throughout the Empire.' A monastery was built 
 • sufficient to accommodate twenty-one priests ; ' succeeding 
 sovereigns vied with each other in the benefits they 
 conferred on the new religion which had the ajgfis 
 of imperial patronage thrown over it; it spread through- 
 out the then ten provinces of China; 'monasteries filled 
 a hundred cities.' Then came a period of persecution, 
 for twenty or twenty-five years, from a bigoted Buddhist 
 Empress, when another time of prosperity ensued, the 
 buildings being restored and more helpers coming from the 
 West. Not only did the imperial favour shine on them again, 
 but an eminent Buddhist from India appears to have embraced 
 Christianity, and ' threw all his wealth and influence into the 
 promotion of the Christian cause, manifesting especially an 
 extraordinary charity.' Thus we have a summary of the 
 history of Nestorian Christians in China for nearly 150 years, 
 till A.D. 781. Of its history subsequent to that date there 
 is not much to be said ; for sixty years or more it continued : 
 •during this time Buddhism made vigorous progress, which 
 called forth spirited protests from the literati. The Taouists^ 
 in A.D. 84-1, finding their opportunity come, succeeded in 
 getting the Emperor to launch a proscription against 
 Buddhism, and Buddhist monasteries were destroyed ; this 
 persecution also affected the Nestorians, as they were referred 
 to in the edict, and the Nestorianism of Si-ngan-fu never 
 recovered from the blow. 
 
 Y 2 
 
372 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Marco Polo in the thirteenth century, mentions Nestorian 
 churches in China, but it is not thought that these were 
 descendants of the former Nestorian Church. It is probable 
 that the monument we have already mentioned was buried at 
 the time of this great persecution, and so, after a period of 
 two hundred years or more, ended an interesting chapter of 
 missions — that of the Nestorians in China. Its failure was 
 doubtless due to two causes : the one being the reliance on 
 the Emperor and men in power ; the other being the absence 
 of the Gospel in their presentation of the truth. It is to be 
 hoped that future researches may discover further evidence 
 of this church at the different periods of its existence in 
 China. Some have thought it possible that such may be the 
 case, and that remains of this ancient Nestorian Church may 
 yet be found — that converts, buried in some isolated region, 
 with possibly the ancient translation of the Scriptures made 
 by their first missionaries, still in their possession, will be 
 come across, as the descendants of the Hebrew community 
 were some half a centvuy ago in the interior of China. (See 
 Articles on Buddhism and on Jews.) 
 
 Roman Catholic Missions. — We now come to the 
 prosecution of missions on a larger scale. 
 
 The founders of Jesuit missions in China were Michael 
 !Ruggiero and Matteo Ricci, Avho arrived in this Empire in 
 -A.D. 1579 and A.D. 1581 respectively. The latter has been 
 described as ' a man of great scientific acquirements, of 
 invincible perseverance, of various resource, and of winning 
 manners, maintaining, with all these gifts, a single eye to the 
 conversion of the Chinese, the bringing the people of all 
 ranks to the faith of Christianity.' They found it difficult 
 to obtain a footing, but Ricci established himself at Shid- 
 hing, the ancient capital of the Canton Province, and worked 
 bis way up, till he finally reached the capital, where he died 
 in A.D. 1610. He was favourably received by the Emperor 
 Wan-li, of the Ming dynasty. He was the author of a number 
 of learned works as well as books on Christianity, and left 
 
3Ilssro^'s. S73 
 
 many converts behind him, the most noted of whom was Hsii 
 Kwang-si, a nnmbev of the Han-lin college and an official of 
 high rank. One of Hsii's daughters, known as Candida, built 
 thirty-nine churches, printed one hundred and thirty books, 
 and sent many blind story-tellers, instructed in gospel history, 
 out in the streets to tell what they had learned. 
 
 The Church of Rome was wise in her generation in 
 sending out at first men of the stamp of Ricci, among whom 
 may be named Adam Schaal and Verbiest; it was 
 not only Jesuits, but the different Roman Catholic sects, 
 such as Franciscans, Dominicans, and others, which 
 sent their members to China. 
 
 'The Dynasty of Ming, was drawing near to its close, 
 
 and the Manchus were preparing for the conquest of the Empire. 
 Many difficulties and perils encompassed the missionaries, but Schaal 
 was able to maintain his position at Peking by his astronomical 
 knowledge in correcting the calendar, and by establishing a foundry, 
 where he cast cannon to be used against the Manchus. And this 
 position he continued to hold when the Empire fell to those invaders. 
 He was made head of the Board of Astronomy and Mathematics, and 
 was a favourite with the first Manchu sovereign, though he did not 
 shrink from remonstrating with him against certain severe measures, 
 and urging him rather to justice, forbearance, and mercy. He was 
 able to lay, in A.D. 1650, the foundation of a grand church in the 
 neighbourhood of the Imperial palace. 
 
 When the second Emperor, known to us as K'ang-hsi — by the 
 name of his reign — succeeded to his father at the early age of eight, 
 there was trouble during the minority ; but as soon as he took the 
 Government into his own hands, he gave his full confidence to the 
 missionaries. He was, probably, the most able and enlightened 
 sovereign who ever sat on the Chinese throne, and his reign lasted 
 sixty-one years- Schaal and Verbiest regulated the calendar and 
 cast cannon for him. Regis and several others conducted for him 
 the survey of the Empire, which Remusat correctly describes as "the 
 most complete geographical work ever executed out of Europe."' 
 
 Disputes, however, arose amongst the Roman Catholic 
 missionaries as to the correct term§ to use for God (as to 
 what words were to be applied by their Christians to the 
 Deity) ; as to the worship of ancestors and Confucius — 
 whether it were a mere homage or real worship, and 
 whether their converts consequently might engage in it. 
 Unable to agree amongst themselves, the dispute had grown 
 to such a head that they referred it not only to the Pope but 
 
374 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 also to the Emperor of China ; each of whom gave a 
 different verdict. The missionaries, of course, were bound 
 to obey the Pope, and this setting up of an outside authority 
 over that of their own Emperor, incensed the Chinese, and 
 the storm which was ijatherini? burst in the next reijrn, 
 when in A.D. 1724', an edict was issued against them,- 
 prohibiting the propagation of Roman Catholicism, and only 
 retaining the feAV missionaries required for scientific purposes 
 in Peking ; all the others were required to leave the country. 
 Some obeyed the edict, while others remained in secret. 
 jMany of the Chinese converts remained firm, notwith- 
 standing the persecutions which arose now and then. 
 Matters remained in his state for about a century, when in 
 A.D. 1842 Christianity was tolerated by treaty. There are 
 now numbers of priests and numerous bodies of Roman 
 Catholics in the country. When the priests care to use a 
 Bible, the translation they employ is Sciid to be that of the 
 first Protestant missionary, Dr. Morrison ; for though trans- 
 lations of portions have been made by them, yet, like the 
 Church of Rome, they seem never to have printed the whole 
 Bible and given it to the people ; they have, however, quite 
 a literature of their own in Chinese. They do not 
 seem to practise any public preaching ; but retain hold of 
 the communities of converts already made. In one point 
 they are very aggressive, and that is in the baptizing of 
 infants, for every one so sprinkled becomes a unit in their 
 grand total of Christians. 
 
 The 'Roman Catholic Register,' a paper published a few 
 
 years since in Hongkong, gave the following as the statistics 
 
 of Romish missions in China : — Bishops, 41 ; European 
 
 priests, 664 ; native priests, 559 ; colleges, 34 ; convents, 34 ; 
 
 native converts, 1,092,818. One well-known writer speaks 
 
 thus of their work : — 
 
 ' Had they adhered to religious teaching, their converts would 
 doubtless have been legion ; but the usual rash meddling with politics 
 soon aroused fear of foreign aggression, leading to violent opposition 
 and terrible persecution, which have been repeated with every fresh 
 scare of undue political influence * ''* '- It is this arrogation 
 
 -of temporal authority which has so incensed the Chinese, and accounts 
 
MISSIONS. 375 
 
 for much of the hostihty to missionaries and converts of all Christian 
 churches and denominations, as the ignorant masses naturally could 
 not discriminate between Protestants and Roman Catholics. Hence, 
 in the Edict of Toleration, proclaimed in 1886, the Imperial Govern- 
 ment deem it necessary to state that men who may embrace 
 Christianity do not cease to be Chinese, but, as such, are entitled to all 
 protection from their own Government, to which alone they owe 
 obedience. The promulgation of this Edict followed immediately on 
 the decision of the Pope to send a Papal Legate to the Court of 
 Peking, to represent him as the sole foreign power interested in the 
 Cliinese Roman Catholics, thereby totally disclaiming all political 
 protection from France.' 
 
 Protestants. — The first Protestant ^Lissionavy to China 
 was the Rev. Robert M'jrrison, who arrived in A.D. 1807. 
 There was such a strong feeling against all Europeans 
 at that time that he was unable to preach in public or 
 carry on direct evangelistic work; bathe engaged in some 
 literary undertakings, which not only redounded to his credit, 
 but prepared the way for future labourers. A gigantic 
 dictionary of the language and the translation of the whole 
 Bible have made his name famous, and it is a marvel how^ 
 confined within the foreign factories (as the European 
 settlement in Canton was called) in a godown, and assisted 
 by a teacher who was in terror of being discovered, this 
 wonderful man, nearly single-handed, accomplished such 
 tasks. It is true he had a former translation of a part 
 of the New Testament which he used as a basis, and he had 
 the help of Dr. jMilne in translating part of the old Testament, 
 but with all these aids the labour must have been herculean. 
 •It was printed from wood blocks and published in 21 volumes 
 in 1823.' Thus Protestant missions in China took their start 
 on the Bible, and it is to this reliance on the word of God 
 at their inception, that their wonderful success is due. Of his- 
 other herculean task it has well been said: — 'There is no 
 finer monument of human perseverance than the dictionary of 
 ])r. Morrison.' Unable to penetrate into China, a number of 
 missionaries settled in the Straits, and, learning the language, 
 were ready, when their opportunity came, to land, fitted for 
 work in China. One of them prepared founts of movable type,, 
 and these were the precursors of the numerous printing presses^ 
 
376 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 which, now that the Chinese have seen their utility, are not 
 confined to mission premises, but are used by the natives 
 themselves, at the treaty ports, to a limited extent, for the 
 production of their own books. In addition to the English 
 missionaries, some came to Macao from America. After the 
 Nanking treaty of 1842, by which Hongkong was ceded to 
 Great Britain and five treaty ports opened, the missionaries 
 •came up from the Straits and more arrived from home. Better 
 translations of the Bible were made, schools established, dis- 
 pensaries opened, and books printed. There were at that time 
 only a few Chinese converts all told. Since then more treaty 
 ports have been opened, and residence in the interior has been 
 possible in many places, till now there are forty different 
 societies at work, and a few independent workers unconnected 
 with any society. There are 589 men, 391 married women, 
 and 316 single ladies, making a total of 1,296; these are 
 British, American, German, and Canadian. Of native helpers, 
 there are 1.657. There are 522 organized native churches, 
 (but this number may be stated as more than a thousand if 
 each companv of believers is termed a Church), of which 94- 
 are self-supporting, and nearly 50 partially so. These native 
 churches are a sufficient answer as to whether missions have 
 been a success in China or not, for a Chinese will not pay 
 away money for Christianity unless he is convinced of its truth. 
 There are also 38 churches which are under a general endow- 
 ment scheme, the money being contributed by natives alone : 
 besides this there is a group of sixty congregations which are 
 to support themselves ; there are other cases also which 
 might be included, so that the numbers of self-supporting 
 churches given above fall short of the realitv. The amount 
 contributed in money is ^36,884.54', but ' no account is taken 
 of the value of houses and land given by natives to the 
 churches to which they belong.' 
 
 Extra to these are the concomitants of mission work, 
 such as schools, with 16,836 pupils, and medical work — of 
 hospitals there are 61, of dispensaries 44, with hundreds of 
 thousands of patients passing through them annually. There 
 
MISSIONS. 377 
 
 are 12 religious journals published by missionaries, and hosts 
 of books are being annually issued from the mission press — 
 not onlv religious ones, but scientific manuals as well, of every 
 kind and character. Had Protestant missionaries done nothing 
 else in China than prepared and published the books issued 
 by them in Chinese : started the schools ; written the books in 
 English, containing narratives of their own travels, and 
 accounts of the natives, and of their religious customs and 
 manners; translated native works; instructed the youth of both 
 sexes; and fKinded hospitals and dispensaries — had these, 
 we say, been the only things accomplished by Protestant 
 missionaries, they would have done a noble work ; but added 
 to all these more secular labours is the directly religious 
 work of preaching the Gospel, tract and Bible distiibution, 
 visiting, gathering together the converts, &c., all of which, 
 though less appreciated by the general mercantile community 
 of China, have been as signally successful as the other class of 
 undertakings. 
 
 The statistics here given are those compiled some years 
 since. Wonderful advances are being made each year in 
 almost all the various branches of missionary labour. 
 
 Itis in round figures ninety years since Protestant missions 
 were started in China, and at first the missionaries were but 
 a handful in number, restricted in their operations, and 
 confined to a few localities. They have had hard up-hill work, 
 prejudice and ignorance opposing them, a difficult language to 
 learn — which requires several years of unremitting, diligent 
 study, before a sufficient knowledge of it can be acquired for 
 general use, — but little sympathy from their fellow countrymen, 
 and yet the following statistics will show what has been the 
 result of one phase, and one phase alone, of their labours: — in 
 1842 there were 6 communicants; in 1853, 350; in 1865, 
 2,000; in 1876, 13,035: in 1886, 28,000: in 1889,37,287. 
 At the present day there must be in round numbers some 
 40,000 communicants, and besides these 100,000 of a 
 ■Christian community. 
 
378 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ' If Christian missions advance in the next thirty-five- 
 yeavs in the same ratio as in the past thirty-five years, there 
 will be at the end of that time twenty-six millions of 
 communicants and a Christian community of one hundred 
 million people' — one-fourth of the Chinese nation. 
 
 As to the character of the converts — are the native 
 Christians genuine ? Unfortunately some false professors, who- 
 liave joined merely for the dollars which they hope to obtain, 
 Jiave given a bad name to native Christians amongst certain 
 classes of people. It ought to be remembered that it is these 
 very hypocrites among them who obtrude themselves on public 
 notice, as what these desire is the opportunity of making 
 money, and they thus push themselves into prominence for 
 that object, while the genuine ones are content to occupy 
 the humble position they already fill. The centuries of hea- 
 thenism, in which the Chinese have been steeped, must also 
 be taken into account in judging of those just come out of it : 
 a wild flower transplanted into a garden does not produce the 
 beautiful flowers of the cultivated species that grows at its 
 side, but care and labour have to be expended, and the skill 
 of the gardener exercised, to develope its best characteristics : 
 so we can scarcely except one transplanted out of all the 
 debasing concomitants of idolatry to be on a par in ail 
 respects with (in fact, sometimes they are expected to be 
 superior to) those who have been surrounded by centuries 
 of Christian influence in our more* highly favoured Western 
 lands. But, notwithstanding all this, there are amongst the 
 Chinese converts those who compare favourably with any in 
 the West. It is not from hearsay that this is said, for the 
 author himself has seen such. 
 
 Botihx rcpommcndcd. — 'Christianity in China : Nestorianism, Roman 
 Catholicism, Protestantism,' bj- Professor Legge. of Oxford University. 
 ' Christian Progress in China,' by Rev. A. Foster, b.a. There are numerous 
 other works dealing with different sections of the mission field, which are 
 good as far as they g'o. Some idea also of what has been done, and is doing, 
 may be gathered from a study of ' Records of the Missionary Conference, 
 held atShanghai 1890.' Also see ' China Review.' Vol. XVIII., p. 1.52, and 
 ' The China Mission Hand-Book.' 
 
MOHAMMEDANS. 379^ 
 
 MOHAMMEDANS,— n\Q introduction of Moham- 
 medanism into China is interesting, resulting as it did in the 
 settlement of followers of that religion in China, and the eon- 
 sequent proselytising, till now there are large communities 
 of the followers of the prophet scattered here and there 
 throughout the empire. The word proselytising, used above, 
 must, however, be taken in a mild sense, for it has not been 
 carried on with that vigour which uses compulsion to 
 accomplish its objects and makes its converts at the point of 
 the sword, The^re is no rapid growth of Mohammedanism in 
 China. Content with a foothold in the land, and with the 
 achievements of the past, it is now satisfied with the increase 
 due to the natural enlargement of its borders from within, 
 owing to the growth of the families of its professors. 
 
 Arabia has the honour of introducing Mohammedanism 
 into this land, and commerce was the motive force which 
 brought the most of the early followers of the false prophet 
 to these distant shores. Wos Kassin, supposed to be a 
 maternal uncle of Mohammed, is credited with having 
 introduced the Moslem faith into China : he came to this 
 country in the seventh century with a band of followers. Its 
 missionaries arrived at different sea-ports, especially at 
 Canton and Hang Chow ; they also travelled in the caravans 
 from central Asia. With such a measure of success was the 
 propagation of the Islam faith carried on, that large numbers 
 of Mohammedans are to be found in China, especially in the 
 Northern and Western provinces where the inhabitants of 
 whole villages are followers of the Arabian prophet; there are 
 200,000 in Peking. In one of the large cities of Szchuen 
 there are 80,000. In Yunnan there are said to be between 
 three and four millions. In Kansuh they are estimated as 
 8,350,000 in number and in Shensi as 3,500,000. These three 
 provinces contain nine-tenths of the whole Mohammedan 
 population of China, while in some other places they form 
 one-third of the population ; it is estimated that there are 
 more than 10,000.000 North of the Yang-tsz-kiang ; there 
 are not so many in the South. 'According to an official 
 
380 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 estimate there are from twenty to twenty-five millions of 
 Moslems in China.' There are mosques in many of the 
 ■cities; Canton boasts of four, t^A'o of whicli were built 
 by Wos Kassin. This apostle was buried, after a residence 
 of fifteen years in China, outside the Great North Gate of 
 Canton. One of the two pagodas in Canton, different rather 
 in style to the ordinary pagoda, was erected in connection 
 with one of these mosques, in order that the inuezzins might 
 call the faithful to prayers from it. The followers of this 
 religion would appear, in this distant land of their adoption 
 to have held strictly to the tenets of their faith, such as, 
 circumcision, alms deeds, observance of the feast of Ramadan, 
 and prayers in the mosque. In all their mosques is to be 
 found a tablet on which is inscribed in letters of gold; 
 ^ May the Emperor reign ten thousand years,' the penalty of 
 the recognition of tlieir faith by their sovereign ; Confucian. 
 Buddhist, and Tnouist temples, if of any size, all having 
 the same reminder of the homage due to, and worship 
 demanded by, the Son of Heaven. His subjects may Avorship 
 whom they choose, but, whether they choose or not, adoration 
 must be paid to him except in the case of Christians, who 
 will not bend the knee nor offer the incense of worship to 
 any but the one living and true God. 
 
 A large literature has been bought into existence by 
 the Mohammedans. The author had in his possession a 
 well-got-up work published under Imperial auspices ; the 
 title-page had two dragons encircling the name of the book — 
 this being the sign of the imprimatur of the sanction, or 
 approval, of the Emperor. 
 
 There have been several rebellions of considerable 
 ■magnitude by the Mohammedans against the Government, 
 of which may be mentioned that of A.D. 1863, in the North 
 of China, and that in Yunnan, lasting for many years. 
 
 Boohs recontmcndcd. — Williams's 'Middle Kingdoni,' Vol. II, pp. 
 268-271, Gray's ' China,' Vol. I, pp. 187-142. Au article by Rev. H. V. 
 Noyos in the ' Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal,' Vol. XX. pp. 
 10-18 and 68-72. For an account of the literature published by them, 
 see 'Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal,' Vol. XXII, pp. 263, 354, 
 
MONGOLS, 381 
 
 377, 401. The larger lialf of tlie Second Volume of llocliei-'s * La Province 
 Cliinoise dii Yiin-nan ' is taken np with a narrative of tlie great Mohani- 
 irifdau rebellion in that i)rovince in 185o-lS73. 
 
 MONGOLS. — The Mongols are another of those nomadic 
 races bordering China, who have forced themselves into 
 relationships with that Empire. The Huns or Hwing-noo 
 were the ancestors of the present Mongols. As Attila, with 
 his hordes of savage Huns, was styled the ' Scourge of God,' 
 and proved to be veritably the ' Terror of the West ' in the 
 fifth century : so, early during the time of the Han dynasty 
 (B.C. 202 to A.D. 190), the Hwing-noo proved entitled to a 
 similar appellation as regards the China of that period, foj. 
 they ofttimes became ' virtual masters of the Empire.' 
 
 The Heanbi, another Mongolic tribe, made themselves 
 famous in Chinese history during the Han dynasty for about 
 a hundred years. They also proved an annoyance to 
 succeeding dynasties, becoming a formidable State, ranging 
 over northern China and engulfing parts of it. 
 
 A number of these Mongols, as well probably as some 
 of the Huns and other Mongolic tribes, were settled in North 
 China ; and so not only were there foes without, but foes 
 within ; and in preparation for a war with the external foes, 
 the Emperor ordered a Chinese ' St. Bartholomew's Day ' of 
 all the nomadic tribes within his borders, so that 200,000 
 families were slain. To prevent them turning traitors many 
 Chinese also suffered in the indiscriminate slaughter ; but, 
 even after such treatment, Tibetan and Hunnish families 
 collected in China, and harsh laws were enacted against 
 them, which drove large numbers of them out. Before that, 
 Hienbi Mongols had returned to China, and they continued 
 to do so afterwards. There was a Hunnish Kingdom, one 
 of the most powerful of the many rival ones into which China 
 was divided, in A.D. 435. 
 
 Mongols, under the name of Too-kile, assisted the first 
 Emperor of the T"'ang dynasty to gain the throne of China. 
 These same Turks, as they Avere called, plundered the north- 
 western and northern borders of China during the whole of 
 the T'ang dynasty. 
 
382 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The Khitnns, another Mongolic tribe originally, have 
 also made for themselves a chapter in Chinese history. 
 Harrying the frontiers and plundering the country ; defeated 
 by the Chinese, who employed 1,800,000 men to build a 
 great wall to protect the Empire from their ravages in the 
 time of the Chi dynasty ; eclipsed by the so-called Turks, 
 they rose, to be again defeated. After acknowledging the 
 supremacy of the Chinese, they again fought with them, and 
 threatened the North of China after the T'ang dynasty had 
 crippled its strength in its exhausting and foolish war against 
 ancient Corea ; two expeditions were sent against them, which 
 proved ineffectual, and it was found impossible to oust them 
 from the new territories they had acquired. It is impossible, 
 however, to follow the fortunes of the Khitans through all 
 the intricacies of the history of Chinese dealings with their 
 nomadic neighbours. Suffice it to say, that eventually, in 
 A.D. 926, the Khitans, after Eastern Mongolia had been 
 formed into a kingdom, began to lay the foundations of that 
 Empire under Abdoji ' one of the great conquerors of 
 mankind.' Under his successors they assumed the Imperial 
 power as the Liao, or Iron dynasty, overthrowing the Tsin 
 Emperor. They carried on incessant wars with the Sung, 
 and reigned over the country north of the Yellow River, 
 their dominion extending as far north as the Sono-ari and 
 Hoorha rivers. The Khitans are said to have had a curious 
 custom, that of drinking human blood, which the husbands 
 drank from the living bodies of their wives by cutting a 
 small slit in the wife's back. Their higher civilisation in 
 other matters would almost appear to throw some doubt on 
 this strange propensity, as they were painters, and had, at 
 the time when they entered China, a literature comprising 
 thousands of volumes, including. medical works ; they were 
 hospitable, and fond of drink. It may be here proper to 
 remark, that ' Huns,' ' Turks,' and ' Mongols ' ' differ only as 
 the Han, T'ang, and Sung of China differ. They are but 
 dynastic titles of the same people.' They were finally driven 
 out of Northern China by the help of the ancestors of the 
 
MONGOLS. 383 
 
 present Manclius, who succeeded them as the Kin dynasty, 
 after a reign by the Liao dynasty of 2i0 years. It is 
 interesting to note that Peking was first made a capital 
 during their time. 
 
 We next find the Kins, as well as the native Chinese 
 dynasty in the south, swept off their thrones by the Mongols. 
 The name, Kin, is said by Ross to mean 'silver.' Genghis 
 Khan had gathered together the numerous bands 'of restless 
 cavalry on the north of Shamo and the west of the Hinganlin.' 
 Defeated tribes swelled his numbers, and he entered on a 
 career of conquest; his sons completed his work as far as 
 China was concerned, the Yuen dynasty, as it was called, 
 reigning over the whole of China for a period of eighty-eight 
 years, until the Ming, a native dynasty, was founded on the 
 ruins of the destroyed and hated power of the Mongols (See 
 Article on Chinese History). 
 
 MoxGOLS, Characteristics and Customs or. — The 
 distinguishing features of the Mongols are described, by the 
 late celebrated Russian traveller. Col. Prejevalsky, as 'a broad 
 flat face, with high cheek-bones, wide nostrils, small narrow 
 eyes, large prominent ears, coarse black hair, scanty whiskers 
 and beard, a dark sunburnt complexion, and lastly, a stout 
 thick-set figure, rather above the average height.' The 
 Chinese face is "cast in' a 'more regular mould.' The men 
 shave their heads like the Chinese, but the Avomen plait their 
 liair 'in two braids decorated with ribbons, strings of coral, 
 or glass beads, which hang down on either side of the bosom.' 
 The Mongols live in felt huts or tents, and are very dirty, 
 never washing their bodies and faces, and their hands but 
 seldom. They drink great quantities of tea and 'milk 
 prepared in various ways, either as butter-curds, whey, or 
 kumiss,' and are much addicted to drunkenness. Mutton is 
 eaten in great quantities. 'Their only occupation and source 
 of Avealth is cattle-breeding, and their riches are counted by 
 the number ot their live-stock.' The Mongols are very fond of 
 their animals, and lay themselves out completely for them, 
 being very considerate of them ; their cattle, &c , are bartered 
 
384 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 for manufactuietl goods. They are very lazy, never walking, 
 always riding on horseback, and are great cowards, but 
 are fond of hunting, and kind and simple-minded. 'A 
 Mongol can only have one lawful wife, but he can keep 
 concubines,' the children of the latter, 'are illegitimate, and 
 liave no share in the inheritance.' ' Bribery and corruption 
 are as prevalent as in China.' 'Religious services are 
 performed in Tibetan.' 
 
 Boolis refcmmcHdcd. — Col. Prejevalsky's ' Mongolia.' The late Rev. 
 •J. Gilmoiir's ' Amon<r the Mongols.' For a 'depositor}" of all available 
 Mongol lore' on their history, &c., there are the huge volumes of Howorth's 
 ' Historj' of the Mongols.' 
 
 MONGOL LANGUAGE.- -The Mongolian and Chinese 
 languages are quite distinct and not related : Chinese is 
 monosyllabic to a great extent, Mongolian abounds in Avords 
 of several syllables ; Chinese is non-alphabetic, Mongolian 
 alphabetic. Mongolian is said to be an easier language to 
 acquire than Chinese, especially is this the case Avith the 
 written language. Gutterals and aspirates are largely used, 
 'so much so that their speech seems mostly gasping and 
 sputtering.' One very curious feature in the language is the 
 facility with which terminations are added to the verb, and 
 by this agglutinative process a great variety of meaning is 
 introduced without the need of using additional words ; and 
 it is not surprising to find from the ' disproportionately large 
 part occupied by the verb ' in the language that ' sentences 
 are run out to an indefinite length, consisting of an indefinite 
 number of participial clauses strung together like the 
 links of a chain.' The Mongol language ' is rich in words 
 and several forms and dialects, which, hoAvever, are not 
 very distinct, except as between Northern and Southern 
 Mongolian, Avhere the difference is strongly marked,' where 
 ' even the construction of the sentence changes ' : but, not- 
 withstanding all, it seems a very rare thing for Mongols from 
 different parts of the country not to understand each other, 
 thus forming a sharp contrast to the Chinese speaking 
 natives. There is a great difference betAveen the colloquial 
 and Avritten language, and the natives appear to find it 
 
MONGOL LANGUAGE. 385 
 
 well-nigh impossible to write the language as it is spoken. 
 A line of Mongolian writing has been compared to a knotted 
 cord; the people themselves say of it that it is like 'a stream 
 of water poured out from a jug. They read from left to 
 right in vertical columns : — 
 
 ' There are a good many printed books, the Chinese Government 
 having appointed a special commission, at the end of last century, to 
 translate into Mongol, historical, educational, and religious works.' 
 ' But it may be remarked, in passin.ij, that outside of the sacred books 
 and Buddhist liturgies, there is very little in the shape of literature 
 to be found in the Monirolian language. The book collector may 
 find numerous manuscript copies of parts of Buddhist scriptures, 
 some histories of famous monks, and a few tales written with the 
 purpose of enforcing Buddhist doctrines, but secular writings are very 
 hard to find, religion having taken such entire possession of the 
 Mongolian mind that it is thought a waste of time to write and copy 
 anything that has not a religious value.' ' There are schools at 
 Peking and Kalgan for teaching the language, and an almanac and 
 some books are from time to time printed in it. The learned classes 
 are the princes, nobles and lamas, the latter also learning Tibetan, 
 the princes and nobles, Mongol and Manchu. The common people 
 are in general illiterate.' 
 
 There are three styles of the written language : first, that 
 of the sacred books, 'being that in which the translations of 
 the Buddhist scriptures are made,' stiff in its style and ren- 
 dering foreign idioms literally ; second, the documentary 
 style characterised by ' formality and the use of uncommon 
 words'; and, lastly, the correspondence style in which letters 
 and business documents are written. The last is pure Mongol 
 and nearer to the colloquial than either of the other styles. 
 
 The Mongols appears first to have borrowed the charac- 
 ters used by the Uighur Turks of Kashgaria, and this style 
 of writing was commonly used by Chinghiz Khan and his 
 immediate successors. The Uighur character was borrowed 
 from the old Syriac which was probably brought into Eastern 
 Turkestan by the Nestorian clergy. This Syro-Uighur alpha- 
 bet was modified in the latter part of the thirteenth century 
 in Kublai Khan's time to better adapt it for the Mongol 
 language. Continuous lines connecting the letters vertically 
 were introduced, but the system was not completed. After 
 this, a square character was invented instead of the Uighur. 
 
 z 
 
386 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 This square character was 'founded on a Tibetan modifica- 
 tion of the Devanagari.' This was not acceptable, though 
 Kublai Khan tried to 'force it into use.' Finally, after a 
 reversion to the ' Uighuresque characters ' with some addi- 
 tions, this form was, in A.D. 1307-1311, brought to perfec- 
 tion. 'This is substantially the character still in use among 
 the Mongols, though some additions have been since made to 
 it.' The Manchu alphabet, again, was modelled upon this 
 Mongol one. 'Roughly speaking, there is about as much 
 difference between the Mongolian and Manchu character as 
 there is between French and English writing.' But, though 
 very similar in their written forms, the Manchu and Mongo- 
 lian languages in their spoken forms are quite diiferent. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — The best books for learning Mongol appear to 
 be in Russian. For a general account of the Mongolian language see 'Ap- 
 pendix No. 3 in a book entitled ' James Gilmour of Mongolia : His Diaries. 
 Letters, and Reports,' by R. Lovett, M.A. 
 
 MOURNING. — The Chinese are very punctilious in 
 their observance of mourning. At the funeral the mourners 
 are clothed in coarse sackcloth, while the sons and nearest 
 of kin wear caps of the same. Mourning, especially deep 
 mourning, is not graceful in the East. No Chinese widow 
 looks well in her Aveeds ; and to enhance the un sightliness of 
 the mourning costume, the finger-nails are not cut, and the 
 mourner goes unshaven and unshorn for seven weeks. No 
 marriages, of course, take place in the family, nor can its 
 members go to theatres. The two, large, red, globular 
 lanterns hung up outside the front door are changed for 
 white ones ; the pieces of red paper pasted over the door are 
 replaced by white strips. The widow and children sit on the 
 ground for seven days, and sleep on mats on the floor near 
 the coffin ; food is not cooked, the friends and neighbours 
 supplying Avhat is required ; chopsticks are not allowed to be 
 used, but the deep sorrow, supposed to be felt, is symbolised 
 by the employment of the hands in eating, and needles and 
 knives must be eschewed as well. After the deepest mourning 
 of sackcloth is discarded, white is worn as deep mourning — 
 white shoes, white robes, a white button on the cap, and white 
 
MOURNING. 387 
 
 cord braided into the queue. Blue is used as lighter 
 mourning, it must not, however, be supposed that a simple 
 bluejacket implies, that anyone has been bereaved of friends, 
 as a great majority of the Chinese would then be in mourning 
 •every day of their lives ; but a blue knob on the top of the 
 cap instead of a black or red one, also a blue cord braided 
 into the end of the queue are other signs of it, as well as 
 certain styles of blue shoes. In the North of China, white is 
 the only mourning used. There are indications also on the 
 visiting cards to show mourning. The whole nation goes 
 into mourning, to a certain extent, on the death of the 
 sovereign : no one is allowed to shave for 100 days after it 
 is proclaimed ; the poor barbers must have a sad time of it. 
 The discomfort and distress are minimised by the natives 
 ■getting a clean shave before the decree enforcing it is 
 promulgated. The writer chanced to be in Shanghai on the 
 death of the Emperor T'ung-chi, and it was curious to see all 
 the wheel-barrows come out with blue cloths on their seats 
 (for wheel-barrows are the cabs of the natives of Shanghai) 
 instead of the red ones. 
 
 A Chinese wears mourning for his superiors and equals 
 in relationship ; he does not require to put it on for his wife, 
 but an affectionate husband, as the author himself has seen, 
 will sometimes put on white at his wife's funeral, though it 
 is not incumbent on him to do so, or even to attend the 
 corpse to the grave ; in the same way, some abstain from red 
 cord in the queue and bright colours, though it is not 
 obligatory to do so. As some who profess horrible creeds are 
 often better than their beliefs, so there are Chinese who are 
 better than their heartless ceremonials, which take no, or but 
 little, account of women or children. 
 
 A period of seven times seven days is observed in 
 mourning, funeral rites being performed on each seventh day 
 up till the forty-ninth. 
 
 There are five degrees of mourning, as follows : — for 
 parents ; for grandparents and great-grand-parents ; for 
 
 z 2 
 
388 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 brothers, sisters, &c.; for uncles, aunts, &c.; and for distant 
 relatives in line of descent or ascent. 
 
 In the first, sackcloth without hem or border ; in the 
 second, sackcloth with hem or border ; in the third, fourth, 
 and fifth, pieces of sackcloth are placed on certain parts of 
 the dress. When sackcloth is worn, after the third interval 
 of seven days is over, the mourners can cast it off, and then 
 wear plain colours, such as white, gray, black, and blue. 
 For a parent, the period of mourning is nominally three 
 years, but really twenty-seven months, and during all this 
 time no silk can be worn ; during these twenty-seven months, 
 officials have to resign their appointments, and retire from 
 public life. There is an immense amount of ceremonial 
 connected with Chinese mourning, and diff"erent duties to be 
 performed, certain of them devolving on the chief mourner,, 
 such as carrying a certain mourning staff in the procession. 
 The whole subject is one that much might be written upon, 
 as there are many curious customs connected with deaths- 
 such, for example, as the chief mourner, supported on each 
 side and accompanied by friends, going out with a musician 
 playing a discordant flageolet, till they come to a well or 
 pool, when a cash or two is flung into the water, of which 
 some is dipped up in a basin they have brought with them, 
 taken home, and the corpse washed in it ; while lanterns with 
 blue characters on them are hung up at the front door instead 
 of the usual red ones with black characters ; and the orna- 
 nrent over the front door ( a curious shaped sort of tablet 
 suspended over the doors of officials, and at weddings and 
 funerals ) is of white paper pasted on a framework of bamboo, 
 
 A shed constructed of bamboo and mats, or a roof made 
 of the same materials, is put up over the street in front of 
 the house in which the death has taken place ; a paper stork 
 is erected on the top of bamboo poles, rising to the height 
 of twenty or thirty- feet above the street — for it is believed 
 that the spirits take their flight into the other world on such 
 birds, and a large paper, some feet in length and breadth, 
 is posted up on the outside wall of the house, giving notice 
 
MOURNING. 389 
 
 of the spirit's departure and the route to be taken, and 
 warning others from coming across the road, in case any 
 disaster shoukl happen to them. Funeral cards are sent out 
 by the family, giving intimation of the death to friends. 
 These are large documents, and amongst other matters, they 
 contain the date of birth and death of the deceased and a list 
 of the children ; a slip is enclosed with them, giving the date 
 when the reception of friends to worship the spirit of the 
 departed one will taken place. A small present of money 
 ( perhaps a sum of fifty cents, that being a very common 
 amount ) is sent to the bereaved family to purchase candles, 
 joss-paper, and incense for the ceremonies. As an instance 
 of what may take place, we quote from a Chinese novel the 
 directions given by the Astrologer for the funeral rites of an 
 official's wife : — 
 
 ' ( This Astrologer ) decided that the coffin should remain in the 
 house for seven times seven days, that is forty-nine days ; that after 
 the third day, the mourning rites should be begun and the formal 
 cards should be distributed ; that all that was to be done during these 
 forty -nine days was to invite one hundred and eight Buddhist bonzes 
 to perform, in the Main Hall, the High Confession Mass, in order to 
 ford the souls of the departed relatives across the abyss of suffering, 
 and afterwards to transmute the spirit (of Mrs. Ch'in) ; that, in addition, 
 an altar should be erected in the Tower of Heavenly Fragrance, where 
 nine times nine virtuous Taoist priests should, for nineteen days, offer 
 up prayers for absolution from punishment, and purification from 
 retribution. That after these services, the tablet should be moved 
 into the Garden of Concentrated Fragance, and that in the presence 
 of the tablet, fifteen additional eminent bonzes and fifteen renowned 
 Taoist priests should confront the altar and perform meritorious deeds 
 every seven days.' 
 
 Further on we have, in the same novel, the following : — 
 
 ' This day was the thirty-fifth day, the very day of the fifth 
 seven, and the whole company of bonzes had just ( commenced the 
 services ) for unclosing the earth, and breaking Hell open ; for sending 
 a light to show the way to the departed spirit for its being admitted 
 to an audience by the King of Hell ; for ai'resting all the malicious 
 devils, as well as for soliciting the soul-saving Buddha to open the 
 golden bridge and to head the way with streamers. The Taoist 
 priests were engaged in reverently reading the prayers ; in wor- 
 shipping the Three Pure Ones and in prostrating themselves before 
 the Gemmy Lord. The disciples of abstraction were burning incense, 
 in order to release the hungered spirits, and were reading the Water 
 Regrets Manual. There was also a company of twelve nuns, of 
 tender years, got up in embroidered dresses, and wearing red shoes. 
 
390 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 who stood before the coffin, silently reading all the incantations for 
 the reception of the spirit (from the lower regions,) with the result 
 that the utmost bustle and stir prevailed.' 
 
 In this connection it may be interesting to give au 
 account of a Chinese funeral procession, and we select for 
 that purpose a tolerably full description of that of the late 
 Mr. T'ong King-sing, taken from the "North China Daily 
 
 News': — 
 
 'At the head of the procession were two gigantic paper figures, 
 one in black and the other in red. The first represented a fierce- 
 looking soldier, and the other a mild-looking minister of state ; the 
 functions of these being to scare away any malignant spirits that 
 might be inclined to trouble the spirit of the deceased. Next came 
 five men on ponies, in single file, follov/ed by sixty, dirty, young 
 ragamuffins bearing boards containing the names of the offices and titles 
 of the deceased. Then came two flags ; four more men dressed in blue 
 on ponies, followed by an umbrella, thirteen soldiers carrying many 
 coloured banners, twenty-four men on foot bearing weapons with 
 pewter heads and wooden handles, two men blowing clarions, a man- 
 darin on a pony, four soldiers with banners, twenty-three soldiers 
 with bayonets fixed, behind them being a three flounced umbrella and 
 mandarin runners. Next came ten musicians very well dressed, and 
 another umbrella and attendants. A green chair, borne by eight 
 carriers, with a mourner on each side, and two handsome scrolls 
 immediately preceded the Taotai's band, who were followed by thirty 
 well-dressed soldiers, a number of tables on which were a roasted 
 pig, a skinned goat, fruit, and pewter wine-bottles, while some paper 
 tables had on them gold and silver mock sycee, scrolls, and represen- 
 tations of Chin Shan and Yin Shan — the Gold and Silver mountains, — 
 all these latter intended to be burnt. The handsomest part of the 
 procession was the " myriad name umbrellas," of which there were 
 twenty-four, presented by the people whose names appeared in velvet 
 characters on the lower flounces, while round the upper ones were 
 quotations from the classics. These umbrellas were very handsome 
 and were mostly of silk and in many colours. Then there we're two 
 more chairs, some Taoist and Buddhist priests, satin scrolls, and a chair 
 containing the picture of the deceased, on either side of the chair 
 being a mourner. Next came some Buddhist priests playing on flutes, 
 and then behind them boys carrying flowers on stands. A hundred 
 of the friends of the deceased in their official robes followed, each 
 bearing a lighted joss-stick. Many handsome scrolls succeeded and 
 then came the Town Band, four mourners, the sons of the deceased, 
 gongs, and images. The catafalque was carried by thirty-two bearers,, 
 the pole which ran through it having the head and tail of a dragon, 
 a token of Imperial favour, and the end of the procession was brought 
 up by hundreds of Chinese in carriages and chairs and on foot.' 
 
 What value the Chinese attach to such matters may 
 
 be judged by the saying that, ' the most important thing in 
 
 Ufi 
 
 'e is to get buried well.' 
 
MUSIC. 391 
 
 No one who has not been married is entitled to a funeral 
 procession. The coffin in such a case would simply be carried 
 to the grave without all the concomitants of music, and all the 
 chairs and open stands, lanterns, insignia, et hoc genus ornne, 
 which brought together into a trailing picturesque confusioa 
 form that delight of the Chinese, a procession. When 
 children die they are not always coffined, but the bodies are 
 often put into a box. Amongst the Cantonese this may, 
 perhaps, be done in eight cases out of ten, and the corpses of 
 infants which are seen floating in rivers and pools and lying 
 by the wayside or on the hill slopes are many of them those 
 which are thus indecently cast aside without heathen burial, 
 though some of them are the bodies which have been exposed 
 or killed outright by their inhuman parents. 
 
 BooliK recommended. — Archdeacon Graj-'s 'China,' for Cantonese 
 customs ; Eev. J. Doolittle's • Social Customs of the Chinese ' for those at 
 Foochow ; and one or two articles in ' The Hongkong Daily Press,' for 
 1861, for some account of those of the Hakkas. Also see the ' Li-Ki' as to 
 tlie ancient mourning customs on which the modern ones are based, modi- 
 tied by local usages and practice. ' The China Review,' Vol. XVII., pp. 47 
 and 48, contains a list of Days of Official Mourning in China. For a short 
 account of some of the funei-al rites performed once every seven days until 
 the forty-ninth day, see ' China Review,' Vol. XVII., p. 38. 
 
 MUSIC— 
 
 'Music in China has undoubtedly been known since the remotest 
 antiquity. It is said to have been invented by the Emperor Fu-hsi 
 (B.C. 2852). " * It is, say the Chinese, the essence of the 
 
 harmony existing between heaven, earth, and man. *'' ''■■' '■■' The 
 first invaders of China certainly brought with them certain notions 
 of music. The Aborigines themselves had also some kind of musical 
 system which their conquerors admired and probably mixed with 
 their own.' 
 
 Different systems seem to have been evolved by different 
 emperors and were differently styled, but it assumed its 
 ' characteristic form ' with the Emperor Huang-ti (B.C. 2697 
 when, amidst other innovations, names were given to the 
 sounds, and one fixed upon as a base note. Theoretically,, 
 music holds a position of paramount importance in the good 
 government of a State. Either this ancient music was of 
 an extraordinary character — for Confucius was so ravished 
 on hearing a piece, composed by the great Shun 1,600 years 
 
392 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 before his time, that he did not taste meat for three years — or 
 the Chinese were sensitively responsive to certain combina- 
 tions of sounds, in a manner unknown to Europeans. Un- 
 fortunately we have no means of testing which is true, for 
 the knowledge of this ancient music is lost. If the descrip- 
 tions of it are true to the reality, no one who has heard 
 Chinese music of the present day will have any hesitation in 
 accepting the statement of its being unknown now, for it has 
 been remarked, in a comic strain, that the music of the 
 Chinese is '" deliciously horrible," like cats trying to sing 
 bass with sore throats.' Some most abstruse theories are all 
 that remain for us. At the great destruction of books, those 
 on music, as well as musical instruments, shared 'the same 
 fate as every object which could give rise to any remem- 
 brance of past times.' 
 
 Great efforts were made to resuscitate the lost art ; some 
 of the books and instruments were recovered from their hid- 
 ing places ; but the times were not favourable for the culti- 
 vation of peaceful arts; the memory of the great music-master, 
 in whose family the office had been hereditary, was not 
 sufficient to bridge over the chasm which the great catas- 
 trophe had occasioned ; different authors disagreed in their 
 theories, and a confusion of the different systems has result- 
 ed. Two Emperors of the present dynasty, Kang-hsi and 
 Kien-lung, used their best efforts *' to bring music back to its 
 old splendour,' but without much success. 
 
 * Modern music really dates from the T'ang dynasty 
 ( A.D. 600).' Mr. Van Aalst divides Chinese music into two 
 kinds ; ' ritual or sacred music, which is passably sweet, and 
 generally of a minor character ; and the theatrical or popular 
 music. * * * The present Chinese theoretically admit 
 seven sounds in the scale, but practically they only use five, 
 and that as well in ritual music as in popular tunes.' 
 Chinese music cannot be exactly represented on our Western 
 musical instruments, as the intervals between the notes are 
 not the same as ours. 
 
MUSIC. 393 
 
 Ritual music is used in the acts of worship in which 
 the Emperor either takes part himself or is represented by 
 a deputy, such as the worship of Heaven and Earth, of 
 Ancestors, of the Sun and Moon, «&;c., and of Confucius. 
 The popular music includes all other kinds, and there are 
 not a few. Not a procession of any importance winds its 
 meandering course through the busy narrow lanes, that do 
 duty for streets in a great part of China, but has bands of 
 musicians, sometimes scores of bands, having small drums 
 and clashing cymbals, &c. That music should take a pro- 
 minent part in a marriage is naturally to be expected, but it 
 takes an equally prominent part in funerals, the poorest of 
 which has at least one musician, and the better ones more, 
 playing a dirge on shrill clarionets — in the latter case also 
 bands of performers on instruments are seen as well. No 
 officer of a high grade proceeds on an official visit without 
 the deep-toned boom of the sonorous gong proclaiming, by 
 the number of beats, the rank of the ' great man,' while its 
 other uses are not a few. In evening worship on board ship, 
 it and the drum provide the music. 
 
 Much of the attraction of the theatre to the natives 
 consists in the music and singing — attractive to the native, 
 but ear-splitting and headache-producing to the foreigner. 
 The singing on the stage 'is not unfrequently in the 
 *' recitative " style, and the way the orchestra accompanies, 
 in broken, sudden chords, or in long notes, bears a striking 
 resemblance to our European recitative.' 
 
 Ballad singing is much appreciated ; blind men play one 
 species of guitar, while blind singing girls accompany 
 themselves on another. The courtesans are given a musical 
 education according to Chinese ideas; and scarcely a boy or 
 coolie but delights in singing to his heart's content from a 
 book of songs of one kind or another, or screeches a song in 
 imitation of some theatrical character. Grass-cutters and 
 field labourers beguile the time by singing responsive songs, 
 the men and boys singing one verse and the girls the other. 
 
394 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The Buddhist priests chant in their services ; while the 
 Taoists also chime their instruments and singr their litursries. 
 There is quite a variety of" musical instruments in use, 
 some being confined to the Chinese sacred music in their 
 ritual ceremonies, and other to popular music. One of the 
 most ancient is called the 'stone chimes,' consisting of a 
 series of sonorous stones of varying thickness, hung in 
 a frame. There is also the ' single sonorous stone ' and 
 a marble flute. This employment of stone for musical 
 instruments is peculiar to China. A ' conch,' a large shell, 
 is used by soldiers, watchmen, and bands of pirates. 
 
 Bells of diflerent shapes — square and round, and of all 
 weights, from over fifty tons downwards — -are much used, 
 every temple of any size having one large one at least, as well 
 a,s a large drum. Amongst curious ancient Chinese musical 
 instruments may be noted the chimes of small bells suspended 
 in a framework ; and the chimes of gongs, ten in a frame ; 
 while another outre object is a wooden mortar struck with a 
 wooden hammer. The cymbals in use are said to have come 
 originally from India. 
 
 Some of the stringed instruments are also most ancient : 
 there are a number of lutes, guitars, and violins, some of the 
 latter with the bow passing between the strings. 
 
 Of wind instruments, there are flutes and clarionets, or 
 flageolets. 
 
 Wooden instruments are also made : one of the most 
 
 common is the wooden fish, it is shaped somewhat like a 
 
 skull, and hollowed out ; it is struck with a piece of wood,. 
 
 and is much used by priests. Of drums there are not a few 
 
 varieties. 
 
 ' The sheng is one of the most important of Chinese musical 
 instruments. * ''■- ''■■' No other instrument is nearly so perfect, 
 either for sweetness of tone or delicacy of construction. The principles 
 embodied in it are substantially the same as those of our grand 
 organs. Indeed, according to various writers, the introduction of the 
 shSng into Europe led to the invention of the accordion and the 
 harmonium. Kratzenstein, an organ-builder of St. Petersburg, having 
 become the possessor of a sheng, conceived the idea of applying the 
 principle to organ stops.' 
 
MUSIC. 39r> 
 
 Chinese music as loukecl upon from a foreign standpoint 
 has been thus described : — 
 
 'The intervals of the Chinese scale not being tempered, some of 
 the notes sound to foreign ears utterly false and discordant. The 
 instruments not being constructed with the rigorous precision which 
 characterises our European instruments, there is no exact justness of 
 intonation, and the Chinese must content themselves with an a pen 
 prH. The melodies being always in unison, always in the same key, 
 always equally loud and unchangeable in movement, they cannot 
 fail to appear wearisome and monotonous in comparison with our 
 complicated melodies. Chinese melodies are never definitely major 
 nor minor ; they are constantly floating between the two, and the 
 natural result is that they lack the vigour, the majesty, the tender 
 lamentations of our minor mode ; and the charming effects resulting 
 from the alternation of the two modes.' 'The Chinese have, 
 theoretically, a perfect scale and a fairly good notation ; there is, 
 however, one great lack in their system, they have no satisfactory 
 method of e.Kpressing time. * '■- * This is all the more strange, 
 seeing that in practice they are strict timists.' 
 
 Professor C. J. Knott, D.Sc, F.R.S., thus writes :— 
 
 ' The Chinese musical school, as it is developed in Japan, is 
 peculiar in the high pitch in which the leading female voice chants 
 the libretto. There is melody in the airs and truthfulness in the 
 instrumental (?/;.svwi^/i? of fiddles, guitars, and flutes. But there is no 
 harmony in our sense of the term. Each piece is very long and 
 wearisome in its apparently endless repetitions.' 
 
 The Chinese do not appreciate our music any more than 
 we do theirs. A Chinese standinsr listeninof to the military 
 band playing in Hongkong was asked his opinion of it, and 
 he said the music lacked harmony. That they fully appre- 
 ciate their own music needs but a glance at the crowd round 
 a Chinese band performing; their writings equally show 
 this appreciation, for example, take the following from 
 ' Gems of Chinese Literature': — 
 
 ' Softly, as the murmur of whispered words ; now loud and soft 
 together, like the patter of pearls and pearlets dropping upon a marble 
 dish. Or liquid, like the warbling of the mango-bird in the bush; 
 trickling like the streamlet on its downward course. And then, like 
 the torrent, stilled by the grip of frost, so for a moment was the music 
 lulled, in a passion too deep for words.' 
 
 Who will say after that, that the Chinese have no soul 
 for music ? 
 
 Books recommended : — ' Chinese Music,' by .J. A. A''an .^alst — published 
 as No. 6 of the 'Special Series' of the publications of the Imperial 
 Maritime Customs, ISS-t — 'is a most interesting: and learned monograph on 
 
396 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the subject. See ' China lleview' for August, 18.S2, on the Sfieng, by F. \V. 
 Eastlake ; also see same mai,'azine, Vols. I. and II., for a series of articles 
 (in 'The Theory of Chinese Music,' hy Rev. E. Faber, Th.D. Two articles 
 in 'The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal' contain some very 
 interesting- particulars, they arfj ' Cliinese Music and its Relation to our 
 Native Services,' by Rev. W. E. Soothill, A'ol XXI., p. 221, and ' Chinese 
 :\Iusic,' by Mrs. Timothy Richards, Vol. XXI., p. 30.j. 
 
 NAMES. — The clifFerent names that a Chinese has are 
 a perfect puzzle to a European; for nearly every Chinese has 
 several names. He keeps his surname through life, of course, 
 as we do, but at every memorable event in his life, such as 
 first going to school, getting married, &c., he takes another 
 name. It must not therefore be supposed that because a 
 native gives you different names for himself he is attempting 
 to palm himself off as someone else, though this system of a 
 plurality of names offers facilites to one who is inclined to be 
 tricky. 
 
 A Chinaman's surname then is unchangeable, and 
 generally consists of one syllable, though there are a few of 
 two or three. The surname comes first, and the other names 
 afterwards — in fact the Chinese follow the convenient order 
 used in our directories. A remembrance of this would 
 prevent the foreign resident from prefixing our ' Mr.' to the 
 personal name of a Chinese. It sounds incongruous enough 
 to prefix 'Mr.' to a Chinese surname — an attempt to mix 
 two civilisations which will not blend together in harmony, 
 but it sounds ten times worse to call a perfect stranger by his 
 personal name and then prefix a ' Mr.' to it. To illustrate : — 
 Say a Chinese bears the euphonious designation of Ch'un 
 Wa-fuk. Now the first, Ch'un, is his surname, and Wd-fuk is 
 what he elects to be called by, his Christian name in fact. If 
 the ' Mr.' must be used, then he is Mr. Ch'un or Mr. Ch'un 
 Wa fuk, but not Mr. Wa fuk or Mr. Fuk any more than Mr. 
 John Harry Jones is Mr. John Harry, or Mr. Harry, to a 
 stranger. 
 
 Though it generally happens that the fii'st syllable or 
 word in the string of three words, which usually form the 
 surname and name of a Chinese, is the surname, it does not 
 
NAMES. 397 
 
 abvays follow that it is, as Chinese have a few double surnames 
 as well as English (they have even a very few trisyllabic 
 surnanies)one of the most common of these bisyllabic sur- 
 names in the South of China is Au-ycing, so therefore in the 
 combination Au-yong Tat the two syllables form the surname 
 and the last syllable the name. 
 
 About a month after birth a feast is given, and the boy 
 gets his •' milk name ' as it is called. This name clings to 
 him through life, as in fact all his names do after they are 
 once bestowed. This milk name is, if anything, more especially 
 distinctive, as it is used by his relatives and neighbours, and 
 in official matters if he has no ' book name.' This name of 
 infancy often consists of but one character, and in that case 
 has, in the extreme South, the prefix Ah put before it, so 
 that a boy named Ch'un Luk will commonly be called Ch'un 
 Ah luk, though the Ah is not really a part of his name. In 
 the Fuh-keen so-called dialects, this Ah is not used. 
 
 On first going to school the boy has another name 
 given to him, the "book name.' It 'generally consists 
 of two characters, selected with reference to the boy's 
 condition, prospects, studies, or some other event connected 
 Avith him.' This name is used by his master and school 
 fellows, in official matters, and in any matters connected with 
 literature. 
 
 On marriage the young man takes still another name, his 
 style or 'great name,' and this his father and mother and 
 relations nse as well as the ' milk name.' 
 
 Another name called 'another style' may be assumed^ 
 which is employed by acquaintances and friends, not by 
 relatives and parents. The latter have a right to use the 
 ' milk name,' but with well-to-do people who have more than 
 one name, it is not considered the proper thing for outsiders 
 to call a man by his 'milk name,' of course it is different with; 
 farmers, labourers, and others •who only own one name. 
 
398 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 On taking a degree, on entering official life, or on having 
 official distinction or rank conferred on him, a man takes yet 
 another name, known as the ' official name.' 
 
 After death he is known by his posthumous name in the 
 Hall of Ancestors. 
 
 Besides all these, we may notice one or two other 
 designations. It is a very common thing for the Southern 
 Chinese to give a suggestive soubriquet to anyone who may 
 have some personal defect or characteristic, and the euphonic 
 syllable. Ah, is often used before these, leading foreigners 
 to think that such a nickname is a real name ; it is at the 
 same time tantamount to a real name, as everyone speaks 
 of the person so-called as such, and calls him or her by it. 
 The individual bears it complacently, knowing that he 
 must accept the inevitable. Such names are called ' flowery 
 names.' When they consist of more than one syllable the 
 Ah is dropped : they are used in combination with the 
 personal name or not ; as instances of this class are such 
 names as Giant Ah Yong, (here Ah Yong, of course, is the 
 man's right name) other terms of a similar kind are Dwarfy, 
 Fatty, &c. A very common one, used alone, without any 
 name with it, is Ah Pin=flat, meaning flat nose, another 
 often heard is Tau-p'ei, small-pox marked, and there are a 
 few others. 
 
 To cheat the evil spirits which may wish to rob a man 
 of his son, the boy may be called by some name that will 
 convey the idea of vilifying the young child, such as 'Puppy.' 
 or his head may be shaved and he be called "Buddhist priest.' 
 It is not at all uncommon to call the children in a family 
 Primus, Secundus, Tertius, &c., but this practice sounds 
 rather ridiculous when it is not limited to the first few 
 ^numbers, and one hears . a child or boat woman called 
 Duodecima. 
 
 There is also yet another name, which is a very ini- 
 !portant one, it is the t'ong name. It is difficult to convey its 
 import by an English translation, but it may be rendered, by 
 
NAMES. 399 
 
 ■'ancestral name,' or 'family name," or 'house name,' remem- 
 bering that all these terms must bear a restricted meaning 
 if applied to the Chinese. A man of means, having a 
 house of his own, is sure to possess such a name, and 
 he has, in all probability, inherited it from his father or 
 ancestors, unless he has risen from the loM'est ranks of society, 
 and has to select such a name for himself. This name will 
 generally be found up at his door on a small board. It 
 represents himself and it also represents his family in a way. 
 If he dies, his sons (if they continue to live together, as the 
 Chinese so often do. in the same family house) retain the 
 name, and together, or separa tely, make use of it. This t'on<^ 
 name is often used in business, some partners appearing 
 under such names, while others appear under some of their 
 other names. In such a case the t'ong name in the partner- 
 ship may only represent one man or the whole branch of the 
 family, with what result of confusion and shiftiness when 
 bankruptcy occurs may readily be understood, for only one 
 member of the family may be down in a firm's book under 
 his t'ong name, and in other cases this t'ong name in a firm's 
 books may not represent one man but the family, and there 
 may be, which often happens, no proof of what it really 
 stands for. If, however, the brothers separate and live in 
 different houses, they add certain Avords to the t'ong name 
 signifying "second family' or 'third family' &c., as they 
 may chance to be second or third sons, &c. The t'ong name, 
 has the word t'ong attached to the end of it, and is otherwise 
 composed of some happy sounding combination of words, 
 such, for example, as Wing Shin T'ong, which might be 
 rendered into English as ' The Hall of Eternal Goodness.' 
 
 One of the most ridiculous mistakes which foreign 
 residents make in China is calling natives by the name of the 
 business they are engaged in. True enough a Chinese when 
 asked who he is, or 'Who you b'long ? ' in pidgin-English, 
 will perhaps answer ' Sun Shing ' : so a man from a foreign 
 business might say at times, 'I am Smith, Brown & Co.' It 
 is, however, in fact more absurd to call such a man Mr. Sun 
 
400 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Shing, or look upon that as his name, than it would be to call 
 the other Mr. Smith Brown ; in the latter case it is possible 
 the man's name may be Smith or Brown, in the other it is 
 almost impossible that the man's name could be Sun Shing, 
 A clearer idea of the incongruity of thus styling Chinese 
 might be got by supposing that a foreigner in England, see- 
 ing the name ' Royal Oak ' over a public house should style 
 the proprietor Mr. Royal Oak. At the same time, some of the 
 very small master masons, &c., occasionally add the character 
 Kei to the end of their surname and name, and take this 
 combination as their business style; for instance, a man named 
 Ch'an Ah Luk, might take as his business style Ch'an Luk 
 Kei. This is the only approach to a man's name appearing 
 in his business on his signboard; for the majority of ' business 
 styles ' are such combinations as ' Mutual Advantage/ 
 ' Extensive Harmony,' and ' Heavenly Happiness.' 
 
 A man engaging in different branches of business will 
 also often take different business names for each branch, or 
 use .some other metliod of distinguishing the different 
 businesses. 
 
 Girls are left out in the cold as far as names are 
 concerned. They have to be content M'ith a milk name, a 
 marriage name, and nicknames. 1 hey retain their own 
 surnames when married ; that is to say. a married women 
 considers her maiden surname as her own, and gives it as 
 such ; by courtesy she is addressed by her husband's surname, 
 being the equivalent of our Mrs. So and So. In official 
 documents her two surnames are given one after the other. 
 and the combination serves as her name; for example, a 
 Avoman's maiden surname may be Lei, her married surname 
 Ch'an. She would then be known as Ch'an Lei Shi, the Shi 
 denoting that she belongs to the Lei family by birth. 
 
 A lady will not give her name. The author has heard 
 a Chinese lady, when asked her name in court, answer that 
 she had no name. The stranger must be content with simply 
 knowing the combination of two surnames, such as given 
 
NAMES. 401 
 
 above; for there is a feeling, partly of modesty, partly of 
 fear, that an impudent stranger might, in sheer impertinence, 
 call her by it if it were known. The wives of labourers and 
 of tlie lower classes do not have the same feeling, and will 
 tell their names freely, at least the Cantonese will ; and with 
 this experience of them it was curious to the author to find 
 the same class of people in Ch'ao Chow-fd not prepared to 
 respond freely to such inquiries, the questioner having to be 
 content with the husband's name (not surname) followed by 
 the word sister, aunt, or mother, according to the age of the 
 woman. 
 
 Emperors in China also rejoice in a multiplicity of names 
 which are very confusing to the foreign student of Chinese 
 history. After his death the Emporor is known by his 
 posthumous title, such for example, as 'The Great Ancestor*,' 
 ' The INIartial Ancestor,' &c., &c., &c. While he is on the 
 throne, the years of his reign have a designation which serve 
 as the equivalent of his name. This ' year style ' is composed 
 of two characters, which, in combination, will sound well, such 
 for example, as ' Compliant Rule.' Fortunately, in this 
 present reigning dynasty, the one designation serves for the 
 whole reign, but it has not always been so, and confusion seems 
 worse confounded when every few years in one sovereign's 
 reign the 'year style' is changed, owing possibly to some 
 untoward event having happened. Such changes have taken 
 place half a dozen or more times. It will tlius be seen that 
 the name by which an Emperor is known is not one of his 
 own personal names, as in the case of Queen Victoria or 
 any of our Western sovereigns. In fact, a Chinese Emperor's 
 personal name is too sacred to bo used by the general public, 
 no one is permitted to utter it or even write it, as long as 
 the same family remains on the throne, even though the 
 Emperor who bore it is dead; and to prevent this difficulty, 
 the characters composing it are changed by the alteration or 
 addition of parts of the character. Nor is it proper for a 
 child to use his father's own name; it is considered dis- 
 respectful. His father's name is tabooed, so is a husband's 
 
 2 A 
 
402 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 name to a wife ; so far is this carried that some wives 
 amongst the Chinese do not even know their husbands' 
 names. After this it will excite no surprise to learn that no 
 one one is alloAved to use the names of Confucius and 
 Mencius. The surnames of these sages, however, are not 
 considered sacred. The great sage of China has many 
 descendants to this day bearing liis honoured cognomen. 
 
 Literary men are fond of the disguise of a now deplume 
 in China as well as in the West, and when it is remembered 
 that China is the 'Flowery Land' it may readily be under- 
 stood what a fanciful form such a name sometimes assumes. 
 
 N'A VY. — In the first and second editions of this book 
 we wrote : — 
 
 *We have a very fine coat, but there is no man inside it,' such 
 was the estimate of the Chinese Navy by a Chinese naval officer of 
 the Northern Fleet, and probably a very just estimate, not only cf 
 that portion of the navy, but of the whole of the modern Chinese fleet 
 made on Western lines ; for very fine vessels they are, but the Chinese 
 cannot yet, with all their inexperience of them and their bribery and 
 corruption, be proper masters of their own vessels. 
 
 When we turn to the native junks, which were all the navy she 
 had till of late, we find that for conflict with Western powers, China 
 is as ill-prepared as a soldier of the time of the Norman conquest 
 would be at the present day. 
 
 We may now add she was almost as ill-prepared with 
 her modern ironclads. A fleet of twenty-five vessels of all 
 sizes and armaments forming the Northern Squadron, or the 
 greater part of it belonging to that portion of the Chinese 
 navyj some of the number being powerful ironclads built 
 in Europe, were lost to the Chinese during the late disastrous 
 war with the Japanese in ISQi. These vessels were sunk, 
 or destroyed, or set on fire, or surrendered to the Japanese, 
 while one or two of them were wrecked, the Japanese 
 gaining a considerable addition to their navy. As the 
 Chinese fleet of ships built on foreign models consisted in 
 1892 of 47 men-of-war of one class or another it will be seen 
 that half of their vessels and of those many of them of an 
 advanced type were lost at almost one blow. 'The officers 
 
XA VV. 403 
 
 and men liad both received mucli careful training ' — a most 
 complete one and of "' a very efficient standard ; ' but official 
 corruption added to the vanity and ignorance so frequently 
 displayed by the Chinese naval authorities in recent years 
 worked out their natural result in the first serious conflict 
 with the foe. This is not the first serious disaster that the 
 Chinese have suffered in trying their prentice hands at the 
 modern game of war, for a fleet of ve3sels, eleven in number, 
 built on the foreign model, were sunk or destroyed by the 
 French in August ISSl-, at Foochow, by a fleet immensely 
 their superiors ; but this last one in ISOi was a far more 
 severe blow and a far greater loss than the previous one. 
 To repair this annihilation and carrying off of the major 
 portion of their modern naval force, the Chinese are recons- 
 tructing their navy. It was stated some time ago that the 
 first instalment of this new fleet, to be built in Europe, 
 would consist amongst other ships, of 2 battleships of 8,000 
 tons, 2 armoured cruisers of 5,000 tons, and 4 protected 
 cruisers of 3,000 tons. 
 
 One writer well says, ' It may be predicted, however, that 
 unless the Chinese improve their present system of recruiting 
 and training, the fleet which they are now seeking to re-form 
 will be exposed to * * * a disaster similar to that of 
 Wei-Hei-Wei.' 
 
 In addition to these vessels we should mention four 
 powerful torpedo-boat destroyers of 6,000 horse-power, to 
 steam at the rate of 32 knots per hour. 
 
 The Chinese do not depend for their war vessels entirely 
 on those constructed in foreign lands, but at the various 
 arsenals established of late years on the models of those 
 amongst Western nations they are able to turn out new ships 
 for their navy. A steel cruiser of about 1800 tons has lately 
 been completed at the Foochow arsenal. She is to be armed 
 entirely with quick-firing guns, and will probably be employ- 
 ed as a training vessel for the new graduates of the Tientsin 
 Naval Academy. It will thus be seen that the Chinese are 
 
 2 A 2 
 
404. THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 gradually building up their ruined navy again, or at least 
 the northern portion of it, for with but one or two exceptions 
 it was only the Northern Squadron that was engaged in the 
 Japanese war, and an amusing story is told of the Captain of a 
 vessel belonging to another portion of the Chinese navy, 
 when taken by the Japanese, requesting to be let off, as his 
 ship did not belong to the Northern Squadron which only 
 was fighting the Japanese. 
 
 The Chinese fleet is divided into the North Coast 
 Squadron, the Foochow Squadron, the Shanghai Flotilla, and 
 the Canton Flotilla. We have already spoken at some length 
 of the efforts being made to re-form the North Coast Squadron, 
 destroyed during the late Japanese war. 
 
 The Foochow Squadron was stated in 1892 to consist of 
 * nine cruisers of from 1,300 to 2,480 tons, three gunboats, 
 nine despatch boats and three revenue cruisers ; ' but this 
 Nanyang (i.e. South Coast) fleet Avas described in 1894 as 
 consisting of the cruisers ' Kaiclii,' ' Huantai' ' Clcin^tsung,' 
 ' Namsheng/ ' Namsimi ' (German built), ' Paoning ' and the 
 sloops ' Weiching ' and ' Chiinho,' besides the following 
 mosquito gunboats (carrying one 36 ton gun each) 
 'Lungsiang,' ' Iluivei,' 'Felsing,'' and 'Ts'etlen.' The Southern 
 Squadron has its head-quarters at Foochow, and its officers 
 have a slight acquaintance with foreign methods. 
 
 The Viceroy Chan Chi-tung also possessed in 1894 'four 
 sloops built either at Shanghai or Foochow, whose names ' 
 commenced 'with the characters T'su, denoting the provinces 
 (Hunan and Hupeh) they are intended to protect.' 
 
 In 1892 the Shanghai Flotilla consisted 'of an armoured 
 frigate, 2,630 tons, a gunboat, six floating batteries (wood), 
 and three transports.' 
 
 In the same year the Canton Flotilla consisted of ' 13 
 gunboats * * of 100 to 350 tons displacement.' Since 
 then there has been added to the last flotilla three large steel 
 cruisers, named the ' Kxiangdda,'' Kiiangplng.' and 'Kuang-i/i' 
 
yAvy. 405 
 
 These three ships ' arc commanded and officered for the most 
 part by young men wlio received their first foreign education 
 in the United States. Their commodore is named Yii, and 
 is reported to have seen some active service.' Most of the 
 principal officers of the late Northern Squadron, it may be 
 remarked, had also been taught the European methods of war, 
 though the late Admiral Ting who was in command had not had 
 such a training, being a purely native untrained Mandarin, 
 his substantive appointment being that of a General of Cavalry; 
 the Chinese have not yet learned with regard to government 
 officials, in the words of Herbert Spencer, that ' the trans- 
 formation of the homogeneous into the heterogeneous, is 
 that in which progress essentially consists;' for a Mandarin 
 is considered to be in a general way competent to undertake 
 any duties, civil, military, naval, judicial, fiscal, or even those 
 connected with civil engineering. The more progressive officials 
 see that this plan will not do with regard to a navy on foreign 
 lines, and consequently the inferior officers have been educated 
 in Europe as well as at different places in China where naval 
 colleges and arsenals have been established of late years. 
 There has been an arsenal at Foochow for a number of years 
 past, where Chinese youths are trained ; besides this there are 
 naval colleges at Wei-hai-wei, Tientsin, andCanton(Whampoa); 
 and a new Naval College was opened at Nanking at 
 the end of 1890 with a full complement of 120 cadets, which 
 have been since reduced to 80. It started with 16 instructors, 
 two of whom were English. There are two departments : 
 one of navigation and one for engineering, the cadets being 
 divided between the two. The course is to take five years, 
 then four years on board ship, after which, M'ill come the 
 rank of midshipman. 
 
 It has been recently stated that the Foochow arsenal, 
 which has fallen behind in the rapid advances that have 
 taken place in recent years in naval construction is to be 
 reorganised and brought up to the requirements of modern 
 times. 
 
406 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 A number of small gunboats are found at difFerent 
 ports in connection Avitli the revenue service, the Imperial 
 Maritime Customs, as well as others under the control of the 
 high provincial authorities or others. 
 
 The purely native craft are uncouth looking objects, and 
 
 utterly unfit to cope for a moment with foreign vessels. 
 
 Jhuih, recommended. — Brassey's • Naval Annual.' ' The Statesman's 
 Year Book.' P^or an account of the destruction of the Chinese fleet at 
 Foochow, see ' The French in Foochow,' by J. F. Roche and L. L. 
 Cowen, U.S.N. 
 
 NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS.— At several 
 of the Treaty ports there are foreign newspapers. In 
 Shanghai three dailies are publised in English, viz. : — 'The 
 North China Daily News,' in the morning ; and the 'Shanghai 
 Mercury,' in the evening ; there is also the ' China Gazette.' 
 ^J here are three weeklies : ' The North China Herald,' 
 'The Celestial Empire,' and "The Temperance Union.' 
 There is the ' Chefoo Express' at Chefoo. In Amoy a small 
 shipping sheet is printed called 'The Amoy Gazette,' and a 
 weekly appears named 'The Amoy Times and Shipping 
 Gazette.' 'The Foochow Echo' is the one paper that that 
 city boasts of. In Hongkong there are three dailies; 'The 
 Hongkong Daily Press,' a morning paper, and 'The China 
 Mai],' and 'The Hongkong Telegraph,' both evening papers. 
 There is one weekly, ' The Overland China Mail.' There is 
 also 'The Hongkong Weekly Press.' The clientele of these 
 are principally foreigners, but a few natives who know 
 English subscribe to them. 
 
 There are several Portuguese papers in Macao and 
 Hongkong, one of which publishes a portion of its contents 
 in English. 
 
 Of periodicals, in English there is the ' China Review ' 
 published in Hongkong, and in Shanghai 'The Chinese 
 Recorder and Missionary Journal' issued monthy and 
 * Woman's Work in the Far East ' issued half yearly (See 
 Article on Books on China.) B;^sides these, there are two or 
 three journals of difFerent societies, and 'The China Medical 
 Missionary Journal' issued quarterly. 
 
NEWSPAPERS ASD PERlODtCALS. 407 
 
 The first European journal publised in China was 'The 
 Canton l^egister' issued in 1827. 
 
 As regards papers published in Chinese, many of which 
 are commercial ventures, there are in Shanghai the ' Shun Pao ' 
 and the 'Hu Pao.' sold at the price of ten and eight cash 
 each ; these have a very large circulation, also the Sin Wan- 
 Pao, Su-Pao, and Ku Chi Yi Wan Hu Pao.' Also a paper pub- 
 lished for women called 'Nu Hsiao Pao.' There is the monthly 
 illustrated journal "The Wan Kwo Kung Pao;' 'The Chung 
 Si Chao Hui Pao/ a monthly journal: 'The Shin Chang' 
 Hwa Pao,' issued twice a month. The Hwa T'u Sin Pao, a 
 monthly journal ; and the Yut Pao, a monthly illustrated 
 journal. There are five Chinese daily papers in Hongkong : 
 ' The Chung Ngoi San Po,' issued from the ' Daily Press ' 
 office ; ' The Wa Tsz Yat Po,' or ' Chinese Mail,' published at 
 the 'China Mail' office; 'The Ts'un Wan Yat Po/ and 'The 
 Wai San Yat Po,' and ' The H ongkong T'ung Po.' In Canton there 
 are 'The Ling Ntim Yat Po,' ' The Kwong Chi Po,' ' The Chung 
 Sai Po.' In Macao there is 'The Chi San Po,' issued thrice 
 a week, and the daily ' P6.' Tientsin and Hankow also 
 possess native papers : ' The Kwok Man Po ' and ' The Hon 
 Po. In Foochow there is a weeklv paper ' The Man Shang 
 Will P6.' 
 
 All these native papers mentioned are the direct result 
 of foreign influence, as before the arrival of foreigners in 
 China the Chinese had no newspapers according to our idea 
 of the term. 
 
 'The Peking Gazette' is the only newspaper the Chinese 
 had till recent years, and it is the oldest newspaper in the 
 world. It is published daily, being more of the nature of a 
 Government Gazette than an ordinary newspaper. 
 
 It is simply the record of official acts, promotions, decrees, and 
 sentences, without any editorial comments or explanations ; and, as 
 such, of great value in understanding the policy of Government. It is 
 very generally read and discussed by educated people in the cities, and 
 tends to keep them more acquainted with the character and proceedings 
 of their rulers than ever the Romans were of their sovereigns and 
 Senate. In the provinces, thousands of persons find employment by 
 
408 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 copying and abridging the "Gazette" for readers who cannot afford 
 to purchase the complete edition.' 
 
 ' The printing is effected by means of wooden moveable types, 
 which, to judge from some specimens examined, are cut in willow 
 or poplar wood, a cheap if not highly durable material. '' * '^' * 
 An average Gazette consists of lo or 12 leaves of thin, brownish 
 paper, measuring 7^ by 31 inches, and enclosed between leaves, front 
 and back, of bright yellow paper, to form a species of binding. The 
 whole is roughly attached or " stitched " by means of two short 
 pieces of paper rolled into a substitute for twine, the ends of which, 
 passing through holes, punched in the rear margin of the sheets, are 
 loosely twisted together, [This being the usual manner of "stitching" 
 small pamphlets in China.] •■■■ "* '"' ''■' '■''' '"* The inside 
 
 I'eaves, being folded double in the usual Chinese fashion, give some 
 twenty or more small pages of inatter, each page divided by red lines 
 into seven columns. Each column contain 14 character from top to 
 bottom, with a blank space equal to four characters in height at the 
 top.' 'As everything which the Emperor says takes precedence of 
 everything else, his replies to memorials appear in advance of the 
 documents to which they relate and this produces an effect much 
 like that of a Puzzle Department, where all the answers should be 
 printed one week, and the original conundrums the ne.xt.' 
 
 Several newspapers and periodicals are published by the 
 missionaries in different parts of China, some partaking more 
 or less of a scientific and religious character as well as detailing 
 news. A fcAV of these have been mentioned already by name, 
 
 A few years ago it was stated that there Avere thirty-one 
 newspapers and periodicals published in Chinese, of which 
 * fifteen are religious and sixteen secular ; ' but there are a 
 good many more now. 
 
 There can be no doubt that the modern newspaper is 
 
 destined to be an important factor for good in China, if it 
 
 falls into judicious hands. Unfortunately, a tendency very 
 
 occasionally reveals itself to pander to depraved tastes in 
 
 articles not conducive to public morality, and a rabid hatred 
 
 of the foreigner is sometimes visible in some distorted account 
 
 of them and their doings, but on the whole, the •' tendency 
 
 seems towards morality, &c.' 
 
 Boohs recommended. — ' List of Periodicals in the Chinese Language,' 
 being Appendix F. to Kecords of the Missionary Conference held in Shanghai 
 1890. ' The Peking Gazette :' being an article in ' The China Review,' vol. 
 3, p. 12. See also article on ' The Peking Gazette and Chinese Posting ' b}'. 
 E. H. Parker in ' Longman's Magazine ' for November 1S06. An article on 
 the European Press in China, by M. Henri Oordier appeared in the ' China 
 Mail ' some time ago. 
 
 I 
 
 % 
 
NOBtLlTY. i09 
 
 NODTLITY.—ThciQ is no real nobility in China. 
 Mayers, in his invaluable work on Government Titles, says :— 
 
 'The existing Chinese system of conferring patents of nobility, 
 and honorary titles is linked by an unbroken chain of descent with the 
 history of the feudal states of the sixth century before Christ, 
 perpetuating in its nomenclature, on the one hand, the titles of the 
 semi-independent Princes of that era, and, on the other, the names of 
 official degrees which have ceased for many centuries to exist in 
 practical operation. ■■■■ •"■ * * The titles now conferred are not to 
 be regarded as other than official distinctions of a peculiar class, and 
 cannot rightly be considered as bestowing aristocratic position or 
 privilege in the European sense. The nine degrees of nobility, 
 indeed, which arc conferred at the present day, and which are either 
 heritable within certain limits, •'' '■■ * or hereditary for ever, "'■■ ''•' * 
 are granted exclusively as rewards for military services.' 
 
 The five highest ranks of hereditary nobility then are Kung 
 (Koong). Hau (How), Pak (Pahk), Tsz, and Nam (Nahm), 
 generally rendered into English as Duke, Marquis, Earl, 
 Viscount, and Baron. Each of these is subdivided into classes or 
 degrees. 'To the titles of the first, second, and third ranks lau- 
 datory' titles or terms ' are appended, significant of the special 
 services by which the rank has been earned.' We are not aware 
 Avhether an attempt has ever been made to render the four 
 lower ranks into an English equivalent. Any such attempt 
 would probably be even less successful than than that already 
 made as res^ards the five his'her ranks. These lower titles 
 ' have occasionally the degree next above them '•' annexed " 
 * * * the bearer being thus enabled to rank " with, but 
 after," possessors of the title immediately preceding.' All 
 the difi'erent ranks, except the lowest, are 'hereditary during 
 a specified number of lives, ranging from twenty-six ' for a 
 Duke of the first class, to one for the eighth rank, the next 
 but lowest of all. Any of them also become hereditary by 
 being 'conferred posthumously * * '* on ofiicers killed 
 in battle.' Meritorious public servants are also rewarded by 
 having hereditary official rank bestowed upon their sons, 
 grandsons, younger brothers, or nephews. The whole 
 principle it will thus be seen is against perpetuating hered- 
 itary rank, the son with but few exceptions — so few as to 
 be scarcely woithv of notice -takino- a lower title until at 
 
410 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 length the status of a commoner is reached. The most 
 noticeable exceptions are the following :— the lineal des- 
 cendant of Confucius who is a Duke : and the descendants of 
 MenciuSj and of Koxinga (the Conqueror of Formosa) each of 
 whom is a Marquis. The son of a man of exceptional renown, 
 such as of the first Marquis Tseng, whose son, the well-known 
 minister to England, has the title continued ; but it goes no 
 further unless the son's deeds have been such as to merit its 
 bestowal on the grandson. 
 
 Titles of honour are also conferred as rewards 'for 
 merit or service, or of Imperial bounty on occasions of 
 rejoicing.' These are bestowed upon the official himself, his 
 wife, parents, or grandparents while they are living, or 'as a 
 posthumous distinction * * *= to his deceased progenitors.' 
 These titles differ for each of the nine degrees of official rank 
 (See Article on Mandarin) and their subdivisons, making in 
 all eighteen, while the wives have nine. Military officials 
 also receive honorary titles of a martial character. 
 
 Posthumous titles of honour may be granted to 
 officials losing 'their lives at sea or on any of the inner 
 waters, wliilst engaged in the public service,' and their eldest 
 sons are given official rank. Most sensibly the Chinese have 
 put before them merit as the cause of their nobility, and not 
 the mere circumstance of blue blood. The class which in 
 European lands would form the aristocracy, is in a very, 
 comparatively, inferior position in China. There are certain 
 classes who own titles on account of kinship with the 
 Emperor; but here again heredity is the exception, and 
 extinction of the title (which decreases in degree from father 
 to son) happens in the case of descendants of a prince in 
 about twelve generations. The only exceptions to this rule 
 amongst these classes are the eight 'Iron-Capped Princes,' 
 who are descendants of the Chieftains who immediately 
 preceded the Sovereigns. Another, is the Prince of I, a 
 descendant of the thirteenth son of K'ang-hi, the second 
 Emperor of this dynasty. These all retain the title in 
 perpetuity. 
 
NUMERICAL CATEGORIES. 411 
 
 NUMERICAL CATEGORIES.- ''^Mmhev has long 
 exercised a peculiar faociiiatiou over tlie Far-Eastern mind. 
 Europeans, no doubt, sometimes use such expressions as 
 "The Four Cardinal Virtues " and *• The Seven Deadly Sins," 
 but it is not part of our mental disposition to divide up 
 and parcel out almost all things visible and invisible into 
 numerical categories fixed by unchanging custom, as is the 
 case among the nations from India eastward,' so writes 
 ]Mr. Chamberlain in 'Things Japanese.' The Chinese have 
 thus grouped together any and everything into such classes, 
 beginning with two and ending with ten thousand. The fact 
 that Mayers ' Cliinese Reader's Manual ' has a second part, 
 consisting of sixty-seven pages, devoted to this portion of 
 Chinese literature, will show its importance, and even it is 
 not an exhaustive list; to it we refer the curious reader, 
 while we only give a dozen of the most common : — 
 
 The Two Emperors of Antiquity, Yao and Shun, who 
 reigned B C 2357 and 2287 respectively. 
 
 The Three Lights : The Sun, Moon, and Stars. 
 
 The Three Powers of Nature : Heaven, Earth, and 
 Man, which taken together are used in the sense of the 
 universe or creation in general. 
 
 The Four Cardinal Points : North, South, East, and 
 West. When the centre is included, they are called The 
 Five Points. 
 
 The Four Books, Avhich with The Five Classics 
 may be called the Bible of the Confucianist. (See Article on 
 Literature.) 
 
 The Five Blessings : Longevity, Riches, Peacefulness, 
 and Serenity, the Love of Virtue, and An End Crowning 
 the Life. 
 
 The Five Elements or Primordial Essences : Water, 
 Fire, Wood, iMetal, and Earth. 'Upon these five elements or 
 perpetually active principles of nature the whole scheme of 
 Chinese philosophy * * * is based.' 
 
412 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The Five Metals : Gold, Silver, Copper, Lead and Tin, 
 and Iron. 
 
 The Five Esculents or Grains : Hemp, Millet, Rice, 
 Corn and Pulse. 
 
 The Five Colours : Black, Eed, Azure (Green, Blue, or 
 Black), White, and Yellow. 
 
 The Eight Genii, or 'Eight Immortals, venerated by 
 the Taouist sect'; each celebrated for possessing some mystic 
 power or owning some wonderful, magic-working instrument. 
 One, if not two of them, were females. One went about with 
 one shoe off and one shoe on; another, having gone up to 
 heaven, and left injunctions that his body was to be preserved 
 for seven days for his return, found on his soul desiring to 
 re-enter it after six days, that his disciple, who had been left 
 to Avatch it, had been called away to his mother's death-bed, 
 and consequently his master had no vitalised body of his own, 
 but was forced to enter that of a beggar just expired; 
 another had a white mule, by which he was carried thousands 
 of miles in a single day, and which was folded away and 
 put into his wallet at night, and resuscitated in the morning 
 by his master spurting water from his mouth on him. 
 
 The Eighteen Arhan : Eighteen of Buddha's immediate 
 disciples, which are found in Buddhist temples. Bosides 
 these there are The Five Hundred Disciples of Buddha, 
 also found in some temples, the number is even carried up to 
 ten thousand sometimes. 
 
 The following are in common use likev.'ise amongst the 
 people of Canton, and similar geographical and other combina- 
 tions are doubtless used in other parts of China as well. 
 
 The Three District Cities, 'Mm, P-un and Shun ; that 
 is Nam Hoi, P lin Yil and Shun Tak. 
 
 The Four Great Trading Marts, viz., Fatshan, Han- 
 kow, Kintak ( the great porcelain manufactory), Chi'i Sin. 
 
OPIUM. 113 
 
 The Four District Citiks : Yan, Hoi and San, in concise 
 terms ; but in full, Yan P'ing, Hoi P'ing, San Ning, and San 
 Wiu all in tiie Canton or Kwongtung Province. 
 
 The Lower Four Puefectures: K6,Loii, Lim, and K'ing, 
 in concise terms ; in full Ko Chau fii, LiJii Chau fu, Lim Cliau 
 fii, and K'ing Chau fii. 
 
 OPIUM. — The poppy seems to have been cultivated 
 in China as an ornamental flower in the Sung dynasty or 
 before and the healing virtues of its seeds were commended, 
 while 'the medical use of the capsules was of course early 
 known.' Opium was used for medicinal purposes, and it was a 
 highly esteemed drug, being imported overland from Burmah 
 and through Central Asia. There would appear not to bo 
 sufficient warranty for the opinion that the poppy was 
 grown in China at an early date for other than ornamental 
 purposes; everything points to a contrary conclusion. It was 
 *an article of trade at Canton in the middle of the last 
 century,' but, up to nearly the close of that century, it was a 
 limited trade. 
 
 We quote from Dr. Dudgeon, of Peking, a short summary 
 of the origin of that destructive vice, opium-smoking : — 
 
 ' Opium-smoking was introduced from Java by the Chinese 
 from Chien-chieu and Chang-chow in the early years of the i8th 
 century and towards the end of the reign of Kanghi 1662 — 1723. 
 The first edict issued against it was in 1729, and was directed against 
 the practice in Formosa, and was the result of a report of an official 
 sent by Kanghi to inquire into the unseemly proceedings in the 
 island. Kanghi died, and his successor was some six or seven years 
 on the throne before steps were considered necessary •'' * * 
 to stop the evil there. It had been introduced by people from the 
 above two prefectures on the mainland. From Formosa and these 
 southern ports, the practice spread eradually and very slowly. As 
 late as the end of the century, the import and consumption of opium, 
 both for medicine and smoking, was comparatively trifling. The 
 use of opium, first as capsules and then as an extract, is of older origin 
 and was used solely as a medicine. Part came by land through 
 Central Asia by the Mohammedan merchants and travellers, part by 
 sea to Canton, and pan also overland from Eurmah and India. The 
 opium which came overland was for the most part as tribute, and 
 we read in the Ming history of as much as 200 catties for the 
 Emperor and 100 catties for the Empress being presented as tribute. 
 Other drugs were likewise presented. '■■ ■■' "' " •■■ At the 
 
 time when smoking began, a short bamboo tube filled with coir, 
 opium, and tobacco was the regular mode of insufflation. 
 
414 rmXGS CIIINESE, 
 
 The present pipe is more modern, and is said to have been 
 invented in the province of Canton. '■'■ ~ '^' The native growth 
 is of still more recent origin. The cultivation of the poppy, for 
 the sake of its extract, began about 70 years ago. Since that time 
 it has been gradually making its way over the Empire, until now 
 there is not a province where it is not grown. * '^'' '' The native 
 growth and consumption of the native drug having thus largely 
 inceased in the North, it has, year by year, been driving the Indian 
 article out of the market. This process bids fair to continue to 
 increase, and at no distant day in all likelihood the foreign import 
 will cease, unless it can compete with the native in price. Its 
 superior quality and freedom from adulteration would in these 
 circumstances always command a sale. * * The great 
 
 dimensions to which the native growth is reported latterly to 
 have grown is only, it is evident, within the past few years. The 
 native growth has been stimulated by the growing demand for 
 opium and its profitable nature, the poppy not being taxed as a 
 cereal. '- * * The increase of the native growth is accounted for 
 by the fact that it is profitable to admix with the Indian, and the 
 proportion given is native ^^ with foreign ^V- * * The consumption 
 of opium, where it was formerly strictly forbidden, has greatly 
 increased since the relaxation caused by the late agreement, by 
 which the Imperial Government collects both Import and Lekin 
 duties at the ports, and opium is allowed to pass freely throughout 
 the Empire.' 
 
 With regard to this increase of the native opium we 
 
 are informed from another source that : — 
 
 'The Chinese are every quarter increasing the native grown 
 opium * * the import of the foreign drug is steadily declining in 
 consequence.' Again 'The Customs returns for 1895 show that the 
 market falling in the import for 1894 was not arrested in 1895 but 
 on the contrary the decline in the trade was even more conspicuous 
 in the latter year. * * * * It is a question of cost. * ""' •"' * 
 The poppy is rarely met with in Kwong Tung, and as the soil and 
 climate are not favourable it is not likely to be extensively cultivated 
 there.' 
 
 'In 1887, the value of the opium imported was Hk. Tls. 
 27,926,865, and the figure for 1S97 stands at Hk. Tls. 27,901,056; but 
 whereas in the former year the sum expended procured a supply of 
 74,350 piculs, the almost identical amount in 1897 purchase only 
 49,217 piculs. The cost of the foreign drug has increased since the 
 closing of the Indian mints, and the quality of the native drug is 
 said to be undergoing an improvement which brings it more into 
 demand.' 
 
 It is but natural after this to find the following as a 
 
 newspaper summary, made within the last few years, of one 
 
 item of our Indian revenue : — 
 
 Opium. — Decrease Rx. 1,550,000. This represents a distinct 
 worsening of the financial position with no corresponding gain to the 
 
 1 
 
OPIUM. 415 
 
 people of India. This part of tlie revenue lias nothing to do with 
 the consumption of opium in India (which is taxed under Excise), 
 and is in reality the profit of the Government of India as a monopolist 
 manufacturer and exporter to foreign markets (chiefly China). At 
 all times subject to great fluctuations, this source of income shows 
 a steady tendency to decline.' 
 
 The following on the taxation of native opium in China 
 
 was published in 1897 and will be interesting in this 
 
 connection : — 
 
 'According to a memorial of the Board of Revenue recommending 
 a new system of taxing native-gfown opium, the chief opium producing 
 provinces in China are stated to be Szechuan, which will produce 
 this year a crop of 120,000 piculs ; Yunnan, So,ooo piculs ; Kueichou, 
 40,000 piculs ; Chekiang, 14,000 piculs ; Kiangsu, 10,000 piculs ; Kirin, 
 6,000 piculs; Anhui, 2,000 piculs; Fukien, 2,000 piculs; and the provinces 
 of Kansu, Shensi, Shantung, Shansi, Honan, and Chihli, an aggregate 
 amounting to 60,000 piculs, or a total of 334,000 piculs from 14 out 
 of the 21 provinces which constitute the present empire of China — 
 not including Outer Mongolia and Tibet. The memorial further 
 states that according to the above estimate which the Board has 
 reason to believe to be quite accurate, having been compiled by Sir 
 Robert Hart at the Board's request, the duty on the native opium 
 this year should amount to at lease 20 million taels, at the ordinary 
 tax of Tls. 60 per picul ; but, so far, not a third of this amount has 
 found its way to the Imperial exchequer, the rest having gone to 
 enrich the provincial authorities and their tax collectors. It is now 
 proposed to begin with the provinces of Kirin, Szechuan, Yunnan, 
 and Kiangsu, for the collection of native opium duty which is to be 
 handed over to the I.M. Customs at Shanhaikuan, Chungking, 
 Mengtze, and Chinkiang, respectively.' 
 
 When the liking for it began the English, to their shame, 
 be it said, continued to bring the fatal drug to administer to 
 the depraved tastes of the Chinese, whose rulers made most 
 piteous attempts to prevent its introduction. And the feeling 
 of dislike to the English, and, through them, to the hated 
 and despised foreigner in general, partially due to this cause, 
 is not confined solely to the upper classes, as any one may 
 find who knows the language and mixes with the people; for 
 it is not an unfrequent question : — Why do you foreigners 
 bring opium to China ? And the only reply that can be 
 given is : — There are bad people (there is no use combatino- 
 the idea of the badness of the people who do such a thino- — 
 it is a foregone conclusion in a Chinaman's mind) in every 
 nation as well as good ; and if you Chinese would not smoke 
 it, they would not bring it. 
 
41.6 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 It is impossible to say what proportion of Chinese smoke 
 opium, but immense numbers of all classes of the community 
 do so ; in some parts of the country the proportion is larger 
 than in others. From the Jmpenal Palace clown to the lowest 
 hovel every class has its smokers, even women and children 
 are in some places, preys to this insidious vice. Mony 
 smoke it, as we have already said, at the present day, and the 
 number is increasing. It has been estimated that there are 
 25,000,000 of opium smokers in China; another estimate, 
 considered to be moderate, puts them at 4<0,000,000, that is a 
 ninth, or tenth, of the Avhole population. In the city of 
 Toochow alone there are said to be 1,000 registered opium 
 dens, they ' being more numerous than tea or rice shops.' 
 
 The habit is easily begun ; the offering of it, as a glass 
 of wine amongst may classes of Englishmen, easily leads 
 the fashionable votary into the practice; the fast man takes 
 it sometimes as an aphrodisiac ; the prostitutes take it 
 because their visitors do ; others take it first to ease pain, or 
 disease ; Avhile others are led into it by their friends and 
 acquaintances. In this connection it is interesting to note 
 that, ' figures taken from the Perak hospital returns during 
 1893 and part of 1892 show that no protective influence 
 against malaria can be claimed by the opium smoker.' 
 
 Once formed, the habit is very difficult to break — some 
 try, over and over again, to wean themselves from the pipe. 
 One man actually came to a hospital no less than five times 
 for that purpose. Five hundred smokers in the course of one 
 year were desirous of entering a refuge, which \^'as opened 
 in Foochow, in order to cure themselves. 
 
 Opium is the most common means of committing suicide 
 at present in China, and China is said to have the unenviable 
 notoriety of being the country in wliicli suicides are most 
 frequent. ' Since the introduction of opium in China, suicides 
 have become alarmingly frequent.' 
 
 The evils which arise from opium-smoking are many. 
 It injures the health and physical powers, especially of the 
 
OPIVM. 417 
 
 working and poorer classes, whose wages are only sufficient 
 to meet their necessities, and who curtail the amount spent 
 on food and clothing to gratify their craving for the vice, and, 
 consequently, are less able to resist its inroads on their system ; 
 whereas the wealthy buy certain foods with the purpose of 
 nourishing and strengthening their systems against it. All 
 these factors, and others, have to be taken into account ; and 
 it must also be remembered that there are some men who 
 have such a resolute will (though like many other vices, the 
 opium habit weakens the will power) that having fixed upon 
 a certain amount as the limit of their indulgence, they do 
 not overstep it, thus staving off" some of the worst effects of 
 opium-smoking. Those who have yieded to it for years, and 
 who are slaves to the pipe, are miserable if circumstances 
 should arise to debar them from their accustomed whiffs : it 
 is extraordinary to see how perfectly wretched they are ; every 
 attitude, every feature of the face, every sentence, is a living 
 witness that they are in agony till the craving is satisfied. 
 The opium sots or •' opium devils,' as the natives term them, 
 are pitiable objects emaciated almost to a skeleton, until they 
 finally succumb to their vice. 
 
 As to wealth, it often melts away when the pipe is 
 indulged in. The author remembers especially one case where 
 a man smoked away a valuable property consisting of a 
 number of houses advantageously situated in the city of 
 Canton, and ev^entually smoked himself into his grave. It is 
 a great waste of time, as the process of smoking is a slow 
 one and requires long preparation, and, as the habit increases, 
 more has to be smoked to produce an effect, and consequently 
 longer time spent over it : from a quarter, or half an hour at 
 first, it increases till hours are required, and a great part of 
 the night is wasted in it instead of being spent in sleep. The 
 smokers lie down in couples across a wide couch with a small 
 stool-like table between them containing the opium-tray, on 
 which are the pipe and pipe bowls, opium lamp, and the 
 different instruments used in connection with the pipe. Taking 
 up the pipe one of the smokers lifts up a small quantity of 
 
 2 Ji ^ 
 
418 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 opium on the end of a long needle-like instvament. The bowl 
 of the pipe is held over the lamp, and the drug, which has 
 been- already prepared so as to ba of the consistency of 
 treacle, is worked by him in the heat of the flame into the 
 small orifice of the pipe-bowl. This takes some time, and, 
 when all is ready, a few whiffs exhaust it, so that the whole 
 process has to be gone over again, each smoker often taking 
 the preparation of the pipe in turn. The following account 
 by a doctor who has paid much attention to the subject gives 
 with minute exactness the whole process summarised 
 above : — 
 
 'The smoker, lying on his couch or divan, with the pipe, lamp, 
 and other implements on a tray, takes a portion on the point of a wire 
 and warms it carefully over the flame of the lamp. He dips it again 
 into the little jar of opium until the requisite quantity adheres, 
 alternately warming it over the flame and pressing it on the flat bowl 
 of the pipe, turning it over and over and working it carefully on the 
 end of the wire, until it is reduced to the state of a soft solid by the 
 evaporation of a portion of the water. During this process it swells 
 up into a light porous mass from the formation of steam within, and 
 must therefore be heated up to the boiling point of water. When the 
 little bolus has been brought to the exact state fitted for smoking, it 
 is worked into a conical-shaped ring around the wire, the point of the 
 wire inserted into the round hole of the pipe, and, by twirling the wire 
 around while withdrawing it, the opium is deposited on the pipe, the 
 hole in it corresponding to the hole in the bowl of the pipe. The stem 
 of the pipe being applied to the lips and the bowl held over the lamp, 
 the heat of the flame is drawn in over the opium, converting into 
 vapour all the volatilizable material in the bolus. To understand 
 what takes place, it is important to note that, preparatory to smoking, 
 the bolus of opium has been slowly and carefully heated until steam 
 has been generated in its substance. While in this heated state, and 
 with water enough to prevent charring and to form more steam, the 
 flame of the lamp passes over it, converting part of it into the so-called 
 smoke, and leaving" a solid residuum known as "in-she," opium dross, 
 and also as "i-in," seconds.' 
 
 The vapour is inhaled into the lungs, and comes in contact 
 with the immense surface of the respiratory mucous membrane, by 
 which the alkaloids are absorbed into the blood, and thus act upon 
 the whole system. 
 
 Notwithstanding the theory of some scientific gentlmen 
 * '■' that none of the alkaloids 
 
 are carried by the smoke into the system, it is demonstrated a 
 thousand times a day by every whiff" a Chinaman takes of his pipe 
 that certain constitue7its of the xvatery extract of opium are converted 
 into riajjour : nnd the sallow complexion, stupid visage, and Vvasted 
 frame of old smokers, and especially the remorseless grip of the 
 
OP 1 UAL 419 
 
 craving on every librc of their ncrv(nis system, afford strong reason 
 to believe, if they do not absoUitely prove, that every inhalation of 
 the vapour conveys a portion of the alkaloids into the victim's blood.' 
 
 Opium-smoking induce laziness, idle habits, and un- 
 willingness to exertion, shortens life, and diminishes vitality. 
 
 ' Among the well-to-do, with healthy constitutions, good food, 
 comfortable surroundings, and especially if there be pressing business 
 to attend to, the drug may be used for a lengthened period without 
 any apparent deleterious results, but at the same time it will be 
 observed that any indulgence in the vice, even under the most favour- 
 able circumstances, diminishes functional activity in the nervous 
 system, impairs and arrests the process of secretion, and ultimately 
 produces structural changes in important organs, and a general under- 
 mining of the constitution all round. Although the effects are more 
 gradual, they are none the less sure. Vital resistance to its evil 
 effects is soon diminished as the smokers become poor, thus depriving 
 the victims, not of opium, for the supply must increase with the 
 craving, but of the necessary sustenance, thus enfeebling the system, 
 and rendering it more susceptible to its evil influence. * •'* * 
 Sooner or later retribution overtakes them, and they are suddenly cut 
 Qff_ c o xhat there is no more harm in its continuous use 
 
 than smoking the mildest cigarettes is an utterly absurd statement. 
 It is pernicious in itself apart from its too frequent conjunction with 
 other well-know social evils. In such cases opium tells with redoubled 
 violence '■•■ •'■ The reasons for believing the habit to be harmless 
 
 and that it can be abandoned without suffering, have been made by 
 some to depend upon the bodyweight of the smokers when admitted 
 to gaol and once a week afterwai'ds. The weight is not much effected, 
 provided the habit is not great nor of great duration, and the material 
 surroundings are good.' 
 
 'After the imperious craving has been established, then the 
 smoker smokes not for positive enjoyment but to relieve the pains 
 and aches which the non-satisfaction of the craving sets up. It 
 is foolish to read of the stalwart races which are addicted 
 
 to opium. It is quite fallacious to reason thus, the Chinese are given 
 to opium, but the Chinese are industrious, therefore, opium isbeneticial. 
 The poor, lazy, good-for-nothing people in China are the opium 
 smokers,' and, if they ai'e not that when they begin to smoke 
 it, the vice soon does its best to hurry them to these conditions. 
 'No doubt immediately after the craving has been satisfied, there 
 is unwonted brilliancy and activity, both physical and mental, and 
 this requires constantly to be renewed. '■■ ■•■ •'' There does not 
 seem much hope for the rejuvenescence of China so long as this 
 terrible evil remains in their midst, the vice is enthralling, the craving 
 is imperious, and the abandonment of the habit extremely difficult.' 
 
 A new vice, that of the subcutaneous injection of morphia, 
 appears now to be following that of opium smoking, and the 
 habit is spreading rapidly in some parts of the country at all 
 events. It was making enormous advances in Hongkong until 
 
 2 B 2 
 
420 THINGS CHINESE. ■ • 
 
 put down by law a few years since. As an instance of what a 
 hold the habit takes on the people already prepared for it by 
 opium smoking, the following facts as to the practice taken 
 from a British Consular Report, and the Imperial Customs 
 Annual Report, may prove of interest : — 800 ozs. were import- 
 ed in one month in 1894 in Amoy, and there was a decrease 
 in the import of opium. Some of it was d(nibtless used for 
 pills, powders, &c., and not all for hypodermic injections. 
 
 The habit of injecting morphia was greatly on the in- 
 crease in Amoy in 1894, there being many establishments in 
 the city where the practice was carried on. ' Habitual opium 
 smokers taking to morphine injections are enabled to abstain 
 from the opium pipe, but are by no means cured of opium 
 smoking, as a cessation of the injection habit inevitably 
 leads to an increased indulgence in smoking.' In 1895 the 
 total amount of morphia imported into Amoy was 4,835 ozs. 
 and of hypodermic syringes ] 28, in Shanghai for the same 
 period 64,043 ozs. were imported, being double that of 1894 
 and more than four times that of 1892. The Commissioner 
 of Customs thus speaks of it in that part of the country : — 
 'Though partly consumed as a liquid decoction, it is chiefly 
 used to make pills and tabloids, which are taken as a 
 substitute for opium by those who find it inconvenient to 
 smoke during business or when travelling. This easily 
 becomes a habit.' The Commissioner at Canton says, 
 'morphia * * ^ is largely being availed of amongst 
 [opium] smokers.' In the general report on the foreign trade 
 of China for the same year (1895) we find it noted that, 'there 
 is a large increase in the importation of morphia, which in- 
 dicates a greater use of so-called anti-opium pills and that 
 indulgence in morphonism is spreading.' It appears that the 
 amount and consequently the habit must be increasing for in 
 the Annual Returns for 1897 it is stated that in Amoy, 9103 
 ozs. of morphia, valued at Hk. Tls. 15,473, passed the 
 Customs, - - the highest total yet reached , In Shanghai, for the 
 year 1897, it had risen to 68,170 ozs.; and in Canton the 
 amount for the same year was 1.580, value Hk. Tls, 2,429, as 
 
PAGODA. 4-21 
 
 against a value in 18J)o of Hk.Tls. 951. A large quantity of 
 opium pills are also made, and sold under the name of anti- 
 o[)ium pills. Some, in the endeavour to give up opium 
 smoking, try these ; but they seldom cure anyone of the 
 liabit : they simply, by the opium they contain, satisfy the 
 longing of the smoker and enable him to stave off the desire 
 to smoke for awhile. Those who take them can also conceal 
 the opium habit from their friends for a Avhile ; they 
 require less waste of time as they are swallowed at once, 
 whereas the smoking, if much is taken, runs away with hours 
 which a poor man can ill afford. They are mostly prepared 
 from opium dross mixed with soft-boiled rice, or paste, and 
 various medicines according to the different prescriptions. 
 They would appear to be somewhat cheaper than the opium. 
 There are CJiinese opium dens in tlie United States and 
 in l^ondon. It was stated on good authority a few years 
 ago, that 2,500 Chinese visit the port of London in the 
 course of the year — chiefly sailors, firemen, carpenters, cooks 
 and stewards employed on steamers running between China 
 and England, as well as a few more permanent residents ; 
 so that there are quite safRcieut out of that number to 
 patronise these places and keep them going. Opium probably 
 costs the Chinese at least 168,000.000 taels annually. 
 
 Booh'.-! rrroin mended. — 'The Evils of the use of Opium," by J. Dudgeon, 
 M.D. • British Opium Policy ' by Kev. F. S. Turner, B. A., London, Sampson 
 Low, Marston, Searle and Rivingfton, gives a good account of the opium 
 question up to about 1.5 years ago. 
 
 PAGODA. — ^The word Pagoda is descended from the 
 Sanscrit Chagavatl through the Persian hootkuda or the 
 Hindustanee poutkltoda or bootkhoda, and means '' the house 
 of idols,' • the abode of God,' or •' Holy House.' *' According 
 to the original use of the word in India, it is a name given to 
 the various buildings where they worship idols,' and it has 
 been employed in the same indiscriminate way by some 
 writers on China, but the majority of modern writers restrict 
 the use of the term to the tower-like structure common in 
 China, described as '' a peculiar class of buildings that rise 
 several stories high in the form of a narrow and polygonal 
 obelisk, whether tenanted by idols or not.' 
 
'i22 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 These picturesque objects that crown a jutting eminence 
 or stand on a swelling hill ; that rise from the general dead 
 level of the shanty-like buildings forming a Chinese city ; 
 or again are seen breaking the monotony of low-lying lands ; 
 so common that they seem almost a natural feature in a 
 Chinese landscape : these are not native but of foreign origin, 
 and introduced, so it is said, after the Christian era. 
 
 The great majority of pagodas in China are ancient, 
 and in Chinese scenery take the place of the old and ruined 
 castles to be met with in the West. The stiffness of the 
 lines has been toned down by the kindly hand of time in 
 the course of the centuries which have generally passed 
 since their erection. Decay has dislodged a brick here and 
 there in the galleries (placed often at each story) round 
 the tall shaft-like structure, while sometimes the lightning 
 in its play, or the wild winds in their sport, have robbed the 
 ambitious tower of its topmost stories, or, at least, of its 
 crowning glory, an imitation of' a big bottle gourd.' Nature, 
 in another of her aspects, has dropped a seed in the mother 
 earth; unnoticed it has lain till, mixed with the other 
 materials, it has been used in the building, and the fierce 
 tropical sun has warmed it into maturity ; or, failing that, 
 the feathered songsters of the air have plucked the ripe 
 berries and left the seeds on the pagoda ; in either case 
 the result is a growth of shrubs and bushes and young trees, 
 which add to the beauty of the tower and also accelerate 
 its decay. 
 
 Pagodas are usually of seven or nine stories in height, 
 though any odd numbers such as three, five, eleven, or 
 thirteen stories are known — odd numbers being most pro- 
 pitious : those above nine stories are very rare, though there 
 have been one or two, if not more, constructed of that height. 
 It has been the intention to erect some of thirteen stories, 
 but want of funds or fear of destruction by the elements (the 
 Chinese have no lightning rods) have caused the Chinese to 
 desist from the attempt. With regard to their dimensions it 
 has been stated that • the average heisrht of the loftiest 
 
PAGODA. 423 
 
 j)agoda«! is about 170 feet.' The famous Nankin pagoda was 
 261 English feet high. The walls of pagodas are of great 
 thickness especially at the base, reminding one of the old 
 walls of castles in England. They decrease proportionately 
 in circumference and in thickness as they ascend. One in 
 Soochow (in which city there are five) is nearly 300 feet in 
 circumference, or about 100 feet in diameter at the bottom, 
 •and its ninth or uppermost story is about one-third in 
 circumference " of the base. They are generally hexagonal 
 or octagonal in shape externally. The number in China 
 must be enormous, Williams estimates there must be nearly 
 2,000 in the empire. 
 
 On each story are openings — doorways, or windows, — 
 neither furnished with doors, nor glazed, adding much to the 
 picturesque details of these interesting buildings. There are 
 cornices at each story on the outside, forming at times 
 only ornamental details, while at others they are developed 
 into outside galleries, or balconies, going round the whole 
 pagoda. These galleries are either improtected or railed, 
 and the openings in the brickwork of the tower, already 
 mentioned, give on to these cornices or galleries. From 
 them, magnificent bird's eye views of the city at one's feet, 
 or of the surrounding country, are obtained, increasing 
 in range as the visitor ascends succeeding stories ; but it is 
 not every pagoda that is open to ascent. Some are in too 
 dilapidated a condition to be safe, and the officials prohibit 
 visitors going up, and close the entries ; others, though 
 safe enough, have proved too common and easy a point 
 of departure for giddy or weak-brained mortals to essay 
 a flight into the great unknown. As to the modes of 
 ascent they may be divided into two categories : none or 
 some. In the former case, none being provided by the 
 builders, the inhabitants in the neighbourhood appear with 
 a long plank ready to assist, for a remuneration of course, 
 the aspirant to giddy heights. This long plank is thrown 
 from the windows of a lower story to those of the next, 
 and, once crossed, it is pulled across and the further end 
 
424 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 raised again to the next higher story. Thus slowly, stage 
 by stage, the traveller ascends, crossing his improvised 
 bridge, while a slip, or a fall of brickwork, would precipitate 
 him to the foot of the hollow tower. A trick with the 
 Chinese in the olden days was, when half Avay up, or when 
 the top had been reached, to take possession of the plank 
 and refuse to place it in position for the descent until their 
 rapacity had been satisfied by the bestowal of some coin, 
 thus cruelly extorted by them. A steady brain is required in 
 such a mode of ascent, as well as when a staircase winds round 
 the interior of the structure without any railing or protection 
 whatever. In some pagodas, however, each stage has a floor. 
 In one the author ascended at the District City of Tie-yea, 
 near Swatow, such was the style and there were separate 
 stair-ways round the interior of the building for each story. 
 The lowest of all was unprotected for the greater part of its 
 ascent, after which it entered the wall of the building and 
 landed one on the first floor ; the succeeding staircases being 
 all within the thick walls. The galleries were protected by 
 balustrades and were of sufficient width to allow of those 
 going in one direction to push past those going in the 
 opposite. 
 
 Buddhist temples are often erected at the foot of a 
 pagoda, the primary object of a pagoda having been to 
 preserve the relics of a Buddha or saint. The Chinese have 
 improved on this, and firmly believe that, in order to 
 conserve or improve the propitious geomantic influences of a 
 place, it is necessary to have pagodas ; and they consequently 
 take a prominent position in the curious medley of superstition 
 and glimmerings of natural science known as Fung Shui 
 (see Article under that heading). Their presence is supposed 
 to ward off" evil influences and attract those conditions which 
 go to make up the Chinese idea of a state of prosperity, so 
 much prized by them, and for the attainment of which they 
 will sacrifice almost everything. As a concrete example of 
 the good they produce, it may be noted that the presence 
 of a pagoda in a city Avill cause numbers of its studious 
 
PAOODA. 12.-) 
 
 youths to gain literary distinctions in the Civil Ser\ice 
 examinations. 
 
 The geomancors of Canton say that the t\vo pagodas 
 inside that city are like the two masts of a junk, tlie stern 
 sheets being the huge, five-storied, barn-like structure on the 
 walls at the north of the city. To an imaginative people, 
 like the Chinese, such a comparison is highly felicitous. 
 A large commercial centre is thus symbolised and a 
 concatenation (of pagodas and buildings) producing such a 
 symbol is looked upon as not only being an emblem of what 
 the city actually is at present, but as a means of insuring 
 (for such probably would be the train of thought evolved) a 
 future continuance of such commercial prosperity as long as 
 such emblems continue to exist. The prosaic Englishman 
 spends thousands on a grand system of underground drainage 
 to improve the sanitary conditions of the city he lives in: the 
 Chinese knows nought of, and cares less about, sanitary 
 science, but he firmly believes in spending money to secure 
 long life, health and prosperity, and to preserve him from 
 all the evils and dangers that surround him. He as firmly 
 believes, as the Englishman in his system, that centuries of 
 experience have proved that the means of obtaining such 
 blessings is to erect new pagodas or to repair those already 
 in existence in his district. The four winds may blow, but 
 under the benign influences of the pagoda they are averted ; 
 the dire waters may flow, but the pagoda wards off" their 
 evil results. 
 
 An illuminated pagoda : such a sight is worthy of 
 fairy-land, whether a mass of Chinese lanterns turns the 
 slender, pointed tower into a tongue of fire against the dark 
 background of a moonless skv, or whether each coisfu and 
 vantage ground forms a resting place for a glimmer of 
 light ; but we question whether the reality comes up to 
 the ideal, as 14'0 lamps for the Nanking Porcelain Tower, 
 when it was in existence, seems but a small allowance for 
 such a large building. They are hung at the windows and 
 from each corner of the different stories. 
 
 2 c 
 
42() TIIINGFi CHINESE. 
 
 The aggregate sum of money spent on tlie erection of 
 pagodas in China must be something enormous. 'The entire 
 building at Nanking cost the Imperial Treasury no less than 
 2,485,4S4 taels of silver— ^3,300,000 ; ' and the repairs of 
 another cost |2G,000. Sixty years were spent in the 
 construction of one. 
 
 Besides the pagodas already written about, known as 
 fd Pap, flowery, or ornamented, pagodas, there is another 
 variety, known as mvn t'ap, or put t'f'ip. literary, or pencil, 
 pagodas, which are very numerous in the South of China. 
 They are often seen on the banks of rivers and are supposed, 
 like the others, to exert a good influence on the neigh- 
 bourhood. 
 
 Some people have been misled into thinking pagodas 
 were intended as beacon towers ; but beacon towers are quite 
 different from them. The author saw three of the latter just 
 behind some foreign houses in Swatow, in a grove of trees. 
 They cannot have been used for some scores of years, and, 
 hidden as they were, M'ould not serve any good purpose now. 
 
 Pagodas are occasionally erected at the present day, but 
 
 not often ; the first Avas probably built in the third century. 
 
 Jioohs rceommendcd. — An article entitled ■ rasodas in China," in the 
 ' Transactions of the C. 1!. of the R. A. S.,' I'art V.. \k>:K Williams's Middh- 
 Kingdom,' Vol. I., pp. 102, 743, 74.">. Archdeacon Gray's ' China,' Chapter 3 1 . 
 
 PAWNSHOPS. — Towering above low-lving dwellinorg, 
 and pierced by numerous small windows, the massive, square 
 erections of the pawnbrokers' strongholds, are seen dotted 
 here and there throughout the Chinese city or town. They are 
 the objects which first attract the attention of the stranger, 
 who naturally is surprised when informed that they are not 
 fortifications but pawnshops. 
 
 Conspicuous they arc in material substance, and they 
 hold an equally prominent position in the social economy 
 of the curious and complex product of Eastern life and 
 prudential economy, which constitute the average Chinaman's 
 life. The Westerner must dismiss from his mind all pre- 
 conceived ideas of pawnshops and pawnshop-keepers. The 
 
PA\\y>sJlol'S. 1.27 
 
 position tliose latter liold is a highly respectable one, and 
 the business is one in which a moneyed man is glad to 
 invest liis hard-earned savings, or an official his surplus 
 cash, as a share in the joint-stock concern nhich many ot" 
 them are. Native banks 'would ap[)ear to restrict their 
 operations more amongst trade, or business, people, while 
 the pawnshop comes in for a share of the business which, 
 in England, would otherwise be monopolised by the banks. 
 
 It' its shareholders are merchants and officials —^people 
 of respectability and position — so its clientele not only 
 embraces, as in England, the spendthrift, the livers from 
 liand to mouth, the hopelessly impecunious, those who are 
 sunk in the lowest depths of poverty, the gambler, the thief, 
 the robber, and the burghir, the opium-smoker (who takes 
 the place so ignominiously filled by the drunkard in our 
 countries of the West, though even the drunkard is found 
 in China amongst those who frequent the pawnshop, for has 
 not tlie poet Tu Fu sung : — 
 
 ' From the court every eve lu llic pawnshop I pass. 
 To come back from the river the drunkest of men.'j ; 
 
 but they also still further boast, in almost equal num- 
 bers, of the most respectable classes of society amongst 
 their numerous clients. Rumour now and again whispers 
 that even in jjondon some of those in good positions 
 in the would, as far as family and connections are con- 
 cerned, contribute customers to the sign of the three 
 gilded balls, but these transactions are done nah voscl and 
 most indignant Avould these same customers be if they were 
 taxed Avith them. John Chinaman, unlike John Bull, 
 has nothing to be ashamed of — in fact any idea of such a 
 thing as shame entering into his mind with regard to such 
 a common and honest business transaction would not find 
 a lodgment in his brain. The pawnshop is a safe repository 
 for the gentleman's or lady's furs in summer, where they will be 
 well taken care of and preserved from the destructive moth ; 
 and, again, in winter, the summer robes of thin and diaphanous 
 material may be caretully housed in the same storehi.>use. 
 
 2 ( 2 
 
128 THINGS OnlNESE. 
 
 There are several classes of pawnshops, but, for all 
 practical purposes, they may be considered as separated into 
 two divisions. They have different regulations as to rates 
 of interest and the length of time unredeemed pledges are 
 kept before being sold, &c. A very common rate of interest 
 is thirty-six per cent, a year. A not unusual sight is a lot 
 of pawn-tickets for sale on a street stall. Those who buy 
 them have, of course, the right of redeeming the articles on 
 pledge for which they are issued. 
 
 Pawnshops form a fine object of attack for burglars or 
 robbers; and. notwithstandinsj all the strength of their 
 construction, their massive doors, their narrow windows, and 
 the piles of stones on the roof to throw down on the heads 
 of their assailants, as well as all the precuations taken in 
 early closing, the attacks made on them are sometimes 
 successful. It is dangerous work to engage in, as, if caught, 
 the penalty is death, 
 
 UdtiJi reco))n)i ended. — Gray's ' Cliiua," Vol. J I, Chapter 20. 
 
 PHILOSOPHY, — We do no propose to enter on a 
 long dissertation on Chinese Philosophy, whether it be ethical 
 as applied to every-day morals, with its five virtues; or 
 cosmogonal, as applied to the evolution of the finite from the 
 infinite, the conditioned from the unconditioned, and the 
 production of light and darkness. Here one appears to be on 
 solid ground, but when one follows out the reasonings and 
 statements of the ancient philosophy, and comes on stalks 
 of milfoil, and the carapax of a tortoise, the eight diagrams, 
 the eight trigrams — notwithstanding the assurance that 'it 
 is very probable that there is underlying ' them, the trigrams, 
 •'a definite system of natural philosophy' — it all appears to 
 the foreign reader, Avho has not imbibed the true Chinese 
 spirit, which sees 'good in everything' Chinese, to the 
 uncivilised barbarians, that the most of us are outside the 
 pale of the Middle Kingdom, it seems a system of hocus 
 pocus ; the feeling is but little modified though one is 
 assured that the Grand Plan is typified in them, that the 
 dual principles of nature are working in their midst, and 
 
pinLosopjiy. 421) 
 
 tliat they •typify the transt'orination whieh the dual princi[)lc 
 of Heaven and Earth undergoes in tlie plienomenal clianges 
 of nature." This is all caviare to the Westerner, who has 
 no taste for Chinese delicacios ; and to the general reader it 
 all seems incomprehensible and unfathomable, for the ancient 
 philosophical worthy who devised these mystic combinations 
 appears to the common mind to have lost himself in the maze 
 of his dreams and speculations. How incoherent the 'Yik 
 King ' ('the Classic of Changes') is, which deals ad nauseam 
 with these diagrams and their commutations, may be gathered 
 from the fact that the Lite Professor Terrien de Lacouperie 
 asserted it to be a word-book of Accadian or Babylonian 
 words, but the Chinese, by the aid of commentaries, have 
 read sense and meaning into what would otherwise baffle 
 the common intellect to fathom. 
 
 One turns with more pleasure to the speculations of the 
 heretical Micius (Mih Tsz), who, shunned by the unapprecia- 
 tive, orthodox, Chinese scholars, laid it down as a principle 
 • to love all equally * ; and the brilliant Chwang Tsz's 
 paradoxes, his fables, his mysticism, are all more congenial 
 to the Western mind — more practical in their bearings, 
 notwithstanding all the defects and errors, than the dry 
 sticks of the milfoil and the harder shell of the tortoise, who 
 withdraws under his testudo and resists all the prying efforts 
 of the seekers after knowledge. 
 
 We might wander amidst the speculations of different 
 writers subsequent to the Confucian age, when many were 
 'distinguished for the boldness of their theories and the 
 freedom of their utterance,' where, besides the names already 
 mentioned, may be cited those of Licius (Leih Tsz), Mencius, 
 Sun Tsz, and others, but time will not permit ; nor can we 
 follow the mazes of the speculative philosophy, which 'sprang 
 suddenly into existence' under the Sung dynasty. In fact, the 
 whole subject is a vast one, diverging into many branches, and 
 worthy of an exhaustive treatise dealing with it alone. We refer 
 the reader to our article on Taoism in this book for some 
 notice of Cliancius (Chwans: Tsz), with his vivacitv and 
 
deliriuub fertility of imagination, whose writings have been 
 described as * a storm of dazzling effects.' 
 
 Jioohx rccovniieiuh'd. — Articles (jiititled ' Friigiiieutiiry Studies in 
 Ancient t'liiricsc rhilusopiiy,' by Kev. E. J. Eitel, Ph. D., in ' Cliina Keview.' 
 Vol. 15, p. 338, and Vul. ]7, p. 2(>. The jirolegoMiena to Vol. 2 of Legge's 
 ' Chinese Glassies,' and the • Classic of Changes." translated hy the same 
 aMthor. ])nblished in the Sacred Hooks of the East' !5erie^. Vol. XVJ. 
 'The Dof/trine of the Chi,' a very interesting jiaper hy Sir Chaloner 
 Alabaster in "The China lleview,' Vol. 18, )). 211'.). 'The Doctrines of 
 Confucius : A Systematic Digest, according to the Analects. Great Learning, 
 and Doctrine of the Mean, with an Introduction on the Authorities iip(jn 
 Confucius and Confucianisn.' by liev. K. Faber, Tii. D., translated from the 
 (rerman by P. tJ. von Moellendorff. •The Mind of ilencius, or rditical 
 Economy Founded upon Moral Pliilosophy : A Systematic Digest of the 
 Doctrines of the t^hinese Philosopher. Mencius. B.C. .32.5. The Original 
 Text classified and translated, with notes and explanations by Kev. E. 
 Faber, TH. D., translated from the German with notes and emendations by 
 Kev. A. B. Hutchiusou.' ' The Divine Clas-iic of Xaii Hua. being the works 
 of Chuang Tsz, Taoist Philosopher,' by F. H. Balfour, F.R.G.S. ' Chuang Tzti. 
 Mystic, Moralist, and Social P„eformer,' translated by H. A. Giles, contains 
 au interesting uote, occupying twenty pages, on the i)hilosophy of Chaps 1-7. 
 ])y Kev. A. Moore, Oxford, ])ointing out the parallelisms of thought and 
 reasoning between the Greek philosophy and the Chinese. ' Keinarks on 
 the EthicM.l Philosophy of the Chinese,' by Dr. Martin, in his 'Han Liu 
 Papers.' A paper by Kev. Grifilith John, in '.Journal X. C. Br. K. A. S.,' Sept. 
 ]S6(t, and one by Kev. J. Edkins in sanie Journal for May, 18,")9. 'The 
 Philosoph)\ Ethics, and Keligion of Taoism, chiefly as developed b.y 
 Chwang Tsz.' by W. P. Mears. m.a., ji.d.. in 'China Keview.' Vol. XIX. 
 p. 225. 
 
 PIDGIN'ENGLISIL—MhQn foreigners settled in 
 China, finding the language difficult to learn, and the Chinese 
 finding English nearly equally difficult for them to acquire, a 
 middle course was struck and the outcome \vas the mongrel 
 talk, called pidgin-English. We say a middle course was struck, 
 for the Mords employed are generally English modified to 
 suit the defective pronunciation of the Chinese. For example? 
 the letter /• is dropped and / substituted, while the idiom is 
 Chinese, and, in the absence of infiectiou and declension, the 
 Chinese is again copied. The result has been a most wonder- 
 ful gibberish, especially when talked in its purity. It is. of 
 course, not at all like Chinese, and is so unlike English, that 
 new-comers require to leain it. The difference between it 
 and proper English was once unconsciously and wittily 
 expressed by a Cantonese shop-keeper, who, finding himself 
 at a loss to understand the correct English spoken by a new 
 arri^al, turned to his friend, au American, and said ; • 3Ioh 
 
PHILOSOPHY. 431 
 
 bettah you fion talkec Englisheo talk, my no sabbee Melican 
 talk.' A very few of the words employed in pidgin-English 
 are Chinese so distorted as to be almost past recognition, 
 M'hile Portuguese, Malay, and Indian have also added a few 
 words to the vocabulary. Some residents have occasionally 
 amused a leisure hour by putting a few of the gems of English 
 literature into this jargon, M-ith the result that diamonds of 
 the first water have been changed into ashes. The soliloquy 
 in Hamlet commencing, in pidgin-English, 'Can do. no can 
 do. how fashion,* as well as 'Excelsior,' and other poems, 
 have shared this fate. We give a specimen at the end of this 
 article, but very few of any of the pieces pat into this lingo 
 represent it as it is really spoken, as hs. (js, ds, and rs, are all 
 left in, letters which, when the Chinese speak it, are not 
 pronounced, but />*■, A-^-, ts and !>•: are used instead. The 
 pidgin-English, as usually written, represents it as it is 
 pronounced by the foreigner, but not as it is spoken by the 
 majority of Chinese, and tlie latter we would maintain is the 
 proper pidgin-English . 
 
 Fortunately for all concerned, this dialect of English, 
 ■wiiich has had an existence of more than half a century, 
 seems doomed at last. The extended acquisition of some 
 knowledge of English on the part of the Chinese, is super- 
 seding its use. we are thankful to say. One very curious 
 feature in the employment of pidgin-English, is to find 
 Chinese from different parts of the empire, who, on account 
 of the difference in the language spoken by them, are unable 
 to converse together, occasionally forced to use it, in order 
 to be able to hold any communication with each other. 
 
 EXCELSIOR. 
 
 That nightey tiin begin choii-clioii, 
 ()ii« young mail walkee — no can stoj*. 
 Jlaskpp snow 1 maskee ice I 
 He oally tlag witli cliop so nice — 
 
 Topside tialow I 
 
 He too nincliey solly, one piecee eye 
 Look-see sharp — so — all same my. 
 He talk.-y largey, talUcy stlong, " 
 'i'oo nincliee cnlio all-same gong — 
 
 'J'upsiile (lalow I 
 
432 
 
 TITIXGS CHINESE. 
 
 Inside that hou:^e he look-see liglit, 
 And evely loom got fire all light, 
 He look-see plenty ice more liigh, 
 J aside he mouth he plenty cly — 
 
 Topside C>alo\v I 
 
 Olo man talkee 'No can walk, 
 By'mbj' lain come. ..welly dark, 
 Hab got water, welly wide.' 
 ' Maskee I My wantchey go topside." 
 
 Topside Oalow I 
 
 • Man-man,' one girley talkey ho ; 
 ' What for you go topside look-see .' ' 
 And one tim more he plenty cly. 
 But allo-tim walkee plenty high. 
 
 Topside G allow I 
 
 ' Take care t'hat spoil'nni tlee, young man, 
 ' Take care t'hat ice. He want man-man.' 
 T'hat coolie chin-chin he ' Good night,' 
 He talkee ' My can go all light.' 
 
 Topside Galow ! 
 
 Joss-pidgin-man he soon begin, 
 Morning-tim t'hat Joss chin-chin, 
 He no man see — he plenty fear, 
 Cos some man talkee he can hear. 
 
 Topside Galow I 
 
 T-hai young man die, one large dog see 
 Too nnichee bobbelj' findee he, 
 He hand blong colo — all -same ice, 
 Hab got he flag, with chop so nice. 
 
 Topside Galow 1 
 
 MORAL. 
 
 Yon too muchee laugh ! what for sing .' 
 I tink so you no savvy what ting ! 
 Hupposey you no blong clever inside I 
 More betta yon go walk topside 1 
 
 Topside Galow I 
 
 Book recommendeil. — Iceland's • Pidgin-English Sing Sonj 
 vocabulary, and many pieces put into pidgin-English. 
 
 contains a 
 
 PLAGUE. — Of late years a mystevious disease, which 
 from the reports received appeared to be a species of 
 malignant fever, was prevalent in the Yunnan Province, and 
 excited the curiosity of a few of the foreign residents in China, 
 who eagerly scanned any accounts by travellers in the hopes 
 of acquiring a fuller knowledge of this fatal malady, which 
 seemed to have made its home in the mephitic valleys of 
 that distant province. No fears were ever entertained that 
 
PLAGUE. 433 
 
 tills unwelcome guest of the Yuiiuanoso would start on its 
 erratic rambles and visit with its malign presence and 
 virulent persistence the south-eastern coasts of the empire 
 and commit its ravages beneath the very eyes and, in the 
 British colony of Hongkong, in the actual midst, of those 
 who had wondered what it was, thus throwing its defiance 
 indeed in the teeth of Western 'medical science; but such 
 was the case and the unknown visitant proved to be either 
 the black plague of mediaeval days, or closely akin to it. 
 The black plague which we read of in our history books, in 
 luagazine articles, and in Defoe, and whose dread presence 
 caused a stagnation of civic life and commerce, spreading 
 a dark pall of misery and distress over merry England, 
 making our centres of life, veritable cities of the dead, and 
 finally reducing the population of the country to one half 
 of what it had been before it expired, according to general 
 opinion, amid the lurid glare of London in flames, 
 
 ' Though not necessarily confined to such, in modern times 
 plague, like leprosy, had become practically a disease of warm 
 climates. The hygenic conditions which advancing civilisation has 
 brought in its train have forced back these two diseases from Europe 
 where, at one time, they were even more prevalent than they are in 
 their tropical and subtropical haunts at the present day. They are 
 typical examples of that large group of acute and chronic germ 
 diseases whose spread depends on social and hygenic, rather than 
 on climatic, conditions, and more especially on filth and over- 
 crowding ; conditions which now-a-days are found, to an extent 
 and an intensity sufficient to ensure the endemic prevalence or 
 epidemic extension of these diseases, only in warm countries.' 
 
 ' The most potent circumstances which predispose to the 
 epidemic outbreak of plague are extreme filth and overcrowding, 
 in such circumstances the virus, once introduced, tends to spread. 
 These conditions, however, are not all sufficient ; for even in the 
 filthiest and most crowded Oriental towns and without any apparent 
 alteration in the habits or circumstances of the population, the disease, 
 after having become epidemic, dies out spontaneously. It may be 
 difficult to indicate the exact way or ways in which filth and over- 
 crowding operate, but certain it is, as experience has shown, that in 
 sanitary hygienic conditions plague does not spread even if introduced, 
 and that in opposite conditions it may for a time spread like wild 
 fire." 
 
 'Filth and overcrowding imply close proximity ofthe sick and 
 the healthy ; an atmosphere saturated with tlie emanations of the 
 sick ; a lowered tone of the general health ; abundant saturation of 
 soil and surrounding media with animal refuse, fitting them as a 
 
 "2d 
 
434 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 nidus for what might be termed natural culture of the germ ; abundance 
 of bodily vermin of all kinds [See Article on Insects] ; abundance of 
 other vermin, such as rats and mice, which serve as multipliers of 
 the virus ; carelessness about personal cleanliness, about wounds of 
 the hands and feet, about clothing, and about food, dishes, and water. 
 One can understand how in such circumstances the germ has 
 opportunities to multiply and spread.' 
 
 * Plague, though " catching," is not nearly so infectious as are 
 scarle. fever, measles, small-pox, or even typhus. Medical men, and 
 even nurses, in clean airy hospitals rarely acquire the disease, provided 
 they h ive no open wounds and do not remain too long in close 
 proximity to their patients. In cities, the cleanly districts are general 
 spared. This was well exemplified in the late epidemics at Canton 
 and Hongkong where the airy, cleanly European quarters and the 
 relatively clean, weli-ventilated boat population were practically 
 exempt ; whilst the disease ran riot in the adjoining filthy, overcrowded 
 native houses only a few yards away.' 
 
 It is thought that the dise.ase may be conveyed to man 
 ill food and drink. 
 
 'As far as present knowledge extends, it seems certain that 
 plague is also communicated by the breath, inasmuch as the special 
 bacilli were found in the saliva of the Vienna victims.' ' The most 
 hopeful branch of the inquiry, as far as we can see at present, is 
 that which relates to the preparation und administration of preventive 
 or curative serums.' 
 
 Before proceeding to an account of its manifestations 
 in China in recent times, it may be interesting to give a 
 short summary of the known history of the plague. 
 
 'Plague is perhaps the one disease of which we have an 
 authentic description at periods of time coming down from 430 B.C. 
 to mediaeval times (1348) and so through the Great Plague of London 
 (1665-66) to this last epidemic in 1894 [in Hongkong and adjacent 
 country]. The character of the disease seems not to have altered in 
 any way since the time of Thucydides. The sudden invasion and the 
 other symptoms, the buboes and haemorrhages, are all as plainly 
 marked in the Hongkong epidemic as they were in Athens 2,500 years 
 ago. There is one similarity between the epidemic at Athens and 
 the plague of 1665 which we do not find mentioned in Dr. Lowson's 
 report of the Hongkong epidemic, so perhaps the same conditions did 
 not obtain — i.e., the absence of other diseases.' The Emperor Julian's 
 physician mentions the plague. We learn from him that it was 
 'endemic in Egypt and Syria from the beginning of the second century 
 before Christ.' It appeared in f^urope in the sixth century. This, it 
 is said, was the first time in history when 'this formidable disease 
 assumed the character of a great epidemic. Breaking out in 
 Justinian's reign (A,D. 542) the disease quickly occupied the whole 
 of the known earth, and began a tragic course which has continued 
 even to our own time.' The black death which swept over the 
 
conlinciU of Europe in llic I4tli century had several of the symptoms 
 of bubonic phigue but it differed essentially from it, (but see 
 l^r. Manson's opinion below) so one writer informs us, and he 
 proceeds to tell us that Egypt seems to have been the seat of 
 origin of bubonic plague and Cathay some centuries later of 
 the black death. The ravages of the latter in London in 1665, 
 when 70,000 died of it are well known as well as the outbreak in 1720 
 in Marseilles after which it appeared in neither England nor France, 
 retiring to the Easternmost part of the Turkish Empire in the 
 beginning of the nineteenth century and disappeaiing altogether from 
 the continent of Europe in 1841. 'Prior to 1 661, there are almost 
 continuous records from year to year of the presence of the disease in 
 Northern Africa, Asia, and Europe generally, and it is worthy of note 
 that as tirst one country and then another in Europe adopted some 
 systematic form of drainage and improved habits of life, so soon did 
 the plague disappear from these countries.' To epitomise: — ^^' For 
 1,200 years it was pre-eminent among pestilential maladies. In the 
 16th century, when quarantine was established, 69 outbreaks were 
 recorded in Europe ; in the 17th century, 56 ; in the iSth, 28 ; in the 
 first half of the 19th, 15, In 1844 it apparently became extinct. But 
 about ten years afterwards it again showed itself in the Levant and 
 has since occurred in various parts of Asia and North Africa and even 
 in Europe.' 
 
 A mofjt interesting account is also contained in 
 'Tropical Diseases,' pp. lil-1-16 of the history of the plague 
 which does not quite agree with the extract given above and 
 i.s fuller, in fact too long to be inserted here. 
 
 After the foregoing, especially after the last sentences, 
 a few notes by Dr. Manson in 1878, prefatory to a translation 
 of Mr. Rocher's account of the plague in Ytinnan are very 
 interesting. Speaking of Mr. Rocher's statement, he says: — 
 
 'They prove unmistakably the existence of bubonic plague in 
 China, and that this dread disease has spread over a larger area of 
 late years than is generally known. They are of great value as 
 showing that the disease did not entirely disappear between the years 
 1844 and 1873 as some epidemiologists believe, and thus do away 
 with the supposition that in the latter year there was a re-creation of 
 the plague virus. 
 
 In 1844, the plague disappeared completely from Egypt and 
 Turkey in Asia, and we were told to congratulate ourselves on being 
 finally rid of the most terrible of all epidemic diseases. For years 
 there was no sign of it in its favourite haunts, and there seemed good 
 reason for the belief that it had become a thing of the past. But in 
 1873, ^ftcr an absence of nearly thirty years, it once more broke out 
 in Mesopotamia, and ever since lias been steadily extending its area, 
 till last year it reached the shores of the Caspian. To account for 
 this reappearance after so long a period of complete absence, some 
 epidemiologists luue pro[)ounded their Ijclief in the spontaneous 
 
 2 t 2 
 
43G TIlLXas (JJIINESE. 
 
 generation of the plague virus, as it is absurd to suppose that parasites 
 could retain their infective powers for nearly thirty years. But in the 
 lieht of Mr, Rocher's notes such a thing is unnecessary, as his dates 
 bridge over twenty years at least of the thirty during which the 
 disease was supposed to be dead, and show that an extensive 
 epidemic may rage in mid Asia, and Europe be in complete ignorance 
 of the fact. In such a country as Central Asia, where the distances 
 are great and travelling very slow, we can understand that such a 
 disease as plague would take a long time to pass from west to east 
 and back again from east to west, and that an interval of thirty years 
 might elapse before the disease returned again to the place whence it 
 started. Our knowledge of the countries to the north of the Himalayas 
 is so meagre, and communication with them so difficult, that the 
 plague might pass through them without our hearing about it at all, 
 and one can readily suppose that it did actually pass thus from 
 Yunnan to Mesopotamia or Persia to originate the epidemic at present 
 raging in these countries. Mr. Rocher's description of the disease is 
 sufficiently clear to justify us in calling it plague.' 
 
 The first time we are aware of it in China was in 1811', but 
 it did not work so much havoc a.> iu 189i. One of the first 
 autlientic accounts, as far at all events as is known at present, 
 of it in this land is contained in the following paragraph 
 from the ■ Overland Friend of China ' of 23rd May, 1850 ;-- 
 
 ' The city of Canton and the neighbour-towns and villages are 
 afflicted by a malignant fever. It is commonly called typhus : some 
 European physicians are of opinion that it is akin to the yellow fever 
 of the West Indies ; others Ihink that it resemble^ the plague xvhich de- 
 solated London tzvo centuries ago. The disease is said to be fatal 
 imvariably, its victims linger three or four days, though in some 
 instances they have died in twelve hours. More than one European 
 doctor cheerfully tender their scrvics, — but the Chinese are obstinate 
 in their adherence to old custom — old ignorant quackery. The 
 distemper has not made its appearance at the Factories, and as it 
 may arise from a want of cleanliness among the people, we are in 
 hopes that it will not extend to Europeans.' 
 
 We are unable to say what the death rate was during 
 this visitation, though hundreds are said to have died, nor can 
 we tell whether there had been previous epidemics of it in 
 Canton. Chinese accounts, with their utter ignorance of all 
 medical kncjwledge, are so meagre and untrustworthy Avhen 
 dealing Avith historic invasions of sickness that they are 
 extremely unsatisfactory and the diseases they mention are 
 difficult of identification, especially would such be the case 
 were the plague the subject matter of a terse, short paragraph 
 by a Chinese historian. We should almost suppose that had 
 
it approaclied anything to the horrors ut tlio e[)i(lomic at 
 Canton in 181)i, more extended notice of it would have been 
 taken by the foreign papers published in tlie Soutli of China. 
 For even before the end of its duration in Hongkong in the 
 epidemic of 1891', tlie deaths in the city of Canton alone 
 were estinuited from the beginning of the outbreak until the 
 IStli of June, at 35^000, while the number of deatlis in the 
 villages around could not be ascertained. 
 
 We learn from a missionary lady, resident for some 
 time in the Pok-lo District, in the Canton Province, tJiat in 
 that district or in the Hakka country near there, the Chinese 
 say they have had the plague several times; but it had never 
 been so fatal as in 1894, ninety pt^r cent dying in that year, 
 whereas only sixty or eighty per cent of those who took it 
 died previously. We have endeavoured to learn from inquiry 
 amongst natives of different districts of country whether 
 there were local traditions of visitations of the plague in 
 their respective districts; but all the evidence we were able 
 to gather, and it was but small in quantity, was of a negative 
 character. There would appear to be * very little literature 
 on the subject.' One would fancy there would be not a few 
 notices of such a dreadful disease ; some may yet be dis- 
 covered ; but we have examined book after book to try and 
 find some little mention of it. They almost all display a 
 a most wonderful unanimity in keeping a discreet and pro- 
 found silence on the subject. We carefully looked through 
 a standard Chinese work on the Canton Province only to be 
 disappointed. Authorities appear in their voluminous tomes 
 to flee all references to epidemics almost even as their authors 
 A\ould fly from the plague itself. 
 
 Before proceeding to an account of this 1891' epidemic, 
 which brought the plague under the immediate purview of 
 European medical science and knowledge, it would be more 
 historically correct to call attention to its ravages in the 
 province of \iinnan. We are indebted iox accounts of it in 
 that province to the narratives of travellers and notices by 
 one or two of the few residents in that distant portion of 
 
438 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 China. From the Notes on the route followed by ^Ir. 
 Grosvenor's Mission through Western Yunnan, IVom Tali-fu 
 to T'cng-yueh, reprinted from the Parliamentary Report, 
 China, No. 3 (1878) we extract the following : — 
 
 'Another strange disease which haunts this and some other of 
 the valleys of Yiinnan bears, in some respects,, a resemblance to the 
 plague of London described by Defoe. 
 
 Its approach is indicated by the eruption of one or more minute 
 red pustules, generally in the arm-pits, but occasionally in other 
 glandular regions. If several pustules appear, the disease is not 
 considered so hopeless as when there are few. The sufferer is 
 soon seized with extreme weakness, followed in a few hours by 
 agonising aches in every part of the body ; delirium shortly ensues, 
 and in nine cases out often the result is fatal. 
 
 It often happens that the patient suddenly, to all appearance, 
 recovers, leaves his bed, and affirms that, beyond a slight sensation 
 of weakness, he feels thoroughly convalescent. This is invariably a 
 fatal sign ; in about two hours the aches return, and the sufferer dies. 
 
 True recovery is always very gradual. This is the account 
 given us by a French missionary, who has spent half a lifetime in 
 Yunnan. The native version includes all the above facts, but 
 involves them in a cloud of superstitious accessories ; for instance, all 
 parts of the sick-room are occupied by devils ; even the tables and 
 .mattresses writhe about and utter voices, and offer intelligible replies 
 to any one who questions them. 
 
 Few, however, venture into the chamber. The missionary 
 assured me that the patient is, in most cases, deserted like a leper, 
 for fear of contagion. If an elder member ot the family is attacked, 
 the best attention he receives is to be placed in a solitary room, with 
 a vessel of water by his side. The door is secured, and a pole laid 
 near it, with which twice a day the anxious relatives, cautiously 
 peering in, poke and prod the sick person to discover if he retains any 
 symptoms of life. 
 
 PereFenouil * * had himself witnessed many cases of the 
 
 disease and lived in infected towns. He attributes his own safety to 
 the precautions he took of fumigating his premises and keeping 
 charcoal braziers constantly burning, to such an extent, indeed, that 
 his house on one occasion actually took fire. He states that not 
 only human beings, but domestic animals and even rats are attacked 
 by the pestilence. 
 
 Its approach may often be known from the extraordinary move- 
 ments of the rats, who leave their holes and crevices and issue on to 
 the floors without a trace of their accustomed timidity, springing 
 continually upwards from their hind legs, as if they were trying to 
 jump out of something. The rats fall dead, and then comes the turn 
 of the poultry ; after the poultry ha^■c succumbed, pigs, goats, ponies, 
 and o.xcn successively die off, 
 
PLAGUE. 139 
 
 The good father has a theory of his own that the plague is really 
 a pestilential emanation slowly rising in an equable stratum from the 
 ground, and as it increases in depth all animals are, as it were, 
 drowned in its poisonous flood — the smaller creatures heing first 
 engulfed, and man, the tallest of Yiinnan- animals, suffering last. 
 
 The Christian converts suffer less than their pagan countrymen, 
 from the superior cleanliness which, as we were informed, their faith 
 inculcates. 
 
 We ourselves never saw any cases of the plague ; but we met 
 one native of South-western China, no less a personage than the 
 (jovernor of the Yunnan province, T'sen, a quiet, sober-spoken veteran 
 of a hundred battles, deeply marked between the eyes with a scar 
 inflicted by a rebel bullet. He had undergone two attacks ; the 
 second was less violent than the first. He remembered nothing of 
 the acute period of the illness, but in both cases his recovery was 
 gradual and protracted. 
 
 He attributed it to the influence of demons ; and we afterwards 
 heard a characteristic instance of his faith in his own diagnosis. 
 The head quarters of his division during the Mohammedan rebellion 
 were situated in a plague-stricken town, and when the infection began 
 to attack his troops, T'sen had all the gates closed except that in the 
 southern wall, and then sent in his soldiers with orders to slash 
 and pierce the air in every corner that could possibly harbour a demon. 
 After this preliminary slaughter the men were formed in line against 
 the inside of the north walls, and gradually advanced upon the south 
 gate, hemming in the invisible fiends, and ultimately driving them 
 with a final rush through the gate, which w^as immediately closed and 
 a strong guard placed outside. But somehow or other the goblins 
 contrived to regain the interior of the city ; by what means has not been 
 ascertained ; but it is surmised that they climbed over the wall.' 
 
 The following summary of Mr. Rocher's account of the 
 Plague was prepared by the author and appeared in one of 
 the Hongkong local papers in 1894 : — 
 
 •' Some interesting notes on the plague are appended to 
 M. Rocher's "La Province Chinoise Yiinnan/' as well as 
 some observations on it in the body of the work itself. 
 
 Any information about this disease at the present time 
 being desirable, we have embodied what was to be gathered 
 from the above work in the following paragraphs, so that 
 others who may not have the book in their libraries may 
 have the opportunitv of seeing what has been said about it. 
 
 M. Rocher informs us that the plague is known in that 
 part of the country by the name oi )faiirj-f:u. In Hongkong, 
 
no THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 however, we find the Chinese speak of it as wan-yik, the 
 epidemic. Not only does it claim numerous victims each 
 year in Yiinnan, but it also commits its ravages amongst the 
 Laos, as well as on the frontier of the noighboui-ing province 
 of Kwei-chou. 
 
 From the information sfiven to M. Rocher. he was led to 
 believe that this disease came from Burmah by means of the 
 caravans passing between that country and China. The time 
 of its first advent seems uncertain, some being of the opinion 
 that it first showed itself in the centre and east of the 
 province at the time of the great Mohammedan rebellion ; 
 while a few hold that it was known in the west of the 
 province at Ta-li-fu some years before that event. 
 
 A very curious feature noticed in Yiinnan is the suscepti- 
 bility of the lower animals to what is believed to be the 
 malignant miasma which causes the disease. The inhabitants 
 of the sewers or the dwellers underground are the first that 
 are attacked by this fell plague. The rats, driven from their 
 holes, rush into the houses, maddened by the mephitic vapours 
 which they have inhaled, and shortly give up the ghost ; but 
 more often the foul odours from their dead bodies under the 
 flooring is a proof of the deadly work v/hich is going on. 
 All animals, large and small, are subject to the same in- 
 fection : buffaloes, cows, sheep and goats, and the poultry to 
 a lesser extent. Some, at all events, of the animals seem to 
 suffer less than man fi-om it. 
 
 On his arrival in these parts, M. Rocher refused 
 credence to the stories of the natives, believins: them to be due 
 to the effect of imagination or to superstitious fears ; but on 
 the pest bursting forth in the very district in which he was, 
 and having then ocular demonstration of the truth of the 
 reports he had heard, his unbelief was changed to ftiith. 
 
 The precautions taken nearly everywhere were to light 
 fires in all the rooms in order to purify the houses ; and the 
 people in certain cities and districts abstained from the meat 
 par evc^Ience of the Chinese— pork. 
 
j'LAari':. in 
 
 1\[ Roclioi- describes this bubonic plaguo as coninicncing 
 with a high fever (we can scnrcely do better than give what 
 immediately follows in liis own words) 'accompanied by an 
 intense thirst ; some hours after a deep red tumour appears 
 in the armpits, the groin, or the neck ; the fever increases 
 and the patient soon loses consciousness; the tumour usually 
 increases in size until the second day, after which it remains 
 stationary. The patient then appears to recover his senses, 
 but he is still in great danger : for, if the tumour which up 
 to that time has been very hard becomes soft and if the fever 
 does not diminish he is considered as lost ; on the contrary, 
 if the tumour is pierced on the outside, which rarely happens, 
 there is hope of saving him ; but at this stage the patient is 
 so weakened that although the tumour may have broken he 
 dies of exhaustion.' 
 
 Strange to say, notwithstanding the extreme repugnance 
 tlie Chinese have to the surgeon's knife, ]M. Rocher tells us 
 that some of the Chinese doctors have tried the effect of 
 cutting or excisinsj these tumours ; but whether it be that 
 the operation is put off too long or unskilfully performed, 
 very few of the p.iticnts have survived the amateur efforts of 
 their physicians. The strongest remedy that they employ 
 under these circumstances is musk, which is prescribed in 
 strong doses as a last resource. Dr. Porter Smith informs us 
 that musk is * believed by Chinese authors to be a rousing, 
 stimulating, anti-spasmodic, deobstruent, expectorant, dia- 
 phoretic, ecbolic, anthelmintic, and vulnerary remedy, . . . 
 and enters into the composition of ointments for dressing 
 ulcers and sores.' 
 
 M. Rocher saw a great many cases of the plague, in 
 Yilnnan and most of them had a fatal result. The proportion 
 of the inhabitants affected by it differs in different places ; in 
 some spots, where it may be described as simply passing, 
 from i to () per cent, were attacked by it ; while in other 
 localities the population was completely decimated by this 
 awful scourge, whole families even being swept away by it. 
 The inhabitants in such districts, driven from hearth and 
 
 2 ]•: 
 
442 TJIJNG,^ CmXESE. 
 
 home, even leave their crops, and Hee from the tell t'oe to the 
 heights. Nor does flight ensure their safety at all times, for 
 we are told that even to these upper regions the phigue very 
 often follows them, invading the mountains after having 
 ravaged the plains, and on these higher levels likewise 
 claiming numerous victims, the neighbouring heights near 
 the cities also suffering from it. 
 
 The insanitary habits of the Chinese with regard to tlie 
 disposal of those who succumb to the disease — so much in 
 accord with similar methods prevalent in many parts of the 
 Celestial Empire, whore the dead are often of more importance 
 than the living — contributes greatly to aggravate the situa- 
 tion, so M, Rocher informs us is his opinion ; and we can 
 readily believe it when we are told by him that instead of 
 burying the bodies of those M'ho have died from the pest, 
 the natives arc content to place the coffins in the open air, 
 either on the slopes of the hills or on the plains exposed to 
 the fierce rays of the tropical sun, with what results it does 
 not need even the help of a lively imagination to picture. 
 
 In the years 1871, 1872, and 1873, the plague began in 
 May and June, the time of the planting of the rice ; the 
 summer season, which is the rainy season, seemed to check its 
 activity; but it redoubled its energies and claimed the most of 
 its victims during the period extending from harvest till the 
 end of the year. 
 
 A strange circumstance noted by ]\[. Rocher is that the 
 epidemic at several places in tlie middle and north of the 
 province oyerleapt certain spots in its course, or passed them 
 by, and left them untouched until several months after or 
 even until the following year, when it returned to the places 
 thus apparently forgotten. Having attacked nearly all the 
 villages in the plains, the plague sought new fields for its 
 devastations by ascending to the mountains and committing 
 numerous ravages amongst the aborigines. M. Rocher 
 gathered, from what he had seen and from the irregular 
 manner in which the disease appeared, that it must have 
 
PLAaCE. '143 
 
 been iiii[)orted iulu these higher hjcalities by the men and 
 women who go at certain times of the year to work in the 
 plains. More colour appears to be given to this view from 
 the fact that it is after the rice has been planted or when the 
 harvest is ended that this scourge leaves the low-lying country 
 for the heights. 
 
 An interesting sketch map is given in tlie book to 
 illustrate the course of the plague in 1871 and 1872 and in 
 1872 and 1873. showing the places wliere the most victim3 
 succumbed and the spots where the visitation simply passed 
 with slight mortality. This map was prepared from official 
 sources of information and from other knowledge of the 
 matter obtained by M. Rocher. It appears to have followed 
 a most curious zigzag route on both occasions in its erratic 
 course. ]\[. Rocher also informs us in a note on the map 
 that certain cities and principal towns of the west of the 
 province have been successively visited by the pest, and in 
 some districts it has remained during several years permanent 
 amongst the troops which were carrying on operations 
 against the rebels.' 
 
 The late IMr. Happcr, Commissioner of Customs at MengtzQ, 
 for some years, thus writes about it in 1889 : — 
 
 'In spite of such a favourable climate, Mengtzu, in common with 
 other parts of Yunnan, has sufferod annually, for a period of years, 
 from the plague which has carried off a number of its 
 
 inhabitants. Indeed the presence of fallow land in the near 
 neigbourhood of the city is attributed to the decimation of the fiirming 
 population by the pest. '' * A curious fact about the disease 
 
 (in Yiinnan] is, that it never descends to places under 12,000 of 
 altitude above the sea, and it rarely scales lieights over 7,200 feet 
 high. Strangely enough also, it seldom attacks people sojourning in 
 Yiinnan from other provinces, its \ictims being confined to the 
 aborigines, and to native born Chinese.' 
 
 With regard to it in 1895, it is stated: — 
 
 The season in Alongtszu in 1S95 'up to July had been very dry, 
 but the hrst few days of that month were wet, and shortly afterwards 
 the plague began with its wonted virulence. The disease was 
 prevalent and fatal during July and August, and remained till 
 towards the end of September. Various estimates of the number of 
 victims arc given, from 800 to 1,500. The neighouiing towns suffered 
 severely, the malady even raging in Lo-lo villages considerably over 
 6,000 feet above the sea level. At Iheconunencen.eiit of tlic epidemic the 
 
 2 Jv 2 
 
HI TJIIAGS CinyLSE. 
 
 Chinese thouj,rht it would disappear with the arrival of the aiitiunn 
 (8th August), but the disease prevailed till it had ran its course, which 
 requires about three montlis' time, as shown by the records kept 
 since the establishment of the Mengtszu Customs in 1889.' 
 
 'The plague appeared in Mengtszii as usual, [in 1897] but 
 it was not, apparently, as virulent as in former years and ran a 
 shorter course. The first death was reported on 31st May and no 
 deaths were reported after 6th August. The estimated mortality from 
 plague in the city was from 250 to 300.' 
 
 It still continues at Mcngtzii and it is said to have been 
 worse in 1896 than it has ever been before. The deaths 
 were then estimated to number thirty per day out of a 
 population of 30,000. • Every evening the Taotai has his 
 troops drawn up in the courtyard of the Yanicn to fire their 
 rifles in all directions to frighten the plague demons.' 
 
 A more recent report (1899) says that it appears to be 
 dying out in that neighbourhood, though this has been 
 denied. 
 
 The plague has been endemic for many years at Pakhoi, 
 a small treaty port situated in the Kwongtung Province and 
 on the Gulf of Tonquin ; but takes an epidemic form there 
 at intervals of five or ten years or even more frequently. It first 
 occurred there in 18G7, recurring at certain intervals; severe 
 outbreaks took place in 1877, 1882, and 1891-. In the last 
 year it began in '' March, continuing with lessening severity 
 till the end of June, but at Lien Chow city, twelve miles 
 distant, it lasted till August.' The mortality was estimated 
 at Pakhoi in 1882 to be 400 or 500 out of a population of 
 25,000, the average a day, when at its height, being ten 
 The people were almost panic striken at its commencement 
 and fled the town. Rats were attacked, but no other animals. 
 There were tliree groups of symptoms of the disease as it 
 jnanifested itself respectively in Pakhoi, Yihinan and India. 
 In 1894 it was worse in point of mortality than ever before — ■ 
 300 or 400 having died at Pakhoi by the middle of May 
 when it was abating. Prom Chinese sources it is learned 
 that before 1875 only about 100 people had died in any 
 year of plague at Pakhoi ; in 1884, 50 or 60; in 1891, about 
 40 or 50. We lune already mentioned the mortality in 
 
PLAai'K. 115 
 
 1882 and 1891. 'Native doctors in Pakhui lu'cscribed what 
 they call "cooling remedies," such as rhubarb. It ai»[)ear.s 
 they do not treat the bubo locally.' The natives at Pakhoi 
 • burn joss-stick and a plant, the sweet flag, which are supposed 
 to have prophylactic power as disinfectants.' In 189 !■ they 
 bouirht a great deal of foreign disinfecting fluid. ])r. iJeane 
 of Pakhoi says of it : — 
 
 'The disease appears in one locality and seems as restricted as 
 tlioiigh it were in a bottle. One house may be so bad that anyone 
 entering' it will be seized, but the next house quite free from all 
 danger.' ' Many perfectly healthy men take the disease and die 
 next day.' 'Jt is endemic to a particular locality.' 'In Pakhoi it 
 does not appear as an epidemic generally, but only in the most evil- 
 smelling quarters.' 
 
 Pakhoi escaped the epidemic in 1895, being practically 
 free from it, thougli Kotak, a village near the port, had a 
 slight visitation. 
 
 Jt is curable in Pakhoi when brought to the missionary 
 hospital as soon as the symptoms appear, but 'nothing can 
 be done in the advanced stages.' 
 
 The plague in essentially a disease ' born of filth and 
 insanitary surroundings.' The simple drainage systems in 
 vogue in Chinese cities are periodically flushed by nature at 
 the season of the year when they would prove most dangerous 
 to the inhabitants, \\y.., during the hot and sultry summer 
 ■which is the rainy season in the South of China. So 
 eflectively do the torrential rains sweep away the accumula- 
 tion of weeks and months that it would be extremely difficult 
 for man to compete with them. But their work is stultified 
 to a large extent by the crass ignorance of all sanitary 
 matters by the Chinese and by their utter indifference to the 
 offensive odours which give warning of the dangers to life 
 and health around them. No, or but very little, supple- 
 mentary aid is given to the cleansing rains, so when a period 
 of draught ensues the inhabitants naturally suffer from their 
 neglect of the filth which surrounds them and the effluvia 
 therefrom, whoso subtle essence permeates the whole at- 
 nio«i>hcrc whicli they breathe. Given such conditions, the 
 
41 G THINGS ClllKKSE. 
 
 plague, if once introduced, runs a wild riot in its congenial 
 surroundings, resisting and defying all the puny efforts put 
 forth by the natives for its extermination. It revels in its 
 filthy haunts; it ensconces itself in the malodorous districts 
 and fetid precincts of a Chinese city, toun. or village, where 
 filth is never wanting, where the soil is saturated with the 
 escaped drainage of centuries, where every street corner is a 
 dust bin, Mhere every vacant lot is a dirt heap, where the 
 frontage of the houses on the rivers is a rubbish shoot, and 
 the banks arc a dumpage-ground for all refuse, Avhere every 
 liouse is an ouinhun gatliernm of dust, dirt, and cobwebs; 
 where in some cases the kitchen is a urinal and the market 
 jjardens are fertilised with ni^lit soil, and where in the midst 
 of houses the public latrines scent the whole neighbourhood 
 with their filthy odour, where in the early hours of the 
 forenoon the scavengers almost render the family streets 
 impassable to a foreigner by their necessary offices for the 
 houses in which the modern conveniences of Western 
 civilisation are unknown; where the most elemontary sanitary 
 laws are never dreamt of and utterly ignored by the 
 inhabitants, Avhere even the well-to-do are often unclean 
 and filthy in their habits, in their clothing, in their sur- 
 roundings; where the poorest wear their scanty clothes in 
 rags and alive with vermin till it almost drops in pieces from 
 them, and where overcrowding prevails to the utter disregard 
 of ventilation and fresh air. What wonder then that with 
 such a welcome reception ready for it, the plague, like the 
 evil spirit in the parable, returns again, not often, however, 
 like the evil spirit to find the place swept and garnished, 
 but with the same filthy conditions ever present, inviting its 
 return. What wonder also that year afl;cr year the visit is 
 repeated, 
 
 'Plague is developed under three sets of conditions, (a) local 
 conditions affecting" communities, (b) certain relations between persons 
 sick of the disease and healthy persons, (c) particular seasonal 
 influences, (a) '- The conditions "'which determined and 
 
 favoured" the disease among communities were dwelling upon 
 alluvial and marshy soils, notably those found near the shores of the 
 Mediterranean, and on the banks of certain great ri\crs, such as the 
 
rr.Acai:. 117 
 
 Nile, Euphrates, Danube, and Yangisz, a warm and humid 
 atmosphere ; low, badly ventilated and crowded houses; great ac- 
 cumulation of putrifying animal and vegetable matter in the vicinity 
 of dwellings, unwholesome and insufficient food, excessive physical 
 and moral misery and neglect of the laws of health as well public as 
 private. Although outbreaks of plague occur in marshy soils, it is not 
 confined to them, as evidenced by its persistence in Kumaun on the 
 Him.alayan mountains and the '■' '■■' outbreak in Hongkong. 
 Colvill and Cabiadio ascribe poverty as the influential condition in 
 promoting plague, (b) Persons living in the same house are peculiarly 
 liable to sufi"er, while those who are only brought into occasional 
 contact (as the physician) are rarely affected. " ••' "' '■' (c) 
 Seasonal changes. In Mesopotamia, it was noticed that the disease 
 became dormant with the setting in of the hot weather, reawakening 
 in the winter and gathering force with the advancing spring. In 
 Constantinople, on the contrary, the disease was dormant in the colder 
 months and active during the hotter. The same was true of the 
 great plague of London, the records showing that September was the 
 month of greatest prevalence, the disease rising through July and 
 August.' 
 
 The pliigue would nppoar to bo one of Nature's scourges 
 for the punishment of tlioso who disobey lier laws and for 
 instruction in the elementary rules of sanitary science. 
 Unfortunately Orientals find the lesson a difficult one to 
 learn, and the innocent dwellers amongst them also suffer 
 with the guilty. 
 
 We now come to the terrible visitation of the plague in 
 Hongkong in 1891'. It was probably introduced into this 
 British Colony from the city of Canton, only distant 90 miles, 
 between which places there is constant daily communication 
 by native boats and foreign steamers, there being 11,090 
 passengers every week from Canton: many patients were 
 fleeing from the plague in that city where it had began in 
 the February of that year. I'he deaths in Canton from it 
 during tlie first four months of 1894 were to be numbered 
 amongst the tens of thousands. 
 
 Tiie first official knowledge of the plague in Hongkong 
 was in May, 1894, though it is suspected that it had been 
 present in the Colony for some weeks at least before that, 
 though unknown to the authorities, any cases of death from 
 it having probably been registered as due to fever or other 
 causes, no medical certificate of death being required from 
 
118 TJIINGS CHINESE. ■ 
 
 the Chinese. The nalive quarters of tlie city presented an 
 exceptionally favourable field of operations for it, and it 
 spread with great rapidity through the narrow streets, in tlie 
 blind alleys, amid tlie crowded tenements, claiming its 
 victims from young and old alike whether at home or abroad, 
 for several cases occurred of men dropping down dead in the 
 streets. 
 
 No rain had fallen for a considerable time and there was 
 a scarcity of water in the Colony, an intermittent supply 
 being furnished to the inhabitants ; the drainage svstem 
 which had been begun without any system in the early days 
 of Hongkong and had not kept pace with the requirements 
 of the population was in a transition state towards a complete 
 renovation. Taipingshan which formed the headquarters of 
 the epidemic was built at the foot of a steep mountain side 
 and facing the north, the breezes being kept off, as in a great 
 part of the city, to a considerable extent by the Peak. The 
 filth which had accumulated in the dwellings is almost 
 indescribable, and would scarcely be credited by those who do 
 not know how the Chinese live ; the soil was saturated and 
 reeking with half a century's sullage wa,ter and leakages from 
 sewers; while the ground floors, really no misnomer in many 
 cases, as whatever flooring tiles there might originally have 
 been were often covered by inches of dirt and hardened mud, 
 a compost teeming with germs of disease ; underground 
 basements were occupied not only by workmen during the 
 day as workshops, but were used as sleeping dens at night ; 
 the rooms small and ill ventilated enough already were in the 
 majority of cases further diminished in size and the atmosp- 
 here rendered more foul by being subdivided by low board 
 partitions into cubicles, and, not content with this, a horizontal 
 division of the apartments was effected by cocklofts, or 
 mezzanine floors, and these latter were in some cases even 
 partitioned oft" into little tiny rooms, and in some rooms, a 
 second cockloft would even be found ; the streets and lanes were 
 narrow and intricate ; the houses which had originally beea 
 built low and of onlv one or two stories, of late vcars were 
 
rLAGVK. Ill) 
 
 in many cases being replaced by higher duollings and every 
 available piece of ground in the city was being rapidly built 
 over, so that what was once a sparsely populated district 
 was soon converted into a congested mass of" buildings with 
 but little moans of ventilation ; where even in some houses 
 an open verandah would offer some chance of fresh air, the 
 Chinese would, unless under constaut supervision, quickly 
 economise the space by either enclosing the verandah or 
 putting up bedrooms in it. 
 
 The enhanced price of land, the raising of rents, the 
 attempts to solve the problem how to live upon next to 
 nothing — all tended in the one direction, that of rendering the 
 native quarters a hot-bed of disease, by favouring the over- 
 crowding of houses on the land, and the overcrowding of the 
 inhabitants in those houses. Every facility was thus offered 
 for the spread of the disease and once fairly started it 
 continued to hold its ground all through the summer, the 
 number of cases rapidly increasing, the deaths keeping 
 almost equal pace with it, until the latter reached the number 
 of 70 or 80 per d'tem. ; but by this time half the Chinese 
 population had fled the Colony in terror, ill and well, all 
 attempting to get away from the plague-infected city, the 
 streets presented a very different aspect from the period when 
 a full tide of life flosvetl through them, business was seriously 
 affected, the foreign trade of the Colony greatly hampered, 
 the outlook was dismal in the extreme, many steamers were 
 afraid of calling at the port, the law courts were nearly 
 deserted, the schools were almost forsaken ; in the foreign 
 offices, pots of chloride of lime stood at every desk, or 
 disinfectants were freely used about the premises. The 
 plague proclamation was in force in Hongkong for nearly 
 four months from the 10th i\[ay until the 3rd September, 
 1894, and during that time there were 2,547 deaths 
 in the Colony from it. How many really died of it 
 will, however, never really be known, as many fled the 
 Colony, going up to Canton and the neighbouring country 
 while ill. 
 
 2 F 
 
450 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 As soon as the Government nnd the foreign residents 
 realised what ihis dreadful disease that had come amongst 
 them was, energetic measures were taken to cope with it. 
 A committee was formed to advise and direct operations, 
 bodies of the troops, residents, police, and officials formed 
 'whitewash brigades,' which went to the infected houses, 
 tore down the cocklofts and partitions, cleared out the 
 rubblish, and burnt the debris; a burial party was formed in 
 Avhich sailors under the leadership of an official did gallant 
 service. The greatest praise is due to all we have mentioned 
 and to many whom we cannot mention, for with the greatest 
 bravery they ran unknown risks for the benefit of their fellow 
 men. Several of the soldiers and one officer succumbed to 
 the infection — if there be any glory in death itself at all, 
 theirs was a more glorious death than on a field of battle. 
 Doctors came from different places to assist, and much 
 was added to our knowledge of the plague during this 
 visitation in Hongkong. A Japanese doctor. Dr. Kitasato 
 a student of Koch's in Berlin, first discovered the plague 
 bacillus in Hongkong in 1894, and Yersin a French doctor 
 afterwards, while another of the Japanese who come to the 
 Colony to investigate the disease died from it. 
 
 The efforts of the Europeans wei'c often misunderstood 
 by the ignorant Chinese, and the strong hand of the law 
 was required to enforce obedience, in fact many of the natives 
 had fled from the Colony in consequence of the measures taken 
 to cope with and overcome the plague. 
 
 Concerning infection from this much dreaded disease, 
 Dr. Lowson says that it is stated that • skin to skin infection 
 is impossible unless the one to be infected has some wound 
 and the infecter's skin has been soiled by faeces, blood, or 
 the contents of buboes,' but there are sufficient other 
 methods of infection known, or suspected, to render the 
 horrible dread the Chinese had of it well founded. The 
 period of incubation may extend to nine days, though in the 
 case of rats it is two or three. This would therefore seem to 
 furnish a reason why these rodents are affected before human 
 
rLAGVE. 451 
 
 beings, besides the idea already propounded that being near 
 the ground tlicy first receive the infection. With regard to 
 human beings this period of incubation is sometimes even 
 shorter than nine days. 
 
 In tlie first commonccment of the phigue tlie symptoms 
 may be varied, an anxious terrified expression is common 
 and fever and buboes are also signs, but not of course 
 infallible, the temperature as a rule rises gradually "and in 
 most severe cases the tendency is for the temperature to keep 
 about the same level for some time ' ; but we cannot go into 
 a full report of the symptoms. Those who are interested in 
 them will find them fully described in Dr. Lowson's valuable 
 paper. The death rate amongst those attacked in Hongkong 
 in 189J' was as follows : — 
 
 Chinese 93.4 per cent. 
 
 Indians 77 „ 
 
 Japanese 60 
 
 Eurasians 100 
 
 Europeans 18.2 „ 
 
 The Chinese lacked efficient medical attendance — in 
 many cases they would have nothing to do with foreign 
 doctors, while Europeans called in properly trained physicians 
 and that, in most cases, right early. At the same time tliere 
 is no doubt that the European constitution was better able 
 to withstand this fearful disease. Judged by the percentage 
 of deaths in those attacked, the Eurasians would appear to 
 have the Avorse constitutions of all. 
 
 ' About ten acres of the most densely populated part of 
 the city was closed by the Government at the height of the 
 epidemic and the inhabitants turned out of their dwellings and 
 housed elsewhere. The streets M'ere walled up and constables 
 were Rationed to prevent egress to the '•'forbidden city."' 
 In this quarter of the city, Taipingshan, nearly every house 
 had plague in it and most of the houses were unfit for 
 habitation. The Government resumed all the land and houses 
 in this portion of the city, giving compensation to the owners ; 
 
 2 1" 2 
 
452 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the wretched chvellings were eventually pulled down, and 
 the streets are now laid out on an im])roved plan. 
 
 During the next two years the plague played havoc in 
 the neighbourhood of Canton, Hongkong and Macao, now 
 visiting, during tlic hot months of the year, one part of the 
 country and now another. Hongkong escaped in 1895, 
 except for a few sporadic cases, amounting to some 44 in 
 number, but Macao was visited by a severe epidemic of it in 
 April and May 1895. The city of Canton was reported to 
 be practically fiee in 1895. 
 
 In Canton, when the plague was raging in 1894, a 
 reward was offered for the bodies of rats that had died from 
 it, and in consequence 21,000 were collected. The plague 
 during these last few years also visited Amoy, Swatow, and 
 other places in the south-eastern part of China, reaching as 
 far north even as Shanghai, where a few cases occurred. 
 
 A recurrence of the bubonic plague took place in 
 Hongkong in 1890. It commenced early in the year : — 
 
 'The disease was at its worst stage in April and May and was 
 not finally stamped out till the end of September. The total number 
 of cases brought to notice was 1,204, of which 1,097 ended fatally. 
 Europeans attacked numbered fifteen, of whcm seven, including two 
 soldiers and one Inspector of Nuisances, succumbed to the disease. 
 © -:;> c Qpg of the two sisters who weie engaged in nursing at the 
 Plague Hospital was also attacked by the disease but fortunately 
 recovered. The largest number of fresh cases in one week was loo, 
 from the 23rd to 30th May, and the greatest number of deaths was 
 2>y, for the week ending 9th May.' 
 
 But it has spread so over difiercnt places in China that 
 to give an accurate and full account of its visitations would 
 require more space than we have at our disposal, several hun- 
 dreds are said to have died of it in Kaulung City in 1898, 
 
 The plague also visited Formosa in 1896; and con- 
 siderable alarm >vas caused in 181)6 and 1897 by a serious out- 
 break of it in Bombay and elsewhere in India. A new jAase of 
 it in Bombay was that pigeons were attacked by a disease 
 which presented points of resemblance to the plague, and 
 died in large numbers. In this connection the following 
 extract from the ' Bombay Gazette,' as published in the 
 
PLAGUE. 1.53 
 
 London "Daily Chronicle' of the lith January, 181)7, proves 
 
 of more than passing interest : — 
 
 'Mr. Hankin has set liiiusclf to investigate an important brancli 
 of the subject — the means by which tlie pest becomes diffused, and is 
 brought in contact with the population which becomes subject to its 
 ravages. The time has not come to enter into details, but it is 
 permissible to state that there is evidence proving beyond all doubt 
 that rats, living and dead, and ants play a large part in diffusing the 
 disease and establishing it in buildings which become in their turn 
 centres of infection. Rats which have the plague deposit the germ of 
 the disease on the floors over which they pass. When they die their 
 bodies are eaten by ants, which absorb the germs and deposit them 
 in cracks and crevices, especially when there is any lurking moisture. 
 Ants require water, and consequently they frequent the neighbourhood 
 of taps and sinks. The bacilli have been found in ants a fortnight 
 after they received them from preying on dead rats. A house near 
 Dhobie Talao, in which two deaths took place, was searched for dead 
 rats. Their bodies were dug out and the holes closed up. The man 
 employed on that work took the plague. Some days afterwards Mr. 
 Hankin succeeded in picking out fiom crevices ants which were found 
 to have the bacilli. Some of the surface of the ground near the sink 
 had bacilli, though it had been flushed with phenyle the day before. 
 The bacilii were doubtless deposited by the ants after the phenyle had 
 become dry. It is not to be supposed that ants have any monopoly 
 in the diffusion of bacilli. Insects which have never been held in 
 such general esteem for industry and self-help have unquestionably 
 their share in that deadly work. But keeping in view the proved fact 
 that rats get the plague and die of it in large numbers, that their dead 
 bodies under the floors and among the rafters of old buildings are 
 sources of infection, intensified by the action of myriads of ants, Mr. 
 Hankin has come to the conclusion that the segregation of human 
 beings who get the disease can have but a very small effect in pre- 
 venting the spread of the disease. The danger lurks in the house, 
 and he recommends that the other inmates should be removed whether, 
 the patient elects to stay there or not. In the Himalayas and in all 
 countries the segregation of the healthy has been the one effective 
 means of stopping the spread of the plague.' 
 
 Monkeys and squirrels are also affected by plague. 
 
 With regard to the plague amongst the lo^A'er animals, 
 
 Dr. Manson says : — 
 
 ' It seems to me that they have to be reckoned with in the future, 
 more thnn they have been in the past, in devising schemes of 
 quarantine, and in attempts at stamping out the deseasc in already 
 infected localities. It seems to me that the wholesale destruction of 
 domestic vermin should go hand in hand with the isolation of plague- 
 stricken patients.' 
 
 ' In an article on the plague in the A;i;ii!//'^ dc Pliistilide Piistciir, 
 Ur. Simond says that botli amongst rats and men the infection is 
 carried by fleas, which arc the chief instrument in the propagation of 
 the disease.' 
 
151 TIILXGS CHINESE. 
 
 ])r. Yersin, a French physician wlio went to Hongkong 
 in 1894 to study the plague has since made a series of experi- 
 ments with the plague bacillus which has resulted in his 
 discovering what he believes to be a cure for the plague. By 
 the injection of the serum he prepared, lie cured one case in 
 Canton ; of twenty-three cases in Amoy, fifteen were cured, two 
 died and of the remaining six cases he unfortunately left 
 before a cure was effected, though he had every hope that it 
 Avas in progress. It takes twenty-four hours to effect a cure 
 and it must be taken at once as soon as the symptoms 
 develop. ' Haffkine practised during tlie Bombay epidemic 
 a system of proplylactic inoculation/ the figures were en- 
 couraging in 1897 ; in 1899 the accounts are very encouraging. 
 
 ' Inoculation against plague bids fair to become universal in 
 India; one town of a population of about 40,000 having only about 
 5,000 uninoculated, while many have been inoculated twice. The 
 results justify the practice, a report for one week in September [1898] 
 showing only 69 attacks among 32,000 inoculated persons, and 417 
 attacks among 8,500 uninoculated.' 
 
 The bubonic plague is ' known in India by various 
 names. In the Bombay Presidency it is called "Pali plague" 
 because it was very rife in Pali in 1836.' As a general rule 
 the following may bo said to be fairly demonstrated by 
 experience, namely 'that the attacks of the plague fail upon 
 subjects living wholesome lives under good sanitary con- 
 ditions and succeed * * upon those living in unhealthy 
 surroundings or whose system has been weakened by otlier 
 disease.' As a rule doctors seem to escape, though not 
 always. It is those who are constantly with patients that are 
 more liable, though the immunity that nurses and others 
 usually enjoy seems wonderful, a few cases have occurred 
 of even these taking it. 
 
 In some epidemics of plague it is said that patches are 
 seen on the surface of the body after death, hence one name 
 it formerly got was that of the Black Death. 
 
 In the epidemic of 1898 in Hongkong there were 1315 
 cases, 75 of which were non-Chinese ; 2G of these latter being 
 Europeans, two of the nurses at the hospital being victims of 
 
PLAGUE. 155 
 
 this frightful disease. Thougli a less severe epidemic than 
 that of 1894, the cases in some instances were more severe. 
 65'3 per cent of non-Chinese who took it died; whereas 
 amongst tlie Chinese the mortality reached the liigli figure of 
 896 per cent. Dr. Clarke, the " Medical Officer of Health 
 in Hongkong, in his report makes tlie following interesting 
 statement : — 
 
 'I am strongly inclined to apply tentatively Sanarelli's theory 
 concerning the bacillus of Yellow Fever, namely, that the vitality of 
 the bacillus, outside the living bodies of men and animals, depends 
 largely upon the co-existence of vegetable moulds by which it is 
 nourished, to the infective material of this disease also. It is already 
 well known that a moist atmosphere, defective ventilation, a moderate 
 amount of heat, and the absence of sunlight are the most favourable 
 conditions for the development of the Bubonic Fever bacillus, while 
 they are the conditions which encourage the free growth of the 
 vegetable moulds, and it is not unreasonable therefore to surmise that 
 this property of symbiosis, which has been observed by Metchinkoff 
 in connection with the bacillus of cholera, may have not a little to do 
 with the persistence of the bacillus of Bubonic Fever in damp and ill- 
 ventilated dwellings.' 
 
 The plague recurred again in Hongkong in 1899, the 
 mortality gradually rising to some forty or fifty deaths in the 
 course of a week in the beginning of May, one European 
 being attacked by it, while the following account of it at 
 about the same period of the year shows the ravages it Avas 
 committing in the neighbourhood of Canton : — 
 
 ' The plague is more than recrudescent in many of the towns and 
 villages of the delta. In Canton and Fatshan, it is reported as "bad," 
 but not so bad as in some of the inland cities. 
 
 The city of, San Ning might correctly be named, at present, 
 " The City of Death.'' The plague is ravaging with special virulence, 
 and carrying off its victims in large numbers. Siiops and dwelling 
 houses are closed, and their inhabitants have fled into the country, 
 carrying the infection with them. Business is. for the present, 
 paralysed. The streets, meanwhile, are reeking in filth and all drains 
 choked with rubbish. Behold the remedy employed I In one street, 
 I observed no less than three matsheds erected, in which were seated, 
 in calm ccmplaisancy many idols which are implored to exert their 
 power to stem and turn back the tide of death Moreover, over 
 almost every door are hung branches of cactus, or other thorny 
 shrubs, also a piece of fine netting, and a bag of small cockle shells. 
 It is believed that the malignant devils cannot well avoid all these 
 obstacles and enter the house ! Thev iiidv be frightened bv the 
 
456 THINGS CJl/NESA\ 
 
 rattling of the shells, as boys used to frighten birds from the corn- 
 fields by the rattle of a tin pan. If the devils yet attempt to enter, 
 they must pass through the mass of thorns, but can scarcely avoid 
 the small netting. 
 
 It is almost past belief that men's minds are so dark, minds, 
 too, that have spent years in America or Australia. "\'ct, there it is. 
 It is altogether tragic to see such things, and to look behind and 
 contemplate the sorrow, bereavement, and blank despair that hover 
 over the houses and paralyse the hearts of those who crouch in 
 terror within. One may well ask oneself the question, can such 
 things exist ? Furthermore can it be possible that those enshrouded in 
 such mental darkness can dare to assert, and venture to dream, that 
 they stand on an equality with the people of the West .'' In the interests 
 of humanity, there is every reason why all agencies, religious, 
 educational, and commercial should continue their propaganda, and 
 endeavour to penetrate and dissipate this terrible gloom.' 
 
 The plague was also at Kwang Chow Wan, the new 
 French port in the Kwangtung province, in April or ]\[ay 
 1899: it was prevalent among the natives; one European 
 soldier died of it and another wlio was attacked with it. was 
 cured by the Yersin serum. 
 
 'Speaking of the persistence of the contagion of the plague 
 microbe, which is causing so much anxiety in Austria and Germany, 
 the journal La Suisse, Geneva, cites a characteristic case. "In 1660 
 the Dutch city of Haarlem was devastated by the plague. Whole 
 families perished, among them a family by the name of Cloux, whose 
 various members were buried in the Haarlem Church. Thirty or forty 
 years ago it was found that the masonry of the tomb was out of 
 repair, and the vault was entirely rebuilt. The masons in charge of 
 the work descended into the vault and remained there during more 
 than a day. Now although more than two centuries had passed since 
 the epidemic, all these workmen were attacked with the infectious 
 bubo [characteristic glandular swelling] of the plague and had to 
 undergo long treatment at the hospital. Nevertheless, there were no 
 symptoms of the plague proper, and all recovered." ' 
 
 Booliii recommended. — The local ]"aper.s published in Hongkong 
 contain, during the prevalence of the plague, many interesting particulars 
 about it. Trever's ' Diseases of India,' Article on Plague in Eneyclopa?dia 
 Britannica.' Davidson's ' Tropical Medicine.' An article in the ' London 
 and China Express,' as (luoted in the ' Hongkong Telezraph " of Dth July, 
 181)5. Dr. Manson's ' Eeport on the Health of Anioy ' for the half year, 
 ending 31st March, 1878, in the 'Medical Reports of the Imperial Maritime 
 (Justoms,' 1.5th issue. ' Notes of an Ei)ideniie Disease observed in I'akhoi.' 
 by J. H.Lowry, L.R.C.P. Ed., L.Pv.C.S. Ed., in 'Medical Reports of the 
 Imperial Maritime Customs, 24th issue, for the half year ending 30th 
 September, 1S82. 'The Imperial Maritime Customs Decennial Reports' 
 pp. (ioi and ()71. M. Rocher's 'Yunnan.' Dr. James Lowson's Report on 'The 
 Epidemic uf Bubonic Plague in Hongkong, 1894,' published in the 
 'Hongkong Government Gazette.' 'Report on the Outbreak of Bubonic 
 plague in Hongkong to the Jnternational Congress of Hygiene and 
 
POETRY. 457 
 
 Demography, held at Buda-Pest, 1894.' by Dr. P. B. C. Ayers, C.M.G., 
 Colonial Surgeon, Hongkong, and Dr. James Lo\v.-<on, M.B., 'Acting 
 Superintendent, Government Civil Hospital. H.E. Sir Wm. Robinson's 
 speech reported in the ' Hongkong Weekly i'ress,' 9th Dec, ISidi. ' Tropical 
 Diseases : A Manual of the Diseases of Warm Climates,' by P. Maiison, 
 M.D., L.L.D., from which wc have made large e.vtracts. Also see 'Annual 
 Reports by the Medical Ofticer of Health for Hongkong-' for years 1897 and 
 1 898. 
 
 POETRY.~The East is the land of poetry. Here 
 Nature is found in lier happiest moods : she hivishes all the 
 tints of her wonderful palette on her gorgeous sunrises and 
 sunsets ; she instals her electric lights — the bright stars in 
 the blue depths of the unfathomable sky — and so pure is the 
 atmosphere, that one can see beyond their clear shining into 
 the illimitable space ; her full-orbed moon floods the whole 
 landscape with a silvery light but seldom seen in the West; 
 the sun glows with such an intense heat, that, aided by the 
 tropical showers, the earth is clad with a hot-house growth 
 of plants and shrubs ; nor are her grander moods unrevealed 
 to man, for towering crag and rugged mountain hem in 
 the meandering river, and the soft lights of sunset play 
 amidst their gloomy rocks and sheltered ravines, while the 
 noon-day clouds cast passing shadows on the lovely scene; 
 anon, amidst the thunder of the storm and the vivid flashes 
 of the lightning, the God of Nature reveals Himself, while 
 all the latent forces of destruction seem let loose in the how- 
 ling, whistling wind, the dashing wave, and the fierce 
 battling of the elements of the dreaded typhoon. 
 
 The Chinese have been the worshippers of nature for 
 centuries and millenniums, both in the literal and figurative 
 sense of the term : long before we in the West awoke to her 
 wild charms and sylvan beauties, ages before the ponderous 
 Dr. Johnson saw nothing to admire in the wild Hebrides and 
 the rugged mountains of Scotia, the Chinese had sung the 
 praises of similar scenes in their native land ; ' Chinese poets 
 manifested a passionate love of nature thousands of years 
 before Scott or Wordsworth.' A suggestion, a reference, a 
 line, or a word points to some aspect of nature, such as — 
 
 ' The white clouds fly across the scene,' 
 to find its response in the next line of— 
 
 •The distant hills are clothed in green,' 
 
 2 G 
 
458 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 while others will revel in some descriptive piece of solitary 
 scenes. 
 
 But, unfortunately, much Chinese poetry is incapable of 
 translation: it loses its essence in the transfer into another 
 and barbarian speech, and becomes tame prose, and prosy at 
 the best. As the wild flowers which adorn the hill-sides in 
 this land, with their bright pinks and rich crimsons, soberer 
 mauves and clear pure whites, when gathered by the 
 enthusiastic botanist and treated by his careful hands with 
 the greatest tenderness, fade and wither, lose their fresh 
 bloom and bright tints, turn to a uniform brown and black, 
 and smell musty and dry ; so the flowers of Chinese poetry 
 lose their freshness and beauty — the sparkle of wit and the 
 point of allusion are lost to unappreciative Western ears, the 
 rhyme and rhythm are gone, and they are interesting alone 
 to the sinologue's ear. Occasionally, however, by a happy 
 chance, the brightness and sparkle of a ballad or song are 
 retained, or even improved upon, as in Stent's translations. 
 
 The Chinese language lends itself readily to the poetic 
 art — harsh consonantal sounds are wanting, and the com- 
 bination of consonants and vowels is often musical. Though 
 largely monosyllabic, the diphthongs give a somewhat 
 dissyllabic character to many of the words. The cadence 
 and modulation required are to be found in the tones of the 
 Chinese language, and every word takes the place occupied 
 by a metrical foot in our Western poetry. 
 
 'In the hands of an accomplished writer, the Chinese language 
 is capable of a condensed picturesqueness and vigour such as can be 
 rendered into no foreign languasje less ideographic in its mode of 
 writing unless by means of wordy paraphrases. Each character in 
 its (often numerous) component parts carries a wealth of imagery to 
 the sense, and whole series of metaphors are embodied in a single 
 epithet. A language of this kind lends itself especially to the 
 description of the scenery, and the most superficial analysis of Chinese 
 poetry reveals the fact that the productions which are most applauded 
 in this branch of literature consist simply of elaborate word-painting 
 whose beauty resides rather in the medium of expression than in the 
 author's thought. Hence it happens that when odes renowned for 
 centuries among Chinese readers are transposed into the naked 
 
rOKTUY. 159 
 
 languages of Europe, it is found that their chaim has vanished, as 
 the petals of a flower arc dropped from the insignificant and sober- 
 coloured fruit.' 
 
 As Giles puts it, tlicy are : — 
 
 'Strains that to alien harps can ne'er belong, 
 Thy gems shine purer in their native bed.' 
 
 One of the classical works of the Chinese, the Shi-king, 
 (B. C. 500) is a collection of ancient songs, &c. ' The bulk 
 of these curious vestiges of antiquity '^ * do not rise 
 beyond the most primitive simplicity, and their style and 
 language, witliout the minute commentary, -would often be 
 unintelligible.' 
 
 Here is one translated by Dr. Martin : — ■ 
 
 A speck upon your ivory fan 
 You soon may wipe away ; 
 But stains upon the heart or tongue 
 Remain, alas I for aye. 
 
 Another put into English verse by Mr. Jennings : — 
 
 BRIDAL SONG. 
 
 Ho, graceful little peach tree 
 Brightly thy blossoms bloom ! 
 Go, maiden, to thy husband ; 
 Adorn his hall, his room. 
 
 Ho, graceful little peach tree 
 Thy fruit abundant fall 1 
 Go, maiden to thy husband ; 
 Adorn his room, his hall. 
 
 Ho, graceful little peach tree, 
 With foliage far and wide ! 
 Go, maiden, to thy husband 
 His household well to guide. 
 
 The reader is referred for further specimens of these 
 300 odes to tlie Shi King, or Book of Odes, itself. It has 
 been well said by Professor von der Gabelentz ' that in this 
 whole collection of Odes * * * there is not a line to be 
 found which may not be read aloud without any hesitation 
 in the most prudish society.' 
 
 Epics and pastorals are not found in Chinese poetry ; 
 but almost every other description is to be seen, as well as 
 poetic effusions of a character unknown in the West, such as 
 proclamations by the Magistrates in rhyme. 
 
 2 G 2 
 
460 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 It is very extraordinary to find an Edward Allaii Poe 
 in Chinese literature, B.C. 200. The Chinese prototype 
 was an eminent statesman, Kia Yi by name, who was alsi 
 * no mean poet ' 
 
 A CHINESE 'RAVEN.' 
 
 THE FU-NIAO, OR BIRD OF FATE. 
 'Twas in the month of chill November, 
 As I can very well remember 
 In dismal, gloomy, crumbling halls, 
 Betwixt moss-covered, reeking walls, 
 An exiled poet lay^ 
 
 On his bed of straw reclining, 
 Half despairing, half repining ; 
 When athwart the window sill. 
 Flew in a bird of omen ill. 
 And seemed inclined to stay. 
 
 To my book of occult learning. 
 Suddenly I thought of turning. 
 All the mystery to know, 
 Of that shameless owl or crow, 
 That would not go away. 
 
 '' Wherever such a bird shall enter, 
 '^Tis sure some power above has sent her, 
 (So said the mystic book) to show 
 
 The human dweller forth must go," • 
 
 But where it did not say. 
 
 Then anxiously the bird addressing. 
 And my ignorance confessing, 
 "Gentle bird, in mercy deign 
 The will of Fate to me explain. 
 Where is my future way ? " 
 
 It raised its head as if 'twere seeking 
 To ansvver mc by simply speaking. 
 Then iolded up its sable wing, 
 Nor did it utter anything. 
 But breathed a " Well-a-day I "' 
 
 More eloquent than any diction, 
 That simple sigh produced conviction. 
 Furnishing to me the key 
 Of the a,wful mystery 
 That on my spirit lay. 
 
 " Forture's wheel is ever turning, 
 To human eye there's no discerning 
 Weal or woe in any state ; 
 Wisdom is to bide your fate ;" 
 This is what it seemed to say ; 
 By that simple "Well-a-day." 
 
POETRY. 461 
 
 A poem of great repute among native scholars is 'The 
 Dissipation of Sorrows,' written by Yuh Yuen (B.C. 150), 
 whose untimely end is commemorated by the annual Dragon 
 Boat Festival (Sec Article under that heading). 
 
 Here is a husbandman's song as rendered by Mr. Giles : — 
 
 Work, work — from the rising sun 
 
 Till sunset comes and the day is down 
 
 I plough tlie sod 
 
 And harrow the clod, 
 And meat and drink both come to me 
 So what care I for the powers that be. 
 
 Here is a little ode addressed by 'Su Wu to his wife on 
 setting out on an embassy to the Court of the Grand Khan of 
 Tartary,' 100 B.C. The English is from the rendering by 
 Dr. Martin: — 
 
 Twin trees whose boughs together twine, 
 Two birds that guard one nest. 
 We'll soon be far asunder torn, 
 As sunrise from the West. 
 
 Hearts knit in childhood's innocence, 
 Long bound in Hymen's ties : 
 One goes to distant battle-fields, 
 One sits at home and sighs. 
 
 Like carrier bird, though seas divide 
 I'll seek my lonely mate ; 
 But if afar I find a grave. 
 You'll mourn my hapless fate. 
 
 To us the future's all unknown, 
 
 In memory seek relief; 
 
 Come, touch the cords you know so well. 
 
 And let them soothe our grief. 
 
 Poetry flourished most in the T"ang dynasty, (A.D. 620-907) 
 in the ninth and tenth centuries, which have been described as 
 the Augustan age in China of poetry and letters. 'The collected 
 poems of the * * * T'ang dynasty have been published 
 by Imperial authority in nine hundred volumes.' Among 
 the most celebrated poets of this time is Li Tai-po, (A.D. 720) 
 an anacreontic poet whose adventures are famous, as well as 
 his sonnets. His works were published in thirty volumes. 
 He attained high government distinction, but was drowned, 
 fallinar overboard from a boat Avhen under the influence of 
 
462 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 his favourite wines. He is thus described by one writer: 
 ' the best known of China's countless host of lyric poets, 
 famous for his exquisite imagery, his wealth of words, his 
 telling allusions to the past, and for the musical cadence of 
 his verse.' 
 
 Dr. Edkins describes Li Tai-po's characteristics as a poet, 
 as follows : — 
 
 ' This poet is fond of deep passion, fear and patlios. All his 
 power is devoted to the production of these sentiments in the readers' 
 mind. He loves quick transitions, and one touch is enough for 
 one thought. Another thought crowds after it, and then a third, 
 « c- c- Burns collected old songs, and infused them with the fire 
 of his genius. That class of Western poets, of whom Burns is a 
 shining example, would be the fit companions of Li Tai-po, whose 
 poems are often filled up with lines gathered from the wide range 
 of early-song literature. * Li Tai-po had a consciousness 
 
 of power, and this made him careless in regard to rules. He uses 
 short lines whenever he pleases, and it is often hard to punctuate 
 his lines. His nation admires him so much, that when he is irregular 
 in the choice of his words and the length of his lines, they still praise 
 him. His genius was intuitive. No one took less time than he to 
 write. No one made such leaps from one subject to another as he 
 did. This recklessness was a great aid to him, because he did not 
 need to take time to polish his style and smooth down his roughnesses. 
 He vaulted over difficulties and expected his reader to follow him, 
 without asking : Why this leap ? or, Where is my master intending to 
 go ? He left the reader to fill the gap, and he himself always wrote 
 brilliant sentences, and dealt in the pathetic and the sublime. All 
 faults are readily forgiven if a writer can do this, for there is nothing 
 that readers so much delight in as in having the tender sentim.ents of 
 the heart stirred fi'om their depths. Our poet wrote verses as he 
 travelled, and his poems are a running comment on his visits to 
 various localities in his native country.' The mrainer in which he 
 was able ' to find in the rounds of nature the interpreter of his thoughts, 
 and to throw himself into nature is proof of his higli character 
 
 as a poet. Here he seems to resemble Wordsworth, who, with 
 Coleridge, passionately loved every wild and sublime scene in nature, 
 but was not less moved by quiet landscapes. His heart was open to 
 every suggestion that could be made to spring from wheat field, grove, 
 or sunset glory. * '- '■' But he greatly exceeds Wordsworth in 
 popularity, having a whole nation at his feet, and there is to the 
 present time no diminution of his fame.' 
 
 Of him, it has been said that he was ' without doubt the 
 greatest of Chinese lyric poets.' One of the emperors said 
 of him that ' a god had become incarnate in his person.' 
 
POETRY. 463 
 
 We give a few specimens of Li Tiii-po put into English, 
 first tin impromptu which shows liis early genius, being 
 produced at the age of ten : — 
 
 TO A FIREFLY. 
 
 Unin cannot rinpneh thy lantern's li.^ht, 
 Wind makes it shine more briglitly iirisht ; 
 Oil wiiy not tiy to heaven afar, 
 Anil twinkle near the moon — a star.' 
 
 A VISIT TO THE OLEAR COLD FOUNTAIN. 
 Alas, tliat day shonld lose itself in night 1 
 1 love this fount so clear, so passing cool : 
 The western "low pursues its waters' tlow : 
 The wavelets symb<ilise my silent thoughts, 
 And murmur forth a wordless hymn of prai.se. 
 I watch the moon among the clouds so ^I'and, 
 The wavinji' pines, athwart the sky so tall 
 Anon do blend their rusting- with my song. 
 
 A VI.SIT TO THE RAPIDS OF TPIE WHITE RIVER. 
 I cross the stream just as it starts to life. 
 From man and all his deeds afar I roam. 
 Tlie isles are clad in nature's living hues, 
 And set in scenes of sweetest beauty rare. 
 The deep-blue sky is mirrored in the stream, 
 Whose broad expanse reflects the passing clouds. 
 I watch them as they sail away to sea, 
 Jly leisured mind next wanders where the stream. 
 Is full of fish that dart adown its course, 
 The .setting sun doth end my day-long songs, 
 By silv'ry moon-lit rays I hie nie home 
 To where my humble cot a-field doth lie. 
 
 THE POET. 
 You ask wliat my soul does away in the sky, 
 I inwardly smile, but I cannot reply ; 
 Like tlie peach-blossom carried away by the stream, 
 1 soar to a world of which you cannot dream. 
 
 Here is a short lyric translated by Dr. Martin which he 
 describes as 'characterised by simplicity of expression and 
 naturalness of sentiment, rather than by strength and 
 elevation.' : — 
 
 A SOLDIER^S WIFE TO HKR HL'SHAND. 
 
 'Twas many a year ago, 
 How I recall the clay ! 
 When you, my own true love, 
 Came first with me to play. 
 A little child was 1 ; 
 My head a mass of curls ; 
 I gathered daisies sweet. 
 Along with other girb. 
 
4-64 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 You rode a bamboo horse, 
 And deemed yourself a knight, 
 With ^per helm and shield 
 And wooden sword bedight. 
 
 Thus we together grew. 
 And we together played — 
 Yourself a giddy boy, 
 And I a thoughtless maid. 
 
 At fourteen I was wed ; 
 And, if one called my name, 
 As quick as lightning flash 
 The crimson blushes came. 
 
 'Twas not till we had passed 
 A year of married life 
 My heart was knit to yours, 
 In joy to be your wife. 
 
 Another year, alas ! 
 And you had joined your chief; 
 While I was left at home, 
 In solitary grief. 
 
 When victory crowns your arms, 
 And I your triumph learn. 
 What bliss for me to fly 
 To welcome your return. 
 
 Tu Fu (A.D. 712-770) was another poet of the T'ang, 
 and one of some distinction, who has been described as ' one 
 of China's greatest men in poetic genius.' The Chinese rank 
 him Sis second only to Li Tai-po.' • He lived in the eighth 
 century, dying of hunger in A.D. 768 * * in a temple in 
 which he had been compelled to take refuge.' We give some 
 specimens of Tu Fu's poetry : — 
 
 IN ABSENCE. 
 
 White gleam the gulls across the darkling tide, 
 
 On the green hills the red flowers seem to burn ; 
 
 Alas ! I see another spring has died 
 
 When will it come — the day of my return ? 
 
 The Chinaman's ardent desire to return to his native 
 land, dead or alive, though due to a very great extent to 
 the cult of ancestral worship and all the customs that group 
 themselves round this central idea, setting and crystallising 
 into a rigid system through the course of long ages — 
 though his wish to return is apparently almost entirely based 
 on this ; mav it not be that underneath the frost of ice-bound 
 
POETHY. 1()5 
 
 custom tliereflous the natural love of home which the ordinary 
 celestial is unable to express, but wliich wells up from the 
 heart of the poet ? Otlier selections might be made which 
 express this longing in stronger language than the above. 
 THE DESERTED WIFE. 
 
 Onoe fair beyond thf> f:iirpst. dnnio on onrth, 
 Witliiii the rnoiiiitain (U-11 1 live perdue ; 
 And scion of a \irtiions house I am, 
 Though shrubs and trees are now my sole support. 
 Our troubh's came within the walls amain : 
 Not long a^o my brothers met their end. 
 Their rank was high. Alas ! it mattered not ; 
 ' For e'en their stitt'. cold clay was lost to us. 
 I care not for the present age, no charms 
 It hath for me. Life tiiekers like a wick : 
 A passing breath blows all our joys away. 
 A new fair wile, as fair as clearest ja.de. 
 Is now my husband's love in ])lace of ine. 
 The libertine hath turned away from me. 
 Th' acacia knows the hour to close its leaves, 
 The turtle-dove without its mate doth pine ; 
 He oidy sees the new wife's witching smile. 
 He heeds not how his former love doth weep. 
 Upon the mountain top the rill is clear ; 
 But at its foot the stream is muddy, thick. 
 My maids go out to sell my lustrous pearls : 
 And with a wisp they mend the patched roof, 
 I pluck the wayside flowers, but wear them not ; 
 And tlieu I gather cones from oft' the firs. 
 My broidered sleeve is thin for gusty winds, 
 As morn and eve I lean my pensive form 
 Against the tall bamboos with drooping sprays. 
 
 Another name to be mentioned is that of Han Yii 
 
 (A.D. 768-821') 'foremost among the statesmen, philosophers, 
 
 and poets of the T'ang dynasty, and one of the most 
 
 venerated names in Chinese literature.' From his pen are 
 
 the following : — 
 
 THE WOUNDED FALCON. 
 Within a ditch beyond my wall 
 I saw a falcon headlong fall. 
 Bedaubed with mud and racked with pain, 
 It beat its wings to rise, in vain ; 
 While little boys threw tiles and stones, 
 Eager to break the wretch's bones. 
 O bird, mcthinks thy life of late 
 Hath amply justified this fate ! 
 Thy sole delight to kill and steal. 
 And then exultingly to wheel 
 Now sailing in the clear blue sky, 
 Now on the wild gale sweeping by, 
 
 2 II 
 
4GG THINGS GIUNESE. 
 
 Scorning thy kind of less degree 
 As all unfit to mate with thee. 
 
 J^ut niarlc how fortune's wheel goes round ; 
 A pellet lays thee on the ground, 
 Sore stricken at some vital part,— 
 And where is then thy pride of heart ? 
 
 What's this to me ? — I could not bear 
 To see the fallen one lying there. 
 I begged its life, and from the brook 
 Water to wash its wounds 1 took. 
 Fed it with bits of fish l)y day, 
 At night from foxes kept away. 
 My care I knew would naught avail 
 For gratitude, that empty tale. 
 And so this bird would crouch and hide 
 Till want its stimulus applied ; 
 And I, with no reward to hope, 
 Allowed its callousness full scope. 
 
 Last eve the bird showed signs of rage, 
 With health renewed, and beat its cage. 
 To-day it forced a passage through, 
 And took its leave, without adieu. 
 
 Good luck hath saved thee, not desert ; 
 Beware, O bird, of further hurt ; 
 Beware the archer's deadly tools I — 
 'Tis hard to escape the shafts of fools— 
 Nor e'er forget the chastening ditch 
 That found thee poor, and left thee rich. 
 
 HUMANITY. 
 
 Oh spare the busy morning fly I 
 
 Spare the mosquitoes of the night ! 
 And if their wicked trade they ply 
 
 Let a partition stop their flight. 
 
 Their span is brief from birth to death ; 
 
 Like you they bite their little day ; 
 And then with autumn's earliest breath, 
 
 Like you too they arc swept away. 
 
 Here is one specimen ^^•llicll shows that the poetic taste 
 
 is present in wliat seems to many a Westerner the unpoetic 
 
 Chinese. 
 
 TASTE. 
 
 The landscape which the poet loves is that of early May, 
 When budding greenness half concealed enwraps each 
 
 willow spray. 
 That beautiful embroidery the days of summer yield, 
 Appeals to every bumpkin who may take his walk afield. 
 
 Yang Chu Yuan. 
 
 (8th & 9th Cent. A-D.; 
 
Another famous poet was Su TLUig-[)o, (A.D. 103(j — 1 101) 
 of the Sung dynasty, which lias been described as the 
 Elizabethan age of Chinese letters. His poems are contained 
 in one hundred and fifteen volumes. He was * an official of 
 remarkable talents, a statesman, poet, essayist, and man of 
 letters,' who spent many of his latter years under a cloud, being 
 banished to the south of the empire, a punishment he partly 
 brought on himself, owing to his satire. Of him it has 
 been written that 'under his hands, the language of which 
 China is so proud, may be said to have reached perfection of 
 finish, of art concealed. In subtlety of reasoning, in the lucid 
 expression of abstractions, such as in English too often elude 
 the faculty of the tongue, Su Tung-po is an unrivalled master.' 
 We give also a few specimens of Su Tung-po's poetry. The 
 first we extract from ' Gems of Chinese Literature.' 
 THE SONG OF THE CRANES. 
 
 Away ! away ' J\Iy birds, fly westwards now, 
 
 To wheel on high and gaze on all below ; 
 
 To swoop together, pinions closed, to earth ; 
 
 To soar aloft once more among the clouds ; 
 
 To wander all day long in sedgy vale ; 
 
 To gather duckweed in the stony marsh. 
 
 Come back I Come back I Beneath the lengthening shades, 
 
 Your serge-clad master stands, guitar in hand. 
 
 'Tis he that feeds you from his slender store : 
 
 Come back ! Come back ! Nor linger in the west. 
 
 Su Tung-po's eulogies of departed worthies are fine 
 
 specimens of writing. He ' never failed to clothe liis thoughts 
 
 in beautiful language,' ' with great facility he collects all the 
 
 meritorious deeds of his lieroes, and places them in a very 
 
 strong light ; he then makes some allusion to the ages long 
 
 gone by, and traces their resemblances to celebrated personages 
 
 concluding with Jiis own panegyrics. These eloquent pieces 
 
 were not only printed but also engraved on solid stone.' We 
 
 give one of these eulogistic inscriptions. 
 
 IN MEMORIAM : HAN WEN KUNG.- 
 
 High mounted on the dragon's back he rode 
 Alofl to where the da/./?iing cloudlands lie ; 
 The glory of the sky he grasped an)aiii ; 
 The splendour of the stars, his sparkling robe. 
 
 Th'j same as Han Yii. 
 
 2 Ji 2 
 
4(J8 TJlLWS t'lIlAESE. 
 
 The zephyrs' breath him gently wafted on 
 From earth's domain up to the throne of God. 
 On earth his practised hand swept off the chaff, 
 The husks which hid the grains of truth from sight. 
 He roamed the wide would o'er from pole to pole, 
 From cast to west his rays so bright were shed, 
 And nature's darkness clothed upon with I'ght. 
 The third amidst the three of genius great,* 
 His rivals strove in vain to reach his height. 
 And panted, dazzled by his glory's glare. 
 Buddha was cursed by him ; his priests denounced. 
 His sovereign's wrath was poured upon his head. 
 He journeyed to the distant South afar ; 
 And passed upon his way the grave of Shun ; 
 And wept, wept o'er the daughters of ancient Yao, 
 The spirit of the deep before him went. 
 And stilled the noisy waves tumultuous roar, 
 As 'twere a lamb the monster fierce he drove.f 
 In heaven above the golden harps were still, 
 And God was sad, and called him to his place 
 Beside his throne. 1 now salute him there. 
 And now present to him my off'rings poor : 
 The red lichee, the yellow plantain fruit, 
 Alas ! Why lingered he not then on earth ; 
 But passed so soon away with flowing locks 
 Into the future world — the great unknown ? 
 
 It will be seen that the sentimental is not wanting in the 
 Chinese character, though it is kept down to a great extent 
 by their customs and manners ; — 
 
 MY XEIGHBOUR. 
 
 \N'hen the Bear athwart was hing, 
 And the night was just on dying, 
 And the moon was all but gone, 
 How my thoughts did ramble on ! 
 Then a sound of music breaks 
 From a lute that some one wakes, 
 And I know that it is she. 
 The sweet maid next door to nic. 
 And as the strains steal o'er mc 
 Her moth-eyebrows rise before me 
 And I feel a gentle thrill 
 That her fingers must be chill. 
 But doors and locks between us 
 So effectually screen us 
 That I hasten from the street 
 And in dreamland pray to meet. 
 
 * The other two were 'i'u Fu iind Li Tui-po. 
 
 I Referring to the crucudile which he is siiid io have driven aw.iv, 
 
POKTRV. 409 
 
 Poetry is liokl in higli estiniuliuu by the Cliinese. 
 Capping verses is a pastime of scliolars ; and at the com- 
 petitive examinations the candidates liave to try tlieir hands 
 at the composition of verse. Tliis mechanical art they have 
 first to learn at school, as. with us, boys waste their time at 
 public schools and colleges in composing ]jatin verse. The 
 consequence is, that all the educated men are verse-makers — 
 we cafinot call such poets. To this cause is partly due the 
 mechanical structure of much of Chinese poetry, but it is also 
 due to the peculiarities of its construction. Nor is the art of 
 poetry confined to men. China has had her burning Sapphos 
 who loved and sang and her lyric Corinnas. The lower 
 classes are passionately fond of the recitations of ballads by 
 men who ^o from house to house for the purpose. 
 
 We append a piece translated by the late G. C. Stent : — 
 
 CHANG LIANG'S FLUTE. 
 ' Twas night — the tired soldiers were peacefully sleeping, 
 
 The low hum of voices was hushed in repose ; 
 The sentries in silence a strict watch were keeping, 
 
 'Gainst surprise, or a sudden attack of their foes. 
 
 When a mellow note on the night air came stealing, 
 
 So soothingly over the senses it fell — 
 So touchingly sweet — so soft and appealing. 
 
 Like the musical tones of an aerial bell. 
 
 Now rising, now falling — now fuller and clearer — 
 
 Now liquidly soft— now a low wailing cry — 
 Xow the cadences seem floating nearer and nearer — 
 
 Now dying away in a whispering sigh. 
 
 Then a burst of sweet music so plaintively thrilling. 
 
 Was caught up by the echoes who sang the refrains 
 
 In their many-toned voices — the atmosphere tilling 
 With a chorus of dulcet mysterious strains. 
 
 The sleepers arouse and with beating hearts listen. 
 
 In their dreams they had heard that weird music before : 
 
 It touches each heart — with tears their eyes glisten, 
 
 For it tells them of those they may never see more. 
 
 In fancy those notes to their childhood's days brought them. 
 To those far-away scenes they had not seen for years ; 
 
 To those who had loved them, had reared them and taught them, 
 And the eyes of those stern men became wet with tears. 
 
 Bright visions of home through their mcm'ries came thronging, 
 
 Panoriima-Iike passing in front of their view ; 
 They were hoiiic-sick, no power could withstand that strange longing, 
 
 The longer they listened, the more home-sick they grew. 
 
ITO TllIMJ^ L'UIMC^E. 
 
 Whence came ihosc sweet sounds ? Who the unseen n;usician 
 That breathes out his soul which floats on the niglit-biee/e 
 
 In melodious sighs — in strains so elysian— 
 
 As to soften the hearts of rude soldiers like these ? 
 
 Each looked at the other, but no word was spoken, 
 
 The music insensibly tempting them on : 
 They mu.<il. return home :— ere the daylight had broken, 
 
 The enemy looked, and behold, the}' were gone I 
 
 There's a magic in music — a witchery in it, 
 
 Indescribable either with tongue or with pen ; 
 The flute of Chang-Liang, in that one little minute, 
 
 Had stolen the courage of eight thousand men. 
 
 Jioolix rccmnmciulrd — ' Tlie Poetr)' of the Chinese," by Sir. .J. F. Davis, 
 Bart, K.C.B., F.K.S., kc. This book skives an account of the structure of 
 Chinese poetry and a number of specimens. An article on " Chinese Poetry.' 
 by the late Sir AV alter Medliurst, in • The ( 'hina Review.' Vol. IV., p. 46. ' The 
 Jade Chaplet,' by G. C. Stent: 'Entombed Alive, and other Verses," from the 
 same author's facile pen. For accoinits of Su-'J'ung-po, see ' China Review,' 
 Vol. I., p. i52. wliere two or three farther specimens of his poetry are given, 
 and Vol. XII., p. 81. 'Tlie works of Su-Tung-po, an article in "The Chinese 
 Repository,' Vol. XL, p. 1H2. ' Li-Tai-po as a Poet.' a short account of 
 Li-Tai-po's poetry in 'The China Review,' Vol. XVII., p. Sr>. ' ('hinese 
 Legends and other Poems, by W. A. P. Martin, D.D.. L.L. I>. 'Chinese 
 Poetry in English Verse," by H. A. Giles, M.A.. L.L.D., from which we have 
 culled a number of our si)ecimens given above. 
 
 POPULATION. — Mucli has been written on the popti- 
 lation of China and various surmises and estimates liavc been 
 made of the number of the inhabitants. 
 
 If it is well night impossible to find the exast number of 
 any one people in our Western lands, much more difficult is 
 it in the East. There are several things that militate against 
 an exact return being made of the popitlation in a country 
 like China. To begin with, the object of taking a census in 
 this land has often been simply for the purposes of revenue, 
 and infants and young children as well as very aged men 
 were not inckided, though, at the present day, a fttller method 
 of taking the census is in vogue. Then again people who 
 do not have the fullest confidence in their rulers have not 
 probably been willing to give the fullest returns to these 
 rulers. And, again, anyone who knows anything about 
 Orientals can readily understand hoAv difticult it is for them. 
 brought up -w ith such a want of precision in their habits of 
 thought and expression, to realise the importance of contri- 
 buting their quota of statistics with the care and exactitude 
 
rorrLATioN. 171 
 
 tliey demancl. Notwithstaudiug- all these things, the different 
 censuses taken by the Chinese in the past are wortliy, on the 
 whole, in many instances, of a considerable amount of credence; 
 and, in fact, form the only returns available for the entire 
 empire. Compared with estimates made by foreigners, thov 
 are tolerably trustworthy 
 
 There have bc^on considerable Huetiiations in tlio number 
 of peo[)lo in China at^ ditterciit periods : wars, robelli(Mis, 
 famines and floods have exerted a most depopulating effect 
 on large tracts of country and liavo acted as a drag on the 
 continual tendency to increase 
 
 Notwithstanding all these mlnimislug effects, durimj the 
 centuries and millenniums the empire has been in existence, 
 the inhabitants have increased from some 21,000,000 to the 
 380,000,000 which some eighteen or nineteen years ago 
 formed what was considered on the best native data to be the 
 present population of this immense country. 
 
 Had it not been for the gigantic T'ai-p'ing rebellion its 
 population might now have been reckoned at 450,000,000. 
 To this figure of 380,000,000 must be added the population 
 of Mancluiria and of the vast regions of Hi and Tibet, which 
 may be anything from 15,000,000 to 27.000,000 more : so 
 that, perhaps, all things considered the round sum of 
 400,000,000 may be taken as that of the whole of the 
 dominions ruled over by the Emperor of China; it is, 
 probably, not much less, and it may be considerably more, 
 than that. 
 
 As to the population to the square mile, it is said the 
 Eighteen Provinces have an average of 1,318,870 square, 
 miles, though this statement is not su{)posed to be accurate. 
 With a population of say 380,000,000. and the total of square 
 miles given above, there would be nearly 282 Chinese to a 
 square mile of their tenitory. But the density of the popula- 
 tion differs greatly in different parts of the country; 'that 
 of the nine eastern [provinces in and near the Great Plain, 
 comprising 502.192 scjuare miles, or two-fifths of the whole* 
 
47-2 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 is nearly three times that of •' the nine southern and western 
 provinces constituting the otlier three fifths' of the eighteen 
 Provinces of China. • The surfucs and fertility of the country 
 in these two portions differ so gi'catly as to lead one to look 
 for results like tliose.' Taking tlie countries of France, 
 Germany, Great Britain. Italy, Holland, Spain, Japan, and 
 Bengal for comparison witli China^ we find that only two of 
 them — Great Britain and Bengal — exceed the density of the 
 average population of China ' taken as a whole, while none 
 of them come up to the average of the eastern provinces,' but 
 fall far short of it. From an estimate of one district in 
 Shantung, it was calculated that in that spot the population 
 to the square mile was 531, "'or considerably above the 
 average of the Kingdom of Belgium (the most densely 
 populated country in Europe), which had in A.D. 1873 an 
 average of only 462 to the square mile.' In another spot the 
 actual number of families in each village was taken, so far as 
 the number was known to the natives, the number of 
 individuals to the family being reckoned as five, though it is 
 often far larger than that. This otlior spot gave a result of 
 2,129 to the square mile. 
 
 ' So far as appearances go, there are thousands of square miles 
 in Southern and central Chihli, Western and South Western Shan- 
 tung and Northern Honan, where the villages are as thick as in this 
 one tract, the contents of which we are thus able approximately to 
 compute. But for the plain of North China as a whole, it is probable 
 that it would be found more reasonable to estimate 300 persons to 
 the square mile for the more sparsely settled districts and from 1,000 
 to 1,500 for the more thickly settled regions. In any case a vivid 
 impression is thus gained of the enormous number of human beings 
 crowded ir.to these fertile and historic plains, and also of the almost 
 insuperable difficulties in the way of an exact knowledge of the 
 facts of the true "census." 
 
 The province boasting tl\e largest population is Kiangsu : 
 the inhabitants are 37.800,U00 in number ; from this they 
 dwindle down to between five or six millions in each of the 
 two provinces of Kweichau and Yunnan. 
 
 'Living as the Chinese, Hindus, Japanese, and other Asiatics do, 
 chiefly upon vegetables, the country can hardly be said to maintain 
 more than one-half or one-third as many people on a square mile as it 
 might do. if their energies were developed to the same extent with 
 
PORCELAIN AXD POTTERY. 473 
 
 those of the English or Belgians.' ' Tne social and political causes 
 which tend to multiply the inhabitants are numerous and powerful. 
 The failure of male posterity to continue the succession of the family, 
 and worship at the tombs of parents, is considered by all classes 
 as one of the most afflictive misfortunes of life; the laws allow 
 unlimited facilities of adoption, and secure the rights of those taken 
 into the family in this way. The custom of betrothing children, and 
 the obligation society imposes, when arrived at maturity, to fulfil 
 the contracts entered into by their parents, acts favourably to the 
 establishment of families and the nurture of children, and restricts 
 polygamy. Parents desire children for a support in old age, as there 
 IS no legal or benevolent provision for aged poverty, and public 
 opinion stigmatises the man who allows his aged or infirm parents 
 to sufter when he can help them. The laws require the owners of 
 domestic slaves to provide husbands for their females, and prohibits 
 the involuntary or forcible separation of husband and wife, or parents 
 and children, when the latter are of tender age. All these causes and 
 influences tend to increase population, and equalise the consumption 
 and use of property more, perhaps, than in any other land. The 
 custom of families remaining together tends to the same result.' 
 ' The reasons just given why the Chinese desire posterity are not all 
 those which have favoured national increase. The uninterrupted 
 peace which the country enjoyed between the years 1700 and 1850 
 operated to greatly develope its resources. Every encouragement 
 has been given to all classes to multiply and to fill the land. 
 Polygamy, slavery, and prostitution, three social evils which check 
 increase, have been circumscribed in their effects. Early betrothment 
 and poverty do much to prevent the first ; the female slaves can be 
 and are usually married ; while public prostitution is reduced by a 
 separation of the sexes and early marriages. No fear of overpassing 
 the supply of food restrains the people from rearing families, though 
 the Emperor Kienlung issued a proclamation, in 1793, calling upon 
 all ranks of his subjects to economise the gifts of heaven, lest, erelong, 
 the people exceed the means of subsistence.' 
 
 JlooltK rt'oommcnded. — William's 'Middle Kingdom,' Vol. 1, pp. 258 — 
 288, where the wliole subject is gone into most exhaustively. An article 
 l).v ilev. Arthur Smith in 'The Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal ' 
 for January, IS'JS, entitled 'Estimating the Population of China.' Other 
 arti(>les on tlie same subject liave appeared in the same journal . 
 
 PORCELAIN AND POTTERT.~The wovd procelain, 
 it is said, was introduced by the Portuguese, (in the sixteenth 
 century) who first brought such ware in any quantity to 
 Europe from China. The name ' refers to the exterior 
 appearance resembling the shining white of the Ci/pra'ci or 
 porcelain shell (Portuguese lyorceUana) ' ' so called from its 
 carved upper surfc\ce being supposed to resemble the rounded 
 back of ajyorceUa, or little hog.' 
 
 2 I 
 
4T4 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Marco Polo saw the manufacture of it in Cliina in A.D, 
 1280, and informs as that it was sent all over the world, and 
 evidences of this early trade in it are found in India, Persia, 
 Egypt, Malayia, and Zanzibar, 
 
 ' The Chinese from the most ancient times have cultivated 
 the art of welding clay, and they claim the invention of the 
 potter's wheel, like most of the great nations of antiquity.' 
 Like the origin of many Chinese things, the invention of 
 porcelain is shrouded in mists of antiquity, and no certain 
 date can be assigned to it. ' It is generally ascribed by them 
 to the ancient Emperor Shun, who is supposed to have 
 reigned during the third milliennium B.C. ; but some attribute 
 it to his more famous predecessor, Huang-ti, who is given a 
 Director of Pottery ' among the officers of his court. 
 
 'In a book published in the Ghow dynasty, 'there is a short 
 section on pottery, in which the processes of fashioning on the wheel 
 and moulding are distinguished. Among the productions we read of 
 coffins, sacrificial wine-jars, and altar dishes, cooking utensils and 
 measures, all made no doubt of simple pottery, and it is doubted 
 whether this was ever covered by a vitreous glaze— the employment 
 of which is so ancient in Egypt. Different potteries are mentioned in 
 the Wei and following dynasties.' ' The manufacture of articles of 
 pottery for domestic use then was known to the Chinese as early as 
 B, C. 1700.' 
 
 This is one view, but, unfortunately, the term used for 
 porcelain in Chinese is one of those words which every 
 language possesses, namely, words which have changed from 
 their original significance — this word, having first been 
 applied to all pottery, affords no sure clue for fixing dates as 
 to the original production of porcelain. St. Julien places the 
 invention as early as between B.C. 185 and A.D. 83, 'It has 
 been objected to this, with justice, that the Chinese state- 
 ments on which he bases his theory, are, like those of Marco 
 Polo, very superficial and indefinite, and most probably relate 
 to quite other clay-wares.' Therefore, the statement that 
 porcelain was produced in the Han dynasty (B.C. 206 to 
 A.D, 220) is unfortunately incapable of proof. Were it 
 possible to discover any indubitable productions of that 
 epoch, all doubt might be sot at rest, but at present it is not 
 
POIKJI'ILAIN AM) POTTElir. ^I'S 
 
 known that any exist. Were archu'ology more of a science 
 among the Chinese tlian it is, some hope might be entertained 
 that such wouhl be the case. Some have been sceptical enough 
 to suppose that it was not known *' long, it' at all, before the 
 Ming dynasty (A.D. 13()8), ' while again, on the other hand, 
 it is asserted that porcelain was invented when, in the middle 
 of the ninth century, certain pieces were produced of a white 
 colour, like ivory, and giving a clear sound when struck. 
 
 It is supposed that the Chinese endeavoured to imitate 
 ivory in their whole porcelain, whicli is known in France as 
 hlant' dc Chine. 
 
 The cups, produced at Ta-i, of this ware, have had their 
 praises sung by Tu-fu, a poet of the T'aug dynast) (See 
 Article on Poetry.) The decorations were eft'ected before the 
 baking and were not elaborate, being confined to such subjects 
 as fish, flowers, &c. 
 
 'This was the time when the cobalt decorations under glaze 
 were first employed, which horn then till now have played such an 
 important part in the ornamentation of Chinese porcelain, especially 
 for domestic use among the Chinese themselves.' 
 
 ' At whatever period or by whatever happy chain of circumstances 
 porcelain was invented, we have tangible evidence that the Chinese 
 potters produced wonderful works at a very early period of our era, 
 and have gone on producing them up to our own day. Speaking on 
 this subject, JNI. Phillippe Burty remarks : — ■"' The Chinese ceramists 
 succeeded to a marvellous degree in their manipulation of porcelain ; 
 in their hands it became a truly magical substitute, receiving every 
 form and gradation of colour that caprice could dictate. In their 
 porcelain productions we have proof that the decorative taste and 
 imitative skill of the Chinese artists are almost faultless. You see, 
 for instance, * * a carp and carplings with distended gills 
 slipping amongst a clump of reeds ; a garden rat devouring a peach ; 
 a toad crawling up the involuted root of a bamboo ; or a beautiful 
 water-lily in full bloom, forming a cup, of which the tea-pot is so 
 constructed that not only have its concentric, movable rings been 
 carved out of a solid mass, but they revolve upon each other, causing 
 us to wonder how adherence could have been prevented in the firing. 
 The origin of the great superiority of the Uriental potters is, that they 
 start, in nearly all instances, with a more or less free or capricious 
 imitation of some natural production ; and the aiticle, peculiar in 
 outline and treatment, will, however, readily suggest to the mind 
 some affinity with the real object. All the productions of the natural 
 world, and. indeed, the beings and ni"iisUrs wiUi wliieh they crowd 
 
 •> , •> 
 
i'% TlliNGS CHINESE. 
 
 the supernatural woild, are alike resorted to for fresh inspiration ; and 
 their habits of careful observation of nature supply them with 
 countless delicate subtleties." ' 
 
 ' It is unquestionably to this great appreciation for, and unre- 
 mitting study of the works of nature that we are indebted for the 
 marvellous variety of works produced by the artists of China and 
 Japan. No one can review a collection of Oriental porcelain without 
 being struck with the masterly handling of form and colour it displays. 
 In flower vases, perfume burners, and water vessels, every shape that 
 the mineral, animal, and vegetable kingdoms could suggest has 
 been adopted, and the colouring studiously imitated.' 'The early 
 procelain of the Chinese appears to have been remarkable for its 
 form, and the beauty of its material. At one time, it is probable, 
 white procelain only was made ; but it is evident that at a very early 
 date the art of covering the pieces with a rich coloured enamel 
 had been invented, and also the mode of producing the crackled 
 appearance in the enamel discovered. Many varieties of white 
 procelain have been produced by the Chinese potters, and some are 
 of great beauty, not only on account of the perfection of their paste, 
 but likewise from the tasteful manner in which they are decorated, 
 Some have flowers or conventional designs, carefully modelled in 
 relief, while others have designs so engraved that they are visible 
 only when held up to the light.' 
 
 'The old Chinese potters do not appear to have worked in 
 grooves, or styles, beyond what a limited demand on the part of 
 their patrons rendered necessary. No sooner had some experiment 
 or accident introduced a new colour, combination of colours, or some 
 peculiar surface decoration, than articles were produced siutable for 
 the display of the same ; and we are of opinion that in many cases 
 such essays were never repeated, until attempted in the recent periods 
 of imitation to meet the demand of European collectors. There are, 
 no doubt, such things as unique Chinese porcelain in the cabinets of 
 collectors in China and Europe, and it is highly probable that they 
 have been unique from the day of their fabrication. Many specimens, 
 now sc much prized, may have been spoiled pieces in the eyes of 
 their makers, and, not turning out to be what was desired or expected 
 at the time, were never repeated. This argument applies to the 
 highly curious, and at times extravagant specimens of the splashed 
 or enamelled ware which are met with, and which carry with them 
 evidences, in their distorted shapes and slag-like vitrification, of their 
 accidental decoration.' 
 
 The paste of porcelain-ware is prepared ustially from 
 two ingredients ; these are finely mixed and pulverised ; the 
 one is known as kaolin, so called, it is said, from a hill to 
 the east of the Chinese Imperial Porcelain ManitfactorVj 
 King-teh-chin, kao meaning higli in Chinese, and Hit 
 (pro[)erly Ung). a ridge, or high peak, • which hill, however, 
 does not yield the product of decomposition wliicli wc in 
 
pohcelaw and poTtEuy. i:: 
 
 Europe call kaolin (•• porcelain or pipe clay") but a phyllite, 
 whose chemical composition resembles that of the Swedish 
 Hiillcflinta (?)'; the other ingredient consists of some mineral 
 
 • rich in silicic acid, the so-called tlux usually felspar or 
 
 pegmatite, porcelain stone ( * * these porcelain stones, 
 which are wanting in our porcelain industry, contribute 
 greatly to that of China and Japan), or some other white- 
 burning form of quartz is used in the liner ceramics.' The 
 proportion of the two and the degree of heat in firing depend 
 upon whether porcelain or faience is to be produced. Some of 
 the colours which were used by the Chinese six hundred years 
 ago to decorate their porcelain • we are not yet able to imitate.' 
 
 The white Ting porcelain would appear to have been in 
 existence during tlie seventh century. The Ting-Yao was 
 made at Ting Chau in Chihli, whence its name. It was also 
 known as white Ting porcelain from its colour being mostly 
 of a brilliant white. It is probably one of the oldest kinds. 
 There Avere three varieties of it — plain, smooth, and that 
 having ornaments in relief. The sign of its being genuine is 
 that of having marks like tears on it. It is to be distinguished 
 from the creamy white of another species of porcelain, the 
 kien-yin made in Fuhkien. Commencing with the beginning 
 of the seventh century, it seems probable that the manufacture 
 of porcelain 'began to flourish in various parts of the Empire.' 
 Of the different kinds produced during the T'ang dynasty, no 
 specimens, as far as is known, are extant, but those of the 
 Sung period are to be found in the market ; these, from their 
 age, command a good price. Unfortunately, however, many 
 of this period were of such a delicate make as to be unfitted 
 for survival during the centuries that have intervened. 
 Some, especially those of an indestructible nature, have been 
 handed down ; the others are only known from the descrip- 
 tions given of them in books. Amongst the best of them 
 were the Ch'en and Ju kinds. The .Ju was of a pale ' bluish- 
 green.' 
 
 At the same time as the Ta-i cups, mentioned above, 
 were produced at Yuch-chow for the Emperor's use, the 
 
4t8 mLS'GS CHINESE. 
 
 class of porcelain styled Pi-S3 was made, the colour described 
 as * a hidden colour ' has given rise to some discussion as to the 
 precise meaning. So tine was certain porcelain made here 
 that it was described ^as transparent as jade and so resonant 
 as to be used in sets of twelve to play tunes upon.' But few, 
 if any, specimens of these ancient examples of ceramic art 
 are in existence. IS'o kind of painted decoration appears to 
 have been used before the Sung dynasty, as writers are silent 
 about anything of the kind. 
 
 The tenth century is marked by progress, both in the 
 perfected operations and in the art of the decorator, Avhich 
 felt the influence of Buddhism bringing Indian art in its 
 train, and improving the taste of the natives. The Chinese 
 describe the porcelain produced at this epoch ( A.D. 960 ) in 
 the following terms :— 'Blue as the sky, bright as a mirror, 
 fragile as paper, and sonorous as a plaque of jade-stone ; 
 they were lustrous and of a charming delicacy ; the fineness 
 of the crackle and the purity of the colour are distinguishing 
 features of them : they eclipse by their beauty all preceding 
 procelains.' They were called by the highly poetical name 
 of Yii hwo tlen ts'mg, cerulean blue in the cloud rifts as it 
 appears after the showers; they were highly valued and even 
 broken fragments were treasured up as jewels would be, and 
 formed into ornaments. We shall find that later on these 
 were imitated with good effect. 
 
 Amongst numerous manufactories opened then through- 
 out the empire, that of King-teh-chin in Kiang-si, established 
 in A.D. 1001, takes the pre-eminence. It is still the Imperial 
 manufactory and ' supplies all the fine porcelain used in the 
 country.' It was almost wholly destroyed by the T'ai-'p'ing 
 rebellion. A million workmen were employed there previous 
 to that event, when they were dispersed, either joining the 
 insurgent ranks or dying of want; but according to latest 
 accounts these manufactories arc resuming their prosperity ; 
 five hundred kilns, it is said, are constantly burning. 
 
 'And bird-like poise on balanced ^^ing• 
 Above the town of King-te-tching, 
 A biirnin'^ town or seeming so, — ■ 
 
PORCELAIN A\}> POTTERY. 479 
 
 Three thousand furnaces that ghnv 
 Incessantly, and till the ah" 
 With smoke uprising, gyre on gyre. 
 And painted by the lurid glare, 
 Of jets and flashes of red fire 
 
 Longfellow ' Kt'ranios.' 
 
 Rapid progress was made in the art, and at the end of 
 the tenth century coh)ured enamel was iirst applied on the 
 pieces baked in biscuit, and various colours, such as several 
 shades of violet and blue, as well as yellow were used. Budd- 
 hist and Taoist figures, flowers, and the Chinese written 
 characters, which liavo for so many centuries lent themselves 
 readily to decorative an, all were employed, as well as fillets 
 in relief. 
 
 The Chiin is another of the oldest kinds of porcelain. 
 The factories for its production were in existence in the tenth 
 century, at the beginning of tlie Sung dynasty. One native 
 work says ; — 
 
 'The highest quality consists of pieces having a colour as red as 
 cinnabar, and as green as onion leaves and kingfishers' plumage, 
 o o o Qj^f\ ^i^Q purple brown colour of the skin of an egg plant 
 fruit, or of pieces red like rouge, green like onion leaves and king- 
 fishers' plumage, and purple like ink-black, these three colours being- 
 pure and not in the slightest degree changed during the firing.' 
 
 Kuan-yao, mandarin porcelain, as its name implies, was 
 produced in certain Government factories. 
 
 Dr. Hirth describes the specimen seen by him as 'of a peculiar 
 brownish green, a sort of bronze colour,' called by the Chinese 
 ch'a-ch'ing, tea green, but the varieties described as of the Sung 
 dynasty are 'white and thin like paper'; 'another was very much 
 the same as Ko-Yiiti [the ancient celadon crackle] with three 
 gradations in colour constituting their value, viz. : (i) a pale c/i'inu-- 
 green ; (2) a fallow white ; and (3) gray. The Ko-ku-\ao-lun speaks 
 of tV^'//V^''-green playing into pale scarlet, the shades being very 
 difterent though ; the best ones having the " crab's claw pattern," 
 and " a red brim with an iron coloured bottom." ' 
 
 Another division of porcelains was the Lvng-dc i'ian-iia\i 
 and Ko-iidii, ' the real old celadons ' described as of ' a sea- 
 green mixed with bluish or grayish tints, neither a decided 
 green nor anything like blue.' The qualities it possesses are 
 'thickness, heaviness, rich olive or sea-green enamel, white 
 
480 TJIINGS CHINESE. 
 
 paste, and a * * ferruginous ring on the bottom ' — the 
 paste, which was originally white, turned red in the fire. 
 These were produced in the Sung and Yuen dynasties (A.D. 
 9G0 to 1308) and socni to have been carried by the current 
 of meditcval Chinese trade into ' Arab possessions and other 
 foreign countries.' 
 
 We quote the following interesting account of crackle from 
 Gulland's new and interesting work • Chinese Porcelain : — 
 
 'This [crackle], like the following class [celadon], consists of a 
 glaze, white or coloured, generally covering a coarse paste resem- 
 bling stoneware, which is sometimes of quite a red colour. Although 
 now artificially produced, it is said originally, at an early period, to 
 have been discovered by accident. Crackle, it is said by the Chinese, 
 was knownduring the southern Sung dynasty (A.D. 1 127 — 1278). There 
 seems to be various ways of producing this effect, which appears in 
 the main to have been caused by exposing the piece to a sudden drop 
 in temperature, thus causing the glaze on the surface to contract 
 faster than the paste or biscuit, and so break into sections, which, 
 when baked, become crackle. In these small cracks in the glaze, 
 Indian ink or a red colour were sometimes rubbed, thus heightening 
 the effect. The Chinese were so completely the masters of the pro- 
 cess, that they could turn out at will crackle of any size, now known 
 as large, medium and small crackle, the latter being called by the 
 French truite, from its resemblance to the scales of a trout.' 
 
 The crackled porcelain known as tsui-k't in the 
 thirteenth century was also a product of this first or primitive 
 period of the ceramic art in China. 'The beautiful coloured 
 ground tints, chalcedony, dull violet, yellow and Turkish 
 blue, so much valued by collectors, began to be used in the 
 thirteenth century.' 
 
 The second period, the Siuen-tih, comprises the reigns of 
 Siuen-tih, Ching-tung, and King-tai, lasting from A.D. 1126 
 to A.D. 1 165. Ceramic art was still in a formative stage at 
 the commencement of this period, notwithstanding the 
 advances made in the last period. Its cliaracteristic type 
 was the decoration of blue flowers under the glaze. This 
 blue was the su-ni-po, and took after the firing a pale blue. 
 This porecelain is highly esteemed by the Chinese. M. 
 Paleologue describes the pieces thus produced in the following 
 terms ;—*Elles out, en effet, un charme doux de coloris et 
 
rOItCELAIN AN3 pottery. 481 
 
 de composition, une purete de ton, une delicatesse d'aspcct 
 qui n'ont jamais ete surpasses. 
 
 Red was also put into the enamel for the first time 
 before the glaze was applied, being ' painted on the paste 
 so that the red designs shone through the glaze, dazzling the 
 eyes. It is described as obtained by powdering rubies from 
 the West, but this is impossible.' It was a copper silicate ; 
 and the red for painting over the glaze was prepared from 
 sulphate of iron and carbonate of lead. * This mixture 
 produced a fine coral red,' and, to procure a deep enough 
 red, cornelian was employed. 
 
 Amongst other work produced at this time may be 
 mentioned some pottery known by the Portuguese as 
 boccaro : the fine kind of this ware was formed into teapots 
 and other objects, while the coarser sort was employed as 
 ornamentation on walls, it being used in the famous Porcelain 
 Tower of Nanking, which was built A.D. 1415-1430. 
 
 The reign of Siuen-tih ' is celebrated for its porcelain, which is 
 held [by some] to be the finest produced during the Ming dynasty : 
 every production was of the highest artistic value. Cups were 
 made of a bright red or of sky blue. The surface on some cups was 
 granulated like the skin of a fowl or the peel of the sweet orange. 
 There were vases crackled like glass, or with veins as red as the 
 blood of the eel, rivalling in beauty the porcelain of Jou-chou and the 
 Kuan-yao. The bowls decorated with crickets were of extraordinary 
 beauty,' 
 
 'The most flourishing period of Chinese porcelain making, how- 
 ever, like that of most other branches of its art industry, was during 
 the Ming dynasty, especially in the second half of the fifteenth cen- 
 tury. During this period its manufacture occupied a new position 
 owing to the employment of many coloured decorations upon glaze 
 after the article had been baked. This was a Jiew development, and 
 was called "the five-coloured porcelain," because more than one 
 colour was employed, but the number was not necessarily confined to 
 five. We shall refer again to these under the K'ang-hi period. With 
 this advance the artist proceeded to more difficult subjects for decora- 
 tive purposes, such as the human figure, historical, legendary, and 
 religious scenes and landscapes. Porcelains in which green pre- 
 domiated were particujary prized.' ' Gold and gold purple were not 
 used till the year 1690.' 
 
 The third epoch, that of Chin^-hwa, includes the reigns 
 of Hung-chi, Ching-teh, Kia-tsing, and Lung-king, and lasted 
 
 2 iv 
 
482 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 from A.D. 14G5 to 1573. Blue porcelain was still manufactured, 
 less pure materials being employed in place of the su-ni-po. 
 
 At the same time advances are noticeable in other points, 
 such as arrangements of colours and skill in designs, 
 &c. An improved quality of cobalt seems to have been used 
 (A.D. 1521) and a new d-irk blue was produced ; the objects 
 made in it commanded a high price. 
 
 'In the Ching-hwa period [that of the reign of that sovereign A.D. 
 1465- 1487] lived several celebrated artists. One made jars which he 
 decorated on the upper part with the moxttan [tree peony] in flower, 
 and below a hen and chickens full of life and movement. There were 
 also cups with handles, painted with grapes ; wine cups, ornamented 
 with figures and the lotus ; others as thin as paper, painted with blue 
 flowers ; others with locusts. The enamelled were especially esteemed. 
 The blue on the ware of this period is inferior to the Siuen-tih, but its 
 paintings and colours surpass any that preceded them.' 
 
 Gilding, wliich was first empolyed during the Yuen 
 dynasy, was brought to perfection during the reign of Ching- 
 hwa, (A.D. 1465-1489). 
 
 'In the Kia-tsing period (A.D. 1522-1566) the dark blue 
 vases were alone in favour.' 
 
 Immence quantities of porcelain were ordered to be manu- 
 factured for Imperial purposes in A.D. 1571 : no less a number 
 than 105,770 pairs of different kinds of articles, and in 1583 
 as many as 96,000 pieces, but remonstrances were made by 
 the censors, and in some instances, at all events, the amounts 
 were reduced. This wholesale ordering and consequent 
 enormous production has flooded the streets of Peking with 
 procelain of that date, ' where a street hawker may be seen 
 with sweetmeats piled on dishes over a yard in diameter, or 
 ladling iced syrup out of Ming bowls, and there is hardly a 
 butcher's shop without a large Ming jar.' 
 
 The Fourth period is styled the Wan-lih period, though 
 it covers the reigns of Tai-chang, Tien-ki and Chung-ching 
 of the Ming dynasty, as Avell as that of Shun-chi of the 
 present, or Ts'ing dynasty, and lasted from A.D. 1573 to 1662. 
 
 Green and the five cMoured porcelains were the chief 
 products. Two drawbacks were experienced at this time ; 
 
PORCELAIN AND POTTERT. 483 
 
 one was the giving out of the clay employed for the fine 
 
 porcelain ; and the other was tlie cessation of the 
 
 importation of the blue— tlie Mohammedan blue as the 
 
 Chinese termed it — ;]ust, as a century before, the su-ni-po 
 
 blue had failed. To meet the new condition of affairs and to 
 
 hide the grayish character of the only products procurable 
 
 with the materials at their disposal, a rich brilliancy of 
 
 enamel was employed, and the importance attached to the 
 
 outer surface hid the inferior products below. 
 
 During the reign of Lung-King, the last Emperor of the 
 
 last period, as well as during that of Wan-lih, the first of the 
 
 period now under review, ' the Imperial manufactory produced 
 
 pieces which showed the greatest artistic skill.' 
 
 The latter Emperor 'had cups for the altar as white as jade, 
 and of extraordinary beauty. The glaze of the vases was creamy, 
 '•like a layer of congealed fat." The surface was granulated, as if 
 covered with grains of millet, or like the flesh of a fowl; some are 
 said to appear as if covered with buds of the azalea, and others 
 shagreened like the peel of an orange.' During this same reign 
 there 'lived a celebrated artist of the name of Au, who excelled in 
 poetry, writing, and painting. * * He withdrew from the world 
 
 and retired to a manufactory, where he produced, in secret, porcelain, 
 remarkable alike for its quality and the beauty of its colours. Among 
 these the most sought after were large cups, ornamented with red 
 clouds, brilliant as vermilion, and egg-shell cups, of dazzling white- 
 ness, and so fine that some of them did not weigh more than twelve 
 grains.' 'The white pieces of the Wan-hih ' reign, 'were very 
 celebrated.' 'The manufacture of porcelain continued at the King- 
 teh-chin Imperial Potteries under the present dynasty (the Ts'ing or 
 Manchu Tartar A.D. 1662) with equal success.' During Shun-chi's 
 reign, however, as well as the latter part of the Ming dynasty, ' there 
 seems to have been a great decline in the manufacture of fine 
 porcelain ; therefore little artistic work is found during this period.'' 
 
 'The Monochrome porcelain of the Ming and Kien-lung periods, 
 the ruby, san^ de bcciif, Imperial yellow, crushed strawberry, peach- 
 bloom, moonlight blue, camellia-green, apple-green, and other rare 
 enamel porcelains of old China always have been, and still remain, 
 inimitable.' 
 
 'The secret of the Chinese coloured enamel porcelain vases 
 consisted in 'the art of using vitrifiable enamels, which required the 
 second firing over the glaze at a low temperature.' 
 
 The Fifth epoch is that of the reign of the Emperor 
 K'ang-hi (A.D. 1662-1723) in which the art of the manu- 
 facture of porcelain attained its greatest eminence, as M. 
 Palcologue says about it : — 
 
 2 K 2 
 
484. TllimS CIIINESi^. 
 
 ' C'est la belle epoque de la porcelaine. Les precedes sc sont 
 perfectionnes, les ressources des ceramistes et des peintres sont plus 
 riches ; d'autre part, les formes sont plus heureuses et mieux pon- 
 derees, la composition plus savante et plus variee ; les colorations 
 ont une harmonic douce ou une puissance d'eclat que les pieces an- 
 ciennes, avaient rarement realisees.' -~ 
 
 Mr. Gulland calls attention to the fact that : • • 
 
 Kanghi ' seem s to have been a very able man, fond of art and science, 
 willing moreover to avail himself of the assistance of the Jesuit mis- 
 sionaries and it was probably their aid that led, as Sir A. W. Franks 
 says, " to many improvements in the porcelain manufacture and to the 
 introduction of several new colours." It is said that two Jesuit lay 
 brothers were at this time employed at the royal factories of King- 
 te-chin.' 
 
 Ysbranti Ides, ambassador to China from Peter the 
 Great in A.D. 1692, speaking of the porcelain of the country 
 says : — 
 
 ' The finest, richest, and most valuable China is not exported, or 
 as least very rarely, partieularly a yellow ware, which is destined for 
 the Imperial use, and is prohibited to all other persons. They have 
 a kind of crimson ware [probably the sa7ig-de-bwuf\ which is very 
 fine and dear, because great quantities of it are spoiled in the baking. 
 They have another sort, of a shining white, purfled with red, which is 
 produced by blowing the colour through a gauze, so that both the 
 inside and outside are equally beautihed with crimson no bigger than 
 pins' points ; and this must be very expensive, since for one piece that 
 succeeds a hundred are spoiled. They have a kind of China 
 purfled in the same manner with gold. Also a kind which looks like 
 mosaic work, or as if it had been cracked in a thousand places and 
 set together again without cement. There is another kind of violet- 
 coloured china, with patterns composed of green specks, which are 
 made by blowing the colours through a frame pierced with holes ; 
 and this operation succeeds so rarely, that a very small basin ie 
 worth two or three hundred pounds. They have a kind of whits 
 china, excessively thin, with blue fishes painted on the material be- 
 tween the coats of varnish, so that they are invisible except when the 
 cup is full of liquor.' 
 
 The most of the porcelain of this period may be grouped 
 under the four heads of white porcelain, green, rose, and 
 coloured glaze. 
 
 This white porcelain was made in Te-hoa in the 
 Fuh-kien province ; the Chinese call it peJi-ts.::, that is ' white 
 porcelain.' It 'is very lustrous and polished,' but it is very 
 thick. It was used with good effect in the construction of 
 
PORCELAIN AND POTTERW iSa 
 
 statuettes of Buddhist idols. AI. Palcologuc thus describes 
 one that he saw : — 
 
 'Ccrtaiacs statuettes faites de cetto pate out iin charmc singulior ; 
 unc decssc Kouan-yin, que nous vinies a Pckin, avail, dans son im- 
 mobilite hieratiquc, une delicatesse de formes, unc grace pensive, une 
 douceur de physionomie et une suavite d'expression que n'ont jamais 
 depassees les plus beaux bronzes sacres.' 
 
 The white is not confined to one shade, but runs througli 
 all the varieties. 
 
 With regard to the green porcelain, two schools sprang 
 up : one, while following the models of antiquity, introduced 
 a grace and beauty and an improvement in style wanting in 
 the old works. Flowers, sprays of trees, grasses, flights of 
 birds, beetles, and dragon-flies, all lent their aid to the de- 
 corations of these objects, and the love of nature, so inherent 
 in the Chinese, had full scope, while in combination with 
 the dominant green, appeared red and touches of yellow^ 
 blue, and violet ; the other school, while paying less atten- 
 tion to colouring, had able brushes and skilful hands, which 
 were employed in depicting ' historical or religious scenes, 
 full of life and movement,' but unfortunately an Imperial 
 edict in A.D. 1677 put an end to the production of such 
 scenes. 
 
 Several new colours were discovered about A.D. 1680. 
 The rose colour had different shades of ' exquisite sweetness,' 
 The commonest subjects employed were flowers and birds, 
 amongst the former, the lotus and chrysanthemum were 
 favourites. This kind of porcelain, however, was further 
 perfected in the following period. Of the remaining por- 
 celains, of this epoch, the celadons and the flambes are 
 to be particularly noticed. With regard to the former they 
 were not first produced during this epoch, but some manu- 
 factured now were perfect gems in brilliancy. 'Turquoise- 
 blue, sea-green, and a suspicion of viulet' is one descrijition 
 of what celadons are, and all these tints are often met 
 blended in one. 
 
486 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Gulland describes Celadon as' "single coloured glazes," known 
 as "whole" or "self" coloured pieces. To lovers of colour this is 
 probably the most interesting class. It was much appreciated by the 
 collectors of last century, and still brings long prices. Of all the 
 various descriptions, it is. perhaps, the one that lent itself best to 
 French skill in ormolu mounting. The distinctive feature of this 
 class is that the coloured glaze was applied to the " paste,'' and thus 
 exposed to the extreme heat of the first firing. This often caused the 
 glaze to change colour, hence the variegated hues to be met with, 
 known to the French ?^sflainhl\ and to us as "splashed." In course 
 of time the Chinese no doubt could produce this effect pretty well at 
 will, and perhaps sometimes used glazes of more than one colour to 
 obtain their end. The word celadon is unfortunately used in two 
 senses — as a general term where the substance of which the vessel is 
 made is hid from view by the coloured glaze with which it is covered ; 
 in the other, as indicating that particular range of greens known by this 
 name. * * In no class do we find greater variely or 
 
 brilliancy of colourir.g than in this ; nearly every colour and shade 
 thereof is to be met with.' 
 
 The list of shades, thirty-four in number, given on page 
 139 of Mr. Gulland's book will show what a variety of 
 colours are to be met with in this interesting division of 
 porcelain. 
 
 We must really again quote IM. Paleologue, who is so 
 in love with his subject that he woiild make an enthusiast 
 of almost any one. He says of these celadons : — 
 
 ' Les celadons dits "bleu de ciel apres la pluie," en souvenir 
 das porcelaines, de Che-tsong dont ils etaient I'imitation, nous ofifrent 
 les plus delicats specimens de ce genre. Mais les celadons ornes de 
 dessius graves ou imprimes en relief dans la pate du fond sont encore 
 plus seduisants peut-etre par les effets de modele et de coloration 
 que realise la couverte accumulee sur le decor : la fluidite' des teintes, 
 la sorte d'ombre dont elles s'enveloppent par places n'ont jamais pu 
 etre reproduites dans les porcelaines de fabrication europeenne. 
 Notons enfin, dans le meme groupe ceramiqae les celadons bleu 
 empois dont la couverte, preparee au cobalt, a un aspect lumineux, 
 semi-translucide.' 
 
 'Celadon porcelain is manufactured by applying the green glaze 
 to the ware before it has been fired at all ; by this means, the 
 peculiar depth of surface is given to it, the burning process thoroughly 
 incorporating the glaze into the body.' 
 
 The spotted celadons which were the rage in France in 
 the eighteenth century were also the products of this period. 
 
 There were some beautiful specimens of flambes at this 
 time : one is described as resmbling precious stones blended 
 
PORCELAIN AND rOTTERY. 487 
 
 together : but it is in the next period th<at these works were 
 the most finished. 
 
 During K'ang-hi's reign crackled China M'as brought to 
 perfection : — 
 
 ' Perhaps the most characteristic ware produced by the Chinese 
 potters is the crackled. Many varieties of this ware exist, but they 
 are all produced by the same means, namely, the unequal contraction 
 of the glaze and the body. There is little doubt that the first crackled 
 piece was the result of an accident, or what might as properly be 
 called, a blunder ; the glaze had not been of the usual quality, and 
 in cooling, contracted so much more than the body, that it split into 
 a thousand pieces.' 
 
 'The crackle glaze is highly esteemed by the Chinese, and in 
 their hands has been made in many varieties quite decorative. There 
 is a style of large crackle with the intervening space filled with a fine 
 crackle, the fine cracks never passing beyond the enclosing lines of 
 the coarse. There are other specimens with zones of fine cr?.ckle, 
 with intervening spaces without crackle, ornamented with markings 
 to suit the fancy of the artist. But one of the most decorative crackles 
 is produced by making the fissures of the first glaze as wide as pos- 
 sible, and then rubbing colouring matter into the interstices ; the 
 piece being again fired to fix these colours, after which a smooth 
 transparent enamel is applied over all, often giving the piece the 
 appearance of mosaic work.' 
 
 Amongst other noteworthy productions of this epoch 
 are to be named the tsang, the enamel of which was serpent 
 green, gold yellow, pale yellow, violet or light green ; and 
 this variety took all the colours of bronze. 
 
 A very curious coloration is produced on vases by the 
 ■workman bloAving the colouring, ' after the base colour' was 
 applied, which Avas matter ' usually of a reddish brown' 
 colour, ' through a piece of gauze fastened at the end of a 
 tube of bamboo.' ' This metallic colouring strikes in a spray, 
 and, after firing, the specimen has a fine metallic lustre not 
 very unlike what is known as gold stone.' Some vases have 
 been subjected to this mode of treatment more than once, 
 receiving a miniature shower of difterent coloured rain. This 
 kind of decoration is known by the name of souffle, and the 
 finest of it was produced during the Kang-hi period. 
 
 Quite a variety of these decorations were produced, one 
 of which at least is verv beautiful. By some means the 
 
488 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 colouring material was ' blown from the tube ' and lighted 
 *upon the piece in small bubbles, some remaining as such, 
 while most of them' broke and formed •' rings, many of the 
 rings, in turn,' broke ^at their lower side, the colours running 
 a little, often giving a beautiful agate appearance, in fact, 
 such pieces are called agate specimens. Souffle porcelain was 
 also made in the Kien-lung period, but not of so fine a 
 quality' as that just described. 
 
 'The best blacks were made in the reign of Kang-hi, and with 
 their fine enamel some specimens are quite beautiful ; the black is 
 produced by uranium oxide. Plain reds were not much used, it seems, 
 during the time of Kang-hi, but a lovely tint was employed in con- 
 nection with other colours' in the decorations. * * * what is 
 known as the five-coloured decoration, was introduced during the 
 Ming dynasty, but brought to its greatest degree of perfection during 
 the time of Kang-hi. 'J"he five colours are red, yellow, green, blue, 
 and black. These are all produced from metallic oxides or minerals ; 
 no other colouring matter will stand the high degree of heat required 
 to produce underglaze decoration. In using these colours in com- 
 bination it required a great amount of experience and manipulative 
 skill, and so the range of colours must necessarily be limited, for all 
 material used must be of a character to fuse on the one hand before 
 the fusing point of the paste, and on the other not evaporate and 
 spoil the shade required, while enduring the heat necessary for the 
 underglaze firing ; and then again, some colours are much more re- 
 fractory than others ; no two fuse at the same temperature. There- 
 fore the most refractory colours must in all cases be applied first, then 
 the piece fired to the fusing point of this colour, then, for the shading 
 of this colour, more must be added to points requiring the heavy 
 shades, and fused again until this colour and its tints are satisfactory ; 
 then the next refractory colour is applied in the same manner, fired 
 to the fusing point, and so on until the last and most easily fusible 
 colour has been applied, whereupon over all an enamel is fused 
 which is less refractory than any colour. The fine specimens of the 
 five colours have probably been fired from fifteen to twenty times. 
 Then if the piece comes out at the last finished, without break, crack, 
 warp, or the colours having run, and possessing all the brilliancy and 
 shading desired, the piece is valuable ; many are spoiled during this 
 fiery ordeal. With very limited exceptions the finest artists that ever 
 existed in China lived during the K'ang-hi period.' During this 'time 
 Chinese porcelain was brought to its highest degree of perfection and 
 artistic beauty, with perhaps the exception of the beautiful IMing 
 greens. The exquisite san^-de-bceiif \\\\en perfect is of great beauty. 
 To describe its brilliancy would be most difficult, yet, if attempted, 
 one might say, take a plain, undecorated porcelain vase and immerse 
 it in the freshest arterial blood, and, while dripping, fix the colour 
 with a deep transparent enamel. While one piece is nearly perfect, 
 a thousand are more or less spoiled in the firing. They come out of 
 the kiln from the beautiful colour above described to a much darker 
 
PORCELAIN AXD rOTTETiW 489 
 
 red, often badly blotched ; from the latter they run throiigli all the 
 shades until lost in an ash colour tinged with only the slightest blush 
 of red. There is a beautiful blue which seems engraved into a 
 creamy paste over which a liquid enamel is fixed, the enamel often 
 being crackled, and also an exquisite white described as having the 
 appearance of congealed fat. Perhaps with these exceptions, no 
 Ming porcelain or decorations equal, in quality of paste, beauty of 
 foim, purity of enamel, brilliancy and happy combination of colours, 
 and high artistic decorative skill, the porcelain made during the 
 reign of Kang-hi.' 
 
 'With the exception of the beautiful blue and the creamy tinted 
 white (often crackled), which belong to the Ming dynasty — these 
 specimens are often rare — all other fine old blue and white china 
 belongs to the K'ang-hi period, often inaccurately marked Ming in 
 Chinese chracters on the bottom. Many of the specimens are 
 very beautiful ; they have a clear white ground and brilliant blue 
 ornamentation, and have this virtue, that in whatever light, and from 
 whatever distance the colour of the piece is seen, it is always blue. 
 These blues are formed from cobalt oxide. All the fine yellow with 
 a deep transparent enamel which lights up with a delightful brilliancy, 
 was also made in the K'ang-hi period ; these are often decorated with 
 a lively green, usually with a dragon,' a lion, ' or some mythical 
 creature.' 'Yellow is the present Imperial colour. The turcpoise 
 variety was probably first made during this reign, and is among the 
 most highly prized. The colour is derived from a copper oxide, and 
 like the 5<?«^-(/i?r(^tr?(/' of the Mings, it seems to have been somewhat 
 incorporated with the glaze, which is translucent, and, if it can be 
 properly expressed in words, would appear as though you were 
 looking into a depth of brilliant colour: when pure it is very beautiful, 
 and has the property of retaining its character in artificial light. 
 Green was the Imperial colour of the Mings, and was brought to a 
 fair degree of perfection, having a jade-like brilliancy; in fact real 
 jade was reduced to a fine powder and incorporated with ordinary 
 colouring material, chromic oxide, so that in firing, a good jade green 
 was the result. These fine greens were well preserved, but very much 
 improved upon in true jade brilliancy during the K'ang-hi period. The 
 plain green of the Mings called triiile is highly prized.' 
 
 'Towards the end of the reign of K'ang-hi a new style of 
 decoration appears in the " famille rose " distinguished by a totally 
 different tone of colouring with its prevailing half tints and broken 
 colours, including pink and ruby enamel derived from gold.' 
 
 This kind of porcelain attained its highest excellence 
 durincf the followin"; reiofn, that of Yunsr-chinfj. 
 
 The Sixth epoch is that of Yung-ching and Kien-Iung 
 A.D. 1723 to A.D. 179(3. The commencement of the period 
 marked a new era in ceramic art, and the modern school 
 may be said to have then begun. The artists of the modern 
 school as regards the processes and technical skill are the 
 
 2 h 
 
490 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 equals of their predecessors, 'in some points thoy are oven 
 superior to them/ as for example in the egg-shell china 
 produced by them ; but at the same time there are dis- 
 tinguishable the causes which resulted in tlie decadence of 
 the Chinese porcelain later on, for the ornament is overdone, 
 the tendency being to cover the whole surface with arabesques, 
 branches, and foliage. 
 
 During Yung-ching's reign, a period of thirteen years, 
 'the ceramic art declined, and very little fine work was done.' 
 Yet what was done is of interest. There is a fine egg-shell 
 specimen, very thin, often decorated. Some pieces were of 
 the colour of an egg, and as shining as silver. Others were 
 imitations of the ancient wares, especially the live-coloured 
 Ming, true to the colour of the porcelain, which is- of a 
 grayish white, but rather coarse in appearance instead of a 
 clear white, like the K'ang-hi work. The colours used and 
 the style of decoration are so exact that it would be difficult 
 to detect the difference, were it not, perhaps, for the in- 
 troduction of certain fruits, the peach and pomegranate, for 
 instance, and the peculiar modified shapes of at least the 
 beakers. 
 
 *The "hawthorn pattern" — really the "prunus," which 
 produces its blossoms before its leaves — is to be met with 
 bearing very early date-marks ; but it is now generally held 
 that none are gunine previous to Yung-ching (1723-1736), 
 "and the finest and most prized examples were probably 
 made about this date." ' 
 
 In Kien-lung's reign many varieties of china were pro- 
 duced, but ' the principal types may be ranged into four 
 classes': —the rose porcelain, egg-shell, flambe, and that for 
 exportation. We have already mentioned the first under the 
 reigns of K'ang-hi and Yung-ching ; the egg-shell porcelain 
 which reached its perfection about A.D. 1732 was a most 
 delicate production ; the flambe porcelain presents the ap- 
 pearance of a phiy of colours and, as we have already said^ 
 of precious stones fused together ; currents of air were rapidly 
 
.POIICKLAIS AM) POTTEUY. 491 
 
 directed on the vase while it was in the fire ; the Cliiucsc have 
 taken their inspiration as colourists of porcehiin from nature 
 whenever ricli tones or a ])hiy of colours presented them- 
 selves ; the porcelain for exportation consists of several 
 varieties such as J\[andarin porcelain where these function- 
 aries figure as the decorations. This porcelain is sent to 
 Europe and is very inferior in ciiarac'er. There is also por- 
 celain Avith Persian designs for the Persian market; and 
 Chinese porcelain exported and decorated in Europe. 
 
 During the reign of Kicii-limg (A.D. 1 736-1 796 )' the ceramic 
 art was brought nearly to the perfection it was left in by K'ang hi ; 
 yet altogether it fell a little short. However, one artist, named T'ang, 
 decorating in the five colours, surpassed all others, before or since, in 
 his wonderful skill in drawing flowers and fruit. He represented 
 fruit in all stages ; sometimes the skin of the ripe grape or peach was 
 broken, ihe juice running on to the stand or table on which it was 
 lying; even a broken bit of this porcelain is of value, while a perfect 
 specimen brings a large price.' The Kien-lung as a whole is a little 
 below the K'ang-hi ' in quality and decoration. There is, however, 
 a gieat variety of plain reds called dragon's blood, many are fine 
 specimens, but not equal to the sang-de-bocttf of the Mings, though 
 perhaps better than any K'ang-hi red. Also a good turquoise was 
 made but inferior to the brilliant K'ang-hi specimens, and a very large 
 variety of flambes Probably this flambe was at first an accident 
 caused by one colour running into another ; evidently the cue was 
 taken from the accident, and a high degree of ornamentation followed. 
 One of the most charming effects perhaps is produced by streaks ot 
 whitish blue running down over a dragon's blood red, giving one 
 something of the sensation of delightful minor music. The other 
 coloured enamels are almost countless, an endless variety being 
 obtained by admixture of different tints, by dusting, sprinking, and 
 splashing. These enamels appear to be laid upon the porcelain while 
 it is in a biscuit state, and fused at a great heat ; the firing does 
 really the artist's duty in works of this class, changing the tints, com- 
 bining and running them over into one another in the most fantastic 
 manner. If seems every attempt was made in mixing colours to 
 produce new tints ; even new colours were discovered among them, 
 violet and pink. It is probable that the endeavour to get a greater 
 variety of tints by mixing colours was one reason of the Kien-lung 
 decoration falling short in brilliancy of the simple colour decoration 
 of K'ang-hi.' 
 
 The Seventh epoch is the present period commencing 
 with A.D. 1796. It has seen no progress, but is rather a 
 period of decadence, partly due to the excessive djmand for 
 Chinese porcelain of any style or character in the West, and 
 also as well to the diminution of artistic judgment in China. 
 
492 THINGS Cnih'ESE. 
 
 The marks on Chinese porcelain chiefly consist of a date, 
 or rather the name of the reign of an Emperor, or that of a 
 dynasty, or both combined. The workman's name does not 
 appear, as ' in China every piece passes through the hands 
 of a number of workmen, each contributing his fraction to 
 the decoration. All these decorators being other than the 
 potter who turned the vase, and the workman who glazed 
 it, no single specimen could be marked as the work of one 
 man.' 
 
 With the Chinese collector, age is the first requisite and 
 beauty is a secondary consideration. It is amusing to hear 
 the laughter from a Chinese crowd round a stall when the 
 Chinese stall-keeper offers an ugly ginger jar of a hideous 
 glaring yellow, with the recommendation of its age, and the 
 European purchases it. 
 
 Booltft recommouled: — ' Ancient Poi'oelain : a Study in Chinese 
 MediiBval Industry and Trade,' by F. Hirth, Ph. D. An article on ' Chinese 
 Porce'ain before the Present Dynasty' by S. W. Bushell, M.D. ' L'Art 
 Chinols,' by M. Paleologue. ' An Essay on Chinese Porcelain,' by G. 0. 
 Kogers, b.u.s. We are indebted to all of these in the above article. 
 For a popular nia^'azine article see ' Harper's Magazine,' for April, 
 1885, the paper is entitled, 'A collection of Chinese Porcelain": by 
 R. Eiordan, with illustrations. ' Chinese Porcelain,' by W. G. Gulland. 
 This book is finely illustrated with 485 illustrations. ' One of the 
 most expensive books ever produced in America, and perhaps in the 
 whole world, is a volume on Oriental Ceramic Art. The price of the 
 ■work is £101), and the issue is limited to .500 copies. But ^.jO.OOO will 
 barely cover the cost of publication. Mr. Louis Prang, of Boston, alone 
 had courage to tackle the job, which it has taken him seven years to 
 accomplish. The result is said to be a triumph of skill and patience, many 
 of the plates having passed forty-four times through the press. Dr. 
 S. W. Bushell. the physician ta the British. Enibass)' at Peking, supplies 
 the text, which is virtually a complete history of Cliinese porcelain, and 
 to his judgment and zeal Mr. Walters, from whose collection the specimens 
 illustrated are taken, owes many of his tinest specimens.' 
 
 POSTS. — There was no Post Office department in the 
 Chinese Government similar to our General Post Office and 
 its bra'iches. The Government sent its despatches by 
 means of couriers, who were under a department of the 
 Board of War, and for whom relays of horses were provided ; 
 the greatest speed attained by these Government couriers 
 was 200 miles a day. Tliis courier service was simply for 
 governmental purposes ; the common people did not share 
 
POSTS, 493 
 
 in its advantages and convenience. Commercial enterprise 
 provided for the general community a system of local posts 
 ' entirely independent of the State.' In most places, of any 
 importance, letters were received by certain shops or agencies, 
 (private postal agencies), and on payment of a sum, its amount 
 being contingent on tlie distance the letter or parcel of silver 
 had to be carried, it would probably have a good chance of 
 reaching its destination. To better secure this result, it was 
 sometimes customary to write on the envelope that a certain 
 further sum Avould be paid to the postman on delivery, who 
 had thus an incentive to try and find the addressee. The 
 postage from Hongkong to Canton was twenty cash (2 cents), 
 but from Hongkong to Fat-shan, which is about twelve miles 
 further than Canton, it was double that amount, viz., forty 
 cash ; this was one of the advantages which would h'ave 
 resulted from foreigners been allowed to run steamers on all 
 the inner waters of the Chinese Empire — a cheapening of the 
 postal rates — for there are regular lines of American river 
 steamers running between Hongkong and Canton. There 
 are also steamers of the same kind running on the Yangtsz 
 between Shanghai and the Riverine Ports. 
 
 Sir Robert Hart, the Inspector-General of the Imperial 
 Maritime Customs, established a postal system between 
 Peking and Shanghai, &c., which was of great benefit, not 
 only to the Customs service, but to the foreign mercantile 
 community. When the northern ports were ice-bound, a 
 courier carried the letters : and a series of postage stamps 
 were in use, of different denominations, such as one, two, 
 and five candarins, having a dragon in the centre. We wrote 
 some few years since that 'it is to be hoped that this will be 
 the nucleus from which shall expand a general postage 
 system for the whole of China.' 
 
 This has fortunately now been taken in hand and 
 an Imperial Postal Service has been instituted by 
 Sir Robert Hart with Europeans at the head of it, which 
 Avill doubtless in time be extended to the whole of this vast 
 empire, even to its remotest corners. Different issues of 
 
494 THINGS CIILXESE. 
 
 postage stamps, &c., have appeared during tlie last few 
 years, some of which ;ne now rare and consequently 
 expensive, and the ardent phihitelist has all the varieties 
 of surcharges, &c., to delight himself with. 
 
 JidiiJ,' vrcommcndi'd. — A shnrt nrticle in the ' Conihill Mngaziue, 
 re-published in 'Tiie China Mail' of the 2Uth August, 18'Jl. 
 
 PO-TSZ AND OTHER GAMES OF CHANCE.— 
 Po-tsz is only one of the many games of chance with which the 
 Chinese are fiimiliar : it is more a Hakka game than Cantonese, 
 though Cantonese play it as well. Cards and dominoes are used 
 like checks for umbrellas at public places of entertainment 
 in England, one been handed to the gambler and one being 
 kept by the holder of the gambling stall. These are placed with 
 the gamblers' counters and serve to identify them as theirs; 
 for counters are also used, viz., a large cash, a white, and a black, 
 porcelain counter or bead, draftsmen (like Chinese chess- 
 men) with the amounts they stand for cut in them. The 
 amounts represented by these may, for example, be as follows — 
 the cash, ten cents, white bead, |1, black do, ^5, and the rest 
 ^10, and so on, and stakes are made. The materials for play- 
 ing pb-tsz consist of two hollow cubes of brass, the one smaller 
 than the other, and fitting one into the other, and a cube of 
 black wood, which fits into the smaller brass cube, but does not 
 quite reach up to the open top of it, so that often a piece of 
 metal is placed below it to raise it, though this is not always 
 done. On each surface of the cube of wood are two characters, 
 cutintothe wood and coloured white and red respectively, the 
 characters are generally t'ung and pb, which are two of the char-, 
 acters on a Chinese cash, as these coins Avere first used to play 
 po-tsz. The first character (t''ung) iswhit^ej and the second (po) 
 red; white Avins, and red loses. There is a board or table Avith 
 one, tAvo, three, and four written on each side, or they 
 are often not Avritten on the board, as one is always near 
 the holder of the stall, two at his right hand, three 
 opposite him, and four at his left hand. The cube of 
 Avood is put in the smaller hollow cube of brass Avhich is 
 open at one side for this reason an:l then the smaller brass 
 
rd-TSZ ^- OTHEli GAMES OF CHANCE. 495 
 
 cube has tlie larger cube put over it as a cover, one side 
 of tliis larger cube being also left open for that purpose. 
 The owner of the gambling stall puts all these things to- 
 gether unseen by the players, and then spins them round. 
 Any of the players is also at liberty to do the sanio after 
 he has done so. The cube must stop plumb square with the 
 sides of tlie board or table and must be spun until it has 
 done .bO. Then the cube is lifted oft' and whatever number 
 on the board the white character is next wins, red losses. 
 The cube of wood is occasionally turned round inside the 
 smaller brass cube for luck, and after the holder of the stall 
 has done so. the others may look at it and change it them- 
 selves as well. False cubes witli loadstone in the wood, 
 and iron in the larger cube are made, and a confederate, when 
 lifting the cover oft' after the spin, is able to attract the 
 wood in the small cube round to a more favourable side, the 
 crowd being hoodwinked, or prevented from seeing what is 
 going on, by the confederates. The stakes on the white side 
 of the metal, of course, win. 
 
 Fax-t'an is more widely known by the European 
 resident in China. Stakes arc laid on the number of cash 
 that will be left, whether one, two, or three, after raking out, 
 four at a time, a number of casii from under aud round an 
 upturned bowl. 
 
 The Wai Sing Lottery. — Another well-known form of 
 gambling is the Wai Sing Lottery M'hich is based on the 
 Government Civil Service Examinations. Some time before 
 the examination, the monopolist, who runs the lottery, finds 
 out the surnames of the candidates of a certain district, and 
 the players select twenty names on which to stake, having 
 previously endeavoured to find out for their own guidance 
 the capabilities of the candidates, Having made their 
 selection, they send in the names and receive a receipt or 
 ticket. These tickets are differently priced, but a book with 
 half-dollar tickets amounts to ;$500, as each book contains a 
 thousand tickets. Of this money, ^50 goes to the monopolist 
 for expenses, leaving three prizes of $300, $100, and $50 
 
496 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 respectively, subject to be reduced by a ten per cent, com- 
 mission and a further deduction of a considerable amount 
 for the expenses of printing tl)e books and distributing the 
 prizes. The winners are, of course, those who have the 
 highest number of names of successful candidates on their 
 tickets. A perusal of our article on Examinations will show 
 that, from the limited number allowed to pass at an examina- 
 tion, the element of chance must enter very largely into this 
 lottery, and this, notwithstanding the efforts to obtain some 
 idea of the attainments and capabilities of the candidates. 
 
 Pak Kop Piu is the name of another well-known 
 lottery. Eighty characters (words) at the beginning of 'The 
 Thousand Character Classic ' are printed on a flyleaf (tlie 
 characters in this book are largely used by the Chinese as 
 numbers, or as we might use the letters of the alpiiabet in 
 English to distinguish objects. No two characters in the 
 book are alike), and twenty of them are winning numbers. 
 A ticket to cover ten characters may cost four cash, and, if 
 less tlian five characters are winning numbers, the gambler 
 loses his four cash, wliile if he has five winning characters, 
 he makes a profit of a cash or so ; each additional winning 
 character adds immensely to his gains till they culminate in 
 ten taels, should all liis characters be winning numbers. 
 
 The Tsz-FA Lottery has, in place of numbers, the names 
 of thirty six ancient Chinese celebrities ; the prices for a name 
 running from one cash upwards. The prizes of the winning 
 names amount to thirty times the prices paid for them. 
 Khyming themes are issued which disclose in an enigmatical 
 manner, to those who may be able to make a lucky guess, the 
 winning name. Women, however, trust often tc dreams to 
 guide them in their selection ; but the men rely on their 
 knowledge of history and the incidents in the life of the 
 celebrities, to make a good selection. 
 
 Anotlier very common gambling amusement, and one 
 often seen on the streets, is staking on the number of seeds 
 in an orange. If a number of Chinese are seen surrounding 
 
Pd-TSZ S,' OTHER GAMES OF CHANCE. 497 
 
 a fruit hawker's stock of oranges in Hongkong, it will gener- 
 ally be found that this form of gambling is the attraction. 
 Each player has a good look at the orange, a loose-skinned 
 one, and makes a guess at the number of seeds in it, staking 
 his money accordingly. After all have staked, the fruit- 
 dealer skins the orange and opens each division so as to 
 count the pips carefully. The one that guesses right wins 
 treble the amount of his stakes, whilst the two nearest iu 
 their guesses to him each win double theirs. 
 
 But time would fail to enumerate and describe all the 
 different modes of gambling resorted to on street stalls : some 
 known in the West, and some entirely Chinese or Oriental. 
 The Chinaman is deeply imbued with the spirit of gambling. 
 He is brought up to it from his earliest youth, by first 
 venturing a cash or two when buying a ' sweety,' a cake, 
 or fruit; the women spend much of their ignorant leisure in 
 games spiced by the naughtiness of bets and stakes ; while 
 the coolies amuse their unemployed moments by winning or 
 losing their hard-earned cash on a game of chance ; the 
 gambling sheds in the purlieus of the cities are always 
 swarming with votaries, and at New Tear time a saturnalia 
 of gambling is indulged in by all, even by those who reli- 
 giously abstain from it at other times. 
 
 Of games of dice the Chinese have several, played with 
 different numbers of dice of different sizes. The spots on 
 them range from one to six, and are arranged in the same 
 way as on European dice and those of ancient Greece and 
 Rome, but the four and the one are red on the Chinese and 
 the other numbers black. The dice are thrown generally 
 into a bowl, which is sometimes set into a casing of chunam 
 ( inside a tin box) to deaden the sound. 
 
 Kox MiN Yoxa ' driving or pursuing sheep,' is played 
 with six dice and by any number of players. Single and 
 double stakes are deposited on the table and up to any 
 amount, the different throws of the dice deciding whether 
 the players shall win or lose singles or doubles. 
 
 2 M 
 
498 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Hau luk is played with three dice, tlie principle of this 
 game and the hist being much the same otlierwise. 
 
 Chak t'in kau is pLayed with two dice. ' In this game 
 the twenty-one throws that can be made with two dice 
 receive different names, and are divided into two series or 
 suits, called man (mun) " civil " and mo, " military." ' 
 
 Chox(j Yux CirAT. Little bundles of bamboo tallies 
 with Chinese characters on tliem are found for sale in certain 
 shops, and these are employed in playing this game. The 
 word ch'au means a tally and Chong-yiui is the Optimus at 
 the Han-lin examination (See Article on Examinations). 
 'Two or more persons may play, using six dice and sixty- 
 three bamboo tallies ' each drawing the tally, or tallies, he is 
 entitled to from his throw of the dice, '' the one who counts 
 highest becomes the winner.' 
 
 The Shing Kun t'o, the celebrated game of 'The 
 Table of the Promotion of Officials' is another famous game 
 which 'is played by two or more persons upon a large paper 
 diagram, on which are printed the titles of the different 
 officials and dignitaries of the Chinese Government. The 
 moves are made by throwing dice, and the players, whose 
 positions upon the diagram are indicated by notched or 
 coloured splints, are advanced or set back, according to their 
 throws. ' 
 
 Chinese Dominoes. — There are thirty-two dominoes in 
 a set, there are duplicates of each domino, and no blanks. 
 Several games are played with dominoes and dice; they seem 
 rather complicated. Shap-tsai, Pai-Kau, and T'in Kau, are 
 names of such games. 
 
 Chinese Cards. — 1 he cards used for playing the game 
 of Ch'ti-kam have the same name as dominoes, and have the 
 same number of spots on them. Tliey are long narrow bits 
 of pasteboard about the size of a small finger. The pack 
 contains thirty-two cards. In the game of Ngau-p'di the 
 pack contains thirty-six cards, and the cards are about two 
 
PinMlTlVE MAN. 499 
 
 inches in Icngtli and halt" an incli wide. It is said to be a 
 very ancient game, and was first phiyed by cowherds, hence 
 its name ' cow-cards ; ' such, at least, is the Chinese account 
 of the origin of the name. 
 
 Jioohx rcrowwi-ndi'tl. — 'A Rook on riiiiicsi^ Ganu's of Cli.aiU'C ' by Nsj 
 Kwai-sliiinjr. ' C'hinose Games wiili Dice,' by Stewart diilin, a. paper 
 intended to be the lirst of a series on dominoes, playing-cards, and chess. 
 
 PRIMITIVE MAN. — It is impossible in our present 
 state of knowledge to write an article on this subject. The 
 whole matter is at present uninvestigated as regards China. 
 One or two little discoveries have been made which show 
 undoubtedly that relics of man in his earlier stages of want 
 of civilisation are to be found in China. There may be 
 some faint attempts in the earlier records of the Chinese to 
 describe man in his original condition, but it is impossible 
 to separate out any grains of wheat amidst all thechaff of myth 
 and fable of these early stories The Chinese are very fond of 
 collecting antiquities — ancient bricks even claim their atten- 
 tion, and when once they arc put on the right course by 
 western scientists they will no doubt be able to add to our 
 knowledge of early man and even some skull to rival the 
 Neanderthal may yet be found in China, or rudimentary 
 attempts at drawing be discovered. Mr. Baber obtained a 
 polished stone axehead of serpentine and a good specimen of 
 one of polished flint in his journey of exploration in Western 
 Sz-chuan. Yunnan is another province where celts may be 
 found. A writer in 'Notes and Queries on China and Japan,' 
 also mentions having had a bronze celt brought to him. 
 
 The Chinese still retain many of the customs associated 
 with the remotest antiquity, amongst which may be cited the 
 'adoration of stones as objects of worship which has been a 
 prominent feature of barbarian religion.* and the universal 
 prevalence of ancestor worship in the 'all under heaven' as 
 the empire is called. 
 
 PRINTING. — The Chinese classics, which form the 
 foundation of a great portion of Chinese literatuie, also 
 gave the first hint to the Chinese for printing. Thcv were 
 
 ^2 M 2 " 
 
500 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 engraved on stone, A.D. 177, and impressions (or possibly 
 rubbings) taken from them. Printing from wooden blocks, 
 the system now in general use throughout the Empire, 
 was known as early as A.D. 581-618, being practised during 
 the course of the next three hundred years in the T''ang 
 dynasty; and Avas adopted by Imperial order in reproducing 
 the classics in A.D. 952, thus anticipating Caxton's'discovery 
 in Europe by about five centuries. The wood used for the 
 * blocks,' as they are technically called, is generally that of 
 the pear or plum. It is cut into small slabs about the size of 
 a foolscap sheet of paper and about the thickness of an inch 
 or less. These are soaked for some time in water. The book 
 to be printed is written out most carefully by a good writer in 
 the square form of the character employed in printing, and 
 then pasted face downwards on the block ; the block-cutter 
 with his wetted finger rubs off the paper, leaving the 
 impression; he then, with different graving instruments, and 
 a piece of wood to act as a mallet, cuts away, to the depth 
 of a quarter of an inch or so, all the surface of the wood 
 which is not covered by the writing, thus leaving the 
 writing in relief; the block is often cut on the under 
 surface as well, and can thus be printed from on both sides. 
 Each surface of the block generally contains two pages of 
 the Chinese book to be printed. This done the block is 
 delivered to the printer who, adjusting it on a table in front 
 of him with nails and pads of paper, prepares to print. 
 Sitting down in front of the block, at his right hand is a 
 board with a curiously shaped circular brush on it, the 
 handle being also round, and thick enough to be grasped 
 comfortably by the hand. The whole brush looks some- 
 thing like a bouquet of flowers turned upside down. An 
 earthen crook with liquid ink is next to the ink-board, and 
 a small biush, something like a diminutive circular carpet 
 broom, M'ith a long handle, lies in it. Beyond the block is 
 a pile of paper cut into the right shape, that is, a little 
 larger than the block. Within convenient reach is a pad 
 made of coir, perfectly smooth on the surface; the brushes 
 are likewise made of the same fibre. These then are the 
 
PRINTING. :A)\ 
 
 printer's primitive materials. Ready to begin work he 
 takes up a quantity of ink on to tlic ink-board with the 
 small brush ; after which he works this ink into the large 
 circular brush and then rubs it all over the surface of the 
 block ; putting down the brush he adroitly takes hold of the 
 two nearest corners of the topmost sheet of paper, lifting it 
 by the thumb and forefinger of each hand, giving it a jerk 
 at the same time in order to keep it from falling limp; 
 judging by his eye how much margin to leave, he lays it 
 neatly on the surffice of the block, and lifting the pad or 
 pressing brush, he passes it deftly and lightly over the 
 paper, exerting sufficient pressure for an impression to be 
 taken. Printers get to be very quick at this work ; it is easily 
 learned. A good block-cutter gets a dollar per thousand 
 characters cut. After about sixteen thousand impressions 
 arc taken off, the blocks get somewhat worn, but they can be 
 retouched, when another ten thousand can be printed from 
 them. It is a cheaper mode of printing a few small books 
 than by metallic type, as the initial expense is slight com- 
 pared with that of providing founts of type and expensive 
 presses ; the blocks for a large book take up a great deal of 
 room and are very cumbersome and easily destroyed by 
 insects. There is a softness and mellowness about tlie char- 
 acter which is wanting in the clear cut metallic type. 
 
 P/j'OF^i?/?^.— It has been said that' a Chinese pro- 
 verb is something almost, if not utterly, indefinable. Of 
 course it bears, in several features, a strong likeness to other 
 branches of the family in various countries ; but, of '•' that 
 sententious brevity,"' which is said to ''constitute the prin- 
 cipal beauty of a proverb '" — of that brevity, without obs- 
 curity, which is said to be the very soul of a proverb, it is 
 often totally lacking. Other features it has which are pe- 
 culiarly its own, and which impart to it a terseness, beauty, 
 and symmetry, inimitable, at least in the English language. ' 
 
 Proverbs are very numerous in China. Wo gi\e the few 
 following sanqjles : — 
 
502 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ' To make a niim of yourself you imist toil : if yMi don't, yoii won't. ' 
 'Strike a flint, and you'll get tire: strike it not, and y<iu'll not get 
 
 even smoke. ' 
 ■No pains no gains' is represented by 'never was a good work done 
 
 without mneh trouble.' 
 ' If an ox won't drink, you can't made liiin bend down his head.' 
 ' Everything is difticult at first.' 
 ' Done leisurely, done well.' 
 
 ' It is ea.=ier to know how to do a thing than to do it.' 
 ' Cheap thing are not good ; good things are not cheap.' 
 ' Better take eight hundred than give cretlit for a thousand cash." 
 ' All unskilful fools. 
 
 ' Quarrel with their tools.' 
 ' Two of a trade hate one another.' 
 
 ' Our daily bread depends on Heaven. ' 
 
 ' There is dew for every blade of grass. ' 
 
 ' A stick's a stick whether short or tall. 
 ' A man's a man whether g-reat or small. ' 
 
 ' As the twig is bent the mulberry grows.' 
 
 ' There are pictures in poems, and poems in pictures.' 
 
 ' Learning is far more precious than g-old.' 
 
 ' You cannot open a book without learnina: something.' 
 
 ' You may study to old age and yet have things to learn.' 
 
 ' No pleasure equals the pleasure of study.' 
 
 ' Some study shows the need of more." 
 
 ' Extensive reading is a priceless treasure.' 
 
 ' Strike while the iron's hot.' 
 
 ' To persuade gentlemen not to gamble is to win for them.' 
 
 'The two words pure and leisure no monej' can buy.' 
 
 ' Man's life is truly a performance." 
 
 ' Wine is a discoverer of secrets.' 
 
 ' Speak carefully and be slow to speak." 
 
 ' He who talks much must err : he excels who says nothing.' 
 
 ' True g-old fears no fire.' 
 
 *He has the mouth of a Buddha, the heart of a snake.' 
 
 ' The human heart is bad to fathom ' 
 
 ' Do good, reg-ardless of consequences.' 
 
 Boohn rerommcndeJ.—" k CoWeGtion. of Chinese Proverbs" by Rev. 
 "W. Scarborough. • Chinese Proverbs ' by Rev. A. Smith. ' Enigmatic 
 Parallelisms of the Canton Dialect' in 'China Review.' Vols. XVI. and. 
 XVII.. by Rev. T. W. Pearce and the Hon. J. H. Stewart-Lockhart. 
 ' Chinese Proverbs in the Amoy Vernacular.' in • The China Review.' Vol. 
 XV, p. 29S. • Chinese Proverbs." an article in ' The China Review.' Vol. 
 XX, pp. l.")(i-16fi, contains Hakka and Swatow i)ro verbs by M. Schaub and 
 Miss C. M. Ricketts. 
 
 RACE, — The Chinese as a nation are not of pure blood 
 --What nation is "? Doubth?ss, when the present inhabitants 
 of China poured into the land they absorbed some at least 
 of the original inhabitants, the ^liao and the Man. while 
 later, in historic times, "large immigrations or bands of cap- 
 lives consisting of Tibetans, Huns, and the Mongolic Hienbi,' 
 liavc each furnished their quota towards the amalgam, to 
 
HACK. 503 
 
 say nothing of Manchu Tartars and others. Tliose and 
 climatic conditions have probably had something to do in 
 difforontiating the Soutliorn Chinaman from the Northern, 
 the former being well described by Ross as •' short, smiill, 
 * cute,' and tho latter as 'tall, stout, stolid, and slow." 
 
 This amalgamation of aborigines and Chinese goes on 
 slightly still on tho borders of the habitats of tho former, 
 as a few Chinese are to be found who have married wives 
 from the different tribes. (See Article on Chinese, Physical 
 Characteristics of). 
 
 7?.-l/LIFzir»S*. — China would seem to be an ideal land 
 for a gigantic system of railways, for it is a ' land of magni- 
 ficent distances'; but it is also a land of "stupendous pre- 
 judices'; it is therefore not surprising that the railway is in 
 its infancy in China. 'Europe has a mile of railway for every 
 2,400 inhabitants; China has not even a mile for every mill- 
 ion of her inhabitants.' The splendid waterways afford great 
 facilities for transit, and 'China is better supplid Avith water- 
 ways, both natural and artificial, than any other country in 
 the world, except, perhaps, Holland '; but away from them 
 carriage by land is often expensive. It sometimes costs 
 two shillings per ton per mile to take coal by land in China, 
 while in Great Britain the cost is a halfpenny to one penny 
 a mile a ton, and in the United States a farthing for the same 
 amount for the same distance. The coalfields in China have 
 been laid down on a grand scale. To instance only one, 
 that of Shansi, which has a continuous field 13 500 miles in 
 area, of anthracite, equal to the best Pennsylvanian, with from 
 15 to 40 feet seams. There is also a rich bituminous deposit 
 in the same province : so that in the mere carriage of coal 
 there should be a fine future for railways in China ; added 
 to which there would be the passenger traffic, the goods 
 trains, and those laden with market produce, &c., &c., &c. 
 
 About fijrty years ago Sir R. Stephenson come out in 
 the hope of being able to inaugurate a general railway 
 system. All the foreign communities in China were naturally 
 
504- THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 in favour of such a scheme ; one or two individuals pointed 
 out that the Chinese were not ready for it, and would not be 
 for a long time to come, and, such being really the case, 
 of course, nothing could be d mo. 
 
 In 1876, a short line of railway, 10 miles long, was con- 
 structed under the auspices of an English firm, and ran 
 between Shanghai and Woosung at the mouth of the Shanghai 
 River. There was considerable traffic, but the Chinese 
 Government objected to its being in the hands of foreigners ," 
 they therefore bought it and closed it in 1877 ; further they 
 took it up, and transferred rails and rolling stock to the 
 Island of Formosa, where they lay rusting for some years, 
 A railway was constructed in Formosa by the Chinese ; and 
 this material and rolling stock found use in this then outlying 
 island of the Chinese empire where the harm it might do 
 would be too far off to affect the stability of the mighty 
 dominions of the Son of Heaven ; the Chinese also thus 
 having the control of it in their own hands (A history of the 
 Woo-sung railway appears in the ' Hongkong Daily Press ' 
 of the 27th September, 1'892). This line between Shanghai 
 and Woosung is now reconstructed, and was opened in 1898. 
 
 The next line, after this first Woosung Railway, was from 
 the coal mines at Kai-ping to the sea coast, whence it was, 
 carried on to the forts at Taku. It was first opened for carry- 
 ing coals to the canal bank, but has now developed into a very 
 large concern, and it may almost be said the whole welfare 
 of the adjacent country depends on it. The investment has 
 turned out to be very profitable. This railway was of invalu- 
 able use to the Chinese fur the movement of troops during 
 the Japanese war, but its construction had to be stopped during 
 tlie conflict between the two nations. Trains 1,000 feet long- 
 have not been an uncommon sight on it. 
 
 The foUowinij was written some time asro: — ■ 
 
 For some time past the construction has been going on (and it 
 will show a few of the difficulties that stand in the way of the develop- 
 ment of railways in China) of 'an Imperial railway, which is intended 
 eventually to connect Tientsin with Kirin in Manchuria. Ninety-four 
 
If AIL WAYS. 505 
 
 miles (from Tientsingto Kuych) have been in working order since 1891, 
 and during 1892 carried 488,300 passengers.' Tiic line has 'been 
 extended at the rate of fifty miles per annum.' 
 
 At the principal terminus, Tientsin, about 100 Chinese clerks 
 are employed, of whom about one-half are alleged to be totally 
 unnecessary, 'being friends and hangers on.' At other stations the 
 same condition of affairs obtains. 'The first-class fares are a 
 little over one halfpenny a mile, and the second a decimal over a 
 farthing. Tlie third-class fares are even cheaper still. The fares for 
 the entire year (1892) from all classes, over the ninety-four miles above 
 mentioned, were only _a^ 10,000, taking the tacl at its par value of 66-. 8d. 
 The receipts, according to Consul Brenan's interesting report, from all 
 sources, were only about 226,000 taels, or ;^75,5oo, and even these 
 figures are, at the current rate of exchange, too high.' 
 
 'Native capitalists have but little confidence in the "Imperial 
 line " as an investment. Moreover, no accounts are issued to show how 
 money is expended. A Government grant of about ;^6oo,ooo a year 
 maintains the construction of the line, which is being completed for 
 strategical reasons only, although the original idea was to treat it 
 solely as a commercial undertaking. What with corruption, bad 
 management, and a virtual boycott on the part of capitalists, the 
 prospects of success do not seem very promising. ' It is the intention 
 of the Railway Administration to build a subsidiary line to Moukden, 
 while the main line north will be continued on to Kirin '- ■■■' * , 
 From Lanchow, another line westwards is contemplated to north of 
 Tungchow (near Peking) and thence to Paotung-fu, the capital of 
 Chihli province.' 
 
 'The Kaiping Coal Co's. line, at first intended only to carry coal 
 to the canal bank, has been extended to Tientsin and is open to 
 passenger traffic. An extension of the Tientsin line to Shanhai- 
 kwan 'where the great wall reaches the sea has been completed, and 
 a line from Linsi to Newchwang and then to Kirin has been 
 sanctioned [see below]. A line from Tientsin to Pekin was opened 
 in 1897 which now, by the addition of an electric tram, takes one up to 
 the very gates of Peking, in fact to the Yung Ting Gate.' 
 
 With the Chinese Government, considerations of defence 
 would have proved more effective in causing the construction 
 of railways than anything else. Even the short line in 
 existence in the North proved useful in a small rebellion that 
 took place lately. 
 
 ' The great object of the Chinese Government in making rail- 
 ways is to secure facilities for moving troops and munitions of war, 
 not to promote trade or encourage industries.' 
 
 Every new railway project in China appears to have had 
 a hard tussle at its inception. There was a progressive party 
 in favour of the iron road ; there was another party opposed to 
 
 2 N 
 
506 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 progress, conservative officials who deprecated the introduc- 
 tion of all foreign inventions. Both parties were united ap- 
 parently in the idea of preventing all foreign intervention. 
 The Chinese, fearful of foreign influence in their country, 
 would not brook any interference in the way of any 
 development of railway schemes for China until compelled 
 to permit them. ' China for the Chinese ' was their 
 motto ; and for fear that an alien authority might be set up 
 in their midst, tliey turned a deaf ear to all entreaties for 
 permission to construct lines. So far did they carry these 
 precautions, tlmt they resolved to smelt their own ore 
 and make their own rails, buying as little as possible in the 
 foreign market. If this resolution had been adhered to, it would 
 probably have been many years before railway lines of any great 
 magnitude were in running order. Extensive iron-works were 
 set up in the neighbourhood of Hankow with this end in view, 
 and a small line for the transportation of iron ore was 
 laid at Hankow : it was called the Ta-ye Railway, and 
 ran to Huang-si-kan : a distance of sixty li (twenty miles). 
 Looming up in the far distant future there was the Grand 
 Trunk line from Peking via Wuchang to Canton. Whether 
 this railway would really be commenced this century, or 
 indefinitely postponed, was doubtful. The Viceroy, who 
 had the undertaking in hand — after having spent enormous 
 sums of money on the initial stages of the work as outlined 
 above — was getting into serious financial difficulties, and it was 
 very questionable whether ho would be able to proceed much 
 further for there was no capital for building railways in China : 
 the government had not the money available ; would not 
 borrow it from foreigners ; nor allow private enterprise. 
 Another proposal some years ago was for a line to 
 be constructed from Canton to Sham-shui-po near the 
 Cosmopolitan Docks in British territory, on the mainland 
 opposite Hongkong. Surveys were made, and permission 
 granted for its construction, but the project fell into 
 abeyance. It Avas to have passed through the important 
 town of Shek-lung, as well as other places, running a total 
 length of 380 li, or about 127 miles. But, like th3 other 
 
RAIL WAYS. 507 
 
 I'ailways. no foreigners were to hold shares in it. Later, a 
 railway Avas projected between Swatow and the prefectorial 
 city of Ch'aochow-fii. Hopes were entertained that this line, 
 of some thirty miles, more or less, would be the precursors of 
 other short lines in the south of China, but they have been 
 doomed to disappointment. 
 
 The last paragraph shows one stage (the second, the first 
 being the strongest opposition to them as shown above) in the 
 liistory of railway enterprise in China. Since then great 
 changes have taken place, and for some time little has been 
 heard in connection with China but spheres of influence and 
 railways, mining and other concessions : Russia, France, 
 Germany, and England, as well as other countries, all knock- 
 ing at China's doors. 
 
 It is intended to join the Russian system of railways and 
 those of China together: with Manchuria as a Russian sphere 
 of influence, this will be easily effected. France appears 
 desirous of penetrating China with her railways from her 
 Indo-Chinese empire next Yunnan, while many English are 
 desirous that British lines shall develope the West of China 
 in connection with our Asiatic empire. 
 
 The whole history of the difl"erent railway concessions 
 is thus described in the report of the China Association for 
 1898-1899:- 
 
 ' Having selected their respective spheres [of influence] the 
 Powers proceeded as it were by tacit consent to mark them ofT by 
 Railway and Mining Concessions. Russia had set the example in 
 an Agreement (dated September, 1896) for the construction of an 
 " Eastern Chinese Railway " system in Manchuria. 
 
 France had followed by requesting the Tsung-li-Yamen in June 
 1897 to promise that the Chinese Government would address itself to 
 the Fives-Lille Company for prolongations of the Langson-Lungchow 
 line toward Nanning and Pese, and would invite the aid of French 
 Engineers for the opening of mines in Kwangtung, Kwangsi, and 
 Yunnan. 
 
 Pursuing this assertion of interest in the provinces bordering on 
 Tongking, she exacted, in May, 1898, the concession of a railway 
 from Pakhoi to a point on the West River, with the ulterior right of 
 
 2 N 2 - 
 
508 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 making any future lines radiating from Pakhoi. — The occasion was 
 taken by the Association to emphasise the protest which had been 
 made in April against this assertion of French influence in a province 
 which constitutes, commercially, as well as geographically, the 
 hinterland of Hongkong. 
 
 An -American Syndicate has obtained a concession for the 
 Southern extension of the Great Trunk line— from the banks of the 
 Yangtsze opposite Hankow to Canton ; and Sir Claude MacDonald has 
 obtained, finally, the concession of a right to make a railway from 
 Canton to the coast (Kowloon) opposite Hongkong. 
 
 Various other concessions of less political, but of considerable 
 financial importance, have been made. The Russo-Chinese bank has 
 undertaken to make a branch from Chengting (a city on the Lu-Han 
 line, in Pechili) to Taiyuen, the capital of Shanse. 
 
 A Syndicate combining British and Italian interests has obtained 
 extensive mining rights in Shanse, coupled with the right of railway 
 outlet to the Han river at Siang-yang. 
 
 A British subject, Mr. Pritchard Morgan, has entered into an 
 agreement having for its object the development of mines and con- 
 comitant railways in Szechuen. France is understood to have 
 protested that this arrangement is inconsistent with the undertaking 
 not to seek exclusive privileges in South-West China, concluded 
 between the two Governments * * but the protest appears 
 
 strained * * * *. 
 
 Broadly speaking, therefore, China has been partitioned into 
 spheres of industrial interest that may become spheres of political 
 influence in certain eventualities which the present regime appears 
 not unlikely to precipitate.' 
 
 'An Anglo-Italian syndicate has obtained the right to construct 
 the line from Joyau in Hupeh to Taochau in Shansi, and Messrs. 
 Jardine, Matheson & Co., have secured rights over the line from 
 Sinyan in Honan to Nangking via Luchau in Anhui.' 
 
 'Rivalry with England for the trade of Yunnan is being pursued 
 actively in other respects, the Chamber having guaranteed a loan of 
 70,000,000 frs. to be employed in making a railway up the valley of 
 the Red River, to Yunnan-fu. 
 
 Great Britain, on the other hand, has obtained permission to 
 extend the Kunlon Ferry line into Yunnan. 
 
 Germany gave it to be understood from the first, that she intended 
 to keep in German hands the construction and management of railways 
 in Shantung. 
 
 In an agreement (dated 2nd September 1898) between English and 
 German capitaHsts for the construction of a line between Tientsin and 
 Chinkiang, the sphere of German interests is defined as the region 
 watered by affluents of the Hwang-ho, and the l^nglish sphere as that 
 watered by afifluenfs of the Yangtsze. From Tientsin to the southern 
 
RAIDVAI'S. 509 
 
 border of Sliantung, therefore, the line will he coiUroIlcd by German, 
 and the continuation across Kian;4pchby I>ritish, subjects. It followed, 
 equally, that the British and Chinese Corporation obtained without 
 further competition a concession for the construction of lines between 
 Shanghai, Soochow, and Nanking. 
 
 Negociations were concluded by the British and Chinese 
 Corporation, about the same time, with the aid of H. M. Government 
 for the proportioning of the Tientsin-Shanhaikwan line up the west 
 coast of the Liao-tung Gulf to Sin-min-ting on the upper waters of the 
 Liao, and to Newchwang. 
 
 More important than all, in the eyes of the Chinese, is the 
 great trunk line which is to connect Peking with Hankow. Granted 
 originally to a Belgian syndicate in 1897, after some ineffectual 
 negociations with American and British financiers, this concession had 
 lapsed and been revived more than once before a substantial contract 
 was signed, in June, with a titular Belgian Syndicate supported by 
 Russo- French diplomacy. 
 
 Both these contracts have been the subject, since, of keen con- 
 troversy, on the ground, broadly, that they constitute an intrusion, in 
 either case into alien spheres. A protest by the Russian Minister 
 against the Newchwang agreement was met by surrendering all 
 rights of mortgage over the section of the line outside the Great Wall. 
 A protest by the British Minister against the signature of the Lu-Han 
 contract was disregarded by the Tsungli-Yamen, and the Chinese 
 Government was punished for its disregard and bad faith by the 
 exaction of certain other railway concessions. As the contract gives a 
 Franco-Russo-Belgian combination full right of morgtage and fore- 
 closure over a line penetrating the heart of the Yangtsze Valley, it 
 needs to be revised, obviously, on a similar principle, if it is carried out.' 
 
 The following items contain further particulars as to 
 some of the concessions mentioned above : — 
 
 'The negotiations concerning the construction of the Tsin-Chin 
 (Tientsin-Chinkiang) Railway, have been successfully concluded 
 between England, Germany, and China. It has been arranged that 
 the sections between Tientsin and Tsinan, and Tsinan and Ichau, 
 shall be placed under the control of Germany, and the section between 
 Ichau and Chinkiang under British control.' The railway is to be 
 completed within five years. 
 
 The loan is £7,400,000 gold, which is to be repaid in 
 50 years to the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation 
 and the German Bank. 'The security is the guarantee of the 
 Chinese Governnient plus the railway itself.' Three Europeans 
 and two Chinese are to have the manas^ement of it ; from 
 Tientsin to the Southern boundaries of Shantung, it is to 
 be under German control and the rest is to be under British 
 control. 
 
510 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 There is a line between Tiehsanpn, in Hupeh, to a spot 
 on the Yangtsze, 70 miles below Hankow, for conveying the 
 iron ore from Hupeh to the ironworks at Hanyang, 
 
 The line from Peking to Tientsin is about 75 miles long. 
 
 There are further railway developments projected in 
 Shantung, thanks to the advent of the Germans in the 
 province. 
 
 'A German railway is to be constructed from Tapadurh, near 
 Kiaochow to Weihsien and then to join the Tientsin-Chinkiang main 
 line. A line is also to be built from Tapadurh to Tsintao. Both 
 lines will take two years in construction. They have been secured 
 by a German syndicate, * * * The Weihsien branch will tap 
 the rich coal district which is expected to be the mineral mainstay of 
 the German sphere of interest in Shantung. Another line is to be 
 constructed from Kiaochau (Tapadurh) to Ichow, and thence to the 
 Tientsin-Chinkiang main line. Work on the Weihsien line com- 
 menced on Friday, 2nd June,' 1899. 
 
 The railway from Peking to Han-Kau, 'about 813 miles long, 
 will pass through the three important provinces of Chi-li, Ho-nan, 
 and Hupeh, ['from Peking to Hankow, about 650 miles, and 
 from Hankow to Canton, about 500 miles, or about 11 50 miles in all.' 
 Another writer says :—' The total length of line will be about 800 
 English miles, and the capital of the syndicate four and a half 
 millions sterling, represented by 225,000 shares of ;^20 each], and 
 it "will serve the rich basins of the \angtsze-kiang and of the 
 Hwang-ho." ' 
 
 'With reference to the proposed Hankow-Canton railway, the 
 Chief Director, Chang Taotai, formerly Consul-General at Singapore,' 
 we read, 'has informed his friends that the line will begin at Canton, 
 pass Fatshan to the city of Samshui, on the West River. From this 
 placethetrunkline will go across and enter Hunan, joining at Hankow 
 the Lu-Han Railway. From Samshui again tliere will be constructed 
 branch lines ; namely, one to Kueilin, the capital of Kwangsi province, 
 which will be called the Western Branch line ; while from Canton there 
 will be an Eastern Branch line connecting that city with Huichow, 
 thence to Swatow and Northward into Fukien province. The Viceroy 
 T'an has already detailed one Battalion of 500 men of the Chien Regi- 
 ment to act as a guard to the workers on the new railway which it is 
 intended to begin early in May next.' [1899] 
 
 ' The party of engineers and experts of the Canton-Hankow 
 
 Railway Syndicate have completed their survey up to Kupong in 
 
 Punyu district, and are buying land from the owners holding title- 
 deeds.' 
 
 A survey of a projected line from Boochow to Kingpo 
 via Hangchow has been made, and the Hongkong and Shang- 
 hai Bank are to finance it. 
 
HATLWAYS. 511 
 
 The following was written a few years ago: — 
 
 'When the line of the Siberian Railway approaches the eastern 
 shore of the Russian Empire, it is suddenly stopped by a long and broad 
 wedge oi land running from south to north. This is part of the 
 Chinese territory of Manchuria, probably the richest portion of the 
 Chinese Empire. In the centre of it is the important fortified town of 
 Kirin. the capital of the province of that name. The province of 
 Kirin is prolonged to the south-west by the province of Shinking, the 
 capital of which is !\Ioukden, and which ends in the long peninsula 
 having the great naval base of Port Arthur for its most south-westerly 
 point. The Siberian railway has to make a long detour to the north 
 round this wedge, and the present treaty [1896] is intended first of all 
 to enable it to avoid this by taking the chord instead of the arc. Thus 
 the first advantage of Russia is to prolong its line from some point in 
 Siberia, probably Nertchinsk, via Kirin, straight to Vladivostock. 
 Besides this, however, Russia is now authorised to build a railway 
 to join the main line at Kirin and run south-westwards, first to Port 
 Arthur, and second to Shanhaikwan, which is the terminus of the 
 present short railway to Tientsin. The Convention gives to Russia 
 the right to carry her Trans-Siberian Railway to Kirin, the Chinese 
 town of central Alanchuria, from two directions — first, some point in 
 Siberia ; and second, Vladivostock. Next, Russia obtains the right to 
 build a railway from Kirin to Port Arthur should China fail to do so. 
 
 These three lines of railway are to be built with Russian money, 
 and are to be defended by posts of Russian Cossacks ; they will also 
 be built to the Russian gauge. Russia is to work mines in Manchuria, 
 and Russian officers are to drill the Chinese troops in Manchuria.' 
 
 With regard to the railway operations in the neighbour- 
 hood of Kirin, Moukden, and Port Arthur, an opinion has 
 been expressed lately that the line cannot be finished in 
 less than five years on account of the scarcity of timber, and 
 of workmen and labour. American pine is used, and has to be 
 brought by sea, the supply of it being very limited. Wood 
 is also brought from the Korean frontier, and the winter is 
 likewise so severe that the Chinese labourers cannot stand it 
 and have to stop work for five months in the year. 
 
 The following extract from a recent newspaper is in- 
 teresting in this connection : — ■ 
 
 'The programme of Russian railway extension in Asia has lately 
 undergone considerable revision. The original scheme of the Trans- 
 Siberian Railway has been greatly modified, and it is probable that a 
 portion of the proposed route through Eastern Siberia will be 
 abandoned. When the line was originally authorised, the work of 
 construction was commenced at both ends simultaneously, and the 
 work at the Pacific terminus was inaugurated by the present Tsar, 
 
512 THINOS CHINESE. 
 
 who cut the first sod of earth at Vhxdivostock on March 29th, 1891, 
 The work at this end of the line has been compleled as far as 
 Khabarovka — a distance of 481 miles, and here the terminus is likely 
 to remain for some years to come. The alternative route authorised 
 by the Manchurian Railway Agreement of 1896 will start from 
 Vladivostock and will pass by way of Nicolsk and Ninguta to Tsitsihar, 
 and thence across the Siberian fronther to Nerchinsk, where it will 
 join the railway now under construction. The enerey with which the 
 work of railway development is being pushed forward in Russian 
 Manchuria is impressed on the visitor to Vladivostock from the moment 
 he lands: the country for miles round swarms with parties of 
 labourers engaged in the construction of earth works, the erection of 
 bridges and the general work necessary to the construction of a 
 railway. The labourers are convicts who have been sent to Siberia 
 for vaious offences. They work under a Cossack guard, and are paid 
 for their labour at the rate of one tenth of the value of the work they 
 do. There are probably from 15,000 to 20,000 of these convict 
 labourers at work in Machuria at the present time.' 
 
 'Russia has demanded the right to carry a totally new branch 
 of the Trans-Siberian line, or rather a feeder, from, somewhere near 
 the junction of the Shilka with the Amur, south to Kalgan, •■- '- '' 
 No doubt, the line to Kalgan, whether constructed from Aigun or 
 Maimatchin (Kiatkha) will take off a tremendously troublesome section 
 of the trans-Siberian line, and moreover it will most certainly be 
 constructed, and it will as certaily be extented to connect with the 
 Russian system in Shansi, which is expected she will begin to 
 construct next year [1900.]' 
 
 Railway concessions North of the Great Wall are to be 
 left to Russian enterprise, and those in the basin of the 
 Yangtsz to the British, but this agreement made between 
 the two nations is not to infringe in any way on the rights 
 acquired with regard to the Shanhaikwan-Ncwchwang line, 
 though the line is to remain a Chinese line. 
 
 'A survey has been made of a projected Burmo-China Railway 
 and a feasible route for it from 'Kunlon Ferry, the proposed terminus 
 oftheMandalay-Salween Railway to the Yangtsze Valley "••'• "••■'' * '■'■ 
 The line would reach the Yangtsze at Luchow, about a hundred 
 miles higher up the river than Chinkiang "■■' The length 
 
 * * would be about 1,000 miles.' It 'is not only not impracti- 
 cable, but its construction would present no very extraordinary 
 difficulties. Ten or twelve millions sterling' would be needed. 
 
 It must not bo supposed that because all these railways 
 are planned, that railway communication is in full swing in 
 China. O.io or two maps of China have been published 
 lately, showing in black lines and otherwise the concessions, 
 etc., and on the strength of these, two railway engine-drivers 
 recently come up from Australia in the confident assurance 
 of being able to obtain employment on one of these 
 numerous lines of railway thus marked out. 
 
RELIGION. 513 
 
 Books recommendvil. — A leader in "the Hongkong Daily Press' of 9tli 
 September, 181U, gives an interesting account of the development of the 
 Tientsin Ilailwa.v from a seven miles tram-line to the present dimensions. 
 An interesting article has appeared in ' The Engineer,' giving an account of 
 the history and construction of the railway in Formosa. It was republished 
 in the • London and China Express ' and copied in ' The Honskong Telegraph' 
 of the 10th of August, lSi)2. A perusal of this article will show the great 
 difHculties encounted from Chinese ignorance, i)n!Judice. and bribery in 
 such works. ' Kail way Enterprises in China' an article in ' Chamtiers's 
 Journal' for May 1899. by IJ Taylor. 
 
 RELIGION. — Amongst this ancient nation are to be 
 found many persistent survivals of old world religions and 
 myths handed down from generation to generation through 
 the long ages past. Faint traces of such beliefs and modes of 
 worship are to be found by the diligent enquirer in our western 
 lands, but in China they form in many cases not only the basis 
 on which have been superimposed the more modern systems of 
 religion ; but they permeate the whole present amalgam of 
 credulity, superstition, forms and ritual, which go to make up 
 the average Chinaman's religion. The worship of Heaven 
 and Earth, of mountains and rivers is still in existence, 
 and traces of Stibianism are to be found ; the adoration and 
 planting of sacred trees near temples, can be seen to this day; 
 and a most common form of worship is the worship of stones, 
 besides an ever present and most profound belief in evil spirits 
 which cause disease, &c. 
 
 As Gibbon said of Rome, so it might almost be said 
 of China to-day: — *To the common people all religions 
 are equally true ; to the philosopher all are equally false ; 
 to the magistrate all are equally useful.' To the superficial 
 observer the Chinese appear a very religious people, 
 and yet, on closer observation, it will be found that 
 there is a great deal of formalism about their worship. 
 There are very superstitious ; and the whole land is full of 
 idols. The women are most devout worshippers ; many of 
 the educated men profess scepticism, while giving an outward 
 adhesion to the forms of worship. There are some earnest 
 souls to be found among them who join different sects 
 of Buddhism in order to find some satisfaction for the 
 longings of their hearts ; when the truths of Christianity are 
 
 2 o 
 
514 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 presented to such, they are sometimes received as a revelation 
 from heaven. 
 
 Boohs recmnmcnded. — 'The Reliofious System of China,' by J, J. M. 
 de Groot, Ph. D. See articles on Buddhism. Taonism. and Missions, and the 
 books recommended at the end of those articles. 
 
 RICE. — The Chinese language has developed a number 
 of names for rice in its different stages of growth, thus 
 confirming what Archdeacon Trench pointed out— the 
 tendency of a language to develope in any special direction, 
 Rice being the main support of the inhabitants of the 
 south of China, every stage of its growth is of the greatest 
 interest to them ; bat to us, who never see it in our own 
 land but in the hulled grain, it is simply rice whether in 
 that state, or when the tender blade is just shooting out of 
 the ground, or when nearly ripe; and we have to borrow 
 from a foreign language the word paddy to represent it with 
 the husk on — a word, by the bye, little used or known in 
 England itself, as the necessity for its use there is but slight. 
 For all of these different conditions of rice, the Chinese have 
 names, and again, not only does one word do duty for cooked 
 rice, but the soup-like drink made from boiling a small 
 quantity of rice in a large quantity of water, has a distinctive 
 name of its own, chuh (pronounced chook), for which 
 Europeans in the East, being at a loss for a word to express 
 it, have again had recourse to the borrowing of a Malay 
 word to express it, congee. 
 
 Rice is the staple article of diet in the south of China : 
 so much so, that 'to eat rice ' is synonymous with taking a 
 meal ; and the equivalent of ' How do you do ? is ' Have you 
 eaten your rice yet ? ' 'He cannot eat his rice ' is tantamount 
 to saying that a sick man is unable to take his food. Break- 
 fast is cliiu-fdn, morning rice, and ye-fan, or man-fan, 
 evening rice, stands for dinner. With regard to its use as 
 food in the extreme South, we refer our readers to our article 
 on Food in this book. 
 
 The rice grows in small patches, scarcely entitled to be 
 called fiekls. As the rice ijrows best in water, tliese are 
 
JiWTS. 515 
 
 undei" a few inches of water the most of the time. There are 
 no fences or walls between them, but the mud is piled up all 
 round each little division of ground, and, drying in the sun, 
 forms a narrow footpath only wide enough for one person to 
 walk on. When the rice plant, which has been thickly sown 
 in one place, is six inches high, it is transplanted into the 
 miniature fields by men and w^omcn Avading through the mud, 
 and five or six of these sprouts are stuck into one hole. In 
 a very short time the fields present a beautiful sight, being 
 converted from the muddy flats into masses of living, delicate 
 green. Two, or sometimes even three, crops of rice, or other 
 plants, succeed one another — a crop of fish is put into the 
 field when they, the fish, are a few inches long, to fatten for 
 the market while the rice is growing. 
 
 The Chinese prefer their own rice to that grown in 
 
 foreign countries. There are several varieties of this useful 
 
 grain, coarse and fine, white and red, glutinous and non- 
 glutinous. 
 
 At New Year's time popped rice is largely used, and is 
 carried about the streets in large baskets, looking like snow 
 in its whiteness. It is prepared in the same way as the 
 popped Indian corn, or maize, of the New England States, 
 and is very much like it in appearance. 
 
 About Swatow and Amoy more congee is eaten than at; 
 Canton and neighbourhood, while, up North, millet takes the 
 place of rice. 
 
 Book t'crom mended. — For an iiiterestiug account ol" rice the world 
 round see Rhein's ' Industries of Japan,' p. H7. 
 
 RIOTS. — The Chinese have acquired an unenviable 
 notoriety of late years for riots directed against foreign 
 residents at different treaty ports and cities. In their 
 intensity and wild outburst they resemble the cyclonic 
 disturbances, the typhoons, Avhich carry death and destruction 
 in their train. As before the typhoons premonitory symptoms 
 are geneniUy observable in a disturbed state of the atmosphere, 
 so before these riots there is a heated state of opinion, which 
 those who are in touch with the native mind may discover. 
 
 2 2 
 
51G THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 To those not intimately acquainted with the Chinese it 
 may be supposed that as the proverbial Irishman is never 
 happy unless he is in the midst of a row, so the Chinese are 
 only in their native element Avhen rushing in hordes against 
 the defenceless European or American. To say that tlie 
 Chinese are peaceful law-abiding subjects seems preposterous 
 when writing about Chinese riots, but such a statement, 
 nevertheless, is the truth ; for they are one of the most 
 peaceful nations in the world. The Chinese, from a European 
 standpoint, is made up of a mass of incongruities, the most 
 opposite traits of character are to be found in juxtaposition ; 
 and this same quiet Chinaman is a perfect demon, a yelling 
 infuriated brute, a monster of destruction, ia a riot ; rapine, 
 robbery, arson, and murder, all rapidly succeed each other at 
 such a time, the howling mob ravening like wild beasts as 
 they run wanton with life and property. 'There is no fear 
 of Got in a riot,' so according to Shakespeare said Sir 
 Hugh Evans. 
 
 What are the causes that transform the law-abidinsf 
 Chinaman into a demon of destruction ? We propose to 
 mention what we consider to be some of them. It must 
 first be taken into consideration that the Chinese as a mass 
 are wofully ignorant of the commonest scientific facts which 
 are taught to our children at school. When they find that 
 we are able to rush along at the rate of sixty miles an hour 
 in railways ; when they see steamers go without wind and 
 against the tide; when they hear some vague rumour of 
 Westerners being able to see millions of miles into the sky, 
 or on the other hand minutely examine some insect and 
 make it as large as a buff"alo ; when they see tumours cut 
 off and legs and arms amputated by the skilful surgeon; it is 
 comparatively easy for them to believe that these magic- 
 working foreigners can look several inclies into the ground 
 and discover precious metals, especially since their own 
 geomancers pretend to the same power ; (the author himself, 
 when on a trip in tlie interior, was asked if he did not possess 
 this power), and further, with sucli people, it does not require 
 
nroTs. 517 
 
 much stretch of the imagination to believe the story that 
 foreigners, who are all blue-eyed, require the black eyes 
 of Chinese children to compound their wonder-working 
 medicines, or the eyes of dead Chinese to transform lead into 
 silver. It will thus be seen that, owing to this dense 
 ignorance, they are credulous to an extreme extent. They 
 will believe almost any and everything. It must also be 
 remembered that we are foreigners to them — enemies Ave 
 have been at various times; and, unfortunately, in our 
 relations with them, we have sometimes been overbearing ; 
 the nation looks upon us as the introducers of opium ; 
 the officials and literati fear our science and civilisation 
 will overturn theirs, and most of the mandarins are afraid 
 that these will put an end to their corrupt system of govern- 
 ment and their profits ; some dread that we will eventually 
 wrest their country from them. Besides, of late years, a 
 knowledge of the shutting of foreign countries, such as 
 America and Australia, against Chinese immigration is be- 
 coming known : to Avhich must be added the fact that the 
 mass of foreigners do not understand the Chinese, at times 
 fearing designs from them when they are to be trusted, and 
 implicitly trusting them when they are acting with duplicity: 
 and we, unfortunately, do not always act with sufficient care 
 in our intercourse with them, for our motives are often mis- 
 understood and our actions misconstrued. We are stransre. 
 grotesque, bizarre objects in their eyes, our every action 
 outre, and sinister motives are readily ascribed to such 
 curious beings as we appear to them — devils as they call us. 
 Given all this material, it needs but the dissemination of lying 
 books against some foreigners, issued with the imprimatur of 
 high officials ; it requires but an incipient rebellion in the 
 throes of its attemped birth ; it wants but a few lewd felloAVs 
 of the baser sort to start a riot ; the apathetic, indifferent, 
 and half-sympathising mandarins take care, as a rule, to keep 
 out of the way until the mischief is done, while their soldiery, 
 as often as not, lend a hand in the plundering of compounds, 
 the dismantling of houses. And yet it is wonderful how an 
 armed little force, consisting only of the mercantile residents, 
 
518 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 a do/en or a score of men, it' resolutely facing. the packed 
 mass of the infuriated mob breathing out death and destruc- 
 tion, can, with scarcely firing a shot, disperse the armies of 
 the aliens like smoke. 
 
 The question naturally arises : — What is the remedy for 
 all this ? We believe nothing but a determined front presented 
 by all the foreign powers, an insistence on the opening up of 
 more of the country, the continual presence of at least one gun- 
 boat at every treaty port, and, should a riot take place, the 
 carrying out of the threat once made at Hankow^ that Imperial 
 property would be fired on. If the officials found their 
 yamens bombarded as sure as a riot took place, and one 
 or two of their most prominent members seized and carried 
 off to the gun-boat, we believe that riots would cease. This 
 would be a more effective punishment than the destruction 
 of defenceles villages or towns, as the inhabitants in many 
 esses are but tools in the hands of designing knaves. The 
 Chinese officials always cry non possimius until they know 
 they must do what is required of them. The true secret of 
 dealing with the Chinese, and that which has always been 
 successful in the past, is firmness, kindness towards them 
 at all times, but no shilly-shallying ; consideration and 
 sympathy, with a fixed resolution, and a determination that 
 the demands, granted they are right, shall be acceded to, and 
 that at once. 
 
 W^e give a list of a few of the more notable riots : — 
 
 December 7th, 1842. — European factories at Canton destroyed by a mob. 
 
 .June 21st. 1870. — Riot at Tientsin and massacre of R. C. nuns. 
 
 May -tth. 187-1. — Riot in French Concession. vShanghai. 
 
 September 10th. 1883. — Riot by Chinese mob in Canton. Great destruction 
 
 of foreign houses and propertj- on Shameen. 
 October 3rd, 1884. — Serious coolie riot in Hongkong. 
 October 4th. 18S4. — -Attaelv on foreigners at Wenchow. 
 July 1st, 188(). — Serious riot at Chunglving. 
 Februarj' .")tli, 1881*. — -Anti-foreign riot at Cluulviang : foreign lioiises 
 
 burned and looted. 
 May 13th, 1891. — Anti-foreign riot at Wuhu. Catlioiic nussion jiremises. 
 
 I.M. Custon) House, and British Coiisulate ])urued and looted. 
 May 18th. ISIU, — Anti-foreig-n riot in the Hochow district. Auti-foreijn 
 
 riot at Ngau-kiu. 
 
lilOTS. 519 
 
 May 2."th, 1891, — Anti-foreisn riot at Ngan-kiii. Somo. foreij,'n houses 
 
 burned and looted. 
 June 1st, 18ltl. — Anti-foreign riot at Tan.van,?. 20 miles from Chinlviang. 
 
 Catholic i>roperty destroyed, 
 .lune r)th, 1S91. — Anti-foreign riot at Wiisueli. near Hankow. Foreign 
 
 pro|>erty destroyed. l!ev. Mr. Argent, Wesleyan Missionary, and 
 
 Mr. Green, of the Imperial Maritime Custom's service, Ivilled. 
 June Tth. 1S91. — Attempted .-inti-foreign riot at Kiukiiing. 
 June 8th, IH'.ll. — D.'struction of French Missionaries' property at Woo-.sih, 
 
 near Foochow. by anti-forei<>'n mob. 
 June 9th, 18itl. — Attack on mission premises at Sdoeliow. llioters dispersed. 
 June 14th, 1S91. — Mission property burned down at Shah-si. 
 June 20th, 1891. — lliot at Ha-mieii City on tlie Vangtsz. Catliolic property 
 
 destroyed, 
 June 2.')th and 2fitli. 18'.ll. — Riots attempted at Tsing'-kiang-pu and Himau-fu 
 
 on the Grand Canal, but suppressed. 
 June .SOth, 1891. — A mob loots and burns down Catholic chai)el and schools 
 
 at Yan-kao near Tuuf^-chovv on the Vangtsz. 
 July 1891, — Riot at Viin-yang-shien, about half-way between Ichangand 
 
 Chungking, 
 Sept. 2nd 1891, — Riot at Ichang. Nearly all foreign property destroyed, 
 July 1st, 1893. — Two Swedish Missionaries murdered at Sungpu, in Central 
 
 China, by mob. 
 June, 1894, — Two medical missionary ladies were attacked by a mob in 
 
 Honam. Canton, for one of them rendering assistance to a 
 
 plague patient, and a few days after, on the 20th June, 1894, 
 
 at Shek Lung, in the Tuni^ Kwun district, the American 
 
 Presbyterian Chapel was demolished bv a a mob and one man 
 
 killed. 
 May 29th, 189."), — Anti-foreign riots in Szchuen. 
 A-Ugust 1st, 189."). — Kucheng (near Foochow) massacre, when Rev. Mr. Stewart 
 
 and ten helpless ladies and children were murdered by a mob. 
 May 12th, 189fi. — Serious riot at Kiangyin. — Mission property entirely 
 
 destroyed. 
 November 1st, 1897. — Murder of two German Catholic priests at Yenchow by 
 
 a band of 20 men, which led up to the seizure of of Kiauchow 
 
 by the Germans, 
 April 9th, 1898. — Riot in Shasi. — Buildings on foreign bund destroyed. 
 April 16th, 1898. — American Mission, in suburbs of Chungking, sacked by 
 
 mob. and Chinese medical assistants maltreated and one 
 
 murdered, 
 July 8th. 1898. — Protestant and Catholic Missions attacked by rioters at 
 
 Shum-ching-fu. in Sz-chuen, — A French priest captured by 
 
 brigands. 
 October loth, 1.S98.— Rioting at Ho Chou. .")0 miles from Chungking. 
 
 American and French Mission places attacked and burned, 
 October 2rith, 1898, — Rioting at Shameen, Canton, 
 January 8th. 1899. — Serious rioting at Sung-do, near Ningpo, over an 
 
 attempt to work mines. 810,000 worth of mining property 
 
 destroyed. 
 
 It is impo.ssible to give an account of all the small 
 nnimportant viots or mobs. At times riots have been 
 
520 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 imminent and in a few cases have actually .taken place, 
 unattended with loss of life and with but little injury to 
 property. 
 
 Boohs recomvii'ndcd . — 'The Anti-forei<;;n Riots in China in 1891.' 
 'The Sources of the Anti- Foreign DisturViances in China,' l>y Eev. Gibhert 
 Reid, M.A. A full account of the SweecUsli Missionary riot and what was 
 done about it is contained on the Hong' Kong Daily Press of Feb. 21st, 1894. 
 
 ROADS. — In the south of China the rivers are the 
 natural roads, and in some places, especially in the delta of 
 the Canton river, the country is reticulated Avith rivers, 
 streams, cross canals, &c., which bring every few miles of 
 country within easy reach of water communication. Back 
 from the net-work of rivers, paths connect the market-towns 
 and villages. In some places these paths are paved with 
 granite slabs. It is considered a meritorious act to repair or 
 construct roads. 
 
 The country near Swatow is well provided with water 
 communication; some of the rivers have numerous boats of 
 many descriptions. The public roads in this neighbourhood 
 are good, as a rule, though but paths. They are often 
 formed of a kind of cement in large slabs about a yard or so 
 wide, occasionally square stones are let into this cement, 
 while at other times, squares of a slightly different structure, 
 from the rest of the road, and looking like conglomerate, are 
 so let in, while at other times again the stone is used. The 
 roads in this locality are not straight, but ramble through the 
 rice fields with a very meandering course. 
 
 In the neighbourhood of Amoy there does not seem to 
 be such a traffic on the rivers; and the same is said to hold 
 good with regard to the great Yangtsz Kiang in the centre 
 of China. 
 
 In the nortli of China, Avhere carts are used, the roads 
 are worn below the surface of the surrounding land, and in 
 the heavy rains form water-courses for the deluges of rain to 
 escape by ; when in this state they have occasionally to be 
 
SHOOTING. 521 
 
 swum by travellers, and instances of wayfarers being drowned 
 in the road are not unknown. 
 
 In some places roads made five liundrcd or even 
 thousands of years ago are in existence. 
 
 It would greatly develope trade and facilitate intercom- 
 munication wore a Chinese MacAdam to arise, or were the 
 Chinese government, instead of buying foreign war material, 
 to devote its energy to the construction of these arteries of 
 trade. With the curious topsy-turvy way in which the 
 Chinese do everything, it is not at all unlikely that the iron 
 road will run its spider-like lines through the length and 
 breadth of the empire before a system of properly constructed 
 roads becomes un fait accompli in this land. 
 
 SHOOriNG.~The Chinese are not sufficiently civilised 
 to take delight in killing birds and other game for pleasure ! 
 There is a small amount of shooting goes on for food 
 purposes. To those who glory in such pursuits there is no 
 better book than Lieut. Craddock's ' Sporting Notes in the 
 Far East.' He seems to have had a varied experience, and 
 gives it for the benefit of others, detailing the game to be 
 found at the different ports, the seasons for them, and rules 
 of procedure. Snipe, pheasants, woodcock, quail, and many 
 other birds, as well as deer, &c., are to be found at different 
 places. It would be a good day for the inhabitants of 
 certain districts of China if sportsmen would follow the 
 example of a few of their number and go tiger shooting. 
 This is to be found in the neighbourhood of Amoy and 
 Foochow, and in some parts of the Canton province, and 
 doubtless in other places in China. The tigers are a regular 
 pest, carrying off young children at times even from the doors 
 of their houses, as well as dogs and other small animals. In 
 two years foreign sportsmen from Amoy ' have killed no 
 fewer than twenty-five ' of them. 
 
 SHUTTLECOCK. — The usual reverse occurs in China 
 with regard to some of the games that happens with many 
 other things in this land of contrarieties. Instead of shuttle- 
 
 2 r 
 
522 THINGS CHL\ESE. 
 
 cock being more espociully a game for girls, it is most 
 especially a game for boys, lads, and men. No girls ever play 
 it. It may almost be said to be the national game of China, 
 and kite-flying the national pastime. The latter is indulged 
 in in autumn; the former in winter, tliough it is played at 
 other times as weW. What seems curious about the two is, 
 that, though children find an amusement in them, they are 
 largely enjoyed and indulged in by those who can scarcely 'be 
 described as children, except with the qualifying phrase of 
 an older growtli' appended. 
 
 There is no battledore used by the Chinese, but the 
 shuttlecock is kept up in the air by the foot, the broad white 
 sole of the Chinese shoe actingadmirably for the purpose. Two, 
 three, four, or more players get together ; and, if two, stand 
 opposite each other, if three or more, they form an irregular 
 ring and kick the shuttlecock up into the air in such a manner 
 that it may fall near another player, so that there is no violent 
 exercise except what is necessary for the kicking. If a foot 
 stroke is impossible, when the shuttlecock is falling near 
 one, then it is allowable to keep it up by hitting it with the 
 hand and thus send it to another player, or to bang it into 
 the air in such a way that it may return in a position to be 
 easily hit by the foot. There are several foot-strokes — the 
 most common being with the inner side of the sole of the right 
 shoe. A hit is sometimes made with the outer side of the 
 sole of the right shoe. Another hit that must require some 
 dexterity (if we may be allowed to use such a word in 
 connection with the foot) is given with the right foot — with 
 the inner side of the sole of the riglit shoe — from under the 
 calf of the left leg. The most usual form of this stroke is as 
 follows : — the left leg is doubled round so that the foot is in 
 front of the body and about ten or twelve inches from the 
 ground: this is done while the shuttlecock is descending : 
 and, when it is abnost near enough to hit, a spring is taken 
 off the ground with the right foot last, and the shuttlecock 
 is immediately hit by the inner side of the sole of the right 
 shoe from under the left calf. Another variety of this 
 
SI Lie. 523 
 
 stroke is to stretch the left leg out in a slo^Ding direction 
 dounwards from the body with the foot a few inches above 
 the ground, and then a similar stroke is made as described 
 above. Another stroke is made with the sole of the right 
 foot from behind the body, the foot in delivering it being 
 kicked backwards and upwards. With many of the strokes 
 delivered from the feet, the shuttlecock is sent up some ten, 
 twenty, or thirty feet into the air, though occasionally a 
 forward kick is given which directs it towards another player, 
 with, perhaps, a slightly rising direction. The play often 
 begins by one player tossing the shuttlecock with his hand 
 up in the air towards another player opposite him. The 
 object of the play is, of course, to keep the shuttlecock up as 
 long as possible. The shuttlecock itself is rather different in 
 construction from that in use in the West, no cork being 
 used; but a number of layers of skin are employed, the two 
 outer being snake's skin and the inner ones are said to be 
 shark's skin, there being from eight or ten to twenty layers. 
 The feathers used are duck's feathers and three in number. 
 
 SILK. — Notwithstanding the disparagement of early 
 Chinese inventions by some, no one has yet been found bold 
 enough to try and wrest the palm from them for the three 
 discoveries of porcelain, lacquer ware, and the manufacture 
 of silk. "The cultivation of silk, as of tea, had its origin 
 in China ' and • China still stands first amongst the silk- 
 producing countries of the earth, and the amount exported 
 annually from it to Europe, North America, and Bombay, is 
 between 52,000 and 85,000 bales.' 
 
 Silk culture is of very ancient origin ; from references 
 in the Shu King to it, it is evident that it was well known 
 when that work was written. Silkworms are said to have 
 been first reared (B.C. 2G00) by the Empress of Hwang-ti, 
 who Avas deified and worshipped, under the name of Yuen-fi, 
 as the Goddess of Silk. Offerings are made to her annually, 
 in April, by the empress, at a temple in the palace grounds 
 at Peking. The great Yu is credited by the Chinese 'as the 
 most prominent pi-omuter " uf the cultivation of silk and he 
 
 2 J- 2 
 
524 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 is likewise said to *have planted the hill country of Shan-si 
 with mulberiies.' The Chinese Government has followed 
 the good example of this semi-mythical monarch by giving 
 encouragement to the people and endeavouring to incite 
 them to engage in this industrial occupation. In fact it has 
 bestowed unremitting attention on this important branch of 
 industry. 
 
 As the mulberry leaf is the chief food of the silkworm, 
 much labour and the greatest care is expended on the cul- 
 tivation of the mulberry tree. In the neighbourhood of 
 Chinkiang there are two kinds of mulberries — a wild and a 
 domestic — the domestic is grafted on the wild. The young 
 mulberry trees are transplanted in December and are placed 
 at regular distances of five or six feet from one another : 
 they are then cut down to one foot six inches in height, and 
 two shoots are allowed to grow ; with the systematic pruning 
 carried on each year, after five" or six years there are only 
 sixteen branches left ; the continual cutting off of all but two 
 fresh twigs on each branch produces a knobbed appearance 
 of the tree ; and finally, from these knobbed-like fists, about 
 fifty to eighty branches are preserved. The trees live more 
 than fifty years ; but are not allowed to grow higher than 
 five or six feet. The wild mulberry, which grows to a 
 height of fifty or sixty feet, is also used, and there is a 
 smaller kind as well. 
 
 The silkworm undergoes several changes ; but difierent 
 species would appear to diff'er in this respect, for it seems 
 that the ' southern silkworm ' has four periods for moulting, 
 as a rule, while the * northern silkworm ' generally casts its 
 skin three times. 
 
 The greatest care is taken to keep the silkworms from 
 noise, which they dislike ; but so far do the silkworm carers 
 carry their precautions that they become superstitious, the 
 silkworms at certain places being informed by their keepers 
 of the arrival of travellers, and, if this is omitted, any luckless 
 wight, chancing on a village unannounced, '\\ill receive but 
 
SILK. 525 
 
 scant courtesy, and be driven away with curses, if nothing 
 worse. 
 
 There are ten rules hiid down for breeding silkworms : — 
 
 ' The eggs when on paper must be kept cool ; after having been 
 hatched they require to be kept warm ; during their period of mouUing 
 they must be kept hungry ; in the intervals between their sleeps they 
 must be well supplied with food ; they should not be placed too close 
 together nor too far apart ; during their sleeps they should be kept 
 dark and warm ; after they have cast their skins, cool, and allowed 
 plenty of light ; for a little time after moulting they should be sparsely 
 fed ; and when they are full grown ought never to be without food ; 
 their eggs should be laid close together, but not heaped upon each 
 other, Wet, withered, or dusty leaves are not given to them. Rather 
 less than two ozs. in weight of young worms will eat i ton and 430 
 lbs. weight of leaves 
 
 'While the worms are growing, care is taken to keep them' from 
 'bright light ; they are often changed from one hurdle to another that 
 they may have roomy and clean places; the utmost attention is paid 
 to their condition and feeding, and noting the right time for preparing 
 them for spinning cocoons. Three days are required for this, and in 
 six it is time to stifle the larvic and reel the silk from the cocoons ; 
 this being usually done by other workmen. Those who rear the 
 worms enclose the cocoons in ajar buried in the ground and lined with 
 mats and leaves, interlaying them with salt, which kills the pupae but 
 keeps tne silk supple, strong, and lustrous ; preserved in this manner, 
 they can be transported to any distance, or the reeling of the silk can 
 be delayed until convenient. Another mode of destroying the cocoons 
 is to spread them on trays and expose them by twos to the steam of 
 boiling water, putting the upper in the place of the lower one 
 according to the degree of heat they are in, taking care that the 
 chrysalides are killed and the silk not injured. After exposure to 
 steam the silk can be reeled off immediately, but if placed in the jars 
 they must be put into warm water to dissolve the glue before the 
 floss can be unwound.' 
 
 Silk from Avild worms of different species is also used in 
 some of the provinces. 
 
 In Shing-king, in Manchuria, silk is produced from a 
 species of silkworm. Bomhiix Pcrnui, or Bo)iibij,v Fantonl 
 of Italy, which feeds on the leaves of a species of oak, 
 Quercus Mongolia, or Querais rohur. A small quantity is also 
 produced from the Bomhijx Ci/)ithla. The yield of this silk 
 might be quadrupled. The chrysalides are an article of diet 
 with the Chinese. The spinning wheel is similar to that in 
 the West. It requires from 1,000 to 5.000 cocoon.s to weave 
 
526 THINGS (JlllXE^E. 
 
 a piece of silk, and it takes a man two clays to do so. There 
 are no large manufactories for its production, but 'each one 
 spins, Aveaves, and dyes his own material ' in Manchuria, and 
 this is also largely the case throughout China, though not 
 entirely. A black silk is produced from the Bomhyx Pernyi 
 due to the worm eating the whole of the leaf, stalk, and 
 everything. 
 
 In the district about Chefoo there are two kinds of silk 
 produced : ' wild silk,' spun from the cocoons of the Bo)nhi/cV 
 Pernyi mentioned above, the wild silkworm; and 'yellow 
 silk,' spun from the cocoons of the Bomhyx Mori or silkworm 
 proper. 
 
 For hatching the eggs, the women in some places keep 
 them on their persons for the warmth of their bodies, while 
 in other places they put them under the blankets in the 
 bed. 
 
 ' A newly hatched silkworm is as fine as a hair. Im- 
 mediately under its head there are four legs, a little beyond 
 on the body there are six more, and again six more near the 
 end at the tail ; their whole length is about one-tenth of an 
 inch and their colour is black.' The greatest care is taken 
 in supplying them with leaves, the men actually washing 
 their hands before touching the leaves. They are fed five or 
 six times a day at first, but after the third day constantly. 
 After one or two days, the worms become brown and, after 
 five days more, a yellowish white. The fifth days seem 
 memorable ones with the silkworm, for on the fifth day they 
 stop feeding and ' undergo their first moult,' and at intervals 
 of about five days after each waking they again cast their 
 skins, ceasing eating for periods varying from a day and 
 night to the * long repose,' the fourth one of, if the weather is 
 cold, two or three days, their colour changing at these different 
 periods from yellow or a yellowisli-white from before the 
 stupors to a slight yellowish tint or a white colour after. After 
 these moults tliey will, if in good condition, eat twenty times 
 their weight in leaves. After another five days they attain 
 maturitv and arc about two inches in Icn^jth. \Yhat lo(;k 
 
SILh\ :)2T 
 
 like sheaves of straw are used for tlie silkworms to construct 
 their cocoons on, each sheaf or bundle being tied round the 
 middle and spread out at the top and bottom ; sixty or 
 seventy worms are put on each bundle, care being taken not 
 to crowd them too much together. They then proceed to 
 spin their cocoons amongst the stalks of straw by first at- 
 taching themselves \\ith some looser threads, after which 
 they spin the compact "' oblong case,' as the dictionary terms 
 it, but beautifully rounded, working of course from the out- 
 side in. They finish spinning in five days, and, if the silk 
 is not spun oii\ they pierce their yellow shrouds in ten 
 days. 
 
 ' From two catties of good cocoons, nine catties of silk 
 are reeled off * * * A quick hand with a double reel- 
 ing machine reels about 1^ catties of silk per day, thus 100 
 catties of cocoons are about six days Avork.' A certain 
 number of cocoons are kept for breeding purposes. The 
 female moths die in five days after laying their eggs, which 
 they do within a day or so of coming out. 
 
 In tlie Canton province the two principal qualities of 
 silk are Tai-tsam and Lun-yut : the eggs of the former are 
 hatched once or twice a year ; the latter seven times. 
 
 The author saw, in Swatow, some curious, large, wild 
 caterpillars, brightly coloured, which spin a species of silk 
 used in making lanterns. 
 
 Wild silkworms in the North of China are fed on 
 different kinds of oak and they supply two crops of cocoons 
 annually. The natives hatch them, and, after feeding them 
 themselves, place them on the branches, when the leaves of 
 the trees are fully out, and transfer them to other trees as 
 they eat the leaves of one. They spin their cocoons on the 
 trees, from whence they are gathered. After the female 
 moths have come out, and are ready to lay their eggs, the 
 natives tie them by one leg with fine threads to the branches 
 of the tree, when they lay their eggs on the leaves. These 
 wild silkworms are 'smaller than the domestic ones and of 
 
528 rillNGS CHINESE. 
 
 a grayish black colour.' The silk filaments of the domestic 
 silkworm cocoons are Avound into thread by the aid of a 
 primitive reeling machine. 
 
 Tor reeling the silk filament off" the cocoons they are 
 placed in hot water to loosen the ends of the silk, the rough 
 parts are cleared away, and the clean filament taken with the 
 hand and then passed over, or through, the diff'erent parts of 
 the reeling machine. As soon as the cocoon gets thin and 
 the chrysalis is visible, a new filament is taken in its place. 
 The best threads arc made with six or seven cocoons, ranging 
 from this number to twenty or more for the coarsest. 'A 
 quick hand can reel in one day * * about 20 taels weight 
 fine or 30 taels coarse silk.' The wild worm cocoons are 
 treated in a different manner. 
 
 The space to which our article must be confined will not 
 allow us to go into a detailed statement of the numbers 
 of looms and their output, nor are statistics available for 
 a full statement ; but, as an example of what is done, we 
 may say that in 1880 there were in Chinkiang 1,000 
 looms employing 4,000 labourers. In one day, three men 
 can turn out about 12 feet to 16 feet of silk; for plain 
 goods, two men only are required at each loom; and 
 only one man for weaving gauze, there being 200 looms for 
 this with 300 men at work, of which 14,000 to 15,000 pieces 
 are annually produced for local consumption within the 
 province of Kiangsu. Besides this, there are 50 or 60 looms 
 'engaged in weaving silk ribbons, each attended to by one 
 man; a second is required only in weaving the broader 
 kinds. * * * On an average, one man can Aveave about 
 40 feet per day. There are about 100 men engaged in this 
 branch of the business; and there are about 30 or 40 looms 
 for weaving red plain satin.' 
 
 For making sewing silk 'two filaments are twisted 
 together into threads.' For crape manufacture there are 
 about 200 looms and 800 men employed, 
 
SlfJ{. 529 
 
 'The greatest silk producing- province in China is Che- 
 kiang, and Kiangsu conies second.' while 'Hu-cho\v holds 
 the first place among the departments of the whole Empire 
 of China for the production of silk.' It may. therefore, be 
 interesting to note the production of this one department. 
 The production then for 1878 was 2,925,232 catties 
 (1,755,139 kilos.), and for 1879, 3,304<,196 catties (1,982,517 
 kilos.). There are 4,000 looms, each loom producing about 
 100 pieces a year. 
 
 Hang-chiu produces the best kinds of silk piece goods. 
 
 ' Filatures produce silk realising Tls. 200 a picul more than 
 will that spun from the same cocoons by the old primitive method.' 
 
 'Sericulture is now [1895] the leading industry in China since 
 tea has gradually receded tc a subordinate position.' 
 
 'The steps initiated by the Inspector-General [of Imperial 
 Maritime Customs] to implant in China the Pasteur system of detecting 
 and eradicating disease in silkworms have succeeded in the 
 Kwangtung province.' Some time ago it was stated that, in 
 Kiangsu and Chehkiang they ' are considering the establishment of silk- 
 worm nurseries for the selection of eggs on the Pasteur system,' these 
 steps being necessary to cope with the silkworm disease. 
 
 There is a complaint of the defective reeling and 
 adulteration of silk from North China, which, unless checked 
 is bound to do injury to the silk trade of China. 
 
 There are silk filature establishments in China where 
 foreign machinery is employed in reeling and weaving 
 the silk. There are three in Macao, one with 54 steam 
 looms. There is room for several more as the silk is on the 
 spot, there is cheap labour available, and a market. 
 Shanghai has 27 silk filatures, Hangchow has one, and 
 Soochow three. 
 
 The export of China silk is increasing but not at a 
 rapid rate. The following extract from a consular report 
 may prove of interest : — 
 
 'China silk is intrinsically the best silk in the world, but from 
 ignorance or lack of energy on the part of the producers, it continues 
 from year to year to be prepared in the old faulty method, while 
 Japan silk, by nature much inferior, is beating it in the market, simply 
 by the care and attention bestowed on its preparation, and bv the 
 
 2 II 
 
530 THINGS CHINESE, 
 
 fostering provision of the Japanese government, who provide the means 
 of educating their people in the most approved methods in vogue in 
 Europe.' 
 
 Enormous quantities of silk are not only sent abroad 
 but even larger quantities are used by the Chinese themselves. 
 Silk is a common article of attire and is not confined to the 
 gentler sex, who delight to array themselves in briglit and 
 soft fabrics in the West; in the gorgeous East, men are 
 clothed in as brilliant robes as women. It is utterly 
 impossible to say how much silk is used in China, but the 
 Chinese consider that their consumption is more than double 
 the amount exported to foreign countries. In 1890 the 
 amount exported was 158,427 piculs; in the previous year, 
 1889, it was 182,939 piculs, doubling these sums would give 
 SlGjSSl' piculs and 365.878 piculs respectively ; and no one 
 who has seen the quantity of silk used by Chinese would 
 doubt that these amounts must be well within the mark of 
 their actual consumption of that useful commodity. 
 
 Books recommended. — 'Silk' being a thick hrochvrf, No. 3 of "Special 
 Series' of the publications of the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs. It 
 consists of a series of reports from the different Commissioners of Customs 
 on the silk culture and manufacture in the districts in the neighbourhood of 
 the ports at which they were stationed. We are indebted to this interesting 
 and valuable publication for much of the information contained in this 
 article. Also see "Silk ; Statistics, 187t) — 88,' a thin pamphlet of the same 
 'Special Series' No. 12, 
 
 SLAVERY. — China, in common with most Asiatic 
 countries where the liberty of the subject is unknown, has 
 the institution of slavery ; but slavery as a general rule is 
 milder in the despotic East than where, in direct contra- 
 vention of all the free instincts of the West, it has been 
 found nestling under the flag of liberty. One would expect 
 the contrary to be the rule, but it is not. Where the right of 
 the individual was generally respected, as in America, if equal 
 justice was not meted out to every man as man, but on 
 the contrary the fundamental principles at the foundation of 
 society were not only ignored but persistently transgressed 
 with respect to one section of the community, it needed 
 but little more, all barriers of law and morality as regards 
 one branch of the human family being swept away, to 
 
SLAVERY. 531 
 
 trunsform the otlierwiso mild muster into a cruel one. and a 
 few generations, or even less, to develop tyranny which 
 knew no law but that of interest and the almighty d(jllar. 
 
 In the East, the individual knows no rights, as an 
 individual, as we understand such rights in the West. He 
 is but a member of the family; the family is the unit of 
 society : the members of the family are but fractions of the 
 whole ; the slave owes his existence as a slave to this 
 patriarchal rule ; and ejected from one family, generally by 
 circumstances over which he has no control, he is engulfed 
 in another. 
 
 Slavery then appears almost to be the normal condition 
 of part of the inhabitants in a country where the rights of 
 the individual, qua individual, are unknown, and where the 
 conservation, preservation, and perpetuation of the family are 
 the aims of human society, and every means has to be 
 employed with these ends in view. To this is due some of 
 the buying and selling of human beings as chattels ; for 
 should no son be born to a man he often purchases one from 
 poor parents and adopts him as his own. Girls are also 
 bought to become daughters ; but these can scarcely be 
 looked upon as slaves, as they become the children of the 
 family into which they are adopted, and are in no more 
 bondage than the children born in the family itself. 
 
 A species of debt-slavery exists to some extent 
 In China, where a man will give his son to his creditor 
 either to adopt or to be his slave or his daughter for 
 either a slave or a domestic slave (See below) in full 
 settlement of the debt ; and in some provinces (but not in 
 Kwang-tung) a wife is even given to be a concubine for the 
 same purpose. 
 
 A species of domestic slavery exists to a very large 
 extent : there is scarcely a family of good means in Hong- 
 kong, Canton, or Macao but what possesses one or often 
 several slave-girls. It must, in all fairness to the Chinese, be 
 
 2 K 2 
 
532 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 said that this domestic slave-giil system is a very mild form 
 of slavery, as we understand that word. The girls are as a 
 rule purchased from their parents, who probably sell them 
 on account of poverty : they are sold when they are young, 
 at any age, some as young as three years and from that up 
 to fifteen, but seven, eight, or ten, is a common age. It is 
 better to buy them young as they might otherwise run home. 
 The prices range from ten or twenty to a hundred dollars, 
 the larger amounts being given for good-looking ones, as 
 they will bring in a larger number of presents (at their 
 marriage) to the family, and thus possibly recoup the owner 
 with a two or three-fold amount of money on their purchase 
 price, besides, the owner having the use of them as domestic 
 servants for ten or more years without wages, food and 
 clothing being the only outlay on them. As to lodging, it is 
 not worth while taking account of that, for Chinese servants, 
 like dogs or cats, can sleep almost anywhere and everywhere. 
 
 These transactions often take place through go-betweens. 
 It is somewhat safer, in such cases, to have a broker of 
 human flesh, as a charge of kidnapping might be more 
 difficult to bring ; for when there is a go-between the rule 
 is that a deed of sale is drawn up which is held by the 
 purchaser. It sometimes happens, but not often, that the 
 parents stipulate that they shall be at liberty to come and 
 see the girl ; but this stipulation, if made, is not reduced to 
 writing, as it would obviously clash with the interests of 
 the purchaser to have the mother coming about interviewing 
 the girl and hearing her complaints. 
 
 Should such a verbal agreement as the above have been 
 come to, the girl's parents are consulted about her marriage, 
 otherwise, for the ten or fifteen years, the girl is virtually and 
 actually the property of her master or mistress, and is an 
 asset not; realised, under the oixlinary circumstances of life, 
 until her marriage, though realisable, and should reverses in 
 business reduce the family, it would be in the power of its 
 head to sell her just as her parents originally sold her. At 
 the same time this is not often done. A clause is often 
 
SLAVERY. 533 
 
 inserted in the agreement that the girl is not to be sold. into 
 prostitution, but, should this clause have been omitted, the 
 parents are powerless to prevent it in practice. 
 
 Arrived at marriageable age, the girl is married and 
 thus ends her domestic servitude. 
 
 If chance has thrown her into the hands of a fairly 
 kind mistress her lot may not be such a dreadful one, but 
 instances occur of brutal mistresses half murdering their 
 poor little slave girls, even in the British Colony of 
 Hongkong. Theoretically, of course, there are no slaves in 
 Hongkong, as it is British territory, but practically there are 
 thousands of them. All the young maid-servants that follow 
 their mistresses' sedan chairs, and that go about with little 
 children, belong to this class. No young unmarried free 
 women go out into service, though old women do. 
 
 These little slave girls are the most numerous class of 
 slaves in China. While mentioning the female sex, it may 
 be remarked, in passing, that nearly all prostitutes are slaves, 
 the property of their mistresses, the keepers of the houses of 
 ill-fame in which they reside, having often been kidnapped, 
 or deceived by promises of work being found for them as 
 seamtresses, and thus inveigled into the clutches of the old 
 harridans who run these establishments. So completely do 
 they come under the power of these pests of society, and so 
 cowed and frightened are they by the threats and intimi- 
 dations of their mistresses, that even in Hongkong, where 
 notices were put up in all the registered houses of that 
 character that all were free — yet, notwithstanding this, and the 
 fact that they are theoretically free to go and see the 
 Registrar-General and Protector of Chinese, whose duty it 
 is, once knowing their wrongs, to have them righted, they but 
 seldom, in proportion to their numbers, avail themselves of 
 their rights, and when brought up before him, almost invariably 
 say they enter on such a life freely. (Some years ago before 
 being allowed to enter as inmates of these houses, all were 
 compelled to appear before this official, or his assistant, in 
 
534- TJIhXGS CHINESE. 
 
 order to have a chance, if they woukl avail themselves of it, 
 of stating their unwillingness to be coerced into a life of shame. 
 This rule is most unfortunately not in force now.) And though 
 every Chinese women that goes abroad, as a common emigrant, 
 is questioned and examined as to her willingness to go, yet 
 but few, who are being taken against their will, avail them- 
 selves of the chance of recovering their freedom. It seems as 
 if it would take centuries to educate the Chinese people into 
 an idea of what personal freedom is, and what the liberty of 
 the subject means, as regards the female sex. 
 
 The cases of little boys sold to be servants is even worse 
 than that of the servant girls, as they do not have marriage 
 to look forward to, to set them free and end their life of 
 servitude. They are slaves for ever, unless they purchase 
 their freedom. 
 
 'The Manchu code does not recognise the right of the slave to 
 iree himself by his labour, nor punish the master who refuses 
 affranchisement. There is, in short, no regulation on the subject (in 
 practice the slave frequently purchases his body with his pccidium, 
 which is usually, though not legally, held to be the slave's own 
 property). Many Chinese allow their slaves to embark in 
 
 trade and ransom themselves with the profits.' 
 
 In ancient times, in China, there were state slaves, but 
 banishment now takes the place of the Government slavery 
 to a large extent. Priestesses, however, who found a new 
 monastery without the sanction of Government, become the 
 slaves of Government. 
 
 'The wives, children, and relatives in the first degree of rebels 
 are given as slaves to Government officers. "' * * Slaves are 
 composed of (i) prisoners of war; (2) those who sell themselves or 
 are sold ; (3) the children of slaves.' The first are now rare. We 
 have spoken of some already who come under the second heading. 
 'Though the penal code forbids the sale of free persons, even by a 
 husband, a father, or a grandfather, the number of persons whom 
 misery forces to sell themselves or be sold is considerable. The 
 punishment varies from 84 to 90 blows, and banishment for 2\ years, 
 according to the relation existing between seller and sold. The 
 punishment is one degree less when the person sold consents, but 
 young children are exempt from all punishment, though they may 
 have consented, on account of the obedience due to their older 
 relations, and must be returned to their families. * •■- * Though 
 
SLAVERY. 535 
 
 to keep a free man or lost child as a slave, or to give or take in hire 
 a wife or daughter, are severely punishable, the adoption of stolen or 
 lost children and the sale of free children and inferior wives are daily 
 transactions in China. Inundations and famines are the chief cause. 
 Every slave born in a house belongs to his master or his heir ; to 
 detain a runaway slave is punishable. Players and brothel-keepers 
 recruit their numbers from this class, as they are forbidden by the 
 code to purchase free men or women for their professions. '-' 
 
 The inferior wife ranks above a slave ; she is married with fewer 
 formalities than the first wife under whose orders she is put. The 
 husband can only dismiss her for certain specified reasons ; but in 
 practice inferior wives are frequently sold.' 
 
 No property is divisible during the period of mourning, 
 but after that is over, if the different sons of the deceased 
 wish to separate, they are at liberty to do so, and the eldest 
 son then divides the property amongst them equally, whether 
 they be sons of the first wife or of inferior wives or of slaves. 
 •' We may add that such slaves by the birth of children 
 become in China ipso facto inferior wives.' 
 
 Slaves are not allowed to be married to free <jirls. 
 In a general way it may be said that slaves convicted of 
 crime are punished more severely than if they were free, 
 while crimes committed against slaves meet with a lighter 
 punishment than if committed against free men. 'Masters 
 may beat their slaves or hired servants at pleasure.' 
 
 It is interesting to note that during the fifteenth and 
 sixteenth centuries large numbers of black slaves of both 
 sexes from the East Indian Achipelago 'were purchased by 
 the great houses of Canton to serve as gate-keepers.' They 
 were called 'devil slaves' and it is not improbable that the 
 term 'foreign devil,' so freely used by the Chinese for 
 foreigners, may have had this origin. In the T'ang dynasty 
 even, it is said that they were kept in large numbers by the 
 Chinese. Three pages in a Chinese work, 'The Kwangtung 
 San Yii,' are taken up with an account of them, and other 
 Chinese books notice them as well. 
 
 There is a curious slang phrase in use for slaves; it is 
 'two candarins and two lis,' used for example in this way : — 
 'they were two candarins and two Us,' ecjuivalent to saying 
 
536 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ' they were slaves.' This strange term is said to have arisen 
 towards the close of the Ming dynasty, during the troublous 
 times, when a Chinese took advantage of his opportunity, and, 
 representing himself as a General of the Manchus, levied an 
 impost on each inhabitant of the villages of three candarins, 
 but, finding that the slaves in these warlike times were mostly 
 poor and neglected, he reduced the amount to be paid by 
 them to two candarins and two lis, hence the name. 
 
 liool'x recommench'd. — 'Memoir on the condition of Slaves and Hired 
 Servants in China,' by M. E. Biot in 'Chinese Repository,' July, 1849. 
 Mr. Parker yives the pith of this article by M. Biot in 'Excursus No. 6 — 
 SlaA'^es' in his 'Comparative Chinese Family Law.' 
 
 SOCIEriES.— The Chinese are fully aware of the force 
 of the adage that 'union is strength/ and have not a few 
 different forms of associations, societies, and guilds. One of 
 the most common, at all events in the South, is the Money 
 Loan Association. Foreigners have considerable difficulty in 
 understanding this form of Association, as the arrangements 
 connected with it seem complicated, but, when once understood, 
 are simple enough. There are several kinds of Money Loan 
 Associations, but the most common is the Yi-wiii (pronounced 
 Ye-wooee). These associations form a ready and convenient 
 means for Chinese to obtain, what is to them, a large sum of 
 money when the exigencies of business or their social customs, 
 such as those connected with marriage, make it necessary for 
 them to procure a larger sum of ready cash for use than can 
 easily be obtained in any other way. 
 
 Supposing then, by way of example, that A requires a 
 sum of money, say $100, he or she then (for women engage 
 more largely in these associations even than men) invites a 
 number of friends or acquaintances to join with him or her in 
 forming a Money Loan Association, they becoming members 
 or shareholders while A is the Head of the Association. 
 Should the sum fixed upon as the amount of the periodical 
 contribution or share be ^5, then A, having invited twenty 
 others to join as members, will get the sum of money he 
 requires, for twenty times ^5 is ^100. A enrols the names of 
 
SOO/ETrES. 537 
 
 all in a book, with amounts and dates of payments, total.", and 
 particulars ot" the Association. Sometimes a page of this 
 book is devoted to each meeting of the Association and the 
 accounts connected therewith. Each member has likewise 
 a small book, a pass-book, supplid by A, who fills it up. 
 Each member is expected to bring his little book with 
 him to each meeting so that the necessary particulars may 
 be entered in it, in the event of his obtaining the money. 
 The date is written in the centre of the yellow cover of the 
 book, or at least the year and month, and the words ' started 
 on a lucky day ' below the last, while at the left hand end of 
 the cover is put the name of the person to whom the book 
 belongs. The Head has a similar book. These books have 
 printed forms at the beginning, containing a preamble, giving, 
 in rather a vague manner, the origin of these associations, 
 followed, for the guidance of those entering into them, by 
 the rules, with blanks for the insertion of the amount of the 
 contribution or share, and any other matters incident to 
 each particular Association. At all events, whatever else 
 may be omitted, a list of members appears in the book, a 
 name being allotted to each column and placed at the top of 
 the column. A number of blank pages follow for the entries 
 of dates and contributions, or subscriptions, as they might be 
 termed, or payments. In well-kept books, by careful persons 
 for instance, the drawing is sometimes put just below the 
 name of the person who draws, at times in the following 
 manner: 'Second drawdng, interest money 80 cents. Received 
 small shares (that is payments from persons who have not 
 yet di'awn) twelve shares (besides the drawer's own share) and 
 one large share ' (that is a payment from some one who has 
 already drawn). 
 
 One of the most common times for the periods of pay- 
 ments is by the month, though fortnightly associations are 
 not uncommon ; quarterly ones are known, and even annual 
 ones are formed by Avealthy men for large sums of money. 
 
 Let it be supposed that the one which A forms is a 
 monthly one, A certain day of the month is fixed upon for 
 
 2 s 
 
538 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the f'atui'e meetings and no alteration is allowed subsequently, 
 ' no matter how unfavourable the weather may be/ as tlie 
 Chinese rule puts it. Intercalary months are not counted, 
 though sometimes an exception is made to the rule. In 
 that case the rule should be expunged from the book. The 
 members are apprised by notice being sent to them by the 
 Head, requesting tliem to prepare their share and take it 
 to the meeting for collection. The money is examined in the 
 presence of the members. No set-off of private debts is 
 allowed or anything in the nature of a pledge, but the money 
 must be actually paid. ■ Should any of the members be kept 
 back by any imjiortaut business, he must send one of his 
 friends to represent him and pay liis share of the money.' 
 Each of the members then pays to A the sum of %o, the 
 nominal amount of their monthly contribution, and for the 
 first month the actual amount. On the first occasion A keeps 
 the money, viz. ^100, as that is the reason he has formed 
 the Association, and it is the prerogative of the Head of the 
 Association to have the use of the first monthly amount 
 of money subscribed, or paid in. Also, by virtue of his 
 being the Head, he gets this money without needing to pay 
 any interest on it — in short, he gets the full amount of $o 
 from each of the twenty members. What follows will 
 explain more fully what is meant here. This privilege is 
 accorded to him as a set-oft' for the work to be done, and 
 trouble to be taken, by him. on behalf of the Association. 
 The money is his for any use to which he likes to apply it. 
 In fact, it is a loan made to him by all of the twenty mem- 
 bers, each contributing his share ('^i)) to it : but having thus 
 secured the loan, he commences the very next month to 
 repay it, in monthly instalments of |5. He does not, 
 however, hand this !^5 separately to a separate creditor each 
 month until he has paid the \\ hole twenty : but ho does 
 Avhat is tantamount to the same thing, he pays in ^iy each 
 month into the funds of the Association — the funds are, of 
 course, the aggregate of the monthly payments in by the 
 Head and members of the Association, which A, as Head 
 is responsible for, and holds in trust for the- members. It 
 
SOCIETIES. 539 
 
 is equivalent to a personal payment of his debt to each 
 member, because each member obtains the loan of all the 
 monthly contributions of that month in Avhich he. the 
 member, draus the money.. conse([uently this S^ goes each 
 month to liquidate in rotation every member for the $5 
 originally paid in to A, and which A drew out for his own 
 use; for each member, as has already been said, draws out 
 in rotation the monthly sum made up of all the payments 
 in. In other words, when B draws out the amount of 
 money in the second month, in that sum. made up of the 
 payments in by the otlicr members, is also the sum of $.") 
 paid in by the Head, -which item of ^5 is in repayment of the 
 $5 he. B, paid in the first month to A. the Head, which, as 
 we have already seen, A drew out for liis o\a n use along Avitli 
 all the other items of i^5 paid in by the other members. A 
 and B are therefore quits — his, B's. loan, has been refunded 
 to him; and the same thing happen^; with G the next 
 month, that is the third month, and the same with 1) the 
 month after, and so on with all the members, till all are 
 repaid; and, in fact, at the end of twenty months A has 
 repaid the whole of the |100. 
 
 But wliat makes tlie matter appear complicated is that 
 B, C, and D, and all the rest, get loans, and on their part 
 repay — in reality each one, except the Head, lend-s to every- 
 one else, and each one, including the Head, borrows from 
 everyone else, and as soon as eacii one borrows, each one, 
 except the last then commences to repay everyone else. This 
 seems confusion worse confounded, and the maze appears too 
 intricate to the European obser\er; as he sees in his mind's 
 eye each member transformed, after the first month, one by 
 one, from a lender into a receiver, a borrower, and a payer- 
 back. It is, however, simple cnougli ; and the clue to the 
 maze is to be found infixing on one member at a time, as we 
 have done with the Head, and following this one meniber 
 through all the intricacies until, wath the close of the Associa- 
 tion, his accounts are all settled, at the same time resolutely 
 closing our eyes to the action of the Head and other members, 
 
 2 s 2 
 
540 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 except inasmuch as they affect the actions and money of the 
 one member we are following. 
 
 Let us then take B. How docs he get his loan ? He is 
 not the Head : lie cannot draw the money as the Head 
 would at the very start without paying any interest for it, 
 but, by virtue of being a member, he is entitled to the 
 loan. All the members are, however, equally entitled. What 
 shall decide the respective times at which they are permitted 
 to draw ? Tlie rule is, after the Head has had his, that the 
 drawings of loans every month shall be by tender, and the 
 highest bidder shall get it. This seems a very fair rule, as 
 the man or woman most in want of money is likely to offer 
 the most for it. These tenders are then put in at every 
 meeting by the members desirous of drawing the money, 
 except at the first and last meetings. At the first, as has 
 already been seen, the Head has it by right, at the last it 
 devolves, as a matter of course, to the residuary member, as 
 all the rest have drawn. The tenders for the loan are written 
 on any kind of paper. If sent by another's hand they are 
 enclosed in an envelope and the name should be written on 
 the paper as well as the price tendered. If the member is 
 present in person he may write it at the time of handing it 
 in, but in that case he need only write the amount on it 
 Avithout his name, and no envelope is required. The Head 
 of the Association opens the tenders, which are placed on the 
 table before him, in the presence of the members, who see 
 them. The highest tender is taken, and should two be equal 
 in amount the first opened is considered as the successful 
 one. Ic is not compulsory on all the members to tender 
 each time, but the tendency is for most to do so, as, if tliere 
 is a demand for the money, one who is in actual want of it, 
 seeing so many present, will, though he may not knoAV what 
 the others have offered, make a big bid in order to overtop 
 theirs, and thus, though the others may not have cared 
 for the money, yet. by their presence and tendering, 
 they have raised the interest v.'hich they will each obtain 
 for that loan. In short, a monthly loan is given by the 
 Association in rotation to each of its members, and this 
 
SOCII'JTII'JS. oil 
 
 rotation is conditionGcl by the highest bid oH'orcd on each 
 occasion, as explained above. In the second month we will 
 suppose then that B writes on a piece of paper ' Offers 
 interest, oO cents' and hands this in : we will further suppose 
 that this is the highest amount ottered, consequently B 
 obtains the loan. Sometimes three days of grace are allowed 
 for payment in of the money after the tenders have been 
 opened, but it often happens that the contributions have to 
 be paid in immediately after the tendering is over. In this 
 case then B pays nothing in, as he is obtaining a loan : the 
 Head pays his ^5, as he docs every month after; but all 
 the other niembcrs pay, not !§;5, the nominal amount of 
 their contributions, but ^4'. 50, that is to say, they each 
 deduct the fifty cents offered as interest. ( Looking at it in 
 one way, they thus get their interest in advance, as it were, 
 and, should the association come to grief, their loss, if they 
 do not recover their money, is not quite so great, though, as 
 will be seen from what is said further on, it would be better 
 to say they each only lend .f 1.50, the borrower having to 
 pay $5 for each of these sums of $1.50, thus repaying 
 principal and interest.) These amounts are handed to 
 the Head, who, after collecting them, P'^iys them 
 over to B along with his, the Head's own $5, making 
 a total of S^l<.50 x 19 + p --$90.50. This then is the loan 
 that B draws. On each occasion after this B pays the full 
 amount of the contribution, $5. It will thus be seen that by 
 doing so he pays the interest on his loan ; for every subse- 
 (juent drawing by a member contains, of course, amongst 
 the different items of which it is made up, one of $5 from B ; 
 and as the subsequent drawer, however, only paid into the 
 Association $4.50 on the occasion that B drew, he, the 
 subsequent drawer, consequently has got paid back to him $5 
 for the $koO, i.e., the 50 cents for interest that B offered, 
 and which was accepted, as his, B's, tender was the highest 
 on that occasion. It will be remembered though that B 
 originally paid $5 to A on the first draA\ing when A took 
 the drawing by right of being the Head. As we have already said 
 A pays $5 every time after the first, consequently B has got hiu 
 
542 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 %b back from A, the exact sum he, as one of the members, 
 had loaned to him through the Association, for, as we have 
 already said, A, being the Head, pays no interest, so it will 
 be seen A's and B's accounts are settled as regards each 
 other. B, again, by paying in $5 every month, subsequent 
 to the one in Avhich he got the loan, virtually pays the other 
 members back the amounts due to them with interest as 
 above, viz., nineteen monthly instalments of $5 ; counting in 
 that he has already paid $.5 to A, as we have just pointed 
 out, his whole payments therefore are ^5 x 19 + |5 = $100, 
 that is for the :§i90,50, and its use, he has paid ijilOO, i.e.. 
 $9.50 of interest. 
 
 With regard to C. Let us suppose that C offers 25 
 cents interest, and his tender, being the highest in the 3rd 
 month, is necessarily accepted. A will receive A's %o. He 
 receives from B !&5, as B commences this month (see above) 
 to pay $5 ; for after each loan obtained each member pays 
 the full amount of the subscription. From the others, 
 eighteen in number, C receives !tp4.75 x 18 =$85.50; add to 
 this the |10 above and it makes $95.50, the whole amount 
 which the Head of the Association hands to him. His 
 payments are as follows : — 
 
 1st month to A ---..-. $5.00 
 
 2nd month to B $4.50 
 
 3rd month nothing 
 
 4th to 21st month, 18 months @ $5 = $90.00 
 
 Total $99.50 
 
 He thus pays $99.50 for the use of $95.50, I.e., $4 of 
 interest. 
 
 Let us no"\v" take T"s case, the twentieth man : to use an 
 Irishism he repays his loan before obtaining it, or, in other 
 words, he pays in a varying sum each montli, after the first 
 month dependent, as has already been shewn in the cases of 
 B and C, upon the amount of interest oft'ered. Of course. 
 the higher the interest has been the better for T, as well as 
 
SOCIETIES. 543 
 
 for all the other members in a varying degree. Suppose 
 the interest declueted aver;iged 25 cents a month, T's 
 payments would then be i|5 to A the first month, and 
 nineteen payments of ^4 .7o— 90.25, add to this the $5 to 
 A=|95.25. He pays that amount and gets ^100 for it. In 
 short the other members have been using his money and 
 he gets paid interest, St'-'^^j ^ov its use. He does not need 
 to tender for the igilOO, but gets it, as no one else is entitled 
 to it but him, all having previously drawn. The Association 
 ends with him, for it only runs as long as there are members, 
 as soon as these have each had tlieir turn at a loan the 
 Association is finislicd. The Society has thus a twofohl 
 character: that of a borrowing club; and that of a lending 
 club: for there is a regular succession of borrowers, beonnninfr 
 Avith A, and a body of lenders, decreasing in number with each 
 meeting. It will thus be seen that this Mutual Loan Benefit 
 Association is most ingeniously arranged, and that it affords 
 exceptional facilities for obtaining a loan on easy terms, 
 with the chances to the members of good interest and easy 
 payments, in small sums distributed over a long period. It 
 needs only to be added that, should a member delay his 
 payment, the Head of the Association may pay it for liim, if 
 he likes, or it may stand over if the members are friendly 
 with the defaulting member; should any member die before 
 drawing his loan, his wife or children, or, in default of them, 
 nearest of kin, may continue to go on with the Association 
 in the place of tlie deceased, on condition that the Head of 
 the Association approves of them doing so ; but if the Head 
 is unwilling, then the heirs must wait till the winding up of 
 the whole affair, when, on the accounts being made up, it 
 will be seen how many payments the dead man had made, 
 and a sum equivalent to an equal number of $5 payments 
 will be made to them : should he already have obtained his 
 drawing befoie his death, his heirs are required to make the 
 usual monthly p;iyments of !}j;5 to repay the Association; if 
 they are not able to do so. it is accepted as a misfortune, the 
 Head is not considered liable, as a Head of the Association, 
 and the membei's only suffer. Should it be written on the 
 
544. THJNGS CHINESE. 
 
 top margin of the book that ' should any member abscond 
 the principal is to be refunded but not the interest, any 
 accidents, &c., are to be taken as the will of God/ then the 
 Head of the Association has to conform to this rule, but 
 otherwise a principle of practical equity, much practised by 
 the Chinese, Avhen circumstances over which they have no 
 control occur, is brought into play, and the Head of tlie 
 Association makes good one-half of what the absconding 
 member ought to have paid ; or, rather, he makes good half 
 of the principal, the other half being a loss to the members, 
 and this holds good in botli the Yi-wm, now written aboutj 
 and the Tei-p'o-wiii (pronounced Tay p'o wooee) to be men- 
 tioned later on. Whether the above words are written or 
 not the Head is not responsible for the subscriptions of a 
 dead member 
 
 With regard to the subscriptions to the Association, it 
 may be remarked that, in practice, it seems often to be consi- 
 dered sufficient if the money is paid into the hands of the Head 
 of the Association at any place somewhere near the time that it 
 should be paid, i.e., it is not necessary that the money should 
 be paid absolutely punctually. 
 
 The members have no redress when the Head of the 
 Association absconds while the Association is in progress. 
 Those who have had their drawing are content, of course, to 
 let the matter rest, as they have liad all their benefit and 
 cannot be called upon by the other members who have not 
 had the loan to continue their payments, as the contract is 
 not between member and member, but it is a contract 
 between each separate member of the Association and the 
 Head. On the latter absconding the Association is broken 
 up, This can be seen by the fact that in the poorer 
 Associations — where the contributions are confined to a few 
 dollars, and where the members do not meet for dinners — ■ 
 the members may not even see each other or know anything 
 at all about each other. (This view of the matter has been 
 held in the Hongkong Courts in an appeal case. See report 
 of Judgment by the Full Court in 'The Hongkong Daily Press' 
 
SOCIETIES. 545 
 
 of the 19th March 1892). The Head in somcof such Associations 
 sometimes goes round to each of the members at their own 
 houses, &c., with an earthenware money-box and the members 
 drop their tenders into it. After the collection of tenders is 
 thus made, the crock is broken and the tenders taken out. 
 
 In the more important associations, when the amount of 
 the subscription is $100 or so, the Head of tlie Association, 
 having asked his friends to join and got their consent, 
 follows it up in the course of a few days with invitation cards 
 to a dinner or wine-party at some eating-house, and they are 
 asked to bring their subscriptions with them. All who 
 respond to the invitations become members ; from five to ten 
 days after, their names are all entered by the Head into the 
 books, with rules, amount of subcription, &c., and one is 
 given to each member. The expenses of the first dinner are 
 paid by the Head ; and the same individual, on behalf of the 
 members, provides a dinner again, issuing invitation cards 
 the previous day, as before, but on each occasion subsequent 
 to the first it is the member who obtains the loan who pays 
 the expenses of the dinner ; the money (a certain sum at the 
 very first being fixed for its cost) for it being deducted out 
 of his loan ; the dinner, however, is ordered by the previous 
 drawer. One who does not attend the dinner, or dinners, 
 is not exempted thereby from his share of the expenses, and 
 one who wishes to enjoy the feast must come to it, as no 
 portion will be sent to the absentee. When the dinners are 
 given in connection with these Associations, the business is 
 attended to first, and after that the members have their 
 feasting : business first and pleasure afterwards. This 
 feasting, however, does not take place in the smaller Associa- 
 tions where the shares are only a few dollars each. A 
 member in an Association is not confined to one share, but 
 may have two or more if he chooses. 
 
 There is another kind of these associations called the 
 Tei-p'o-wiii, ' Spread on the Ground Association,' so called 
 because it is said the original starter was too poor to have 
 
 2 T 
 
546 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 any place to receive his friends, and had to spread a mat on 
 the ground to collect the amounts subscribed. The Tei-p'b 
 are slightly different from the Yi-wiii. though in many of the 
 details they are the same, the differences being so slight that 
 the same book is used. The chief point of difference is that 
 the Head of the Association, as Head of the Association, is 
 out of it altogether, that is to say, he or she does not obtain 
 a loan. At the same time in the Tei-po-wiu the Head may be 
 a member of the Association or not as he or she chooses. If the 
 latter he or she then has no share in the matter at all. He or she 
 is in fact a paid servant of the members, that is to say, he or she 
 does all the work that the ordinary Head does and gets a half of 
 the value of a share paid to him or her by the successful drawer. 
 Under these circumstances the Head does not get the first 
 drawing as in the Yi-wiii, but the first drawing is balloted 
 for as well as the others. All the other functions and duties 
 he or she performs are the same as the Head of the Yi-wui does, 
 and he or she is responsible for the money. The position occu- 
 pied by the Head is more analogous to that of a paid servant, 
 though no salary is his or her reward ; but he or she gets 
 a commission, as it were, to recoup him or her for his or 
 her trouble, the amount of the commission being fixed at 
 one-half of the subscription, i.e., if the periodical subscription 
 paid were %o, the Head would get |2 50 ; and this is paid to 
 him or her by the person who obtains the drawing on each 
 occasion. In the Tei-p'o-wiii no dinners or wine parties 
 are given. The Head goes round personally and informs the 
 members of the meetings, which are held in his or her house. 
 Some bring written tenders, but the majority, being women 
 and unable to write, bring sticks of bamboo of different 
 lengths with them, to represent the amounts they are willing 
 to offer as interest. These sticks of bamboo are unburnt 
 ends of incense-sticks and the women break them into the 
 right lengths, perliaps in a corner of the room where no one 
 can see them, the owner telling the Head what each bamboo 
 stick stands for : the longer ones, say one dollar, the shorter 
 ones may be fifty cents, and the still shorter ones, perhaps 
 ten cents. After all are laid down, and before opening. 
 
."SOCIETIES. oil 
 
 sometimes the tenderer may say, ' I add verbally so many 
 cents to my tender.' 
 
 The claims of those jVIoncy Loan Associations have been 
 ruled out of Court in Hongkong, should the numbers of those 
 forming them exceed twenty, as by the laws of the Colony 
 every company, if twenty in number, must be registered as a 
 public company, but, if less in number, they heve been tried 
 upon their merits. In the case of an Association, not completed, 
 Sir James Russell ruled that the Head of the Association 
 could be sued for the money had. As in the Tei-p'o the 
 Trustee (or Head) gets a commission on each drawing, but in 
 the Yi-wiii he gets the first drawing, it was held by one of the 
 Hongkong Judges (the Hon. F. Snowden) that in the latter 
 case the Trustee is responsible for the future payments, but 
 not in the Tci-po-wiif, as in that the Head only puts himself 
 or herself, to the trouble cf collecting and does not make 
 himself, or herself, responsible for the members paying it, 
 merely drawing a commission for the trouble of collecting. 
 
 It seems strange to find what one thought was an 
 entirely Chinese institution in use amongst factory girls in 
 England, as the following extract will show. Has someone 
 from China introduced it into the West, or can it be one of 
 those old-world customs handed down through the ages ? 
 
 'While we stand watching, I am struck by a knot of girls who 
 are in hot dispute or discussion over some point. "Oh, it's only 
 "Liz"' says my guide, "holding a club. Her mother's in a bit of 
 trouble about the rent, and so she's getting the money this way." 
 * o o 'Yhe girls all do it, and photograph clubs, clothing clubs, 
 money clubs, abound on every side. This special one held by " Liz" 
 happens to be a guinea club. * * "Liz" and twenty other girls 
 
 have joined together for twenty-one weeks, each girl subscribing one 
 shilling per week. Their names are written on papers, and then 
 drawn in rotation. The girl who draws out No. i is entitled to her 
 guinea at once, and in this case, as "Liz," for holding the club, is 
 entitled to be No. i, she has her money wherewith to pay oft' the rent. 
 No. 2 gels her guinea in two weeks, No. 3 in three weeks, and so 
 on till No. 21 gets hers, after the twenty-one weeks. All pay their 
 shilling per week, whether they receive their guinea first or later, 
 so that the only advantage of the club is that a girl may draw an 
 earjv number, and have a sum of mcnev at once. 
 
 2 T 2 
 
548 Things giUnese. 
 
 It will be noticed that this is a simpler form of the 
 money loan association than that found in China, as no 
 interest is paid and the complicated system of repayments 
 does not come into play. 
 
 SOCIETIES, SECRET.— k book dealing with 'Things 
 Chinese ' would scarcely be complete without some reference 
 to secret societies, as these combinations are so common, 
 not only in their own native land, but they often obtain a 
 more powerful position and even exert at times a greater 
 influence when transplanted to foreign soil. 
 
 There seems to be a world-wide similarity between secret 
 societies in many respects. In their fundamental principles 
 there is a wonderful likeness, as well as in many points of 
 practice, ceremonial, and ritual. When we come, however, 
 to examine into them, it seems, as a general rule, to be a 
 family likeness, perhaps the result of heredity, and not a 
 servile imitation of one another during recent times. 
 
 Especially is this true of some of the Chinese secret 
 societies. Of them it may be said that they are founded 
 upon a spirit of fraternity, devotion, filial piety, and religion. 
 At least this is the case with the most famous, the Sam Hop 
 Will, or Triad Society, though it has shown itself in the 
 terrible rebellion that was carried on for many years under 
 its banners in opposite aspects to these. In its ' Words of 
 Exhortation ' we find it written ' If people insult you, 
 injure you, revile you, abuse you, — how ought you to take 
 it ? You ought to bear it, suiFer it, endure it, and for- 
 give it.' How then, it may be asked, is revolt and rebellion 
 against the Government compatible with such principles ? 
 They are quite in harmony according to the Chinese idea; 
 for it is the duty of the good to upset the government of the 
 bad. In such a case it is not rebellion, but the raising of the 
 standard of righteousness against tyranny and oppression. 
 We must gi^'e the leaders of the great T'ai-p'ing rebellion 
 credit for motives of this character at their inception of the 
 rebellion, though some of them mav have had their heads 
 
SOCIETIES, SECRET. 549 
 
 turned eventually by lust of power, while the rag-tag and 
 bobtail which followed in their train had no higher motives 
 than plunder and loot. 
 
 The origin of the Hung league, one of the names of the 
 Triad Brotherhood, is shrouded in the mists of uncertainty. 
 They claim, like the Freemasons, a high antiquity, but it is 
 impossible, as far as researches have been carried at present, 
 to say with any certainty whence they sprang. There would 
 appear to be some slight indications or possibilities of the 
 existence of this society in some form or another in previous 
 times, but it Avas only during the rule of China by the Tartars 
 that it appeared as a regular political body. The two 
 provinces of Canton and Fuhkien, which most energetically 
 resisted the Tartar sway, Avere the cradles of the Triad Society. 
 In course of time the Triads awoke the displeasure of the 
 Government, Unfortunately the followers of the Society 
 * degenerated into a band of rebels and robbers, that seemed 
 to have lost every notion of the proper spirit of its 
 association.' But a change came over them, for one of 
 their members, Hung Sau-ts'iin, obtained some knowledge 
 of Christianity, which he engrafted on the old stock ; 
 and it is a matter of recent history, how, the standard 
 of rebellion raised, the forces of the insurgents were 
 increased by ever swelling bands of recruits, while many 
 were forced to join their ranks in the hopes of escaping 
 immediate death ; all hopes of desertion were denied them 
 in some cases by the words T'lii P'ing being branded on 
 their cheeks, a positive proof, if found by the Imperialists, 
 that they Avero rebels. Their leader took the title of ' King 
 of the Heavenly Kingdom of Universal Peace,' and had 
 associated with him several co-kings. Under their leader- 
 ship many of the finest provinces were overrun : death and 
 destruction dealt out to the inhabitants ; the idol temples 
 demolished, and the idols mutilated ; the fair land turned into 
 a desert ; Nanking, the ancient capital of China, captured, and 
 the new dynasty started its reign within the old walls of the 
 ' Southern Capital,' for such is the meaning of the name. In 
 
550 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 fact it looked much as if the Manchu Tartars were doomed, 
 and doubtless they might have been, had not foreign aid 
 come in the person of General Gordon, whose 'Ever 
 Victorious Army,' as it was called, so effectually assisted the 
 Imperial forces that they gained the day, and, after many 
 a hard fought battle, the rebellion was quelled and the then 
 effete Manchu dynasty bolstered up on the throne. At the 
 same time there was so much of corruption and evil in the 
 ranks of the rebels that it is questionable, had they succeeded, 
 whether their rule would have been any better, or even as 
 good, as that of those they endeavoured to overthrow ; for, 
 with the great mass of their followers, murder, rapine, and 
 plunder were the aims, while the leader developed into a 
 visionary of a curious type ; he was possessed by a most 
 extraordinary craze, giving out that he was the younger 
 brother of Jesus Christ, and a number of other blasphemies. 
 These were published in books and pamphlets issued from 
 the press. The author possesses a collection of these books 
 and most wonderful productions they are. The diplomas, or 
 certificates, are curious documents ; they are written on white 
 linen. There is much paraphernalia connected with the 
 Lodges, such as numerous flags, banners, state umbrellas, 
 warrants, working tools, &c. 
 
 Each Lodge in the society — how many there are we 
 are unable to say — is governed by a President, two Vice 
 Presidents, one Master, two Introducers, one Fiscal, who 
 is styled 'The Red Stick' from the red staff with which he 
 punishes offenders, thirteen Councillors, amongst whom are a 
 Treasurer, a Receiver, and an Acting Treasurer; there are 
 also Agents and muior officials who wear flowers in their 
 hair. Some of the brethren, who are styled Horse-leaders, 
 are appointed to act as recruiters of new members. Besides 
 these, four brelhrcn summon the others to the meetings. 
 The officials arc appointed by the vote of the whole Lodge. 
 After one year, a brother can be promoted to be an Introducer ; 
 after two, to be a Vanguard : after three, to be a Master, if a 
 vacancy occurs. The Meetings are generally held on the 
 
25th day of the Chinese month. (Ten days ' notice has to 
 be given, by summons, of each meeting of Lodge). The 
 author has in his possession one of the summons used in 
 Hongkong. It consists of a slip of bamboo on Avhich is 
 written the name of the ]jodge and the other particulars 
 requisite. Contributions, varying in amount, are made at 
 the usual Chinese festivals, &c. Recruits for the society are 
 got by persuasion, but, failing that, notices are put into the 
 houses of those they wish to have join them instructing them 
 to go to a certain spot at a given time, and threats are held out 
 that, if the authorities are informed, destruction will over- 
 take them and their relations and property. Arrived at the 
 rendez-vons they are conducted to the Lodge ; at other times 
 they are assaulted and decoyed on till, overpowered by num- 
 bers, they are put into a sack and carried there. The can- 
 didates for initiation present themselves bare-footed with dis- 
 heveled hair and with the lappets of their coats hanging open. 
 Five incense sticks are taken in their hands and four quatrains 
 repeated by them, after which they swear to their certificates 
 of birth, while the Introducer, acting as Herald, gives 
 their names so that all the brethren may hear them. Having 
 arrived at the gate an incense stick is taken in both hands 
 and the candidates salute the two Generals. On entering the 
 first gate of the camp their names, surnames, ages, and times 
 of birth are all carefully entered in a book by the Vanguard. 
 An arch of steel is then formed — one half of the swords being 
 of copper, however — and the candidates are led under it, 
 sometimes a red cloth does duty for the arch of steel. The 
 candidates, holding three red stones in their hands, have to 
 pay, after passing, twenty-one cash as first entry money, and 
 find themselves before the Hung gate, which is guarded by 
 two Generals ; here they kneel thrice. Their names are 
 demanded from the Vanguard, who gives them ; the Generals 
 then go in to obtain the Master's permission for them to 
 enter, after which they are allowed to pass ' and are brought 
 to the Hall of Fidelity and Loyalty,' where two more Generals 
 are on guard who also ask their names, and the candidates 
 kneel four times. There, at last, they are instructed, in the 
 
552 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 objects of the society ; and "'are exhorted to be faithful and 
 loyal to the league to which they are about to be affiliated.' 
 The grievances 'against the Tartar dominion are enumerated 
 and promises' made to ' those who shall accomplish their 
 duties faithfully ; whilst fearful threats are pronounced against 
 those who should dare to refuse to enter the league.' ' The 
 last enclosure before the Lodge ' is the Heaven and Earth 
 circle, which is again guarded by two Generals. ' After 
 having passed though, and gone across the surrounding moat 
 or ditch, they reach the East Gate of the City of Willows, 
 guarded by Han-pliang.' The candidates here kneel twice. 
 They are led to the Council Room called ' The Lodge of 
 Universal Peace ' where the whole of the council is assembled. 
 ' Two Generals keep guard at the door of this room.' The 
 Vanguard speaks to them and requests permission for 
 Thien-yu-hmig (the candidates are supposed to personate him) 
 to enter, which the Master grants. The Vanguard then 
 enters the Council Room, after which a number of questions 
 are asked which he answers, repeating a quatrain or some 
 verses after each statement as a proof. There are 333 
 questions and they refer to the objects .of the society, its 
 different working tools, banners, parts of the Lodge, historical 
 and legendary history, &c. 
 
 After the examination is through, the Master is satisfied 
 and those who wish to proceed with their Initiation have 
 further ceremonies to go through, while those who refuse 
 to join the brotherhood are taken to the West Gate and 
 have their heads cut off. The next thing, for those 
 who are proceeding with the ceremony, is the cutting 
 off of the queue, the queue being a sign of subjection to 
 the Manchu rule, but this cannot always be carried out, 
 as it would be a sign of rebellion to be seen without one, 
 though it is sometimes done and a false queue braided on 
 ajjain. l^ext to each candidate stands a member who 
 answers what it is necessary to say for him. The candidates 
 are shaved and their hair done up as under the Ming 
 dynasty, and they would appear to be clothed in sackcloth 
 
SOCIETfKS, SECRET. orYS 
 
 and mpurning. The next ceremony is that of washing 
 the faces of the candidates, emblematical of cleansing 
 traitorous hearts, after which the outer garments, are 
 taken off, as they are cut after the Manchu style. ...This 
 ceremony of ' undressing ' having been gone through, they 
 are dressed in long white robes and a red handkerchief 
 wrapped round tlie head, and later on a pxvir of straw 
 mourning shoes, in place of the ordinary shoes, is put 
 on ; during the course of all these ceremonies numerous 
 quatrains are recited bearing on them. These preliminaries 
 being ended, the candidates are led before the altar, on 
 which is a censer of M'hite porcelain. The whole of the 
 brethren present take nine blades of grass in their hands 
 to pledge fidelity, in commemoratiou of the manner in which 
 the original founders did so ; two quatrains are repeated, the 
 oath, written on large sheets of yellow paper, is next laid oil. 
 the censer, and incense-sticks taken in the hands of all 
 present, verses again being recited ; the incense is oft'ered and 
 a blade of grass is put by each member into the ashes -of the 
 censer and a verse repeated ; a second and third are placed 
 in, in the same way. After this three sticks of fine incense 
 are struck into the censer, one by one, a verse being repeated 
 with each ; • two candles of dry wood are now lighted " and 
 another quatrain recited, followed by the lighting of a red 
 candle in the same manner. All this being through, a silver 
 wine-jug and three jade-stone wine-cups are brought in, and 
 the brethren worship Heaven and Earth "by pledging three 
 cups of wine ' with the usual accompaniment of verses. 
 After the wine has been offered the Seven Starred Lamp is' 
 lit, followed by the lighting of the ''Lamp of the Gemmeous 
 Ruler' and the Hung Light, all accompanied by verses. All 
 the lamps being thus lit and the incense giving forth its 
 fragrant odours, a solemn prayer, read slowly and reverentially, 
 is offered to the gods — Buddhist, Taouist, as well as to the 
 deified spirits of nature and of heroes. After rising from this 
 prayer, eight salutations on bended knee are made to Heaven, 
 Earth, the Sun, the Moon, ' the Five Founders, Wan-yun-lung, 
 the Brethren, and the renowned amongst their companions/ 
 
 2 u 
 
554 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 a verse again being recited. One of the members then takes 
 the oathj which has baen lying on the censer all this time, 
 and reads it to the candidates Svho remain kneelinfj durinjj 
 the reading.' It is in thivty-six articles and enjoins the 
 practice of equity and justice amongst the members; the 
 shielding of the brethren in times of trouble ; the chastity 
 of a brother's wife or concubine and of his child are to be 
 strictly respected ; and, besides, the members are told, ' you 
 must consider the father of a brother as your own father, 
 his motlier as your mother, his sister as your sister, and his 
 M'ife as your sister-in-law.* 
 
 After reading the oath, the brethren rise from their 
 knees and proceed to the ceremony of confirming it by 
 shedding blood, first making and drinking tea to cleanse the 
 mouth, with the usual recitations. A large bowl is next filled 
 with wine and another quatrain repeated. The brethren 
 prick themselves in the middle finger and thus mingle some 
 of their own blood with the wine, all drinking of it, several 
 quatrains bearing on the subject being recited at the time. 
 Sometimes a cock's blood is used Instead. 'The Drinking of 
 the Bloody Wine ' being over, a white cock's head is chopped 
 off", to the usual accompaniment, followed by an execration, 
 solemnly pronounced, beginning: — 'The white cock is the 
 token, and we have shed its blood and taken an oath. The 
 unfaithful and disloyal shall perish like this cock.' 
 
 'The new members are now led witliout the West Gate 
 where a furnace is bitrning ; ' there the oath is burned, thus 
 being sent into the spirit world and coming to the knowledge 
 of the gods, who will punish any perjurers. 
 
 The President then presents the new members wdth 
 their certificates, on the back of which their names are 
 written in a secret manner. ' The book, containing the oath, 
 laws, regulations, secret signs, &c., is also given to them,' 
 and sometimes a pair of daggers. Besides keeping their 
 certificates on their persons they also keep three of the Tui- 
 p'ing coins, as signs of recognition: for all of these tilings 
 they pay fees, 
 
SOCIETIES, SKGllET. ooo 
 
 They are next led round the building, to have the flags 
 and working tools shewn to them, to the accompaniment of 
 quatrains. 
 
 The banners arc then consecrated, three cups of wine 
 being poured on tlie ground at the same time, as a libation 
 to the gods, a prayer is offered and another quatrain recited. 
 After this prayer, the spear-heads are dipped in the blood 
 of a white horse and a black ox, which arc slaughtered 
 as offerings to the solar and telluric principles respectively ; 
 they are then cooked and a supper eaten, during, and after, 
 which theatricals take place. As dawn approaches the 
 members reclotlic themselves in their present, every-day 
 attire and return home. 
 
 There is a code of laws and statutes, the articles of law 
 being seventy-two in number, and the regulations twenty-one; 
 besides these there arc ten prohibitory By-laws relating to 
 i\[eetings of Lodge. All these laws and regulations inculcate 
 brotherly kindness, assisting of brethren in time of need, 
 shielding them from the authorities, and abstaining from 
 giving evidence against them in the Courts of Law ; the trial 
 of all cases in which brethren alone are concerned is to 
 be held before the Lodge and not to be brought before the 
 magistrates ; letters are to be carried from foreign countries 
 for the brethern, and any brother found purloining money 
 intrusted to him by a brother is severely punished. The 
 infraction of each of the regulations is followed by imprecations 
 or threatened punishments, among which may be noted those 
 uf having the head cut off", an ear chopped off", &c. Wo 
 cannot, however, give even a short resume of all the offences 
 provided for ; but amongst these laws, as can well be 
 imagined, the divulgence of the secrets in any -way is a most 
 serious offence. 
 
 The brethren have besides a perfect system of secret 
 signs adapted for all times and seasons and conditions. We 
 will ju5t instance a few of them ; — ' If people ask you on the 
 road *" Whence come you ? " Answer " I come from the East." 
 If they ask yuu '* Whither arc you going ? " Answer **' I ^\ant 
 
 2 u 2 
 
S5Q THINGS CIliNESL\ 
 
 to go to tlic place where I can join the myriads of brethren." ' 
 In entering the iiouse of a brother, one is directed to stop for 
 a moment and enter with the left foot first. In sitting down 
 tbo points of the grass shoes are turned towards each other, 
 while the heels are separate : tliis is a sign that one is a 
 brother. The queue so done up as to have the end hanging 
 down behind tlie left ear denotes business. Another sign in 
 nse is the tucking up the right leg of the trousers while the 
 left leg is allowed to hang dcwn. The brethren have dilFerent 
 signs, pass-words, and quatrains for iise if attacked by robbers 
 and pirates who may chance to be Triad men ; and though 
 they are not allowed to divulge the secrets to outsiders yet 
 they are permitted to teach their sisters and wives certain 
 verses for their protection under similar circumstances. All 
 contingencies appear to be provided for, amongst others,, 
 directions are given how to put up a secret sign over one's 
 door in case of a revolt. The author knows that this is not 
 a part of a mere system, but is of practical use, because 
 a house he once lived in, in a Chinese city, was thus 
 protected, when it was feared tJiat the T-iii-p"'ing rebels 
 would attack the place. Numerous signs and counter-signs, 
 forms of recognition, and wishes expressed secretly, are 
 all revealed by the manipulation of tea-pots, tea-cups, wine- 
 cups tobacco and ojjium pipes, chopsticks, white fans, 
 and betel nuts, by placing them in different positions, 
 holding them in different ways, and presenting them to 
 one another. 
 
 The Triad Society has brought itself prominently into 
 notice in the English and iXitch colonial possessions, where 
 its members have exerted a great influence, and almost 
 absolute power at times, over their fellow-countrymen. Their 
 membership in some places is enormous : in the Straits 
 Settlements it would appear, if we are to judge by the 
 figures, that at one time, at all events, their number was 
 equal to that of the Chinese population; for in 1887 the 
 census return:i tlic Chinese population as less tlran the Triad 
 members, which were 15G lit). 
 
SOCIETIES, SECRET. 557 
 
 The (Jliee Hin. a Hokkicn. or Fukien, society, had a 
 mouibcrship in the year 1889, in Singapore, of 18,073 
 members with 478 office bearers; the total membership'of the 
 10 societies registered in 1889 was 68,3 1(>, an increase of 
 ,).0Q() on the previous year, making a total since 1877 of 
 68,31(j, while tliere was an approximate increase of 9.000 in 
 Penang, the total number of 113,300 being the approximate 
 membership. One society, named the Ghi Hing, having an 
 approximate membership of 70,000. 
 
 A new Societies Ordinance came into force in 1890 in 
 the Straits Settlements. Its chief object was to abolish the 
 Triad Society, as well as other Dangerous Societies, 'some of 
 which have existed in Singapore since 1821 and in Penang 
 for a much longer period ; ' one or two of the Penang societies 
 are very wealthy, but tlie Singapore ones only own the 
 Kong-sl. or Club houses. The Singapore and Penang societies 
 delivered up their chops and books, and the diplomas of the 
 six Triad branches were formally renounced and burnt in 
 the presence of two English officials. Chinese Advisory 
 Boards have been instituted to assist the officials. 
 
 There would seem to be no Grand Master of the ^vhole 
 Triad body, but a central government is in existence, 
 composed of the five Grand Masters of the five Grand Lodges of 
 Funken^ Kwangtung, Yunnan, Hunan, and Chekiang. This 
 governing body then has some sort of control over millions 
 of Chinese, not only in China itself but throughout the world. 
 
 One writer says of this organisation: — 'These principles, the 
 repudiation of all jurisdiction, and the assumption of their power 
 by an irresponsible tribunal, constitute an inipcriuin in iinpcrio, the 
 foulest, the bloodiest, the most oppressive of which there is record 
 on such a scale.' Another says:— 'The Hung League has carried 
 civil war and murder wherever it has gone.' Yet another says: — ' They 
 engage to defend each other against the police, to hide each other's 
 crimes, to assist detected members in making their escape from justice.' 
 And yet again another says : — That it is a 'combination to carry out 
 private quarrels, and to uphold the interests of the members in spite 
 of law, and lastly to raise money by subscription or by levying fees 
 on brothels or gaming houses.' 
 
 Here then is sufficient reason for their suppression, and, 
 owing to the misuse of their power, and the rioting and murders 
 
o58 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 committed by them in the Straits Settlements, they have been 
 forbidden there as secret unregistered Associations, The most 
 recent legislative enactment against them in Hongkong is 
 Ordinance No. 8 of 1887, by which the Triad Society is declared 
 to be unlawful, and the managers and office-bearers are liable to 
 a fine of a thousand dollars and to imprisonmer.t for one year; 
 the former Ordinances which related to them were No3. 1 
 and 12 of 1845, which meted out more drastic punishment 
 than the last one mentioned above. Some of the prominent 
 members of the Society have been deported by the Hongkong 
 Government, when necessity arose for it, for unfortunately 
 in this colony, they have degenerated into nests of thieves 
 and bands of robbers. 
 
 In the United States they have done great injury to the 
 well-being of those who did not belong to their societies. 
 
 This account of the Triad Society will show what 
 Chinese secret societies are capable of both in China and 
 abroad. There are hundreds of these secret societies in China 
 itself, but they are not all political in their aim : some are 
 merely sects of Buddhists ; one in the North, 'The T'sai Li,' or 
 Temperance Society, forbids the use of tobacco, Avine and 
 spirits, amongst its other tenets and prohibitions, and has 
 a large membership, there being nearly 50,000 in Chihli 
 province and Peking. Its doings were exposed some 
 years ago ' by certain members of the society by which ' it 
 Avas hoped that ' a serious outbreak in the capital might 
 possibly be averted.' The government tried to keep matters 
 secret. It is said that 80,000 members of it were to be 
 found under Li Hung-chang's rule a few years ago. 
 
 An association which has attracted some attention lately 
 is the Ko-lo-wui, which has its head-quarters in the province 
 of Hunan, the army being quite honey-combed by this political 
 Association which, like the Triad, has for its object the over- 
 throw of the present dynasty. It is said to have its emissaries 
 in every province, who travel under the assumed character of 
 
SOCIETfES. SECRET. ooiJ 
 
 doctors, disseminating news and gathering in members as they 
 go. It was believed by some to be answerable for the riots, a few 
 years ago, directed against foreigners in Central China (see 
 Article on Riots). Its organisation is in all probability on 
 somewhat similar lines to that of the Triad Society, for there 
 are five Heads. Certificates printed on linen, (a fac-simile of 
 one is given in 'The China Review,' Vol. XV., p. 129), Sec. 
 and an elaborate initiation ceremony is said to be employed. 
 It is described as resembling Freemasonry and not essentially 
 seditious ; but opportunities for a thorough study of it have 
 not yet been afforded to those interested in such subjects. It 
 took its rise at the time of the T'ai-p'ing rebellion, General 
 Tseng Kwo-fan himsDlf, so it is reported, having established 
 it at the siege of Nanking ; but this body, instead of seeking 
 to re-establish the Ming dynasty, would appear to look 
 further back, even as far as to the T'ang dynasty, and, probably, 
 if their chance ever comes, some one will be put forward as of 
 reputed Imperial descent from rulers of that dynasty, though 
 the house of T'ang is supposed to be extinct long since. 
 
 •The Kolao-hwci Society is known to liave been in existence for 
 the past twenty years and there are great numbers of men connected 
 with it, distributed over the provinces of Kiangsu, Anhui, Hunan, 
 Hupeh, Kiangsi, and Kwangtung.' 
 
 A secret society which committed tlie massacres on the 
 missionaries at Kuchcng in 1895, styled itself vegetarian. 
 One of the members appears to have curedelght opium smokers. 
 The Vegetarians were divided into nine companies. 
 
 'When worshipping we present the following 8 kinds of things: — 
 melon seeds, candy, red dates, black dates, pea-nuts, oranges, dried 
 melons and dried lengkeng or dragon's eyes. The lengkeng is the 
 symbol of the vegetarians.' The ceremony of saluting the flag is as 
 follows: — ' We bring our palms together, and kneel down five times 
 before it to worship heaven, earth, the Emperor, our parents, and 
 teachers, after which we kneel three times to salute our brothers, 
 other relatives, and friends.' 
 
 Bixilm ri-ci>nnii{'ii(h-(J : — -The Tliinu Ti Hwui,' hy (J. S('lilp,i;f 1, contiiin-; 
 tlie fullest account of the Triiid .Society that liii.s yet been piihlislied, :unl, 
 to tlie student who wi.-^Iies to enter into ii. knowledije of its niy.sterie.-*. is 
 reconuiiended. It is ilhistr.ited witli (li,n,i,'ranis of diplonias and flags, <.^c. 
 For the ijencral reader. :i sliort article in • Harper's Magazine" for September 
 
560 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 1801, entitled, ' Chine.'^e Secret Societies," bj' F. Boyle, will be found 
 iiitei'ertting. A pa))er in the transactions of the Missionary' Conference, 
 held at Shanghai in 1800, contains a list of a ffood man)' of these societies, 
 in the province of Shan-tung, with some little account of tliem. In that 
 province alone it is stated that there are over a hundi'ed secret societies. 
 An account of the working's of these Secret Societies in the United States 
 amongst the Chinese appears in a recent number of the ' California 
 Illustrated Magazine.' 
 
 STAMPS, — 0\Fing to the want of a general postal 
 system in China under the auspices of the government (such as 
 is now being introduced), there has been a great variety of 
 stamps in use in the country. In fact the want of this general 
 governmental system of posts in the past has. given rise to 
 rather an anomalous condition of things with regard to the use 
 of postage stamps. In Shanghai, letters may be posted at 
 the French consulate for conveyance to Hongkong or foreign 
 countries, by the Messageries IMaritimes ( the French mail ) 
 steamers, French postage stamps being used, at first unsur- 
 charged, but afterwards with the word ' Chine ' on them. 
 In the same way letters are posted at Shanghai at the 
 German consulate for conveyance by German mail steamers 
 to simihir destinations, Garman stamps, as used in 
 Germany, being affixed on the envelopes. If we are not 
 mistaken, American stamps are used in a similar way in 
 Shanghai, as well as possibly Japanese stamps. 
 
 The first issue of stamps in China was, in Hongkong, 
 by the British Colonial Government of the Colony. These 
 stamps are not, however, confined in their use to the small, 
 but important island of Hongkong ; but the British Govern- 
 ment, for the convenience of its own and other foreign 
 residents in China, was compelled, no other facilities existing, 
 to establish Branch Post Offices of its own (under the control of 
 the Hongkong General Post Office) at each of the treaty ports — 
 in fact wherever there was a British Consulate — and the 
 Hongkong postage stamps have been employed for many 
 years in paying the postages between the difterent treaty 
 ports, and between them and foreign countries. These Britisli 
 Branch Post Offices had under their control only the mails con- 
 veyed in foreign-built ships running between the places men- 
 tioned above. For all leLters into the interior, the foreign 
 
STAMPS. r>()l 
 
 resident, if he wished to send any, a very rare occurrence 
 usually, had to depend upon the private, local, native posts until 
 the establishment a few years since of the Imperial Chinese 
 Postal Service. Though these stamps were British colonial 
 stamps they have been more used in China, as above, than any 
 other postage stamps. There have been a numbers of different 
 issues, the first being in 18G2. The stamps procurable at 
 the Hongkong Post Office, with their colours and year of 
 first issue, are as follows : — 
 
 n 
 
 cents. 
 
 4 
 
 „ 
 
 5 
 
 )» 
 
 lo 
 
 „ 
 
 20 
 
 ?t 
 
 30 
 
 «? 
 
 50 
 
 »? 
 
 I 
 
 dollar. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 2 
 
 dollars. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 3 » 
 
 5 5) 
 
 Post cards. 
 
 — 1 
 
 cent. 
 
 
 
 
 
 „ cards. 
 
 'J 
 
 cents 
 
 ('reply 
 
 paid). 
 
 4 
 
 cents. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 S 
 
 „ (w 
 
 ith 
 
 reply 
 
 pa 
 
 id). 
 
 
 The Hongkong Jubilee stamp was only issued for three 
 days on the anniversary of the jubilee of the colony, 22nd 
 to 24'th January, 1891 ; it was a 2 cents rose stamp sur- 
 charged with the words (in four lines, all over the face of the 
 stamp) '1841 — Hongkong— Jubilee — 1891'. There have been 
 several mistakes made by the Chinese printer in printing 
 this surcharge, such as a small J, Sec. ; so that there are 
 about four or five of these varieties and they are highly 
 priced. Two other rare stamps are a twelve cents sur- 
 charged on a ten dollars revenue stamp, and a two cents 
 revenue stamp. They appear to have been used but a short 
 time for purposes of postage. 
 
 In connection with the Imperial Maritime Customs 
 Post Office mentioned in our article on Posts, a series of 
 stamps was issued in 1878. The stamps were rather large, 
 the centre contained a dragon ; ' China ' was the device at 
 the top, flanked in the top corners by the two Chinese characters 
 T'ai Ts^nor. meanino: ' Great Pure,' that being the name taken 
 by the present dynasty. The word ' Candarin ' or * Candarins' 
 appeared at the bottom of the stamp, and in the two lower 
 corners were the Arabic figures giving the number of can- 
 darins the stamp stood for. A, candarin is a tenth of a 
 
 2 Y 
 
562 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 mace, a mace being worth about 11 cents, say nearly three- 
 pence halfpenny ; ten mace make one tael. On the right 
 hand side (on the left of the dragon) and running down the 
 stamp are the tliree Chinese characters, Yau Ching Kiik, stand- 
 ing for Official Post Office, while the opposite column of 
 Chinese (Chinese printing or writing is in vertical columns, 
 not in horizontal lines like ours) were composed of the three 
 Chinese characters representing the value of the stamp, viz., 
 Yat {or Yi or Sam as the case was) Fun Ngan, one candarin 
 (or there or five as the case was) for the denominations 
 were 1, 3 and 5 candarins. The colours were green, lilac, 
 and yellow respectively. 
 
 The 1878 issue also contained the same denominations 
 of stamps, but they were somewhat smaller, being about the 
 size of the British stamps, the colours being green, rose, 
 and yellow respectively. In other respects the stamps ai*e 
 very similar, the general features of the two issues being the 
 same. There seemed to be some slight difference in the 
 shades of colour of some of the stamps, but whether it was 
 due to fading or a different ink being used, wg cannot 
 say. 
 
 Out of this Customs Post has developed a Chinese 
 Imperial Postal Service. Several issue of stamps, and sur- 
 charges as Avell, have been provided for this department 
 during the few years it has been in existence. They are 
 distinguished by the Chinese dragon, and have their de- 
 nominations on them in English and Chinese. 
 
 Some years ago (in 1889) postage stamps were prepared 
 for use in Formosa. They were rather laige. had a dragon 
 and a horse on them and the word ' Formosa.' There were 
 two issues, 20 cash rose, and 20 cash green (say about the 
 value of one penny, English money). They do not seem to 
 have been much used for postage purposes ; but were made 
 to do service at one time as railway tickets — being sur- 
 charged — on the short line of rail in Formosa. They are 
 now of great value and collectors consider them great rarities. 
 
STAMPS. 503 
 
 We have heard thirty dollars mentioned as a price asked for 
 two. 
 
 There is a Municipal Council in Shanghai which had a local 
 Post Office. In 1865, a scries of five stamps was issued with a 
 dragon in the centre, and ' Shanghai ' at the top, in English 
 and Chinese. On the right hand side the words in Chinese, 
 Shii Sun Kwi'in, Post Office, and on the other side the 
 denomination, in some cases in cash, in others in candarins. 
 There have been a number of issues since, and of surcharges, 
 the devices in their general features being very similar. 
 
 With regard to this Local Post Office, the followincr 
 
 o 
 
 statement may be of interest : 
 
 'The Shanghai Local Post Office was taken over by the 
 Imperial Post in November, 1897, and thoroughly reorganised, but 
 Local Postage rates have been maintained.' 
 
 Many years after the Shanghai Local Post issued its first 
 stamps, a number of the small foreign municipalities at some 
 of the other treaty ports followed the example of Shanghai 
 and started Local Post Offices and issued sets of stamps. 
 Hankow seems to have led the way amongst the riverine ports. 
 Kiukiang following at a little distance, after which Chinkiang 
 and Wuhu followed suit, and finallv, Ichanij and Chuncrkinsj. 
 The coast ports have also not been behindhand with regard 
 to these local issues, Chefoo, Foochow, and Amoy all having 
 sets of stamps. Post cards were also prepared and used in 
 some of these places and in one or two ports taxed stamps 
 appeared. Different issues also succeeded one another from 
 more than one of these local post offices. These ventures in 
 many cases proved pecuniarily successful and the money thus, 
 earned was applied to the necessary works in connection with 
 the diff"erent municipalities; unfortunately the chief authority 
 in England for philatelists frowned on the classing of such 
 means of turning an honest penny (as many of the issues 
 simply were) and they were soon considered as outside the 
 pale of legitimate stamp collecting. Many of the stamps were 
 quite unicjuc, pretty, and interesting- — sonic being finely 
 executed, though <jthcrs were rather rude attempts. 
 
 2 \- 2 
 
tj6l THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The latest is the issue of two stamps at Wei-hai-wei, 
 where there being no post office 'a private firm started a 
 courier post at irregular intervals.' They are very rare and 
 command a high pricCj as only 4',()00 were printed. 
 
 In the Portuguese settlement of Macao, there have been 
 several issues of stamps by the Portuguese Colonial Govern- 
 ment, commencing in 1878. The old issues command a good 
 price. A number of surcharges have been used at different 
 times; and there is a set of very neat post-cards. The 
 denominations are in re^s. The Timour stamps were at first 
 Maqao stamps surcharged. A Vasco da Gama Tricentenary 
 set of stamps were issued a few years since in Macao. 
 
 SUICIDE.— V^Q have already remarked that China 
 has the unenviable notoriety of having more suicides than 
 any other country, though those who know anything about 
 the Chinese will not be surprised when we state that it is 
 impossible to adduce absolute proof of such a statement. 
 That there are many suicides cannot for a moment be 
 doubted by those who have paid any attention to this grue- 
 some su-bject. 
 
 The causes which lead to such a rash, foolish, and wicked 
 act in the West are not absent in China ; and besides those 
 common to all states of civilisation and to all countries must 
 be added some which are unknown to our modern conditions 
 of life. Many suicides in China have their fons et origo 
 in the peculiar marriage relationships of the Chinese ; for a 
 very fruitful source of marital trouble in China is the much 
 married state of many of its people — the polygamy sanctioned 
 by the all powerful ' olo custom ' has to answer for not a 
 few suicides of women. Slighted by her husband for some 
 new favourite, jealous of the influence of another concubine, 
 the Chinese wife flees from ills which appear to have no redress. 
 Again, an inferior wife, oppressed and ill-treated by a 
 superior wife has also, at times, recourse to such a misguided 
 act. In some districts of country, the young girls so dread 
 the matrimonial state that thev band together against beins: 
 
SUtClDK 565 
 
 compelled to enter it and take the extreme measure of 
 remonstrating against it by going hand in hand into some 
 pond and drowning themselves. Again, in some districts near 
 Foochow a species of suttee takes place and is considered to 
 be a highly meritorious act, having even a quasi sanction of 
 government. A widow in other parts of China, who refuses 
 to live after the death of her husband also receives a meed 
 of praise not only from officials but from friends as well. 
 
 So common Avcre suicides from the Bridge at Foochow 
 that a society was formed some years since to maintain four 
 boats to be continually on the watch for the prevention of it 
 — two to be in attendance above the bridge, and two below. 
 To one unacquainted with Chinese life it may seem strange 
 that Buddhists, as so many of the Chinese are, should go in 
 direct contravention of one of the express commandments of 
 Buddhism— not to take life ; and yet it is possibly due, in 
 some measure, to the system of Buddhism that prevails in 
 China that some of the suicides take place, for the doctrine of 
 metempsychosis is one of the prominent tenets of Buddhism 
 in China. Belief in a religion that in its popular aspects 
 gives a leading position to the idea of the transmigration 
 of souls, and holds out the hope that the ill deeds of this life 
 and its good actions are punished or rewarded by future 
 avatars, cannot act eft'ectively as a deterrent against self- 
 murder ; such a religion cannot thunder out as strong 
 anathemas against, or denounce with as equal force, the 
 crime of suicide, as a religion that is based on a different 
 and more rational system of future rewards and punishments. 
 With such a creed, some Chinese suicides may therefore hope 
 to return to this mundane sphere of existence again. 
 
 Added to all this is the sliofht esteem in which human 
 life is held, as for instance, with regard to infanticide, the 
 neglect of beggars, and in the matter of the death penalty 
 so freely exacted, as in our own countries fifty or a hundred 
 years ago. for offences so trivial when weighed against the 
 sacredness of human life. With such a low estimate of the 
 worth of human existence, it would appear to take but little 
 
566 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 more to neglect the fostering of one's own existence when 
 a sea of troubles overwlielms one — but a step further to 
 shuifle off this mortal coil one's self — to act with an assump- 
 tion of power unwarranted by the facts, and to usurp 
 the right of life and death over one's own mortal being. 
 But, as tending often to the comparatively light heart with 
 which many a Chinaman, of his own accord, leaves this 
 sublunary stage of existence, must be noted the curious 
 feelings about revenge that they hold. One of the most 
 dreadful things that can happen to a Chinese is to have 
 a death take place on his premises or at his door. No 
 enemy thirsting for an adequate quid pro quo, to balance up 
 the account of injury done him in the past, can hope, or 
 desire, to have his enemy brought to book in a more effectual 
 manner than by such an untoward event happening to his 
 adversary. Here then is the chance long looked for and 
 almost despaired of: here is an opportunity too good to 
 let slip of doing a mortal injury to the hated one ; for a 
 trumped-up charge of murder or ill-treatment can easily be 
 laid at the yamen, and all the minions of the law — the hosts 
 of harpies of the unjust mandarin with all the ungovernable 
 rapacity that they are infamous for will be let loose on the 
 unfortunate householder. Even without a formal charge 
 being laid against him the ordinary course of procedure must 
 be followed by the great annoyance of the visit of the 
 equivalent of our Coroner, and the grand chances for all his 
 underlings of having squeezes, pressure being brought to 
 bear on him in an infinitude of ways never dreamed of in our 
 favoured lands of the West. If the dead body of a poor, 
 helpless, unknown, and unbefriended beggar will start the 
 whole machinery of oppression and injustice, and bring untold 
 miseries upon an unfortunate householder at whose door the 
 corpse has been found, to the delight of his malicious enemy — 
 if all this is the resultant of such a simple and not uncommon 
 accident, it is but a step further for the quick-witted enemy, 
 or man who has been injured and who has no other means, 
 cither on account of poverty or insignificance, of avenging 
 himself on his foe, it is then but a step further for such an one 
 
SUrcWK. 5«7 
 
 to hit upon the expedient of forcing cii'(?umstances in his own 
 favour, and, as even dead beggars are not procurable at a 
 moment's notice, or, if procurable the difficulties of transporta- 
 tion ofter insuperable obstacles in the way of their employ- 
 ment — it is but a step further for such a man to offer himself 
 as a substitute for the dead beggar, a sacrifice on the altar of 
 wounded feelings or outraged justice. In China, this is one 
 of the most telling modes of wiping out one's injuries, for 
 besides the troubles that would result from any dead body 
 being found in such a position, they are intensified by the 
 knowledge that the dead body is that of one injured and so 
 outraged that his feelings could brook no revenge short of 
 that awful act that his silent body testifies to, the dead and 
 solemn witness of the victim of injustice or oppression. 
 There seems nothing incongruous to the Chinese mind in 
 such an action. The only drawback is that the act once 
 committed cannot be repeated ; and a case is actually known 
 of a man on the point of thus committing suicide bewailing 
 the inexorable circumstance of the hard fact which would 
 prevent him immolating himself in the houses of two enemies 
 instead of in that of one alone. Ghosts to annoy the man ; 
 the necessity of purchasing a coffin at least and trying to 
 hush up the matter with the relatives by money freely given, 
 the dangers of squeezes from official underlings and of the 
 interference of the officials themselves, as stated above ; and 
 lastly the trouble which may be brought on his enemy in 
 a future state of existence — these all render such a mode 
 of revenge one the most effective that can be taken. The 
 chance, or almost certainty, of trouble with the officials has 
 also given rise to the custom or necessity, generally, of pro- 
 viding a coffin for any poor beggar who may have chanced 
 to crawl to one's door when in extremis and expired there. 
 At the very least one may only hope to escape by being 
 a subscriber should the people of the neighbourhood be will- 
 ing to form a fund for this particular case. 
 
 High officials who are condemned to death have some- 
 times, as an act of Imperial clemency, a silken cord sent to 
 
568 THINGS CHINEl^E. 
 
 them by the Emperor to strangle themselves with, instead 
 of having the indignity offered them of suffering at the hands 
 of the common executioner. 
 
 The most common modes of suicide are by opium-taking 
 and drowning. With the Chinese superstitions as to the 
 consequences of going into ths next world with a mutilated 
 body (for they believe the same mutilation will be permanent, 
 in a future state of existence, and it is for this reason that 
 decapitation is the general mode of capital punishment, 
 as, once beheaded, the ghost would be a headless one), they 
 do not inflict on themselves bodily injury or wounds such as 
 would result from the use of a razor or fire-arms for the 
 purpose of suicide. 
 
 The ' swallowing of gold ' is the term sometimes 
 employed for suicide amongst wealthy Chinese. It has been 
 the universal belief that gold leaf or gold was actually 
 ^swallowed and suffocated the victim, and such, possibly, or 
 even probably, does happen in some cases, but doubt has been 
 thrown on the whole subject of late. It would be satisfactory 
 before deciding against the belief of both foreigners and 
 Chinese, and the circumstantial statements of the latter, to 
 have convincing proofs from many sources that ' swallowing 
 gold' is only another of those euphemistic phrases the 
 Chinese are so fond of. 
 
 The following attempt, made by one resident in the West 
 of China, is interesting as an attempt to arrive at the number 
 of suicides in China, and Me therefore give it hi ^.rfenso. 
 It was published in 1898: — 
 
 THE LAND OF SUICIDES. 
 
 500,000 CASES A YEAR. 
 
 'The fourth Chinese moon of the present year contained thirty 
 days, and ended on June 18. In those thirty days, persons came to our 
 home seeking help in nineteen cases of opium suicide, and one of opium 
 poisoning. China may truly be called the land of suicides. I have 
 gathered statistics from five cities in four different provinces. These 
 were given me by missionaries working in these cities, who came in 
 contact with the cases recorded. 
 
S (lie WE. 560 
 
 The fust cily is in the Province of Yunnan, and has a population 
 of 100,000. The cases of opium suicide in which the missionary's 
 help was solicited amounted to an average for twelve months of one 
 a day. 1 ha\e known four cases in one day. 
 
 The second city in the same province has a population of about 
 50,000, and in one year the missionaries were called to seventy-two 
 cases. 
 
 The third city is in the Province of Kueichou, and has about 
 80,000 people. In one year three hundred cases occurred in which 
 the missionaries' help was sought. Once, eight cases of suicide 
 happened in one day. 
 
 The fourth city is in the great Province of Sz-chuan, and has 
 a population of 300,000. When the statistics were taken there were 
 two missions working in the city. In one year the missionaries of 
 one of these missions were asked to save life in four hundred cases 
 of opium suicide. 1 have no record of what the other mission did. 
 
 The fifth city is in the Province of Anhwei, the home of the 
 notorious Li-hung-chang. The city has a population of 50,000, and 
 in one year eighty cases were brought to the missionary's notice. 
 
 Thus, in a population of 580,000, more than 1,200 cases of opium 
 suicide occurred in twelve months in which the help of missionaries 
 was sought. It is rather uncertain work to argue from these figures 
 to the whole of China. Most of these statistics refer to the west 
 of China, which is pre-eminently the opium growing district of China. 
 The drug is cheap and easily obtained. On the other hand, such 
 vast quantities are exported from these provinces that in many other 
 parts more than 80 per cent of the adult males are users of the drug. 
 In nearly the whole of China opium can be readily and cheaply 
 obtained. 
 
 I have only I'ecorded the cases in which the help of the mis- 
 sionary was requested. Thei'e are many cases where native remedies 
 are successfully used, and the aid of the hated foreigner is not called 
 in. We have noticed on many occasions that the missionary is not 
 sent for till all other help has failed. Taking these figures and facts 
 into account, I do not think any one who understands the case will 
 say I exaggerate when I reach the conclusion that in China every 
 year half a million people attempt suicide by opium. If the average 
 of the figures above held true for the whole of China, then the number 
 would be one million of attempted suicides every year. Surely China 
 may be termed the Land of Suicides! The majority of these cases 
 are women, who, having no appeal in law against the tyranny and 
 cruelty of husbands, mothers-in-lav/, or brothers-in-law, make their 
 appeal through suicide to the god of Hades. In many a case a woman 
 can only escape from a cruel fate by death. A young girl of about 
 seventeen summers lived three doors from the first house occupied 
 by the missionaries in this city. Her parents sold her to a man 
 nearly three times her age. The night before he came to take her 
 away she swallowed opium and before morning hud escaped his 
 lustful clutches. 
 
 2 W 
 
5^0 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Quite a number are double suicides. Two persons quarrel. 
 One carries the case into Hades by suicide, hoping both to get the 
 first chance there and to involve the surviving one in trouble, knowing 
 he will be accused of so persecuting the first one that there was no 
 help for it but suicide. The second resolves to stop this by following 
 the first, and removing the whole theatre of war to the Land of 
 Shades. In one such case in this city one of the patients was too far 
 gone to be saved, whereas the other could easily be restored. The 
 friends, seeing how matters stood, said : ' If one dies, let both die,' and 
 refused absolutely to render any help. I have before now saved the 
 husband in one room and the wife in another. 
 
 We are successful in about So per cent, of the cases. Sometimes 
 the suicides struggle like demons before they will be saved. A 
 friend of mine was called to a strongman who resisted all efforts to 
 make him take an emetic. At last, with the aid of some of the 
 friends, he was pinioned on a table and held there by the weight of a 
 big door placed on him. This was indeed dragging a man by force 
 from the jaws of death. After the paroxysm is over the patient is 
 usually amenable to all reasoning. 
 
 On one occasion I was alone with a strong young fellow who 
 resisted all my efforts to do what his mother begged me to do. He 
 dashed my medicine away in a furious rage and refused to be saved. 
 Not feeling equal to tying him up and saving him by force, I appealed 
 to his superstitions by opening my eyes wide and roaring at him as 
 a 'foreign devil' is supposed to be able to roar. The result was a 
 quiet, easy cure. Later on the victim thanked me heartily. 
 
 Sometimes we are not called in till the patient is dead, and even 
 then we are expected to succeed. One strong man, the only son of his 
 mother, lost all his money in a gambling bout. He came home and 
 swallowed opium. When too late his mother asked our help. On 
 seeing the case we told the poor woman her son was dead and beyond 
 our assistance. Thereupon her tears fel^ like the rain, and she dashed 
 her head furiously against the wall again and again, crying in agony, 
 ' My son ! My only son ! ' 
 
 What a sarcastic misnomer to term this land of suicides the 
 Celestial Land ! 
 
 S. P. 
 Chaotong, West China.' 
 
 BooU recommended. — For an account of Chinese suttee, prevalent in ■ 
 the country near Foocliow, see Sir Walter Medhurst's 'The Foreigner in 
 Far Cathay," p. 105. 
 
 SUN, MOON, AND STARS.— The sun^ moon, and 
 stars, with that fondness for numerical categories which 
 possesses the Chinese, are classed together as 'The Three 
 Lights.' The first is supposed to be four thousand miles 
 distant from the earth, and the heavens, by one writer, to 
 be seventy-three thousand miles off. After this it would be 
 
SUJSr, MOON, AND STARS. 571 
 
 superfluous to adduce any more instances of the knowledge, 
 or rather want of knowledge, of the Chinese of the heavenly 
 bodies. A raven in a circle represents the sun. 
 
 The Chinese are more gallant than we are with regard 
 to the moon. They do not see any man in the moon, but 
 their legend, instead of being that of a man gathering sticks 
 on the Sabbath, and being sent to the moon as a punishment, 
 is of a female beauty, Chang-ngo by name, who drank the 
 elixir of immortality and went to the moon, where she 
 Avas transformed into a toad, Avhich Chinese eyes still trace 
 in the shadows visible on that luminary's surface. One of 
 the most popular festivals is that of the moon, which is 
 Avorshipped in autumn, and moon-cakes are made and 
 exposed for sale everywhere. These are circular indigestible 
 cakes, elaborately decorated in the more expensive varieties, 
 and enclosed in circular pasteboard boxes with a piece of 
 netting over the top. The children go wild over them, and 
 each little youngster is provided with one to admire and 
 gloat over. 
 
 The stars are arranged in constellations which would 
 quite puzzle the Western astronomer, though we question 
 if their combinations into nominal clusters are any more 
 arbitrary than our system of grouping them. 
 
 The five planets, according to the Chinese system, are 
 Mercury, Mars, Jupiter, Venus, and Saturn, A most wonderful 
 system is evolved from the elementary correspondences of 
 these planets with water (Mercury), fire (Mars), wood 
 (Jupiter), metal (Venus), and earth (Saturn) ; the combina- 
 tions and permutations of which are the cause of the different 
 effects produced in the visible universe. The above are 
 supposed to be intimately connected with the five colours, 
 black, carnation, azure, white, and yellow; with the five 
 human viscera ; and with the five tastes, &c. To descend 
 from the wild visionary ideas of this scheme of philosophy, 
 falsely so-called, we next find ourselves in the mazes of 
 superstition as regards the stars ; for not a few of them are 
 
 2 w 2 
 
572 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 objects of worship, some of the most popular being the Seven 
 Sisters, for the Chinese, in common with the ancient Greeks, 
 represent the Pleiades as such. At their festival a paper-tray 
 filled with seven imitation mirrors, and other objects in 
 sets of seven, are burnt as offerings to these star spirits. 
 
 Eclipses are a source of terror to the mass of the Chinese, 
 who believe that a celestial dog has the sun or moon in its 
 jaws and is about to swallow it. Gongs are beaten to 
 frighten away the monster : even the Government lends its 
 sanction to this absurd superstition, and the high officials 
 offer worship and add their official gongs to the general din 
 of the ignorant populace. See ' Fetichism : A contribution 
 to Anthropology and the History of Religion,' by F. 
 Schultze, Dr. Phil. Chap. 6, Sect. 3, and Sir John Lubbock's 
 ' The Origin of Civilisation and the Primitive Condition of 
 Man,' Fourth Edition, pp. 229—233, for similar beliefs and 
 practices amongst other nations. 
 
 TAOISM AND ITS FOUNDER.— 
 
 ' Taoism embraces the primeval religion of China and all the 
 intellectual tendances which did not find satisfaction in Confucianism. 
 To these belong the various experiments in natural philosophy, and 
 in connection with them the belief in the possibility of overcoming 
 death by means of the elixir of immortality. By this, man enters 
 the everlasting life, leads a higher existence above the range of 
 material laws, in beautiful grottoes, on the sacred mountains, or on 
 the islands of the blessed, and so on. It is worthy of note that such 
 a belief, which bears some faint resemblance to the Christian belief 
 of the Resurrection, should have found acceptance from the earliest 
 to most recent times among the sober Chinese. There is a record of 
 the names of thousands of people who are supposed to have reached 
 this condition of immortality, and the life history of many of these 
 is preserved. It has even been asserted that more than 100,000 had 
 reached this goal.' 
 
 Thus writes Dr. Faber about this religion which influences 
 the lives of almost all of the Chinese people to a greater or 
 lesser extent. 
 
 At about the same time that Confucius, the great Sage 
 of China, Avas endeavouring to get his principles adopted, 
 there lived another of China's great men whose views were 
 
TA0IS3I AND ITS FOUNDER .173 
 
 diametrically opposed to those of Confucius, and whose 
 opinions, or Avhose reputed opinions, formed the foundations 
 of a system as powerful over masses of the Chinese as Con- 
 fucianism itself. Of Lao-tsz our ignorance is profound : his 
 birth is mystified with legend; of his life, little is known; 
 and his death is hidden in obscurity. Amongst all the un- 
 certainty and doubt is found a short treatise, his one work, 
 ' The Tao Teh King' ; its translation has taxed the best en- 
 deavours of several eminent sinologists. Amidst its short, 
 terse, ringing sentences, flash jewels of the first water, set 
 in much that is obscure to the foreign reader, Avho longs to 
 know what this ancient worthy, China's Grand Old Man, 
 really meant. In Lao-tsz, the founder of Taoism, we have 
 one of those men whose writings, life, and reputed actions 
 have exerted an untold influence on the course of human life 
 in this world, but of whom the world, during his life-time, 
 took so little account that all that is authentically known 
 about him may be summed up in a few lines : ' Even his 
 parentage is surrounded with uncertainty, of his life we 
 know nothing except one or two facts, and we are ignorant 
 of the manner of his death and of the place of his burial. 
 And yet he was one of the deepest thinkers China has 
 produced.' This much appears to be certain, that he held 
 some Government appointment. Keeper of the Archives, or 
 Treasury Keeper, or Keeper of the Imperial Museum, as it 
 has been variously rendered into English. This was in the 
 state of Chau, and, foreseeing its inevitable downfall, he 
 'resigned his ofiice and went into retirement, cultivating 
 Tao and virtue.' The disorders increased in the state of 
 Chau and, though living ' a life of retirement and oblivion,' 
 his place of retreat Avas not secure from violence- So he 
 started on that mysterious journey of which we have no 
 record, to some bourne from whence the old traveller never 
 returned ; lost to mortal ken he left behind him (^with the 
 Keeper of the Pass, with whom he stopped some time before 
 disappearing into obscurity) the small book mentioned 
 above, the only literary remains we have of one wdio has 
 exerted such an influence on the Chinese nation. 
 
574 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Besides these facts we are told that Confucius met him ; 
 and a son of the philosopher is mentioned who became a 
 General in the state of Wei, but in a few generations, as far 
 as we are aware, the line seems to have gone out in obscure 
 darkness. 
 
 Legend has gathered round the few facts until quite a 
 halo has surrounded the old philosopher; myth and fable have 
 crystallised round the short and simple story of his life till 
 his whole being and actions are glorified ; they gleam and 
 glitter with the splendour of the marvellous and are mag- 
 nified into the wonderful and miraculous; added glories are 
 borrowed from the meretricious charms of a debased and 
 idolatrous Buddhism until the whole system is transformed, 
 aided by the vagaries of its own professors, into a monstrous 
 mass of charlatanism and thaumatui'gic mysteries which 
 would shock Lao-tsz himself were another avatar granted 
 him : for different incarnations are ascribed to him in the 
 past, and attributes pertaining to the deity are freely given 
 to him to raise him in popular estimation — attributes which 
 in the Protestant West, being reserved for One alone, greaten 
 Him, but which, in the polytheistic East, are belittled by 
 being the common property of hundreds and thousands of 
 heroes and demi-gods and saints innumerable. But to return 
 to our present philosopher : being thus metamorphosed into 
 one of the demi-gods of China's pantheon, his birth is made 
 to take place amidst the marvellous — the sight of a 
 falling star caused his conception, but he appears to have 
 experienced reluctance in entering into the world, for he was 
 81 years of age when he was born, being an old grey-beard, 
 hence the names or titles by which he is known, Lao-tsz, 
 'The Old Boy,' or 'The Ancient Philosopher,' and 'The 
 Venerable Prince.' 
 
 The Chinese always give their sages most extraordinary 
 characteristics. As a sample of them we will give those 
 which Lao-tsz was said to possess : — 
 
 ' His complexion was white and yellow ; his ears were of an 
 extraordinary size, and were each pierced with three passages. He 
 
TAOISM AND ITS JVUNI)L:ii. 615 
 
 had handsoiiic eyebrows, large eyes, ragged teeth, a double-ridged 
 nose, and a square mouth ; on each foot he had ten toes, and each 
 hand was ornamented with ten lines.' 
 
 The small book which Lao-tsz left behind him contains 
 only 5,000 words. It has been well said of it : — 
 
 ' Probably no widely-spread religion was ever founded on so 
 small a base. Like an inverted pyramid the ever-creasing growth of 
 Taoist literature and superstitious doctrines, which make the sum 
 of modern Taoism, rests on this small volume as its ultimate 
 support. We say " ultimate " advisedly, for other works have long 
 surpassed it in popularity. Its philosophical speculations are far 
 beyond the reach of the ordinary reader, and even scholars are obliged 
 to confess that they have but a general idea of the meaning of the 
 old recluse. " It is not easy," says one of the best known commenta- 
 tors, "to explain clearly the more profound passages of Lao-tsz ; all 
 that science is able to do is to give the general sense." To European 
 scholars the difficulty is even greater. As Remusat remarks in his 
 Mriiioire dc Lao-L&eii : " The text is so full of obscurity, we have 
 so few means of acquiring a perfect understanding of it, so little 
 knowledge of the circumstances to which the author makes allusion ; 
 we are, in a word, so distant in all respects from the ideas under t he 
 influence of which he writes, that it would be temei'ity to pretend to 
 reproduce exactly the sense which he had in view, when that sense 
 is beyond our grasp." It is, however, always easy to affix a plausible 
 interpretation to that which is not susceptible of any definite explana- 
 tion, and consequently a host of commentators and translators have 
 arisen, who find in the Tao Teh King confirmation of their precon- 
 ceived theories of his meaning and of their preconceived wishes on 
 his behalf.' 
 
 The Jesuit missionaries found in these mystical utter- 
 ances of the first Taoist philosopher a knowledge of the 
 Triune God, revealed five centuries before Christ, and the 
 mystic name of Jehovah. These fanciful speculations, based 
 probably on a misapprehension of a book most difficult of 
 comprehension, are not now received with seriousness. 
 
 'In the Tao Teh King, Lao-tsz has elaborated his idea of the 
 relations existing between the L^niverse and that which he calls 
 Taou.' 'The primary meaning of this name of a thing, which he 
 declares to be " without name," is " The Way," hence it has acquired 
 the symbolic meanings of " the right course of conduct," " reason," 
 and it also signifies '' the word " ('Logos). By all these meanings it 
 has been severally rendered by the translators of Lao-tsz's celebrated 
 work. In support of each rendering it is possible to adduce quotations 
 from the text, but none is the equivalent of Lao-tsz's Tao. The 
 word Tao is not the invention of Lao-tsz. It was constantly in the 
 mouth of Confucius and with him it meant the '• Way." The 
 Cuddhists also used it in the sense of " Intelligence," and called their 
 
576 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 co-religionists Tao-jin, or " Men of Intelligence." If we were com- 
 pelled to adopt a single word to represent the Tao of Lao-tsz, we 
 should prefer the sense in which it is used by Confucious, " The Way," 
 that is uidoBos " If I were endowed with prudence, I should walk 
 in the great Tdo. "■'■' ■'■ * The great Tao is exceeding plain, but 
 the people like the footpaths," said Lao-tsz (chapter 53). But it is 
 more than the way. It is the way and the way-goer. It is an eternal 
 road ; along it all beings and things walk, but no being made it, for 
 it is Being itself ; it is everything and nothing and the cause and 
 effect of all. All originate from Tao, conform to 7ao, and to Tao 
 they at last return. 
 
 Tao is impalpable. You look at it and you cannot see it. You 
 listen and you cannot hear it. You try to touch it and you cannot 
 reach it. You use it and cannot exhaust it. It is not to be express- 
 ed in words. It is still and void ; it stands alone, and changes not ; 
 it circulates everywhere, and is not endangered. It is ever inactive, 
 and yet leaves nothing undone. From it phenomena appear, through 
 it they change, in it they disappear. Formless, it is the cause of form. 
 Nameless, it is the origin of heaven and earth ; with a name it is 
 the mother of all things. It is the ethical nature of the good man 
 and the principles of his action. If we had then to express the 
 meaning of Tao, we should describe it as (i) the Absolute, the totality 
 of Being and Things ; (2) the phenomenal world and its order ; and 
 (3) the ethical nature of the good man and the principle of his 
 action.' 
 
 To the English reader this book is one of the most 
 delightful of Chinese books of that class. — ' The deepest 
 thought is to be found in the Taoist classical works.' — It 
 seems to approach nearer to the grand truths so magnifi- 
 cently expressed in parts of our own incomparable Bible. 
 Its diction is simple ; its sentences terse ; but its style enig- 
 matic ; the Westerner feels, though unable to put himself 
 in complete rapport with the grand old philosopher, is more 
 in sympathy with him than with the more highly lauded 
 Confucius. In the words of one writer : ' In such utterances 
 as these Lao-tsz showed himself to be as superior to Con- 
 fucius as the Christian dispensation is to the Mosaic 
 law.' 
 
 As the first purity of Christianity was sullied by the 
 superstitions and idolatry of the mediseval times, so a system 
 of charms, idolatry, exorcism, elixirs of immortality, masses 
 of superstition, et hoc yeniis oinne, have gathered round the 
 original Taoism. This growth of centuries forms what is 
 
TAOISM AND ITS FOUNDER. 577 
 
 now known as Taoism, and, in common with Buddhism, 
 and an adhesion to Confucianism, stands for religion to the 
 average Chinaman. It is believed in, in moments of danger 
 and death, but laughed at in their sceptical hours by the 
 better educated, who then profess themselves Confucianists 
 alone ; it however, receives only formal acknowledgment 
 from many, thoui^h its thauniaturgic priests, in harmony 
 with those of the Buddhists, are relied on by all to rescue the 
 souls of their relatives from the punishments of Hades by 
 the performance of masses. 
 
 Earlier Taouism boasts of two philosophers, Lieh-tsz 
 and Chwang-tsz, who have been latinised as Licius and 
 Chancius. We have nut the space to go into a dissertation 
 on all their opinions. 
 
 Suffice it to say of Licius that 'the belief in the identity of 
 existence and non-existence, and the constant alternations from the 
 one to tlae other observable in all nature, assumed in his eyes a 
 warrant tor the old doctrine, " Let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we 
 die." ' 
 
 • The vanity of human effort ' was Chancius's main theme, and 
 the Coniucianists were the principal objects of his denunciations 
 'The fussy politician who boasts of having governed the empire is 
 given to understand that the empire would have been very much 
 better governed if it had been left alone, and the man who seeks to 
 establish a reputation is told that reputation is but " the guest of 
 reality." He was at one with the code of Menu, and pronounced 
 the waking state one of deceptive appearances, '■' * but though 
 there was this unreality in existence, life was yet a thing to be c n ed 
 for. <> « * '["his care for life was quite compatible * ''■' with 
 a:i indifference for death.' Of his own funeral, he said :— ' I will 
 have heaven and earth for my sarcophagus, the sun and moon shall 
 be the insignia when 1 lie in state, and all creation shall be the 
 mourners at my funeral.' 
 
 The mass of Chinese have cast aside the philosophical 
 and metaphysical spesulations of the old philosopher and his 
 immediate followers, and on the small foundations of the 
 Tao Teh King a superstructure of hay, stubble, rubbish, and 
 rottenness has been rai.sed. They appear to have started off 
 at a tangent from his ideas and evolved some elaborate 
 systems wandering off into empty space. The craving of 
 man for immortality degenerated into a fruitless search for 
 
 X 2 
 
578 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 plants, which, when eaten, would confer it ; for charms which 
 would bestow it ; for elixirs, the quaffing of which would 
 send it coursing through one's veins. So strong were these 
 beliefs that Taoist books were spared in the general de- 
 struction by the hated Ts'in Chi Hwang-ti (B.C. 200) ; and the 
 same monarch, who was a Taoist himself, dispatched a naval 
 expedition to discover the 'golden isles of the -blest, where 
 dwelt genii, whose business and delight it was to dispense 
 to all visitors to their shores a draught of immortality, 
 compounded of the fragrant herbs which grew in profusioa 
 around them.' 
 
 Magicians arose under the aegis of Taoism who ' professed to 
 have mastered the powers of nature. Tbey threw themselves into 
 fire without being burned, and into water without being drowned. 
 They held the secret of the philosopher's stone, and raised tempests 
 at their will.' 
 
 So soon was the original Taoism of Lao-tsz forgotton, that al 
 the vagaries of these mystic jugglers were believeJ in, ' and thel 
 attention of all his professed followers was directed to obtaining 
 the elixir of immortality and the philosopher's stone. a « « 
 The m inia for these magic '1 arts among the Chinese during the 
 Ts'in and Western Han dynasties seems to have been as general and 
 as acute as the South Sea Scheme madness among our forefathers. 
 From the emperors downwards the people devoted their lives to 
 seeking immunity from death and poverty. lousiness of every kind 
 was neglected, fields were left untilled, the markets were deserted, 
 and the only people who gained any share of the promised benefits 
 were the professors of Taoism who trafficked with the follies of their 
 ountrymen, and who fattened on the wealth of the credulous.' 
 
 One of the votaries is said to have been the Emperor Woo. 
 " I know " said Le Shaou-keLin to the Enperor, " how to harden 
 snow and to change it into white sih'er ; I know how cinnabar 
 transforms its nature and passes into yellow gold. I can rein the 
 flying dragon and visit the extremities of the earth ; I can bestride 
 he hoary crane and soar above the nine degrees of heaven," and in 
 teturn for these imaginary powers he became the chosen adv ser os 
 he Emperor, and received the most exalted honours.' After thie 
 reign, however, the Taoism of this character lost favour and ' thf 
 ethics of Confucius and the mysticism of Lao-tsz ' grew in estimation 
 
 Later on Imperial sacrifices were ordained to the 
 philosopher ; and Buddhism exerted its influence on Taoism. 
 With regard to the latter it is almost amusing to notice the 
 plagiarism of the writers of Tcioist books in adopting into, 
 and adapting to, their religion the legends and tales of the 
 
TAOISM AND ITS FOUNDER, 579 
 
 idols of Buddhism ; for in modern Chinese thought and 
 practice the saints and the deified doguias of Buddhism 
 really form a pantheon of that religion. 
 
 Taoism not only basked in Imperial favour at times, 
 but tiho suffered the wirheriug scorn of those rulers who 
 pinned ttieir faith exclusively to the tenets of the politico- 
 ethical Confucianisnj. 'Asceticism and public worship soon 
 became engiafted on the doctrine of Lio-tsz ; ' the Buddhists 
 and Taoists, however, were sworn enemies, the one party 
 taunting the other with being jugglers, while the other 
 retorted that the Buddhi>ts were strangers in the land. With 
 the accession of the Tang dynasty the dehisions of the 
 elixir of immortality and the philosopher's stone began to 
 exercise their influence over the minds of men. Lao-tsz was 
 canonised,, and one of the Einp3rurs actually went so far as 
 to introduca his writings into the syllabus for literary com- 
 petitive examinations. The Taoists flourished and suffered 
 alternately un ler different sovereigns and dynasties, until 
 the time of the Sung dynasty. In A.D. 859, one of the 
 Emperors found his death instead of eternal life in the elixir 
 of immortality. Two of the sovereigns had already succumbed 
 to it in A.D. 821- and 81'3. Shortly after that, in another 
 150 years, Taoism lost its hold in the Imperial Court. A 
 Chinese poem sums up this phase of Taoism and 'gives a 
 concise view of the craze which seized on Chinese alchemists 
 two thousand years ago, of which the search for the elixir of 
 life and the philosopher's stone in Europe was a mere echo.* 
 Dr. Martin thus puts it into English : — 
 
 A prince tlie draui?ht immortal went to seek ; 
 And finding it he soared above the spheres. 
 In mountain caverns he had dwelt a week ; 
 Of earthly time it was a thousand years. 
 
 The priests of Lao-tsz married and were like the common 
 people in all points but in the matter of paying taxes, from 
 which they were exempt, though by their law or custom, in 
 imitation of Buddhism, they were supposed to be celibates ; 
 but •' under the first Emperor of the Sung dynasty (A.D. 
 960-976), however, a return to a stricter system was enforced. 
 
 2x2 
 
580 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and they -were forbidden to marry.' At the present day the 
 Taoist priests., who have become such since their marriai^e* 
 retain their wives, nor are those who have not hitherto been 
 married prevented from marrying, thus presenting a striliing 
 contrast to the Buddhist priests. 
 
 One of the books which exerts the greatest influence 
 over the mass of the Chinese people is the ' Bo>k of Rewards 
 and Punishments' which is based upon Taoism ; it leaves 
 untouched the abstruse philosophy of Li')-tsz, but elaborates 
 a system of morality for every-d ly life upon the f )u:i 1 itioti 
 of his sayings. Amidst much chaff and m idem superstition 
 there are many grains of truth and go()d advice, enforce.l by 
 the promises of reward.s f^r good, virtu )us actions, and the 
 threatening of evil-doers with present and future punishment. 
 
 Another book must be mentioned in this connection as exerting 
 an influence on the Chinese mind: it is 'The Book of Secret 
 Blessings,' which has been described as having 'no refereice wliat- 
 ever to the doctrines of Taois n, but only a number of moral injunc- 
 tions of great ethical purity.' ' Theie two works may fairly be 
 taken to represent the moral side of modern Taoism.- P'evv professing 
 Taoists trouble themselves at the present day about the musings of 
 Lao-tsz or the dreamy imagining? of his early followers. They pursue 
 only their own good, mainly temporal, but also moral. To secure 
 the former they have reco'iise to the magical works of the sect, and 
 to the expounders of these, the Taoist priests. Tney buy charms and 
 practice exorcisms, at the bidding and for the profit of these needy 
 charlatans, and they study with never-failing interest the advice and 
 receipts contained in the numberless books ^md pamphlets published 
 for their benefit. Into some of these, Budd.iist ideas are largely 
 imported, and the doctrine of the existence of hell, which fiinds no 
 kind of canonical sanction, is commonly preached. Liturgies, also 
 framed on Buddhist models, abound, and in some cases not only the 
 form, but even the phraseology, of Hindoo works is incorporated into 
 these prayer-books.' 
 
 At the head of the Taoist pantheon stands a trinity in 
 imitation of the Buddhist tiinity--that of the 'Three Pare 
 Ones' — and though Taoism originally was not an idolatr<)U3 
 system, the baneful influence of latter-day Bui Ihism on the 
 Chinese mind has induced the votaries oi' the Chinese system 
 (for, as has already been seen, Taoism is of native origin) 
 to pander to the material instincts of the idolatrous mind, and 
 a whole host of superior and inferior deities — gods, genii. 
 
TAOISM AND ITS FOUNDER. 581 
 
 heroes, good men, and virtuous women, the spirits of stars 
 and the visible manifestations of nature and of the elements, 
 such as thunder and lii^htniiig, as well as dragons — have all 
 been classed toiler her as object's of worship, while the G )d of 
 Literature, and Gods and G tddesses of Disease, all rei*eive their 
 share of attention. Below the trinity of Three Pure les, 
 and above the others, presides the G)inineous Supreme Ruler 
 and one of the stroncjest objections to the use of the words 
 Shan<2^-ti (Supreme Ruler) as the equivalent in C.iin(>se for 
 the Christian God is that this title is by comuion usage 
 that par ex-elleace of th it idol, and the co nm on people 
 instinctively think, of the Tioist Shuig-ti when the W)rd3 
 are u>:ed, though it is employed in the ancient Chinese clas-tics 
 in a difFerenc seuse. After these hierarchal deities come hosts 
 of other gods : — 
 
 ' Star gods, the 28 constellations, the 60 cycle-stars, the 129 
 lucky or unii.ic!>cy stars ; then the goii of the five ele neiits. of natural 
 phenomena, of sic'cness and of medicine ; the ani nal gods, such as 
 the fox, tiger, dragon, etc. ; the g ids of literafjre, specially the in- 
 numerable local divinities at the head of which stand the city 
 gods.' 
 
 The Pope of Taoism, who lives in the Dragon and Tiger 
 Mountains ' in the province of Kiang-si. is styled " Heavenly 
 Teacher,' a title bestowrd on his first predecessor by one of 
 the Chinese Emperors in A.D 423. Since then this dignity 
 has been hereditary in the family. 
 
 'The Chinese believe that this pope is head over the gods and 
 spirits which are worshipped throughout the realm, that be instals or 
 suspends, exalts or degrades them acording to i nperial — not divine ! 
 — command. He grants an audience to tlie gods on the first of every 
 month, and all attend, those of the heavens, the nether world, the 
 ocean, etc. He has possession of the magic sword with which he 
 controls the demons and shuts them up in e irthen pitchers. He 
 rules as the representative on earth of the Jasper-god [the Gj.nmeous 
 Ruler mentioned above] and grants the Taoist monasteries their 
 licence.' ' Although popes have existed..for ne.irly 1,500 years, there 
 is no record in Chinese history of any one of thein oppos. ng an im- 
 perial libertine or of causing any wild rebel to relinquish his cause 
 and settle down peacefully.' 
 
 Another writer thus sums up Taoism: — describing its 
 position in the Chinese eclecticism which stands for religioa 
 Bmongst this curious people : — 
 
5«2 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ' In early Chinese records we find many references to the worship 
 of Supernatural Beings ; tlie Emperor worships Heaven, the people 
 worship the K"ds of each particular spot of land j Mountains and 
 Streams are worshipped, and ihe Spirits of Departed Men. in fact 
 they seen always to have been free — they now are — to picture in their 
 minds and worship just what Supernatural Beings they chose. There 
 was then in the Chinese mind, as there is now, a vague image of a 
 Supernatural World consisting of countless Beings who were behind 
 and controlled phenomena. The C lief of these Bemgs was called 
 Shangti, the Supreme God. who s.-ems to have been pictured as 
 ruling the Supernatural World, muc i as the Feudal Lord or Emperor 
 ruled the Kiugdoais of wliich Chin i then consisted. To this state 
 of things came Confuci :s who summed up the practical philosophy 
 and eth;c5 of the diy and occupied with his teaching the sphere of 
 human relations— man's duty to his neighb )ar— bat left the rest much 
 as he foaai it. Taea foUo.veJ BadJiis;n from India and occupied 
 the sphere of man's relations to a future life, with fi.xed tenets and 
 teaching, in fict a Religion— and the first China had heard of. Tnat 
 she had no religion of her ovn is proved b/ the fact that she has no 
 word with th it meaning, kiao, the word in use, meaning no more 
 than " doctrine." Taoism was the attempt of the native scholars to 
 make out of t'le heterogeneous m iterials of Niture Worship a religion 
 after the mo i el of., and to serve as a rival to. Buii'iism e « « « 
 But to the above a correction must be applied tending, however, to 
 made the subject matter of Taoism more mixed still. Taere is (i) 
 Lao Tzus te iching about Tao, the wa\> ; and there is (2) the Black 
 Art, the se irch for the elixir of life and the philosopher's stone— these 
 two have both been impoitant elements in Taoism and cannot be 
 disregarded : the second requires no explanation. Chinese alchemy 
 seems to have followed much the same course as in the West. In 
 regard to Tao we will venture a word of explanation for it is far the 
 most important term in Chinese philosophy and seems to embrace 
 a valuable idea. What does it mean .? Taewzvo^ right course. But 
 whither ? Suppose the universe of mind and matters to be subject to 
 immutable forces and laws from the effects of which man has abso- 
 lutely no hope of escape ; and suppose a man contemplated doing 
 somethinj' whether with hands or with his brain, there is one best 
 way to effect his object and that best wa^ is Tao. It is true that the 
 word is often very vaguely used but in its abstract sense it usually 
 means either (i) the immutable laws of the universe themselves when 
 it corresponds to Jiitii; -, of the Stoics (See Walter's learned disquisi- 
 tion on this word " Essays in the Chinese Language, " page 2:9) or (2) 
 the right way to act with regard to those laws as explained above. 
 
 Clearly this idea of 7"i(j. is for the learned, and alchemy being 
 long ago dead, there remains only Nature-worship — and that is what 
 Taoism is for the mass of the people,' combined with the worship of 
 a host of idols.' 
 
 BooTis recommended. — Professor Douglas's ' Confucianism and Tao- 
 ism,' contains an interesting monograph on this religion, from which we 
 have largely quoted in the above article. Specimens of the tales of Taoism 
 will be found in 'Scraps from Chinese Mythology,' by Rev, Dyer Bail, 
 
TEA. 5SJ 
 
 M.A., M.0. Annotated by J. Dyer Ball, printed in Vols. IX. XL, XII., and 
 XIII., of • Tim Cliina Review.' See also ' China in the Lijrht of Hiatory, 
 a series of papers translated from the Gjrnnin and published in 'The 
 Chinese Recorder and Misiion:iry Journal.' Vol. XXVII.. pp. 887-390 
 Article Taoism. Al^o see Books re ■oniniended at the end of the Article on 
 Philosophy. The Lo Fau Mountains : An Excursion by F. S. A. Bourne, 
 pp. 27, 28 and 29. 
 
 TEA.-^'l\\Q names for tea in the West are amongst the 
 few words derived from Chinese, and weie introduced witli 
 the leaf into Europe. These names, though they seem dis- 
 similar in some languages, are all originally from the same 
 words, the differences being dus to the paiticular Chinese 
 speech (or so-called dialect) from which they have been bor- 
 rowed. In the Fuhkienese tvpe of languages, tea is known 
 by the word te (pronounced teh), and it is from this source 
 that the French word the, the Italian t), the Sp luish te^ 
 German thee, Dutch Mee, Danish the, Gaelic te (pronounced 
 tay ) and Malay teh, are all derived, as well as our Eagli.sh word 
 tea. In the greater p;irt of the Chinese empire the word for 
 'the cup that cheers but not inebriates' is dvd (pronounced 
 ch'ah) and it is froai this pr onouuciation of it that the names 
 used in Russia {tt-hai}, in Portugal (chd), and in Italy [cid) are 
 derived. Strange to say the Italians, however, have two names 
 for tea, cii. and te, the latter, of course, is from the Chinese word 
 <<2, noticed above, while the former is derived from the word 
 ch'd. It is curious to note in this connection that an early 
 mention, if not the first notice, of the word in English is 
 under the form chx (in an English Glossary of A.D. 1671) : 
 we are also told that it was once spelt ^.;Aa— both evidently 
 derived from tiie Cantonese foim of the word : but thirteen 
 years later we have the word derived from the Fokitniese te, 
 but borrowed through the French and spelt as in the latter 
 language the ; the next change in the word is early in the 
 following century when it drops the French spelling and 
 adopts the present form of tea, though the Fokienese pro- 
 nounciation, which the French still retain, is not dropped 
 for the modern pronounciation of the now wholly Anglicised 
 word tea till comparatively lately. It will thus be seen that 
 we, like the Italians, might have had two forms of the word, 
 
584 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 had we not discarded the first, which seemed to have made 
 but little lodgment with us, for the second. 
 
 The tea bush belongs to the botanical family of the 
 Ternstroemiaceae to which the camellia likewise belongs. It 
 is an evergreen and ' has come lately to be looked upon by 
 many as only a particular species of the genus camellia, 
 since theie are no generic differences {e.g., in Bentham and 
 Hooper's '• Genera Plantarum." j' It does not grow in the 
 •northern provinces of China; but ranges between the 
 twenty-third and thirty-fifth degrees of latitude. Though 
 tea will grow on poor soil, it has been proved, by experiments 
 in India, that the best soil for it is a friable light-coloured 
 porous one with a fair proportion of sand and a superabun- 
 dance of decaying vegetable matter on the surface. To pro- 
 duce good tea, high cultivation is necessary : a small planta- 
 tion with such cultivation will pay better than one twice 
 the size with low cultivation. Tea, especially the China 
 variety, will grow in varying climates and soils, but it will 
 not flourish in all of them. ' Taa rainf ill sh )uld not be less 
 than 80 to 100 inches per annum.' It can grow where the 
 thermometer falls below freezing point, but it 'cannot be 
 too hot for tea if the heat is accompanied with moisture.' 
 The yield is double in a hot and moist climate from what it is 
 in a comparatively dry and temperate one, for it yields most 
 abundantly with hot sunshine and showers and with the 
 rain equally diffused, i'ogs, in the early part of the year, ia 
 the morning, and a considerable amount of rain in February, 
 Mai'ch, and April, benefit the plant. Hot winds combined 
 with a dry temperature do not suit it. These observations 
 on the right climaie for tea are the results of experiments 
 in India ; and any one knowing that of Southern China will 
 see that these are just the climatic conditions of that part of 
 the world. 
 
 Botanists do not yet seem to have found out ' whether 
 China, the land where it has been so long cultivated, is its 
 original home, and, if so, which part of China.' ' No accounts 
 have come to us of the tea shrub being cultivated for its 
 
TEA. 585 
 
 infusion till A.D. 350.' The tea plant in China is the com- 
 mon tea bush. In Assam, where it was discovered fifty years 
 ago, it has been looked \x\vn\ as an indigenous plant. The 
 China plant grows to bo six or scvon fe^'t in heiglit in India, 
 while the Assam plant boconus a little tree (but it is said 
 if the China tea plant is allowed to grow, it also attains con- 
 siderable size) and gr(jws to the height (jf fifteen or eighteen 
 feet. In China, the tea plants seldom exceed three feet, ' most 
 of them are half that height, straggling, and full of twigs, 
 often covered with lichens,' but the ground round them is 
 well hoed and clean. Unlike the large tea gardens in India 
 the Chinese plantations are simply little patches, often on 
 the shopes, or at the foot of hills, where both drainage and 
 moisture are easily provided. The tea growers either pick 
 he leaves themselves or sell them to middle-men. The leaf 
 tof the China tea plant is fnur inches long at the most, andof 
 a dull dark-green colour; while the lowest branches grow out 
 close to the ground. •' The tea flower is small, single, and white, 
 has no smell, and soon falls * * * The seeds are three 
 small nuts, like filberts in colour, in a tiiangular shell which 
 splits open when ripe, with valves between the seeds.' All 
 the diff"erent varieties of the tea plant have probably arisen 
 from culture. When ripe, in October, the nuts are put in 
 a mixture of damp san:l and earth ; they are thus preserved 
 fresh till spring, when, in Mirch, they are sown in a nursery ; 
 a year after, the shoots are ti-ans|:)lanted, being put in rows 
 about four feet apart. The leaf is first plucked wdien the 
 shrub is three years old, and the picking is continued till 
 the eighth year, on an average. 
 
 The first picking of the tea leaf is that over which the 
 most pains is taken, and consists or the young leaTes, a great 
 many of which are not fully grown. There is a whitish 
 down on the^e leaves, and from this circumstance comes the 
 namej96Coc', the words in Cliiuese from which it has been 
 derived meaning ' white down.' In this connection it may 
 be interesting to give the derivation of some of the other 
 names of tea. Hyson, so we are told, is a corruption of two 
 
 2 Y 
 
586 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Chinese words, yu-ts'in, ' before the rain/ the young hyson 
 being half-opened leaves plucked in April before the spring 
 rains, but with regard to this explanation it may be said 
 that the Chinese have a variety of teas known as yu-ts'in, so 
 named for the reason given above. We also read that hyson 
 is derived from the name Hi-chun. Hi-chun, so the story 
 goes, was a maiden living about two hundred years ago, 
 who introduced a better method of sorting her father's tea, 
 which so increased his business that the tea was named after 
 her. Of this pretty story it may be remarked, se non e verOj 
 e ben trovato. The meaning of the Chinese characters used, 
 viz. : hi-chun ' felicitous spring,' though perhaps more pro- 
 saic than the above explanations of the derivation of the 
 name is still sufficiently poetical to satisfy one without 
 searching further. Sou-chong means small, or rare variety. 
 Congou means work or worked, from being well worked, 
 while Bohea is the name of the hills in the Pah-kien province 
 where that variety of tea is grown. The same province also 
 gives the well known tea name, oo-long, i.e., black dragon. 
 Here we have another story to account for the origin of 
 this name : — A black snake (and snakes are sometimes look- 
 ed upon as dragons in China) was coiled round a plant of 
 this tea, and hence the name. 
 
 But to return to the tea pickings : care has to be exer- 
 cised in plucking so as not to injure the plant and prevent 
 a supply of future ' flushes,' as they are technically called. 
 After the spring rains the second plucking is made ; this 
 takes place in different latitudes at different times, say from 
 15th May to June : it is then that the tea plant is in full 
 leaf. Women and children strip the twigs, and fifteen 
 pounds picked in a day by one person is considered good 
 work, but the pay is only six or eight cents. Oae tea tree 
 will yield from eight or ten to sixteen or twenty-two ounces 
 of leaf. This second picking only lasts ten or twelve days. 
 The curing is done as following : — 
 
 The leaves are first * thinly spread on shallow trays to dry off 
 all moisture by two or three hours exposure 'to the air by day, or 
 they are left out over-night. 'They are thrown into the air and 
 
TEA. 587 
 
 tossed about and patted till they become soft ; a heap is made of 
 these wilted leaves and left to lie for an hour or more, when they 
 become moist and darK in colour. They are then thrown on the hot 
 pans for five minutes and rolled on the rattan table, previous to 
 exposure out-of-doors for three or four hours on sieves, during which 
 time they are turned over and opened out. After this they get a 
 second roasting and rolling to give them their final curl. When the 
 charcoal fire is ready, a basket, shaped something like an hour-glass,' 
 but about three feet high ' is placed endwise over it, having a sieve 
 in the middle, on which the leaves are thinly spread. When dried 
 five minutes in this way they undergo another rolling, and are then 
 thrown into a heap, until all the lot has passed over the fire. When 
 this firing is finished, the leaves are opened out, and are again thinly 
 spread on the sieve in the basket for a few minutes, which finishes 
 the drying and rolling for most of the heap, and makes the leaves a 
 uniform black. They are now replaced in the basket in greater mass, 
 and pushed against its sides by the hands in order to allow the heat 
 to come up through the sieve and the vapour to escape ; a basket 
 over all retains the heat, but the contents are turned over until per- 
 fectly dry and the leaves become uniformly dark.' 
 
 The green tea is subjected to somewhat similar 
 operations, with the exception of the fermentation process- 
 * While the leaves of each species of the shrub can be cured 
 into either green or black tea, the workmen in one district 
 are able by practice to produce one kind in a superior style 
 and quality ; those in another region will do better with 
 another kind.* * The colour of the green tea, as well as its 
 quality, depends very much on rapid and expert drying.' 
 The sea air is a sworn enemy to all delicately fired leaves, 
 and tea, to be perfection, requires to be lightly fired. The 
 caravan teas, so called from being transported overland 
 through cold dry countries, were able to dispense with ' the 
 final thorough heating in the drying establishments of the 
 ports,' accorded to that shipped, and the aroma was conse- 
 quently not dissipated, but such a long land journey is ex- 
 pensive. We look forward with interest to the construction of 
 a trans-Asiatic railway, as it is possible, when such is running, 
 that the tea will stand the transit to the West better than 
 it does now. 
 
 Brick tea used to be sent overland to Siberia ; but an 
 experiment which was attended with success was tried in 
 1897, the tea being shipped from Hankow to London and 
 
 2 Y 2 
 
588 flllNGS CHINESE. 
 
 thence transhipped by steamers to the mouth of the Yenisei 
 River, and, after a further water journey, finally reaching the 
 Siberian Railway. 
 
 But comparatively few foreigners even in China itself, 
 drink anything but the excessively fired teas ; for having 
 been used to them from infancy in England and other 
 countries, they do not appreciate the lightly fired kinds, 
 and often are not even aware of their existence, while 
 the Chinese^ believing foreigners like the exported varieties, 
 supply them Avith it. Good tea sliould be of a light brown ; 
 the water, to pour on the leaves, should be quite boiling 
 and only just boiling; and the tea should not be allowed to 
 draw for half an hour or more, as the tannin is thus drawn 
 out of the leaves. Far better a fi'esh infusion, if required, 
 some time after the first drawing, thus following the Chinese 
 fashion of making a fresh brew for each- visitor that calls. 
 
 Another excellent plan of the Chinese, with regard to 
 tea, is that of sometimes using large cups containing almost 
 as much as a large breakfast coffee-cup. Leaves, sufficient 
 for a cup of tea, are thrown into the bottom of this, and the 
 boiling water poured on. The cup has a lid which covers it 
 up for the first few minutes that it is drawing, and the tea 
 is handed piping liot and fieslily made to each one; the 
 lid also serves to saucer a few sips of it at a time and cool it 
 when drinking, while at the bottom of the cup, covered by 
 the delicate almost amber-coloured fluid, lie the leaves, un- 
 curled by the heat of the water. 
 
 In Swatow and neighbourhood, tiny, toy tea-cups and 
 tea-pots are used, the cups containing scarcely more than 
 two or three sips of tea. It looks very ridiculous to see 
 grown-up people produce a small tray with this lilliputian 
 ware on it. The ordinaiy tea-cups used by the Cantonese 
 are small enough, but they are much larger than these 
 Swatow ones. 
 
 Though green tea, i.e., natural green tea, may be, and 
 is, produced, the danger of fermentation on the voyage, and 
 
TEA. 589 
 
 its unmarketable state, if fired sufficiently to stand the sea 
 air, has probably given rise to the practice of coiouring tea 
 to cause it to retain its green colour ; there is no necessity 
 for doing so with tea for home consumption in China, the 
 Chinese are not so foolish as to drink an infusion of Prussian 
 blue, for tliis is the substance that is used, mixed with 
 gypsum, to colour, or face, the green tea. 
 
 The well-known character of the Chinese for temperance 
 has been ascribed to their universal use of tea, and it would 
 be well for many in Western lands if, instead of soaking 
 themselves with beer, they would copy the example of the 
 abstemious Chinese in this respect. 
 
 Different kinds of flowers are used to scent tea, such as 
 roses, tuberoses, oranges, jasmines, gardenias, azaleas, as 
 well as the olea fragrans ; only the petals are used for the 
 purpose. Some choice brands of tea are grown on small 
 plots of ground and command almost a fabulous price ; such 
 as in some of the gardens near monasteries, owned by the 
 priests and attended to by their inferior followers. 
 
 Tea furnishes the second greatest article of commerce in 
 China. 
 
 'China has been the fountain-head whence the tea culture has 
 spread to other countries.' It is only within recent years that tea 
 cultivation has been undertaken in other lands, where it ' is assuming 
 large proportions. * ''- The Spanish authorities have tried 
 
 to raise it in the Philippines ; the Dutch in Sumatra, Java, and 
 Borneo ; the English in the Straits Settlements ; and the French in 
 Cochin China. Nearly all these experiments have been failures, the 
 only successes reported being from mountainous countries, where 
 there was moisture, szood soil, and not an excess of warmth. The 
 Dutch have turned this discovery to account, and now confine their 
 efforts to the high mountainous districts with which their colonial 
 possessions abound ; good tea has been produced in a number of 
 places under these conditions, but the quality has been very inferior 
 to the fine growths of Formosa and Foochow.' 
 
 The above quotation does not mention, however, all the 
 places where tea is cultivated, or where attempts have been 
 made to do so : we may add to the list the well known 
 names of Ceylon, India, Assam, Japan, and the lesser known 
 
500 TliiNGS CHINESE. 
 
 experiments in Johore, the United States, Natal, Fiji, Borneo, 
 Servia, Mexico, in the Caucasus (which seems to be a 
 failure), and South Carolina : doubtless, in other places as 
 well, trial has been made of the cultivation of this useful 
 shrub. The troops in Java are supplied with local tea. 
 
 Machineiy would appear to have been largely used of 
 late years in the manufacture of Indian teas ; electricity has 
 even been yoked in the service of man for the preparation 
 of tea ; but the Chinese still retain their old style, and object, 
 probably from prejudice, to any innovations, and as long as 
 their tea sells they are content, though attempts have been 
 made to influence them in the favour of Machinery. 
 
 ' Whether China tea, if and when it is prepared by machinery 
 will retain its present advantage in the time that it will last in com- 
 parison with the short period that Indian and Ceylon teas keep, is 
 a question that can only be answered when we have had actual 
 experience. It is notorious at present that Indian and Ceylon teas 
 go off a few months after arrival in this country (England), whilst 
 China tea, as hitherto prepared, could be kept for considerable 
 periods of time Avithout showing any decided signs of having "gone 
 of. " ' 
 
 To those who like a good article, the ' darker liquor 
 which brews out from Indian and Ceylon tea ' with its 
 greater pungency will be no recommendation in its favour ; 
 for softness of flavour is to be found in China teas ; but cost 
 seems to be the point round which the struggle will be 
 maintained ; and if China will only listen to the suggestions 
 of those who are able to advise her, and send home as good 
 an article as she used to ship so largely, the victory may yet 
 be hers. 
 
 A trial of preparation of tea by machinery has been made 
 by the 'Foochow Tea Improvement Company' and some 
 parcels of this tea were put on the London market, and all 
 concerned were very sanguine of success but the venture has 
 not been able to make its way. 
 
 This experiment has unfortunately proved a failure on 
 account, so we are told, of the difficulty of procuring a 
 sufficiency of tea to keep the machinery going. 
 
TEA. 591 
 
 In fact, machine rolling lias been tried in several places — 
 two at least, and it is to be hoped that it. or sonietliinir else to 
 be discovered will resuscitate the dying China tea trade. One 
 of the difficulties in the way will be shown by the following : — 
 
 ' It is the custom in this country [this is written at Hankow in 
 1897] often to keep the newly picked leaf for a day or so, in hopes of 
 obtaining a higher price for it, or it is passed on in bags from one 
 district to another where a better sale is looked for. This of course 
 entirely spoils it for the London taste of the present day — that is, 
 strength and rankness, which is obtained only through immediate 
 firing. So long as quotations of taels 50 or so continue for fine teas 
 suitable for Russia, it is hardly to be expected a change will be made 
 The old fashion pays well enough.' 
 
 That this should be so seems unfortunate as it is stated 
 that :— 
 
 ' Machine-rolling gives the leaf a more even twist and causes 
 less breakage than by hand ; but more important still, the even re- 
 gulated presssure of the machine keeps the sap of the green leaf 
 working among the rolling leaf, and it is not expressed, as is the 
 case with teas prepared by the Chinese method. The use of the 
 roller too brings out the small Pekoe leaves with a bright golden 
 appearance, whereas the Chinese method of preparation causes the 
 leaves to turn black.' '■- * * '- The first small shipment of 
 
 these teas to Melbourne gave a result of some Taels 7 per picul more 
 than was obtained by native-made tea selling side by side with it ; 
 such teas 'received most favourable notice in the London reports,' 
 and 'some " Golden Pekoe " sold at loffi^.' 
 
 The Indian and Ceylon teas are offering a serious com- 
 petition to China, the original tea-producing country. The 
 trade is declining and some vigorous efforts will have to be 
 made to retain what they already possess ; but, unfortunately, 
 the Chinese do not appear to be alive to the importance of 
 taking steps to hold their own in the world's market against 
 the stronger article produced in India, neither have they 
 yet learned the wisdom of putting up smaller ' chops ' 
 (brands) of tea as is the practice in India, nor have they 
 entered into the combinations which the Indian planters 
 have formed to push their productions into notice wherever 
 a chance of doing so presents itself 
 
 'Americans having acquired a taste for green tea which is now 
 chiefly supplied by China, and the crusade to push Indian and Ceylon 
 black teas in the United States not having met with the success 
 
592 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 anticipated, a few Indian planters have turned their attention to the 
 manufacture of LTeen tea for the American market. The first con- 
 signment of this tea has now arrived in Calcutta.' 
 
 There is necessity for improvement, at some places in 
 China, in the manufacture of tea prepared for the foreign 
 market; and some endeavours have been made to meet the 
 competition of Indian and other teas, and the heavy costs of 
 Chinese taxation, by lessening the costs of production. Both 
 Foochovv and Shanghai foreign merchants have recommended 
 more careful cultivation and packing. 
 
 'If China were to remove the e.xpoit duty on tea and sweep 
 . away the various local burdens that hamper the planter, then indeed 
 Chinese tea might be regarded as a formidable competitor with the 
 product of India and Ceylon, but so long as it is weighted with a 
 burden of taxation that leaves no reasonable margin of profit the tea 
 trade of China will continue on the down grade.' 
 
 Were it not for the heavy taxation on the China leaf by 
 the Chinese Government, in the way of likin and export duties, 
 Chinese tea, when carefully manufactured and cultivated, 
 could easily stand the competition of India, Ceylon and other 
 countries and ' would be always able to command a good 
 market.' 
 
 '"I fear that unless the Chinese can produce stronger and more 
 Indian-and Ceylon-like tea, it is only a question of time to see their 
 total exclusion from foreign markets," and the only chance for China 
 now is, in my opinion, to produce a good, wholesome, sweet article at 
 a low price — something that can be mixed with Indian and Ceylon 
 teas." 
 
 These remarks, confirmed as they are by all our local [Kiukiang] 
 experts, make it appear that two requirements are specially wanted 
 to retrieve the fortunes of the China tea trade— improved cultivation 
 and manipulation (so as to produce " a good, wholesome article") 
 and a reduction in the cost of production. So long, however, as the 
 present heavy taxation exists in China all along the route from the 
 place of origin to the point of shipment — a taxation amounting to 
 about 25 per cent, of the cost, — whilst the teas of other countries 
 (India, Ceylon, etc.) are free of duty, neither the improvement of the 
 leaf nor the reduction of the original cost can be reckoned as prime 
 factors in the question. The wonder is that an article so heavily 
 handicapped as China tea is in the matter of duty and taxes should 
 still hold a respectable place in the world's markets and still retain 
 such a large share of foreign patroage. It would almost seem as if, 
 even without any other alteration in the present state of affairs, 
 
TEA. 
 
 593 
 
 China tea, with a wise removal of, say, half its fiscal burdens, could 
 hold its own with its modern rivals, to the immense benefit of the 
 Chinese Government and people.' 
 
 ' The China tea is undoubtedly the best tea in the world natur- 
 ally, but no pains are taken to maintain the stock and the lower 
 qualities exported were so mixed with dust and rubbish that much 
 harm was done and the way effectually prepared for the competition 
 of the Indian leaf.' 
 
 In this connection it may be interesting to give the 
 results of the analyses of different teas. 
 
 ' The following table, taken from a number of analyses recently 
 made by the late Professor Dittmar, shows chearly the effect of 
 allowing the water to stand on the tea leaves 5 minutes and 10 
 minutes respectively, and the varying amount of theine and tannin 
 given off by China, Ceylon, and Indian teas : — 
 
 Five minutes Infusion. 
 
 Theine. Tannifi. 
 
 China 2.58 3.06 
 
 Ceylon 3.15 5.87 
 
 Indian 3.63 6.77 
 
 Ten Minutes Infusion, 
 
 Theine. Tannin. 
 
 China 2.79 3.78 
 
 Ceylon 3.29 7.30 
 
 Indian 3.73 8.09 
 
 From this it will be seen that though Indian tea contains 25, 
 per cent, more theine than China tea, it also contains 100 per cent, 
 more tannin. Indian teas are much more widely used in England 
 than China teas, and the " strong syrupy teas " advertised as of 
 good value, and so largely consumed by the working classes, are, 
 as a rule, blends of various Indian teas rich in tannin and astringent 
 matters.' 
 
 It is thought that if the nearly contiguous towns of 
 Lung-sing, Wong-sa-ping and Kia-kow in the turbulent 
 province of Hu-nan were only opened to foreign trade the 
 English merchants resident at the centres of the Onfa tea 
 trade could then compete with better success with the Indian 
 tea merchants as the laid down cost on the spot is so low. 
 At present these are taken to Hankow. 
 
 The following extracts will show how China tea has 
 been ousted out of the English market : — 
 
 ' In tea the most observable phenomenon of the twelvemonth 
 has been the rapid rise in the imports from Ceylon. It is 48 per 
 cent., the increase being gained at the expense alike of Indian tea 
 and of Chinese. For the first time Ceylon tea has exceeded China tea 
 in quantity. Year by year China tea declines, and it is impossible 
 to say where the decadence will stop. To a certain extent, China 
 
 z 2 
 
594 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 planters and merchants might arrest the tendency by more care in cul- 
 tivation, preparation of the leaf, and attention to European tastes. In 
 general, though the best Chinese will please delicate palates, the Indian 
 and Ceylon kinds are certain to predominate popularly on account of 
 their strength.' ' Times ' 17th August 1892. 
 
 ' It is noteworthy that while we took 93 per cent, of our tea 
 from China in 1865, and only 2 per cent, from India, and not so 
 much as i per cent, from Ceylon, in 1895, we took 46 per cent, from 
 India, 32 per cent, from Ceylon, and only 16 per cent, from China. 
 The importations from China have steadily dwindled.' 
 
 In 1890 there were 101,000,000 lbs. tea imported from 
 India into Great Britain, 74,000,000 from China, and over 
 42,000,000 from Ceylon, Ceylon was expected to export 
 70,000,000 lbs. of tea in 1892; there being now 230,000 acres 
 of land planted with tea in that Colony, an increase of nearly 
 40,000 acres during two years. Japan and China still retain 
 the two largest markets for tea, which are those of America 
 and Australia. The trade in tea with Russia is increasing. 
 
 In four months, in 1894 the consumption of Indian tea 
 in England had increased by about 11,000,000 lbs., and that 
 of China tea had decreased 5,000,000, 
 
 Amoy, 27 years ago, exported as much as 65,800 piculs 
 last year, 1898, the amount was 10,528 piculs, for the tea 
 'trade of Amoy is going down hill rapidly. *At one time 
 the Amoy teas were excellent and tea districts corresponding- 
 ly prosperous ;' but both quality and quantity fell off. It is 
 stated that 
 
 * The export and likin duty are factors which militate against 
 the hopes of the most sanguine. Is is now too late to propose reme- 
 dial measures which would resuscitate the already moribund leaf, 
 formerly the leading article of export ' from Amoy. 
 
 As an illustration of how the decline in the tea trade has 
 affected the Chinese cultivator, the following statement in the 
 report on Amoy in the Customs' Annual Returns for 1896 is 
 not devoid of interest : 
 
 'The annual value of the trade has fallen from Hk Taels 
 2,000,000 a quarter of a century ago to less than Hk Taels 100,000 
 to-day, and the cultivator, whose plantation formerly supplied him 
 with a comfortable income, is now compelled to plant rows of sweet 
 potatoes between the tea bushes to keep body and soul together.' 
 
t£:A. 595 
 
 To what a low state the tea trade in China has arrived 
 the report by the Commissioner of Customs for Amoy shows. 
 He thus writes of 1897 : — 
 
 ' In all probability this trade report will be the last in which 
 reference will be made to Amoy tea as an important factor in our 
 trade. 25 years ago. 65,800 piculs were exported ; this year the total 
 is 12,127 piculs. '■■' * * * The extinction of the Amoy tea 
 
 trade has been predicted in previous trade reports. The export and 
 likin duty are factors which militate against the hopes of the most 
 sanguine. It is now too late to propose remedial measures which 
 would resuscitate the already moribund leaf, formerly the leading article 
 of export. The native growers are not entirely free from blame ; of 
 late years they have been content to produce any article which would 
 sell, but the new United States law establishing standards has prac- 
 tically shut out the article as now produced.' 
 
 The following is from the Report on the Foreign Trade 
 of China for the year 1897, by P. E. Taylor, of the I. M. 
 Customs' Service : — 
 
 ' I am one of those who believe in the possibility of reviving 
 this trade. It may not be generally known that the most delicate 
 and highly prized teas from India and Ceylon are grown on the 
 higher altitudes and are produced from plants of Chinese origin. 
 The bulk of the tea exported from India comes from the plains, and 
 is the product of the indigenous plant which grows as a forest tree in 
 Manipur — attaining in its wild state, a height of 30 feet— and which 
 will not flourish except at low elevations. The teas made from these 
 plants yield a strong liquor and they are consequently economical in 
 use ; but they are certainly unwholesome, and they lack altogethef 
 the delicious aroma of the teas grown at higher altitutes from Chinese 
 plants. They can be placed on the market at low prices because the 
 tea estates are so large that the quantity of leaf to be dealt with 
 makes the use of machinery profitable and even necessary. The 
 essential difference between the process of manufacture in India and 
 Ceylon and in China is that the teas are packed within 24 hours of 
 the leaves having been plucked which would seem to be impossible 
 in this country under present conditions. It has been stated recently 
 that the peculiar excellence of fine China teas would be ruined by the 
 adoption of Indian methods. This may be true of fancy teas for 
 exhibition, but is certainly not true if applied to ordinary fine teas. 
 Not being an expert, my opinion is of little value, but I may be 
 permitted to say that I have been unable to procure in China, tea of 
 such delightful fragrance and digestibility as some I have tasted from 
 Darjeeling and the Kangra Valley — grown from Chinese plants but 
 manufactured by machinery. I believe that the experiment com- 
 menced at Foochow, and shortly to be imitated at Hankow, will if 
 sufficient leaf can be procured close to the factory, eventually result in 
 a success which will encourage the adoption of similar methods in 
 other centres of the tea industry and will regain for this important 
 trade a large measure of its former prosperity.' 
 
 2 z 2 
 
596 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 The Foochow experiment, as we have already said, has 
 been a failure. 
 
 The following extracts show pretty much how matters 
 stand at present : — 
 
 ' Experts in tea are agreed that the desiderata to retrieve the 
 fortunes of the China tea trade, are improved cultivation and 
 manipulation, and a reduction in the cost of production.' 
 
 ' If China were to remove the export duty on tea and sweep 
 away the various local burdens that hamper the planter, then indeed 
 Chinese tea might be regarded as a formidable competitor with the 
 product of India and Ceylon, but so long as it is weighted with a 
 burden of taxation that leaves no reasonable margin of profit the tea 
 trade of China will continue on the down grade.' 
 
 ' The 25 per cent, mentioned by Mr. Hughes (page 592) as the 
 amount of taxation to which Kiukiang tea is subjected is somewhat 
 less than the amount given by conpetent authorities at other ports. 
 Mr. Brenan, in the Canton Consular Report for 1897, placed the figure 
 at 35 per cent., while Mr. Cass, of Amoy, in a review of the tea trade 
 supplied by him to the Consul and incorporated in the 1896 report, 
 said the reason for the decline was not far to seek : the entire corp 
 realised $136,000, while the lekin paid amounted to $20,000 and the 
 export duty to $35,000, or a total of $55,000, considerably more than 
 one-third of the value of the tea. The result is that at Amoy the tea 
 trade has practically ceased to exist.' 
 
 Some idea of the immense consumption of tea in the 
 world, and the quantities that the most successful tea-producing 
 countries might put on the market may be gathered from the 
 calculation that the whole number of cups of tea taken a day 
 in the United Kingdom ' will probably be not less on the 
 average than 100,000,000.' The British people get through 
 184,000,000 lbs. per annum, being at the rate of 5 lbs. per 
 head per annum. (In England the consumption of tea is 
 rapidly increasing and that of coffee diminishing). The 
 Dutch are the greatest tea and coffee drinkers, the quantity 
 consumed by each being 240 ozs., or 15 lbs., a year. We are 
 unable to say how much of this is tea and how much coffee. 
 *The French only consume half an ounce in the same period, 
 whilst the Australians, the greatest tea drinkers in the world, 
 consume 7^ lbs. of tea per head every year.' Even the Maoris 
 drink tea; their consumption is very small though, not having 
 been more than 1 lb. per head per annum in 1889. It was 
 
TELEGRAPHS, ^91 
 
 stated in 1892 that the Kamchatkans are beginning to use 
 tea. 'The largest annual consumption [of tea] per head is 
 in Western Australia at 10.701b.; Great Britain figures at 
 4.70; the United States at 1.40; [there were 83,494,956 lbs. of 
 tea imported into the United States in 1890, an increase over 
 the previous decade, and amounting to 1^ lbs. for each 
 inhabitant] ; Germany stands at .07, and France at .03; ' the 
 ' continental nations, even including Russia, come a long 
 way behind the United Kingdom.' The large consumption 
 of wine in France and Germany unfortunately retards the 
 more healthy consumption of tea. It is calculated that 
 500,000,000 people drink Chinese and Indian tea. 
 
 TELEGRAPHS.— "The first telegraph line in China was 
 opened in 1872 and of recent years the Chinese Government 
 finding the necessity by the Franco-Chinese war of having 
 rapid communication with the centres of its numerous pro- 
 vinces, has taken up the electric telegraph. 
 
 ' " The telegraph is the only institution of modern science which 
 has obtained any considerable foothold in China," say Messrs. Fearon 
 and Allen in an article in The Engineerijig Magazine, " Peking 
 is connected by wire with Tientsin and with Manchurian points 
 up to the Russian frontier, whence connection is continued by 
 Russian Siberian lines to Europe. The capital is also connected 
 with all the treaty ports, and principal cities in China proper, and 
 these again with each other. Canton has connection also through 
 Yunnan with Burma. China learned the value of the telegraph in 
 the war with France, and it has long since been admitted to have 
 become indispensable. The telegraph, however, is under imperial 
 control, and there is probably little opportunity for its extension as a 
 private enterprise. Chinese writing being not alphabetic, but syllabic, 
 and there being as many characters as there are words in use, the 
 telegraphic messages are sent in a number cypher. For transcrib- 
 ing messages received, a double-ended type is used; on one end is the 
 character, and on the other the corresponding number. When a 
 message is received, it is set up by the numbers, and then printed 
 from the reverse, or character, end." ' 
 
 Speaking in a general way, the system may be described 
 as consisting, in the main, of a line, starting from the 
 northern part of China's colonial possessions, lying to the 
 north of China proper, and running down not far from the 
 coast to the south ; in the southern portion there is another 
 line as well, forming a loop futher inland ; while from this 
 
^9^ THINGS CHIN^S£!. 
 
 northern and southern main line spring three large lines 
 running in a westerly direction, the northernmost one 
 through the northern provinces, the southern one through 
 the southern provinces, and a central one along the 
 Yangtsz valley. Besides these grand lines there are short 
 branch lines connecting different places with the main lines. 
 By means of all these, telegraphic communication is main- 
 tained with every province. The province of Hunan even 
 having it now, the people of the frontier town of Lichow 
 rose en masse in 1891 to prevent its introduction into their 
 province, but five years later the introduction of it excited no 
 opposition. 
 
 Extensions are being still made every little while to 
 the system and it is being rapidly extended over the empire. 
 
 The work of putting up the lines in China was intrusted 
 to the Danish Great Northern Telegraph Company. Compared 
 with the numerous important centres of trade the stations 
 are but few in number ; and the rate for messages is not 
 sufficiently low to bring them within the reach of the 
 multitudes that avail themselves of such conveniences in the 
 West. Looked at from a foreign point of view, it is un- 
 satisfactory to find that these native lines are not available to 
 Europeans if a riot occurs. The following was written about 
 Chinese telegraphs in 1892 and is still of interest though the 
 lines have extended considerably since : — 
 
 ' The Chinese telegraph system already comprises about 42,000 
 li [say 14,000 miles] of line, carrying 58,000 li of wire ; stations have 
 been established in 171 different towns ; and Formosa, the Pescadores, 
 and Hainan have been connected by submarine cable with the 
 mainland. From Hehlungkiang to Hainan and from Corea to the 
 Burma frontier of Yiinnan, the Chinese telegraph lines stretch over 
 greater distances than from Norway to Sicily and from Lisbon to 
 the Caucasus.' 
 
 Amongst the wonders of the Chinese telegraphs may be 
 mentioned the line across the Gobi desert, 3,000 miles long. 
 
 Book Tdcommended. — A very short account is given in ' Peeps into 
 China' by Eev. Gilbert Eeid, M.A., Chap. 33, of the introduction and 
 extension of the telegraph in China. 
 
TENURE OF LAND. 599 
 
 TENURE OF LAND.—kW land is held direct from 
 the crown in China, there is no allodial property ; and no 
 law of entail. As has been so often stated, the family being 
 the unit of society in China, it is natural to find that a lar^-e 
 amount of land is held by the family or by the clan, though 
 individuals as well often invest their savings in the South of 
 China in paddy fields. 
 
 ' The conditions of common tenure are the payment of an annual 
 tax, the fee for alienation with a money composition for personal 
 service to the government, a charge generally incorporated into the 
 direct tax as a kind of scutage.' 
 
 The land tax varies from 1^ to 10 cents a mao, or Chinese 
 acre, which is equivalent to from 10 to QQ cents an acre, 
 the amount being dependent on ' the quality of the land and 
 the difiiculty of tillage ' its fertility, situation, or the use to 
 which it is put. Reckoning this tax at an average of 25 
 cents an acre the income to the government from this source 
 ought to be about $150,000,000, were it all to go into the 
 Imperial cofi'ers without paying tribute to the host of rapa- 
 cious underlings, clerks, and constables, and the hundred and 
 one people who all put in for a share of the plunder. 
 
 " As the exactions for alienation on sale of lands are high 
 amounting to as mnch as one-third of the sale price sometimes, the 
 people accept white deeds from each other as proofs of ownership and 
 responsibility for taxes. As many as twenty or thirty such deeds of 
 sae occasionally accompany the orignial hung k'aij without which 
 they are suspicious, if not valueless. In order to keep the knowledge 
 of the alienations of land in government offices, so that the taxes can 
 be assured, it is customary to furnish a k\ii itiei, or " deed-end," 
 containing a note of the terms of sale and amount of tax liable on the 
 property. There is no other proof of ownership required ; and the 
 simplicity and efficiency of this mode of transfer offer a strikin g 
 contrast to the cumbrous rules enforced in western Kingdoms." 
 
 The eldest son inherits his father's property, but, from 
 the customs of the people, it appears more as if it devolved 
 upon him as a trust administered by him for the good of the 
 family, for the whole family are allowed to reside on and live 
 upon the property, generation after generation, if they so 
 choose, or an 'amicable composition can be made.' 
 
600 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 A mortgagee enters into possession of the property and 
 ' makes himself responsible for the payment of the taxes' ; 
 the land may be redeemed at any time on the payment of 
 the sum advanced, if the payment he made within thirty 
 years. 
 
 The Chinese government are liberal in their treatment 
 of those who reclaim waste hillsides, and poor soil ; or who 
 first cultivate newly formed alluvial strips of land : in the 
 former cases sufficient time is allowed for the cultivator to 
 recoup himself for the outlay incurred before his land is 
 assessed ; and in the latter case the authorities have to be 
 informed. 
 
 ' All buildings pay a ground rent to the Government, but no data 
 are available for comparing this tax with that levied in western cities. 
 The Government furnishes the owner of the ground with a kimg k'ai, 
 or " red deed " in testimony of his right to occupancy, which puts 
 him in possession as long as he pays the taxes [ground rent]. There 
 is a record office in the local magistracy of such documents ' 
 
 Books recommend ed. — Williams's ' Middle Kingdom,' Land and Land- 
 tax. Transactions N. C. Br. R. A. S. 1848, Vol. I, Article by T. T. Meadows. 
 
 THEATRE.— ThesLtxicsl exhibitions in China are often 
 connected with religion, as, in the mediaeval times in the 
 West, mystery plays were, for in China they are often held 
 in honour of a god's birthday. Subscriptions in these 
 cases are obtained from the residents of the locality and 
 a large stage of bamboo and matting covered in, is put up. 
 No nails are used in its construction, but the bamboos are 
 securely tied together with strips of rattan. The putting up 
 of matsheds is a trade by itself ; they are quickly run up, 
 a few days' time suffices for erecting one large enough for 
 holding two thousand people. They are taken down even 
 quicker, as sharp hook-knives cut through the rattan strips, 
 and these latter are the only materials which cannot be 
 used again, the same bamboo poles and oblongs of matted 
 leaves bound together, doing duty scores, if not hundreds, of 
 times. One large shed may serve for the performers, while 
 smaller ones accommodate those who pay for seats ; the pit 
 is the paved square, and standing room is all that the 
 
THEATRE. 601 
 
 rabble, who are packed as thick as herrings in a barrel, are 
 allowed. 
 
 Players stroll in companies from place to place, open 
 to engagements as above, or are hired by wealthy families 
 to perform their plays in their private dwellings, where all 
 the inconveniences of the female members of the family 
 appearing in public are avoided. In Hongkong there are 
 three substantial buldings used for native theatres, and the 
 Chinese appear to be copying this example at Canton and 
 elsewhere. 
 
 What would we think in the West of performances 
 lasting three days instead of three hours, and only rests for 
 sleeping and eating ? Smoking and refreshments are allowed 
 in the theatre itself, and the splitting and munching of dried 
 melon seeds which is carried on must be immense, while 
 play follows play without any interval. 
 
 The stage is simplicity itself, with two entrances from 
 the back where the ' green-room ' is placed ; and a few 
 tables, chairs, and stools, are about all that are used, and 
 they do duty for any and every thing. The writer saw a 
 frail structure, composed of tables and chairs piled up in the 
 middle of the stage, used to represent lofty crags and 
 precipitous mountains, over which the heroine of the play, 
 accompanied and assisted by a trusty family retainer, clam- 
 bered up, clutching imaginary projecting points, trees, 
 bushes, or grass, to help her in her dangerous climb. Some 
 of the actors display considerable talent, most realistic effects 
 being produced at times. 
 
 The assistants come in and remove different articles 
 when done with, or bring them as required, going out and in 
 among the actors with perfect nonchalance, as no curtain 
 falls between the different acts. Considerable force of 
 imagination is required to add all the accessories so vividly 
 pictured on the modern stage in the West ; but perhaps their 
 absence is not an entire defect, as more attention can be 
 bestowed, without their distraction, on the acting itself. 
 
 3 A 
 
(502 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Young men dressed as women, take the female parts, and 
 the others are so represented as to be known at once, the 
 villain, for instance, being painted with a white nose. 
 
 Historical plays are often performed, the dressis being 
 those of the Chinese when under native rule, between two 
 and three centuries ago, and most gorgeous they are, making 
 up for all the lack of scenic effect ; robes of rich hues 
 glittering with gold ; long feathers, several feet in length, 
 falling in graceful curves from the caps of the performers, 
 and swaying with every motion of the actors. The 
 spectacular effect of all this glitter and sheen proves a 
 strange contrast to the poverty of the building and the bare 
 appearance of the stage. Marches past of soldiers ; the 
 exaggerated stride of the hero ; the prancing of the warriors 
 as they enter into mimic contests where lunges and feints, 
 a la Chinois, are indulged in to an extravagant extent ; all 
 present a co7j,p d'oeil, weird and fantasic, grotesque at times, 
 but so full of life and vigour that for some time one enjoys 
 the kaleidoscopic scene to be witnessed nowhere else in the 
 world : and were it not for the clash of the cymbals which 
 emphasise different passages, the scrapings of the fiddles, and 
 the indescribable effect of the Chinese music, added to the 
 heat of the crowded building and the disagreeable odour 
 from the perspiring and unwashed masses, one would enjoy 
 it more, but a headache is the Westerner's reward for the 
 patient sitting out of a Chinese play. 
 
 * The efforts of certain actors are worthy of the highest com- 
 mendation from the naturalness of their actions and the vivid 
 portrayal of the incidents of the play. There is, however, much of 
 conventionality reminding one of the Italian opera among us.' ' The 
 performances' are ' largely of the character of pantomime and more 
 largely perhaps * * opera.' 
 
 Though we have particularised the historic play, it 
 must not be supposed that the ' Brethren of the Pear 
 Orchard,' as Thespians are called in China, confine their 
 attention to that branch of the histrionic art. Plays of 
 various kinds, comedies, tragedies, and farces, all find 
 acceptance from a Chinese audience. 
 
THEATRE, 603 
 
 * While it is true that the Chinese themselves make no distinction 
 between comedy and tragedy, a translator from their language is still 
 at liberty to apply these terms, according to the serious and dignified, 
 or comic and familiar character, of the composition which he selects.' 
 Sir John Davis, from whom we quote, says further, of a tragedy which 
 he translated from Chinese into English :— ' In the unity of the plot, 
 the dignity of the personages, the grandeur and importance of the 
 events, the strict award of what is called poetical justice— nay, in the 
 division into five principal portions or acts, it might satisfy the most 
 fastidious and strait-laced of the old European critics. Love and war, 
 too, constitute its whole action, and the language of the imperial lover 
 is frequently passionate to a degree one is not prepared for in such a 
 country as China.' 
 
 'The stage, and everything pertaining to it, enjoys a lower 
 estimation than in any part of Europe.' It is not considered proper 
 for respectable Chinese ladies to go frequently to the theatre. ' The 
 Chinese cannot strictly be said to possess dramatic poetry.' ' No 
 Shakespeare has "■' yet arisen in China ; no analyst of motives 
 
 either amongst novelists or playwrights.' ' The dialogue of their 
 stage pieces is composed in ordinary prose; while the principal 
 performer now and than chaunts forth, in unison with music, a 
 species of song or "vaudeville " ; and the name of the tune or air is 
 always inserted at the top of the passage to be sung.' ' A consider- 
 able portion of the plays of the Chinese consists of a sort of irregular 
 verse, which is sung or chanted with music. This is often very 
 obscure in its import ; and as, according to the Chinese themselves, 
 the gratification of the ear is its main object, sense itself appears 
 sometimes to be neglected for the sake of a pleasing sound.' * The 
 Chinese are enthusiastic theatre-goers, and sit for hours enthralled by 
 the performance, bereft as it necessarily is of much of the scenic 
 effects of the Western stage.' 
 
 ' The Chinese drama •■' * ** was marked out into three 
 distinct epochs — The T'ang Dynasty (720 — 905 A.D.), the Sung 
 Dynasty (720 — 1119 A.D.), the Kin and Yuen Dynasty (1123 — 1341 
 A.D.)' 
 
 ' The character of the plays represented was at first religious, but 
 subsequenty was more devoted to historical subjects, and also repre- 
 sented the occupations of the people in times of peace as well as the 
 exploits of their heroes in war.' 
 
 ' The Chinese drama sprang up no earlier than the time of 
 the caliphate and subsequent ages. The Greek drama was already 
 transplanted and had grown luxuriantly in India. The Moham- 
 medans naturally derived pure ideas from it in their religious 
 shows, and the miracle-plays of Europe show how the same principle of 
 dramatic imitation was working there also. So it was in China. 
 The whole idea of the Chinese play is Greek. The mask, the chorus, 
 the music, the colloquy, the scene and the act, are Greek. The 
 difference between Chinese plays, and those of Terence and Plautus 
 is simply that the Roman dramatists translated a good deal. The 
 Chinese took the idea and worked up the play from their own history 
 
 a A 2 
 
604 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and their own social life. The Chinese drama is based on music 
 just as the Greek play was, and the whole conception of the play is 
 foreign while the details and the language are Chinese. But for the 
 arrival of Western musicians in the Sung and Yuen dynasties, 
 pleasing the people's ear with more lively and stirring strains than 
 they had ever heard in the old music of China, the modern dramatic 
 music would not have been developed. The spread of education 
 and the love of poetry in the T'ang dynasty constituted a training 
 for dramatic authorship. The Sung dynasty iniluence in this direction 
 is vouched for by Su Tung-po. After such men had appeared it was 
 easy for the drama and romance to be originated, but it was the 
 increasing inflow of foreign actors and musicians all through the 
 age of the Golden Tartors which gave direction and shape to the 
 new power. Every attempt to explain the Chinese drama as purely 
 native must therefore fail.' 
 
 The social position the actor holds in China is low ; he 
 is considered on a par with the barber and debarred from 
 entering the examinations ; and this, though the Chinese 
 play has a moral tendency, the villain getting his deserts and 
 the virtuous hero and heroine coming off with flying colours. 
 
 Boohs recommended. — -Besides the notices of the theatre in text 
 books such as William's Middle Kiugdom,' there are some very interesting 
 pages ou the subject in Professor Douglas's ' Chinese Stories, Introduction, 
 pp. XXIII-XXXVI. ' The Chinese Drama,' by W. Stanton, contains an 
 interesting account of theatrical matters in China, as well as three plays 
 and two poems. 
 
 TIGERS. — In the earlier days of European residence 
 in the East, and even until a recent date, most foreigners 
 were very sceptical of the tiger stories of the Chinese ; but 
 of recent years it has been well established as a fact that in 
 some parts of China the tiger is a common beast of prey 
 and a source of constant danger, especially to the juvenile 
 members of the community. There have been numerous 
 cases of children being sized and carried off from the very 
 doors of their homes, nor has the abduction of a child from 
 the very gates of a city been unknown. The tiger appears 
 to be widely spread over the empire, but it is mostly found 
 in the provinces of Fukien, Kiangsi, Kwongtung, and 
 Kwongsi. They even come, at times, within what is now the 
 newly acquired territory ou the mainland opposite Hongkong. 
 They frequent, amongst other spots, the neighbourhood of 
 Swatow, Amoy, and Foochow, and a few days' journey from 
 Canton up the North, East, or West Rivers would bring 
 
TIGERS. 605 
 
 one to tiger districts. Tigers are also found in Manchuria. 
 One foreign resident ' in Amoy has shot 19 tigers to his own 
 rifle and has been present at the death of 40.' Foreign sports- 
 men, however, with but few exceptions, have not gone tiger 
 shooting. The average length of those that have fallen to their 
 guns has been for males 9 feet and females 8 feet. ' Immensely 
 long tigers are not always proportionately large ; they are 
 mostly thin and low animals ; the heaviest and most muscular 
 tigers average about 9 feet G inches. The longest tiger shot 
 in India measured 12 ft. 2 in. * * * la China there are 
 several good records; one of 10 ft. 6 in., and another of 
 11 ft. 2 in.' The writer, from whom we quote above, states 
 that he has measured tanned skins in Shanghai and found 
 some of them as long as 12 ft. 9 in. 'and they were not 
 "' faked " in any way.' The tiger is supposed to attain 
 maturity in the course of four years and only those full 
 groAvn could be of large size. 
 
 As compared with his India brother, the Chinese tiger — 
 being a very well fed animal which generally inhabits the 
 hills, while the Indian tiger being a jungle animal has his 
 hair and skin much damaged by friction against the under- 
 growth — is better marked and the skin naturally commands 
 a higher price in Europe, for while a • full grown Chinese 
 tiger will fetch a price of £100 in some of the large zoo- 
 logical gardens in Europe ' the highest amount given for 
 an Indian tiger being £70. The Chinese tiger is said not 
 to be so aggressive as the Indian tiger though its ferocity 
 ' when aroused and put to bay ' is equal : ' the tiger livino- 
 in the jungle [the Indian] has less supply of food and will 
 attack more instantaneously and with less provocation.' The 
 Chinese dig a pit and cover it with poles or branches, the 
 tiger's weight carries him through, and he is despatched often 
 by a red hot iron being run down his throat, though he often 
 escapes from these pits. 
 
 The * white tiger ' is an important element in the 
 pseudo-science of fung-shui : it represents one of the ' two 
 supposed currents running through the earth/ the other 
 
606 THtms CittNESE. 
 
 being the 'green dragon.' These are believed to be 
 situated on the right and left respectively of propitious sites 
 and graves. ' A skilful observer can detect and describe 
 them, with the help of the [geomantic] compass, direction 
 of the water courses, shapes of the male and female ground, 
 and their proportions, colour of the soil, and the permuta- 
 tions of the elements.' 
 
 Boohs recommended. — Zool. Soc. Proc. 1870, p. 626. Also see H.K 
 Weekly Press for 27th Maj-, 1896. Also see article in this book on 
 Geomancy. 
 
 TIME. — Time — but what idea has a Chinaman of time? 
 Time does not enter into the essence of his ordinary 
 conceptions of a day, or, at all events, the idea is so very 
 vague that the conception of it seems but an inchoate one. 
 At the Treaty Ports and in their neighbourhood, as well as at 
 Hongkong and Macao, clocks are found in every shop and 
 watches abound, but in many places there is no standard of 
 correct time, and, in places where there is, it is ignored 
 extensively. Life is not such a mad rush as with us in our 
 feverish pursuit of wealth, a livelihood, or learning. Fix a 
 time for an engagement with a Chinese, and he comes in 
 half an hour late, or even two or three hours after, occasionally 
 a few days later than the day fixed upon, Avith no idea 
 that he has done anything out of the way. Hire a coolie or a 
 street vehicle or a boat, and what the man employed bases 
 his calculation on, as to payment, is more the distance 
 traversed than the time spent over it ; and, compared with 
 his fraternity in the West, he patiently waits your return, 
 while the minutes and hours that fly are almost next to 
 nothing to him. This disregard of time is seen in the 
 language, where vagueness takes the place of our precision. 
 When a man says *to-raorrow' he does not necessarily mean 
 the next day, but some indefinite time in the future which 
 sometimes never comes, like St. Patrick's * to-morrow' for 
 the saint when exterminating the snakes in Ireland put the 
 last one in a box, and flung it to the bottom of a lake 
 promising to let it out * to-morrow/ and as each new day 
 
TIME. 607 
 
 began, the snake asked to be let out, but the saint always 
 replied that this was to-day and not to-morrow. 
 
 The Chinese employ two methods in reckoning time : 
 one, the cycle of sixty years (See Article on Cycle) ; but this 
 way of counting time is an uncertain one, for, unless it is 
 distinctly stated, one is at a loss to know whether, say, a 
 certain book was copied or printed some score or two years 
 ago, or fourscore or more years ago. Another better method, 
 one of the most common — and one used by us to a 
 small extent, notably in the Headings of Acts of 
 Parliament — is that of employing the years of the 
 reign ; but with the Chinese it is not the sovereign's name 
 that is used, that is too sacred to be so debased, but some 
 high-sounding combination of words is employed and this 
 designates the reign, or a part of it, as has often happened 
 in ancient Chinese history, when the reign-name was changed 
 several times in the lifetime of one monarch. The present 
 occupant of the throne has had selected for him for his 
 ' year-style ' the words Kwong-sui, which may be rendered 
 into English as ' Illustrious Succession ' ; so this year, which 
 we date from the greatest event that earth has ever seen, as 
 A.D. 1899, is known to the Chinese as parts of the Mb-sut and 
 Ke'i-hoi years of the cycle and parts of the 24th and 25th 
 years of the 'Illustrious Succession' period. The Chinese 
 year is a lunar one ' but its commencement is regulated by 
 the sun.' To those who are astronomically inclined it may be 
 interesting to know that 'New Year falls on the first new 
 moon after the sun enters Aquarius, which makes it come 
 not before January 21st nor after February 19th.' In 1899 
 it has happened on the 10th of February. It is therefore 
 unlike the Mohammedan year which now has its new year ia 
 summer and now in winter ; the Chinese feasts are almost as 
 certain as our European movable ones, for by the addition of 
 an intercalary month every three years or so the differences 
 are roughly adjusted ; this extra month is, however, not the 
 thirteenth and added on at the end of the year, but it is inserted 
 at different times in different years, and takes its name from 
 
608 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 the month it immediately follows, for instance one year it 
 may be the intercalary second month, on another occasion 
 it may be the intercalary seventh month, and so on. The 
 Quakers would not be a singular people in China as far as 
 their nomenclature of time was concerned ; for instead (in 
 common parlance) of the months having names as we, who 
 are outside the pale of Quakerism in the West, employ, the 
 Chinese know them as the first, the second, the third months, 
 and so on. The close connection between the month and the 
 moon is more noticeable in Chinese even than with us, for 
 the same word does duty for both. Again, the indefiniteness 
 of the Chinese as regards time is seen in the days, for though 
 they are known as the first, second, &c., yet they are further 
 divided into three decades as regards their position in the 
 month, so a Chinese can fix a matter as having occurred in 
 the first decade, or the second, or the third, as the case may 
 be, and delight his unprecise nature by a margin of ten days. 
 
 There is no week, amongst the Chinese, in our accep- 
 tation of the term, but multitudes of them have learned 
 what a week is, and have terms to express it and its days, 
 and it is well known wherever foreigners have stayed or 
 travelled much. 
 
 The Chinese hour is twice the length of ours, but again, 
 in the neighbourhood of the Treaty Ports, where clocks and 
 watches are common, the more convenient foreign system, as 
 shown by the faces of those important and useful horological 
 instruments, is largely used and is probably increasing in 
 use every year; and en passant we may say that it is in this 
 way that progress is accomplished in China, by the adoption 
 of some foreign invention Avhich gradually extends from the 
 sphere of foreign influence or introduction further into the 
 country. There is no rapid, M'holesale sweeping away of 
 former things, and the importation, en bloc, of new ideas, as 
 has frequently happened with Japan — in her case often to 
 be followed by a revulsion, or the acceptance of something 
 else, and a discarding of the former inventions adopted so 
 
TOBACCO AND PIPES. r,09 
 
 hastily. China's progress, being slower, is steadier, and will 
 be none the less sure in the long run. 
 
 The Chinese watch at night is like the Western dog 
 watch, only two hours in length. The first watch lasts from 
 7 p.m. to 9 p.m. and is shown by one beat on the revenue 
 cutter's drum or one blow on the street-watchman's hollow 
 bamboo tube; the second watch is from 9 p.m. to 11 p.m. 
 and is signalled by two beats, &c. ; the third, fourth, and fifth 
 are of equal duration, and shown in a corresponding manner. 
 Each of these watches is divided into five lesser divisions, 
 which are distinguished on the revenue cutters by their 
 numbers from one to five strokes on a small gong, the 
 stroke on the gong immediately following the drum beat. 
 The watch is set and called ofi" both afloat and ashore by a 
 tattoo on the drum or bamboo, commencing with slow and 
 measured beat, gradually increasing in time until it ends in 
 a regular rattle ; this is repeated several times. 
 
 The peculiar phrases that one comes across used by the 
 
 common people for the expression of short periods of time 
 
 strike one as very odd. The following are examples of such 
 
 phrases : — 
 
 The time it would take to drink a cup of tea. 
 
 The time it would take to drink a cup of hot tea. 
 
 The time it would take to eat a meal. 
 
 The time it would take to eat a bowl of rice. 
 
 The time it would take to smoke a cigarette. 
 
 The time it would take for an incense-stick to burn. 
 
 TOBACCO AND PIPES. —Tobacco was introduced 
 into China from Luzon about A.D. 1530 ''and smokinsr 
 spread among all classes of the people, and both sexes, with 
 incredible rapidity.' Decrees were issued against its use by 
 some of the Ming dynasty rulers, but proved as ineffectual as 
 those of James I. against it in England, for everyone smokes 
 in China. There are two kinds of pipe in use, the dry pipe, 
 and the water-pipe : the latter is a copy of the Indian 
 hookah ; it consists of a receptacle for the water into which a 
 tube-like piece, about the size of a small finger, is inserted ; 
 the upper end of this tube contains a small cavity into which 
 
 3 B 
 
610 TIITNGS CHINESE. 
 
 the tobacco Is put. The smoke is inhaled through the water 
 up the pipe part, which is a tube about a foot long gradually 
 narrowing and bending over at the mouth-piece. These pipes 
 are made of copper and argentan (an alloy of copper, zinc, 
 nickel, iron, and sometimes a little silver) and are used by 
 ladies and gentlemen. The common coolies have a primitive 
 style of water-pipe which consists of a length of bamboo 
 about the size of a man's arm, and, part of the way up, a 
 little tube of bamboo, the size of a finger, for the tobacco. 
 
 The other pipes are often made of bamboo, as far as 
 the stems are concerned, and vary in length from a few feet 
 to a few inches, though short pipes are not very common. 
 The bowls, of metal, are small, holding scarcely more than 
 a thimbleful of tobacco ; a few whiffs exhaust them ; and 
 with the gentleman or lady a servant is ready who steps up, 
 rakes the pipe, empties out the ashes, refills it, sticks it into 
 the mouth of his master or mistress, and lights it with a 
 paper spill. 
 
 The tobacco is prepared for smoking by drying the 
 leaves and cutting them into shreds ; it is milder than that 
 used in the West, and is of different preparations. It is 
 used in several ways, such as in pipes, in paper cigarettes, 
 and in snuff", but not in cigars : when used as snuff", it is put 
 into snuff"-bottles, over the purchase of which the man of 
 means spends money lavishly, and the patient toiler also 
 lavishly spends weeks, or sometimes even months, in the 
 production of one. They are often cut out of ' stone, amber, 
 agate, and other rare minerals, with most exquisite taste.' 
 They are carved at times like cameos ; a little bone spoon 
 is attached to the stopper, and a pinch of snuff is taken out 
 by it and put on the thumb-nail, from which it is drawn up 
 into the nose. 
 
 Considerable quantities of tobacco are exported to the 
 East Indian Islands ; and an attempt was made to introduce 
 it on the western markets. ' Japanese tobacco is already 
 largely consumed in Europe, but the bulk of it goes to 
 
TOBACCO AND PIPES. 611 
 
 Antwerp, Amsterdam, and Hamburg, where, with the addition 
 of the Sumatra or Havana leaf, it is made into cigars.' 
 
 On the other hand the Chinese have developed a liking 
 for Manila cigars, and many of them may be seen smoking 
 them. The street coolies in Hongkong, whose stock of cash 
 is too small to invest in such luxuries, keep an eye open for 
 the discarded ends tossed away by the extravagant foreigner 
 and, picking them up, enjoy a few whiffs. Nor is the 
 manufacture of these cigar ends into new cigars unknown 
 to the ingenious Chinaman. 
 
 It is curious to notice how very similar pipes that were 
 used in England on the first introduction of tobacco smoking 
 are to the small Chinese pipes in use in China at present. 
 If the general opinion that the Portuguese spread the know- 
 ledge of tobacco smoking into Asia soon after its introduction 
 be accepted (the Chinese, it is stated, learned it from the 
 Philippine Islands) then this similarity in the pipes is easily 
 accounted for. A writer in Macmillan's Maorazine for Ausjust, 
 1896, throws out the suggestion that, as which so many other 
 things, the Chinese were the introducers of tobacco smoking 
 into America and the west. If this be true, the similarity in 
 pipes is also accounted for. 
 
 In this connection it may be interesting to note the 
 following account of tobacco cultivation in the Szchuan 
 Province as reported on by Mr. Smithers, the United States 
 Consul at Chung King. 
 
 ' The tobacco plant is grown all over the province of Szechuan, 
 but more abundantly in the districts of Pe-shan Hsien, which is about 
 150 li (60 miles) northeast of this city, and Kin-t'ang Hsien, about 
 100 li (40 miles) east of Chengtu, the provincial capital. 
 
 The plant grows to the height of about 2j to 3 ft. from the 
 ground, and the usual time for planting the seed is during the tenth 
 or eleventh moon (November or December). The method, before 
 putting the seed into the ground, is to sift out a quantity of soil and 
 manure it. When dry, the seed is wrapped with this soil and put 
 into the ground at intervals of a foot and a half. The soil must not 
 be rich, and ground where cereals have not been already planted is 
 generally chosen. 
 
 3 B 2 
 
612 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 During the year, there are three crops — the first is cut six months 
 after it has been planted, the second twenty days afterwards, and 
 the third crop twenty days after the second crop. 
 
 So soon as it is cut, it is hung up to dry for about a fortnight, 
 in a sheltered place with a good draft, so that it may dry quickly. 
 When ready for sale, it is done up in bundles weighing 70 to 80 
 catties (39.3 to 106.6 pounds) a piece. 
 
 The Kin-t'ang tobacco leaf receives a little more care. After it 
 is dried, it is put into a press, to enable some of the juice to be pressed 
 out and the leaf made much milder than the other leaves that are 
 sold in the market. It is done up in bundles of 40 to 50 catties 
 (53.3 to 66.6. pounds) each. The seed is sown under shelter. When 
 the leaves are ready, they are picked and exposed to the dew for 
 several nights ; they are then dipped in a dye and hung up to dry 
 again before being taken to the markets for sale.' 
 
 The article goes on to say that a Chinese is making 
 cigars, but they are not equal to Manila cigars ; but with 
 proper curing they would be probably improved. The 
 Chinese in that neighbourhood are said to take off a piece 
 of leaf, roll it into a sort of cheroot, and smoke it in their 
 pipes, consisting of a small brass bowl and long bamboo or 
 cane stem. 
 
 ' Tobacco leaf was shipped away [from Shanghai in 1 898] 
 to the extent of 210,000 piculs, of which 94 per cent, went 
 to Japan, or say, 197,000 piculs, as against 13,000 piculs in 
 1897.' 
 
 TOMBS. — A'^book itself might be written on the sub- 
 ject of tombs in China, so important are they considered in 
 this land of anomalies ; they are frequently to be found 
 scattered over the hill-sides everywhere ; or forming a com- 
 pact mass of whited sepulchres, as at Amoy ; or occupying 
 a place of honour in the middle of a rice-iield, as in the 
 neighbourhood of Swatow. Different chapters in such a 
 book might be filled with accounts of the graves themselves : 
 their construction ; the different styles used in different 
 dynasties ; the different styles used in different parts of the 
 country at the present day ; the different styles used by high 
 officials, lower officials, and the common people ; the inscrip- 
 tions on the tomb=stones differing at different periods of 
 history and even in different parts of the country at the 
 
fOPSY-TUR VYDOM. 61^ 
 
 present day ; the different superstitions connected with the 
 graves, the folklore, the worship paid at the tombs to the 
 spirits of the deceased ; the wonderful farrago of nonsense 
 and only glimmerings of a stray truth here and there amidst 
 such an amount of darkness and ignorance, as to create a 
 doubt whether there be anything but a mass of falsehood in 
 the whole system of Tung Shui — the wonderful geomantic 
 superstition which centres round the tomb of the deceased 
 ancestor as the hope and dread of future generations (See 
 Article on Fung Shui), Not a few chapters might be occu- 
 pied with descriptions of the coffin to be put in the tomb, 
 accounts of the procession to the tomb, and the funeral with 
 all the varying customs for different parts of the country ; 
 while interesting pages might contain investigations as to 
 how much of all the ceremonial has come down from a high 
 antiquity and how much has grown on to the original system 
 in the course of ages — how much is original ancestor wor- 
 ship and how much is due to Buddhism and Taouism ; all 
 these would require a full treatment to do justice to the 
 subject, and even then much of interest would have been left 
 out. We cannot therefore in this article do more than thus 
 point to some of the various aspects that the tomb presents 
 itself to the Chinese in, and refer our readers to our articles 
 on Ancestral Worship, Fung Shui, and Mourning for a notice 
 of one or two of the aspects mentioned above. 
 
 Books recommended. — Gray's ' China,' Vol. I., pp. 308-325. Williams's 
 Middle Kingdom,' Vol. II., pp. 246, '2o2. Most books on China contain 
 something on the subject. ' The Religious Sj'stem of China, ' in seven 
 books, by J. J. M. de Groot, Ph. D., now being' published, contains most 
 full and particular accounts of tombs, coflins, graves, &c., very much on the 
 Hues laid down in the aboMi article. 
 
 T0PSY-TURVYD03L—lt is the unexpected that one 
 must expect, especially in this land of Topsy-turvydom. The 
 Chinese are not only at our antipodes with regard to 
 position on the globe, but they are our opposites in almost, 
 every action and thought. It never docs to judge how a 
 Chinese would act under certain circumstances from what wo 
 ourselves would do if placed in similar conditions : the chances 
 are that he would do the very actions we would never think 
 
614 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 of performing; think the very thoughts that would never 
 occur to us ; and say what no foreigner would ever think of 
 uttering. He laughs when he tells you his father or mother, 
 brother or sister, is dead ; a bvide that did not wail as if for 
 the dead would be a fraud. He asks you if you have eaten 
 your rice instead of saying ' How do you do ? and locates 
 his intellect in his stomach. For ' good bye ' he says ' walk 
 slowly.' Instead of telling you to take heart and be brav© 
 when any danger threatens, he tells you to lessen your heart ; he 
 makes the most earnest inquiries, not only as to your health 
 but asks your age, and compliments you if you are old ; he 
 wishes to know what your salary or income is, what your 
 rent is, and numberless other polite questions which we think 
 impertinent. On the the other hand let no inquiry cross 
 your lips as to the welfare of his wife ; nor had you better 
 ask after his daughters — his sons he will be glad to parade 
 before you; but do not compliment him on the chubby cheeks 
 and healthy looks of his baby boy, as any accident or disease 
 happening to the youngster will be laid to your account. 
 While you have doffed your hat on entering his house, he 
 he has put his on before receiving you. He shakes his own 
 hands instead of clasping yours ; he places you on his left as 
 the seat of honour ; and if he hands you anything he does so 
 with two hands. He perhaps shows you with pride the set 
 of coffin boards which his dutiful son has presented to him. 
 
 If we look at Chinese books, here again everything seems 
 different : the end is the beginning and the beginning is the 
 end ; the lines of printing are vertical and not horizontal, as 
 with us ; the title is often written on the outside bot- 
 tom edges of the books, as they are not stood up in rows 
 in book-cases, but laid on the shelves one above the other ; 
 while the reader puts in his marker at the bottom of the 
 page and not at the top ; footnotes are on the top margin 
 or occur in the body of the text, the title is on the edge, 
 where the headings of the pages also appear, as well as their 
 numbers ; the edges are uncut and are intended to remain 
 so, as the paper is only printed on one side, and the interior 
 
TOPSr-TURVYDOM. 615 
 
 pages arc blank. Sometimes two books are bound in one, 
 but then the upper half of the page is taken up with one, 
 and the lower half with the other, all the way through the 
 book, somewhat like the French feuilleton printed at the 
 bottom of the newspaper in France. It is in the same way 
 that he keeps his debit and credit accounts in his ofFce or 
 shop books, one on the upper half of the page and the other 
 on the lower. 
 
 In this dictionaries he uses no alphabet, but laying hold 
 of 214 key words, he arranges his tens of thousands of 
 words under these. At other times he arranges them by the 
 termination of their sounds, so that ling, tning, ting, sing 
 would all come under one heading, just as if we were to 
 class all our words ending in er together in one part of our 
 dictionary, like a rhyming dictionary. 
 
 In the matter of dress we come again across curious 
 examples of doing things in a diiferent way from ours. 
 The Chinese oiEcial rank is shown by different coloured 
 buttons of various materials stuck on the top of the oiEcial 
 hat ; the mandarin's clothes are embroidered with animals 
 and birds, front and back, for the same reason, and a 
 peacock's and other feathers show his honours — all these 
 instead of epaulettes, gold-lace and decorations — while a 
 string of beads round his neck completes the ' great man's ' 
 effeminate appearance. The wearing of bracelets is not 
 confined to women, men often have expensive jadestone ones 
 on. Neither men nor women wear gloves, but their sleeves 
 are so long, falling over their hands, as to be used as muffs 
 in cold weather. The capacious sleeves also serve as pockets^ 
 
 A Chinaman wears his hair on the back of his head as 
 long as a Avoman's, but on the front it is all shaven off. 
 By the hair on his face you may approximately judge his 
 age ; before forty-five or thereabouts he is clean shaved, 
 after that he cultivates his moustache, and later in life he 
 grows all he can, which is not much. The women, as well 
 as the men, wear jackets and trousers, and the men long 
 
616 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 robes. As a general rule the women wear socks, and the 
 men often wear stockings. The men go with comparatively 
 thin soles, and the large-footed women with thick ones. 
 Some of our ladies are foolish enough to tight-lace ; the 
 Chinese ladies bind their feet. We blacken our shoes ; the 
 Chinese whiten the sides of their soles. We use our hands 
 to play at battledore and shuttlecock ; the Chinese have no 
 battledore and kick the shuttlecock with their feet. Boys fly 
 kites with us ; they do also in China, but the finest kites are 
 the property of grown-up men, who enjoy the flying of them 
 as much as boys, if not more. 
 
 Black is mourning with us ; white, gray, and blue, Avith 
 the Chinese, and the shoes, as well as cap, hair, and clothes, 
 all show it. Red is the sign of rejoicing and is consequently 
 used at marriages. 
 
 Babies are habitually carried on the back, nor does a 
 gentleman or lady hesitate to accept a similar position when 
 being landed from a boat through the mud. Most of the 
 small boats are ' manned ' by women. Ladies smoke as well 
 as gentlemen, and gentlemen fan themselves as well as the 
 ladies. 
 
 The Chinese compass points to the south, not to the 
 north, as with us, nor do they say north-west, north-east, 
 south-east, and south-west ; but, on the contrary, west-north, 
 east-north, east-south, and west-south. On Chinese boats 
 the cooking is done at the stern and not in a galley forward. 
 They often haul their boats up on the shore stern foremost ; 
 their oars, instead of being in one piece, are in two, joined 
 in the middle, a short end piece being put on at the handle, 
 and, in contravention of our rules of rowing, one hand often 
 caps it. They, as often as not, do not keep stroke in rowing, 
 but each one pulls his own time ; nor does a Chinaman ever 
 think of walking in step, they follow each other, one after 
 the other, like a flock of geese. The stone coolies, carrying 
 heavy slabs of granite, persistently keep out of step, if we 
 may be allowed the Irishism. 
 
TOPSY'TUR VYDOM. 617 
 
 But there seems to be no limit to the contrariety of the 
 Chinaman. He turns his names backforwards as we do in 
 our directories : the surnames first and the other names 
 afterwards ; and in the same way he transposes (according to 
 our ideas) his titles of respect and relationship ; for instead 
 of saying His Lordship the Chief Justice, the Chinese he 
 uses, if literally translated, would be Chief Justice His 
 Lordship, Uncle Sam would be Sam Uncle, and Mr. Brown 
 would be Brown Mr. There is one occasion when Ave put an 
 official's titles after his name, and that is in a proclamation 
 issued by him ; here again the Chinese reverses his usual 
 method and put all the titles first and the official's name last. 
 He arranges his dates just the opposite to what we do ours, 
 for he puts the year first, the month next, and the day last" 
 He sometimes buys a little girl and brings her up in the 
 house as a future bride for his son, who, in any case, has not 
 the trouble of searching one out, for his father and mother 
 will do that for him, sometimes even arranging a matrimonial 
 alliance before he is born, on the contingency that he will 
 prove to be a boy and that the other family will chance to 
 have a girl. When a servant wishes to leave your employ, 
 instead of telling you so, it often happens that he asks leave 
 to return to the country, puts in a substitute, and never 
 returns. When a Chinese wishes to consult you about 
 any matter he generally sends a friend and either does not 
 come at all, or waits downstairs ready if it is imperatively 
 necessary for him to appear ; and in the same way nearly 
 everything is done through a friend, or go-between, or middle- 
 man. 
 
 He turns his fractions upside down and, instead of 
 saying four-sixths, says sixths-four. 
 
 Man is the beast of burden in a great part of China, and 
 not only does he carry his fellow man, but pigs are even 
 carried by the coolies. 
 
 The blade of the saw is set at right angles to the frame, 
 and the Chinese carpenter sits to his work, using his feet to 
 
 3 c 
 
618 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 hold the wood firm ; he sticks his foot-rule in his stocking or 
 down his back. 
 
 'As regards their order of nobility, the Chinese offer 
 another instance of their contrariness ; not only * =i^ * 
 do a son's deeds ennoble his ancestors, but heredity is the 
 exception and extinction the rule.' 
 
 TORTUEE. —Tovtme is divided in China into two 
 classes : legal and illegal ; what is permitted and what is 
 supposed not to be allowed. 
 
 'The clauses under Section I. of the Code describe the legal 
 instruments of torture ; they consist of three boards with proper 
 grooves for compressing the ankles, and five round sticks for squeezing 
 the fingers to which may be added the bamboo ; besides these no 
 instruments of torture are legally allowed, though other ways of putting 
 the question are so common as to give the impression that some of 
 them at least are sanctioned. Pulling or twisting the ears with 
 roughened fingers, and keeping them in a bent position while making 
 the prisoner kneel on chains, or making him kneel for a long time, 
 are among the illegal modes. Striking the lips with sticks until they 
 are nearly jellied, putting the hands in stocks before or behind the 
 back, wrapping the fingers in oiled cloth to burn them, suspending 
 the body by the thumbs and fingers, tying the hands to a bar under 
 the knees, so as to bend the body double, and chaining by the neck 
 close to a stone are resorted to when the prisoner is contumacious. 
 One magistrate is accused of having fastened up two criminals to 
 boards by nails driven through their palms ; one of them tore his 
 hands loose and was nailed up again which caused his death ; using 
 beds of iron, boiling water, red hot spikes, and cutting the tendon 
 Achilles are also charged against him, but the Emperor exonerated 
 him on account of the atrocious character of the criminals. Compel- 
 ling them to kneel upon pounded glass, sand, and salt mixed together, 
 until the knees become excoriated, or simply kneeling upon chains is 
 a lighter mode of the same infliction. * * * Flogging is one of 
 the five authorised punishments, but it is used more than any other 
 means to elicit confession ; the bamboo, rattan, cudgel, and whip are 
 all employed. When death ensues the magistrate reports that the 
 criminal died of sickness, or hushes it up by bribing his friends, few 
 of whom are ever allowed access within the walls of the prison to see 
 and comfort the sufferers. From the manner in which such a result 
 is spoken of it may be inferred that immediate death does not often 
 take place from torture.' 
 
 It is not only the prisoner who is tortured ; but the 
 witnesses are also liable to be so treated : the prisoner to 
 make him confess, without which he cannot be punished ; the 
 witnesses to make them divulge what they are supposed to 
 
TRADE. 619 
 
 know. The fear that the lower officials are in of being 
 reported by their superiors acts as a deterrent in some cases ; 
 but, notwithstanding this check, there must be an immense 
 amount of torture inflicted on poor humanity in China when 
 once within the clutches of the law. No wonder the Chinese 
 dread the law and its minions : they have reason to do so. 
 The mere incarceration in the loathsome cells attached to the 
 yamens is torture itself; and how much more this is aggravat- 
 ed by the racks and bambooings and hangings up by thumbs 
 and big toes can be better imagined than described. 
 
 Booh recommended. — William's ' Middle Kingdom,' Vol. I., pp. 507^ 
 508. Gray's 'China,' Vol. I., pp. 32—38. 
 
 TRADE. — The Chinese are pre-eminently a trading 
 race ; "' their merchants are acute, methodical, sagacious, and 
 enterprising, not over-scrupulous as to their mercantile 
 honesty in small transactions, but in large dealings exhibit- 
 ing that regard for character in the fulfilment of their obliga- 
 tions which extensive commercial engagements usually 
 produce.' 
 
 In dealing with the trade of China, it may conveniently 
 be divided into internal, or domestic, and foreign. Trade 
 may be compared to the breath of prosperity. A nation that 
 has little trade is in a backward state of development, and 
 those nations which place less restrictions on the interchange 
 of commodities, occupy a foremost place in the world's march 
 of progress. 
 
 The volume of the internal trade of China must be some- 
 thing enormous. When one travels into the interior, 
 especially in the vicinity of some large distributing centre 
 like Canton, one is surprised at the constant succession of 
 craft, sailing swiftly to remote towns and villages, laden 
 with goods for local consumption. The natural facilities in 
 the way of broad rivers have been fully availed of and added 
 to by numerous canals, while footpaths connect all the inland 
 towns and villages, and are traversed by carriers bearing 
 loads of merchandise slung to poles thrown across their 
 
 3 c 2 
 
620 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 shoulders. In the North of China animals are used as beasts 
 of burden, but, in the South, man fulfils that function. 
 
 Nor has the trade of China been simply a modern affair. 
 From remote antiquity the Chinese have been true to their 
 commercial instincts, and have not only been the civilisers 
 of Eastern Asia, supplying them with their letters and 
 literature ; but they have also provided for their more material 
 wants and received in exchange the commodities which they 
 required from the neighbouring nations. Nor did their 
 trading voyages go no further than to their immediate neigh- 
 bours; as they extended to India and even beyond (See Article 
 on Chinese Abroad). This trade with foreign lands was con- 
 tinued through successive dynasties, and to it has been added, 
 during the last two or three centuries, the maritime trade 
 with European countries, which has risen from small begin- 
 nings, till it has now attained vast proportions. A most 
 interesting chapter in the world's history will be revealed 
 when future investigations have added sufficient to the 
 material, already gathered and published by patient scholars, 
 to form a comprehensive survey of the commercial relations 
 of this vast country, not only with her immediate neighbours, 
 but with distant countries in Asia, and even with the Roman 
 empire, while its more modern developments with Europe 
 and America will not be found devoid of interest. 
 
 'Were any proof needed of the vitality of China's foreign trade 
 the figures for 1898 would supply it. Various parts of the country 
 were disturbed by sporadic rebellions of sufficient gravity to check 
 business ; the Yellow River once more burst its banks and flooded 
 enormous tracts ; an ominous war cloud during the greater part 
 of the year made importers cautious ; the political situation was full 
 of menace ; and in September the news from Peking completely dis- 
 orgainsed the trade of the northern ports. In spite of these adverse 
 circumstances, the value of the Import trade surpassed all previous 
 records, while the value of the Export trade exceeded that of every 
 past year with the exception of 1897. The total volume of the trade 
 was valued at Hk. Tls. 368,616,483, which is the highest on record.' 
 
 These figures at 70 cents gold to the tael are equal to 
 $258,031,538.10 and at 2/1 Of to the tael amount to 
 £53,180,607-3-7|. 
 
TRADE. 621 
 
 The figures, however, given above for China, do not 
 comprise the whole foreign trade, as they only cover the 
 goods carried in foreign bottoms, and which pass through 
 the Imperial Maritime Customs (See Article on Customs.) 
 
 ' It must bo remembered that the figures which come under 
 the cognizance of the Customs do not represent the whole of China's 
 Foreign trade. There is a junk traffic to Corea and to the South, 
 of which we have no statistics, but which is certainly profitable ; and 
 there is considerable trade with iMongolia and Thibet. It is 
 estimated, for instance, that 20 million pounds of tea are sent 
 annually into Thibet.' 
 
 When these figures are compared with those for 1890 
 it will be seen that as represented in taels the trade has 
 increased by more than jg-ths to use a favourite Chinese 
 expression. The figures for 1890 were Hk. Tls. 
 2H.,237,961 = £50,567,971-2-8=1329,926,459.94 Diff"erent 
 rates of exchange render the comparison when reduced to 
 pounds sterling and dollars and cents less telling. 
 
 ■ The net value of the Import trade was Hk. Tls. 209,579,334 
 exceeding that of all previous years and being Hk. Tls. 6,750,709 
 above the value for 1S97. If we deduct from the figures for 1886 
 the value of the Imports into the Formosan ports (no longer included 
 in our Returns), which amounted to Hk. Tls. 2,310,321, we find that 
 the Import trade then estimated at Hk. Tls. 85,169,002 has increased 
 over 145 percent., or, in other words, is nearly 23 times the value 
 of what it was 12 years ago. It is evident that a country which 
 can increase its purchases at such a rate is finding trade 
 advantageous.' 
 
 With regard to some of the articles imported : Opium 
 showed a small increase on the previous year, viz., 49,752 
 piculs, equal to 2961 tons and 960 lbs. of opium was taken 
 delivery of as against 49,309 piculs in 1897, equal to 2935 tons 
 and 133^ lbs. In 1890 the figures stood at 76,616 piculs, 
 or 4560 tons and 1053^ lbs., a picul being equal to 100 
 catties or 133^ pounds avoirdupois, or 60.453 kilogrammes. 
 The total amount of opium arriving not only in the Treaty 
 Ports but also including Hongkong and likewise embracing 
 not only Indian and Persian opium but that shipped from 
 Singapore and Penang would probably, if all statistics 
 erew available, amount to a total of opium imported into 
 
622 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Hongkong and the Treaty Ports of 60,506 piculs or 3601 tons 
 and 1226flbs. 
 
 In this connection it may be noted unfortunately that ' morphia, 
 which in the form of subcutaneous injections is being more and more 
 used as a cheap substitute for opium, is imported in annually 
 increasing quantities. In 1894 an import of 48,324 ounces was 
 recorded, and by 1898 the import had steadily increased to 92,159 
 ounces. This trade is not one to be encouraged, either from a 
 revenue or any other point of view.' 
 
 Of the total amount of opium in round figures some 
 40,000 piculs and over were Malwa; a little more than half 
 of the last amount, 20,000 piculs and odd, were Patna, more 
 than 6000 picules were Benares ; 1900 piculs in round num- 
 bers were Persian: and a trifle over 10 piculs was Turkey 
 opium. The amount of opium from British territory as 
 stated above, exceeeds those from other sources imported 
 into China. Enormous quantities of the native grown drug 
 are, however, driving out the foreign grown 'dirt,' as the 
 Chinese style it, in the native consumption. 
 
 The ports which absorbed the largest amount of opium 
 in 1898 were Shanghai, 30,229.39 piculs, nearly half of the 
 whole quantity taken by China ; next comes Canton with a 
 total of 5876.14 piculs; and Swatow third with 5053.38 
 piculs; Amoy figured for 3914.26 piculs; Foochow showed a 
 total of 36I8.OI1 piculs ; Ningpo took 3580.96 piculs, and 
 Chinkiang, 2954.95 piculs. 
 
 *The value of the Cotton piece goods has remained practi- 
 cally stationary for three years.' The figures are as follows : — 
 
 1896 Hk. Tls. 79,243,431 
 
 1897 78,663,280 
 
 1898 77,618,824 
 
 This shows a downward tendency but all of these years are 
 high above 1895, Avhen the value was Hk. Tls. 53,074,164. 
 Amongst the movements in this class of goods may be noted 
 that 'Dutch goods are rapidly losing ground. The advance 
 in exports of Cottons from India has been checked. Japanese 
 T-Cloths have advanced, but Japanese Sheetings have suffered 
 an immense decline. The followino^ extract is of interest :— 
 
TRADE. 628 
 
 * Manchester can no longer complete with the United States in 
 the importation of drills, jeans, and sheetings, owing to the lower 
 prices at which the latter country can land this class of goods in 
 China. In these heavy makes, which use up a large quantity of 
 cotton without demanding such delicate machinery, and highly skill- 
 ed labour as are required for finer goods, such as shirtings, the 
 freight on the Raw Cotton to England makes an appreciable difference 
 in the cost of production. Freights from New York are lower than 
 from Liverpool. The goods pass through fewer hands in America. 
 Prices are also influenced by the fact that while American manufac- 
 turers are using every effort to secure the market here, Manchester 
 has more orders at present than can be immediately executed, and the 
 large demand from India keeps the mills fully occupied. America 
 does not yet compete with Great Britain in finer makes.' 'The impor- 
 tation of Cotton Yarn from England and India increased in spite of 
 native mills and an exceptional competition from Japan.' 
 
 Large quantities of raw Cotton are imported. 
 
 With such an enormous coal supply such as China has 
 herself if only properly worked it is strange to see the in- 
 crease in coal imported. The total for 1898 was 730,606 
 tons, valued at Hk. Tls. 5,280,620. 
 
 Wollen goods show no development. 
 
 Matches come from Europe as well as a large number 
 from Japan. 
 
 The Russian kerosene appears unable to compete with 
 Sumatran : the former fell towards a half; while the latter 
 rose well on to double the amount in the year before. In 
 figures, 36,924,125 gallons fell to 19,926,246 and 14,212,278 
 gallons rose to 26,871,865 gallons. 
 
 American flour is still increasing in Chinese favour. 
 This increase as well as that in the consumption of white 
 and refined sugars, Avhich ' as indicating increased ability 
 to purchase luxuries, may be taken as a sign of prosperity.' 
 
 The value of the exports was estimated for 1898 at 
 Hk. Tls. 159,037.149, being a small decrease on the previous 
 year, that year having been 32 million taels better than 
 1895. It is sad to record the continued decline of both the 
 tea and silk export trade. In 1888 there were 2,167,552 piculs 
 exported direct to foreign countries, the figures in 1898, 
 
624. THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ten years after, were 1,538,600 piculs, all kinds of tea, except 
 
 black tea and tablet tea have shown a falling off, while the 
 
 export to Great Britain fell from 244^480 piculs to 200,331, 
 
 that to Russian rose from 168,759 piculs to 213,302 piculs 
 
 sent by sea, and from 528,215 piculs to 562,572 piculs sent 
 
 overland, the Russians knowing what is good tea. 
 
 With regard to silk, it is stated amongst other things 
 
 that : — 
 
 ' Silk filatures have not done well during the year.' ' The silk 
 trade shows ominous signs of decadence.' 'It can hardly be doubted 
 that much might be done to develope this important trade, both in the 
 way of fiscal relief and improved methods ; but as long as the 
 growers obtain remunerative prices for inferior silk and cacoons, 
 they are not likely to cultivate quality.' 
 
 • There is a steady growth in the export of Hemp, Hides 
 
 Leather, Mats, Matting, Oils, Shamshu, Skins, and Tobacco, — 
 
 in some cases the export is nearly double svhat it was in 
 
 1892, and it has even quadrupled itself since then. 
 
 Feathers are also largely exported now : at first this 
 
 trade was confined to those from poultry and ducks; but 
 
 unfortunately the cruel tastes of civilised women in the west 
 
 has not only caused the wholesale destruction of wild birds 
 
 for their plumage ; but has also resulted in the destruction of 
 
 vast numbers of the most beautiful wild birds in the country.' 
 
 The following paragraph from the Report from Hankow 
 is not pleasant reading : — 
 
 'Egret feathers and pleasant skins have been anew venture; 
 754 catties (value Hk. Tls. 114,236) of the former were shipped 
 during the year. This trade is dependent on the caprices of fashion 
 * * * * These much-sought-after feathers are developed in the birds 
 only when they are breeding. To obtain them the birds must be killed ; 
 it will not take very long, therefore, to exterminate the species, as 
 has practically have done in North and South America. It was a sad 
 sight for sportsmen to see pheasant skins being carried by thousands 
 through the streets in July and August. Large prices, induced the 
 country people to catch and kill these birds for the representative of a 
 firm from Paris, who shipped them to France, there to be made up 
 into hats or toques for ladies. 
 
 Since the above was written it is stated that the Chinese 
 Government, on representations being made to it by foreign- 
 ers, has promised to forbid this in future. 
 
 The export of straw braid has fallen. 
 
TRABE. 625 
 
 The following paragraph is worthy of notice : — 
 
 ' The expansion of the export trade is of the first importance to 
 all who have dealings with China, whether as importers or exporters, 
 for the people will buy more as they sell more. Increase in imports 
 can only take place pari passu with an increase in exports, and 
 China will only take the one in exchange for the other * '■' '- ** 
 There must be many things in this country, in addition to those 
 now exported, such as fibres, dyes, tanning barks, spices, gums, 
 etc., which would find a ready market abroad. The establishment 
 in Hongkong and Shanghai of commercial museums where samples 
 of Chinese products could be collected and exhibited would no doubt 
 be followed by satisfactory results.' 
 
 It is interesting to note that Great Britain's share of 
 the total tonnage inwards and outwards from Chinese 
 waters was 62°/o ; of China herself only 24°/o ; Germany 
 o°/o ; Japan the same ; Sweden, Norway, France, America, 
 and all other countries combined each 1 °/o — the total tonnage 
 being 34,.233,000. 
 
 After this cursory survey of the general trade we will 
 proceed to notice a few points of interest in connection with, 
 the foreign trade at the different Treaty Ports, for it must 
 be remembered it is impossible to do justice to such a 
 vast subject us the foreign trade of China in the space of a 
 few pages. Amongst other items worthy of note is the 
 import of seaweed, which even at ordinary times, is an article 
 of diet, but the demand increased in 1898 enormously on 
 account of a scarcety of vegetables. In Newchwang the 
 import was valued at Hk. Tls. 67,000 in 1888, at Hk. Tls. 
 45,000 in 1897, but rose to Hk. Tls. 106,000 in 1898. 
 
 Amongst curious features of the habits of the Chinese 
 may be seen the ousting of the Canton rouge used by the 
 ladies at and near Newchwang by aniline dyes which they 
 find more economical so they now prefer magenta dye made 
 it Germany. 4000 tacls worth of soap were imported into 
 the same port, an item not required ten years ago. This 
 doubtless points to more cleanliness on the part of the natives. 
 
 Another interesting item is nearly eight million squirrel 
 tails exported from Tientsin. One sad feature noticed by the 
 Commissioner at the last named port is that — 
 
 3 D 
 
626 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 'No sooner has a trade been built up than carelessness and 
 fraud on the part of the Chinese destroy it. These faults largely con- 
 tributed to the ruination of the tea trade. Unevenness of plaiting 
 and the use of damaged or stained straws are destroying that in 
 straw braid and drawing orders to Japan.' 
 
 These strictures are made with reference to the sheep 
 and camel's wool trade ; for more than half and nearly half 
 of these two connnodities respectively consists of miul on 
 arrival in Tientsin to made up for pilferings en route. 
 The Newchwang commissioner likewise complains of Swatow 
 packers putting tiles, and those in Amoy putting bamboo joints 
 into the bags of sugar. 
 
 In Chefoo a large business is done in the sale of pro- 
 visions for foreign men of war and troops, one Chinese shop 
 alone making a profit of 2000 or 3000 taels on the exporta- 
 tion of eggs to Port Arthur. 
 
 Mr. A. J. Little has created a demand in the London 
 market above the supply for Szchwan bristles as cleaned 
 and prepared for sale at his new factory in Chungking. 
 
 There has been a large increase in wood oil shipped 
 from Hankow to Europe ' where it is used for mixing with 
 home-made varnishes on account of its peculiar astringent 
 or drying properties.' Large quantities of sesamum seed 
 are sent from the same place chiefly to Genoa and Marseilles 
 'where the expressed oil is used to mix with and fortify 
 so-called olive, or the ordinary salad, oil of tlie table. 
 This oil is also used in the manufacture of finer kinds of 
 soap.' 
 
 It is interesting to note that Chinaware from the famous 
 Ching-te-chen potteries figure to the extent of 48,64<6 piculs 
 the largest on record excepting that for 1897, exported from 
 Kiukiang. The report from Kiukiang also states : — 
 
 'The progress in the Kerosene oil trade continues to advance 
 with the some rapid and gigantic strides that have marked its pro- 
 gress from its small commencement, 20 years ago, to the present 
 time.' It now amounts to a total of 3,017,020 gallons 'A rough 
 calculation shows that a small Chinese lamp economically used 
 would consume perhaps 6 gallons of oil in a year; the amount of oil 
 passing inland from Kiukiang would thus provide a light in 416,000 
 homes. The smallness of these figures in comparison to the vastness 
 
TRADE. 627 
 
 of the distiicl fed sliows plainly what imincuse louin there is for 
 development in the China trade.' 
 
 At this some port, matches show a very remarkable 
 development, the importation now being loG,G89 gross, 
 against 11,000 gross twenty years ago. Japanese and 
 Chinese matches are driving out the European. 
 
 There is also a marked development in foreign needles. 
 
 The Report from Shanghai states that ; — 
 
 'Diseases of various kinds are permeating the silk districts to 
 such an extent that those best qualitied to form an opinion look upon 
 the extinction of the industry as a question of time only, if strong and 
 early action is not taken.' 
 
 Of the trade in straw braid from this port it is stated — 
 
 ' The continuous decrease in the export of straw braid, to which 
 the past year made no exception, is attributed entirely to care- 
 lessness in selection of straw and in plaiting and to dishonest 
 packing. Improvements in these respects, it is believed, would yet 
 save the trade from the effects of the active competition caried. on 
 by the more astute Japanese manufacturers. But as with tea and silk, 
 the Chinese producer seems incapable of understanding that honesty is 
 a paying policy. That good Chinese makes of braid are still in favour 
 is shown by the fact that the prices of such lots as could pass inspec- 
 tion were well maintained. ' 
 
 The export of feathers from Foochow has nearly doubled 
 itself in five years. In Amoy, tea has fallen from its 
 leading position as an export, a total of 10,524< piculs being 
 all that was sent abroad in 1898. Sumatra kerosine oil is 
 increasing as an import and American and Russian falling off. 
 This is the case in other ports as well. Strange to say, 'Ameri- 
 can flour can be laid down at a less cost [in Amoy] than flour 
 grown locally from native wheat.' 
 
 One of the most important features in Canton was the 
 very large export of silk. •' 30 uew steam filatures were estab- 
 lished in 1898 and the prospect is that 15 or 20 more will be 
 built this year' [1899], Most audacious piracies have been 
 committed lately in Canton waters and restricted trade. 
 
 'The decaying tea trade [of Canton] has again diminished by 
 over 500,000 lbs.' A dry spring and an insurrection may have effected 
 it ; ' but the real reason for the decline is the steady falling off in 
 demand for Canton scented capers on the London Market. What 
 
 3 D 2 
 
628 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 demand there is is more and more for low-priced teas for blending 
 purposes and a few more years will probably see even this small 
 demand disappear. The quality of the teas was fully up to the 
 average standard, and they were exceptionally well scented.' 
 
 ' The Siberian Messenger, in a recent number, gives some interest- 
 ing details about Russo-Chinese tea caravans. It is said that between 
 Jan. 1st and Jan. 20th of the year [1899] no fewer than 19,000 sledges 
 loaded with tea passed through the city of Tomsk. The tea caravans 
 generally consist of from 50 to 70, though sometimes of as many as 
 from 200 to 300 sledges. As a rule every sledge carries five bales 
 of tea, which are sown up in ox-skins and weigh from 50 to 80 kilos 
 each. Every group of five sledges is led by one driver, and on the 
 back of each sledge there is a bundle of hay and a quantity of 
 oats as food for the horse of the following vehicle. Thus there is 
 no need for the caravan to stop for feeding purposes. Only the 
 horse in front, which is not fed during the march has to be changed 
 from time to time, while the other horses are only unharnessed 
 when they are quite exhausted. These caravans often take a 
 whole year to arrive at their destination ; but the overland transport 
 still works out much cheaper than the much shorter voyage by 
 sea. Moreover there is no risk of tea getting damp as on board 
 ship.' 
 
 The demand for Canton matting exceeds the supply. 
 
 In Canton in 1898— 
 
 'Certain classes of piece goods, viz., drills jeans, and sheeting, 
 have decreased from i,688,Sio pieces in 18S8, to 720,321 in 1898! 
 while on the other hand during the same period the increase in 
 imports from America of the same goods has been from 2,062,338 to 
 3,904,511 pieces, due it is thought in a great measure to differentia 
 rates of fright.' 
 
 'An interesting operation carried on in Sainam is the tinning of 
 rice-birds, soles, and game in limited quantity. This lucrative 
 business was started seven years ago and in 1898 there were 10 
 shops engaged in it, mostly run by men who have been in the United 
 States and who have learned the business of canning there. 
 ® * * ' In a good year as many as 700,000 are canned, whereas 
 in an ordinary season the supply is only about 300,000.' 
 
 The prospects for the year 1899 are very bright; the 
 returns which have just been issued showing an increase for 
 the half year of over two million Hk. taels on that for 1898. 
 
 What has been written above deals mainly with the 
 foreign export and import trade of China, though goods sent 
 from one treaty port of China to another, &c., are included in 
 the returns, as such goods are carried in foreign bottoms and 
 have to pass the Imperial Maritime Customs. 
 
TUEATY Ports. 629 
 
 The volume of the internal trade of China must be 
 something enormous ; but highly interesting as the subject 
 would be, it is impossible to write on it for the simple 
 reason that no statistics are available, no reliable data are 
 in existence, to form the ground work of such a narrative. 
 Any account purporting to deal with it would be made up to 
 a large extent of hearsay and guess-^vork. 
 
 Book.<: rcrommended : — The Reports from the different Commissioners 
 of Customs, gathered together and printed in the Customs Annual Returns 
 issued by the Imperial Maritime Customs are most interesting reading. 
 These are supplemented by full tables of returns for the different treaty 
 ports. The history of the foreign trade with China will be found in 
 WUiams's ' Middle Kingdom,' and interesting accounts of this branch of 
 the subject will be found in different books on China as well as in papers 
 scattered through the ' China Review.' Also see Article in this book on 
 ' Chinese Abroad.' For an account of ancient trade, see ' China and the 
 Roman Orient : Researches into their Ancient and Mediaeval Relations as 
 represented in Old Chinese Records,' by F. Hirth, Ph.D. 
 
 TREATY PORTS.~The Treaty Ports in China are so 
 called from having been designated by treaties, entered into 
 between England and other foreign powers on the one part 
 and China on the other, as places where foreign merchants 
 shall be allowed to reside and trade. The first of these 
 treaties was that of 1842, signed at Nanking, and conse- 
 quently known as the Nanking Treaty. By it, the five cities 
 of Canton, Amoy, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai, were 
 declared to be treaty ports. 
 
 By the Treaty of Tientsin, so called owing to its having 
 been signed there in 1858 (though ratified at Peking in 
 18G0), the additional ports of Newchwang, Tangchow 
 (Chefoo), Taiwan (Pormosn). Chuo-chow (Swatow), and 
 Kiang-chow, were opened to foreign trade. 
 
 By the Chefoo Convention, signed at that port In 1 876, 
 though not ratified till 1886 in London, * Ich'ang in the 
 province of Hupeh, Wuhu in Anhui, Wenchuw, in Chekiang, 
 and Pei-hai ' (Paklioi in the local pronunciation ) in 
 Kwangtung, were opened to trade and made Consular stations. 
 By the Chungking Commercial Convention, concluded in 
 
630 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 February 1890, it was arranged that Chungking in Szchuen 
 should be a Treaty Port, but cargoes have to go in native 
 boats, owned by natives or foreigners, until Chinese owned 
 steamers ply as far up the Yangtsz as that city, when British 
 steamers may do likewise. 
 
 By the Chefoo Conventian Ta-t'ung and Ngan-ching, in 
 the province of Anhui, Ho-kau, in Kiangsi, Wusuiih 
 Lu-chi-kou, and Sha-shih in Hukwang, all on the Yangtsz 
 though not considered Treaty Ports, were allowed to be used 
 as stopping places by steamers on that river, but native boats 
 are employed to land and ship the cargo and passengers. 
 
 By the Burmah Frontier Treaty the West River was 
 what is styled 'opened to trade ' on the 4th of June 1897, and 
 two ports on it made treaty ports, Samshui and Wuchow-fu, 
 and four ports of call established, viz., the towns of Kongmun 
 and Kamchuk, and the cities of Shiuhing and Takhing. 
 
 In 1899 Santuao also came into the list of treaty ports. 
 
 The above is what the English Government has done 
 the French by their treaty of 1858 (ratified in 1860) mention, 
 in addition to some of the ports in the English treaties, 
 Nanking as an open port and it was supposed to 'enjoy the 
 same privileges as Canton, Shanghai, Ningpo, and Foochow.' 
 However, Nanking was not an open port until the 1st of 
 May 1899, although specified as such above, though formal 
 opening could doubtless have been claimed at pleasure by the 
 French Government. By the Convention of Peace between 
 France and China, signed in 1860, Tientsin, in the province 
 of Chihli, is made a Treaty Port. 
 
 Again, by the treaty between France and China, signed 
 9th June 1885, provision was made for two more places 
 to possess similar privileges to the Treaty Ports, though 
 situated inland near the French possessions in Tonquin; and 
 by the Subsequent Trade Regulations for the Annam frontier, 
 jointly determined on by France and China, signed in 1886, 
 it was agreed that two places should be so opened ; these two 
 places are named in the Additional Convention between 
 
TREATY PORTS. 631 
 
 France and China 1887, they are Lungchow in Kn-'angsi, 
 and Mengtseu in Yunnan, and another place, Mang-hao, is 
 also put in the same category. 
 
 'Under the provisions of the Convention between France and 
 Cliina signed at Peking on the 20th June 1895 a Vice-consulate was 
 established on the 29th October 1895 at Tunghsing, a port on the 
 coast and Chinese frontier, some 80 miles West of Pakhoi and 
 opposite the village of Monca)' in Tonkin,' the French consul at 
 Pakhoi representing his country at Tunghsiang as well. 
 
 ' In accordance with the stipulations contained in the 3rd 
 paragraph of the "Gerard Supplementary Frontier Convention of 1895' 
 Szemao was opened to the frontier trade on the 2nd January 1897. 
 
 'Under the provisions of the [same] Supplementary Convention 
 between China and France •■' * a French Consulate was opened at 
 Szemao early in August 1890 and a Vice-Consulate, subordinate to 
 the jNIengtsz Consulate, was established on the 22nd August at Ho- 
 kau, a small village opposite Laokai on the left bank of the Red 
 River, at its junction with the Nan-hsi River,' 
 
 We next come to the part taken by Germany in extort- 
 ing concessions from China : in the treaty between Prussia 
 and China, signed in 1861, (ratified in 1863) the names of treaty 
 ports are set out in Article 6, and the riverine ports of Chin- 
 kiang, Kiukiang, and Hankow appear in addition to those 
 already at that time granted to England and France. By the 
 Supplementary Convention between Germany and China, 
 signed in 1860 (ratified the following year), German ships are 
 allowed to touch at Woosung in the province of Kiangsu, to 
 take in or discharge merchandise intended for, or coming 
 from, Shanghai. 
 
 Besides all these must be mentioned Whampoa (pro- 
 nounced Wong-po), the port of Canton, now shorn of all its 
 ancient glory. 
 
 ' By a new convention with China ' it is stated that ' Russia is 
 to be allowed to establish consulates in Central China, Mongolia, and 
 Manchuria. The main purpose of these consulates is believed to be 
 the prosecution of Russian trade in these regions.' 
 
 A Chinese Commissioner of Customs is stationed at 
 Tatung, a frontier station on the Tibetan side, it is 2;>0 
 
632 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 miles from Lhassa. This was opened on the 1st ]\Iay, 
 1894. 
 
 Japan, profiting by her war with China, amongst other 
 matters, procured the opening of several other treaty ports to 
 trade. By the ti*eaty between China and Japan, signed on 17th 
 April, 1895 at Shimonoseki and ratified at Chefoo on 8th May 
 1895, in Art. VI, the following places were ' opened to the trade 
 residence, industries, and manufactures,' 'viz., Shashih, in 
 Hupeh ; Chungking, in Szechuan ; Suchow, in Kiangsu ; and 
 Hangchow, in Chekiang; and by the same article 'steam na- 
 vigation for vessels under Japanese flag on the Upper Yangtsz 
 River from Ichangto Chungking,' and 'on the Woosung River 
 and the Canal, from Shanghai to Suchow and Hangchow.' 
 In the Protocol made at Peking 19th October, 1896, 
 to the Treaty of Commerce and Navigation between 
 China and Japan (made at Peking on the 21st July, 1896) 
 sites for special Japanese Settlements at Shanghai, Tientsin, 
 Amoy, and Hankow, are provided for in addition to special 
 Japanese settlements to be formed at the places newly opened 
 to commerce, as stated above. China announced on the 5 th 
 April, 1898, the opening to trade of three ports, viz., Tuning 
 in Fokien,Yochow on the Tungting Lake, and Chinwang 
 near Shanhaikwan. These were opened in 1899, Santu 
 being the treaty port in the Bay of Samsah in the Fukien 
 province. Woosung has also now been made a treaty port. 
 Szemao was opened to the frontier trade in accordance with the 
 Gerard General Supplementary Frontier Convention of 1895. 
 
 Nanning-fu in the Kwongsi province with a population 
 of 120,000 will shortly be another of the treaty ports. 
 
 We have prepared the following table showing the posi- 
 tion and other particulars about the diiferent treaty ports, 
 ports of call, &c., trusting that it may prove of interest to 
 our readers. It must be remembered that the attempt to give 
 the population of a Chinese city or town is often a mere 
 guess on the part of those who state it, and, at t he very best, 
 rather uncertain. 
 
TREATY PORTS. 
 
 633 
 
 TREATY PORTS. 
 
 Province. 
 
 Sblngklng 
 
 Manchuria 
 Chihll 
 Shantung 
 Klangsn 
 
 Anhwel 
 Klangsi 
 Hupeb 
 
 Hunan 
 
 Szechnan 
 
 Cbeklang 
 
 Fuhklen 
 
 Kwongtung 
 
 Ewongii 
 
 Yunnan 
 
 Newchwang 
 
 Chingwanta( 
 'I'ieiitsiu 
 Chefoo 
 Shanghai 
 
 Woosung 
 Soochow 
 Chlnklang 
 
 Nanking 
 Wuhu 
 Kluklang 
 Hankow 
 
 Shasl 
 
 Ichang 
 
 Yochaufu 
 
 Chungking 
 
 Hangchow 
 
 Ningpo 
 
 Wenchow 
 
 Amoy 
 Santuao 
 
 Swatow 
 
 Canton 
 
 Pakhoi 
 Samnhui 
 
 Holhow 
 
 Wucbow 
 
 Lungchow 
 MSngtsz 
 
 Szemao 
 Hoki iw 
 
 Yatung 
 
 ofoSnfng. Population. 
 
 18GU 
 
 ]8;)0 
 
 186U 
 1863 
 1813 
 
 1898 
 1896 
 1861 
 
 1899 
 1877 
 1861 
 18G1 
 
 1896 
 
 1877 
 
 1899 
 
 1891 
 
 1896 
 1842 
 1877 
 
 1842 
 1899 
 
 1877 
 1897 
 
 1889 
 1889 
 
 1897 
 1896 
 
 60,000 
 
 950,000 
 
 30,000 
 
 400,000 
 
 35,000 
 over 600,000 
 140,000 
 
 150,000 
 
 79,000 
 
 85,000 
 
 1,000,000 
 
 83,400 
 
 35,000 
 
 60,000 
 
 300,000 
 
 750,000 
 255,000 
 80H,000 
 
 650,000 
 
 oUO.OOO 
 
 30,000 
 
 2,500,000 
 
 20,000 
 
 3(i.00ij 
 
 12,000 
 
 22,000 
 12,000 
 
 15,000 
 4,000 
 
 REMARKS. 
 
 On River Llao, 13 miles from 
 mouth, near Shauhaikwan. 
 
 On Peilio. 
 
 At junction of Hwangpo and 
 Woosung Rivers, 24 miles from 
 sea. 
 
 12 miles from sea, on Woo- 
 sung River. 
 
 80 miles inland from Shanghai. 
 
 On Yangtsz, 150 miles from 
 mouth, at junction of Grand 
 Canal. 
 
 On S. bank of Yangtsz, 45 
 miles beyond Chlnkiang. 
 
 282 miles from Sea, on Yang- 
 tsz. 
 
 On Yangtsz, 466 miles from 
 sea, near outlet of PoyangLake. 
 
 River Han, at its junction 
 with the Yangtsz, 600 miles 
 from Slianghai. 
 
 836 miles from sea, on Yang- 
 tsz and 85 miles below Ichang. 
 
 On Yangtsz, 393 miles above 
 Hankow and 966 from sea. 
 
 On Yangtsz, 732 miles from 
 sea. 
 
 On Yangtsz, 1,400 miles from 
 sea. 
 
 150 miles S. W. of Shanghai. 
 
 On River Yung. 
 . On River Au, 20 miles from 
 mouth. 
 
 On River Min, 34 miles from 
 sea. 
 
 At mouth of Dragon River. 
 
 Near Samsha Bay, the port 
 is Funing. 
 
 On Hiin River. Chauchow fu, 
 35 miles distant, is really the 
 treaty port. 
 
 On Pearl River, 50 miles from 
 mouth. 
 
 Near Junction of North, West, 
 and Canton River, 2 miles from 
 the bank, Hok'uu is t)ie port. 
 
 Kiangchow — 4l,uuu, is really 
 the treaty jiort, Holhow being 
 the port from which It is distant 
 3i miles. 
 
 West River, at junction with 
 Cassia River, 220 miles from 
 Canton. 
 
 At junction of Sungchl and 
 Kaoping Rivers. 
 
 Was opened with Manghao, 
 latter being on left bans of 
 Red River. 
 
 At junction of ilan-hsi and 
 Red Rivers. 
 ■ 25t» miles from Lhassa. 
 
 3 K 
 
634 
 
 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 PORTS OF CALL, &c. 
 
 Province. 
 
 Port. 
 
 Date of 
 
 Opening. 
 
 Population. 
 
 REMARKS, 
 
 Chlhli 
 
 Taku 
 
 
 .... 
 
 At the month of the PelUo, 
 is the port of Tientsin, and 67 
 miles distant from It. 
 
 Kiangai 
 
 Tat'ung 
 Ngancliing 
 
 1886 
 1886 
 
 
 
 Hukwang, 
 
 
 
 .'.'.'. 
 
 
 i.e., Hupeh and 
 
 Wusueh 
 
 1886 
 
 
 
 Hunan 
 
 Luchikou 
 Shasliili 
 
 1886 
 1886 
 
 
 
 Kiangsu 
 
 Woosung 
 
 1861 
 
 35,000 
 
 Is a new Treaty port. 
 
 Kwangtung 
 
 Whanipoa 
 
 1842 
 
 
 The port of Canton, 12 miles 
 from it, on the Pearl or Canton 
 River. 
 
 
 Hok'ou 
 
 1897 
 
 
 Harbour of Samshui. 
 
 
 Kongiium 
 
 1898 
 
 100,000 
 
 Delta of Canton River. 
 
 
 Kamclmk 
 
 1898 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 Shiuhing 
 
 1898 
 
 
 On West River. 
 
 
 Takhing 
 
 1898 
 
 
 Do. 
 
 
 Tunghsing 
 
 1896 
 
 
 80 miles AVest of Pakhoi, 
 French Consulate established. 
 
 Foreign subjects are allowed to travel for five days 
 within 100 Zi, about thirty-three miles, of the treaty ports, 
 but for longer distances or time, passports, obtained from 
 their respective consuls, are required. 
 
 At the Treaty Ports there are certain spots reserved for 
 the use of the foreign residents, foreign concessions they are 
 often called, though at the same time foreigners are allowed 
 to reside amongst the Chinese as well. 
 
 These have generally been common to all nationalities, 
 the French having a separate one at Shanghai, and the 
 Americans having Hongkew. Of late years a strong tendency 
 has developed towards the securing of concessions by different 
 nationalities for themselves, instead of joining together as 
 has hitherto been done to a great extent, and there are 
 now a number of such concessions at various treaty ports. 
 A part of Shamien in Canton was set apart for the French. 
 At Tientsin there are concessions for British, French, 
 German, and Japanese, and at Hankow for Japanese, German, 
 British, French, and Russian. At Newchwung the Japanese 
 have acquired a slice of land for a concession, and the British 
 
TREATY PORTS. 635 
 
 also a piece for the same purpose. The Japanese have also 
 a settlement at Shasi and at Hangchow and Soochow. 
 
 Besides these treaty ports there are the different ports 
 or portions of land belonging or leased to foreign nations. 
 
 There is Port Arthur at the point of the Regent's Sword, 
 guarding the Northern entrance of the gulf of Pechili with 
 Talienwan and the Russian zone of influence. Then there 
 is Weihaiwei, held by the British since the 24'th May 1898, 
 close to the Shantung province and guarding the southern 
 entrance of the gulf mentioned above, which gives access to 
 Tientsin and Peking with a portion of land on the map 
 described as the British zone of influence. A few miles 
 further south, down the coast, we come to the Germans at Kiau- 
 chou and their zone of influence. Kiauchau was declared a 
 free port on 2nd September 1898, While in the South we have 
 the important British Colony of Hongkong which has twice 
 enlarged its boundaries on the mainland opposite. Forty 
 miles off is the ancient Portuguese settlement (and Colony 
 now) of Macao, some 300 years old. Further south is the 
 most recent of all, Kwongchauwan with some adjacent land 
 where the French have established themselves, hauling up the 
 tricolour on the 2nd April 1898. 
 
 It must be remembered by strangers that Hongkong 
 and Kowloon (British), Macao (Portuguese), Port Arthur 
 (Russian), Kiaochau (German), Weihaiwei (British), and 
 Kwongchauwan (French), are not treaty ports, but Colonies 
 or Settlements belonging to the different nationalities 
 mentioned above. It is almost necessary to call attention to 
 this, as letters addressed to the British Consul or to his care 
 are not infrequently received in this British Colony of 
 Hongkong, and a British official here has been addressed as 
 U. S. Customs' officer by a Chinese. 
 
 Books recommended : — ' The Treaty Ports of China and Japan,' by W. 
 F. Mayers, N. B. Dennys, and C. King. ' The China and Hongkong 
 Directory.' 
 
 3 E 2 
 
636 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 TYPHOONS,— The similarity of this word to the Greek 
 word TV(})U)v, a whirlwind, has attracted the atteation of 
 scholars; but it is thought that the Chinese word tai-feng , 
 used in Formosa, is the origin of the term, for, strange to 
 say, the Chinese themselves, in the South of China, at all 
 events, do not call these cyclonic disturbances tdi-funj, 
 which simply means a big wind, but they speak of them as 
 fang-kau, storms, or they say td-fang-hau, blowing a storm. 
 
 Much has been done of late years in studying the 'grand 
 but perplexing laws which regulate the formations and 
 movements of typhoons' ; but still much remains to be done, 
 and when stations for their observation shall have been 
 established at elevated heights, such as at the Peak in Hong- 
 kong, much more in all probability will be known, and a 
 complete mastery of the difficult subject may be hoped for ; 
 as yet the upper strata of the air, as regards typhoons, is 
 almost unexplored. Col. Palmer thus writes of these storms : — 
 
 'The theory of rotatory storms (whether called cyclones, 
 typhoons, or hurricanes) * * '■* may be popularly stated thus. If 
 from any initial cause, interchanging motions are set up between the 
 air in a certain district and another surrounding it, the air in the first, 
 or inner district, tends, in consequence of the earth's rotation, to 
 gyrate round its centre, in a direction contrary to that of watchhands 
 in the Northern hemisphere, and with watchhands in the Southern 
 hemisphere. In the outer district these movements are reversed, by 
 the principle of the preservation of areas (or moments). These two 
 systems of contrary gyrations, especially in the upper strata of the 
 atmosphere, where they are less influenced by friction with the earth's 
 surface, and therefore more circular, than those below, tend to draw 
 the air from the centre of the inner district and from the exterior part 
 of the outer district, and heap it up along the zone dividing the two. 
 On this zone accordingly, which is the annular region where the 
 gyratory velocity in one direction dies out and that in the other direc- 
 tion begins, the atmospheric pressure is greatest, while it is least at 
 the centre and at the outermost limit ; and the pressure from this 
 accumulation tends to force the air near the earth's surface out from 
 beneath it, on the one side towards the centre of the cyclone, and on 
 the other towards the exterior limit of the outer district, or " Anti- 
 cyclone." 
 
 The gyrations once set up, two other forces come into play — 
 centrifugal force, and friction of the moving air with the earth's sur- 
 face, the former tending to drive the air still more from the centre of 
 the inner district and so increase the barometric pressure there. 
 
TYPHOONS. 637 
 
 To be brief, the result of all the conditions which afifect the case 
 is that, on and near the earth's surface, the air of the inner district, 
 instead of preserving a circular movement, converges somewhat to 
 the centre, flowing round and round in a spiral directed inward from 
 the zone of maximum pressure. Under ordinary circumstances, this 
 inclination diminishes with the altitude, and it diminishes as the 
 velocity of the wind increases, so that it is least near the centre of the 
 storm, where, indeed, the winds, being of intense violence, are circular 
 or very nearly so. It is greatest on the periphery of the typhoon, 
 where, at great distances, the convergence is often nearly directly 
 towards the centre. It is greater also on land than on the sea, owing 
 to the increased friction with the rugged surface of the land ; and it is 
 greater in low than in high latitudes. The air of the outer district, on 
 the other hand, describes a spiral directed outwards from the centre, 
 in the middle regions of the atmosphere, the air above the cyclone 
 inclines outwards from the centre, and at a great distance flows nearly 
 directly away from it.' 
 
 The causes of typhoons, though they are not quite 
 understood yet, appear to be differences of temperature; 
 pressure, and humidity, the last named being less conspicuous 
 as a primary cause than as a means of maintaining the 
 cyclonic action after it has once been started/ The typhoon, 
 once being evolved from Hhe manifold and highly com- 
 plicated operations' of the causes stated above, having 
 commenced its life in the Pacific, starts on its travels, at first 
 slowly, and then more rapidly. The tendency of typhoons is 
 to seek the north, but, influenced by the currents of air, they 
 are. deflected westwards towards the continent of Asia, and 
 and the consequence is they generally take a north-westerly 
 direction. They are more at home on the sea, as, when they 
 go inl'^nd, mountain ranges block their progress and they lose 
 much of their energy, and finally, after proceeding northwards, 
 they seek the sea again, ending their course in the Yellow Sea, 
 Corea, or Japan. 'As a broad definition then, applicable to the 
 normal typhoon, it may be stated that its path is approximately 
 a parabola, the vertex of the curve being turned westward 
 and situated not far from the boundary of the tropic, while 
 its two branches pass respectively over the archipelago of the 
 Philippines and that of Japan.' 
 
 The following interesting account may serve to make 
 plainer this difficult subject to the reader. It is from the 
 pen of a former Harbour Master at Kobe : — 
 
^38 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 'The body of wind of which a typhoon consists is in shape near- 
 ly circular. * "^ * ** The diameter of this circle has been found 
 to vary from about fifty to several hundred miles in length, and the 
 height of this body of wind is estimated to be from one to ten miles, 
 in perpendicular height. This mass of wind, or typhoon, has two 
 different motions, one being progressive and the other circular. 
 When a typhoon forms near the Equator its progressive motion is 
 first towards the westward, but its course thereafter changes gradually 
 northward of this, and by the time it reaches Japan its course has 
 thus been changed to some direction between north and east. This 
 progressive motion may be taken to be from 7 to 24 miles per hour. 
 While the typhoon is thus moving onward, the whole body of wind 
 within its circumference is whirling round its centre at a velocity 
 of from 50 to perhaps 100 miles per hour. An observer standing at 
 the centre of a typhoon would most likely be surrounded by a calm, 
 extending probably to a distance of from one to ten miles ; but if he 
 moved towards the circumference of the typhoon he would, upon 
 coming within the wind circles, find the direction of the wind to be 
 from his right towards his left, or in other words, the wind would have a 
 rotary movement in a direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch. 
 Consequently the wind must be east at the most northern margin of a 
 typhoon and west at its southern margin. In like manner it must be 
 south at the most eastern margin and north at the western, and it follows 
 that the wind on every part of any straight line drawn from any part of 
 the margin to the storm's centre must be from the same direction as it 
 is at the point where such line cuts the margin. It also follows that 
 the direction of wind on opposite semi-diameters must blow from 
 opposite directions. The winds outside the limits of typhoons often 
 blow in a direction pointing more or less towards the typhoon's 
 centre; this is mostly the case in front and rear of such storms. As 
 has been stated the motion of the wind within the body of a typhoon 
 is circular, and it must therefore blow from every point of the comp3.ss 
 during its circuit, and in order to more fully explain from which 
 direction the wind blows at different places, the body of the storm may 
 be divided into sections by imaginary diameters. First by drawing 
 two diameters through the body of the storm, one in a direction 
 from north to south and the other from west to east, the storm is 
 divided into four quadrants called the N.E., S.E.,S.W., and N.W. quad- 
 rants, and bearing in mind the explanation already given, it will be 
 found that the wind in the N.E. quadrant must always be from 
 between east and south, in the S.E. quadrant between south and west, 
 in the S.W. quadrant between west and north, and in the N.W. 
 quadrant between north and east. Another division of the typhoon is 
 made by drawing a line (called the axis line) through its centre repre- 
 senting the latter's path or in other words its progressive motion, this 
 divides the storm into two semi-circles, named the right hand and left 
 hand semi-circles according as they are to the right or left hand of the 
 said line. To distinguish one from the other the reader should imagine 
 himself placed on this axis line at the rear of the typhoon, looking 
 at it in the direction it is travelling. As the path of typhoons 
 do not always lie in the same direction, it becomes evident, 
 that the axis line does not always cut off semi-circles con- 
 taining the same winds. For instance, in the right hand semi-circle of 
 
TYPHOONS. 639 
 
 a typhoon travelling to the north-east, the winds would be from S.E. 
 to N.W., round by way of S., S.W., and W., while in the left hand 
 semi-circle the winds would be from S.E. to N.W. round by way of 
 E., N.E., and N. On the other hand, in a typhoon travelling due 
 north, the winds in the right hand semi-circle would be from E. to 
 W. byway of S, and in the left hand semi-circle from E. to W., 
 by way of N. In the latter case the wind on the axis line would be 
 E. on the northern side of the centre and W. on the southern side 
 thereof. The number of compass points through which the wind 
 veers at any place depends therefore upon how near the centre passes 
 to such a place. The veering of the wind indicates at once whether 
 the right or left hand semi-circle is passing over a place, for if it veers 
 from its initial direction towards the right, say from S.SE. to S., 
 then the right hand semi-circle is passing over the place, but should 
 the wind veer to the left, or say from S.S.E. to S.E. then the left hand 
 semi-circle is passing over. The Barometer falls as long as the 
 centre of a typhoon is getting nearer, and vice versa. 
 
 " ** '■' '■' ** * According to the above explanation the wind 
 strikes all straight lines, joining the centre and circumference of a 
 typhoon at right angles, and very little. 
 
 With the given explanation the reader will find no difficulty 
 in making other interesting deductions by comparing the two ob- 
 servations. To aid him in this, I suggest that he supply himself 
 with a circular piece of cardboard, make a small hole in its centre, 
 and draw through this two diameters at right angles to each other. 
 Mark the ends of the diameters N., E., S., and W. respectively. 
 Placing this card before him on a table, with that part of its diameter 
 marked N. pointing towards the north, and imagining a body of wind 
 to be whirling round the centre, but limited by the circumference of 
 the card, he will then have a very good illustration of a typhoon, 
 and one which will make the meaning of quadrants, semi-circles 
 circular motion, &c., easily understood. To further represent the 
 progressive motion of a typhoon, the card requires to be moved in the 
 direction towards which the storm is travelling, still keeping the 
 N. point of the card pointing towards the north, and still supposing 
 the wind to be whirling round the centre of the card,' 
 
 September is the month par excellence, for typhoons, 
 but the typhoon months are generally considered to be those 
 of July, August, September, and part of October, though they 
 are not confined to those months. 
 
 Until late years the advent of typhoons had to be judged 
 by the intense heat which prevailed for several days, the fall 
 of the barometer and other signs, but, with the extension of 
 the telegraph to this part of the world, timely warning of 
 their probable arrival or vicinity is telegraphed from ^Manila, 
 
640 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 and many lives have been thus preserved. Fortunately for 
 Hongkong the course of these dreadful visitations of provi- 
 dence is often deflected by one cause or another before they 
 reach this 'dot in the ocean,' and they generally strike the 
 land further North, up the coast of China, or further South 
 down in the neighbourhood of Hainan, or Annam. Occasion- 
 ally, in the course of many years, some of most dreadful 
 intensity occur; such especially was the awful one of the 
 27th of July 1862, the terrific force of which expended itself 
 in wrecking the whole river frontage of Canton, so that 
 scarcely a house on the river escaped more or less damage, in 
 fact the place looked as if it had suffered from a bombard- 
 ment, while thousands of the boat people were drowned 
 before the eyes of the spectators on shore, who were power- 
 less to render them any assistance. The loss of life in the 
 city and neighbourhood was estimated at 40,000. The 
 author, will never forget, as long as he lives, that awful day, 
 the wind blowing with titanic force in great bursts which 
 shook the buildings, the air darkened with leaves and bits of 
 debris, the raging of the usually calm river, the cries of the 
 drowning, the consciousness that any moment might be one's 
 last, the passing of the centre of the storm when a lull 
 occurred, giving one hopes that the worse was past, to be 
 followed by a recurrence of all its force and danger; the 
 flooded house, streets like rivers — all combined to form a 
 lurid picture, which, once seen, one never cares to see again. 
 Such an indelible impression did this great typhoon make 
 on the Chinese of that city that for many years they dated 
 occurrences from that event. 
 
 Fortunately such terrific typhoons occur but seldom. 
 The places in their vicinity, however, participate in the 
 disturbances which they -cause around them, having blows 
 of more or less intensity, or high winds and downfalls of 
 rain, lasting for several days, which serve to cool the 
 atmosphere. It is interesting in a slight typhoon, when one 
 feels tolerably safe, to watch the needle of the barometer fall 
 jslightly with each gust of the wind, and rise slightly agaii^ 
 
VACCINATION AND INOCULATION. 641 
 
 as it dies dowu. In a typhoon the barometer falls from 
 
 28.80 to 28.50 and even lower readings are seen. Typhoons 
 
 occur nearly every summer : in 1880 there were fourteen 
 
 recorded ones; in 1881, twentv ; but the avera2:e is more 
 
 than fifteen a year. 
 
 Books recommended. — ' The Typhoons of the Eastern Seas,' by Col. 
 H. S. Palmer, R.E., 1882. 'The Law of Storms in the Eastern Seas,' by 
 W. Doberck, Director of the Hongkono: Observatory. ' The Typhoons of 
 the Chinese Seas in the year 1880,' by M. Dechevrens, S. J. Idem for 1881. 
 Idem for 1882. Also the Annual Reports of Dr. Doberck, published in ' The 
 Hongkong Government Gazette.' 
 
 VACCINATION AND INOCULATION— ^vom the 
 reports of the European doctors in China in the earlier years 
 of the century, there is no doubt that small-pox used to be a 
 common disease not only in the south of China, in the neigh- 
 bourhood of Hongkong, Canton, and Macao, but also in the 
 north in Peking, in the metropolis of the empire, where it 
 was epidemic in Spring and much mortality resulted from 
 the visitations, not only to children, but also amongst the 
 grown-up population. In the neighbourhood of Canton, or 
 in a portion of the province of Kwangtung, it is also stated to 
 have been an invariable annual epidemic, lasting from February 
 to June, amongst the crowded native population in boats and 
 elsewhere. In the province of Shansi, the mortality from it 
 was very great, not even inoculation, much less vaccination, 
 being known there in the first half of this century. In the 
 western provinces of China, the ravages must have been great 
 in those days, as also there inoculation was said not to be 
 practised. 
 
 These instances are sufficient to show that small-pox 
 was a dreadful and dreaded visitant in China, the means for 
 coping with it, or stopping its spread, being either entirely 
 wanting or inadequate. 
 
 Before the introduction of vaccination, the Chinese were 
 acquainted with, and employed, inoculation, which is said to 
 have been introduced by a philosopher of Go-mei Shan in 
 the province of Sz-chuen. This knowledge was handed down 
 to posterity from the time of Chin-tsung of the Sung dynasty 
 (A. p. 101^}. 
 
 3 F 
 
642 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Another account says as follows : — 
 
 ' It is not to be wondered at that in China they have tried some 
 means to check the virulence of small-pox which has repeatedly 
 produced terrible havoc amongst its inhabitants. Chinese practitioners 
 describe various methods of inoculation which, it is said, was dis- 
 covered at the latter end of the second century tor protecting a grandson 
 of Prince Tchiu-Siang, (P. Dabry,' ' La Medecine chez les Chinois,') 
 They have also learned by experience the dangers of inoculation.' 
 
 Different methods were employed, one plan was to insert 
 in the nose a pledget ( a piece of cotton-wool, in most cases 
 probably ), impregnated with the virus ; another plan was 
 to take the lymph itself, or the crust rubbed down with 
 water, and introduce into the sore ; while another mode was 
 to dry the crusts, reduce them to powder, and blow this power 
 up the nose —this being called dry inoculation; yet another 
 and more loathsome way was to dress the child with clothes 
 that had been worn by some one with small-pox. Inoculation 
 would appear to have been largely practised by the Chinese. 
 It was stated that in Shanghai, the greatest number of the 
 children were thus treated. One Chinese writer, the author of a 
 treatise entitled, 'the Preservation of Infants by Inoculation,' 
 supposed that small-pox arose from poison introduced into 
 the system from the mother's womb, and he believed this to be 
 proved since small-pox only occurs once in a life time. All dis- 
 eases amongst the Chinese are associated with, or are the result 
 of, the principles of heat or cold. Small-pox is due to the heat 
 principle. It remains latent, or concealed, in the human 
 system ' till it is developed through the agency of some ex- 
 ternal, exciting cause.' Hence, as it might break out at any 
 time, they thought it advisable to use some means to modify 
 its virulence, therefore they believed that, by inoculation, when 
 the patient's system Avas in a healthy condition, and at times 
 and seasons which appeared most advantageous, this might 
 be accomplished. The Chinese writer we have mentioned 
 above says : — 
 
 ' The disease when it breaks out spontaneously is very severe 
 and often fatal ; whereas when it is introduced by inoculation it is 
 generally mild, and casualties do not occur oitener than once in ten 
 thousand cases ** * To discard this excellent plan and sit 
 
 waiting for the calamity, is much to be deprecated.' 
 
VACCINATION AND INOCULATION. 643 
 
 This author has evidently been carried away with 
 enthusiasm for his subject, as foi'eign writers speak of the 
 dangers attendant on inoculation as compared with 
 vaccination. The fatality is described as being very great 
 by one in Soochow, and when the doctor comes to ' plant the 
 small-pox ' as it is described, * the family go through ex- 
 tensive religious ceremonies, the god being worshipped with 
 a feast, incense, and firecrackers.' Another, a doctor, thus 
 writes : — 
 
 'A child generally thus takes the small-pox mildly, but the 
 children thus treated sometimes take the confluent form of the 
 disease by which sight and even life is lost. 
 
 It is true that the disease taken by inoculation is generally 
 milder than when it is taken spontaneously, but the great objection to 
 inoculation is, that the disease itself is thus maintained among the 
 community, and every case is a focus of infection ; whereas in 
 vaccination the tendency is to get rid of small-pox altogether, serious 
 accidents do not occur from it, and there is no liability to take on a 
 fatal form of disease.' In the report of the hospital at Ningpo pub- 
 lished in 1851 it is stated that, 'inoculation at onetime proved fre- 
 quently fatal.' 
 
 However in lieu of a more excellent way, the Chinese 
 put their confidence in inoculation. 
 
 It was stated that without inoculation the mortality 
 from small-pox in Shansi under the most favourable circum- 
 stances was 20 to 30 per cent of deaths, while in worse cases 
 it rose to 50 or 60 per cent ; but ' after inoculation only one 
 per cent proved fatal.' 
 
 It is curious that, like several other things, inoculation 
 appears to have been introduced into the West from China. 
 
 ' It has been known and practised in China since the time of 
 the Sung dynasty, about 800 years ago. It was first introduced 
 into England by Lady Montague, the wife of the British Ambassador 
 at Constantinople in 1721, and doubtless had found its way to Turkey 
 across the centre of Asia from China. The Turks who lived on the 
 
 Chinese frontier must have carried the knowledge of it when they 
 
 moved westward.' 
 
 There are ten rules with regard to inoculation compiled 
 by a retired scholar of the name of Lew Lan in obedience to 
 an Imperial Decree, and these were inserted in the ' Golden, 
 
 3 r 2 
 
644 THINGS CHINESH. 
 
 Mirror of the Medical Practice.' They have in latter times 
 been discoursed upon by celebrated physicians who have 
 * revised them with much care and attention.' 
 
 The rules are as follows :— 
 
 1st Regarding variolous lymph : — This is the fluid that comes 
 from the small-pox pustules and must be taken from a child which 
 has a mild form of the disease ; whether arising spontaneously or from 
 inoculation, the pustules ought to be round or pointed, and of a clear red 
 colour, the fluid abundant and the crust which comes away clear and 
 consistent like wax. 
 
 o » « After [inoculation] seven days, fever appears ; three days 
 afterwards the spots show themselves ; three days after this the 
 spots become pustular ; in three days more the crusts form, when the 
 whole is completed. If the inoculation does not take effect it may 
 be repeated in fourteen days. 
 
 2nd. Seasons : — The Spring and Autumn are the most favourable 
 seasons for inoculation, or any time when the weather is moderate; 
 during the very hot, or cold months, it ought not to be done. 
 
 3rd. Choice of Lucky Days : — A lucky day ought always to 
 be chosen; the nth and 13th days of the moon must always be 
 avoided. 
 
 4th. Management of the Patients : — During the process of 
 inoculation it is of great importance that strict rules of management 
 be adopted in respect to heat and cold ; with attention to diet and 
 the avoidance of any cause of alarm or fright. 
 
 5th. At the time for inoculation the child must be examined and 
 the state of its heath ascertained ; strict attention must also be paid 
 to the state of the family, and if the child be sick, the operation must 
 not be performed. All children ought to be inoculated when they are 
 one year old ; if the health be good, this ought by no means to be 
 neglected. 
 
 6th. Restricting :~The room of the inoculated child ought to be 
 clean and airy, and well lighted ; all excitement must be avoided, 
 and the child kept quiet and placid. 
 
 7th. Promise of the Eruption : — After the inoculation and before 
 the fever appears, there suddenly arise on the child's face several 
 pustules like small-pox ; these are called the " sin miaii," promise, 
 or belief of emption ; it is the forerunner of the disease, and the 
 evidence of the poison having taken effect. 
 
 8th. Repetition of the Inoculation : — If after waiting fourteen 
 days, the fever does not appear, should the season still be favourable, 
 the inoculation may be repeated. 
 
 9th. Mode of Action : — The inoculation must affect the viscera 
 ^nd the fever commences. The nose is the external orifice of the 
 
VACCINATION AND INOCULATION. 615 
 
 lungs ; when the variolous lymph is placed in the nose, its influence 
 is first communicated to the lungs ; the lungs govern the hair and the 
 skin ; the lungs transfer the poison to the heart; the heart governs 
 the pulse and transfers the poison to the spleen ; the spleen governs 
 the flesh, and transfers the poison to the liver ; the liver governs the 
 tendons, and transfers the poison to the kidneys ; the kidneys govern 
 the bones, the poison of the small-pox lies hid originally in the 
 marrow of the bones ; but when it receives the impression from the 
 inoculation, it manifests itself and breaks out externally. 
 
 loth. General Rules : — Inoculation is to be performed when there 
 is no disease present in the system ; good lymph must be selected, a 
 proper time chosen, and good management adopted, and then all will 
 go on well. ' 
 
 As to the introduction of vaccination. 
 
 * Many attempts were made to introduce the practice of vaccina- 
 tion into China during the early period when commercial relations 
 were in existence between the East India Company and the Chinese. 
 In 1805 a Portuguese subject, a merchant in Macao of the name of 
 Hewit brought vaccine over " upon live subjects from Manila," the 
 King having had vaccine conveyed to the Philippines by suitable 
 means and professional- men across the South American continent. 
 It was extensively practised by Portuguese practitioners in Macao 
 as well as by Dr. Pearson upon the inhabitants of that ancient city, 
 as well as amongst the Chinese.' 
 
 Dr. Pearson, a surgeon of the East India Company in China 
 carried on the work of its introduction to the natives with great 
 vigour and perseverance. 
 
 * Stated periods were fixed at which the Chinese received the 
 benefits of vaccination from the doctor's hands, nor was the experi- 
 ment unattended with success. It soon sprang into favour amongst 
 the Chinese, who, though very conservative in their feelings, when 
 once convinced of the benefit of any new method, take it up very 
 readily, and great numbers were brought to be operated on during 
 the period of the raging of small-pox in the course of the winter and 
 spring months of 1805-6.' 
 
 Thousands were vaccinated in the course of twelve 
 months and the Chinese who had been instructed by Dr. 
 Pearson practised it extensively, not only under his immediate 
 inspection but at a distance as well. When the immediate 
 need for this protective influence against this fell and foul 
 disease was gone — when in short, small-pox ceased to be 
 epidemic, ' the evil and the remedy against it were equally 
 forgotten' and Dr. Pearson 'found great difficulty in procur- 
 ing a sufficient number of subjects by means of which, 
 
644 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 merely to preserve the vaccine.' Twice was it necessary to 
 have it re-introduced from the ' islands of Lucona,' and twice 
 it was found to have been kept up at country districts. In 
 his report for 1816, Dr. Pearson speaks about its spreading 
 greatly 'from among the the lower classes of society, so as 
 to have become general among the middling ranks and to 
 be frequently resorted to by those of the higher conditions .' 
 
 The Chinese native doctors had strenuously opposed 
 it, and still at that period it met with but little acceptation 
 by them, and alarms of failures had occasionally been 
 spread ; there was also a prejudice against submitting 
 children to vaccination in the summer and autumnal months, 
 doubtless owing to the fact that in the time of such great 
 heats it had been observed Uhat all diseases attacking or 
 brought on at that season are more than usually dangerous 
 or severe/ 
 
 The principal members of the ' Chinese commercial cor- 
 poration in whom was vested the exclusive privilege of 
 dealing with Europeans ' established a fund for the gratui- 
 tous vaccination of the poor at all times, offering a small 
 premium to those who brought their children for that pur- 
 pose ; and from fifteen to forty were vaccinated every ninth 
 day by a Chinese vaccinator, while Dr. Pearson inspected 
 the pustules from which the lymph was taken and this 
 simply to put an end to a malicious rumour that the Chinese 
 vaccinators had not been circumspect in the choice of the 
 matter they used. 
 
 The medical servants of the East India Company were 
 always ready to vaccinate gratuitously all persons who 
 wished it ; though the taking of it thus up by the Chinese 
 themselves conduced to the spread of the practice; and 
 it became a source of reputation and emolument to the 
 Chinese themselves who were employed for the purpose. 
 
 Great numbers must have been vaccinated at this early 
 stage, and it was believed that the greater mildness of the 
 epidemics of small-pox which followed were due to the 
 
VACCINATION AND INOCULATION. 647 
 
 Chinese acceptance to such an extent of this protective 
 against the disease. 
 
 A report on the subject was again made in 1821. This 
 states that ' the practice of vaccination, had been uninter- 
 ruptedly continued ' and had ' received a steady and gi'eat ex- 
 tension with increased confidence in its efficacy.* Small-pox 
 had in the preceding and that season ' prevailed in an un- 
 usual degree of severity and attended with mortality ; ' but 
 the results of the investigations that were instituted proved 
 that vaccination was satisfactory, though every endeavour 
 was made to discover whether certain complaints were well 
 founded. These complaints had divided themselves into two 
 heads : viz., vaccination with spurious matter, or imperfectly, 
 or unskilfully conducted ; and the other, the following of 
 the vaccination by a modified small-pox. Under the first 
 heading none presented themselves who had been vaccinated 
 under inspection, or at the Canton Institute ; under the other 
 heading the number was few. The general reliance of the 
 Chinese was not shaken. 
 
 Vaccination had by this time extended to the neigh- 
 bouring province of Kwong-tung, but had met with a check 
 from the hostility of the priesthood and had been dropped. 
 This opposition was due to two circumstances ; for the 
 priests had been used to inoculate after the Chinese methods 
 and their deities had been resorted to in times of visitation 
 of this plague. Unfortunately scarlet-fever also broke out 
 and the blame of this was laid on vaccination, which it 
 was said ' retained the poison in the system, to appear at a 
 future time in still worse shapes.' 
 
 Between 1821 and 1833 two reports were made and 
 from them it is learned that the practice extended itself 
 largely amongst all sorts and conditions of Chinese in the 
 Canton province. It was also conveyed to the Kiangsi, 
 Kiangnan, and Fukien provinces, and even reached Peking 
 but was lost there. 
 
648 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 ' Its anti-variolous efficacy ' was ' universally known and confided 
 in ; ** *' its preservation during the period specified had greatly, 
 almost exclusively, resulted from the well-adapted system pursued 
 at the institution, and the agency of the Chinese vaccinators ; the 
 principal of whom A-he-qua ^who ' had ' been engaged in the practice 
 since 1805') was 'a man remarkably qualified for the business by 
 his cast of judgement, method, and preseverance. He had been en- 
 courged in his laudable exertions by the favourable opinion of his 
 countrymen and by marks of distinction or consideration which ' had 
 ' been conferred upon him by the higher functionaries of the local 
 government.' 
 
 A further mention is made of the same man at a later 
 date in the same magazine for the year 1842, when it was 
 stated that some cases of small-pox prevailed and it goes on 
 to add that ' vaccination for the prevention of this disease, 
 had been regularly and succesfuUy practised every eighth day 
 during many years by He-qua at the Public Hall of the 
 Hong merchants.' Dr. Pearson, at the same time as he 
 started vaccination, caused a tract to be printed on it 
 in Chinese, Sir George Staunton translating it : this was in 
 A.D. 1805. It set forth the advantages and benefits to be 
 derived from vaccination, and was of great use, being 
 republished at Shanghai subsequently with some corrections 
 and slight additions; part of this same tract of Dr. 
 Pearson's was incorporated into a native tract also republish- 
 ed in Peking in 1828, this latter having been originally 
 published at Canton in 1817. 
 
 The Russians introduced vaccination into Peking before 
 1828 'as early as 1820, the medical gentlemen attached 
 to the Legation * * practised vaccination among the 
 Albasines — now Chinese naturalised subjects.' 
 
 'Vaccination among the Mongols was attempted before it was 
 introduced at Canton by Dr. Pearson, but excepting the following 
 notice, we do not know whether it has since been practised, " Mr. 
 Rehmann, physician to his S. H. Prince of Fiirstenberg, has 
 lately received a letter from his son, physician to the Russian 
 embassy in China. This letter is dated from Kiakhta on the 
 frontiers of China 14th October 1805. Mr. Rehmann, Junr., writes 
 that be has vaccinated a great number of the children of the 
 Mongols, o 6 « « 55 jjg assures his father,that in consequence 
 of the measures he has employed, vaccination is now propagated 
 from Jekutzh, as far as Jakutsh and Ochotzk and consequently from 
 England to the rejnoteit extremity of the northern part oi the globe.' 
 
VACCINATION AND INOCULATION. 649 
 
 We have seen how it was introduced into Canton and 
 some of the other provinces. Its utility soon became known, 
 * and the practice quickly spread over the empire.* 
 
 Vaccination was introduced into Peking * by the Prefect 
 Tseng who had formerly been a mandarin in the South * in 
 1828. In 1864 there were three vaccination establishments 
 in the city, one having a branch in Tientsin. It was stated 
 then concerning Peking : — 
 
 ' Small-pox is still a great scourge, owing chiefly to the careless- 
 ness of the people in not availing themselves of it [vaccination] in time. 
 It is said to be endemic — all children, they assert, take it by the will 
 of Heaven ; there is no escape — iic volvtre Parcas.' This report goes 
 on to say 'the vaccine establishments here are well conducted. 
 Attendance is given every eighth day, or oftener, if the weather be very 
 dry, and the lymph operates rapidly. Tickets of admission are 
 granted, the name, address, age, and sex are carefully noted down in 
 a register kept for the purpose. A note is take of the number of 
 vaccination days each year ; the number of children vaccinated, 
 those in which it succeeds amongst those who return. The statistics 
 for 1 893, of the oldest and principal stablishment here I subjoin, as 
 given by the vaccinator : — 
 
 Number of vaccination days, 61; number vaccinated 2227; 
 children, of those who returned, 1229 ; of successful vaccination, each 
 child being vaccinated in six places, 6080 ; vaccination days during 37 
 years, 811. 
 
 The establishments are not only gratuitous, but a gratuity is 
 given to the parents to bring the children back. In Spring when the 
 cases are numerous, they receive, on their second visit about 2d ; in 
 the Autumn and Winter, when the cases are few, they receive about 
 2d on their first visit, and on their return about gd. When there is 
 the least danger of the lymph becoming exhausted, beggar children 
 are hired to be vaccinated who live in the Hospital. 
 
 When called upon to vaccinate the nobility, these children are 
 taken in a cart to the residences of the aristocracy, in order to have 
 the lymph, in the recent state, transferred from their arms to those of 
 more fortunately-situated children. This method which could not 
 always have been of the most agreeable description has been super- 
 seded by tubes from this Hospital [London Mission Hospital], When 
 it was first proposed to introduce vaccination into the metropolis, it 
 was arranged to have a relay of boys upon the road to be vaccinated 
 in succession every eighth day, but this plan was abandoned when 
 the means of conveying scabs was found out. The dried scabs on 
 reaching Peking were mixed with Mother's milk o ® o o o ^ 
 The tracts and sheets printed and distributed on the subject display 
 a great ignorance of the true principles of physiology. They suppose 
 the poison of the small -pox to be located about the insertion of the deluii 
 
 3 G 
 
650 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 muscle and hence direct the lymph to be introduced at three distinct 
 places in each arm, the upper one to be four inches from the shoulder, 
 and the lower one two inches from the elbow. They give drawings 
 of the position and of the lancets which, by the bye, are all of foreign 
 manufacture. They are very particular regarding the diet, warning 
 most carefully to avoid the smells of whisky, opium, heated kangs, 
 and dirty or decaying matter. 
 
 For at least loo days after vaccination, cocks, certain kinds of 
 fish, beef, eggs, beans, and bean flour are to be avoided. For three 
 years after vaccination, buckwheat, and cherries are to be shunned. 
 The things enjoined are vegetables, pork, and salted ham. Three 
 days after vaccination, they are allowed to eat shrimps, with rice 
 spirit, Mongolian mushrooms, and mutton ; and only in Winter must 
 birds' nests, steamed with sugar-candy be eaten.' 
 
 The medical missionary hospitals have had a large 
 share in both carrying on the work of vaccination when once 
 started and in introducing it into parts of the country where it 
 was unknown before. In this way it was first brought into 
 Shanghai in 1861, and at other times into various other 
 places. 
 
 By all these different ways, included in which of course 
 is the use of it by the Chinese themselves, the employment of 
 vaccination has pretty well spread through the empire ; not 
 only have individual Chinese taken it up as a means of 
 earning their living ; but charitable institutions have 
 employed men to go about the country and vaccinate, as well 
 as at the institutions themselves. 
 
 The following extract from a Customs' Medical Report for 
 1877-1878 by Dr. Wong Fung, a Chinese, but an M. D. of 
 Edinburgh University, the doctor for some years of the 
 Foreign Community in Canton, and of the Imperial Maritime 
 Customs will be of interest here : — 
 
 ' To Dr. Alexander Pearson of the East India Company is due the 
 great credit of first establishing by a long course of labour extending 
 from 1805 to 1820, the practice of vaccination among the natives of 
 Canton. But although this practice was introduced so early and has 
 been kept up, more or less, among the population ever since, it appears 
 that the people have been rather careless to avail themselves of it; 
 and it is only of late, perhaps within the last 15 years, that it has 
 obtained extension to all classes and conditions of men from the 
 highest to the lowest, whether living on land or on water, so that at 
 present it may be estimated that, at lea^t 95 per cent, of the children pf 
 
Vaccination and inoculation 651 
 
 the city receive the benefits of vaccination. The general age at which 
 children are vaccinated is about the second year, and the earliest 
 about the fourth or fifth month. There are in the city many men 
 engaged in the practice, some of whom receive pay from benevolent 
 individuals to open dispensaries for free attendance on the poor on 
 stated days. In the country vaccination has also made great 
 progress in the confidence of the people and professional men are 
 found in villages, either practising on their own account, or hired by 
 the gentry for the purpose. The two niost noted vaccinators of the 
 city are Yan hee and Tan Yih Sing. The grandfather of the former 
 was instructed in the art by Dr. Pearson in 1806, and carried it on 
 with such success and became so widely known that his family 
 receives marks of recognition from the Government in the shape of 
 some official title, and also, I believe, a grant of Tls. 100 per annum for 
 the preservation of lymph. Tan Yih Sing has also a large practice, 
 some say on account of the confidence placed in him as one skilful in 
 the diagnosis of leprosy, and likely to be circumspect in the selection 
 of lymph. It was always the custom to vaccinate direct from the 
 arm, but of late years many Chinese, including the individuals above 
 mentioned, have been taught by Dr. Kerr to preserve lymph in glass 
 tubes. Chinese mothers strongly object to have lymph taken from 
 their children, under the idea that it weakens their constitution, and 
 would not part with it but for money, so that vaccinators have to 
 secure their supply of lymph by paying children successfully 
 vaccinated to come to their houses. When a doctor is called to a 
 family to perform vaccination he takes a child with him to furnish 
 the vaccine, for which he generally gets 50 cents or $x, as a fee, and 
 the child 25 cents for the lymph. Poor people may be vaccinated 
 for 10 or 25 cents.' 
 
 Again as to its present practice. In the Report on 
 Ningpo in the Custom's Annual Trade Report for 1896 
 appears this : — 
 
 'Among the local developments of the year may be noticed 
 a free vaccination institution supported by contributions from the 
 Customs banker, Yen Taotai.' 
 
 Vaccination is carried on at the Tung Wa Hospital in 
 Hongkong, free to all comers, the subjects are nearly all child- 
 ren, but there are some grown-up people as well. This hospi- 
 tal does not send out doctors into the country to vaccinate ; 
 but some hospitals in Canton do. These doctors go to some 
 principal city and stay there for some time and vaccinate. At 
 these benevolent hospitals there is no charge ; but the private 
 practitioners charge a small fee and only have occasional 
 patients. The Chinese within the last ten years are beginning 
 to see the good of it more and more every day. In the 
 
 3 G 2 
 
652 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 country they vaccinate from child to child without procuring 
 fresh lymph. This is done amongst the poor and even 
 amongst the rich, unless they understand about it; there is, of 
 course, a chance of getting it from a poor subject; they take 
 precautions to only inoculate from the healthy, though the 
 possibility exists of getting it from an unhealthy child. 
 The writer has heard of one case where the lymph was taken 
 from a leper's child, who appeared to be free from the disease, 
 and the vaccinated child took it. The general run of doctors 
 take their lymph from the arm ; but rich people, who can 
 afford it, do not. The Chinese are not aware of the necessity 
 of re-vaccination. They think they are not so liable to 
 small-pox as Europeans, for they do not eat roasted and 
 broiled meats, as they (the Europeans) do. 
 
 The Chinese doctors vaccinate very carefully three spots 
 on each arm, that is six spots, with an English lancet and 
 cutting very deep. 
 
 The lymph now used in Hongkong, Canton, and neigh- 
 bourhood is procured from the Government Vaccine Institute 
 in this Colony. 
 
 Except in the neighbourhood of treaty ports or where 
 European influence prevails, as at all mission stations, it may 
 he said that practically vaccination, as at present performed 
 by the Chinese themselves, is from arm to arm, lymph being 
 now used is hundreds of generations from the original arms ; 
 but where, as above, European influence prevails, calf lymph 
 is being introduced, but the style of vaccination from arm to 
 arm prevails. Re-vaccination is not practised. 
 
 Special attention is given to vaccination at the Mission 
 Hospital in Canton * and the work begun by the hospital has 
 been taken up and pushed vigorously forward by native 
 ai^sociations, as many as five hundred specialists being 
 despatched in one season to interior districts, in the interests 
 of this work.' 
 
 Books recommended : — Different volumes of the ' Chinese Repository ' 
 contain accounts of the introduction and progress of vaccination amongst 
 the Chinese in the early days. Also ' The Chinese and Japanese Bepository. 
 
WOMAN, THE STATUS OF. ^S 
 
 The Annial Reports of the numerous missionarj'- hospitals throughout 
 China also contain, very often, accounts of what is being done not only in 
 the hospitals themselves, but, sometimes, of what is being done by the 
 Chinese in their neighbourhood with regard to vaccination. 
 
 WOMAN, THE STATUS Oi^.— Woman, in China, 
 occupies a totally different sphere from that of man ; a sphere 
 which, chough it must of necessity touch that of man at 
 certain points, should be kept as separate as possible. At 
 the eav'y age of seven, according to the practice of the 
 ancients, ' boys and girls did not occupy the same mat nor 
 eat together'; and this is still carried to such an extent that 
 a Avoman's clothes should not hang on the same peg as a 
 man's, nor should she use the same place to bathe in. The 
 finical nonsense that all this engenders is something absurd; 
 it is not even proper for a woman to eat with her husband. 
 Amongst the lower classes, fortunately, the proprieties in 
 this respect are more honoured in the breach than in the 
 observance, and it is a pleasant sight to see a labourer and 
 his wife partaking together of their frugal meal ; common 
 sense and the exigencies of common life getting the better of 
 philosophy, vainly so called. 
 
 Woman is made to serve in China, and the bondage 
 is often a long and bitter one : a life of servitude to her 
 parents ; a life of submission to her parents-in-law at 
 marriage ; and the looking forward to a life of bondage 
 to her husband in the next world, for she belongs to the 
 same husband there, and is not allowed, by the sentiment 
 of the people, to be properly married to another after his 
 death. The birth of a son frees her to a certain extent from 
 the degradation of her position, for it promotes her to some 
 degree, .vithin the house only, of equality with her husband. 
 All these restrictive customs are based on the idea that 
 woman occupies a lower plane than man : he is the superior, 
 she the inferior ; as heaven is to earth so is man to woman. 
 All her Dringing up is with the aim of teaching her perfect 
 submission to the paramount authority of man ; for she 
 ought to have no will of her own : her will must be in 
 complete subjection to that of his. Does her husband have 
 
654 TlilNGtS ClilNESE. 
 
 friends at his house ? She is invisible, a nameless thing, for 
 it would be an insult for a visitor to enquire after his host's 
 wife. Do the gentlemen require female society ? The absurd 
 seclusion of respectable women drives them to seek it in the 
 company of the courtesans, who, in order to fit them for 
 their life, are educated in music, and taught such accomplish- 
 ments as will render their society more acceptable ; reminding 
 one of the position held by the Grecian hetcerce. 
 
 Of so little account is woman in China, that a father, if 
 asked the number of his children, will probably leave out 
 the girls in reckoning ; or, if he has no boys, his reply will 
 be * only one girl,' said in such a tone of voice, as to call 
 forth the sympathy of his listener for his unfortunate 
 position. 
 
 In the very great majority of cases the girls are not 
 taught to read or write ; not, as was the case with some of 
 our great-grandmothers, for fear they should learn how to 
 write love letters (for the billet-doux does not flourish in 
 China), but for the simple reason that it is useless for girls to 
 learn to read (See Article on Education). Embroidery, plain 
 sewing, the manufacture of tiny shoes for her cramped-up 
 feet, * golden lilies ', as they are euphemistically termed, and 
 interminable gossip, fill up the lady's uneventful life, not 
 even broken by the pleasure of a daily walk, for she must be 
 closely shut up in her sedan if she ventures out on a call. 
 The chivalry of the West, with its modern Christianised 
 crystallisation of place aux dames and other mottoes of 
 polite conduct where the weaker sex is concerned, is utterly 
 unknown, as witness the brutal chaff, descending sometimes 
 even to obscenity, whenever a young giri or lady is seen in 
 the street : every man makes a point of turning round and 
 staring at her ; no matter how respectable she may be, some 
 boisterous fun is made of her pretty face ; she has to run the 
 gauntlet of jeers from a crowd of rough men, all the worse 
 to bear on account of her usual seclusion from all out-door 
 life, and as her small feet handicap her pace, her rude 
 reception is reduced to a slow torture. 
 
WOMAN, THE STATUS OF. 655 
 
 No fashionable mother in England, lost to all the 
 instincts of natural affection, who sacrifices her daughter in 
 marriage to position or wealth, but will find a counterpart 
 in nearly every Chinese mother and father, who no more 
 think of taking their daughter's feelings into consideration 
 than they would think of asking her to fly. Shut up in the 
 ' inner apartment ' — the Chinese equivalent of the Indian 
 zenana, though not such a horrible imprisonment as the 
 latter, — the young maiden, as she blossoms into womanhood, 
 has but little chance of seeing her future intended. 
 
 As the Chinese poet sings : — 
 
 * A mien severe and eyes that freeze, 
 
 Become the future bride ; 
 No whispering underneath the trees, 
 
 Ere yet the knot be tied.' 
 
 But it would not be human nature were such stolen 
 pleasures not to be found sometimes amongst the sweets of 
 life for a Chinese girl; and if she chance to have picked up 
 a little knowledge of the Chinese printed character, her novel 
 reading will occasionally give her natural feelings such a 
 fillip as to develope the latent instincts of affection and enable 
 her to burst through some of the prudery of the unnatural 
 system of Confucianism. 
 
 Human nature is the same the wide world over, and 
 Chinese boys' and girls' hearts are cast in the same mould as 
 those of the West ; but, unfortunately, girls' hearts here, like 
 their feet, are cramped and distorted out of all shape and 
 recognition. Every tendency towards love between man and 
 woman is immoral, and to be repressed, and, being repressed 
 in its natural and pure direction, takes an unnatural one ; for 
 many a Chinese girl or women has to be content with the 
 position of a secondary wife ; her husband having married 
 his first — legitimate one —from family policy, may select his 
 secondary or subsequently-taken wives, from pure afiection. 
 Women are sometimes thus rescued from an immoral life 
 and brought into a home ; but a dwelling where several wives 
 usurp the place which ought to be reserved for one, falls 
 far short of the English conception of the word hom^, 
 
656 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Sometimes the husband distributes his 'weaker vessels ' into 
 as many different houses as there are wives, in order to 
 minimise or prevent altogether the jealousies or bickerings 
 which often ensue when all live in one house. In the latter 
 case they are sometimes distributed through the house, 
 which must be a large one. A propos of this is the Chinese, 
 proverb ' one key makes no noise, but two keys create a 
 jingling.' 
 
 Notwithstanding all the disadvantages under which 
 women labour in China, they at times rise superior to them, 
 and, pushing past all the obstacles in their path, take a 
 foremost position, not only in the state, but in the lumbler 
 sphere of the family, as well as in the more difficult one of 
 letters and literature. 
 
 In some Chinese works, passages are found which show 
 that the respective authors look upon marriage occasionally 
 at all events, as we in the West do, for instance : — 
 
 'They ate together of the same animal and joined in 
 supping from cups made of the same gourd ; thus showing 
 that they now formed one body, were of equal rank, and 
 pledged to mutual affection.' 
 
 ' The ceremony of marriage was intended to be a bond 
 of love between two of different surnames ' — after which this 
 passage goes on, to speak of ancestral Avorship, &c. 
 
 Whatever affection a girl may feel for her own family 
 must receive a wrench on her marriage, for she is after that 
 important event almost entirely lost to her own kin and 
 transferred to that of her husband. In fact so far is this 
 carried that, should her intended die, it is an act of virtue 
 for the girl to leave her own people, and embosom herself in 
 the bereaved household, there to live in subjection to the 
 deceased's mother till death joins the couple whom the fates 
 kept separate on earth. A women can never marry twice — 
 legitimately, that is to say — a man falling in love with a 
 widow, may take her as a concubine. A woman only once 
 
WOMAN, THE STATUS OF. 657 
 
 rides in a red sedan, and only then if she is being married as 
 a legal, that is a first, wife. 
 
 A high type of virtue for a woman, in some parts of 
 China, is to commit suicide on the death of her husband or 
 intended ; in some cases the relatives force her to do it, 
 in hopes of the eclat and the erection of a stone portal, 
 which a representation of the case will probably cause the 
 Government to sanction. Remaining a perpetual so-called widow 
 without ever being married (in the event of her intended 
 dying), is another strong recommendation for these monu- 
 ments to virtue ! What wonder that in some places the girls 
 band themselves together never to marry, and, to prevent 
 being forced into matrimony, commit suicide ! 
 
 The lower classes have more freedom of action in some 
 respects ; that is to say, they are not confined to the house, 
 but, as the exigencies of their life demand it, they go about 
 in public to perform their duties : seamstresses sit at the 
 street corners, repairing clothes ; farmers' wives assist in 
 field operations ; servants go about the streets and make 
 purchases ; domestic slave-girls run errands ; grass-cutters 
 ramble up the hill sides to cut the grass for fodder or fuel ; 
 villagers go from house to house of the big cities to gather 
 pig's wash for food for these unsavoury quadrupeds ; 
 scavengers busy themselves in the narrow streets and 
 crowded thoroughfares, to the discomfort of the foot 
 passengers ; tea girls pick tea, seated at the doors of the tea 
 hongs; beggars go in troops, or singly, through the crowds; 
 while the blind singing girls, with their duennas seek for 
 hire; and the little sampans are manned by women and 
 girls. 
 
 But the employment of women in outdoor pursuits 
 differs in different parts of the country ; in some places they 
 are conspicuous by their absence, whilst in other places their 
 engaging in labour, for which they are not so well fitted as 
 man, renders their presence even more conspicuous. To one 
 accustomed in Canton and neighbourhood to the constant 
 
 3 u 
 
658 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 J 
 
 presence of women in the fields and streets and on the river 
 and sea, busy with various kinds of manual labour, it is 
 strange to note their entire absence, with but trifling 
 exceptions, in the country round Swatow. This also holds 
 good to a great extent at Amoy. 
 
 Books recommended. — ' The Status of Women in China,' ' The Famous 
 Women of China,' two small pamphlets, both bj'^ Rev. E. Faber, Dr. Theol. 
 'Typical Women of China ' \_Ab ridged f/om the Chinese Work ' Eecords of 
 Virtuous Women of Ancient and Modern Times'] by Miss A. C. Safford. 
 Also see an amusing Article in Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Vol. 
 XXVIII. pp. 10-18, entitled 'Chinese Women from a Chinese Standpoint,' 
 by I. T. Headland. 
 
 WRITING.— ks to the introduction of writing amongst 
 the Chinese, it has been stated that : — 
 
 ' Chinese writers, unable to trace the gradual formation of their 
 characters, (for of course, there could be no intelligible historical data 
 until long after their formation) have ascribed them to Hwang-ti, one 
 of their primeval monarchs, or even earlier, to Fuh-hi. A mythical 
 personage, Tsang-kieh, who flourished about B.C. 2700, is credited 
 with the invention of symbols to represent ideas, from noticing the 
 markings on tortoise-shell, and thence imitating common objects in 
 nature,' 
 
 If the study of the origin of English words is interesting, 
 that of Chinese is, if anything, more so. The mode of writing 
 the character presents facilities for this study which are 
 wanting in English. Here are hundreds and thousands of 
 word pictures, some of them patent to the most casual glance, 
 requiring scarcely a thought to elucidate them. 
 
 The Chinese divide their language into six classes ; the 
 first class, * imitative symbols ' includes 608 characters, 
 amongst them are some of the first characters invented, but 
 they have been modified by the exigencies of time and 
 convenience in writing, the metal stylus having been replaced 
 by the modern pencil, or brush, so that angular strokes have 
 given place to curves, and circles to squares and oblongs, 
 while parts of the original character have dropped out as the 
 writing became more contracted. As a specimen of this 
 class of character is the word for child, the rude picture 
 having given way to the modern character -^j where the 
 head; arms, and legs, in profile, are still visible, Again, the 
 
 I 
 
WRITING. 659 
 
 outline of three peaks, which was used to represent the idea 
 of a hill, has been modified into the present form, ^]. Again, 
 the rude picture of an eye has changed into an upright 
 oblong with two strokes in the middle, viz., Q, and so we 
 might go on at great length. 
 
 The second class, which only contains 107 characters, is 
 called 'symbols indicating thought.' These characters are 
 formed by the combination of those of the previous 
 class, for instance, the sun appearing above a line indicates 
 the morning, as ^ . 
 
 The third class contains 740 characters, called ' combined 
 ideas.' These ideographs are built up of two or three of the 
 other symbols : for instance, ' sun ' and ' moon ' are put in 
 juxtaposition to represent brightness, as ^; a boy and a girl 
 together represent the idea good, |0*: it is not good for man 
 to be alone. 
 
 The fifth class is called * uniting sound symbols', con- 
 taining 21,810 characters ; nearly all words, it will thus be 
 seen, belong to this class. They are formed of two distinct 
 parts : one called the phonetic, giving the sound to the 
 complex character thus formed, while the other component 
 part of the character is ' formed of an imitative symbol/ as, 
 for example, |^, a carp. 
 
 The sixth class contains 598 characters, and is styled 
 * borrowed uses,' including ' metaphoric symbols and com- 
 binations, in which the meaning is deducted by a fanciful 
 accommodation.' As an example of this class there is the 
 word for character, word, or letters (literature), ^i, a child 
 under a shelter — ' characters being considered as the well- 
 nurtured offspring of hieroglyphics.' 
 
 Besides this sixfold division there is likewise another 
 sixfold division of Chinese characters, with respect not to 
 their original formation but to their form, which may be 
 compared to Roman, italic, or writing, German, Arabesque, 
 and other forms used in English; for, though the correct 
 
 3 F 2 
 
660 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 form of writing Chinese approaches very nearly to the 
 printed form, more so than in English, yet there are, besides 
 this somewhat easy style of writing, a flowing hand, which 
 requires special study, and a still more running hand, which is 
 undecipherable to those unfamiliar with it. These two 
 latter styles allow latitude, as in English writing, for the 
 idiosyncracies of the individual writer. In them, more 
 especially in the latter of the two, contractions are largely 
 availed of, the brush (Chinese pen) flies over the paper 
 linking word to word somewhat in the style of shorthand 
 writers in English. In short this running or ' grass writing ' 
 may be likened in some degree to shorthand, though many 
 of the Chinese characters, even in it, are too complicated to 
 permit of a rapid enough writing to constitute it shorthand. 
 Neither of these styles is allowed to be employed in the 
 Government examinations, where every character must be 
 well formed, and no contractions used ; but they are found 
 necessary for business purposes. The books of large firms 
 are kept most beautifully, very few contractions being used, 
 but the ordinary business firms intersperse the more correct 
 and formal characters with running forms to a greater or 
 lesser extent. Scarcely any Europeans trouble themselves 
 to learn thoroughly more than one style, if they even go as 
 far as that. 
 
 Chinese writing is largely employed for ornamental 
 purposes. The caligraphy of masters of the art, for it is an 
 art in China, is highly prized and commands a high price. 
 Even the prosaic shop is ornamented with numerous scrolls, 
 bearing poetical phrases, antithetical sentences, sometimes 
 of high moral import, and even single words, beautifully 
 engrossed, which line the bare brick walls, and are hung here 
 and there. Fans are inscribed with poetic eff'asions and 
 presented to friends, who treasure them as autographs. 
 Some fine specimens of a fluent writer's skill are carved into 
 the semi-cylindrical surface of a pair of nicely varnished 
 bamboos and these form another embellishment for the 
 mansions of the wealthy Chinese. The backs of combs, the 
 
WRITING. 661 
 
 end pieces of folding fans, porcelain vases, and numerous 
 other objects, are all adorned with specimens of caligraphic 
 skill, and most effective this ornamentation is ; at times, the 
 stiff, rigid forms of the seal character are employed ; and at 
 other times the rambling style of the rapid writer, with 
 its bold dashes, firm curves, slender, spider-like threads 
 connecting distant parts, thick down strokes, and all the 
 other elegancies which constitute the beauty of Chinese 
 writing, so highly appreciated by Chinese connoisseurs. 
 
 Chinese writing when written carefully, is slow work at 
 the best : its speed is comparable to the engrossing of a legal 
 document by a lawyer's clerk with us ; or again, one may 
 liken the slow, laborious writing of the careful scribe to an 
 attempt in English to write in print, while the rapid-running 
 hand approaches nearer to our writing. 
 
 Although Chinese is not an alphabetical language, the 
 Chinese writing is composed of simple strokes and dots, 
 perpendiculars and horizontals, modified according to certain 
 rules, conditioned by the position in which they are to 
 appear ; further, the more complex characters are built up of 
 the simpler ones, some of the compound characters being 
 formed of a combination of only two or three, while others 
 may be the result of a union of half a dozen or more. A page 
 of writing would present an unsymmetrical appearance were 
 the original size of the component parts of the characters to 
 be preserved. They are modified to suit their position — 
 lengthened, shortened, compressed, enlarged, or diminished as 
 necessary — the idea being that each character shall only 
 occupy a given space. 
 
 * The Chinese have the greatest respect for any writing and it no 
 doubt enhances their contempt for us by noticing how we fail to 
 reverence the written character, and, no doubt, they also fancy that we 
 must indeed be barbarians and our writing not " that fairest jewel in 
 heaven above or earth beneath " which theirs is, or we would doubt- 
 less take the greatest care that not a scrap of it should fall to the 
 ground and be trodden under foot, or torn, or destroyed in any way but 
 by fire, when the extremely punctilious will also go as far as to bury 
 them deep in the earth in a sealed earthern vessel, or sink them to 
 the bottom of the river.' Men go about the streets gathering up 
 
662 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 every scrap of paper on which there is the least bit of writing or 
 printing, so that they may be destroyed by fire at certain places 
 prepared for that purpose. These chiffoniers are paid by rich men. 
 Little boxes will also be seen here and there along the streets not 
 only in Chinese cities but in Hongkong itself, with the four characters 
 King sik tsz chi, Reverence printed (or written) paper on them. These 
 boxes serve as receptacles into which the passers-by, or neighbours, 
 may stuff their refuse paper. 
 
 Boohs recomvxnded, — ' The Six Scripts.' A translation by L.C. Hopkins 
 of H.M. Consular service. ' How to Write Chinese,' by the author of the 
 present work. 
 
 ZOOLOGY. —Though China is a well settled country, 
 there are still vast tracts sparsely inhabited, and sufficiently 
 different species of animals are found to make the study of 
 zoology a pleasure, and the discovery every now and then of 
 some new species lends a zest to its pursuit. 
 
 The Fauna in the South, in the Island of Hainan and a 
 portion of the mainland, is tropical to some extent ; but 
 North China and Manchuria resemble, in their zoology, Corea 
 and Japan. 
 
 Of monkeys, there are several varieties, some of most 
 remarkable appearance ; the Chinese train a few to perform 
 tricks. Of bats, one list gives twenty species, belonging to 
 nine genera. There are black and brown bears, as well as 
 other varieties. The carnivora, though not such a pest as in 
 India, are still common enough in some parts, and, in certain 
 thickly-populated places, they are a cause of considerable 
 apprehension to the natives. Amongst them may be men- 
 tioned the tiger (See Article on 'Tigers') ranging over large 
 districts in the southern provinces ; panthers, leopards, and 
 tiger-cats are also not unknown. Wild cats are occasionally 
 seen in Hongkong ; civet cats, tree-civets and martens, are 
 found in China. The domestic cat is very common, a species 
 of Angora cat being a pet in Peking. As to the dog, a glance 
 at it reminds one of the pictures of Esquimaux dogs. These 
 are known as ' chow ' dogs, or 'wouks,' amongst foreigners, 
 looking very pretty when pups Avith their fluffy, yellow, 
 black, or reddish hair, but they deteriorate in appearance as 
 they grow older, though this does not appear to be a general 
 
ZOOLOGY. ^ 
 
 opinion, as they are sometimes made pets of by foreigners. 
 Strange to say the tongues and mouths of dogs and cats are 
 often black or blue-black (See Article on Dogs). Wolves, 
 foxes, and racoon-dogs are common. The Chinese horses 
 are ponies and the cattle are also small ; some of the latter 
 have a hump. The water-buffalo is an uncouth, large, 
 clumsy-looking animal, and is used for drawing the plough, 
 as well as for other agricultural purposes, the milk supplied 
 by the buffalo cow is richer than common cow's milk. The 
 black tongue and mouth are also found in buffaloes. (See 
 Article on the 'Buffalo.') Yaks are found in Tibet and Kokonor. 
 Sheep abound in the North, and goats all over China. Antelopes 
 and deer of eleven varieties are known — deer are kept in gentle- 
 men's grounds in China as well as in England — and many other 
 genera of ruminants are included in China's fauna. Three 
 varieties of the musk deer may be mentioned. Mules and 
 donkeys are largely used in the North as beasts of burden, 
 and the Avild ass, or onager, is to be found in Kokonor. 
 The elephant, rhinoceros, and tapir, are to be met with in 
 the forests of Yunnan ; the wild boar in the North and in 
 Chekiang. Different varieties of pigs abound in the North 
 and South, and pork is largely consumed by the Chinese. 
 The camel is also a beast of burden in Manchuria, Mongolia, 
 and Northern China. Among smaller animals may be men- 
 tioned weasels, otters (used for fishing, for which purpose 
 they are trained) badgers, sable-ermine, pole-cats, stoats, sea- 
 otters, moles, musk-rats, shrew mice, hedgehogs, marmots, 
 and mole-rats. 
 
 There are many kinds of rodents. Hares and rabbits 
 abound in some places, but are almost, if not entirely, 
 unknown in others. There are ten or twelve kinds of 
 squirrels known, as well as two genera of flying squirrels. 
 Twenty-five species of rats and mice are known as existing 
 in China, and all but three are peculiar to the country. One 
 species has been named after Confucius (mus Confucianus), 
 an honour which probably the sage would not appreciate 
 were he aware of it, while another has been named after 
 
664, THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 Koxinga, the conqueror of Formosa. The procupine is 
 supposed by the Chinese to use its quills as javelins to fling 
 at its enemies, while the scaly ant-eater, or pangolin, is thus 
 described by one sapient (!) Chinese writer: — 'Its shape 
 resembles a crocodile ; it can go in dry paths as well as in 
 the water; it has four legs. In the day time it ascends the 
 banks of streams, and, lying down, opens its scales wide, 
 putting on the appearance of death, which induces the ants 
 to enter between them; as soon as they are in, the animal 
 closes its scales and returns to the water to open them : the 
 ants float cut dead, and he devours them at leisure/ 
 
 The great, white propoise (DelpJiinus cMnensis) is found 
 in the estuary of the Canton river, and at Swatow, as well 
 as in the Yangtsz. It is an amusing sight to watch one or 
 two of them swimming for an hour or more just in front of a 
 steamer. A species of fin-whale is found between Formosa 
 and Hainan. Seals disport themselves on the coast of Liang- 
 tung. 
 
 The lists of Swinhoe and David contain two hundred 
 species of mammalia; many more have been discovered since 
 these lists were drawn up. 
 
 Of birds there have already been over 700 species 
 described. (* The avifauna of the Yang-tsz Valley comprises, 
 at least, * * * 359 species, of which 97 species are 
 known to be migrant') . Vultures, eagles, and ernes are wide- 
 spread ; the golden eagle is trained by the Mongols for the 
 chase ; falcons are common in the streets of Peking where 
 they act as scavengers. Bustards, gledes, sparrow-hawks, 
 night-hawks, and swallows, are all to be seen, of the latter bird 
 there are fifteen species. The feathers of kingfishers are used 
 for decorative purposes. The hoopoe, bee-eater and cuckoo 
 are all known, as well as eleven species of shrikes and many 
 other birds, such as nuthatches, tree and wall-creepers, wrens, 
 chats, willow-wrens, and red-starts. There are great varieties 
 of song-birds, such as the thrush and lark, of which the 
 Chinese are very fond ; for a Mongolian lark twenty-five 
 
ZOOLOGY. 665 
 
 dollars will be given. (See Article on * Larks and other 
 Songsters '). Amongst other birds may be named wag- 
 tails, orioles, jays (a most beautiful blue jay is found m 
 Hongkong), magpies, choughs, crows, blackbirds, owls, 
 mainahs, (See Article on ' Larks and other Songsters ') 
 robins, ouzels, tailor-birds, woodpeckers, parrots, 14 
 species of pigeons, gold and silver pheasants, and others, 
 and poultry, of which the common fowl, the Shanghai and 
 the diminutive white bantam are the best knoAvn. Some of 
 the Chinese fowls appear to have black bones, owing to a 
 thin membrane of that colour surrounding the bones. 
 Besides these are grouse, quails, francolins, partridges, snipe, 
 cranes, plovers, curlews, herons, egrets, ibis, spoonbills 
 crakes, and rails. ' The Chinese ring-necked species of phea- 
 sant has been successfully introduced' into England. Sixty- 
 five species of web-footed birds are known as existing in China,, 
 amongst which are ten species of duck. The whole sea-coast 
 is alive with gulls, terns, and grebes ; and swans, geese, and 
 mallards are found in the inland waters. The mandarin 
 duck, a native of the central provinces, is a beautiful object 
 having as brilliant a plumage as a parrot. 
 
 Alligators, though rare, are to be found in one or two 
 spots, and probably they, or crocodiles, were more numerous 
 formerly than now. Snakes abound, many of which are 
 deadly. Frogs are most abundant and are eaten. Tortoises 
 and turtles are plentiful. * The ichthyology of China is one 
 of the richest in the world, though it may be so more from 
 the greater proportion of food furnished by the waters than 
 from any real superabundance of the finny tribes.' By this 
 time about a thousand different kinds are known as being 
 found in China. It is said that in Macao one may have a 
 different kind of fish for breakfast every morning in the year 
 if one will eat every sort which the Chinese use as food. 
 Amongst Chinese fish may be mentioned mackerel, goby, 
 herrings, sharks, rays, saw-fish, sturgeon, huge skates, 
 garoupa, sole, mullet, the white rice fish (or silver fish as it 
 is called in some of the languages of China), shad, and carp 
 
 3 I 
 
666 THINGS CHINESE. 
 
 (52 species of the last). The gold fish is a most grotesque 
 specimen of nature's caricatures, imitated and/or fostered 
 by artifice and selection, the eyes are like goggles, sticking 
 out of its head, and tail and fins are tufted and lobed to a 
 most extraordinary extent. ' Gold fish were first known in 
 China ; they were * brought to Europe in the seventeenth 
 century.' The Chinese say their original habitat was Lake 
 Tsau in the province of Ngan-hwui. Another variety is the 
 silver fish. We cannot complete the list of Chinese fish, but 
 we may mention pipe-fish of a red colour, gar-pike with 
 green bones, beautiful parrot-fish, sun-fish, eels, file-fish, bream, 
 gudgeon, anchovies, perch, and gurnard. There are great 
 varieties of shell-fish, oysters are common, so are prawns, 
 shrimps, crabs, craw-fish, and king-crabs, the last strange 
 looking objects. Amongst curiosities, may be mentioned the 
 hammer oyster (Avicula \nialleus\ vulgaris) found at 
 Swatow. 
 
 'The insects of China are almost unknown to the 
 naturalist.' There are hundreds of difierent kinds of spiders, 
 some with bodies as large as small birds, which spin their 
 webs from tree to tree, high up in the air. Locusts, 
 centipedes, scorpions, silkworms, fireflies, glow-worms, and 
 beetles ; and many other numerous species of insects have 
 their home in China. 
 
 Books recommended. — Williams's ' Middle Kingdom,' Vol. I., p. 313 — 
 3o4, contains a good, general, short account of the zoology of China. Also 
 see Article in this book on ' Tigers ' as well as that on ' Buffaloes.' For birds 
 see ' Proceedings of the Zoological Societj'-' for May 1871, which contains 
 a paper by the late Mr. Swinhoe ; 'Les Oiseaux de la Chine,' par M. I'Abb6 
 A. David. Also see Articles in this book on ' Larks and other Songsters,* 
 * Cormorant Fishing ' and end of Article on 'Mandarin.' For fishes see 
 ' Report of the British Association for the Adrancement of Science ' for 
 1845. For insects see Donovan's ' Natural History of the Insects of China.* 
 Also see Articles on ' Insect's' and ' Silk' in this book. 
 
IND Jb]X 
 
 ^-^.^ 
 
 A 
 
 American flour, 627. 
 
 Abacus, 1. 
 
 „ kerosene, 627. 
 
 Abatement, 3. 
 
 ,, river steamers, 493. 
 
 Aborigines, 4, 28, 153, 267, 279, 292, 
 
 „ stamps, 560. 
 
 S19, 503. 
 
 „ trade, 249, 620. 
 
 Accessories to the Stage, 601. 
 
 Americans in China, 158, 249. 
 
 Accountant, 1, 2. 
 
 Amoor, 353, 354. 
 
 Account-books, 65, 615. 
 
 Amov, 10, 34, 123, 142. 166, 167, 
 
 Accounts, 155. 
 
 172, 173, 188, 193, 234, 240, 243, 
 
 Actors, 601, 602, 604. 
 
 251, 262, 263, 319, 406, 420, 515, 
 
 Acts, Five, 603. 
 
 520, 521, 563, 594, 595, 596, 604^ 
 
 Acupuncture, 7, 
 
 605, 612, 622, 626, 627, 629, 632, 
 
 Administrative powers, 135. 
 
 658. 
 
 Adoption, 8,26, 175, 581. . 
 
 Amoy, Books for learning, 88. 
 
 Adulterations, Trade, 626. 
 
 Amsterdam, 611, 
 
 Adultery, 176. 
 
 Amusements, &c., 22-25, 78, 113, 
 
 Africa, Chinese in, 129. 
 
 114, 138, 185-186, 199, 204-207, 
 
 Africa, South, 308. 
 
 233, 238-240, 240-243, 246, 247, 
 
 Agate, 610. 
 
 250, 254, 255, 280, 322-324, 347, 
 
 Age, Enquiries as to, 215. 
 
 348, 360, 362, 363, 366, 391-396, 
 
 Agnates, 9, 10. 
 
 425, 457-470, 492, 494-499, 521- 
 
 Agriculture, 2, 91, 341, 658, 663. 
 
 523, 600-604, 658. 
 
 „ Government fosters, 13. 
 
 Anamba Islands, Chinese in, 126. 
 
 „ Implements of, 16, 17, 
 
 Anatomy, Ignorance of, 49. 
 
 64, 65. 
 
 Ancestor, A son's deeds ennoble, 618. 
 
 „ Importance of. 13, 
 
 Ancestral Hall, 8, 139, 256, 266, 
 
 A-he-qua. 648. 
 
 362, 393. 
 
 Alaska, 306. 
 
 „ Tablet, 27, 28. 
 
 Albasines, 648. 
 
 „ Worship, 25, 74. 75, 76, 
 
 Alchemy, 579, 582. 
 
 139, 238, 265, 359, 363, 
 
 Alienation of land, 599. 
 
 393, 473, 613. 
 
 Alligators, 665. 
 
 ,, Worship is the National 
 
 Allodial property, No, 599. 
 
 Ee'.igion, 26. 
 
 Alluvial land, 260, 600. 
 
 Ancient art, 50. 
 
 Almond, 241. 
 
 „ beliefs, 95. 
 
 Alpinia galangas, 268. 
 
 ,, bronze work, 96. 
 
 Alps, 306. 
 
 „ history, 277, 499. 
 
 Altar cloths, 205. 
 
 „ missions, 370. 
 
 Ambassadors, 61, 62, 63. 
 
 „ music, 391, 392. 
 
 Amber, 610. 
 
 „ Philosopher, The, 574. 
 
 America, Chinese in, 118. 
 
 style, 320. 
 
 „ Cultivation of tea in, 590. 
 
 Anhui, See Nganhwui. 
 
 „ South, 306. 
 
 Aniline dyes, 625. 
 
 „ Tonnage of, to China, 625. 
 
 Animals 620. 
 
 American concessions, 634. 
 
 Annam, 640. 
 
 „ consumption of tea, 591, 
 
 „ Chinese in, 121, 122. 
 
 594, 595, 597. 
 
 Answers to questions, 215. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ant-eater, rt64. 
 
 
 Azalea, 589, 
 
 Antigua, Chinese in, 119. 
 
 
 
 Anti-opium pills, See Opium. 
 
 
 B 
 
 Antipodes, Chinese our, 613. 
 
 
 
 Antiquities, 499. 
 
 
 B. A., 225. 
 
 Antiquity, Love of, 137. 
 
 
 Babies, 111-114,296-298. 
 
 „ ' of Art, 50. 
 
 
 Babv-clothes, 74, 75. 
 
 Antithetical Sentences, 23, 200, 
 
 660. 
 
 Baby-towers, 298. 
 
 'Ants, 300, 453. 
 
 
 Babylon, 314. 
 
 ^Ants, White, 299, 1500. 
 
 
 Back, Carrying on the, 616. 
 
 Antwerp 611. 
 
 
 Baldacchino, 163. 
 
 Apelles, 57. 
 
 
 Ballad singing. 24, 393. 
 
 Apples, 253. 
 
 
 Balls, Ivory, 107. 
 
 Arab traders, 118, 248, 379. 
 
 
 'Bamboo, 11, 12, .32, 54, 63-66, 91, 
 
 Arabian art, 97. 
 
 
 94, 106, 239, 308, 600, 609, 610, 
 
 „ trade, 155. 
 
 
 660. 
 
 Arbours, 29. 
 
 
 Bamboo-sprouts, 63. 
 
 Arbutus, 253. 
 
 
 Band for the head, 190. 
 
 Arch, 35, 36. 
 
 
 Bangles, 274, 305. 
 
 Arch of steel, 551. 
 
 
 Bank-notes, 67-69, 155. 
 
 Arches, Commemorative, 36, 65 
 
 7. 
 
 Banks, 67-69, 427. 
 
 Archery 23, 44. 
 
 
 Bankruptcies, 270. 
 
 Architecture, 29-36. 
 
 
 Banners, The Eight, 39, 205. 
 
 Argentan, 610, 
 
 
 Bantams, 665. 
 
 Arhan, 412. 
 
 
 Barber, 387, 604. 
 
 Arithmetic, 1, 201. 
 
 
 Bargaining, 1, 3, 136. 
 
 --Arms, 36-39, 41. 
 
 
 Barometer readings in a typhoon. 
 
 Army, 39-46, 162, 293. 
 
 
 640, 641. 
 
 Army, Ever Victorious, 45, 555. 
 
 
 Bats, 662. 
 
 Arrows, 37, 41. 
 
 
 .Battledore, 522, 616. 
 
 Arsenals, 293. 403, 405. 
 
 
 Batura,162. 
 
 Art, 47-58, 66, 68. 205. 206, 207, 
 
 235, 
 
 Bays, 259. 
 
 347. 
 
 
 Beacons, 426. 
 
 „ of writing, 658-666. 
 
 
 Beads, 615. 
 
 Artificial flowers, 243. 
 
 
 Beans and bean flour, 650. 
 
 Ascending on High, 23, 58-59. 
 
 
 Beard, 615. 
 
 Asceticism, 579. 
 
 
 Bears, 662. 
 
 Asia, 620, 637 ; Minor, 306. 
 
 
 Beckoning, 220. 
 
 Asiatic Society, China Branch of the 
 
 Beef. 650. 
 
 Eoyal, 59-60, 84. 
 
 
 Beetles, 298, 302, 666. 
 
 Assam tea, 585, 589. 
 
 
 Beggar spirits, 27. 
 
 Associations, Money Loan, 536 
 
 548. 
 
 Beggars, 65, 78, 212, 303, 365-369, 
 
 Astronomical Instruments at 
 
 Pe- 
 
 566, 567, 649, 657. 
 
 king, 97. 
 
 
 Belgians in China, 158, 249. 
 
 Astronomy, 346, 570, 571. 
 
 
 Belles lettres, 20u, 342, 349. 
 
 Asylums, 335. 
 
 
 Bells, 394. 
 
 Atlas moth, 302. 
 
 
 Benares opium, 622. 
 
 Audience, 60-63. 
 
 
 Bequests for Ancestral Worship, 29. 
 
 „ Hall, 62. 
 
 
 •Betrothal. 69-72, 473. 
 
 Australia, 305. 
 
 
 Bible in China, 371, 374, 375. 
 
 „ Chinese in, 126-128, 
 
 339. 
 
 Bibliography, 72-73, 345. 
 
 „ Consumption of tea 
 
 in. 
 
 Billingsgate, 212, 345. 
 
 596, 597. 
 
 
 Bird of Fate, The. 460. 
 
 „ Tea in, 594. 
 
 
 Birds, 664-665. 
 
 Austrians in China, 158, 249. 
 
 
 •Birds' nests, 73-74, 245, 247, 650. 
 
 Autographs, 660, 
 
 
 -Birth, Customs connected with, 
 
 Au To-huan, 53. 
 
 
 74-77. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 it! 
 
 Birthday of Gods, 12, 22. 600. 
 Black, 571, 616. 
 
 „ art, 582. 
 
 „ bones of fowls, 665. 
 
 „ death, 45-1. 
 
 „ eyes. 130. 
 
 „ haired race 116, 130. 
 
 „ iiioutlis and tonijues of dogs, 
 bu Haloes, and cats, ()63, 
 and of fowls 6()5. 
 „ plau;ne and death, 433, 434, 
 435. 
 
 „ porcelain, 488 
 
 „ silk, 526. 
 
 „ slaves, 535. 
 
 „ tea, 583-597, 624. 
 
 ,, tongues of animals, 663. 
 
 „ wood, 107, 255. 
 Blanc de Chine, 475. 
 Blessing, The Five, 411. 
 Blest, The Golden Isles of the, 578, 
 Blind, 15, 64, 366, 368, 393, 667. 
 
 „ singing grirls, 24, 393, 657. 
 Blockade chess. 111. 
 Blocks for printing: 499. 500, 501. 
 Blood, Drinking, 382. 
 Blue for mourning, 387, 61G. 
 
 „ plume, 161. 
 
 „ porcelain 480, 481, 488, 489. 
 Boards, The Six. 271. 
 Boats, 22. 32, 49, 64, 77-81, 106, 112, 
 212,336,520,616,619,657, 
 658. 
 
 „ manned by women, 616. 
 Boat-men. 246, 630. 
 
 „ people,28, 80, 190, 363. 
 
 „ racing 22, 186. 
 
 „ women, 212. 
 Boccaro, 481. 
 Bodleian, 307. 
 Bogue forts, 41, 43. 
 Bohea, 586. 
 Boles of trees, 107. 
 Bombay, 452. 453, 454. 
 Book name, 397. 
 
 „ of Rewards and Punishments, 
 580. 
 
 „ of Secret Blessings, 580. 
 
 „ style, 320, 321. 
 Books, 81-87, 88-91 342-351, 376, 
 411,578,575,576,580,614, 
 615. 
 
 „ Business, 660. 
 
 „ Difference between English 
 and Chinese, 614, 615. 
 
 „ Destruction of the, 283. 
 
 „ for learning Chinese, 88-91. 
 
 Books on China 81-87. 
 
 Printing of, 499-501. 
 The Four. 343, 411. 
 Boots, 189, 191, 656. 
 Borneo, (Chinese in, 125. 
 „ Tea in, 589, 590. 
 Borrowing- money by Association, 
 
 536-548. 
 Borrowed uses, 659. 
 Botanical works, 49, 94, 95. 
 Botany, 49, 91-95. 
 Bowing, 49, 214. 
 Bows, 37, 214, 221. 
 Bows and arrows, 37, 41. 
 Boy, The Old, 574. 
 Boys, 8-12, 111-114, 197-204, 211, 
 521, 534, 653, 654. 
 „ Esteem in which, are held, 22, 
 Bracelets, 615. 
 Braves, 40. 
 Brazil, 306. 
 
 Brazilians in China, 249. 
 Breach-loaders, 38, 42. 
 Brest-summer, 33. 
 Brethren of the Pear Orchard, 602. 
 Bribery, 28, 158, 327, 328, 334, 384, 
 
 599. 
 Brick tea, 587, 588, 
 Bricks, 30. 
 Bridal chair, 360, 361, 363, 364. 
 
 „ song, 459. 
 Bride crying, 614. 
 
 Bridge, 30. 35, 65, 78, 254, 255, 283. 
 Bristles, 626. 
 British concessions, 634. 
 
 „ consumption of tea, 596. 
 ,, Columbia, 306. 
 ,, Columbia, Chinese in, 119 
 „ Guiana, ,, ,, 119, 
 
 120. 
 „ in China, 158, 249, 415. 
 „ Museum, 5.3, 67, 307. 
 ., railways in China, 507, 512. 
 ,, zone of influence, 635. 
 Broken silver, 155. 
 Bronze, 95-97. 
 Brush for writing, 50, 658. 
 Buckwheat, 650. 
 
 Buddhi>m, 51, .53, .54, 85, 96, 97-102, 
 108, IKi, 153, 182, 254, 265, 284, 
 316.317,318,320, 348. 354, 365, 
 37i; 380, 385, 394, 424. 478, 513, 
 553, 558, 565, 574, 577, 578, 579, 
 580, 582, 613. 
 Buddhist Sects, 513, 514. 
 Buddhistic School of Art, 51, 53, 54, 
 57, 96, 97. 
 
 a 2 
 
iv 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Buffalo, Water, 16, 102-103, 440, 
 
 663. 
 Bugle call, 41. 
 Bugs, 304, 316. 
 Burglars, 428. 
 
 Burmah, 6, 98, 121, 288, 292, 306, 
 413, 597, 598. 
 
 „ Chinese in, 121. 
 
 Frontier Treaty, 630. 
 Burmo-China Railway, 512. 
 Business men. 136. 
 
 „ name, 399, 400. 
 
 „ style, 321. 
 Butterflies, 302. 
 Buttons, 225, 358. 387, 615. 
 Buying water for the dead, 388. 
 
 O 
 
 Cabinet, 271. 
 
 Cages, 323, 324. 
 
 Calls, Official, 219. 
 
 Cambodia, Chinese in, 122. 
 
 Camel, 663. 
 
 Camellias, 242, 584. 
 
 Cameos, 610. 
 , Camphor, 103-104. 
 
 Camps, 40. 
 
 Canada, Chinese in, 119. 
 
 Canals, 8, 282, 520. 619. 
 < Canarjs 324. 
 
 Candarin, 155. 
 
 Candida, 373. 
 
 Cangue, 332, 561. 
 
 Cannon, Early use of, 38, 286. 
 
 Canton, 30, 31. 33, 34, 72, 84, 117, 
 123, 142, 147, 152, 166, 192, 193, 
 194,203,206, 227,230, 243, 251, 259, 
 262, 266, 295, 298, 330, 363, 369, 
 379, 380, 407, 436, 439, 405, 425, 
 452, 527, 549, 596, 597, 601, 619, 
 622, 625, 627, 628, 629, 630, 631, 
 640, 641, 647, 648, 649. 650, 651. 
 
 Canton Flotilla, 404, 405, 658. 
 „ Kaulung Railway, 506. 
 
 „ Railway, 506, 508. 
 „ River, 258, 262, 340, 
 
 455, 520, 664. 
 
 Cantonese, 123, 124, 167, 170, 171, 
 273, 305, 319, 420. 
 „ Books for learning 88. 
 
 Capabilities of Chinese as soldiers, 
 45, 46,. 
 
 Capital cities, 104-106, 259. 
 
 „ punishment, 552, 555, 568. 
 
 Capping of verses, 23, 469. 
 
 Caps, 190, 191, 204, 213, 216, 387, 
 
 616. 
 Carambola, 253. 
 Caravan tea, 587, 628. 
 Caravans, 379. 
 Cardinal points, 411. 
 Cards, 23, 24, 494, 498, 499, 
 Carelessness, 626. 
 Carnivora, 662. 
 
 Carpenter sits to work, 617, 618, 
 Carriage, Cost of land, 503. 
 Carriers, 619. 
 Carrying poles, 619. 
 Cart, 649. 
 
 Carved lacquer, 313. 
 Carving, 33. 36, 106-108. 
 Cash. 67, 154. 
 Cathay, 115. 248, 435. 
 Cats, 243, 244. 662-663. 
 Cats' flesh, 243. 
 Caucasus, Tea in the, 590. 
 Causes of typhoons, 637. 
 Cave dwellings, 35. 
 Ceilings, 31. 34. 35. 
 Celadon, 479, 480, 485, 486. 
 Celestial Empire, 115. 
 Celibates, 579. 
 Celts, 499. 
 Censorate. 271. 
 Census, 470-473. 
 
 Ceremonial observances, 144, 238. 
 Ceylon, 308. 
 
 ,, Chinese in, 120. 
 
 „ tea, 589, 590, 591, 592, 593, 
 594, 595, 596. 
 ' Chaff,' 654. 
 Ch^i-mui, 250. 
 Chair, 255. 
 
 „ coolies, 295. 
 Chak-'t-in-kau, 498. 
 Chance, Games of, 494-498. 
 Chancellor, Imperial. 224. 
 Chancius, 429. 
 
 Chang Liang's flute, 469, 470. 
 Chang Ngo, 571. 
 Chang Sang-yiu, 51. 
 Channels, 259. 
 Chao Chau fu, 147, 229, 298, 338, 
 
 629. 
 Characters, Divisions of, 659-660. 
 Characteristics of a Chinese sage, 
 45, 574. 
 
 „ Chinese, 3, 4, 116, 117, 129-139, 
 516. 
 
 „ Mongol, 383, 384. 
 Charlatanism, 574. 
 Charms, 164, 576, 578, 580. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Chastitv, 134, 17(5. 
 
 
 Civil Service, Admission into, 224- 
 
 Chau, Duke of, 2S0. 
 
 
 229. 
 
 „ dynastv, 2(12, 273, 280, 
 
 281, 
 
 Civilisers, 620. 
 
 294, 41.5, 529, 563, 
 
 
 Clans, 21, 139-140, 599. 
 
 Chau Kiing. 280. 
 
 
 Clarionets, 394. 
 
 „ Sin, 280. 
 
 
 Classical style, 320. 
 
 Chefoo, 563, 626, 629, 632. 
 
 
 Climate, 20, 35, 140-144. 
 
 „ Climate of, 141. 
 
 
 Right, for tea, 584. 
 
 „ Convention, 629, 630. 
 
 
 Clocks, 60(;, 608. 
 
 Ch'en porcelain, 477. 
 
 
 Clogs, 191. 
 
 Ch'eng chung fii, 55. 
 
 
 Clothing, 112, 186-193, 616. 
 
 Cheques 67. 
 
 
 Coal, 262, 264, 503, 623. 
 
 Cherries, 650. 
 
 
 Coalbeds and coalfields, 264, 502, 
 
 Chess. 23, 10«-111. 
 
 
 Coast formation, 262. 
 
 Chihli, 415, 472, 505, 630. 
 
 
 ,. trade 621, 
 
 Chikiang, 123, 629, 632, 663. 
 
 
 Coats, 188. 
 
 Children, 22-25, 111-114, 123. 
 
 197- 
 
 Cobalt decorations under glaze, 475. 
 
 202, 231. 236-238, 296-298, 
 
 387, 
 
 Cochin-China, 589. 
 
 521-523. .530-535. 
 
 
 ,, Chinese in 122. 
 
 Chile, Chinese in, 120. 
 
 
 „ Tea in, 589. 
 
 China, 114-116. 
 
 
 -Cockroaches, 300, 301. 
 
 „ Proper 257. 
 
 
 Cocks, 364, 553, 650. 
 
 „ Sea, 259. 
 
 
 Cocoons 525, 526, 527, 528, 529, 624. 
 
 Chinanfii, 105. 
 
 
 Coffins and coffin boards, 153, 265, 
 
 China's Sorrow 260. 
 
 
 614. 
 
 Chinaware, 87, 182-184,473-495 
 
 ,523, 
 
 Cognates. 9. 
 
 626. 632. 
 
 
 Coins, 74. 
 
 Chinese abroad, 78, 116-129, 274. ' 
 
 Collar, 189. 
 
 „ matches 627. 
 
 
 Collegiate course, 201. 
 
 „ people, Characteristics of, 3.| 
 
 Collo(iuial. 315, 321. 
 
 4, 116, 117, 129-139. 
 
 
 Colombo, 117, 
 
 „ postage stamps, 493, 
 
 494, 
 
 Colonial possessions, 257, 597, 635. 
 
 562. 
 
 
 Colour blindness, 131. 
 
 Ching-hwa, 481, 482. 
 
 
 Colonies 257, 597, 635. 
 
 Ching-te-chen or King-teh 
 
 chin. 
 
 Colour and form, Masterly hand- 
 
 476, 478, 626. 
 
 
 ling of, 476. 
 
 Chinkiang, 415, 524, 622, 631. 
 
 
 Colours, The Five 412, 571. 
 
 Chinnery, George, 56. 
 
 
 Colouring, 49, 55.* 
 
 Chivalry, Want of 654. 
 
 
 Combined ideas, 659. 
 
 Chong- Jen ? 54. 
 
 
 Combs, 660. ^^ 
 
 Chong-viin-ch'au, 498. 
 
 
 .Comedies, 602, 803. ^— ^"^ 
 
 Chopsticks 65, 218, 245, 386, 5 
 
 56. 
 
 Compass, 117, 118, 266, 606, 616, 
 
 Chow dogs. 179. 180, 181, 474. 
 
 662, 
 
 Competition f>f Japanese manufac- 
 
 663. 
 
 
 turers, 627. 
 
 „ dynasty, 108, 279, 280, 
 
 
 Composition. 200. 
 
 Chrysalides as food, 525. 
 
 
 „ of Chinese characters, 661 . 
 
 Chrysanthemums. 242, 243. 
 
 
 Conces.sions at treaty ports, 632, 634. 
 
 C^hiin porcelain, 479. 
 
 
 ,, for mines and railvvays, 
 
 Chungking, 415, 563, 626, 630, 
 
 632. 
 
 507—512. 
 
 ,, Convention, 629. 
 
 
 Concubinage, 26, 72, 175, 176, 364, 
 
 Ch'ung Yong festival, 59. 
 
 
 653-6.58. 
 
 Chwang-tsz, 429, 577. 
 
 
 Confucian temple, 146, 147, 380. 
 
 Cicada, 301, 302. 
 
 
 Confucianism 97, 98, 144-147, 577, 
 
 Cigarettes, 610. 
 
 
 578, 579, 582, 655, 663. 
 
 Cigars, 'Hnw, made from old, 611. 
 
 Confucius. 144-147, 270, 278, 280, 
 
 Cities, 259, 412, 418, 632. 
 
 
 281, 338, 341, 342. 343, 391, 393, 402, 
 
 Civil Service, 357-359. 
 
 
 410, 572, 573, 574, 576, 578, 582.- 
 
TO 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Congee, 514. 
 
 Custard apples, 253. 
 
 Contyou, 586 
 
 Customs, I. M., 157-159, 340, 406, 
 
 Congratulations at examinations, 
 
 493, 561, 562. 621-629, 631, 6.50, 
 
 226. 
 
 651. 
 
 Connaug-ht, Duke of 246. 
 
 Customs' Post, 157, 493, 494, 561, 
 
 Conquest, The Mongol, 54. 
 
 ■ 562, 621-629. 
 
 Conservatism, 228. 
 
 Customs of Monsfols, 384. 
 
 Constabulary, Local, 40. 
 
 Cycle, 159, 278, 607. 
 
 Constellations 571. 
 
 Cyclones, 636-641. 
 
 Consuls, 222, 230. 
 
 Cyclopgsdias, 347. 
 
 Consumption of tea, 596, 597. 
 
 Cymbals, 394, 602. 
 
 Contempt, 222. 
 
 Czarewitch, 62. 
 
 Contrarieties, 521, 522. 
 
 
 Converts S76-378. 
 
 D 
 
 Coolie, 188. 
 
 
 ,, Street, 611. 
 
 Dagger, 36. 
 
 Coolie's pipe 610. 
 
 Dahlias, 242. 
 
 Copper. 610. 
 
 Damascene Work, 97. 
 
 Corea, 285. 598, 621, 637. 
 
 Danes in China, 158, 249. 
 
 ,, Chinese in, 126. 
 
 Dangers of Inoculation, 643. 
 
 Cormorants, 147-149. 
 
 Danish Great Northern Telegraph 
 
 Coroner, 566. 
 
 Co., 598. 
 
 Corps Diplomatique, 60. 
 
 Darjeeling, Tea in, 595. 
 
 Corruption, 28, 135, 272, 384. 
 
 Dates, G09, 617. 
 
 Cosmeties, 149, 362, 625. 
 
 Daughters, 26, 305, 614. 
 
 Cosmogony, 99, 277. 
 
 Days of grace, 541. 
 
 Cotton, 14, 91, 149-153, 622, 623, 
 
 Debt slavery, 531. 
 
 628. 
 
 Decadence of art, 55, 56. 
 
 „ mills, 151-152, 293. « 
 
 Decades, 608. 
 
 „ tree, 152-158. 
 
 Decapitation, 552, 555, 568, 
 
 Councils of State, 271. 
 
 Decentralisation, 42. 
 
 Counter, 33, 495. 
 
 Decimal system, 278, 561, 562. 
 
 Counting-room, 33. 
 
 Decline in China tea trade, 590, 595, 
 
 Country of gentlemen, 4. 
 
 596, 627, 628. 
 
 Couriers, 492, 493. 
 
 -Decorations, 32, 34, 159-163, 664. 
 
 Courtesans, 309, 393, 654. 
 
 Decrees against tobacco, 609. 
 
 Court yards, 31. 
 
 Deeds, White and Eed, 599, 600. 
 
 Courts, 359. 
 
 Deer, 521, 663. 
 
 ,, of Appeal, 271, 332. 
 
 Deforestation, 143, 260. 
 
 Cows, 440. 
 
 Degrees of mourning, 387, 388. 
 
 Crackled porcelain, 479, 480, 484, 
 
 Deluge, The Great, 278. 
 
 486, 487. 
 
 •Demoniacal possession, 163-165. 
 
 Credulity of Chinese, 133, 517. 
 
 Demons, 163-165. 439, 455, 456. 
 
 Cremation, 28, 153-154. 
 
 Density of population, 471, 472. 
 
 Criminal classes, Punishment of the. 
 
 Destruction of the books, 283 316, 
 
 270. 
 
 341, 346, 392. , 
 
 Crocodiles, 665. 
 
 Devil dancers, 165. 
 
 Cross-bows, 38. 
 
 Diagrams, The Eight, 428. 
 
 Crow feathers, 161. 
 
 Dialects, 106, 166-175, 248, 274. 
 
 Crown lands, 599, 600. 
 
 Dice, 497-498. 
 
 Cruelty, 279, 533, 535. 
 
 Dictionary, 316, 317, 615. 
 
 Cuba, Chinese in, 119. 
 
 Diet, 650. 
 
 Cultivation of tobacco, 611, 612. 
 
 Dinners, Chinese, 246, 544, 545. 
 
 Cupola, 36. 
 
 Disciples of Confucius, 145, 147. 
 
 Curing tea, 586, 587. 
 
 Diseases due to heat or cold, 642. 
 
 Currency, 154-156. • 
 
 Disowned by the Clan, 140. 
 
 Cuvtain, 601, 
 
 Disregard of time, 606, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Dissipation of Sorrows, The, 401. 
 
 E 
 
 
 Disturbances incident to typhoons, 
 
 
 
 640. 
 
 Eagles, Golden, 664. 
 
 
 Divination, 341, .347. 
 
 Earrings, 191, 192, 274, 305. 
 
 
 Divine lionours to Confucius, 140. 
 
 JOarthenware money-box, 545. 
 
 
 „ right of kings, 270. 
 
 /Earthquakes, 193-19(!. 
 
 
 Divining blocl^s and sticks, 64. 
 
 East Africa, Chinese in, 129. 
 
 
 Divisions of the watch, 609. 
 
 East India Companj', 645, 646, 
 
 650. 
 
 *■ Divorce, 175-177. 
 
 East Indian Islands, 610. 
 
 
 Doctors, 177-178, 641, (J46-653. 
 
 East River, 604. 
 
 
 Dog swallowing the sun or moon, 
 
 Eastern Chinese Railway system in 
 
 572. 
 
 Manchuria, 507. 
 
 
 Dogs, 45, 179-181, 243, 244, 602- 
 
 Eating houses, 106, 
 
 
 663. 
 
 Edict, The Sacred, 345. 
 
 
 Dollars, 155. 
 
 Education, 136, 157, 197-204. 
 
 
 Dome, 36. 
 
 Eggs and Red Eggs, 76, 244, 
 
 626, 
 
 Domestic slaverj% 531-534. 
 
 650. 
 
 
 „ trade, 619, 620, 629. 
 
 Eggshell porcelain, 490. 
 
 
 Dominoes, 494, 498. 
 
 Egrets, 624. 
 
 
 Donkeys, 663. 
 
 Egyptians, 250, 
 
 
 Doors, 30. 
 
 Eight Genii, 107. 
 
 
 Drafts, 67. 
 
 Eighteen provinces, 257. 
 
 
 Draftsmen, 47. 
 
 Elements, The Five, 411. 
 
 
 ^Dragon, 34. 51, 181-185, 205. 266, 
 
 Elephantiasis, 304. 
 
 
 561, 580, 586. 
 
 Eleuths, 291. 
 
 
 Dragon-boats, 22, 185-186, 461. 
 
 Elixir of Immortality, 572, 576, 
 
 578, 
 
 „ The Green 266, 606. 
 
 579, 582. 
 
 
 „ The Order of the Double, 
 
 Embroidery, 204-207, 054. 
 
 
 160. 
 
 Emigratfon, 17. 116-129, 533. 
 
 
 Drama, 349, 600-604. 
 
 Emperor, 00. 61, 62, 140, 181, 
 
 204, 
 
 Historj' of the, 603, 604. 
 
 211, 220, 229, 237, 256, 257, 
 
 209, 
 
 Dream of the lied Chamber, 348. 
 
 270-273,317, 380, 387, 392, 
 
 401, 
 
 Dress, 6, 186-193, 204-207, 213, 
 
 402, 410, 413. 
 
 
 216, 217, 220, 274, 29.5. 602, 615, 
 
 Empress, 523. 
 
 
 616. 
 
 Empress Dowager, 60, 204. 
 
 
 Dress-suit, 191. 
 
 Enamelled Ware, 476. 
 
 
 Drink, 427. 
 
 Encroachments of the sea, 261 
 
 
 Drinking tea, 219. 
 
 England, En-rlish, and Great Britain, 
 
 Drowning, 568. 
 
 249, 257, 293, 629. 
 
 
 Drum, 41, 609. 
 
 English from Chinese pens, 
 
 208- 
 
 Drunkards, 42, 71. 
 
 212. 
 
 
 Dual principles, 429. 
 
 „ Railways, or English sy 
 
 stem 
 
 Duck, Mandarin, 359, 665. 
 
 of Railways, 507. 
 
 
 ,. Receipt for cooking, 248. 
 
 Eidvvanthus reticulatus, 241, 
 
 
 Duennas, 657. 
 
 Enquiries as to age, 215, 614. 
 
 
 Dunning, 215. 
 
 Entail, None in China, 599. 
 
 
 Dutch consumption of tea, 596. 
 
 Entering a room, 214. 
 
 
 „ East Indies, Chinese in the. 
 
 Enterprising, 619. 
 
 
 125, 126. 
 
 Epidemics, 432-457, 641. 
 
 
 „ in China, 158, 249, 291, 320. 
 
 Equity, 544. 
 
 
 „ in Formosa, 291. 
 
 Essayists, 347. 
 
 
 Dwarfing plants. -Ml, 242. 
 
 Essays, 85. 201, 224-229, 321. 
 
 
 Dj es, 625. 'M 
 
 Estates. The Four, 12. 
 
 
 Dynasties, 612. ^ 
 
 •Etiquette. 212-222, 653, 654. 
 
 
 „ The Five, 287. 
 
 Eunuchs, 281, 286, 290. 
 •Eurasians, 222-223. 
 Europe, Trade with, 620, 
 
 
Vlll 
 
 INDfil. 
 
 European matchea, 627. 
 
 Firing tea 586, 587. 
 
 
 Ever Victorious Army, The, 45, 550. 
 
 Fish, 245, 246, 650, 665. 
 
 
 Everlasting life, 572. 
 
 „ A crop of, 19. 
 
 
 Evil spirits, 10, 163-165, 239. 
 
 Fisherman, Swatow, 188, 
 
 
 Evils of morphia taking, 419-421. 
 
 Fishing with cormorants, 147-149, 
 
 „ „ opium smoking, 417-421. 
 
 „ with otters, 663, 
 
 
 Examination Hall, 224, 227. 
 
 Fishmaws, 245, 
 
 
 Examinations, 201, 224-229, 284, 
 
 Five clawed dragon, 182, 
 
 
 321. 424, 425, 469, 495, 
 
 „ coloured porcelain. 481, 
 
 482, 
 
 497, 579, 660. 
 
 488, 490, 491. ' 
 
 
 „ Military, 23, 44, 45. 
 
 „ Dynasties, 294. 
 
 
 „ Naval, 44, 45. 
 
 Flag, 183. 
 
 
 Excelsior, 209, 431, 432. 
 
 „ Yellow, Order of the, 163. 
 
 Exorcism, 576. 
 
 Flails, 17. 
 
 
 Extent of Chinese Empire, 256-258. 
 
 Flambe porcelain, 485, 486, 490, 
 
 491. 
 
 Exterritoriality, 229-231. 
 
 Fleas, 304. 
 Flies, 304, 
 
 
 F 
 
 Floods, 471, 620. 
 Flora, 91-95, 254-255. 
 
 
 Fairy tales, 165, 231. 
 
 Flour, American, 623, 627. 
 
 
 Falcons, 664. 
 
 Flower baskets 241, 
 
 
 Family, The, the unit of society, 139, 
 
 „ beds. 254. 
 
 
 140,359, 581,599. 
 
 „ boats, 106, 
 
 
 Famines, 471. 
 
 „ gardens, 23, 254-255, 
 
 
 Fangyen, 316. 
 
 Flowers, 31, 54, 91-95, 205, 240-243, 
 
 Fans, 23, 232-236, 556, 660, 661. 
 
 254-255 285, 289, 
 
 
 Fantan, 495. 
 
 „ used to scent tea, 589, 
 
 
 Farces, 602. 
 
 Flowery names, 398. 
 
 
 Fares on railways, 505. 
 
 Flowing hand, 660. 
 
 
 Farmhouse, 21. 
 
 Flutes, 394. 
 
 
 Farmers' vpives, 657. 
 
 Fokien, See Fuhkien. 
 
 
 Farms. 17, 18, 21. 
 
 Fong, General and Admii-al, 163. 
 
 Fashion, 192. 
 
 Foochow, 43, 68, 104, 147, 155, 
 
 164, 
 
 Fatshan, 455. 
 
 166, 172, 173, 192, 
 
 263, 
 
 Fauna, 662-665. 
 
 403, 406, 407, .521, 563 
 
 565, 
 
 Feasts, 22, 23, 76, 77, 185, 186, 239, 
 
 589, 604, 622, 627, 
 
 629, 
 
 362, 607, 643. 
 
 630. 
 
 
 Feather-fans, 234. 
 
 „ Books for learning, 88. 
 
 
 Feathers, 161, 602, 615, 624, 627. 
 
 „ lacquer, 312. 
 
 
 „ Kingfishers, 664. 
 
 „ squadron, 404. 
 
 
 Fees for doctors, 177, 651. 
 
 , Food, 19, 94, 243-248, 665. 
 
 
 Feet, Bound, 189, 204, 654. 
 
 „ for a baby, 75, 
 
 
 Female parts in the theatre, 602. 
 
 ,, „ mother, 75, 
 
 
 Festivals, 22, 185, 186, 600. 
 
 Foot-binding, 71, 274, 
 
 
 Feudal States, 280, 281, 282, 294. 
 
 „ paths, 619. 
 
 
 Fibres, 625. 
 
 „ rule, 65, 618, 
 
 
 Fidelity in representing birds, 48. 
 
 Foreign arms, 41, 
 
 
 Fights, Clan, 139, 140. 
 
 „ concessions, 632, 634. 
 
 
 Fiji, Tea in, 590. 
 
 ,, devil, 535. 
 
 
 Filature silk establishments, 528, 
 
 „ drilled troops, 40, 41, 
 
 43, 
 
 529, 624, 627. 
 
 ,, fortifications, 41-42, 
 
 
 Filial piety, 236-238, 296, 297. 
 
 „ officers, 41, 42, 
 
 
 Finger nails, 217, 386, 
 
 „ subjects, 634, 
 
 
 Fire crackers, 114, 238-240, 643. 
 
 „ trade, 619-629, 
 
 
 „ Introduction of, 277. 
 
 „ words, 319, 320, 
 
 
 „ screens, 205. 
 
 Foreigner, The, in Far Cathay, 
 
 229- 
 
 < „ works, 238-240. 
 
 231, 248-249. 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Forfeits, 250. 
 
 Formation of land, 2G0-264. 
 
 Formosa, 273, 21I1. 202, 293, 459, 
 
 503, 589. 598, 629, 636. 6Gi. 
 Formosan stamps, 562, 563. 
 Forts, 41. 
 Fortmie teller, 70. 
 Foxes, 165, 231, 581. 
 Fractions, 1, 617. 
 France and French, 250, 257, 624, 
 
 625. 
 Franco-Chinese War, (navy) 597. 
 Fraud, 626. 
 Freights, Low, 623. 
 French concessions, 634. 
 
 „ consumption of tea, 596, 597. 
 
 ,', in China, 158, 249. 
 
 „ Railwaj's or Fi'cnch system 
 of Railways, 507, 508. 
 
 ., stamps, 560. 
 
 ,. treaties, 630-631, 632. 
 
 „ war, 403. 
 
 „ zone of influence, 635. 
 Frescoes, 34, 49. 
 Friar Jordanus, 79. 
 Friendliness, Marks of, 219, 220. 
 Friezes, 49. 
 Frogs, 301, 665, 
 Fruit, 250-254. 
 „ blossoms, 241. 
 „ trees. Cultivation of, 18. 
 Fuh-hi 277. 
 
 Fuh-kien, 103, 123, 124, 262, 273, 
 284, 295, 298, 415, 549, 604, 632, 
 647. 
 •Funeral, 65. 66, 114, 239, 335,336, 
 388, 389, 390, 391, 393. 
 
 „ cards. 389. 
 Fungshui, 265-267, 605. 606, 613. 
 Funing, 632. 
 Furniture, 65. 
 Furs, 427. 
 
 G 
 
 Gaberdine, 187. 
 Galley, 616 
 Gama, Vasco da, 564. 
 'Gamblinor, l, 23, 226, 227, 494-499. 
 Game, 521, 628. 
 Games, 23-25, 308-310, 494-499, 521- 
 
 523. 
 Gardenia, 589. 
 Gardens, 23, 254-255, 589. 
 Garrisons, 39, 40. 
 
 Gazette, Peking, 159, 220, 407, 408. 
 Genealogies, 139, 
 
 Genii, The Eight, 107, 412, 578, 580. 
 
 Genoa, 626. 
 
 Gentlemen, The Country of, 4. 
 
 „ smoking, 610. 
 
 Geography. 201, 256-259, 344. 
 Geology, 260-264. 
 -Geomancy, 265-267, 425, 516. 
 Geometrical patterns, 32. 
 German concessions, 634. 
 
 „ consumption of tea, 597. 
 „ stamps, 560. 
 ,, treaties, 631. 
 „ zone of influence, 635. 
 Germany, and Germans in China, 
 158, 249, 257, 625. 
 „ Chinese in, 129 293. 
 Ghengis Khan, 354, 355. 
 Gingals, 38, 41. 
 .Ginger, 75, 267-268. 
 Ginseng, 268-269. 
 Girdle of China, 260. 
 Giquel, 160. 
 
 Girls. 8-12, 69-72, 111-114, 202, 205, 
 296-298, 359-365, 387-388, 400, 
 522,"653-65S. 
 Girls' names, 400. 
 Glasses, 177. 
 
 Go-betweens, 69, 70, 71, 72, 532, 617. 
 Goats, 440. 
 Goddess of Mercy, 99, 101. 
 
 „ „ Silk, 523. 
 Goddesses, 11, 12, 207. 
 Godowns, 31. 
 
 Gods, 11, 12, 107, 553, 580, 581. 
 Gold fish, 255, 666. 
 
 „ Incrustations on, 97. 
 Golden eagles trained for the chase, 
 664. 
 „ Isles of the Blest, 578. 
 „ lilies, 204, 654. 
 „ Mirror of the Medical Prac- 
 tice, 643, 644, 645. 
 Gongs, 41, 186, 361, 393, 394, 572, 
 
 609. 
 Goorkhas. 292. 
 
 Gordon, General, 45, 160, 293, 550. 
 Gossiping, 24, 654. 
 Government, 237, 270-273, 325, 327, 
 405, 524. 
 ., encoura^'-ing vaccination, 648, 
 651. 
 Grains, The Five, 412, 
 Grammar, 315, 
 Granite, 30, 33, 36, 261, 262, 263, 
 
 264, 
 Grant, General, 222. 
 Grapes, 253, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Grass-cutters, 657. 
 Grass-hand, 660. 
 Grasshoppers, 303. 323. 
 Graves, 153, 612-613. 
 Great Britain's consumption of tea, 
 588, 593, 594, 596, 597, 624, 627, 
 628. 
 Greek art, 51, 96. 
 „ decorative design, 96. 
 „ drama, 603, 604. 
 Green porcelain, 482, 483, 485, 489. 
 „ room, 601. 
 „ standard, 40. 
 „ tea, 587, 588, 589, 591, 592. 
 Grenada, Chinese in, 1 1 9. 
 Grev is mourning, 616. 
 Grits, 262. 
 
 Grosvenor, Mr., 438. 
 Grabs, Silkworm, 244. 
 Guards for the Palace, 39. 
 Guava, 253. 
 Guests, 215, 218, 219. 
 Guitar, 394. . 
 Gulfs, 259. 635. 
 Gums, 625. 
 Gunboats, 404, 406 
 Gymnastic exercises, 24, 228. 
 
 H 
 
 Ha dynasty, 116, 279. 
 Habitations of the poor, 32. 
 Hades, 577. 
 Hainan, 5,124, 193, 257, 340, 598, 
 
 640, 662. 664. 
 Hainanese,Booksfor learning, 88, 173 
 Haiphons:, Chinese in. 121. 
 Hair, 6, 190, 192, 274, 615, 616. 
 
 „ presses, 305. 
 Hakka, Books for learning, 88, 89. 
 Hakkas, 124, 167, 170, 171, 172,173, 
 
 190, 192, 273-276, 298. 
 Halberds, 36, 37. 
 Hall, Eeception, 31. 
 Ham, 650. 
 Hamburs;, 611. 
 Hammer oyster, 666. 
 Handing things, 217. 
 Handling articles, 217, 614. 
 Han dynasties, 105, 115, 283, 294, 
 
 306, 316, 320, 326, 342, 578, 
 H5,n jin. 115, 283. 
 Hangchow, 81, 84, 105, 879, 632. 
 Hankan, 52. 
 Hankow, 41, 142, 298, 407, 563. 
 
 „ 591, 626, 631, 632, 634, 635. 
 ,. and Cautua Eailway, 510. 
 
 Hankow Eailway, 506, 508, 509, 
 510. 
 
 Hanlin, 226, 498. 
 „ College, 226. 
 
 Han Man Kung, or Han Yii, 465-466, 
 468. 
 
 Harrow, 17. 
 
 Hart, Sir Kobert, 158, 160, 161, 162, 
 493. 
 
 Hats, 64, 190, 191, 213, 216, 274, 
 614. 
 
 Hau-luk, 498. 
 
 Havana tobacco, 611. 
 
 Hawaii, Chinese in, 120, 129. 
 
 Hawthorn pattern, 490. 
 
 Headcloths, 190. 
 
 Heaven and earth. Worship of, 95, 
 513, 553,582. 
 
 Heavens. IDistance of the, 570. 
 
 Hebrew, 307. 
 
 Hehlung Kiang, 598. 
 
 Height of Chinese, 130, 132, 133. 
 
 Hell, 580. 
 
 Hemp, 624. 
 
 Henniken, Major von, 160. 
 
 Heroes and deceased men. Worship 
 of, 553. 581. 582. 
 
 Hia dynnsty 279. 
 
 Hides, 624. 
 
 Hien Fung, 292. 293. 
 
 Hieroglyphics, 658, 659. 
 
 High, Ascending on, 23. 
 
 Hillside land, 600. 
 
 Hindustanee, 421. 
 
 Historical plays, 602. 
 
 History, 24, 86, 197-198, 276-294, 
 342. 343, 344. 
 
 Ho Sin Kwu, 78. 
 
 Hoang Tsuan. 53 
 
 Hoe. 17. 
 
 Hokaii, 630, 631. 
 
 Hokkien, 192. 
 
 Hoklo, 295. 
 
 „ speech, 172, 295. 
 
 Honan, 277, 279, 281, 306, 415, 508. 
 
 Honesty, 619. 
 
 Hongkew, 634. 
 
 Hongkonir,143, 15,5, 183, 190. 192, 
 193, 21 13, 223, 230, 239, 249, 251, 
 262, 263, 266, 268, 274, 288, 295, 
 307, 308, 333, 336, 341, 376, 406, 
 407, 433, 434, 446, 447, 448, 449, 
 450, 451, 452, 454, 455, 531, 532, 
 560, 561, 601, 604, 606. 611, 621, 
 635, 640, 641, 652, 662, 665. 
 Hongkong dollar, 156. 
 „ Flora of, 92. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Hongkong Government Vaccine Ins- 
 titute, 652. 
 „ stamps, 56U, 561. 
 Hong Shun, 23U. 
 Hongs, 31. 
 
 Honorary distinction, 159-163. 
 Honour, Place of, 215. 
 Hookah, OUtl, 610. 
 Horseback, Permitted to ride' on, 
 
 161, 162. 
 Horses, 6()3. 
 
 Hospitals, 376, 377, 619, 650, 651. 
 Hosts. 215, 218, 219. 
 Hot water cloth, 218. 
 Hour, Chinese, 608. 
 Houses, 29, 30, 31, 32, 34, 80, 106, 
 323, 660. 
 ,. Paper, 27. 
 ' How do you do V In Chinese, 614. 
 Hukwong, or Hunan and Hupeh, 6, 
 
 103, 259, 268, 310, 508, 510, 593, 
 
 598, 629, 630, 632. 
 Hung League, 548, 558. 
 Hung Sau-t'siin, 549. 
 
 „ Wu, 67, 105, 289, 36.5. 
 Hungarians in China, 158. 
 Huns, 353, 381, 382. 
 Husbandman's song, 461. 
 Hwang-ti, 7, 278, 391, 474, 658. 
 Hyson, 585. 
 
 Ibn Batuta, 79, 153. 
 Ichang, 563, 629, 632. 
 Iconoclastic persecutions, 96. 
 Idolatry, 576, 581, 582, 680. 
 Ignorance, 516, 517. 
 Hi, 257, 471. 
 litis, Officers of, 160. 
 Images, 26, 107, 146, 147. 
 Imitative symbols, 658-659. 
 
 „ words, 318. 
 Immortalitv, Elixir of, 572, 576, 
 
 578, 579, .582. 
 Imperial Library, 345. 
 
 „ Manufactory of Porcelain, 
 476, 477, 478, 479. 
 Incense sticks, 64, 74, 551, 553 
 
 643. 
 Indefinlteness of the Chinese, 608. 
 Index Expurgatorius, 345. 
 India, 3o8, 320, 337, 413, 454, 603, 
 605, 620, 623, 
 
 India Chinese in, 117, 118, 120, 121, 
 
 620. 
 Indian art, 51, 478. 
 ,, language, 434. 
 „ opium;621,622. 
 „ tea, 584, 585, 589, 590. 591, 
 592, 593, 594, 595, 596, 597. 
 Industry, 133. 
 ^Infanticide, 17, 238, 296-298, 391, 
 
 565. 
 Inheritance of property, 599. 
 Initiation of Triads, 551-555. 
 Ink, 50. 
 
 Inner Apartments, 655. 
 ■Inoculation, 641-645, 647. 
 Insanitation, 144, 153, 442, 445, 446, 
 
 455. 
 Inscriptions on fans, 23. 253, 236. 
 -Insects, 35, 103, 298-304, 453, 666. 
 Insignia of rank, 358. 
 Inspector General of Customs, 157, 
 
 158, 160, 161, 162,493. 
 Instructor of the Emperior, 163. 
 Instruments of music, 392, 394. 
 
 „ „ torture, 618. 
 
 Intellect, Seat of, in the stomach, 
 
 614. 
 Intercalary month, 607, 608. 
 Interjectional element in the lan- 
 guage, 318. 
 Internal trade, 619, 620, 629. 
 Introduction of Buddhism, 97, 284. 
 „ ,, inoculation, 641 , 642, 
 
 643. 
 ,. „ inoculation into 
 
 the West, 641, 642. 
 643. 
 ,, „ tobacco, 611. 
 
 II ,, ,1 into America, 
 
 611. 
 „ „ vaccination, 641-653. 
 
 ,, „ western art, 54, 56. 
 
 ,, ,, writing, 658. 
 
 Invention of printing, .500. 
 
 „ „ writing, 658-659, 
 
 Inventions, Adoption of foreign. 
 
 608. 
 Ireland, Snakes in, 606, 607. 
 Iron, 63, 610. 
 Iron-capped Princes, 410, 
 Ironclads, 402, 406. 
 Ironworks, 506. 
 Irregulars, 40. 
 Irrigation, Methods of, 15. 
 Islands, 257, 258. 
 Italian, 158, 249, 250. 
 Ivory carving, 106, 107, 
 
 b 2 
 
Xll 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Jackets, 112, 186-189, 191, 274, 295, 
 
 387, 615. 
 Jackfruit, 253. 
 ' Jade,, 304-306, 615. 
 Jakutsh, 648. 
 Jamaica, Chinese in, 119. 
 Japan and Japanese, 6, 257, 290, 
 307, 310, 320, 594, 608, 
 625, 637. 
 Japan, Chinese in, 126. 
 Japanese concessions, or settlements. 
 632, 6S4, 635. 
 „ cotton goods, 623. 
 „ dollar, 156. 
 „ in China, 249. 
 „ matches, 627. 
 „ stamps, 560. 
 „ tea, 589. 
 „ tobacco, 610. 
 „ treaties, 632. 
 „ war, 402. 
 Jasmines, 589. 
 Java, Chinese in, 125. 
 „ Tea in, 589, 590. 
 Jay, 665. 
 
 JealoAsies of polj'gamy, 365, 656. 
 Jeering at women, 654. 
 Jehovah, Name of, 575. 
 Jekutzh, 648. 
 Jelebu, Chinese in, 124. 
 Jesuits, 56, 290, 292, 346, 372-375, 
 
 575. 
 Jewellery, 305. 
 -Jews, 306, 307, 
 ' Jinrickshas, 307-308. 
 Johore, Chinese in, 124. 
 
 „ Tea in, 590. 
 Joss paper, 59. 
 Journals, 59, 60, 83, 84, 85. 
 Ju porcelain, 477. 
 Judges, 333, 334. 
 Jugglers, 24, 578, 579. 
 Junks, 78, 79, 117, 118, 122, 402, 
 
 406, 425. 
 Justice, Poetical, 603. 
 
 K 
 
 Eaempfer, 268. 
 
 Kaifung-fu, 105, 306, 307. 
 
 Kaiping and Taku Eailway, 504, 
 
 505. 
 Kamchatkan consumption of tea, 
 
 597. 
 Kamchuk, 630. 
 
 Kang-hi, 97, 174, 229, 291, 313, 318, 
 
 373, 392, 413, 483, 487, 488, 489. 
 Kangra Valley tea, 595. 
 Kangs, 650. 
 Kansuh, 379, 415. 
 Kaolin, 476, 477. 
 Karakorum, 306. 
 Kaulung, 188, 452, 635. 
 Keeping step, 616. 
 „ time, 606. 
 Kerosene, 623, 626, 627. 
 Kerr, Dr., 651. 
 Khitai, 115. 
 Khitans, 115, 355, 382. 
 Khotan, 304, 305. 
 Kia King, 292. 
 Kia Yi, 460, 587. 
 Kiakhta, 648. 
 Kiang Chow, 629. 
 Kiangnam, 123, 256, 647. 
 Kiangsi, 103, 262, 268, 273, 604, 630, 
 
 647. 
 Kiangsu, 261, 262, 415, 472, 528, 
 
 631, 632. 
 Kiang Tao-jin, 52. 
 Kiaochow, 293, 635. 
 Kidnapping, 10. 
 Kieh Kwei, 279. 
 Kien Lung, 292, 313, 392, 473, 488- 
 
 491. 
 Kien porcelain, 477. 
 Kimberley, Chinese in, 120. 
 Kin dynasty, 603. 
 King-crabs, 666. 
 Kingfishers' feathers, 360, 664. 
 King Hao, 53. 
 „ of the Beggars, 365. 
 King-teh-chin, 476, 478, 626. 
 Kins, 287, 354, 383. 
 Kiosks, 255. 
 Kirin, 415. 
 Kitah, 115. 
 Kitasato, 450. 
 "Kites, 24, 59, 308-310, 522, 616. 
 Kiukiang. 146, 563. 596, 626, 627. 
 
 631. ' 
 
 Knickerbockers, 187. 
 Knotted strings for recording 
 
 events, 355. 
 Ko Yan, 479. 
 Kokonor, 257, 663. 
 Ko-lo-wui, 558, 559. 
 Kon-min-you;.', 497. 
 Kongmun, 630. 
 Kowlung, 183, 452, 635 
 Kow Shing, 160. 
 Kowtow, 62. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ziii 
 
 Koxinga, 291, 410, 063, 664. 
 
 Li, 155. 
 
 Kuan porcelain. 47S). 
 
 Li Cheng, 52, 54. 
 
 Kublai Khan, 68, 87, 97, 10(5, 256, 
 
 Li Cheng-ho, 52. 
 
 287, 2SS, 289. 
 
 Li Hung-chang-, 161. 
 
 Kucheng massacre, 5.^9. 
 
 Li Kin Kii Sze, 55. 
 
 Kulangsu, 262. 
 
 Li Kwai, 32(5. 
 
 Kwang-chau-wan. 456, 635. 
 
 Li Luntc-yen, 57. 
 
 Kwang-si, 5, 6, 140, 171, 172, 259, 
 
 Li Tai-po, 349, 461-464. 
 
 262,273, 311, 507,604, 631,632. 
 
 Li Ti, 54. 
 
 Kwong Sui, 229, 293,607. 
 
 Li Tsien, 52. 
 
 Kwangtung, 5, 6, 103, 123, 140, 170, 
 
 Lice, 304. 
 
 259, 262, 267, 273, 274, 284, 292, 
 
 •F-ichi, 251. 
 
 295, 344, 507, 604, 629. 641, 647. 
 
 Licius, or Lieh-tsz, 429, 577. 
 
 Kweichow, 5, 6, 262, 415, 472, 569. 
 
 Lictors, 333. 
 
 Kwong-chau-wan, 456,635. 
 
 Lien Chow, 444. 
 
 
 Life for a life, 334. 
 
 L 
 
 „ of little account, 565, 566, 
 
 
 „ placid, 606. 
 
 L. L. D., 225. 
 
 „ Saving of, 565. 
 
 Labourers, 188. 
 
 Tiight and shade, 47, 54. 
 
 Labuan, Chinese in, 125. 
 
 Lighthouses, 157, 340-341. 
 
 Lacquer, 310-314, 523. 
 
 Lilies, 242. 
 
 Ladies, 24. 
 
 • Literature, 53, 86, 116, 200, 283, 
 
 ,, smoking, 610, 616. 
 
 341-351, 380, 656. 
 
 Lakes, 258, 261. 
 
 „ God of, 107, 581. 
 
 Lances, 41. 
 
 Liturgies, 580. 
 
 Lancet. 650, 652. 
 
 Liu Liang, 55. 
 
 Land forces, 39, 40. 
 
 Loan, Money, Associations, 536-548. 
 
 „ formed from the sea, 260, 261. 
 
 Local Constabutary, 40. 
 
 „ tax, 599, 600. 
 
 ,, Post Offices, 460, 493. 561, 
 
 Landscapes, 47, 49, 52, 53, 54, 57, 
 
 563, 564. 
 
 66, 233, 422. 
 
 Lodgfes, 550-555, 557. 
 
 Langson-Lungchow Railway, 507. 
 
 Loess formation, 261. 
 
 Language, 5, 6, 87, 88-91, 197, 273, 
 
 Loin cloth, 188. 
 
 295, 314-322. 
 
 Lolo, 443. 
 
 Lao-tsz, 281, 572-583. 
 
 London, 626, 627, 629. 
 
 Lark, 322-324, 664-665. 
 
 „ Chinese in, 128. 
 
 Laughing when death is mentioned. 
 
 Looms, 528. 
 
 614. 
 
 Loquat, 251. 
 
 Laureate, 226. 
 
 ^Lotteries, 495, 496. 
 
 -Law, 29, 284, 288, 324-334, 534, 535, 
 
 Lotus, 242, 254. 
 
 545, 547, 555. 
 
 Love, 603. 
 
 Laws of the Universe, 582. 
 
 Love letters, 654. 
 
 Lawyers, 333. 
 
 Lii Ki, 55. 
 
 Lay, 158. 
 
 Lu-chi-kou, 630. 
 
 Le, 5. 
 
 Lucky days, 644. 
 
 Leather, 624. 
 
 Lung-chow, 630, 631. 
 
 Leave, (Jetting, 617. 
 
 Lung ch'iian-yan, 479. 
 
 Leaves, 77, 78. 
 
 Lung Ngtiu, 251. 
 
 Leeward Islands, Chinese in, 119. 
 
 Lutes, 394. 
 
 Left the seat of honour, 614, 
 
 Luzon, 609. 
 
 Legendary history, 277. 
 
 
 Leggings, 187, 188, 210. 
 
 M 
 
 Lepers and Leprosy, 173, 244, 334- 
 
 
 339, 651, 652. 
 
 M. A., 225. 
 
 Letter writing 200, 201. 
 
 Ma Kon, 54. 
 
 Letters of credit, 67. 
 
 Ma Twan-lin, 344. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Ma Yuen, 54. 
 
 
 Marks on porcelain, 492. 
 
 Macanese, 223. 
 
 
 • Marriage, 69-72, 78, 114. 239, 359- 
 
 Macao, 72, 84, 142, 14.S, 190, 
 
 192, 
 
 365, 386, 393, 473, 532, 
 
 223, 2-tO, 249, 251, 308, 
 
 341, 
 
 533, .535, .536, 564, 565, 
 
 406, 407, 452. 504, 606, 
 
 635, 
 
 617, 6.53-658. 
 
 , 641, 643, 665. 
 
 
 „ name, 396, 397. 
 
 „ postage stamps, 564. 
 
 
 „ The Three Covenants and 
 
 Macartney, Sir H., 163. 
 
 
 Six Ceremonies of, 70. 
 
 Mace, 155. 561, 562. 
 
 
 Marseilles, 626. 
 
 Machin, 115, 
 
 
 Martial law, 46. 
 
 Machinery for tea, 590, 591, 
 
 595, 
 
 Marts, 259, 412. 
 
 596. 
 
 
 Mass, 389, 577. 
 
 Made in Germany, 625. 
 
 
 Matches, 627. 
 
 Magenta dye, 625. 
 
 
 Matchlocks, 38, 41. 
 
 Magic, 265, 516, 578, 580, 582. 
 
 
 Mathematics, 203, 204, 229, 346. 
 
 „ sword, 581. 
 
 
 Matheson, 160. 
 
 Magicians, 578. 
 
 
 Mats and matting, 64, 624, 628. 
 
 Magistracy, 600. 
 
 
 Matsheds, 32, 63, 388, 600. 
 
 Magrnolias, 242. 
 
 
 Mauritius, Chinese in, 120. 
 
 Malacca, Chinese in, 122, 123. 
 
 
 Meadow land, Absence of, 20, 92. 
 
 Malaria, 303, 304. 
 
 
 Meals, 218, 219, 245, 246, 247. 
 
 Malay, 431. 
 
 
 Measures. 65. 
 
 Malaysia, Chinese in, 122, 123. 
 
 
 •Medals, 159, 160. 
 
 Malwa, 622. 
 
 
 Medical works, 341, 345, 346. 643. 
 
 Mammalia, 662-664. 
 
 
 Medicine, 65, 177, 178, 268, 416. 
 
 Man the beast of burden, 617, 
 
 620. 
 
 „ and Disease, Gods of, 581. 
 
 Manchester goods, 623. 
 
 
 Melon seeds, 601. 
 
 Manchu, 39, 269. 287, 291, 292, 
 
 293, 
 
 Memory, 133. 
 
 294, 326, 352-355, 503 
 
 553. 
 
 Men of war, 402-406, 
 
 „ langfuage, 319, 355-357 
 
 386. 
 
 Mencius, 270, 278, 281, 402, 410, 
 
 Manchuria, 257, 259, 268, 269, 
 
 293, 
 
 429. 
 
 471, 525, 526, 597, 605, 662, 
 
 363. 
 
 •- Mendicants, 365-369. 
 
 Manchurian railways, oil, 512. 
 
 
 Mengtze, 415, 443, 444,631, 633. 
 
 Mandalay, (Chinese in, 121, 
 
 
 Mental characteristics, 133, 135. 
 
 Mandarin, 204, 216. 219, 220, 
 
 222, 
 
 *Menu of Chinese dinner, 247. 
 
 273,293,357-359,517 
 
 518. 
 
 Mercantile honesty, 135, 619. 
 
 „ Books for learning, 89. 
 
 
 Metals, 264, 412, 571. 
 
 „ duck, 359, 665. 
 
 
 Metaphoric symbols aud combina- 
 
 ., language, 105, 106, 167, 
 
 169- 
 
 tions, 659. 
 
 170, 173. 174, 175, 
 
 317, 
 
 Metempsychosis, 565. 
 
 359. 
 
 
 Methodical, 619. 
 
 „ orange, 359. 
 
 
 Mexican dollar, 155. 
 
 „ porcelain, 491. 
 
 
 Mexico, 306. 
 
 Man-tsz, 5, 6, 153, 502. 
 
 
 „ Chinese in, 120, 
 
 Mang-hao, 631. 
 
 
 „ Tea in. 590 
 
 Mango, 253. 
 
 
 Miau-tsz, 5. 6. 7. 2i;7, 292, 502. 
 
 Manila cigars, 611, 612. 
 
 
 Mice, 243, 244, 6ii3. 
 
 Manipur, Tea in, 595. 
 
 
 Micius, 429. 
 
 Manuring, 15, 19. 
 
 
 Middle Flowery Kingdom, 116. 
 
 Maoris, Comsumption of tea 
 
 
 ., Kingdom, 61, 115. 
 
 amongst, 596. 
 
 
 Midwife, 74. 
 
 Maps on fans, 234. 
 
 
 Mih-tsz or Micius, 429, 
 
 Marco Polo, 68. 79, 87, 100. 
 
 105, 
 
 Mileage of coast, 257. 
 
 1.53, 155, 181, 256, 257, 288, 
 
 372, 
 
 „ „ telegraph, 589. 
 
 474. 
 
 
 Milfoil, 428. 
 
 Marine forces, 40, 402-406. 
 
 
 Military, 39-46, 358. 
 
 Maritime trade, 619-629. 
 
 
 „ examinations, 44-45, 228, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 xif 
 
 Military officers, 43, 44, 45, 46, 228, 
 
 229, 358. 
 Milk-name, 397. 
 „ of the bulialo, 103. 
 Millet, 515. 
 Milne 375. 
 Minerals, 2f)4. 610. 
 Ming, 36, 55, 56, 68, 105, 256, 275, 
 282,289,290,291,294,317, 
 326,347,365,373,383,413, 
 475, 481, 536, 552, 609. 
 „ porcelain, 480-483. 
 Minto, 156, 293. 
 Miracle plays, 604. 
 • Missions and missionaries, 164, 202, 
 203, 274, 295, 370-378, 
 408, 649, 650. 652. 
 „ Protestant, 26, 274, 295, 408. 
 „ Roman Catholic, 26, 372- 
 375. 
 Modern music, 392. 
 Modes of expressing time, 609. 
 Modesty, 193. 
 .^Mohammedan, 26. 36, 116,. 286, 293, 
 307, 379-381, 413, 440, 
 603, 607. 
 „ literature, 380. 
 Mohammed's uncle, 379, 380. 
 Monasteries, 54, lOO, 581, 589. 
 ■^ Money, 67-69, 154-156. 
 
 „ Loan Associations, 536-548. 
 „ scales, 155. 
 Mongol dynasty. 54, 55. 69, 97, 117, 
 118, 27.5, 287-289. 
 „ languapfe, 384-386. 
 Mongolia, 257, 319, 621, 663. 
 Mongolian, The, Family, 129. 
 „ lark, 823. 
 „ soldiery, 39. 
 Mongols, 294, 317, 353, 356, 381- 
 384, 502, 648, 664. 
 „ Characteristics and customs 
 of, 383-384. 
 Monkeys, 453, 662. 
 Monsoons, 91, 118, 
 Monte Video. 306. 
 Moon, 553, 570, 571, 572, 607, 608. 
 „ cakes, 23, 571. 
 „ feasts, 23, 186, 571. 
 Morality, 134, 137, 580. 
 "Morphia, 419, 421, 622. 
 Morra, 250. 
 
 Morrison, Dr., 374, 375. 
 Mortality from inoculation. 643. 
 Mortgage and mortgagee, 600. 
 Mosques. 380. 
 •Mosquito, 137, 232, 303, 304. 
 
 Moths, 299, 302. 
 
 Mountains, 258. 
 
 „ Worship of, 95, 582. 
 
 'Mourning, 9. 11, 386-391, 535, 553, 
 616. 
 
 Moustache, 615, 
 ' Mulberry, 91, 524. 
 
 Mules, 663. 
 
 Municipal Council, Shanghai, 563. 
 
 Municipalities at Treaty Ports, 563. 
 
 Mural decorations, -19, 50, 184. 
 
 Murder. 22, 24, 114, 239, 391-396, 
 602, 603, 604. 
 
 Mushrooms, 650, 
 . Music, 391-396, 654. 
 ^Musical instruments, 394, 395. 
 
 Mutton, 247, 383, 650. 
 
 Mutual responsibility, 271. 
 
 Muzzle loaders, 41. 
 
 Mysore, Chinese in, 120, 121. 
 
 Mystery plays, 600. 
 
 Mythological period, 276. 277, 294. 
 
 Myths, 513. 
 
 N 
 
 Nakedness, 130. 
 
 "Names, 113, 114-116, 220, 396-402, 
 617. 
 „ for China, 114-116. 
 „ „ God, 373, 374, 581. 
 „ „ tea, 583, 585, 586. 
 Nankeen, 150. 
 
 Nanking, 36, 105. 106, 141, 289,307, 
 365, 405, 423, 425, 426, 
 549, 630. 
 „ pagoda, 36, 423, 425, 426. 
 „ porcelain tower, 36, 423, 
 
 425, 426. 
 „ Treaty of, 376, 629. 
 Nunning, 507, 632. 
 Narcissus, 241. 
 Natal, Tea in, 590. 
 National Bank, 67. 
 Native opium, 622. 
 Natural Philosophy, 572. 
 
 ,, Science, Rudiments of, 265. 
 Nature, Love of, 242, 457. 
 „ sounds, 318. 
 „ The Three Powers of, 411. 
 „ The Worship of, 95, 457, 513, 
 580, 582. 
 Naval Colleges, 405. 
 
 ,, Offiers, 44. 
 Naw, 79, 293, 402-406. 
 Needles, 627. 
 Negri Sembilan, Chinese in, 124, 
 
 ty 
 
INDEX. 
 
 ^Nestorian Monument, 370-371. 
 
 Oaths, 213, 333. 
 
 
 •>Nestorians, 100, 285. 356, 370-372. 
 
 „ of Triads, 553. 554. 
 
 
 Netherlands India, Chinese in, 129. 
 
 Obscenity, 212, 213, 654, 
 
 
 New Guinea, Chinese in, 128, 129. 
 
 Observatory, 97. 
 
 
 „ South Wales, Chinese in, 128. 
 
 Ochotzk, 648. 
 
 
 „ Year, 114, 186, 213, 239, 241, 
 
 Odoric, Friar, 147. 
 
 
 607. 
 
 Offerings to the dead, 27. 
 
 
 „ Zealand, 306. 
 
 Officers and Officials, 41, 
 
 357-359, 
 
 „ ,, Chinese in, 128. 
 
 498, 615, 617, 619. 
 
 
 Newchwang, 141, 340, 505, 512, 625, 
 
 Official calls, 219, 220, 393. 
 
 
 629, 634. 
 
 „ mourning, 388. 
 
 
 Newspapers, 377, 406-408. 
 
 „ name, 397, 398. 
 
 
 Ng Sam-kwai, 291, 
 
 „ rank, 615. 
 
 
 Ngan-ching:, 630. 
 
 „ religion, 95. 
 
 
 Ngan Hwui, 53, 57. 
 
 ., residences, 34. 
 
 
 Nganwhui, or Anhwei, 262, 415, 569, 
 
 Oils, 624. 
 
 
 629, 630, 666. 
 
 Old age, 130. 
 
 
 Ngau-p'ai, 498. 
 
 Old Boy. The, 574. 
 
 
 Nickel, 610. 
 
 Olea fragrans, .589. 
 
 
 Nicknames, 398. 
 
 Olive seeds, 106, 108. 
 
 
 Ningpo, 84, 107, 141, 167, 173. 622, 
 
 Onfa tea trade. 593. 
 
 
 629, 630, 643, 651. 
 
 Open doors, 293, 294. 
 
 
 „ Books for learning, 89. 
 
 Opera, 602. 
 
 
 „ carving, 107. 
 
 .Opium, 413-420, 427, 517, 
 
 568, 569, 
 
 ,. lacquer, 312. 
 
 570, 650. 
 
 
 Nobility, 409-410, 618. 
 
 „ _ pills, 421, 621, 622. 
 
 
 Noise, 238. 
 
 Opposition to railway's, 504 
 
 505, 506, 
 
 Noises, Disagreeable, 215. 
 
 507. 
 
 
 Nom de plume, 402. 
 
 Orange-pips, Guessing the 
 
 number 
 
 North America, 624. 
 
 of, 496, 497. 
 
 
 „ of China, 143, 297, 298, 520, 
 
 •Oranges, 91, 251, 359, 496, 
 
 589, 
 
 527, 620, 662, 663. 
 
 Orders of Merit, 159, 160. 
 
 
 „ River, 604. 
 
 Organ, 394. 
 
 
 Northern Buddhism, 98. 
 
 Origin of the Chinese, 4, 256. 
 
 „ fleet, 293, 402, 404, 405. 
 
 Ornaments and Ornamentation, 29, 
 
 „ Mandarin, 106. 
 
 32, 274, 305, 660, 661. 
 
 
 „ School of Painting, 52, 
 
 Otters, 663. 
 
 
 53, 54. 
 
 Ouan Mo-kie, 53. 
 
 
 ,. Squadron. 402, 404. 
 
 Outdoor pursuits for women, 657. 
 
 „ Sung, 285. 
 
 sports, 23, 24, 25, 
 
 
 Norway, Tonnage of, to China, 625. 
 
 Outings, 22, 23, 58, 59, 
 
 
 Norwegians in China, 158, 249. 
 
 
 
 Notches in sticks for recording 
 
 
 
 events, 355. 
 
 P 
 
 
 Novels, 347, 348, 655. 
 
 
 
 Number of Chinese vaccinated, 645, 
 
 Pacific, 636. 
 
 
 646,647,648,649,650, 
 
 Paddy. 514, 
 
 
 651, 652. 
 
 'Pagoda, 36, 380, 421-426. 
 
 
 ,, „ foreigners in China. 
 
 Pahang, Chinese in, 125. 
 
 
 248, 249. 
 
 P'ai-kaii, 498. 
 
 
 Numerical Categories, 197, 411-413. 
 
 Painters, 47-58, C^6. 
 Painting. 47-58, 6(^. 
 Pakhoi, 444, 445, 629, 631. 
 
 
 
 
 „ Railways, 507, 508. 
 Pak-kop-piu, 496. 
 
 
 Oak, 525, 527. 
 
 Palace, 62. 
 
 
 Oars, 616. 
 
 Paleozoic rocks, 262. 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Pa I in leaf. 232. 
 
 „ „ fans., 232. 
 Pangolin, ()(i4. 
 Pantomime. (502. 
 Paper, 50, (So, 500, 501. 
 ,. notes, 155. 
 „ storks, 3S8. 
 Parasit<^s, 113. 303. 
 Parental authority, 23G-238, 327, 
 532, 534, 535. 
 „ Government, 270. 
 Passports, 634. 
 Pastenr system, 520. 
 Pasture land, Absence of, 20, 92, 
 Patience, 106, 133, 206, 610. 
 Patna opium, 622. 
 Patriarchal Government. 270. 
 Patrick, St., 60(1. 
 .Pawnshops, 206, 426-428. 
 ' Pawn tickets, 428. 
 Pay of soldiers, 43. 
 Peaceableness, 133. 
 Peaceful, 516. 
 f Peaches, 241, 252. 
 -Peacock feather, 161, 615. 
 Peak in Hongkong, 143, 636. 
 Pear, 253. 
 Pearl Eiver, 262. 
 Pearson Dr., 645-648. 
 Pechili, 261. 
 
 ,. Gulf of, 635. 
 Pecoe, or Pekoe, 585, 591. 
 Peculation;*, 43, 
 Pedlers. 205, 
 Peiho, 260. 
 
 Peking, 97, 106, 141, 150, 166, 180, 
 
 226, 259, 288. 379, 597, 
 
 620, 629, 631, 632, 635, 
 
 641, 647, 648, 649. 
 
 „ Canton Eailway, 506, 509, 
 
 510. 
 „ Gazette, 407, 408. 
 ,, Tientsin Railway, 510. 
 Pekingese, Books for learning, 
 
 89. 
 Pen, 65. 
 Pun ts'ao and botanical works, 49. 
 
 92, 94. 
 Penal code, 284. 325. 
 Penang, 621. 
 Peony, 242. 243. 
 Perak. Chinese in, 124. 
 Periodicals, 406-408. 
 Persecutions of Buddhism, 96, lOl, 
 371, 372. 
 „ ., the Nestorians, 371, 
 
 372. 
 
 Persoctions of (ho Roman Catholics, 
 
 374. 
 Per.soverance, ]33, 206. 
 Persia, 285, 320. 
 Persian Art, 97, 491. 
 
 „ opium, 621, 622. 
 Persimmons, 253, 
 Perspective, Chinese, 47, 57, 100. 
 Peru, Chinese in, 120. 
 Pescadores, 598. 
 Peso, 507. 
 
 Petticoats, 187, 204. 
 Pheasants, 521, 624, 665. 
 Philippines, 611, 645. 
 
 ,, Chinese in, 120. 
 
 „ Tea in the, 589. 
 
 Philology, 87, 814-322, 
 Philosopher's stone, 578, 579, 582. 
 Philosophy, 144, 145, 146, 197, 265, 
 342, 345, 428-430, 571, 572-583. 
 Phonetic, 659. 
 Physical Characteristics, 129-133, 
 
 144. 
 Picking tea, 585, 586, 
 Picnics, 255. 
 Pictures, 47-58. 
 •Pidgin English, 430-432. 
 Piece goods, 650, 651, 
 Pigeons, 452. 
 Pigments, 50. 
 Pigs, 663. 
 Pigs' wash, 657. 
 Pikes, 36, 37. 
 Pinafore, 188. 
 Pineai)ple, 253. 
 Ping Wong, 280. 
 Pins, 305. 
 x^ipes, 65, 609, 610, 611, 
 
 ,, Opium, 65, 513. 
 Piracies, 627. 
 Pirates, 292. 
 Pi-se. 478. 
 Pith flowers, 243. 
 Pla-ue, 304, 432-457. 
 Plains, 258, 260, 261, 471, 472, 
 Planets, The Five, 571. 
 Plantains, 251. 
 Plantations, Tea, 585. 
 Plays, 317, 601, 602, 603, 
 Pliny, 344. 
 
 Ploughing, Emperor and Officers, 13. 
 Plum, 241, 253. 
 Poe, E. A., 460. 
 Poetry, Cylj, 86, 457-470, 579, 603, 
 
 655, 660. 
 Poets, 66, 457-470. 
 Polite enquiries, 215, 614, 654. 
 
xviii 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 Politeness, 133, 134, 212-222, 369. 
 Political geography, 259. 
 Polygamy, 364, 365, 473, 5G4. 
 Polygnotus, 57. 
 Polytheism, Buddhistic and other, 
 
 99, 574. 
 Pomegranite, 254. 
 '"Porcupine, 664. 
 Pools, 254. 
 
 Pope of Taonism, 581. 
 Popped rice, 515. 
 Poppy, Cultivation of, 14, 413, 414, 
 
 415. 
 Population, 470-473, 632, 662. 
 N Porcelain, 87, 182, 183, 184,473-192, 
 523, 661. 
 ,. Tower in Nanking, 105, 
 
 481. 
 Pork, 243, 245, 247, 363, 650, 663. 
 Porpoise, 664. 
 
 Port Arthur, 41, 293, 626, 635. 
 Porto Pico, Chinese in, 119. 
 Portraits, 54. 
 Ports of call, 630, 634. 
 Portuguese, 125, 223. 248, 249, 251, 
 290, 292, 406, 431, 473, 
 611, 645. 
 „ colony, 635. 
 „ in China, 643. 
 Possession by demons, 163-105. 
 Possessions of foreign nations in 
 
 China, 635. 
 Postage, 492-494. 
 
 ., stamps, 493, 494, 560-564. 
 Post cards, 561, 563, 564. 
 
 „ offices, 492-494, 561. 
 Posts, 157, 158, 492-494. 
 Posthumous adoption, 9. 
 
 name, 398, 401. 
 „ titles, 162, 163, 409. 
 
 410. 
 Potsz. 494, 495. 
 Pottery, 473, 474. 
 Poultry, 430, 665. 
 Poverty, 297. 
 
 Powers of Nature, The Three, 411. 
 Poyang, 258. 
 Prayer Books, 580. 
 Precious stones, 264. 286. 
 Prefectures, 259, 413. 
 Preparation of tobacco, 610-612. 
 Presents, 70, 77, 158, 214. 
 Priests, 101, 371, 374, 394, 577, 579. 
 
 580, 647. 
 Primitive man, 499. 
 Primordial Essences, The Five, 411. 
 Prince, The Venerable, 574. 
 
 Principles of government, 270. 
 sprinting, 287, 317, 375, 376, 377, 408, 
 
 499-501. 
 Prisoners, 230, 231, 327, 328, G18. 
 Prisons, 327, 328, 619. 
 Privet, 255. 
 Processions, 184, 205, 239, 360, 361, 
 
 390, 391, 393. 
 Proclamations, 617. 
 Progress, 608, 609. 
 Promis'sory notes, 67. 
 Promontories, 259, 261. 
 Promotion of officials, 498. 
 Proprieties, 212-222, 663. 
 Prostitutes, 533. 
 
 Prostitution, 473, 533, 535, 654, 655. 
 Protestants, 26, 375-378, 
 -Proverbs, 501-502, 656. 
 Provinces, 257, 258, 259, 272, 282, 
 Provincial Armj\ 40. 
 Provisions, 626. 
 Proxj', Marriage by, 364. 
 Prudery, 655. 
 Pseudo-adoption, 10, 11. 
 Public buildings, 33, 282. 
 
 „ opinion, 270. 
 
 ,, speaker, 235. 
 
 „ worship. 579. 
 Pulse, 177-178. 
 Pumelo. 253. 
 
 Punishments. 26, 325, 328, 332. 
 Pin-e Ones, The Three, 580, 581. 
 Purse, 188, 204. 
 Pwan-Ku, 277. 
 
 Q 
 
 Quakers. 608. 
 
 Quail, 521. 
 
 Quarrels, 570. 
 
 Queen's College, Hongkong, 223. 
 
 Queensland. Chinese in, 127. 
 
 Queue, 1S9,'217, 387, 552. 
 
 . ., Cutting off, 552. 
 
 R 
 
 Race, 502-503. 
 
 Radicals or Key words, 615. 
 
 Raihvavs, 174, 267, 293, 503-513. 
 
 521, 587. 
 Rain-coats, 64. 
 Rain-fall, 141, 142, 143. 
 Rake, 64, 191. 
 Rangoon, Chinese in, 121. 
 Rats, 243. 244, 438, 440, 450, 452, 
 
 453, 663. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Rattan, (500. 
 
 Riwen, 4()0. 
 
 Reading' !)G, 01, 202, C,r,l. 
 
 Rebellions, 27(5, 21)2, 29:5, 380, 4-iO, 
 
 471, G20, (527, 
 Rebels, 41. 
 
 Receipt.-^, Chincae, 247, 243. 
 Reclamation of land. (500. 
 Record Ollicc for land, (500. 
 Red the festive colour, 11)3, (51G. 
 Regatta, 22. 
 Regent's Sword, 035 
 Registry of land, 600. 
 Reign name, 401. 007. 
 Religion, 25-29, 50, 85, 97-102, 107, 
 
 108, 144-147, 309, 345, 513-514, 
 
 572-583, (500, 003. 
 Renaissance of Buddhism, 55. 
 Rendition, 230. 
 Respect for age, 134, 130, 213, 214. 
 
 „ ,, writing, 001, 0(52. 
 Responsiijility, Mutual, 271. 
 Resurrection, 572. 
 Returns for trade for 1898, 020. 
 Revenge, 500, 567. 
 Revenue, 158, 599, 020, 021. 
 
 „ cutter, 009. 
 'Rice, 245, 514-515. 
 
 ,, birds, 628. 
 
 ,; fields, 18, 514, 515, 599. 012. 
 Ricci, 372. 
 Rifles, 38. 
 
 Right of way, 213, 214. 
 Rings, 305. 
 
 Riots, 515-520, .558, 559, 598. 
 Ritual music, 393. 
 River Steamers, American, 493. 
 Riverine ports, 141, 031. 
 Rivers, 78, 80, 249. 258, 200, 201, 
 
 202, 203, 420, 520, 604. 019. 
 Roads, 278, 282, 283, 520-521. 
 Robbers, 428. 
 Robes, 187, 138, 191, 204, 205, 200, 
 
 233, 386, 602. 
 Rocher, M., 439. 440, 441, 442, 44.3, 
 
 615, 010, 
 Rock-dwellings, 35. 
 Rock-work, 242, 254, 255. 
 Rodents, 6(53. 
 
 Roman Catholics. 26. 99, 100, lOl, 
 372-375. 
 „ Empire, Trade with the, 620. 
 ., dramatists, 0i)3. 
 '., merchants, 248, 284. 
 ., missions, 372-375. 
 Romans. 250. 284, 331. 
 Roofs, 29-35. 
 
 Roscapplc, 254. 
 
 Rose-coloured porcelain, 484, 490. 
 
 Roses. 242, 539. 
 
 Rouge, 149, 025. 
 
 Ruination of the tea trade, The 
 
 causes of the, 026. 
 Ruins, 35. 
 
 Rule of road, 213, 214. 
 Rules for inoculation, 643, 644, 645. 
 
 ,, for vaccination, 650. 
 Ruminants, 663. 
 Running hand, 600. 
 Russia and Russians, 115, 153, 249, 
 
 257, 293, 648. 
 Russian concessions, 634. 
 
 ,, consumption of tea, 594, 
 
 597. 
 „ kerosene, 623, 627. 
 „ system of Railways, 507, 
 
 511,512. 
 „ Treaties, 631. 
 
 S 
 
 Sable skins, 102. 
 Sackcloth, 380, 388. 
 Sacred Edicts, 345. 
 
 „ music, 392-394 
 
 Sacrificial vessels, 95. 
 Sagacious, 019. 
 Sages, 144-147, 273, 574, 575. 
 Sainam, 628. 
 Sam Hop Wui, 548-559. 
 Sauipan, 04, 057. 
 Samsah, 032. 
 Samshu, 024. 
 Samshui, 030. 
 San Kwok Chi, 347, 
 San King, 455. 
 Sandal wood carving, 107. 
 Sandals, 139. 
 
 Sandstone, 261, 202, 204, 483. 
 Sandwich Islands, 120. 
 Sang-de-bocuf, 484, 488, 489, 491. 
 Sanitary science, and want of 
 
 Sanitation, 425, 433, 434, 43S, 442, 
 
 445. 440. 447, 448. 
 Sanscrit, 98, 317, 320, 348, 421. 
 Sautu, 632, 
 Santuao, 030. 
 
 Sap, Irritating Nature of, 310. 
 Saw, 617. 
 Scalfolding, 63. 
 Scarification, 8. 
 Scarlet fever, 647. 
 Scaven<?ers, 057, 664. 
 Sceptics, 305. 
 
 c 2 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Schaal, Adam, 373. 
 
 
 Shanties, 32. 
 
 
 Scholarly stoop. 224. 
 
 
 Shantung, 10.5, 263, 278, 281, 
 
 337, 
 
 School boys, 1, 197-202, 235. 
 
 
 415, 472. 
 
 
 „ name, 396, 397. 
 
 
 Railwaj, .508, 510. 
 
 
 Schools, 198. 199, 200, 201, 202, 
 
 212, 
 
 . Shap-tsai, 498. 
 
 
 376. 
 
 
 Shark, 665. 
 
 
 Sciences, 345, 347. 
 
 
 Sharks' fins. 245, 247, 248. 
 
 
 Scripts, The Six, 317, 659, 660. 
 
 
 Shashi and Shashih. 630, 632, 
 
 033, 
 
 Scrolls, 49, 660. 
 
 
 6,35. 
 
 
 Scutagc, 599. 
 
 
 Shaving, 287. 383, 615. 
 
 
 Sea air bad for tea, 587. 
 
 
 ,, child's head, 75, 76, 
 
 113. 
 
 ., board, 78. 
 
 
 Shawls. 205. 
 
 
 Seas, 259. 
 
 
 Sheds, 32, 600. 
 
 
 Seal characters, 661. 
 
 
 Sheep, 440. 
 
 
 Seamstresses, 657. 
 
 
 Sheng, 394. 
 
 
 Season for typhoons, 639. 
 
 
 Shensi, 256, 379. 
 
 
 Seaweed, 625. 
 
 
 Shi King, 459. 
 
 
 Secondary wives, 72, 176, 364, 
 
 535, 
 
 Shin Nung, 14, 278. 
 
 
 564, 053-658. 
 
 
 Shing-kun-t'o, 498. 
 
 
 Secret societies. 65. 136, 140, 548 
 
 -560. 
 
 Shiuhing, 630. 
 
 
 Sedan-chairs, 24, 62. 64, 71, 162, 
 
 360, 
 
 Shoes, 189, 204, 205, £74, 387, 
 
 522, 
 
 361, 363, 654, 657. 
 
 
 553, 610, 654. 
 
 
 „ Imperial, 62. 
 
 
 Shooting, 521, 
 
 
 Seeing into the earth, 516. 
 
 
 Shops, 33, 106, 305, 606, 060. 
 
 
 Selangor, Chinese in, 124. 
 
 
 Shorthand, 660. 
 
 
 Self-denial, Instances of, 237. 
 
 
 Shrimps, 650. 
 
 
 Selling girls and women into 
 
 
 Shu King, 201, 280, 315, 523. 
 
 
 slavery. 531, 532, 533, 534, 
 
 535. 
 
 Shun, 270, 278, 325, 391, 411, 
 
 474. 
 
 Semi-nudity, 193. 216. 
 
 
 Shuo-wen, 316. 
 
 
 Seres, 115, 116, 
 
 
 Shutters, 33. 
 
 
 Servants. 217, 218, 219, 530-536 
 
 017, 
 
 Shuttlecock 24, 521-523, 010. 
 
 
 657. 
 
 
 Siam, Chinese in, 122. 
 
 
 Sevvia, Tea in, 590. 
 
 
 Siamese in China, 158. 
 
 
 Servitude of women in China, 
 
 617, 
 
 Siberia, Chinese in. 126, 339. 
 
 
 653-658. 
 
 
 Siberian Railwav, 511. 
 
 
 Sesamum seed. 626. 
 
 
 Signboards. 33. ' 
 
 
 Settlements, 632, 034, 635. 
 
 
 Silesia, 306. 
 
 
 Sewing, 654. 
 
 
 -■ Silk, 205, 52.3-530, 023. 024. 627. 
 
 Sexagenary cycle, 159. 
 
 
 ' ., filatures, 529. 624. 027. 
 
 
 Shakspere. 344. 
 
 
 ;, floss. 205. 
 
 
 Sha-shih, 630. 
 
 
 ,', worms, 233, 302, 523-528, 
 
 060. 
 
 Shaking hands, 217, 614. 
 
 
 . „ worm grubs, 244. 
 
 
 Shamien, 634. ' 
 
 
 Silken cord. 507, 508. 
 
 
 Shang dynasty, 95. 280. 
 
 
 Silver, 154-150. 010. 
 
 
 Shanghai, 84, 89. 141, 152. 153 
 
 157, 
 
 ,, fish, 005, 666. 
 
 
 166, 167, 173, 223, 
 
 261, 
 
 Similarity of all Chinese to the 
 
 new 
 
 307, 387, 406, 407. 
 
 420, 
 
 comer. 130. 
 
 
 504, 560, 563, 605, 
 
 022, 
 
 SinaD, 115. 
 
 
 027, 629. 630, 631. 
 
 632, 
 
 Singan-fu, 105. 
 
 
 634, 650. 
 
 
 Singapore, 621. 
 
 
 „ Books for learning, 89. 
 
 
 „ Chinese in, 123, 124 
 
 308, 
 
 „ flotilla, 404. 
 
 
 621. 
 
 
 ,. fowls, 065. 
 
 
 Singing. 393, 394. 
 
 
 ., postage stamps, 563. 
 
 
 „ girls. 24. 
 
 
 Phanhaikwan, 415, 632. 
 
 
 Sinim, Land of, 116. 
 
 
 Shansi, 194, 204, 281, 297, 415, 
 
 508, 
 
 Sinologue, 116. 
 
 
 521, 641, G43. 
 
 
 Sitting down, 215. 
 
 
INDKX. 
 
 Siiion Till, 480, 481. 
 
 Spiders, 666. 
 
 Skins, (;24. 
 
 Spinning wheel, 525. 
 
 Skirt.s 187. 
 
 Spirits, 1G3-165, 250, 363. 
 
 Skull-caps, 21G. 
 
 „ , Calling back the, 178. 
 
 Slates, 2H2. 
 
 „ , Evil, 10. 163-165, 398. 
 
 T Slavery, 223, 232, 473, 530-r.36, 
 
 Spiritualism, 354. 
 
 617. 
 
 Splashed w.are, 476, 486. 
 
 Sleep invented, 277. 
 
 Sport, 521. 
 
 Sleeves. I'Jl, 192, fil.j. 
 
 Sports, Outdoor, 23, .521-523. 
 
 Small-pox, G41-(353. 
 
 Squeezes, 327, 566, 567. 
 
 Smokers of opium, 413-419. 
 
 S(iuirrel tails, 625. 
 
 Smoking, fiOl, G09, 61G. 
 
 Squirrels, 453, 663. 
 
 Snake skin, ")23. 
 
 Stage, 600, 6ul. 
 
 Snakes, 244, 245, GOG, 607, 665. 
 
 „ Low estimation of, 603. 
 
 Snipe, 521. 
 
 „ properties, GOl. 
 
 Snutf and mode of taking it, GIG, 
 
 Staking on orange pips, 496, 497, 
 
 „ bottles and spoons, 610. 
 
 Stamps, 561-564. 
 
 Soap, 625, 62G. 
 
 Standard, The Green, 40. 
 
 Soapstone ware, 108. 
 
 Standing, 214. 
 
 Societies. 536-548. 
 
 Stars, 95, 570, 571, 572, 580. 
 
 „ ■ Secret. 13G, 140. 548-5G0. 
 
 State slaves, 534. 
 
 Socks, 189, 616. 
 
 States, The Three, 2S4, 316. 
 
 Sofa, 255. 
 
 Statistics, 175, 176. 335, 408, 416, 
 
 Soldiers, 39-46, 517, 602. 
 
 423, 470, 568, 569, 570. 
 
 Soles of shoes, 616, 628. 
 
 „ of Railway, 504, 505. 
 
 Son, 8, 9, 11, 614, 653. 
 
 Steam launches. 81. 
 
 „ of Heaven. 61, 380. 
 
 Steamers, 79, 1 18, 493, 630, 632. 
 
 Song birds, 322-324. 
 
 Stern-wheel passage boats, 80, 81, 
 
 Songs, 458, 459, 461, 462, 467. 
 
 Stink pots, 39. • 
 
 Soochow, or Suchow, 81, 337, 423, 
 
 Stockings, 189 
 
 632, 635, 643. 
 
 Stomach the seat of the intellect, 614. 
 
 „ Books for learning, 89. 
 
 Stone, 30, 33, 35. 36, 261, 2G2, 2G3, 
 
 Soochow-Ningpo Kail way, 510. 
 
 264, 488, 610. 
 
 Sorrows, The Dissipation of, 461. 
 
 „ age, 499. 
 
 Soubriquet, 398. 
 
 „ axeheads, 499. 
 
 Souchong, 586. 
 
 „ coolies, 616. 
 
 Soutfle porcelain, 487, 488, 
 
 „ musical instruments, 394. 
 
 Souls, Three, 27. 
 
 „ Philosopher's, 578, 579, 582. 
 
 South America, 624, 645. 
 
 Stools, 255. 
 
 „ Australia, Chinese in, 128. 
 
 Stopping places for steamers, 630, 
 
 „ Carolina, Tea in. 590. 
 
 634. 
 
 „ of China, 144, 335. 520, 620, 
 
 Stories, 231. 
 
 621, 636, 641, 649. 662. 
 
 Straits Settlomonts, 78, 118, 140, 155, 
 
 Southern Buddhism, 78, 99. 
 
 274, 556-558. 
 
 „ School of Painting, 52-54. 
 
 „ „ Chinese in thn, 122-125, 295. 
 
 „ Squadron, 404. 
 
 .. 'r^'a in, 589. 
 
 Sovereigns, The Three, 277. 
 
 .SUiUigu Tales from a Chinese Studio, 
 
 The Five, 277. 
 
 348. 
 
 Spanish, 158, 249. 
 
 Strawbraid, 624, 626, 627. 
 
 „ dollars, 155. 
 
 Streams, Worship of, 95, 582. 
 
 Spears, 36, 41, C5. 
 
 Streets, 22, 30, 33, 205, 654. 
 
 Spectacle-cases, 204, 206. 
 
 Strokes in Shuttlcock playing, 522, 
 
 thrush, 323. 
 
 523. ' ^ 
 
 X Spectacles, 216. 
 
 Stucco work, 32. 
 
 Spheres of influence, 293, 294, 508. 
 
 Style, Another, 397. 
 
 Spice, 610. 
 
 Styles, Metal, 658. 
 
 Spices, 625. 
 
 Su Tung-po, 349, 467, 468, 604. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Su Wu. 4G1. 
 
 
 Symbols, Imitative, 658-659. 
 
 
 Sub-dialects, 168. 
 
 
 „ Indicating Thought, 
 
 659. 
 
 Succession to throne, 26, 271. 
 
 
 ,, Uniting Sound, 659. 
 
 
 Sugar, 623, 626. 
 
 
 Synagogue. 307. 
 
 
 Sui dynasty, 316. 
 
 
 Szchuen. 105, 121, 153, 194. 
 
 284, 
 
 'Suicide, 416, 564-568, 657. 
 
 
 310, 379, 415. 499, 569, 611, 
 
 626, 
 
 Sumatra, Tea in, 589. 
 
 
 530. 632, 641. 
 
 
 „ Tobaaco in, 611. 
 
 
 Sk-Mu Kwong, 343. 
 
 
 Sumatran kerosene, 623, 627. 
 
 
 Szemao, 631, 632. 
 
 
 Summer houses, 255. 
 
 
 
 
 Summons to Secret Society Meet- 
 
 
 
 ings, 65, 551. 
 
 
 T 
 
 
 Sun, 553, 570-572. 
 
 
 
 
 Sunday, Want of, 1 44. 
 
 
 Tabasheer, 37, 65, 
 
 
 Sung dynast)', 53, 54, 57, 105 
 
 108, 
 
 Table of Ports of Call, 634. 
 
 
 149, 229, 275, 285, 287, 294 
 
 317, 
 
 ,. of Treaty Ports, 632, 633 
 
 
 326, 354, 429, 477, 478, 479, 
 
 579, 
 
 Table-covers, 205. 
 
 
 603,604, e-ll, 643. 
 
 
 Tablet tea, 624. 
 
 
 Sungei Ujong, Chinese in, 124. 
 
 
 Taboo, 401, 402. 
 
 
 Sun-tsz, 429. 
 
 
 Taels, 155, 562. 
 
 
 Superciliousness, 321. 
 
 
 T'ai P'ing Rebellion, 105, 157, 
 
 276, 
 
 Superiority to other Asiatics, 
 
 134, 
 
 292, 293, 471, 478, 548-558. 
 
 
 136. 
 
 
 Taichow, 90. 
 
 
 Supernatural Creatures, The Four, 
 
 Ta-i cups, 475, 477. 
 
 
 182. 
 
 
 Taiwan, 629. 
 
 
 Superstition, 3. 10. 11, 163-165 
 
 231. 
 
 Takhing, 630. 
 
 
 363, 439, 444, 568, 571, 572, 
 
 576, 
 
 Tang dyuasty, 47, 52, 53, 57, 
 
 115, 
 
 580, 613, 614. 
 
 
 117, 275, 285, 286, 294, 316, 
 
 317, 
 
 Supreme Court, 230. 
 
 
 320, 326, 342. 355, 381, 392, 
 
 461, 
 
 „ Ruler, 581, 582. 
 
 
 475, 477, 500, 535, 559, 579, 
 
 603, 
 
 Surinam, Chinese in, 120. 
 
 
 604. 
 
 
 Surnames, 396, 397, 617. 
 
 
 Tangchow, 629. 
 
 
 Suttee, 565. 
 
 
 Tannin, 593. 
 
 
 Suzerain State, 60, 61. 
 
 
 Tanning barks, 625. 
 
 
 Swaddling bands, 74, 77. 
 
 
 Tao, 575, 582. 
 
 
 Swallowing gold. 568. 
 
 
 Tao Teh King, 573, 575-577. 
 
 
 Swatow, 32. 81, 84, 123, 130, 
 
 142, 
 
 Taoism, 85, 97. 99, 182, 231, 265 
 
 348, 
 
 167. 170, 172, 173, 
 
 188, 
 
 380. 394, 429, 553, 572-583. 
 
 
 190, 192, 193, 227, 
 
 234, 
 
 Tartars, 280, 281, 287-294. 549. 
 
 
 245, 251, 295, 319, 
 
 338, 
 
 Golden, 604. 
 
 
 359. 363, 426, 515, 
 
 520, 
 
 Tasmania, Chinese in, 128. 
 
 
 527, 588, 604, 612, 
 
 622, 
 
 Tatung, 630. 
 
 
 626, 629, 658, 664, 666. 
 
 Tau Kwong, 292. 
 
 
 „ and Chau-chao-fu Rai 
 
 way, 
 
 Taxation, 592, 594, 596, 599, 600. 
 
 507. 
 
 
 Taxes, 13, 592. 
 
 
 ,, Books for learning, 89 
 
 ,90. 
 
 Ta-yi Railwpy, 506. 
 
 
 fans, 234. 
 
 
 'Tea. 14, 72, 219. 245, ,383, 523, 
 
 583- 
 
 „ Railway, 507. 
 
 
 597, 623-624, 627, 628. 
 
 
 Sweden, 625. 
 
 
 ,, girls, 657. 
 
 
 „ Tonnage of, to China, 
 
 625. 
 
 Teapots and cups, 588. 
 
 
 Swedes in China, 158, 249. 
 
 
 Teapoys, 255. 
 
 
 Sweet-sop, 253. 
 
 
 Tei P'6 Wiii. 545-547. 
 
 
 Swiftlet, 73 
 
 
 Telegraphs, 266, 597-598, 640. 
 
 
 Swiss lake dwellings, 306. 
 
 
 Temper, 114. 
 
 
 Sword, 37. 
 
 
 Temperance of the Chinese, 589. 
 
 „ scabbard, 162. 
 
 
 „ Society, 358, 558. 
 
 
 Syllables in Chinese, 1 73. 
 
 
 Temperateness, 138. 
 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Temples, 22, 27. 30, 33, 34, S."), .")2, 
 101, l-ld, 147, ir>i, 25,-), 2G(5, 338, 
 380, 424, .549. 
 Tender for kmn, r.40, .-ll, 542,0-13, 
 
 544, r>4r). 
 Tent. 31, 3(3. 
 
 •Tenure of land, .-)0()-fiOO. 
 Term Question, 373, 374. 
 Tiirraced fields, 18. 
 Tliauiiiaturgic mysteries ami priests, 
 574, 577. 
 ---Theatres and thcadricals. 22, 24. 78, 
 170, 25.5, 31)3, 535, 555, (iOO-604. 
 Theatrical costumes, 2UC. 
 Theine, 5!)3. 
 Thieves. 300. 
 
 Three Handed Chess. 111. 
 „ Lights, The, 411, 
 ,, Powers of Nature, The, 311. 
 '., Pure Ones, The. 580, 5S1. 
 „ States, The, 284, 2i»4, 31(j. 
 Throneless Kinp:. The, 145. 
 (jjThrush, 325, mi. - 
 Tibet, 181. 257, 291. 292, 381, 384, 
 415, 471. 021, (;(;3. 
 „ Tea scut to, G21. 
 Tientsin. 41, 43, 405, 407, 503, 504, 
 505, 597, 625, G29, G30, 
 632, 634, 6.35, 649. 
 ,, China Kaihvay, 508, 509. 
 „ Rhanhailvwan Railway. 
 
 509. 
 ,. , Treaty of, 629. 
 Tiger, The White, G05. 606. 
 Tigers, 266, 521, 581, 604-606, 662. 
 Tiles, 31, 34, 
 Time, 206, 606-609. 
 „ Keeping, 616. 
 Timor postage stamps, 564. 
 Timur, 288. 
 T-in-kau, 498. 
 Ting, Admiral, 405. 
 
 „ Porcelain, 477. 
 Titles, 162, 409. 410. 
 Toad in the Moon, 571. 
 -Tobacco and pipes, 609-G12, G24. 
 Toleration, Edict of, 375. 
 Tombs, 140, 153, 612-613. 
 To-morrow. G06. 
 Times. 315. 316. 
 T'ong name, 398, 399. 
 Tonnage, 625. 
 Tonquin, 290. 
 Topographical works, 344. 
 To])sv Turvydom, 613-618. 
 Tortoise, 182, 428. 
 — Torture. 65, 230, 328, G18-619. 
 
 Towns. 619 G32. 
 
 Toys, 24, 64, 114. 
 
 Tract on vaccination, 64S. 
 
 ,, Native, on vaccination, 649, 
 650. 
 Trade, 1.54-15G, 248. 249, 474, 587- 
 597, 619-629. 
 
 ,. with Europe, Gl 9, 620. 
 
 „ with foreign lands, 619-629. 
 Traders, Adoption by, lU. 
 Trading Race, The Chinese are a. 
 619. 
 ,. voyages, 620. 
 Tragedies,"603. 
 Tramway, Peak, 58. 
 Transmig-ration of sonls, 27, 101. 
 Transport, 16.21. 
 
 Travels, Rooks of, 82, 83, 84, 86, 87. 
 Treaties. 37G. 629-635. 
 Treaty Ports, 249, 37G, 406, f>60, 563, 
 
 597. 606, 608 621 G25, 628, 
 
 629-635. 652. 
 Triad Society, 548-558. 
 
 ,, ,. in the Colonies, 556- 
 
 558. 
 
 „ „ ., United States. 
 
 558. 
 Tribute, 61. 
 
 Trigrams, The Eight, 428. 
 Trinidad. Chinese in, 119, 
 Trinity. 580. 
 Trousers, 186-189, 615. 
 Trousseau, 361. 
 Truite. 489. 
 Tsang Porcelain, 487. 
 Ts'ao''Fuk hing, 51. 
 Tseng Kwo-chuan, 163. 
 Tsi dynastv,285. 
 Tsin or China, 114. 
 ,. Chi Hwang-ti, 282, 283, 
 316, 326, 346, 578. 
 „ dynasty, 275, 282, 283, 284, 
 294, 326, 578. 
 Ts'ing dyuasty, 56, (JS. 1 16, 276, 291, 
 
 320, 326. 
 Tsz fa lottery, 496. 
 Tu Fu. 426. 464, 475. 
 Tubero.ses, 242, 589. 
 Tung Chi, 60, 202, 387, 
 Tunghsing, 631. 
 Tung Ting. 258, G32. 
 Tung Wi'i Hospital. 651. 
 Tung Wen Kwan, 203. 
 Turbans. 192, 295. 
 Turkey, 643. 
 Turkey opium, 622. 
 Turkish langnage, 319. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 Turkistan, 305. 
 
 Turks in China, 158, 382, 643, 
 Two Emperors, The 411. 
 Tyhoons, 515, 636-611. 
 
 U 
 
 Uighur, 356, 385, 386. 
 Umbrellas. 64, 390. 
 
 ' Official, 163. 
 Uncle of Mahorained, 379. 
 Uniform, 42-43. 
 Unit of Society, The family is the, 9, 
 
 140, 270. 359. 
 United States, 558, 623. 
 
 „ ,, Chinese in, 118, 558. 
 
 „ „ consumption of tea. 
 
 594, 597. 
 
 „ „ Tea in, 590-595. 
 
 Uniting Sound Symbols, 659. 
 Unpunctuality, 606. 
 Urh-ya, 316, 
 
 f Vaccination and Inoculation, 641- 
 
 645. 
 1 Vaccinators, 645-653. 
 '' Vaccine establishments, 647, 649. 
 651, 652. 
 „ Institute, Hongkong' 
 
 Government, 652. 
 Vagueness in language, 606. 
 Valour, 45. 
 
 Vancouver, Chinese in, 119. 
 Varieties of bamboo, 66. 
 
 „ „ fish, 665. 
 Varnish tree, 310. 
 
 Vases. 65, 95, 96, 106, 107, 305, 661. 
 Vaudeville, 603. 
 Vegetables, 19, 63, 245, 650. 
 Vegetarians, 559. 
 Venerable Prince, The, 574. 
 Venezuela, 306. 
 Venezuelans in China, 158. 
 Veracity, Want of. 134, 136. 
 Verbiest, 373. 
 Vermin, 113, 303, 434, 453. 
 Versemaking, 200. 
 Viceroys, 272. 
 Victoria, Chinese in, 127. 
 Village, 112, 140, 619. 
 Violins, 394, 
 
 Virtuous women, 656, 657, 
 Viscera, the Five, 571. 
 Visiting, 24, 219. 
 „ ' cards, 387, 
 
 Vocal gestures, 318, 
 Voyages, 117, 118, 
 
 W 
 
 Wagtail, 323, 
 
 Waising lottery, 495, 496. 
 
 Waistcoats, 187. 
 
 Wall, The Great, 35, 282, 290. 
 
 Walls, 29, 30, 32, 34. 
 
 Wan Lieh, 290. 372, 482. 
 
 Wan Wong, 280. 
 
 Wang Wei, 52. 
 
 War junks, 79. 
 
 Wars, 280, 281, 282, 284, 285, 286, 
 
 287, 288, 289, 290, 291, 292, 293, 
 
 471,603, 620, 632. 
 Washing babies, 74. 75. 
 Watch of the night, 609. 
 Watches, 606, 608, 623. 
 Watchmen, 609, 
 Water, 571, 
 
 „ colours, 50, 57. 
 
 „ pipes, hookas, &c., 64, 609, 
 610. 
 
 ,, shoes, 191. 
 Waterways, 503, 
 Way, Eight of, 213, 214. 
 Weapons, 36-39, 41, 42. 
 Web-footed birds, 665, 
 Wedding feasts, 362, 363, 364, 
 
 „ presents, 70, 532, 
 Week, 608, 
 Wei, State of, 574. 
 Weighing mone}', 155. 
 Weights and measures, 278. 
 Weihaiwei, 293, 564, 635. 
 Wen Chang, 229, 
 Wenchow, 629. 
 West Indies, 306, 
 
 „ of Chinn, 36, 142, 641. 
 
 „ River. 507. 604, 630. 
 Western Australia, Chinese in. 127. 
 
 „ Paradise, 98. 
 Wham'ijce, 251, 
 Whampoa, 631. 
 Wheelbarrows 387. 
 Whipping through the streets, 332. 
 Whirlwind caused by dragon, 183. 
 Whiskey, 650. 
 Whispering. 220. 
 White, 192, 193. 386, 571. 
 
 „ ants, 103, 299, 300. 
 
 is mourning, 386, 387, 616. 
 
 „ Porcelain, 476, 477, 483, 484, 
 
INDEX. 
 
 White rice fish, G65. 
 ,, tiger, (J05, GOO. 
 ,, wood carving, 107. 
 Widows 056, 657. 
 
 Wife, 6y-72, 74-77, 175-177, 123, 204. 
 218, 220, 221, 286, 384, 386, 
 387, 389, 400, 401, 531, 532, 
 533, 534, 535, 564, 565, 614, 
 653-658. 
 „ Hire of, 535. 
 „ Sale of, 535. 
 Wild birds, 624. 
 
 „ cats, 662. 
 Wills, Chinese, 29, 
 Windows, 30, 31. 
 Wine, 23, 250. 
 
 „ parties, 23. 
 Winter solstice, 186. 
 Witness, 216, 230, 333, GIS. 
 Women, Status and position of, 
 69-72, 74-77, 204, 206, 220, 221, 
 240, 274, 496, 603, 653-658. 
 Wong Fung, Dr., 650. 
 Wonks, 662-663. 
 
 Woo.or Wu, Emperor, 108, 280, 578. 
 Wood, 571. 
 
 „ carving, 106, 107. 
 „ oil, 626. 
 Woodcock, 521. 
 
 Wooden instruments of music, 394. 
 Wool, Sheep and Camels', 626. 
 Woollen, 623. 
 Woosung, 631, 632. 
 „ Railway, 504. 
 
 ,, Eiver, 261. 
 
 World's consumption of tea, 596. 
 Worms, 244. 
 
 Worship, Ancestor, 8, 9, 10, 25, 95, 
 139, 373, 393, 513-514. 
 ., at the grave, 8, 23, 27. 
 
 „ Evening, 393. 
 „ of anti<iuity, 95. 
 
 „ „ Confucius, 146, 147. 
 
 „ „ Heaven and Earth, 393, 
 
 513, 553. 
 „ „ mountains and rivers. 
 
 513. 
 „ „ Nature, 95, 467, 513, 
 
 553. 
 ,, „ stones, 513. 
 „ ,, sun and moon, 393. 
 
 „ ,, the dead, 389, 553. 
 
 „ ,, „ Pleiades, 572. 
 
 „ when inoculating for 
 
 small-pox, 643. 
 „ of the Wind, 95. 
 Write, Ability to, 202. 
 
 Writing, 48, 91, 315, 316, 658-662, 
 597, 654. 
 of the Khitans. 355, 356. 
 „ „ „ Les, 5. 
 
 „ „ „ Lolos, 5. 
 
 „ „ „ Uigurs, 356. 
 
 Wu, or Woo, Emperor, 108, 280, 578. 
 
 ,, Empress, 286. 
 Wu Tao-tsz, 52. 57. 
 
 „ Wong', 108,' 280. 578. 
 Wuchow-fu, 630. 
 Wuhu, 563. 629. 
 
 Wusueh, 630. ^ 
 
 Wusung, 631, 632. 
 ,, lliver, 632. 
 
 X 
 
 Xanadu, 105. 
 
 Yamen, 327, 328, 619. 
 
 Yang Chii Yiiau, 466. 
 
 Yangtsz, 256, 258, 260, 261, 282, 288, 
 340, 354, 446, 520, 598, 630, 632, 664. 
 
 Yao, or Yaou, 270, 278, 325, 411. 
 
 Yatung, 631. 
 
 Year, A lunar, 607. 
 
 Year name, or year style, 401, 607. 
 
 Yeh, 161. 
 
 Yellow Flag, Order of the, 163. 
 „ Riding Jacket, 160. 
 ,. River, 258, 260, 278, 279, 
 
 354. 620. 
 „ Sea, 259, 260, 637. | 
 
 Yen Li-pun, 52 ^ 
 
 „ Li-teh, 52. 
 
 Yersin, 450. 454. 
 
 Yik King, 429. 
 
 Yi-wui, 536-545. 
 
 Yochow, 632. 
 
 Ysbranti Ides, 484. 
 
 Yu, The Great, 278, 523. 
 
 Yu-kwo-tien-tsing, 478. 
 
 Yuen dynastv, 54, 57, 287, 288, 289, 
 150, 151, 326, 383, 482. 603, 604. 
 
 Yuen Ying, 52. 
 
 Yuh Yuen, 461. 
 
 Yung Ching, 56, 291, 329, 489, 490. 
 
 Yunnan, 5, 6, 121. 257. 284, 304, 
 364, 379, 380, 415, 435, 436. 4.38, 
 439, 440, 441, 442, 443,472. 499, 
 507, 508, 569, 597, 598, 631, 663, 
 
 Z 
 
 Zeuxis, 50, 57. 
 
 Zinc, 610. 
 
 Zones of iniluence, 635. 
 
 Zoology, 662-666. 
 

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