LB 675 .R7 P2 Copy 2 THE Philosophy OF EDUCATION; OR. "PEDAGOGICS AS A SYSTEM. By Dr. KARL ROSENKRANZ, Professor of Philoso^phy in the University of Kdni^sben igsberg. TKANSLATED FROM THE GEKMAN By ANNA C. BRACKETT GRAY, BAKER & CO -ST. LOUIS, MO. 1873. % . ^ The Journal of Speculative Philosophy. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. Contents of No. 1. I. To the Reader. II. The Speculative. III. Herbert Spencer, IV. Introduction toFichte's Science of Knowledge. V. B^nard's Essay on Hegel's -Es- thetics. VI. Raphael's Transfiguration. VH. Introduction to Philosophy. Vm. Seed Life. IX. Schopenhauer on. Immortality. X. Goetho'- Theory of Colors. Contents of No. 2. I. Second Part of Goethe's Faust. II. Fichte's "Criticism of Philoso- phical Systems.'' III. Notes on Milton's Lycidas. rV. Hegel's Pliilosophy of Art. V. Introduction to Philosophy. VI. Music as a Form of Art. VTl. The Alchemists. Vlil. Editorials. Contents of No. 3. I. Translation of Leibnitz's Monad- ology . II. Fichte's "Criticism of Philoso- phical Systems." III. Schelling's ''Introduction to Ide- alism." IV. Genesis. V. Hegel's Philosophy of Art. VI. The Metaphysics of Materialism. VII. Letters on Faust. VIII. Introduction to Philosophy. IX. The Philosophy of Baader. X. In the Quarry. Contents of No. 4. Schelling's Introduction to the Philosophy of Nature. Kegels Philosophy of Art — Sculpture. Dialogue on Music. Schopenhauer's Doctrine of the Will. V. Introduction to Philosophy. VI. A Thought on Shakespeare. VII. Goethe's Essay on Da Vinci'S '•Last Supper." VTII. Paul Janet and Hegel. II. HL IV. CONTENTS OF THE SECOND VOLUME. I. II. HL IV. V. VI, VH, VIU. IX, X. XI, Contents of No. 1. Statement of the Problem. Fichte's "Sun-clear Statement." Swedenborg and Speculative Phi- losophy. Beethoven's Sevoiiti. Symphony. Hegel's ^Esthetics— Painting. Pantheon. Introduction to Philosophy. The DitFerence of Baader from llegel . Nopiiiialism vs. Realism. Leibnitz on the Nature of the Soul- Book Notices. Contents of No. 2. I. Fichte's " Sun-clear Statement." II. Cousin's Doctrine of Uie Abso- lute. III. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spir- it (translatea; , rV. Analysis of Hege.'s i'henomen- ology . V. Questions concerning certain Fa- culties claimed for Man. VI. Letters on Faust (second series) . VII. Goethe's Social Romances. VHI. Comorehension. I. 11. III. IV. V. VI. VH. VHI. IX. X. XL XII. C<^)NTENTS OF No. 3. Fichte's " Sun-clear Statement." Some Consequences of Four In- capacities. Hegel's Philosophy of Art — Mu- sic. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spir- it (translated). New School of Music. Introduction to Philosophy. Analysis of Hegel's Phenomen- ology . Winckelmann's Remarks on the Torso of Hercules. The Ideal. What is Meant by " Determined." Intuition vs. Contemplation. Book Notices. Contents of No. 4. I. The Validity of the Laws of Lo- gic. II. Goethe's and Winckelmann's Re- marks on the Lr.^koon . III. Goei .'s Social Romances. IV. Sankhya Kariha (ofKapila). V. Hegel's Phenomenology of Spir- it (translated). VI. Beethoven's Sinfonia Er6ica. VH. Correspondence. / LB 675 I . R7 fl2 Copy 2 PEDAGOGICS AS A SYSTEM. By Dr. KARL ROSENKRANZ, Doctor of Theology and Professor of Philosophy at the Univer- sity of Konigsberg. TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN By ANNA C, BRACKETT. {Beprinted from Journal of Speculative Philosophy.') ST. LOUIS, MO.: THE R. P. STUDLEY COMPANY, PRINTERS, CORNER MAIN & OLIVE STS. 18 7 2. ^ .T?7 A2 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S72, by WILLIAM T. HARRIS, In the Office of the Librarian of Congress at Washington. /• ANALYSIS. ^ V 'ill its General Idea Part I. in its Special Elements PART II. (^ ^ • v Education fits Nature \ its Form t its Limits f Physical I ■{ Intellectual I L Moral in its Pailicular Sj'Stems Part III. Theocratic Human ita- riau Passive National Active Individual ["Monkish Chivalric f Family . . Caste . . L Monkish . Military , Priestly . Industrial ^Esthetic , Practical . China. India. Thibet. Persia. Egypt. Phfjenicia. Greece. Eome. Abstract Indi- \ Xoilhern vidual } Barbarians. ' for Special Callings .for Civil Life' , Jews. r Jesuitic. ( Pietistic. ("The Huma- nities, to achieve an! Ideal of Culture! The Philau- throi^ic I Movem't. . for Free Citizenship. / PEDAGOGICS AS A SYSTEM. [Inquiries from teachers in different sections of the country as to the sources of information on tlie subject of Teaching as a Science have led me to believe that a translation of Rosenkranz's Pedagogics may be widely acceptable and useful. It is very cei'tain that too much of our teaching is simply empirical, and as Germany has, more than any other country, endeavored to found it upon universal truths, it is to that country that we must at present look for a remedy for this empiricism. Based as this is upon the profoundest system of German Philosophy, no more suggestive treatise on Education can perhaps be found. In his third part, as will be readily seen, Rosenkranz follows the olassification of National ideas given in Hegel's Philosophy of History. The word " Pedagogics," though it has unfortunately acquired a somewhat unpleasant meaning in English — thanks to the writers who have made the word "pedagogue" so odious — deserves to be redeemed for future use. I have, therefore, retained it in the translation. In order that the reader may see the general scope of the work , I append in tabular form the table of contents, giving however, under the first and second parts, only the main divisions. The minor heads can, of course, as they appear in the translation, be easily located. — Tr.'] INTRODUCTION. § 1. The science of Pedagogics cannot be derived from a simple principle with such exactness as Logic and Ethics. It is rather a mixed science which has its presuppositions in many others. In this respect it resembles Medicine, with which it has this also in common, that it must make a dis- tinction between a sound and an unhealthy system of educa- tion, and must devise means to prevent or to cure the latter. It may therefore have, like Medicine, the three departments of Physiology, Pathology, and Therapeutics. § 2. Since Pedagogics is capable of no such exact defini- tions of its principle and no such logical deduction as other sciences, the treatises written upon it abound more in shallow- ness than any other literature. Short-sightedness and arro- gance find ill it a most congenial atmosphere, and criticism 6 Pedagogics as a System. and declamatory "bombast flourisli in perfection as nowhere else. The literature of religions tracts might be considered to rival that of Pedagogics in its superficiality and assurance, if it did not for the most part seem itself to belong, through its ascetic nature, to Pedagogics. But teachers as persons should be treated in their weaknesses and failures with the utmost consideration, because they are most of them sincere in contributing their mite, for the improvement of education, and all their pedagogic practice inclines them towards admin- istering reproof and giving advice. § B. The charlatanism of educational literature is also fos- tered by the fact that teaching has become one of the most profitable employments, and the competition in it tends to increase self-glorification. — When "Boz" in his "Nicholas Nickleby" exposed the horrible mysteries of an English boarding - school, many teachers of such schools were, as he assures us, so accurately described that they openly complained he had aimed his caricatures directly at them. — § 4. In the system of the sciences. Pedagogics belongs to the Philosophy of Spirit, — and in this, to the department of Practical Philosophy, the problem of which is the compre- hension of the necessity of freedom ; for education is the con- scious working of one will on another so as to produce itself in it according to a determinate aim. The idea of subjective spirit, as well as that of Art, Science, and Religion, forms the essential condition. for Pedagogics, but does not contain its principle. If one thinks out a complete statement of Prac- tical Philosophy (Ethics), Pedagogics may be distributed among all its grades. But the point at which Pedagogics itself becomes organic is the idea of the Family, because in the family the difference between the adults and the minors en- ters directly through the naturalness of spirit, and the right of the children to an education and the duty of parents towards them in this respect is incontestable. All other spheres of education, in order to succeed, must presuppose a true family life. They may extend and complement the busi- ness of teaching, but cannot be its original foundation. — In our systematic exposition of Education, we must not allow ourselves to be led into error by those theories which Pedagogics as a System. 7 do not recognize the family, and wliicli limit tlie relation of husband and wife to the producing of children. The Platonic Philosophy is the most worthy representative of this class. Later writers who take great pleasure in seeing the world full of children, but who would subtract from the love to a wife all truth and from that to children all care, exhibit in their doctrine of the anarchy of love only a sickly (but yet how prevalent an) imitation of the Platonic state. — § 5. Much confusion also arises from the fact that many do not clearly enough draw the distinction between Pedagogics as a science and Pedagogics as an art. As a science it busies itself with developing a priori the idea of Education in the universality and necessity of that idea, but as an art it is the concrete individualizing of this abstract idea in any given case. And in any such given case, the peculiarities of the person who is to be educated and all the previousl}^ existing circumstances necessitate a modification of the universal aims and ends, which modification cannot be provided for before- hand, but must rather test the ready tact of the educator who knows how to make the existing conditions fulfil his desired end. It is exactly in doing this that the educator may show himself inventive and creative, and that pedagogic talent can distinguish itself. The word "art" is here used in the same way as it is used when we say, the art of war, the art of gov- ernment, &c. ; and rightly, for we are talking about the possibility of the realization of the idea. — The educator must adapt himself to the pupil, but not to such a degree as to imply that the pupil is incapable of change, and he must also be sure that the pupil shall learn through his experience the independence of the object studied, which re- mains uninfluenced by his variable personal moods, and the adaptation on the teacher's part must never compromise this independence. — § 6. If conditions which are local, temijoral, and individual, are fixed as constant rules, and carried beyond their proper limits, are sj^stematized as a valuable formalistic code, una- voidable error arises. The formulae of teaching are admirable material for the science, but are not the science itself. § 7. Pedagogics as a science must (1) unfold the general idea of Education ; (2) must exhibit the particular phases into 8 Pedagogics as a System. which the general work of Education divides itself, and (3) must describe the particular standpoint upon which the gen- eral idea realizes itself, or should become real in its special processes at any particular time. § 8. The treatment of the first part offers no difficulty. It is logically too evident. But it would not do to substitute for it the history of Pedagogics, simply because all the concep- tions of it which appear in systematic treatises can be found there. — Into this error G. Thaulow has fallen in his pamphlet on Pedagogics as a Philosophical Science. — § 9. The second division unfolds the subject of the physi- cal, intellectual and practical culture of the human race, and constitutes the main part of all books on Pedagogy. Here arises the greatest difficulty as to the limitations, partly be- cause of the undefined nature of the ideas, partly because of the degree of amplification which the details demand. Here is the field of the widest possible differences. If e.g. one studies out the conception of the school with reference to the qualitative specialities which one may consider, it is evident that he can extend his remarks indefinitely ; he may speak thus of technological schools of all kinds, to teach mining, navigation, war, art, &c. § 10. The third division distinguishes between the different standpoints which are possible in the working out of the con- ception of Education in its special elements, and which there- fore produce different systems of Education wherein the gen- eral and the particular are individualized in a special manner. In every system the general tendencies of the idea of educa- tion, and the difference between the physical, intellectual and practical culture of man, must be formally recognized, and will appear. The How is decided by the standpoint which reduces that formalism to a special system. Thus it becomes possible to discover the essential contents of the history of Pedagogics from its idea, since this can furnish not an in- definite but a certain number of Pedagogic systems. — The lower standpoint merges always into the higher, and in so doing first attains its full meaning, e.g. : Education for the sake of the nation is set aside for higher standpoints, e.g. that of Christianity ; but we must not suppose that the na- Pedagogics as a System. 9 tional phase of Education was counted as nought from the Christian standpoint. Rather it itself had outgrown the limits which, though suitable enough for its early stage, could no longer contain its true idea. This is sure to be the case in the fact that the national individualities become indestructi- ble by being incorporated into Christianity — a fact that con- tradicts the abstract seizing of such relations. — § 11. The last system must be that of the present, and since this is certainly on one side the result of all the past, while on the other seized in its possibilities it is determined by the Future, the business of Pedagogics cannot pause till it reaches its ideal of the general and special determinations, so that looked at in this way the Science of Pedagogics at its end returns to its beginning. The first and second divisions al- ready contain the idea of the system necessary for the Present. FIRST PART. The General Idea of Education. § 12. The idea of Pedagogics in general must distinguish, (1) The nature of Education in general ; (2) Its form ; (3) Its limits. I. The Nature of Education. § 13. The nature of Education is determined by the nature of mind — that it can develop whatever it really is only by its own activity. Mind is in itself free ; but if it does not actual- ize this possibility, it is in no true sense free, either for itself or for another. Education is the influencing of man by man, and it has for its end to lead him to actualize himself through his own efforts. The attainment of perfect manhood as the actualization of the Freedom necessary to mind constitutes the nature o£ Education in general. — The completely isolated man does not become man. Soli- tary human beings who have been found in forests, like the wild girl of the forest of Ardennes, sufficiently prove the fact that the truly human qualities in man cannot be developed without reciprocal action with human beings. Caspar Hau- ser in his subterranean prison is an illustration of what man 10 Pedagogics as a System. would be by himself. The first cry of the child expresses in its appeals to others this helplessness of spirituality on the side of nature. — § 14. Man, therefore, is the only fit subject for education. We often speak, it is true, of the education of plants and animals ; but even when we do so, we apply, unconsciously perhaps, other expressions, as "raising" and "training," in or- der to distinguish these. "Breaking" consists in producing in an animal, either by pain or pleasure of the senses, an activ- ity of which, it is true, he is capable, but which he never would have developed if left to himself. On the other hand, it is the nature of Education only to assist in the producing of that which the subject would strive most earnestly to de- velop for himself if he had a clear idea of himself. We speak of raising trees and animals, but not of raising men ; and it is only a planter who looks to his slaves only for an increase in their number. —The education of men is quite often enough, unfortunate- ly, only a " breaking," and here and there still may be found examples where one tries to teach mechanically, not through the understanding power of the creative word, but through the powerless and fruitless appeal to physical pain.— § 15. The idea of Education may be more or less compre- hensive. We use it in the widest sense when we speak of the Education of the race, for we understand by this expres- sion the connection which the acts and situations of differ- ent nations have to each other, as different steps towards self-conscious freedom. In this the world-spirit is the teacher. § 16. In a more restricted sense we mean by Education the .shaping of the individual life by the forces of nature, the rhythmical movement of national customs, and the might of destiny in which each one finds limits set to his arbitrary will. These often mould him into a man without his knowledge. Por he cannot act in opposition to nature, nor offend the ethi- cal sense of the people among whom he dwells, nor despise the leading of destiny without discovering through experience that before the Nemesis of these substantial elements his subjective power can dash itself only to be shattered. If he perversely and persistently rejects all our admonitions, we leave him, as a last resort, to destiny, whose iron rule must Pedagogics as a System. 11 educate Mm, and reveal to Mm the God whom he has misun- derstood. — It is, of course, sometimes not ovlj XDOssible, but necessary for one, moved by the highest sense of morality, to act in op- position to the laws of nature, to offend the ethical sense of the people that surround him, and to brave the blows of des- tiny ; but such a one is a sublime reformer or martyr, and we are not now speaking of such, but of the perverse, the frivo- lous, and the conceited. — § 17. In the narrowest sense, which however is the usual one, we mean by Education the influence which one mind exerts on another in order to cultivate the latter in some understood and meth.);. -il way, either generally or with reference to some special aim. The educator must, therefore, be relatively finished in his own education, and. the pupil must possess unlimited confidence in him. If authority be wanting on the one side, or respect and obedience on the other, this ethical basis of development must fail, and it demands in the very highest degree, talent, knowledge, skill, and prudence. — Education takes on this form only under the culture which has been developed through the influence of city life. Up to that time we have the naive period of education, which holds to the general powers of nature, of national customs, and of destiny, and which lasts for a long time among the rural populations. But in the city a greater complication of events, an uncertaint}^ of the results of reflection, a working out of individuality, and a need of the possession of many arts and trades, make their appearance and render it impossible for men longer to be ruled by mere custom. The Telemachus of Fenelon was educated to rule himself by means of reflec- tion ; the actual Telemachus in the heroic age lived simply according to custom. — § 18. The general problem of Education is the development of the theoretical and practical reason in the individual. If we say that to educate one means to fashion him into morality, we do not make our definition sufficiently comprehensive, be- cause we say nothing of intelligence, and thus confound edu- cation and ethics. A man is not merely a human being, but as a reasonable being he is a peculiar individual, and difi'er- ent from all others of the race. 13 Pedagogics as a System. § 19. Education mnst lead the pupil by an interconnected series of efforts previously foreseen and arranged by the teacher to a definite end ; but the particular form which this shall take must be determined by the peculiar character of the pupil's mind and the situation in which he is found. Hasty and inconsiderate work may accomplish much, but only systematic work can advance and fashion him in conformity with his nature, and the former does not belong to education, for this includes in itself the idea of an end, and that of the technical means for its attainment. § 20. But as culture comes to mean more and more, there becomes necessary a division of the business of teaching among different persons, with reference to capabilities and knowledge, because as the arts and sciences are continually increasing in number, one can become learned in any one branch only by devoting himself exclusively to it, and hence becoming one-sided. A difficulty hence arises which is also one for the pupil, of preserving, in spite of this unavoidable one-sidedness, the unity and wholeness which are necessary to humanity. — The naive dignity of the happy savage, and the agreea- ble simplicity of country people, appear to very great advan- tage when contrasted on this side with the often unlimited narrowness of a special trade, and the endless curtailing of the wholeness of man by the pruning processes of city life. Thus the often abused savage has his hut, his family, his cocoa tree, his weapons, his passions ; he fishes, hunts, plays, fights, adorns himself, and enjoys the consciousness that he ^ is the centre of a whole, while a modern citizen is often only an abstract expression of culture. — § 21. As it becomes necessary to divide the work of teach- ing, a difference between general and special schools arises also, from the needs of growing culture. The former present in different compass all the sciences and arts which are in- cluded in the term "general educatioii," and which were classified by the Greeks under the general name of Encyclo- pjBdia. The latter are known as special schools, suited to particular needs or talents. — As those who live in the country are relatively isolated, it is often necessary, or at least desirable, that one man should Pedagogics as a System. 13 'he trained equally on many different sides. The poor tutor is required not only to instruct in all the sciences, he must also speak French and be able to play the piano. — § 22. For any single person, the relation of his actual edu- cation to its infinite possibilities can only be approximately determined, and it can be considered as only relatively fin- ished on any one side. Education is impossible to him who is born an idiot, since the want of the power of generalizing and of ideality of conscious personality leaves to such an un- fortunate only the possibility of a mechanical training. — Sagert, the teacher of the deaf mutes in Berlin, has made laudable eftbrts to educate idiots, but the account as given in his publication, " Cure of Idiots by an Intellectual Method, Berlin, 1846," shows that the result obtained was only exter- nal ; and though we do not desire to be understood as deny- ing or refusing to this class the possession of a mind in po- tentia, it appears in them to be confined to an embryonic state. — II. The Form of Education. § 23. The general form of Education is determined by the mature of the mind, that it really is nothing but what it makes itself to be. The mind is (1) immediate (or potential), but (2) it must estrange itself from itself as it were, so that it may place itself over against itself as a special object of attention ; (3) this estrangement is finally removed through a further ac- quaintance with the object — it feels itself at home in that on which it looks, and returns again enriched to the form of im- mediateness. That which at first apjoeared to be another than itself is now seen to be itself. Education cannot create ; it can only help to develop to reality the previously existent possibility ; it can only help to bring forth to light the hid- den life. § 24. All culture, whatever may be its special purport, must pass through these two stages — of estrangement, and its remo- val. Culture must hold fast to the distinction between the subject and the object considered immediately, though it has again to absorb this distinction into itself, in order that the union of the two may be more complete and lasting. The subject recognizes then all the more certainly that what at 14 Pedagogics as a System. first appeared to it as a foreign existence, belongs to it as its own property, and that it holds it as its own all the more by means of culture. — Plato, as is known, calls the feeling with which knowl- edge must begin, wonder ; but this can serve as a beginning only, for wonder itself can only express the tension between the subject and the object at their first encounter — a tension which would be impossible if they were not in themselves identical. Children have a longing for the far-off, the strange, and the wonderful, as if they hoped to find in these an expla- nation of themselves. They want the object to be a genuine object. That to which they are accustomed, which they see around them every day, seems to have no longer any objec- tive energy for them ; but an alarm of fire, banditti life, wild animals, gray old ruins, the robin's songs, and far-off happy islands, &c. — everj'thing high-colored and dazzling — leads them irresistibly on. The necessity of the mind's making itself foreign to itself is that which makes children prefer to hear of the adventurous journeys of Sinbad than news of their own city or the history of their nation, and in youth this same necessity manifests itself in their desire of trav- elling. — § 25. This activity of the mind in allowing itself to be absorbed, and consciously so, in an object with the purpose of making it his own, or of producing it, is WorTc. But when the mind gives itself up to its objects as chance may present them or through arbitrariness, careless as to whether they have any result, such activity is Play. Work is laid out for the pupil by his teacher by authority, but in his play he is left to himself. § 26. Thus work and play must be sharply distinguished from each other. If one has not respect for work as an im- portant and substantial activity, he not only spoils play for his pupil, for this loses all its charm when deprived of the antithesis of an earnest, set task, but he undermines his re- spect for real existence. On the other hand, if he does not give him space, time, and opportunity, for play, he prevents the peculiarities of his pupil from developing freely through the exercise of his creative ingenuity. Play sends the pupil back refreshed to his work, since in play he forgets himself Pedagogics as a System. 15 in his own way, while in work he is required to forget him- self in a manner prescribed for him by another. — Play is of great importance in helping one to discover the true individualities of children , because in play they may betray thoughtlessly their inclinations. This antithesis of work and play runs through the entire life. Children anti- cipate in their play the earnest work of after life ; thus the little girl plays with her doll, and the boy pretends he is a soldier and in battle. — § 27. Work should never be treated as if it were play, nor play as if it were work. In general, the arts, the sciences, and productions, stand in this relation to each other : the accu- mulation of stores of knowledge is the recreation of the mind which is engaged in independent creation, and the practice of arts fills the same office to those whose work is to collect knowledge. § 28. Education seeks to transform every particular condi- tion so that it shall no longer seem strange to the mind or in anywise foreign to its own nature. This identity of conscious- ness, and the special character of anything done or endured by it, we call Habit [habitual conduct or behavior]. It con- ditions formally all progress ; for that which is not yet be- come habit, but which we perform with design and an exer- cise of our will, is not yet a part of ourselves. § 29. As to Habit, we have to say next that it is at first indifi'erent as to what it relates. But that which is to be considered as indifterent or neutral cannot be defined in the abstract, but only in the concrete, because anything that is indifferent as to whether it shall act on these particular men, or in this special situation, is capable oi another or even of the opposite meaning for another man or men for the same men or in other circumstances. Here, then, appeal must be made to the individual conscience in order to be able from the depths of individuality to separate what we can permit to ourselves from that which we must deny ourselves. The aim of Education must be to arouse in the pupil this spir- itual and ethical sensitiveness which does not recognize any- thing as merely indifferent, but rather knows how to seize in everything, even in the seemingly small, its universal hu- man significance. But in relation to the highest problems he 16 Pedagogics as a System. must learn that what concerns his own immediate personality is entirely indifferent. § 30. Habit lays aside its indifference to an external action through reflection on the advantage or disadvantage of the same. Whatever tends as a harmonious means to the reali- zation of an end is advantageous, but that is disadvantageous which, by contradicting its idea, hinders or destroys it. Ad- vantage and disadvantage being then only relaiitie terms, a habit which is advantageous for one man in one case may be disadvantageous for another man, or even for the same man, under different circumstances. Education must, therefore, accustom the youth to judge as to the expediency or inexpe- diency of any action in its relation to the essential vocation of his life, so that he shall avoid that which does not promote its success. § 31. But the absolute distinction of habit is the moral dis- tinction between the good and the bad. For from this stand- point alone can we finally decide wiiat is allowable and what is forbidden, what is advantageous and what is disadvan- tageous, § 32. As relates to form, habit may be either passive or ac- tive. The passive is that which teaches us to bear the vicis- situdes of nature as well as of history with such composure that we shall hold our ground against them, being always equal to ourselves, and that we shall not allow our power of acting to be paralyzed through any mutations of fortune. Passive habit is not to be confounded with obtuseness in re- ceiving impressions, a blank abstraction from the affair in hand which at bottom is found to be nothing more than a selfishness which desires to be left undisturbed : it is simply composure of mind in view of changes over which we have no control. While we vividly experience joy and sorrow, pain and pleasure — inwoven as these are with the change of sea- sons, of the weather, &c. — with the alternation of life and death, of happiness and misery, we ought nevertheless to harden ourselves against them so that at the same time in our consciousness of the supreme worth of the mind we shall build up the inaccessible stronghold of Freedom in ourselves. — Active habit [or behavior] is found realized in a wide range of activity which appears in manifold forms, such as skill, Formation of Habits. 17 dexterity, readiness of information, &c. It is a steeling of the internal for action upon the external, as the Passive is a steeling of the internal against the influences of the external. § 33. Habit is the general form which instruction takes. For since it reduces a condition or an activity within our- selves to an instinctive use and wont, it is necessary for any thorough instruction. Bat as, according to its content, it may be either proper or improper, advantageous or disadvan- tageous, good or bad, and according to its form may be the assimilation of the external by the internal, or the impress of the internal upon the external, Education must procure for the pupil the power of being able to free himself from one habit and to adopt another. Through his freedom he must be able not only to renounce any habit formed, but to form a new one ; and he must so govern his system of habits that it shall exhibit a constant progress of development into greater freedom. We must discipline ourselves, as a means toward the ever-changing realization of the Gfood in us, con- stantly to form and to break habits. — We must characterize those habits as bad which relate only to our convenience or our enjoyment. They are often not blamable in themselves, but there lies in them a hidden danger that they may allure us into luxury or effeminacy. But it is a false and mechanical way of looking at the afiair if we suppose that a habit which has been formed by a cer- tain number of repetitions can be broken by an equal number of denials. We can never renounce a habit utterly except through a clearness of judgment which decides it to be unde- sirable, and through firmness of will. — § 34. Education comprehends also the reciprocal action of the opposites, authority and obedience, rationality and indi- viduality, work and play, habit and spontaneity. If we ima- gine that these can be reconciled by rules, it will be in vain that we try to restrain the youth in these relations. But a failure in education in this particular is very possible through the freedom of the pupil, through special circumstances, or through the errors of the educator himself. And for this very reason any theory of Education must take into account in the beginning this negative possibility. It must consider be- forehand the dangers which threaten the pupil in all possible 18 Protection against Temptation. ways even before they surround him, and fortify him against them. Intentionally to expose him to temptation in order to prove his strength, is devilish ; and, on the other hand, to guard him against the chance of dangerous temptation, to wrap him in cotton (as the proverb says), is womanish, ridic- ulous, fruitless, and much more dangerous ; for temptation comes not alone from without, but quite as often from with- in, and secret inclination seeks and creates for itself the opportunity for its gratification, often perhaps an unnatural one. The truly preventive activity consists not in an abstract seclusion from the world, all of whose elements are innate in each individual, but in the activity of knowledge and disci- pline, modified according to age and culture. — If one endeavors to deprive the youth of all free and in- dividual intercourse with the world, one only falls into a continual watching of him, and the consciousness that he is watched destroys in him all elasticity of spirit, all confidence, all originality. The police shadow of control obscures all independence and systematically accustoms him to depend- ence. As the tragi-comic story of Peter Schlemihl shows, one cannot lose his own shadow without falling into the sad- dest fatalities ; but the shadow of a constant companion, as in the pedagogical system of the Jesuits, undermines all naturalness. And if one endeavors too strictly to guard against that which is evil and forbidden, the intelligence of the pupils reacts in deceit against such efforts, till the educa- tors are amazed that such crimes as come often to light can have arisen under such careful control. — § 35. If there should appear in the youth any decided moral deformity which is opposed to the ideal of his education, the instructor must at once make inquiry as to the history of its origin, because the negative and the positive are very closely connected in his being, so that what appears to be negligence, rudeness, immorality, foolishness, or oddity, may arise from some real needs of the youth which in their development have only taken a wrong direction. § 36. If it should appear on such examination that the negative action was only a product of wilful ignorance, of ca- price, or of arbitrariness on the part of the youth, then this calls for a simple prohibition on the part of the educator, no Reproof and Punishment. 19 reason being assigned. His authority must be sufficient to tlie pupil without any reason. Only when this has happened more than once, and the youth is old enough to understand, should the prohibition, together with the reason therefor, be given. — This should, however, be brief; the explanation must retain its disciplinary character, and must not become ex- tended into a doctrinal essay, for in such a case the youth easily forgets that it was his own misbehavior which was the occasion of the explanation. The statement of the reason must be honest, and it must present to the youth the point most easy for him to seize. False reasons are morally blama- ble in themselves, and they tend only to confuse. It is a great mistake to unfold to the youth the broadening consequences which his act may bring. These uncertain possibilities seem to him too powerless to affect him particularly. The severe lecture wearies him, especially if it be stereotyped, as is apt to be the case with fault-finding and talkative instructors. But more unfortunate is it if the painting of the gloomy background to which the consequences of the wrong-doing of the youth may lead, should fill his feelings and imagination prematurely with gloomy fancies, because then the represen- tation has led him one step toward a state of wretchedness which in the future man may become fearful depression and degradation. — § 37. If the censure is accompanied with a threat of punish- ment, then we have the same kind of reproof which in daily life we call "scolding;" but if reproof is given, the pupil must be made to feel that it is in earnest. § 38. Only when all other efforts have failed, is punishment, which is the real negation of the error, the transgression, or the vice, justifiable. Punishment inflicts intentionally pain on the pupil, and its object is, by means of this sensation, to bring him to reason, a result which neither our simple prohi- bition, our explanation, nor our threat of punishment, has been able to reach. But the punishment, as such, must not refer to the subjective totality of the youth, or his dispo- sition in general, but only to the act which, as result, is a manifestation of the disposition. It acts mediately on the dis- position, but leaves the inner being untouched directly ; and 20 Correction versus Satisfaction of Justice. this is not only demanded by justice, but on account of the sophistry that is inherent in human nature, which desires to assign to a deed many motives, it is even necessary. § 39. Punishment as an educational means is nevertheless essentially corrective, since, by leading the youth to a proper estimation of his fault and a positive change in his behavior, it seeks to improve him. At the same time it stands as a sad indication of the insufficiency of the means previously used. On no account should the youth be frightened from the com- mission of a misdemeanor, or from the repetition of his nega- tive deed through fear of punishment — a system which leads always to terrorism : but, although it may have this effect, it should, before all things, impress upon him the recognition of the fact that the negative is not allowed to act as it will without limitation, but rather that the Good and the True have the absolute power in the world, and that they are never without the means of overcoming anything that contradicts them. — In the statute-laws, punishment has the opposite office. It must first of all satisfy justice, and only after this is done can it attempt to improve the guilty. If a government should proceed on the same basis as the educator it would mistake its task, because it has to deal with adults, whom it elevates to the honorable position of responsibility for their own acts. The state must not go back to the psychological ethical gene- sis of a negative deed. It must assign to a secondary rank of importance the biographical moment which contains the deed in process and the circumstances of a mitigating charac- ter, and it must consider first of all the deed in itself. It is quite otherwise with the educator ; for he deals with human beings who are relatively undeveloped, and who are only growing toward responsibility. So long as they are still under the care of a teacher, the responsibility of their deed belongs in part to him. If we confound the standpoint in which punishment is administered in the state with that in education, we work much evil. — § 40. Punishment as a negation of a negation, considered as an educational means, cannot be determined a priori, but must always be modified by the peculiarities of the individual offender and by the peculiar circumstances. Its administra- Tliree Kinds of Punishment. 21 tion calls for the exercise of the ingenuity and tact of the educator. § 41. Generally speaking, we must make a distinction be- between the sexes, as well as between the different periods of 3^outh ; (1) some kind of corporal punishment is most suita- ble for children, (2) isolation for older boys and girls, and (3) punishment based on the sense of honor for young men and women. § 42. (1) Corporal punishment is the production of physical pain. The youth is generally whipped, and this kind of pun- ishment, provided always that it is not too often administered or with undue severity, is the proper way of dealing with wil- ful defiance, with obstinate carelessness, or with a really per- verted will, so long or so often as the higher perception is closed against appeal. The imposing of other physical pun- ishment, e.g. that of depriving the pupil of food, partakes of cruelty. The view which sees in the rod the panacea for all the teacher's embarrassments is censurable, but equally un- desirable is the false sentimentality which assumes that the dignity of humanity is affected by a blow given to a child, and confounds self-conscious humanity with child-humanity, to which a blow is the most natural form of reaction, in which all other forms of influence at last end. — The fully-grown man ought never to be whipped, because this kind of punishment reduces him to the level of the child, and, when it becomes barbarous, to that of a brute animal, and so is absohitely degrading to him. In the English schools the rod is much used. If a pupil of the first class be put back into the second at Eton, he, although before exempt from flogging, becomes liable to it. But however necessary this system of flogging of the English aristocracy may be in the discipline of their schools, flogging in the English army is a shameful thing for the free people of Great Britain. — § 43. (2) By Isolation we remove the offender temporarily from the society of his fellows. The boy left alone, cut off from all companionship, and left absolutely to himself, suffers from a sense of helplessness. The time passes heavily, and soon he is very anxious to be allowed to return to the com- pany of parents, brothers and sisters, teachers and fellow- pupils. 22 Sense of Honor in the Pupil. — To leave a cMld entirely to himself without any supervi- sion, even if one shuts him up in a dark room, is as mistaken a practice as to leave a few together without supervision, as is too often done where they are kept after school, when they give the freest rein to their childish wantonness and commit the wildest pranks. — § 44. (3) This way of isolating a child does not touch his sense of honor at all, and is soon forgotten because it relates to only one side of his conduct. It is quite different from pun- ishment based on the sense of honor, which, in a formal manner, shuts the youth out from companionship because he has attacked the principle which holds society together, and for this reason can no longer be considered as belong- ing to it. Honor is the recognition of one individual by others as their equal. Through his error, or it may be his crime, he has simply made himself unequal to them, and in so far has separated himself from them, so that his banish- ment from their society is only the outward expression of the real isolation which he himself has brought to pass in his inner nature, and which he by means of his negative act only betrayed to the outer world. Since the punishment founded on the sense of honor affects the whole ethical man and makes a lasting impression upon his memory, extreme caution is necessary in its application lest a permanent injury be in- flicted upon the character. The idea of his perpetual con- tinuance in disgrace, destroys in a man all aspiration for improvement. — Within the family this feeling of honor cannot be so ac- tively developed, because every member of it is bound to every other immediately by natural ties, and hence is equal to every other. Within its sacred circle, he who has isolated himself is still beloved, though it may be through tears. However bad may be the deed he has committed, he is never given up, but the deepest sympathy is felt for him because he is still brother, father, &c. But first in the contact of one family with another, and still more in the contact of an indi- vidual with any institution which is founded not on natural ties, but is set over against him as a distinct object, this feel- ing of honor appears. In the school, and in the matter of ranks and classes in a school, this is very important. — Limits of Education. 23 § 45. It is important to consider well this gradation of punishment (whicli, starting with sensuous physical pain, passes through the external teleology of temporary isolation up to the idealism of the sense of honor), both in relation to the different ages at which they are appropriate and to the training which they hring with them. Every punishment must be considered merely as a means to some end, and, in so far, as transitory. The pupil must always be deeply conscious that it is very painful to his instructor to be obliged to pun- ish him. This pathos of another's sorrow for the sake of his cure which he perceives in the mien, in the tone of the voice, in the delay \\ ith which the punishment is administered, will become a purifying fire for his soul. The Limits of Education. § 46. The form of Education reaches its limits with the idea of punishment, because this is the attempt to subsume the negative reality and to make it conformable to its positive idea. But the limits of Education are found in the idea of its nature, which is to fashion the individual into theoretical and practical rationality. The authority of the Educator at last becomes imperceptible, and it passes over into advice and ex- ample, and obedience changes from blind conformity to free gratitude and attachment. Individuality wears off its rough edges, and is transfigured into the universality and necessity of Reason without losing in this process its identity. Work becomes enjoyment, and he finds his play in a change of activity. The youth takes possession of himself, and can be left to himself. — There are two widely differing views with regard to the limits of Education. One lays great stress on the weakness of the pupil and the power of the teacher. According to this view, Education has for its province the entire formation of the youth. The despotism of this view often manifests itself where large numbers are to be educated together, and with very undesirable results, because it assumes that the indivi- dual pupil is only a specimen of the whole, as if the school were a great factory where each piece of goods is to be stamped exactly like all the rest. Individuality is reduced 24 The Limits of Indimduality. by the tyranny of such despotism to one uniform level till all originality is destroyed, as in cloisters, barracks, and orphan asylums, where only one individual seems to exist. There is a kind of Pedagogy also which fancies that one can thrust into or out of the individual pupil what one will. This may be called a superstitious belief in the power of Education. — The opposite extreme disbelieves this, and advances the pol- icy which lets alone and does nothing, urging that individu- ality is unconquerable, and that often the most careful and far-sighted education fails of reaching its aim in so far as it is opposed to the nature of the youth, and that this individu- ality has made of no avail all eflForts toward the obtaining of any end which was opposed to it. This representation of the fruitlessness of all pedagogical efforts engenders an indiffer- ence towards it which would leave, as a result, only a sort of vegetation of individuality growing at hap-hazard. — § 47. The limit of Education is (1) a Subjective one, a limit made by the individuality of the youth. This is a definite limit. Whatever does not exist in this individu- ality as a possibility cannot be developed from it. Education can only lead and assist ; it cannot create. What Nature has denied to a man, Education cannot give him any more than it is able, on the other hand, to annihilate entirely his original gifts, although it is true that his talents may be suppressed, distorted, and measurably destroyed. But the decision of the question in what the real essence of any one's individuality consists can never be made with certainty till he has left behind him his years of development, because it is then only that he first arrives at the consciousness of his entire self; besides, at this critical time, in the first place, much knowledge only superficially acquired will drop off; and again, talents, long slumbering and unsuspected, may first make their appearance. Whatever has been forced upon a child in opposition to his individuality, whatever has been only driven into him and has lacked receptivity on his side, or a rational ground on the side of culture, remains at- tached to his being only as an external ornament, a foreign outgrowth which enfeebles his own proper character. — We must distinguish from that aflfectation which arises through a misunderstanding of the limit of individuality, the Limit in the Means of Educatiuit. 25 way which many children and young persons have of sup- posing when they see models finished and complete in grown persons, that they themselves are endowed by Nature with the power to develop into the same. When they see a real- ity which corresponds to their own possibility, the presenti- ment of a like or a similar attainment moves them to an imitation of it as a model personality. This may be some- times carried so far as to be disagreeable or ridiculous, but should not be too strongly censured, because it springs from a positive striving after culture, and needs only proper direction. — § 48. (2) The Ohjective limit of Education lies in the means which can be appropriated for it. That the talent for a certain culture shall be present is certainly the first thing ; but the cultivation of this talent is the second, and no less necessary. But how much cultivation can be given to it ex- tensively and intensively depends upon the means used, and these again are conditioned by the material resources of the family to which each one belongs. The greater and more valuable the means of culture which are found in a family are, the greater is the immediate advantage which the culture of each one has at the start. With regard to many of the arts and sciences this limit of education is of great signifi- cance. But the means alone are of no avail. The finest edu- cational apparatus will produce no fruit where correspond- ing talent is wanting, while on the other hand talent often accomplishes incredible feats with very limited means, and, if the way is only once open, makes of itself a centre of attrac- tion which draw s to itself with magnetic power the necessary means. The moral culture of each one is however, fortu- nately from its very nature, out of the reach of such de- pendence. — In considering the limit made by individuality we recog- nize the side of truth in that indifi'erence which considers Education entirely superfluous, and in considering the means of culture we find the truth in the other extreme of pedagogi- cal despotism, which fancies that it can command whatever culture it chooses for any one without regard to his indi- viduality. — § 49. (3) The Absolute limit of Education is the time when the youth has apprehended the problem which he has to 26 ArrlDol at t?ie age of Majority. solve, lias learned .to know the means atliis disposal, and has- acquired a certain facility in using them. The end and aim of Education is the emancipation of the youth. It strives to make him self-dependent, and as soon as he has become so it v^^ishes to retire and to be able to leave him to the sole responsibility of his actions. To treat the youth after he has passed this point of time still as a youth, contradicts the very idea of Education, v^^hich idea finds its fulfilment in the attain- ment of majority by the pupil. Since the accomplishment of education cancels the original inequality betw^een the educa- tor and the pupil, nothing is more oppressing, nay, revolting^ to the latter than to be prevented by a continued dependence from the enjoyment of the freedom which he has earned. — The opposite extreme of the protracting of Education be- yond its proper time is necessarily the undue hastening of the Emancipation. — The question whether one is prepared for freedom has been often opened in politics. When any people have gone so far as to ask this question themselves,, it is no longer a question whether that j)eople are prepared for it, for without the consciousness of freedom this question would never have occurred to them. — § 50. Although educators must now leave the youth free^ the necessity of further culture for him is still imperative. But it will no longer come directly through them. Their pre-arranged, pattern-making work is now supplanted by self- education. Each sketches for himself an ideal to which in his life he seeks to approximate every day. — In the work of self-culture one friend can help another by advice and example ; but he cannot educate, for education presupposes inequality. — The necessities of human nature produce societies in which equals seek to influence each other in a pedagogical way, since they establish by certain steps of culture different classes. They jjresuppose Education in the ordinary sense. But they wish to bring about Educa- tion in a higher sense, and therefore they veil the hast form of their ideal in the mystery of secrecy. — To one who lives on contented with himself and without the impulse toward self- culture, unless his unconcern springs from his belonging to a savage state of society, the Germans give the name of Philistine, and he is always repulsive to the student who is intoxicated with an ideal. ( 27 ) SECOND PART. The Sj)ecial Elements of E«liication. § 51. Education in general consists in the develo]3inent in man of his inb.orn theoretical and practical rationality; it takes on the form of labor, which changes that state or condition, which appears at first only as a mere concep- tion, into a fixed habit, and transfigures individuality into a worthy humanity. Education ends in that emancipa- tion of the youth which places him on his own feet. The special elements which form the concrete content of all Edu- cation in general are the Life, Cognition, and Will of man. Without life mind has no phenomenal reality ; without cog- nition, no genuine, i. e. conscious, will ; and without will, no self-assurance of life and of cognition. It is true that these three elements are in real existence inseparable, and that consequently in the dialectic they continually pass over into one another. But none the less on this account do they themselves prescribe their own succession, and they have a relative and periodical ascendancy over each other. In Infancy, up to the fifth or sixth year, the purely physical development takes the precedence ; Childhood is the time of learning, in a proper sense, an act by which the child gains for himself the picture of the world such as mature minds, through experience and insight, have painted it ; and, finally, Youth is the transition period to practical activity, to which the self-determination of the will must give the first impulse. § 52. The classification of the special elements of Peda- gogics is hence very simple : (1) the Physical, (2) the Intel- lectual, (3) the Practical. (We sometimes apply to these the words Orthobiotics, Didactics, and Pragmatics.) — iEsthetic training constitutes only an element of the edu- cation of Intellectual Education, just as social, moral, and religions training form elements of Practical Education. But because these latter elements concern themselves with what 28 Physical Education. is external, the name " Plasmatics "" is appropriate. In this sphere, Pedagogics should coincide with Politics, Ethics, and Religion ; hut it is distinguished from them through the apti- tude which it brings with it of putting into practice the prob- lems of the other three. The scientific arrangement of these ideas must therefore show that the former, as the more ab- stract, constitutes the conditions, and the latter, as the more •concrete, the ground of the former, which are presupposed ; ;and in consequence of this it is itself their principal teleo- logical presupposition, just as in man the will presupposes the cognition, and cognition life ; while, at the same time, life, in a deeper sense, must presuppose cognition, and cog- nition will. — First Division. PHYSICAL, EDUCA.TIOX. § 53. The art of living rightly is based upon a comprehen- sion of the process of Life. Life is the restless dialectic which ceaselessly transforms the inorganic into the organic, but at the same time creates out of itself another inorganic, in which it separates from itself whatever part of the inor- ganic has not been assimilated, which it took up as a stimu- lant, and that which has become dead and burned out. The organism is healthy when its reality corresponds to this idea of the dialectic, of a life which moves up and down, to and fro ; of formation and re-formation, of organizing and disor- ganizing. All the rules for Physical Education, or of Hygi- ene, are derived from this conception. § 54. It follows from this that the change of the inorganic to the organic is going on not only in the organism as a whole, but also in its every organ and in every part of ever}^ organ ; .and that the organic as soon as it has attained its highest point of energy, is again degraded to the inorganic and thrown out. Every cell has its history. Activit}^ is, there- fore, not contradictory to the organism, but favors in it the natural progressive and regressive metamorphosis. This pro- cess can go on harmoniously ; that is, the organism can be in health only when not only the whole organism, but each special organ, is allowed, after its productive activity, the corresponding rest and recreation necessary for its self- renewal. We have this periodicity exemplified in waking Dietetics. 29 and sleeping, also in exhalation and inlialation, excretion and taking in of material. When we have discovered the relative antagonism of the organs and their periodicity, we- have found the secret of the perennial renewal of life. § 55. Fatigue makes its appearance when any organ, or the organism in general, is denied time for the return movement into itself and for renovation. It is possible for some one organ, as if isolated, to exercise a great and long- continued activity, even to the point of fatigue, while the other organs rest ; as e.g. the lungs, in speaking, while the other parts are quiet ; on the other hand, it is not well to speak and run at the same time. The idea that one can keep the organism in "better condition by inactivity, is an error which rests upon a mechanical apprehension of life. Equally false is the idea that health depends upon the quantity and excellence of the food; without the force to assimilate it, it acts fatally rather than stimulatingly. l^ue strength arises only from actimty. — The later physiologists will gradually destro3^ in the system of culture of modern people, the preconceived notion which recommended for the indolent and lovers of pleasure powerful stimulants, very fat food, &c. Excellent works ex- ist on this question. — § 56. Physical Education, as it concerns the repairing, the motor, or the nervous, activities, is divided into (1) Diatetics, (2) Grymnastics, (8) Sexual Education, In real life these ac- tivities are scarcely separable, but for the sake of exposition we must consider them apart. In the regular development of the human being, moreover, the repairing system has a rela- tive precedence to the motor system, and the latter to the sexual maturity. But Pedagogics can treat of these ideas only with reference to the infant, the child, and the youth. F t R S T CHAPTER. Dietetics. § 57. Dietetics is the art of sustaining the normal repair of the organism. Since this organism is, in the concrete, an individual one, the general principles of dietetics must, in their manner of application, vary with the sex, the age, the temperament, the occupation, and the other conditions, of the individual. Pedagogics as a science can only go over its gen- 30 Dietetics. <3ral principles, and these can be named briefly. If we attempt to speak of details, we fall easily into triviality. So very important to the whole life of man is the proper care of his physical nature dnmng the first stages of its development, that the science of Pedagogics must not omit to consider the different systems which different people, according to their time, locality, and culture, have made for themselves ; many, it is true;, embracingisome preposterous ideas, but in general never devoid of j ustification in their time. § 58. The infant's first nourishment must be the milk of its mother. The substitution of a nurse should be only an ex- ception justified alone by the illness of the mother; as a rule, as happens in France, it is simply bad, because a for- eign physical and moral element is introduced into the family through the nurse. The milk of an animal can never be as good for a child. § 59. When the teeth appear, the child is first able to eat solid food ; but, until the second teeth come, he should be fed principally on light, fluid nourishment, and on vegetable diet. § 60. When the sec(^nd teeth are fully formed, the human being is ready for animal as well as vegetable food. Too much meat is not good ; but it is an anatomical error to sup- pose that man, b}' the structure of his stomach, Avas origi- nally formed to live al(»ne on vegetable diet, and that animal food is a sign of his degeneracy. — The Hindoos, who subsist principally on vegetable diet, are not, as has been often asserted, a very gentle race : a glance into their history, or into their erotic poetry, shows them, to be quite as passionate as other peoples. — § 61. Man is omnivorous. Children have therefore a natu- ral desire to taste of everything. For them eating and drink- ing possess a kind of poetry ; there is a theoretic ingredient blended with the material enjoyment. They have, on this account, a proneness to indulge, which is deserving of pun- ishment only when it is combined with disobedience and secrecy, or when it betrays cunning and greediness. § 62. Children need much sleep, because they are undergo- ing the most active progressive metamorphosis. In after-life sleep and waking should be subjected to periodical regula- tion, but not too exactly. Gymnastics. 31 § 63. The clotliirig of children should be adapted to them ; I.e. it should be cut according to the shape of the body, and it must be loose enough to allow free play to their desire for movement. — With regard to this as well as to the sleeping arrange- ments for children, less in regard to food — which is often too highly spiced and too liberal in tea, coffee, &c. — our age has become accustomed to a very rational system. The cloth- ing of children must be not only comfortable, but it should be made of simple and cheap material, so that the free enjoy- ment of the child may not be marred by the constant internal -anxiety that a rent or a spot may bring him a fault-tinding or angry word. From too great care as to clothing, may arise a meanness of mind which at last pays too great respect to it, or an empty frivolity. This last may be induced by dress- ing children too conspicuously. — § 64. Cleanliness is a virtue to which children should be •accustomed 'for the sake of their physical well-being, as well as because, in a moral point of view, it is of the greatest sig- nificance. Cleanliness will not endure that things shall be deprived of their proper individuality through the elemental ohaos. It retains each as distinguished from every other. While it makes necessary to man pure air, cleanliness of surroundings, of clothing, and of his body, it develops in him a sense by which he perceives accurately the particular lim- its of being in general. S K C O N I> CHAPTER. Gymnastics. ■ § 65. Gymnastics is the art of systematic training of the muscular system. The action of the voluntary muscles, which are regulated hy the nerves of the brain, in distinction from the involuntary automatic muscles depending on the spinal cord, while they are the means of man's intercourse with the external world, at the same time re-act upon the automatic muscles in digestion and sensation. Since the movement of the muscular fibres consists in the change of contraction and expansion, it follows that Gj^ranastics must bring about a change of movement which shall both contract and expand the muscles. 32 Gymnastics. § QQ. The system of gymnastic exercise of any nation cor- responds always to its way of lighting. So long as this consists in the personal struggle of a hand-to-hand contest, Gymnastics will seek to increase as much as possible indi- vidual strength and adroitness. As soon as the far-reaching missiles projected from lire-arms become the centre of all the operations of war, the individual is lost in a body of men, out of which he emerges only relatively in sharp-shooting, in the charge, in single contests, and in the retreat. Because of this incorporation of the individual in the one great whole, and because of the resulting unimportance of personal bravery, modern Gymnastics can never be the same as it was in an- cient times, even putting out of view the fact that the subjec- tiveness of the modern spirit is too great to allow it to devote so much attention to the care of the body, and the admira- tion of its beauty, as was given by the Greeks. — The Turners' unions and halls in Germany belong to the- period of subjective enthusiasm of the German student popu- lation, and had a political significance. At present, they have been brought back to their proper place as an Educa- tional means, and they are of great value, especially in large cities. Among the mountains, and even in the country towns, a special institution for bodily exercise is less necessary, for the matter takes care of itself. The attractions of the situa- tion and the games help to foster it. In great cities,, how- ever, the houses are often destitute of halls or open places where the children can take exercise in their leisure moments. In these cities, therefore, there must be some gymnastic hall where the sense of fellowship may be developed. Gym- nastics are not so essential for girls. In its place, dancing is sufficient, and gymnastics should be employed for them only where there exists any special weakness or deformity, when they may be used as a restorative or preservative. They are not to become Amazons. The boy, on the contrary, needs to acquire the feeling of good-fellowship. It is true that the school develops this in a measure, but not fully, because it determines the standing of the boy through his intellectual ambition. The academical youth will not take much interest in special gymnastics unless he can gain preeminence there- in. Running, leaping, climbing, and lifting, are too mean- ■.*ii*"' 1^ Gymnastics. 33 ingles§ for tlieir more mature spirits. They can take a lively interest only in the exercises which have a warlike charac- ter. With the Prussians, and some other German states, the art of Gymastics identifies itself with military concerns. § 67. The real idea of Gymnastics must always be that the spirit si) all rule over its naturalness, and shall make this an energetic and docile servant of its will. Strength and adroit- ness must unite and become confident skill. Strength, car- ried to its extreme produces the athlete ; adroitness, to its extreme, the acrobat. Pedagogics must avoid both. All im- mense force, fit only for display, must be held as far away as the idea of teaching Gymnastics with the motive of utility ; e.g. that by swimming one may save his life when he falls into the water, &c. Among other things, this may also be a consequence ; but the principle in general must always re- main: the necessity of the spirit of subjecting its organism of the body to the condition of a perfect means, so that it may never find itself limited by it. § 68. Gymnastic exercises form a series from simple to compound. There appears to be so much arbitrariness in them that it is always very agreeable to the mind to find, on nearer inspection, some reason. The movements are (1) of the lower, (2) of the upper extremities ; (8) of the whole bo- dy, with relative striking out, now of the upper, now of the lower extremities. We distinguish, therefore, foot, arm, and trunk movements. § 69. (1) The first series of foot-movements is the most important, and conditions the carriage of all the rest of the body. They are {a) walking ; {IS) running ; (c) leaping : each of these being capable of modifications, as the high and the low leap, the prolonged and the quick run. Sometimes we give to these diff'erent names, according to the means used, as walking on stilts ; skating ; leaping with a staff, or by means of the hands, as vaulting. Dancing is only the art of the graceful mingling of these movements ; and balancings only one form of walking. § 70. (2) The second series embraces the arm-movements^ and it repeats also the movements of the first series. It in- cludes {a) lifting ; {h) swinging ; (c) throwing. All pole and bar practice comes under lifting, also climbing and carrying. 34 Gymnastics. Under throwing, come quoit and ball-throwing, iind ni;ne-pin playing. All these movements are distingnished from each other, not only quantitatively but also qualitatively, in the position of the stretched and bent muscles ; e.g. running is something different from quick walking. § 71. (3) The third series, or that of movements of the whole bodj^, differs from the preceding two, which should precede it, in this, th>at it brings the organism into contact with a living object, which it has to overcome through its own activit3^ This object is sometimes an element, some- times an animal, sometimes a man. Our divisions then are {a) swimming ; (h) riding ; (c) fighting, or single combat. In swimming, one must conquer the jdelding liquid material of water by arm and foot movements. The resistance met on a,ccount of currents and weaves may be very great, but it is still that of a will-less and passive object. But in riding man has to deal with a self-willed being whose vitality calls forth not only his strength but also his intelligence and cour- age. The exercise is therefore very complicated, and the rider must be able perpetually to individualize it according to the necessity ; at the same time, he must give attention not only to the horse, but to the nature of the ground and the entire surroundings. But it is only in the struggle with men that Gymnastics reaches its highest point, for in this man offers himself as a living antagonist to man and brings him into danger. It is no longer the spontaneous activity of an unrea- soning existence ; it is the resistance and attack of intelli- gence itself with which he has to deal. Fighting, or single <^ombat, is the truly chivalrous exercise, and this may be combined with horsemanship. — In the single combat there is found also a qualitative modification, whence we have three s^^stems: {a) boxing and wrestling ; {h) fencing with sticks ; and (c) rapier and broad- sword fencing. In the first, which was cultivated to its high- est point among the Greeks, direct immediateness rules. In the boxing of the English, a sailor-like propensity of this nation, fist-fighting is still retained as a custom. Fencing with a stick is found among the French mechanics, the so- called convpagnons. Men often use the cane in their contests ; it is a sort of refined club. When Ave use the sword or rapier, Sexual Education. 85 the weapon becomes deadly. The Southern Europeans excel in the use of the rapier, the Germans in that of the sword. But the art of single combat is much degenerated, and the pistol-duel, through its increasing frequency, proves this de- generation. — T H I R J) e II A P 1 K U . Sexual Education. Note. — The paragraphs relating to Sexual Education are designed for parents rather than for teachers, the parent being the natural educator of the family and sexual education relating to the preservation and continuance of the family. This chapter is accordingly, for the most part, omitted here. It contains judi- cious reflections, invaluable to parents and guardians. — Tr. § 72. Gymnastic exercises fall naturally into a systematic arrangement determined by the chronological order of devel- wer caste who has defiled him by contact, without becoming thereby liable to punishment ; rather would he be to blame if he did not commit the murder. Thus formerly was it with the officer who did not immediately kill the citizen or the common soldier who struck him a blow, &c. — § 191. The East Indian culture is far deeper and richer than the Chinese. The theoretical culture includes Reading, Writ- ing, and Arithmetic ; but these are subordinate, as mere means for the higher activities of Poetry, Speculation, Sci- Buddliistic Education. 107 ence, and Art. The practical education limits itself strictly by tlie lines of caste, and since the caste system constitutes a whole in itself, and each for its permanence needs the others, it cannot forbear giving utterance suggestively to what is universally human in the free soul, in a multitude of fables (Hitopadesa) and aj)othegms (sentences of Bartrihari). Espe- cially for the education of princes is a mirror of the world sketched out. — Xenophon's C3^ropedia is of Greek origin, but it is Indian in its thought. — III. Monkisli Education. § 192. Family Education demands unconditional obedience towards parents and towards all who stand in an analogous position. Caste Education demands unconditional obedience to the duties of the caste. The family punishes by whip- ping; the caste, by excommunication, by loss of honor. The opposition to nature appears in both systems in the form of a rigid ceremonial, distinguishing between the differences arising from nature. The family as well as the caste has within it a manifold fountain of activity, but it has also just as manifold a limitation of the individual. Spirit is forced, therefore, to turn against nature in general. It must become indifferent to the family. But it must also oppose history, and the fixed distinctions of division of labor as necessitated by nature. It must become indifferent to work and the pleas- ure derived from it. That it may not be conditioned either by nature or by history, it denies both, and makes its action to consist in producing an abstinence from all activity. § 193. Such an indifference towards nature and history produces the education which we have called monkish. Those who support this sect care for food, clothing, and shelter, and for these material contributions, as the laity, receive in return from those who live this contemplative life the spiritual contribution of confidence in the blessings which wait upon ascetic contemplation. The family institu- tion as well as the institution of human labor is subordi- nated to abstract isolation, in which the individual lives only for the purification of his soul. All things are justified by this end. Castes are found no more ; only those are bound 108 BuddJdstic Education — System ofActwe Education. to the observance of a special ceremonial wiio as nuns or monks subject themselves to the unconditional obedience to the rules of the cloister, these rules solemnly enjoining on the negative side celibacy and cessation from business, and on the positive side prayer and perfection. § 194. In the school of the Chinese Tao-tse, and in the com- mand to the Brahmin after he has established a family to become a recluse, we find the transition as it actually exists to the Buddhistic Quietism which has covered the rocky heights of Thibet with countless cloisters, and reared the peo- ple who are dependent upon it into a childlike amiability, into a contented repose. Art and Science have here no value in themselves, and are regarded only as ministering to reli- gion. To be able to read in order to mutter over the prayers is desirable. With the premeditated effort in the state of a monk to reduce self to nothing as the highest good, the sys- tem of passive education attains its highest point. But the spirit cannot content itself in this abstract and dreamy ab- sence of all action, though it demands a high stage of cul- ture, and it has recourse therefore to action, partly on the positive side to conquer nature, partly to double its own existence in making history. Inspired with affirmative cour- age, it descends triumphantly from the mountain heights, and fears secularization no more. SECOND GROUP. THE SYSTEM OF ACTIVE EDUCATION. § 195. Active Education elevates man from his abstract subjection to the family, the caste, asceticism, into a concrete activity with a definite aim which subjects those elements as phases of its mediation, and grants to each individual inde- pendence on the condition of his identity with it. These aims are the military state, the future after death, and in- dustry. There is always an element of nature present from which the activity proceeds ; but this no longer appears, like the family, the caste, the sensuous egotism, as imme- diately belonging to the individual, but as something outside of himself which limits him, and, as his future life, has an internal relation to him, yet is essential to him and assigns to him the object of his activity. The Persian has as an Military Education. 109 object of conquest, other nations ; the Egyptian, death; the Phoenician, the sea. 1. Military Education. § 196. That education whicli would emancipate a nation from the passivity of abstraction must throw it into the midst of an historical activity. A nation finds not its actual limits in its locality : it can forsake this and wander far away from it. Its true limit is made by another nation. The nation which knows itself to be actual, turns itself therefore against other nations in order to subject them and to reduce them to the condition of mere accidents of itself. It begins a system of conquest whicli has in itself no limitations, but goes from one nation to another, and extends its evil course indefinitely. The final result of this attack is that it finds itself attacked and conquered. — The early history of the Persian is twofold : the patriar- chal in the high valleys of Iran, and the religio-hierarchical among the Medes. We find under these circumstances a repetition of the principal characteristics of the Chinese, In- dian, and Buddhist educations. In ancient Zend there were also castes. Among the Persians themselves, as they de- scended from their mountains to the conquest of other nations, there was properly only a military nobility. The priesthood was subjected to the royal power which repre- sented the absolute power of actuality. Of the Persian kings, Cyrus attacked Western Asia; Cambyses, Africa; Darius and Xerxes, Europe ; until the reaction of the spiritually higher nationality did not content itself with self-preserva- tion, but under the Macedonian Alexander made the attack on Persia itself. — § 197. Education enjoined upon the Persians (1) to speak the truth ; (2) to learn to ride and to use the bow and arrow. There is implied in the first command a recognition of actuality, the negation of all dreamy absorption, of all fantastical inde termination ; and in this light the Persian, in distinction from the Hindoo, appears to be considerate and reasonable. In the second command is implied warlike prac- tice, but not that of the nomadic tribes. The Persian fights on horseback, and thus appears in distinction from the Indian 110 Priestly E ducat ion. hermit seclusion and the quietism of the Lamas as restless and in constant motion. — The Family increases in value as it rears a large number of warriors. Many children were a blessing. The king of Persia- gave a premium for all children over a certain num- ber. Nations were drawn in as nations by war ; hence the immense multitude of a Persian army. Everything — family, business, possessions— -must be regardlessly sacrificed to the one aim of war. Education, therefore, cultivated an uncon- ditional, all-embracing obedience to the king, and the slight- est inclination to assert an individual independence was high treason and was punished with death. In China, on the con- trary, duty to the family is paramount to duty to the state, or rather is itself duty to the state. The civil officer who mourns the loss of one of his family is released during the period of mourning from the duties of his function. — § 198. The theoretical education, which was limited to read- ing, writing, and to instruction, was, in the usages of culture, in the hands of the Magians, the number of whom was esti- mated at eighty thousand, and who themselves had enjoyed the advantages of a careful education, as is shown by their gradation into Herbeds, Molieds, and Destur-Moheds ; i.e. into apprentices, journeymen, and masters. The very fundamen- tal idea of their religion was military ; it demanded of men to fight on the side of the king of light, and guard against the prince of darkness and evil. It gave to him thus the honor of a free position between the world- moving powers and the possibility of a self-creative destiny, by which means vigor and chivalrous feeling were developed. Religion trained the activity of man into actualization on this planet, increas- ing b}^ its means tlie dominion of the good, by purifying the water, by planting trees, by extirpating troublesome wild beasts. Thus it increased bodily comfort, and no longer, like the monk, treated this as a mere negative. II. Priestly Education. % 190. War has in death its force. It produces this, and by its means decides who shall serve and who obey. But the nation that finds its activity in war, though it makes death its absolute means, yet finds its own limit in 'death. Other Priestly Education. Ill nations are only its boundaries, which it can overj^ass in fighting with and conquering them. But death itself it can never escape, whether it come in the sands of the desert — which buried for Cambyses an army which he sent to the oracle of the Libyan Ammon — or in the sea, that scorns the rod of the angry despot, or by the sword of the freeman who guards his household gods. On this account, that people stands higher that in the midst of life reflects on death, or rather lives for it. The education of such a nation must be priestlj^ because death is the means of the transition to the future life, aud consequently equivalent to a new birth, and becomes a religious act. Neither the family-state, nor the caste-state, nor the monkish nor military-state, are hierar- chies in the sense that the leading of the national life by a priesthood produces. But in Egypt this was actually the case, because the chief educational tribunal was the death- court which concerned only the dead,Nin awarding to them or denying them the honor of burial as the result of their whole life, but in its award affected also the honor of the surviv- ing family. § 200. Greneral education here limited itself to imparting the ability to read, write, and calculate. Special education con- sisted properly only in an habitual living into a delinite busi- ness within the circle of the Family. In this fruitful and warm land the expense of supporting children was very small. The division into classes was without the cruel features of the In- dian civilization, and life itself in the narrow Mle valley was very social, very rich, very full of eating and drinking, while the familiarity with death heightened the force of enjoyment. In a stricter sense only, the warriors, the priests, and the kings, had, properly speaking, an education. The aim of life, which was to determine in death its eternal [future, to secure for itself a passage into the still kiugdom of Amenth, manifested itself externally in the care which they expended on the pre- servation of the dead shell of the immortal soul, and on this account worked itself out in building tombs which should last for ever. The Chinese builds a wall to secure his family - state from attack ; the Hindoo builds pagodasjfor his gods ; the Buddhist erects for himself monastic cells ; the Persian 112 Industrial Education. constructs in Persepolis the tomb of Ms kings, where they may retire in the evening of their lives after they have rioted in Ecbatana, Babylon, and Susa ; but the Egyptian builds his own tomb, and carries on war only to protect it. III. Indus trial ■Education . § 201. The system of active education was to find its solu- tion in a nation which wandered from the coast of the Red Sea to the foot of the Lebanon mountains on the Mediterra- nean, and ventured forth upon the sea which before that time all nations had avoided as a dangerous and destructive ele- ment. The Phoenician was industrial, and needed markets where he could dispose of the products of his skill. But while he sought for them he disdained neither force nor de- ceit ; he planted colonies ; he stipulated that he should have in the cities of other nations a portion for himself; he urged the nations to adopt his pleasures, and insensibly introduced among them his culture and even his religion. The educa- tion of such a nation must have seemed profane, because it fostered indifference towards family and one's native land, and made the restless and passionate activity subservient to gain. The understanding and usefulness rose to a higher dignity. § 202. Of the education of the Phoenicians we know only so much as to enable us to conclude that it was certainly va- rious and extensive : among the Carthaginians, at least, that their children were practised in reading, writing, and arith- metic, in religious duties ; secondly, in a trade ; and, finally, in the use of arms, is not improbable. Commerce became with the Phoenicians a trade, the egotism of which makes men dare to plough the inhospitable sea, and to penetrate eagerly the horror of its vast distances, but yet to conceal from other nations their discoveries and to wrap them in a veil of fable. — It is a beautiful testimony to the disposition of the Greeks, that Plato and others assign as a cause of the low state of Arithmetic and Mathematics among the Phoenicians and Egyptians the, want of a free and disinterested seizing of them. — Indimdual Education — Esthetic Education. 113 THIRD GROUP. THE SYSTEM OF INDIVIDUAL. EDUCATIOX. § 203. One-sided passivity as well as one-sided activity is subsumed under Individuality, which makes itself into its own end and aim. The Plia?nician made gain his aim ; his activity was of a utilistic character. Individuality as a peda- gogical principle is indeed egotistic in so far as it endeavors to achieve its own peculiarity, but it is at the same time noble. It desires not to haDe but to he. Individuality also begins as natural, but it elevates nature by means of art to ideality. The solution of beauty is found in culture, since this renounces the charm of appearance for the knowledge of the True. The {^esthetic individuality is followed by the practical, which has indeed no natural basis, but proceeds from an artificial basis as a state formed for a place of refuge. In order internally to create a unity in this, is framed a definite code of laws ; in order externally to assure it, the invincible warrior is demanded. Education is therefore, more exactly speaking, juristic and military practice. The moral- ity of the state is loosened as it reduces into its mechanism one nation after another, until the individuality, become dge- monic, makes its war-hardened legions tremble with -weak- ness. We characterize this individuality as da3monic because it desires recognition simply for its own sake. ISTot for its beauty and culture, not for its knowledge of business and its bravery, only for its peculiarity as such does it claim value, and in the effort to secure this it is ready to hazard life itself. In its naturally-growing existence this individuality is deep, but at the same time without self-limit. The nations educate themselves to this individuality when they destroy the world . of Roman world — that of self-limit and balance — which they find. I. yiEsihetic Education. % 204. The system of individual education begins with the transfiguration of the immediate individuality into beauty. On the side of nature this system is passion, for individuality is given through nature; but on the side of spirit it is active, for spirit must determine itself to restrain its measure as the essence of beauty. 9 114 Esthetic Education. § 205. Here tlie individual is of value only in so far as he is beautiful. At first beauty is apprehended as natural, but then it is carried over into the realm of spirit, and the Good is posited as identical with the Beautiful. The ideal of aesthetic education remains always that there shall be also an external unity of the Good with the Beautiful, of Spirit with Nature. — We cannot here give in detail the history of Greek Edu- cation. It is the best known among us, and the literature in which it is worked out is very widely spread. Among the common abridged accounts we mention here only the works of Jacobs, of Cramer & Bekker's " Charinomos." We must content ourselves with mentioning the turning-points which follow from the nature of the principle. — § 206. Culture was in Greece thoroughly national. Educa- tion gave to the individual the consciousness that he was a Greek and no barbarian, a free man and so subject only to the laws of the state, and not to the caprice of any one per- son. Thus the nationality was freed at once from the abstract unity of thefamil}^ and from the abstract distinction of caste, while it appeared with the manifold talents of individuals of different races. Thus the Dorian race held as essential, gym- nastics; the ^olians, music; the Ionics, poetry. TheiEolian individuality was subsumed in the history of the two others, so that these had to proceed in their development with an internal antagonism. The education of the Dorian race was national education in the fullest sense of the word; in it the education of all was the same, and was open to all, even including the young women ; among the Ionic race it was also in its content truly national, but in its form it was varied and unlike, and, for those belonging to various great families, private. The former, reproducing the Oriental phase of ab- stract unity, educated all in one mould ; the latter was the nursery of particular individualities. § 207. (1) Education in the heroic age, without -any syste- matic arrangement on the subject, left each one perfectly free. The people related the histories of the adventures of others, and through their own gave material to othei-s again to relate stories of them. — The Greeks began where the last stage of the active ^Esthetic Education. 115 system of edncation ended — with piracy and the seizure of women. Swimming was a universal practice among the sea- dwelling Greeks, just as in England — the mistress of the ocean — rowing is the most prominent exercise among the young men, and public regattas are held. — § 208. (2) In the period of state-cidture proper, education developed itself systematically; itnd gymnastics, music, and grammatics, or literary culture, constituted the general peda- gogical elemenls. § 209. G3^mnastics aimed not alone to render the body strong and agile, but, far more, to produce in it a noble car- riage, a dignihed and graceful manner of appearance. Each one fashioned his body into a living, divine statue, and in the public games the nation crowned the victor. — Their love of beautiful boys is explicable not merely by their interest in beautiful forms, but especially by their interest in individuality. The low condition of the women could not lie at the foundation of it, for among the Spartans they were educated as nearly as possible like the men, and yet among them and the Cretans the love of boys was recog- nized in their legislation. To be without a beloved {ah-fjz)^ or a lover {£ia-n:wfKaz)^ was among them considered as dis- graceful as the degradation of the love by unchastity was contemptible. What charm was there, then, in love ? Mani- festly only beauty and culture. But that a person should be attracted by one and not by another can be accounted for only by the peculiar character, and in so far the boy-love and the man-friendship which sprang from it, among the Greeks, are very characteristic and noteworthy phenomena. — § 210. It was the task of Music, by its rhythm and meas- ure, to fill the soul with well-proportioned harmony. So highly did the Greeks prize music, and so variously did they practise it, that to be a musical man meant the same with them as to be a cultivated man with us. Education in this respect was very painstaking, inasmuch as music exercises a very powerful influence in developing discreet behavior and self-possession into a graceful naturalness. — Among the Greeks we find an unrestricted delight in nature — a listening to her manifestations, the tone of which betrays the subjectivity of things as subjectivity. In com- 116 Esthetic Education. parison with this tender sympathy with nature of the Greeks — who heard in the murmur of the fountains, in the dashing of the waves, in the rustling of the trees, and in the cry of animals, the voice of divine personality — the sight and hear- ino- of the Eastern nations for nature is dull. — o § 211. The stringed instrument, the cithern, was preferred by the Greeks to all wind instruments because it was not ex- citing, and allowed the accompaniment of recitation or song, i.e. the contemporaneous activity of the spirit in poetry. Flute-playing was first brought from Asia Minor after the victorius progress of the Persian war, and was especially cul- tivated in Thebes. They sought in vain afterwards to oppose the wild excitement raised by its influence. § 212. Grammar comprehended Letters {rpdfxiiara), i.e. the elements of literary culture, reading and writing. Much attention was given to correct expression. The Fables of ^sop, the Iliad, and the Odyssey, and later the tragic poets, were read, and partly learned by heart. The orators borrowed from them often the ornament of their commonplace remarks. § 213. (8) The internal growth of what was peculiar to the Grecian State came to an end with the war for the Hegemony. Its dissolution began, and the philosophical period followed the political. The beautiful ethical life was resolved into thoughts of the True, Good, and Beautiful. Individuality turned more towards the internal, and undertook to subject freedom, the existing regulations, laws and customs, to the criticism of reason as to whether these were in and for them- selves universal and necessary. The Sophists, as teachers of Grammar, Rhetoric, and Philosophy, undertook to extend the cultivation of Reflection; and this introduced instability in the place of the immediate fixed state of moral customs. Among the women, the HetcBrcB undertook the same revo- lution ; in the place of the nbxvta !J.y]Tr^p appeared the beauty, who isolated herself in the consciousness of her charms and in the perfection of her varied culture, and exhibited herself to the public admiration. The tendency to idiosyncrasy often approached wilfulness, caprice and whimsicality, and opposi- tion to the national moral sense. A Diogenes in a tub became possible ; the soulless but graceful frivolity of an Alcibiades charmed, even though it was externally condemned; a Socra- Esthetic Education. 117 tes completed the break in consciousness, and urged upon the system of the old morality the pregnant question, whether Vir- tue could be taught ? Socrates worked as a philosopher who was to educate. Pythagoras had imposed upon his pupils the abstraction of a common, exactly-defined manner of living. Socrates, on the contrary, freed his disciples — in general, those who had intercourse with him — leading them to the con- sciousness of their own individuality. He revolutionized the youth in that he taught them, instead of a thoughtless obe- dience to moral customs, to seek to comprehend their pur- pose in the world, and to rule their actions according to it. Outwardly he conformed in politics, and in war as at Mara- thon ; but in the direction of his teaching he was subjective and modern. § 214. This idea, that Virtue could be taught, was realized especially by Plato and Aristotle; the former inclining to Dorianism, the latter holding to the principle of individuality in nearly the modern sense. As regards the pedagogical means — Gymnastics, Music, and Grammar — both philoso- phers entirely agreed. But, in the seizing of the pedagogical development in general, Plato asserted that the education of the individual belonged to the state alone, because the indi- vidual was to act wholly in the state. On the other hand, Aris- totle also holds that the state should conduct the education of its citizens, and that the individual should be trained for the interest of the state ; but he recognizes also the family, and the peculiarity of the individual, as positive powers, to which the state must accord relative freedom. Plato sacrificed the family to the state, and must therefore have sacred mar- riages, nurseries, and common and public educational insti- tutions. Each one shall do only that which he is fitted to do, and shall work at this only for the sake of perfecting it: to what he shall direct his energies, and in what he shall be instructed, shall be determined by the government, and the individuality consequently is not left free. Aristotle also will have for all the citizens the same education, which shall be common and public ; but he allows, at the same time, an independence to the family and self-determination to the in- dividual, so that a sphere of private life presents itself within 118 Esthetic Education. » the state : a difference by means of which a much broader sway of individuality is possible. — These two philosophers have come to represent two very different directions in Pedagogics, which at intervals, in cer- tain stages of culture, reappear — the tyrannical guardianship of the state which assumes the work of education, tyrannical to the individual, and the free development of the liberal state-education, in opposition to idiosyncrasy and fate. § 215. The principle of testhetic individuality reaches its highest manifestation when the individual,in the decay of pub- lic life, in the disappearance of all beautiful morality, iso- lates himself, and seeks to gain in his isolation such strength that he can bear the changes of external history around him with composure — "ataraxy." The Stoics sought to attain this end by turning their attention inward into pure internality, and thus, by preserving the self-determination of abstract thinking and willing, maintaining an identity with them- selves: the Epicureans endeavored to do the same, with this difference however, that they strove after a positive satisfac- tion of the senses by filling them with concrete pleasurable sensations. As a consequence of this, the Stoics isolated themselves in order to maintain themselves in the exclusive- ness of their internal unconditioned relation to themselves, while the Epicureans lived in companies, because they achieved the reality of their pleasure - seeking principle through harmony of feeling and through the sweetness of friendship. In so far the Epicureans weve Greeks and the Stoics Romans. With both, however, the beaut}^ of manifes- tation was secondary to the immobility of tlie inner feeling. The phistic attainment of the Good and tlie Beautiful was cancelled in the abstraction of thinking and feeling. This was the advent of the Roman principle among the Greeks. § 216. The pedagogical significance of Stoicism and Epicu- reanism consists in this, that, after the moral life in public and in private were sundered from each other, tlie individual began to educate himself, through philosophical culture, into stability of character, for which reason the Roman emperors particularly disliked the Stoics. At many times, a resigna- tion to the Stoic philosophy was sufficient to make one sus- Practical Education. 119 pected. But, at last, the noble emperor, in order to win him- self a hold ill tlie chaos of things, was forced himself to become a Stoic and to llee to the inaccessible stillness of the self-thinking activity and the self-moving will. Stoics and Epicureans had both what we call an ideal. The Stoics used the expression "kingdom"; as Horace says, sarcastically, " Sapiens rex est nisi — pituita molesta est.'''' II. Practical Education. § 217. The truth of the solution of the beautiful individu- ality is the promise of the activity conformable to its pur- pose [i.e. teleological activity], which on the one hand con- siders carefully end and means, and on the other hand seeks to realize the end through the corresponding means, and in this deed subjects mere beauty of form. The practical indi- viduality is therefore externally conditioned, since it is not its own end like the Beautiful, whether Stoical or Epicurean, but has an end, and finds its satisfaction not so much in this after it is attained as in the striving for its attainment. § 218. The education of this system begins with very great simplicity. But after it has attained its object, it abandons itself to using the results of aesthetic culture as a recreation without any specific object. What was to the Greeks a real delight in the Beautiful became therefore with the Romans simply an esthetic amusement, and as such must finally be wearisome. The earnestness of individuality made itself in mysticism into a new aim, which was distinguished from the original one in that it concealed in itself a mystery and ex- acted a theoretically aesthetic practice. § 219. (1) The first epoch of Roman education, as properly Roman, was the juristic-military education of the republic. The end and aim of the Roman was Rome; and Rome, as from the beginning an eclectic state, could endure only while its laws and external politics were conformable to some end. It bore the same contradiction within itself as in its external attitude. This forced it into robbery, and the plebeians were related to the patricians in the same way, for they robbed them gradually of all their privileges. On this account education directed itself partly to giving a knowledge of the Law, partly to communicating a capacity for war. The boys 120 Practical Education. were obliged to commit to memory and recite the laws of the twelve tables, and all the youths were subject to military service. The Roman possessed no individuality of native growth, but one mediated through the intermingling of various fugitives, which developed a very great energy. Hence from the first he was attentive to himself, he watched jealously over the limits of his rights and the rights of oth- ers, measured his strength, moderated himself, and constant- ly guarded himself. In contrast with the careless cheerful- ness of the Greeks, he therefore appears gloomy. — The Latin tongue is crowded with expressions which paint presence of mind, effort at reflection, a critical attitude of mind, the importance of personal control : as gramtas mo- rum, sui compos esse, sihi constare, austeritas, mr strenuus, mr prohus, mtam. honestam gerere, sibimet ipse imperare, &c. The Etruscan element imparted to this earnestness an espe- cially solemn character. The Roman was no more, like the Greek, unembarrassed at naturalness. He was ashamed of na- kedness; 'yerdC'ZZ?i<^m,^'z^(^or, were genuinely Roman. Vitam prcBferre pudori was shameful. On the contrary, the Greek gave to Greeks a festival in exhibiting the splendor of his naked body, and the inhabitants of Crotona erected a statue to Philip only because he was so perfectly beautiful. Simply to be beautiful, only beautiful, was enough for the Greek. 'But a Roman, in order to be recognized, must have done something for Rome : se hene de repuhlica mereri. — § 220. In the first education of children the agency of the mother is especially influential, so that woman with the Romans took generally a more moral, a higher, and a freer position. It is worthy of remark that while, as the beautiful, she set the Greeks at variance, among the Romans, through her ethical authority, she acted as reconciler. § 221. The mother of the Roman helped to form his cha- racter ; the father undertook the work of instruction. When in his fifteenth year the boy exchanged the toga prmtextata for the toga mrilis, he was usually sent to some relative, or to some jurist, as his guardian, to learn thoroughly, under his guidance, of the laws and of the state ; with the seven- teenth began military service. All education was for a long time entirely a private afi'air. On account of the necessity of Practical Education. ' 121 a mechanical unity in work which war demands, the greatest stress was laid upon obedience. In its restricted sense edu- cation comprised Reading, Writing, and Arithmetic ; the last being, on account of its usefulness, more esteemed by the Romans than by the Greeks, who gave more time to Geome- try. The schools, very characteristically, were called Ludiy because their work was, in distinction from other practice, regarded simply as a recreation, as play. — The Roman recognized with pride this distinction be- tween the Greek and himself; Cicero's Introduction to his Essay on Oratory expresses it. To be practical was always the effort of the reflective character of the Romans, which was always placing new ends and seeking the means for their attainment; which loved moderation, not to secure beauty thereby, but respected it as a means for a happy suc- cess (^medium tenuere heati) ; which did not possess serene self-limitation, or acoippoavwj, but calculation quid valeant humeri, quid f err e recusent; but which, in general, went far bej^ond the Greeks in persistency of will, in constantia aiiimi. The schools were at first held publicly in shops ; hence the name trimum. Very significant for the Roman is the predicate which he conferred upon theoretical subjects when he called them artes hona-, optiDice, liherales, ingenudy &c., and brought forth the practical element in them. — § 222, (2) But the practical education could no longer keep its ground after it had become acquainted with the aesthetic. The conquest of Greece, Asia Minor, and Egypt, made neces- sary, in a practical point of view, the acquisition of the Gre- cian tongue, so that these lands, so permeated with Grecian culture, migJit be thoroughly ruled. The Roman of family and property, therefore, tooK into his service Greek nurses and teachers who should give to his children, from their ear- liest years, Greek culture. It is, in the history of education, a great evil Avhen a nation undertakes to teach a foreign tongue to its youth. Then the necessity of trade with the Greeks caused the study of Rhetoric, so that not only in the deliberations of the senate and people, but in law, the ends might be belter attained. Whatever eftbrt the Roman gov- ernment made to prevent the invasion of the Greek rhetori- cian was all in vain. The Roman youth sought for this 122 Practical Education. knowledge, which was so necessary to them in foreign lands, e.g. in the flourishing school of rhetoric on the island of Rhodes. At last, even the study of Philosophy commended itself to the practical Roman, in order that he might recover for himself confidence amid the disappointments of life. When his practical life did not bring him any result, he de- voted himself in his poverty to abstract contemplation. The Greeks would have Philosophy for its own sake; the ataraxy of the Stoics, Epicureans, and Skeptics even, desired the result of a necessary principle; but the Roman, on the contrary, wished to lift himself by philosophemes above trouble and misfortune. — This direction which Philosophy took is noteworth}^ not alone in Cicero and Seneca, but at the fall of the Roman em- pire, when Boethius wrote in his prison his immortal work on the consolations of Philosoph3^ — § 223. The earnestness which sought a definite end degen- erated in the very opposite of activity with him who had no definite aim. The idleness of the wealth}^ Roman, who felt himself to be the lord of a limitless world, devoted itself to dissipation and desire for enjoyment, which, in its entire want of moderation, abused nature. The finest form of the extant education was that in helles-lettres, which also for the first time came to belong to the sphere of Pedagogics. There had been a degeneration of art in India and Greece, and also an artistic trifling. But in Rome there arose a pursuit of art in order to win a certain consideration in social position, and to create for one's self a recreation in the emptiness of a soul satiated with sensual debaucherj^ Such a seizing of art is frivolous, for it no longer recognizes its absoluteness, and subordinates it as a means to subjective egotism. Literary salons then appear. — In the introduction to his Cataline, Sallust has painted excellently this complete revolution in the Roman education. The younger Pliu}^ in his letters furnishes ample material to illustrate to us this pursuit of belles-lettres. In Nero it became idiotic. We should transgress our prescribed limits did we enter here into particulars. An analysis would show the perversion of the aesthetic into the practical, the sssthetic losing thereby its proper nature. But the Roman could not Practical Education. 123 avoid this perversion, because, according to his original aim, he could not move except towards the utile et honestum. — § 224. (3) But this pursuit of fine art, this aimless parade, must at last weary the Roman. He sought for himself again an object to which he could vigorously devote himself. His sovereignty was assured, and conquest as an object could no more charm him. The national religion had fallen with the destruction of the national individuality. The soul looked out over its historical life into an empty void. It sought to establish a relation between itself and the next world by means of daemonic forces, and in place of the depreciated na- tionality and its religion we find the eclecticism of the mystic society. There were, it is true, in national religions certain secret signs, rites, words, and meanings ; but now, for the first time in the history of the world, there appeared mysteries as pedagogical societies, which concerned themselves only with private rhings and were indifferent to nationality. Every- thing was profaned by the roughness of violence. Man be- lieved no longer in the old gods, and the superstitious faith in ghosts became only a thing fit to frighten children with. Thus man took refuge in secrecy, which had for his satiety a piquant charm. § 225. The education of the mysteries was twofold, theo- retical and practical. In the theoretical we find a regular gradation of symbols and symbolical acts through which one seemed gradually to attain to the revelation of the secret ; the practical contained a regular gradation of ascetic actions alternating with an abandonment to wild orgies. Both raised one from the rank of the novice to that of the initiated. In the higher orders they formed an ethical code of laws, and this form Pedagogics has retained in all such secret culture, fnutatis mutandis, down to the Illuminati. — In the Roman empire, its Persian element was the wor- ship of Mithras ; its Egyptian, that of Isis ; its Grecian, the Pythagorean doctrines. All these three, however, were much mingled with each other. The Roman legions, who really no longer had any native country, bore these artificial reli- gions throughout the whole world. The confusion of excite- ment led often to Somnambulism, which was not yet under- stood, and to belief in miracles, ApoUonius of Tyana, the 124 Indimdual Education — Theocratic Education. messiali of Etlmicism, is the principal figure in this group ; and, in comparison with him, Jamblichus appears only as an enthusiast and Alexander of Abonoteichos as an impostor. III. Abstract I/idividifal Education. § 226. What the despair of the declining nations sought . for in these mysteries was Individuality, which in its singu- larity is conscious of the universality of the rational spirit as its own essence. This individuality existed more imme- diately in the Germanic race, which nevertheless, on account of its nature, formed first in Christianity its true actualiza- tion. It can be here only pointed out that they most thor- oughly, in opposition to nature, to men, and to the gods, felt themselves to be independent ; as Tacitus says, '"'■Securi ad- xiersus liomines., securi adversus Deos.^^ This individuality, which had only itself for an end, must necessarily be destroy- ed, and was saved only by Christianity, which overcame and enlightened its demonic and defiant spirit. We cannot speak here of a system of Education. Respect for personality, the free acknowledgment of the claims of woman, the loyalty to the leader chosen by themselves, loyalty to their friends (the idea of fellowship), — these features should all be well-noted, because from them arose the feudalism of the middle ages.. What C?esar and Tacitus tell us of the education of the Ger- mans expresses only the emancipation of individuality, which in its immediate crudeness had no other form in which to manifest itself than wars of conquest. — To the Rom'an there was something daemonic in the German. He perceived dimly in him his future, his mas- ter. When the Romans were to meet the Cimbri and Teu- tons in the field, tlieir commander had first to accustom them for a whole day to the fearful sight of the wild, giant-like forms. Secoxd Division. the system of theocratic education. § 227. The system of IS'ational Education founded its first stage on the substantial basis of the family- spirit; its second stage on the division of the nation by means of division of labor vrhich it makes permanent in castes ; its third stage presents the free opposition of the laity and clergy; in its System of Theocratic Education. 125 next phase it makes war, immortality, and trade, by turns, its end ; thirdly, it posits beauty, patriotic youth, and the immediateness of individuality, as the essence of mankind, and at last dissolves the unity of nationality in the con- sciousness that all nations are really one since they are all human beings. In the intermixture of races in the Roman world arises the conception of the human race, the genus Tiu- manum. Education had become eclectic : the Roman legions levelled the national distinctions. In the wavering of all objective morality, the necessity of self-education in order to the formation of character appeared ever more and more clearly ; but the conception, which lay at the foundation, was always, nevertheless, that of Roman, Greek, or German edu- cation. But in the midst of these nations another system had striven for development, and this did not base itself on the natural connection of nationality, but made this, for the first time, only a secondary thing, and made the direct relation of man to God its chief idea. In this system God himself is the teacher. He manifests to man His will as law, to which he must unconditionally conform for no other reason than that He is the Lord, and man His servant, who can have no other will than His. The obedience of man is therefore, in this sys- • tem, abstract until through experience he gradually attains to the knowledge that the will of God has in it the very essence of his own will. Descent, Talent, Events, Work, Beauty, Cour- age, — all these are indifferent things compared with the sub- jection of the human to the divine will. To be well-pleasing to God is almost the same as belief in Him. Without this ^ identity, what is natural in national descent is of no value. According to its form of manifestation, Judaism is below the Greek spirit. It is not beautiful, but rather grotesque. But in its essence, as the religion of the contradiction between the idea and its existence, it goes beyond nature, which it perceives to be established by an absolute, conscious, and reasonable Will ; while the Greek concealed from himself only mythically his dependence on nature, on his mother- earth. The Jews have been preserved in the midst of all other culture by the elastic power of the thought of God as One who was free from the control of nature. The Jews have a patriotism in common with the Romans. The Mac- 126 System of Tlieocratic Education. ■ cabees, for example, were not inferior to the Romans in greatness. — Abraham is the genuine Jew because he is the genuinely faithful man. He does not hesitate to obey the horrible and inhuman command of his God, Circumcision was made the token of the national unity, but the nation may assimilate members to itself from other nations through this rite. The condition always lies in belief in a spiritual relation to which the relation of nationalit}' is secondary. The Jewish nation makes proselytes, and these are widely difierent from the Socii of the Romans or the Metoeci of the Athenians. — § 228. To the man who knows Nature to be the work of a single, incomparable, rational Creator, she loses indepen- dence. He is negatively freed from her control, and sees in her only an absolute means. As opposed to the fanciful sensuous intuitions of Ethnicism, this seems to be a backward step, but for the emancipation of man it is a progress. He no longer fears Nature but her Lord, and admires Him so much that prose rises to the dignity of poetry in his telological contemplation. Since man stands over and beyond nature, education is directed to morality as such, and spreads itself out in innumerable limitations, by means of which the dis- tinction of man from nature is expressly asserted as a differ- ence. The ceremonial law appears often arbitrary, but in its prescriptions it gives man the satisfaction of placing himself as will in relation to will. For example, if he is forbidden to eat any specified part of an animal, the ground of this command is not merely natural — it is the will of the Deity. Man learns therefore, in his obedience to such directions, to free himself from his self-will, from his natural desires. This exact outward conformity to subjectivity is the beginning of wisdom, the purification of the will from all individual egotism. — The rational substance of the Law is found always in the Decalogue. Many of our modern much-admired au- thors exhibit a superficiality bordering on shallowness when they comment alone on the absurdity of the miracles, and abstract from the profound depth of the" moral strug- gle, and from the j)ractical rationality of the ten command- ments. — System of Tlieocratlc Education. 127 § 229. Education in this theocratical system is on one side patriarchal. The Family is very prominent, because it is considered to be a great happiness for the individual to be- long from his very earliest life lo the company of those who believe in the true God. On its other side it is hierarchical, as its ceremonial law develops a special office, which is to see that obedience is paid to its multifarious regulations. And, because these are often perfectly arbitrary, Education must, above all, practise the memory in learning them all. so that they may always be remembered. The Jewish mono- theism shares this necessity with the superstition of ethni- cism. § 230. But the technique proper of the mechanism is not the most important pedagogical element of the theocracy. We find this in its historical significance, since its history throughout has a pedagogical character. For the people of God show us always, in their changing intercourse with their God, a progress from the external to the internal, from the lower to the higher, from the past to the future. Its history, therefore, abounds in situations very interesting in a peda- gogical point of view, and in characters which are eternal models. § 231. (1) The will of God as the absolute authority is at first to them, as law, external. But soon God adds to the command to obedience, on one hand, the inducement of a promise of material prosperity, and on the other hand the threat of material punishment. The fulfilment of the law is also encouraged by reflection on the profit which it brings. But, since these motives are all external, tliey rise finally into the insight that the law is to be fulfilled, not on their account, but because it is the will of the Lord ; not alone be- cause it is conducive to our happiness, but also because it is in itself holy, and written in our hearts : in other words, man proceeds from the abstract legality, through the reflection of eudaemonism, to the internality of moral sentiment — the course of all education. — This last stand-point is especially represented in the excellent Gnomic of Jesus Sirach — a book so rich in pedago- gical insight, which paints with master-strokes the relations of husband and wife, parents and children, master and ser- 128 8ystem of Theocratic Education. vaiits, friend and- friend, enemy and enemy, and the dignitj of labor as well as the necessity of its division. This price- less book forms a side-piece from the theocratic stand-point to the Republic of Plato and his laws on ethical govern- ment. — § 232. (2) The progress from the lower to the higher ap- peared in the conquering of the natural individuality. Man, as the servant of Jehovah, must have no will of his own ; but seltish naturalness arrayed itself so much the more vigor- ously against the abstract "Thou shalt," allowed itself to descend into an abstraction from the Law, and often reached the most unbridled extravagance. But since the Law in inexorable might always remained the same, always per- sistent, in distinction from the inequalities of the deed of man, it forced him to come back to it, and to conform him- self to its demands. Thus he learned criticism, thus he rose from naturalness into spirit. This progress is at the same time a progress from necessity to freedom, because criticism always gradually opens a way for man into insight, so that he finds the will of Grod to be the truth of his own self- determination. Because God is one and absolute, there arises the expectation that His Will will become the basis for the will of all nations and men. The criticism of the understand- ing must recognize a contradiction in the fact that the will of the true God is the law of only one nation ; feared by other nations, moreover, by reason of their very worship of God as a gloomy mystery, and detested as odium generis liumani. And thus is developed the thought that the isolation of the believers will come to an end as soon as the other nations recognize their faith as the true one, and are received into it. Thus here, out of the deepest penetration of the soul into itself, as among the Romans out of the fusion of nations, we see appear the idea of the human race. § 233. (3) The progress from the past to the future unfolded the ideal servant of God who fulfils all the Law, and so blots out the empirical contradiction that the "Thou shalt" of the Law attains no adequate actuality. This Prince of Peace, who shall gather all nations under his banner, can therefore have no other thing predicated of him than Holiness. He is not beautiful as the Greeks represented their ideal, not System of Humanitarian Education. 129 brave and practical as was the venerated Virtus of the Romans; he does not place an infinite value on his indi- viduality as the German does: but he is represented as in- significant in appearance, as patient, as humble, as he who, in order to reconcile the world, takes upon himself the infir- mities and disgrace of all others. The ethnical nations harve only a lost Paradise behind them ; the Jews have one also before them. From this belief in the Messiah who is to come, from the certainty which they have of conquering with him, from the power of esteeming all things of small importance in view of such a future, springs the indestructible nature of the Jews. They ignore the fact that Christianity is the ne- cessary result of their own history. As the nation that is to be {des SelnsoUens), they are merely a historical nation, the nation among nations, whose education — whenever the Jew has not changed and corrupted its nature through mod- ern culture — is still always patriarchal, hierarchal, and mne- monic. Third Divisiox. THE SYSTEM OF HUMAKITARIAX EDUCATION. § 234. The systems of national and theocratic education came to the same result, though by different wa3^s, and this result is the conception of a human race in the unity of which the distinctions of different nations find their Truth. But with them this result is only a conception, being a thing external to their actuality. They arrive at the painting of an ideal of the way in which the Messiah shall come. But these ideals exist only in the mind, and the actual condition of the people sometimes does not correspond to them at all, and sometimes only very relatively. The idea of spirit had in these presuppositions the possibility of its concrete actuali- zation ; one individual man must become conscious of the universality and necessity of the will as being the very es- sence of his own freedom, so that all heteronomy should be cancelled in the autonomy of spirit. Natural individuality appearing as national determinateness was still acknowl- edged, but was deprived of its abstract isolatio'i. The divine authority of the truth of the individual will is to be recog- nized, but at the same time freed from its estrangement towards itself. While Christ was a Jew and obedient to the 130 System of Humanitarian Education. divine Law, he knew himself as the universal man who deter- mines himself to his own destiny ; and while only distin- guishing God, as subject, from himself, yet holds fast to the unity of man and God. The system of humanitarian educa- tion began to unfold from this principle, which no longer accords the highest place to the natural unity of national individuality, nor to the abstract obedience of the command of God, but to that freedom of the soul which knows itself to be absolute necessity. Christ is not a mere ideal of the thought, but is known as a living member of actual history, whose life, suiferings and death for freedom form the secu- ritj^ as to its absolute justification and truth. The {esthetic, philosophical, and political ideal are all found in the univer- sal nature of the Christian ideal, on which account no one of them appears one-sided in the life of Christ. The principle of Human Freedom excludes neither art, nor science, nor political feeling. § 235. In its conception of man the humanitarian education includes both the national divisions and the subjection of all men to the divine law, but it will no longer endure that one should grow into an isolating exclusiveness, and another into a despotism which includes in it somewhat of the acci- dental. But this principle of humanity and human nature took root so slowly that its presuppositions were repeated within itself and were really conquered in this reproduction. These stages of culture were the Greek, the Roman, and the Protestant churches, and education was metamorphosed to suit the formation of each of these. — For the sake of brevity we would wish to close with these general definitions ; the unfolding of their details is inti- mately bound up with the history of politics and of civiliza- tion. We shall be contented if we give correctly the general whole. — § 236. Within education we can distinguish three epochs : the monkish, the chivalric, and that education which is to fit one for civil life. Each of these endeavored to express all that belonged to humanity as such ; but it was only after the recognition of the moral nature of the Family, of Labor, of Culture, and of the conscious equal title of all men to their rights, that this became really possible. Epocli of Mo II hi sli Education. 131 • I. The Epoch ojMonkish Education. §237. The Greek -i^ of Pure Reason. y V. The Tragedy of Julius Caesar. VI, Hegel's Philosophy of Art: Chiv- alry — Love. Vll.^osenkranz^n Hegel's Philoso- >kff of Right. The^ft-K VIIL The i^ftj^nides ofPlato. IX. Book Noti^b*, , = CONTENTS ^F No. 4. ■X- III. IV. V. VI. VII. VIIL I. Do the Correlationists Believe in Self-Mov^ent? II. Pedagogics as a System The Philo'sophy of Law. Fichte's Facts of Consciousness. Trendelenburg on Hegel's Sys- tem. The JVferchant of Venice. Rosenkranz on Hegel's Philoso- phy of History. Book Notices, c Address W. T. Harris, Box 2398, St. Louis, Mo. LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 019 792 512 7 i'-i'M