aass_jLlB_£j2/ 
 Book TT^/ 
 
 COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT 
 
UNIVEESITY EDUCATION. 
 
 BY 
 
 HENBY P>TAPPAN, D.D. 
 
 ^'1^ ' 
 
 NEW YORK: 
 GEORGE P. PUTNAM, 155 BROADWAY. 
 
 M DCCC LI. 
 

 Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by 
 
 HENRY P. TAPPAN, 
 
 in the Clerk's olRce of the District Court of the United States for the Southern 
 
 District of New York. 
 
 S. W, BENEDICT, 
 Stereotyper and Printer, 16 Spruce-St. 
 
ADVERTISEMENT. 
 
 This Treatise includes an article publislied by the Author 
 in the Biblical Repository of July, 1850. It was an after- 
 thought to give it to the public with modifications and 
 additions. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 The primitive idea and form of education is that of 
 a preparation for the ordinary and necessary occasions 
 of human life. The world was given to man as a vast 
 store-house of materials, capable of being wrought out 
 and adapted to his uses. As originally given in their 
 rude condition, they met only his most necessary wants. 
 But he had within himself the principle of a higher 
 utility, leading to conceptions of convenience, comfort, 
 elegance. The development of his nature in this direc- 
 tion gave birth to agriculture, the mechanical arts, man- 
 ufactures, and commerce — the forms of human indus- 
 try. This idea is the basis of what is strictly popular 
 education. In its rudest state it presents merely, and 
 in different degrees, mental invention, contrivance and 
 adaptation, and physical skill — where instinct and spon- 
 taneous thought work together, and where the wonder- 
 ful instrumentality of nature is perfected by use and 
 ripened into habit. Thus we have unpolished men 
 
6 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 quick in calculation, and nice and skillful in meclianicai 
 works. 
 
 But human industry, in order to accomplish its most 
 useful works, and to bring the physical conditions of 
 the world to the highest perfection, calls in the aid of 
 the loftiest sciences, both pure and physical : Mathe- 
 matics, Mechanics, Astronomy, Chemistry, and the 
 science of Nature, in its widest extent, are all brought 
 in to aid and perfect human industry. The few here 
 direct and govern the many. The people do not all 
 become men of science, but they work by rules of a 
 higher order which men of science have provided for 
 them, instead of committing themselves to their own in- 
 genuity, and to experiments more or less fortunate. 
 But the employment of these scientific and determined 
 rules quickens thought, excites curiosity, and leads to 
 the knowledge of many scientific truths, and to some 
 rational comprehension of the system of the universe, 
 and of the power and scope of the human faculties. 
 
 Men, too, as members of the social organization, as 
 subjects of government, as moral and religious beings, 
 must acquire notions of social and civil law, of moral 
 and religious duty. The cultivation of a people in this 
 direction will depend upon the condition of their social 
 state, the nature of the governments under which they 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 7 
 
 are held, and the religious beliefs under which they have 
 been nurtured. 
 
 We have in all the above particulars that form of 
 education of which all men must more or less partake. 
 It is the education of utility and necessary duty. It 
 embraces what may be called a popular or practical 
 system of education. Institutions which are estab- 
 lished to promote this form are popular or practical 
 institutions. 
 
 In nations, however, where the fine arts and litera- 
 ture are cultivated, the whole people feel the genial in- 
 fluences arising from the arts, in public buildings, in 
 statuary and painting, and in the diffusion of poetry 
 and music. And since, wherever the art of writing 
 appears, a knowledge of written language becomes 
 itself a matter of the highest utility in the ordinary 
 commerce of life, there will be an effort to make this 
 knowledge general. But this must bring along with it 
 the possibilities and means of some degree of literary 
 cultivation. Among the ancients, indeed, with whom 
 books were scarce, the people in even the most culti- 
 vated states were dependent upon orations delivered in 
 public assembhes, upon the recitations of poets, and 
 upon dramatic exhibitions in the theatres, and not upon 
 reading, for literary cultivation. But the effect of 
 these was very great, as we see exemplified in the 
 
8 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 Athenians. Among the moderns, the immense multi- 
 plication of books and periodical publications throws 
 the influence of ideal and sesthetical education over 
 even the lower orders. Popular education thus un- 
 avoidably advances beyond the mere demands of utility 
 and necessity in industrial, social, civil, and religious 
 life. 
 
 The second form of education relates to the arts of 
 the beautiful, or whatever refines and embellishes hu- 
 man life through the influence of sesthetical tastes. 
 The power of the arts is, indeed, felt by the whole peo- 
 ple, but education in the arts properly belongs to a 
 class. They are the men who are impelled by natural 
 genius, co-operating with circumstances which often 
 appear accidental, to devote themselves to an ideal life. 
 Schools of art spring up with the spontaneity of the 
 artistic life. Solitary endeavors — ^bright stars shining 
 alone amid a wide-spread darkness — at first appear. 
 Then the first great works form inspiring calls to kin- 
 dred geniuses in after times, and stand as models of 
 perfection and taste. Thus artists are multiplied., 
 Next enthusiastic disciples collect around the great 
 masters, and schools of art come into being. 
 
 The third form of education relates to professional 
 life. The three great professions of Law, Medicine, 
 and Theology, have their origin in the deepest necessi- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 ties of man. They are the professions in distinction 
 from all others as of paramount importance. 
 
 The first stands connected with ethics and civil juris- 
 prudence — with the rights of man, the relations of indi- 
 viduals, communities, and nations — with social, civil, 
 and moral order. Hence it demands a profound knowl" 
 edge of moral science, of history, civil, political, and 
 juridical. 
 
 The second is based upon multifarious observation 
 and experiment, and involves a knowledge both of the 
 physical and mental structure of man, and of the sys- 
 tem of nature as containing both the causes and reme- 
 dies of diseases. 
 
 The third, as developed in the Christian church, em- 
 braces a wide range of knowledge. The classical lan- 
 guages of Greece and Rome, together with their Hellen- 
 istic, Patristic, and Mediaeval developments ; the He- 
 brew and its cognates ; History and Antiquities, sacred 
 and profane ; Metaphysics, Natural Theology and 
 Ethics ; and, since Christian doctrine has been mixed 
 up with almost every form of philosophy, the fullest 
 knowledge of philosophical opinion, and the history of 
 dogmatic construction and modification, from age to 
 age. These three professions collect as remedial pow- 
 ers around the cardinal interests of humanity. The 
 first wars with wrong and injustice, and ministers to 
 1* 
 
10 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 law, government, and the natural rights of man. The 
 second wars with disease and death, and ministers to 
 health, to the prolongation of life, and to both physical 
 and rational enjoyment. The third wars with error 
 and sin, and ministers to the moral perfection and the 
 immortal hopes and well-being of man. And they all 
 demand high gifts of intellect, and the noblest and 
 profoundest accomplishments of learning. It is not 
 surprising, therefore, that systems and institutions of 
 education for the especial preparation of men for the 
 learned professions should have grown up, and become 
 paramount to all others ; and that even the cardinal 
 idea of a liberal education should have identified itself 
 with the idea of such a preparation. 
 
 The fourth form of education is the ideal or philosoph- 
 ical. Here the capacities of the mind are considered, 
 and the system of education is shaped" simply for edu- 
 cating — leading forth — unfolding these capacities. We 
 now leave out of view the mere utilities of life, the de- 
 mands of particular arts, the preparations for a par- 
 ticular profession. We ask, what man is — what he is 
 capable of becoming '? We find him endowed with high 
 powers of thought, observation and reasoning — with im- 
 agination and taste — with conscience and moral deter- 
 mination. And in all these he is capable of growing 
 indefinitely — of becoming more and more intellectual, 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 11 
 
 more and more beautiful in his imaginative and tasteful 
 functions, — more wise and good, without an assignable 
 limit. And then we ask, for the laws and means of 
 promoting and leading on this growth 1 And we find 
 that all knowledge is adapted to this great end, — that 
 in knowing and reasoning he comes to know more easily 
 and accurately, and to reason more rapidly and surely ; 
 that in forming an acquaintance with the great works of 
 literature and art, and in producing these works, the 
 imagination and taste are continually unfolding and 
 ripening ; and that the Hberal professions and any em- 
 ployments entering into the life and well-being of so- 
 ciety, while in their objective offices they are multiply- 
 ing benefits on every side, react subjectively and form 
 the discipline by which the soul grows into every form 
 of intellectual power and moral worth, and becomes a 
 partaker of the Divine nature. 
 
 Philosophical or ideal education does not abstract 
 itself from the pursuits and ends of our human life, or 
 lose sight of any of the great interests of the social 
 state ; on the contrary, it embraces them all, and that, 
 too, under the highest points of vieAV. It contemplates 
 every man as having some proper work to perform for 
 the common weal ; but that, in order to perform it 
 well, he requires the cultivation of all his faculties, 
 while in the doing of his work, he shall ripen more and 
 
12 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 more. It has thus two states — the preparatory and the 
 executive. 
 
 The preparatory is formal and scholastic, and comes 
 under the direction of institutions of learning. Herein 
 is comprised that education of the mental faculties in 
 general, of which we have spoken above. Man is a 
 creature of reason, and t|ierefore, his capacity of rea- 
 soning should be developed through all the forms and 
 processes of logic in the prosecution of such studies as 
 are judged best calculated to this end. He is a crea- 
 ture of language, and therefore should be taught the 
 full power and beauty, and the ready and apt use of 
 language in speech and writing by the study of the most 
 cultivated languages, as presented in their classical 
 works, whether of poetry, oratory, history, or philoso- 
 phy, and by original efforts. He is a creature of im- 
 agination and beautiful tastes, and therefore ^ould 
 these be drawn forth in studies of the arts, and by po- 
 etry and music. He is a creature of passions and will, 
 and therefore should be instructed in morality, and be 
 disciplined to self-government. He is immortal, and 
 therefore should he learn that system of religion which 
 brings life and immortality to light. 
 
 Under the philosophical, or ideal point of view, Edu- 
 cation is the cultivation, the improvement of man, in 
 respect to the capacities wherewith he is constituted ; 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 13 
 
 it is the nurture and development of his soul. Nor do 
 we here forget his physical being, and neglect a training 
 in all those manly exercises which give noble propor- 
 tions, and hale vigor and strength. The ideal of a man 
 is a true and cultivated soul dwelling in a sound and 
 active body, prepared for all proper duties. 
 
 After a right worthy discipline of the man, by this 
 preparatory course, we next proceed to the executive 
 part of his education. Under this denomination wc 
 embrace professional studies, such as Law, Medicine, 
 and Theology, or the studies relating to any course of 
 life for which the individual may design himself. So 
 much of these studies as are necessary to fit him for 
 undertaking professional duty may also be pursued at 
 literary institutions. But they require ever to be fol- 
 lowed up and extended through life — as a workman 
 would be ever handling his tools. 
 
 The education which wc thus indicate by the philo- 
 sophical or ideal is the most thorough, liberal, and ex- 
 tensive, and designed to make sound, disciplined, and 
 amply-furnished men for the state and the church, and 
 for all the arts, duties, and oflSces of life. 
 
 This conception of education is not that of merely 
 teaching men a trade, an art, or a profession ; but that 
 of quickening and informing souls with truths and 
 knowledges, and giving them the power of using all 
 
14 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 their faculties aright in whatever direction they choose 
 to exert them. It seems, indeed, to belong only to the 
 few who enjoy prolonged leisure for study, and a full 
 supply of means and appliances to carry out this con- 
 ception fully ; but it contains a principle of universal 
 application ; for in even the lower grades of education, 
 the triie idea of education as the development of the 
 soul in all its faculties, may be held up to view and 
 acted upon. The reasoning powers will not be pro- 
 foundly cultivated by the elementary branches of a 
 common school, nevertheless they will be somewhat cul- 
 tivated, and a taste may be acquired through them of 
 the great end of study. Besides, let this higher notion 
 of Education be adopted, and the human soul be treated 
 not as a thing for secular uses, but as the lofty, lordly, 
 and immortal subject for whose improvement and good 
 all secular things are to be used, and then will the concep- 
 tion of its own value be infused, and it will aspire after 
 its true cultivation, and those who direct popular edu- 
 cation will aim to adapt studies to this end, unfolding it 
 even under a limited education on those high and intel- 
 lectual grounds, which its innate powers and best ap- 
 propriation alike demand. 
 
 The conditions of human life may forever limit a 
 thorough education to the few, but we see not why a 
 valid principle of education should not govern every 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 15 
 
 form and degree of it. With respect to those who de- 
 sign themselves for the learned professions, and for 
 high and influential positions in the State, there can be 
 no question that they require all the discipline of their 
 best powers which they can possibly attain to, as well 
 as that particular discipline and knowledge which re- 
 lates to their peculiar calling. The first rears up men 
 to their full stature : and the commanding places of 
 society demand men of full stature. 
 
 Since some men are strongly determined by pecu- 
 liarity of genius and taste to particular pursuits, and 
 since the constitution of the world makes so loud a 
 call for a division of labor, there will always be many 
 who will press into professional studies without a 
 thorough antecedent philosophical culture. Nor will 
 we deny that eminent men in particular branches of 
 science, and skillful men in art, and men of ability and 
 efiiciency in professional life, will thus be made. We 
 will grant also that Educational Institutions ought to 
 make provision for such cases. 
 
 But on the other hand, we ought to aim to make ap- 
 parent the difference between a mere professional and 
 technical education, and that large and generous culture 
 which brings out the whole man, and which commits 
 him to active life with the capacity of estimating from 
 the highest points of view all the knowledges and agen- 
 
16 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 cies which enter into the well-being and progress of 
 society. That is not really the most practical educa- 
 tion which leads men soonest and most directly to prac- 
 tice, hut that which fits them best for practice. It is 
 not the mere use of implements of art which makes an 
 artist, but the proper and artistic use of them. There 
 are men who paint sign-boards all their days. In learn- 
 ing a trade, in gaining an art, in acquiring an education, 
 there is some definite end in view, or there ought to be ; 
 time, means, and painstaking can be estimated only by 
 this end. No one may arbitrarily say, there shall be so 
 much time spent, so much labor performed, and then 
 we shall have the trade, the art, the education ; nay, 
 but we must do all that is necessary to compass the 
 end. 
 
 Now those Institutions of Education which are de- 
 signed to stand pre-eminent, while they may give suit- 
 able scope to peculiar geniuses, and to those who set 
 out to be eminently practical according to their own 
 notions of a direct and ready method, must be so ordered 
 as to lead, in the general, to a solid and thorough meth- 
 od. There never will be extraordinary wits enough to 
 make a general law : and those who are bent upon the 
 so-called practical method may do good service by their 
 failures. But it is required of a great Institution of 
 I earning to make and vindicate a rule of education which 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. lY 
 
 takes its rise in the very constitution of man, and wliich 
 calmly and majestically walking over the plausible but 
 fleeting expedients of a day, meets with a sound heart 
 and a strong hand the permanent exigencies of mankind. 
 Men, ever prone to measure themselves and to meas- 
 ure each other, will also measure the character of in- 
 stitutions of learning by mere success. Now there is a 
 great deal of success which is sheer good fortune, and 
 much also that comes from keen-sighted but ignoble 
 policy. Its emptiness is demonstrated by the fact that 
 it sooner or later disappears and leaves no permanent 
 good behind. Multitudes have no higher ambition than 
 to gain a present success at whatever expense, — an ele- 
 ment of human nature which has been set forth in that 
 legend of a thousand forms — a blood-written compact 
 with the Devil, by which the future is sold for the pres- 
 ent. There are many who are so eager to grasp the 
 bargain that they allow themselves to be cheated even 
 in the present conditions of it, by becoming so intox- 
 icated with ambitious projects at the first taste of pros- 
 perity, that they run against great principles which God 
 has established in spite of the Devil, and thus are over- 
 turned in mid career. So frequently does this happen 
 that a sage maxim has sprung up, that " honesty is the 
 best policy." But this maxim, although it serves to 
 restrain some, and to comfort others, is nevertheless left 
 
18 ■ UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 ■behind like a guide-board by the mad racers after suc- 
 cess. 
 
 An Institution of learning may do a successful busi- 
 ness in the way of multiplying empirics in Medicine, 
 Law, and Theology ; in furnishing men with just knowl- 
 edge enough to make them political demagogues, or keen 
 operators in all sorts of enterprises in this enterprising 
 age. But there comes up before us in strong contrast 
 with this, the idea of an Institution furnished with 
 an ample and well-selected library, with a complete 
 scientific apparatus, with well-filled cabinets, — with 
 all the material of learning — an Institution with an en- 
 lightened and devoted corporation, with eminent profes- 
 sors, " many-sided " men, who, while intent upon their 
 particular departments, are smit with the love of all 
 knowledges and spiritual accomplishments, and so co- 
 work together for the great purpose of building up 
 human souls after a true and noble ideal, and preparing 
 thoroughly-disciplined men to go forth into the world as 
 ministers of truth and virtue, to adorn every profession, 
 to labor in every sphere of duty, to sustain the state as 
 majestic pillars, to carry forward every science with an 
 earnest devotion, to add great works to a nation's liter- 
 ature, and to pour through every channel of society 
 streams of influence to refresh, beautify and invigorate. 
 Such an Institution will stand upon its own merits, and 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 19 
 
 justify itself by its works. Its sublime position elevates 
 it above the noisy region of mere success. It will do 
 more for mankind if it should send forth only a few men 
 of the right kind, than one that should pour forth a 
 rabble multitude of sciolists. 
 
 In reviewing the history of literary Institutions, there 
 are two facts which at once arrest our attention. The 
 first is, that the highest schools of learning were chron- 
 ologically first. Schools for the people were not the 
 elements out of which Universities took their growth ; 
 on the contrary, Schools for the people grew out of the 
 Universities. The second fact is, that Universities were 
 not created originally by the State, but were the work 
 of individuals. Solitary scholars commenced courses of 
 public lectures which attracted pupils. Here was the 
 beginning of the Universities. Afterward Colleges were 
 endowed by benevolent patrons- The State gave its 
 influence and authority only after eminence had been 
 attained. " William of Champeaux opened a School 
 of Logic at Paris, in 1109 ; and the University can 
 only deduce the regular succession of its teachers from 
 that time."* " The University created patrons, and 
 was not created by them. And this may be said also 
 of Oxford and Cambridge m their incorporate character, 
 
 * Hallam. 
 
20 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 whatever the former may have owed, if in fact it owed 
 anything, to the prophetic munificence of Alfred."* 
 
 " Colleges with endowments for poor scholars were 
 founded at the beginning of the thirteenth century, or 
 even before, at Paris and Boulogne, as they were after- 
 ward at Oxford and Cambridge, by munificent patrons 
 of letters. It ought, however, to be remembered, that 
 these foundations were not the cause, but the efiect of 
 that increasing thirst for knowledge, or semblance of 
 knowledge, which had anticipated the encouragement of 
 the great. In the twelfth century, the impetuosity with 
 which men rushed to that source of what they deemed 
 wisdom, the great University of Paris, did not depend 
 upon academical privileges, or eleemosynary stipends, 
 which came afterward, though these were undoubtedly 
 very effectual in keeping it up."t It must be remem- 
 bered, too, that this very enthusiasm for learning was 
 created by the lecturers. So powerful was the fascina- 
 tion which Abelard exercised over his disciples, that the 
 rude walls of the Paraclete in the solitude were no less 
 thronged than the Schools of Paris. 
 
 In these two facts we have comprised the history of 
 Educational development. Some solitary man gives 
 himself to thought as the great end and interest of his 
 being. He compasses the learning of his age, he ad- 
 
 * Hallam. f Ibid. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 21 
 
 vanccs beyond it, he attains a deep consciousness of 
 intellectual growth and power. The truths of which he 
 feels himself possessed, the new system of philosophy 
 or science which he believes he has unfolded, stir within 
 him like an inspiration, and he is impelled to give fresh 
 expositions of old truths, to correct current errors, and 
 to proclaim his new doctrines. Other minds of similar 
 tendencies, quickened into intellectual life by the fas- 
 cination and power of his teaching, gather around him. 
 He becomes the Doctor of a School. In some town or 
 metropolis, or in some sacred retreat, he establishes 
 himself. The number of his disciples increases, his 
 fame spreads more and more, and he becomes a con- 
 spicuous object in the public eye. At length the noble 
 and wealthy, ecclesiastics and princes, patronize the 
 rising Institution, charters and privileges are granted, 
 endowments are made, and it attains a permanent foun- 
 dation. 
 
 Those who were disciples, now themselves become 
 Doctors or Masters, and instead of the solitary man, 
 there arise many lecturers in different departments of 
 learning, and as rivals in the same departments. 
 
 In other places similar institutions arise, sometimes 
 beginning with an exclusive devotion to a philosophy, or 
 to the civil and canon law, or to a scholastic theology, 
 
22 U.N1VERS1TY EDUCATION. 
 
 and from thence in time branching out into all kinds 
 of known learning. 
 
 The University now becomes the seat and fountain of 
 knowledge. Here scholars resort. Here learned men^ 
 are bred and take up their residence. Here from age 
 to age the sciences are carried forward to greater ripe- 
 ness. From hence go forth men to fill every profession, 
 to hold great offices in the State, and to lead on the ad- 
 vancement of civilization and refinement. 
 
 The growth of a popular system of education out of 
 the higher institutions is very evident. In the first 
 place, it is plain that an unenlightened population will 
 not themselves take measures for their own education. 
 The very fact of a general ignorance, and a consequent 
 want of taste and inclination for learning, precludes 
 this. There must be certain enlightened individuals 
 who are capable of appreciating and undertaking the 
 great movement. The beginning of popular education 
 must therefore, of necessity, lie in a higher region. 
 
 Now the communication of Universities with the 
 masses of the people is twofold. First, they draw in- 
 dividuals from the bosom of the people within their 
 cloisters, there to be nurtured as scholars. Secondly, 
 they send forth among the people educated men in the 
 difierent commanding offices of life. Every educated 
 man among the people becomes the centre of a genial 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 23 
 
 kindling influence, manifesting the power and diffusing 
 the charm of intellectual cultivation. The stream of 
 educated men constantly flowing out, leads to a con- 
 stant influx of youths to be educated. Thus by two 
 currents is the highest intelligence keeping up a com- 
 munication with the lowest, multiplying the number of 
 the learned, and narrowing the boundaries of ignorance, 
 and making a sure and constant approximation to gen- 
 eral education. 
 
 There were, indeed, formidable impediments in the 
 way of the early consummation of this great and benefi- 
 cent object. Among these may be mentioned the slow 
 progress of the Universities themselves during in- 
 auspicious ages of superstition, tyranny, violence, and 
 war; the extreme degradation of the people under 
 the feudal system ; and the appropriation of the Uni- 
 versities to the learned professions, and particularly 
 to the education of the clergy. In some countries the 
 Universities have never been emancipated from priestly 
 dominion, and the influence of antiquated dogmas. 
 Thus until lately the study of philosophy was prohib- 
 ited in the Universities of Spain. Of course, where the 
 Universities became the mere instruments of upholding 
 systems opposed to human freedom and the general 
 illumination of mankind, we can find no connection be- 
 tween them and popular education. But then let it be 
 
24 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 recollected that in these countries there is no popular 
 education ; while, on the other hand, it is just in those 
 countries where the Universities have received the most 
 extensive and thorough development, that schools for 
 the people have been most multiplied and carried to the 
 greatest perfection. 
 
 The history of our educational development must 
 take for its starting-point the ancient schools of Greek 
 philosophy. These schools were created by individuals 
 who freely thought and freely taught. Disciples col- 
 lected around them, received the light, and struck out 
 new paths, and arrived at new truths for themselves. 
 These schools existed without the patronage of the 
 State. And it was a strange atrocity when the State, 
 as in the case of Socrates, arrested the freedom of 
 thought by persecution and death. Indeed, the schools 
 rather patronized the State, for they gave that impulse 
 to thought and disseminated those vital truths which, 
 be they ever so abstract in the formal exposition, do, 
 nevertheless, contain the springs of national greatness, 
 for they make those great men the philosophers, "the 
 historians, the statesmen, the poets, the orators, the 
 heroes who alone make a nation great. 
 
 The Grecian life was a life of thought, art, and hero- 
 ism — and they co-worked together. ^Eschylus and So- 
 phocles were soldiers. Alcibiades was a disciple of Socra- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 25 
 
 tes. Socrates was a sculptor, a soldier, a philosopher. 
 Pericles was the orator and the hero. Pythagoras, the 
 philosopher, the mathematician, the astronomer, by his 
 political wisdom supplanted with his associates the an- 
 cient senate of Croton, and gave political constitutions to 
 surrounding cities. 
 
 In these Schools of Philosophy, from Thales to Aris- 
 totle, was comprehended the metaphysics, the natural 
 theology, the mathematics and astronomy, the logic, the 
 physics, and the political wisdom of the ancient Greeks. 
 They gave a manly discipline, they enlarged the bound- 
 aries of thought, they gave out truths which can never 
 die. From these schools we have at least the imperish- 
 able philosophy of Plato, the imperishable geometry of 
 Euclid, and the imperishable logic of Aristotle. We 
 have also a form and method of education which has 
 ever since been perpetuated, and lives to-day in our 
 Universities. 
 
 The Romans only reproduced the philosophy of Greece. 
 The school of Alexandria, the new school at Athens 
 under the Romans, the Neo-Platonic — all the schools 
 that came afterward had their prime fountains of thought, 
 their methods and power, from the ancient schools. 
 Oriental elements Avere indeed introduced, but the Gre- 
 cian mind predominated. The schools of Law, of Med- 
 icine, and of Theology — all arose under the same con- 
 
26 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 trolling doctrines and modes of thought. Galen even 
 attempted to apply the demonstrative method of geome- 
 try to the science of medicine. ^ Christianity came into 
 conflict with the Schools of Philosophy, but she did not 
 silence them. On the contrary, there was an interfusion 
 of Platonism with Christian doctrine, and the logic of 
 Aristotle moulded the forms of dogmatic theology. 
 
 The authority of the Church, however, prevailed. 
 What she had received from the philosophical schools 
 she baptized and called her own. The invasion of the 
 Barbarians annihilated everything but the Church, and 
 what the Church had taken into her repositories, or 
 under her protection. The- schools of learning estab- 
 lished by the Emperors were converted into ecclesiastical 
 societies, and all science and literature were merged 
 into theology. The beginning of the eighth century 
 showed the universal triumph of ecclesiastical power. 
 
 The theological education of Europe, from the fifth 
 century to the beginning of the twelfth, was the mere 
 study of the Fathers, and of commentaries upon them. 
 Every doctrine was received upon authority. There 
 was no free action of the human mind. 
 
 At the close of the eleventh century, Roscelin, the 
 founder of the Schoolmen, appeared. Next followed 
 William of Champeaux, the founder of the University 
 of Paris. Now came the long reign of Scholasticism. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 2*7 
 
 With tlie rise of Scholasticism is identified the rise, or 
 the commencement of the modern development of Eu- 
 ropean Universities. Scholasticism was really a struggle 
 of the human mind for freedom and enlargement of 
 thought against the authorities of the Church and the 
 State. There could not be an open rebellion, there was 
 not even the idea or the wish of an open rebellion. But 
 the human mind, confined within the awful circle of ec- 
 clesiastical prescription, aimed, by Scholasticism, to 
 make the most of its material, to find the best discipline 
 of its faculties, and the widest range of thought. This 
 was attempted by starting upon the received doctrines 
 of theology, metaphysical questions, and deducing from 
 them logical consequences. The Schoolmen were indeed 
 nothing less than rationalists, who endeavored to present 
 religious dogmas under the forms of the reason. 
 
 The great error of the Schoolmen lay in receiving both 
 their religious dogmas and their philosophical systems 
 upon authority. They studied neither the Scriptures, 
 nor philosophy, independently. They relied upon the 
 Fathers for their theology ; and upon Plato and Aris- 
 totle for their philosophy. Their intellectual acumen 
 appeared in attempting to reconcile the former with the 
 latter. But it must be admitted in their justification 
 that this error was forced upon them. The Church 
 would not permit them to transcend authority by inde- 
 
28 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 pendent research. It was an age of authority. The 
 Platonic and Peripatetic pliilosOphies were curiously in- 
 termingled. The former had early influenced theological 
 dogmatism, while yet the latter was excluded. The 
 heretics were the first to introduce Aristotle. They 
 made a skillful and powerful use of his dialectics-. The 
 Orthodox were therefore compelled to furnish themselves 
 from the same armory. Thus in time Aristotle became 
 the great authority, and the influence of Platonism ap- 
 parently declined.. Nevertheless, the Platonism already 
 incorporated could not be discarded, but it was retained, 
 and that, too, to a great extent, ignorantly, as the teach- 
 ing of the Fathers. Aristotle was therefore the ac- 
 knowledged authority of the Schoolmen, while in bringing 
 him into union with the Fathers they were fusing the 
 Platonic and Peripatetic systems together.' 
 
 This will explain the celebrated controversy of the 
 Realists and Nominalists. They were both wrong and 
 both right. The former occupied the Platonic side of 
 the question, and the latter the Aristotelian. Plato's 
 ideas are realities — and must be acknowledged as such 
 by every one who receives his philosophy — they are the 
 seminal potencies of all knowledge in the human reason, 
 and therefore as real as the reason itself. Aristotle's 
 genera and species are but the names of classifications 
 which may be natural, but are often arbitrary. They 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 29 
 
 express only the common qualities which we take into 
 view in conveniently arranging the particulars of the 
 objective world. The Platonist, occupied with general 
 terms as expressing ideas, the Aristotelian, occupied 
 with the same as expressing a mere classification, are 
 at issue only while they misunderstand each other's 
 ground. It is plain that, contending under this mis- 
 understanding, they could never arrive at a common de- 
 cision. Hence the power of the Church and the State 
 was called in to settle by decree, what no logical skill 
 could terminate by the syllogism. 
 
 It was the prodigious interest created by these dis- 
 cussions, in an age when no other intellectual activity 
 was possible, that drew together thousands of disciples 
 around profound, acute, and eloquent lecturers. It was 
 these discussions that brought the University of Paris 
 into being, and gave new life to the old Universities, 
 such as Oxford and Cambridge. 
 
 To estimate properly University education under the 
 Schoolmen, we must conceive of theology as the grand 
 subject of study, and the logic of Aristotle as the grand 
 organon. There were, indeed, seven departments of 
 study — seven being determined upon because the num- 
 ber seven was mystical and sacred. The first three, 
 called the Trivium^ were Grammar, Logic, and Rheto- 
 ric. These were elementary. The remaining four, 
 
30 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 called the Quadriviunij or the Mathesisy were Arith- 
 metic, Geometry, Music, and Astrology. The last com- 
 prised both astronomy proper and the art of divination 
 by the stars. These were studies of the highest order. 
 But all alike were pursued in subserviency to Theology, 
 and all were wrought into a vast speculative system de- 
 termined by the forms of the syllogism. - 
 
 Universities were thus an outgrowth of the Church, 
 and destined for the service of the Church. They " seem 
 usually to have grown out of cathedral or abbey schools, 
 taught by the Chancellor* oi the Church ; but his office 
 became gradually external to it, and the teaching was 
 carried on by persons who received his license ; certain 
 of whom were retained within the school itself, while by 
 degrees, as these licenses became customary at the end 
 of a certain course of study, a sort of external body grew 
 up around the original school, yet within its precincts 
 and under its protection. We have here the germs of 
 many things. The licenses are the future degrees. The 
 esoteric teachers foreshadow' the University professors ; 
 and the exoteric lead us gradually to the lecturersin 
 right of their degree, presiding over inns, halls, or hos- 
 
 ■* The Chancellor, Cayicellarius^ so named from the lattice- 
 work behind which he sat, or from cancelling or crossing out 
 writing, under the Roman Emperors, was a notary and scribe. 
 In the cathedrals he originally was probably nothing more. In 
 the Bishops' Court he is the Bishops' lawyer, versed in canon law. 
 
UN[VERSITY EDUCATION. 31 
 
 tels — and thereby mediately or immediately to the tu- 
 torial system."* 
 
 The Colleges are not a part of the University proper. 
 When students flocked to the lectures of the Uni:versity 
 professors, it was necessary to make provision for their 
 lodging and board. For this pui'pose, inns, halls, and 
 colleges were established. The inns and halls were 
 temporary, and finally gave way to colleges. These 
 were endowed by benevolent individuals,, and became 
 permanent institutions. They were at first designed 
 primarily for aliment and habitation ; afterward, they 
 were cloisters " for studious men to retire to, to devote 
 themselves in leisure and freedom from the cares of 
 daily subsistence, to meditation and the studies of the 
 arts and sciences in general ; always, however, as the 
 handmaids of the architectonic science of theology, to 
 which they were bound both professionally and acade- 
 mically."! The University, " original and essential, is 
 founded, controlled, and privileged by public authority 
 for the advantage of the State." The Colleges, "ac- 
 cessory and contingent, are created, regulated, and en- 
 dowed by private munificence, for the interest of certain 
 favored individuals."! 
 
 * Quarterly Review, June, 1840. 
 
 t Ibid. 
 
 1 Edinburgh Review, June, 1831. 
 
32 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 " In the original Constitution of Oxford, as in that 
 of all the older Universities of the Parisian model, the 
 business of instruction 'vvas not confided to a special 
 body of privileged professors. The University was 
 governed, the University was taught, by the graduates 
 at large. Professor, Master, Doctor, were originally 
 synonymous. Every graduate had an equal right of 
 teaching publicly, for a certain period, the subjects 
 competent to his faculty, and to the rank of his degree ; 
 nay, every graduate incurred the obligation of teaching 
 publicly, for a certain period, the subjects of his faculty, 
 for such was the condition involved in the grant of the 
 degree itself. The bachelor, or imperfect graduate, 
 partly as an exercise toward the higher honor, and use- 
 ful to himself, partly as a performance due for the de- 
 gree obtained, and of advantage to others, was bound to 
 read under a master or doctor in his faculty a course of 
 lectures ; and the master, doctor, or perfect graduate, 
 was, in like manner, after his promotion, obliged imme- 
 diately to commence iincipere), and to continue for a 
 certain period publicly to teach (revere) some, at least, 
 of the subjects pertaining to his faculty. As, however j, 
 it was only necessary for the University to enforce this 
 obligation of public teaching, compulsory on all gradu- 
 ates during the term of their necessary regency, if there 
 did not come forward a competent number of voluntary 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 33 
 
 regents to execute his function ; and as the schools 
 belonging to the several faculties, and in which alone 
 all public and ordinarj^ instruction could be delivered, 
 "were frequently inadequate to accommodate the multi- 
 tude of the inceptors ; it came to pass that in these 
 Universities the original period of necessary regency 
 was once and again abbreviated, and even a dis- 
 pensation from actual teaching during its continuance 
 allowed. At the same time, as the University accom- 
 plished the end of its existence only through its regents, 
 they alone were allowed to enjoy full privileges in its 
 legislation and government."* 
 
 In time, salaried graduates or regents became perma- 
 nent teachers ; and these were peculiarly the j)rofessors. 
 As the colleges multiplied, they rose in importance. 
 They were placed under the care of masters, and finally 
 lectures were delivered in the particular colleges in dis- 
 tinction from the University lectures. 
 
 The instruction given in the Colleges was at first a 
 matter both of convenience and utility, and afibrded in- 
 dividual students an opportunity of pursuing particular 
 branches, whether from choice, or to make up deficien- 
 cies in those brancl^s. With the exception of Ger- 
 many, however, the Colleges finally obtained a prepon- 
 
 * Edinburgh Review, June, 1831. 
 
34 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 derance over the University proper. On the Continent 
 the Colleges did not beconae independent of the Univer- 
 sities. On the contrary, the regents of the Colleges 
 were appointed from the University schools, and were 
 always under the control of the faculties from which 
 they were taken. " They formed, in fact, so many 
 petty universities, in so many fragments of a universi- 
 ty." Or rather, the University distributed itself into 
 the Colleges. In England it was quite otherwise. 
 Originally the government of the University had been 
 exclusively committed to the masters and doctors in 
 congregation and convocation ; and the heads of colleges 
 and college fellows shared in the academical govern- 
 ment only as they were full graduates. Under the 
 Chancellorship of Laud, the heads of the Colleges were 
 clothed with supreme authority. In the Continental 
 Universities, the University governed the Colleges ; 
 now, in Oxford, the Colleges governed the University. 
 Hence it followed that the fellows of the Colleges be- 
 came the tutors in their several houses by the consent 
 of the heads of these houses. The professors of the 
 Universities and the tutors of the Colleges now became 
 rivals, and as the heads threw their influence on the 
 side of the latter, the former declined. We cannot 
 here enter upon the particulars of the process by which 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 35 
 
 this great revolution was produced. But such was the 
 fact. 
 
 The influence of this change sceems to have been dis- 
 astrous, and served to introduce into the English Uni- 
 versities an incompetent teaching. The Continental 
 Colleges became petty Universities by receiving compe- 
 tent professors from the University itself. The Eng- 
 lish Colleges became petty elementary schools by ex- 
 changing learned professors for fellows, who were often 
 made tutors by chance or by favor. 
 
 Leaving now the forms under which the University 
 system was developed, let us return to the subjects of 
 study. The reign of pure Scholasticism gradually 
 yielded to branches more liberal — the ancient classics, 
 mathematics, and physical science. The study of the 
 ancient classics received a powerful impulse through the 
 Italian schools, which produced many scholars of great 
 eminence. The transition to the ancient classics was 
 natural, from the common use of the Latin tongue. 
 There was an aflBnity also between the logic of Aris- 
 totle and geometry. The study of the Peripatetic phi- 
 losophy introduced the j>hysics of Aristotle. The appli- 
 cation of the Scholastic method to physical investigation 
 made this branch of science indeed of little worth, and 
 laid it justly open to the scornful denunciation of Ba- 
 con. Nevertheless there was progress, and the human 
 
36 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 mind was working up from the subtleties of the Scholas- 
 tic philosophy to a region of greater freedom and light. 
 The Universities were the centres of intellectual ac- 
 tivity, where great men from time to time appeared, 
 leading on the march of thought until the philosophy of 
 Bacon changed the method of investigation, and Kepler 
 and Newton revealed the true system of Nature. 
 
 It might have been expected, that with the advance 
 of science, the Universities would have thrown off all 
 the old scholasticism, and sprung forward in a new and 
 glorious career. This, however, does not appear to 
 have been the case so generally as the new era seemed 
 to promise. 
 
 The changes in the French Universities were the 
 effect of the convulsions of the Revolution, and the^ 
 energy and patronage of Napoleon, rather than the re- 
 sult of a natural progress. The modern school of- sci- 
 ence and philosophy at Paris has been eminent ; and 
 the lectures of such men as Royer Collard, Cousin, 
 Guizot, Jouffroy, Biot, and Arago, well nigh realize the 
 ideal of a University. ~ 
 
 In the English Universities the old tutorial and col- 
 legial system has continued to prevail. Oxford has 
 been charged with the almost entire neglect of the ma- 
 thematics, and Cambridge with a corresponding neglect 
 of the classics. The Edinburgh Review of April, 1810, 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 37 
 
 remarks : " We believe ourselves warranted to say, 
 that the examinations at Oxford, till within a very few 
 years, so far as they were scientific at all, and not con- 
 fined to the learned languages, turned entirely on the 
 Aristotelian and Scholastic logic. The college lectures, 
 according to the best of our information, were guilty of 
 this same neglect ; they gave no account of the great 
 modern discoveries, or of the method that had led to 
 them. Some few individuals might pursue natural 
 philosophy to a certain length ; but it entered not at 
 all into tlie general plan of education. To judge, so 
 far as we have been able to learn, from the subjects of 
 public examination, or from the general course of study, 
 one would have thought that the fame of the great dis- 
 coveries which had been made during the last hundred 
 and fifty years, had never reached the University of 
 Oxford." 
 
 Improvements have since been introduced, and greater 
 improvements are in progress, particularly in the Uni- 
 versity of Cambridge ; but it appears an indisputable 
 fact, that the system of the English Universities has been 
 lamentably deficient, and has by no means yet attained'^ 
 completeness demanded alike by their long standing, and 
 the character of the age to which they have come down. 
 The Edinburgh Review of April, 1849, asks: "But, 
 even as a preparatory training, is the actual benefit ever 
 
38 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 found to justify their high pretensions 1 Is there any 
 man alive who can say, not with truth, but even with 
 conviction, that the best or most laborious scholars and 
 mathematicians of the University are the best lawyers, 
 physicians, philosophers, or statesmen of England 1 
 The very reverse is the plain, if not the acknowledged 
 fact. It would be difficult to find at present, among 
 the most eminent leaders in Westminster Hall, any 
 whose academical course was distinguished by studies, 
 or crowned with honors, either mathematical or classi- 
 cal. The extent to which academical distinctions have 
 lately been thrown into the background in the profes- 
 sional and public life of England, has gone lengths 
 which really surprise us." 
 
 As a general system, the English Universities pre- 
 sent us only courses of Collegial study of a very limited 
 extent, pursued under tutors, and followed by examina- 
 tions for a degree. The attainment of the degree ap- 
 pears to be the great end of study. Neither a principle 
 of utility, nor of philosophical education, governs. 
 There are indeed higher honors, the reward of higher 
 studies. And unquestionably profound and elegant 
 scholars are made on the foundations of the fellowships. 
 We are speaking of the tendency of the system, and 
 not of the opportunities afforded in these venerable seats 
 of learning, to those who are disposed to study jand 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 39 
 
 learned retirement. But the men who should be per- 
 manent professors, like Whately and Arnold, can find 
 at the Universities no amply-endowed professorships, or 
 thronging classes yielding adequate fees ; and hence are 
 compelled, with few exceptions, to take the head master- 
 ships of schools, or to retire into the church ; and leave 
 the instruction to the fellows of the colleges. The 
 truth is, that the English Universities still feel the in- 
 cubus of the old Scholasticism, and reap the effects of 
 the changes introduced under the Chancellorship of 
 Laud. They are antiquated institutions, which do not 
 meet the requirements of a new age. 
 
 As the Universities grew out of the Church, are in 
 their origin Church institutions, their condition will be 
 found to keep pace with that of the Church. Hence, in 
 Spain, where the Schoolmen were longest cherished, and 
 where the power of the Priesthood extended over every- 
 thing, the Universities, instead of advancing with en- 
 lightened Europe, have remained fixed in scholastic 
 and ecclesiastical solidity. In Italy they have retro- 
 graded. 
 
 On the other hand, in Protestant Germany, what an 
 advance has been made ! In no part of the world has 
 University education been so enlarged, and made so 
 liberal and thorough. The Universities of Protestant 
 Germany stand forth as model institutions, if there be 
 
40 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 siicli to be found ; and the whole system of education, 
 from the Common School upward, exhibits an intellec- 
 tual progress which commands our admiration. In Ger- 
 many, the emancipation of the Church was the emanci- 
 pation of the Universities. The rationalism which now 
 prevails, whatever may be its errors, is a symptom and 
 a consequent of the intense reaction which there took 
 place against the prescriptions of ecclesiastical and aca- 
 demical authority ; and which must ultimately correct 
 itself by the same force by which it came into being. 
 The Universities of Scotland have exhibited a similar 
 freedom and independence, without running into a sim- 
 ilar excess. With a high tone of general scholarship, 
 they have had also a distinct . philosophical school of 
 distinguished merit ; and no country has contended more 
 nobly and steadfastly for civil and religious freedom. 
 
 Now the English Universities exhibit the same cor- 
 respondence to the church out of which they have sprung, 
 and to which they belong. Two strong elements in the 
 English Church have ever been, a zeal for the preroga- 
 tive, and a stiff adherence to the apostolical succession. 
 Many of us Protestants who have no great regard for 
 either, think that the forced reformation of the English 
 Church by Henry VIIL, and the modifications which 
 he gave it, never separated it sufficiently from Rome. 
 it indeed received a new head, but retained many of the 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 41 
 
 old errors. The Uuivcrsities have in like manner been 
 the strongholds of Toryism and high-churchism. The 
 part which Oxford in particular has acted in our own 
 times by her publications of a Romish tendency, and by 
 the defection of some of her members, shows the direc- 
 tion and strength of her ecclesiastical bias. Oxford is 
 governed by church influences, and these hold her in 
 scholastic bondage, and bind her under a reverence for 
 the past, instead of leading her onward with the awaken- 
 ing spirit of philosophy, and the enlargement of the 
 sciences. 
 
 Neither Oxford nor Cambridge have ever had a school 
 of philosophy. In this they have been left behind by 
 France, Germany, and Scotland. England has had 
 philosophers, but they gave no lectures, and formed no 
 schools at the Universities. What had Bacon, Locke, 
 and Coleridge to do with the Universities ? What had 
 the Universities to do with them 1 Ecclesiastical pre- 
 scription can never allew a free philosophical movement. 
 We can understand at tliis point of view the fact affirmed 
 by the writer in the Edinburgh Review, that the exam- 
 inations at Oxford, " so far as they were scientific at 
 all, and not confi,ned to the learned languages, turned 
 entirely on the Aristotelian and Scholastic logic ; and 
 that the new logic, such as is explained in the Novum 
 Organum of Bacon, was never mentioned." Professor 
 
42 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 Whewell, of Cambridge, the learned author of the Phi- 
 losophy of the Inductive Sciences, and of the History of 
 the Inductive Sciences, has done much to awaken a phi- 
 losophical spirit in that University, and has contributed 
 essentially to the bringing about of manifest improve- 
 ments in the course of education. His work On Lib- 
 eral Education in general, is one of great value and 
 interest. The distinction which he makes between 
 permanent and progressive studies, is important and 
 suggestive ; the view which he takes of the discipline of 
 the human faculties is philosophical and lofty ; the pro- 
 portions in which he distributes classical and mathe- 
 matical studies, strike us as judicious ; and his recom- 
 mendation of the geometrical method in preference to 
 the analytical as a discipline for the reasoning faculty, 
 is wise and worthy of all attention. 
 
 That the English Universities are improvable, and 
 improving, we fully believe. But never, while paralyzed 
 by high-church influence, can they fully develop their 
 great capacities, and collect within their precincts, and 
 under their government, schools of philosophy and science 
 formed of the great wits and profound thinkers of Eng- 
 land. It is easy to get up scholasticism under prescrip- 
 tion, but investigation and productive thought must be 
 free as birds upon the wing — they must bear them- 
 selves along by their own native vigor, in their own 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 43 
 
 native element. And we must run the risk of flying in 
 the wrong direction sometimes, or we can have no flying 
 at all, unless it be the wretched flying of a decoy-pigeon 
 — fluttering within the limits of the string held by the 
 hand of its master. Universities may, indeed, make 
 learned men ; but their best commendation is giveiL- 
 when it can be said of them, that furnishing the mate- 
 rial and appliances of learning, setting the examples in 
 their professors and graduates, breathing the spirit of 
 scholarship in all that pertains to them, they inspire 
 men, by the self-creative force of study and thought, to 
 make themselves both learned and wise, and thus ready 
 to put their hand to every great and good work, whether 
 of science, of religion, or of the state. 
 
 We have spoken of the German Universities as model 
 institutions. Their excellence consists in two things : 
 first, they are purely Universities, without any admix- 
 ture of collegial tuition. Secondly, they are complete 
 as Universities, providing libraries and all other mate- 
 rial of learning, and having professors of eminence to 
 lecture on theology, law, and medicine, the philosophi- 
 cal, mathematical, natural, philological, and political 
 Sciences, on history and geography, on the history and 
 principles of Art, in fine, upon every branch of human 
 knowledge. The professors are so numerous that a 
 proper division of labor takes place, and every subject 
 
44 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 is tliorouglily discussed. At the University every stu- 
 dent selects tlie courses lie is to attend. He is thrown 
 upon his own responsibility and diligence. He is left 
 free to pursue his studies ; but, if he wishes to become 
 a clergyman, a physician, a lawyer, a statesman, a pro- 
 fessor, or a teacher in any superior school, he must go 
 through the most rigid examinations, both oral and 
 written. 
 
 Collegial tuition in the German Universities does not 
 exist, because wholly unnecessary, the student being 
 fully prepared at the Gymnasium before he is' permitted 
 to enter the University. Without the Gymnasium, the 
 University would be little worth. The course at the 
 Gymnasium embraces a very thorough study of the 
 Latin and Greek languages, a knowledge of the mathe- 
 matics below the DijBFerential and Integral Calculus, 
 general history, and one or two modern languages be- 
 sides the German, and Hebrew if the student design to 
 study theology. The examinations are full and severe, 
 the gradations of merit are accurately marked, and no 
 one- below the second grade is permitted to enter the 
 University. 
 
 The Gymnasia thus guard the entrance of the Univer- 
 sities. Besides, the University course would not be 
 available to him who had not prepared himself for it. 
 It presumes certain attainments, and passes by the 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 45 
 
 elements of the sciences. It is true, indeed, that a 
 student may neglect his opportunities in the University, 
 but then he throws away all hopes of professional life, 
 and of employment in the State. 
 
 The Educational System of Germany, and particu- 
 larly in Prussia, is certainly a very noble one. We 
 cannot well be extravagant in its praise. Thorough 
 in all its parts, consistent with itself, and vigorously 
 sustained, it furnishes every department of life with 
 educated men, and keeps up at the Universities them- 
 selves, in every branch of knowledge, a supply of erudite 
 and elegant scholars and authors, for the benefit and 
 glory of their country, and the good of mankind. 
 
 In comparing the University system of Germany with 
 that of England, it is worthy of remark that Germany 
 has also admirable common-school systems for popular 
 education, while England is strikingly deficient in this 
 respect. In the one case a properly-developed Univer- 
 sity system has reached its natural result of invigorating 
 general education ; in the other the priestly privilege of 
 a cloistered learning is still maintained. 
 
 The Colleges of America are plainly copied from the 
 Colleges of the English Universities. The course of 
 studies, the President and Tutors, the number of years 
 occupied by the course, are all copied from the English 
 model. We have seen that in the English Institutions, 
 
46 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 the name of University alone remained, while the col- 
 legial or tutorial system absorbed all the educational 
 functions. In America, while Colleges were professedly 
 established, they soon assumed a mixed character. 
 Professors were appointed, but they discharged only the 
 duty of tutors in the higher grades of study ; so that 
 the tutors were really assistant professors, or the pro- 
 fessors only tutors of the first rank. Our Colleges 
 also have from the beginning conferred degrees in all 
 the faculties, which in England belongs only to the 
 University. By establishing the faculties of Theology, 
 Law, and Medicine, some of our colleges have ap- 
 proached still more nearly to the forms and functions of 
 a University. By assuming_ the title of University and 
 College indifferently, as we are prone to do, we seem to 
 intimate that we have some characteristics belonging to 
 both, and that we deem it in our power to become Uni- 
 versities whenever we please. Sometimes the only 
 advance made to the higher position, is by establishing 
 a medical school ; which, however, has little other con- 
 nection with the college than its dependence upon it for 
 conferring the degree of Doctor of Medicine. 
 
 If we understand aright the distinction between a 
 College and a University, the latter is not necessarily 
 constituted by collecting together schools under the dif- 
 ferent faculties. These may be merely collegia! schools. 
 
UNIVERSITV EDUCATION. 47 
 
 A University course presumes a preparatory tutorial 
 course, by -wliicli the students have acquired elementary 
 knowledge, and formed habits of study and investiga- 
 tion, to an extent sufficient to enable them to hear the 
 lectures of professors "with advantage, to consult libra- 
 ries with facility and profit, and to carry on for them- 
 selves researches in the different departments of lit- 
 erature and science. A University course may be 
 indefinitely extended at the pleasure of the student. 
 He may here undertake the fullest philosophical educa- 
 tion possible — passing from one branch of study to an- 
 other, and selecting courses of lectures according to the 
 state of his knowledge, and the intellectual discipline 
 which he requires; or, having accomplished a satisfac- 
 tory general education of his powers, he may next, 
 either enter upon professional studies, or devote him- 
 self to some particular branch of science as the occupa- 
 tion of his life. In the German Universities any one, 
 whether he designs to give himself wholly to a student's 
 life, or to fit himself for a professor's chair, may, after 
 undergoing the requisite examination, obtain from the 
 faculty to which he belongs, permission to teach, with- 
 out receiving any compensation, and only as a form of 
 education. The professors extraordinary are selected 
 from these licentiates, and receive a small salary. 
 From these again the professors of the different facul- 
 
48 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 ties are usually selected. Every person of these three 
 classes may lecture upon any subject he pleases : but 
 professors are obliged, besides, to lecture on the branches 
 particularly contemplated in their appointment. In 
 this way at a University alone can the intellectual life 
 be varied and enlarged. A University is literally a 
 Gyclopcedia where are collected books on every subject 
 of human knowledge, cabinets and apparatus of every 
 description that can aid learned investigation and philo- 
 sophical experiment, and amply qualified professors and 
 teachers to assist the student in his studies, by rules 
 and directions gathered from long experience, and by 
 lectures which treat of every subject with the 'freshness 
 of thought not yet taking its final repose in authorship, 
 and which often present discoveries and views in ad- 
 vance of what has yet been given to the world. In fine, 
 a University is designed to give to him who would 
 study every help that he needs or desires. 
 
 A College in distinction from a University is an ele- 
 mentary and a preparatory school. A College may be 
 directly connected with the University, or it may not. 
 Its original connection with the University was partly 
 accidental, and partly necessary. It was necessary to 
 provide convenient habitations for students who flocked 
 to hear the lectures of the doctor or professor. Many 
 of these students might require private tuition, in rela- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 49 
 
 tion both to preparatory and additional studies, and 
 thus the Colleges would become places of separate 
 study, under masters appointed for that purpose. This 
 must especially have been demanded in the early period 
 of the Universities, when preparatory schools were not 
 common. 
 
 In Germany the Gymnasia are really the Colleges. 
 The education which they furnish is more thorough, we 
 believe, than what is obtained at the Colleges of either 
 England or of our own country. In England, schools 
 like that of Rugby, under the late Dr. Arnold, and 
 those of Eton and Westminster ; and in America, 
 those schools commonly called Academies^ and indeed 
 other classical schools, are of the nature of a college, only 
 of a still lower grade, and more elementary. In pass- 
 ing from the classical school to the college the studies 
 are. not essentially changed, nor is the kind of disci- 
 pline. Hence, a student in our country can prepare at 
 the academy for the second, third, and even fourth 
 year of coUegial study. In college there may be less 
 of juvenile discipline, and there are generally greater 
 advantages. What gives the college, however, its chief 
 distinction, is the power of conferring academical de- 
 grees. We may say, therefore, the academy prepares 
 for the college, and the college prepares for a degree. 
 In England the colleges are directly connected with the 
 3! 
 
50 'JNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 University. But, it appears the University has fallen 
 into desuetude, and colleges alone remain. 
 
 In our country we have no Universities. Whatever 
 may be the names by which we choose to call our insti- 
 tutions of learning, still they are not Universities. 
 They have neither the libraries and material of learn- 
 ing, generally, nor the number of professors and courses 
 of lectures, nor the large and free organization which 
 go to make up Universities. Nor does the connection 
 of Divinity, Law, and Medical Schools with them give 
 them this character. For law and medicine a thorough 
 preparatory classical discipline is not required. In 
 this respect the last is the most deficient of the two, 
 and great numbers receive the academical degree of 
 Doctor of Medicine who have never received an aca- 
 demical education. The degree of Doctor of Laws is 
 more sparingly bestowed than any other ; and this, as 
 well as Doctor of Divinity, is never bestowed intro-, 
 ductory to the entrance upon professional life. The 
 schools of Theology approach more nearly to the Uni- 
 versity character than any other, since a collegial disci- 
 pline is generally required preparatory to an entrance 
 therein. 
 
 The course of study in our colleges, cop3dng from 
 the English, was, at their first institution, fixed at 
 four years. The number of studies then was far 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 51 
 
 more limited than at present, and the scholarship was 
 consequently more thorough and exact. There was 
 less attempted, but what was attempted was more per- 
 fectly mastered, and hence aflforded a better intellectual 
 discipline. With the vast extension of science, it came 
 to pass that the course of study was vastly enlarged. 
 Instead of erecting Universities, we have only pressed 
 into our four years' course a greater number of studies. 
 The effect has been disastrous. We have destroyed 
 the charm of study by hurry and unnatural pressure, 
 and we have rendered our scholarship vague and super- 
 ficial. We have not fed thought by natural supplies 
 of knowledge. We have not disciplined mind by guid- 
 ing it to a calm and profound activity ; but, we have 
 stimulated acquisition to preternatural exertions, and 
 have learned, as it were, from an encyclopaedia the 
 mere names of sciences, without gaining the sciences 
 themselves. 
 
 " There are, in the whole four years, one hundred 
 and sixty weeks of study. Suppose that the student 
 pursues twenty of these branches of learning, this will 
 allow eight weeks to each. Seven-eighths of the first 
 year, and one-half of the second, are devoted to Latin, 
 Greek, and Mathematics. If we subtract this amount, 
 fifty-five weeks from one hundred and sixty, it leaves 
 one hundred and five weeks to be devoted to the re- 
 
62 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 mainder. This will give us six weeks and a fraction 
 to each of the other studies. But this is not all. In 
 order to introduce so many sciences into the period 
 of four years, the student is frequently obliged to 
 carry on five or six at the same time ; some occupying 
 him three times, others twice, and others once in a 
 week. In this manner, all continuity of thought is in- 
 terrupted, and literary enthusiasm rendered almost im- 
 possible. Such has, to a greater or less degree, been 
 the course pursued by all our colleges. The greater 
 the number of studies prescribed in the curriculum, the 
 more generous is believed to be the education imparted. 
 When a college is not able to exhibit so extensive a 
 course of instruction, it is considered as a misfortune 
 which nothing can palliate, but its pecuniary inability 
 to relieve it."* 
 
 At the same time that we have been enlarging this 
 course of study, there has been a tendency to lessen the 
 amount of preparation for admission into college, con- 
 sidered proportionally to the course to be pursued. We 
 undertake to do more, with a worse preparation for 
 doing it. But this is what might have been expected. 
 A superficial system of study in the college will neces- 
 sarily beget in the community a habit of superficial pre- 
 paration. The highest institutions will set the tone of 
 
 * Report of Brown University, p. 15. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 53 
 
 education. And this we see realized in schools of every 
 grade and for both sexes. Our schools for boys, our 
 schools for girls, present on the prospectus a formidable 
 curriculum of studies, and immature beings of sixteen 
 or seventeen are carried through the mathematics, the 
 natural sciences, general history, the philosophy of his- 
 tory, belles-lettres, and metaphysics, together with two 
 or three languages and various polite accomplishments. 
 These higher branches, too, are often taught in lectures 
 adapted rather to Universities than to elementary schools. 
 The popular conception of education is not the orderly 
 and gradual growth of mind according to its own innate 
 laws fixed by God himself, but an immense and vora- 
 cious deglutition of knowledges where the mental diges- 
 tion is estimated according to the rapidity with which 
 the subjects are disposed of. The more masters, the 
 more books, the more branches of knowledge in a given 
 time, the faster the process goes on. We educate as 
 we make money, as we dig for gold, as we build ships 
 and houses, as we make railroads and canals. Even in 
 these the rapidity of our execution is not the sure sign 
 of excellence and stability ; but if it were, we forget 
 that although we can quicken the labor of our hands, 
 and increase the power and scope of our machinery, we 
 may not overlay the organific power of nature ; and that 
 as trees must have their time to grow, and harvests 
 
54 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 their time to ripen, so the mind of man must grow from 
 infancy to childhood, from childhood to youth, and from 
 youth to manhood, and that as each period has its pe- 
 culiar strength and capacities, so each requires its o\Yn 
 nurture ; that many things may be accomplished at one 
 stage of growth which are impossible at another ; nay, 
 that as the mind hath an immortal growth, there are 
 some things that will be reserved for the discipline of 
 eternity itself. 
 
 We have increased the number of our colleges to one 
 hundred and twenty, that is, about four for every State. 
 We have enlarged greatly the number of college studies. 
 We have cheapened education — we have reduced it to 
 cost — we have put it below cost — we have even given it 
 away. The public has given money so liberally, and 
 made education so nearly gratuitous, that, taking Har- 
 vard College as an illustration, every graduate costs the 
 public nearly one thousand dollars. And, yet, it would 
 appear from the Report of the Corporation of Brown 
 University, we have lowered rather than elevated the 
 character of our scholarship. " All of them (the col- . 
 leges) teach Greek and Latin, but where are our clas- 
 sical scholars '? All teach mathematics, but where are 
 our mathematicians 1 We might ask the same ques- 
 tions concerning the other sciences taught among us. 
 There has existed for the last twenty years a great de- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 mand for civil engineers. Has this demand been sup- 
 plied from our colleges ? We presume the single acad- 
 emy of West Point, graduating annually a smaller 
 number than any of our colleges, has done more toward 
 the construction of railroads than all our one hundred 
 and twenty colleges united." — p. 18. 
 
 " The effect of this system on the mind of the teacher 
 is equally obvious. He must teach, generally, from text- 
 books composed by others. His mind can act but im- 
 perfectly on the mind of the pupil. The time of the reci- 
 tation is commonly quite occupied in ascertaining whether 
 the pupil has learned his daily task. He cannot mark 
 out such a course as he would wish to teach, but must 
 teach as much as he can in the fragment of time allot- 
 ted to him. The books which he teaches soon become 
 familiar to him. He has no motive to increase his 
 knowledge, derived from the business to which he has 
 consecrated his life. He already knows more than he 
 has opportunity to communicate. There is no stimulus 
 to call forth exertion. There is no opportunity for 
 progress. The result is easily foreseen. Sometimes 
 an instructor becomes interested in other pursuits, and 
 his real business takes the place of only a secondary 
 occupation. This is fatal to professional success. In 
 other cases he becomes reconciled to, and finally in love 
 with, his monotonous course ; or, lastly, he throws 
 
56 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 up his calling altogether, and enters another line of 
 life." — p. 19. From the same Report it appears, 
 also, that notwithstanding the efforts made to enlarge 
 the course of study and to cheapen education, the num- 
 ber of educated men has fallen off instead of increasing. 
 The calculation is based upon statistics of the New 
 England Colleges for the last twenty years. 
 
 It is argued, again, that so far from the intellectual 
 character of the professions being elevated by the same 
 causes, there is reason to believe that " the rank and 
 file of every profession contains a smaller proportion of 
 remarkable talent than in the last generation. The 
 inducements to enter the professions seem to address 
 themselves less successfully to young men of ability and 
 enterprise. The other departments of life are continu- 
 ally alluring men from high places in Law, or even in 
 Divinity. The productive professions are commonly 
 filled with men who have not enjoyed the advantages of 
 a collegiate education ; nay, for whose benefit no schools 
 whatever have been established, and yet, in influence, 
 ability, and general intelligence, their position in rela- 
 tion to the professions is far in advance of that which 
 they held some thirty years since." — p. 31. " The 
 most coveted positions in society, seats in our highest 
 legislative chambers, and even foreign embassies, await 
 the successful merchant or manufacturer, no less than 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 5*7 
 
 him who has devoted his Hfe to what is called a learned 
 profession. And yet more ; the number of those who 
 consider a collegiate education indispensable to a pro- 
 fession, has, for some time, been rapidly decreasing. 
 Men have come to doubt whether the course which we 
 pursue is that best adapted to prepare men for the 
 duties of even professional life." — p. 21. The infer- 
 ence is, that men of distinguished talent avoid the col- 
 leges, and adopt some other mode of education. 
 
 The Report also shows, that notwithstanding the 
 colleges have had in their organization an especial eye 
 to the education of ministers of the gospel, and have 
 been aided by Education Societies, the number of 
 young men entering the sacred profession has by no 
 means kept pace with the increase of our population. 
 One fact is sufficient on this point. Six New England 
 Theological Seminaries have together only eight more 
 students now than they had twenty years ago. — p. 33. 
 
 But the condition of our colleges is represented to be 
 such as to require relief not only to render the course 
 of instruction more attractive and better calculated to 
 meet the wants of the community, but also in many in- 
 stances to save them from bankruptcy. The deficiency 
 in the number of students, taken in connection with the 
 low rates of tuition, renders their income inadequate to 
 meet the current expenses, notwithstanding the endow- 
 3* 
 
68 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 ments which they have received. This is shown to be 
 the case of Brown- University. — pp. 47, 48. 
 
 It is argued that if they be better adapted to the 
 condition of our country, they will draw together a 
 larger number of students ; and that to make them 
 better institutions, will be to increase their resources, 
 —p. 50. 
 
 The particulars in which they are defective are, — 
 First, The superficial education afforded by pressing 
 too many studies within the four college years. Sec- 
 ondly, The requiring of studies which are calculated 
 only for the learned professions, and particularly the 
 ancient languages. Thirdly, The omission of those 
 branches which are especially adapted to the mercan- 
 tile, the manufacturing, and the agricultural classes. 
 
 The Report proposes to remove these defects by re- 
 organizing the colleges on the following principles : 
 
 First, That the fixed term of four years be abolished, 
 and that instead thereof courses of study be established 
 in the different branches of learning, the time to be de- 
 voted to each course to be determined solely by the 
 nature of the course itself. Secondly, That each stu- 
 dent be allowed, within limits determined by statute, 
 to select his studies for himself, and the number of 
 courses he is to pursue at the same time, unless, in 
 respect to these, the parent or guardian should place- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 59 
 
 him under the direction of the Faculty. Every course, 
 when entered upon, is to be completed -without inter- 
 ruption ; but any other course may afterward be added 
 thereto, if the student so desire. Thirdly, Any stu- 
 dent may take a degree upon sustaining an examina- 
 tion in such studies as may be ordained by the Corpor- 
 ation ; but no student shall be required to take a de- 
 gree. Every student shall be entitled to a certificate 
 of the proficiency he may have made in every course 
 that he has pursued. 
 
 The number of courses proposed is fifteen. These 
 embrace the ancient languages, modern languages, pure 
 mathematics, natural science generally, the science of 
 law, the English language and rhetoric, moral and in- 
 tellectual philosophy and political economy, history, the 
 science of teaching, the principles of agriculture, and 
 the application of chemistry and of science generally to 
 the arts. 
 
 If the proposed changes should serve to increase the 
 number of students, and thus both to sustain the col- 
 leges and to multiply the number of educated men, they 
 would accomplish necessary and important ends. If 
 they should farther break up the projects of distinct 
 agricultural and mechanic schools, and collect the whole 
 educational apparatus and all the candidates for educa- 
 tion of the higher kind and degree in our colleges, they 
 
60 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 would effect an important concentration. Still more, if 
 they should elevate the standard of education and give 
 hirth to more solid scholarship, they would claim our 
 highest consideration. 
 
 An increase in the number of collegiate students, a 
 concentration of the educational apparatus and of can- 
 didates for education at the colleges, might, however, 
 be only a temporary success. New tastes and projects 
 might arise and diminish again the number of students, 
 and give rise to more popular institutions. But a 
 change that should permanently elevate the standard of 
 education, and give birth to solid scholarship, would be 
 a benefit to be calculated by some other standard than 
 the success expressed by the number of students. A 
 few men of great and cultivated powers may do more 
 for a nation than hosts of mere expert empirics, who 
 without learning succeed in gaining a reputation for 
 learning, and without principle, dare to invade the 
 most sacred offices of society. The changes in Brown 
 University may, through the effect of mere noveltj^, 
 produce a rush of students to that institution at the 
 beginning of the experiment. This, therefore, will not 
 be accepted as a test of their value. But, on the other 
 hand, when temporary popularity shall have passed 
 away, should only the few great and commanding minds 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 61 
 
 come forth and continue to come forth under these new 
 auspices, then their character will be settled. 
 
 The question in education, as in religion, is not what 
 men desire, but what they need. This must govern us 
 in determining the form and quality of our educational 
 institutions. Now when it is asked. What we need in 
 the way of education 1 We may reply, either, that we 
 need to fit men well for professional life, and for the 
 general business of the world in the mechanical arts, in 
 agriculture, and commerce ; or, that we need to culti- 
 vate the human mind according to the philosophical or 
 ideal conception ; or, we might reply, that we need all 
 in due order and proportion. The last reply would, 
 unquestionably, be the correct one. We do need all in 
 due order and proportion. Mere professional institu- 
 tions will not meet our wants, for we do not all mean to 
 be professional men. Mere agricultural, mechanical, 
 and commercial schools will not meet our wants, for we 
 do not all mean to act m these departments of life. 
 Nor would we have the last without the former, for we 
 generally mean to apply our education in the practical 
 affairs of life. 
 
 It is a more serious and difficult question when we 
 come to inquire after the due order and proportion. 
 We believe that the due order and proportion exists ^ 
 only when the philosophical or ideal conception of edu- 
 
62 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 cation is made the architectonic conception, when the 
 higher institutions represent it, and when, as an all- 
 pervading light and warmth, it reaches to every grade 
 of education. Human souls are to be educated because 
 they are human souls : they are to be disciplined — to 
 think, to reason, to exercise all the faculties wherewith 
 they are endowed ; they are to gain character and 
 worth, to be fitted for duty, as human souls. This 
 should be the leading thought of all education — of edu- 
 cation in every degree, and for every purpose of life. 
 When the lower ground is taken — that of making pre- 
 paration for a particular art or profession, we shall fail 
 of developing the full strength of the mind and of com- 
 municating the highest principles of action : when the 
 higher ground is taken, we aim directly at the accom- 
 plishment of both. Nor do we in this way remove from 
 education its practical character, since the development 
 of the mind cannot be effected without setting before it 
 its duties in general, and the particular offices in which 
 society claims the services of human beings, and espe- 
 cially of educated men. We now, as before, enter 
 upon the learned professions, or select some useful art 
 or business, but we do it as men who know and who 
 have cultivated their best capacities. However limited 
 the discipline may be, it may still be conducted on right 
 principles. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 63 
 
 As to the defects in the system of education in our 
 country, we have ah-eady given our assent to the Report 
 of Brown University, in respect to the first ; we believe 
 that education has become superficial by attempting too 
 much in the short period allotted. The other defects 
 do not strike us so forcibly. A review of the college 
 studies does not show an especial adaptation to the 
 learned professions, unless it be in the space given to 
 Latin and Greek. Indeed, the Report admits that it is 
 not well adapted to the learned professions, and that 
 good classical scholars under the received system are 
 as rare as good mathematicians and civil engineers. 
 Some of our colleges, too, have introduced a scientific 
 course in distinction from a classical, to afibrd an oppor- 
 tunity to prepare for the other forms of life besides the 
 learned professions. We think, too, that the idea of ac- 
 complishing a general discipline of the mind preparatory 
 to any sphere of active duty, has not been absent from 
 our collegiate systems. We confess, however, that this 
 idea has not been well carried out and made effective. 
 We have been aiming to do great things ; we have 
 called our colleges universities ; we have tried to en- 
 large our course of studies more and more ; we seem to 
 have been struggling to afford every imaginable facility ; 
 and yet we have only a superficial and inadequate edu- 
 cation. 
 
64 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 Must we not seek for our great error somewhere 
 else ? We inspire no general desire for high edu- 
 cation, and fail to collect students, because we prom- 
 ise and do not perform. Hence we fall into disrepute, 
 and young men of ability contrive to prepare themselves 
 for active life without our aid. In connection with this, 
 the commercial spirit of our country, and the many 
 avenues to wealth which are opened before enterprise, 
 create a distaste for study deeply inimical to education. 
 The manufacturer, the merchant, the gold-digger, will 
 not pause in their career to gain intellectual accom- 
 plishments. While gaining knowledge, they are losing 
 the opportunities to gain money. The political condi- 
 tion of our country, too, is such, that a high education 
 and a high order of talent do not generally form the 
 sure guarantees of success. The tact of the demagogue 
 triumphs over the accomplishments of the scholar and 
 the man of genius. 
 
 Put these causes together, and the phenomena we 
 witness and lament are explained. Our colleges are 
 complacently neglected when they neither afford the 
 satisfaction and distinction of a thorough and lofty edu- 
 cation, and yield no advantages in gaining wealth and 
 political eminence. 
 
 We have multiplied colleges so as to place them at 
 everyone's door; we have multiplied the branches of 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 66 
 
 study so as to give every one enough to do, and to satisfy 
 the ambition of learning, if all are to be acquired ; "we 
 have cheapened education so as to place it within the 
 reach of every one ; we have retained the short term of 
 four years, so that no great portion of life need be 
 spent in study ; and we have made the terms of admis- 
 sion quite easy enough. Now all this would tend to the 
 popularity of these institutions, if the education acquired 
 helped us to gain money and political influence. But 
 as it does not, it is not valued by a commercial people, 
 and a people of political institutions like ours. 
 
 And even if our educational systems should be made 
 more thorough, requiring more time, we see not that it 
 would make a strong appeal to the commercial spirit 
 and to political ambition, while men continue to succeed 
 so well without high education. The idea of fitting our 
 colleges to the temper of the multitude does not, there- 
 fore, promise great results. They do not answer to the 
 commercial and political spirit of our country ; nor to 
 the philosophical or ideal — the architectonic conception 
 of education. To attempt to make them answer to the 
 former would be of doubtful success. But we can make 
 them answer to the latter ; and doing this, we shall 
 meet every want of the human mind, and of society ; 
 for if we educate men as men, we prepare them for all 
 the responsibilities and duties of men. And educating 
 
66 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 men on this principle, we should in due time have great 
 examples of the true form ; and the charm, and power, 
 and dignity of learning would become apparent to all. 
 And then education would stand out, as in truth it is, 
 not as a mere preparation for the facile doing of the 
 business of the world, but as the highest aim of the 
 human being 3 as Milton has nobly said, " The end of 
 learning is to repair the ruins of our first parents, by 
 regaining to know God aright, and out of that knowledge 
 to love him, to imitate him, to be like him, as we may 
 the nearest by possessing our souls of true virtue, which 
 being united to the heavenly grace of faith, makes up 
 the highest perfection." In this way we should raise up 
 a powerful counter influence against the excessive com- 
 mercial spirit, and against the chicanery and selfishness 
 of demagogueism which now prevail. Men thus worth- 
 ily built up would get into all the relations of society, 
 and throw a new aspect over the arts, commerce, and 
 politics, and a high-minded patriotism and philanthropy 
 would everywhere appear. Then it would be seen how 
 much more mighty and plastic are great ideas and fun- 
 damental principles than all the arts, tact, and accom- 
 plishments of expediency. Then the host of penny-a- 
 liners, stump orators, discoursers upon socialism, bigots, 
 and partisans would give way before sound writers, true 
 poets, lofty and truthful orators, and profound philoso- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 6*7 
 
 phers, theologians, and statesmen. We should have a 
 pure national literature, and a proud national character. 
 
 To bring about this great change, we must do some- 
 thing besides multiplying colleges after the same model, 
 pouring forth a tide of school-books, and making experi- 
 ments upon a facile system of education full of preten- 
 sion and fair promises, but containing no philosophical 
 and manly discipline. 
 
 The multiplication of colleges after the same model 
 only serves to increase our difficulties. We set about 
 putting up the same kind of buildings ; we create the 
 same number of professors, to teach the same things on 
 the same principle ; we get together a few books and 
 some philosophical apparatus ; and then we have the 
 same annual commencements, with orations and poems, 
 and the conferring of degrees ; and we get under the 
 same pressure of debt, and make the same appeals to 
 the public to help us out of it ; and then with our cheap 
 education, to induce many to get educated, we expe- 
 rience the same anxiety to gather in as many students 
 as possible ; and, since where we cannot get money it is 
 something to get appearance, we show the same readi- 
 ness to educate for nothing those who will submit to be 
 educated, but who cannot pay. In all this we are im- 
 proving nothing; but we are taking away all dignity 
 
68 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 from our system of education, and proving its inade- 
 quacy. 
 
 Ifc were well to commence about this time some ex- 
 periment of a different kind — a new experiment, and 
 yet one of no doubtful issue, if we can carry it out to 
 its issue. If we can give it a beginning and a middle, 
 we know what its end must be. The establishment of 
 Universities in our country will reform, and alone can 
 reform our educational system. By the Universities we 
 mean such as we have before described — Cyclopcedias 
 of education : where, in libraries, cabinets, apparatus, 
 and professors, provision is made for studying every 
 branch of knowledge in full, for carrying forward all 
 scientific investigation ; where study may be extended 
 without limit, where the mind may be cultivated ac- 
 cording to its wants, and where, in the lofty enthusiasm 
 of growing knowledge and ripening scholarship, the 
 bauble of an academical diploma is forgotten. When 
 we have such institutions, those who would be scholars 
 will have some place to resort to ; and those who have 
 already the gifts of scholarship will have some place 
 where to exercise them. With such institutions in full 
 operation, the public wiU begin to comprehend what 
 scholarship means, and discern the difference between 
 sciolists and men of learning. Then we shall hear no 
 more inane discussions about the expediency of dis- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 69 
 
 carding Latin and Greek ; for, classical scholars there 
 will then be, who will have an opportunity of showing 
 the value of the immortal languages, and the immortal 
 writings of the most cultivated nations of antiquity. 
 Then we shall have mathematicians prepared for as- 
 tronomers and engineers. Then we shall have philoso- 
 phers who can discourse without text-books. Then, 
 too, we shall have no more acute distinctions drawn 
 between scholastic and practical education ; for, it will 
 be seen that all true education is practical, and that 
 practice without education is little worth ; and then 
 there will be dignity, grace, and a resistless charm 
 about scholarship and the scholar. 
 
 The philosophic idea of education being thus devel- 
 oped in the highest form of an educational institution — 
 where alone it can be adequately developed — it will 
 begin to exert its power over all subordinate institu- 
 tions. There will now be demanded a preparation 
 suitable for undertaking the higher degrees of scholar- 
 ship, and schools and colleges will receive a new im- 
 pulse and will be determined to their proper form. We 
 shall not now attempt to learn a little of everything in 
 the lower institutions ; but we shall learn that which is 
 requisite to prepare for the higher, and we shall learn 
 that well. The influence of the higher will be to give 
 limitation, order, consistency, and thoroughness to the 
 
70 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 lower. And there will be diffused through all schools 
 of every grade, and for both sexes, new ideas of intel- 
 lectual discipline, and the sense of an elevated life and 
 duty. Education now will have an authority to define 
 it, examples to illustrate it, and the voice of a Divine 
 spirit to call it forth. 
 
 We might have had Universities ere this, had we not 
 wasted our means and energies in unfruitful schemes 
 and misappropriations. We have wasted large sums 
 in erecting expensive buildings in many different places 
 for small collections of students, which, had they been 
 concentrated, would have given for several uncertain 
 colleges a stable University, with ample provision of 
 books and the whole material of learning, and with 
 endowed professorships. 
 
 Some of the States, like the State of New York, have 
 made large appropriations from a literature fund to 
 common schools, where, scattered in feeble streams 
 through a thousand channels, it has produced no other 
 effect than cheapening a little more what was cheap 
 enough already. Massachusetts, with no literature fund, 
 has a common and free school system no less, if not 
 more complete and efficient, than New York. Common 
 schools required no such attenuated patronage. But 
 this fund, on an obvious principle of political economy, 
 might have been concentrated into a power that would 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 71 
 
 have given to the State of New York Colleges or Gym- 
 nasia, and Universities on an organized and connected 
 system that would have justified her claim to be the 
 Empire State, in a high and noble sense; and have 
 made her, in her educational development, second to no 
 country in the world. 
 
 The proposed changes in Brown University set forth 
 in the Report of the Corporation, and which we under- 
 stand have since been adopted, indicate that it is not 
 preposterous to hope that some of our colleges may be 
 brought under a higher organization. This Institution 
 has hitherto been only a college, but it has been one of 
 the best in our country in respect to its endowments, its 
 library, and its faculty. It has also been one of the 
 most respectable in point of the number of its students : 
 nevertheless, it finds a change necessary, and it dares 
 to make it. 
 
 There are some features of this new organization, 
 which have very much the air of a University. The 
 number of courses of instruction, the freedom of choice 
 allowed to the student, and the abolition of the fixed 
 term of four years, and the graduation of the time 
 allotted to each particular course by the nature of the 
 course itself — all these seem to point to a University. 
 But the Corporation do not, after all, propose to do 
 away the collegial character of their Institution, but 
 
72 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 only to modify it. Their leading conceptions are, first, 
 the introduction of a better scholarship, by giving to 
 each study more time, or not attempting to do more 
 than can be well done ; secondly, to adapt the Institu- 
 tion to the wants of all classes ; thirdly, by this wider 
 adaptation to call in a larger number of students. 
 
 The experiment alone can determine whether the 
 modifications introduced will realize these conceptions 
 of an improved and more widely-difiused education. 
 We believe that an attempt to modify our collegiate 
 institutions emanating from so respectable a source, 
 cannot but have weight in determining other institutions 
 to consider the necessity of introducing reforms into 
 our educational system. We. sincerely desire that the 
 experiment may prove successful. And since the Cor- 
 poration, in making the present changes, reserve the 
 power qf making still further changes, if called for, we 
 shall entertain the hope that, in carrying forward this 
 experiment, they may be led to form the purpose of 
 making Brown University a University proper. As yet 
 we do not discern the legitimate idea of a University. 
 
 The very conception of adapting the Institution to 
 the wants of " young men who are devoting themselves 
 to the productive professions," intimates that pupils 
 will be received who have made very little scholastic 
 preparation, and that, therefore, the courses intended 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 73 
 
 for the " productive professions " will be quite element- 
 ary. The courses here proposed will undoubtedly be 
 very useful to young men engaged in commerce and' 
 manufactures, and who propose to cultivate farms on 
 scientific principles. The increase of students antici- 
 pated is likely to be chiefly from this class of youth ; 
 and thus, instead of the old college with its Greek and 
 Latin, and Mathematics, shall we not have a large com- 
 mercial institution, which, instead of gathering around 
 itself classical associations, and impressing us with the 
 worth and dignity of scholarship, shall only give us the 
 hum of preparation for the business of Ufe in the indus- 
 trial and productive direction ? The Latin and Greek 
 scholars — the old-fashioned plodding students seeking 
 after science and philosophy for their own sake, and 
 dreaming of high mental cultivation and profound learn- 
 ing, will be rarely seen, we fear, when candidates for 
 the " productive professions" form the overwhelming 
 majority and create the esprit du corps. 
 
 We do not feel confident that this new organization 
 will elevate the tone of scholarship. One of the prin- 
 ciples laid down reads thus : " The various courses 
 should be so arranged, that in so far as practicable, 
 every student might study what he chose, all that he 
 chose, and nothing but what he chose." This principle 
 is intended to obtain universally, unless the parent or 
 4 
 
74 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 guardian should place his child or ward under the 
 authoritative direction of the Faculty. Now it is pos- 
 •sible for a student to choose either too much or too 
 little, and either to renew the old evil of attempting so 
 much as to lead to superficial acquisition, or to fall into 
 the opposite evil of undertaking so little as to leave 
 overmuch leisure on his hands. And we must not for- 
 get that these students are of no higher grade than 
 those who usually enter college ; youths, whose habits 
 of application are yet to be formed, and their judgment 
 ripened, and not, like the students of the German Uni- 
 versities, young men grown, and formed under the dis- 
 cipline of years spent in the Gymnasia, and who, there- 
 fore, may be presumed to have some ground to stand 
 upon when they make choice of the kind and the num- 
 ber of the courses they are to pursue. 
 
 Nor do we feel confident that the colleges can be 
 made the best institutions for all those who are devoting 
 themselves to the "productive professions." Some who 
 wish to become particularly scientific, would find such 
 an institution congenial. But of the multitude who 
 contemplate the productive professions, the majority 
 will feel inclined to take a more limited course, and to 
 enter as early as possible upon their apprenticeship. 
 Indeed, we are doubtful of Agricultural and Commer- 
 cial Colleges, however developed. We believe that the 
 
UN1VER8ITV EDUCATION. 76 
 
 common schools, generally, can be so improved, or 
 schools of a degree higher, branching directly out from 
 them, can be established, where instruction in the prin- 
 ciples of Agriculture embracing Chemistry, and in the 
 application of Chemistry and of other sciences to the 
 arts, can be more fitly and successfully given. 
 
 It appears to us that this plan of the Corporation of 
 Brown University is defective, inasmuch as it attempts 
 a union in one institution of three diflferent grades of 
 education, which can be more philosophically and suc- 
 cessfully conducted in three diflferent kinds of institu- 
 tions. We have here combined something of the Uni- 
 versity, a good deal of the College, and a good deal 
 of the Commercial, Manufactural, and Agricultural 
 School, in which the one element may preponderate over 
 the others, but in which a harmonious action of the 
 three, and a suitable development of all, it is hard to 
 conceive of. But, granting that this scheme should be 
 followed by a reasonable measure of success ; that, at 
 least, it should sustain itself by the number of its stu- 
 dents, still it cannot meett he highest educational want 
 of our country, which, indeed, is the highest educational 
 want of every country. It will not form the University 
 where philosophical education can be carried out to its 
 last results. -• 
 
 We feel no hostility to the experiment of Brown 
 
76 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 University. The better it turns out, the better pleased 
 we shall be. We shall even be happy to confess our 
 error, if it shall appear that we have erred in any part 
 of our criticism. The Report of the Corporation is an 
 admirable one, and points out in a strong and lively 
 manner the defects of our College system. The friends 
 of the institution are now making a generous effort to 
 place under its control the means of developing the new 
 scheme. We cannot but feel a strong sympathy with 
 this, and whatever may be the defects of the incipient 
 movement, we repeat, that we shall cherish the hope, 
 that eventually the noblest form of a literary institu- 
 tion may come out of it. 
 
 Another plan for improving our educational system 
 is presented in the very able Report recently made to 
 the Trustees of the University of Rochester, by the 
 Committee appointed to draw up a Plan of Instruction 
 for that Institution. 
 
 The University of Rochester does not profess to be a 
 University in the strict use of the word : in reality it 
 contemplates only a collegial course of instruction. 
 The plan proposed and adopted aims to make this 
 course more effective, by insisting upon an adequate 
 and thorough preparation for admission ; by adjusting the 
 studies properly to the term of four years ; by adopting 
 two courses — a classical and a scientific — adapted to 
 
UNIVERSITy KDUCATION. 11 
 
 two different classes of students, the first to graduate as 
 Bachelors of Arts, the second as Bachelors of Sciences ; 
 by limiting the voluntary plan to a choice between these 
 two courses ; and by demanding a mastery of the 
 studies prescribed, to be decided by rigid examinations, 
 ere candidates are admitted to the degrees for which 
 they are enrolled. The Report expresses its leading 
 principle in one sentence, " Thorough is the word 
 which we need to have written upon all our seminaries 
 and modes of teaching — upon the mind of every teacher, 
 and on the daily task of every scholar." 
 
 The Report is filled with just and admirable views 
 of education. In proposing an improvement of our col- 
 legial course, it undertakes a very important and neces- 
 sary part of the great work of perfecting our educational 
 system. If the University of Rochester is enabled to 
 carry out its plan on the lofty principle it avows, it will 
 make a real advance. We cannot but entertain cheer- 
 ing hopes of its success from the intelligence and liberal 
 spirit which pervade the Report and from the najnes 
 which are appended to it. 
 
 It is not necessary to our purpose to enter upon a 
 critical examination of the plan itself. We only re- 
 mark that the features to which we would take excep- 
 tions are those which are unavoidable under the pres- 
 ent limitations of our educational system. We have 
 
78 
 
 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 only Colleges, and we feel the want of Universities ; 
 hence, we are continually struggling to give our Colleges 
 as much of a University character as possible. " It 
 would be a beautiful consummation to it (Modern His- 
 tory) if at an advanced period in the whole course, some 
 higher instruction in History could be given by lectures, 
 opening great philosophical views, tracing its currents 
 in the channels of political organizations, viewing it in 
 its connections with the science of Ethnology, and 
 showing other aspects of this interesting subject." 
 
 We perceive here a looking forward to, a yearning 
 after a University element. The whole plan bears 
 marks, and we say unavoidably, of an endeavor to bring 
 into the College as much of the University as the enlight- 
 ened Committee deem consistent with their aim at a 
 more thorough scholarship. The want exists and must 
 be in some degree met, and until we have Universities 
 in full, perhaps nothing better or more worthy of com- 
 mendation could be offered. Still the limited term of 
 study must preclude a ripe scholarship : and after the 
 College course is completed with all its advantages, the 
 student who wishes to pursue his studies still further 
 will look in vain for an Institution to receive him. In- 
 deed the Report itself announces the very feature of 
 the proposed plan to which we have called attention. 
 " The time devoted to what is considered a good edu- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 79 
 
 cation with us is entirely too limited to produce any 
 high degree of scholarship. We deceive ourselves if 
 we suppose that by any improvement in our systems 
 we shall raise to a very elevated point the standard of 
 attainments in any particular department of science or 
 literature, unless there be evinced a disposition on the 
 part of our young men to devote to their education a 
 larger space of time than they are now willing to spare. 
 When that period arrives, we shall be led to found 
 great Universities, each one of which shall be the centre 
 and crown of a system of Colleges, exerting a useful 
 control over them and completing the education thus 
 commenced. Until that desirable consummation, all 
 that can be done is, to administer our Colleges wisely, 
 and provide in them, as far as ppssible, the oppor- 
 tunity of more advanced instruction in some important 
 branches, Avhere it is now too limited to answer the 
 ends in view." The College is thus proposed, under an 
 improved form, to supply the more advanced instruc- 
 tion as far as possible until Universities shall arise. 
 
 While these commendable, although limited experi- 
 ments are making in different quarters, all scholars and 
 all true friends of learning will do well to inquire, 
 whether there really be any good reason why we should 
 not now create in our country at least one great institu- 
 tion of learning that may vie with the best of the old 
 
80 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 world. Have we not the means in abundance ? Shall 
 the little principalities of Germany surpass these wealthy 
 and powerful States 1 Nor is it a question that such 
 institutions are required to crown and perfect a system 
 of education. 
 
 That the want of Universities is felt, is evident from 
 the Report of Brown University, from the Report of the 
 University of Rochester, and from the very evils com- 
 plained of in the enlargement of the College course 
 beyond the measure of the time allotted to collegial 
 study. This general movement of the Colleges towards 
 a higher position, by adding more studies to their cur- 
 riculum, by endeavoring to shape themselves to more 
 numerous classes of students, by introducing voluntary 
 courses of study, by attempting lectures on the more 
 advanced branches of study, and by assuming the name 
 of University, is not a mere freak of ambitious folly, 
 but an attempt to meet the demands of the age. The 
 lofty-sounding curriculums of elementary schools for 
 boys and girls, and the attempt to introduce University 
 lectures even there, are indications also of an all-per- 
 vading idea which is striving in various ways to become 
 realized. Now, everything appears crude and dis- 
 jointed, and sometimes even grotesque : the fused ele- 
 ments are running in every direction, until they find the 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 81 
 
 moulds which are to give them repose in proportion and 
 symmetry. 
 
 Our Colleges grasp at a University amplitude of 
 studies, at University capacities and functions, and take 
 the name of Universities, and yet Universities they 
 cannot be within the prescribed limits, with the general 
 paucity of learned material and appliances, and while 
 offering themselves as institutions for students in the 
 elementary course. They were elementary schools of a 
 higher grade in their inception, such they have ever 
 continued to be, as such their existence will ever be 
 demanded, and as such they require to be perfected. 
 By retaining their original designation, while endeavor- 
 ing to graft upon them what belongs properly to a Uni- 
 versity, we have only embarrassed them in their proper 
 and possible functions, given them an equivocal char- 
 acter, and lessened their usefulness. 
 
 In order to perfect our Colleges, we need to bring 
 them back to a more limited range of studies, compris- 
 ing a thorough elementary discipline in languages and 
 mathematics and other kindred studies, conducted with 
 respect to a University course which is to follow. This 
 University course might, in some of the older and more 
 amply provided Colleges, be developed after the manner 
 of the English Universities as they originally existed. 
 The College, in this case, would not be enlarged to a 
 
82 "TNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 University after the present fashion, but the University 
 •would be constituted as distinct — beginning its courses 
 of lectures just where the College completes its disci- 
 pline of prescribed lessons and the recitation-rooms. 
 
 Between the University and the Colleges there would 
 be no competition, and the relations would be altogether 
 noble and generous : each would be necessary to the 
 other, and tend to sustain the other ; for without Col- 
 leges there can be no Universities, and in the Universi- 
 ties alone can the Colleges find their ripened results. 
 
 Education, in general, is of two kinds, and of two 
 kinds only : an education imposed by tutors and gov- 
 ernors ; and an education self-imposed. The first re- 
 lates to that period of our being embracing childhood 
 and youth, when the faculties are yet immature, and 
 knowledge is in its elementary stages. The second 
 relates to that period commencing with early manhood, 
 when the faculties are comparatively ripened, when 
 elementary knowledge has been attained, and actual 
 experience has taken the place of imagination and 
 conjecture. 
 
 The first period requires of necessity authoritative 
 direction, and plastic superintendence. The second 
 period is competent, unless the first has been neglected 
 and sufiered to run to waste, to form plans, make deci- 
 sions, exercise choice, and to apply itself, as from itself, 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 83 
 
 to self- culture, the formation of character, and the 
 duties of life. 
 
 All men do, in some sort, attain to both kinds of 
 Education ; for all men are disciplined in some degree, 
 well or ill, by a controlling power in early life ; and all 
 men have some sense of independence and new respon- 
 sibilities, when they reach the age of manhood. Edu- 
 cation, of both kinds, is a law of our being more or less 
 perfectly developed. 
 
 The idea of Educational Institutions, embraces the 
 reduction of educational means and influences to method 
 and system. 
 
 For the first period, various institutions have sprung 
 up, from the most elementary Schools to Gymnasia or 
 Colleges. For the second period there is only one 
 institution — the University. 
 
 According to the present condition of our Educational 
 System, the higher, self-determined, and manly course 
 of study belonging to this period, appears only as an 
 imperfect appendage to the College under the form of 
 certain voluntary studies, and a limited range of lectures 
 on the loftier sciences, conducted under manifest em- 
 barrassments arising from the want of a suitable prepa- 
 ration on the part of the student, and the inadequate 
 amount of time covered by the Collegiate course. 
 Hence, where the higher culture is gained, it is gained 
 
■34 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION, 
 
 rather by studies pursued by the individual amid the 
 duties and cares of life after the institutions of learning 
 have been departed from, than by means of the institu- 
 tions themselves. The culture which men, who are de- 
 termined to make the most of life, attain to amid its 
 active pursuits, is invaluable, and will be prized no less 
 by those who have studied at the University than by 
 those who have not. But who does not see the value, 
 nay, the necessity of an Institution which opens its 
 doors to us just when we escape from governors and 
 tutors, and provides us Avith all the means, and affords 
 us the example and fellowship of manly self-discipline'? 
 It is here alone that we can properly pursue the study 
 of philosophy, which implies more than mere acquisition, 
 and is the self-conscious growth of thought. It is here 
 that we can become disciplined to independent scientific 
 investigation, or lay broad and deep the foundations of 
 professional and political life. It is here, also, that 
 teachers and professors can be prepared for the scientific 
 and classical departments of our educational institutions, 
 in general. 
 
 The University thus stands just where the first period 
 of education closes, and where the other begins. The 
 second period, indeed, never closes. But as education, 
 during the first period, requires for its orderly develop- 
 ment institutions of learning ; so education during the 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 85 
 
 second, requires for its proper determination and suc- 
 cessful prosecution, the formation of habits of independ- 
 ent thought and study, an acquaintance with method, 
 and a general survey of the field of knowledge, such as 
 can be gained only in an institution especially founded 
 and furnished for these high ends. The University re- 
 ceives the alumnus of the Ahna Mater, and ripens him 
 into the man prepared for the offices of the Church and 
 the State, and for the service of Science and Letters. 
 
 We do not entertain the doubt expressed in the Re- 
 port of the Committee of the University of Rochester, 
 as to a disposition on the part of our young men to de- 
 vote to their education a larger space of time. The 
 time which they now devote, is the time which has long 
 been prescribed, and not the time which they have 
 themselves appointed. On the other hand, the very 
 pressure which the Colleges are under to enlarge their 
 courses of study, shows plainly enough the demand for 
 higher and more general education. We believe there 
 are many young men who enter College smitten with the 
 love of knowledge and with high hopes of a lofty educa- 
 tion, and who now leave with disappointment, whose 
 enthusiasm would at once rekindle at the prospect of a 
 University. Nor is it an uncommon event for students 
 now to seek in foreign countries for that which, as yet, 
 they cannot find at home. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 Besides, we must calculate upon the effects which 
 would naturally follow the creation of Universities. 
 They would stand before the community as the culmi- 
 nation of our educational system, — as containing every- 
 thing to meet the highest wants and aspirations of the 
 human mind, — as spreading out the fair fields of knowl- 
 edge to their utmost extent, — as presenting an invita- 
 tion to the ripest cultivation of every branch of science 
 and literature, — as opening retreats where the studious 
 may retire in the fullest satisfaction, — as affording the 
 highest possibilities, and stimulating the noblest endea- 
 vors. There would now no longer exist any temptation 
 or necessity for the Colleges to make more or less suc- 
 cessful, more or less abortive attempts to pass beyond 
 their just measure, and to sacrifice their invaluable 
 oflfices and benefits in trespassing upon grounds which 
 do not naturally belong to them. They would explode 
 those jejune schemes of education which seek to intro- 
 duce juvenile minds, in the incipient stages of discipline, 
 to the higher forms of education for which they'have 
 acquired no preparation. They would define clearly 
 the distinction between an elementary and preparatory 
 discipline, and that independent and manly and self- 
 determined pursuit of knowledge which belongs to stu- 
 dents who have learned the art of study, and who know 
 how to avail themselves of books and the lectures of 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 87 
 
 distinguished and finished scholars. Hence they would 
 introduce order, method, and consistency into the whole 
 course of education. Now, in entering upon the very 
 first stages of education, the student would have the 
 whole line of progress clearly marked out before him ; 
 he would know the point to which he is tending, and 
 where he might, without uncertainty, realize his highest 
 hopes. The spirit of scholarship would thus be 
 thoroughly awakened, the life of a scholar be clearly 
 defined, and, instead of calculating the time of study, 
 his regards would be fixed upon the ends of study — the 
 glorious attainments to be realized. 
 
 William of Champeaux did not wait until the spirit 
 of scholarship had permeated masses of men : he com- 
 menced his lectures, laid the foundations of a University, 
 and created the spirit of scholarship. In our country 
 and age, we are not called upon to create the spirit of 
 scholarship, it already exists ; we have only to inform 
 it with ideas, and to quicken it to a higher life. 
 
 We hold, therefore, that Universities are natural and 
 necessary institutions in a great system of public edu- 
 cation. To delay their creation is to stop the hand 
 upon the dial-plate which represents the progress of 
 humanity. 
 
 We have delayed this great work of founding Univer- 
 sities too long. We cannot well afford to wait for any 
 
88 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 new sign from heaven before we begin this work. Is there 
 any impertinence in calling upon all scholars and true 
 friends of learning to consider whether we may not now 
 create at least one great institution of learning that may 
 vie with the best of the old world 1 And if we designed 
 to show the spirit of this undertaking in a few words, we 
 would say, that it is required for the successful develop- 
 ment of such an institution, that it should neither 
 cheapen its education at the expense of its intellectual 
 life and aliment, nor be tempted to do so ; that it 
 should be adequate to educate the many, and yet not 
 be destroyed if compelled, for a time, to educate the 
 few ; that it should be removed alike from the conflicts 
 and jealousies of sects in the Church, and of parties in 
 the State ; and that it should be faithfully consecrated 
 to science, literature, and art. 
 
 No part of our country presents equal facilities with 
 the city of New York, for carrying out this great under- 
 taking. New York is really the metropolitan city of 
 our country. The centre of commercial activity, the 
 vast reservoir of wealth, it takes the lead in the ele- 
 gancies and splendor of life, in the arts of luxury and 
 amusement. It is also the great emporium of books 
 and the fine arts. Here resort the professors of music 
 and of the arts of design. Here literary men are tak- 
 ing up their abode. Here literary institutions of vari- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 89 
 
 ous kinds and grades have already come into being. 
 Here are libraries established by associations or by 
 individual munificence, which are enlarging themselves 
 from year to year. Commerce, wealth, and elegance 
 invite, nay, demand the invigorating life, the coun- 
 terbalancing power and activity of intellectual cultiva- 
 tion. Whatever is requisite for a great Institution 
 of Learning can here be most readily collected ; and 
 here are the means in profusion of creating whatever 
 the well-being and glory of our city and of our country 
 may require. By adding to the natural attractions of 
 a metropolitan city the attractions of literature, sci- 
 ence, and art, as embodied in a great University, stu- 
 dents from every part of the Union would be naturally 
 drawn together. We should thus have a fully appointed 
 national Institution where the bonds of our nationality 
 would be strengthened by the loftiest form of education, 
 the sympathy of scholars, and the noblest productions 
 of literature. 
 
 A great Institution would collect together all that is^ 
 now scattered and isolated among us, be the home of 
 scholars, the nurse of scholarlike endeavors, the regulat- 
 ing and harmonizing centre of thought and investiga- 
 tion. Our whole population would feel the plastic 
 power of intellectual development and progress ; so- 
 ciety would receive new forms and habitudes from a 
 
90 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 learned class, and knowledges be widely diffused by pub- 
 lic lectures under the direction of an elite corporation. 
 
 But what shall be the form of this Institution ? 
 
 We would take as models, in general, the University 
 of Paris, the Universities of England before they were 
 submerged in the Colleges, and the Universities of 
 Germany. 
 
 In the creation of such a University we would at the 
 very beginning collect a choice, varied, and ample 
 library, second to none in the world in books to aid 
 students in attaining ripe scholarship, and in promoting 
 investigation in every department of knowledge — a 
 library distinguished more for valuable and directly 
 available resources of scholarship than for curious and 
 antiquarian collections, estimated rather by the charac- 
 ter than the number of its volumes. At the same time 
 we would collect all the necessary apparatus for Physics 
 and Chemistry ; we would furnish a noble Observatory ; 
 we would found a rich Cabinet of Natural History ; 
 and we would open a gallery of the Fine Arts. 
 
 Thus with a full store of the material of science, 
 literature, and the arts, would we lay the foundation of 
 a University. We should thus meet aspirations and 
 wants which, in our country, have hitherto been only 
 disappointed, and call into the walks of learning, by 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 91 
 
 commanding attractions, ingenuous minds that in de- 
 spair have hitherto given themselves to other pursuits. 
 
 We would constitute four Faculties, a Faculty of 
 Philosophy and Science, a Faculty of Letters and Arts, 
 a Faculty of Law, and a Faculty of Medicine. Under 
 these should be comprised a sufficient number of pro- 
 fessorships to make a proper distribution of the various 
 subjects comprehended under the general titles. These 
 professorships should be endowed to an extent to afford 
 the incumbents a competency independently of tuition 
 fees. The necessity of such endowments must be 
 obvious when we reflect that studious men require un- 
 disturbed minds, and that there are branches of knowl- 
 edge which the interests of the world demand to have 
 taught — such as Philology, Philosophy, the higher 
 Astronomy, Mathematics, and Physics, while at the 
 same time the number of students will be compara- 
 tively few. 
 
 It may be a question whether fees of tuition should 
 be required of students, or whether the lectures, to- 
 gether with the libraries and cabinets, should be thrown 
 open gratuitously to the public, as is done in the Uni- 
 versity of Paris. In this case the professorships, of 
 course, Avould require to be more amply endowed. 
 
 The Professors of the different Faculties should be 
 required to give courses of lectures, on the subjects 
 
92 UNIVERSITY KDUCATION. 
 
 assigned to them, to the Academical Members of the 
 University. They should also be required to give 
 popular courses to the public in general, on subjects 
 selected by themselves. 
 
 By the Academical Members, we mean those who 
 shall be admitted upon examination, or upon a Bache- 
 lor's degree from any College, and who shall enrol 
 themselves as candidates for the University degrees. 
 
 These degrees may be of two grades. The lower 
 grade may comprise Master of Arts, Doctor of Philoso 
 phy, Doctor of Medicine, and Bachelor of Laws ; the 
 higher grade may comprise Doctor of Laws, Doctor of 
 Theology, and other degrees to mark a high and honor- 
 able advance in Medicine, and in Philosophy, Science, 
 Letters and Art. 
 
 Those of the first grade to be awarded after three or 
 four years' study, and upon examination. Those of the 
 second grade to be awarded as honorary degrees to men 
 distinguished in the walks of life for their attainments 
 and professional eminence, and to individuals who re- 
 main for a still longer term of years connected with the 
 University in learned pursuits. It is, of course, under- 
 stood that the provisions of the University are to be 
 such as to enable students to pursue favorite branches 
 of science, or learning in general, for an indefinite term 
 of years. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 93 
 
 One concurrent effect of this organization would be to 
 elevate the character of Academical degrees, by making 
 them the expression of real attainments, and honorable 
 badges of real merit. 
 
 In connection with the popular courses of lectures, 
 there should, also, be established courses particularly- 
 designed for the benefit of those engaged in commerce 
 and the useful arts. This would give rise to another 
 class of students besides the Academical, who might 
 avail themselves of every advantage of the University 
 possible to them under the degree of preparation they 
 may have made, and under the pressure of daily busi- 
 ness avocations. So also, others besides Academical 
 students might attend the lectures in Law and Med- 
 icine, or indeed any courses which they might please to 
 select, but without being considered as candidates for 
 University degrees. 
 
 The result would be that the libraries, cabinets, 
 laboratories, and lecture rooms of the University would 
 become the resort of students of every grade ; it would 
 thus become the great centre of intellectual activity, 
 and a fountain of learning open to the whole populace. 
 
 The different public libraries of the city might, also, 
 be connected with it under their distinctive names ; 
 and new libraries might be founded by new donors. 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 under new names, in the same connection, like the 
 different libraries of the English Universities. 
 
 It will be remarked that we have omitted a Faculty 
 of Theology in the constitution of this University. As 
 each denomination of Christians has its peculiar Theo- 
 logical views and interests, it would be impossible to 
 unite them harmoniously in one Faculty. It is most 
 expedient, therefore, to leave this branch to the Theo- 
 logical Institutions already established by the several 
 denominations. But still a connection of an unobjec- 
 tionable character might be formed between Theological 
 Institutions, especially those existing in this city, and 
 the University, productive of very rich benefits. The 
 students of the former might be admitted not only to 
 the libraries of the latter, but also to the lectures on 
 history, philosophy, philology, and general literature, 
 when distinguished lecturers on these subjects gave 
 promise of advantages additional to those enjoyed in the 
 Theological "Institutions. Indeed an arrangement might 
 be made by which students undergoing prescribed ex- 
 aminations in philosophy, natural theology, philology, 
 and history, and presenting certificates from their Pro- 
 fessors of having completed satisfactorily their Theolo- 
 gical courses, might be admitted to the degree of Bache- 
 lor in Theology. Students of the Free Academy, also, 
 after having completed their courses in that Institution, 
 
UNIVKRSITV KDUCATION. 95 
 
 might be admitted into the University as Academical 
 Students, or otherwise according to the preparation 
 they may have made. 
 
 Thus all our Institutions of learning would grow into 
 a harmonious whole. 
 
 With respect to its religious and moral character it 
 should embody in its constitution : First, an entire 
 separation from ecclesiastical control and a renuncia- 
 tion of all sectarian partialities. Secondly, but as 
 every thing that relates to human welfare, needs to be 
 taken under the protecting and nurturing wings of 
 Christianity, it should acknowledge Christianity to be 
 the only true religion, the Bible to be of Divine inspira- 
 tion, and the supreme rule of Faith and Duty, given 
 freely to all men to be read and received with entire 
 freedom of conscience and opinion. 
 
 To carry out t'lese principles it should provide for an 
 equal control of all denominations of Christians ac- 
 knowledging these principles; it should institute a 
 course of lectures on the evidences of Christianity and 
 on Christian morality ; and the reading of the Scriptures 
 together with prayer should constitute a daily public 
 service to be conducted by the Professors in the pres- 
 ence of the students. 
 
 No religious profession, however, should be required 
 for admission to the University, but it should be open to 
 students of all creeds as well as of all nations. 
 
96 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 For the full development of such an Institution, 
 ample funds are required ; but that private munificence 
 can accomplish it we fully believe. If the attention of 
 our community can be aroused to the necessity, the 
 interest, the glory of such a work, the accomplishment 
 of it cannot be long delayed. 
 
 As examples of what private munificence can give, 
 we need only appeal to various institutions of our land, 
 and to the noble efibrt now making for Brown University. 
 Nay, we need only look at the example of individuals in 
 our own city with respect to the University of the City 
 of New York ; an institution which, although, like other 
 similar institutions bearing the name of University, will 
 claim to be only a College, and, therefore, not in its 
 nature calculated to call forth as lively and as general 
 an interest as the creation of a great University. 
 There has been expended in money and liabilities on 
 this institution, we have been informed, not less than 
 four hundred thousand dollars, obtained chiefly by sub- 
 scriptions. 
 
 Now all that will be required to put into full opera- 
 tion a University like the one we propose, will be about 
 the sum expended on the above-named College. We 
 will call the sum four hundred and fifty thousand dollars. 
 
 We can realize with this sum the following prepara- 
 tions and endowments : 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCAl'IOX. 97 
 
 A University building, for lecture-rooms, &c. - $75,000 
 A Library building, .... 50,000 
 
 Books— 50,000 volumes,* - - - 50,000 
 
 Observatory, to be located on Staten Island, with 
 
 Instruments, . . . . 20,000 
 
 Apparatus for Experiments in Physics and Chemistry, 4,000 
 Incipient Cabinet of Natural History, - - 5,000 
 
 Incipient Gallery of Fine Arts, ... 6,000 
 
 Six fully endowed Professorships at $40,000 each, or 
 
 ten partially endowed, at $24,000 each, - 240,000 
 
 Total, - - $450,000 f 
 
 The rate of endowment for the professorships would 
 be regulated, within certain limits, by the decision of 
 the question, whether fees of tuition should be required 
 of students, or not. 
 
 Such a foundation would ensure its permanent exist- 
 ence, and enable it to commence at once with all the 
 forms of University education. This once accomplished, 
 additions would afterwards be made as required, by a 
 community now thoroughly awake to the interests of a 
 great institution, and constantly experiencing its benefits. 
 
 Ten individuals giving 45,000 dollars each, would 
 raise the sum required ; or, fifty giving 9,000 dollars 
 each ; or, one hundred giving 4,500 dollars each ; or, 
 
 * This is based on the average cost of the 20,000 volumes already 
 collected in the Astor Library. 
 
 t If that noble public benefaction — The Astor Library, could become 
 the centre of a University, and if the contemplated Observatory at 
 Brooklyn could be connected with it, then $120,000 of the above 
 estimate would be deducted. 
 5 
 
93 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 one thousand giving 450 dollars each. Or, we might 
 distribute it as follows : 
 
 Ten donors at 10,000 dollars each, 
 
 $100,000 
 
 Twenty " " 5,000 
 
 u 
 
 " 
 
 100,000 
 
 Forty " " 2,500 
 
 a 
 
 " 
 
 - 100,000 
 
 Eighty " " 1,000 
 
 u 
 
 a 
 
 80,000 
 
 Five hundred 140 
 
 u 
 
 u 
 
 - 70,000 
 
 $450,000 
 
 No one will doubt that our city contains the indi- 
 viduals who could do this with ease, by the above or by 
 other distributions. 
 
 The men who should endow such an Institution, 
 would raise to themselves a grander and more im- 
 perishable monument than the obelisks and pyramids of 
 Egypt. 
 
 That the plan we have thus generally indicated is 
 not chimerical is demonstrated by the fact that similar 
 Institutions exist and flourish in France and Germany. 
 Take the University of Berlin as an example, with its 
 hundred professors and its two thousand students. 
 These Universities are supported by the State. In 
 Germany, several Universities receive from thirty to 
 fifty thousand dollars annually. The University of 
 Berlin must receive still more. 
 
 In our country we desire our Universities to be under 
 the control neither of the Government, nor of any reli- 
 gious denomination, for we wish to preserve such Insti- 
 
UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 99 
 
 tutions free alike from political and sectarian influence 
 and partialities. The different sects may have their 
 Colleges and Theological Seminaries. But a great Uni- 
 versity should be the resort simply of scholars, and be 
 scrupulously devoted to those general interests of learn- 
 ing which are common to men of every creed and of 
 every political bias. Hence, it is required that they 
 be established by private munificence, and be placed 
 under a corporation of private individuals, comprising 
 men devoted to science and letters and the command- 
 ing interests of education. 
 
 Did we live under a monarchical government. Uni- 
 versities might be established by the government, and 
 be connected with a national church ; and then by tax- 
 ation the people would be compelled to sustain them. 
 Let it not be our reproach that monarchies alone can 
 establish Universities : let us prove to the world that 
 we can voluntarily create them, and that the spirit of a 
 free people is mightier to the production of everything 
 that can elevate and adorn humanity than the will of 
 princes. 
 
 Universities are not the natural appendages or nurse- 
 lings of monarchies. We have shown that they had 
 their origin in the spirit of liberal and rational research, 
 and that they were first established by individual enter- 
 prise. In Germany, particularly, so rife have been 
 
100 UNIVERSITY EDUCATION. 
 
 liberal opinions, and so strong the advoca.cy of consti- 
 tutional governments in the Universities, that they have 
 at times called out the most vigorous persecution from 
 the State. 
 
 They are eminently Institutions for the people, inas- 
 much as they place within the reach of all who are dis- 
 posed to high education, all the means for its attain- 
 ment. They are fountains whence universal knowl- 
 edge may be diffused, and whose all-pervading influ- 
 ence goes to quicken, and to give order and consistency 
 to every form of education. 
 
 That will be a proud day for the city of New York 
 when it shall see such an Institution arise in the midst 
 of its marts of business and its splendid palaces, and 
 giving to its prosperity the crown of intellectual glory. 
 
 Why should we leave to another generation a work 
 which we ourselves can accomplish, and which shall 
 carry down our influence to the future under a form so 
 good and beautiful, and so worthy of all that we claim 
 for our enterprise, our far-seeing wisdom, our devotion 
 to our country's welfare, and our confident hopes of its 
 ultimate destiny? 
 
 Should we fail in our expectations of finding in the 
 community men with views ready to grasp this design, 
 and a liberality adequate to meet its demands, then 
 why may not a band of assimilated scholars enter upon 
 
UNIVERSI'J'Y EDUCATION. 101 
 
 the work themselves, aided by a few liberal patrons of 
 learning, or wholly unaided if need be, and renewing 
 the scenes of past ages, institute courses of lectures 
 like Roscelin, William of Champeaux, and Abelard ? 
 
 Their success might at first be small ; but, doing 
 their work ably, faithfully, and with indomitable perse- 
 verance, they would ultimately prevail, and collect 
 around them ingenuous young men, and awaken an en- 
 thusiasm for glorious scholarship, and so commend 
 themselves and their work to the public, that wealth 
 and influence would be enforced into their service by a 
 charm which human nature has always obeyed. Uni- 
 versities meet a real want of humanity — a want which 
 is now deeply felt in our own country ; and the exist- 
 ing Universities of the old world, which we now from a 
 distance admire and long for, stand forth as guarantees 
 of our success. We earnestly hope that the struggle 
 of such an experiment, in our day, may not be called 
 for ; but, if it is, are there not scholars who dare to 
 make it 1 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 I. 
 
 CATALOGUE OF LECTURES 
 
 Which were delivered in the University of Berlin during 
 the winter term of 1829-30, beginning with October 29, and 
 continuing about six months. 
 
 (The names of the Professors are given in order to show how many 
 Lectures are delivered by the same Professors. The courses are 
 substantially the same with those now delivered.) 
 
 THEOLOaY. 
 
 Theological encyclopaedia and methodology (that is, general surve 
 of theological scienc:, and the proper method of studying it), by Prof. 
 Hengstenberg, once a week. Historico-critical introduction to the 
 Old Testament and the Apocrypha, by Lie. Uhlemann, four times a 
 week. The exercises of an exegetical society on the passages of the 
 prophets respecting the Messiah, are directed by the same professor, 
 once a week, gratis. Genesis explained in Latin, four times a week, 
 gratis. Principal parts of Genesis explained by Prof. Beliermann, 
 twice a week. The Psalms explained, four times a week, by Dr. 
 Benary. The Book of Job, Prof. Hengstenberg, four times a week. 
 Biblical antiquities, by Lie. von Gerlach, four times a week. Introduc- 
 tion to the New Testament, by Lie. Rheinwald, four times a week. 
 The Gospel of John, by Prof. Neander, five times a week. The First 
 Epistle of Paul to the Corinthians, by Prof. Schleiermacher, four times 
 a week. The Epistles to the Galatians, Ephesians, Philippians and 
 
104 APPENDIX. 
 
 Colossians, by Lie. von Gerlach, four times a week. The two Epistles 
 to the Corinthians, by Lie. Lommatyzsch, in Latin, five times a week. 
 The Epistle of James, in Latin, the same, onee a week, gratis. The 
 exercises in disputation of the two exegetie societies are continued by 
 the same, gratis. Epistles of John, by Lie. Rheinwald, twice a week, 
 gratis. The life of Christ, by Prof. Schleiermacher, five times a week. 
 Ecclesiastical history, from the time of Gregory VII., by Prof. Nean- 
 der, five times a week. Introduction to scientific theology, both in a 
 moral and doctrinal point of view, by Prof. Marheinecke, five times a 
 ■week. Homiletics (all that relates to the preparation and delivery of 
 religious discourses) , by Prof. Strauss, four times a week. Liturgies 
 (the knowledge of liturgies), by the same, gratis. Exercises in preach- 
 ing, directed by the same, twice a week, gratis. 
 
 LAW. 
 
 General survey of legal science {Juristische Ertcyclopaedie)^ by Prof. 
 Biener and by Dr. Piitter, in Latin. Natural law, by Prof. Schmalz. 
 Natural law, or philosophy of law, in connection with the gene- 
 ral history of law, by Professor Gans, five times a week. In- 
 stitutes of the Roman law, by Prof Klenze, six times a week, and 
 Prof. Gans, five times a week. Pandects, by Prof. Savigny. Law of 
 inheritance, by Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger and by Dr. RadorfF. Ex- 
 ternal history of Roman law, by Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger, twice a 
 week, gratis. History of the Roman civil process, by Dr. Putter, two 
 hours a week, in Latin. Ulpian's fi'agments explained by Dr. Radorff, 
 twice a week, gratis. Canon law, by Prof Schmalz, five times a 
 week ; by Dr. Laspeyres, five times a week ; Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossber- 
 ger, four times a week ; Dr. Putter at twelve o'clock, and Dr. Steltzer 
 at three o'clock. History of the German empire and law by Professor 
 Homeyer. History and antiquities of German law, with a short sur- 
 vey of the history of the empire, by Prof Phillips. German private 
 and feudal law, by Prof von Lancizolle and by Prof Phillips. Feudal 
 law, by Dr. Moosdorfer-Rossberger, four times a week. Forest and 
 game law, by Dr. Laspeyres. Criminal law, by Prof. Biener, with 
 the criminal process, five times a week ; Prof Jarcke, the same, six 
 times a week. History of criminal law, by Prof. Klenze, twice a week, 
 gratis. On remarkable criminal cases, by Prof. Jarcke and Dr. Las- 
 peyres. German territorial and federative law, by Prof. Schmalz, six 
 times a week, gratis. Ancient constitution of the empire, and consti- 
 tution of the confederacy, by Professor Lancizolle. On the constitution 
 of Great Britain, by Professor Phillips, once a week. Common 
 and Prussian civil process, by Professor Schmalz, four times a 
 week ; Professor Jarcke, five times a week ; Dr. Moosdorfer- 
 Rossberger, four times, and Dr. RadorfF, four times a week. Prac- 
 tical exercises directed by Professor Schmalz, in connection with his 
 lectures on the criminal process, on Saturdays. Dr. Moosdorfer-Ross- 
 berger offers to take charge of examinations and reviews of past 
 studies. 
 
APPENDIX. 105 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 Medical encyclopaedia and methodology, by Prof. Casper, once a 
 week, gratis. History of Medicine, by Prof Hecker, twice a week, 
 gratis. History of accouchement, by Dr. von Siebold, once a week. 
 Lives and doings of great physicians, by Dr. Damerow, once a week, 
 gratis. Explanations of the aphorisms of Hippocrates, continued by 
 Prof. Bartels, once a week, gratis. Anatomy, six times a week, by 
 Prof. Rudolphi. Complete anatomy, by Prof. Schlemm, four times a 
 week. Osteology, by Prof Knape, four times a week. Syndesmolo- 
 gy, the same, twice a week, gratis. On aponeuroses, by Prof. Schlemm, 
 twice a week, gratis. Splanchnology, by Prof Knape, four times a 
 week. Anatomy of the organs of the senses and those of the foetus, by 
 Prof Rudolphi, twice a week, gratis. Practical exercises in anatomy, 
 directed by Profs. Knape and Rudolphi. Anthropology, by Prof. 
 Kranichfeld, twice a week. Physiology, by Prof. SchuUz, four times 
 a week. Complete physiology, by Prof Eck, six times a week. The 
 first part of the theoretico-medical institutions, containing the elements 
 of physiology, by the same, four times a week. Comparative physio- 
 logy, by Prof. Horkel, six times a week. A survey of the history of 
 life, the formation and propagation of organic bodies, by Dr. Brandt, 
 once a week, gratis. Pathology, by Prof. Hufeland, junior, four times 
 a week. General pathology, by Prof Hecker, four times a week. 
 Particular pathology, the same, six times a week. The same accord- 
 ing to his own system, by Prof. Reich, six times a week. Pathologi- 
 cal anatomy, by Prof Rudolphi, four times a week. On regular and 
 monstrous formations in natural bodies, by Dr. Ratzeburg, twice a 
 week. Semeiotics, (the doctrine of symptoms), by Prof Hufeland, 
 junior, twice a week, gratis. Pharmacology, by Prof Link, six times 
 a week. The same, in connection with natural history and materia 
 medica, explained by frequent demonstrations, with Dr. Ratzeburg and 
 Dr. Brandt ; the former teaches the mineralogical and zoological part, 
 three times a week ; the latter the botanical part, three times a week. 
 Doctrine of physics, by Prof Osann, six times a week. The same ex- 
 plained by exhibiting officinal plants and minerals, by Prof Schultz, five 
 times a week. Practical lectures on medicines, by Dr. Sundelin, four 
 times a week. On officinal and poisonous plants, by Prof Schultz, 
 twice a week, gratis. On the mineral waters of Germany, by Prof. 
 Osann, twice a week, gratis. The art of preparing recipes, treated 
 generally and particularly, by Prof Casper, twice a week ; practical 
 exercises continued. General therapeutics, by Dr. Oppert, three times 
 a week. Dietetics and macrobiotics (q. v.), by Prof Hufeland, senior, 
 twice a week. Special pathology and therapeutics (q. v.) , hy Prof. 
 Bartels, five times a week. The same, by Prof Wagner, six times a 
 week. Therapeutics of acute and chronic diseases in particular, by 
 Prof Horn, four times a week. Nosological therapeutics particularly 
 treated, by Prof Wolfart, four times a week. Second part of particular 
 therapeutics, by Prof Hufeland, junior, six times a week. On the 
 
106 APPENDIX. 
 
 diseases appearing during wars, in camps as well as in cities, by Prof. 
 Wolfarl, twice a week. The doctrine of mental disorders, with re- 
 marks, theoretical and practical, on their cure, by Dr. Damerow, four 
 times a week. Doctrine of the diagnosis and cure of syphilitic diseas- 
 es, by Prof. Horn, twice a week, gratis. The same, by Dr. Oppert, 
 twice a week, gratis. Pathology and therapeutics of diseases having 
 a material origin, by Dr. Sundelin, twice a week, gratis. Doctrine of 
 the diseases of children, by Prof. Casper, twice a week, gratis. The 
 same, by Prof Reich, gratis. Doctrine of the diseases of children and 
 women, by Dr. Friedlander, twice a week. Doctrine of the diseases 
 of the eye, by Prof. Jiingken, five times a week, gratis. Instruction 
 in operations of the eye, the same, p7-ivatissime.'* Anatomy, physiolo- 
 gy, pathology and therapeutics of the human eye, in connection with 
 the operations on it, by Prof. Kranichfeld, three times a week. Gene- 
 ral and special surgery, by Prof. Jiingken, six times a week. General 
 surgery, by Prof. Kluge, twice a week. Akiurgy, or the doctrine of 
 all surgical operations, by Prof, von Grafe, four times a week. The 
 same, by Prof Rurt, six times a week. Operations on the dead subject 
 are separate from these. On fractures and dislocations, by Prof. Kluge, 
 once a week. Complete view of the means of curing diseases of the 
 teeth, by Dr. Hesse, twice a week. All that relates to birth {Geburts- 
 kunde) , by Prof. Busch, five times a week. Elements of midwifery, 
 by Prof. Kluge, twice a week, gratis. The same ; lectures on theoret- 
 ical and practical obstetrics ; and at two other hours exercises take 
 place. Prof. Busch proposes to undertake a course of obstetrical opera- 
 tions, with exercises on the model. Prof Busch will have, on Satur- 
 days, an obstetrical examination. Theoretical and practical obstetrics, 
 by Dr. Friedlander, three times a week. The same, by Dr. von Sie- 
 bold, four times a week. He offers also to direct the exercises on the 
 model. Clinical medical lectures in the Charite hospital, dail)'^, by 
 Prof Bartels. Clinical exercises in the royal polyclinical institute, 
 directed by Prof. Hufeland, senior, with Profs. Osann and Busse. Clini- 
 cal directions for his hearers, by Prof. Wolfart. Directions for medical 
 and forensic-medical practice, given by Prof. Wagner, six times a 
 week. Clinical lectures on surgery, and diseases of the eye, in the 
 royal clinico-surgical institute of the university, directed by Professor 
 Grafe, four times a week. Practical exercises at the sick-bed in sur- 
 gical clinics, in the Charite hospital, directed by Prof. Rurt, four times 
 a week. Polyclinics, by the same, every day. Practical exercises at 
 the sick-bed of patients with disorders of the eye, in the Charite hos- 
 pital, directed by Prof Jiingken, five times a week. On venereal dis- 
 eases, Prof Kluge will give, twice a week, clinical instruction in the 
 Charite hospitaL Obstetrical clinics in the royal lying-in hospital, 
 
 ■^ Lectures in the German universities are eitlier publice (gratis), privatim (tlie 
 general lectures, paid for by. the student, from one louis d'or to five and six : 
 these are meant if nothing is said in the catalogue), or priualissime (which are 
 only for a fevc, who may choose to attend : at these, the price is higher, and the 
 manner of in.struction more familiar.) 
 
AI'F'ENDIX. 107 
 
 and the polyclinics connected with it, directed four times a week, by 
 Prof. Busch. Obstetrical clinics, by Dr. Friedlander, three times a 
 week. Forensic anthropology, by Prof. Knape, throe times a week. 
 Forensic medicine for jiliysicians and jnri.sts. with practical exercises in 
 the drawing up of opinions, &c., by Frof. Casper, three times a week. 
 The same, by Dr. Barez, four times a week. Medical police, by Prolessor 
 Wagner, twice a week, gratis. Dr. Sundelin offers to take charge of 
 reviews of all parts of medical study. Veterinary art, by Dr. Reckle- 
 ben, three times a week. Doctrine of pestilential disorders among all 
 domestic animals, in connection with forensic veterinary medicine, by 
 the same, three times a week. 
 
 PHILOSOPHICAL SCIENCES. 
 
 Philosophical method, and the general survey of sciences, by Dr. 
 Michelet, in connection with an introduction to the last systems of phi- 
 losophy since Kant, four times a week, gratis. Foundation of philoso- 
 phy, or the theory of all knowledge, by Dr. Schopenhauer, three times 
 a week. Logic, five times a week, by Prof Kitter. Logic, and a gen- 
 eral survey of philosophy, by Dr. Beneke, four times a week. Logic 
 and metaphysics, by Prof Henning, five times a week. Etliics, by 
 Prof Ritter, four times a week. Psychology, and doctrine of mental 
 diseases, by Dr. Beneke, five times a week. Psychology, six times a 
 week, by Dr. von Iveyserlingk. On the knowledge of God, by Prof. 
 Ritter, once a week, gratis. Esthetics, or general doctrine of arts, by 
 Prof Tolken, four times a week. Fundamental ideas of lesthetics, by 
 Dr. Keyserlingk, four times a week. History of philosophy, by Prof 
 Hegel, five times a week. Critical history of distinguished metaphy- 
 sical systems, by Dr. Beneke, once a week. Philosophy of history, by 
 Prof. Stuhr, five times a week. 
 
 MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES. 
 
 Differential calculus, by Prof Dirksen, three times a week. Ana- 
 lytical statics, the same, three times a week. Application of the inte- 
 gral calculus to geometry, by the same, once a week, gratis. Calcula- 
 tion of probabilities, by Dr. Dirichlet. Analysis of infinites, by the 
 same. Introduction to algebra and analysis, once a week, gratis, by 
 Prof Ohm. Analytical plane and spherical trigonometry, also analy- 
 tical geometry, four times a week, by the same. Differential and 
 integral calculus, by the same, four times a week. Algebra, six times 
 a week, by Prof Ideler. On conic sections, three times a week, by 
 the same. Planimetry, twice a week, by Prof Griison. Theoretical 
 astronomy, three times a week, by Dr. Encke. Cosmography, twice 
 a week, by Prof Oltmanns. 
 
108 APPE.MDIX, 
 
 iNATURAL SCIENCES. 
 
 General physics, three times a week, by Prof. Erman. Magnetism 
 and electricity, the same, three times a week. The first part of me- 
 chanical physics, four times a week, byTrof. Fischer. Experimental 
 physics, four times a week, by Prof. Hermbstadt. The same, by Prof. 
 Turte, twice a week. Elements of physics and chemistry, with ex- 
 periments, by the same. General theoretical and practical chemistry, 
 with experiments, six times a week, by Prof Hermbstadt. Theoreti- 
 cal and practical pharmacy, or doctrine of the knowledge and prepa- 
 ration of chemical medicines, five times a week, by the same. 
 Zocchemy, once a week, by Prof Mitscherlich, gratis. Experimental 
 chemistry, four times a week, by the same. Theoretical chemistry, 
 with particular reference to technology, five times a week, by Prof. 
 Schubarth. Introduction to chemistry, by the same, once a week, 
 gratis. Examinations in chemistry, by the same, three times a week. 
 On chemical operations, once a week, by Prof. Hermbstadt. Pharma- 
 ceutic chemistry, three times a week, by Prof. Rose. On some organ- 
 ic ofiicinal preparations, once a week, gratis, by the same. Exercises 
 in chemical analysis, by the same, daily. General zoology, six times 
 a week, by Prof. Lichtenstein. Natural history of the ruminant ani- 
 mals, by the same, twice a week, gratis. Natural history of the mam- 
 malia, by Dr. Wiegmann, twice a week, gratis. General zoology, five 
 times a week, by the same. General entomology, twice a week, by 
 Prof Klug, gratis. On the laws of descriptive botany, once a week, 
 gratis, by Prof Hayne. Physiology of vegetables, especially of trees 
 and shrubs, three times a week, by the same. On cryptogamic plants, 
 gratis, by Prof von Schlechtendal. On nutritive, officinal and poison- 
 ous plants, according to the natural families, four times a week, by the 
 same. Mineralogy, six times a week, by Prof. Weiss. Descriptive 
 crystallography, by the same, four times a week. The mineralogical 
 part of the knowledge of soils for officers of the forest, twice a w^eek, 
 by the same. 
 
 POLITICAL AND ADMINISTRATIVE SCIENCES. 
 
 Public law^ and politics, by Prof von Raumer, four times a week. 
 On the modern public law and constitutions of government in both 
 hemispheres, by Prof. Gans, once a week, gratis. Came7-al-Wissen- 
 chaft (science of administration) , four times a week, by Prof Schmalz. 
 History of the Prussian state since the beginning of the seventeenth 
 century, wath particular reference to the progress of public law, by 
 Prof von Henning, once a week, gratis. General statistics of Europe, 
 four tim.es a week, by Prof. Hoffmann. Statistics of the German eon- 
 federation, twice a week, by Dr. Stein. Statistics of Prussia, twice a 
 week, gratis, by Prof Hoffmann. Public and adminstrative law of 
 
-APPENDIX. lOy 
 
 Prussia, in connection with Prussian statistics, four times a week, by 
 Prof, von Henning. Science of finances, or doctrine of the administra- 
 tion of public revenue, four times a week, by Prof Hoffmann. Agri- 
 cultural preparatory sciences, twice a week, by Prof Storig. Science 
 of agriculture, with particular reference to the wants of the cameralist, 
 three times a week, by the same. On cattle, three times a week, 
 by the same. General survey of forest sciences, four times 
 a week, by Professor Pfeil. Knowledge and care of forests in a 
 politico- economical respect, three times a week, by the same. Valua- 
 tion and management of forests, three times a week, by the same. The 
 same lecturer is ready to conduct an examination in all forest sciences, 
 six times a week. Cameral chemistry, or application of chemistry 
 to agriculture, the forest sciences, and the mechanic arts, with experi- 
 ments, three times a week, by Prof Hermbstiidt. 
 
 HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHY. 
 
 History of antiquity, four times a week, by Dr. E. A. Schmidt. 
 History of the middle ages, four times a week, by Prof Wilken. 
 Modern history, four times a week, by Prof von Raumer. History of 
 the eighteenth century, twice a week, gratis, by Dr. E. A. Schmidt. 
 History of Prussia, from the beginning of the seventeenth century to 
 the year 1813, six times a week, by Prof Stuhr. History of the war 
 of liberation, during 1813-15, twice a week, by the same. Historico- 
 critical exercises are held once a week, by Prof Wilken. General 
 geography, five times a week, by Prof Ritter. The same, by Prof. 
 Zeune, twice a week. Hydrography and physiography of the West 
 Indies and the neighboring coasts, once a week, by Prof Oltmanns, 
 gratis. Determination of geographical longitude and latitude from as- 
 tronomical observations, twice a week, by the same. 
 
 HISTORY OF ART. 
 
 History, principles and monuments of Greek architecture, three times 
 a week, by Prof Tiilken. History, principles and monuments of archi- 
 tecture in the middle ages, from the times of Justinian to the sixteenth 
 century, by the same, twice a week. History of architecture among 
 the Greeks, twice a week, gratis, by Prof Hirt. Principles of the fine 
 arts, by the same. On the art of painting among the ancients, gratis, 
 once a week, by Prof Tolken. 
 
 PHILOLOGICAL SCIENCES, &c. 
 
 General survey of the philological sciences and the method of study- 
 ing them, four times a week, by Dr. Rotscher. General history of the 
 
110 APPENDIX. 
 
 literature of antiquity, the middle ages, and of modern times, iive times 
 a week, by Prof. Hotho. Greek antiquities, with particular reference 
 to politics and the administration of justice, five times a week, by Prof. 
 Bockh. Agamemnon and the Choephori of ^Eschylus, three times a 
 week, by Prof. Lachmann. The Seven against Thebes of ^Eschylus, 
 four times a week, by Dr. Lange. The Philoctetes and Antigone of 
 Sophocles, in connection with an introduction, on the nature and history 
 of the Greek tragedy, four times a week, by Dr. Heyse. The Clouds 
 of Aristophanes, twice a week, by Dr. Rotscher, gratis. The Nicoma- 
 chic ethics of Aristotle explained in connection with an introduction to 
 the philosophy of Aristotle in general, twice a week, by Dr. Michelet. 
 Tiiucydides, by Prof Bekker, twice a week. Practical exercises in 
 Latin and Greek, directed by the same. Latin style taught by Prof. 
 Zumpt, four times a week. On Catullus, and the lyrical poetry of the 
 Romans in general, with explanations of select poems of Catullus, twice 
 a week, by Dr. Heyse. Cicero's fifth book against Verres, explained 
 twice a week, gratis, by Prof. Zumpt. Histories of Tacitus, four times 
 a week, by Bockh. Ancient geography of Palestine, once a week, 
 gratis, by Prof. Ritter. Hebrew grammar, by Dr. Uhlemann, -with a 
 grammatical explanation of the book of Joshua, twice a week, gratis. 
 Exegetical exercises in the Old Testament, directed by Dr. Benary, 
 and difficult parts of the Hebrew grammar explained, three times a 
 week, gratis. Chaldee grammar, with an explanation of select parts 
 of the Chaldee Bible and Targums, by the same, three times a week, 
 gratis. Elements of Syrian grammar, twice a week, by Prof Hengs- 
 tenberg. Arabian grammar, with explanation of the Arabian chresto- 
 mathy of Kosegarten, three times a week, by Prof. Wilken. Select 
 Arabian historians and poets explained by Dr. Benary, four times a 
 week. Grammar of Sanscrit, three times a week, gratis, by Professor 
 Bopp. Select passages of the Malui- Bhurata explained by the same, 
 twice a week, gratis. Persian grammar, by Wilken, once a week, 
 gratis. Ancient German and Northern mythology, twice a week, 
 gratis, by Prof, von der Hagen. On the ancient northern Edda-songs 
 of the Nibelungs, the same, four times a week. History of the litera- 
 ture of the middle ages and modern times, four times a week, by the 
 same. Elements of the old and middle High German grammar, five 
 times a week, by Prof Lachmann. Dante's Purgatory explained, 
 twice a week, by Prof. F. W. V. Schmidt, gratis. History of modern 
 poetry, four .times a week, by the same.- On the latest period of irony 
 and mysticism in poetry and aesthetics, or on Frederic von Schlegel's 
 Novalis, L. Tiek's ancj Solj^er's writings, once a week, by Prof. Hotho. 
 Dante's Divina Comedia is explained in the Italian language, by Mr. 
 Fabbrucci, gratis. Italian authors, such as his hearers may select, ex- 
 plained, by the same, four times a week. Elements of Italian gram- 
 mar, privatissime, by the same. Shakspeare, by Dr. von Seymour. 
 Private instruction in the English language, by the same. Some 
 French tragedies explained, and the history of the French tragedy giv- 
 en in French, by Mr. Franceson. Instruction, privatissime, in French, 
 
APPENDIX. Ill 
 
 Spanish and Italian, by the same. The director Klein superintends the 
 academical choir for church rnusic, in which students can take part, 
 gratis. Instruction in fencing and vaulting, by Mr. Felmy and Mr. 
 Eiselen. The latter also gives instruction in gymnastics in general. 
 Instruction in riding in the royal and several private riding schools. 
 
 PUBLIC LEARNED INSTITUTIONS. 
 
 The royal library is daily open for students. The observatory, the 
 botanic garden, the anatomical, zootomical and zoological museum, the 
 collection of minerals, of surgical instruments and bandages, of casts 
 and works of art, &c., are used in the lectures, and can be visited by 
 the students. Prof Hengstenberg directs the exegetic exercises of the 
 theological seminary; the e.xercises in ecclesiastical history and the 
 history of dogmas are directed by Profs. Marheinecke and Neander. Ih 
 the philological seminary. Prof Bockh will hear the students explain 
 Demosthenes, and direct the other exercises of the same. Prof. Lach- 
 mann will hear the students explain the odes of Horace. 
 
 [Encylopcedia Americana. 
 
 II. 
 
 FACULTIES AND STUDENTS OF THE UNIVERSITY OF 
 BERLIN, 1850. 
 
 THEOLOGY. 
 
 No. Professors. 
 
 5 
 
 No. Professors 
 Extraordinary. 
 
 5 
 
 No. Lecturers, 
 or Docentes. 
 
 6 
 
 LAW. 
 
 
 4 
 
 5 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 
 
 7 
 
 18 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 
 12 
 
 COMPRISING .METAPHYSICS, PHILOLOGY, HISTORY, ANTIQUI- 
 TIES, MATHEMATICS, AND NATURAL SCIENCE. 
 
 36 28 30 
 
 BESIDES, FOUR .MASTERS OF .MODERN LANGUAGES. 
 
112 APPENDIX. 
 
 MATRICULATED STUDENTS. 
 
 Theology, . . .184 
 
 Law, .'570 
 
 Medicine, . . . . 223 
 
 Philosophy, . . . 335 
 
 Total, . 1312 
 
 STUDENTS WHO HEAR LECTURES, BUT ARE NOT MA- 
 TRICULATED. 
 
 Surgery, ......... 20 
 
 Pharmacy, . . . 116 
 
 Students of the Frederick William Institute, ... 72 
 
 Students of the Medico-Chirurgical Academy, for the Army, 77 
 
 Students of the Architectural School, .... 229 
 
 Students of the Mining School, SI 
 
 Stipendiary Students of the Academy of Arts, . . 6 
 Students of the Horticultural Institute, . . . .6 
 
 Total, . . . . . . 547 
 
 Whole No. Students, . . . . . . . 1857 
 
 III. 
 
 FACULTIES OF THE UNIVERSITY OF LEIPSIC, 1850. 
 
 THEOLOGY. 
 
 NO. Professors. SvIordXy. ^^ D--*-' 
 
 6 6 2 
 
 LAW. 
 6 6 3 
 
 MEDICINE. 
 9 S 9 
 
 PHILOSOPHY. 
 
 21 7 7 
 
APPENDIX. 113 
 
 IV. 
 
 Can the German Universities be accepted in full, as 
 models for our own Universities? 
 
 As literal Cyclopcedias^ supplying all the means of the 
 higher education — Vinstruction superieure — they undoubt- 
 edly can be thus accepted. In the details of the courses 
 of lectures they cannot be thus accepted. The immense 
 division of subjects which obtains in the German Uni- 
 versities may be questionable in itself, as begetting too 
 great a comminution of ideas for a compact and orderly 
 system. But granting that this objection is removed by 
 the logical character of the division itself, and by the fact 
 that the same professor lectures on several branches, so as 
 to preserve a due relation of ideas to an organic whole in 
 his particular department ; still, the present condition of 
 ovir learning, unused to the Germanic attenuation of 
 thought, the difficulty, perhaps, at present of collecting a 
 sufficient number of professors for so extensive a division 
 of labor, and the impossibility of, at once, sustaining 
 them, the obvious necessity of a somewhat gradual de- 
 velopment of even the most perfect system, and the fact 
 that our immediate wants can be fully met, and a power- 
 ful stimulus given to learning, and the first sure steps 
 taken to reach the highest order of University education, 
 with a more limited number of professorships embracing 
 the cardinal branches of knowledge, and filled by men of 
 undoubted qualifications, suggest an organization more 
 circumscribed and compact than that of Germany, or 
 that of France. It is mainly important that we begin 
 on right principles and in a way to do an effective work, 
 
114 APPENDIX. 
 
 and leave the fecundity and ramifications of our growth 
 to time and circumstances. 
 
 We would suggest, therefore, the following distribution 
 of subjects in two of the faculties, leaving those of Law 
 and Medicine to the determination of leading minds in 
 their, respective professions : — 
 
 FACULTY OF PHILOSOPHY AND SCIENCE. 
 
 1. Systematic Philosophy. 2. History of Philosophy. 
 3. The Philosophy of History. 4. Logic. 5. Ethics and 
 the Evidences of Christianity. 6. The Higher Mathema- 
 tics. 7. Astronomy. 8. Physics. 9. Chemistry. 10. 
 Natural History. 
 
 FACULTY OF LETTERS AND ARTS. 
 
 1. Philology. 2. Greek Language and Literature. 
 3. Latin Language and Literature. 4. Oriental Lan- 
 guages. 5. Rhetoric and English Literature. 6. Mod- 
 ern Literature. 7. The History of the Fine Arts. 8. 
 The Arts of Design. 
 
 These subjects might at first be distributed among ten 
 or twelve Professors, aided by Lecturers, selected from 
 among distinguished men, who, without formally accepting 
 appointments in the University, might consent to deliver 
 courses of Lectures during particular seasons of the year. 
 
PROGRAMME DES COURS 
 
 DE LA SORBONNE (FacultISs des Sciences et des Lettres);— DE LA 
 FACULTE DE DROIT ;— DE LA FACULTE DE MEDECINE ;— DE L'E- 
 COLE DE PHARMACIE ;— DU COLLEGE DE FRANCE ;— DE LA BIB- 
 LIOTHEQUE NATIONALE ;— DU MUSEUM D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE 
 
 SECOND SEMESTRE 1850. 
 
 PR0FE9SEURS. 
 
 SORBONNE (FACULTE DES SCIENCES). 
 
 /8h. Ir2.. 
 c \ Midi 1ft . 
 J 1 1 heure.. 
 
 (ah. 1?2. 
 
 / iOh. 1?2, 
 5J \ 10 h. 1/2, 
 S i Midi 1/2, 
 
 ( 2 h. 1?2. 
 
 ti h. 1/2. , 
 I Midi 1/2. 
 I 1 heure.. 
 
 2h. 1/2.. 
 
 Mecanique 
 
 Chimie 
 
 Astronomie mathematique 
 
 .\Tecaniqne physique et experimentale. 
 
 Sturm. 
 
 Dumas ou Persoz. 
 
 Cauchy. 
 
 Delaunay. 
 
 Organographie vegetale 
 
 Calcul des probabilites 
 
 Anatomie, Pliysiol. comp. et Zoologie. 
 Physique 
 
 Botanique, Anat. et Physiol. v6getales. 
 
 Algebre superieure. 
 
 Gtometrie superieure 
 
 Geologic 
 
 jrai. 
 
 Calcul.ditt'eientiel et integ 
 
 Chimie 
 
 Astronomie mathematique 
 
 V16canique physique et experimentale.. 
 
 Aug. Saint- Hilaire. 
 
 Lame. 
 
 De Blainville. 
 
 Pouillet. 
 
 De Jussieu. 
 Duhamel. 
 Chasles. 
 Constant-Prevost. 
 
 Lefebure de Fourcy. 
 Dumas ou Persoz. 
 Cauchy. 
 Delaunay. 
 
 8 h. 1/2. , 
 10 h. 1/2, 
 10 h. 1/2, 
 Midi 1/2, 
 _2 h. 1/2. , 
 8h. 1/2.. 
 10 h. 1/2, 
 10 h. 1/2, 
 Midi 1/2, 
 2h. 1/2., 
 
 vi6caniquc 
 
 Botanique., Anat. et Physiol, vegetales. 
 
 .A.lgebre superieure 
 
 Geometric superieure 
 
 Geologie 
 
 Sturm. 
 
 De Jussieu. 
 
 Duhamel. 
 
 Chasles. 
 
 Contrant-Pr^vost. 
 
 Calcul dilterentiel integral 
 
 Organographie vegetale 
 
 Calcul des probabilites 
 
 .A.nat., PhysioL comp. et Zoologie. 
 Physique 
 
 Lclebure de t'ourcy. 
 
 Aug. Saint-Hilaire. 
 
 Lame. 
 
 De Blainville. 
 
 Pouillet. 
 
 SORBONNE (FACULTE DES LETTRES). 
 
 9 heures . 
 
 10 h. 1/2. 
 Midi.... 
 1 h. 1/2.. 
 3 heures. 
 
 Histoire de la Philosophic ancienne • 
 
 Geograpliie 
 
 Philosophic 
 
 Litterature etrangere 
 
 Histoire de la Philosophie modeme. 
 
 .Jules Simon. 
 Guigniaut. 
 E. Saisset. 
 Ozanam. 
 Damiron. 
 
 
 10 h. 1/2. 
 Midi . . . 
 3 heures. 
 
 Poesie latine 
 
 Histoire ancienne 
 
 Histoire de la Philosophie moderne. 
 
 Patin. 
 
 Rosseeuw St-Hilaire. 
 
 Damiron. 
 
116 
 
 APPENDIX, 
 
 ( 9heures 
 \ 10 h. l22 
 
 < Midi . . . 
 i 1 h. 1/2.. 
 V. Sheures, 
 
 ' 9 lieures. 
 
 I lOh. l22. 
 
 I Midi.... 
 
 1 h. 1?2.. 
 
 ( 10 h. 1/2 , 
 g ) Midi . . . 
 > ) 1 h. 1?2., 
 
 ( 3 lieures 
 
 Qheures 
 10 h. 1^2 
 Midi . . , 
 1 h. 1;2.. 
 3 heures 
 
 SECOND SEMESTRE 1850. 
 
 Histoire moderne 
 
 Poesie latine. • . • 
 
 Poesie francaise 
 
 Litterature grecque 
 
 Histoire de la Philosophie anoienne. 
 
 Pliilosophie 
 
 Geographie . 
 
 Eloquence latine . . . 
 Litterature grecque . 
 Histoire moderne.. . . 
 Eloquence latine.. . . 
 
 Philosophie 
 
 Eloquence francaise. 
 
 Eloquence francaise. . 
 Litterature grecque. . 
 
 Histoire ancienne 
 
 Litterature etrangere. 
 Poesie francaise 
 
 PROFESSEURS. 
 
 H. Wallon. 
 Patin. 
 Caboche. 
 Egger. 
 Jules Simon. 
 
 A. Garnier. 
 Gujgniaut. 
 E. Havet. 
 Egger. 
 
 H. Wallon 
 E. Havet. 
 A. Garnier. 
 Geruzez. 
 
 Geruzez. 
 Ch. Benoit. 
 Rosseeuw St-Hilaire. 
 Ozanam. 
 Caboche. 
 
 FACULTE DE DROIT. 
 
 8 heures . 
 9"h. 3?4. . 
 
 9 h. 1/2.. 
 11 h. 1/2. 
 Sheures. 
 11 h. 1?2. 
 1 heure.. 
 1 heure.. 
 
 7 h. Ii2.. 
 
 7 h. 1?2. . 
 
 8 heures. 
 
 8 h. 3;4. . 
 
 9 heures. 
 ] 10 h. l22. 
 } 9 heures. 
 
 10 heures 
 1 11 h. 1?4. 
 »- 11 h. 3^4. 
 
 Code civil francais, Ire annee 
 
 Id. ^ id 
 
 Code civil francais, 2e annee 
 
 Id. ' id 
 
 Code civil francais, 3e ann6e 
 
 Id. ' id 
 
 Introduction generale a I'etude du droit 
 Histoire du droit rom. et du droit franc. 
 
 Droit crim. et legislation penale comp.. . 
 
 Droit administratif. 
 
 Droit des gens 
 
 Procedure civile 
 
 Institutes de Justinien 
 
 Id. id 
 
 Droit constitutionnel francais 
 
 Pandectes 
 
 Code de Commerce. 
 
 Legislation crim. et Proced. civ. et crira. 
 
 Valette. 
 
 Bugnet. 
 
 Duranton. 
 
 Perreyve. 
 
 Demante. 
 
 Oudot. 
 
 De Portets. 
 
 Devalroger. 
 
 Ortolan. 
 
 Roustain. 
 
 Royer-CoUard. 
 
 Colmet Daage. 
 
 Ducaurroy. 
 
 Blondeau. 
 
 Vuatrin. 
 
 Pellat. 
 
 Bravard. 
 
 Bonnier. 
 
 ^ /- 10 h. 1/2. 
 
 r \ Midi .... 
 
 S. ) 1 h. Ip. . 
 
 ^ ( 3 heures . 
 
 w 
 
 10 h. 1/2. 
 Sheures. 
 4 heures. 
 
 1 heure.. 
 
 2 heures. 
 
 FACULTE DE MEDECINE. 
 
 Histoire naturelle medicale . 
 
 Accouch., malad. des fern, et des enf.... . 
 
 Physique medicale 
 
 Pathologic medicale 
 
 Pharmacie et Cliimie organique 
 
 Pathologic chirurgicale 
 
 Anatomie pathologique 
 
 Hygiene ••• • 
 
 Therapeutique et Matiere medicale. . . , 
 
 Richard. 
 Moreau. 
 Gavarret. 
 Piorry. 
 
 "Wurtz. 
 
 Richet. 
 
 Cruveilhier. 
 
 Royer-CoUard. 
 
 Trousseau 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 117 
 
 SECOND SEMES TRE 1850. 
 
 de 6 a 10 
 
 heures 
 
 du matia 
 
 PROFESS EURS. 
 
 ( Roux, a THotel-Dieu. 
 \ Jarjavay,a I'hop.de laF. 
 
 Clinique chirurgicale ) Velpeau, a la Charite. 
 
 Laugier, a la Piti6. 
 
 / Fouquier, a la Charite. 
 ) Bouillaud, id. 
 
 j Clinique medicale ) Chomel, a I'Hotel-Dieu. 
 
 ( Rostan, id. [laF. 
 
 IClinique d'Accouchements | Dubois (Paul), a I'hop.de 
 
 S (Midi 1?2. 
 J i 3 heures. 
 
 8 heures. 
 lOheure; 
 
 a Co heures 
 
 'S]9h.ir2. 
 
 S ( Midi . . 
 
 KCOLE DE PHARMACIE. 
 
 Manipulations 
 
 Botanique. (Organog., Physiologie.). 
 
 Falsifications des medicaments 
 
 Hist. nat. des medicam. (Mineraux.) . 
 
 Pharmacie 
 
 Toxicologie 
 
 Chimie organique. 
 
 Botanique rurale. (Herborisations.) . 
 
 Gaultier de Claubry. 
 Chatin. 
 
 Chevallier. 
 CJuibourt. 
 
 Lecanu. 
 
 Caventou. 
 
 Gaultier de Claubry. 
 
 10 h. 1^2. 
 
 Midi . . . 
 Midi . . . 
 1 heure.. 
 1 h. l;-2.. 
 1 h. 1/-2. . 
 . 4 heures. 
 
 '9 heures. 
 
 10 h. 1/2. 
 
 11 heures 
 11 h. 1;2. 
 Midi 1/-2. 
 1 heure.. 
 1 heure.. 
 1 heure.. 
 1 h. 1/2.. 
 
 . 3 heures. 
 
 COLLEGE DE FRANCE. 
 
 Archeologie 
 
 Eloquence latine 
 
 Langue et litterature slave 
 
 Histoire et morale 
 
 Langues hebraiq., chalda'iq. et syriaque, 
 
 Philosophic grecque et latine 
 
 Langue et litt. chin, et tartare-mandchou. 
 
 Droit de la nature et des gens 
 
 Astronomic. 
 
 Histoire des legislations comparees.. . . 
 
 Poesie latine 
 
 Chimie 
 
 Langues et litter, de I'Europe meridion., 
 
 Embryogenie comparee 
 
 Hist, naturelle des corps inorganiques.. . 
 Physique generale et mathematique... . 
 Langues et litter, d'origine germanique. 
 
 Lenormant. 
 
 Nisart. 
 
 Cyprien Robert. 
 
 Michelet. 
 
 iQuatremere. [ou Franck 
 
 'Barthelemy St-Hilaire 
 
 Stanislas Juiien. 
 
 De Portets. 
 
 Binet. 
 
 Laboulaye. 
 
 Tissot. 
 
 Pelouze. 
 
 E. Quinet ou Dumesnil- 
 
 Coste. [Michelet. 
 
 Elie de Beaumont. 
 
 Biot ou Bertrand. 
 
 Philarete Chasles. 
 
 8 h. Ir2.. 
 
 9 h. 1/2. . 
 
 10 h. 1/2. 
 Midi . . . 
 Midi . . . 
 Midi 1/2. 
 Midi 1/2. 
 Midi 1/2. 
 1 h. 1/2-. 
 1 h. 1/2.. 
 3 h. 1/2.. 
 
 Langue arabe. . 
 
 Langue et litterature sanskrite 
 
 Langue persane 
 
 Medecine 
 
 Economie politique 
 
 Langue turque 
 
 Physique generale et experimentale. ... 
 
 Langue et litterature grecque 
 
 Langues hebraiq., chalda'iq. et syriaque. 
 Histoire naturelle des corps organises.. . 
 Litterature francaise 
 
 Caussin de Perceval. 
 
 E. Burnouf. 
 
 Jules Mohl. 
 
 Magendie ou Bernard. 
 
 Michel Chevalier. 
 
 Alix Desgranges. 
 
 Regnauld. 
 
 Boissonade. 
 
 Quatremere. 
 
 Duvernoy. 
 
 J.J. Ampere. 
 
 8 heures, 
 10 h. 1/2. 
 Midi 1/2. 
 1 heure.. 
 4 heures. 
 
 Mathematiques 
 
 Archeologie 
 
 Langue persane 
 
 Histoire et morale 
 
 Langue et litt. chin, et tartare-mandchou 
 
 Hermite. 
 Lenormant. 
 Jules Mohl. 
 Michelet. 
 Stanislas Juiien. 
 
118 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 9 h. Ifi.. 
 
 8 heures 
 
 9 h. 1?2. , 
 11 heures 
 Midi.... 
 Midi .... 
 Midi 1?2. 
 Midi l22. 
 Midi 1?2 
 1 h. l22. . 
 
 1 h. ifi.. 
 
 2 heures 
 
 ' 8 heures 
 9 heures 
 
 9 lieures 
 
 10 h. If2, 
 
 10 h. 122, 
 
 11 h. l22, 
 Midi .... 
 Midi l^a. 
 1 heure.. 
 1 heure.. 
 
 l^3h. 122.. 
 
 SECOND SEMESTRE 1850. 
 
 Langue arabe 
 
 Laiigues et litter, de I'Europe m^ridion. . 
 
 Langue et litterature sanslvrite. 
 
 Histoire des legislations comparees 
 
 Eloquence latine 
 
 Medecine 
 
 Langue turque 
 
 Physique generale et experimentale... • 
 
 Langue et litterature grecque ••• 
 
 Philosophie grecque et latine 
 
 Histoire naturelle des corps organises.. 
 Physique generale et mathematique 
 
 iviatuemauques 
 
 Droit de la nature et des gens. ■ 
 
 Langue et litterature slave 
 
 Langues et litter, d'origine germanique. 
 
 Astronomie 
 
 Poesie latine 
 
 Economic politique 
 
 Chimie 
 
 Embryogenie comparee 
 
 Hist naturelle des corps inorganiques.. 
 Litterature francaise. 
 
 PROFESSEURS. 
 
 Caussin de Perceval. 
 
 E. Quinet ou Dumesnil- 
 
 E. B'urnouf. [Michelet. 
 
 Laboulaye. 
 
 Nisart. 
 
 Magendie ou Bernard. 
 
 Alix Desgranges. 
 
 Regnault. 
 
 Boissonade. 
 
 Barthelemy St-Hilaire 
 
 Duvernoy. [ou Franck, 
 
 Biot ou Bertrand. 
 
 Herraite. 
 
 De Portets. 
 
 Cj-prien Robert. 
 
 Philarete Chasles. 
 
 Binet. 
 
 Tissot. 
 
 Michel Chevalier. 
 
 Pelouze. 
 
 Coste. 
 
 Elie de Beaumont, 
 
 J.-J. Ampere. 
 
 BIBLIOTHEQUE NATIONALE (rue Neuve-des-Petits-Champs, 12). 
 
 f^ ^9h.l?2.. 
 
 
 
 
 
 S J2h. 122.. 
 ^j ( 4 heures. 
 
 
 
 Cours d'armenien 
 
 Le Vaillant de Florival 
 
 !> \7 h du s 
 
 
 Quatremere. 
 
 KJ '- 
 
 
 w (9h. 324.. 
 ^, ^2h. 122.. 
 g ( 4 heures. 
 
 
 Garcin de Tassy. 
 
 
 Cours de turc 
 
 Louis Dubeux. 
 
 ^ 1 11 heures 
 
 Cours de grec et de paleographie grecque 
 
 Hase. 
 
 MUSEUM D'HISTOIRE NATURELLE (Jardin des Plantes). 
 
 g 
 
 ( 10 heures 
 
 J 
 
 \ Midi .... 
 
 t/j 
 
 r 10 h. 124. 
 
 
 ) 1 heure.. 
 
 
 1 3 heures. 
 
 s 
 
 ( 
 
 10 heures 
 
 Mineralogie [Dufrenoy. 
 
 Botanique et Physique vegetale I Ad. Brongniart. 
 
 Chimie appliquee 
 
 Physiologic comparee 
 
 Hist. nat. des Crustaces, des Arachnides 
 et des Insectes 
 
 Culture. 
 
 Botanique dans la campagne. 
 
 Chevreul. 
 Flourens. 
 
 Milne Edwards. 
 
 Decaisne. 
 
APPENDIX. 119 
 
 The University of Paris is the ancient University, found- 
 ed by William of Chanipeaux, in 1109. The Sorbonne 
 is the title given to one of the Colleges founded by Robert 
 de Sorbonne, an ecclesiastic of the thirteenth century. It 
 M'as strictly a school of Theology ; and, although only one 
 of the four constituent parts of the Faculty of Theology in 
 the University of Paris, it attained such eminence that it 
 frequently gave its name to the whole faculty ; and even 
 graduates of the University, not belonging to this College, 
 were wont to style themselves doctors, or bachelors of the 
 Sorbonne. The Sorbonne, on account of its reputation, 
 was appealed to to decide questions in Theology and 
 Morals. 
 
 The buildings of the College are now occupied by the 
 three faculties of Theology, Science, and Literature of the 
 Academie Universitaire of Paris. 
 
 The College Royal de France was instituted by Francis 
 I., in 1530. He created twelve chairs for instruction in 
 Greek, Hebrew, Eloquence, Philosophy, and Medicine. 
 Since then various additions have been made, until now the 
 number of chairs amounts to twenty-four. The courses 
 are gratuitous. The Oriental Languages hold a very con- 
 spicuous place. 
 
 The University of France is the work of Napoleon. 
 " Ce grand esprit reconnut tout d'abord que I'education 
 publique devait etre la base de I'ordre nouveau. NuUe 
 matiere ne I'occupa davantage. II consulta les hommes 
 les plus differentes ; il eut sous les yeux les projets les 
 plus divers. II repetait sans cesse cette phrase celebre de 
 Leibnitz : Donnez-moi I'instruction publique pendant un 
 Siecle, et je changerai le monde."* 
 
 * Cousin. 
 
120 APPENDIX. 
 
 He instituted a great system of national education com- 
 prising three degrees, Vinstruction primaire, Vinstruction 
 secondaire, Vinstruction superieure. The University com- 
 prehends the last two. To the instruction secondaire belong 
 the Colleges. Of these about three hundred and twenty 
 are Colleges comm^ma^ia; scattered through the large towns. 
 They are supported by the towns, the heads and professors 
 being paid out of the revenues of the Communes. Forty 
 of them are royal Colleges, les lycees ou Colleges royaux. 
 The directors and professors in these are paid by the 
 State. The College royal de France is one of these. 
 
 To the instruction superieur belong the faculties of the 
 University proper : the faculties of Theology, Law, Med- 
 icine, Science, and Letters. 
 
 The Institute National de France is a society of 
 learned men, instituted not for the purpose of giving in- 
 struction, but for the purpose of advancing science and 
 the arts by original and uninterrupted researches, by the 
 publication of discoveries, and by correspondence with 
 learned societies, and learned men in other countries. It 
 consists of resident members, and corresponding members 
 native and foreign, and associate foreign members. Of 
 the first there are nearly two hundred, of the last two, 
 more than two hundred. The resident members and the 
 five perpetual secretaries receive salaries.* 
 
 The Institute is distributed into five Academies — The 
 Academy of the French language and literature. The 
 Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-Lettres, The Academy 
 of the Fine Arts, The Academy of Sciences, and The 
 Academy of Moral and Political Sciences. 
 
 * The resident members receive each 1500 francs, the secretaries 
 6000 francs, per annum. 
 
/}r, 
 
 /'!''■'■