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 REVIEW 
 
 HISTORY OF GREECE 
 
 DEATH OF ALEXANDER 
 
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 PRIVATELY PRINTED. 
 
 1877. 
 

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 Copyright— W. R. Dimmock— 1877. 
 
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 NOTE. 
 
 rpHIS very brief sketch of the History of Greece, 
 is simply an abridgment, for the most part, of 
 ordinary text books, particularly of Heeren's, Smith's, 
 and Purnell's Histories of Greece. No attempt 
 has been made to change the language of the books 
 used, when it seemed suited to this purpose. Some 
 of the earlier dates will be found to differ from those 
 given by some of the school books. This is privately 
 printed, not published, and it is intended merely as 
 a convenience for the writer's pupils in reviewing the 
 subject. 
 
HISTORY OF GREECE TO THE DEATH 
 OF ALEXANDER. 
 
 Supposed date of Trojan war, 1194. 
 
 Lycurgus gave Sparta its constitution about 
 the beginning of the eighth century B. C. (The 
 earliest authentic date in Greek history is 776, the 
 First Olympiad.) Some of its elements were not- 
 original with him. The following were its pro- 
 visions : — 
 
 1. Spartan citizens were the ruling body. The 
 Lacedaemonians, or inhabitants of the country, 
 were subjects who paid tribute and rendered mili- 
 tary service. 
 
 2. Two kings, from two leading families, were 
 leaders in war and first magistrates in peace. 
 
 3. The Senate consisted of twenty-eight members, 
 chosen by the people for life, to constitute the 
 Kings' counsel in public affairs. 
 
 4. Five ephors, to whom everything was finally 
 referred, formed the highest tribunal of the State. 
 
 5. The popular assemblies were confined to 
 Spartans, their power being to approve or reject 
 the measures proposed to them by the Kings and 
 Senate'. 
 
6 History of Greece to the 
 
 6. The laws aimed to make the Spartans a 
 society of citizens, equal, so far as possible, with 
 respect to their property and mode of life, and 
 each convinced that he was the property of his 
 country, to which he was bound to ■ yield entire 
 obedience. 
 
 Soon after the time of Lycurgus, the war of the 
 Spartans against their neighbors, the Argives, 
 Arcadians, but more particularly the Messenians, 
 began. 
 
 First Messenian War, 742-722, was terminated 
 by the capture of Ithome, and the voluntary death 
 of the Messenian King, Aristodemus. The Messe- 
 nians became tributary to the Spartans, and were 
 obliged to give up one-half of the revenues of their 
 lands. 
 
 Second Messenian War, 682-668. The Messe- 
 nians were under Aristomenes, and the Spartans 
 under Tyrtreus. The Messenian territory was 
 divided among the Spartan conquerors, and the 
 inhabitants became agricultural slaves. 
 
 The legislation of Solon at Athens was about 
 594. He had been chosen Archon, and commis- 
 sioned to remodel the constitution. The provisions 
 presented by him were : — 
 
 1st. The organization of the people according to 
 their property, into four classes. None but citizens 
 of the first three classes could fill all the offices 
 of State, but all were admitted to the popular 
 assemblies, and all served in the courts. 
 
 2d. Nine Archons were chosen annually as su- 
 preme magistrates. 
 
Death of Alexander. 7 
 
 3d. A Council, or Senate, of four hundred 
 persons, was chosen by lot annually from the first 
 three classes. The Archons were obliged to consult 
 the Council. Nothing could be carried down to 
 the popular assembly until it had been debated in 
 Council. 
 
 4th. To the whole people in Assembly were 
 reserved the rights of confirming the laws, of elect- 
 ing the magistrates, of debating all public affairs 
 referred to them by the Council, and of the public 
 administration of justice. 
 
 5th. The Court of the Areopagus was composed 
 of retired Archons, and remained the supreme 
 tribunal in capital cases, and was charged with the 
 superintendence of morals, with the censorship 
 upon the conduct of the Archons who went out of 
 office, and had the prerogative of amending or 
 rescinding the measures that had been approved by 
 the popular assembly. 
 
 The Tyranny of Peisistratus, (a cousin of Solon, 
 and leader of the political faction of the mountains, 
 consisting of the inhabitants of the hilly districts in 
 the north and east of Attica,) and his son, began in 
 560 and ended in 510. Peisistratus was twice ex- 
 pelled. His sons, Hippias and Hipparchus, ruled 
 together from the death of Peisistratus in 527 to 
 514, when Hipparchus was murdered by Harmodius 
 and Aristogiton. Hippias was deposed in 510, and 
 sailed to Asia, and after some years went to the 
 court of Darius, King of Persia. 
 
 Cleisthenes, to whom Athens chiefly owed her 
 liberation, introduced important reforms into the 
 
8 History of Greece to the 
 
 constitution. He redistributed the population of 
 Attica into ten new tribes, enrolling in them all the 
 free inhabitants of Attica; he divided the tribes 
 into a certain number of demes, or townships ; he 
 enlarged the number of the Senate to five hundred, 
 fifty selected from each tribe ; he transferred the 
 government of the State, previously in the hands 
 of the Archons, to the Senate and Ecclesia, which 
 was now summoned at fixed periods ; he increased 
 the judicial as well as political power of the 
 people ; he introduced Ostracism, by which, by the 
 vote of six thousand citizens, a man might be 
 banished for ten years without special accusation 
 or trial. The term was reduced afterwards to five 
 years. The object of this was to remove from 
 the State a party leader, before he could carry into 
 execution any scheme of violence or revolution. 
 
 These reforms of Cleisthenes gave such power to 
 the citizens and awoke in them such a personal 
 interest in the welfare of the State, that they may 
 be considered as the real beginning of the Athen- 
 ian democracy, and they produced the highest 
 results in the patriotism of the people. 
 
 The Grecian colonies in Asia Minor had been 
 captured by the generals of Cyrus the Great. In 
 500 the Asiatic Greeks revolted, were assisted by 
 the Athenians, and Sardes (in centre of Lydia) was 
 burned. The Ionian colonies led in this rebellion. 
 It was crushed, and Miletus, their capital, was 
 destroyed. Darius, the King of Persia, undertook 
 to punish the Athenians. The first campaign 
 against Greece under Mardonius, was broken up 
 
Death of Alexander. 9 
 
 by a tempest off Mount Athos, (southern point 
 of peninsula of Acte, in Macedonia,) 492. 
 
 A second expedition was led by Datis and Arta- 
 phernes, under the guidance of Hippias. The 
 Persians were defeated by ten thousand Athenians 
 and one thousand Platseans at Marathon, (in the 
 eastern part of Attica, between Mount Pentelicus 
 and the sea,) in September, 490. The Athenian 
 commander was Miltiades. 
 
 Miltiades then persuaded the Athenians to 
 furnish him with a fleet, -with which he went 
 upon an unsuccessful expedition against the Greek 
 Islands, more particularly Paros, (one of the Cy- 
 clades.) For this he was brought to trial, heavily 
 fined, and died in prison. Themistocles and Aris- 
 tides then became the most prominent men at 
 Athens. 
 
 Xerxes, King of Persia, led a third expedition 
 against Greece. Under the inspiration of The- 
 mistocles, Athens succeeded in uniting the other 
 Grecian States in alliance against the Persians, the 
 honor of the command being left to Sparta. Le- 
 onidas, with three hundred Spartans and seven 
 hundred Thespians, resisted, till death, at Thermo- 
 pylae, (a narrow pass of Mount Oeta, on Sinus 
 Maliacus,) July, 480. About the same time there 
 was an engagement between the Persian and Greek 
 fleets off Artemisium, (Northeast promontory) in 
 Euboea. The fleet of the Persians had been over- 
 taken by a sudden hurricane, and met with the 
 destruction of many vessels. In the engagement 
 the Persians lost a greater number of ships and 
 
10 History of Greece to the 
 
 men than did the Greeks, but still so far out- 
 numbered them, that the latter retreated. Athens 
 was deserted by its inhabitants, and taken and 
 burned by the Persians. A great naval engage- 
 ment off Salamis, (a large island in - Saronicns 
 Sinus, west of Athens,) was fought in September, 
 480, and resulted in a great victory for the Greeks. 
 Xerxes, leaving Mardonius with a force of three 
 hundred thousand men in Thessaly, retreated to 
 Asia. 
 
 In the spring of 479 Mardonius marched against 
 Athens and occupied it, the Athenians removing 
 again to Salamis. The Spartans, led by Pausanias, 
 marched against the Persians, and Mardonius 
 abandoned Attica and crossed into Boeotia. Here, 
 near Plataea, (in South-western part,) a decisive 
 battle was fought, and the Persians were defeated 
 with immense loss, including their general, Mar- 
 donius, by the Lacedaemonians under Pausanias. 
 On the same day, September 25, 479, the Persians 
 were defeated at Mycale, (a promontory of Asia 
 Minor, near Miletus,) by the Greeks under the 
 Spartan admiral Leotychides, and their fleet was 
 burned. 
 
 Athens was rebuilt and fortified by Themistocles, 
 and the harbor of the Piraeus was formed. A 
 naval expedition was sent under Pausanias, against 
 Cyprus and Byzantium, (modern Constantinople,) 
 but, in consequence of his pride and haughtiness, 
 the supreme command of the Greek forces was con- 
 ferred upon the Athenians, with Aristides as ad- 
 miral of the combined fleet, and the Confederacy 
 
Death of Alexander. 11 
 
 of Delos, (centre of the Cyclades,) was formed, 
 (477,) comprising most of the Grecian States out- 
 side of the Peloponnesus, especially the Islands ; 
 deputies from the different States meeting periodi- 
 cally for deliberation in the temple of Apollo and 
 Artemis in Delos. Each State was assessed in a 
 contribution of money or ships, and the superin- 
 tendence of the treasury was intrusted to Athens. 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, after the banishment of 
 Themistocles and death of Aristidcs, became the 
 leader at Athens, and he continued the war against 
 the Persians, gained a victory by land and sea 
 near the Eurymedon (in Pamphylia, ) and took 
 possession of the Hellespontine Chersonesus. Some 
 of the confederates endeavored to secede, and 
 Naxos, (one of the Cyclades east of Paros,) was 
 invested by the confederate fleet, reduced, and 
 made tributary to Athens. Tliasos, (in the north 
 of the Aegean, south of Thrace,) was captured, 
 its fortifications destroyed, and it was compelled 
 to pay tribute. A great earthquake at Sparta gave 
 rise to a revolt of the Helots, sometimes called the 
 Third Messenian War, (464,) which lasted ten 
 years. The Spartans asked the assistance of the 
 Athenians, which they gave at the instigation of 
 Cimon, but as Cimon did not succeed in dislodg- 
 ing the Helots from Ithome, (near the centre of 
 Messenia,) where they had fortified themselves, 
 the Athenians were dismissed by the Spartans ; 
 and the democratic party at Athens, who had from 
 the beginning opposed the expedition led by 
 Pericles, seized the opportunity of casting the 
 
12 History of Greece to the 
 
 blame for this insult upon Cimon, and he was 
 banished. 
 
 Pericles now (461) came to- the head of affairs 
 and remained in authority for forty years. 
 
 The Spartans instigated Corinth and Epidaurus 
 to make war against Athens. The Athenians, at 
 first defeated near Haliae, were later successful, 
 attacked Aegina (in the Sinus Saronicus between 
 Attica and Argolis) and subdued it. War broke 
 out between Athens on one side and Sparta and 
 Boeotia on the other. In the first battle of Tana- 
 gra, (southern part of Boeotia on the Aesopus,) 
 (457) the Spartans were victorious, but the next 
 year at the same place were defeated. 
 
 Cimon was recalled from exile and endeavored 
 to restore union in Greece, and to renew the war 
 against the Persians. The Third Messenian War 
 ended in favor of Sparta in 455. Athens continued 
 to war against Sparta and her allies. Cimon 
 effected a truce for five years, and the consequence 
 was an expedition against the Persians, in which 
 they were defeated, and then ensued a peace with 
 Persia. 
 
 The Peloponnesian War began in 431, and lasted 
 for twenty-seven years. 
 
 This had been preceded by what is called the 
 Thirty Years' Truce, between Athens and Sparta, by 
 which Athens abandoned all the acquisitions which 
 she had made in the Peloponnesus, and left Megaris 
 to be reckoned among Spartan allies. During this 
 time Pericles was at the head of affairs in Athens, 
 and the State reached the height of intellectual and 
 
Death of Alexander. 18 
 
 artistic refinement. During his administration 
 many colonies were sent out from Athens. The 
 sway of Athens over her allies gave rise to great 
 dissatisfaction. Her power was regarded with 
 great jealousy by her rivals, and finally the Lace- 
 daemonians summoned a meeting of the Peloponne- 
 sian confederacy. Many grievances were alleged, 
 and finally the congress decided upon war. But 
 before this was actually declared, hostilities began 
 by an attack of the Thebans upon Plataea. 
 
 The principal allies of Sparta were the whole of 
 the Peloponnesus except Argos and Achaia, Me- 
 gara, Boeotia and Phocis : of Athens, Thessaly, 
 Acarnania, Plataea, Chios, Lesbos, Corcyra, Zacyn- 
 thos, and her tributary towns on the coasts of 
 Thrace and Asia Minor. The Spartans began the 
 war by invading Attica with a large army under 
 the command of their king Archidamus. The 
 Athenians came into Athens with their movable 
 property, abandoning their estates and farms to the 
 invading army, and retaliated by making descents 
 upon various parts of the Peloponnesus and ravag- 
 ing the territory of Megara. The next year (430) 
 the Spartans ravaged Attica again. At the same 
 time the plague broke out in Athens, and destroyed 
 a quarter of the population. Pericles took com- 
 mand of a fleet that landed upon several parts of 
 the Peloponnesian coast. But on his return he 
 found that the public feeling was greatly turned 
 against him, and that ambassadors had been sent 
 to Sparta to sue for peace, who had, however, been 
 dismissed without a hearing. Pericles persuaded 
 
14 History of Greece to the 
 
 the people to continue the war energetically. The 
 next year he died. In the third year of the war 
 the Spartans directed the attack upon Plataea. 
 This place, after a blockade of two years, was 
 obliged to surrender, the garrison was put to the 
 sword, and the town destroyed. In the fourth year 
 of the war Mytilene, the capital of Lesbos, with 
 the greater part of the island, revolted. The city 
 was finally* surrendered, and it was first voted at 
 Athens to destroy the whole male population of 
 the town, and to sell into slavery the women and 
 children. This vote was however reconsidered, but 
 the fortifications of Mytilene were razed and her 
 fleet surrendered. 
 
 During the seventh year of the war, (B. C. 425,) 
 an Athenian fleet entered the Bay of Pylos in Mes- 
 senia, a rude fortification was thrown up, and a 
 small force left to garrison it. Immediately the 
 Peloponnesian fleet was ordered to the place, and 
 the commander took possession of the island of 
 Sphacteria that stretched across the bay. While 
 they were making preparations to attack the for- 
 tress of the little Athenian force, the Athenian fleet 
 entered the bay, and after a sharp contest captured 
 five Peloponnesian vessels, and the rest were only 
 saved by running on shore, where the Lacedaemo- 
 nian army protected them. The Athenians then 
 blockaded the island of Sphacteria. Messengers 
 were sent to Sparta, and the Spartans sought peace, 
 which the Athenians would not grant. Cleon, in 
 the Athenian assembly, attacking the generals for 
 not having taken the island of Sphacteria and the 
 
Death of Alexander. 15 
 
 Lacedaemonian force, the office of general was 
 given to him against his will, and he said that he 
 would take Sphacteria within twenty days, and 
 either kill all the Lacedaemonians there or bring 
 them to Athens as prisoners of war. This boast he 
 was enabled by accident to make good, and after a 
 battle the Lacedaemonians surrendered and were 
 brought to Athens. The Lacedaemonians again 
 sought peace, but the Athenians rejected their 
 proposals. The next year the Athenians planned 
 an expedition against Boeotia, but were defeated 
 with heavy loss at the battle of Delium, (in south- 
 eastern part of Boeotia.) This was followed by 
 the overthrow of the Athenian force in Thrace. 
 
 In 422 Cleon was sent to Macedonia, and was 
 killed in a battle in front of Amphipolis, (in the 
 south-eastern part of Macedonia near Sinus Stry- 
 monicus.) Then a peace was concluded, called 
 the peace of Nicias, in 421. Alcibiades became 
 very promiuent at Athens. In 418 a victory was 
 gained by the Spartans over the Argives near 
 Mantinea, (in the eastern part of Arcadia.) The 
 Athenians fought on the side of the Argives, but 
 yet the peace was not considered broken. 
 
 In 416 the Athenians attacked and conquered 
 Melos in the Aegean sea, and when the inhabitants 
 surrendered, on the proposal of Alcibiades, all the 
 adult males were executed, the women and children 
 were sold into slavery, and the island was colonized 
 by the Athenians. 
 
 A quarrel having broken out between Egesta and 
 Selinus, cities in the western part of Sicily, Selinus 
 
16 History of Greece to the 
 
 obtained the aid of Syracuse and pressed hard upon 
 Egesta. Alcibiades' party brought forward the 
 plan, under the guise of protecting Egesta, of 
 gaining great influence in. and perhaps of conquer- 
 ing Sicily. The Athenians despatched a large fleet 
 in the month of July, 415, under Nicias, Alcibiades, 
 and Lamachus. After the departure of the expe- 
 dition an indictment was preferred against Alcibia- 
 des for having profaned the Eleusinian Mysteries, 
 and the State trireme was sent to arrest him. He 
 made his escape, but though absent was condemned 
 to death, and his property was confiscated. 
 
 In Sicily, Nicias besieged Syracuse, and seemed 
 on the point of success, when the Spartan com- 
 mander Gylippus, landing at Himera, (on the north 
 coast of Sicily,) levied an army and marched 
 toward Syracuse. Before this Lamachus had been 
 killed, and Nicias was in bad health and now asked 
 to be recalled. This the Athenians refused, but 
 sent a large reinforcement under Demosthenes. 
 Still the Athenians suffered reverses, and finally 
 determined on departure. The enemy, too, had 
 received large reinforcements, and attacked the 
 Athenians by land and sea. The fleet of the Athe- 
 nians was defeated, and the army undertook a 
 retreat by land to the interior of the island. They 
 were overtaken, surrounded by superior forces, in 
 six days lost three-fourths of their number, and 
 finally surrendered, and were sent as prisoners to 
 the stone quarries. Many there perished, and the 
 rest were sold as slaves. Nicias and Demosthenes 
 were put to death, (413.) 
 
Death of Alexander. 17 
 
 This disastrous result of the Sicilian expedition 
 the Athenians surmounted by their enthusiasm and 
 energy. Alcibiades was now their enemy, having 
 gone to Sparta in flight from his own country. He 
 soon, however, forfeited the confidence of the 
 Lacedaemonians and was denounced as a traitor, 
 but made his escape to Tissaphernes, the Persian 
 satrap. Soon he entered into communication with 
 the Athenian generals, claiming influence with 
 Tissaphernes, and holding out hopes of a Persian 
 alliance as the reward for his restoration. But he 
 made it a condition that the democracy of Athens 
 should be overthrown and an oligarchy established. 
 The people, persuaded that this was the only way to 
 save the State, voted reluctantly this change in the 
 constitution. A supreme council of four hundred 
 was chosen, instead of the senate, and they were to 
 convene a select body of five thousand citizens, 
 whenever they thought best. After four months, 
 however, the Four Hundred were deposed, and the 
 government was transferred to five thousand citi- 
 zens, and this was soon enlarged into universal 
 citizenship. Alcibiades was recalled. During this 
 (411) and the ensuing year the war was carried on 
 principally on the sea, on the coast of Asia Minor, 
 and the Athenians gained some important victories. 
 Byzantium was captured, and Alcibiades returned 
 with glory. In 407 the Spartans under Lysander 
 gained a naval victory off Notium, and in conse- 
 quence of this Alcibiades was deprived of his com- 
 mand, ten new generals being appointed, with 
 Conon at their head. The next year the Spartan 
 2 
 
18 History of Greece to the 
 
 fleet under Callicratidas gained a victory at Myti- 
 lene; but the Athenians sent additional forces, and 
 a great naval victory was gained by the Athenians 
 near the Aeginusae islands off Lesbos. A number 
 of Athenian vessels having been left in a disabled 
 condition after the battle, as a severe storm came 
 on, no attempt was made to rescue those who were 
 on them, or to collect for burial the bodies of the 
 dead : the generals were summoned home for trial 
 for this, and six obeyed, and, after a partial trial, 
 were illegally condemned to death by one sentence. 
 Socrates, who was presiding, refused to put the 
 vote in this illegal way, but his opposition was 
 disregarded. 
 
 In September, 405, the Spartans under Lysander 
 gained a decisive victory at Aegospotami, (inCher- 
 sonesus Thracius,) where, through the gross negli- 
 gence of the Athenian commanders, nearly the 
 whole fleet was captured. Lysander sailed to 
 take possession of the Athenian towns, and in 
 November arrived at Aegina, and at the same time 
 the Peloponnesian army marched into Attica. As 
 the city was blockaded by land and water, soon 
 a dreadful famine was felt, and the Athenians sub- 
 mitted to the terms imposed, that the long walls 
 and the fortifications of the Peiraeus should be 
 destroyed, the fleet reduced to twelve vessels, that 
 all foreign possessions should be given up, and that 
 they should become allies of Sparta. 
 
 Under the support of Lysander a committee of 
 thirty was chosen to draw up laws for the govern- 
 ment of the city and to administer them tempora- 
 
Death of Alexander. 19 
 
 rily. These soon became known as the Thirty 
 Tyrants. A reign of terror ensued. The tyrants 
 were supported by a mercenary band of Spartans 
 in the Acropolis.. 
 
 Many of the Athenian exiles who had been 
 driven or who had lied from the city, found refuge 
 in Boeotia; and Thrasybulus, at the head of a small 
 force of these, starting from Thebes, seized the 
 fortress of Phyle, (in northern part of Attica.) The 
 Thirty, with the Lacedaemonian garrison and a 
 strong Athenian force, marched to the attack, but 
 were repulsed. Soon Thrasybulus marched to the 
 Peiraeus, aud when the Thirty attacked him, with- 
 drew to the Munychia, drew up his men and com- 
 pletely routed the Thirty and their adherents. 
 Aided by the party at Sparta opposed to Lysander, 
 which was headed by King Pausanias, he effected 
 a peaceable revolution, the Thirty were driven out 
 after a rule of eight months, and democracy was 
 restored, 
 
 In 399 Socrates was put to death on a charge of 
 impiety and of being a corrupter of youth. 
 
 The Spartans became involved in a war with the 
 Persians. During this, Agesilaus, king of Sparta, 
 made a successful invasion into Phrygia, (395,) and 
 it seems not improbable that he might have over- 
 turned the Persian throne, had not the Persians 
 succeeded in arousing a war in Greece against 
 Sparta. This (Corinthian War) was waged against 
 Sparta by Corinth, Thebes, and Argos, and later 
 Athens and Thessaly united with them, (394.) 
 
 The Spartans invaded Boeotia, but were routed 
 
20 History of Greece to the 
 
 at Haliartus (on southern shore of Lake Copais) 
 and Lysancler was killed. The Spartan fleet met 
 with a disastrous defeat off Cnidus in Caria, the 
 victorious fleet being commanded by Conon. Ages- 
 ilaus, in command of the Spartans, won a victory 
 in the sharply contested battle of Coronea, (in 
 western part of Boeotia. ) 
 
 In 387 this war was concluded by the Peace of 
 Antalcidas, imposed upon the Grecian States by 
 the Persian king, and accepted by them. By the 
 terms of this peace, the cities in Asia Minor, and in 
 the islands of Cyprus and Clazomenae (in Smyr- 
 naeus Sinus on coast of Lydia) were to belong to 
 Persia; Lemnos, Imbros and Scyros were to belong 
 to Athens, and all the other cities were to be 
 independent. 
 
 Sparta soon endeavored to weaken the power of 
 Thebes, and proclaimed the independence of the 
 different cities of Boeotia, and organized in them 
 governments favorable to herself and hostile to 
 Thebes. She soon by treachery got possession of 
 Thebes, and Thebes became a member of the Lace- 
 daemonian alliance. For three years Thebes was 
 held by the Spartan party. Pelopidas, a Theban 
 exile, who had, with others, taken refuge at Athens, 
 formed a conspiracy that resulted in a complete 
 revolution at Thebes, the Lacedaemonian garrison 
 capitulating. Athens and Thebes were united, and 
 a confederacy of many cities was formed. Epami- 
 nondas, the greatest general who had yet risen in 
 Greece, was the leader of the Thebans. The Spar- 
 tans marched into Boeotia under Agesilaus, but with- 
 
Death of Alexander. 21 
 
 out being able to effect anything, and in four years 
 Thebes expelled the Lacedaemonians from Boeotia, 
 and revived the Boeotian confederacy. Athens 
 became jealous of the success of Thebes, and opened 
 negotiations for peace with Sparta. Thebes was 
 excluded from the peace, and a Spartan army imme- 
 diately invaded Boeotia, but was defeated with 
 great loss by Epaminondas at Leuctra, (southern 
 part,) 371. The next year Epaminondas marched 
 into Laconia and threatened Sparta, but was re- 
 pulsed, and proceeded southward, laying waste the 
 valley of the Eurotas. Epaminondas re-established 
 the Messenian State, founding on Mount Ithome 
 the town of Messene. 
 
 Sparta sent envoys to beg assistance from Athens, 
 and an alliance was formed between the two. 
 During the next two years the Thebans increased 
 in power and influence, and later sent a force into 
 Thessaly and Macedonia. In 364 a battle was 
 fought on the hills of Cynoscephalae, (east of the 
 centre of Thessaly,) in which the Thebans, though 
 victorious, lost their general, Pelopidas. A war 
 meanwhile had been carried on betwen Elis and 
 Arcadia, and the Arcadians becoming divided — a 
 part favoring Elis, assisted by Sparta, and a part 
 favoring Thebes — Epaminondas in 362 marched 
 into the Peloponnesus to support that party of the 
 Arcadians which had favored Thebes. The battle 
 of Mantinea was fought, in which the Thebans 
 gained the victory, but lost their great general 
 Epaminondas. With him, the great influence of 
 Thebes in the affairs of Greece came to an end. 
 
22 History of Greece to the 
 
 Philip of Maceclon had in his youth resided as a 
 hostage at Thebes, and learned the art of war as 
 practiced by Epaminondas. Coming to the throne 
 at the age of twenty-three, he manifested great 
 abilities. After defeating the Illyrians, he first 
 came into a conflict of interest with the Athenians 
 on his eastern boundary, and became possessed of 
 Amphipolis and Pydna, and captured Potidaea, 
 which he gave to the Olynthians, to prevent them 
 from joining in alliance with the Athenians. 
 
 In 357, a war, called the Social War, broke out 
 between Athens and her allies. The war lasted 
 three years, and Athens was obliged to consent to 
 a disadvantageous peace, securing the indepen- 
 dence of the chief of her allies, in consequence of 
 the threat of the Persian king to support the allies. 
 
 A war, called the Sacred War, broke out in 357, 
 between Thebes and Phocis. The Thebans pre- 
 vailed upon the Amphictyonic council to impose a 
 heavy fine upon the Phocians, because they had 
 cultivated a portion of the Cirrhaean plain, which 
 had been consecrated to the Delphian god to lie 
 waste for ever. The Phocians, driven to despera- 
 tion, seized upon the temple of Delphi, and war 
 broke out. Philip of Macedon assumed the charac- 
 ter of champion of the Delphic god, defeated an 
 army of the Phocians, became master of Thessaly, 
 and marched upon Phocis, but on reaching the 
 Pass of Thermomopylae, he found it guarded by a 
 strong Athenian force, and retreated. 
 
 Demosthenes, the orator, now began to regard 
 Philip as the enemy of the liberties of Greece, 
 
Death of Alexander. 23 
 
 denounced him as such, and tried to rouse his 
 countrymen against him. Olynthus, in the Chalci- 
 dian peninsula, (in south-eastern part of Macedonia,) 
 was at the head of a confederacy of thirty-two 
 towns. In 350 Philip captured one of these towns, 
 and Olynthus sent to Athens for assistance. De- 
 mosthenes strongly urged that energetic measures 
 should be taken, but was opposed by Phocion 
 and others. In 347 Olynthus was taken, and the 
 whole of the peninsula became a province of Mace- 
 donia. 
 
 The affairs of Athens now came into such danger, 
 that they accepted advances from Philip and agreed 
 to terms of peace. Then Philip marched through 
 Thermopylae and entered Phocis. This surren- 
 dered, and he occupied Delphi, and called upon 
 the Amphictyons to pronounce sentence upon those 
 who had been guilty of sacrilege. They decreed 
 that all the cities of Phocis except Abae should be 
 destroyed. This result of the Sacred War made 
 Philip the leading power in Greece, and he now 
 prepared an attack upon the Athenian colonies and 
 upon the Persian empire. 
 
 In the spring of 342 he set out on an expedition 
 against Thrace. War was declared against him 
 by the Athenians, and a fleet sent out for the relief 
 of Byzantium. Philip was compelled to abandon 
 his attempt and to evacuate the Chersonesus. 
 Amphissa (in the eastern part of Ozolian Locris) 
 was declared by the Amphictyonic council guilty of 
 sacrilege, and Philip was appointed general to 
 inflict punishment on the inhabitants. 
 
24 History of Greece to the 
 
 In 338 he inarched south, but instead of going in 
 the direction of Amphissa, he suddenly seized 
 Elataea, the chief place in eastern Phocis. Great 
 alarm spread to Athens. The Thebans and Athe- 
 nians marched out against Philip, and a decisive 
 battle was fought in the plain of Cheronea, in the 
 north-western part of Boeotia, B. C. 338. This 
 was a complete victory for Philip, and made 
 Greece dependent in reality upon Macedonia. 
 Philip treated Athens with great clemency, but 
 Thebes with severity. A congress of the States of 
 Greece now assembled at Corinth, and war was 
 declared against Persia, and Philip was made 
 commander. 
 
 In the spring of 336 he sent some forces into 
 Asia, but was himself assassinated at his daughter's 
 marriage festival in the forty-seventh year of his 
 age. His son Alexander was then in his twentieth 
 year. On coming to the throne, he announced his 
 intention of following out his father's plans. The 
 affairs of Greece were temporarily unsettled, in the 
 hope on the part of many of throwing off the 
 Macedonian yoke, now that the power had passed 
 into the hands of so young a man. But the 
 activity of Alexander settled all these beginnings 
 of revolt, and at a general congress assembled at 
 Corinth, he was appointed commander of the war 
 against Persia. 
 
 During an absence on an expedition against the 
 Thracians, Triballians, and Illyrians, a rumor was 
 circulated that he was dead. The Thebans invited 
 the other States to declare their independence, and 
 
Death of Alexander. 25 
 
 besieged the Macedonian garrison in their citadel. 
 Alexander, by his activity, crushed this attempt at 
 revolution, in a battle, slaying many thousand 
 Thebans, destroying the city, and selling the 
 inhabitants as slaves. 
 
 In the spring of 334 Alexander crossed the 
 Hellespont at the head of an army of about thirty- 
 five thousand men. On the river Granicus (in 
 northern part of Mysia) he gained his first victory. 
 He then marched south to Sardis, which surren- 
 dered, and to Ephesus, (south-western part of 
 Lydia,) which also fell without resistance into his 
 hands. He then took Miletus and Halicarnassus, 
 (both in the western part of Caria.) At Issos 
 (near the borders of Cilicia and Syria) he defeated 
 the Persian king, Darius, in 333. Pie then besieged 
 and took Tyre. Egypt submitted to him, and he 
 founded the city of Alexandria. In 331 he again 
 defeated Darius at the great battle of Arbela or 
 Guagamela, (in Assyria,) and Darius was soon 
 after murdered by his own officers. 
 
 Alexander now considered himself king of Persia, 
 and spent three years in conquering the northern 
 provinces of the Persian empire, and founding- 
 cities. In 327 he advanced into India, proceeding 
 with little resistance as far as the river Hydaspes. 
 Here he defeated and took prisoner Porus, a power- 
 ful Indian king, but restored him to his dominions, 
 and even enlarged his power. He continued his 
 victorious march as far as the river Hyphasis, (a 
 branch of the Indus,) but his soldiers refused to 
 follow him any farther. 
 - 3 
 
26 History of Greece to the Death of Alexander. 
 
 In 324 he entered Babylon, where ambassadors 
 from the greater part of the known world came to 
 pay homage to him. Fullof projects of ambition, 
 he was in the midst of preparations for the con- 
 quest of Arabia, when he was seized with a fever, 
 which, in eleven days, terminated his life at the 
 age of thirty-two, in the year 323. 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 Miltiades, the victor of Marathon, was a man of the 
 greatest energy and ability, but grossly abused the confi- 
 dence of the people after his victory. 
 
 Themistocles, leader of the democratical party at Athens, 
 had extraordinary abilities, which he used for the public 
 service in raising Athens to the position of the first mari- 
 time and commercial State in Greece, by the equipment of 
 her fleet and by the fortification of Athens and the Piraeus, 
 and for the salvation of Greece in the victory at Salamis. 
 He, however, offended the Athenians by his ostentation 
 and vanity, accepted large presents or bribes from cities 
 on the Greek islands, was accused of treasonable corres- 
 pondence with Persia, fled to Argos, thence to Corcyra, 
 (modern Corfu,) and thence to Persia, where the king. 
 Artaxerxes, to whom he offered plans for the subjugation 
 of Greece, treated him with the greatest liberality. He 
 died at Magnesia, (in north-western part of Caria,) at the 
 age of 65. 
 
 Aristides, rival of Themistocles, was leader of the con- 
 servative party at Athens. He was a man of the utmost 
 uprightness, justice, and integrity, was true to his country, 
 and was of great service to her, especially in establishing 
 the Confederacy of Delos. 
 
 Pausanias, the victor atPlataeaand captor of Byzantium, 
 overcome by pride and ambition, traitorously offered to 
 marry the daughter of Xerxes, and to bring Sparta and the 
 rest of Greece under his dominion. He adopted the Persian 
 dress and manners, enraged the allies by his haughtiness 
 
28 History of Greece to the 
 
 and insolence, was recalled by Sparta, and finally his guilt 
 was detected, and he fled for refuge to a temple, where 
 he was starved, being only carried from the temple when 
 on the point of death, that he might not pollute it with his 
 corpse. 
 
 Cimon, son of Miltiades, and the leader of the conserva 
 tive party at Athens, after the death of Aristides, "was 
 generous, affable, magnificent ; and, notwithstanding his 
 views, of exceedingly popular manners. He had inherited 
 the military genius of his father, and was undoubtedly the 
 greatest commander of his time. He employed the vast 
 wealth acquired in his expeditions in adorning Athens and 
 gratifying his fellow-citizens." 
 
 Pericles was a great statesman, of highest intellectual 
 superiority, as shown by his enormous influence over the 
 Athenians for so long a time. He was a man of wonderful 
 eloquence, of the greatest taste and utmost liberality in 
 literature and art. He was devoted constantly and disin- 
 terestedly to what he believed to be the interests of his 
 State. 
 
 Alcibiades, an Athenian of highest birth, was rich, hand- 
 some, profligate, reckless, capricious, and brilliant. " He 
 was utterly destitute of morality, whether public or private." 
 He was selfish and unscrupulous to the last degree, patriotic 
 only as it served his own purposes, and apparently almost 
 equally willing to serve with or against his country. He 
 finally perished miserably in Phrygia, in a night attack 
 upon his house, his death having been ordered by Sparta. 
 
 Lysander was a man of remarkable ability and energy. 
 He was the son of poor parents, of Lacedaemonian not of 
 Spartan descent. "His ambition was boundless, and he 
 was wholly unscrupulous about the means which he em- 
 ployed to gratify it. In pursuit of his object, he hesitated 
 at neither deceit, nor perjury, nor cruelty." 
 
 Agesilaus, king of Sparta, was " esteemed a model of 
 those virtues more peculiarly deemed Spartan. He was 
 
Death of Alexander. 29 
 
 obedient to the constituted authorities, emulous to excel, 
 courageous, energetic, capable of bearing all sorts of hard- 
 ship and fatigue, simple and frugal in his mode of life.'' 
 He was prudent and politic in his conduct, an able general 
 and of indomitable energy and perseverance. 
 
 Pelopidas, the Theban, was a man of " disinterested 
 patriotism and ardent character." He had a warm heart, 
 and was devotedly attached to Epaminondas, who had 
 saved his life in battle. He fell, fighting with desperate 
 bravery at Cynoscephalae, in the midst of the ranks of the 
 enemy. 
 
 Epaminondas was the greatest general of Greece before 
 Alexander, and one of the greatest men of antiquity. He 
 " possessed all the best qualities of his nation, without 
 that heaviness, either of body or of mind, which charac- 
 terized the Theban people." He had a cultivated mind 
 and was gifted with unusual eloquence. He was discreet, 
 honest, courageous, ardently patriotic, disinterested, hu- 
 mane, and firm. His method of warfare was of concen- 
 trating heavy masses on a particular point of his enemy's 
 line. 
 
 The Archons, as first established at Athens, were nine in 
 number, the first called The Archon, and by his name the 
 year was distinguished ; the second was called The Basileus, 
 because he represented the king as high priest of the 
 nation ; the third was called the Poiemarch, and was for 
 many years the commander of the troops; the other six 
 were called Thesmothetae or Legislators, their duties being 
 mainly judicial. 
 
 Draco was appointed at Athens in 624 to draw up a writ- 
 ten code of laws. By this code all crimes were punished 
 by death. 
 
 Greek Colonies. The Greeks had a vast number of colo- 
 nies on the western shores of Asia Minor and the adjoining 
 islands; in Italy, especially in Southern Italy, which re- 
 ceived the name of Magna Graecia; in Sicily, where there 
 was a succession of nourishing cities, of which Syracuse 
 
30 History of Greece to the Death of Alexander. 
 
 and Agrigentum were the most powerful; in Gaul, the 
 most noted of which was Massilia, .(modern Marseilles;) in 
 Africa; on the eastern shore of the Ionian Sea, in Epirus 
 and its neighborhood, of which the island of Corcyra 
 (modern Corfu) was the most powerful; in Macedonia and 
 Thrace. 
 
 The Kings of Persia. Cyrus the Great conquered the 
 Medes and came to the throne B. C. 559. A few years 
 afterwards he attacked the Lydians, captured Sardis, and 
 deprived Croesus of his kingdom. This was followed by 
 the capture of the Greek cities in Asia Minor, and they all 
 became subject to Persia. 
 
 Cambyses, his son, reigned from 529 to 521. 
 
 Darius, the third king of Persia, reigned from 521-485. 
 During his reign occurred the Ionian revolt, and he ordered 
 the first expedition to Greece which met with such disasters 
 off Mount Athos, and sent the second under Datis and 
 Artaphernes, which was defeated at Marathon. 
 
 Xerxes, son of Darius, reigned from 485 to 464. He 
 marshalled the third expedition, so thoroughly defeated. 
 
 The Sicilian Greeks. In 405 Dionysius made himself 
 master of Syracuse, and had a long reign as despot or 
 tyrant. He was a patron of literature and philosophy. He 
 died in 367, and was succeeded by his son, the younger 
 Dionysius. Diuing the absence of Dionysius on an expe- 
 dition to the coasts of Italy, Dion, previously banished 
 from Sicily, came with a small force to Syracuse, the 
 inhabitants of which city joyously welcomed him. His 
 earliest acts were however unpopular, and he was assassi- 
 nated by Callippus of Athens, who seized the power, which 
 he was able to retain for no more than a twelvemonth. 
 After a short period of anarchy, Dionysius by treachery 
 again made himself master of the city, but the Corinthians 
 sent an expedition under Timoleon for the relief of Syra- 
 cuse. Dionysius surrendered, and was allowed to spend 
 the rest of his life in Corinth. 
 
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