THE SMALL YACHT be 2 "o 6 ^ 8 THE SMALL YACHT ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING FOR RACING AND SAILING WITH CHAPTERS ON CONSTRUCTION BY EDWIN A. BOARDMAN WITH NUMEROUS ILLUSTRATIONS FROM PHOTOGRAPHS BOSTON LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY 1909 ^i^' Copyright, 1909, By Little, Brown, and Company. All rights reserved. Published, June, 1909. THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, CAMBRIDGE, U. S. A. IlIBRARYoI CONGRESS Two GoDie* Received JUN 13,1W«« 1, ASS A AXc No. INTRODUCTION IN this book I shall endeavor to tell in plain words, so that it may be read and understood by the youngest amateur interested in Small Yacht Racing, some of the best methods for tuning up a boat, or, in other words, preparing her for a race. I shall also explain the various ways and means to extricate one's boat from, and gain advantage of, a competitor or competitors. Of course, in a sport of this sort it is abso- lutely impossible to lay down ^^hard and fast'' rules, as the change in conditions and positions is so very variable. But I think the general rules I shall give, in the majority of cases at least, have proven successful and are in use by the crack amateur sailors in this country. Racing rules in America are now substan- vii INTRODUCTION tially alike, so that my endeavor to explain and illustrate the matter will be of some value to all who are interested in racing yachts. I shall keep away as much as possible from scientific terms which are only known to naval architects and professionals, and shall explain them, when the use of such terms is necessary. I shall illustrate my points as far as I can with photographs and sketches, but it would be impossible to cover all other combina- tions and remedies. We all know that ex- perience is by far the best teacher, especially in racing yachts. In some cases, the ability to handle a boat successfully is inborn, thereby making it a much more simple matter to learn and succeed. This work is written from my own experi- ences, and I think is the first of the kind un- dertaken in this branch of sport. I sincerely hope that it will fill the gap there now seems to be, in a small way at least, in the yachting libraries of the world. viii INTRODUCTION I have divided this book into two parts, the first dealing with the preparation of the yacht for the race, and the second the sailing of the yacht during the race, this being the most convenient method. I shall use photo- graphs, pen sketches, and plans from my office, when and where I deem it necessary, and in many instances illustrations will be able to show the point better than words. IX CONTENTS PART I Chapter Page I. General Makeup of the Racing Yacht . 3 II. Detailed Explanation of Design ... 11 III. Points on Expert Helmsmen ..... 20 IV. Set of the Racing Sails 24 V. Condition and Construction of the Body OF THE Yacht 33 VI. Uses of Paint and Black Lead for Outer Surface 46 VII. Canvas vs. Wooden Skin 52 VIII. Hauling and Drying Out 55 IX. Rigging, Blocks, etc 58 PART II I. Handling the Racing Yacht in General 67 II. Laying Courses, Setting Marks, etc. . 75 III. Direction of Wind in Regard to Course 77 IV. Flying and Time Starts 79 V. Maneuvering for Position at Start . 81 VI. First Leg to Leeward or Windward . 85 VII. Rounding Marks 87 VIII. Allowances for Tide or Current — Shoal Spots 91 xi CONTENTS Chapter Page IX. Beating to Windward 94 X. Reaching 97 XI. Running Before the Wind 100 XII. When Two Boats are Converging . . 104 XIII. Two Boats Approaching a Mark . . . 108 XIV. Many Boats Approaching a Mark for Purpose of Rounding Ill XV. The Team Race 120 XVI. The Match Race 126 XVII. The Fleet Race 131 XVIII. Setting and taking in Light Sails . . 133 XIX. Reefing 137 XX. Accidents to Sails, Spars, Rigging, or Crew 139 XXI. Positions of Crew during Race . . . 143 XXII. Compass Courses 146 XXIII. Types of Small Racing Yachts in America 148 XXIV. Salt vs. Fresh Water 150 XXV. Necessity of Expert Judges or Timers 153 XXVI. International Small Yacht Racing . 155 XXVII. The Cost and Expense Account of the Racing Yacht 158 XXVIII. Laying Up for the Winter Season . . 160 XXIX. Amateurs and Professionals 162 XXX. The Magnitude of Racing in America 164 XXXI. The International Sonder Class of Germany, Spain, and the United States 166 Xll ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE t* Manchester," winner International Seawanhaka Cup, 1905. A good example of the 40-foot racing machine at high speed. Note easy entrance and smooth wake Frontispiece Seawanhaka Cup challenger ^^ Manchester ^"^"^ in 1905, owned by Br. J. L. Bremer^ designed by E. A. Boardman^ and ivinner of Seawanhaka Cup. Sailing the triangular course of twelve knots in one of the races in the record time of one hour^ thirty-two minutes^ and fifty seconds. Racing scow " Manchester," showing greatly increased water line length even in light wind 4 Seawanhaka Cup challenger ^^ Manchester.'''' With sheets slightly lifted, showing smooth wake from star- board quarter 4 Seawanhaka Cup challenger ** Manchester.'*^ A start of the 18-foot knockabout class in Massachusetts Bay, showing boats to windward outpointing those to leeward, and the possibility of lacing these boats down 5 Seawanhaka Cup challenger '* Manchester," showing correct sailing list at high speed and position of crew. Note windward rudder clear of the water and only slight feather from wake on leeward quarter 12 A high ended easy formed American Sonder Class boat. An excellent type for almost any conditions . , . . 13 Sonder Class boat ^^Marla^'^ owned by M. and R. L. Agassiz and designed by William Gardner. xiii ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Dead before the wind. A good example of the high-cut spinnaker 26, ^^Chewink /TV' 30-foot class, owned by F. G. Macomber and designed by the Herreshoff 3Ianufacturing Company. A good example of light sails , 27 Bar Harbor one design class boat ^^Cricket,^^ owned by H. M. Sears and designed by the Herreshoff Manufacturing Company. A quartering wind with spinnaker set in proper position, well forward and drawing well. No balloon jib neces- sary Massachusetts Bay 22-foot cabin boat ^'•Peri 11,^^ owned by George Lee and designed by E. A. Boardman. 30 Running up on a sea before the wind, showing bad lift of main boom and correct way of spilling wind from spin- naker into jib 30 Massachusetts Bay 18-footer '•'•Bonitwo,''^ owned by G. H. Wight- man and designed by B. B. Crowninshield. An excellent example of a beautiful suit of sails, and long taper spars 31 Quincy Cup defender ^^ Outlook.'^ Narrow, scow formed Sender boat with long, straight side. She was second choice for the American team of 1906. A good example of the high, narrow rig 60 Sonder Class boat '■^Auk,^^ owned by Hon. Charles F. Adams 2dj designed by E. A. Boardman^ and one of the American team in 1906 against Germany. 21 -foot water line unballasted racing scow with 1500 square feet of sail area, and 44 feet over all 61 Quincy Cup challenger ^^ Lookout " in 1901 and winner of Quincy Cup. Owned by A. Henry Higginson and Reginald Boardman and designed by David Fenton. Close hauled, showing large flat bow of racing scow ... 61 Seawanhaka Clip cfiallenger '■^3fanchester.^^ xiv ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Light weather, showing position of crew, placed in order to heel boat to good sailing angle 68 Seawanhaka Cup boat ^^TunipooJ*'' Just starting to lift windward rudder out of water .... 68 Seawanhaka Cup boat '^Tunipoo.''^ A high ended easy formed Sonder boat. She was first choice for the American team in 1907 to go to Germany 69 Sonder Class boat ^^ Spokane^'*'' oivned by Vice Commodore F. Lewis Clark of the Eastern Yacht Club, and designed by Tarns, Lemoine^ and Crane. One of the American team in 1907 against Germany, Start, Sonder Class trial race, 1906. Note boat bearing away, having reached flag mark too soon (before gun fire) 80 Off Marblehead, Mass. , in 1906. Third boat from right-hand end of picture has best of it, as she is to windward, with her wind clear and actually ahead 80 Start of one of the Sonder Class trial races in 1907 for selection of American team to go to Germany. Just after a start in one of the International races with Ger- many in 1906. Leading German boat bearing away to recross, having gone over line before gun fire. The ensigns at the peak designate the boats 81 Just after start of a German-American race for the Roosevelt Cup in 1906. A start before the wind. Three sister boats leading ... 86 Start of the 18-foot knockabouts in a Corinthian Yacht Club {Mar- blehead, Mass.) Championship race in Marblehead harbor; ''^Baty^^ **Arrow,^^ and ^^Boo IIoo " leading. A start to windward in a breeze. Note No. 12 lifting well out on a sea 86 Start of the Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout class. XV ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Unrestricted 21-foot water line scow, exaggerated form. Spinnaker and main boom spreading almost 100 feet. Note size of figures on deck 87 Quincy Cup defender '•'■ Outlook.'''' Broad reach in a good breeze, showing clean lifting bow wave 92 ' Massachusetts Bay 18-footer " Moslem 11^^'' owned hy B. Devereux Barker and designed by E. A. Boardman. Correct heel for windward work, lee rail just awash ... 92 Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout ^^Mirage,^^ owned by J. W. Olmstead and designed by E. A. Boardman. Pretty well smothered up in a heavy northwester. Note form of mainsail by seam lines, only leach of sail drawing 93 Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout '■'■Boo Hoo^^'' owned by Reginald Boardman and designed by E. A. Boardman. Note position of main boom for light weather work ... 96 Seawanhaka Cup challenger ^^ Manchester.''^ Windward side, showing long straight sailing lines and port rudder. Weather bilge-board hoisted 96 '■'■Tunipoo,'''' Seawanhaka trial boat in 1905, owned by Dr. J. L. Bremer and designed by E. A. Boardman. On a close reach at good speed. Easy formed scow Sonder boat. First choice for the American team of 1906. A very fast boat in light weather. Note especially smooth wake 97 Sonder Class boat ^^Caramba,^^ owned by C. H. W. Foster^ designed by E. A. Boardman, and one of the American team in 1906 against Germany. Just after the start of the Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knock- about class. First leg a broad reach, showing how boats spread out on a start of this sort 108 Just after the start of the Massachusetts Bay IS-foot knock- abouts. xvi ILLUSTRATIONS FACING PAGE Just after the start in close quarters. No. 24 in weather berth and in leading position. A good example of the 18-foot knockabouts 108 Massachusetts Bay 18-footers, one design class : ^^Bat,^' "^rroM7," **Fudgey^' and '■'■Boo Hoo.^^ Owners: Hon. Charles F. Adams 2dy Edwin A. Boardman, C. II. W. Foster, and Reginald Boardman. These boats were successful in their match team races sailed off Provincetown, Mass.^ in 1904, against a Herreshoff one design class. Fleet of spectators running back to Marblehead after one of the Sonder Class races with Germany in 1906 .... 109 An idea of the fleet of spectators during the Sonder races with Germany in 1906. Vice- Commodore F. Lewis Clark^s flagship ^^ Emerald " is seen on the extreme right under hare poles. Three of the contestants taken during one of the Inter- national Sonder Class races in 1906. American boat to windward. Note very flat sails on the two German boats 109 Sonder Class boats ^^Caramba'''' {U. S.), ^'■Tilly'''' (Germany), and *^Wannsee " {Germany) in one of the races for the Roosevelt Cup in 1906. (Reading from left to right): '■'■Caramba,'''' owned by C. H. W. Foster; ^^ Tilly, ^^ by Messrs. Dollman >^ fciC JS 9 c bo C 1 be o cti: -p be !ii.ii o c o a* ■(-) ;3 o ea c o c o ca ca c o J3 '••i¥-^ •••-"Ytiniiffi ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING and water are those of Kiel, Germany, or those of the South Shore of Massachusetts and Connecticut, more especially perhaps Buzzards Bay in Massachusetts. I mention these localities merely as examples, so that I may better show the different conditions to be provided for. The prevailing wind on the South Shore is the strong, smoky southwester, and this, with the strong current in Long Island Sound, stirs up a very heavy, short, quick sea. With the shoal depth of water in Buzzards Bay, the effect is the same. The boats that seem to be best suited to these conditions are the wide, powerful cen- terboards, with large flat bottoms, giving a very large initial stability and showing great power to stand up and sail. I will give here two illustrations of the " center board " and "keel" types, pitted against each other under the different con- ditions just mentioned. A ''centerboard" boat came to Marble- 5 THE SMALL YACHT head and raced a fleet of ''keel" boats, being badly worsted by seventy per cent of the fleet. Another year the crack ''keel" went to Buz- zards Bay, and in a match race was beaten by a "centerboarder." This goes to show the general idea, but, of course, there are excep- tions to the rule. Again, this idea of design depends a great deal on the restrictions of the class in which you are going to build, as different restric- tions work out in favor of one or the other type in all conditions of weather. We will now turn to the very important factor in the success of the racing yacht, the helmsman and crew. As the racing to-day, in at least a great many classes, is among one design boats, and in a great many others practically one design (as the various sets of class restrictions limit the variance in the design), it sends the trend of naval architec- ture in one direction, and thus it comes down to the successful management of the yacht, broadly speaking. 6 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING In the classes in this part of the world there are always one, two, or three men who are considered to be somewhat superior to the other sailors in the fleet ; this, however, should never discourage the younger men, as there is example after example of cases where, by keeping at it, they, in time, catch up and pass the older men. As beginners they have over- looked the small things that seemed in those days insignificant, but are now being care- fully taken care of. Thus, as in no other sport, the details should be carefully looked after. The set of the sails is, of course, a matter of the greatest importance, the boat's only means of propulsion being the sails, and espe- cially in a boat sailing to windward the least pocket or flat spot in the wrong place will greatly retard her progress; more so than most people imagine, as it is a very slight moment of positive pressure that she is sub- jected to. This sail matter is not so important when the yacht is running free, as then it is 7 THE SMALL YACHT simply an area of cloth, held out for the wind's direct pressure. Another point well to mention here in a general way, is the skin resistance, that is, the water touching the sides and bottom of the boat's body. Surface friction is a great detriment to a boat's headway through the water, and we are yet a long way off from a discovery of some really good coating that will satisfactorily stand against the action of salt or fresh water, while still gi\^ng the least possible resistance to the water passing by it. There are, to-day, all sorts of paints, greases, black lead, and the bare metal bronze plates of the large yachts, and it is far from being decided which is superior for a racing com- position, although almost every one has his preference, and thinks his own coating infi- nitely superior to his rival's. On the general construction of a small yacht depends, in a great measure, the sur- face you are able to obtain on the outside of the planks. A boat must be built as light as 8 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING possible, yet have a great rigidity in order to hold her form and prevent buckling and twisting as far as possible, so that the putty and seam filling placed between the planks shall not have a chance to work out and so break the outer surface, at once offering added resistance to the water as the surface becomes roughened. In the case of the deep keel boats with from two thousand to six thousand pounds of lead hung on a slight narrow fin, the chances for twist and strain are very great, especially as this lead has a ^reat leverage, being down five to eight feet below the surface. This means, to prevent leakage, etc., that the construction must be of the very best and most carefully thought out and put together, the best of material being used, including the toughest and light- est of woods and non-corrosive metals. I have now given, in a general way, the most necessary points that go to make up speed in yacht racing. They all overlap each other and rely on one another; all are im- 9 THE SMALL YACHT i portant and cannot be too carefully worked 1 up to perfection. I have intended this i chapter to be simply a synopsis of ^'Part First/' and will give the detailed accounts in ! the Chapters following. j 10 CHAPTER II DETAILED EXPLANATION OF DESIGN THEORY, practice, experience, actual tests, lifelong study, all based on common sense, are the requisites that help to make the successful design. As the saying goes, a yacht cannot sail faster than the slowest part of the hull can be driven. In other words, a beautiful bow, showing speed lines in every curve, accompanied by a poor stern, means that the boat as a unit cannot go faster than the stern, and thus it is the combination of bow, stern, and middle body that goes to make up the yacht as a fast sailing unit. Symmetry in design is one of the greatest factors of success, the bow must fit the stern, the rig, the body, and the centers must be in correct relationship to one another at all angles of heel to make a good all-round boat. 11 THE SMALL YACHT The centers that I mention above are the center of gravity of the lead ballast on the keel, the center of gravity of the entire craft, the center of buoyancy of the hull, the center of lateral resistance or actual plane, this being in some cases simply the center of the fin or keel in flat bottom boats, the rudder some- times being taken into consideration, and be- ing the center of the entire submersed body as a plane in ''V" shaped bottom boats. The center of effort is the center of efficiency of the sail spread, as a plane. Designers vary in their ideas in regard to the relationship of these centers to one an- other, and, of course, the relationship changes a great deal in the different types of yachts, the combination depending on the form, whether she be scow or wedge bottom. In the scow form, the center of buoyancy quickly shifts to leeward depending upon the angle of keel, and as the yacht is water-borne practically from stem to stern on a long straight side or sailing line, she does not 12 C C o c be «3 2 ^ T3 a .S o be c 0) b£ a C «5 :;;,v^^-^.--oi«:y:»|p»p-. ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING have the tendency to twist and turn but sails straight ahead on her form and does not take hold on her rudder. In her upright position she is a flat, square plank, short on the water- line for measurement purposes, but heeled over to her proper sailing angle, she at once becomes a long, narrow cigar-shaped craft, getting the benefit of her huge overhangs, her sailing length being practically that of her over-all length. An excellent example of boats of this sort are the great scows that recently raced for the Quincy Cup in Massachusetts Bay, their dimensions being fifty-five feet over-all, and twenty-one feet on the water-line, but their actual sailing length was fifty feet, a tremen- dous increase. The Seawanhaka International Cup boats are another good example of this sort of thing. This type, forty feet over-all, twenty-five feet water-line, eight feet beam, and five inches draft, weighing twenty-five hundred pounds, without ballast except for their steel or 13 THE SMALL YACHT bronze bilge boards (which weigh about one hundred and twenty-five pounds each), are the fastest yachts of their sail spread in the world, the area being five hundred feet. In the actual drafting of a design, the first step after you have decided on the class is a study of the restrictions under which the boat will be built, determining by these and by the previous performances of the yachts in the class what combination of dimensions will turn out the fastest boat, taking everything into consideration. This being decided upon, a brown paper sketch is drawn of the profile, deck line, and midship section. When these suit your ideas lay same down on the final drafting paper and work in the body plan. Then comes the sail and construction plan, and cabin last of all, if there happens to be one. From the finished lines a table of offsets is taken in feet, inches, and eighths for the use of the builder in laying the boat down, full size, on the floor of the drafting loft ; and 14 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING from this the builder makes his moulds for setting the boat up in the shop. This seems simple enough, but requires an infinite amount of care and perseverance. A few of the points necessary to be figured out are given in the following table. All of these are of actual use, some directly and some as references for future designs: Number ; Name.. Type Built for by.. .Boston, 190 Design begun . . Length over-all . Length water-line Overhang forward Overhang aft . Beam extreme Beam W. L. . Beam transom Freeboard stem Freeboard least Freeboard transom Draft extreme Draft to fairbody Draft board down Area L. W. L. plane Area amidship section Maximum girth of hull ..Contract price. Launched Design finished. Pounds per inch at L. W. L. Poimds to alter W. L. 1 in. at L. W. L. Area "lateral plane of hull. Area lateral plane below fairbody. Area centerboard. Area rudder. Total lateral plane below fairbody. Total wetted surface. Area sails actual. Area sails rated. Ratio sail area to wetted surface. Ratio sail area to lateral plane. Ratio displacement cu. ft. to cube of L. W. L. Ratio displacement cu. ft. to mid- section X L. W. L. Ratio displacement cu. ft. to deck area X depth hull. Ratio length to beam at L. W. L. 15 THE SMALL YACHT Displacement ...... Ratio overhangs to L. W. L. Outside ballast Ratio ballast to displacement. Inside ballast Ratio rudder to balance lateral plane. Total ballast Ratio (C. B. aft W. L.) to L. W. L. C. G. outside ballast aft of Ratio (C. V. L. P. aft W. L.) to L. C. B W. L. Ratio (C. E. to C. L. P.) to L. W. L. Ratio (C. E. to B. P.) to L. W. L. Index to Table L. W. L. Load water-line. C. G. Center of gravity. C. B. Center of buoyancy. C. V. L. P. Center vertical lateral plane (meaning fin or keel). C. E. Center of effort (of sails). C. L. P. Center of lateral plane (meaning entire immersed body). B. P. Balancing point. It was not so very long ago that the fac- tors in the table were never thought of in the design of the small racer, and the boat was built from a wooden model whittled out of a block of wood to suit the eye of the builder, the centers, displacement, etc., being simply guessed at, and the builder trusted to luck that they would come right. But to-day instruments are used to get the different areas, etc., and the designer is much more sure of himself than under the old rule of thumb system, the weights of the wood used 16 Dksign 12c. Sail plan of Massachusetts Bay 18-footer, having a short bowsprit and mainboom well inboard. A very satisfactory rig, well balanced, and easy to handle o ^ c« OJ C o ■4-> (n a cS ^ •*-> -^ ^ o -e t: c; ctf -J- O c ^ QJ »ri o 4-» 1 s X J".; >> yj rt CQ -M cr a> 5 >< o C/3 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING in construction and the ability of the builder to follow the plans being the only real uncertainties. In the racing knockabout of to-day we have a small boat that comes nearer being perfection for salt water purposes than any other type of small yacht in the world yet produced. This boat is first of all very safe and seaworthy, being practically non-cap- sizable, very easy to handle and with small sails. She moves through the water with very little resistance, either in light winds or heavy, is quick to turn, and certainly a pleas- ure to steer. Her wake is smooth, well ironed out, she opens the water nicely, going partially through and partially over it; the bow wave being practically spray with no heavy curl of solid water to be thrown aside ; and in the bow wave there is enough lifting force, as the overhang scoops out over the surface or through a sea, to carry her head well clear and free from solid water, so dif- ferent from the old style of straight-stemmed 2 17 THE SMALL YACHT boat that became very dangerous when being driven hard in a breeze. The deep forefoot and sharp entrance would grip the water, slue around and bury, often capsizing the yacht, and this danger has been absolutely done away with. Another very important point in the present design is the balancing of the sails with the hull so that the boat shall steer, no matter on what angle of heel. The center of eflFort of the working sails comes slightly forward of the center of the mainsail, and the placing of the mast and entire rig depends on where the center of the lateral plane is. It is necessary, in wide shoal boats, to place the center of effort well forward of the center of L. P. as the center of buoyancy quickly shifts to one side, and to make them steer properly on this heel the lead of the sails should be large, especially where the rudders are small, as for instance on the unballasted scow. On narrow wedge bottom boats the lead is 18 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING not so great, as the center of buoyancy stays more nearly in the same place and the boat consequently is much easier to steer as the pressure on the rudder is not so great, be- cause when the rudder is hauled well to one side it quickly kills the headway and is a great detriment to speed, and should be kept as near the center line of the hull as possible, and still have the boat go to windward. 19 CHAPTER III POINTS ON EXPERT HELMSMEN THE man at the wheel, or tiller, as is more apt to be the case in small racing yachts, is the man on whom the winning of the race depends. It is nec- essary that he be cool-headed and resource- t/ ful at all times, knowing when to take ad- vantage of his opponents, and having foresight to see far enough ahead that either by getting into or keeping away from a luffing match, or something of the sort, he may finally land himself in first place. He should be deliber- ate, and yet when he makes up his mind to do something, should not ask everybody in the crew their opinion, but act quickly. And in this he has a great advantage over his brothers of a few years ago, in that the vessel he is handUng turns almost in her own length at full speed, and is off on the other tack in a 20 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING very few seconds; whereas it was an under- taking of almost minutes, so to speak, for the craft of a few years ago to be brought into stays and filled away on the other hitch. It is an excellent thing, however, to have one man who understands the matter to watch the other boats and keep the skipper informed of their movements, especially when you are leading and the helmsman does not want to take his eyes off his own boat, even for an instant. Besides these few necessities embodied in the crack helmsman, he should have the finesse in touch on the tiller, never gripping it so that the muscles in his arm are at a tremendous tension, but simply holding the stick as lightly as possible, so that it shall not get away, and feeling his boat in every jump in a seaway, favoring her in every helpful slant of wind, not roughly, but gently, and by so doing keeping her headway. A very important point which puts the 21 THE SMALL YACHT quick, nervous man at a disadvantage, and especially in the modern boat, is the method of tacking. He is apt to fling her about by forcing the tiller hard down, and thus scoop- ing off to leeward on the other tack before he can stop her twisting motion, and so losing some of the previous distance already gained to windward, besides killing her headway, sending her through a path the shape of the letter ''S." A man cannot be too careful in tacking, and he should learn the queer ways his craft has and how to favor her, as every boat is different and should not necessarily be treated as her sister. Be cool, level-headed, know your boat from the top of the mast to the bottom of her keel, notice her sails and how she feels best to you ; in other words, when she feels sym- pathetic she is probably doing her best for you; then note how everything stands, treat her as a living thing and not as pure wood and metal ; know the distance she will travel in certain conditions in a given length of 22 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING time ; know her every mood. Racing yachts do have their off days ; treat her accordingly. The man steering should never place him- self in a cramped or uncomfortable position, but should be so situated as to be able to see his boat and sails. Lying on one's stomach on the weather rail is distinctly bad, as it means a broken neck to see what should be seen. Do not do this unless you can sail your boat by the feel of the helm, as only a very few of the best skippers can do. Know when you have the right of way and take it, unless you are going to spoil your chances of a win by accident and smash up with another boat, then merely tick your opponent, or let him go with a few words of advice. Know enough about your racing rules to cover any bluff, and never take unnecessary chances unless they are absolutely essential, but where they are needed, play the game for all it is worth, as every second counts in the racing boats of to-day. 23 CHAPTER IV SET OF THE RACING SAILS THE set of the racing sails, the all- important factor, the only means of propulsion for the wind-driven craft, means something in itself, as the yacht with this power alone moves at a speed faster than a great many of the largest steam yachts. The curvature, smoothness, correct cut and shape, rigidity, and staying power of the cloth, sometimes as light almost as a hand- kerchief, are great factors in the yacht's speed. Do not treat the sail as an inert object, there is life in its every movement, and it is the engine that drives the yacht, the wind, the power. This subject cannot be covered in a chapter or a volume, or possibly in many volumes, as there is considerably more in a sail than ap- pears to the casual observer. Men of brain and thought have worked for years trying to 24 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING find out the correct sail and reach a belief in certain theories, only to have their ideas shattered at some future time. It seems al- most an impossible equation to solve the power of wind on sails. The best sailmakers of to-day differ in their opinions as to how the different sails should be cut, fullness here, fullness there, a little more sweep to foot or head, the angle of the gaff to the hoist, and a thousand other details. Who is cor- rect.^ Some say one, some say another, but nobody knows. Is it a possible thing to ever find the correct answer.^ How should the sail be made to get the greatest driving power, point into the wind's eye, and have the least resistance for the movement through the atmosphere.^ And again, should this perfect sail be changed in shape to suit more exactly the type of yacht it is going to drive ? There is no doubt about it. The sail should fit the boat's model ; that seems to be the general opinion, but we do not actually know it ; it is simply an opinion. 25 THE SMALL YACHT On the present small racing yachts of the knockabout type, where the area is restricted to small sails, the best mainsail, with the greatest driving power, is one cut with a fair amount of draft or fullness in by the mast, an easy sweep to the center, and flattening out to a flat plane at the leech. This makes a nice hook for the positive pressure to work in and drive the boat ahead, and also allows the negative energy of the wind to escape freely and with the least possible resistance over the flat after end of the sail, this, of course, applying on windward work alone. Off the wind the entire area is positive pres- sure and driving the boat ahead. I am not considering the action of the lateral plane on the water. The jib should be of the same general idea, a little fullness along the hoist and a flat leech. If the leech of any sail has a tendency to hook over, wooden battens placed in pock- ets in the sail at right angles to the leech will flatten it; and if it still has a tendency to 26* he S n3 o o be T3 03 J3 a '? B p pJC ^ M 'd T3 c C *s *5 ho v c J2 5 2 "I- .0 «4-l ^ ^ >» s 1 CO -M cd a> C (4 a 3 ^ be c c 03 '5 c 3 P^ U--: U^ O ^ be »i4 C T3 s^ c C a; en :5 ^ cj r- *5 1 ^:i TJ , IS .£ "o) XJ ^ ^ "Z bo c C .2 'u [•M 03 dJ ^ -M J= be J A high ended easy formed Sender boat. She was first choice for the American team in 1907 to go to Germany ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING Then comes a series of hitches, depending on how the boat is holding her own or de- feating her rivals, and it is good policy to keep between the second boat and the mark. Remember, if the fleet splits into two divi- sions, to use your judgment as to how the wind is going to haul, and then go with that division, as you cannot cover two fleets. Keep your weather eye on the boats near- est you in a general way, or have your main- sheet-man do it. Know at all times what is going on with the others. If you see the leader in the other division has a lucky streak of wind, and you are defeating your fleet, go for the other man, as he has become your nearest competitor. In crossing his bows put your boat slightly to windward of his course and ahead, in a position to hurt him as much as possible by breaking up his wind. He quickly sees this and comes about, you following suit on the instant, always keeping between him and the mark. Never let him go for an instant, as your advantage in posi- 69 THE SMALL YACHT tion is very valuable, even if he is slightly faster. On rounding the mark get your spinnaker out as quickly as possible, having decided on the last leg to windward on which side to carry your pole, so that there shall be no delay when once around, because your dis- tance will be a great factor when running be- fore the wind, as it is the other boat which then breaks your wind and blankets you. Take your time in setting the spinnaker, be- cause hurry sometimes spoils everything, and if the sail is set with a twist in it, or gets afoul of something half hoisted, it means loss. If the third boat is near enough to the second, the second will luff out to windward in order to keep her wind clear. Allow her to do this, but hold your course unless she is near enough to bother you, as a straight line is the shortest distance between two points. In an increasing wind the stern boats get it first and so gain, but in a dying wind your slight lead becomes greater in actual time. When 70 1 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING you cross the finish line get your light sails off quickly, but do not allow any of the crew to walk around before you have finished, as the least movement hurts the sensitive racer. In racing boats of the knockabout type, with possibly a crew of three, there is no great necessity of heavy men, except when it is blow- ing very hard ; then the weight counts a great deal, as the boat is longer on the water-line, keeps her way better through a sea, and is held a little more on her feet and at a proper sailing angle. In light weather, weight is usu- ally a detriment. It is also a great advantage to have the same crew right along, because they finally get to work as one man. Every- body knows what to do without being told. The helmsman can usually steer the boat and either let go a jibsheet, preventer, or back- stay when tacking, leaving only a jibsheet and preventer to be taken in and cleated by the crew. And if the jibsheet-man is quick and gets his jib cleated on the turn or swing of the boat, you will be able to have the crew 71 THE SMALL YACHT always on the rail where the weight tells, and is most needed in a breeze, instead of having one of the crew pulling at the sheet to leeward and fooling around in the water, retarding the boat and losing precious seconds, all of which should be saved in the modern racer, when perhaps ten boats will finish within the space of time of one minute. In the skimming-dish racer, or the unbal- lasted boat, flat bottomed, long flat over- hangs, the positions and actions of the crew are of very great importance. Then it is abso- lutely necessary for the crew to work from rail to rail, as the boat swings when tacking, attending to their special duties as they move across so as to be in position on the weather rail when the craft fills away. This type of boat is slow in stays compared with the ballasted knockabout, and the skipper can usually give the crew plenty of time if he is careful in the way he tacks. She is light, and consequently her momentum is slight and she loses her headway very quickly. But, on the 72 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING other hand, her rudders, if she has two, are small, and you must not jamb them across her too quickly, as they will push sideways through the water and kill what headway you have. Feel that they have an effective turning grip on the water and let them go at that. In the bilgeboard boats, in use for the Seawanhaka International Cup, it is necessary to house one board each time you come about, leaving only the leeward one down. The mainsheet-man can usually slip the one that is lowered, and the regular bilgeboard-man take up on the other. The jibsheet-man can take care of both sheets which are crossed, the leeward one leading to windward, and vice versa, and the helmsman can hold the main- sheet whip for the mainsheet-man as the boat swings, handing it back to him as she fills away. This was the practice on the successful Seawanhaka Cup Challenger ''Manchester" in 1905. These scow boats are designed to sail on a 73 THE SMALL YACHT certain list to get the greatest benefit of the long straight side, and they should not be allowed to heel beyond their angle, because the windage of the side coming out to wind- ward is tremendous, and they are apt to slow up badly when knocked down in the hard puffs. It is much better to give them some mainsheet and sail them through the squall with a good full and going fast; then they are manageable, whereas if you allow them to stop they become unmanageable, and the rudders have no effect, comparatively speak- ing, as they are small and near the surface. The necessity of good handling shows up more in this type than in any other. 74 CHAPTER II LAYING COURSES, SETTING MARKS, ETC. IN laying out the courses you must bear in mind that draft of water is essential, and there should be at least fifteen feet of water everywhere, if possible, so the boat can sail freely and not drag bottom. Shoal water is quickly discovered, because the displace- ment wave is very greatly increased and the boat seems to suck and not run freely. Eel- grass and growth of any sort must be avoided, as sailing in these conditions is unfair to the keel boats compared with the centerboards. Points of land projecting into the course, or islands, should be avoided, for if they are in the way it comes down to the most daring skipper getting the advantage on account of being willing to take chances by going in nearer the land, trusting to luck that he will not strike. 75 THE SMALL YACHT The courses are always given on the saihng circular, and the person who sets the marks must be careful to follow the compass direc- tion given, and also be sure to get the length of each leg as close as possible to the pre- scribed distance, for if it should become nec- essary to sail by compass, the skipper must feel sure of the position of his marks. Never take a small ledge of rocks as a turning mark, as is very often done. Each mark should be discernible from the other with glasses, and should be substantially moored so that neither wind nor current can move it. A bright cone that flashes the sun's rays is an excellent device for marks. This, placed on the top of a ten-foot pole, can be seen at a great distance. The other kind of marks in common use are flag marks, barrels, small boats, lattice triangles, etc., the cone being superior to any other. 76 CHAPTER III DIRECTION OF WIND IN REGARD TO COURSE IN choosing or setting courses the judges must always set same according to the direction of the wind. If the start be to windward, lay the course dead to windward and not slightly off ; the starting line at exactly right angles to the wind and the first leg, mak- ing port and starboard tacks equal in benefit, as far as the wind is concerned, thus allowing a boat to start at either end of the line. If the course is a reach to the first mark, place the leeward mark at the end of the line nearer to the first rounding mark, so in case the boats go over on gun-fire the leeward boats will have their wind clear ; this gives a chance to spread out, and does not bunch the fleet on one spot at the weather end of the line. If the start is dead before the wind, the line should be set as to windward, making all 77 THE SMALL YACHT parts of the line equally advantageous to start from. The most satisfactory start is the windward leg first. This gives a chance for maneuvering at the start and brings sea- manship and skill into play for the berthing of the boat, and is really the most exciting and scientific part of the entire race, because getting away first in the weather berth means minutes as racing is carried on to-day. On the other hand, anybody can go over with sheets lifted or before the wind, and the skill then comes in getting clear of the fleet after the send-away. In a great many cases the racing clubs are restricted in setting their first mark on ac- count of a harbor or ledge that cannot be escaped or passed except in one direction. But if it is possible for a club to start their races in the open, then the direction of the wind as regards the laying of the course can be worked out in the correct manner, and the start then affords much more pleasure to the contestants. 78 CHAPTER IV FLYING AND TIME STARTS YEARS ago a fleet of yachts was started in a race from their anchors, when it was necessary to weigh anchor, hoist the headsails, and depart. This way of start- ing cut out all skill in maneuvering, and it came down to the crew who were able to get their craft under sail first. The time start is now used among the larger racing classes, that is, the preparatory signal is fired at a certain hour, and from then the yachts are under the racing rules. Five min- utes after this signal the starting signal is given, and the yachts can start any time after, within three or five minutes, as the case may be. Their time is taken as they cross, up to the three or five minute signal, which is the handicap gun, and after this signal they are handicapped. This kind of start calls for 79 THE SMALL YACHT jockeying and skill, and among the larger yachts, which are slow to turn and act as compared with the smaller classes, seems to be the best sort of send-away. The flying start, however, is the most ex- citing, as your time is taken from the send- away gun, there being no allowed time to start in, but it means handicap if you do not get away on gun-fire. This start is used all over the country among the smaller boats and certainly is by far the best. If a time start was given for the smaller classes it would be next to impossible to get the starting time correct on each boat on ac- count of their numbers ; and if the boats were sailing in restricted classes, and boat for boat, that is, no time allowance, it would mean complicated figuring, thus making it impossi- ble in many cases to tell who had won until the 'Himes" had all been figured out. Such a finish is decidedly unsatisfactory. 80 ^ r-^ C ^ CO -C G o 1; a o crj he Si c ^ I i ^ be 4^ P. O :2; 4^ C o ^^^Mi r CS be c CB g I .^ ^^ 1 ^ O C/3 Ci C ^ he C *w — C O a; eg. j2 c d; v > c o be 4-1 ^ CHAPTER V MANEUVERING FOR POSITION AT START THE position that a yacht is in at the start sometimes is important enough in itself to decide the race. Take for instance, a fleet of ten or fifteen knock- abouts, all practically alike, varying only in small details, your boat being the best to windward, but only slightly so. Your start is bad on account of getting to the line too soon and the boats coming along behind you take the windward berth, as you have to bear away in order not to cross too soon. The gun goes and you are covered up, your wind spoiled by a number of boats. It then be- comes necessary to beat them out, you being at a disadvantage to begin with. You finally succeed in passing all but one boat; she rounds the outer mark ahead, and the next leg is a very free run before the wind or a 6 81 THE SMALL YACHT reach home to the finish Hne ; but you cannot catch her, as she is sUghtly faster than your boat going off the wind. If, however, you had got away clear at the start you would not have been blocked by the slow boats on the windward leg, and you would have worked out a winning lead at the outer mark. This is merely an example to show what happens time and again when the race is lost on ac- count of a poor start. Be sure your watch is running all right, and test it with some of the guns that are fired for the larger classes. Then watch your fleet, see what they are going to do, and which end of the line has the advantage if there is any. If there is none take the starboard tack end, as then you will hold the right of way over the fleet at the other end. Try your boat over an imaginary distance to the line and time her carefully, then you will know approximately how long it will take to sail that distance, and will save get- ting to the line too soon at the start, thereby 82 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING losing your advantage. It is always a good rule to be just ahead of your fleet and be pushed over the line, so to speak. If you think you are going to reach the line too soon jibe your boat, if there is room, or give her the sheets ; then by pulling the main- sail flat in or letting it out you will kill her head- way. Be on the alert and take some chances if it is necessary to get out of a bad pocket. If you need room on the mark to keep from striking it, or if some other boat is going to strike you if you leave the right-of-way, give your adversary plenty of warning by calling ^'Right-of-way" before it is too late to avoid a catastrophe. Be polite in your requests, but take your rights, because if you give in once you will be expected to again. Use, however, common sense, and if your chances of winning are pretty good, let the others mix it up and come in collision, but keep clear of it yourself, sailing out and around the trouble and get away clear with a good lead before they get separated and started again. 83 THE SMALL YACHT If the first leg is a close or broad reach to the first mark, get to the windward end of the line five to fifteen seconds too soon, with your sails trimmed flat in and with little headw^ay. Then sail down the line, dodging anybody coming to it closehauled with the right-of- way, and swing across the line on gun-fire, having started or freed your sheets to get headway a second before, because it is essen- tial to have your wind clear on a reaching start. If some of the boats to windward get into a luffing match, let them go, as the short- est distance to a mark is a straight line. If the wind is shifty, keep somebody on each sheet, trimming and freeing as the wind varies its direction. There are, of course, hundreds of combina- tions in starting, but it is impossible to at- tempt to cover them all. 84 CHAPTER VI FIRST LEG TO LEEWARD OR WINDWARD THE position of the boat on the start- ing hne depends upon the direction of the wind, whether it is a beat or a run to the first mark. If it is a beat, and in a strong breeze, get everything set up taut, and especially the peak of the mainsail. Have everything tied down on deck and the boat put in good shape. Lie on top of the fleet as much as possible before starting so that you will have the weather berth when you are off and be in the best position for the windward leg. If it be a run before the wind, get your spinnaker pole and lay it on the side of the deck on which you are going to set it. The spinnaker should be coiled on deck and the head attached to the halliard and hoisted, if it is going to be set up in stops and not set flying. 85 THE SMALL YACHT If you see that the boats are bunching at one end of the line go to the other and keep clear of the fleet. Let them bother each other and do the lufiing and blanketing. Sail, if necessary, in a slight circle to avoid them and do not set or break out your spinnaker if it is blowing hard until you have your posi- tion fairly well assured. A boat is a much handier thing to maneuver, especially in a fresh breeze when luflBng is necessary, with- out the addition of a kite blowing all over the lot. Then, when the proper time comes, set your spinnaker quickly and fill away for your mark. If an island or any land comes in your way for a straight course, cut in as close as possible, for you can often gain a little by so doing. If you get away at the weather end of the line, put your spinnaker on directly and keep at first a little to the windward of your outer mark, so none of the stern boats can spoil your wind by blanketing you. 86 o .o o a; o c CHAPTER VII ROUNDING MARKS THERE are many effective ways of rounding marks, depending on cir- cumstances; the direction of the next leg in regard to the wind, whether to windward or to leeward; the question whether you are overlapped by another boat or you have an overlap yourself. I might explain here that an overlap is established when an overtaking yacht has no longer a free choice on which side she will pass, and continues to exist as long as the leeward yacht, by luffing, or the weather yacht, by bearing away, is in danger of fouling. When you are in the lead and you come to the mark, the next boat having a slight over- lap, it is necessary by the rules of racing to give him room to round without fouling the buoy. Bear away as you approach the buoy 87 THE SMALL YACHT and then swing sharp when abreast of it, giving the other boat just room for her bow between you and the mark. Point your boat as high as possible with your sails trimmed flat. You are to leeward, but she cannot pass you as you are throw- ing back wind into her sails and she either has to tack or come about; and by far the best thing for her to do, see- ing she cannot cover you at the turn, is to come about around the mark, thereby getting her wind clear. Tacking around a mark is an excellent thing to do, as it allows your sheet-man to pin the sails down where you want them without the strain of hauling them when they are full. 88 Cut 1. Rounding a mark, to go to windward. 2d boat does not give 3d boat room around the mark, and so fouls her, as 3d boat had an overlap on approaching it. 1st boat has given 2d boat room around the mark and is placed on the lee bow of 2d boat in an excellent position to back wind her, quickly drawing out ahead on account of it. 6th boat is overlapping 5th boat, so 5th boat will be forced to give room to No. 6, as they round. ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING When running to a mark with spinnaker set, keep your sail on her as long as you dare, but be sure to have time enough to take it in and get things ready for the windward leg, as that is what will tell in the end. When round- ing a mark, the next leg being before the wind, or reaching, cut it as close as possible on all sides, and get your sails across the boat in a hurry. If it means a jibe of the mainsail, start to take in on the mainsheet before you get to the mark ; this will allow you to shave it closer than if you jibed at the last moment. When approaching a mark coming to windward, keep your eye on it and be sure not to overstand it, as this means a loss. Get your spinnaker ready on the last hitch to windward ; if the next leg is before the wind, and when rounding, you give her the main- sheet and get a knock-down when you fill away, be sure and see that the mainsail does not foul the flag. Then keep slightly to wind- ward of your course while setting the spin- naker so that you shall not be blanketed by 89 THE SMALL YACHT the stern boats. If on the other hand you happen to be one of the stern boats swing out to windward and bother the leader all you can. It will worry him if you do not actually cut his wind, and if you do happen to spoil it, unless he is a great deal faster, you will soon close in on him and have an excellent chance of getting past him. 90 J CHAPTER VIII ALLOWANCES FOR TIDE OR CURRENT SHOAL SPOTS IN a great many localities, especially on salt water, the tide or current runs strong enough to be carefully figured on in sail- ing a race. You should always know whether the tide is coming or going, and in what gen- eral direction it runs on various parts of the course. If the wind is light it may make a great difference to the boat if she is held slightly high of the course to offset the tide or current. You should also use judgment in rounding marks and know how the cur- rent runs past them, so that you shall not be set down on the marks and foul them, being unable to get clear at the last moment. In river and lake sailing there is usually a back eddy close to shore, or under certain points of land, and these favorable spots 91 THE SMALL YACHT should be worked, as a head current retards the progress of a boat very materially. I have had experience in river and lake sailing where two rivers meet; the current in one being very strong and yet twenty feet further off; in the other there is practically still water, the dividing line being marked by shoal water and a distinct difference in the color of the water, one being brown and the other green. Use one current in beating to windward and the other in returning before the wind. Many races are won by reason of the skipper knowing where the shoal spots lie and avoiding them, as the boat slows up in shoal water; also by his knowing how to work the shore with its eddies and favorable slants of wind, and where the current or tide will favor him the greatest when sailing in a certain direction. If you are drifting along over a finish line, as is often the case, going directly with the current, it sometimes is an excellent scheme to slightly turn your 92 O bo C o o o C T3 I w o O ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING boat across the current in order to bring the flat side of your fin or centerboard against the strength of push of the current, this offering more resistance than through the sharp front and rear edge of the fin. If you are uncertain about the direction of tide or current it is a good rule to keep sHghtly to windward of the course, having a little to come and go on at all times. In reaching across a current that is fast setting you to windward, keep well to leeward of your mark in order to sail a straight line. Remember that the general tendency of a man setting out to windward, sailing a boat on a reach, is to keep the bow of the boat on the mark, where in reality the boat is sailing high of her course going through an arc of a circle. To tell exactly how you are sailing get directly amidships and look along over your bow. 93 CHAPTER IX BEATING TO WINDWARD SAILING to windward or beating to windward is the one special condition of sailing that requires skill to get good results. The pressure of the sail driving ahead is very slight ; you are going as near dead against the wind as is possible, so the pressure against your boat of wind and water is greater than under any other conditions. Here skill in handling, a smooth surface, well setting sails, little windage, all count for more than in any other point of sailing. You must not trim the sails too flat or allow them to be off too far, as either extreme will kill the boat's windward qualities. Remember, also, not to trim your sails exactly like some other boat, as it will not necessarily work. Every boat needs to be trimmed and balanced to suit her- 94 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING self, the sails or model being different in different boats. The peak of the mainsail must be well set up so the gaff shall not flow off at too great an angle and so lose the drive. By hoisting the peak you throw a nice bird's wing curve into the forward part of the sail, thus increasing the driving power. Always choose a comfortable position where you can watch your sails and boat. Keep her moving ahead at all costs; there is nothing gained by pointing her higher than she will comfortably go, and thereby lose headway. Keep the boat always on her feet and meet the knock-down puffs half way by luffing and slightly spilling the wind from the sails. It is a good idea to keep the mainsail slightly lift- ing or fluttering in by the throat, if you have enough wind to give a fair move. In a seaway it is usually better to give her slightly more of a full, in order to better carry your headway through the jump. To be sure of the best driving mainsail for 95 THE SMALL YACHT all conditions in windward work, it is neces- sary to have several sails. A very full one for light weather, with good lift and play to the boom. Have a fairly flat one for a breeze, so that you may get the benefit of the forA\^ard part to help keep the boat's head off when going to windward. This eases up on the rudder and the tendency to come up into the wind is less with the forward part drawing. The perfect balance of the yacht to windward is very essential to speed. The rudder should trail out directly astern and should be used simply to turn, and not to do the work that the sails should do, namely, keep her from coming up into the wind or running off to leeward. 96 Windward side, showing long straight sailing lines and port rudder Weather bilge-board hoisted i Note position of main boom for light weather work On a close reach at ^ood speed. Easy formed scow Sonder boat, choice for the American team of 19()(). A very fast boat in light weather. Note especially smooth wake First CHAPTER X REACHING REACHING, for the modern small racing boat, is the fastest point of sailing in most conditions. When running before the wind you cannot go faster than the wind is blowing; while in beating to windward the boat is laced down and does not have the free action that she shows when the sheets are well started and the sails are lifting, so getting all the benefit of the drive. Reaching may be either broad or close. By broad, I mean when the wind is coming over the weather side further aft than a-beam ; by close, I mean when the wind comes forward of the beam and you can still fetch your mark without going to windward. Reaching is a condition of sailing where model counts a good deal, although not nearly so much as when going to windward. 7 97 THE SMALL YACHT Any boat can reach, as there is nothing for the skipper to do except station his crew in the best possible positions and keep his sails just right with every inch of canvas drawling. If it is not blowing too hard, it is advisable not to cleat your sheets, but put a man on each one. Have him watch the sails and be sure that they are always full of wind. On a reaching start there is always bound to be a lot of luffing and bearing away to be done and the craft is never steady on her course. If the wind is very heavy and there is also a heavy sea running, the modern boat is very apt to yaw and twist and be very un- easy and hard on her helm, twisting and turn- ing on her narrow fin. The bow wave is usually very large and has a tendency to make the boat broach to. When she has a coamer under her stern quarter, pay her off slightly in order to let her run on the crest as far as possible, which she will do at great speed. Do not attempt to check every slight move or twist caused by the sea, as it is impossible, 98 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING and the rudder will stop her far more, turn- ing from one side to the other, than though you let her alone. Of course, if there be a twist of any magni- tude, take it early and check her, but as she swings back into her course straighten the helm out slowly so as not to send her beyond her true course, and so make it necessary to put the helm hard down. In other words, feel your boat and help her ; do not retard her by unnecessary turning of the rudder. 99 CHAPTER XI RUNNING BEFORE THE WIND RUNNING before the wind is the point of sailing that is usually most monot- onous. As the boat is traveling with the wind, you cannot feel a draft and it is often very warm. Light sails are carried before the wind, such as spinnaker and bal- loon jib. The mainsail should be freed out until it touches the shrouds and can go no further. It is sometimes impossible to free it as far as this, if the wind is heavy, as the jaws of the gaff are apt to split on account of the gaff swinging well forward of the mast with the jaw prying against the mast and shrouds. The spinnaker is set on the opposite side to the mainsail, and, if the wind is dead astern, is guyed well aft; that is, the pole is set per- pendicular to the side of the boat, held by the 100 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING guy attached to its outer end and cleated on the stern of the boat. The spinnaker sheet is carried around the mast and outside the leeward shroud and led aft. This sheet is either freed or hauled down, as the case may be, allowing the spinnaker to balloon up or flatten down. If allowed to flow forward the wind from the leech will spill into the balloon jib and thus you will get some little pull from that sail. If the wind is unsettled, hauling to the quarter and aft again, it is an excellent scheme to have a man on the spinnaker guy to let it out and take it in at a moment's notice, so that the sail will never be lifting but always a hard full. The boat before the wind is in an upright position and this often means a great bow wave is piling up under the long flat forward overhang and lifting the craft off her ordinary sailing lines. In this case, it is a good idea to carry a man w^ell forward in order to hold her head down and so keep her on her lines. In the ''V" shaped section craft, this is usually 101 THE SMALL YACHT wrong, as she cuts the water, throwing it to either side, and having the tendency to bury forward when running down hill on a sea. In this case keep your men well aft in order to keep her bow out and the deck clear of solid water forward. If you are sailing the long flat scow before the wind, keep your crew on the lee rail, in order to heel her as far as possible, especially in light weather, as when upright, the flat form is a great hindrance to speed for many reasons. It is also a good plan, if your mainsail, when hoisted high for windward work, shows wrinkles, to slack off the peak halliard a trifle, thus smoothing out the sail and getting thereby a more effective surface. If in a roll of a sea and in light weather the jib is slatting back and forth, knocking against the spinnaker and thus spoiling its wind, always lower the jib and get rid of it as it is doing much more harm than good. It is very essential that the spinnaker and main- 102 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING sail shall not slacken any more than abso- lutely necessary. If the weight of the mainsheet is too great for the boom and sail to hold out, and the sheet drags in the water, place one of the crew on the boom, in by the mast, thus holding it in position, or else unwreathe your mainsheet, excepting one part, thus cutting out the weight of the rope. 103 CHAPTER XII WHEN TWO BOATS ARE CONVERGING ONE of the most common occurrences during a race, and perhaps one of the most important incidents, which calls for the nicest handling is when two boats are coming together, or converging, either on different tacks or on the same tack, or when one boat (the windward one) is not able to hold as high a course as the leeward one, al- though going through the water at the same rate of speed, or a little faster. Of course the right-of-way here plays an all-important part ; the craft with the starboard tack (both boats sailing to windward) has the right-of-way over the craft on the port tack. The question then arises — if boat ''A" (see diagram No. 2), holding the port tack, can get across boat ^'B's'' bow, holding the starboard tack with right-of-way, if "A" can cross ^^B," "A" 104 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING should do so by all means and tack immedi- ately to windward and ahead of ^'B," thereby forcing ^*B" to tack or sail ^ along with his wind badly cut up. ''B" on the other hand should swing about on the other tack when ''A" swings to block him, thereby losing nothing. rr\ ^ .i Tf» ^UT 2. A about to lake another case, it cross B on the port "A," on the port tack, can- not cross ''B's" bow without '^^ being fouled, "A'' should tack under "'B's" bow just to lee- ward and ahead, thereby giving "B'' a dose of back wind that will force him to come about or lose distance. This latter trick jus^t't^ wMward should be executed when in ex- tTul S^'b^s actly the right position, because ^^^* when tacking ''A'' loses head- way and ''B'' may slightly luff and then bear down on ^'A," finally covering him and 105 A' Cut 4. B swing- ing to port in or- der to get her wind clear. THE SMALL YACHT passing to windward, badly spoiling ''B's" wind and dropping him well astern before he can get his wind clear again. ''B/' however, cannot drive ^^A" off to leeward, if you are sailing un- der the rules of the leeward boat hav- ing the right-of-way when two boats are converging on the same tack for the reason of hold- ing a better wind, but can pass close to ''A" without ''A" being able to touch ''B." When two boats are sailing on a reach, "A'' catching ^^B," ^^B" can luff until '^ A'' has an overlap ; then ''B" must hold his course and should not change it, believ- ing that he holds the right-of-way, being the leeward boat. The rule used by some clubs is that the 106 Cut 5. A has tacked under B's lee bow, having been unable to cross B's bow, as B holds the starboard tack and right- of-way. A is now in an ex- cellent posi- tion to back- w^nd B and so force B to tack to port. ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING leeward boat shall have the right-of-way over the windward boat on account of holding a better wind, and being unable to tack when close aboard the other boat. The only chance then of not striking is to bear away. This is a much better rule. The other rule is that the windward boat has the right-of-way over the leeward, but has got to hold her course when passing another boat. 107 CHAPTER XIII TWO BOATS APPROACHING A MARK A GREAT many of the fouls and pro- tests that are handed into the Regatta Committee to decide are caused when two boats are approaching a mark, or actu- ally rounding it. Somebody had the right-of- way, and the question arises. Who was it ? This question in a race is usually a very important one, because the yacht that gets around first gains a very great advantage over her competitor, in that it is necessary for the other boat to pass her in order to beat her home. Passing a boat on a reach is an exceptionally difficult matter, if the boats are equally fast. To windward it is also difficult, as the first boat around can cover the other one. Before the wind, however, the second boat around the mark can cover the first, if she is close enough to take her wind. 108 Just after the start in close quarters. No. 24 in weather berth and in leadin<^ position. A good example of the 18-foot knockabouts ^ , --y rv '"""ft^^^am^^SBSJ^gi^ .«k Start of Massachusetts Bay 18-foot knockabout class. First leg a broad reach, showing how boats spread out on a start of this sort im^ O J3 o c o J3 (LI a; c3 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING When two boats are coming to a mark for the purpose of rounding, on different tacks, the boat having the right-of-way on the star- board tack should make it as bad for the other as possible, forcing him to tack, thus carrying him past the mark, if he tacks under his bow, or else forcing him to go under his stern. If the boats are approaching a mark both on the starboard tack, the windward boat should be careful to sail on that tack far enough so as to be sure to easily bring the mark on the next tack, and stay close enough to the leeward boat so that she cannot tack to port and go under your stern with her wind clear. When two boats are coming to a mark, sailing before the wind with spinnaker set, then the stern boat should so figure as not to pass the first one too soon, and so lose the advantage of being the inside boat on the turn, but should hold back until the right moment and then forge ahead and abreast 109 THE SMALL YACHT of the other, on the inside, thereby cutting in on the mark and being the weather boat after the turn, with the other one to leeward and behind. Be sure to get the spinnaker off in time to have things snug when you round, especially if it is blowing hard, so that the crew can attend to the boat to windward, and get her going properly, without delay. When two boats are reaching for a mark, and the stern boat has an overlap of, say the bowsprit, the first boat has to give her room around the mark. Do not give more room than is necessary while you round slightly in the lead and to leeward, squeezing your boat as high as possible in order to backwind the one to windward and astern of you. This can very often be done and the stern boat will be forced to tack away from you. When you are approaching or rounding a mark, carefully figure out what certain moves will result in when once around. 110 CHAPTER XIV MANY BOATS APPROACHING A MARK FOR THE PURPOSE OF ROUNDING THERE are a thousand different com- binations which a fleet of from three to twelve boats could assume when rounding a mark well bunched. I will point out certain cases and explain these. Saying a fleet of four boats, as often hap- pens, is approaching a mark for the purpose of rounding, all going to windward on the star- board tack ; the leeward boat is ahead and each following boat overlaps the one nearest him to leeward ; the next leg is a beam or quartering run. Of course, the boat ''D,'' being farthest to windward, has the freest course and can sail through the water faster than the others ; she has the greatest distance to go, however, and cannot get around before '' A " (see diagram 6), ''D" having to sail on the out- Ill THE SMALL YACHT s"*-* / side of the circle. ''A" having the right-of- way, the other boats have to give ''A" room to round the mark with- out crowding her on to it. ^'D" sees that after rounding she will be to leeward, and behind in an impossible position to do anything and, there- fore, must in some way get to weather of the other boats, after the round, not being far enough ahead to kill them by cutting their wind as they are approaching the mark. ^^D " continues in her position until well up to the mark, then slows up by easing her sheets, or luffing sharply, and bears off again 112 Cut 6. Approaching the windward mark, all over- lapping one another. % A Cut 7. D bear- ing away in an at- tempt to cut in on the turn as A, B,and C slightly luff each other out to wind- ward. ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING immediately when she can cross the sterns of "B" and "C,'' which she does, and with her increased speed off the wind puts her bowsprit just to leeward of 'A," between ''A'' and the mark, thus making "A" give "D'' room at the mark to round cin 8. D cuts in to in {^f^(^ HinoraTTl S ^ weather position on the m. (pee aiagram o.; ^^^^ ^^^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^^^^ "!>'' is then saiUng on J^The mli? ^^' ''''''^ the small arc of the circle and jibes with the others, being then in the weather position and abreast the others, if not ahead. (See diagram 9.) This same maneuver can be applied to a fleet running before the wind where the outside boat JZnfor\Tr:tt:t ^^ '^^ ^ ^ad position on fi*"^^!"^^- the round. She has been the weather boat all the way down the first leg before the wind, but has been unable 8 113 THE SMALL YACHT to gain any lead as her wind is taken the minute she forges ahead. (See diagram 10.) As ''A," the leeward boat, gets well down to the mark before she jibes, ''D" takes her spinnaker aboard, jibes her mainsail quickly, and with a rush crosses the sterns of "B" of Cut 10. Approaching the mark, before the wind. D in a bad position for the turn. and '^C' and, placing her bowsprit between ''A" and the mark, forces her way into the weather position on the round. (See dia- gram 11.) This is made possible because ''D" is able to run across the wind faster than before it, and is also helped by the 114 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING delay of the other boats taking in their spinnakers and jibing their mainsails. ''B" and ''C" may try to follow suit, but it is too late, as '"D" has taken their wind and is to g Cut 11. D jibes mainsail to starboard be- fore the other boats and just before reaching the mark, reaches across their sterns for the inside position at the turn. windward and ahead. (See diagrams 12 and 13.) The best thing for ^^B" and "C to do is to keep clear of the fleet by taking a large sweep around, especially if the next leg is a reach, thus getting their wind clear. If the leg is to windward, they are free to come about on the starboard tack when they wish, not being tangled up with the weather boats, 115 THE SMALL YACHT and having their wind clear, which is a great thing for windward work. When the fleet is running free, approach- ing a guide mark, which only means a slight cT Cut 12. All the boats have jibed and taken in spinnakers. D has gained the best position for the turn, being wind- ward boat and on the inside. Cut 13. A close reach, D to windward, C bearing away for the mark in order to get her wind clear of the other three boats. change in course, say from dead before the wind to a little more than wind on the quarter, but still free enough for spin- nakers (see diagram 14), ^'A" sees she cannot round ahead as she cannot get across the bows of "B," "C," and ^^D," 116 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING so keeps well off the mark and does not mix up with the leaders, ''B," ''C/' and *'D/' who, on the second they round, begin a luffing match, going well to weather Cut 14. Approaching a guide mark before the wind. A in a bad position as they round and slightly change their course. Cut 15. B and C rounding, holding high of their course m order to keep their wind clear. A keeping well away to leeward and heading for the mark. of their course. (See diagrams 15 and 16.) Their spinnakers not drawing well, "A'" should keep slightly to leeward so 117 THE SMALL YACHT to be sure to keep her round clear; then when ^'B," ^^C/' and ''D" square away, '^A" will find herself well to the front and in an excellent position, as she can sail slightly across the wind, being to leeward. '•''/» JD C 0) o o be c /C u 3 T3 CHAPTER XVII THE FLEET RACE THE Fleet Race is the common type of race for a number of boats, each one for himself. There is possibly some luck in the finishes of the Fleet Race, as the crack boat may get away badly at the start, being covered by a quantity of the slower boats, and so being unable to get clear of the slow ones until it is too late to win; one of the faster boats by that time having worked out quite a safe lead. This is often the case, and in many respects the race is, for this reason, not so satisfactory. As I mentioned in one of my earlier chap- ters, it is impossible for one boat to cover both sections; when in going to windward part go one way and part another hunting for flukes. If luck is against the best boat she will lose through no fault of her own, whereas 131 THE SMALL YACHT in the Match Race and Team Race you can stay with your competitors. This view is taken, of course, by the owner of the best boat in a Fleet Race, and the man with the slower boat wants to win some of the time, even if he does get a little lift by the wind favoring him. Most of the general points that are possible to give in a work of this sort I have mentioned in previous chapters, so there is no use in speaking of them again here. I will say, however, that good judgment and careful attention to winds and tides will win in the long run over the man who is careless and by luck has fallen into first place now and then. 132 CHAPTER XVIII SETTING AND TAKING IN LIGHT SAILS WHEN the setting and taking in of light sails is done or handled in a clever, quick way, it is a matter of great satisfaction to the captain and crew, and sometimes is worth minutes to all con- cerned. Say, for instance, the spinnaker is set in- stantly on rounding, the next boat is a few feet astern and is slow in getting her kite set ; with the added sail you quickly draw away, as a spinnaker is a tremendous help off the wind. You can sometimes establish a lead that will be difficult to overcome. This is not so true of the balloon jib, as on a reach it simply takes the place of the working sail and the added area is not tremendous. It is always a good idea to get your light sails out of their bags and neatly coiled up below 133 THE SMALL YACHT with the head up so that when you need them they are ready and clear for you without delay. In the smaller classes where the spin- naker booms are under fifteen feet long, it is unnecessary to have your sail set up in stops for hoisting and breaking out, as usually the thread is too strong, there is a twist in the sail, or something else happens to delay getting it spread to the wind ; whereas if you hoist it flying, even if there is a twist in it, it will free itself, and there is at least some of the sail drawing from the start. When setting the spinnaker, if stopped up the sail is hoisted, hooked on to the end of the boom, boom pushed out and hauled aft by the guy, cleated, and then broken out. If the spinnaker is set flying, hoist the sail more or less under the lee of the mainsail, cleat hal- liard, snap the tack on to the boom end, push your pole out without trimming the sheet, get it aft, and then trim the sheet. Be sure the pole is well up the mast so that the outer end shall point slightly downward. This will pre- 134 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING vent the sail skying upward when it first fills away. The best method of taking the sail in, when the sail and sheet are allowed to go forward of the head stay, is to let go the guy completely, the sail coming forward, take pole off mast, unhook tack from end of pole and let it go; the sail then released goes in under the lee of the other sails and is lowered away and hauled in simultaneously by the sheet under the jib, and is easily smothered. To take in the balloon jib, having already set the working sail to windward of it, start the halliard, slightly unhook the tack from the stem and let it go, then lower away and haul sail in by the sheet to leeward. If the spinnaker cannot be carried forward of the headstay (and a great many rules re- strict this) let go your spinnaker guy, taking the pole off the mast at the same time, unhook tack off end of pole and lower away, being careful not to get the sail caught in the jib snap hooks when lowering, and thus neces- 135 THE SMALL YACHT sitate lowering the jib to free it. Be sure to smother the sail with your arms and legs, so it shall not get overboard. There are many patent devices for setting and taking in the light sails, but I have found by experience that the best way in general is the manner here outlined. 136 CHAPTER XIX REEFING REEFING during a race, except for a squall, is not a possible thing to do among the modern boats and win. If you attempt to reef, somebody else will lug their sail, and you cannot make up for lost time unless it blows a hurricane and your opponents are completely overpowered. There are, however, many kinds of so-called patent reefs whereby pulling a line on either side of the boom, with long reef points attached to it, you can reef your sail. Then there is the roller boom that revolves, and the sail is rolled up on it to any extent you wish. I have seen all the various schemes in action and have tried out a great many, but the drawbacks and disadvantages are far in excess of any good you may derive from their use. Ordinary stops, or eyes, 137 THE SMALL YACHT and lace lines are better than anything yet discovered. The reef should always be tied down be- fore starting, remembering that it is much easier to shake out than tie in. The quickest reef to shake out is the reef tied down with a lace line which goes under the sail on the boom, and through an eye in the sail round and round, the reef earings, of course, being of the ordinary sort. To shake out a reef of this sort, take a knife and cut the lace-line in two or three places along the boom, thereby freeing the entire sail in be- tween its outer points; this being done, cut the earings on each end and hoist away on your sail. This entire work can be done in thirty seconds and the boat kept going along, practically losing nothing, whereas if the sail is tied down with the ordinary points it means that every point must be untied, and if you happen to find a square knot among them, it means cutting the point. 138 CHAPTER XX ACCIDENTS TO SAILS, SPARS, RIGGING, OR CREW THE accidents that happen to the racing boat should be few, if the boat is properly tuned up and every- thing tested out thoroughly and replaced when worn. However, no matter how care- ful a person may be, accidents are sure to happen once in awhile. If you tear a sail, say the mainsail, by having one of the reef points catch, keep on if you are leading until the sail goes ; the chances are that it will not do any- thing more than worry you. If you tear a spinnaker all to pieces on the first round of a course, set another. Here the carrying of a second sail is invaluable. If you lose a mast, there is nothing for it but to quit ; also a boom or gaff. But two spinnaker poles should be carried in 139 THE SMALL YACHT important races, as they are very apt to be broken, being small and thrown around a great deal. The rigging, if it is not a main shroud, or bobstay, can usually be repaired. For in- stance, if your headstay goes, and your mast still stands, take a piece of the anchor cable and tie to the wirestay with a square knot, then with one of your preventers, or extra halliards, set the mast forward and tie it to the stem or bowsprit. If this cannot be done, lead forward one of the halliards, both ends being tied down to the stem. If you lose a jib or peak halliard, use the balloon jib halliard, or spinnaker halliard, if there is any chance of their standing the strain. Always carry extra blocks and tackles to replace anything of this sort. If a main shroud goes, tack your boat im- mediately so as to bring the strain on the other; this will give you a chance to fix up the parted one. Tie a loop, if you can reach the upper broken end, and hook in a watch 140 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING tackle, hooking the other end into the chain plate, and set up. If you lose a peak halliard block, set up on another halliard, and trust to luck the other block will carry the strain. If a throat hal- liard goes, hook in the spinnaker halliard and hoist away. Do not set up a single part too taut. If you break a tiller, and have not an oar on board to steer with, while you are mending it take out one of the floor boards, and if it is long enough, steer over the lee side with it; if it is short, lash it to your spinnaker boom jaws and steer with the pole. If you lose a bowsprit, and have an eye on the stem head, hook your headstay in there temporarily, or on the bitts. If you have neither of these devices, pass a loop well down over the forward overhang, bringing the ends together at the center of the deck and hitch your headstay there. There are, of course, many other makeshift devices. If one of your crew falls overboard, throw him a life-preserver, or whatever there is 141 THE SMALL YACHT within reach that will be of any use. Then tack and pick him up. Do not trust to some- body else to get him, no matter how good a swimmer he may be ; get him aboard as soon as possible, as a life is of much more value than a win. In case a squall comes up, watch the boats to windward of you and see how they are faring in it; have your halliards ready, so that you can lower away at the last moment. After you have felt it, and seen the magnitude of it, get your sails on her again if possible. Have your compass handy, so that in the rain and mist you will not lose your direction. 142 i CHAPTER XXI POSITIONS OF CREW DURING RACE THE positions of the crew during the race is of no little importance. They should be stationed so that they can handle their respective sheets without mov- ing about and should also be able to utilize their strength to the best possible advantage. Their positions in the cockpit, and on the windward and leeward rail, should be known, and, in ordinary conditions, the center of their weight should be just about over the center of buoyancy of the hull of the boat. If the wave under the bow is too great and lifts her head too much, shift your crew slightly for- ward to counterbalance this tendency. A good arrangement for three men is, one for- ward of the helmsman, handling both jib- sheets, and one aft, handling mainsheet and one preventer, the skipper taking the other. 143 THE SMALL YACHT If the skipper is on the windward rail, he should kneel down, not lie down, as then he could see nothing and would be in an un- comfortable position. The jibsheet-man just forward can lie down and out, and if the main- sheet-man just aft is not playing the main- sheet, he can lie down; otherwise have him sit up in a strong position, feet or knees braced against the coaming so as to be able to pull. In heavy conditions the position of the main- sail is of a great deal more importance than the windage of the crew. The jibsheet-man can lead his leeward sheet to windward and cleat it there ; and vice versa, so he does not move off the rail until the boat tacks, in order to slack his jib, he also hauls it in from the weather rail. If the helmsman cannot comfortably reach his tiller from the weather rail, have a luffing stick made, consisting of a short, stout stick, say two feet long, so that he can hold it comfortably, with a leather strap to slip over the tiller head and so connect at right angles. This arrangement will allow 144 Exaggerated type of the narrow flat Sonder boat, showing position of crew on lee rail in order to heel boat to proper sailing angle in light weather A flat formed, low ended Sonder Class boat, showing lifting tendency of bow wave even in very Ugh*: weather Going to windward in light weather. Weather boat running up on sea and blocking leeward one Going to windward. Note correct position of man on weather rail ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING him to sit well out to weather where his weight will tell. In a long, flat scow the crew need not bunch up in the center of the boat, but can string along on the rail, the boat being waterborne for such a great distance it will come easier on the construction to spread out the weight as much as possible. This will also give plenty of room for handling, and the crew will not be so apt to get in each other's way when tacking. It is impossible to set any hard and fast rule for positions of the crew, as boats differ in their weights; the best way is for each man to try his boat, changing the crew at various intervals. There is one thing, however, of great im- portance, that is, that everybody shall remain just as quiet and still as possible, as the least movement retards the sensitive racer's speed tremendously. 10 145 CHAPTER XXII COMPASS COURSES THERE is not a great deal to be said in regard to compass courses for small racing boats, as generally the races are sailed on inside courses and the marks can be seen when you have approached within a mile of them. It nevertheless is im- portant to always carry a chart and compass, as it is impossible to tell when they might be of the greatest use to you in winning the race. If, for instance, you see a fog shutting in, get your direction by compass, and also the gen- eral direction of the wind, and if there are any marks between you and the turning buoy, pick them up one by one, using them as guide marks. This will insure your correct direc- tion. Be careful in using a compass that there is no anchor or any amount of metal under the cockpit floor, as this will throw 146 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING your compass out of true. If you are going to windward, sail your boat by your watch, say five to ten minutes on one tack, and the same length of time on the other, making short hitches. Then you cannot be far out, no matter what happens. If the wind is very light the tendency of many skippers sailing in a fog is to allow the boat to fall off and off, not having kept an eye on the compass and getting completely turned around by the fog. It is an excellent thing to have all courses laid out on the cir- cular or chart with the compass directions written in, then there will be no delay in plotting them. 147 CHAPTER XXIII TYPES OF SMALL RACING YACHTS IN AMERICA USUALLY the type of the small racing yacht is directly dependent on the locality in which she is to be used. For instance, deep water allows either the keel or centerboard ; shoals, bays, rivers, and lakes, especially of the smaller size, usually mean a shoal centerboard. In the eastern part of the country to-day the so-called knock- about, either keel or centerboard, but with many hundred pounds of lead placed outside for ballast, is the type most used. There are many restricted classes of this type — of from ten to forty boats, scattered along the coast. In the western part of the country, especially on large lakes, where for the last few years small racing fleets have grown with great rapidity, the low-sided, flat scow is used almost entirely. When the restrictions are 148 21-foot water line unrestricted racing scow, 50 feet over all, 1900 feet of sail in mainsail and jib. Built on steel truss. About the limit that this type can go and still hold together Three hulled boat built on wire trusses on 21-foot water line with iOOO square feet of sail. She was impossible to handle in anything other than very light weather, having no ballast ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING special, the class built under these is named for them, but usually the class name is the type and water-line length. They are as follows : 15' knockabouts 18' 21' 21' raceabouts (600 sq. ft. sail) 22' cabin class (Massachusetts Bay) 25' knockabouts 25' cabin class (Massachusetts Bay) 21' " '* (Great Lakes) 21' Quincy Cup boats (unrestricted, except water-line length) Seawanhaka Cup Class (International, about 27' water-line) 18' class scows (Western Lakes) 20' " " (Western Lakes) Special International Sonder Class "Q" Class under universal rule, used only on the Atlantic seaboard, between New York and Boston. There are, beside the above-named classes, many local classes not so well known, such as several one-design 30-foot classes of keel boats, etc. 149 CHAPTER XXIV SALT VS. FRESH WATER IT is necessary in practically all cases to use the water for sailing that is nearest your home, if of any magnitude, and be very thankful to have that, as there are many men very fond of sailing that for some reason or other can never take part in the sport. The difference in conditions between salt and fresh is very great, and usually a very different type of boat is needed to compete successfully in either one. In the Western Lakes, Great Lakes, and St. Lawrence River, the wind is apt to blow very hard, and con- sequently kicks up a short choppy sea that is difficult to handle. It is also a very puffy wind and the most successful boats are usu- ally sailed with low rigs in comparison to those used on salt water. The inland lakes and rivers are very apt to be shoal and a center- 150 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING board boat becomes a necessity for pleasure as well as racing. This is not true of the Great Lakes, as there is plenty of water almost everywhere, and the deep keel, salt water boat is used almost entirely. Power in the beam and ballast, either in the centerboard or keel boats, is of vast importance, because the winds that blow over the fresh w^aters in America are usually very strong. This is generally not so on the salt water, where a high rig and an easy moving hull are essen- tial in the racing boat, the sea being long and rolling and the winds apt to be aloft. One advantage the fresh water sailors have over salt, especially in certain localities, is that by dipping a cup overboard you can quench your thirst, and the old salt saying of — "'Water, water, everywhere, and not a drop to drink," does not stand. When seeing this done for the first few times it strikes the salt water man as very amusing. I consider fresh water sailing in most cases, more difficult than salt, especially if you do 151 THE SMALL YACHT not know your course, as the currents and puffs of wind come from almost any direction, for no perceptible reason. You may be sail- ing along with a twelve-mile breeze, and with- out any warning a forty-mile- an-hour wind will spring up and blow for ten minutes or so, then drop to a very light air again, there being at all times a perfectly clear sky. The reason for this is, I suppose, the topographical lay of the surrounding country and the tempera- ture of the water, it usually being very much warmer than the salt, on account of its shal- lowness. The salt water, on the other hand, usually has a steady wind blowing after ten o'clock in the morning. The early morning breeze is very variable; and as the morning advances and the land heats up, the sea breeze and prevailing wind for the day comes in. Undoubtedly the salt water has a fresh- ness and life about it that the fresh water never seems to have, and this helps to make it very attractive. In my opinion fresh water sailing cannot compare with salt. 152 CHAPTER XXV NECESSITY OF EXPERT JUDGES AND TIMERS THE necessity of having for officials in yacht races the best possible men procurable cannot be too strongly impressed upon the racing yacht clubs. There are many cases in which a great deal has depended on one race, and for some reason or other the officials were either in- capable or were making too much of an out- ing of the race, thus forgetting their first duties, which are to see that the rules under which the race is sailed are lived up to and that no boat is pocketed and beaten unfairly. This sort of thing does not happen among the best clubs, but if the smaller ones intend to give races, and they are allowed to count for a championship series, then the club should get men who are competent to run the race prop- erly, and leave the other sort of fun out until 153 THE SMALL YACHT after it is over. The officials should not be ''land lubbers" and '"piazza yachtsmen/' but men who have been through it themselves, being able to give the right direction to start- ing and finish lines ; get the classes away prop- erly and at right intervals, and generally un- derstand what they are doing. This, I am sorry to say, is sometimes overlooked and causes a great deal of discontent among the competitors, the consequences being that the next year the races given by that club are a great fizzle, as few skippers care to sail under such conditions. The officials should remember that they are there to run a race and help the boats as much as possible, not to irritate and be dis- agreeable to the skippers and crews. There are many cases of this sort to-day that have meant the winning or losing of a championship on account of poor officials. 154 CHAPTER XXVI INTERNATIONAL SMALL YACHT RACING INTERNATIONAL small yacht racing should be encouraged in every way, as it is by far the most satisfactory race to win, on account of its international character. Of course the America's Cup is the ''Blue Ribbon" of the world, standing alone for the greatest speed in yachts not over ninety feet water-line. Second to the America's Cup is the Seawanhaka International Challenge Cup, donated by the Seawanhaka-Corinthian of New York, U. S. A., in 1894, for the pur- pose of bringing together in friendly competi- tion yachts of small size representing the various countries. This Cup was successfully defended by a Canadian Club, the Royal St. Lawrence Y. C. of Dorval, Canada, for nine years, truly a remarkable performance, espe- cially as it was challenged for by the greatest 155 THE SMALL YACHT small yacht racing clubs in America. It was finally won by the Manchester Y. C. of Manchester, Massachusetts, U. S. A., in 1905, in three straight races, the challenging yacht ''Manchester" breaking all records for the course on Lake St. Louis, Canada, and sail- ing as fast as fifteen knots across the wind. This was a remarkable performance for a boat carrying only five hundred square feet of sail. This class of Seawanhaka boats, so called, are the fastest boats in the world for the sail area. Thus the Seawanhaka Cup stands for the greatest speed in small boats. Another International Challenge Cup is the Canada's Cup, raced for between America and Canada on the Great Lakes. The restrictions under which these boats were built have been changed from year to year, and a sharp ended thirty-footer with a moderate rig has been the usual type. In 1906 the first International small boat series of races for the Roosevelt Cup was sailed between Germany and America, off 156 ^:**-W •'!!'tz^j^ 'jklf > mS v^ &^ •^ 1 c o 03 i i German team in American waters in 1906 During one of the International races with Germany in 1906. The three American boats in the background leading ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING Marblehead, Massachusetts, U. S. A., and again in 1907 a series was sailed between the same countries off Kiel, Germany, for the Emperor William Cup, and still again in 1909 another series will be sailed between the representatives of the same countries off Marblehead for the President Taft Cup. Another series is that with Spain, the first contest taking place at San Sebastian in 1907, and a return contest will be sailed at Marble- head in 1910. 157 CHAPTER XXVII THE COST AND EXPENSE ACCOUNT OF THE RACING YACHTS A PERSON cannot expect to race a yacht successfully unless he is will- ing to haul her out of water once a week for a polish, put on at least two new mainsails a season, and keep the boat in the best possible repair. To do this costs a good deal of money, but if one man does it, he has the advantage of the person who does not. Racing is expensive, and if a person goes into it he must see his way clear to do everything that is necessary. It costs somewhere be- tween fifteen and thirty dollars to have a boat of the smaller class hauled out and potleaded. Then there are also incidental expenses, new running rigging, broken spars to replace, boat varnished, painted, or polished, etc. A suit of the best seven ounce sails, 550 158 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING square feet, and with a No. 2 jib and spin- naker, covers, bags, stops, etc., costs between one hundred and forty and two hundred dollars, but this is figuring on the best pro- curable. A thirty-foot hollow mast costs forty dollars. The first cost of a fully equipped raceabout is between $1400 and $2000, and an eighteen- foot knockabout, M. Y. R. A., costs between $850 and $1400. A fifteen-footer costs be- tween $500 and $800, a Seawanhaka boat between $1000 and $2500, a twenty-one- foot cabin boat about $1800, a twenty-two- foot cabin boat about $2200, a Sonder Class boat $2000, and so on. The first cost or contract price depends upon the builder you go to, and also the time of year you build, the early fall being the least expensive time, and the late spring the most costly, because every builder has a lot of work on hand in the spring. It is always better, if you have made up your mind to build, to get started early in the fall. 159 CHAPTER XXVIII LAYING UP FOR THE WINTER SEASON WHEN hauling your boat out in the fall for winter storage, decide on the yard you will go to, and then get a figure from the owners of the yard for hauling out, covering with canvas, or putting in a shed, and launching again in the spring. If you know when you haul out, what painting, rigging, etc., you will want done in the spring, get a figure for that also. Then, when you know about what it will cost you, add on about twenty per cent of your figure for inci- dentals, as the spring bill is always larger than expected. When the boat is stripped, see that the spars are properly hung so they will not spring or warp; see that the sails are put away thoroughly dry in bags and placed where the mice cannot get at them. Have the rigging 160 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING neatly coiled and labeled, and any metal work well greased. Have an augur hole bored through the garboard streak in order to properly drain the hull. Have the boat put in the shade if possible, and if she is covered with canvas have it nailed down to her sides thoroughly. Do not close her up, but have all doors open inside and out, also hatches removed. If the varnish and deck paint is well worn, it is an excellent scheme to have it touched up, as the craft is then better able to stand a hard winter. Care in laying up means an easier job in the spring, and is a saving of money in the end. 11 161 CHAPTER XXIX AMATEURS AND PROFESSIONALS THE difference between an amateur and professional is that the amateur has not been paid for sailing or handling a boat, whereas the professional has. Professionalism is the great ban to all sports, and in most instances it kills it, yacht racing as much as any other. I speak of the smaller classes. A boy under twenty years of age, with say three or four years' experi- ence, does not want to race against a profes- sional of say thirty-five, who has sailed for twenty years, and knows all about it. He may keep at it for awhile, but in the end, unless the amateur is a very good sailor, it will kill the sport. A good amateur, however, is apt to be better than a good professional; for many 162 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDEING reasons he will do better, he has a better nerve, enjoys the sport keenly, and it also is a great feather in his cap if he wins against some good professional. I think it is a step in the right direction when a club bars professionals from steering races in the small classes. Half the pleas- ure in racing is to race against a crowd of men you know and like, so you can talk it over with them afterwards. The racing clubs should never allow an owner to turn his boat over to a man who is really a professional, but sails as an amateur with a paid crew, to race her for him, he stay- ing ashore and his boat winning the champion- ship. This sort of business is done, and should be stopped by the club giving the races. 163 CHAPTER XXX THE MAGNITUDE OF RACING IN AMERICA PERHiVPS America, especially the United States, gives a greater chance for yacht racing than any other country in the world. With its irregular seacoast, studded with harbors, bays, and islands, it gives great shelter to the small yachts, also its Great Lakes and inland waters make it possible for the people in the interior of the country to have their clubs and races. Its sailors have always held their own with the best in the world, and as proof of their superiority, the United States is custodian for all the International Cups of any note. Many people are apt to say, ''Oh, they w^on be- cause they sailed in their home waters." This is not true ; they won because they have been brought up on and in the water, have worked hard to perfect and advance the sci- 164 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING ence, and to sail and handle their craft in a masterly way. That is the reason they have won and to-day stand above the world in racing yachts, propelled by the wind's force. It has been a survival of the fittest, with the thousands of young Americans sailing and racing their little boats as boys, finally grow- ing up to international fame as sailors. America, or the United States, will always stand ahead, in my opinion, leading always by a greater margin than before, and will always be protected and represented by as fine sailors as the world will ever produce. 165 CHAPTER XXXI THE INTERNATIONAL SONDER CLASS OF GER- MANY, SPAIN, AND THE UNITED STATES THE Sonder, or Special Class, as it is called, is for many reasons the most remarkable small racing class that we have, as, for the four years of its existence in this country, the critics, experts, and naval architects are still at a loss to decide upon the correct combination of measurements, weights, etc., that would go to make up the boat to win in all conditions of wind and water. In fact, from my own experience in the twelve boats I have designed, I believe it impossi- ble to embody in one boat all the points that would make her successful under all condi- tions. It would take at least two, and pos- sibly three, boats of entirely different design to cover every condition. This being the case, it is necessary to build the boat to sail 166 C o bo C C O ^ P 3 ^ be ^ a o a o C/2 ^^ ^ o ^ CO tfj S >M ■<-» (U bfi 'O Y C -O ^ fao c •E c« 4-> a< cd >^-Q > 4-« 01 rt CL a n o ^ -t-> 0^ s '^ ?! c o ^ CJ o CJ c i Oh > 13 O Xi >> CO O OS o u o 8 o Q c .2 c o CJ (U >-l > Oh O o s S be c *5 o O G O be '73 O > «4-i S5 O 53 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING the summer of 1908, with a somewhat differ- ent balanced rig, she proved to be by far the fastest boat of the fleet in Ught weather. The Hnes are shown below (number 40), and her dimensions are 38 feet over-all; 19 feet 3 inches water-line; 5 feet 5 inches draft; and 7 feet 4 inches beam, with very low flat ends and weighing 4090 pounds. I am pleased to say that she was sailed by the youngest ama- teur in the fleet, he having had but three years' experience and he sailed against some of the best amateurs in the country. The boat that proved to be the best all- round boat in 1906 was a moderate formed, round, easy-lined, healthy type of little racer of the following dimensions : 35 feet 6 inches over-all, 19 feet 9 inches water-line, 6 feet 8 inches beam, 5 feet draft. With a low rig and heavy ballast the entire craft weighed about 4500 pounds, and depending on her lead for her stability she was a good all-round boat. She used very flat English cut sails, setting to a 179 THE SMALL YACHT nicety, and her painted hull was beautifully smoothed. In 1907 there were comparatively few boats in the Trial Races for the selection of the team to go to Germany, and a sister boat of the " Champion " in 1906 was badly de- feated. Two light weather scows and a 1906 boat were finally selected, none of which were first class in any way, though the best obtainable at the time. In 1908 one new boat was built on the fol- lowing plans: Her dimensions were 35 feet over-all; 19 feet 3 inches water-line; 6 feet 10 inches beam; and 5 feet 10 inches draft, an excessive draft for these little boats, as proved by the season's racing, the deep fin seeming to be a drag in any conditions, ex- cepting a heavy blow to windward when she seemed at home. Under these conditions nothing could beat her, as she would hold on and go up across any bow in the fleet with apparently little effort, but she was slow across wind, or before it. She had a long, 180 Design 41^. Sail plan of jib and mainsail rig for Sonder boat Showing large mainsail and small jib ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING easy bow, especially adapted for a seaway, and her weight of 4450 pounds made her powerful, and although the center of gravity of the ballast was high up the combination was good for a breeze. (See design 41 a.) Another boat in the 1908 fleet was the crack of 1906, but either the other boats had improved or she was not in as good condition, for she w^as usually beaten by from one to three boats in the races which she entered. And so again the balance of favor for the new boats of 1909 was toward the developed scow form, less brutal perhaps than the old scows, but of the scow type. Designs 46 and 51 for 1909 show the modifications: Most of the American boats are equipped with fairly full sails — that is, sails with con- siderable draft or flow in them, as these seem to give the best results in our ordinary mid- summer conditions. In the early spring and fall, however, hard flat sails are essential, as was proven last year (1908), when one of the large scows, that had won practically noth- 181 THE SMALL YACHT Ing up to that time, came out with a flat suit and easily defeated the fleet in three heavy blows, winning thereby the Quincy Chal- lenge Cup, raced for now by the Sonder Class. This win was accomplished mainly by the fact that she was able to point very high and still hold her headway, even though the hull was not especially good under the conditions. It is fair to add that the boat was almost perfectly handled by one of the finest amateurs in the country. The balance of these boats is almost as necessary as a good hull and helmsman, as they balance on a narrow fin, are long over- all, with the rig well inboard, and turn in a very short radius. Of course, in light weather the helm will be carried amidships, or pos- sibly a little lee helm is felt in very light drifts, but the minute the boat feels any wind pressure the helm should be in the center line, or slightly to weather. Then when it blows hard, the balance in a measure should remain about the same, anyway to wdndward. 182 O be C o o G O (X) o Xi C o B 0) o c 3 J25 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING It is in reaching that the boat will gripe, then being very hard on her helm, and to offset this trouble, trim the jib more or less flat and ease off the mainsail slightly and she will at once show better speed. The rig on several of the boats, such as halliards, main, and preventer backstays, lead below deck, thus offering less windage and making things more trim and snug. This, however, is carrying things pretty far unless the owner or skipper understands this sort of rigging pretty thoroughly. Wire rigging is quite generally used and all the halliards have tackles so that the sails may be set up during a race if necessary. In most of the boats the cockpit is amidships, thus bringing the crew over the center of buoyancy where they should be allowed to sit well down in the bottom, as practically none of the boats now use water- tight cockpits, some going so far as to leave out bottom boards or slats entirely, the crew sitting or standing, as the case may be, directly on the inside of the planks and floors. This 183 THE SMALL YACHT is done to save weight, as the bottom of the fin is the place for all ballast in these racing machines. As regards structural strains, etc., I have found the best method, and in fact the only one to stand the strain of three years' rac- ing, to be three sets of longitudinal trusses placed between deck and bottom, this only applying to the extreme flat-ended scow, as she is necessarily hard on herself in a seaway, and if the ends drop any the boat will go badly over length. She is only one foot and a few inches from deck to bottom for the greater part of her hull; has 2000 or more pounds of lead hung in the middle ; and with the low flat ends the pounding in a seaway is very severe, so it is necessary to thoroughly brace her. Plank on edge trusses, with lattice work and uprights, tie rods, etc., are very essential for this form, and it has always seemed to me to be the most satisfactory bracing, as well as the lightest. These trusses are shown on the construction plans very clearly. 184 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING I think that the best combination of riff is about 425 square feet in the mainsail and 100 square feet in the jib ; this, with the short base to the fore triangle allows of a good height for the spinnaker block, which gTeatly benefits the effectiveness of the spinnaker, as was proven by one of the boats in 1908, when her change in rig put her from a medium good boat to the best in the class, to my mind. This was due almost entirely to the raising of the spinnaker block clear of the mainsail, so giving the spinnaker head a chance to do good execution. It was not bothered in any way by the mainsail, so I have adopted this plan for the six boats I have designed for the summer of 1909. I looked over the German boats very care- fully in 1907 and they certainly have a great advantage in construction over anything that I have yet seen built in this country. The Spanish cedar used by them has been drying out for years and many of them were built with flush seams, having no calking what- 185 THE SMALL YACHT soever. This insured a good surface under any conditions, as there was no putty to squeeze out; also, instead of using rivets with bungs, of which there are about 4000 in one of our boats, they use small brass or copper nails, small headed, and flush with the outer surface. The skin was varnished above the water ; with paint or potlead below the surface, and was polished to a high point of perfection. Their planking is very light, and on account of the small sharp-ended hulls they require very little interior bracing. These facts allow them to carry a very large percent- age of lead to total weight, about 60 per cent, which means about 2600 pounds of ballast — a very great advantage. They were also fairly heavy; weighing 4300 to 4600 pounds — another advantage in their weather con- ditions, and so they were able to lug their rigs far longer than the American boats. Their dimensions were very moderate — about 33 to 36 over-all, 4 feet 8 inches draft and 6 feet 6 inches beam, allowing thereby a 186 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING long water-line of about 21 feet. They had very easy formed high ends, the angle of rise being twice as much as that of the Americans. There were no reverse curves in the profiles, but the overhangs ran straight from the middle body. Their sections were very round, with a heavy dead rise, and forward the sec- tions worked into a ''U'' shape, while the stern transoms were narrow and the lines on the whole exceptionally graceful, depending on the ballast for stability, having practically no initial stability in the hull. The sails used in 1907 were a great im- provement on those used over here in 1906, being well-cut and of good proportions, but of fairly heavy duck and very flat (little draft). They used roller booms for reefing, which are necessary under German weather conditions, as it will sometimes come up and blow thirty or forty miles an hour witJiout any warning, and to be able to reef quickly is a distinct advantage. In one race it was neces- sary for us, on the boat I was sailing on, to 187 THE SMALL YACHT lower our peak, ease the mainsail well off, and reach across the wind for ten or fifteen minutes, while the German boats rolled in a reef and went about their business, gaining many precious minutes in the operation. As before said, the German craft of 1907 were the finest constructed boats of this class I have as yet seen. There is tremendous interest in this Sonder Class, mainly on ac- count of its international character, and as nearly as I can estimate there have been built, and now exist in the three countries, including the 1909 boats, between 90 and 100 of this class, at a total cost of close to $150,000, which, if incidentals are considered, would bring the cost up to $200,000. Quite a sum for a small class. It may be of interest as showing the friendly feeling that exists between Germany and the United States, that after the races in 1906 the architects of the American team forwarded their plans to Germany, to be published and used by anyone who might be interested, and 188 ITS MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING to help along the sport. In return the Crown Prince of Germany in 1907 sent me a set of plans of his boat '^Angela IV" for use over here. I know of no other international sport where such an open-handed policy prevails. 189 V i iilf" i LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 014 131809 3 m