COMMUNITY CIVICS -» ■ ur a4 Copyright, 1921, By the MACMILLAN COMPANY. Set up and electrotyped. Published January, igsi. JAN 26 192, Nortoooti Press J. S. Gushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 8)CU605518 PREFACE "The old order changeth" and new methods take the place of the old. The old methods of teaching the science of government, outworn and laid aside, give place to a wider interpretation of the subject and a wider application of its principles. The teaching of the mechanics of govern- ment is not enough; the children must learn how people live together in communities and how they may best share in the activities arising from this life together. Along with the other great changes it wrought, the World War did more to bring about this change in the teaching of civics than anything since the subject was placed on the list of studies for our schools. The whole nation has awakened to the fact that the most important work of the teacher is the making of citizens; that the best tool for that work is the study of the relationship of the individual to his fellow man and to the government instituted for his benefit. This book is the outcome of attempts to teach the children in our local schools something of this new idea of government, something of their duties in community life. A great deal of the matter in the text is theirs, and many of the questions and problems are those asked by the children during the recitation period. Nothing has been included in the text that has not "worked." The book is offered in the hope that it may have some share in the making of better citizens; in teaching the children that one may be just as truly a good citizen in the vi PREFACE home and the school as elsewhere; that the one who is a good citizen in the home and the school is the one who will be the good citizen when grown up. Again, it is hoped that the book will train some of the coming generation to understand their responsibility toward the fellow members of their community and will arouse interest in the funda- mental principles of government activities. If it has a share in such a work, time and labor will not have been spent in vain. TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE I.' The Beginning of a Community .... 1 II. The Home, the Family, and the Community . . 11 III. Education 30 IV. Government and Health 51 V. Protection of Life and Property .... 66 VI. Government and Play 80 VII. Transportation 99 VIII. Communication . . 123 IX. Migration . .138 X. The Correction of Wrong-doers and the Courts iM XI. The Needy and Dependent 171 XII. Government and Making a Living: Land . . 183 XIII. Government and Making a Living: Labor . . 197 XIV. Government and Making a Living: Capital. . 212 XV. Beauty in the Local Community .... 224 XVI. The Government of a Small Community . . 242 XVII. The Government of a Larger Community . . 253 XVIII. The Lawmakers of State and Nation . . . 266 XIX. The State Executives 281 XX. The President . . 290 XXI. The President's Advisers. . . . . . 301 vii VUl TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER XXII. Political Parties and Elections XXIII. How Government Pays Its Expenses XXIV. The Making of the Federal Constitution XXV. The Constitution of the United States Appendix: The Constitution . Index PAGE 330 341 349 354 363 383 ILLUSTRATIONS 1. A log cabin 2. The Van Schaick house 3. Main street of a small community 4. Main street of a larger community 5. Dangers of city streets (four scenes) 6. A street of fine homes 7. A modern home .... 8. What war does to homes 9. A rural school .... 10. The high school in a small community 11. State school for the training of teachers 12. New York State Education Building 13. A modern school building . 14. The library of a small community 15. A river in flood .... 16. Cleaning up .... 17. Poster of a Department of Health 18. The hand of health . 19. A bad fire 20. Fire apparatus of a small community 21. A horse-drawn steamer 22. A modern pumper . . . 23. A state trooper .... 24. Transporting troops in war time . 25. The right way to get off a trolley car 26. Ball playing in the street (two views) 27. Dangers of street play (three views) ix PAGE 3 5 6 8 16, 17 18 23 27 35 37 38 41 45 46 54 56 57 63 69 70 71 71 74 75 77 83 86, 87 ILLUSTRATIONS 28. Cottages at Los Angeles Municipal Camp 29. The circus . 30. A ball game 3L A Boy Scout camp 32. A stagecoach 33. A motor barge 34. Development of shipping on the Hudson 35. The DeWitt Clinton .... 36. The Twentieth Century Limited 37. Scenes on the Panama Canal (two views) 38. Inter-city transportation 39. A bridge of modern construction 40. A safe railroad crossing 4L No matter how careful (two views) 42. A government official .... 43. Switchboard of a telegraph company . 44. Telephone construction 45. Radio students at naval station . 46. Sending communications in war time . 47. Airplanes in flight .... 48. The Statue of Liberty 49. Immigrants at Ellis Island . 50. Lower New York .... 5L The stocks ...... 52. A model lock-up in a small community 53. Scene in a court room .... 54. Prison cells in a modern prison . 55. Ball game in a prison .... 56. Prisoners working in prison shop 57. An orphan asylum .... 58. Work of the Red Cross in peace . 59. Work of the Red Cross in Avar 60. Homes for dependents .... ILLUSTRATIONS XI 61. What carelessness does to forests (two views) 62. A fire lookout tower 63. A herd of buffalo 64. Ring-necked pheasants 65. Wild turkeys .... 66. Newsboys 67. Child labor on the farm 68. A family working on flag pins 69. A modern reaper .... 70. Cutting grain with a cradle 71. Cutting grass with a scythe 72. Modern methods of harvesting . 73. A salt mine 74. An auto-crane unloading cargo . 75. A bank in a small community 76. Stone house near livingstone 77. A badly kept street 78. The same street beautified . 79. A back yard garden 80. Back yard before beautifying 81. Back yard after beautifying 82. Tree-lined avenues 83. **Be aye stickin' in a bit tree" 84. A child's garden . 85. A small community 86. Our largest community 87. A glimpse of the Capitol 88. The United States Capitol . 89. The Congressional Library 90. The Waterford lock . t 91. Stocking a stream with trout 92. A movable dam . 93. A road unfler construction (four '^ v^iews ) PAGE . 187 . 188 . 192 . 193 . 194 . 200 . 201 . 203 . 205 . 206 . 207 . 209 . 213 . 215 . 219 ^. 225 '. 226 . 227 . 229 . 232 . 233 . 234 . 235 . 239 . 243 . 256 . 271 . 275 . 278 . 282 . 283 . 284 286, 287 xii ILLUSTRATIONS PAGE 94. The White House 291 95. The Washington Monument ...... 295 96. The Pan American Building 304 97. A war photograph from an airplane 309 98. The advance 310 99. Cadets at dress parade . . . . . . .311 100. West Point 312 101. U. S. S. Nevada 314 102. New National Museum 316 103. Separating pine cones . . . . .. . . .318 104. The work of forest rangers 319 105. Arrowrock Dam 320 106. A rovv' of imperial apple trees 321 107. A good catch 323 108. A political cartoon 331 109. 4 political cartoon 334 110. Voter entering booth 336 111. Voting a split ticket 337 SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS It is hoped that no teacher will be satisfied to assign pages of this book to be learned. It is expected that the book will be used as a basis for the study of general condi- tions, but such study will be of no value unless the facts are applied to one's own community, its activities, and what- ever mechanics of government are necessary to make these activities function properly. The matter in the text is arranged in such a way that it will give the teacher considerable latitude in its use. If it seems best to study the national government before that of the local community, it may be done. If it seems wise to use a method other than that of the historical approach, the text will lend itself to that method. But whatever method of approach to a topic is used, the teacher should use that method consistently. The questions found at the end of each chapter are, in a lairge part, those asked by the pupils in our classes in Com- munity Civics during the past few years. Such questions naturally give the viewpoint of the young citizen, and for that reason should be of help. It is not to be expected, however, that all the questions will be used in every class. Most teachers will have problems peculiar to their own community ; the questions asked in the classroom will have a greater bearing on the local problems than any textbook questions could have. The live teacher will find it extraor- dinarily easy to get questions from the children, — questions xiii XIV SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS that show an amazing amount of thought concerning the life and government of the community. Anything that will bring the children into actual touch with the activities of government, — a visit to the city hall, the post office, the library, the state capitol, or interviews with the officials of the community, — will add much to the interest of the work. Pictures, documents, and reports should be a part of the daily work. It is hoped that the teachers of civics will see to it that the girls in their classes have particular attention. Such a sudden change has taken place in the political status of women during the past few years that it has brought to the polls many who have had no experience in helping govern. Girls who always "hated civics" are now placed in a position in which they must intelligently share in the activities of government. The authors have included in both text and questions much material that will be of interest to this the larger part of our students and unfortunately the group most neglected in the teaching of the subject in the past. It is believed that the historical method of approach used in connection with most of the topics discussed will help to smooth the path of the teacher. Having just finished, or being about to finish their American history, the pupils will find it easier to understand that "history should prepare for political duties'' and that our institutions and their activities have arisen from those very events about which they have learned in a subject recently studied. E\)t American's Creeti I hdkht in t!)e 5Enit£ti States of America as a gobcrnmcnt of tf)e people, bg ^^^ people, for t!)e people; iBf)O0e just potoers are tieribeti from i\)e consent of tjje gofaerneti; a tiemocracg in a republic; a sovereign state of mang sobereitjn states; a perfect union, one anti inseparable; establisi^eti upon tliose principles of frcetiom, equalitg, justice, anti |)umanitjj for toljiclj Amer- ican patriots sacrificed tfjeir libcs anti fortunes. 31 tf)erefore beliebe it is nw butu to mg coun= trg to lobe it; to support its constitution; to obeg its latus; to respect its flag, ant) to befent it against all enemies. — SHilliam Cglcr Page COMMUNITY CIVICS CHAPTER I THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY A pretty little brook canie running down to a large river. Here it murmured to the trees along its banks, there bab- bled away over the stones, and rushing onward, sparkled brightly in the sun. Finally, just before its waters mingled with those of the river, it fell headlong over a precipice. Here it boiled and foamed angrily at its downfall, but at last it quietly entered the broad waters of the river. To the northward, winding its way along this river's bank, led a dim trail. Some five or six miles up the river was a little settlement. Across the river and at about an equal distance to the southward, was a town, located about a fort. This was the center of an already growing trade. One day, more than a hundred years ago, where the waters met, two little children were playing on the sandy shore, not far from the northward trail. The little girl was making a house out of sand, and the boy, some years older, was try- ing to make a boat out of some driftwood which he had picked up on the shore of the river. A short distance away their mother was getting the mid-day meal. In a rough hut built of boughs were piled a few household utensils and the scanty furniture to be placed in the new home. From a distance in the woods came the sound of a woods- man's ax, and not long after came the sound of a falling 1 2 COMMUNITY CIVICS tree. The crash told that a clearing was being made in the forest, and that a log cabin was in process of construction. On the bank of the river, near where the children were at play, could be seen a curious, roughly-built, flat-bottomed barge. Just as the sound of the falling tree had died away, from across the river came a loud call. The cry was answered by some one in the forest, and there soon appeared, hurrying toward the bank, a strong, roughly-clad man, the wood-chopper. As he hurried toward the children they begged their father to take them on a ride across in the boat, but afraid there might not be room for the pas- sengers, the father was forced to refuse. He pushed off the awkward, flat-bottomed boat, and jumping in, set out for the opposite shore, where some one was waiting to be fer- ried over. Here, then, was the reason for this first settler on this spot. He was going to be a ferryman and act as a link to connect those who had settled farther up the river with those who had settled in the town below. As time went on, the settler finished the cabin, cleared away a large portion of the forest and established a good ferrying business. One of the men whom he had ferried over thought he saw that money could be made by build- ing a tavern where travelers who were belated could stop for the night. Thus a second house was built not far from the first one, alongside the trail that led to the north. On a busy day quite a number of people could be found at the tavern, waiting either for their meals or for transfer by the ferry. Somewhat later, another traveler noticed that many of the horses needed shoes. The rough trails and bad roads worked such havoc with the horses' hoofs and the wagons that many of the horses and the few heavy wagons needed THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 3 attention. It was not long before the blacksmith with the help of the two other men had put up his forge, and the merry clang of the anvil resounded through the woods. A log cabin for his family added a third to the two already built near the north trail. A Log Cabin Photo by C. Earl SaMn This is a building constructed in recent years but built like that of the cabin of the boy and girl. Note how the logs are fitted together, and the "chinking" between the logs. One day one of the travelers, while waiting for his dinner, attracted by the scolding of the brook as it fell over the prec- ipice, took a walk through the woods to the spot where the stream came tumbling down. Far sighted, he saw what a splendid place this would be for a mill. The river pro- vided an easy means of transportation for the grain to be brought either up or down the river ; the brook, he learned, 4 COMMUNITY CIVICS never ran dry, so there was always water to give power to the mill. Before long the splashing of the water over the water-wheel and the whirring of the millstones were added to the noises of the forest, and a fourth cabin was built near the others for the family of the miller. The new families that had come to the river's bank, brought other children to play with the two whom we have seen by the northward trail. They played about all day long or helped their parents as they were able, in the sim- pler tasks of the home, the tavern, or the mill. These first homes were busy places. Neither father nor mother had much time for the children. Mother had to make clothes for them, from the spinning and weaving of the yarn to the sewing of the cloth. Father had to kill the animals to furnish the leather for the shoes and sometimes for the boy's trousers. Food was plentiful if one took time to hunt or fish. Grain could be had at the mill. There was not much chance for the children to get an education. But as the father or the mother had time, sometimes during the long winter evenings before the fireplace, sometimes while they were at work during the long summer days, they usually managed to teach the children to read, write and '' cipher." Several years passed, and many new homes had been added to the first ones. A little settlement had sprung up ; the glowing forge sent sparks from the blacksmith's shop; a shoemaker visited the different homes at stated intervals ; a store offered many articles for sale ; and the children no longer ran at large through the settlement. The school- master had come, and a log schoolhouse had been built. The children were in school only part of the winter months, but at least they were able to get more education than before the coming of the schoolmaster. THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 5 Some\:ime within this period a serious crime was com- mitted in the little community. At this crisis the citizens met together and chose one of their number to act as judge and one to take care of the prisoner, who had been captured in the very act of committing his crime. Several of the settlers were chosen to decide as to the guilt of the prisoner Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner The Van Schoick House This was the home of one of the early Dutch settlers. It was built so well that it is occupied as a home to-day. in the trial which followed, and the one who presided at the trial pronounced sentence. Here was the beginning of gov- ernment as we know it. Later other settlers came, and officials were chosen to carry on the governmental business of the community. Every one could not give up his time to attend to the necessary duties, so some were chosen and paid by the rest of the community to do what was needful. 6 COMMUNITY CIVICS Not many houses had been built before paths and roads began to stretch out toward difYerent points of the compass. One went out to the mill, another wandered away along the river following the old trail to the settlement to the north- ward, and yet another went eastward to the ferry. It was not long before these began to be known by the names of Mill Street, River Street, and Ferry Street, and houses were built on each side of them. Courtesy of Hon. C. L. CarrieT The Main Street of a Small Community Along these rough roads went the life of the community. In general the streets followed the course of the earlier paths. Since the path along the river had been crooked, River Street was crooked too, as was also the street that followed the winding path along the hill to the eastward. As the town increased in size it became necessary to name the streets and number the houses in order that any par- ticular house might be found easily. In this manner the pioneer settlement became a village laid out in regular order. THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 7 Many communities have grown up as did the one we have been reading about. Not all were started by a ferryman, but the beginnings of all were somewhat alike. There was always some reason for the founding of the town. Some were often founded deliberately — New York was founded as a trading post. Streets were named from some peculiarity; for example, Wall Street in New York City was named from the wall which shut off the lower part of the city from the fields above. Division Street in one of the cities of the Hudson Valley received its name from the fact that it marks a division of the farm of one of the patroons. Some named their streets from birds, trees, or animals. In a certain city are Quail, Bobolink, and Robin streets; in another are Maple, Hawthorn, Pine Woods, and Linden avenues. Other communities named their streets for local or national celebrities or for the presidents. In some of the newer towns which were laid out by a surveyor, the streets run- ning in one direction are numbered, and those crossing at right angles are lettered, as in the capital of the nation, Washington. We shall see as we go on in our study of government, that streets are of great importance to a community. (See Chapter IV.) It is along these streets that much of the com- munity life is centered. Many of the laws passed have to do with the streets and the protection of the people in them. As has been said above, a large proportion of the different communities of our country have been begun in a manner similar to the one about which you have read. Some man brings his family and there builds his house. Others are attracted, and after a time a community grows up. If the situation offers exceptional advantages for commerce or manufacturing, a city may grow out of the little com- 8 COMMUNITY CIVICS munity. The questions of government, which are so simple .among the few, become greater as the town increases in size. More officials need to be appointed, better schools have to be built, children have to be taught the rules of community Courtesy of RtUherford Hayner The Main Street of a Larger Community Compare this picture with the one on page 6. life, and all the complex life of the city and village has to be taken care of. Young people have their part in the solving df these prob- lems, and the better they do their part the better is the com- munity. That community is the best in which the children are the most law-abiding. If respect for the law is taught to children, when they are old they will not forget. THE BEGINNING OF A COMMUNITY 9 To be law-abiding does not mean merely a long list of *' don'ts " ; for we shall find out that there are just as many "do's" as there are ''don'ts." Not only this, but young people have as many rights as they have duties. As many laws are passed to protect the rights of children and help them to be law-abiding citizens as are passed for the pro- tection and help of older people. Questions for Investigation 1. Who were the first settlers in your town? What were their names ? Why did they come ? What was the date of the first settle- ment of the town? Of what nationality were the first settlers? 2. What Indian tribes formerly occupied the land now covered by your town? How do you know they used to live about the location of your home ? 3. Where was the first house in the community^ located ? Of what was it built ? 4. What were some of the reasons that caused a town to spring up about the early homes of yoiu" community ? 5. Draw a map of your town, showing its chief points of interest. If you live in a large community, show the location of the principal industries, chief streets, your church, school, and home. 6. Indicate on your map points where you think improvements might be made in your community. 7. Did the early settlers plan for a beautiful town, survey the land for regular streets, and in general look out for the future of the com- munity? What is there in the community that leads you to your belief? 8. What occupations did the founders of your town pursue ? 9. Has yoiu" community any natural resources? Did these in- fluence the early settlement or the growth of the community ? 10. Get grandfather or grandmother to tell you any stories they may have heard of the early settlers. 11. If you are a newcomer to America, compare the town where you now live with the one from which you came. Which do you pre- fer? Why? ^ ' ' Community ' ' as used in these problems refers to the town or city in which you live. 10 COMMUNITY CIVICS 12. What are the names of some of the streets in your community? Why did they receive these names ? 13. Do you know of any pictures which show how your community looked in its earlier years? Have you ever seen any pictures of the early settlers ? If so, describe their appearance and dress. CHAPTER II THE HOME, THE FAMILY, AND THE COMMUNITY Life in the colonial home. — The homes of the boys and girls who lived in the cabins of which you have read in the previous chapter were much different from any that you find to-day. They were made of logs with a stone or " corn cob " chimney. There was no floor except the bare earth pounded hard, or if the family was a little more fortunate, a floor of rough planks split off from logs. Such a home gave little chance for many luxuries. It was fortunate if it had the necessary comforts. To give shelter from the rough storms of winter was all that was necessary. Some of the colonial homes scarcely protected their inmates from the wild animals which were common in those days. Indeed, one colonist tells the story that one night he was awakened from sleep by something gnawing at his head. When he investigated, he found that an inquisitive wolf was trying to reach him as he lay on his rough bed in the corner of the cabin, by sticking its nose through the chinks of the logs of which the cabin was built. These cabins were cold in winter ; so cold, in fact, that a minister tells that the ink on his table froze while he was writing his sermon, although there was a good fire in the big fireplace. Work in the colonial home. — Although the homes were very different, the work the children had to do was like that of many boys and girls of to-day. As soon as the children 11 12 COMMUNITY CIVICS were old enough, they helped their fathers and mothers with the work of the farm or of the home. The boys, as do the farm boys of to-day, helped their fathers plow, plant, and reap the crops after they had cleared the land of the trees native to it. The girls spun, wove, and made the cloth for the garments of the household ; they helped in the cooking of the food ; they knit stockings and mittens, and assisted the mother in any way that they could. A story is told of one girl whose brother lost his mittens while chop- ping in the woods. Determined that he should have warm hands while he did his work, the young girl carded the wool, spun it into yarn, and knit a pair of double mittens, all in twenty-four hours. There was not much leisure in such homes. When eve- ning came, if the children were not too tired, the father or the mother spared a few minutes to teach them to '' read, write, and cipher," all the education the majority of people had in those days. The more fortunate went to school for a few weeks in the winter, but education was much neglected. Many of the earlier colonists could only '' make their mark." As for the girls it was not considered necessary that they know how to read or write. The great advantage of colonial times. — In spite of the hard life and the many discomforts which the people of that day had to undergo, there was one advantage; every hoy and girl had a home. It may not have been as good a home as the modern one but at least each had a place which might be called by that name. Every child had a roof to cover his head. Every one had some place he could call his own. In fact, until homes were founded no colony prospered. Virginia was a failure until women were brought to the colony in 1619, as wives for the colonists. New France HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY • 13 failed until King Louis sent over the maids of France to found homes in that lonely land. To-day, there are thousands who have no home, and many homes are of such character that they are a source of peril to their occupants and a menace to those whose homes are well kept. From such homes children are sometimes driven out to shift for themselves on the streets. The home the beginning of government. — Vastly dif- ferent as are the homes of to-day from the colonial homes — for there could not be a greater contrast than that be- tween the home of the colonial settler and the ten- story apartment house of a large city — yet there are some con- ditions which were the same then as now, conditions which are the same in many respects in the cabin as in the pal- ace. Let us see what these similarities are. In all these homes, children first come in contact with government. The father and the mother are the heads of the family, they are the rulers whose laws are to be obeyed. The parents are the first source from which the children learn obedience ; they are the first to pass judgment on a broken law, and they are the ones who see that punishment follows a broken command. Here is the beginning of all government, and here are the three parts into which all government is divided. First, that part of government which tells us what to do by making rules or laws, or the legislative department ; second, that part of the government which explains the law to us, or the judicial department ; and third, that part of the gov- ernment which sees that the laws are obeyed and that pun- ishment follows the breaking of a law, or the executive de- partment. In the home these three parts of government are united in the person of the father or the mother. 14 COMMUNITY CIVICS In the well-conducted home of to-day, as well as in colonial times, the children look to the parents for protection against harm. Though no wild animals are to be fought, nor dangers of frontier settlements to be provided against, yet there are many dangers in the city streets and on the farm. (See Chapter V.) We shall see later that it is the duty of the parents to protect the inmates of the home from disease and sickness. It is their duty also to protect them from im- moral conditions. (See Chapter IV.) The state or local authorities are very insistent on these duties. Powers of parents. — In the ages long ago, the father of an ancient Roman family was so powerful that he might even condemn his children to death if they broke the law and he considered that so severe a punishment was neces- sary. Such a condition of affairs would seem very strange to us now, for much of the control of the children has been taken from the parent by other forms of government. The state to-day fixes the punishment to be given if the laws of the community or the state are broken and even decides whether a law breaker shall be put to death. The colonial boy was kept obedient by the rod. " Spare the rod, and spoil the child," was the motto of the colonial parent, and also of the colonial schoolmaster. In most of the homes the child was made ready to be a law-abiding citizen by being brought up to be obedient to the laws of the home. At the present time it is too often the case that the chil- dren do not obey the parent-made laws but become a law unto themselves. This is the reason why so many children are brought before the police courts, or the children's courts. This is the reason why so many children get into trouble. Lack of respect for home laws is followed by lack of respect HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 15 for all laws. In colonial times punishment followed dis- obedience. It does not always do so to-day, and children feel that because they can escape the punishment of the parents, they can escape the punishment which comes when other laws are broken. Rights of children. — The children in the colonial home gave obedience to their parents, and in turn were protected by them, were looked after when ill, were punished if neces- sary, and were required to do their share of the common duties. Work was necessary for each member of the family since there were few hands to perform the numerous tasks that had to be done. Such conditions prevail in many modern homes, but so many changes have taken place that home life has been much altered. During the earlier period little was thought of the rights of children, but a great deal was thought of their duties. People who have studied such matters, have learned that present conditions make the rights of children the more important of the two questions. Children have their rights in the home as well as the parents, and the majority of the laws that are passed concerning children have to do with the protection of these rights. Boys and girls have the right to an education, though some ignorant parents do not think so and have to be forced to send their children to school. Some parents are so old fashioned that they think that the education they received fifty years ago is good enough for the present. They do not realize that the world has progressed during the years that have gone by, and that an uneducated person is handicapped in the race of life. They do not realize that an ignorant person is a dangerous one and is pretty sure to become a menace to the community. (See Chapter III.) 16 COMMUNITY CIVICS Dangers of the City Streets HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 17 The Series through Courtesy of Safety Institute of America Dangers of the City Streets A series of pictures showing results of carelessness in using a street. 18 COMMUNITY CIVICS Children have the right to wholesome surroundings, the right to be brought up under healthful and moral condi- tions. In short, children have the same rights as grown persons, rights that are given them by the document which is the basis of our government, the Constitution of the United States. (See Chapter XXV.) Among other things this gives to all the right of personal security. Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner A Street of Fine Homes Children have the right to play. If cities take away from them the right of playing on the street, the right of sliding down some hill in the community, it is only fair that they should be provided with a park or a playground. Many thousands of dollars are spent by municipalities for this purpose. The subject of recreation will be considered further in a later chapter. (See Chapter VI.) When parents do not grant children the rights which are theirs, government, either local or state, may step in and force the parents to grant them. If this does not secure HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 19 results, government may go a step further, and remove children from the care of such parents and place them where they may grow up under proper surroundings. The right that parents formerly had over their children has been limited by the state. The parent has not the power of punishment that he had in former times. This does not mean that he may not punish at all if there is need, but that he may not be cruel in his punishment. Formerly his power was practically unlimited. To-day if a parent inflicts a cruel punishment on a child, the law steps in, and the parent is severely punished by fine or even imprisonment. For- merly, the parents of many children felt that they were en- titled to any wages received by their children. Because of this, children were put to work at a very early age, and were often cruelly treated. The law has put a stop to this in most of the states of the nation, though, sad to say, in some states children of very tender age are permitted to work in factories and mines, and the parents have control of all that they earn. (See Chapter XIII.) Duties of children — obedience. — As we go farther along in this book, we shall find that every right that a citizen has is joined to a duty. In this manner the rights of children are connected with their duties. One of the most important of these duties is that of obedience. This means obedience not only to the laws of the home and of the school, but also to the laws that government makes — the laws passed by the locality, the state, and the nation. Of course the first obedience due is that given to parents. The boy or girl who is dishonest with a parent is not very apt to become a good citizen. We obey parents because they are older than we are, and because they know better than we do, the things that should be done. In the ancient law given 20 COMMUNITY CIVICS to Moses on the Mount, which we know as the Ten Com- mandments, the first commandment with a promise attached to it for its fulfillment, is that one which says, '' Honor thy father and mother, that thy days may be long in the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee." Duty of service. — In the home we find not only the beginnings of government, but also the beginning of that service for others which must be performed by and by, by all those who wish to become good citizens. The home is a factory in which good citizens are made. As they are made here, so they will be when they grow up. In the home are begun those relationships with others which form the basis of all later actions. Here we learn how to protect our loved ones as well as to be protected by them. This protection is given not only to parents, for we shall see later that we do protect them (see Chapter V), but also to the other members of the family with whom we come in contact. In many of the large cities where people are closely crowded together and there is much poverty, mothers can- not give the attention to the smaller ones of the family that they would wish to give. Here are found the " little mothers " and the "little fathers." These are the children who take care of their baby brothers and sisters when the mothers and fathers have to work and do not have time to care for them themselves. Unfortunately the " little mothers " and the " little fathers " are often in need of as much help and protection as the babies themselves. To look out for them, kindly societies have been formed which try to help those whose little ones need care while the parents are at work. We have seen how the boys and girls of the cabins in the woods helped their fathers and mothers by actual hard HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 21 work in winning a home from the surroundings in which they were placed. Although such work is not asked of children to-day, there are many ways in which the children may help in the home. To-day, in addition to actual labor given in the home, help means also to assist the parents in obeying the laws of the community in which the home is placed. Perhaps you are wondering how you can help father and mother obey the law and thus be good citizens? Let us look into this. Remember that the parents are the ones who are held responsible if children break the laws. If boys and girls permit rubbish to collect about the home so that disease is spread, if a fire starts because children play with matches or build an election bonfire and do not take care of it, the parents are the ones who are held responsible for the damage that may ensue. If the school attendance law is broken, the parents may be taken to court as well as the children. If boys play ball in the street and a window is broken, the parent has to pay for it. So we see that if children are obedient to the laws of the community and do not get into trouble, they are performing a real service both to their parents and to the community. Duty of thoughtfulness. — Another duty is that of thoughtfulness for the rights of others. We may be obedient and also give service, but if some thought and care are not given to the performance of such duties, we are not perform- ing these duties in the right way. It is the one who does his duty with thought and care who becomes the best citi- zen. It must not be forgotten that we are not alone in the world. Other people have the same rights that we have. If people are selfish and not thoughtful of the rights of others, trouble and confusion arise. When boys and girls play games in the streets, it is this thoughtlessness that 22 COMMUNITY CIVICS causes trouble; we shall see later how this conflicts with others' rights. (See Chapter VI.) Duty of industry. — Be industrious. The industrious person is one who is busy all the time and therefore has no time for interfering with the rights of others. If a boy or girl spends the time in school whispering and wasting the time, not only is the time which belongs to himself wasted, but also that which belongs to those about him whose at- tention he attracts. One may be just as good a citizen in school as though grown up or having the privilege of voting. The home where industry is evident is likely to be a good home. It may not have much money, but it has in it that which gives strength and character to a community whether it be large or small. Other marks of good citizenship. — The performance of duties which are joined to the rights of citizens and which are found in the home first of all is one mark of a good citizen. As we proceed in our study of the activities of government we shall find that there are many other demands on every one who would perform the duties of good citizenship. In addition to those named above, we may add taking care of one's health, courage without fool- hardiness, thrift, courtesy, ability to assume responsibility, promptness, honesty, and loyalty. All these are marks of a good citizen. Laws that govern the home. — The laws that are passed for our help and instruction in becoming good citizens, and that take care of us in our homes, are not all the safe- guards we have. Laws are made to tell us what kinds of homes we may live in and even place restrictions on the kinds of homes that may be built. As cities grew up and densely populated centers developed, HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 23 home conditions changed. So packed together did the people become that very bad health conditions resulted. The foreigners who came to this country were not ac- customed to the way people lived here. They began to flock together into districts by themselves. Here they A Modern Home Photo lyy W. A. Gunn Make a list of the ways in which government supervises the building of such a home. could hear their own language spoken, keep their own cus- toms, and follow somewhat the same life they had pursued in the land from which they came. These methods of living, in many cases, were very bad. It is proper, under suitable conditions, to have cows and pigs and chickens, but it is not proper to have them in the house where people live. Because the immigrant had done this in his own country, he did it here. Children and animals 24 COMMUNITY CIVICS often lived together in the same room. American citizens do not do these things, but it was a long time before such customs were stopped. The foreigners who came to the new country had never heard of modern sanitary arrangements ; until the law put a stop to it, they disregarded the rights of others to such an extent that the health of the public was in danger. In a book called " The Peril and the Preserva- tion of the Plome," is shown the picture of a bathtub hang- ing down into a back alley from a window. Because the rooms were so small, this was the only place to keep it, and it was the only bathtub on the block. Landlords, too, took ad- vantage of the ignorance of the immigrant, and asked ex- tortionate rents for very poor accommodations. The new- comers were poor, and to make both ends meet and to be able to pay the rent the landlord asked, boarders were taken in. In some tenement bedrooms the beds were never empty, those who worked at night giving up the bed to those who worked during the day. Here are some of the conditions in the homes mentioned above. '' Gotham Court " (in New York City) stood until recently almost on the identical spot where George Washington lived when he was the first President of this Republic. When a census of the court was made some years before it was demolished, one hundred and forty-two families were found living there. '' Out of such conditions came little Antonia, stripped by an inhuman step-mother and beaten with a red-hot poker until her body was a mass of burns and bruises. The step-mother went to jail, but we still have need of the Children's Society that has thrown a watchful and strong arm around more than one hundred thousand little ones in the slum where the home has been wrecked." In a typical tenement house on the East Side HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 25 in New York where the Court above mentioned was located, INIr. Riis says " there were two thousand seven hundred and eighty-one persons living, four hundred and sixty-six of them babies in arms. There were four hundred and forty-one dark rooms with no windows at all, and six hundred and thirty-five rooms that opened on the air shaft." The battle with the slum. — When such conditions as these came to the attention of good citizens, is it any wonder that then began the ''battle with the slum"? Patriotic and philanthropic people began to fight for laws which would put an end to such horrible conditions. To-day they have met with a great measure of success. No one can build a home for rental unless he pays attention to the laws which have been passed to make that home comfort- able and sanitary and a place fit to live in. Tenements that may prove to be fire-traps may no longer be built ; proper conditions of light and ventilation must be supplied ; there must be proper living conditions. Importance of the home. — So important is the home as the basis of government that some states have passed laws which permit local units of the state to pay a poor widow with children a sum of money for the support of those chil- dren, that she may not be obliged to send them to an institu- tion. The state has at last learned that it is better to keep the home together than it is to have it broken up. It has begun to understand that the remedy for crime is a clean and comfortable home, and that to produce such a result an outlay of thought is better than an outlay of money ; laws have been passed to take care of the health of the home ; institutions have been founded by public-spirited citizens and by local authorities to take care of the sick and help- less. (See Chapter XL) 26 COMMUNITY CIVICS How government comes into the home. — Early in the morning the milkman leaves at your city home your daily supply of milk. If you are fortunate enough to have cows of your own, you will know that in order to sell the milk it must be of a certain quality. If you buy your milk of the milkman, he must have it examined to see that it is clean and free from harmful germs, and that it has a proper amount of nour- ishment in it. Your local government looks after this, send- ing out inspectors who, under the orders of the local health officers, attend to these duties. (See Chapter IV.) Your breakfast eaten and your milk drunk, you go to school. If you do not, the truant officer will be after you. This is the state government coming to your home. (See Chapter III.) On the way to the building where school is held you see the postman or the rural free delivery man. Through them the national government is entering the home. (See Chapter VIII.) Many such examples might be given to show that the home is the center toward which all govern- ment leads. When the home is destroyed government is destroyed. That is the reason why the home is guarded so carefully. One of the reasons why war is so greatly dreaded is because it breaks up the foundations of government by destroying the home. A community. — It may be well for us at this place to learn what a community is. It has been defined as " a group of people living together in a given locality, bound to one another by common interests, and subject to common laws." With such a definition it at once be- comes plain that all of us are members of more than one community. There are five of these fundamental relationships : the home, the school, the church, government, and industry. HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 27 Government may refer to town, county, state, or nation. Yet, according to our definition, all these relationships are those of a community, for the people living in all these divisions are bound together by common interests and are subject to common laws. As we read on we shall see that the government of these communities is simply the government of the home trans- 1I»« J* ^^ What War Does to Homes Peronne, France, completely wrecked in the World War. In the distance is the citadel, which was used as a prison. f erred to a larger field. There are more officials, and the government becomes more complicated as it takes in more activities, but we shall find that the three essential parts of government, the executive, legislative, and judicial de- partments, are still to be found, no matter what community we study. We shall also find that laws are made for the same purpose as in the home, for the help of the individual. 28 COMMUNITY CIVICS Membership in any or all of these communities has a meaning. First, in the community we satisfy our desires and purposes through cooperation. That community is most successful whose members cooperate most closely. Second, membership in the community places an obligation upon us to contribute to common ends. If all do not obey the laws set for their guidance, health may be endangered and disease spread. If some contribute nothing to industry, the community suffers. Membership in a community lays a heavy responsibility upon us. The manner in which we shoulder these responsibilities indicates the character of our citizenship. In the home first, then in the school, which is planned to cultivate intelligence and character ; in the church, which trains the religious and moral life ; in government, which conserves the common rights and obligations of every citizen ; in the vocation, which gives to every one a chance not only to earn a living but to contribute useful service ; and in various helpful societies, like the Boy Scouts and the Girl Scouts, are found opportunities for growth and service which mark the useful citizen and the man or woman of high moral standard. Questions for Investigation 1. Are there any so-called tenement districts in your community? What can be done to remedy defects in them ? 2. Do the majority of the people about you own their own homes? Compare the sections where the people own their own homes and those where they do not, and draw some conclusions. Do you think a person should own his own home rather than rent one ? Why ? 3. What are some of the ways in which you can help to make your home pleasant ? 4. In what ways do good homes promote good citizenship ? 5. What advantages do you enjoy from having a good home, which those who do not have one cannot enjoy ? HOME, FAMILY, AND COMMUNITY 29 6. Why should we try to beautify our homes, both inside and out- side? 7. What defects can you see in the homes of your community, and how can these be remedied ? 8. Does your community, through its local government or through local societies, offer prizes for the beautifying of the homes of the com- munity ? 9. Observe whether your family depends upon itself for its needs, or whether it depends on other homes. 10. Why is the statement, " He is a good neighbor," a good recom- mendation for anyone? 11. If you could build just such a home as you would wish, what are some of the things you would plan for ? 12. What are some of the laws passed by your local or state govern- ments for the protection and help of your home ? 13. Give examples, other than those mentioned in the text, of the ways in which government officials, local, state, and national, come to your home. 14. Give examples of what the war with Germany did to destroy homes. 15. List five things a citizen should avoid in building a house. 16. Make a list of ten points to be considered in deciding whether a house is a desirable or an undesirable one for tenancy. CHAPTER III EDUCATION As we have learned in a previous chapter (see Chapter II) the children of colonial times did not have much chance to get an education. A little of the three " r's," " reading, 'riting, and 'rithmetic," and sometimes some of the three " s's," *' speaking, spelling, and spanking," comprised the education of the majority of colonial children. As the settle- ment grew and more children came into the neighborhood, the first place that was built for common use was the school, and often the same building was used for a church. Government and early schools. — Government early took a hand in helping education, for only twelve years after the founding of Massachusetts the lawmaking body of the colony passed a law which provided that the children of each town should be taught the principles of religion and the laws of the country (the first lessons in govern- ment), and the officials must be sure that the children were put to some useful work. All this might be done in the home. Some five years later the same legislature passed a law providing that schools should be established in every township of fifty householders. The reason given for such a law was that '^ it being one chief project of that old de- luder Satan to keep men from the knowledge of the scrip- tures," children should receive some education, so that the "old deluder " might be beaten, and "learning might 30 EDUCATION 31 not be buried in the grave of our fathers in the church and commonwealth." If parents did not heed this law, they were brought before the magistrates and reproved for neg- lecting their duty. This was the first compulsory educa- tion law. Support of early schools. — The schools which were founded in these early days were supported in various ways. Sometimes part of the money was given by the well-to-do of the community ; part of the support came from land set aside for the purpose; part came from the money paid for the teaching of subjects in the schools ; and part from the taxes paid by the community. Usually all these means were necessary to raise an amount sufficient to pay the ex- penses of the school. Here are some of the fees paid — four pence for " such as are in the primer and other Eng- lish books, and six pence a week to learn accidence (Latin Grammar), wrighting and casting accounts." Early teachers. — Such schools were sometimes taught by men whom we should call ill-trained and ignorant. The schoolmaster usually had some other business by which he helped to make his living. George Washington's school- master was a white bond slave who acted as sexton of the church and now and then dug a grave. His next teacher was an ignorant man, and young Washington " failed to acquire either correct spelling or the commonest rules of English grammar." Here is a picture of an old-time schoolmaster. He wore a three-cornered hat. " His coat descended in long square skirts quite to the calves of his legs. He had on nankeen small clothes [knee breeches], white silk stockings, paste knee and shoe buckles. His waistcoat [vest] was of yellow embossed silk. The sleeves and skirts of his coat were 32 COMMUNITY CIVICS garnished with rows of silver buttons. He wore ruffled cuffs. Under his hat appeared a gray wig falHng in rolls over his shoulders. He had on a pair of tortoise-shell glasses. A golden headed cane was thrust under his arm." How does this schoolmaster compare with your teacher or your principal ? If a community could not afford a schoolmaster, there was usually some poor woman who could teach the chil- dren their letters, and perhaps their ^' manners." A school so taught was called a '' dame " school. Children were taught to make their " manners " to their teachers, their parents, and others to whom they should show respect. This consisted of a respectful bow by the boys and the dropping of a courtesy by the girls. An early school. — If you could go to one of these early schools you would find it very different from the one you at- tend. The school houses were built of logs. Sometimes they had a floor of rough boards, but more often there was '' just the bare earth which the children's feet soon rendered very dusty. On occasion the youngsters' feet would stir up the dust in clouds to annoy the teacher, and amuse their fellows." The desks were made of rough boards fastened to the wall about three feet from the ground. Rude benches served as seats. The pupils sat with their faces to the wall, the little ones near the teacher. When recitation time came, they marched up in front of the teacher. If the floor was of boards, they " toed a crack " that the line might be straight, and recited their lessons. In many cases the win- dows were made of oiled paper, for glass was too expensive or too difficult to get. There were no blackboards, no pencils, and very little paper. The lucky boy had a " plum- met " made of lead, sometimes fashioned into a little toma- EDUCATION 33 hawk, and with this marks could be made. The usual writ- ing material was a quill pen and ink. The earlier schools were heated by a fireplace. The wood was green and smoked badly, for the poorest was given to the school. Some- times the fire went out entirely, and school was then dis- missed for the day, as the room became so cold that it was impossible to keep warm until another fire could be built. Textbooks were few and were carefully kept, that they might be handed down from one generation to another. Discipline in an early school. — Discipline was severe. If the master could not " lick " the big boys who came to school during, the winter term, he could not hold his posi- tion, since the boys might pick him up and throw him out of the window into a snow bank. Whippings were fre- quent. In one of the schools in Massachusetts a whipping- post was placed in the middle of the schoolroom floor, and tied to this, the pupils were soundly flogged. Even boys in college were publicly whipped. Boys and girls who whispered had short sticks like the bit of a horse's bridle placed in their mouths and tied by strings to the back of the head. This very effectually stopped the practice. Parents did not feel that their children were getting the proper amount of education if the master did not inter- sperse their lessons with a large number of whippings. Advanced schools. — As time went on, more advanced schools or " academies " were founded, where boys could learn Latin and Greek. It was not thought necessary that girls should be able to do more than read. Only about one in twelve of the women during the time of our Revolutionary war could sign their names. The academy was a school to which the wealthier parents sent their boys that they might get enough education to enter college. The earlier colleges 34 COMMUNITY CIVICS prepared their students for the ministry, though they did not give as much real education as the high schools of to- day. Progress of schools. — As the country grew and new com- munities sprang up, the conditions which prevailed in the early schools spread with the advance of the settlements. At the time Lincoln went to school the conditions which were common in the colonies were common in Illinois. Lin- coln had very little actual schooling, and the story of his study by the light of the fireplace, and how he used the clean side of a shingle to figure on, is known to every boy and girl. Not until very recent years have the rough condi- tions about which you have read been entirely done away with. In the older settlements, as civilization advanced and people became more prosperous and desirous of learn- ing, the schools have improved until we have the beautiful buildings and the splendid school systems of to-day. Under these new conditions, it became very evident that the old schoolmaster and the dame schools, with their pitiful lack of instruction (see page 31), had outlived their usefulness. More and more the citizens of the country be- gan to feel that an ignorant citizen was a dangerous one. They began to understand that it was not only the aristo- cratic and well-born people of the country who should have an education, but also those who were the toilers. The workman who is educated makes a better workman; the farmer who knows something of the chemistry of soil is a better farmer ; the housewife who understands the food value of what she cooks makes a better cook. The old system which made it possible for every dis- trict to have the sort of school that it chose, brought it about that some had good schools, while others had very poor EDUCATION 35 ones. In some sections the children were becoming edu- cated and advancing rapidly in the race toward the goal of good citizenship. In others where the schools were poor, crime and drunkenness and ignorance were strongly in evi- dence. Because of such conditions, the state, little by little, began to make laws for all the schools within its boundaries, but did not interfere with the enforcement of the law within the boundaries of the local unit, except to see that the state laws were obeyed. Step by step this movement has gone on until to-day the state stands back of all of its schools. It helps the weak ones, commends the good ones, and always strives for the advancement of both. The school unit. — There is in every state a division called a school district, or that which corresponds to it; it may be a county as in Maryland, or a town as in New England, or a part of the township as in the north-central states. Such a division has its own school or schools, elects its own officials, who hire the teachers and carry on the affairs of the dis- trict. The power given to these officials is very extensive. They are as- sisted in their work by a state board of education or a commissioner of education, or both. In most of the states financial assistance is given to the unit by the state and some- times by the national government, in addition to the money A Rural School A good education may be gained even in such a school as this. Compare this school with the one on page 37. 36 COMMUNITY CIVICS raised by the local unit. This is sometimes in proportion to the number of teachers employed in the school, and some- times in proportion to the number of children in the school. It may be granted on account of the course of study pursued. Education is practically free from other units of govern- ment, since nearly all restrictions are removed from the people when they consider the education of their children. In some states it is necessary to be a citizen to share in the government of the town or of the state ; it is not necessary to be a citizen to share in the government of the district. At the annual school meeting called to consider the welfare of the children who attend school, all those who reside in the district and have children in school, or some property qualification, or some residence requirement, may vote money for the school, may help elect officials of the district, or do whatever is considered necessary for the welfare of the children in the school. Though the state may make laws for the administration of the schools, for the most part these laws are carried out by the officials of the local unit. Combined districts. — A distinct advance has been made in some of the states by combining the resources of several near-by districts and putting the educational affairs of the combined districts under one head. California and New York are two of the states which have done this. One cen- tral school is established for the combined districts, and a motor truck or other conveyance is provided to carry the children to and from school. Such a union of districts gives the children a better chance for an education, as better teachers can be hired and more advanced subjects may be studied. It sometimes makes it possible for the children to go to their homes for a warm lunch and then be taken back EDUCATION 37 to school. At the close of school the children are taken to then- homes. In addition to all these advantages, the cen- tral school is found to be cheaper to maintain than one in each district. Varieties of schools. — In the various units we find a great variety of schools. It may be the district school mentioned before ; if it is a town or village it has a high Courtesy of Hon. C. L. Canier High School in a Small Community, Surrounded by a Beautiful Park school ; or if it is a larger town or city, it has a complete sys- tem of schools from the kindergarten through the high school. The earliest school of all is the kindergarten, where the youngest children begin their education. Here play is turned into something that will lay the foundation for future study. Beyond the kindergarten are the grades, usually eight in number. You who read this book have probably passed through most of these grades and perhaps 38 COMMUNITY CIVICS have already reached the high school or the vocational school. Beyond the elementary schools are those which give a chance for further education. Work in the high school prepares those who wish to enter college, and also gives those who do not wish to go to college a broader education than that which the grades supply. Many of those who go CuuTleay of Gtneseo, N. Y., State Normal School State School for the Training op Teachers Such a school as this trains the teachers who teach the children in the elementary schools. to college are preparing themselves for some profession, for example, that of a lawyer. For such persons there are the professional schools, schools for the special study of one profession, medical colleges, theological seminaries, law schools, and the like. Beyond these are the graduate schools of which Johns Hopkins University is a splendid example. There is such a bewildering array of opportunities that it is EDUCATION 39 hard to know which of the professions to follow and which of the many schools to attend. For the boys and girls who do not wish to go to college and yet wish to have more education than the high school can give, there is the vocational school. This is one of the schools that has originated in recent times. Here the boys are taught the beginnings of various trades, woodworking, electrical work, the principles of agriculture and machine shop work. All these subjects are studied in connection with some of the subjects which the ordinary high school teaches. Girls are taught sewing, cooking, and other sub- jects necessary to make good home makers. Boys and girls are also taught that one cannot be a good artisan or a good home maker without as broad an education as possible, and are urged to carry on their education as far as they can. Corporation schools. — So great is the value of an educa- tion, and so much have the great business concerns of the country come to realize that an ignorant person does not return value to the company for the salary paid, that many have established schools for the benefit of their workmen. In spite of the fact that there are so many means for secur- ing an education, many children have left school without more than a beginning of the training necessary for success in life. Many foreigners who have come to this country and gone to work for the corporations have been found to be very ignorant. Even if they are intelligent, they do not know English well, so that the work they do is not of the best. To help these who are only partly educated, and the illiterate foreigners, many corporations have established these " corporation schools " where their employees may be edu- cated, not only along the line of the business of the corpora- tion, but also in the subjects usually taught in the school- 40 COMMUNITY CIVICS room. Large corporations employing women have estab- lished schools for them. Here an opportunity is given to learn advanced work and therefore obtain better positions. Those who are doing work not to their liking are able to learn work that they like better. Evening schools. — One of the greatest helps to the people in getting an education is the evening school. To such schools come those who for some reason or other have not received all the education that they feel is necessary for their best welfare, who have not received enough educa- tion to make them fitted to hold good positions and to make them efficient and thereby better able to support themselves and their families. Many come to learn to read and write better, some come to learn to do better work in mathematics, others come to take advantage of the op- portunity to learn something of forging, wood-working, or electrical engineering. Women and girls come to learn to sew and cook, or whatever the schools offer to make them better housewives. To the evening schools go the children who have to work during the day, but who by the com- pulsory education laws are forced to get more education. One of the most important kinds of work the evening schools perform is that which they do for the immigrants. (See Chapter IX.) Here they are taught to read and write English, and in many of the schools they are taught the history and government of the United States. Through such courses the foreigner may readily become a citizen of his adopted country when the proper time comes. In some of the counties in the southern states are famous schools known as " moonlight schools." Such a school is something like an evening school. A teacher felt sorry for the ignorance that she saw about her and conceived the EDUCATION 41 42 COMMUNITY CIVICS plan of opening her school in the evening, that those who worked on the farms about her might have a chance. So anxious were the people to learn that in a short time other teachers had to be hired to help. One of the pupils was a man over eighty years of age. He had never had a chance to be taught, and even at that age took advantage of the opportunity when it came. Private schools. — In addition to the schools supported by the state and by the people of the community, there are those known as private schools. Many of these were founded when education was not free to all in the public school system. They may be attended by the payment of a fee, the amount of which varies in different schools. Some give courses in advance of the high school, yet not as full as a college course ; others offer a college preparatory course ; some offer courses for backward children, or other special types of individual instruction. Why go to college ? — At the present time and for many years to come there is going to be a great need for highly educated men and women. The Great War killed or dis- abled thousands of the best educated people in the world. Their places must be filled. Because of this boys and girls should take advantage of every opportunity offered to get all the education that it is possible to obtain. The coming generations will be greatly handicapped if this is not done. Not only should the time spent in elementary school and in high school be used to the best advantage, but every one who can should think about going to college. There is no reason why any one should be deprived of this privilege. Ways and means are at the disposal of every boy and girl who will make use of his opportunities. Just as a carpenter who has the best tools can do the best EDUCATION 43 work, or the mechanic who has the best knowledge of his machine can turn out the best w^ork, so the boy or the girl who has the best education will be able to be of the greatest service to his country and to his community. Other things being equal the best doctor is the one who has studied most, the best lawyer is the one who has the broadest and most thorough education. There are many ways for a person to work his way through college, and teachers will be glad to direct any one who wishes to get a college education. School rights and duties. — In a previous chapter (see Chapter II) we learned that there are certain duties that go with the rights which may be demanded in the home. The school is a second home, and here the duties of service, obe- dience, thoughtfulness, and industry are as important as in the home. We have a right to an education, but with this right go certain duties. Obedience is the first law of the school as it is of the home. Teachers are to be obeyed for the same reasons as are the parents. They stand in the place of the parents, and so should be obeyed. Just as the parents are the first lawmakers that we know, so we shall find that there are lawmakers for the school. For example, in many states there is a regulation concerning attendance. Children must attend school for a certain number of days and until they are a certain age. The local authorities set the hours when school shall be in session. The principal or the school superintendent or the teachers make the regu- lations which govern our actions in the schoolroom. It may seem that these rules are very harsh and sometimes foolish. If, however, the pupil considers that he is not alone in the school and that the rights of others must be con- sidered, it will be easily understood why rules have to be made. 44 COMMUNITY CIVICS Service for others is as important in the school as In the home. We are preparing ourselves, first of all, during our school days for our future life as grown-up citizens. It is by our relations with others that we stand or fall. If we neglect our opportunities and leave school without taking advantage of what the school offers to us, then we shall not understand the best way of rendering service to others. Actual service for others means protecting the younger and weaker members of the school from harm, obeying the rules set for our guidance and for the government of the school, learning and performing the " manners " of the old-fash- ioned '' dame " school. Thoughtfulness in performing school duties will bring greater results in the school as it does in the home. Cooperation between pupil and community. — If com- munities expend such large sums as they do for the educa- tion of the children then those for whom the beautiful school buildings are erected and equipped should cooperate with the school authorities. When a community erects a beautiful building, decorates it with pictures and statuary, equips it with apparatus, those who use it should take the best of care of it. That is the business of the children in the schools. It is the right of " all the children of all the people '* to demand an education, but on the other hand it is the right of the community that erects the building where education may be obtained, to demand that children should take care of it and its contents. Not only should care be taken of the means provided for an education, but they should be used intelligently and industriously. This is stating in a different way what has already been said in this chapter, that children should do their part as good citizens by attending school regularly, EDUCATION 45 and when they are there, should study hard and be obe- dient to the rules of the school. Other means of education. — Some of our best educated men have never been graduated from an elementary school, not to mention a high school or a college. So many are the opportunities for an education to-day outside of school that Courtesy of Rvlherford Hayner A Modern School Building What important feature does it lack ? this is a possibility. There is no need for any one in our country to remain ignorant. First of all these means out- side the schools are the daily newspapers and the magazines. No one should fail to read the daily paper. No one can be well informed about the world's doings who does not do this. Next, there are the libraries in almost every town in the land, places where the best thought of the world 46 COMMUNITY CIVICS is at the disposal of any one who will use it. The libraries are aided by the great museums and art galleries to be found in most of the larger cities, free to all to go and learn. Who can help being inspired when he looks at a great picture or some wonderful relic restored to us from the past? Literary societies are found in almost every com- Courtesy of Rxitherford Hayner The Library of a Small Community munity, reading circles and debating societies are formed in almost every town. Some or all of these varied activities are at the command of every one, and give no one an excuse for being ignorant of all that is best in education. Reasons for an education. — It may be well for us here to sum up the reasons why we should have an education. First of all, an education should make it possible for a per- son to earn a better living. The educated person is the one who succeeds in life. EDUCATION 47 Second, the educated person is the one who gets the great- est enjoyment from Hfe. Since the end of education is "to be as useful as possible, and to be happy," the more means to this end that one has, the greater are the chances for enjoyment. Third, an education should make one a better citizen, from the fact that educated men are better able to under- stand how affairs of government should be conducted, and to take a share in government affairs by holding office or by voting. Choosing a vocation. — All the education a person may receive will be of little value unless it is rightly used. For this reason the choice of one's business in life should receive careful consideration. Upon this choice depends future usefulness and happiness. There are certain considerations which should guide you in the choice of a vocation. First should be the usefulness of the vocation. Will the work chosen help others, make you a more useful citizen, and help you to be of use in your community? Second, is the vocation a permanent one or is it one of the " seasonable " trades in which there is work only part of the time? Many of those who rushed into positions with large wages during the World War, found themselves without anything to do during the reconstruction period after the war was over. Third, the healthfulness of the vocation should be considered. Will your health be good in an indoor vocation? If you are not strong, should not an out-door vocation be chosen? Fourth, is the work chosen a '' blind alley job " ? Will you have a chance to grow and progress in your chosen work? The remuneration for such a " job " may seem large when it is entered upon, but if it is to remain at the same figure during all the coming 48 COMMUNITY CIVICS years, something else should be chosen. Fifth, the vocation chosen should give a chance for happiness and leisure. Some one has said, " A person should work hard, but not be worked to death." We shall see later (Chapter VI) that every one should have some time for recreation. If your chosen vocation does not give some time for play, choose another. The sixth consideration is the one most often considered first, that is, remuneration. The amount of wages a person re- ceives should be sufficient to support his family and provide a surplus for the future. Through the exercise of a vocation, something of value to the community should be produced. The worker should be loyal to his employer and the employer should be fair to the employee. What is earned should be earned honestly, " an honest day's work for a fair day's pay." Remember that it is not what one earns that counts, but what is saved. Advance in your work. Do not be content to sit still. The right choice of a vocation tends to reduce unemployment and pauperism and to make contented and law-abiding citizens. Americanization. — In spite of all the opportunities for an education to-day, there are many who have as yet no part in it. Ten per cent of our grown-up population cannot read the laws they are supposed to know. Out of the first two million of the drafted soldiers who were called to fight in the war against Germany, two hundred thousand could not read the orders given them, nor understand them when spoken. This great number of uneducated people includes not only those who come to us of foreign birth, but also many native born adults who have had no chance, and very many of the colored people. The Honorable Franklin K. Lane, Secretary of the In- terior (see Chapter XXI) in President Wilson's cabinet, has EDUCATION 49 said, " I believe that more and more thought will be given to our school system as the most serviceable means we possess for the development of better America. Are you fitted for the fight? The man who knows how knowledge can be con- verted into power is the man for whom there is unlimited call. Each man's rights are to be measured, not by what he has, but by what he does with it. To be useful is the essence of Americanism, and against the undeveloped resources [this great army of uneducated] the spirit of the country makes protest." To develop this great resource of man power in our coun- try, local, state, and national governments are putting forth the strongest efforts to see that those who have had no chance shall receive what is due them. The uneducated person is a drag and a menace to his community ; the educated citizen is one who helps it to go ahead. Questions for Investigation 1 . How many schools are there in your town (city, county) ? 2. Who is your superintendent of schools? How is he (or she) chosen ? 3. What is the title of your local educational body? How is it chosen ? 4. What does the state do for your education? Is there a state board of education ? If so, how is it chosen ? What are its duties and powers ? 5. How do you plan to use what you are learning in school ? 6. Try to find some of the textbooks in EngHsh and History that your parents or your grandparents studied. Compare them with yours. 7. Does your state have a compulsory education law? What are its provisions ? 8. In recent years has your state passed any laws that affect your getting an education ? 9. What does yoiu- state or your local school do to teach you a voca- tion ? Has it a vocational school ? What is taught in such schools ? 50 COMMUNITY CIVICS 10. What is a continuation school? Does your state provide for such a school? Do you think it would be an advantage to a com- munity ? 11. What is your state doing to educate those from foreign countries who have settled here ? 12. After you finish the high school, where do you intend to com- plete your education ? Do you want to go to college ? Why ? 13. Do you think that a person with a college education has a better chance of getting on in the world than one who has not ? Why ? 14. Does your state give any help to the pupils who wish to go to college ? Make a report to your class of all you can find out about this matter. 15. Are there any societies of college graduates, or other societies in your locality or state, which give assistance to boys and girls who wish to go to college ? What assistance are they willing to give ? 16. Make a list of the means for getting an education in your local community outside of the schools, 17. Write a composition on one of the following subjects : My School, Why I Should Go to College, Choosing a Profession. 18. Ask the Children's Bureau of the Federal Department of Labor to send you any publications it may have on the subject of children going to work before they have finished school. 19. Is there a State University in your state? If so, where is it located? In what respect does it differ from the other higher educa- tional institutions in the state? CHAPTER IV GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH Early disregard of health problems. — When the country was new the work of the majority of the people was in the open air, the towns were small, and each person could look after his own health. There was no need for laws to be passed to make people have regard for the rights of others or to keep them from endangering the health of other people. But as the towns grew larger, the houses were built more closely together and the streets were used by so many more people, that there arose a need for some sort of laws to pro- tect the public health. Streets became dirty and bred dis- ease. Indeed, in Philadelphia as late as the latter part of the eighteenth century there were such violent outbreaks of yellow fever that thousands of the inhabitants died. The refuse and sewage of the homes were thrown into the streets. In the early history of the cities of Europe we find that periodic outbreaks of the Black Plague, which we know to- day as the bubonic plague, swept through the different coun- tries. In England, during such a period half the people died. So great was the destructive power of the disease, that a fire which burned one half the city of London was welcomed because it stopped the plague. Epidemics of all sorts were many and widespread, sparing neither the rich nor the poor. Even George Washington did not escape, as his face bore to the time of his death the scars of the ravages of smallpox, 51 52 COMMUNITY CIVICS Modern ideas. — As communities grew, people learned that health was a matter which concerned the community as a whole. There were so many people who could not or would not protect themselves, that there was need of laws to protect those who were careful of their health against those who were not careful and who disregarded the rights of others. Nevertheless this knowledge of how to get the best health conditions is of comparatively recent origin. Only in recent times have people awakened to the fact that pure air, sunshine, exercise, and good food have more to do with keeping a person in good health than all the drugs that can be taken. A very famous doctor has said, " Out of one hundred and fifty to one hundred and sixty diseases there are only seven or eight that can be cured by drugs." No matter how many laws a municipality may pass, no matter how strict it may be in the enforcement of the laws, no one can keep in good health unless he does his share by taking care of himself as he properly should. Care of the streets. — Because of the fact that every one does not take the proper care of his health and provide him- self with healthful surroundings, the different units of gov- ernment, local, state, and national, have passed laws to protect the people of the nation, and to make those who are careless of the health of others, do what is right. Because the laws of the town or city in which we live come closest to us and because we can see how these laws work, let us con- sider first some of those laws which our own municipality makes to protect our health. First of all it keeps the streets clean. This makes it possible to breathe pure air, and to keep our bodies clean, two prime necessities for good health. The cleaner the community the more healthful it is, for there is nothing to GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 53 attract flies, rats, and other vermin which spread disease. The principal cause of the epidemics referred to in an earher paragraph was the dirty streets. The most serious problem of the larger municipalities is that of street cleaning. There is so much refuse to be dis- posed of that until recent years the task has been a dis- couraging one. To-day in each city of any size, there is a regularly organized force of men, to each of whom is as- signed a certain part of the street to keep clean. To aid them are certain machines, mechanical street flushers that wash the streets, and sweepers that brush up the dirt. The latest and most modern method is a vacuum cleaner that takes up the dirt and carries it away. The dirt streets are oiled or salted; this keeps the surface dustless, so no dirt can be blown about. The problem presented when there is a heavy fall of snow is a difficult one. In New York City a small army of men is employed to take care of the snow. Machines that melt it have been used, though they are not very successful. Aside from the work the community does in snow removal from the streets, most towns and cities have ordinances which force the citizens to clear away the snow and ice from the walks in front of their residences and places of business. Such an ordinance should not be necessar^^ It should not be necessary for the community to force the citizens to keep their sidewalks clean, but some people are so lazy or so care- less of the rights of others that walks are not cleaned and accidents occur. Then the city government is held re- sponsible and may be sued for damages because of the acci- dents. Removal of waste. — After the streets are cleaned, the next problem the community has to solve is the removal of 54 COMMUNITY CIVICS the waste material. The material collected by the street sweepers, the garbage, the ashes, dead animals, and what- ever would be a menace to the health and well-being of the community, must be taken care of, and in such a manner that it may harm no one. Some municipalities throw all this away, but the more recent method is to dispose of it in A River in Flood Courtesy of Rutnerford Hayner The picture shows a flood in the Hudson River. Great care must be taken when the flood subsides to clean up thoroughly, or the debris it brings would be a menace to health. such a manner that it will bring a revenue to the city or town. The ashes are separated from the refuse and used for filling in near-by lowlands. Whatever garbage is valuable as fertilizer is disposed of for this purpose. Some of the refuse is sold as old rags and paper for the manufacture of other paper, and some is disposed of to the soap makers. Some communities have an incinerator in which all the refuse is burned. The old method of dumping all the waste in GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 55 some place outside the limits of the community, there to become a menace to the health of others, a breeding place for rats, the carriers of disease, has been given up. Other means of health protection. — Besides the cleaning of the streets and the removal of waste it is necessary for the local authorities to keep the air of the city clean and pure by forcing slaughter houses, soap factories, and places which make foul odors and poison the air, to carry on their work outside the city limits. Factories which belch forth clouds of black nasty smoke are forced to use smoke and gas con- sumers, which free the air from the impurities they cause. Many communities compel owners of vacant lots to keep them cleared up, that they may not become a lurking place for mosquitoes and other disease carrying insects. Sometimes disease breeding ponds and slow running streams are drained or filled in, and the dumping of rubbish near them is forbid- den. In many municipalities the local authorities set aside a week of the early spring as " Clean up " week. A concerted effort is made during that time to clean out the accumula- tion of dirt and rubbish, which is then taken care of by the authorities. One day of the week is usually set aside for the children of the schools to clean up about their homes. The duty of all. — It is evident from what has been said above that every one must do his share in keeping the streets clean. If on the way from school one throws a pocket full of papers in the street, it should be remembered that some one will have to clean them up or else the street will be dirty. If each one were careful not to throw rubbish in the street, there would be much less for the street cleaner to do. Along this same line is another matter in which author- ities are often very lax. In many communities, displayed conspicuously, are signs which read, " Please Do Not Spit 56 COMMUNITY CIVICS 03 o 03 o o .C3 GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 57 DON'T Spit! on the Side-Walk. By Order of the Board of Health." Since it has been discovered that diseases are spread in this manner, such warnings ought to be heeded. Not only is spitting a filthy act, but so many diseases may be passed on to others by this means, that it is one of the chief ways of com- municating disease. The great trouble is that so good a law is not strictly enforced. This makes it worse than if there were no such law ; it tends to make us disregard all laws, when we know that a law is not strictly en- forced. Quarantine laws. Local quarantines. — So great is the danger from the spread of certain dis- eases, that all forms of government, local, state, and national, have passed laws concerning them. Such laws are known as quarantine laws. These regulations are all of the same general meaning, for they stop the approach of all persons to the infected person or district. Locally, as soon as the doctor in charge finds a case of scarlet fever, diphtheria, or other communicable disease, he reports the matter to the local health authorities. This You are violatint; the lav.- a^'ainst ^ S P r TTI X G You are subject to in"i[)ris<)i)nienl or -, luie, or })<)t}i. ^ P,y ur.icr ot t ht- BOAR!) OF HEALTH, When you mu>t -u\\. luok for:t s<".vcr open- iuK or a giUi.er, or : jiit into vnur handl. crrhiei. Spit m.'.y !-.r> full of !hc ^'L-rnis of tuherculo- >!>, i'licumonia and other (li:-:<;ascA. DON'T Spit! This leaflet.is published by the Department of Health, City of New York and di.-tril.»uted by the Brooklyn Rapid Transit Company and the Tuberculosis Committee, Brooklyn Bureau of Qtarllies Form No. Mlscell. 14. 598I-125M-'l.'i-(L.& I.) Courtesy of Health Institute A Poster of a Department of Health 58 COMMUNITY CIVICS authority causes a notice to be placed on the house of the sick person forbidding any one to enter or leave the house until the notice is officially removed. A severe penalty is im- posed on any one who breaks this law. In some places where disease is very widespread and deadly, the inhabitants have been known to establish a '' shot-gun " quarantine. This means that armed men patrol the district and send back all who come from the infected region, so that they may not spread the disease by going to other towns. State quarantine. — The state does practically the same thing as the local authorities. The quarantine which it> may establish may include animals as well as people. Not long ago a virulent disease broke out among the cattle of New York State. So strict a quarantine was established about the infected district that not only were people forbidden to go near the place, but a guard was established to keep hens, dogs, and cats away from the barns where the cattle were. The animals themselves were destroyed and buried in quicklime. The state also has the power to destroy herds of cattle which may be infected with tuberculosis. The milk sold from a herd of tuberculosis cattle will infect human beings. When such a herd is destroyed proper com- pensation is made to the owner by the state. . National quarantine. — The United States government maintains a quarantine station at the approach to each harbor in the country to which ships from foreign countries may come. At this spot all ships must stop until their passengers and crews are examined. If contagious disease is found on board, the ship is held until all danger is past. The national, state, and local governments sometimes unite in a quarantine measure. When the country was in danger of the plague in the harbor of New Orleans and also in San Francisco, a com- GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 59 bined effort of all the units of government was made to kill the rats which infested the cities mentioned, as they are the carriers of the fleas which carry the disease to human beings. So successful has the fight been that the cities are now practi- cally free from these pests, and danger from the plague is not feared. Government officials also conduct experiments in the prevention and control of dangerous diseases, and a number of them have given their lives in these experiments. Such men have just as truly given their lives to the country as if they had lost them on the battle field. Food. — Food and drink are prime necessities of life. Those who raise the food for the nation are constantly study- ing how to increase the supply that the world may be properly fed. Young men and women go to college to study better methods of farming, improved implements and machinery are invented, and more efficient management of farms is learned. Boys and girls form corn clubs, pig clubs, and canning clubs, that when they grow up they may be success- ful in their work as food producers. Cooperative associa- tions are formed among food producers, which make the marketing of foods easier and cheaper and give the members of the cooperative association better prices, at the same time supplying a better product to the consumer. The government tries in many ways to help those who raise our food. State Departments of Agriculture and the Federal Department of Agriculture conduct helpful experiments, the State Sealer of Weights and Measures or a similar official, with his local representatives, tries to prevent fraud in weight and measure through local inspections. Food inspection. — Nevertheless, in spite of all the care from individuals and watchfulness on the part of the govern- ment, dishonest dealers offer bad food for sale. Sickness is 60 COMMUNITY CIVICS sometimes caused by bad or impure food. Before much of our food comes into our homes it has been inspected by government officials. The local inspectors visit the retail stores, and if food unfit to eat is oft'ered for sale, it is seized and destroyed. The great stockyards and meat packing houses of the West are under the control of the federal government, whose inspectors see to it that no meat is shipped that is not fit for food. After a long fight, Congress, the law-making body at Washington, has passed a series of laws prescribing the methods by which food may be placed on sale, and the means by which it may be preserved. Unscrupulous manu- facturers were in the habit of using poisonous or dangerous materials in the preparation of canned goods and other foods. Some placed paraffine in a preparation used for icing cakes, some placed poisonous coloring matter in catsup and other highly colored foods, some mixed foreign material in flour to give it weight. All such acts have been stopped by the laws which force every manufacturer of food to state exactly what the food contains, and to guarantee that the food is pure and not preserved with harmful materials. Patent medicine laws. — The law has also been called upon to govern the manufacture of patent medicines. Many patent medicines were frauds, compounded of poor whisky, water, some coloring matter, and some harmful drug. Thou- sands of people unconsciously became slaves of whisky or some habit-forming drug by the use of these medicines. Since the passage of the law, all patent medicines must state plainly upon their wrapper the materials of which the medicine is made. Some companies which made these medi- cines have been forced to go out of business and others have been required to change their formulas to comply with GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 61 the law. If a person is ill, it is much better to go to a doctor than to rely on a medicine about which he knows nothing. A pure water supply. — Water is one of the necessities of good health. If the water supply of a community is poor, sickness follows. One of the most common diseases arising from a contaminated water supply is typhoid fever. One of the most important duties of a local government is to ar- range for an abundant supply of pure water, that dis- ease may be avoided. Reservoirs are built to hold back a sufficient supply, which is piped to the town or city and then into our homes. Great care is taken that all the water which drains into a reservoir is pure and that all the land sur- rounding the water supply is kept in a sanitary condition. Many times whole farms are purchased that there may be no chance for the water to be impure. So important is this matter that if the owners will not sell voluntarily, the state may join with the local authorities and force the sale of such land for a proper compensation. This right of the state to take land for public use is called the right of eminent domain. Frequently, in the rural districts the water supply is not as pure as in the cities. The supply comes from wells, springs, lakes or rivers, and often rain water is caught and stored in cisterns. Since clear water is not necessarily pure water, the water used should be tested. Such a test may usually be had on application to the state commissioner of health. One should never drink from a brook or a river unless per- fectly sure that the water is uncontaminated by impurities. In rural districts especial care should be taken in the disposal of sewage. Carelessness in this respect, on a farm ten miles from a city, caused a typhoid epidemic to break out in the city. Scores of lives were lost because of someone's care- lessness. Ice water should not be made by putting the ice 62 COMMUNITY CIVICS in the water, but by placing the water bottle on the ice. Some dangerous germs are not killed by freezing. Health of school children. — The state and local au- thorities look after the health of the children in the schools. The state does not permit a school building to be erected without specifying that proper sanitary arrangements must be made, that it must be properly ventilated, and that there must be a sufficient amount of light properly arranged. The authorities in most states forbid children under cer- tain ages to work in factories and stores. Years ago, thousands of very 3'oung children died from being forced to work long hours a day in factories. The state of New York has a recent law which compels gymnastic exercises to be given in all the schools, both country and city. Such exercises are of particular value to the country schools, for the draft made during the World War revealed the fact that country boys were far less perfect physically than the boys of the city. Rules for health. — The attitude of a person's mind has a great deal to do with being sick. All the laws passed by all the different governments will not keep us well unless we do our share. Some one has written out a set of rules for us to follow if we wish to keep in good health. " Don't worry. Don't hurry. Sleep and rest abundantly. Spend less nervous energy each day than you make. That is, work like a man, but don't be worked to death. Be cheerful, for a light heart lives long. Think only healthful thoughts, for as a man thinketh in his heart, so is he. Avoid passion and excitement. GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 63 Associate only with healthy people, for health is con- tagious, as well as disease. Never despair, for lost hope is a fatal disease." The HanJof Healih ffeach for ffyese flue vece^sit/es mih a c/ear? hand ar?d a dear head^ O Alan , and if need be, clinch j/our hand ard fight for them. Drawn by Edtotna Walsh, Photo byW.A. Ounn 64 COMMUNITY CIVICS Questions for Investigation 1. In what ways does smoke interfere with the health of a com- munity? Has your community passed any ordinances against it? Are they enforced ? If not, why ? 2. Why do many communities set aside a week each year known as "Clean-up" week? What is accomplished during such a period? 3. Give some laws that have been passed recently to protect the health of the people of your town. Your state. 4. What does the government do to help the poor and the ignorant take care of their health? Does a person have to pay to go to the hospital ? 5. What are some of the precautions each home should take to keep disease away ? 6. Name the officials of the town, county, state, and nation who look after your health. 7. How does the national government protect the health of the people during an epidemic ? 8. Why is spitting on the sidewalk or in a public place a menace to health? What diseases does it spread? Has your community an ordinance against spitting ? Is it enforced ? If not, why ? 9. Were you ever quarantined ? If so, write a composition telling about your experience. 10. How is the waste material of your city disposed of? Do you think that there are better ways than your city uses ? What are they ? 11. Are there laws in your state against leaving machinery un- guarded ? Are those laws enforced ? 12. Which are the healthier, country boys or city boys? How can you prove your statement ? 13. How is health cared for in the average farmer's family ? In the average city family? Can you give any reasons for the conditions in each? 14. How many parks does your community possess? Does it give you any place to play ball ? Are there places in the parks for the girls to play ? 15. What is the difference between a "contagious" disease and one that is called "infectious"? 16. What special laws has your state for the protection of the health of the school children ? 17. Does your community have a Health Center? What benefits are derived from such a center ? GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 65 18. Why is it better for communities located in river valleys not to get their supplies of drinking water from the river? Do you know any such valleys ? How do the cities there get their drinking water ? 19. Notice how many times a day you put your fingers to your lips. Were your fingers clean? Why should they be? 20. " An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure." Write the story of a citizen who learned through bitter experience the truth of this proverb when applied to the case of (a) his personal health, (b) the health of the community. CHAPTER V PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY The government not only looks after the health of the people of the nation, but it also protects them and their property in other ways. The national constitution (see Chap- ter XXV) guarantees to every citizen three fundamental rights, the right of personal liberty, the right of personal securit}', and the right of private property. These are known as their civil rights. To make these rights secure, the people of the nation must be protected from all harm as they go about their several duties, and their property must be made safe to them so that their homes may be safe. We have seen that the home is the basis upon which the nation is built, and unless our homes are secure, the nation falls. The government protects us in one way or another from the time that we are born to the day of our death. It insists that every birth be recorded in the proper governmental office by the attending doctor, and every death must be recorded with its cause. We have seen that our protection begins in the home where we are pro- tected by our parents, but when we go out into the street away from our parents' direct care, the local government begins to protect us. The policeman. — In a city of any size there is seen walk- ing along the street, in whatever part of the city you may go, a person dressed in a blue uniform. He does not appear to be very busy, unless he stands at the intersection of several 6d PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 67 streets and by the wave of his hand controls the stream of traffic which flows by him. Even here he simply waves his hand and the traffic stops or starts as he indicates. Some- times we see such a man mounted on a horse riding slowly along the street, or perhaps with staccato bark a motor- cycle carrying a blue-coated person rushes swiftly past us. We know this man as the policeman, sometimes known familiarly as the ^' cop." Apparently his is an easy position. All he seems to do is to walk back and forth, or to ride his horse or his motorcycle about the streets. How does this protect the citizens? But here comes a runaway horse racing madly up the street. The crowd scatters in a rush for safety. The street is deserted except for the bluecoat on a horse. He hears the clatter of the approaching runaway and swiftly turns and rides madly apparently away from the trouble. But we notice that the runaway is gradually catching up with the officer, and that his well- trained horse gradually edges toward the frightened animal. Soon the two horses are racing side by side, and the officer has grasped the fallen reins. His horse is now slowing down and before long the maddened animal, under full con- trol of the policeman and his horse, is brought to a stand- still. This is an example of one sort of work of the police force and is known as protective work. Night comes. A man is trying to force his way into a house. The policeman as he walks along his beat hears the noise of the window as it creaks under the force of the burglar's " jimmy." At once the bluecoat rushes toward the building, and after a struggle the marauder is over- powered, and taken away to punishment. This is also protective work. 68 COMMUNITY CIVICS There is another kind of work done by the poHceman. This is known as preventive work. His very presence on the street, the very fact that evil-disposed persons know that back of the poHceman is the full power of the law, is suffi- cient to keep them from wrong-doing. When boys are playing ball in the street or doing something they know is wrong, the very cry, " Run, here comes the cop," is suffi- cient to cause a scattering without further warning. The boys know that ball-playing in the street is forbidden by a city ordinance, and since they realize they are guilty, the sight alone of the policeman is enough to stop the game. But we should remember that the important fact about a police- man's work is that he does his work not to be a terror to the people, but to act as a protector. The ball players are interfering with the rights of others in the street, and that is the reason why the policeman puts a stop to the game, not because he dislikes to have boys play ball. To him all are entitled to look for help and it will be gladly given. Such an officer is usually appointed to his work, in some cities by what is known as the Department of Public Safety, and in others by the mayor. His appointment is usually made after an examination of the candidate as to his knowl- edge of his duties, of the city, its streets and public build- ings. The village constable. — ^In the smaller towns and villages there are not so many people on the street to interfere with others' rights, and there is not so much traffic as in the city street. Yet no matter how small the town, there is gen- erally at least one officer chosen to keep the peace of the community. These officers are usually known as con- stables. In most cases, they are elected by the people whom they serve. During recent years, the duties and influence PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 69 of the constable have grown somewhat owing to the in- creased number of motor vehicles. He is the authority who enforces the local ordinances against the speeding of such vehicles, and his enforcement of the law, though it may seem harsh to the motorists who are caught, has doubtless saved many from accident and harm. A Bad Fire The state capitol at Albany, New York, on fire. Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner The fireman. — Not only may citizens demand protec- tion from harm from each other, on the streets, in the home and elsewhere, but there is another danger that sometimes threatens which citizens expect government to ward off, that is, the danger from fire. Most cities and towns main- tain some sort of an organization to fight fire. " Fire is a good servant, but a bad master," and when it is in danger 70 COMMUNITY CIVICS of becoming master it needs to be controlled. In cities much expensive apparatus is bought, engines, trucks, chemi- cal engines, fire tugs, automobiles for the chiefs, and what- ever is necessary to fight the destroyer. In some cities, smoke helmets are in use, a device which permits a fireman to enter thick and stifling smoke without danger. A modern invention, the pulmotor, is used to restore those i 'ourttsy of RiUlurfurd Hayner Fire Apparatus of a Small Community during its Early History who have been overcome by smoke and gas. In smaller towns so much apparatus is not necessary, and the work is done by volunteer companies. The fire hose or the engine is usually dragged to the place of danger by these volunteers, who have a healthy rivalry as to the first company to reach the fire. The duty of the citizen. — The special duty of every good citizen is to see that fire does not start, and to help in this matter people are being urged to be careful in the PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 71 use of fire. Indeed, so successful has this campaign been that in one year alone in New York City, one million dollars Courtesy of RuUicrfonl Hayner A Horse-drawn Steamer worth of property has been saved and 10,000 fires prevented. Three fourths of all the fires are due to children. Election bonfires are fun, but dangerous fun. Fireworks on the Courtesy of Rutherford, Hayner \ A Modern Pumper Compare the three types of fire apparatus on these two pages. Fourth of July give pleasure to many, but their careless use causes many fires. In some states a special day, known as 72 COMMUNITY CIVICS Fire Prevention day, is set apart on which a special interest is aroused as to the different means by which fires may be avoided. Fire insurance. — By the payment of a small sum an- nually, to an insurance company, one may insure his prop- erty against fire. Over these companies the state exercises a watchful care. No insurance company may do business without the authority of the state. The financial ability of the company, the honesty of its officials, and its ability to pay its debts, are carefully investigated by the state. Such companies are of great value to a community, if they are properly conducted, for they give a person who suffers a loss by fire a chance to secure some recompense for loss. How the county and the state protect us. — The sheriff of the county gives protection to the people in his county. (See Chapter XVI.) In a like manner but with added powers the state takes care of us. The state protects those within its borders by means of men who may protect us against harm just as the sheriff of the county, the policeman of the city, or the constable of the town does ; and also by means of the city and county lawmaking bodies, which pass laws for our protection, as does the lawmaking body of the state, which passes laws to protect the citizens of the whole state. The state militia consists of all able-bodied male citizens between the ages of eighteen and forty-five. That part of the militia which is organized and drilled is known as the national guard. Appropriations are made from time to time by the state authorities for the support of the guard, to build armories for the purpose of drill and the housing of arms, to furnish guns and ammunition and other supplies. From time to time the guard meets at the armories to learn the work and duties PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 73 of soldiers. When need arises, it may be called upon to act as police, that is, to protect the people against violence and see that the laws of the state are executed. Because the guards- man is the servant of the state he may not be called upon for service outside the limits of the state in which he lives. When need arises, however, if the militia is called upon, the guards- men may volunteer their services to the United States and be- come soldiers in the regular army of the country. When the guard is called upon to act in case of rioting or other violence it acts as the regular soldiers do upon a campaign. The state constabulary. — Some states have a regular body of policemen known as the State Constabulary or the State Police. New York and Pennsylvania have such bodies of troopers. These men police the country districts as the policemen do the city. In case of trouble they can be assembled rapidly to check the disturbance before it has made headway. Arrangements have been made by the commander of the troops that a message " Call the State Police," which reaches a telephone office, has precedence over all other messages. The result of the swift sum- mons is that the troopers are able immediately to get on track of the criminals and catch them. The constabulary travel in pairs, and have been very successful in putting down riots and in apprehending those who have broken the laws. Protective laws. — Another method of protection by the state is by the passing of protective laws. (See Chapter XVIII.) Among such laws passed by the various states are those for the control of speeding automobiles ; those compel- ling manufacturers to install safety devices for the protection of workers from machinery ; those requiring the placing of automatic or other devices for the control of fires; those 74 COMMUNITY CIVICS providing for frequent fire drills to enable employees in a factory or children in a school to leave the building quickly and in an orderly manner in case need arises. Steamboat Courtesy of the Department of State Policr. Xr/r YorJc A State Trooper What are his duties ? How would you get his help in case of need ? and railroad companies are subject to regulations pertaining to the safety of their employees. Protection by the nation. — But the care taken of the citizens by the local unit, the county, or the state would not protect us outside the borders of our own states. In such an emergency it is the national government that takes care PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 75 of us. It is the duty of the national government to protect us from invasion from without or rebelHon from within. For this purpose an army and a navy are maintained (see Chapter XXI) ; forts are built and equipped with guns ; airplanes fly swiftly through the air ; and subma- rines scout beneath the waters of the ocean. During the Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner Transporting Troops in War Time The Leviathan bringing home the 27th Division after the World War. Compare the size of the ships in the picture. war with Germany it was necessary for the national govern- ment to put forth especial effort to protect the people of the United States from harm, and to help the allied nations to make the world a safe place to live in. Millions of men and thousands of ships had to be armed and equipped before the people of this country could be safe to go about their busi- ness in peace. 76 COMMUNITY CIVICS The government protects us not only on the land but even when we travel on the ocean. Each passenger ship is compelled to carry a wireless outfit that help may be sum- moned if needed. It provides maps and charts that the ship may find its way about the ocean. Along the coasts and on our inland lakes and navigable rivers, lighthouses are built and maintained and buoys are placed that ships may travel in safety. If ships are wrecked, the life-saving crews maintained along the shores save all the lives they can, even placing their own in danger that ocean-going travelers may be saved. In a previous chapter (see Chapter IV) we have seen that some dangers are such a menace to the nation as a whole that the law-making body in Washington, Congress, has passed laws to keep us safe from harm. We have learned that it forbids ships having people with contagious diseases on board to enter any harbor, and keeps quarantine stations outside each harbor that all incoming ships may be examined. It provides for the inspection by government officials of the great slaughter houses and meat-packing establishments, so that no diseased animals may be sold for food. It has passed a law for the further protection of our health by forc- ing manufactured food to be made in a clean manner and to be pure. The government builds great embankments to prevent the destruction of homes by floods. Along the Mis- sissippi there are hundreds of miles of such embankments built and kept in repair by the national government. Sometimes in spite of the greatest care, Nature takes its way, and laughs at the puny efforts of man to restrain it. Great floods break open the embankments, many lives are lost, and thousands of dollars worth of property are PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 77 destroyed. A violent storm nearly destroyed the city of Galveston, but the government has built a great sea wall which has saved the city from further harm. " Safety first." — Among some large corporations, such as railroad corporations, there has been a great disregard for the lives of the people during past years. Not many years ago, however, a movement was started by the railroads which has saved the lives of thou- sands and prevented other thousands of acci- dents. This is sometimes called the " Safety First " movement. Posted con- spicuously along the rail- road lines are the words "Safety First." Such notices are posted in many foreign languages, so that those who cannot read English may receive warning. These notices indicate that the safety of the passengers and employees must come before any other consideration. If a person wishes to cross the tracks before an oncoming train, this advice means to wait until the train has gone by and the road is safe. If there is a short cut along the tracks to one's home, this notice advises the longer route because it is safer. The cry has been taken up by other corporations, and already much greater care is exercised to prevent accidents. Sorne employers, in whose work shops injury to the eyes Courtesy of Safety Institute of America The Right Way to Get Off a Trolley Car Always face toward the front of the car. Then you will not be thrown down if the car starts before you have stepped off. 78 COMMUNITY CIVICS might be caused by flying particles, require all their employees who might be endangered to wear protecting glasses ; others, in whose factories the lungs of the employees might be filled with lint or noxious gases, have taken means to free the air of such impurities. As we review all the care taken of us by the city or the village, the state, and the nation, we wonder why so many accidents occur, and why our right to personal security, to '' safety first," is so insecure. It is because people do not respect the rights of others, or are careless of their own rights. When people train themselves to quick obedience to the laws, when they learn to exercise necessary care, one by one the punishments prescribed by government for disregarding the laws for the protection of ourselves and others may be repealed. Questions for Investigation 1. Has your state a constabulary force? How is it organized? Where are its sections located ? How would you summon it, if needed ? 2. Does your community maintain efficient police and fire depart- ments ? What leads you to this conclusion ? 3. How great power does the chief of the fire department have? 4. How do you summon the police and the fire departments ? Do you know where the fire alarm box nearest to your home is located ? The nearest police station ? How do you send in a fire alarm ? What is the punishment for a false alarm ? 5. Is your home insured ? How would you go about having your home insured ? 6. What protection has your community against fire? What apparatus has it ? 7. What were the early means of fighting fire in your community? 8. What do you mean when you say, "That building is a good fire risk " ? 9. Which do you think is the more efficient, a paid or a volunteer fire department ? Why ? 10. How does an American citizen in a foreign country get protec- tion if needed ? PROTECTION OF LIFE AND PROPERTY 79 11. In what ways does the state protect your school ? Your home? 12. What laws and regulations has your state, or your community, or both, passed for the guidance of those who use automobiles ? What punishment may be given those who break these laws ? 13. When has the federal government the power to take charge of a state government to protect it? Can you give any examples of such protection ? 14. What measures were taken during the War with Germany to protect this country from enemy attacks ? 15. Write a composition on one of the following subjects, "The Work of the State Constabulary," "The Work of the Marines outside the War Zone/' "Fire Prevention." CHAPTER VI GOVERNMENT AND PLAY There is an old proverb with which most boys and girls are familiar, '' All work and no play makes Jack a dull boy." It means that a person who never plays becomes stupid and is not so well able to do his work as the one who takes some rest from his daily task. The farther people ad- vance in civilization, the more they understand that this proverb is true, and they make some provision in their life for recreation. Indeed, play has come to be regarded as so important that government assists in various ways in pro- viding means of recreation for the people. We shall see later what these means are and also that recreation is best enjoyed when it is under proper supervision. Recreation in pioneer times. — The boys and girls of pioneer days had little time for recreation. Their life was too hard and too full of work for much time to be spent in play. In New England particularly play of most sorts was looked upon as a device of Satan to steal away the soul of the unwary boy or girl who persisted in such frivolous things. A visit to the stocks or the jail might be the pun- ishment of an older person who thought a good time came before work. The boy who played in church on Sunday was pretty apt to find himself before the solemn magis- trate on Monday morning. The old records of the towns in New England have many accounts of boys and girls who 80 GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 81 were brought before such a judge on the morning after the Sabbath for '' rude and idle behavior in the church on the Sabbath and for larfing and pulHng the hair of their neigh- bors." One of the colleges of one hundred and thirty years ago had a rule which read as follows : '' The students shall be indulged with nothing which the world calls play. Let this rule be observed with the strictest nicety, for those who play when they are young will play when they are old." In the middle and southern colonies there was more oppor- tunity for the children to let off some of their steam dur- ing the week and thus be able to behave better on Sundays. Playing was not frowned upon as it was in the New Eng- land colonies, and both young and old had their moments of relaxation. There was plenty of room for play. People had not yet begun to be crowded together in cities. When the people of the colonies did play they played hard. This is common to frontier and pioneer life. Re- laxation comes so seldom that advantage is taken of every minute offered. The government of the time did not have much to do with providing means for recreation. It had more to do with controlling those whose play went beyond reasonable bounds. In the southern colonies the settlers enjoyed horse racing, cock fighting, shooting at a mark, and various sports of such character. On special occasions even the slaves were permitted to participate in the fun. The people of the middle colonies took their fun with more serious- ness than did those of the south. The inn or tavern was a meeting place for the men, somewhat as the modern club is, but the government exercised small care over such places, though it was ready enough to stop anything which might lead to disorder. All these methods of recreation were looked upon with disfavor in New England. The May Day festi- 82 COMMUNITY CIVICS val of one of the settlements came into such disfavor with the authorities, that some of the stricter Puritans went to the town, cut down the May-pole, and arrested and punished those who had been engaged in such sinful sport. Change to modern times. — As time went on and more people began to crowd together in the cities conditions changed. To-day such a rule as that of the college men- tioned above would not be tolerated. The Sabbath of not many years ago was a day when a walk through the fields was not a thing to be even mentioned. So great a change has taken place that to-day the fear is that children will not get enough play. The idea has taken hold of the people that if there are to be in the future strong, brave, and happy men and women, there must be happy children. We are be- ginning to learn that fresh air, good food, and plenty of fun are no more than the rightful heritage of. every child — not only this, but that they are the heritage also of the '' grown- ups." Such ideas have been brought about by modern conditions, which are widely different from those of colonial times. The crowded cities made impossible much space for recreation. The play formerly enjoyed by the young people, and also by the older members of society, began to infringe upon the rights of others. Boys could no longer play ball in the streets. They hampered traffic, endangered pedestrians, and caused dam- age to the windows of the neighborhood. Girls could no longer roll their hoops or play other games in the streets without danger to themselves. The long hill where the bob-sleds flashed down the icy street was no longer safe for those who used it for traffic, and the " bobbers " put their own lives in danger on each ride. As such conditions arose, it became necessary for the government of the locality GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 83 Courtesy of Safety Institute of America Ball Playing in the Street The kind of accident that may arise from innocent fun. What should the city do to help such a condition as the pictures show? 84 COMMUNITY CIVICS to step in and put a stop to such dangerous practices, or at least to regulate them by law. They might be innocent in themselves, but with the changing conditions of life, they had become harmful to the community. What was to be done ? All play could not be stopped ; that would not be fair to the boys and girls, and above all else, government tries to be fair. The population of many cities grew so rapidly that the problem became a serious one. Not only did evil places begin to offer a means of recreation to young and old, but groups of boys and young men, " gangs," began to disregard the law entirely in their search for recreation. Such disregard led to criminal conduct, and the police had more than they could do to control the lawlessness which sprang up. Such a disregard of law brought about crime, and as a result the cities of New York and Chicago, together with the other large cities of the country, had to face problems which seemed almost im- possible of solution. Slowly but surely, however, these problems are being solved. Cities and other communities are passing laws that make provision for proper recrea- tion not only for the children, but also for older people, who because of city limitations have nowhere to go to find that relaxation from work that is so necessary to a person's well-being. Playgrounds. — When a city has to put a stop to the games of the boys and girls in the street or in the vacant lots of the city, because they have become a nuisance to the neighborhood, as we have said it is only fair that some place should be provided by the municipal government where these boys and girls may play without harm to others. Many cities have done this by the establishment of parks and playgrounds free to 9,11. Here a ball ground is laid out. GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 85 tennis courts are made, swings and other apparatus for play are provided for all. These are used under the direc- tion of older people who are paid by the city authorities or from private funds. These directors of games are persons who have been trained to know how to help the children to have a good time. They show them that a better time may be had by observing the rights of others than by play- ing without regard for anything except one's own happi- ness. School and play. — The old-fashioned district school made provision for a recess in the middle of the morning session and also in the middle of the afternoon session. This gave the children a chance to work off their surplus energy and to keep in good health by outdoor play. Land is so valuable in the modern city that it is not possible in many cases to provide a place out of doors which the chil- dren may call their own, but the modern school is trying to adapt itself to such conditions. Many schools have a gymnasium, and here play is carried on under an instructor. Recently New York State has gone farther. Its legis- lature has passed a law which makes it obligatory that the children in all the schools of the state shall have a period in which some systematic training in the building up of the body shall be given. Whenever a school is built to-day, provision is made in some way for recreation. Other means of recreation. — School, however, does not take up all the time of the children. What is to be done for the other times when they wish to play ? We have seen how city governments provide playgrounds for some. But there are many who, for one reason or another, cannot take advantage of the means provided. To these are left the city streets with their dirt and danger. Recently 86 COMMUNITY CIVICS Courtesy of Safety Institute of America One of the Dangers of Street Play GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 87 the city of New York, where the problem of play is es- pecially complicated, recognizing the right of the children to play free from danger, has set aside certain streets near which there are no parks or playgrounds. These areas are Courtesy oj Safety InstUute of America. One of the Dangers of Street Play This series of three pictures demonstrates the need for city playgrounds to prevent such accidents as this- See also page 83. given over to the children for play, usually under the super- vision of older persons. Cities with a water front some- times provide municipal docks. Here those who will may enjoy the cooling breezes and find relief from the torrid heat of the city streets or the humid odors of their homes. 88 COMMUNITY CIVICS Not only do the school and the municipal authorities make plans so that the children and older persons may have places for recreation, but the state and the nation also have set aside regions under the control of state and national authority for such a purpose. Many states have set aside portions of their territory as state parks and keep them for Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Cottages at Los Angeles Municipal Camp in the Angeles Forest the pleasure of the people. Here those who like to hunt may go in the proper season. The brooks are stocked with fish for the pleasure of the fisherman. Deer and other wild animals are protected by the state laws so that their num- bers may increase, and they may not be entirely destroyed by indiscriminate hunting. For a small sum any one is per- mitted to rent a plot of ground for camping purposes, and here find health and pleasure. The national government GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 89 has preserved several of the most beautiful spots of the United States from spoliation and reserved them for the use of present and future generations. The Yosemite Park is such a place preserved in all its grandeur and beauty for the pleasure seeker. All people do not like to take their recreation out of doors. To many, such a mode of life does not appeal. They prefer to read a book at home or to go to the theater or a moving-picture show. Such people may have an active life out of doors and need the change to something in- doors. To assist these in their search for recreation, munic- ipal governments and private individuals have established free libraries, open to the public, v/here one may go and read or may borrow books. The theater and the " movie," though not managed by the municipality, are subject to its rules. The law-making bodies of the town or city (see Chapters XVI-XVII) where the playhouses are erected take care of the safety of those who attend by regulating the num- ber who may enter such buildings, the material from which they are built, the exits, and in fact all that pertains to the safety of the patrons of the theaters. In many states, the state government steps in and compels moving-picture operators to be licensed. This is done that danger may be eliminated because of ignorant or careless handling of the necessary apparatus. Many people get their recreation from gardens. They think that working in the soil brings rest to the tired mind and body. The green of the growing plants, the song of the birds, the smell of the upturned soil bring to many their greatest recreation. Remember that the word means re-creation, that is, creating again. The government at Washington helps in this method, too, for it will provide 90 COMMUNITY CIVICS free seeds, both vegetable and flower seeds, for the asking. Full instructions for the making of a garden may be ob- tained from the Department of Agriculture (see Chapter XXI), which is the department of the government that pro- vides the seeds. Corporations and recreation. — So great is the interest recently aroused in scientific recreation, and what it means to health, that certain practical reforms have been in- augurated by large business organizations. Great corpora- tions with large numbers of employees have learned by ex- perience that these employees give better service and are more efficient in every way if legitimate recreation and amusement is provided by the company. For such reasons the great railroad corporations help in the support of different societies, that their men may there find a place in which to pass the night when they are away from home, or such hours as the}^ are off dut}^ Other corporations maintain at their own expense clubhouses and other places of recreation, so that there will be no excuse for their employees to pass their time in questionable resorts where money and time would be ill spent and working capacity lowered. Large department stores provide rest and recreation rooms for their workers. Many corporations give a vacation with full pay to those who work for them. The governments of many states have regulated the hours during which men and women may work, thus giving sufficient time for recreation. New York and other states regulate the hours during which women may be employed in stores, factories, and other places of business. As we have seen, the hours during which children may be employed and the age at which they may go to work are regulated by state law in almost everv state in the Union. GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 91 The Cikcus Courtesy of Rvtfierford Hayner- A Ball Game Two forms of recreation. ( 'ourltsi/ I / Uiuiurfiird Hayncr 92 COMMUNITY CIVICS Clubs and associations. — Many people find their recrea- tion in clubs or societies. Such clubs are conducted by pri- vate means to provide places where, by the payment of a small sum, any one may share in the privileges of the building. The gymnasium, swimming pools, games of all sorts, the daily papers and good books are free to all after the pay- ment of the dues. Such clubs or associations are the Y. M. C. A., the Y. W. C. A., the Young Men's Hebrew As- sociation, the Knights of Columbus, and many others which are less pretentious. Most of these combine moral train- ing with recreation. ''A sound mind in a sound body" is their motto. Such clubs have been a favorite means of fighting the '' gang " spirit which is found in many cities. Without proper leadership, boys' clubs degenerate into *' gangs," and as such are usually in trouble with the officers of the law. Properly directed, clubs are among the best ways of gaining recreation. The Boy Scouts. — One of the most notable movements which has for its object the control of a boy's recreation has recently been granted letters of incorporation by the national government. This is the Boy Scouts of America. It has for its object the '' patriotism that causes the boy to love his country, and instead of boasting about it, to serve it by being a good citizen." The recreation hours of the boys are spent in drill, in learning the principles of the Boy Scouts, in going out in the open, in learning how, through recreation, to be honorable, loyal, obedient, and patriotic. So great has been the success of the movement that it has spread all over the world, — even in far-away New Zealand there are troops of Boy Scouts. At present there are in the United States nearly 400,000 boys and about 90,000 men interested in the movement. Although the movement is GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 93 not at all military in its conception, yet the Belgian Scouts and those of England, France, and the United States per- formed valuable services to their respective countries during the great European war. The motto of the Scouts is. Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Boy Scout Camp " Be Prepared " ; the oath which each one takes when he becomes a member of the organization is as follows : " On my honor I will do my best (1) to do my duty to God and my country, and to obey the scout law ; (2) to help other people at all times ; (3) to keep myself physically strong, mentally awake, and morally straight." 94 COMMUNITY CIVICS The Girl Scouts and the Camp Fire Girls are associa- tions of girls which provide recreation and training for girls as the Scout organization does for boys. Need of supervision of recreation. — We have often spoken above of the need for supervision of playgrounds. There is also another form of recreation which needs com- petent aid from older persons. This is school athletics. The city of San Francisco believes this so thoroughly that it has organized a department to take entire charge of the athletics in the schools. Young boys and girls need the guidance of older heads in their ball games and other forms of play. Sometimes they do not believe this, but if they will stop and think a minute they will see the need of such super- vision. Young people need care because they are apt to get injured or to overdo. Too strenuous games do more harm than good. There is need that boys and girls be taught the right and wrong ways of recreation. It is fitting to win a game if it is won honestly. There are some who wish to win anyway, thinking that the winning is all there is to a •game. This, however, is a very small part. What the game teaches of honor, fairness, and the right spirit towards one's opponent, and the satisfaction to be gained from doing one's best even if beaten, are worth much more than the mere winning. Such things are learned by experience, and for this reason it is a good thing for older people, who have already learned by experience, to have charge of the recreation of those who are younger or those who have never had the experience necessary to teach proper means of recreation. Many people get a great deal of their recreation on our national holidays. In former times, the enjoyment of one of them, the Fourth of July, was spoiled by the kind of pleas- GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 95 iires indulged in. Dangerous explosives and diseases arising from wounds inflicted by them caused so many deaths that government, usually local, began to turn its attention to putting a stop to the dangerous practices. The movement for a " Safe and Sane Fourth of July " has been very wide- spread. For many years there was a long list of killed and injured from the celebrations in the different towns. The citizens finally awakened to the fact that such forms of celebration as endangered lives were not justifiable. The result has been that laws have been passed regulating the sale of explosives, other means of celebrating the day have been provided, doctors have made ready a sufficient supply of serums to administer in case of injury, and children have been taught to be careful in the use of fire crackers and other explosives. The death rate and the number of those injured have been very materially lessened, and yet every one has had just as good a time as previously. Reasons for recreation. — Why is it necessary for every one to take recreation of some sort, in some way or other? Why does government interfere and in many cases regulate the number of hours people may work? What is there about recreation that is so needful, besides the fact that it is fun? First of all, the body and mind are like a steel spring, which, if kept tightly coiled for a long time, will break. Minds and bodies need relaxation and rest from labor, or else they will give out. This is the reason why so many people have nervous breakdowns and other nervous diseases. The tired muscles need the relaxation of quiet, the tired mind needs the quiet and peace of the out-of-doors or the restful book. Boys and girls need vacations from school work and older people need vacations from their labor. Second, it is good to have a change of scene, of sur- 96 COMMUNITY CIVICS roundings, to see new faces. This helps the mind and body to rest. Third, it gives us a new view of Hfe. Many people become so attached to their work that without relaxing they see nothing but their little narrow treadmill of work. This makes them narrow-minded ; they do not get the best things from life and miss a great deal of happiness which might be theirs if they had a proper amount of recreation. Government is interested in recreation because of the effect it has in bettering citizenship. To provide attractive playgrounds for boys and girls where they will get beneficial exercise and wholesome enjoyment in the form of games, is to lessen idleness and the evils which go with it, which are so harmful to young people. To provide public baths and whole- some entertainment in which people's bodies and minds may be re-created is to lessen the evils which are in every crowded city. Playgrounds reduce juvenile crime, for almost all juvenile delinquency is misdirected play. Education through play. — Play has great educational value. It develops the force which makes the energetic adult. It trains for practical life. ^' If a boy would pre- pare himself for politics and affairs, where will he get a better experience than in the leadership and organization of the playground?" By play judgment is trained. It is neces- sary only to watch a ball game to see that unerring judg- ment must be formed, and that instantly, in order to make a successful play. The very fact that the ball game is the play of a team and not one person's efforts, is of especial value. The most successful team is the one in which all its members play together and thus learn that they succeed best who work hardest for the interests of all. Play rightly directed trains the will power, teaches good sportsmanship, and arouses a sense of justice and honesty. GOVERNMENT AND PLAY 97 A great firm of merchants in one of our largest cities never hires a man who comes from certain schools. The firm found that athletics in those schools were crooked and that the men from those schools could not be trusted. The right kind of play teaches democracy. '' You have to deliver the goods if you stay on the ball team, though your father is a millionaire." It arouses a spirit of obedience to law, of friendliness, and of loyalty. Play teaches boys and girls to think in terms larger than themselves and '' be willing to work unselfishly for the city, the country, and the organiza- tion to which they belong." The person who thinks only of himself and his own welfare is a bad citizen. The person who always conceives of himself as a member of a larger whole to which his loyalty is due is a good citizen. Presi- dent Cleveland said that every person should keep through life some form of play, because that was the only way a man could remain a good comrade. Good comradeship is the basis upon which our life with one another is built. Questions for Investigation 1. How many parks has your community? What are the rules of the parks which govern your actions while you are there? What are the names of your parks ? What is the reason for the name of each ? 2. Should the community fix the number of its parks in proportion to the number of the people of the community ? 3. Should the community provide baseball grounds and tennis courts for its citizens ? Why ? 4. Have you a Public Schools Athletic League in yoiu- community ? Write a composition on the advantages of such a league. 5. Make a list of the means of recreation provided by your com- munity. Are any means of recreation lacking from this hst ? Why ? 6. What places suitable for hunting, fishing, or camping does your state or the federal government or both provide? 7. Does your state do anything to stock the streams with fish or the woods with game ? If so, what ? 98 COMMUNITY CIVICS 8. What are some of the laws of your state for the protection of wild game ? 9. What did yom* community do during the war against Germany in making war gardens ? Was this recreation ? 10. What are some of the duties required of you, if you go hunting or fishing on a state preserve, in return for the privileges you receive there ? 11. How many books have you drawn from the public or school library and read, during the past year? What books interested you most? Why? 12. May a boy take out a gun if he is under sixteen years of age? Why? CHAPTER VII TRANSPORTATION The Indian trail. — When the first colonists came to America, they found dim trails leading here and there, through the dark and leafy recesses of the forest. For many years these paths had been the highways of the Indians. How many years they had been used we do not know, but so very many that the trails were deeply worn, some of them being a foot in depth, where countless feet had pressed into the earth. They were, however, only about fifteen inches wide, only wide enough for the hunters and warriors to go in '' Indian file." There were trails for hunting, trails used in war, river trails, trade trails, and portage trails. " The origin of these trails and the selection of the routes pursued were the natural results of the every-day necessities and inclinations of the wandering race first inhabiting the land, and time had gradually fashioned the varying interests of successive generations into a crude system of general thor- oughfares to which all minor routes led. ... In general appearance these roads did not differ in any particular from the ordinary woods paths of the present day . . . but a somber silence, now and then interrupted by the songs of birds or the howling of wild beasts, reigned along these paths." The main trails in the east were the Old Connecticut Path, celebrated by a great American novelist as the " Bay 99 100 ' COMMUNITY CIVICS Path," stretching from the Atlantic Ocean to the Hudson River. From the Hudson, near where the city of Albany now stands, to the Niagara River ran the Iroquois trail, the scene of many a bloody fight and many a deadly ambush. The Kittaning Path passed through the lower part of Pennsyl- vania. Nemacolin's Path, one which had to do with much of our American history, ran along the Potomac and Ohio rivers ; while yet farther to the south through Virginia and Kentucky, the " dark and bloody ground," ran the Virginia Warriors' Path. Of these the Iroquois trail and the Vir- ginia Warriors' Path were used principally as war trails, while the Kittaning Path was a trading trail. Where these trails ended, there were others which led far into the bound- less West whose names it will not be necessary for us to recall. In connection with these trails were the " portages." These were so named by the French because at these places in the different trails it was necessary to carry the boats and their contents about some obstruction in the stream or from one stream to another. Streams made a portion of every trail where possible. It was easy to go in a canoe along the rivers, but the portages were oftentimes very difficult. We shall find that later these portages were im- portant points in our knowledge of transportation, for here very often towns sprang up which became great centers of industry. When the colonists came to America, they settled on or near some one of the many streams which empty into the ocean. The river they settled on gave them fresh water to use and an easy means of transporting whatever they might find in the woods. Indeed, so interlocked were the streams in Virginia that that state was much later than others in the buildinof of roads. It did not need them. This did TRANSPORTATION 101 not suffice for long in most of the colonies, however, for as many other settlers came, roads were needed to transport them and their belongings to their place of settlement. Gov- ernment quickly saw the need of roads, for the General Court of Massachusetts in 1639 established the Coast Path from Plymouth to Boston. It was found that the easiest way to make a road was to follow the Indian trails, so they were widened and soon were fit for wagons as well as for those who went afoot or on horseback. As still more people came and began to go to the westward, again the Indian trails were used, the roads following the path trodden so many years by the natives. In New York State, the Hudson River and the Iroquois trail gave easy access into the interior. The Mohawk River could not be entered from the Hudson because the " Ga-ha-oose " (Cohoes) falls stretched a barrier across. So from the Hudson there was a long portage about these falls across the sand plains to the west of Albany. At the end of this portage, Arendt Van Curler and other inhabit- ants of Fort Orange (Albany), going west, founded a town to which they gave the name of Schenectady. From this point the river was clear, except a portage about a swift fall near the present city of Little Falls, until the site of Fort Stanwix (Rome) was reached. From here there was a carry to Wood's Creek, and this led to Lake Oneida, from which the Oswego River flowed into Lake Ontario. At Wood's Creek the trail branched off, one branch going as described, and the other going westward through the forests until it joined with many other trails at the lower falls of the Genesee River. The story of New England and New York is the story of the other states, for along the trails of the Indians went the tide of emigration which flowed westward. 102 COMMUNITY CIVICS Early roads. — The trails did not long suffice for the flood of migration, and the early colonial governments made pro- vision for the building of roads. These early roads were sometimes built by the state and sometimes by private com- panies, which received a charter from the government as any other business organization. Here and there along the roads houses were built, and stretching out from them across the road was a gate which was usually closed. These gates were known as toll gates, for here each one who used the road was compelled to pay a toll before the gate would be opened so that he might pass through. The money so paid went to the profit of the company which built the road, or to the state, but a sufficient amount was used to keep the road in repair. In later times the road was built of heavy planks, and was known as a " plank " road. By the beginning of the nineteenth century, when the little nation was expanding rapidly, the numbers of those who were " going west," that is, across the Alleghanies, was very great. In 1802 the state of New York passed a bill for the building of a road from a crossing place of the Mohawk, now Utica, to a town a hundred miles farther west, named Geneva. From here it was afterward prolonged to a settle- ment made by a Colonel Rochester at the falls of the Genesee River. It was a continuation of the road already built by private means from Schenectady to Utica. To-day it is easy to trace the old Genesee road, for the cities of Utica, Syracuse, Auburn, Geneva, and Rochester, all have a Genesee Street, in most of them the principal street of the city. After the building of the road, wagons began to run frequently between Albany and Geneva. " A wagon could carry fourteen barrels of flour eastward, and in about a month could return to Geneva with a load of needed supplies. In TRANSPORTATION 103 five weeks, one winter, five hundred seventy sleighs carrying families passed through Geneva to lands farther west." It is evident that government was doing much for the people when it built roads for their easy passage from one end of the state to the other. A Stage Coach Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner This coach is not much different from those used in an early period of our history and is still in use. For such vehicles transportation over the early roads was beset with many difficulties. Roads in the South. — This activity on the part of govern- ment in the North to provide means of transportation for these who wished to migrate and for their produce was surpassed in the South. Along Nemacolin's Path and the Virginia Warriors' Trail, the close of the Revolutionary War saw great numbers passing to the West. Need arose for easier passage, as in the North, and again government took a hand. As has been said, when the land was first settled in 104 COMMUNITY CIVICS Virginia the settlers found that they could go almost any- where from one settlement to another by boat and that they could even ship their tobacco from their own wharves at the river front ; so they did not pay much attention to roads. As time went on, however, the same conditions began to exist in Virginia as in New England and New York, and roads became necessary. The young man Washington was one of the first to go to the West and he followed Nemacolin's Path. When he became President, he was a very strong advocate of the building of roads by the national govern- ment. The Cumberland Road. — Washington did not live to see his ideas carried out, but it was not long after his death that the national government began the first national road. This was called the Cumberland Road. It stretched from Cumberland in Maryland almost straight west to the Missis- sippi River. This, too, followed an Indian trail. It was sixty feet wide, made of broken stone small enough to pass through a three-inch ring, then covered with gravel, and rolled with an iron roller. The road was a toll road with ^' tolls for all sorts of animals and wagons." It was built under the supervision of army engineers and set an ex- ample for all the engineering projects afterward carried on by the government. Soon passenger coaches were rush- ing along the road at a rate of ten miles an hour. There were canvas-covered freight wagons which carried ten tons, '' had rear wheels ten feet high, and were drawn by twelve horses." With all this traffic the W^est was settled rapidly. This road was really the main link for many years between the East and what was then the West, the land beyond the Alleghanies, and joined them more closely together. This close connection kept the West from withdrawing from the TRANSPORTATION 105 union of states on the Atlantic and forming a separate nation. Canals. — Rates of freight were still very high owing to the difficulties of transportation, and very early in our history the minds of our law makers were turned toward finding means whereby the products of the East and the West might be exchanged more cheaply. Our government from the very beginning has had the problem of transportation as one of its chief problems. There were many in the early history of our country who did not believe that government had any right to pay attention to such a matter, because, they said, the Constitution did not give permission to do such a thing. The building of the Cumberland Road, however, strengthened the argument for the government, and after a time opposi- tion died out. One of our great statesmen, Albert Gallatin, proposed a system of canals to allow ships along the Atlantic Ocean to take an inside course and so avoid the stormy winds along the coast. Washington was an advocate of a canal system. Where there were waterways people could ship their produce easily and cheaply. Traffic along the Mohawk River had grown so heavy that it was impossible to handle it, and the statesmen of New York State felt that in order to keep the trade from going down the St. Lawrence River, something must be done. The Erie Canal. — For many years there had been talk of a canal across New York State, but it remained for DeWitt Clinton, governor of the state, to build the canal. Many ridiculed the idea, and nicknamed the project " Clinton's Ditch " ; but he fought for his idea, since he saw the immense advantage it would be to the state and also to the nation. The first spadeful of soil was dug on July 4, 1817, at Rome, N. Y. The digging of the canal was a tremendous task. 106 COMMUNITY CIVICS The canal " forged straight ahead where no foot but the silent hunter's had stepped ; its course was marked by forests so dark that the surveyor's stake could hardly be distinguished in the gloom. It was not built on the ground, but dug through the ground. . . . No work in America before its time began to compare in magnitude with grubbing that sixty-foot aisle of the straggling mass of roots and Courtesy of New York State Engineer A Motor Barge on the Barge Canal in New York State This is the most recent development in canal transportation. fibre, from Lake Erie to the Hudson, and the digging of a forty foot canal in its center." The canal was completed in 1825. It had taken eight years to build and had cost nearly eight million dollars. A grand fete was planned to celebrate its completion. Boats were made ready to carry Governor Clinton and other notables to New York. Among these boats was one named the " Noah's Ark," as it had on board two eagles, a bear, TRANSPORTATION 107 some fawns, fishes, and birds, besides two Indian boys. These were carried to New York as products of the West. Two kegs of Lake Erie water were put upon one of the boats, and when the procession reached New York, the Governor solemnly poured the water from the kegs into the Atlantic, thus symbolizing the joining of the lakes to the ocean. Now the journey from New York to Buffalo became com- paratively easy. Five '' packet " boats were put on for the convenience of passengers. The boats were allowed to go at a speed of five miles an hour, and the fare was five cents a mile. It took six days to make the journey ! Freight rates fell to such a degree that " a man who had been selling his w^heat for thirty cents now received a dollar for it," yet the easterner could buy wheat for a much smaller price be- cause of the lowering of the freight rates. Population in- creased by leaps and bounds, and cities along the canal at once sprang up because of the great traffic and the great migration of people. At the present time the canal has been transformed into a barge canal at an expense of one hundred million dollars. It is possible now for small ships to sail from the western coast of the United States and unload at one of the lake ports. The building of this canal was followed by that of many others. For some time they were very successful and added much to the development of the country ; but a new means of transportation, which came into use shortly after the building of the Erie Canal, put a stop to the use of canals and many soon fell into decay. Steamboats. — During the period of canal building the steamboat had been coming into use on the rivers of the country and one, the Savannah (1819), had actually crossed the ocean. These steamboats, with the canals and the im- lOS COMMUNITY CIVICS K < CO . W CO Gi >H 00 o '—1 05 Q ri ""^ W "^ n « -t^ '-H Q rS -+J ^ S :;3 p -Q 3 w s B i§ II O) D « ^^ o HH « w > M rt :? o 02 Q P W C55 P^ O ■ w O t"^ H ,-( o 00 iz; g^ o "=> ^r ^1 Ss> ^ PL4 J5 -^ tl!0 m o o r^ ^ fe -P +J o <4-l t4-C O O B ^ "q; 'o H n3 -TS g o o a a O J HH Q TRANSPORTATION 109 proved roads, gave great impetus to migration to the West and to commerce. Steamboats were usually owned by private corporations, and government did not have much to do with them during this period except to make regula- tions for safety of the passengers. Railroads. — At about the time of the opening of the Erie Canal, as we have said in a previous paragraph, another kind of transportation was beginning to attract attention. This was the railroad. The railroads had a great deal of Courtesy of New York Central Railroad DeWitt Clinton First train on what is now a part of the New York Central lines, compared with a modern locomotive. opposition at first. People said " farmers would be ruined. Horses would have to be killed because they would be wholly useless. There would be no market for oats or hay. Hens would not lay eggs because of the noise. It would cause insanity. There would be constant fires because of the sparks from the engine." Yet in spite of these objections, and many others that would sound as silly as those which have been given, it was not long before several roads were in use. The next year after the completion of the canal, the legislature in Albany granted a franchise to a company to 110 COMMUNITY CIVICS build a railroad from Albany to Schenectady. This was soon followed by many others. By the middle of the nine- teenth century railroads were covering a large part of the country east of the Mississippi. A great many of these railroads followed the old Indian trails and portages. The Boston and Albany followed the Courtesy of New York Central Railroad The Twentieth Century Limited Twenty-hour train between New York and Chicago, hauled by electric engine between New York and Harmon, a distance of thirty-two miles. ' Old Connecticut Path, the New York Central the Iroquois Trail. The Delaware and Hudson for a part of its distance followed the Great Carrying Place from the Hudson to Lake Champlain, the Maumee- Wabash Trail is followed by the Wabash railroad, and the Pennsylvania railroad follows various Indian trails and portages. In 1862 so great was the need of a railroad across the continent that in spite of the war then raging, the govern- TRANSPORTATION 111 merit loaned to different companies the sum of $61,000,000 to build either main or branch lines. It also granted to the roads large tracts of land as bonuses where the railroad went through territory not sufficiently settled to support it until settlers should come. This was done to help the populating of the West, for the government knew it was helping the country when it helped the roads. In 1917, because of the great difficulties attending the transporting of troops and supplies for the use of the troops in Europe, the federal government took control of the railroads. Government officials were placed in charge and employees who threatened to strike were made to see that their act was treason to the country. Wages of railroad workers were raised, as were also freight and passenger rates. The rail- roads were given back to the owners in 1920. The Panama Canal. — The greatest project carried on by the government for the promotion of transportation is the Panama Canal. Like the Cumberland Road it was built by government engineers. Ever since Columbus discovered the Isthmus of Panama, sailing up the Chagres River to within fifteen miles of the Pacific, a waterway across the isthmus had been the dream of explorer and settler. In 1881 a French company had been formed to dig a canal across the isthmus, but extravagance and bad management ruined the company. It had long been the popular idea that the United States should build and operate a canal across the isthmus. As early as 1825 Henry Clay spoke strongly in favor of it. Presidents Jackson and Grant urged that it be built. Noth- ing was accomplished, however, until in 1899 President McKinley appointed a commission to select a route. The Panama route was chosen. Negotiations with the republic of Colombia having failed, the Panama Canal Zone was 112 COMMUNITY CIVICS Courtesy of Panama Canal, Washington, D.C. Scenes on the Panama Canal In the upper picture, in order to get an idea of the depth of the cut, com- pare the size of the railroad engines with the height of the mountain on each side of the cut. In the lower picture, is the transport moving rapidly or slowly? How can you tell? TRANSPORTATION 113 finally bought by President Roosevelt from the Republic of Panama, which had seceded from Colombia. The first thing done was the cleaning up of the Zone. One of the officials of the Zone said the reason the French had failed was " because they didn't know a mosquito from a bumblebee " — meaning that the French did not know that the mosquito was the deadly carrier of disease. After the Canal Zone was cleaned up the actual digging of the canal was begun and it was finished in 1915. An easy route to Europe and the eastern ports of the United States is now given to commerce from the western coast, transportation to South America is cheapened, and our fleets on the Pacific are put in closer touch with those on the Atlantic. Modern transportation. — Following the railroad era came the age of electricity and gasoline. If you live in a large city you are familiar with the electric railroad that roars above you, with the electric cars that flash by you in the street, and with the subway that rumbles beneath you. Petrol or gasoline has made possible the small, powerful engine such as we find in the automobile and the airplane. Automobiles and auto trucks are taking the place of horses. The airplane will undoubtedly become still more useful, since war has demonstrated some of its uses in times of peace. In many places electric engines are taking the place of steam engines in the hauling of trains. The interurban lines of trolleys are bringing all parts of the land into closer touch. The farmer is able more readily to ship his goods, gets better prices for them, and so becomes more prosperous. Government and transportation. — From what you have read about transportation it must be very clear to you that from the beginning of our history, government has been of great assistance in the carrying of goods from one place to 114 COMMUNITY CIVICS another. The carrying of goods to and fro and the trans- portation of the people as they go about their business are large factors in our industrial life. The problem of transporta- tion touches every one. When we realize that ninety-five per cent of all the raw materials raised on the farms and taken from the mines, and at least an equal proportion of the finished product of the manufacturer has to be carried over Courtesy of RutherfoTd Hayner. Inter-City Transportation This bus carries passengers between two neighboring cities, making stops at the small communities on the way. What advantages are there in such a method of transportation ? a road of some kind before it is used, the great importance of roads is evident. We can see that all forms of govern- ment, local, state, and national, must look after transporta- tion. It may be well at this point to note what part each of these three forms of government takes in this work. Local government and transportation. — The local govern- ment of each unit, — village, town, or county, — looks after the building of the roads in its vicinity. This is done in various TRANSPORTATION 115 ways in different states. In some states it is the custom for every man in the community to be taxed for this purpose. He may " work out '' his tax by giving a certain number of hours of actual work on the roads in his neighborhood, or he may pay the money into the local treasury and it will be spent for the purpose. The result of such haphazard work is poor roads. The average man knows nothing about the scientific building of a road, and it is not long before there are ruts and holes and a bad piece of road, which makes transportation difficult. In some states, New York and Massachusetts, for instance, the state builds the roads, at least the main roads. The town, county, and state pay for their maintenance by a tax usually levied in the proportion of 10, 30, and 60. In New York the local superintendent of roads hires men who patrol them, mend them when necessary, take care of the smaller bridges, and in general keep the thoroughfares in as good condition as possible. Local units, usually the county, build the bridges that are necessary, though the cost is some- times shared by a city which may be part of one of the counties. As a result of such systematic road building in prosperous sections of the country, when you go out in your automobile a long stretch of good roads is at your service. If you live on a farm near a village or city, the problem of getting heavy loads to market is solved. The rural mail carrier comes regularly, and though you live many miles from town, the distance has been shortened by the fact that you have good roads near you. The state and transportation. — All methods of transporta- tion in the state are controlled to a greater or lesser degree by the state. The roads are laid out by the state engineer and their building is under his care. The state passes laws 116 COMMUNITY CIVICS for the safety of the road, regulates the speed of automobiles (sometimes this is done by the local authorities), specifies the manner of lighting cars and other vehicles at night, and in short looks out for the safety of the citizens. The state grants franchises to railroads and other transportation com- Courtesy of New York State Engineer A Bridge of Modern Construction Decide from the picture in which direction the river is flowing. panics to do business and keeps control of them in many states through a Public Service Commission (see Chapter XIX). Such a commission requires the railroads to report to it all accidents on their lines, it grants permission to *' jitneys" and auto-bus lines to do business, and it estab- lishes freight and passenger rates within the state. The rapidly increasing number of automobiles forced TRANSPORTATION 117 the states to establish some sort of control of them. For this reason the state requires that their owners register them with one of the state departments. It also licenses the chauffem-s. This is done for a double purpose, — to secure the income that such licenses bring the state, and to hold accountable those who may be responsible for accidents. Where the state has a state constabulary the members watch the roads and attempt to prevent the "^ joy riding " which is the cause of so many accidents. Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner A Safe Railroad Crossing Note where the road originally came down to cross the tracks and the dangei'ous curve beyond the bridge. The states have charge of the canals within their bound- aries, except that the national government may take charge of them in time of war as it did of the barge canal in New York. There is usually a state engineer whose busi- ness it is to see that these waterways are kept in good re- pair and to make plans for their construction and operation when necessary. The national government and transportation. — No part of our national life is looked after more carefully 118 , COMMUNITY CIVICS by the national government than transportation. The Department of Agriculture (see Chapter XXI) maintains a Bureau of Public Roads for the purpose of giving information concerning the public roads of the states and the laws which govern them, and is ready to give expert advice to any section of the country concerning building and maintenance of roads. The work of the post-office in its rural delivery of mail will be considered in another chapter. (See Chapter VIII.) The national government has established a commission known as the Interstate Commerce Commission, which supervises the commerce between the states. *' This was intended to relieve the public of some of the evils that had grown up in connection with the great railroad systems." This body of men is five in number and is appointed by the President. It sees that the rates charged by the railroads are reasonable and that there is no unfair discrimination be- tween persons, corporations, and localities, and all connecting lines. Some of the great evils connected with transporta- tion have been lessened by this commission. As previously stated the government controls the Panama Canal. In addition to building it, the government has appointed the proper officials for the control of the Canal Zone and for the collection of tolls from the ships which pass through the canal. It has fortified the canal, and the soldiers stationed there are under the control of the War Department (see Chapter XXI), as are the other soldiers of the nation. It may also take charge of the elections of the Republic of Panama, as was done in 1918, so that an honest election may be had and there may be no danger to the canal. The government also controls the Sault Ste. Marie Canal, which connects the Great Lakes. So great is the amount of goods transported through this canal TRANSPORTATION 119 that the annual tolls are greater than those of the Suez Canal. The national waterways, the inland lakes, and the ocean within the three-mile limit are all under the control of the national government. Some states have departments which share this control. Under the direction of the Department of Commerce (see Chapter XXI), the surveys of the coast are made, rocks and shoals are charted, and lighthouses are placed, in order that travel may be as safe as possible. Perhaps you live near the ocean or an inland lake where the lighthouses flash out their warning signals. The gov- ernment maintains a special service for the care of these signal stations. Life-saving stations are also maintained along the coasts. One of the most valuable of the bureaus of the government serves to protect perishable goods in transit from one part of the country to the other. This is the Weather Bureau. Its work is to send out warnings of dangerous storms or of sudden changes in temperature which would endanger ship- ments either by boat or by railroad. Warnings are sent to shipping when it is not safe to put to sea, and those who live near rivers are warned when there is danger of floods. Our share in transportation. — Those of us who live in cities have very definite duties, as good citizens, in connec- tion with the work of transportation. This is to make our- selves responsible for the city streets and for our actions in them. We should take care in playing in the streets. Re- member that they are first for transportation and then to play in if there is any room. No matter how careful a driver is he cannot avoid accidents if boys and girls are careless in running in front of the vehicles. In this country we arrest the driver if he hurts any one. In France the one who is 120 COMMUNITY CIVICS Coiiriesy of Institute of A7nerica "No matter how careful a driver may be, he cannot avoid accidents if boys and girls are careless in running in front of vehicles." TRANSPORTATION 121 arrested is the one who suffers the accident. It is taken as a matter of course that the driver has the first right in the street and that those who walk in the street should look and see where they are going. It might be a good thing if there were such a law in this country, for in a great majority of accidents in the streets the one hurt is the one to blame and the accident has been caused by his carelessness. Again, the same care should be taken in the country and on country roads and in crossing the railroad tracks. ^' Stop, Look, and Listen " is a good motto for those who are about to cross a railroad track. Remember that the train has the right of way and that it cannot stop as quickly as you can. Study carefully what good roads mean to a community, and when you come to voting age you will understand more clearly what it means to help in the fight for good roads, clean streets, and '' Safety First." Questions for Investigation 1 . What Indian trails were near your community ? Were there any portages? Name some towns which sprang from portages. 2. What were the reasons of the national government for taking over the raihoads during the war against Germany ? 3. What does your community do to aid transportation? 4. Why are canals built, when railroads transport goods so much more quickly? 5. What may a community demand from a street car system ? 6. Who has control over the building and repair of roads in your community ? How are such expenses met ? 7. What laws has the state or the community or both passed to make transportation safe for the person in the street or on the road ? 8. Does your state require an automobile license? How is it ob- tained ? Why do you have to have one ? 9. Find out what you can about the losses of goods because of poor facilities for transportation. 122 COMMUNITY CIVICS 10. What department of the national government has charge of transportation ? Make a summary of the duties of the official in charge of this department. 11. Why are good roads a benefit to the farmer ? Do you think it a good policy for the state to build roads to the more remote parts of the state ? Why ? 12. Make a list of the different means of transportation used in your locality. 13. Make a report to the class on the methods of securing safety to people and goods on the railroads, 14. Make a report to the class on the Panama Canal, touching on (a) its locks, (6) how the Canal Zone is governed, (c) rules for safety of travel through the canal, (d) how the Zone was cleaned up. 15. Make a report to the class on the Lincoln Highway. 16. Make a list of the different kinds of pavement in your com- munity. Which gives the best service to transportation? Which gives the best service in proportion to its cost ? 17. What are the duties of a "traffic manager" of a corporation or a community ? Do you think this would be a good profession to follow ? Why? CHAPTER VIII COMMUNICATION One day as the little boy and girl of whom we have read were playing about the river bank (see Chapter I), they saw, away in the distance, the smoke from a fire rising from the top of the distant hills. It rose straight up for a while, then stopped and again ascended, then stopped again, and then a greater volume rose up above the tree-tops. " What makes the smoke act so funny ?" asked the little girl of her brother. " Indians are signaling," answered the boy. Another day as they had wandered along the trail leading toward the east from their home, the boy noticed some sticks placed in a peculiar fashion alongside the trail. A bit farther on he noticed a little heap of stones and still farther, some notches on a tree. That night as the family was sitting about the fireplace, the boy asked his father the meaning of these things he had seen. He was told that they were placed there by the Indians and were their way of showing direction and also who had passed that way. The father told them of the Indian picture writing on bark or skins, illustrating it by the following story. A white man in the Indian country saw an Indian riding a horse which he recognized as his own. A quarrel arose and the Indian said, " Friend, after a while I will call at your house, when we shall talk of the matter." When he came the two again quarreled. The white man again renewed 123 124 COMMUNITY CIVICS his demand for the horse. The Indian immediately took a coal from the fireplace and made two pictures on the door of the house-, the one representing the white man taking the horse, and the other, himself, in the act of scalping him ; then he coolly asked the trembling claimant, " Can you read the Indian writing ? " The white man could, and the Indian rode away on the horse. One day the father ferried over the river a stranger who said, '' I have a letter here for your boy. It is from a boy with whom he used to play when you were in Boston. I left Boston some months ago, but I presume it will be welcome just the same." Indeed it was. This was the first letter he had ever received, and one of the very few ever re- ceived by the family. Few older people in those days re- ceived any communications from the outside world, to say nothing of children receiving such a message, so this was a red-letter day in the pioneer family. After it had been read and re-read it was put away as one of the choice treasures of the family. Communication in colonial times. — In colonial times whatever mail there was, was carried by private persons, sometimes, as in the case of the traveler, as a favor, but more often as a matter of business. There was no organized effort by the government to look after the carrying of letters and packages, but this was done by private individuals. Such persons charged from eight to twenty-five cents for carrying mail, — the price depending on the length of the journey and the size of the package. The cost was paid by the one who received it. Mails were irregular and infre- quent. They were carried by post-riders, who followed the roads as far as they extended and then the narrow Indian trails through the woods. They left the city when they COMMUNICATION 125 had collected enough mail to make a full bag. Not until 1753 was an official appointed by the English Parliament to have charge of the mails in the colonies. This first Post- master-General was Benjamin Franklin, who served about twenty years. The amount of mail carried in a year throughout the colonies would not be nearly as much as comes into New York City in one day at the present time. Newspapers were few and were not carried in the mails, but by private arrangement. When the Re volutionary War began there were in all thirty-seven newspapers printed in the colonies, and all their subscribers together did not num- ber more than five thousand. Beginnings of modern communication. — As time went on and good roads were built, as the steamboat came into use, and as the railroads began to link the country together, methods of communication were improved. It was no longer such a wonderful thing to receive a letter or a newspaper. About the middle of the nineteenth century (1845) postage stamps began to be used, and a little later the rate of letter postage was set at three cents an ounce. This has changed from three to two cents, back again to three, and again dropped to two, as the needs of the Post-Office Department have varied. The Post-OfRce Department. — The Post-Office Depart- ment has become one of the largest in our government. The Postmaster-General is appointed by the President and is a member of his cabinet. He has control of all matter that is sent through the mails, whether letters, papers, or packages. Such absolute control has he that he may bar certain matter from going by post. Sometimes newspapers are forbidden to use the mail because of improper matter printed in them. The Postmaster-General appoints many postmasters, has 126 COMMUNITY CIVICS Courtesy of H. P. Cheney A Government Official What are his duties? What service does he render to you? What are the duties of that department of government which he represents? charge of the postmen, and attends to the rural free delivery, the parcel post, the sending of money orders, and the postal savings banks. The rural free delivery and the parcel post have been of great benefit to the agricultural sections of the country. They have brought the farmer in closer touch with af- fairs of the government, made possible the ship- ping of farm products direct to the consumer, and helped in the fight for good roads. To-day the farmer living in a remote district may get his daily paper and his mail as does the city dweller, or may order his goods from the city store and have them sent. the same day by parcel post. Country life has been made more attractive and farm values have increased. The postal savings COMMUNICATION 127 banks have made it possible to put into circulation large sums of money formerly hoarded. Sometimes people were afraid of the banks, sometimes they had no banking facilities near at hand. But every town has a post office, and con- fidence in a government institution is in the minds of many much greater than in a private institution. A small rate of interest is paid, and amounts as small as a dollar may be deposited. Among other activities of this department of government is the money order system, by which money may be sent from one place to another or abroad. For a small fee a letter or parcel may be delivered immediately on its arrival and articles may be insured to the amount of fifty dollars, and if the article is lost the government settles for it. Curiosities of the post office. — Many curious things go through the mails. Sometimes live animals are sent by parcel post, and a case is on record of a baby being shipped by this method. Mr. Haskins in his book on American government tells of the following curious things sent by post. In one box was a rattlesnake, accompanied by a card on which was written, " I hope this puts an end to you." In one post office the employees were driven from the building by a swarm of bees which escaped from their container. In another, the building was just as rapidly cleared when a package of skunk skins was placed on the radiator. The most curious post office is on the Galapagos Islands. It is a barrel in which letters are placed. As all mariners know of this post office, they are on the lookout for it when near the islands and take out the mail it contains and forward it to their nearest post. The telegraph. — About the same time that the post- age stamp came into use, an invention was made which 128 COMMUNITY CIVICS revolutionized communication. This was the telegraph. We should not know what to do without it to-day, and it is hard to realize that such a convenience has not always been in use. You learned when you studied history that the telegraph was the invention of Samuel F. B. Morse, who adapted an earlier machine of Joseph Henry. He asked Congress for an appropriation of thirty thousand dollars to establish an experimental line from Baltimore to Washington. There was much opposition among the law makers to granting it. Indeed, to many of them the invention was a joke, and one Congressman even moved that the appropriation should be used to construct a railway to the moon, as he thought this would be as sensible as the telegraph. Another member of Congress actually lost his next election because he had voted for the appropriation. But it was made, and the telegraph was so successful that it was not long before lines were crossing the country east of the Mississippi in all directions. West of the Mississippi telegraph lines developed much more slowly than in the East. For some years preceding the war between the states, communication through the West was carried on by the pony express riders, those picturesque characters who raced across the plains on their relays of horses, braving the dangers from Indians, outlaws, storms, raging streams, and accidents. In 1861, with the help of an appropriation from Congress, which now saw the value of the telegraph, the first line across the mountains to the coast was finished. Not many years afterward all parts of the West were in communication with one another. The cable. — Communication with Europe was slow and unsatisfactory until the end of the Civil War. In 1866, Cyrus W. Field laid the first successful cable between this COMMUNICATION 129 130 COMMUNITY CIVICS country and England. He encountered many difficulties, but finally overcame them all. People thought he was as crazy and foolish as the Congressmen who were asked to appropriate money for the telegraph had considered Morse. To-day cables span the globe and messages may be sent around the world. The telephone. — In 1876 there was added the third of our great means of communication with one another, the tele- phone. Peculiarly enough, this was the invention of two men working separately, Elisha Gray of Chicago and Alex- ander Bell of Boston, both of whom applied for a patent at almost the same hour of the same day. By the invention of the telegraph and the telephone, homes, villages, and cities, states and nations are placed in closer communication with one another than were the little boy and girl of our first chapter with their nearest neighbor. By the cable the news of foreign events reaches us shortly after they occur ; by the telephone we may talk with our friends though far separated, call the doctor when we are ill, or summon the police or the firemen if our home is in danger. We are so accustomed to the use of these con- veniences that they have come to be necessities. Wireless. — During a very recent period a new kind of telegraph and telephone has come into use, which we know as the " wireless." Through a series of inventions by dif- ferent men, messages are no longer carried from place to place by wires, but through the air. This is of great im- portance to ships, so much so that the national government has passed laws which compel all ships to install a wireless outfit so that if they are in danger they may summon help. Communication in war. — The war with Germany brought out many new uses for wireless and many unique methods COMMUNICATION 131 Pi d '■+3 > a o ft 0) H 132 COMMUNITY CIVICS of communication. Communication was often established between those under fire and the rear by means of dogs and carrier pigeons. These animals often got through when wire- less and other methods of communication failed ; indeed so brave were some of the dogs and pigeons that they received the war cross. Communication under fire was kept up by Courtesy of the Navy Department Radio Students, Naval Tbaining Station, Great Lakes, Illinois telephones, whose wires were laid under great difficulties and danger. The airplane wirelessed the positions of the German machine guns and heavy artillery to our artillery, our com- manders learned of the positions of their troops, and cities were warned of enemy, air raids. By the use of the wireless telephone, perfected during the war and closely guarded by the Allies, airplanes thousands of feet in the air received their commands from their officers stationed COMMUNICATION 133 on the ground, or made reports of their observations from their lofty stations. The new telephone . — Not long since the Scientific American published an article on the improvements in the wireless tele- United States Official Photograph Sending Communications The soldiers are using gas equipment while receiving instructions from an observer some distance away. phone and on the improvements which have made possible the " loud-speaking telephone." The magazine said, "During the Victory Loan ceremonies, the loud-speaking telephone has made it possible for a speaker to address a crowd of tens of thousands of persons extending for more than a quarter of a mile from the speaker's platform, despite all noises. Again 134 COMMUNITY CIVICS public speeches have been transmitted by means of the wire- less telephone through many miles of space to an expectant audience. Finally it is possible for any one to deliver a speech from his drawing-room in New York to 50,000 persons in Chicago." During the Victory Loan, *' for the purpose of receiving speeches from air ships and airplanes, Victory •Way (a part of Park Avenue, New York) was spanned by a huge aerial." By means of this and the loud-speaking telephones it was possible for the people in the street to hear messages from far aloft in the heavens. Censorship. — During the war against Germany you may have received a letter from a brother or your father in France. On the envelope you may have noticed the words stamped in one corner and signed by a name or initials, '' Passed by the censor." That meant that some one in authority had read the letter before it came to you and perhaps had cut out parts of it to make sure that nothing had been written which might give information to the enemy, even though this was not intended. Here we find the government keeping such close watch of our affairs that even our private mail is opened and read. If you read the newspapers you often saw the words '' Somewhere in France," " Deleted (cut out) by the Censor," " A Port in America." All these phrases showed that the censor was at work here also. Al- though the Constitution of the United States says, " Con- gress shall make no law abridging the freedom of speech or of the press," yet in times of great danger it may do both. During the war some seditious and disloyal papers were stopped from further publication and their issues con- fiscated. The Constitution gives us freedom of communica- tion, but it does not mean that there can be so much freedom that harm may come from it. COMMUNICATION 135 Such extreme cases of government control of communica- tion are not common. Usually people may write and speak what they choose. They are liable under the law, however, if they publish things about people that are not true. This applies to corporations as well as to individuals. Government and communication. — Many new problems have arisen for government to solve since the means of com- Courtesv of Curtiss Airplane Co. Airplanes in Flight Photographed from another machine. Mail was recently carried by air- plane from Alaska to the Atlantic Coast. munication have become so common. During the Great War the Postmaster-General took complete control of all the telegraph, telephone, and cable lines. This was in order to help win the war by making the censorship more sure. After the war closed the lines were given back to their original owners. Many states, either through a commission or a state official, exercise control over the lines of communication 136 COMMUNITY CIVICS within their borders. For example, New York State has the Public Service Commission which, among its other duties, has the power to regulate the telegraph and telephone lines within the borders of the state. It regulates rates and asks for reports of the financial condition of the com- panies that do business in the state. Your local community has some control of these com- panies also. The law-making body must first grant them permission to conduct their business (see Chapter XVI). The poles upon which the wires are strung are unsightly, and some communities make the corporations put the wires under- ground. If the poles are erected permission must sometimes be secured from the property owner. If the employees of the company cut or disfigure trees while stringing the wires, the company may be held liable for the damage done. The good citizen and communication. — As a good citizen you will see to it that the letters and packages you send are carefully addressed so that they will not go to the '* Dead Letter " department of the post office. Thousands and thousands of letters were never received by our brave soldiers in France, to whom a word from home meant a great deal, because the senders were careless about writing the address plainly. When you use the telephone, remember the thousands of people who use it every day and think what a demand is made upon the patience of those in the telephone office who handle the calls. Read the newspapers every day, so that you may know what is going on in the world about you. Let them help you to form your opinions about the problems which government has to solve, for it is from this source that we get some of our best ideas. J)o not confine yourself to one newspaper and its COMMUNICATION 137 opinions, but read several, and then form your own conclu- sions. Read the papers that are noted for being truthful and that present a fair picture of events and not a biased one. Suspend judgment for a while until you can form a true decision. Questions for Investigation 1. What are the present Hmits of "wireless " ? 2. What are the benefits of the telephone in a rural community? In a city ? 3. By what different means did the government keep in touch with its armies in Europe ? 4. Show how business enterprises depend on communication. 5. What is meant by a post road ? Where is the post road nearest your home ? 6. How was the use of "wireless" restricted dm*ing the war with Germany ? 7. Make a report to the class of some of the peculiar means of com- munication used in the war with Germany. Compare these with the means used during the war between the states. 8. What are some of the things that you, as a good citizen, may do to help communication ? 9. What is the name of the present Postmaster-General ? Make a summary of his duties. 10. Write a composition on one of the following subjects: "The Airplane as a Means of Communication," "The Wireless Tele- graph," "The Wireless Telephone." 11. Make a report to the class on some of the things you have learned from your postage-stamp collection. CHAPTER IX MIGRATION The story of Pietro. — Pietro was playing with his brothers and sisters about their home in a little village in Sicily. Suddenly one of his sisters shouted, '* Here comes Angelo," and there appeared a boy of thirteen or fourteen years dressed after the fashion of all American boys. He looked very different from the children about him. His clothing was different, he had a different air, and he seemed scornful of the town and its inhabitants. With him was his father, dressed, too, in American clothes, and carrying with him an air of prosperity possessed by no one else in the village. After they had passed Pietro remarked, " Look at them. They are rich. They have just come from America. Angelo says he goes to school and earns money by selling papers. He says they have something they call a bath tub in their house, and he takes a bath every day. Why should he do that ? He says he isn't a ' ginnie ' like us ; he is an American citizen because his father is. Fm going to be an American and get rich and wear good clothes like Angelo." As he talked he saw his father coming down the street on his way home from work. He noticed a great difference between his father and Angelo' s. Secretly he was a little ashamed when he compared the two men as they stopped to chat for a few moments. That evening as Pietro was eating his supper he said to his father, " Why don't we go to America and get rich ? 138 MIGRATION 130 Look at Angelo and his father." "Be still, Pietro," growled his father, '* do not talk foolishly." But neverthe- less when Pietro had gone to bed and was supposed to be asleep, he heard his father and mother talking about America, that wonderful land where money was to be gained so easily. So it was every night, Pietro fell asleep listening to the arguments going back and forth in the other room. Some- times the father of Angelo would come in, and then there would be no sleep for listening to the wonderful stories of the land across the ocean. He heard that people earned as much there in a week as his father did in a month. If one were saving of what he earned, land could be bought, as much as ten acres; or if one were very rich, why, twenty acres, and for a small sum, too. Such talk seemed to Pietro's father like fairy stories until one night Angelo's father pulled from his pocket a deed to land, which showed that he owned twenty acres of land. ''And you left here poor, didn't you?" " Yes, I was poorer than you are and had to borrow money to pay my passage, while you have enough to pay for all the family." So it went on, until one Sunday as the family was coming from mass, Pietro's father said, '' We are going to America. The good priest has said the stories of Angelo's father are true and not lies as I had thought. He says there are many chances for a good man in America." Great was the joy of the children, but Pietro saw the tears slowly roll down his mother's cheeks. He could not understand why, for he was not old enough to understand what it meant for older people to give up home and country and go into a strange land to try their fortunes anew. Preparations were soon made, good-bys were said, and the journey was begun. 140 COMMUNITY CIVICS All was new to Pietro. First there was the ride on the steam cars to the port where they were going to embark. Then they came to the wonderful boat, huge beyond all Pietro 's dreams. Though the steerage would not seem a beautiful place to us, but quite the contrary, yet to Pietro it was a fine place. Here were several hundred others who were going to make trial of the new land, too, and of course there were many boys and girls who were going with their parents. They could not all speak the same language, but the common language of all boys and girls soon made them friends. Such exciting times as they had ! There was something new almost every minute, and Pietro began to feel that he wished the journey would last forever. The ocean was smooth and he was spared sickness, so he did not miss a day on deck, and was so continually asking questions that he received the nickname of the " American Question Mark." One morning Pietro woke up to find that the boat was at anchor. Hurriedly dressing, he rushed up on deck, and there was the wonderful America, more wonderful in realization than in dreams. He had never imagined such a sight. Not far away he saw a gigantic statue of a woman holding aloft in her hand a torch. A man near him, in answer to his questions, said, '' Little American Question Mark, that is a statue of Liberty giving light to the whole world. It means that America is the country where a person has the right to do as he pleases so long as he does not harm any one else. America, too, teaches this sort of liberty to all the world." Far away, Pietro saw the tall towers of New York looking like some towers of the fairy land he had read about in his own country, Italy. He could not believe that people really lived in them. MIGRATION 141 Before long the ship began to move again, and the man who had told him about the Goddess of Liberty said that all ships which come to New York are obliged to stop at " Quarantine," as the place is called. This is done that men appointed by the government may learn whether there is among the passengers any dangerous disease which might Courtesy of the War Department The Statue of Liberty from an Airplane be brought into the country and so do harm. When it is found out that there is none, the officials permit the ship to go on its way into the harbor. Now the ship's officers began to get ready for the landing of those who were coming to the country for the first time, and it was not long before the boat stopped in front of a 142 COMMUNITY CIVICS large building with four high towers. Pietro afterward learned that this was an island in New York harbor, Ellis Island, where all immigrants are landed, to make sure that they may rightfully enter the country. Into a big room fenced off into pens, something like the cattle pens that Pietro had seen in his own country, the newcomers went. Here they were examined carefully to see if they had any disease which might render them incapable of self-support or which might be communicated to others. They were ques- tioned as to many things, but Pietro's father and mother answered all the questions satisfactorily. While the others were being questioned Pietro, you may be sure, was looking about him. The thing which impressed him most was the huge flag which hung at one end of the room where they were examined. It had stripes of red and white and in one corner was a blue field dotted with stars. " That must be my flag, I think," he said to himself. '' When I am an American I must reverence the American flag." While the man was so carefully examining his father and mother, his brothers and sisters, Pietro began to be afraid that he was not going to be admitted to this country, especially as he saw one of his playmates on the boat crying bitterly. When he asked why, he found that the boy could not land because he was ill with a contagious disease, and he and his parents must go back to the land from which they came. After Pietro had been in this country for a time and had been in school, he learned that certain classes of people are not admitted to the United States at all — those who have no money, those who have a contagious disease, the insane, criminals, and those of bad character. The reason for this is that the government wants people who come here to become MIGRATION 143 good citizens, and those who have been mentioned would probably not become such. If the steamship company does bring such people to this country, the law compels it to take them back free of charge, and the company is also compelled to pay a fine. But the members of Pietro's family were all sturdy and healthy and had saved enough money so that there was no danger of their becoming a public charge. Luckily Pietro's father had arranged that a friend who had come to America several years before should meet them when they had passed their examination ; and when they had made their way out of the great room and had been really admitted to the country of their hopes, this friend was waiting for them. He took them to his home on the East Side of New York, where many others from their country had preceded them. All was so noisy and so strange ! Cars ran on tracks over- head, cars plunged beneath the surface of the earth, cars clanged their way through the middle of the streets. It was all so bewildering and so different from the quiet little town from which Pietro came. But it was not long before he became accustomed to it and had much more fun than he had had in his own country. The father and mother missed the grass and trees of their home land, but always before them was that farm of " maybe ten acres " which they were going to have when they had saved the money. Then came school. Wonderful stories, which the boy had held to be lies, had his playmate told him of the schools, but he found that the half had not been told him. His father had a job, and things were going well for the family in their new surroundings. When he had been at the school for a time, to his great surprise he learned that he was not yet an American citizen. His comrades nicknamed him 144 COMMUNITY CIVICS " Pete the Ginnie," and when he protested, they said, ** You are not an American. Your father has not been naturalized." Pietro thought about this for a long time and then in great distress of mind went to his teacher about it. ** What's naturalized ? " he asked. His teacher took up a book which was lying on her desk and read to him as follows explaining as she went along : '' The alien who desires to become a citizen must appear before a court of record at least two years before admission to citizenship and there declare on oath his intention to become a citizen and to renounce his allegiance to any other government. This declaration is then recorded, and the applicant is furnished with a copy of the record. Two years later the applicant for citizenship must appear in open court, must furnish proof that he has resided con- tinuously in the United States for five years, and in the state for one year, and that he has behaved as a man of good moral character. He must take an oath to support the con- stitution of the United States and finally renounce his allegiance to any foreign government. These facts are then recorded, and a certificate of naturalization is granted." " Then this means that if my father takes out the paper to-morrow we shall have to wait two years before I shall be a citizen? " Pietro asked. '^ Yes, Pietro," answered the teacher. " You know we have been here three years now and it doesn't seem as if I could wait much longer. You say that if my father is a citizen it makes me one ? " " Yes." " Well, I'll bet father won't wait much longer." That night Pietro could hardly wait for his father to come home from his work, so eager was he to tell him what he thought he must do. Already his father had been thinking about naturalization, and it took only the urging of Pietro to start him to take out his first papers. MIGRATION 145 The time of waiting seemed long to the boy, but he went to school and studied hard, and by the time his father was ready to be naturalized you would not have known the family of five years before. Pietro induced both his father and his mother to go to night school and learn English. The mother learned also how to sew and to cook American dishes. They had changed the style of clothing which they wore in Italy for American clothes. The brothers and sisters spoke English more than they did Italian. By and by, the great day came. There was to be a public reception given to those who were to be admitted to citizen- ship. So important was the occasion considered that the President of the United States was to be there to speak to the new citizens. Day after day Pietro had drilled his father on the government of the United States, its ofiicers and institutions. The father had also attended a class in night school for the instruction of foreigners in government. With all this teaching Pietro felt very sure that his father would not fail in the questions that would be asked him. Dressed in their best clothes, the whole family went to the place where the ceremony was to be held. The hall was crowded, and shortly after their arrival, when they had settled themselves in their seats, there came several loud raps on the rail above the judge's desk. The audience rose, and the judge in his long silk gown came into the room. As he entered the door he stepped one side for the President to precede him. When the judge and the President were seated, the audience sat down, and amid a deep silence the name of the first one to be examined was read. ''It is a pretty solemn thing to be made a citizen of the United States," thought Pietro. As each name was called, the applicant for citizenship went forward to the judge's desk and there 146 COMMUNITY CIVICS stood his examination. If he passed, he renounced his allegiance to the country of his birth and, with his right hand raised, took the following Oath of Allegiance to the United States. ''It is my intention to become a citizen of the United States and to renounce absolutely and forever all allegiance and fidelity to any foreign prince, potentate, state, or sovereignty, and particularly (here follows the name of the ruler of the country from which the prospective citizen comes) of which I am now a subject, and it is my intention to reside permanently in the United States." Among those who took this oath was Pietro's father, for he passed his examination successfully, thanks to Pietro and the night school. '' Now," said Pietro to himself, '' I am a real American citizen." Causes of immigration. — The cause which brought little Pietro's father to America, the desire to improve his financial condition, is but one of several which have acted since American history began. Many of those who came to America during our early history came for this reason. To-day it is the chief reason. The Spaniards sought for wealth and in their search explored vast tracts of country. Those who came to Virginia were trying to better their condition ; so, too, were those who came to Georgia. The Dutch settled New York that they might have a new center of trade and improve their circumstances. The great Irish immigration in 1848 was caused by a potato famine in Ire- land which made people so poor that they wished to begin life anew in a new land. A second important cause of immigration is the desire to worship God as one chooses, or for freedom in religious matters. New England was settled by the Puritans who MIGRATION 147 were persecuted in England. Pennsylvania was settled by the Quakers for the same reason. Lord Baltimore founded Maryland as a refuge for persecuted Catholics. Since 1883 there has been a great migration of the Jewish people and of the Armenians, who have fled from Europe to escape the religious persecution they endured there. Immigrants at Ellis Island Again, people have come to America for political reasons. Those who have come for this reason either could not agree with the forms of government at home or else were attracted by the greater freedom enjoyed in the United States. The reason for the coming of the Puritans was partly political. Many Germans came to America about the middle of the nineteenth century because of political conditions in their own 148 • COMMUNITY CIVICS country at that time. Though not as many have come here for this reason as for the others, yet it is one of the most important causes. A fourth reason why people have come to the United States is that they might escape the military service required by the home country. Before the World War almost all the countries of Europe required a certain term of service in the army. Such service was so distasteful to many that they preferred to flee to a land where it was not required. The spirit of adventure has brought some to America. Though this is perhaps the least of the causes which has given us our immigrant population, yet from the time of the great adventurer, John Smith, until to-day, these adven- turers have added some to our numbers. Results of immigration. — The great tide of immigrants which has poured into our country has made it what it is, but it has also given to our government some of the hardest problems it has to solve. The congestion of the large cities is due in great part to those from foreign countries. It is very natural, as you have seen in the case of Pietro's family (see p. 143), for those who speak the same language to be together. Quite naturally, too, they keep the customs and habits of the mother country. This leads to the second of the difficulties which have arisen, that of making citizens quickly out of the newcomers. Not all foreigners are as anxious as Pietro was to become citizens. They do not learn English readily, some never learn it, nor is it necessary, as the children learn to speak English and are able to translate for the help of the older ones in the family. Because they do not speak English many do not care to become citizens. For this reason, too, it is not easy for the foreigners to understand the ad- MIGRATION 149 vantages of the new country and the advantages of becom- ing citizens. Sometimes, too, foreigners, as well as those who are born in this country, misunderstand the meaning of the word " liberty/' Liberty does not mean permission to do as one Lower New York The immigrants' new home as seen from an airplane. Courtesy of War DepaTtment chooses, but only permission to do the way one chooses in so far as it does not interfere with the rights of others. This seems difficult for many newcomers to learn, and because they are deprived of certain privileges, they think the gov- ernment is in the wrong and so refuse to become citizens. The transporting of so many people to a country in a short space of time, over one million in 1907, and their ignorance of 150 COMMUNITY CTVrCS what they are to meet and of what their surroundings are to be, leads to many difficulties. It may be the custom in the home country to keep chickens, pigs, and cows in the home with the family, but it is not so here. Such a dif- ference in living is not always understood. So the foreigner is always coming into conflict with American laws, and be- cause they are not understood, he feels that he is persecuted and that our laws are harsh and unfair. Education is the solution of the problem (see Chapter III). Just as Pietro urged his people to go to night school to learn English and English customs, so to-day thousands of for- eigners go to the evening schools and there learn the first principles of Americanization. Migration. — In the first chapter of the book we learned that a community was founded by the coming of people already in America to a new place, where they settled. In the story of Pietro we learned that there is a great movement of the people of different nations to America. These two kinds of movements of people from one place to another in the same country, and from one country to another, are going on all the time. The cause common to both these movements is the desire for the betterment of one's condition. These people wished for more than they could get in the place from which they came, and they migrated. Perhaps you are a part of such a migration. Have you ever changed your home from city to country or country to city ? If so, why ? Probably so that those of your family who are older might have better advantages for making a living, or so that there might be a better chance for an education. In our early history there was a great migration to the west- ward. Land was cheap there, and the roads to the west were crowded with people making a change in their living MIGRATION 151 conditions. From 1849 to 1860 the trails to California were crowded with people going to the gold-fields. Some found the gold, but many others found something which was better, land. Here they settled. During recent years there has been a great movement from the country to the cities. The bright lights of the cities have attracted many boys and girls away from the farms. This is one of the reasons why the cities have be- come so crowded and why there are so many abandoned farms. The person who is thinking about giving up country life for city life should study the matter very carefully before making the change. During the past few years there has been a slight movement the other way. Many, like Pietro's father, wish to get the " twenty acres," and have gone from the city to the country. Here they find good health, the bright sky, the singing birds, and if one knows how, as do so many of those who come to America, a much better living than in the city. Government and migration. — All these great movements of people are controlled by government of some sort or other. First of all, the national government says who shall not come into the country. It establishes a quarantine station (see p. 141), so that those who do come may not bring disease into the country. It establishes the laws by which the newcomers are made citizens. (See Chapter XVIII.) When an immigrant takes out his first papers, the national government sends him a letter and also one to the school authorities of the city in which he lives, so that he may go to school. Societies have been formed by government per- mission to look after the immigrants and to help them. The North American Civic League for Immigrants and the Traveller's Aid Society are two of them. The states of 152 COMMUNITY CIVICS New York and Massachusetts have Immigration Bureaus as parts of the machinery of the state government. The United States has a Bureau of Information for the purpose of giving immigrants information regarding different parts of the country so that they may make a good choice of a home. A widespread movement is under way at the present time to Americanize all foreign-born people, to afford them school facilities, and to train teachers to teach those foreigners who attend the night schools. Government also safeguards those who migrate from place to place in our own country. Transfers of property must be recorded (see Chapter XXIII), railroad rates for the shipment of freight or the carrying of people are regulated by the government, the safety of travelers is looked out for. The national government regulates what you may carry from one state to another. In time of war all migration may be forbidden, or the government may forbid foreigners to live in places where they may do harm to the government. Some states, New York, for example, try to place those without work in places where they may make a living. Religious freedom is guaranteed to all, no matter where one lives. A jury trial may be demanded by all. A person does not lose his citizenship by moving from one state to another and may cast his ballot after he has fulfilled the residence quali- fications of the new home to which he goes. Questions for Investigation 1. In what ways does immigration help a nation? What harm may come to a nation from its foreign population ? 2. Why do foreigners group together when they come to America? To what evils does this give rise ? 3. What name is given to an unnaturalized foreigner? What rights has he ? MIGRATION 153 4. How many years have your people been in America? From what country or countries did your ancestors come ? 5. The descendants of how many nationahties are represented in your class? 6. Locate any foreign colony you may have in your community. 7. If an unmarried woman of foreign birth comes to America, may she be naturalized ? 8. Why do more immigrants come to America than to other foreign coimtries ? 9. Why do immigrants coming to the port of New York have to go to Ellis Island before they are permitted to land in America? Why do so many settle in New York ? 10. How much money is it necessary for an immigrant to have before he can enter the United States ? 11. What is ''contract labor"? Why is immigration of "contract labor" forbidden? 12. Why does the government of the United States forbid the people of certain nations to settle in tliis country ? 13. Why were some restrictions on immigration at the close of the war with Germany considered necessary? 14. Are immigrants examined in any way by their home country be- fore they set out for America ? 15. Are children who are born of foreign parents in this country citizens ? 16. Do you think immigrants should be examined physically and mentally before they land in America ? Why ? 17. What were the causes of migration during colonial times? Do the same causes act to-day to bring people to our shores ? 18. Should immigrants who cannot read and write in their own language be excluded from the country ? Why ? 19. Why should those of foreign birth who come to settle in this country command our respect ? 20. What is meant by ''Americanization"? What steps is the nation, tlirough local, state, and national governments, taking to carry out this most important work ? 21. If you are a person of foreign birth, where may you and your people go to learn to read and write and speak the English language well, so that you may become good citizens ? 22. Write a composition on the subject, "My Ancestral Country." 23. Write a composition on the subject, "Why I Prefer the United States to Any Other Country." CHAPTER X THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS, AND THE COURTS Reasonableness of law. — Boys and girls know that they are governed by laws which are made for their benefit ; if the laws are broken, punishment follows. If every one were allowed to do as he pleased, there would be much trouble in the community. Wherever we go laws are found ; laws are made which govern the home ; when we go to school, certain laws or rules are found there which must be obeyed. If we look into the matter we shall find a reason for every law that is made. We shall find that each one contributes in some manner to the peace and order of the community. In a game of baseball there are rules to be followed. Why ? If you play tennis you must follow the rules of the game. Why? In just such a manner, if you play the game of life properly, you must follow the rules, obey the laws made for the proper conduct of the game. A city ordinance which forbids sliding down hill in certain sections of your com- munity may seem queer to you. Think it over and see if you can find a reason for such an ordinance. The rules of the school forbid whispering at certain times or forbid running in the halls. Can you see the reason for such laws ? The breaking of laws is followed by punishment. If you break the laws of the school you are punished. If you disobey your parents, punishment follows. If you break 154 THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS 155 physical laws punishment follows the same as with man- made laws. If you eat too much you are ill. If you expose your face to the cold too long, you are frozen and you suffer pain. In just such a man- ner punishment follows breaking of the laws of the land. If the com- munity forbids playing ball in the street, and the law is broken, one may find himself before the police justice. Colonial punishments. — In colonial times the punishments were very severe, and some of them seem very strange to us to- day. Many things which seem proper to us were severely punished then. In New England the man who kissed his wife on the Sabbath day was con- demned to sit in the stocks. The stocks and the pillory were very com- mon forms of punishment. The first person who occupied the stocks in Boston was the man who made them. "Edward Palmer for his extortion is fyned five pounds and censured to set an hour in the stocks." For women who scolded there was the ducking stool. Men and women were equal before the law, for Jane Photo by C. Earl Sabin. Posed by Dana B. RoUee The Stocks The stocks shown in the picture were in use about 1825. Notice the heavy manacles on the wrists of the young man posing for the picture, the heavy padlock, and the manner in which the legs are confined. 156 COMMUNITY CIVICS Andrews who sold two stones in a tub of butter, was stood for two hours at town meeting ''with her offense written in capitall letters upon a paper on her forehead." Boys and girls were punished if they were ill-behaved, particularly on Sunday. It is recorded that a Connecticut boy was accused by the magistrate before whom he was brought on Monday morning of "Rude and Idyl Behavior in the Meeting house. Such as Larfing and Smiling and Intis- ing others to the Same evil. Such as Puling the hair of his Neighbor, Benoni Simkins, in the Time of publick Worship. Such as throwing Sister Pentecost Perkins on the ice, it being the Sabbath Day." Colonial girls were as naughty in church as were the boys, for Tabitha Morgus, a young Connecticut miss, is written down as having '' prophaned the Lord's day by here rude and indecent behavior in Laugh- ing and Playing in ye time of service." Such actions were deemed sufficient for bringing the culprits before the magis- trate and the infliction of severe punishment. Safeguards for the innocent. — It is so important that the guilty be punished and the innocent go free, that govern- ment very carefully safeguards the rights of those who are accused of breaking the law. In the eyes of the law a person is innocent until he is proved guilty. The Constitution of the United States carefully states the rights of any accused person, and since treason is such a terrible crime, it defines what it is. (See Chapter XXV.) It states that the trial of all crimes except impeachment shall be by jury ; no person shall be held for a serious crime except by a formal accusa- tion by a body of men met for such purpose, known as a grand jury. Neither shall any person be placed twice in danger of life and limb for the same offense. No one may be com- pelled to testify against himself, nor may he be deprived THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS 157 of life, liberty, or property without a trial. From these state- ments one may see the government cannot be vindictive or punish a person without a cause as it used to do in early times. Formerly a king or any one in power could seize a person, throw him into prison, and keep him there as long as he wished. The Constitution forbids this, except when war makes such a proceeding necessary. So careful is government of the rights of the people, that it even forbids the imposing of extraordinary fines and punishments. Not only does the Constitution of the United States safe- guard the innocent by its '' Bill of Rights," but in each of the constitutions of the different states similar safeguards have been placed. In this way the people are twice guarded. Children's courts. — If a boy breaks a local ordinance by playing ball in the street, he may be placed under arrest by an officer. He is ordered to report the next day to the office of the children's court accompanied by his parents. If the local community has no such court, he is sent to the office of the police justice or justice of the peace. Here the case against the accused is stated, witnesses for each side may be called, and when the judge is satisfied that he has the truth of the matter he may impose sentence if guilt is proved. Those who have committed a more serious offense against the peace of the community may be taken from their homes and, after conviction, placed in a reform school or other institu- tion, where they are taught obedience to the law. In many of the juvenile courts to-day the boy or girl is placed on honor. '' Some judges make a practice of sending a boy without guards to report to a rather distant reform school. It is interesting to note that, where the juvenile court judge or probation officers use good judgment, they are rarely dis- appointed by the boys and girls." 158 COMMUNITY CIVICS More serious cases. — For convenience in bringing cases to trial they are divided into two classes, civil and criminal cases. The first class consists of those cases in which there is a quarrel between two persons ; the other consists of those in which the state or the nation seeks the punishment of an individual. The punishment of the serious crimes is more formal than that of a juvenile case. Let us see how a murder case is con- ducted. When a murder is committed, the first thing government does is to arrest the one supposed to be guilty. Sometimes this is done only after a long time, at other times the person is arrested on the spot. Such an arrest may be made by any one, who then turns the offender over to the proper officer, a policeman, a constable, a sheriff's officer or a state trooper. Arrests are usually made by the officer chosen by the community to keep the peace. Many times, however, the arrest is made only after a warrant has been issued. A warrant is a document which contains a descrip- tion of the criminal and a statement of the crime. It may be obtained by any one who feels reasonably sure of the guilt of the party to be arrested. It is usually obtained by one of the officials of the community chosen to keep its peace, from a magistrate of some sort, justice of the peace, city judge, or other such official. In serving the warrant, that is, in making the arrest, the officer may go to any length, Courtesy New York Slate Prison Commission A Model Lock-up in a Small Community THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS 159 even to killing the accused, if he threatens the life of the oflBcer and is on the point of carrying out his threat. The prisoner is placed in jail and kept there for safe keep- ing until his trial. In cases other than murder, he is allowed to be at liberty after he has been taken before a magistrate and the charges against him have been heard, provided a person is found who will furnish bail. This means that friends of the accused may furnish a sum of money or other security which will be forfeited to the state if the accused runs away before he is brought to trial. The indictment and the grand jury. — In a majority of states as soon as the prisoner is lodged in jail, the prosecut- ing attorney, representing the power of the state, draws up a bill of indictment and presents it to the grand jury. The indictment is the formal charge, in writing, against the accused. The grand jury is a body of men drawn by lot from the inhabitants of the county. Its number is not less than twelve nor more than twenty-three, the number varying in dif- ferent states. A common number is fifteen. To this body, which meets at stated times a year, or to a special grand jury which may be summoned by the proper authorities, the public prosecutor brings the bill of indictment and also summons the necessary witnesses to support the indictment. If the grand jury thinks sufficient evidence has been presented to hold the accused for trial, the words " a true bill " are written across the face of the indictment, and the prisoner is held for the trial jury. If the jury thinks the evidence against the accused is insufficient, he is set free. A prisoner may have a lawyer and summon witnesses in his own behalf. If he is too poor to afford this, a lawyer is assigned him by the court. 160 COMMUNITY CIVICS The trial. — When the time for the trial arrives, the accused is brought into court before the judge, and the clerk of the court reads the indictment. To this the prisoner pleads " guilty " or ^' not guilty." If he pleads guilty, he is at once Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner A Scene in a Court Room At the left of the judge (center) sits the court clerk, near whom stand the sheriff and his deputy. At the right of the judge sits the court stenog- rapher, and near him stands the court crier. The jury sits in the jury box on the right. In front of the sheriff is a witness and near him is an inter- preter. In the foreground are the prisoner and his jailor. The four men standing are the attorneys for the defense and the district-attorney and his assistant. sentenced by the judge and the sentence of the court is carried out. If he pleads " not guilty " the trial takes place. A number of names of the inhabitants of the county are drawn for trial jurors in a manner similar to the drawing for grand jurors. Of these men, twelve are chosen to hear the evidence given at the trial. The prosecuting attorney makes the opening speech, stating the facts he expects to prove, THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS 161 and summons his witnesses. These witnesses are examined by the prosecuting attorney and by the counsel for the de- fense. The witnesses for the prisoner are then examined by both lawyers, and both sum up the evidence presented. The judge then states the law to the jury and the possible punishment for the various degrees of guilt. The jury retires and considers the case. When the twelve men reach an agreement, they return to the court room, and the foreman of the jury, that is, the one chosen as its chairman, announces the decision, called the " verdict." If the verdict is '' guilty," the judge pronounces sentence, either then or a few days later. If the verdict is '^ not guilty," the prisoner is discharged. If the jury fails to agree on a verdict, it is discharged, and a new trial may be ordered with a new jury. In some of the states only nine or ten of the twelve men need agree on the verdict. In a majority of the states the verdict must be unanimous. Other criminal cases are conducted in practi- cally the same manner as the one already outlined. A civil case is tried in a manner similar to that used in a criminal case. If a person feels harmed by some one else or by a corporation, he may bring suit against that person or corporation for damages. A corporation may also bring such a suit. The two parties to the dispute are known as the plaintiff and the defendant, the one bringing the charge, and the other defending the suit. Sometimes a jury is drawn in the same way as in a criminal case ; sometimes the witnesses give their facts before a judge, who listens care- fully to the case and then pronounces judgment. Solemnity of a court. — If you should go into a court room you would be impressed at once with the air of great solemnity which pervades the whole proceedings. At the call of the clerk announcing the entrance of the judge, clad 162 COMMUNITY CIVICS in his silken robe of office, every one in the room rises in his place and remains standing until the judge is seated. There is no loud talking in the room ; everything is done in a quiet manner. Any refusal on the part of a witness to answer questions asked may be severely punished by the judge, as also may any disorder on the part of the audience. Any disrespect shown the judge on the part of a witness, a lawyer or any one in the room may be punished either by a fine or by imprisonment, or both. If the spectators are noisy, even by applause, the judge may order the court room cleared and refuse to go on with the case until this is done. Rights of the accused. — So important is the matter of a fair trial for every one brought into court, that the United States Constitution specifies the rights of the accused as follows — (see Chapter XXV) : (1) he must have a reasonable bail ; (2) he must be supplied with a copy of the accusation against him ; (3) he cannot be forced to act as a witness, though he may do this if it seems best ; (4) he must have a speedy trial before a jury whose im- partiality has been tested by the attorneys of each side ; (5) if acquitted, he may not be brought to trial the second time for the same crime. Punishment of a crime. — After a person has been sen- tenced by a judge, he is taken to the prison provided by the state or nation for his punishment. A great change has taken place in recent years in the treatment of those who are unfortunate enough to be shut up in prison. Until recent years, the sentences imposed on convicted criminals were for the purpose of punishment and retribution for the wrong committed, or by the horrible punishment inflicted, to keep THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS 163 people from committing crime. Neither of these methods was successful in lessening crime. Changes in methods of punishment. — To-day punish- ments are given to make the wrong-doer pay the penalty for his crime, but with this difference — every effort is now made to reform the criminal and turn him from his evil ways. Courtesy of New Yort State Prison Commission Prison Cells in a Modern Prison So successful has this treatment been that a gentleman connected with the Prisoners' Relief Society stated that ninety-five per cent of the prisoners who have left prison and have been given a chance, have made good. " During the three years from 1914 to 1917 nine thousand five hundred men who have been released from prison found employment." About twenty thousand employers in various 164 COMMUNITY CIVICS parts of the country are helping to give employment to former convicts. Hope for the future. — It is hoped that some day the prisons will no longer be places where men and women are herded together like animals, places where cruel and in- human punishments are inflicted. Schools have been estab- Courlesy of Nciv York State Prison Commission Ball Game between Officers and Inmates, Auburn lished in many prisons, for society has learned at last that the great majority of the crimes have been committed either through ignorance or because the criminal was weak mentally. In many prisons, the inmates are treated in a thoroughly humane manner. They are permitted such pleasures as may seem proper to the officials in charge of them. Many prisons have baseball leagues of their own, and the severest punish- THE CORRECTION OP WRONG-DOERS 165 ment that can be inflicted upon a prisoner for breaking the rules of the prison, is to be forbidden to see the ball games when they are played. Recently a squad of prisoners from one of the prisons in New York state were permitted to spend the summer repairing a stretch of state road some miles from the prison. They were on their honor and under only a small Courtesy of New Yort State Prison Commission Inmates of a Prison Working in Shop guard. Two of the prisoners broke their parole and ran away. The others were so. angry that they begged their guards to allow them to try to catch the runaways. When permission was granted, it was not long before the culprits were taken. Most prisons have done away with the striped clothing, the clipped hair, and the lock step, as these tend to degrade a prisoner. In some prisons mutual welfare 166 . COMMUNITY CTVTCS leagues have been formed which rule the prison somewhat as self government does the schools. Society is learning that many who have committed some crime and been sent to prison are not really to blame. Be- cause of their surroundings and associates, it would have been almost impossible for these persons not to become criminals. To do away with these bad conditions, many societies are waging a war for the prevention of crime. Compulsory school laws are passed to make all children get an education ; the slums are wiped out ; a constitutional amendment has been passed which forbids the sale of liquor. The conditions surrounding those who might become criminals are so improved that it is hoped the number of those who have to go to prison will be decreased. New methods of prison sentence. — In addition to the methods mentioned in the previous paragraph, recently a new method of sentencing those who have committed crime has been used. The one who has committed his first offense against the law is no longer shut up with the old hardened offender. In many states after a person has served a part of his sentence, he is placed on probation, or parole. If he again commits a crime, he has to serve out the remaining part of his original sentence. In many cases a judge no longer sentences a wrong-doer to a definite sentence. As soon as the prisoner shows that he is sincere in his reformation and intends to " go straight," he may be released on parole. Sometimes the judge suspends sentence and places the prisoner on probation. He has to report to the judge or other stated officer at definite times to show that he is living a good life. When he shows by his behavior that he is going to continue to be a good citizen, the sentence is THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS 167 lifted. This is often the way a sentence is given to boys and girls who are brought to the juvenile courts. The courts. — Perhaps you are becoming somewhat be- wildered with the number and variety of judges that have been thus far mentioned in this chapter, — justices of the peace, city judges, police court judges, county judges. Yet there are more of them. Government is so anxious that no person shall be punished until he is really proven guilty, that it has provided courts to which appeals may be made from the lower courts. In addition, there are some matters which have to do with state and national affairs which de- mand state and national courts. Each state has established several courts. Most of the commonwealths have what are known as circuit courts or district courts, so named because the judges travel from district to district to hear cases. Above this is the supreme court of the state, the highest tribunal in the common- wealth. These state courts have the power of changing the decisions of the lower courts if they think a wrong has been done in the case on trial. United States courts. — In addition to the state courts are the federal or national courts. Their judges are appointed by the President with the consent of the senate. Offenses against the laws of the national government are tried in these courts. Crimes such as counterfeiting the money of the nation, breaking the food and drug laws, in- fringing on patents and copyrights, are tried before the national judges. Others hear appeals from the lower courts of the states. The court of customs appeals decides the ques- tions arising from the decisions made in classifying articles brought into the country. In some cases an appeal may be made to the national courts from the decision of a state court. 168 COMMUNITY CIVICS The Supreme Court of the United States. — The highest of all the courts in the nation is known as the Supreme Court of the United States. It is equal in dignity to the President and to Congress, and has played a very important part in the government. Let us pay a visit to a sitting of the court. The court meets in what was formerly the senate chamber in the capitol. Across the corridor from this room is the robing room where the nine justices meet a little before twelve each day, except Saturday, to put on their black silk robes of office. When the court was organized in Washington's administration, there was a great deal of discussion as to how its members should be dressed. Some wished the judges to wear robes and large wigs such as the English judges wore. '' For heaven's sake,'^ exclaimed Thomas Jefferson, " discard the monstrous wig, which makes the English judges look like rats peeping through bunches of oakum." So our judges followed his advice and wear the gowns but not the wigs. A passageway across the corridor is roped off by silken cords, and the court, led by the Chief Justice and followed by the other judges in the order of their appointment, marches slowly across the corridor and into the court room. Here everybody rises when the marshal of the court announces the arrival of the judges and remains standing until the judges are seated. The judges are seated behind a high desk, with the chief justice in the center. After formal notice is given, the Supreme Court of the United States is open for business. The court is assisted by the necessary officials, clerks, marshals, and pages. Mr. Haskin in his *' American Govern- ment " says : " The pages of the Supreme Court are an inter- esting lot of young fellows. They must wear their knicker- THE CORRECTION OF WRONG-DOERS 169 bockers as long as they continue to serve as such, and this brings about the somewhat ludicrous situation of a full fledged lawyer going around in boy's clothes. They come in when they are small boys and begin to read law imme- diately thereafter. By the time they are grown they are well advanced in law, and when they reach their majority they are ready to be admitted to practice." This court has control only of certain cases, which are designated in the Constitution of the United States. Their most important duty is to declare whether any law, local, state, or national, in their judgment, conflicts with the Con- stitution. Most of the cases which come before it are such as are appealed to it from lower courts, but it also settles all cases in which the United States is a party, and quarrels between states. If the ambassador from France should be arrested for breaking the laws, he would be tried before the Supreme Court, as it has been given original jurisdiction in such cases. Questions for Investigation 1. What does your state do to reform those who are in its prisons ? 2. What work does the Salvation Army do to give discharged prisoners a new start in life ? 3. Who has charge of the prisons and reformatories in yom* state? How was he chosen for that office ? Is he trying any means of prison reform ? 4. Are aliens subject to the same punishments for crime as citizens ? Is this right? Why? 5. Do you think there is any difference in the numbers of those needing correction since the prohibition amendment to the Constitu- tion of the United States went into effect? What leads you to this conclusion ? 6. Describe the work of the state constabulary of Pennsylvania or New York, in arresting criminals. Do you think there should be a similar body in your state ? Why ? 170 COMMUNITY CIVICS • 7. Should a person be given a light or a severe sentence for the first oflFense against the law ? Why ? 8. If you should have to be taken before a judge, what kind of person would you like him to be ? 9. Do you know of any laws in your community which are not enforced ? Why are they not enforced ? 10. Some people are opposed to the death penalty for serious crimes. Can you give any reasons for this ? 11. What are the rights given by the Constitution of the United States to every person accused of crime ? 12. Should convict labor be used in any of the occupations of the state to make up for a shortage of labor ? Why ? 13. Why are there laws in some states against the use of prison-made goods ? 14. What courts are there in your community to take care of those accused of crime ? How are the judges chosen ? 15. What courts has your state to which appeals may be made or which have charge of the more serious crimes? How are these judges chosen ? 16. Select a half dozen laws of the community and show their reasonableness. 17. How does the Constitution of the United States define treason ? How many witnesses are necessary to prove the accusation ? What is the punishment for treason ? CHAPTER XI THE NEEDY AND DEPENDENT There are people in every community who cannot care for themselves and who are therefore dependent on help from others. This need for help may be from no fault of the dependent, as in the case of children who are lacking the care of their parents, or people who have become so old they can no longer work. All of us are dependent on our parents in our early years for our support. They give us food, clothing, a home, and an education so that when we grow up we are the better able to support ourselves and our families. We do not think of ourselves at that time as objects of charity, but what our parents do for us, the com- munity has to do for some of its citizens. For this reason we should always be ready to listen to the calls for help from the really needy. Causes of need of help. — There are many causes of this need for help. Sometimes need arises from the surroundings in which people are placed ; for example, disasters arising from earthquakes, fire, or famine. The great earthquake in San Francisco, the great fire in Chicago, and the famine in Armenia are examples of this. Perhaps the greatest num- ber of calls for help are due to personal disability. Such are blindness, feeblemindedness, and insanity. Moral defects, such as dishonesty, laziness, shiftlessness, bring many to want. Sickness and accidents are prolific causes of need. 171 172 COMMUNITY CIVICS Probably one third of all cases calling for help are caused by sickness. A third set of causes are called social causes. First among these come the changes which take place in industry and which affect many workmen. Some belong to trades in which there is work only a part of the year. Workmen are some- times thrown out of employment by strikes. We have learned what poverty is caused by unrestrained ambition which brought on a horrible war to satisfy a love for power. Education. — It is true of a great majority of the needy that they are lacking in education. (See Chapter III.) Educa- tion helps to do away with poverty. The boys and girls who leave school before it is necessary for the sake of a *' job " find themselves in later life in a " blind alley " occupa- tion ; that is, one in which it is impossible to advance. Statistics tell us that the money they receive for the last position they hold will be the same as for the first one. They have made no advance, and in later life find it hard to get any position. If they had made use of the advantages offered by the schools, they would have been able to advance. The boy who wishes to become a skilled mechanic, who can read the micrometer and has some knowledge of geometry, other things being equal, has a better chance of advancement than the boy who cannot do these things. The girl who be- comes a clerk, studies methods of salesmanship, and has some knowledge of the materials she sells and how to use them, has a better chance of advancement than the one with- out an education. The " job " may look big at first and the money received seem much better than school, but it is the future and its work that must be looked to. Intemperance and poverty. — Aside from the other evils which follow in its train, it is estimated that intemperance has THE NEEDY AND DEPENDENT 173 caused about one fifth of all cases of dependency. Money which should be spent for the support of the family has been spent in the saloon. '^ The bread-winner who puts an enemy into his mouth to steal away his brains is incapacitated for industry and responsibility; . . . strong men become feeble and destitute through the drink habit." Two billion dollars has been spent every year for drink ; this is enough to pay the whole debt of the nation as it was just before the war with Germany. To this waste must be added the amount spent by communities in aid of those rendered needy by the money spent for liquor. It is expected that the amend- ment to the federal constitution passed in 1919, prohibiting the sale and use of intoxicating liquor as a beverage, will, in a large degree, lessen the evils springing from intemperance. War and poverty. — • War has been mentioned as a cause of poverty. Those who have lived through the World War have no need to be told of the awful want and misery war costs. Sometimes it is necessary for a nation to fight, even as it was for us, to help to make ''the world a decent place to live in." War kills or incapacitates the supports of the family, destroys towns or breaks them up, and scatters families. The whole world was aghast at the ruin wrought in Belgium, the horrors in Poland, the famines in that part of France held by Germany. So great was the devastation wrought by this war, and so destitute were those whom war touched that the whole world was glad to render help. Every one learned that it was more blessed to give than to receive. Laziness and poverty. — Another cause of poverty that has been mentioned is laziness. We have large numbers of people who are poor because they will not work. Against such, some states have passed laws which make them work or go to prison. Many are living on the community or are 174 COMMUNITY CIVICS supported by their families. Others are equally lazy, but wander from place to place ; these we call " hobos " or tramps. They beg food at our back doors, steal rides on the trains, and some become petty criminals. It is wrong to give food or money to beggars who come to our homes, or to those whom we see on the streets who are evading the laws against begging by pretending to offer pencils or other worthless articles for sale. The professional beggar is often more able to give than the one who gives to him. It is a very bad thing to give indiscriminately, as it makes the people to whom the gifts are made continue in this easy and dishonorable way of getting a living, and may induce others to try such a means of living without working. Methods of relief. — The care of the needy is usually the affair of the local community, because each community knows best the needs of the persons living in it. There are two general methods of granting public help to the needy ; (1) outdoor relief, or that given in their homes to those who are dependents ; and (2) indoor relief, relief through placing the dependent person in an institution maintained either by government or by private means. Outdoor relief is carried on by the local community, which usually raises the money for this purpose by taxation. Officials are usually elected or appointed to have charge of this fund and see that it is worthily applied. Through this means families are supplied with food, clothing, fuel or other necessities. The great danger from such help is that the shiftless and the lazy come to rely on it rather than on working to earn a living. '' Nearly all the experiences in this country indicate that outdoor relief is a source of corrup- tion in politics, of expense to the community, and of degrada- tion and increased pauperization to the poor." THE NEEDY AND DEPENDENT 175 Almost every community has one or more societies for the relief of the needy. The result has been that much of the work has been duplicated, and unscrupulous persons have made a good living by applying to the different societies in turn and getting help from all. To do away with this evil, at the present time many cities are forming associations to look more carefully after the spending of money for the poor. The association gives only after each case has been examined fairly, tries to prevent the need of charity by Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner An Orphan Asylum Here the community provides a home for those who have been so unfortunate as to lose their parents. visits to the homes of the poor and the shiftless, and gives advice which will make persons self-supporting. Help is refused to those who will not try to help themselves. Indoor relief. — Except in New England, where a poor- farm is maintained by most communities, the counties in most of the commonwealths maintain an alms-house in which those who through age or incapacity cannot support themselves are given a home. Officials are paid by the authorities to look after the inmates, and a physician is provided if they are ill. In return the inmates are expected 176 COMMUNITY CIVICS to work if they are able, a part of the day at least. It is said on good authority that more than half of those in alms- houses are able to work, but do not, as they are not willing to work when support is to be had for nothing. In addi- tion to the alms-house, many counties maintain a hospital for those suffering from tuberculosis. Here those who have contracted this disease are maintained at the expense of the public until they are restored to health and once more be- come self-supporting. Such institutions are also maintained in some of the states by state funds. Relief of poor children. — The great English novelist, Charles Dickens, said, " Throw a child under a cart horse's foot and a loaded wagon, rather than take him to an alms- house." Such a statement was all too well founded in Dickens' day. Little children were forced to associate with the insane and degenerate, and the disgrace which inevitably clings to such a place was theirs. The whole influence of the place was low and degrading. Fortunately, at the present time, the placing of children in an alms-house is forbid- den in most states by law. Many communities maintain asylums for orphans and other dependent children. A bet- ter method recognizes that the home is the only place for a child. Homes are sought out for unfortunate children. After these homes have been carefully investigated, children from the different asylums are sent to be taken care of and brought up as members of the family. The homes in which the children are placed, are under the supervision and watch- fulness of the authorities until such a time as it is known that the children will be well brought up. Care such as is now given dependent children, either in an asylum or a home, is necessary for two reasons ; one for the sake of the community, and the other for the sake of the THE NEEDY AND DEPENDENT 177 child. Such care is necessary because it takes the child from the evil influences of the street, which would be almost sure to make a criminal of him and therefore a menace to the community. It also gives the child a chance for protection and an education, a chance to grow up a useful citizen and to earn his living. Medical charity. — There is one class of the needy who should have all the care the community can give, that is, the Courtesy of Rutherford Hayner The Work op the Red Cross in Peace Teaching home nursing and infant care. sick poor. In addition to all the work which the com- munity and its societies do for the needy, the local com- munity usually maintains a doctor for the sick, and some- times a nurse to take care of them. The doctor responds to the calls which are made on him, gives the needed medicine, and sends the sick to the free ward in the hospital if necessary. Most of the larger communities maintain a hospital where there are free beds for those who cannot pay. Those who 178 COMMUNITY CIVICS live in cities are familiar with the sound of the clanging bell of the ambulance, hurrying on its way of mercy. The Red Cross. — One of the greatest associations formed for the help of the needy is the Red Cross Society. Its great use was seen during the period of the Great War with Ger- many. The world was then a great community. Every United States Official Photo Red Cross Workers on the Job Red Cross men attending to the wounded during the World War. one helped his neighbor among other nations. There was hardly a home which did not display a Red Cross in the window, as evidence of giving to help the suffering of the allied nations. Organized originally to give relief caused by sudden needs, fires, floods, or earthquakes, its great work during the war taught what organized relief really might be. THE NEEDY AND DEPENDENT 179 State institutions. — The state provides hospitals and asylums for some dependent members of the community. This is necessary as the cost would be too great if a local community alone was forced to give these unfortunates proper care. In these institutions are placed the blind, the deaf-mutes, the insane, and the mentally deficient. The insane, like dependent children, are taken care of not only for their own sake, but so that they may not be a menace to the locality where they live. Formerly the insane were treated harshly, and " cruel and barbarous methods pre- vailed in the treatment of the poor unfortunate inmates. They were often thrust into dark and prison-like cells, or kept in cages like wild animals. They were often compelled to live in great filth, . . . and often weighted down with great chains." With such treatment there was no chance for the recovery of either mind or body. As a result of the modern scientific treatment of the insane, one half of those sent to the hospitals are either cured or so improved that they may be returned to their homes without being a menace to others. The mentally defective are now taken care of in institu- tions. Probably one half of the people in the various alms- houses are feeble-minded ; twenty per cent to fifty per cent of criminals are mentally defective ; in the reformatories sixty to eighty per cent are in the same condition. If these un- fortunates could have had proper care, crime and pauperism would be much reduced. It has been suggested that those now in our jails, alms-houses, reformatories, etc., be sub- jected to scientific tests, and that when such inmates are found to be defective, they be placed in institutions where they may receive care rather than punishment. The blind and the deaf-mutes are made the wards of the 180 COMMUNITY CIVICS state. By the use of ingenious apparatus they are taught to do many seemingly impossible things. The blind are taught to read by touch and are taught to follow many trades and professions, — weaving, piano tuning, type- writing. Helen Keller, blind, deaf, and dumb from birth, has been enabled to receive a college education. Those Courtesy New York State Charities Commission Group of Homes Provided by the State for Dependents The new way of building a home for those who need care is to construct a group of separate buildings rather than one large one. This makes the care more homelike. who came back from the World War, seemingly useless from blindness or wounds, in many instances have been taught to be self-supporting. State laws. — Some of the states have passed laws affecting the whole commonwealth, that are expected to do away with a great deal of charity. These laws have already been mentioned, — the workman's compensation act, THE NEEDY AND DEPENDENT 181 the widow's pension act, the minimum wage law, and other such acts. These relieve to a great extent many cases to which help would have to be given when the chief bread-winner has died or is ill. By the relief afforded by the state, the children may be kept in the home and the parents relieved of worry. Cost of charities. — The care of the poor and unfortunate costs the different communities of the nation more than anything else, the cost of war alone excepted. It has been estimated that one twenty-fifth of the whole population of the nation is dependent on charity. In one's own com- munity there may not be many who need help from some one else, but in the aggregate throughout the country, the num- ber reaches millions. " In the story of Gulliver's travels, it was not any one of the fine threads which held him to earth, but the millions of strands which the busy little men carried over his body in every direction." It costs the nation nearly $200,000,000 per year to pay for the support of the needy. This means that a sum equal to one cent out of every ten of the total amount of wages paid out by all the manufactur- ing industries of the country, must be paid to support some one else. It is very evident, then, that whatever can be done to restore these helpless ones to self-support, or better yet, to keep people from needing help, is a fine thing for the nation. These figures do not mean, as we have said, that all the people who receive this aid are at fault, any more than you were at fault when you received help from your people when you were helpless. Those who are sick usually cannot help it. Those who meet with an accident are not always at fault ; though we have seen that the warning of '' Safety First" has been the cause of a great reduction in the number of accidents caused by carelessness. 182 COMMUNITY CIVICS Questions for Investigation 1 . What does your com m unity do to take care of the poor and needy ? What officials are there who attend to this duty ? How are they chosen ? What are their duties ? 2. What societies are there in your community which help those who need assistance? How does a needy person go about obtaining assistance ? 3. What does your community do to abate the "tramp" nuisance? Do you ever feed them ? Is this a good thing to do ? Why ? 4. Make a list of the charitable institutions of your local and state governments. Draw some conclusions from this list. 5. How are the different charities supported, mentioned in question 4 ? 6. What benefits does a community receive from the difiFerent organized charities ? 7. What are some of the results to yourself of being charitable ? 8. Does an increase in wages prevent poverty ? Why ? 9. How may charity work an injury to a community? 10. What public institutions are there in your state for the sole purpose of helping those who are defective ? 11. Write a composition on "The Life of Helen Keller." 12. Find out all you can about the work the United States govern- ment does for those who became dependent because of wounds received during the war against Germany. Make a report to the class. CHAPTER XII GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING Land The ferryman, the blacksmith, and the miller of whom we have read were working to make a living. That is the goal toward which most people are striving. Some wish to get rich, some are satisfied to have a modest sum to take care of them in their old age, while others may be fortunate enough to have had parents who have provided so well for them that all they have to do is to take care of what has been left them. We say " Mr. So-and-so is wealthy." We mean that he has plenty of money and whatever money can buy. In our study of government, however, we must broaden our ideas as to the meaning of the word " wealth." It has been defined as " merely the material means by which the real elements of welfare are secured." In other words *' making a living " does not merely mean hoarding up a great quantity of money or stocks and bonds, but means the securing of enough weajth or goods so that all these things which government helps to provide for us may be obtained — a home, health, a beautiful city, protection, education, or any of the other things we desire which government may give. What wealth is. — Wealth may be represented by money or by something else. The wealth of the ferryman was his boat, for by it he gained the elements of welfare for the 183 184 • COMMUNITY CIVICS support of his family. The wealth of the miller was his mill and the toll of the grain which he took. The wealth of the shoemaker was his tools. Our idea of wealth and that of the boy on the farm may be entirely different, and yet both may have the right idea of what wealth is. He may desire to have his wealth in a hundred-acre farm and big barns to hold the products which he raises, both of which will bring him all those things that he desires. You may desire a vast business which will bring in so great an income that you will have automobiles, servants, a grand house, and all the evi- dences of wealth which money may bring. So we see that wealth may mean a different thing to each person, and yet " making a living " is only working to gain those things we most desire. Elements of wealth. — Into this making of a living or acquiring wealth enter three fundamental things : first, natural resources, that is those things which nature itself gives us ; next, labor, the work we do with either our brains or our bodies ; finally, capital, or anything that labor has made to produce more goods. We must understand that in speaking of capital we do not necessarily mean money, in fact we do not mean money as often as we mean something else. Oil and steel, which are forms of natural resources, when combined in the form of an automobile truck are a form of capital. They are the products of labor that are used to create more goods. You may be a capitalist, for if you own the mower with which you mow a neighbor's lawn for pay, your lawn mower is your capital. Let us take each of these three elements of wealth and see how closely government is connected with each. Natural resources. — By natural resources we mean all the things which the earth itself gives us, — coal, oil, gold, silver, GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 185 and the other metals dug from the earth. We also mean the fertility of the soil, the movement of the air above the earth, the flowing of the waters on the earth in the form of brooks, rivers, rain, and snow. All these things are given to us for our use, and by combining them with the other two factors of wealth, labor and capital, we make our living. When the nation was young all the natural resources were free to the one who could use them best. The early settlers received large grants of land for small sums, and as the value of the natural resources of the land was not known, many received very valuable grants for small sums. But as time went on, and some of these resources began to be used up and people selfishly took more than they should, government had to step in and regulate their use. As the population increased, the amount of fertile soil for the use of each person decreased, the amount of water power available for use was less. Many of the mines of coal, iron, and copper and other minerals fell into the hands of unscrupulous individuals who exacted high prices for their products. The people in general were being shut out of proper participation in the use of these natural resources. The wiser men of the nation began to see that it would not be long before many of these would be entirely destroyed. For this reason, in recent years government has begun to take control of many of the natural resources of the coun- try. Indeed, during the war with Germany, some of them were taken over entirely by the government. Lumber. — One of our most carelessly used resources is lumber. To the early settler it did not seem possible to destroy the vast forests which he found here. His desire was to carve for himself a home in the heart of this vast wilderness, and to do this he was forced to cut down the 186 COMMUNITY CIVICS trees and burn them. The only use he had for them was to build his home and to make his fire. The ashes that he ob- tained from the many trees he had to clear away, he used for fertilizing his crops. For a long time this wasteful method of using timber was continued. No thought was taken for the future. Many private individuals obtained control of vast tracts of timber land, which they cut over in waste- ful fashion. Modern times brought but little change in these wasteful methods. Fires started in the slashings and burned over vast areas of valuable timber. From 1880 to 1896 the annual fire loss was $50,000,000, and the cost of setting out trees to take the place of those destroyed was $50,000,000 more. Added to this was a yearly loss of fifty lives. The men who owned the large tracts were anxious only to make all the money they could from their grants, and so cut them over recklessly. An example of the wasteful destruction of valuable trees was shown during the Great War. There arose a demand for black walnut for the stocks of the soldiers' rifles. So small was the supply, that Presi- dent Wilson issued a call to the Boy Scouts of America to go into the woods and search for black walnut trees that there might be a supply of the needed wood to meet the demand. As a result of our careless handling, our timber lands are only about sixty-five per cent of what they formerly were. Only about one fourth of ou area is forested. Saving of lumber. — Since 1891, when the first of the forest laws were passed, the nation has attempted to save the forests. In that year the president was given authority to set aside any public lands bearing forests, as forest re- serves. In 1897 a National Bureau of Forestry was estab- lished (see Chapter XXI), and now a national force of four thousand men patrols these forests. From lofty watch towers GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 187 Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Two Views of What Carelessness Does to Our Forests 188 COMMUNITY CIVICS Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C. A Fire Lookout Tower in a Florida National Forest these men watch for fires and summon help if need arises. They lay out new trails through the forests, put up telephone lines so that communication may be swift if necessary, and drive out illegal users of forest lands. Not only does the Forestry Bureau manage our forests care- fully, but it is trying to stop wasteful methods of production. Trees are cut so wastefully, that the loss is nearly twenty-five per cent. Mills waste about fifty per cent of the logs they cut. " It is estimated that 37,000,000 gallons of turpentine, or more than at present produced in the United States, might be pro- duced from the waste parts of the southern pine, the stumps, the slabs, and the sawdust." The Bureau is trying to teach the lumbermen less wasteful methods of production. State control of forests. — Many of the states have at- tempted to control the waste of timber within their borders. Uncle Sam has made some of the pubHc lands in Florida into national forests, and one of the duties of the Forest Service which administers them, is to protect the timber from fire. These lookout towers are connected by tele- phone with the supervisors' and rangers' headquarters, and when smoke is discovered, very little time is lost in getting a fire fighting crew to the scene. GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 189 New York, among others, has established a School of Forestry where scientific forestry is studied. Such a school gives a chance for any boy who likes life in the open to enter upon a profession which is not overcrowded. For many reasons, however, it is thought better for the national government rather than the state to control the forest lands. One chief reason is that forests do not stop at state lines. They affect the prosperity of all the country and not alone the people of one state. Water. — The preservation of the forests is necessary for the control of the water supply. The reckless destruc- tion of timber on the mountain slopes no longer leaves any- thing to hold back the water, and as a result the slopes are denuded of their soil and the valleys are flooded. Formerly the trees, by their roots and foliage, held back a great quan- tity of water and allowed it to run off slowly, and the water supply was slowly sent down to the lowlands. The floods of to-day are caused by the sudden thawing of the snow on the mountain slopes and the heavy rains which rush down into the valleys in torrents. To remedy this trouble, and to insure a steady and constant supply of water, reforestation of the mountain slopes has been undertaken by the state and national governments. Millions of trees have been set out to replace those which have been cut down by careless and unscrupulous woodsmen. The state of New York, for example, expends many thousands of dollars each year to maintain nurseries for the raising of young trees for the purpose of reforestation. Water power. — We have seen in the chapter on Health (see Chapter IV) how necessary to the health of the people is a supply of pure water. Very important also is the preservation to the people of water power as a cheap means 190 COMMUNITY CIVICS of power for manufacturing and other purposes. At the present time we are using six million horse power derived from our streams, but there is nearly ten times that amount which might be used. The control of most of the power now in use is in the hands of only ten companies. It is thus easily seen why it is necessary for the government to preserve the power remaining, so that it may not come under the control of a few people who might abuse their power. Government control of these utilities is necessary to secure reasonable charges from the great combinations of capital now controlling the water power sites, for at the present time they are able to charge unreasonable rates. Government and state water control. — Another method of control of water undertaken by the government is the making of large storage reservoirs, where water may be stored and used as needed to irrigate land otherwise unpro- ductive. An example of the difficulties attending the con- struction of these projects, the story of the building of the Uncompahgre project, is found in the chapter on " The President's Advisers." (The Secretary of the Interior.) Another great undertaking was the building of the Roose- velt dam. This great structure is 280 feet high, 630 feet wide, and forms a reservoir 25 miles long. Its waters have reclaimed 160,000 acres of arid land. The Arrowrock dam is still larger than the Roosevelt dam, being 348 feet high. When we realize that two fifths of the area of the United States has so little rainfall that irrigation is necessary for successful crops, the value of the work mentioned above is readily understood. Since the beginning of the work, in 1894, nearly a million and a half acres have been made pro- ductive in this way. Practically worthless lands in many GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 191 western states have been changed into beautiful orchards worth $1000 an acre. Navigation. — Much of the nation's money has been wasted in trying to make the rivers and streams of the country navigable. One of the greatest scandals of the govern- ment is the " Rivers and Harbors " bill, the so-called '' pork barrel," by which appropriations are made by Congress for the purpose of dredging and otherwise making navigable the streams of the country. Many of them were of no use except to a very small locality and sometimes were of abso- lutely no use even when dredged. There are, however, nearly three hundred navigable streams for which the gov- ernment appropriates money. The floods each year bring down immense quantities of silt, which gradually makes such streams of no use unless they are cleaned out. The national government is also making a series of navigable canals near the coast, from Maine to Florida, which will permit ocean traffic without danger from ocean storms. Some of these canals, and also the Barge Canal in New York State, were taken under government control during the World War to facilitate the transportation of goods. This helped to relieve the great congestion of the railroads. The building of the Panama Canal was another of the government projects to help navigation, and also the canalizing of the Columbia River for 500 miles of its length. Minerals. — Among the many difficult problems which the government faced during the war with Germany, none was more difficult than those connected with minerals, particularly coal. The great congestion of freight traffic, the exceptionally cold weather, the difficulty of getting cars to carry the coal, made it almost impossible to ship this very necessary product. Finally the government appointed a 192 COMMUNITY CIVICS fuel administrator and took over the coal mines, distribut- ing coal to the different parts of the country as it was needed. Such businesses as were not actually in need of coal were refused it, and many others were allowed only a certain per cent of the amount formerly used. The price of coal was also kept within a reasonable limit. The prices of other mineral supplies were fixed so that the government might have them for war uses without paying extravagant rates. Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C, A Herd of Buffalo in a National Park Conservation of wild life by national government. Loyal mine owners gladly accepted the prices so fixed, and the government was saved many thousands of dollars. Some years previous to the war, the President acting under the authority given him by Congress, set aside many acres of coal and oil lands, thus reserving to the people these valu- able supplies of fuel. Animal life. — State and nation are now trying to con- serve our wild animals as one of our natural resources. It has begun this work almost too late as some of our wild ani- mals have been almost entirely destroyed. The buffalo has GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 193 gone, except for a few individuals here and there. When the West was first explored and settled, these animals roamed the prairies in countless multitudes. So ruthlessly were they slaughtered for their hides that it was not long before Courtesy of Conservation Commission, New York R,ing-Necked Pheasants These game birds have been introduced into America through their propagation at a game farm maintained by New York state at Sherburne, New York. the great herds were almost destroyed. The wild pigeon is seldom found in this country, although the early records tell of such vast flocks that the sun was actually darkened as they flew to their nesting places. If it had not been for government propagation the oyster and the lobster would have disappeared in the same way. Both the states and the 194 COMMUNITY CIVICS nation have passed laws to stop such indiscriminate slaughter. A closed season for wild animals is now established by law in most states. Not only do the states forbid the killing of wild animals, except at certain seasons of the year, but many of them maintain farms where the game birds and Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Wild Tuekeys on a National Preserve Preservation of wild life by state and nation. fish are hatched, and from which they are distributed throughout the state. The national government forbids the killing of wild animals in certain of the national parks, has taken over the control of the great seal herds, which were in danger of extinction, and maintains a great breeding place for wild birds. GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 195 Questions for Investigation 1. Are you wealthy ? Of what does your wealth consist ? 2. What natural resources did your community possess which led to its settlement? What natural resources still contribute to its pros- perity ? 3. Does government in any form, local, state, or national, regulate the natural resources of your community at the present time ? 4. Are there mills in your commimity which use lumber ? Do they waste it in any way? From what sources do they get their supply of lumber ? 5. Are there any factories in yoiu* vicinity which make use of the waste of other forms of industry ? 6. Trace a redwood tree from its location in the forest to its final use. A mahogany tree. A cypress tree. 7. What laws has your state made for the protection of your forests against fire? Are there forest rangers near your home? What are their duties ? 8. What department of the national government has charge of our national forests ? What is the name of its Secretary ? What are some of his duties ? 9. What is meant by a *' hydro-electric" law? Has your state such a law? What are the advantages of such a law? Disad- vantages ? 10. Is any of your land under irrigation? Where does the water come from ? Is the water supplied by a private firm or by the govern- ment ? Do you think it better for the government or a corporation to control such a supply of water ? Why ? 11. What has government done in your locality to help navigation? Are there any government projects under way or completed near your community which are an aid to navigation? If there are, make a report on them to the class. 12. What department of the national government has charge of the deepening of rivers ? What are some of its duties ? 13. Make a report to the class on government control of any minerals in your section. 14. Draw a map of the United States and locate any coal or oil lands set aside by the government. 15. Draw a map of the United States and on it locate the chief mineral supplies of the country ; the lumber regions ; the great reser- voirs built by the government. 196 COMMUNITY CIVICS 16. Has your state any officials whose business it is to take care of the forests? To protect the wild animals and see that they are not killed out of season ? 17. Has your state any laws which protect the birds? If so, find out some of the provisions of such laws. How many kinds of birds near your home ? Of what use are they ? 18. How can the pupils of your school help the community to have piu'e food ? What is being done in your neighborhood to increase the production of food? To conserve the food supply? To protect the food supply? 19. Are there vacant lots in your neighborhood which might be used for gardens ? How would you go about it to secure their use ? Make a poster urging care in the use of food. 20. If you live in tlie country write to the Department of Agriculture of your state or the federal Department of Agriculture, for bulletins which might be of value to farmers in your neighborhood. CHAPTER XIII GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING Labor The second element that enters into making a living is labor, either physical labor or labor with the brain. When the country was new, men had to do all kinds of labor. The settler had to cut the trees, clear the land, build his house, put in his crops, kill game to get leather for his clothing, shoe his horse if he were lucky enough to have one, make a hand mill to grind his corn ; in short, he had only his own efforts and those of his family to keep them from starvation (see Chapter I) . His wife and children had to help ; the wife spun and wove the yarn into thread and cloth and then made the cloth into garments or knit the yarn into stockings. She had to make the soap, make the maple sap into sugar, make the candles, do all the things for which her strength fitted her. The parents had to teach the children, for there was not much opportunity to obtain an education, and they also gave them what religious education they had, particu- larly if they lived far from the settlements. Each was a real '' jack-of -all-trades." In the first chapter we saw that after a while the miller came, and the blacksmith and the shoemaker. Each took some of the burden of labor from the early settler. This is known as division of labor, and has become the great factor of modern labor to-day. Division of labor destroyed the independence of the family and made us dependent on one another. 197 198 COMMUNITY CIVICS Division of labor. — As time went on and factories were built this division of labor became more noticeable. One shoemaker no longer made a shoe, but a shoe was the work of a great many hands. Over a hundred different operations are now necessary to make one shoe. Other trades show the same minuteness of division. A coat is no longer made by one person. Even a pin has to go through a great many processes and through a great many hands before it is ready for use. Such a division of labor makes man dependent on man. We are dependent to-day on the efforts of many others. If a strike takes place in a machine shop where fittings for submarine destroyers are made, and the work is slowed up, the enemy submarine is helped and the country endangered. If the miner does not get out his proper amount of coal in the summer, some one has to suffer in the winter or some great manufacturing plant has to close down. If he strikes, he throws out of gear the machinery of many plants dependent upon him for his labor. We are not interested here in the advantages and disadvantages of the division of labor, except in so far as it affects our relations with other members of the community. But it is easy to understand that if each does not do his share in the labor he has undertaken, some one else suffers. One does not work for himself alone. If the doctor goes away for his enjoy- ment and leaves his patients, they may die. If the farmer should say that he would raise only such crops as he himself needed, the world would starve. This interdependence of man upon man is at the bottom of much of our law making and of our relation to the government. As has been said, such minute division of labor as we have to-day came about through the establishment of what we know as the factory system. About the middle of the GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 199 eighteenth century, because of several inventions made by some EngKshmen, large buildings for the spinning and weav- ing of cloth were erected, and people no longer carried on this work to any extent in their homes. This system was intro- duced into America in the early part of the nineteenth cen- tury, and factories sprang up in all parts of the new country except the South, where slave labor did not make the system profitable. These factories for the housing of labor and machinery brought about a great change in labor condi- tions. Large manufacturing towns sprang up with all the added need for protection, provision for health, and the other elements of community welfare. Men, urged on by a desire for wealth, began to hire little children to work in the fac- tories because they were to be had at a cheap wage. Later on, the labor of women was used for the reason that they could be hired more cheaply than men and would not fight for their rights as men would. The same bad conditions which England had faced, soon were found in American fac- tories, and, sad to say, all child labor in factories has not been done away with yet. What has been done the follow- ing sections will tell. Child labor. — The Child Labor Committee which was organized in 1904 to investigate the conditions surrounding children says in one of its reports, "The origin of child labor grew out of the sordid desire of employers to secure labor at the lowest possible cost regardless of the law or nature of man. Certain employers seem to have but the one policy, anything for gain." Poverty is often an excuse for lazy parents to put their children at work so that they will be free of their support. Division of labor has made it possible for children to do many things in factories which were formerly done by older work- 200 COMMUNITY CIVICS men. Sometimes children become discouraged at school and want to go to work. This is a very foolish idea, for the uneducated person does not have much chance of success. Nevertheless, many boys and girls leave school as soon as they can to go to work. The compul- sory education laws and their enforce- ment are inadequate in many states, and many children leave school when they most need to remain there. In the United States to-day there are somewhat less than 2,000,000 chil- dren who are classed as laborers, one in seven of whom is under fourteen years of age. About three fourths of these work on the farms while the other fourth are in other industries. '' The danger in child labor is often not recognized because of the large pro- portion engaged in agriculture, which is considered one of Courtesy of National Child Labor Committee Eight-Yeak-Old Newsboys What good might come from such labor? Do you think the good is greater than the evil arising from it? Is there any law gov- erning such cases? GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 201 the more healthful occupations. Under this heading, how- ever, are the children found working in the cranberry bogs, in the berry patches and vegetable gardens, and also in the canneries. Children in this kind of work often labor under conditions which are worse than those found in the factories." Does child labor pay? Far from it. Investi- gators have proved again and again that the family wage is not increased by it, regardless of the num- ber that are wage earners. Where the women and children become wage earners, the whole family earns no more than the father would earn, were prevailing conditions such that he was the only wage earner of the family. In addition to this, child labor tends invariably to lower the wages of older people. Aside from the matter of dollars and cents^ child labor does not pay because of the lives it ruins. The long hours, unsanitary surroundings, the lack of fresh air and sunshine, immoral companions, all tend to weaken the children, who, if they are fortunate enough to grow up, tend to become old before their time. Child labor does not pay because it is not the most efficient Courtesy of National Child Labor Committee Child Labor on the Farm The boy looks happy, but the work is very hard for a boy of twelve years. Crates of tomatoes are too heavy for children to carry. 202 COMMUNITY CIVICS kind of work. Children, no matter how skillful, cannot do as good work as older people. The Child Labor Committee, before referred to, sums up the cost of child labor as follows : 1. It costs the child Accidents and disease. Lack of education, Material and spiritual loss. 2. It costs industry Waste of products, Less profit in the long run, Lower efficiency of child labor adults. 3. It costs society Wrecked human beings, Broken homes, Ignorant citizens. Possible criminality. All of the states have taken steps to put a stop in part, at least, to child labor, but not many of them really enforce the laws they have made. In four of the states, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, and Massachusetts, less than one per cent of the children from ten to thirteen years of age are found to be at work. In other states, nearly half of the children of that age are at work. In some states laws have been passed which compel children to go to school until they are fourteen. In others night work in mines and quarries is forbidden for those under fourteen. Some states limit the hours during which children may work. In 1916 the national government passed a law which would have largely restricted child labor throughout the entire country, but unfortunately the law was declared by the Supreme Court to be imconstitutional. GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 203 Labor of women. — Added to the evils which arise from child labor are those which come from the work of women in the industries of the country. In recent years women have become workers in greatly increasing numbers. Twenty-five years ago about the only occupations open to women were teaching and household service. Women were Courtesy of National Child Labor Committee Family Working on Patriotic Flag Pins What criticism would you make on such work? supposed to take care of the home or lead a life of leisure. All this- has changed. We now find women entering almost all occupations formerly followed by men — those of motor car conductor, chauffeur, machinist, as well as the more common callings of clerk, stenographer, mill worker, etc. In the past workers have been much underpaid, and for long hours and small wages have been forced to work in un- healthful and unsanitary surroundings by the same sort of 204 COMMUNITY CIVICS profiteers as those who lived on child labor. No attempt was made to remedy conditions, because the workers were women who were forced to do the work assigned them or starve. A low wage " invariably means living under condi- tions which are detrimental to health ; . . . the young women have, moreover, but little chance for self -betterment." To remedy these conditions the hours which women may work have been set by the laws of many states. Some states prohibit women from being employed at night work, insist upon the safeguarding of machinery, require that good sanitary conditions must be furnished in the places where they work, and specify particularly that seats shall be pro- vided so that the workers will not have to stand for long periods of time. Within the last few years a number of states have passed minimum wage laws. This means that no one in any specified trade may receive for her work less than the sum stated by the law. Clothing and the sweating system. — One evil resulting from modern labor has not as yet been satisfactorily con- trolled. This is the so-called sweating or sweat-shop labor. This kind of labor is found particularly in the clothing trades. Clothing is as much a necessity of life as water or food not only for our health and comfort, but also for adornment. Government has looked after food and water very carefully that we may not endanger our health by the use of impure food or polluted water. It is not so with the clothing we wear. Laws have been passed to forbid the adulteration of textiles, and to put a stop to misrepresentation of facts re- garding the materials from which our clothes are made. Yet the sweat-shop with all its dangers is used in the manu- facture of a great amount of clothing. This usually means work done in the home for very low wages, by people work- GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 205 ing under unsanitary conditions and for very long hours. By far the greater number of those working in the sweat- shops are foreigners, who because of their ignorance and their great need of support for themselves and families, are willing to work for such small wages. Whole families living in one room engage in this work for unbelievably low wages, for example, ^' making roses and violets at three to eight cents Courtesy of International Harvester Company of America Modern Reaper Write a composition describing the work of such a reaper as is shown in the picture. a gross, baby dresses at 45 cents a dozen, willow plumes at 41 knots for one cent.'' Ignorant of the spread of disease, investigators have found garments brought to the home to be made, lying on the bed of those ill with contagious diseases. " A tailor was found working on a summer over- coat in a room in which was a patient ill with the smallpox." Children's clothes were made in the same room where children were ill with the scarlet fever. Not only are the garments made under such conditions a menace to the outside world, but the workers themselves are forced to eat, sleep, cook, 206 COMMUNITY CIVICS and v7ork in one or two rooms. Little children of three or four years have been found helping by pulling out bastings or other such work. In one block alone in New York City, there were 77 factories of this sort and 40,000 workers. States have attempted to pass laws which would break up Courtcsij of InUrnaliunal Harit^Ur ( oi/ipdnu uf America Cutting Grain with a Cradle Compare this picture with the one on page 209. this evil, but thus far have not succeeded very well. Many occupations are not prescribed by law, and therefore the places where they are carried on are not subject to inspection and regulation by the authorities. Trade unions. — Workers themselves have remedied many of the evils attending modern labor. This is by means of what is known as " trade unions." These have been GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 207 defined as " combinations of working people in given trades. . . . Working men and women with no property must sell their labor to live. If as individuals they bid against each other for jobs, the employer is able to beat wages down. Courtesy of International Harvester Comvany of America Cutting Grass with a Scythe Compare with the picture on page 205. If they unite, they have more strength in dealing with em- ployers and secure better wages and hours for all." The unions have two chief ways in which they may attempt to better their conditions, the strike and the boycott, and a third might be added to these two, arbitration. The chief of these is the strike. This is a concerted refusal on the part 208 COMMUNITY CIVICS • of the employees to work unless certain demands they make are granted. These demands may be for shorter hours of work, more pay, or the remedying of any bad conditions in the factory. Sometimes such strikes are accompanied by violence, unless the demands of the strikers are complied with. However, the leaders usually try to restrain the workers from such acts. To preserve order it has sometimes been necessary for the governor of the state to call out the state militia or to ask for the help of the federal troops. At one time President Cleveland was forced to call out the regular soldiers of the United States because rioters interfered with the carrying of United States mail. About one half of the strikes are successful. Strikes are settled either by the two parties in the dispute reaching an agreement, or by arbitra- tion. Many of the states maintain a Bureau of Mediation and Arbitration, the duty of which is to offer its services to settle disputes in which labor is concerned. When such a grievance is settled by arbitration, each side in the dispute chooses one or two to represent it in the conference, and those so chosen select one or two more, and both sides agree to abide by the decision rendered. During the war with Germany, the federal government appointed a board to settle disputes between capital and labor. A boycott is a refusal on the part of a body of people to have dealings with some one whom they wish to force to comply with their demands. Those carrying out the boycott usually try to get others to join with them. The employer has as his weapon the '' blacklist," a list of those who are prominent in strikes and boycotting. Such a list is placed in the hands of all employers, and those on the list are refused work. GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 209 210 COMMUNITY CIVICS The Federation of Labor. — The American Federation of Labor, the great labor organization, has to-day more than two milhon members. It is made up of unions of many trades. One writer compares the relations of these unions with the great central body of the Federation, to the relation of the states with the central government of the nation. Among the things which the Federation stands for are an eight-hour day and a Saturday half holiday, inspection of factories, no child labor, old-age pensions, and more educa- tion, particularly vocational education. Questions for Investigation 1. Does either your father or your mother belong to a trade union? If so, ask them to tell you the advantages they derive from such member- ship ? Are there any disadvantages ? 2. What is a "union label" ? What is its purpose? 3. Give examples of division of labor in your home. Is there any division of labor in your school? If so, make a report to the class concerning it. 4. What are the laws which your state has passed for the protection of children who work? Do your school authorities have anything to do with the enforcement of these laws ? If so, what ? 5. What laws has your state passed for the protection of women who are compelled to work ? 6. What is a "minimum wage" law? Has your state such a law? What are its provisions ? 7. What are some of the causes of unemployment ? 8. What measures have been taken in your community and your state to reduce unemployment ? 9. What are some of the ways in which unemployment affects the individual ? 10. In what way did the labor of the boy and girl told of in the first chapter differ from that of the Indian boys and girls ? From the boys and girls of to-day ? 11. For what reasons is it good for girls and boys to work? Could such labor become harmful ? If so, how ? GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 211 12. What is meant by the "dangerous trades"? Give some ex- amples of such trades. What precautions are being taken to make them less dangerous ? Have you any such in your community ? 13. Do you think that men and women should receive ''equal pay for equal work"? Why? CHAPTER XIV GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING Capital The third element in making a living is capital. It has been defined as ** that part of wealth used to produce more wealth." It is derived from land and labor, yet it is different from both. Many things are capital which we do not think of as such. The book you study, the microscope which you use in the laboratory, the instrument you use in drawing are part of your capital if you use them to produce wealth. Capital may be in the form of factories or other buildings, money, or machinery of any kind. But remember that these things must be used to produce more wealth. To be most useful, capital must be joined to labor. Just as two horses hitched side by side must pull together in order to plow the field with a straight furrow, so capital and labor must pull together and not in opposite directions to get good results. Capital must not try to gain an advan- tage over labor, neither must labor try to get the better of capital. The greatest amount of wealth is gained for all when the three elements are in harmony. In the preceding chapter we have studied some of the evils which arise when capital tries to get the better of labor, and the destruction which labor causes when it tries to overcome capital. The only way is for them to work together. 212 GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 213 Capital and wealth. — We must distinguish carefully be- tween the meaning of the words capital and wealth. If the wealth is not used to produce something it is not capital. The man who spends money foolishly is wasting wealth that might be used as capital. The man who saves a hundred dollars and then digs a hole and buries it, is not adding to capital ; but if he puts the hundred dollars in the bank, where it will draw interest, then he is adding to capital. Courtesy of T. C. Beagon A Salt Mine One of the many forms of the use of capital. Capital is the result of saving and thrift and of greater efficiency in work. If every one spent all he earned, there would be nothing with which to increase capital, there would be nothing to save for the future. War wastes capital. The things which capital and labor together have produced are utterly destroyed. One reason why the World War was fought was that in the future no nation might dare plan to destroy the capital of the world which might be turned to good uses. The war taught us how to save instead of 214 COMMUNITY CIVICS destroy, yet many were found who instead of saving, spent all of the higher wages received, and in the end were worse off than on a smaller income. A corporation. — When men go into business now-a-days, two or more usually combine their capital and form a com- pany or corporation. These corporations are formed some- what after the same manner as the trading companies which settled America. They went to the king for a charter ; the charter stated the place of meeting, the officers and their duties, and the powers which the company had. Such a trading company was the Massachusetts Bay Company. The corporation of the present day must apply to a state government for a charter. The president of the corporation corresponds to the governor of the company, the vice presi- dent to the deputy-governor, the treasurer to the treasurer, and the board of directors to the assistants of the trading company. The corporation carries on its business in about the same manner as the old company. Stock is sold to those who wish to buy, and its value fluctuates as it did then. Sometimes the stock becomes very valuable, and the in- vestors become wealthy ; again many companies have nothing but a charter to start on and after getting the investors' money the company fails, and all the money is lost. Most commonwealths have strict laws which govern the formation of companies, and their investments are guarded against fraud. Heavy punishments are provided for those who promote fraudulent companies. Some states are very careful about issuing charters to companies, others are not ; and as a company properly chartered in one state may do business in another many doubtful corporations have been chartered, and much capital has been lost by in- vestment in them. GOVERNMENT AND MAKING A LIVING 215 M a o >^ o M H H ;? <^ U H O « W -< O < O o s < o hJ !? ■■-■■ 1^^' ^91 -::"-' HrMrff fsK^ ^*^^> *'*jMi£« IlZ^ 'daP ' ""^ \^M Mw"*^^^ :;||i|^ ■csS^'i '; ,',;'. ;<"!^> ShH^^''"^^ ^ .•SSC^-SiiiS; JsC ■*^:>-* ■ ,;- gBB|BB|ffff^ fr^^^^ •,-: ■ - ::z$,:rmm^:.ri ,! "'■•'.... ■•^cs - .■'■■/ Courtesy of Conservation Commission, New York State Stocking a Stream with Young Trout This is the work of one of the executive departments of the state govern- ment. What name does this department receive in your state? or dishonest. The people hold the governor responsible for the acts of those whom he appoints ; if they are inefficient, the administration of the governor is held to be inefficient. The chief executive is the commander-in-chief of the militia of the state and as such may use it, either on his own initia- 284 COMMUNITY CIVICS tive, or at the call of a sheriff or other official, to put down dis- order within the borders of the state. In New York and also in Pennsylvania, the governor has at his command a State Constabulary. The duties and work of this force Courtesy of New Yort State Engineer Movable Dam of the Bridge Type and Lock Work of a state engineer. This dam is on the canaHzed Mohawk River. During the winter the gates and frames are raised to a horizontal position under the bridge floor, thus leaving the river channel open during the spring flood period. have been described in the chapter on protection (see Chapter V). His legislative duties consist of sending messages to the legislature, to which he suggests the passage of necessary legislation, and also of his use of the veto power. In some states in addition to the sending of the messages, the governor goes so far as to have bills drawn up and to urge their passage. In one state such a bill has precedence over all other legisla- tion. The veto power gives the governor power to forbid THE STATE EXECUTIVES 285 any legislation which he may think unreasonable. If the law-making body does not approve the veto, the law may be passed over the veto by a certain number of votes, which differs in different states. The governor has the power of reprieving, pardoning, or commuting the sentences of convicted criminals, if he thinks a wrong has been done. A pardon gives the criminal his freedom. To commute a sentence is to change it for a lighter one, for example, to change a sentence from the death penalty to life imprisonment. To reprieve is to put off the execution of the sentence. This is done when new evidence is found in favor of the convicted criminal, or when there is doubt in the governor's mind as to the sentence, and he wishes more time to consider the case. If the new evidence is found valueless, the original sentence is carried out. These are the judicial powers of the governor. In addition to these three kinds of duties, the governor has many social duties. He represents the state at the dedi- cation of public buildings and at the opening of fairs. He is present at important celebrations and gatherings of many kinds. '' Some excellent governors have died in oflBce be- cause of the fatigue of constant public speaking." The lieutenant-governor. — At the same election at which the governor is chosen, the voters of the state elect other executive officials. More than half the states have a lieu- tenant-governor who succeeds the chief executive in case of his death, or takes his place if he is ill or absent from the state. This official usually presides over the deliberations of the senate. Other state officials. — In all states a secretary of state is chosen, who has charge of the state documents and records, and a state treasurer, who receives the money paid for state 286 COMMUNITY CIVICS '^'Tr. ^r^.^^^^^^- .jpr '^'NiMf^ Courtesy of New York State Highway Commission Road under Construction by a State Executive The upper picture shows the original road. The lower picture shows' the laying of the foundation. THE STATE EXECUTIVES 287 Courtesy of New York State Highway Commission Road under Construction by a State Executive The upper picture shows the road nearly finished. The lower picture shows the finished road. What state executive builds roads? What share do county and town have in building a road ? 288 COMMUNITY CIVICS taxes from all sources. Sometimes there is a state auditor or comptroller, without whose warrant the treasurer cannot pay out money from the treasury ; the attorney-general acts as a lawyer for the state ; a superintendent of education has charge of the schools. Either elected by the people or appointed by the governor are certain commis- sioners : of banking, highways, factories, health, and the many other activities relating to the life and industries of the citizens of the state. These officials in their turn have the power of appoint- ing so many officials as their subordinates, that in one year in New York State there were nearly 20,000 state employees. With such a large number, it is no wonder that corruption creeps into our political life. Too often a '' state job " is a position which people seek to get a large salary for little work. A prominent writer on government says, " State officials should work as many days per week, as many days per year, as they would be required to do by a corporation." The House of Governors. — When Mr. Roosevelt was President, he called a meeting of the governors of the various states to meet in Washington to discuss topics of common welfare. This body of men has received the name of the '' House of Governors." It has no legal status, but at its meetings the governors talk over the best means of making the laws of the different states agree and the best means of carrying out the provisions of the national laws. They also form model statutes, which they may recommend to their different states. Ex-President Wilson has said, "The only means of preventing the constant increase of federal (national) power is in the development of such a conference as this." THE STATE EXECUTIVES 289 Questions for Investigation 1. Who is the governor of your state? What is the length of his term of office ? How does his salary compare with that of the governors of other states ? 2. Who are the elected officials of yom* state? What are their duties ? 3. Compare the duties of the elected officials of your state with similar officials of the county and of the community. 4. Make a list of some of the more important officials appointed by the governor of your state and give their chief duties. 5. Does your state give much power to your governor? Do you think he should have more or less than he has ? Why ? 6. Does your governor have the veto power ? How may it be over- come? How many bills did he veto at the last session of the legisla- ture? 7. Who succeeds the governor if he dies or is removed from office? Who acts as governor if the governor is out of the state ? 8. Has your state any commissions? How did their members obtain office ? What are their duties ? 9. Which office would you rather hold, that of the governor or that of a state judge ? Why ? 10. Give the names of the most famous governors of your state. Write a composition on the life of one of them. 11. What power does the governor have over local officials ? 12. Write a composition on one of the following subjects : "My Ideal Governor," *'The Greatest Governor of my State." 13. Make an outline similar to the one at the end of Chapter XVII, showing the chief officials of the state, both elective and appointive. 14. What sort of man should be elected as Ueutenant-governor ? Why? 15. What state official has charge of health, of protection, of charities, of land, of labor, of capital, etc., the activities you have studied earlier in the book ? CHAPTER XX THE PRESIDENT The office. — Since the adoption of the Constitution, the United States of America has had twenty-eight presidents. Of this number four may be called great men, Washington, Jackson, Lincoln, and Roosevelt. Others of our great states- men, Webster, Clay, Douglas, and Blaine, have been dis- appointed in their ambition to become the chief executive. One of the reasons why such great men as those mentioned have been unable to be elected to this high office was be- cause they were in public life so much that they had made too many political enemies to be the successful candidate of their party. However, with one or two exceptions, no one has ever been elected to the presidency who did not in a greater or less degree rise to the high duty demanded of him. Qualifications and salary. — The President of the United States must be thirty-five years old, and a natural-born citizen who has lived in this country for fourteen years. His term of office is four years, and he is sometimes re- elected. No President has been chosen more than twice, for it has virtually become a part of the unwritten constitu- tion that no one shall serve more than two terms. The salary received by Washington was $25,000 ; by the time Lincoln came to office it had been raised to S50,000 ; and Wilson received $75,000, plus $25,000 a year for traveling expenses. In addition to the salary, the Presi- 290 THE PRESIDENT 291 292 COMMUNITY CIVICS dent has the use of the executive mansion, more commonly known as the " White House," as a residence. Congress also makes liberal appropriations for the care of the White House, for automobiles for the use of the President, for fuel, greenhouses, lighting, and grounds, for the secretary to the President, clerks and stenographers, and for other necessary expenses. Including the President's salary, not far from $250,000 is spent by the national government for the support of the chief executive and the care of his home. This amount is very small, however, when compared to the amounts received by the King of England, or the President of France. Election of the President, if- The method by which the President is elected appears somewhat confusing. The men who made the Constitution did not have confidence in the ability of the people to elect the chief magistrate directly. On this account, the following method was devised, that it might place the elective power in the hands of those who were thought to be more able. (1) Each state chooses as many men as it has senators and representatives in Congress, who are called electors. The whole body of these men is known as the Electoral College. (2) At about the same time the Electoral College is chosen the political parties nominate their candidate for the presi- dency and vice-presidency. (3) On election day, the first Tuesday after the first Mon- day in November, the people vote for the electors of their various states. (4) The second Monday in January the electors elected by the people at the November election, meet at the capital of their state and cast their ballots for the candidates of their party. THE PRESIDENT 293 (5) The votes of the electors are then sent to the Senate of the United States. (6) On the second Wednesday of February the president of the Senate opens these votes and counts them in the presence of both houses of Congress and declares the one elected who received the majority of votes. As the electors vote only for those candidates who have been nominated by their party, and who have really been elected at the preceding election, the casting of the votes by the Electoral College has become a mere matter of form. The College is '' just about as useful as the two buttons on the back of a man's coat, put there originally to support a sword belt. We have discarded the sword, but we cling to our buttons." The Electoral College. — As a matter of fact, the Electoral College is not only useless, but worse than useless, as it has actually worked harm, defeating the will of the people as expressed at the November election. On several occasions the candidate who has received the largest popular vote has not been elected. For example, in 1884, in New York State, the Democratic party received only 1000 votes more than the Republican party. This, of course, gave the votes of the state (thirty-six in 1884) in the Electoral College to Mr. Cleveland, and were enough to elect him, though Mr. Harrison had a total of many more votes of the people in the remainder of the state than Mr. Cleveland. If no candidate is chosen by the College, the President is chosen by the House of Representatives, each state having one vote. The choice is made from the three candidates who have received the highest number of votes. Presidents Jefferson and John Quincy Adams were elected in this manner. The Senate chooses the Vice-President in the same 294 COMMUNITY CIVICS manner as the House chooses the President in case of no election, except that only the two highest are voted on. The inauguration. — The newly elected President takes office on March 4 of the year following the November election. The President who is retiring escorts his successor to the Capitol, where the President-elect takes the oath of office in front of a large multitude. The oath is usually sworn to before the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, and is as follows : ''I do solemnly swear that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." A Bible is used in administering the oath, and at its close the President kisses its open page. After the oath is taken, the inaugural address is given, in which the new executive outlines his policies. A great parade is usually held, and in the evening a magnificent reception is given at the White House. It has been suggested many times that the date of the inauguration be changed until later in the year. The weather is often so stormy and cold that many who have come to Washington to attend the exercises have contracted sickness from which they died. One President is said to have died of a cold caught at the inauguration. Comparison of the powers of President and governor. — The powers of the President may be compared to those of the governor of a state (see Chapter XIX). Both have been elected to office to see that the laws are obeyed, each is in command of the army and navy, the one of the nation and the other of the state. Both have the power to grant reprieves and pardons. Both have the power to send messages to their THE PRESIDENT 295 respective legislative bodies, to call extra sessions, and to veto bills. With all these similarities, we must remember that the gov- ernor is but one of the several executive officers elected by the people, while the Presi- dent, in company with the Vice-President, is the only executive officer elected by the people as a nation, and as we shall see, he has the power of appointing the other ex- ecutive officers of the national government. Because of this he is held responsible for the work- ing of the government as the governor cannot be under the present system. Then, too, the power of the President is much greater, in that he is the executive head of all the states, and, with the advice and consent of the Senate, of all our re- lations with foreign countries. His powers. — The President receives his power from the Constitution, the laws which Congress passes, treaties with foreign nations, and from the customs and usages which have grown up since the country was formed. Like the governor, the President divides his powers into three classes, executive, legislative, and judicial. His Courtesy of Dr. A. G. Robinson The Washington Monument The monument to President Washington, at Washington, D. C. 296 COMMUNITY CIVICS executive powers include command of the militia of the states and the national army and navy ; the execution of the laws passed by Congress ; the power to make treaties with foreign nations, with the advice and consent of the Senate, and to receive the representatives of other nations; the appoint- ment of officials ; and in general securing the obedience of the people to the laws of the nation. Presidents who have been forced to use their war powers have found them very far-reaching. *' Congress can make him almost a dictator." President Lincoln, during the Civil War, and President Wilson, during the war against Ger- many, exercised far greater powers than any other President, greater even than a European king or queen. This is necessary in time of great danger for one man with great power can obtain results better than a body of men. Presi- dent Wilson, through powers granted him by Congress, appointed boards responsible to him alone for the execution of the many duties war brings. If his appointees did not get results, they were replaced by men who could. In conquered territory the President may appoint the necessary officials for the establishment of order. In time of peace the chief executive may use the militia of the states or the regular army to secure the faithful execution of the laws. Presi- dent Wilson sent the militia of the states to the Mexican border to keep the peace there. It was first necessary, however, to swear it into the service of the nation. When there was interference with the United States mail during a strike in Chicago, President Cleveland, in spite of the protest of the governor, sent troops to Illinois to restore order. Wash- ington summoned the militia to suppress the Whiskey Rebel- lion. When the country is in danger, there is practically no check upon the power of the President except Congress. THE PRESIDENT 297 Appointment of officials. — The President appoints many officials to see that the business of the nation is carried on and that the laws are executed. This is one of his most important powers, and the one, also, that brings him the most annoyance. From the day of his inauguration he is surrounded by a crowd of office seekers. During the admin- istration of Andrew Jackson the " spoils system "was begun. " Turn the rascals out," and '' to the victors belong the spoils " said the newcomers to office. Unfortunately this custom has been followed by each administration. After the murder of President Garfield by a disappointed officfe seeker, office-getting was placed very largely in the hands of the Civil Service Commission. This is a body of men which conducts the examination of those who wish to hold office. The office goes to the one whom the examination shows to be best qualified. The President appoints his cabinet, our representatives in foreign countries, the judges of the Supreme Court, and more than six thousand other officials. Most of those appointed by the President must be confirmed by the Senate. On the other hand the President has the power of removing any official he has appointed, if he is not satisfactory. At the present day there are few removals unless the official is exceedingly inefficient. Legislative power of the President. — The legislative powers of the President are mostly advisory. In his annual message and in whatever special messages he may find it necessary to send to Congress, he suggests laws that should be passed, or informs the legislative body of the condition of the country, that it may pass the necessary laws. The President also exerts a very direct influence on legislation by his per- sonal conferences with the leaders of Congress and by his 298 COMMUNITY CIVICS appeals to the people. President Wilson succeeded in getting a number of important laws passed in this manner when there was much party wrangling in Congress. In his Autobiography President Roosevelt says, " In theory the Executive has nothing to do with legislation. In practice as things now are, the Executive is or ought to be peculiarly representative of the people as a whole. As often as not, the action of the Executive offers the only means by which the people can get the legislation they demand and ought to have. Therefore a good Executive under the present conditions of American political life must take a very active interest in getting the right kind of legis- lation, in addition to performing his executive duties with an eye single to the public welfare. More than half my work as Governor [of New York State] was in the direction of getting needed and important legislation. I accomplished this only by arousing the people and riveting their attention on what was done." When he became President, Mr. Roose- velt was successful in carrying out many of his most im- portant policies by this method. The veto power of the President. — The veto power of the President is not exercised often, but it is the most direct method of control of legislation in his hands. Very often the fear of the threat of the use of the veto power is sufficient to kill bad legislation. A bill vetoed by the President may be passed over his veto by a two-thirds vote of each House of Congress. During our entire history there have been about five hundred vetoes, three hundred of which were vetoes by President Cleveland of bad pension legislation. Judicial powers of the President. — As a judge, the Presi- dent may grant reprieves and pardons in a manner similar to the governor (see Chapter XIX), except that he may act only THE PRESIDENT 299 in cases coming under federal law. He cannot pardon in case of an impeachment. He also has the power of commuting sentences and of granting an amnesty, a form of pardon which forgives a body of people rather than one person. ' ' The American presidency is praiseworthy for its sim- plicity. . . . The president has no high-sounding title. He appoints thousands of officers . . . and yet never wears a uniform, even as the head of the army. Nevertheless the position is one of great dignity and honor. Few public men have been free from the pleasing thought that the presidency might come to them. . . . The president is not only the official head of the government, and its most dis- tinguished personage ; he is, on the whole, the most powerful factor in American government." Questions for Intestigation 1. Write a composition on the life of the present President. 2. Name a President who has really been elected by the vote of the people but not by the Electoral College. How could this be ? 3. Write a description of the inauguration ceremonies of the Presi- dent, and make a report to the class, 4. What is meant by "implied powers"? What "implied powers" has the President ? 5. What M^ere some of the extra powers given President Lincoln and President Wilson during a time of war ? 6. How many electors may a state have? How many has your state ? 7. What similar powers have the President and the governor of your state ? The President and the mayor of your city ? The President and the sheriff of your county ? 8. Do you think a President should consider the political party of those whom he appoints to office ? Why ? 9. Do you think the salary of the President is large enough ? Why ? 10. Does the President use his pardoning power more in peace or in war time? Can you tell the story oi any of the pardons of the President ? 300 * COMMXJNTTY CIVICS 11. Do you think the President should wear a uniform as com- mander of the army and the navy? Why? 12. " The President is the most powerful factor in American govern- ment." Show that this statement is true. 13. What President used his veto powers very largely ? Why? 14. Who was WilHam L. Marcy, who said "to the victors belong the spoils"? 15. Make a report to the class on the work of the Civil Service Commission. 16. May the salary of the President be increased during his term of office? Wliy? CHAPTER XXI THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS The activities of the federal government must of course cover a much larger field than our local or our state govern- ments. Just as we are members of a family and have certain relations with each other and with those outside the family circle, so, as a nation composed of many states, we have a sim- ilar relationship. Each state finds many problems of com- mon interest, problems to be solved for the common good of all. The makers of the Constitution placed the care of such common problems in the hands of the federal government. Just as the family is a part of many families joined to- gether to make up the local community, the town or the city, so is our nation one of the family of nations related through mutual interest. The work of the federal government in supervising these activities has been divided into ten different departments. At first there were four, but as the nation grew, its activities increased and others were added. Of first importance is the department that takes care of the relations between the states, between the states and the federal government, and between the federal government and foreign nations. We know it as the Department of State. Domestic activities of the Department of State. — If a governor wishes federal troops to suppress violence that has gone beyond the control of the state authorities, or if 301 302 COMMUNITY CIVICS he wishes a foreign government to ^ive up a criminal who has fled to its protection, he makes the request through the Department of State. Through this department amendments to the Constitution are certified, correspondence between the states and the federal government is carried on, the admission of new states is proclaimed, and the laws passed by Congress are published. Differing from all the other departments of the govern- ment, which have to give account of all money spent, this department has a fund of $100,000 at its disposal which need not be accounted for. This private fund is used in secret work of the department, so that what it learns may not be known to other nations. It also pays for the expense of entertaining foreign guests of the nation, as was the case when General Joft're and Mr. Balfour came with French and English missions to confer with our government concerning carrying on war against Germany. All this work may be called its domestic activities as opposed to its much wider field, our relations with foreign governments. Relations with foreign nations. — In order that the federal government may have the proper knowledge of conditions in other nations, and in order to maintain pleasant relations with them, the United States sends representatives to all foreign nations unless we are at war with them. On the other hand all foreign nations maintain representatives at Washington. Our representatives are appointed by the President, with the consent of the Senate, and are known as ambassadors, ministers, or consuls, according to the country to which they are sent or the duties they perform. In general it is the duty of an ambassador to promote the interest of the United States in every way. He protects American citizens abroad, and under the direction of the THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 303 home government, formulates treaties between the United States and the country to which he is sent. An ambassador's salary is $17,500, but since our representa- tive must be prominent socially and do much entertaining, very few poor men can afford to be ambassadors. It is said that our ambassador to England spends more than $250,000 a year. It would seem that as rich a country as the United States could afford to pay an adequate salary to its represent- atives abroad, so that men who have all the qualifications except wealth, might receive appointment to such important offices. We have usually maintained ambassadors in fourteen of the most important countries : Great Britain, France, Italy, Spain, Japan, Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Germany, Russia, Turkey, and Austria-Hungary, but owing to the conditions arising out of the war, no ambassadors are now sent to the four last named. Recently Peru and Belgium have been placed among the nations to which ambassadors are sent. When the nations with whom we were at war shall have formed stable governments, it is probable that ambassadors will again be sent to them. In case of war the affairs of the nation are placed in the hands of a neutral nation. Ministers are sent to the nations not mentioned above. Their duties are the same as those of ambassadors, but their salaries are less, and their rank is lower. Consuls are sent to all the important cities in the world. Probably the most inaccessible of the American consulates is that at Chung King, far back in the interior of China. Much of the distance is traversed in a small river boat, pulled by Chinese coolies, who are paid a cent a day each. Consuls number about seven hundred. They have been called 304 COMMUNITY CIVICS " America's lookouts on the watch-towers of international trade." Their duties are many and varied. Aside from their chief duty of promoting the commercial relations between the United States and the country where they are stationed, they have many other duties to perform. When ( uurU\i/ v/ Or. A. G. Robinson Pan American Building For what purpose is this building used ? the European War broke out, many Americans were stranded in Europe. The consuls loaned them money or obtained it for them, provided them with the necessary papers and transportation, and got them safely out of the warring countries. So many are the duties of a consul, that Mr. Hart, in his Actual Government, tells of a consul who declares he was called upon to tell where real American THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 305 chewing tobacco could be obtained, and to decide how the word '' bombshell '' should be pronounced. Consuls have some judicial powers. They investigate crimes occurring on American vessels on the high seas, and in some countries act as judges in cases involving Americans. Such a court may actually condemn Americans to death, if the minister of the country where the trial occurs, approves of the conviction. Passports. — The Department of State issues passports to those who wish to travel in foreign countries. A pass- port is a certificate to identify a citizen of the United States when abroad, and to give him the protection of the United States laws. It has a minute description of the person to whom it is issued and has his signature. It bears the im- print of the Great Seal of the United States. The depart- ment keeps a record of the marriages of all American citizens which take place before a consul, and also of all American children born abroad. The Secretary of State. — All of these activities are under the control of the chief executive officer of the department, the Secretary of State. He is considered the most important of the President's advisers. Like the other executive heads of the different departments he is appointed by the President and may be removed by him. Under his care are many bureaus, the heads of which are responsible to the Secretary, who in turn is responsible to the President. The duties of the Secretary of State of the national govern- ment and the state official who, in many states, bears the same title, must be carefully separated (see Chapter XIX). Some few are similar ; the state secretary has charge of the great seal of the state, the national secretary has charge of the Great Seal of the United States, which must be affixed to the 306 COMMUNITY CIVICS proclamations of the President and to other important docu- ments; both officials have charge of the archives, the one of the state, and the other of the nation ; both see to the publishing of the laws. Here the similarity of their duties comes to an abrupt end. Finances of the nation. — Next in importance to the foreign affairs of the nation come its financial affairs (see Chapter XXIII). Large sums of money must be raised to pay for the many activities in which the government is engaged. This is done in different ways. Some is raised from the duties paid on goods imported into the country, some comes from the taxes levied by Congress, some from the internal revenue taxes, some from the income tax. Large sums are raised by bond issues, that is, money loaned to the government for special reasons. The " Liberty " and other loans raised to help carry on the war against Germany are examples of such bonds. All who loan money to the govern- ment in this manner receive interest on the money so loaned. The rate paid is not high, for the credit of the government is so good that a high rate is not demanded. The great amount of money received from various sources is spent to put the country on a sound financial basis, to pay government officials, to improve the rivers and harbors, to pay for the army and the navy, to give compensation to the soldiers and sailors injured in the service of their country, to pay for education, for interest on the public debt, and for all the infinite number of things that exist because of the financial help of the government. The manufacture of money. — The federal government manufactures the paper money, postage and revenue stamps, and the specie which are in circulation. The making of our paper money and coins is a very interesting process. The THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 307 paper used is made of linen by a secret process. The recipe for making the ink for printing the bills is also a government secret. The plates from which the money is printed are mas- terpieces of engraving. It takes a year of work to make one of the original plates. About a million dollars' worth of paper is printed every day, and in more than fifteen years only one piece of paper was lost. By the time a bill is ready for cir- culation it has been counted more than fifty times. When a bill is worn out or very dirty it may be sent back to the department to be exchanged for a new one or to be laundered. The old bills which can no longer be put in cir- culation are destroyed. The making of coins is no less interesting than the manu- facture of bills. The metal brought to the treasury is made pure and then mixed with its proper amount of alloy to make it hard. It is then worked into thin bars and put through a giant '' cookie " cutter which cuts out thousands of little yellow, white, or bronze cookies, according to the coins being made. These little cookies are then placed in a huge machine with engraved dies above and below, and two hundred seventy-five pounds pressure applied. When the cookies come out they are money. The government mints, that is, the institutions where hard money is manufactured, are located at San Francisco, Denver, Carson City, New Orleans, and Philadelphia. The actual caretaker of the money of the United States is the treasurer. His name will be found on all bills issued by the government. He receives all monies and pays them out when authorized to do so. The Secretary of the Treasury. — The department which has charge of the finances of the national government is known as the Department of the Treasury. Its ch'ef execu- 308 COMMUNITY CIVICS tive is known as the Secretary of the Treasury. This de- partment, as all others, is divided into many bureaus, each of which is responsible to the Secretary of the Treasury. Curiously enough, the Secretary of the Treasury has other duties not connected closely with his financial duties. He has charge of the life-saving service, the public health, the marine hospital service, and the construction and support of public buildings. These are duties that have remained from the time when there were but few departments. In addition to these, he has other duties, rather remotely connected with his financial duties. His department maintains a fleet of armed vessels to stop smuggling and to enforce the quaran- tine laws. It attempts to prevent counterfeiting ; and it is interesting to know that it is so difficult to counterfeit our money, that out of three billion dollars, only twelve thousand dollars' worth of bad money was found. Our money is so closely safeguarded that moving picture theaters are for- bidden to show films which exhibit the counterfeiting of money. The army. — A very large proportion of the money which flows into the treasury is expended for the support of the army and the navy. Our army is made up of the regulars, the state militia, and those who in time of war may be drafted into the service. All who serve in the army must be physically fit ; the application of a man with any defect will be rejected. Even the lack of four molar teeth or an imperfection of the feet will cause the rejection of one who wishes to serve his country by fighting. During the war with Germany, vast cantonments were erected where drafted men were concentrated to learn modern soldiering. Camps were established for the training of civilians for officers. THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 309 There is a large number of men in the active fighting force; but the ratio of two to three must be maintained between them and the men who are behind the line, road-builders, cooks, horse-shoers, ambulance and motor repairers, those who disinfect and repair clothing, men to superintend the main- Courtesy of Lieut. John Cipperly War Photograph from an Airplane The illustration shows a part of the Hindenburg Line. The smoky spot in the center of the picture is caused by the explosion of a shell. Note the trenches. Note also the canal, supposed to be unbreakable until it was captured by the men of the 27th and 30th Divisions. tenance of a pure water supply and to perfect sanitary ar- rangements. Doctors and nurses and all who help repair the bodies broken by war must be enrolled. So it is seen that our armies consist of a mighty host, and that the responsibilities of this department of our government are very great. ^ All this army must be outfitted with uniforms and shoes. 310 COMMUNITY CIVICS Guns must be manufactured, rifles, cannon, shells, grenades, gas, all the horrible appliances that modern warfare has brought, must be made ready. Airplanes must be built, and those which become useless must be replaced constantly, for the modern army is blind without its airplane scouts. In the matter of food alone it is easy to see how great is the task of the War Department An army of 100,000 men The Advance United States Official PTioto Infantry behind a tank as it advances up a hill. (The soldiers are of the 107th Infantry, 27th Division.) require a daily ration of 50 tons of meat, 50 tons of bread, 50 tons of potatoes, and 40 tons of other foods. When we consider that the army consists of at least a million men, the great amount of work only to feed it is almost more than we can realize. Military schools. — There are two schools maintained by the government for the training of officers for the army, the Army War College, and the Military Academy at West THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 311 Point. The former is a school for officers, who, when they complete the courses of the college successfully, may be appointed to the General Staff. The United States Military Academy at West Point, founded in 1802, is the most famous military academy in the world. The authorized strength of the cadets is 1338. These come from the various Congressional districts, some from the states at large, four from the District of Columbia, Courtesy of ( Corps of Cadets at Dress Parade United States Military Academy, West Point, New York. two from Porto Rico, four from the Philippines, some from the United States at large, and some from the regular army and the national guard. The rigorous course of instruction requires four years and is largely mathematical and pro- fessional. The pay of a cadet is $1024.80 per year, an amount which covers the cadet's actual needs, and he is not permitted to receive money from outside sources. He is required to wear the complete uniform of the institution at all times during his cadetship, so that an exceptional de- 312 COMMUNITY CIVICS mocracy is effected in the Corps itself. Appointees to the Military Academy must be between seventeen and twenty- two years of age, free from any infirmity which may unfit them for military service, and able to pass the equivalent mental tests for entrance into a first-class college or univer- sity. In 1917 there were proportionately so few trained graduates in the United States, that it was necessary to Courtesy of Commandant, West Point United States Military Academy, West Point, New York give them temporarily advanced rank in order to meet the needs of the country for higher commands. Army medical officers have done much important work. Drs. Reed, Carrol, and Lazear wiped out the scourge of yellow fever by their experiments with mosquitoes. Dr. Gorgas made possible the digging of the Panama Canal by his wonderful cleaning up of the Canal Zone. Others have perfected the typhoid inoculation, so that this former scourge of armies is no longer to be feared. Dr. Ryan stopped the scourge of typhus in the Balkans during the war against Ger- THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 313 many. All these things have been done as a matter of duty and not for glory or pay. Officials of the War Department. — The President is the commander-in-chief of the army, but the Department of War, through its executive head, the Secretary of War, is in active charge of it. The actual work of supervising and organizing the army is in the hands of a trained body of officers known as the General Staff. It prepares plans for the national de- fense and for the necessary movement of troops. The Chief of Staff acts as military adviser to the President. The navy. — The making of a navy such as the United States needs at the present time is almost as great a task as the making of the army. Fighting ships, from the battle- ship to the submarine chaser, must be built and kept in proper condition for fighting. Men must be enlisted and food and clothing made ready for them. Ammunition must be supplied and frequent target practice must be conducted. Those soldiers of the sea, the marines, must be enlisted and trained. In order that the officers of the fleet may have absolutely correct time, for this is very necessary in the movement of the various ships, the Navy Department main- tains a naval observatory at Washington. A prominent writer on government says, " It keeps a great master clock in a hermetically sealed case in an isolated vault, the temperature of the vault never being allowed to vary more than the hundredth part of one degree. When the temperature in the vault varies the two-hundredth part of a degree from normal, a thermostat automatically turns off its little electric stove (an electric light bulb). It often switches the little bulb off and on as much as a dozen times a minute." Yet with all this wonderful accuracy, a careful check is kept upon its performance by means of 314 COMMUNITY CIVICS Courtesy of Navy Department U. S. S. Nevada, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba How is the mast used? What is the size of the guns? How far will they shoot ? What is the purpose of the wires ? THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 315 observations of the stars made at the observatory. The ob- server knows the exact time the fixed stars ought to be at certain points in the heavens. When this is calculated, he regulates the clock by his observations. The United States Naval Academy at Annapolis is main- tained to educate the officers for the navy as the Military Academy at West Point is maintained to educate officers for the army. The members of the Naval Academy are appointed by the Secretary of the Navy on the same plan as the cadets. Each is commissioned an ensign at graduation. Officials of the Navy Department. — The President is commander-in-chief of the navy as well as of the army. Like the Department of War, the Department of the Navy has an executive head, the Secretary of the Navy. The General Board of the navy corresponds to the General Staff of the army, and the Naval War College trains officers for the General Board as the Army College does for the General Staff. The legal affairs of the government. — It sometimes happens that the laws passed by Congress are broken. For example, we have learned in a previous chapter that certain combinations of capital (see Chapter XIV) are illegal, and that the government prosecutes those who disregard this law. Those who break the federal laws, — counterfeiters, smugglers, spies, and others, — are sent to a federal prison. A secret service is maintained by the government to search out those who break these laws. All this work is done by the Department of Justice, whose executive head is the Attorney-General. He seldom appears in court personally, but the cases are usually prepared by his assistants. By virtue of his office he is the director of the federal prisons, 316 COMMUNITY CIVICS supervises the freeing of prisoners on parole, and may recommend pardons. The Post-Office Department. — The work of the Post- master-General has already been studied in the chapter on Communication. Turn to Chapter VIII and review the very important work that he does. Department of the Interior. — After the United States had gained a large amount of territory at the end of the ( ourlt\y oj t/u < urn/ziission of Fine Arts The New National Museum (on the Mall), Washington, D. C. Mexican War, need arose for some government department to look after the questions which came from the acquisition of the new territory. For this reason the Department of the Interior was organized. At the same time other depart- ments of the government turned over to the new secretary functions which did not seem properly to belong to their departments. The result is that the Secretary of the Interior has under his charge a large number of the activities of the federal government, activities which are entirely different THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 317 in character, and none of which seem related to the others. Among his chief duties is the control of the general land oflBce, the pension office, the bureau of education, Indian affairs, the reclamation service, the patent office, the geologi- cal survey, and the bureau of mines. The general land office. Perhaps the most important bureau of the department is that of the general land office. This patrols, surveys, and sells all the public lands of the nation. At the present time the government will give for a small fee a 160-acre farm to any citizen who will improve and cultivate the land for five years. It is because of the very liberal land policy of the government that our coun- try has been so quickly settled. The pension bureau. During the years the United States has been a nation it has paid out nearly four billions of dollars in pensions, fourteen-fifteenths of which have been due to the Civil War. All this money has been spent by the pension bureau of the Department of the Interior. It is only recently (1911) that the last pensioner of the War of 1812 died. In that same year the daughter of a soldier of the American Revolution was still receiving a pension. The accepted pension claims are so numerous that the documents weigh more than a thousand tons. The education bureau gathers information concerning the educational systems of the different states and of foreign countries. If some successful experiment in education is tried, a full report of it may be found in the records of this department. The patent office gives to inventors the exclusive right to manufacture and sell their inventions for a period of seventeen years. Such a permit is known as a patent. Each one who applies must send a stated sum and a model 318 COMMUNITY CIVICS or drawing of his invention. A patent is granted if it does not infringe on any previous patent. Patents have been applied for on very curious things. A minister asked for a patent on an apparatus he had invented to find keyholes in the dark. Many devices to secure perpetual motion have been submitted. The patent office has granted patents on Courtesy of Forest Scrcicc, Washington, D. C. Separating Yellow Pine Seed from the Cones thousands of inventions of the greatest use to mankind. One has only to think of the cotton gin, the numerous electrical devices, the airplane, and the automobile to understand the value of inventive genius, and to know that it should be protected. The geologic survey makes maps of the surface of the country and its geologic formation. If the automobilist THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 319 wishes to have a correct map of any section, he may obtain from the government a map of the part of the country in which he wishes to travel. This bureau is conducting many experiments, also. It has brought about the manu- facture of " briquettes " from the coal dust and waste coal Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C. Work of Forest Rangers Forest rangers sowing yellow pine seed during a snow storm. Note the snow on the rangers' hats. at the mouth of the mines. The great use of steel and cement construction is due in a large measure to the experiments conducted by this bureau. The bureau of mines investigates the most economical methods of mining, and conducts experiments to prevent explosions from gas or dust in the mines. Several stations 320 COMMUNITY CIVICS have been established for the improvement of rescue work in the mines, and experiments are continually being made to find the best varieties of life-saving apparatus. The bureau of Indian affairs has charge of all the In- dian tribes except those of Alaska. It takes care of their money, land, schools, and general welfare. As soon as the Indian shows that he is able to perform his duties as a good Courtesy of United States Reclamation Service Ahrowrock Dam, Boise Project, Idaho citizen, he is " made to hoe his own row " in the same manner as any other American citizen. Perhaps the richest people in the world are the Osage Indians. There are over 2000 Indians in the tribe. They own nearly two million acres of fine farm land and have about $9,000,000 in ready money. At the end of twenty-five years, each individual will receive his share if he shows himself capable of taking care of it. THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 321 The reclamation service makes " two blades of grass grow where none grew before." Under the planning of govern- ment engmeers, wonderful dams and irrigation works have been built to hold and distribute water to dry sections of the country. Many millions of acres will be reclaimed in this manner. The land so reclaimed is sold in fortv-acre tracts for Courtesy of United States Reclamation Service Row OF York Imperial Apple Trees, Ashenfelter Orchard, NEAR Montrose These are grown on land irrigated by water from the Uncompahgre project in Colorado, (See text.) moderate sums, and a small tax is levied for the use of the water. As the money is paid, it is used by the government to build new works elsewhere. Some wonderful feats of engineering have accomplished the perfection of these irrigation systems. The Uncompahgre project is a typical example. In order to survey the route, men swung by ropes over precipices, clung to crevices in 322 COMMUNITY CIVICS the rocks, and floated down unexplored rivers on rubber rafts. As a result of the survey, a tunnel six miles long was cut underneath a mountain, and the waters of the Gunnison River were sent into the Uncompahgre Valley to irrigate this great arid section. Department of Agriculture. — Agriculture is the basis of the wealth of the nation. Whatever will help the farmer to produce larger crops, show him new or easier methods of work, develop new crops, or eliminate the pests or dis- eases which cause him to lose millions of dollars each year, will add to the wealth of the nation and therefore to its greatness. The government maintains in various parts of the country, experiment stations where all kinds of agricultural experiments are tried. Cattle are experimented on to make them give more milk or put on more flesh. Foodstuffs are tested for their purity and life-sustaining qualities. Grains and soils are tested to find out the methods of forcing in- creased yields. Studies are made of the many destroying insects to find a remedy for their destructiveness. Not only insects but animal pests are fought. The rat that carries the plague, the starling that destroys crops, chip- munks, mice, and prairie dogs that demolish the work of reforestation are destroyed. Forest rangers patrol the forests, watch for and fight fires, drive out timber thieves, and con- trol the cutting of lumber. Men are maintained in all parts of the world to search for new or valuable crops that may be introduced into the United States. The government has brought dates from Egypt and the desert of Sahara, durum wheat from Russia, millet from Siberia, wild peaches from China, and many other plants from every region of the world, all of which have added many millions of dollars to the wealth of the nation. THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 323 The government also saves millions of dollars' worth of property each year by maintaining the weather bureau. Each year its warnings concerning storms, frosts, and floods are sent broadcast. The government has placed this work under the care of the Secretary of Agriculture. Under his direction the experi- ments tried in his department are reported to Congress. 1 i, ^ ^■^^"^'^^^^^^^^ Tif^i^'ti1»ii[ ^ 1 ^Li> ^' # ^^^^^^^3 ^M ^"•^^.Tr * 41 MM ^^^^ ^'~M<^' 1 ^^S^^^B^p ^SH ''"^i^^l 1^ glJ M^',/ ' ■ J ^ H 1 Wi %^'/ 0"" R ^^^^^^^^m H l^^k^^HH Hb loK^' % ^^^l^^n H HHIhHb BHI Courtesy of Forest Service, Washington, D. C. A Good Catch The result of fish propagation by the Department of Commerce. These are published by the government and may be obtained free by any who desire them. Under his care also is the free distribution of seeds of flowers and vegetables. The Department of Commerce. — One of the important acts which the federal government performs is to make a numbering of the people every ten years. This is called " taking the census." As the number of representatives in Congress is based on the census, its importance is readily 324 COMMUNITY CIVICS seen. The 100,000,000 and more cards which represent the people in the United States would make a stack more than ten miles high. The first census cost only about S44,000, but the one taken in 1920 cost more than $20,000,000. This work is under the direction of the Secretary of Com- merce. In addition to this, he has other duties. He attends to the regulation of standards and measures and the propa- gation and distribution of fish. He maintains lighthouses, supervises navigable waters within the boundaries of the United States, and directs steamboat inspection, including the enforcement of the laws concerning wireless telegraphy. The Department of Labor. — You remember that the story of Pietro told of his coming to America from Italy, of his entrance into the United States, and of the naturalization of his father (see Chapter IX). Immigration and naturaliza- tion are the two most important bureaus of the Department of Labor. We have read also of the efforts made by the government to help the children by shortening working hours, bettering working conditions, etc. This is another bureau of the Department of Labor. In general this department through its executive head, the Secretary of Labor, has charge of all that pertains to the welfare of the wage earners of the country. It gathers labor statistics, tries to settle quarrels between employer and employee, and endeavors to advance the opportunities for profitable employment of those who work. The Cabinet. — The heads of these ten departments, the Secretary of State, the Secretary of the Treasury, the Secretary of War, the Attorney -General, the Postmaster- General, the Secretary of the Navy, the Secretary of the Interior, the Secretary of Agriculture, the Secretary of Com- merce, and the Secretary of Labor, make up the cabinet of THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 325 the President. If both the President and the Vice-President should die or be unable to fulfill the duties of the office of President, the first seven of the secretaries would succeed in the order named. This is the order in which the depart- ment heads were appointed. The choosing of the Cabinet. — When a new President takes office, he appoints the members of his Cabinet. Almost always an entirely new body of men is chosen, for since the President is responsible for the policy of the government, he wishes to have as his chief advisers men whom he knows and can trust. Two notable exceptions to this rule have been the retention of William Wirt as Attorney-General from 1817 to 1829, and Albert Gallatin as Secretary of the Treasury from 1801 to 1814. If a new party comes into power, a complete change of the Cabinet is considered especially desirable. The men chosen are confirmed by the Senate, though this is usually a matter of form. They serve at the pleasure of the President. As Secretary of State, the President often chooses the man who was most responsible for his election, or who was a candidate for the nomination of his party. Henry Clay, James G. Blaine, and William J. Bryan were chosen for this reason. Mr. Roosevelt did not always choose men of his own party as members of his Cabinet, but those whom he thought best fitted for the position, a policy to be highly com- mended. If at any time a member of the Cabinet does not agree with the President, he is free to withdraw, or he may be asked for his resignation. Work of the Cabinet. — Though the President is not bound to accept the advice of his Cabinet, he usually does so. The story is told of President Lincoln that on one occa- sion when he called for a vote from his Cabinet, all the 326 COMMUNITY CIVICS seven members were in favor of the proposition, Mr. Lincoln alone opposing it. After the vote was taken he an- nounced, '' The vote is seven ayes and one no. The noes have it," which meant that the President's vote counted for more than the seven ayes. Meetings of the Cabinet are or- dinarily held twice a week, and the President confers fre- quently with individual members, particularly during such a time of public peril as the war with Germany. At such a time there must be close agreement between the Presi- dent and his advisers, as the wheels of the government must run as smoothly as possible, and all the parts of the governmental machinery must work together. The salary of a Cabinet officer is $12,000. Government in other countries. — It is interesting to note the differences between the government of other countries and that of the United States. In England there is a Parlia- ment composed of two houses, the House of Lords and the House of Commons, the former hereditary and the latter elective. This body corresponds to our Congress. At the head of the government is a king or queen, who holds office by hereditary right. The Prime Minister, appointed by the king, and his Cabinet, are, however, the real rulers of the country. One of the English kings was compelled to accept ministers whom he did not like. One of them said to him, " Your ministers, Sire, are but the instruments of your government." The king smiled and answered, *' In this country the ministers are king." Since England is really ruled by the ministers, and they must represent the House of Commons, a new Prime Minister must be chosen whenever a new party gets control of the House of Commons. In such a case the king requests the leader of the party which has come into power to form a THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 327 Cabinet. This Cabinet is recognized by law no more than our Cabinet was until recent years. It consists of eleven or more members, the number varying with the preference of the Prime Minister and the need of the times. It is not necessary that the Cabinet be chosen from one party ; indeed, during the World War, England was ruled by a " Coalition " Cabinet, that is, a Cabinet made up of the best men in the country, regardless of party. If at any time the Prime Minister does not have the con- fidence of the majority of the members of the House of Commons, he may resign, or call for a new election. If the election gives his party a majority of members in the House of Commons, he remains in office. If his party does not win the election, the Minister and his Cabinet resign, a new Minister is chosen by the King, and a new Cabinet is selected. So it is clear that the Cabinet regards itself responsible to the nation at large. The duties of an English Cabinet differ very much from those of the American Cabinet. The English Cabinet has seats in the House of Commons, makes up the annual budget, shapes legislation, determines the policy of the nation, and administers its laws. In secret session, it draws up the more important measures to be brought before the House of Commons. But no Cabinet would think of proposing a law which, in its judgment, was not favored by the people. At present practically all countries of Europe have national Parliaments modeled after that of England. In France the Parliament elects the President of the Republic, who in turn appoints a Prime Minister and a Cabinet. These ministers direct the government as long as they retain the confidence of a majority in the House of Deputies. (This body corresponds to our House of Representatives, and to 328 COMMUNITY CIVICS the English House of Commons.) The President corresponds in power more nearly to the English King than to the Presi- dent of the United States. Even more than in England the government is centered in the Cabinet. Perhaps the most interesting of all the governments of Europe is that of Switzerland. Here is found the best example of a truly self-governing country. Switzerland is a republic consisting of twenty-two cantons. The govern- ment of the cantons, modeled after that of the United States, is composed of two houses, one the National Council, elected by popular vote, the other the Council of States with two delegates from each canton. These two houses in joint session choose a committee of seven to act as an executive. The President is merely chairman of this committee. Dur- ing his term of one year he has no more authority than his fellow members. In some parts of the country the members of the cantons meet together as the people in New England meet in their town meetings, to make their laws, elect officers, and levy taxes. The vote is taken by a show of uplifted hands. In others of the cantons the initiative and the referendum are used, not only for local laws, but also for federal laws and for Constitutional amendments. Questions for Investigation 1. What power was given the Cabinet members under the govern- ment of the Confederate States? Do you consider this a wise plan? Why? 2. Give the names of the members of the President's Cabinet. What do you notice concerning the states from which they come? What conckision do you draw from this? 3. What are some of the differences between the Enghsh and the American Cabinet? 4. Why is a President justified in disregarding the advice of his Cabinet as President Lincoln did ? THE PRESIDENT'S ADVISERS 329 5. Make a comparison of the duties of the Secretary of State of the United States and those of the Secretary of State of your state, noting (a) similarities, (b) differences. 6. Mention some of om* most noted Secretaries of State. For what are they noted? Mention some of oiu' noted ambassadors to foreign countries. 7. To which of the departments of government would you apply for a passport ? To enter West Point ? To obtain free seeds ? To obtain information as to educational matters? To become a postman? To obtain government land ? 8. Make a list of matters in which the Department of Agriculture is of great help to the farmer. Make a report to the class. 9. Why is it necessary for the government to maintain fish hatch- eries ? What is done in these hatcheries ? Where are they located ? 10. How could our foreign service be made more effective ? 11. Write a composition on the subject: "The services of the Weather Biu-eau." 12. Make an outline of the President's Cabinet as follows : Office Name of Official Duties CHAPTER XXII POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS The officials chosen to direct our local community, as well as those who govern the state and the nation, are usually chosen from one or another of our political parties. A politi- cal party is a group of people who have the same opinion as to the carrying on of the affairs of the government and the policies it should follow. It may be a group from every state in the Union, for example the Republican or the Demo- cratic parties, or it may be a group joined together over some local issue, or whose ideas have not spread over the entire country. Early parties. — When the Constitution was formed, no provision was made for a government by party, yet it works as well as if it had been made with that purpose in view. Our government has always been a government of parties. In- deed, parties were formed almost before the constitutional convention had adjourned. The thirteen states were split over the question of adopting the Constitution as pre- sented to the people. The two parties which were formed were the Federalist and the Anti-Federalist parties. After the Constitution was adopted, there was no question upon which to divide, until another sharp division arose over the powers of the federal government and the interpretation of the Constitution. The parties formed at this time were the Federalist and the Democratic-Republican, the latter to be 330 POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 331 known in later years as the Democratic party. These two divisions of the people lasted until the close of the war of 1812, and when that period was ended, only the Democratic party was left. For some years the Democratic party remained alone, and the period has sometimes received the name of " The Era of POliT ICAL OYSTER HOUSE, Cdeihnij 0.1 Saoc) cjaK Itfiwi, Stewed Roasted Cartoon Photographed by W. A. Gunn A Political Cartoon This shows Mr. Lincoln "eating up" his two political opponents, Mr. Breckenridge and Mr. Douglas. Good Feeling." This, however, is not a true title, as it was really a period of very bitter political hatreds. Rivalry in the party ran high, a rivalry which finally crystallized about two of the party leaders, Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson. Jackson's followers kept the old name of Demo- crats, and those of Clay took the name of Whigs. From 1840 to 1860 slavery was the most prominent 332 COMMUNITY CIVICS question before the country and a division was not long in coming to the two great parties. They divided into those in favor of the extension of slavery and those opposed to it. The Whig party went out of existence, "choked to death by trying to swallow the Fugitive Slave Law," it was said. All those who were opposed to slavery or its ex- tension joined together into the Republican party, and in the election of 1860, elected Abraham Lincoln as President. The Democratic party was divided on the slavery question, a division which weakened the party so greatly that not until 1884 was another Democratic President elected. Present party differences. — At the present time the dif- ferences between the two chief parties are not very great. This is especially true in time of danger to the country. Party lines are forgotten, and all join in facing the common foe. There may be differences of opinion as to what is best to be done, and just what is the best method of going about the business in hand. A '' little group of willful men " may obstruct the working of the government for a time, but not for long, for with the majority of party men it is the country first and party afterward. The greatest difference between the two parties is that one is in power and the other is out of power. The '' outs " are trying to get in and the '' ins " are trying to stay in. It is coming to be more and more an acknowledged fact that the people are looking, not so much at the party principles, as at the men to be voted for. This is particularly true of state and local governments. The man who is best fitted to perform the duties of the office for which he is nominated, has the best chance of being elected. Elections. — How the two great parties go about nomi- nating candidates for the presidency has been told in the POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 333 chapter on the President. Let us examine this method a little more closely and find out how it is that the people cast their ballots for one or the other party candidates. Some- time before the term of office of the different elective office- holders expires, the parties become active in placing in nomination the men to succeed them. The nomination is accomplished in different ways in different states. Nominating conventions. — In some states it is possible for any citizen to announce himself as a candidate for office, and his name is then printed on the ballot. In others the voters of the party meet and choose their candidates for local offices, and their delegates to the nominating conven- tions of the party. The conventions, for example the nomi- nating conventions held to place the candidates for the presi- dency before the country, are composed of men elected by the parties from all parts of the country. The delegates from each party meet at some chosen place, and brilliant speakers, chosen by the party leaders, place in nomination the men who wish to run for office. The convention votes upon the names thus presented, and the ones elected by the convention are the chosen candidates of the party. Other methods. — In many states the nominating con- vention has been done away with. In some of the states the voters of the party meet on " primary " day and cast their ballots for their party candidates in a manner similar to that in which they vote at a general election. Those who receive a plurality of the votes cast, receive the nomination. In other states the method is by petition. A candidate may be nominated for office by filing with the proper officials a petition signed by a certain number of voters. Of all these methods of placing a candidate in nomination, the two latter show the tendencv of the people to take the election of their 334 COMMUNITY CIVICS officials into their own hands, and out of the hands of the professional politicians who for so many years dictated the nominations. Qualifications for a voter. — Before a person can vote on election day for any of the candidates placed in nomination, Photo of the Cartoon by W. A . Gunn Political Cartoon This cartoon was published at the time of the election of Mr. Lincoln as President. It emphasizes the height of the two men and their personal appearance. Mr. Lincoln carries over his shoulder a maul to split rails. The negro tells Mr. Douglas that he must make some decision on the slavery question. he must have certain qualifications. The Constitution of the United States makes a general statement that the right of citizens to vote shall not be abridged on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. As long as this condition is obeyed, the state is free to prescribe what other provisions it thinks best. In all states a person must be POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 335 twenty-one years old in order to vote, and in all except Arkansas, registration is a necessary qualification. By an amendment to the Constitution, both men and women have the privilege of voting. In all states certain classes of peo- ple are forbidden to vote — lunatics, paupers, and con- victed criminals. Registration. — By registration is meant that all who wish to vote must appear at a certain time designated by law at certain places selected by the local government ; there they must record their name, age, address, and other facts which pertain to their qualifications as voters. This is done that fraudulent voting may be stopped. Voting. — Let us go to the polls in New York State and watch the casting of the ballots. When election day comes places are provided by the local officials where the ballots may be cast. This room where the balloting is done is divided into several little rooms, or " booths " as they are called, so that the voting may be in secret. Necessary officials are at hand, taken in equal numbers from the lead- ing political parties, to see that the purity of the ballot is securely guarded. A voter enters the room, the registration book is inspected, and he signs his name. This is compared with the signature formerly written on registration day, and then he is given a ballot. He steps to the booth and closes the door. With the pencil which he finds there he makes a mark (X) on his ballot before the names of the persons for whom he wishes to vote. He folds the ballot and coming from the booth gives it to the proper official. This official tears from the ballot a '' stub " which is attached and num- bered to correspond with the number on the ballot. The stub is dropped into the stub box, and the ballot is placed in the ballot box. Since the numbers of the stubs and the 336 COMMUNITY CIVICS ballots must agree at the final counting, it renders almost impossible the '' stuffing " of the ballot box. Sometimes a voting machine is used instead of printed ballots. Though their initial expense is great, they give great secrecy to the ballot, and make it pos- sible to get an accurate count of the votes very quickly. Some years ago all forms of corruption were possible at election time. Bribery was common, as the party workers could give a man money for his vote, and take him to the polls and watch him cast his ballot. To- day in most states party workers are not allowed within a certain distance of the polls, a distance which is plainly marked. No one but the proper officials and the police, if necessary, are allowed in the room where the votes are cast, and the ballot is a secret one (except in Georgia and South Carolina) patterned after one used in Australia. The short ballot. — Evils have grown up even with this system of voting. Candidates have become so numerous that it is impossible for the voter really to know for whom he Courtesy oj Empire Voting Machijie Company Voter Entering the Voting Booth When he pulls the handle the curtain closes and unlocks the machine. After voting, he reverses the handle which locks the machine, registers the vote, and opens the curtain. POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 337 is voting. In a recent election the voter was given a ballot eight feet long, upon which were more than two hundred names. A movement, known as the Short Ballot movement, is now under way in different parts of the country to shorten these ballots by electing fewer officials and giving those who are elected greater appointing power. This is really nothing ■1 ___ L— NO — H ■ VFJ. NO wmm 1 Q»' ^o > FS NO ^H PAkUFS !' 1 1 u n Sj i -w j^|i t.oN>»r \r( F mm m ■ ■ ■ ™ SMITH 8II.H f \f >;0'' ^^H ■^ 1 IMl RMI 1 v\» mil tox f^ilFi 1_ ^^B ■'^fffl'— S.n >o MIMIKK ■1 (!»fiM\l billtii mtt Hinif^ n\fUAM 1 iH ■1 ■ hXlUiHD U C > C r- 1 rt^-iNF wm m ■ VHHI MllLl^l \N jriNES ^1 ^4.^ .n^T«, 1 1 COI If. UN KOis W\l*L s Courtesy of Empire Voting Machine Company Voting a Split Ticket on a Voting Machine new, as it is the way in which we elect our national officers. We choose a President and give him great powers of appoint- ment and removal, and hold him responsible for the success or failure of his administration. It is thought that such a method of voting will enable the voter to cast his ballot more intelligently, and hold those in office to more strict account. 338 COMMUNITY CIVICS Duties of a voter. — Voting is a privilege, and when con- ferred becomes a duty. The duties of a voter have been summed up as follows : '' He should (1) vote whenever it is his privilege ; (2) try to understand the questions upon which he votes ; (3) learn something about the character and qualifications of the persons for whom he votes ; (4) vote only for honest candidates ; (5) support only honest measures ; (6) give no bribe, indirect or direct, nor receive one ; (7) place country above party ; (8) recognize the result of the election as the will of the people, and therefore as law ; (9) continue to vote for a righteous although a defeated cause as long as there is a reasonable hope of victory." Majority rule. — If the captain of the ball team to which you belong is to be elected or if a presiding officer of 'the society of which you are a member is to be chosen, when the election is held and the votes are counted, the one who re- ceives the most votes is the one elected. In other words, you are governed by a majority. It may be that the one for whom you voted was not the one elected, yet if you are a good member of the team or a loyal member of the society, you abide by the results of the election. In a simi- lar manner you will vote for the officials to preside over your governmental affairs, for ours is a government by the majority. Mr. Bryce says, " As self-government is based on the idea that each man is more likely to be right than to be wrong, and that one man's opinion must be treated as equally good with another's, there is a presumption that when twenty POLITICAL PARTIES AND ELECTIONS 339 thousand vote one way and twenty-one thousand another, the view of the greater number is the better view." Seldom in our history has the majority used its power tyrannically. Knowing that they are responsible to all the people, those who have been elected take care to perform their duties properly. They know that if they do not, the majority by which they were elected will become the minority, and they will be forced from office. The Constitution of the United States and the state con- stitutions have so limited the powers of our law-making bodies that abuse of power by the majority has been rendered difficult. Freedom of speech and freedom of religion are granted, the power of taxation is limited, and amendments may be made to the fundamental laws of the land. The minority always has at hand the weapon of public opinion, which often exerts so great an influence that a small minority becomes a large majority. Questions for Investigation 1. Name the political parties prominent at the last election. What were some of the questions at issue at that time? 2. Does your community vote by use of the printed ballot or by the voting machine ? Which do you consider the better way? Why? 3. By what method are candidates nominated in your state? 4. What are the necessary qualifications of a voter in your state ? How do these qualifications differ from those of other states ? 5. Locate the polling place nearest your home. 6. What are the laws of your state concerning bribery ? Is the bribe taker any better citizen than the bribe giver ? 7. As a good citizen, what can you do to stop bribery ? 8. When are elections held in your local community ? In the state ? Are they at a different time from the general election ? Whj^ ? 9. Ask your teacher to hold an election in your classroom, conducted in a manner similar to your local elections. 340 * COMMUNITY CIVICS 10. What objections are there to contributions from corporations to an election fund ? 11. What are some of the proper party expenses at election time? 12. Who is the committeeman of each party of your ward or town ? What are his duties ? Who are the leaders of the parties in your com- munity ? CHAPTER XXIII HOW GOVERNMENT PAYS ITS EXPENSES It is clear from what has been said previously that gov- ernment needs a great deal of money to pay the expenses of its various activities. The laws of the state and of the nation specify that there must be a certain uniformity in the assessment of taxes, and that nobody may be exempt from the payment of taxes. (Charitable and religious institutions are exempt.) This is no more than fair, for people should pay for the help they receive from their gov- ernment. Thus it is that every one pays taxes, in one way or another, either directly or indirectly. The person who rents a house pays a tax indirectly, for part of the rent he pays to the owner must be paid for taxes. The law also provides that the debts of a community may not exceed a certain proportion of its taxable property, and that the taxes levied on imports shall be the same in all parts of the country. In general a tax should be just, that is, so levied that it is within the ability of the citizens to pay it, and so apportioned that those most able to pay bear their proportionate share. Each form of government, local, state, or national, has its own method of obtaining the money for its expenses. Let us see how the local community gets its money. Local taxation. — You have read in a previous chapter that one of the officials of the town or county is known as an 341 342 COMMUNITY CIVICS assessor or appraiser (see Chapter XVI). Each community usually has three such officials. Their business is to go about the community and place a value on the different pieces of property. This is to determine the share that each prop- erty owner should pay toward the support of the local community, the county, and the state. When the amount of the tax to be raised is known, this is divided by the total amount of taxable property as found by the assessors, in order to find the rate for the amount of tax for each person. The assessed value of each piece of property, multiplied by the rate, gives the amount of tax for each property holder. The money so raised is then divided into its proper proportion for the local community, the county, and the state. iVfter the amount of assessment for each person is made up, a day is set apart, sometimes known as '' grievance " day, at which time a property owner may appear before the board of assessors and protest his assessment if he considers it unfair. If he can prove to the satisfaction of the board that it is too much, the assessment is usually lowered. Each community has an official, either elected by the people of the community, or appointed by some important board or official, to collect the taxes, and turn them over to the proper official. The money is then spent according to the needs of the community. In addition to taxes, the most important source of income of a community, money is also obtained from fines imposed upon those who break the law ; for example, fines are im- posed upon those who speed their automobiles, or break the local traffic regulations. Fines are sometimes imposed upon those who are arrested and brought before the local judges for disorderly conduct. Such fines are turned into the treas- HOW GOVERNMENT PAYS ITS EXPENSES 343 ury of the community. Communities also receive certain monies from the state, for example, money for educational purposes. Small amounts are received for licenses, for the sale of franchises, and in some states a poll tax is paid. The latter is a tax laid upon the head (poll) of each voter, and in a few commonwealths, no one may vote until his poll tax is paid. Three fourths of the revenue for all state and local taxes, however, comes from the tax laid on property, a tax used in all but a few states. Local communities are usually heavily in debt. Money is required to improve the streets, to erect public buildings, to construct sewers, and to support many other activities of the community. Too often the money of the community is wasted by incompetent or dishonest officials. The only way to remedy this is to elect officials who are honest and capable and who will give the same thought and care to community business that they would give to their own. State finance. — The Constitution of the United States forbids the states to tax goods entering or leaving their boundaries, they may not levy a tax on the capacity of a ship to carry goods, nor may they tax the buildings or the property or any agency of the national government. Aside from these prohibitions, and others contained in the dif- ferent state constitutions, the state is at liberty to tax any- thing it chooses. This gives a commonwealth large powers and makes it easier for a state to raise the money to pay its debts than it is for a local community. As in a local community the authority to spend money comes from its law-making body, so the power of the state to spend comes from the legislature. The authority of the law-making body comes from the people themselves. The largest source of income for most of the states is the 344 COMMUNITY CIVICS property tax levied by the local community, which is divided between state, county, and local community. Probably three fourths of the revenue comes from this source. Some property is free from tax, churches and schools for example, and in some states household furniture is free, up to a certain value. Another source of income to the state is the tax on auto- mobiles. A license number on an automobile means that a tax has been paid to the state and permission granted to the owner of the car to operate it. Many states tax the transfer of property from one person to another by will, an inheritance tax. Others tax incomes above a certain amount, others the transfer of stocks and bonds from one person to another. It is expected that the income tax, now permitted by the federal Constitution, will soon become one of the largest sources of revenue. Some levy a tax on corporations, and some on mortgages. With the money that it raises by taxation the state carries on its many activities. It takes care of its dependent and needy, builds its roads, erects its public buildings, pays its officials, protects the lives and health of its citizens, and in some states provides insurance for those who work or are injured. The same evils are apparent in the spending of state money that are found in the spending of the funds of the community. The remedy is the same, honest and capable officials. The voting citizen has this matter in his own hands. National taxation. — When the national government taxes us it does it in such a manner that we do not realize that we are paying money for the support of the government. We pay direct taxes to the community and the state. To the national government the average citizen pays indirect taxes. These taxes are levied in several different ways. One of the HOW GOVERNMENT PAYS ITS EXPENSES 345 most important sources of the federal government's income is from the tax levied on goods entering the country. This tax we know as a tariff. If you remember your lessons in history, you will remember that such a tax was levied at the first meeting of Congress in 1789. The question of whether a large or a small tariff should be levied is one which has divided our country into two parties. The Republican party has usually stood for a high tariff, which it holds the country needs for its revenues and to protect its industries. The Democrats have stood for a lower tariff, one which should bring in revenue, and not be a protective tariff. Several presidential elections have been fought over this question. The advantage of such a tax as the tariff, or any of the federal taxes, is that they are not felt by the one who finally pays the tax. The one who brings the goods into the country adds the amount of the tax to the cost of the goods and the one who finally purchases them is the one who really pays the tax. Effort to evade the tariff is called smuggling. Smuggling is punishable by a heavy fine, or by imprisonment, or by both. The federal government has a large force of officials at each port of entry on the borders of the country to see that goods are not brought into the country without the payment of duty. Another great source of revenue for payment of govern- ment expenses is the excise tax. This is a tax levied on the consumption, sale, or manufacture of goods within the country. It is sometimes called an internal revenue tax. It has usually been levied on the manufacture of liquors, to- bacco, and oleomargarine. It is collected by means of stamps which must be purchased by the manufacturers and placed 346 COMMUNITY CIVICS on each package of goods to be taxed. The stamp on a package of cigarettes or of smoking tobacco is a familiar example. With the passage of the amendment to the Con- stitution prohibiting the manufacture or sale of liquor, one of the greatest sources of revenue has been taken away, and some other method of raising this amount must be found by the government. The third source of revenue of the national government is the income tax. This tax was made possible by the pas- sage of the sixteenth amendment to the Constitution. All persons who have an income over a certain amount must pay a tax to the government. A large amount of wealth throughout the country is in the form of stocks and bonds, and so is easily concealed and not reached by a general state property tax. This is not fair, as each person should con- tribute to the support of the government according to his ability. The income tax overcomes this difficulty, and the rich whose money is invested in the kinds of property that are easily concealed, now pay their just share in support of the government. Congress has also passed a law that levies a tax on corporations. The national government receives an income from the receipts of the post office, and also from the sale of public lands. The receipts from the post office are very large, but no one has yet made that department of our government self-supporting. To help meet the expenses of the war with Germany, a '' luxury " tax was levied, that is, taxes were placed on clothing and other articles above a certain value. This proved, however, a very unsatisfactory method of taxation. Bonds. — In order to meet unexpected or extraordinary expenses, local, state, and national governments are per- HOW GOVERNMENT PAYS ITS EXPENSES 347 mitted to borrow money by issuing bonds. A bond is some- thing like a promissory note given by a private individual. The bond states the amount owed by the government, the amount of interest it pays, and the date of payment. Since the one who buys the bond is sure of his investment, these securities are eagerly sought by those who wish to invest their money safely, and yet receive a fair return. The Liberty bonds issued by the government during the war against Germany are good examples of this source of income. The state and local bonds usually bear a higher rate of interest than those of the national government. One of our leading political economists says : " The ever-growing demands that the Federal Govern- ment depart from its former narrow field [of taxation] are now so insistent and strong, that the states must apparently soon give up their exclusive control over the taxation of real estate and personalty [personal property]. The American people are no longer interested solely in finding the easiest means of securing the most revenue for the government ; they are now devoting more attention to those taxes which will shift the weight of government expense to the wealth of the country. The one thought which runs through the inherit- ance tax, the income tax, and all the newer forms of levy, is that the chief burden should be lifted from the poorer classes and made to rest upon those of more wealth." Questions for I]srvESTiGATioN 1. What were the expenses of the government during the war? 2. In addition to the ways mentioned in the text, give some ways in which your parents pay an indirect tax. 3. How is the valuation of property made in your community? How many assessors are there ? How are they chosen ? What is their term of office ? 348 COMMUNITY CIVICS 4. The total valuation of the property of a community is $50,000,000. The expenses of the community are $500,000. What tax does a property owner of the community pay whose property is assessed for $5000? for $28,000? 5. What is a board of equalization ? Why is such a board necessary ? 6. When are taxes assessed in your community? When are they paid? To what official? What amount goes to the county? What amount to the state ? 7. What income has your community aside from taxes? How much money was received from the state last year for the school fund? 8. Has your community issued any bonds recently ? If so, for how much and for what purpose? 9. What prohibitions are there in your state constitution in regard to local finance ? State finance ? 10. From what sources does your state receive the most of its in- come ? Has your state a debt ? 11. Is it a good or a bad thing for a state to have a debt? Why? 12. From what state official is an automobile license obtained? What does such a license cost? 13. Name some of the activities of your state for which it spends money. 14. What is the name of the present tariff law ? Name other famous tariffs. Is the present tariff a high tariff or a low one ? 15. At what presidential elections has the tariff been the most im- portant issue ? Which party won ? 16. Should the one who finally consumes the goods pay the tariff ? 17. What incomes are exempt from the federal income tax? 18. Read what is printed on the face of your Liberty or Victory bond. Make a report to the class. 19. Are there any instances of double taxation in your state, that is, a tax levied on the same thing by the state and the local authorities, or the state and national governments ? 20. What disadvantage may arise from the fact that a federal tax is an indirect tax ? CHAPTER XXIV THE MAKING OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION The United States is a democracy. It is a government by the people for the people. All the officials who carry on the activities about which you have studied receive their power from the people. All our officials are public servants, al- though many of them seem to forget that. In order that these servants of ours may know their duties and just what powers they have, ''we the people of the United States" have drawn up a set of rules for their guidance. These rules we call the Constitution of the United States. Each state, too, has a constitution for the direction of its citizens and its state and local officials. Such a state constitution may not, however, conflict in any manner with that of the United States. This body of rules, or Constitution, was referred to by a great English statesman as the " most wonderful docu- ment ever struck off by the brain of man at one time." It is true that the document was actually written at one time, but it is not true that the Constitution was made at one time. It is made up of many ideas taken from many sources. These ideas had worked out successfully and for this reason were incorporated in the body of the document. The Constitution is the result of growth just the same as the Union is a result of growth. 349 350 COMMUNITY CIVICS Early unions. — In our very early history the people had some idea of union. Several colonies joined together to form the New England Confederation in order to fight the French and Indians successfully. All our early unions were formed from some military necessity or to protest against wrong. In 1754 a congress was held at Albany to agree upon measures against the Indians. Here Benjamin Frank- lin proposed his plan of union of the colonies, but it came to naught. The Stamp Act Congress met in 1765 to protest against the workings of the Stamp Act, but this assembly did not last. It may be well to notice, however, that in the first instance, four colonies united, in the next, seven, and in 1765, nine. When the first Continental Congress met in 1774, twelve colonies were represented. When, in the next year the second Continental Congress met, which was to last until 1781, all the thirteen colonies agreed to fight against the common wrongs and danger. In spite of the many things done by this Congress to carry on a form of govern- ment during the Revolution, one of the prominent men of the time called it '' a stable of stupid cattle that stumbled at every step." It did, however, draw up the Articles of Confedera- tion, but they were not accepted by the states until 1781. The Critical Period. — The congress elected under the Articles did not have much power. '' It could declare every- thing but could do nothing," because it was based upon the sovereignty of the states and not of the people. Washington said, ''We are one state to-day, and thirteen to-morrow." Foreign states would not recognize us. We did not keep our treaties nor pay our debts. The states quarrelled with one another, and each tried to get. the advantage over its neighbor states. Riots broke out in many states, and a company of drunken soldiers chased the congress from its MAKING OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 351 meeting place. It is no wonder that we speak of this time in our history as the '' Critical Period." Preliminaries of the Constitution. — So critical did the times finally become, that at a meeting held in Annapolis to discuss methods of enabling Congress to regulate com- merce, it was suggested that a meeting be held in Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. Here, on May 25, 1787, delegates came from all the states except Rhode Island. It, too, might have been represented, had not her greatest citizen. General Nathaniel Greene, a hero of the Revolutionary War, died of a sunstroke, a short time before the convention met. The convention went far beyond its instructions, for instead of revising the Articles, it drew up an entirely new document. When the Constitution was before the states for ratifica- tion, James Wilson, one of the delegates from Pennsylvania, told the following story : '' The business, we are told, which was entrusted to the late convention, was merely to amend the Articles. This has often brought to my mind a story told of Mr. Pope, [a great English poet,] who it is well known was not a little deformed. It was customary for him to use the phrase ' God mend me ' when any little accident happened. One evening a link [torch] boy was lighting him along, and coming to a gutter, the boy jumped nimbly over it. Mr, Pope called him to turn, adding, ' God mend me.' The boy turning to light him, looked at him and repeated ' God mend me ! He would sooner make a half a dozen new ones.' This would apply to the confederation, for it would be easier to make another than to amend this." The Constitutional convention. — The convention met behind closed doors. Washington was chosen to preside over its deliberations. Franklin, now eighty-one years old, 352 COMMUNITY CIVICS Hamilton, and Madison were among the most influential delegates. To Madison, perhaps, more than to any one else, we owe the Constitution. '' There were quarrels and much bitter wrangling and some of the delegates went home in disgust. There was a great danger that the convention would break up, when a compromise was reached." '' Yes," said Franklin, '' when a joiner wishes to fit two boards he sometimes pares off a little from both." Three times this " paring " took place, and compromises were reached on the questions of representation, its basis, and commerce. After the settlement of the compromises the convention decided the questions of the executive and the judiciary. The relations of the states to the national government were de- fined and the powers of Congress were decided upon. The great difference between the new document and the Articles of Confederation was that the American people and not the American states were represented in the government. It is to this difference we owe the fact that the Constitution has existed for so many years with so few changes. Some one at this time compared the United States govern- ment to an old man who had thirteen sons. " They had built a big house and all lived together for several years, when the sons grew weary of the paternal roof and each went out and built a hut for himself. Then trouble began : one had his corn stolen, another lost his sheep by wolves, an- other, his crop by flood, and so forth. At length twelve of them begged their father to take them back, and he gladly did so. But the thirteenth still held aloof and at last went and hanged himself. That thirteenth was Rhode Island." The signing of the Constitution was a very impressive occasion. When it was over it is said the members of the convention seemed awe-struck. Washington sat with head MAKING OF THE FEDERAL CONSTITUTION 353 bowed in solemn thought. As the meeting was breaking up, FrankUn rose in his place, and pointing to the back of the President's chair, on which was pictured a half sun with blazing golden rays, said, '' As I have been sitting here all these weeks I have often wondered whether yonder sun is rising or setting. Now I know it is a rising sun." It was decided that the Constitution as written out should be pre- sented to Congress and then sent to the states for acceptance. When nine states, that is, two thirds of their number, should have agreed to it, it should become the fundamental law of the land. The ratification of the Constitution. — After Congress had accepted the Constitution there was much bitter opposition among the states to its adoption. " What do Hamilton and Madison know about making a constitution?" asked the people. They were only boys. As for Franklin, he was so old he was in his second childhood. Washington might be able to lead an army, but what did he know about poli- tics ? Finally one of the newspapers went so far as to call him a '' born fool." Nevertheless, one after another the states began to' ratify. In 1789 the ninth state, New Hamp- shire, ratified, and was followed shortly after by Virginia and New York. North Carolina and Rhode Island did not come under the " New Roof," as the new Constitution was popu- larly called, until after the inauguration of President Wash- ington. '' The acceptance of the Constitution of 1789 made the American people a nation, by giving it a national Gov- ernment with direct authority over all citizens." CHAPTER XXV THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES Amendments. — The Constitution, which was made in the manner just described, has stood the test of time and has had comparatively few changes. The changes made fall into four groups. The first group is sometimes called the ''Bill of Rights " and is composed of the first ten amend- ments. They are so called because they prevent *' the National Government from violating the liberty of the people, or usurping the power of the states." When Congress met in its first session, 189 amendments were suggested ; out of these, twelve were passed by Con- gress and submitted to the people, and of these, ten were ratified and made a part of the Constitution in 1791. Many of these have been noted in previous chapters, but it may be well to summarize them here. (1) All persons, both citizens and foreigners, shall have freedom to worship as they please. (2) Speech and the press shall be free. (3) All shall be free from search or seizure both in their persons and in their homes without due process of law. (4) The rights of persons accused of crime are safeguarded. (5) Amendment ten gives a rule for the interpretation of the Constitution. The second group consists of the eleventh and twelfth amendments. The eleventh regulates the manner in which a 354 THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 355 state may be sued. No one may sue any state without its consent. The twelfth provides for a change in the method of electing the President, as the one chosen at the making of the Constitution did not work well. The third group consists of the thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth amendments, which were passed either during or at the close of the war between the states. This group legalized the freeing of the slave, confirmed his citizenship, and made him a voter. These amendments have not worked well in practice as they put the control of the South in the hands of a very ignorant class during the reconstruction period. They were passed in a time of great bitterness and have been considered a mistake. Some of our wisest statesmen have said that these three amendments should not have been passed until the slaves had been educated and taught what citizenship means. President Cleveland stated well the principle involved when he said, '' Before we have a citizen, we must first have a man." The last group, the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, and nineteenth amendments, have been passed in recent years. The sixteenth authorizes Congress to levy a tax on all incomes above a certain amount ; the seventeenth provides for the election of United States senators by the people of the states rather than by the state legislatures ; the eighteenth forbids the manufacture or the sale of in- toxicating liquors as a beverage ; and the nineteenth pro- vides for equality of men and women in voting. How the changes are made. — The Constitution provides the way in which these amendments may be made. Con- gress by a two-thirds vote of both houses — the Senate, and the House of Representatives — may propose an amendment to the Constitution. Such an amendment is then submitted 356 • COMMUNITY CIVICS to the states, and if passed by three fourths of the states, becomes a part of the Constitution. There are several other ways provided, but they have not been used. Contents of the Constitution. — With the changes men- tioned above, the Constitution has served as the basis of our government since its adoption. It states who the officials of the government are whom the people are to vote for, defines their duties, and states their powers. It specifies the amount of control the national government has over the states, and the general relation of the states with each other and with the nation. Certain acts are forbidden both to the nation and to the states, and arrangement is made for estab- lishment of the judiciary department of the federal govern- ment. The Unwritten Constitution. — Though the form of this immortal document has not been changed much, yet it is not because there has been no desire for changes; in fact more than two thousand amendments have been proposed at one time or another. It is because of the difficulty of amendment that so few changes have been made. For this reason there has sprung up what is known as the '* Un- written Constitution." The great body of laws and customs and the new powers our government has assumed make up the body of this unwritten constitution. It has become as fixed as though it had been written down when the original document was drafted. It has been called '' the flesh and blood of the constitution, rather than its skeleton." By it the powers of the President have been greatly in- creased. There is nothing in the Constitution which gives him the power of selecting a cabinet of advisers, but custom has made it an accomplished fact. It is only in very recent years that the Cabinet has been recognized by being men- THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 357 tioned in a law. The President has the power of removing officials even though they have been confirmed by the Senate. A large amount of territory has been added to the United States, though the Constitution does not say that this may be done. During the great European War, the powers of the President were greatly increased through laws passed by Congress, that he might deal with the needs of the nation as they should arise. The electors who choose the President are not bound by any law to vote for the candi- dates of the different parties who are voted for at the November election, but, following the Unwritten Constitu- tion, they always do. The Constitution says nothing as to how many terms the President may serve, but by custom he is restricted to two terms. By this Unwritten Constitution, the powers of Congress and the judiciary have been increased. The committee system, by which a great amount of the business of Congress is carried on, is made possible by custom. Through the implied powers of the Constitution, Congress has established a national bank and the present system of Federal Reserve banks, has issued paper money, established a tariff, and permitted the President to appoint a commission to govern the commerce between the states. A member of Congress must reside in the district from which he is chosen. The right of the higher courts to interpret the meaning of the Constitution is now considered the greater part of their duty, though it was not so in the beginning. ''Thus the American Constitution has changed as the nation has changed ; has changed in the spirit with which men regard it, and therefore in its own spirit." State and federal control. — We have two governments which seem to cover the same ground and yet are separate 358 . COMMUNITY CIVICS in their action. Mr. James Bryce, a celebrated English writer, says, " It (government) is like a great factory wherein two sets of machinery are at work, their revolving wheels apparently intermixed, their hands crossing one another, yet each doing its own work without touching or hampering the other. To keep the National government and the State governments each in its allotted sphere was the primary aim of those who formed the Constitution." Questions for Investigation 1. Read the first nine amendments to the federal Constitution. In what ways do these amendments affect you ? 2. What are the provisions of the federal income tax which affect you? 3. Read the seventeenth amendment. Why was this amendment passed ? 4. What territory has been added to the United States by treaty? Name other famous treaties in our history. 5. Name some of the more important matters over which both the state and the nation have control. SUGGESTIONS FOR REFERENCE AND READING SOURCE MATERIAL The American City. Current Opinion. The Independent. The Literary Digest. The New York Times Current History. The Outlook. The Review of Reviews. The Search-Light on Congress. (Nat'l Voters League, Washington, D. C.) The Survey. The World's Work. The World Almanac. The Congressional Directory. The official book piibHshed by the state government, e.g. The Red Book of New York State. Bulletins issued by the state and federal governments, particularly Bulletins 23, 28, 41 issued by the U. S. Bureau of Education, and Circular No. 5, issued by the Massachusetts State Board of Education. Copies of local ordinances and bills and laws of the state. BOOKS FOR PUPILS Community Civics is not chiefly a text-book study, yet "a, text-book is desirable as affording a compact outline statement of social and civic activities." American Patriotism in Prose and Verse. Macmillan. Pocket Classics , Ames, Neiv York State Government. Macmillan. Represents a type of special pamphlet available for the study of the machinery of local and state governments. 359 360 COMMUNITY CIVICS Andrews, The American's Creed and its Meaning. Doubleday, Page & Co. Antin, The Promised Ixind. Houghton Mifflin Co. Deming and Bemis, Stories of Patriotism. Houghton Mifflin Co. Dole, The Young Citizen. Heath. Dunn, Community Civics. Heath. Dunn, The Community and the Citizen. Heath. Franklin s Autobiography. Macmillan. Pocket Classics. Giles and Giles, Vocational Civics. Macmillan. Hale, E. E., Man JVithout a Country. Macmillan. Pocket Classics. Hughes, Community Civics. Allyn & Bacon. Leavitt and Brown, Elementary Social Science. Macmillan. Morgan, Roosevelt: The Boy and the Man. (School Edition.) Mac- millan. Nida, City, State, and Nation. Macmillan. Riis, The Making of an American. Macmillan. Roosevelt, Autobiography. Scribner. Roosevelt, Letters to his Children. Scribner. Smith, J. F., Our Neighborhood. Winston. Sullivan, Government of New York State. Scribner. Turkington, My Country. Ginn. Ziegler and Jaquette, Our Community. Winston. BOOKS FOR TEACHERS The books listed above for pupils. Ashley, The New Civics. Macmillan. Beard, American City Government. Century. Beard, American Citizenship. Macmillan. Betts, New Ideals in Rural Schools. Houghton Mifflin Co. Boynton, Actual Government of New York State. (For N. Y. State teachers.) Ginn. Boy Scouts, Hand Book for Scoidmasters, 527 Fifth Ave., New York " City. Boy Scouts, Manual, 527 Fifth Ave., New York City. Bryce, James, The American Commonwealth. Macmillan. Bryce on American Democracy. Macmillan. Pocket Classics. Burch, American Economic Problems. Macmillan. SUGGESTIONS FOR REFERENCE AND READING 361 Burch and Patterson, American Social Problems. Macmillan. Cubberly, E. P., Improvement of Rural Schools. Houghton Mifflin Co. Curtis, Education Through Play. Macmillan. Davis, J. B., Vocational and Moral Guidance. Ginn. Ely and Wicker, Elementary Principles of Economics. Macmillan. Guitteau, Preparing for Citizenship. Houghton Mifflin Co. Hart, Educational Resources of Village and Rural Communities. Mac- millan. Haskin, American Government. Lippincott. Hill, Teaching of Civics. Houghton Mifflin Co. Johnson, Old Time Schools and School Books. Macmillan. Judd, Lessons in Community and National Life. U. S. Bureau of Education. Latane, From Isolation to Leadership. Doubleday, Page & Co. McFee, The Teacher, the School, and the Community. American Book Co. McNaught, Training in Courtesy. U. S. Bureau of Education. Bui. 57. Macy & Gannaway, Comparative Free Government. Macmillan. Marshall & Lyon, Our Economic Organization. Macmillan. Munro, W. B., Government of American Cities. Macmillan. Powers, America Among the Nations. Macmillan. Rexford, Community Civics for the City of New York. Outlook. Roosevelt, American Ideals. Putnam. Simpson, Mabel, The Socialized Recitation in History. Macmillan. Steiner, The Immigrant Tide. Revell. Studebaker, Our Country's Call to Service. Scott. Sullivan, James, Government of New York. (For N. Y. State teachers.) Scribner. Towne, Social Problems. Macmillan. Wilson, International Ideals. Harper. Weaver and Byler, Profitable Vocations for Girls. Barnes. Weaver and Byler, Profitable Vocations for Boys. Barnes. For additional references see the Syllabus on Civics and Patriotism issued by the New York State Department of Education, and Circular No. 5 issued by the State Board of Education of Massachusetts. APPENDIX CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES We the people of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, insm-e domestic Tranquihty, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. Article I. Section 1. All legislative Powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. [1] The House of Representatives shall be composed of Members chosen every second Year by the People of the several States, and the Electors in each State shall have the Qualifications requisite for Electors of the most numerous Branch of the State Legis- lature. [2] No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-five Years, and been seven Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. [3] [Representatives and direct Taxes shall be apportioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, accord- ing to their respective Numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole Number of free Persons, including those bound to Service for a Term of Years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other Persons.] The actual Enumeration shall be made within three Years after the first Meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent Term of ten Years, in such 363 364 COMMUNITY CIVICS Manner as they shall by Law direct. The Number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty Thousand, but each State shall have at least one Representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hampshire shall be entitled to chuse three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode-Island and Providence Plantations one, Connecticut five. New York six. New Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia ten, North Carolina five, South Carolina five, and Georgia three. [4] When vacancies happen in the Representation from any State, the Executive Authority thereof shall issue Writs of Election to fill such Vacancies. [5] The House of Representatives shall chuse their Speaker and other Officers ; and shall have the sole Power of Impeachment. Section 3. [1] The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the Legislature thereof, for six Years ; and each Senator shall have one Vote. [2] Immediately after they shall be assembled in Consequence of the first Election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three Classes. The Seats of the Senators of the first Class shall be vacated at the Expiration of the second Year, of the second Class at the Expira- tion of the fourth Year, and of the third Class at the Expiration of the sixth Year, so that one-third may be chosen every second Year ; and if Vacancies happen by Resignation, or otherwise, during the Recess of the Legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tem- porary Appointments until the next Meeting of the Legislature, which shall then fill such Vacancies. [3] No Person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty Years, and been nine Years a Citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an Inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. [4] The Vice President of the United States shall be President of the Senate, but shall have no Vote, unless they be equally divided. [5] The Senate shall chuse their other Officers, and also a Presi- dent pro tempore, in the Absence of the Vice President, or when he shall exercise the Office of President of the United States. [6] The Senate shall have the sole Power to try all Impeachments. Wlien sitting for that Purpose, they shall be on Oath or Affirmation. APPENDIX 365 When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside : And no Person shall be convicted without the Con- currence of two-thirds of the Members present. [7] Judgment in Cases of Impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from Office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any Office of honor, Trust or Profit under the United States : but the Party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to Indict- ment, Trial, Judgment and Punishment, according to Law. Section 4. [1] The Times, Places and Manner of holding Elec- tions for Senators and Representatives, shall be prescribed in each State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time by Law make or alter such Regulations, except as to the Places of chusing Senators. [2] The Congress shall assemble at least once in every Year, and such Meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by Law appoint a different Day. Section 5. [1] Each House shall be the Judge of the Elections, Returns and Qualifications of its own Members, and a Majority of each shall constitute a Quorum to do Business; but a smaller Num- ber may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent Members, in such Manner, and under such Penalties as each House may provide. [2] Each House may determine the Rules of its Proceedings, punish its Members for disorderly Behaviour, and, with the Concurrence of two-thirds, expel a Member. [3] Each House shall keep a Journal of its Proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such Parts as may in their Judgment require Secrecy ; and the Yeas and Nays of the Members of either House on any question shall, at the Desire of one-fifth of those Present, be entered on the Journal. [4] Neither House, during the Session of Congress, shall, without the Consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other Place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section 6. [1] The Senators and Representatives shall receive a Compensation for their Services, to be ascertained by law, and paid i 366 COMMUNITY CIVICS out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall in all Cases, except Treason, Felony, and Breach of the Peace, be privileged from Arrest during their Attendance at the Session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same; and for any Speech or Debate in either House, they shall not be questioned in any other Place. [2] No Senator or Representative shall, during the Time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil Office under the Authority of the United States, which shall have been created, or the Emolu- ments whereof shall have been encreased during such time; and no Person holding any Office under the United States, shall be a Member of either House during his Continuance in Office. Section 7. [1] All Bills for raising Revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose or concur with Amendments as on other Bills. [2] Every Bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a Law, be presented to the President of the United States; If he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it, with his Objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter the Objections at large on their Journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such Recon- sideration two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the Bill, it shall be sent, together with the Objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a Law. But in all such Cases the Votes of both Houses shall be determined by Yeas and Nays, and the Names of the Persons voting for and against the Bill shall be entered on the Journal of each House respectively. If any Bill shall not be returned by the President within ten Days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the Same shall be a Law, in like Manner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress by their Adjournment pre- vent its Return, in which Case it shall not be a Law. [3] Every Order, Resolution, or Vote to which the Concurrence of the Senate and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of Adjournment) shall be presented to the President of the United States and before the Same shall take Effect, shall be approved by him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by APPENDIX 367 two-thirds of tlie Senate and House of Representatives, according to the Rules and Limitations prescribed in the Case of a Bill. Section 8. The Congress shall have Power [1] To lay and collect Taxes, Duties, Imposts and Excises, to pay the Debts and provide for the common Defence and general Welfare of the United States; but all duties, Imposts and Excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; [2] To borrow Money on the credit of the United States ; [3] To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes ; [4] To establish an uniform Rule of Naturalization, and uniform Laws on the subject of Bankruptcies throughout the United States; [5] To coin Money, regulate the Value thereof, and of foreign Coin, and fix the Standard of Weights and Measures ; [6] To provide for the Punishment of counterfeiting the Securities and current Coin of the United States ; . [7] To establish Post Offices and post Roads ; [8] To promote the Progress of Science and useful Arts by securing for limited Times to Authors and Inventors the exclusive Right to their respective Writings and Discoveries ; [9] To constitute Tribunals inferior to the supreme Court ; [10] To define and punish Piracies and Felonies committed on the high Seas, and Offences against the Law of Nations ; [11] To declare War, grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal, and make Rules concerning Captures on Land and Water ; [12] To raise and support Armies, but no Appropriation of Money to that Use shall be for a longer Term than two Years ; [13] To provide and maintain a Navy; [14] To make Rules for the Government and Regulation of the land and naval Forces; [15] To provide for calling forth the Militia to execute the Laws of the Union, suppress Insurrections and repel Invasions ; [16] To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining, the Militia, and for governing such Part of them as may be employed in the Service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively, the Appoint- ment of the Officers, and the Authority of training the Militia accord- ing to the discipline prescribed by Congress. 368 COMMUNITY CIVICS [17] To exercise exclusive Legislation in all Cases whatsoever, over such District (not exceeding ten Miles square) as may, by Cession of particular States, and the Acceptance of Congress become the Seat of the Government of the United States, and to exercise like Authority over all Places purchased by the Consent of the Legislature of the State in which the Same shall be, for the Erection of Forts, Magazines, Arsenals, dock- Yards, and other needful Buildings; — And [18] To make all Laws wliich shall be necessary and proper for carrying into Execution the foregoing Powers, and all other Powers vested by this Constitution in the Government of the United States, or in any Department or Officer thereof. Section 9. [1] The Migration or Importation of such Persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the Year one thousand eight hun- dred and eight, but a Tax or duty may be imposed on such Importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each Person. [2] The Privilege of the Writ of Habeas Corpus shall not be sus- pended, unless when in Cases of Rebellion or Invasion the public Safety may require it. [3] No Bill of Attainder or ex post facto Law shall be passed. [4] No Capitation, or other direct, Tax shall be laid, unless in Pro- portion to the Census or Enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. [5] No Tax or Duty shall be laid on Articles exported from any State. [6] No Preference shall be given by any Regulation of Commerce or Revenue to the Ports of one State over those of another : nor shall Vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay Duties in another. [7] No money shall be drawn from the Treasury, but in Consequence of Appropriations made by Law ; and a regular Statement and Account of the Receipts and Expenditures of all public Money shall be pub- lished from time to time. [8] No title of Nobility shall be granted by the United States : And no Person holding any Office of Profit or Trust under them, shall, without the Consent of the Congress, accept of any present. Emolu- ment, Office, or Title, of any kind whatever, from any King, Prince, or foreign State. APPENDIX 369 Section 10. [1] No State shall enter into any Treaty, Alliance, or Confederation ; grant Letters of Marque and Reprisal ; coin Money ; emit Bills of Credit ; make any Thing but gold and silver Coin a Tender in Payment of Debts; pass any Bill of Attainder, ex post facto Law, or Law impairing the obligation of Contracts; or grant any Title of Nobility. [2] No State shall, without the Consent of the Congress, lay any Imposts or Duties on Imports or Exports, except what may be abso- lutely necessary for executing its inspection Laws : and the net Produce of all Duties and Imposts, laid by any State on Imports or Exports, shall be for the Use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such Laws shall be subject to the Revision and Controul of the Con- gress. [3] No State shall, without the Consent of Congress, lay any Duty of Tonnage, keep Troops, or Ships of War in time of Peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another State, or with a foreign Power, or engage in War unless actually invaded, or in such imminent Danger as will not admit of Delay. Akticle. II. Section 1. [1] The executive Power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his Office during the Term of four Years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected, as follows : [2] Each State shall appoint, in such Manner as the Legislature thereof may direct, a Number of Electors, equal to the whole Num- ber of Senators and Representatives to which the State may be en- titled in the Congress : but no Senator or Representative, or Person holding an Office of Trust or Profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. [The Electors shall meet in their respective States, and vote by Ballot for two Persons, of whom one at least shall not be an Inhabitant of the same State with themselves. And they shall make a List of all the Persons voted for, and of the Number of Votes for each; which List they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the Seat of the Government of the United States, directed to the President of the Senate. The President of the Senate shall, in the Presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all 370 COMMUNITY CIVICS the Certificates, and the Votes shall then be counted. The Person having the greatest Number of Votes shall be the President, if such Number be a Majority of the whole Number of Electors appointed; and if there be more than one who have such Majority, and have an equal Number of Votes, then the House of Representatives shall imme- diately chuse by Ballot one of them for President; and if no Person have a Majority, then from the five highest on the List the said House shall in like Manner chuse the President. But in chusing the Presi- dent, the Votes shall be taken by States, the Representation from each State having one Vote; A quorum for this Purpose shall consist of a Member or Members from two-thirds of the States, and a Majority of all the States shall be necessary to a Choice. In every Case, after the Choice of the President, the Person having the greatest Number of Votes of the Electors shall be the Vice-President. But if there should remain two or more who have equal Votes, the Senate shall chuse from them by Ballot the Vice President.] [3] The Congress may determine the Time of chusing the Electors, and the Day on which they shall give their Votes; which Day shall be the same throughout the United States. [4] No Person except a natural born Citizen, or a citizen of the United States, at the time of the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the Office of President; neither shall any Person be eligible to that Office who shall not have attained to the Age of thirty five Years, and been fourteen Years a Resident within the United States. [5] In Case of the Removal of the President from Office, or of his Death, Resignation, or Inability to discharge the Powers and Duties of the said Office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the Congress may by Law provide for the Case of Removal, Death, Resigna- tion, or Inability, both of the President and Vice-President, declaring what Officer shall then act as President, and such Officer shall act accordingly, until the Disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. [6] The President shall, at stated Times, receive for his Services, a Compensation, which shall neither be encreased nor diminished during the Period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that Period any other Emolument from the United States, or any of them. APPENDIX 371 [7] Before he enter on the Execution of his Office, he shall take the following Oath or Affirmation : — " I do solemnly swear (or aflBrm) that I will faithfully execute the Office of President of the United States, and will to the best of my Ability, preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. [1] The President shall be Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy of the United States, and of the Militia of the several States, when called into the actual Service of the United States; he may require the Opinion, in Writing, of the principal Officer in each of the executive Departments, upon any Subject relating to the Duties of their respective Officers, and he shall have Power to grant Reprieves and Pardons for Offences against the United States, except in Cases of Impeachment. [2] He shall have Power, by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, to make Treaties, provided two-thirds of the Senators present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and \\dth the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, Judges of the supreme Court, and all other Officers of the United States, whose Appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, and which shall be established by Law : but the Congress may by Law vest the Appointment of such inferior Officers, as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of Law, or in the Heads of Departments. [3] The President shall have Power to fill up all Vacancies that may happen during the Recess of the Senate, by granting Commis- sions which shall expire at the End of their next Session. Section 3. He shall from time to time give to the Congress Infor- mation of the State of the Union, and recommend to their Considera- tion such Measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; he may, on extraordinary Occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in Case of Disagreement between them, with Respect to the Time of Adjournment, he may adjourn them to such Time as he shall think proper; he shall receive Ambassadors and other public Ministers; he shall take Care that the Laws be faithfully executed, and shall Com- mission all the Officers of the United States. 372 COMMUNITY CIVICS Section 4. The President, Vice-President and all civil Officers of the United States, shall be removed from Office on Impeachment for, and Conviction of, Treason, Bribery, or other liigh Crimes and Misdemeanors. Article. III. Section 1. The judicial Power of the United States, shall be vested in one supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the Congress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their Offices during good Be- haviour, and shall, at stated Times, receive for their Services, a Com- pensation, which shall not be diminished during their Continuance in Office. Section 2. [1] The judicial Power shall extend to all Cases, in Law and Equity, arising under this Constitution, the Laws of the United States, and Treaties made, or wliich shall be made, under their Authority; — to all cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls; — to all cases of admiralty and maritime Jurisdiction; — to Controversies to which the United States shall be a Party; — to Controversies between two or more States ; — between a State and Citizen of another State ; — between Citizens of different States — between Citizens of the same State claiming Lands under Grants of different States, and between a State, or the Citizens thereof, and foreign States, Citizens or Subjects. [2] In all Cases affecting Ambassadors, other public Ministers and Consuls, and those in which a State shall be Party, the supreme Court shall have original Jurisdiction. In all the other Cases before mentioned, the supreme Court shall have appellate Jurisdiction, both as to Law and Fact, with such Exceptions, and under such Regula- tions as the Congress shall make. [3] The Trial of all Crimes, except in Cases of Impeachment, shall be by Jury; and such Trial shall be held in the State where the said Crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed \vithin any State, the Trial shall be at such Place or Places as the Congress may by Law have directed. Section 3. [1] Treason against the United States, shall consist only in levying War against them, or in adhering to their Enemies, giving APPENDIX 373 them Aid and Comfort. No Person shall be convicted of Treason unless on the Testimony of two Witnesses to the same overt Act, or on Confession in open Com-t. [2] The Congress shall have Power to declare the Punishment of Treason, but no Attainder of Treason shall work Corruption of Blood, or Forfeiture except during the Life of the Person attainted. Article. IV. Section 1, Full Faith and Credit shall be given in each State to the public Acts, Records, and judicial Proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may by general Laws prescribe the Manner in which such Acts, Records and Proceedings shall be proved, and the Effect thereof. Section 2. [1] The Citizens of each State shall be entitled to all Privileges and Immunities of Citizens in the several States. [2] A Person charged in any State with Treason, Felony or other Crime, who shall flee from Justice, and be found in another State, shall on Demand of the executive Authority of the State from which he fled, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having Jurisdiction of the Crime. [3] No Person held to Service or Labour in one State, under the Laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in Consequence of any Law or Regulation therein, be discharged from such Service or Labour, but shall be delivered up on Claim of the Party to whom such Service or Labour may be due. Section 3. [1] New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the Jurisdiction of any other State ; nor any State be formed by the Junc- tion of two or more States, or Parts of States, without the Consent of the Legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. [2] The Congress shall have Power to dispose of and make all need- ful Rules and Regulations respecting the Territory or other Property belonging to the United States ; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to Prejudice any Claims of the United States, or of any particular State. 374 • COMMUNITY CIVICS Section 4. The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a Republican Form of Government, and shall protect each of them against Invasion; and on Application of the Legisla- ture, or of the Executive (when the Legislature cannot be convened) against domestic Violence. Article. V. The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessary, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the Application of the Legislatvires of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a Convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either Case, shall be valid to all Intents and Purposes as Part of this Con- stitution, when ratified by the Legislatures of three-fourths of the several States, or by Conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other Mode of Ratification may be proposed by the Congress ; Provided that no Amendment which may be made prior to the Year One thousand eight hundred and eight shall in any Manner affect the first and fourth Clauses in the Ninth Section of the first Article; and that no State, without its Consent, shall be deprived of its equal Suffrage in the Senate. Article. VI. [1] All Debts contracted and Engagements entered into, before the Adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution, as under the Confederation. [2] This Constitution, and the Laws of the United States which shall be made in Pursuance thereof; and all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the United States, shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding. [3] The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the Members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and judicial Officers, both of the United States and of the several States, shall be bound by Oath or Affirmation, to support this Constitution; but no Religious Test shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States. APPENDIX 375 Article. VII. The Ratification of the Conventions of nine States, shall be suffi- cient for the Establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratifying the Same. Done in Convention by the Unanimous Consent of the States pres- ent the Seventeenth Day of September in the Year of our Lord one thousand seven hundred and Eighty seven and of the Independence of the United States of America the Twelfth In Witness whereof We have hereunto subscribed our Names, G°. Washington- Presidt. and Deputy from Virginia [and thirty eight members from all the States except Rhode Island.] ARTICLES IN ADDITION TO, AND AMENDMENT OF, THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA, PROPOSED BY CONGRESS, AND RATIFIED BY THE LEGIS- LATURES OF THE SEVERAL STATES PURSUANT TO THE FIFTH ARTICLE OF THE ORIGINAL CONSTITUTION. [Article I ^] Congress shall make no law respecting an estabHshment of reli- gion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the free- dom of speech, or of the press ; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. [Article II ^] A well regulated Mihtia, being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear Arms, shall not be in- fringed. [Article III^] No Soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, with- out the consent of the Owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. 1 First ten amendments proposed by Congress, September 25, 1789. Pro- claimed to be in force December 15, 1791. 376 COMMUNITY CIVICS [Article IV ^] The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- ported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. [Article V^] No person shall be held to answer for a capital, or otherwise in- famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a Grand Jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the Militia, when in actual service in time of War or public danger; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any Criminal Case to be a witness against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use, without just compensation. [Article VI ^] In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and dis- trict wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining Witnesses in his favor, and to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence. [Article VIP] In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any Court of the United States, than according to the rules of the common law. ' First ten amendments proposed by Congress, September 25, 1789. Pro- claimed to be in force December 15, 1791. APPENDIX 377 [Article VIII ^j Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. [Article IX ^j The enumeration in the Constitution, of certain rights, shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. [Article X^] The powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitu- tion, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. Article XI ^ The Judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against one of the United States by Citizens of another State, or by Citizens or Subjects of any Foreign State. Article XII ^ The Electors shall meet in their respective states, and vote by ballot for President and Vice-President, one of whom at least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their ballots the person voted for as President, and in distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice-President, and they shall make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all persons voted for as Vice-President, and of the number of votes for each, which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of the United States, directed to the Presi- dent of the Senate; — The President of the Senate shall, in presence of the Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be counted ; — The person having the greatest number of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number 1 First ten amendments proposed by Congress, September 25, 1789. Pro- claimed to be in force December 15, 1791. 2 Proposed September 5, 1794. Declared in force January 8, 1798. ■^Proposed December 12, 1803. Declared in force September 25, 1804. 378 • COMMUNITY CIVICS be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed; and if no person have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having one vote ; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or members from two-thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a Presi- dent whenever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next followng, then the Vice-President shall act as President, as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice-President, shall be the Vice-President, if such number be a majority of the whole number of Electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall choose the Vice-President ; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two-thirds of the whole number of Senators, and a majority of the whole number shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to the office of President shall be eligible- to that of Vice-President of the United States. Article XIII i Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly con- victed, shall exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Article XIV 2 Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and of the State wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens ^ Proposed February 1, 1865. Declared in force December 18, 1865, 2 Proposed June 16, 1866. Declared in force July 28, 1868. APPENDIX 379 of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law ; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding Indians not taxed. But when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for President and Vice-President of the United States, Representatives in Congress, the Executive and Judicial officers of a State, or the members of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. Section 3. No person shall be a Senator or Representative in Con- gress, or elector of President and Vice-President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or under any State, who, having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But Congress may by two-thirds vote of each House, re- move such disability. Section 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insiu-rec- tion or rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations and claim shall be held illegal and void. Section 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appro- priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 380 • COMMUNITY CIVICS Article XV ^ Section 1. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of race, color or previous condition of servitude. Section 2. The Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. Article XVI ^ The Congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration. Article XVII ^ The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Sena- tors from each State, elected by the people thereof, for six years; and each Senator shall have one vote. The electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislatures. When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the Senate, the executive authority of each State shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies : Provided that the legislature of any State may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature may direct. Tliis amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election or term of any Senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the Constitution. Article XVIII ^ Section 1. After one year from the ratification of this article the manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from, the United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. 1 Proposed February 27, 1869. Declared in force March 30, 1870. 2 Proposed July 12, 1909. Declared in force February 25, 1913. 3 Proposed May 16, 1912. Declared in force May 31, 1913. 4 Ratified January 16, 1919. APPENDIX 381 Section 2. The Congress and the several States shall have con- current power to enforce tliis article by appropriate legislation. Section 3. Tliis article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been ratified as an amendment to the Constitution by the legislatures of the several States, as provided in the Constitution, within seven years from the date of the submission hereof to the States by the Congress. Article XIX ^ The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or any State on account of sex. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 1 Ratified August 26, 1920. INDEX Accused, rights of, 162. Advisers of President (see Secretary). Aldermen, Board of, duties of, 258. how chosen, 257. Ambassadors, 302, 303. Americanization, 48, 138, 146. Animal life, 193, 194. Anti-trust laws, 216. Arizona, 281. Army, 75, 308-310. Arrest, 158. Associations, 92. Ballot, short, 336, 337. Banks, Farm Loan, 220. Federal Reserve, 220. kinds of, 219-221. Beauty, in back yard, 229, 230. in colonial homes, 11, 224, 225. in Dayton, 228. in modern homes, 225-228. in schools, 44, 230. laws for protection of, 238. of lawns, 228. Bill, how it becomes a law, 274-277. Billboards, 233-234. Bill of Rights, 354. Blacklist, 208. Bonds, 347. Boycott, 208. Boy Scouts, 28, 92, 93, 186. Bryce, James, 268, 269, 338, 358. Business and citizenship, 222, 223. Cabinet (see Secretary), choosing of, 325. members of, 324, 325. work of, 325, 326. Cable, 128, 130. Canals, barge, 107, 117-; Erie, 105, 106. Panama, 111, 113, 118. Sault St. Marie, 118. Suez, 119. Capital, definition of, 212. use of, 212. Capital and wealth, 213. Censorship, 134, 135. Charity, cost of, 181. medical, 177. Red Cross, 178. state institutions for, 179. Charters, 256. Checks, 218. Child Labor Committee, 199, 202. Children, duties of, 19, 122, 202. rights of, 15, 18, 19. City, beauty in, 225, 227, 231-233. charter of, 256. evil conditions in, 261. government of, 257-261. mayor-council type, 257-260. commission type, 262, 263. city-manager type, 263, 264. home rule of, 257. how a village becomes a, 255. judicial power in, 260. officials of, 259, 260. planning of, 238. ugliness in, 231. Clayton Act, 216. Cleveland, President, 97, 208, 293, 296, 298. Clothing, 204-206. Clubs, 92. College, why go to, 42, 43. Colonial days, advantages of, 12. Combination type of government, 250, 251. 383 384 INDEX Combined districts, 36. Communication, beginnings of modern, 125. colonial, 123-125. good citizens and, 136. government and, 135. in war, 130, 131. Community, beginnings of, 7. definition of, 26. membership in, 28. varieties of, 27. Comparison of, houses of Congress, 273. governments, 327-329. houses of state law-makers, 267- 269. powers of President and governor, 294, 295. powers of Secretaries of State, 305, 306. Congress (see Law-makers), 60. powers of, 276-279. Connecticut, 246. Constable, 65, 69. Constabulary, 73. Constitution, amendments to, 354- 356. changing of, 355. contents of, 356. making of, 351. preliminaries of, 351. ratification of, 353. unwritten, 356. Consul, 303, 305. Cooperation, 44. Corporation, definition of, 214. kinds of, 214, 216. schools, 39. Corporations and recreation, 90. County, formation of, 247, 248. government of, 248, 249. powers of, 250. Courts, children's, 157, 260. civil cases in, 161. criminal cases in, 160. solemnity of, 160. state, 167. Supreme, 168. United States, 167. Credit, meaning of, 217. uses of, 217-219. Critical Period, 350. Department {see Secretary). Des Moines, 263. Dickens, Charles, 176. Differences between, houses of state law-makers, 269. houses of national law-makers, 273. Duties, in school, 43. regarding fire, 70, 71. regarding health, 55. Education (see Schools). Bureau of, 317. early, 12. other means of, 45. reasons for, 46, 47, 172. Elections, 333. Electoral College, 272-293. Ellis Island, 142. Eminent domain, 61. England, government of, 326, 327. Erie Canal, 105-107. Evening schools, 40. Federation of Labor, 210. Finance (see Chapter XXIII) . of local community, 341, 342. of nation, 344-347. of state, 343, 344. Fireman, 69, 70. Fiske, John, 247, 248. Food, inspection of, 59, 60. Forestry, Bureau of, 186. Forests, control of, 188. Founding of a community, 1-7. Fourth of July, 71. France, government of, 327, 328. Franklin, Benjamin, 125, 352. Gallatin, Albert, 105. Geologic survey, 318. Girl Scouts, 94. Government, beginnings of, 5, 13. compromise type of, 250, 251. functions of, 242, 243. in home, 13, 14, 22, 23, 26. local form of, 251. duty of citizen in, 251, 252. of town, 245-249. relations of local and state, 266. Governor, duties of, 281-285. election of, 281. powers of, 281-285. INDEX 385 Hart, A. B., 304. Hasldn, 168. Health, early disregard of, 51. means of protection of, 55. modern ideas of, 52. of school children, 62. rules for, 62. Home, colonial, 11, 12. government in, 13. how government comes into, 26. importance of, 25. work in, 11. House of Governors, 288. Immigration {see Migration). causes of, 146-148. results of, 148-150. Inauguration, 294. Incorporated village, 254. Incorporation, meaning of, 253. process of, 253, 254. Indians, Bureau of, 320. trails, 99-102. writing of, 123, 124. Indictment, 159. IndustrJ^ 22. Initiative, 263, 270. Innocent, safeguards for, 156. Insurance, a method of saving, 222. fire, 72. life, 222. Interstate Commerce Commission, 118. Jefferson, Thomas, 168, 247. Jitney Park, 239, 240. Jury, grand, 159. trial, 159-161. Labor, advantages of, 199. child, 199-202. division of, 197-199. Federation of, 210. Union, 207. women, 203, 204. Land office, 317. Lane, Franklin K., 48. Law-makers, citj", 257-259. county, 248-249. nation, 271-279. session of, 274. state, 267, 269, 270. town, 245-247. Laws, anti-trust, 216. for the home, 22. for protection, 73. reasonableness of, 154, 155. to help needy, 180. Lieutenant-Governor, 285. Lincoln, President, 34, 290, 296, 332. Lumber, saving of, 186. state control of, 188. waste of, 185, 186. Majority rule, 338. Massachusetts, 115, 246, 269, 281. Mayor, 259. Mediation, Bureau of, 208. Migration, 138-145. causes of, 146-149. government and, 151. reasons for, 147, 148. results of, 148, 149. Military Academy, 311, 312. Militia, 72. Minerals, 191. Mines, Bureau of, 319. Ministers, 303. Minnesota, 268. Modern ideas of health, 52. Money, manufacture of, 306, 307. Moonlight schools, 40. Morse, S. F. B., 128. National Guard, 72, 73. Natural resources, kinds of, 184. meaning of, 184. Naval Academy, 315. Navigation, 105-109, 191. Navy, 75, 313, 315. Needy, causes for the help of, 171, 172. Nevada, 268. New England, 81, 100, 104, 244, 245, 249, 254." New Hampshire, 268, 353. New Jersey, 269, 281. New York, 36, 58, 62. 85, 90, 101, 102, 105, 107, 109, 110, 115. 152, 189, 191, 257, 268, 270. 288. New York City, 7, 24, 53, 71, 87, 125, 134, 142, 143, 206, 242, 259, 260. Nominations, by conventions, 333. by other methods, 333, 334. 386 INDEX Obedience, 19, 20. Officials, city, 257-260. county, 249. nation, 297. navy, 315. state, 285-288. town, 246. war department, 313. Panama Canal, 112, 113. Parents, as teachers, 4, 12. powers of, 14. Passports, 305. Patent medicines, 60. Patent office, 317. Pennsylvania, 250, 251, 252, 284. Pension office, 317. Philadelphia, 51, 259. Pietro, story of (sec Migration). Pittsburg, 255. Play (see Recreation). education through, 9G, 97. Playgrounds, 84, 85, 87, 94. Policeman, 66-68. Political parties, differences in, 332. early, 330-332. Posse comitatus, 249. Post office, curiosities of, 127. work of, 125, 126. Poverty, education and, 172. intemperance and, 172. laziness and, 173. relief of, 174-181. war and, 173. Powers of local government, 251. President, election of, 292. judicial powers of, 298, 299. legislative powers of, 297, 298. power of, 295, 296. qualifications of, 290. salary of, 292. veto power of, 298. Private schools, 42. Protection, by constable, 68. by county, 72. by firemen, 69, 70. by nation, 74, 75, 76. by police, 66-68. by state, 72. Public Service Commission, 116, 136. Public Work, 252. Punishments, changes in methods of, 163. colonial, 155, 156. new methods of, 164, 1G7. of a crime, 162. Quarantine, local, 57. national, 58, 59, 141. state, 58. Railroads, 109-111, 116, 118. Recall, 263, 270. Reclamation service, 321. Recreation, change in, 82. corporations and, 90. early, 80, 81. need of supervision of, 94. other means of, 85-90. reasons for, 95. Red Cross, 177, 178. Referendum, 263, 270. Relief, indoor, 174, 175. of poor children, 176, 177. outdoor, 174. Representatives, duties of, 273, 274. powers of, 273. prohibitions on, 274. qualifications for, 273. Rights, fundamental, 66. in school, 43. of children, 15. of accused persons, 162. Riis, Jacob, 25. Road, Cuml)erland, 104. Roads, early, 102, 103. in the South, 103, 104. Roosevelt, Theodore, 113, 288, 290, 298. Ruskin, John, 224. Safety First, 77. Saving, methods of, 221. Schools, ad^^anced, 33. beauty in, 230. discipline of, 33. early, 30-32. play and, 96, 97. progress of, 34, 35. support of, 31. unit of, 35. varieties of, 37, 38. INDEX 387 Secretary, of Agriculture, 59, 118, 322, 323. of Commerce, 119, 323, 324. of Department of Justice, 315, 316. of Interior, 316-322. of Labor, 324. of Navy, 313-315. of Post Office, 125-127, 316. of State, 301-306. of Treasury, 307, 308. of War, 313. Senators of the United States, duties of, 272. election of, 272. powers of, 272. qualifications of, 272. Service, 20. Sheriff, 249. Sherman Anti- trust Law, 216, 217. Slum, battle with, 25. Steamboats, 107, 108. Streets, care of, 52, 53, 55. importance of, 7. names of, 6, 7. Supervisors, 248. Sweat shops, 204-206. Switzerland, government of, 328. Tariff, 345. Taxation, local, 341-343. national, 344-346. state, 343, 344. Teachers, early, 31. Telegraph, 127, 128. wireless, 130-133. Telephone, 130. new, 133. wireless, 132. Tenements, evils of, 23-25, 236, 237. problem of, 237. Thoughtfulness, 21. Town, government of, 245-247. officials of, 246. settlement of, 244. Town meeting, 245-247. Trails, 99-102. Transportation, government and, 113. local, 114, 115. modern, 113. national, 117-119. our share in, 119-121. state, 115-117. Trees, beauty of, 235. problems of, 236. uses of, 234. Trial, 160. Union, colonial, 350. Union, Labor, 207. Virginia, 244, 247, 248. Vocation, choosing a, 47, 48. Vocational schools, 39. Voting, process of, 335, 336. qualifications for, 334. registration before, 335. responsibilities of, 336, Washington, George, 24, 31, 51, 105, 168, 290, 352. Waste and its removal, 53, 54. Water, government and control of, 190. power, 189. pure supply of, 61. relation of forests to, 189. uses of, 189. Wealth, definition of, 183. elements of, 184. meaning of, 183, 184. what it is, 183. West Point, 311, 312. Williams College, 249. Wilson, Woodrow, 279, 288, 290, 296, 298. Wireless telegraph, 130-132. Wireless telephone, 131-134. Work in colonial home, 11. World War, 42, 48, 62, 75, 93, 111, 130, 134, 135, 304, 308. Printed in the United States of America. 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