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 HANDBOOK 
 
 MEDIEVAL 
 
 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 
 
 WILHELM PUTZ, 
 
 PRINCIPAL TUTOR AT THE GYMNASIUM OF DUREN. 
 
 TRANSLATED FROM THE GERMAN, 
 
 REV. R. B. PAUL, M. A., 
 
 vicar of st. Augustine's, Bristol, and late fellow 
 
 of exeter college, oxford. 
 
 ■ •* 
 
 ^ 
 
 NEW-YORK 
 
 D. APPLETON & COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 
 GEO. S. APPLETON, 164 CHESNUT-STREET. 
 
v^ 
 
 ? - \ 
 
 3i\l 
 
 Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1850, by 
 
 D. APPLETON & CO., 
 
 In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of 
 New-York. 
 
PREFACE 
 
 BY THE AMERICAN EDITOR, 
 
 The characteristics of this volume are the same as those 
 of the first : precision, condensation, and luminous ar- 
 rangement. It is precisely what it pretends to be — a 
 manual, a sure and conscientious guide for the student 
 through the crooks and tangles of mediaeval history. 
 Many things of course are omitted ; many rather indi- 
 cated than developed ; — but all the great principles of 
 this extensive period are carefully laid down, and the 
 most important facts skilfully grouped around them. 
 There is no period of history for which it is more diffi- 
 cult to prepare a work like this, and none for which it is 
 so much needed. The leading facts are well established, 
 but they are scattered over an immense space ; the prin- 
 ciples are ascertained, but their development was slow, 
 unequal, and interrupted. There is a general breaking 
 up of a great body, and a parcelling of it out among 
 small tribes, concerning whom we have only a few gene- 
 ral data, and are left to analogy and conjecture for the 
 details. Then come successive attempts at organization, 
 each more or less independent, and all very imperfect. 
 At last, modern Europe begins slowly to emerge from 
 the chaos, but still under forms which the most diligent 
 historian cannot always comprehend. To reduce such 
 
IV PREFACE. 
 
 materials to a clear and definite form is a task of no 
 small difficulty, and in which even partial success de- 
 serves great praise. It is not too much to say, that it has 
 never been so well done within a compass so easily mas- 
 tered, as in the little volume which is now offered to 
 the public. 
 
 In the English edition there were no references. It 
 would have been easy to supply this want by a long list 
 of the sources of mdiseval history, which the student into 
 whose hands this volume will fall would never have 
 taken the trouble to read. I have preferred giving a 
 reference for each section to works which are accessible 
 to all, and where more copious indications will be found 
 by those who wish to push their inquiries, further. For 
 greater convenience it is printed collectively in the Ap- 
 pendix. 
 
 Geo. W. Greene. 
 
 Brown University, March 5, 1850. 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 I. Germany before the Migrations. 
 
 § 1. Geography of Germany in the First Century after 
 Christ ...... 
 
 Soil and products 
 
 Tribes ..... 
 
 2. Religion, manners, and customs, in the First Century 
 
 of the Christian era .... 
 
 Political constitution, war . 
 
 3. History of the Germans to the period of the migrations 
 The German tribes .... 
 
 The Cimhri and Teutones . 
 
 Germany in the time of Julius Csesar . 
 
 Conquests of Drusus and Tiberius 
 The two first unions of German tribes . 
 The empire of the Marcomanni and confederacy of 
 the cherusci ..... 
 
 War between the two confederacies . 
 
 The Batavian war of liberation 
 
 The Marcomannic War 
 
 More extensive confederacies in the West and 
 East ..... 
 
 II. The Migrations. 
 
 § 4. Destruction of the Gothic empire by the Huns 
 
 5. General immigration of the Barbarians into the coun 
 
 tries of the West .... 
 
 6. Dissolution of the Hunnish empire 
 
 7. Dissolution of the Western Roman empire 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 First Period — from the dissolution of the Western Empire 
 to the accession of the Carlovingians and Abbasides. 
 
 A. The West. 
 
 $ 8. Empires in Italy . . . . .13 
 
 I. The Italian empire established by German 
 
 mercenaries under Odoacer . . 13 
 
 II. Empire of the Ostrogoths in Italy . 13 
 
 III. Byzantine dominion in Italy . . 14 
 
 IV. Empire of the Langobardi . . 15 
 
 1 
 
 1 
 2 
 
 3 
 3 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 4 
 5 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 5 
 
 6 
 
 66 
 
 9 
 
 11 
 12 
 
1 CONTENTS. 
 
 §9. Empire of the Vandals in Africa . . 
 
 Extent of the empire ... 
 History ..... 
 
 10. Empire of the Suevi in Spain 
 
 11. Empire of the Visigoths 
 
 Extent of the empire . 
 
 History ..... 
 
 12. Empire of the Burgundians in Gaul 
 
 13. Empire of the Franks under the Merovingians * 
 
 The Frankish empire under the administration of 
 the majores domus .... 
 
 14. Religion, manners, and customs of the West, particu- 
 
 larly of the Frankish empire 
 
 1. Eeligion ..... 
 
 a. The introduction of Christianity 
 
 b. The monastic life .... 
 
 c. Relation of the* Church to the State 
 
 2. Political constitution 
 
 a. Origin and development of the German States 
 
 b. The feudal system 
 
 c. Legislation .... 
 
 3. Manners and customs . 
 
 4. Scientific knowledge 
 
 5. Art 
 
 PAGE 
 16 
 
 16 
 16 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 17 
 19 
 19 
 
 21 
 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 22 
 24 
 24 
 24 
 25 
 26 
 27 
 28 
 28 
 
 B. The East. 
 
 ty 15. The Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) empire . \ 28 
 
 History . . . . . . 29 
 
 I. Period of the rise of the empire, from the year 
 
 395 to the death of Justinian in 565 . . 29 
 II. Period of the decline of the empire, from 565 to the 
 
 accession of the Macedonian emperor in 867 31 
 Political constitution, arts, and sciences. 
 
 1. The constitution . . . .33 
 
 2. Language and literature ... 33 
 
 3. Art . . . . . .34 
 
 4. Commerce and manufactures . . 34 
 
 5. Manners . . . . . .35 
 
 16. The Arabians- 
 
 Geography of Arabia .... 35 
 History of the Arabians, 
 
 1. From Mohammed to the dynasty of the Om« 
 
 maijades . . . . .36 
 
 2. The Ommaijad caliphs ... 37 
 Religion arts and sciences. 
 
 1. Creed of the Arabians . . .39 
 
 2. Political constitution ... 39 
 
 3. Arts and sciences . . . .40 
 
 4. Trade and manufactures ... 40 
 
 17. The modern Persian empire — 
 
 Boundaries . . . . . .41 
 
 History . ... . . . 41 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 C. The North-east of Europe. 
 
 § 18. The Sclavonians 
 19. Other nations in the East of Europe- 
 
 1. The Avares . 
 
 2. The Bulgarians . 
 
 3. The Chazares 
 
 VII 
 PAGE 
 
 42 
 
 43 
 43 
 44 
 
 Second Period — from the accession of the Carlovingians 
 and abbasides to the first crusade. 
 
 A. The West. 
 
 § 20. The Frankish empire under the Carlovingians . 44 
 
 1. Pepin the Short .... 44 
 
 2. Charlemagne . . . . .45 
 The wars of Charlemagne ... 45 
 
 a. Conquest of Lombardy . . . .45 
 
 b. Wars with the Saxons ... 45 
 
 3. War in Spain . . . . .46 
 
 4. War with the Avares . . / 47 
 
 5. War against the Danes and Wilzes . . 47 
 Restoration of the Western Roman empire . 47 
 Charlemagne's administration. 
 
 a. Ecclesiastical and educational establishments . 48 
 
 b. Legislation ..... 49 
 
 c. The Constitution . . . . .49 
 ' Lewis the Pious . . . . . 51 
 
 Pedigree of the Frankish kings . . .52 
 
 Successors of Lewis the Pious ... 53 
 
 Lewis the German . . . . .53 
 
 Charles the Bald .... 53 
 
 Lothar . . . . . .53 
 
 Lewis II. . . . . . 54 
 
 Portions of the Frankish empire . . .54 
 
 1. The Western empire ... . 54 
 
 2. Germany . . . . .54 
 
 3 and 4. Burgundy cis and transjuranic . 54 
 
 5. Italy . . . . . .54 
 
 Domestic History . . . . 54 
 
 21. The East Frankish empire under the two last Carlo- 
 
 vingians — 
 
 1. Arnulf . . . . . .56 
 
 2. Lewis the Child . . . . 56 
 
 22. Empire of the East Franks under Conrad I. of Fran- 
 
 conia. 
 
 23. The German empire under Kings of the house of 
 
 Saxonv — 
 
 1. Henry I. (the Fowler) . . . .57 
 
 2. Otho I. (the Great) ... 58 
 
 3. Otho II. ..... 60 
 
 4. Otho III. ..... 60 
 
 5. Henry II. (the Saint) . . . . 60 
 
Vlll 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 § 24. The German empire under the Franconian emperors — 
 
 1. Conrad II. ... 
 
 2. Henry III 
 
 3. Henry IV 
 
 War with the Saxons .... 
 
 Contests between Gregory VII. and the princes 
 of Germany .... 
 
 Rebellion of the sons of Henry IV. against their 
 father ..... 
 
 4. Henry V. .... 
 Changes in the Constitution during the Saxon and 
 
 Franconian period — 
 The Monarchy .... 
 The Dukes .... 
 
 25. Italy— 
 
 A. The kingdom of Italy . 
 
 B. Venice . . . ; 
 
 C. Papal Italy, or States of the Church . 
 
 D. Lower Italy 
 
 E. The Islands .... 
 
 26. France under the last Carlovingians — 
 
 1. Otho ..... 
 
 2. Charles III 
 
 3. Robert . • 
 
 4. Rudolph .... 
 
 5. Lewis IV. (the Stranger) . 
 
 6. Lothar ..... 
 
 7. Lewis V. (Faineant) 
 
 27. France under the four first Capets — 
 
 1. Hugh Capet .... 
 
 2. Robert .... 
 
 3. Henry ..... 
 
 4. Philip I 
 
 28. England under the "West Saxon Kings — 
 
 Alfred the Great .... 
 
 29. Supremacy of the Danes in England — 
 
 Canute ..... 
 Harold ..... 
 
 Hardicanute .... 
 
 30. Restoration and extinction of the Anglo-Saxon dy 
 
 nasty — 
 Edward III. (the Confessor) 
 Harold II. .... 
 
 31. Scotland . . . 
 
 32. Ireland ..... 
 
 33. Spain ...... 
 
 B. The East. 
 
 () 34. The Byzantine empire under the Macedonian emperors 
 35. The Arabians under the Abbasides . 
 
 C. The North-east of Europe. 
 ^ 36. Scandinavia .... 
 
 1. Norway and Iceland 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 IX 
 
 2. Sweden ...... 
 
 3. Denmark ..... 
 § 37. Russia . . . . . ■ . 
 
 38. Poland ...... 
 
 39. Hungary ...... 
 
 40. Religion, Arts, Sciences, &c, during the Second 
 
 Period — 
 The Church . . . . 
 
 Arts and Sciences .... 
 
 Trade and manufacturing industry 
 
 PAGE 
 
 80 
 80 
 81 
 82 
 82 
 
 83 
 84 
 
 Third Period — Age of the Crusades. 
 
 41. The Crusades — 
 
 The first crusade .... 
 The second crusade 
 
 The third crusade .... 
 The (so-named) fourth crusade 
 The crusade of Frederick II. 
 The sixth crusade 
 The seventh crusade 
 Results of the crusades. 
 
 A. Political consequences — 
 
 1. To the hierarchy . 
 
 2. To the sovereigns of Europe . 
 
 3. To the nobility . . 
 
 4. To the burgher order 
 
 5. To the peasant order 
 
 B. Consequences to Trade and Manufactures 
 
 1. To maritime enterprise 
 
 2. To the overland trade 
 
 3. To manufacturing industry . 
 
 C. To the sciences 
 
 A. The West. 
 
 § 42. The German empire under Lothar the Saxon — 
 Pedigree of the Guelphs and Hohenstaufen 
 
 43. The German empire under the Hohenstaufen — 
 
 1. Conrad III. . 
 
 2. Frederick I. (Barbarossa) 
 
 First Italian campaign 
 Second Italian campaign 
 Third visit to Italy 
 Fourth Italian campaign 
 Fifth Italian campaign 
 Sixth visit to Italy 
 
 3. Henry VI. . 
 
 4. Philip of Swabia \ 
 Otho IV. $ 
 
 5. Frederick II. 
 
 6. Conrad IV. 
 
 44. The interregnum in Germany 
 
 87 
 
 90 
 91 
 
 92 
 92 
 
 92 
 93 
 93 
 94 
 95 
 
 95 
 95 
 95 
 96 
 
 97 
 
 98 
 
 98 
 
 99 
 
 99 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 100 
 
 101 
 
 101 
 
 102 
 
 103 
 104 
 105 
 
X' CONTENTS. 
 
 PAGE 
 § 45. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies — 
 
 a. Under the Normans .... 105 
 
 b. Under the Hohenstaufen . . . 105 
 
 c. Under the house of Anjou ... . 106 
 
 46. France — 
 
 5. Louis VI. (the Fat) . . .106 
 
 6. Louis VII. . . . .106 
 
 7. Philip II 107 
 
 8. Louis VIII 108 
 
 9. Louis IX 108 
 
 47. England — 
 
 a. Under Norman Kings. 
 
 Pedigree ..... 109 
 
 1. William the Conqueror . . . 109 
 
 2. William II. (Rufus) . . .109 
 
 3. Henry 1 109 
 
 4. Stephen . . . . .109 
 
 b. Under the four first Kings of the house of Anjou 
 
 or Plantagenet — 
 
 1. Henry II 110 
 
 2. Richard Coeur de Lion . . . 110 
 
 3. John . . . . . .110 
 
 4. Henry III Ill 
 
 48. Spain .... . 112 
 
 Arabian ..... 112 
 
 Christian . . . . . .112 
 
 49. Portugal 112 
 
 B. The East. 
 
 § 50. The Byzantine empire — 
 
 1. Under the Comneni and Dukas . . 113 
 
 2. Under the house of Angelus . . 114 
 
 3. The Latin empire .... 114 
 § 51. The Arabians ..... 114 
 
 52. The Seldschuks . . . . .115 
 
 53. The Mongols ..... 115 
 
 C. The North-east of Europe. 
 
 54. 
 
 Scandinavia — 
 
 
 1. Iceland . . . . . . 116 
 
 
 2. Norway ..... 116 
 
 
 3. Sweden . . . . . .116 
 
 
 4. Denmark . . . . . 116 
 
 55. 
 
 Russia ....... 117 
 
 56. 
 
 Poland under the Piasts .... 117 
 
 57. 
 
 Prussia ...... 118 
 
 58. 
 
 Hungary under the Arpads . . . 118 
 
 59. 
 
 Religion, Arts, Manufactures, &c, during the Third 
 
 
 Period — 
 
 
 1. The Church . . . . .119 
 
 
 2. Political Constitution . . .120 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 PAGE 
 
 3. Legislation and legal practice . . . 122 
 
 4. Sciences ..... 122 
 
 5. Art 123 
 
 a. Poetry ..... 124 
 
 b. Architecture .... 124 
 
 c. Sculpture and Painting . . 124 
 
 6. Commerce ..... 125 
 
 7. Manufactures .... 126 
 
 Fourth Period — from the termination of the Crusades 
 to the discovery of America. 
 
 § 60. Germany and Switzerland — 
 
 Geographical view of Germany between the years 
 1300 and 1500. 
 
 1. The seven electorates . . . 126 
 
 2. The duchies . . . 127 
 
 3. The principalities .... 127 
 
 4. The Margravate of Baden . 127 
 
 5. The Langravates of Alsace, Hesse, and Thu- 
 
 ringia ..... 127 
 
 6. The Burgravate of Niirnberg . . 127 
 
 7. Several Counties .... 127 
 
 8. The Archbishoprics . ' . 127 
 
 9. Bishoprics . . . . .127 
 10. Free imperial cities . . . 127 
 
 1. Kings of different houses — 
 
 1. EudolfofHabsburg . . -. .127 
 
 2. Adolphus of Nassau . . . 128 
 
 3. Albert I. (of Austria) . . .128 
 
 4. Henry VII. (of Luxemburg) . . 129 
 
 5. Louis IV. (the Bavarian) . . .129 
 
 2. Kings of the house of Luxemburg — 
 
 1. Charles IV ■ 130 
 
 2. "Wenzel, or Wenceslaus . . . 132 
 
 3. Wenzel and Rupert . . .132 
 
 4. Sigismund . . . . .133 
 The Council of Constance . . . 133 
 
 Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague 134 
 The Hussite War . . . .134 
 
 8. Kings of the house of Austria — 
 
 1. Sigismund .... 135 
 
 2. Frederick III. . . . .135 
 61. The States of Italy. 
 
 A. In Upper Italy — 
 
 1. Venice ..... 136 
 
 2. Milan . . . . . .137 
 
 3. Genoa ..... 137 
 
 B. In Central Italy — 
 
 1. Florence . . . . .137 
 
 2. States of the Church . . .137 
 
CONTENTS. 
 
 C. In Lower Italy — 
 
 1. Naples 138 
 
 2. Sicily 138 
 
 § 62. France— 
 
 A. Under the last Capets — 
 
 10. Philip III 138 
 
 11. Philip IV (le Bel) . . , 138 
 Louis X., Philip V., and Charles IV. . 139 
 
 A. Under Kings of the house of Valois . 139 
 
 1. Philip VI 140 
 
 2. John (the Good) .... 140 
 
 3. Charles V. (the Wise) . . .140 
 
 4. Charles VI. . . . 141 
 
 5. Charles VII 141 
 
 6. Louis XI 142 
 
 7. Charles VIII. . . . .143 
 
 63. England and Scotland. 
 
 A. Kings of the house of Plantagenet — 
 
 5. Edward I. .... 143 
 
 6. Edward II 144 
 
 7. Edward III 144 
 
 8. Richard II. . . . . . 144 
 
 B. Three Kinss of the house of Lancaster — 
 
 1. Henry IV. . . . .145 
 
 2. Henry V. ..... 145 
 
 Pedie-ree of the houses of Lancaster and York 
 
 3. Henry VI. .... 147 
 
 C. Three Kings of the house of York — 
 
 1. Edward IV 147 
 
 2. Edward V. . . . 147 
 
 3. Richard III 148 
 
 64. The Pyrensean Peninsula — 
 
 The Christian kingdoms . . . 148 
 
 B. The East. 
 
 ty 65. The Byzantine empire under the Palasologi . . 148 
 
 66. The Osiuans ..... 149 
 
 67. The Mongols . . . . . .149 
 
 C. The North-east of Europe — 
 
 § 68. Scandinavia ..... 150 
 
 69. Russia . . . . . . .150 
 
 70. Poland 151 
 
 1. Under the Piasts . . . • . 151 
 
 2. Under the descendants of Jagello . . 151 
 
 71. Prussia under the Teutonic order . . .152 
 
 72. Hungary ...... 152 
 
 73. Religion, Arts, Sciences, &c, during the Fourth 
 
 Period — 
 
 1. The Church . . . . .153 
 
 2. Political Constitution . . . 154 
 
 3. The Sciences . . . . .155 
 
 4. Art 156 
 
 5. Trade, Navigation, and Manufactures . . 157 
 
HANDBOOK 
 
 OF 
 
 GEOGRAPHY AND HISTOEY. 
 
 PART II.— THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 1. Germany before the Migrations. 
 
 § 1. Geography of Germany in the First Century after 
 Christ. 
 
 Boundaries. The Roman provinces on the left bank 1 
 of the Rhine, with some important stations on the right a 
 bank, were protected partly by fortresses, partly by lines 
 of pallisades and a rampart (vallum Romanum) which ex- 
 tended from Ratisbon on the Danube (across the Mayn 
 and Lahn) to Neuwied on the Rhine. All the territory 
 southward and westward of this frontier belonged to the 
 Roman empire, and was divided into Germania Superior 
 or Prima (from Basle to Mainz), and Germania Inferior 
 or Secunda (from Mainz to the country of the Batavi). 
 The rest of Germany (between the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, B 
 and North Sea) was occupied by independent native 
 tribes. 
 
 Soil and Products. According to the Roman writers, 2 
 Csesar and Tacitus, the soil of Germany in their time was 
 little better than a succession of steppes, morasses, and 
 wild tracts of woodland ; one of which, called the Hercy- 
 nian forest, was reported to be sixty days' journey in ex- 
 tent. Hence the coldness of the climate, and the numerous 
 animals, which now exist only in northern latitudes, such 
 1 
 
2 GERMANY. [3 — 5. §1. 
 
 (2) as rein-deer, elks, uruses, and bears. Their horses were 
 
 A neither handsome nor swift ; the neat cattle numerous, but 
 
 small. Fruit trees and every description of metal, except 
 
 iron, were unknown. The only sorts of grain cultivated 
 
 were oats and barley. 
 
 Tribes. 
 
 3 a) The Western Germans. 1. The Catti (Chassians or 
 b Hessians) in the Hercynian forest. 2. The Frisii on 
 
 the north-western coast, from the mouths of the Rhine 
 to the Ems. Smaller tribes : the Usipetes and Tencteri 
 on the Lower Rhine, the Sigambri [or Sicambri] on the 
 Sieg. 
 
 4 b) The Northern Germans. 1. The Chauci from the 
 Ems to the Elbe ; and southward of these, 2. The Che- 
 rusci, between the Weser and the Elbe. 
 
 5 c) The Suevi (or Hermiones) a general name given by 
 u Tacitus to all the nations in the interior of Germany. Of 
 
 these tribes three are especially mentioned by the historian 
 as forming a confederacy, political and religious ; viz. 1. 
 The Senones, between the Elbe, the Oder, and the Spree, 
 with the Langobardi, or Longobardi, on the left bank of 
 the Elbe. 2. A confederacy of seven Suevic tribes between 
 the Lower Elbe and the Baltic, who worshipped the god- 
 dess Hertha, in a sacred grove on an island of the ocean 
 D (Femern or Rugen ?). 3. The Lygii, on the Upper Oder. 
 Besides these, there belonged to the Suevic stock : 1. In 
 the north-east, the Gothones, between the Warthe and the 
 Vistula ; and the iEstisei (Esthonians), at the mouth of the 
 Vistula, on the amber coast. 2. In the south, the Her- 
 munduri on the Upper Danube, the Marcomanni in Bo- 
 hemia, the Quadi in Moravia. The language of these 
 various tribes, no less than the peculiarities of their per- 
 sonal appearance, (the bold blue eye, golden hair, lofty 
 stature, and fair complexion,) are a sufficient indication 
 of their common descent from a distinct and unmixed 
 race. 
 
6 9. §2.] GERMANY. 3 
 
 § 2. Religion, Manners, and Customs in the First Century 
 of the Christian Mr a. 
 
 Religion. The Supreme Being was worshipped by 6 
 the Germans under the names of Wodan (== Odin) and A 
 Thor (the god of thunder) . Sacrifices were offered to these 
 deities in groves and forests, and auguries drawn from the 
 neighing and snorting of the white horses which were kept 
 in honour of them. They believed in a future state of 
 martial existence in Walhalla [Valhalla]. When a war- 
 rior died, his arms, and in the case of chieftains, his horse, 
 were burnt at the grave. 
 
 Political Constitution. There was a distinction 7 
 between freemen and serfs. Every member of the former b 
 class enjoyed the privilege of being present in arms and 
 taking part in the great national councils, which assembled 
 regularly on the new and full moons, under the presidence 
 of the elders or priests, for the purpose of deciding all im- 
 portant state questions, electing officers, and trying crimi- 
 nals. The assent of the assembly was expressed by a 
 clattering of spears, and their disapprobation by a murmur. 
 In these assemblies young men were solemnly declared 
 capable of bearing arms. Their princes were chosen out of 
 the most distinguished families, and their dukes or leaders 
 from among the bravest warriors. The power of both 
 these officers was limited. 
 
 W ar. Their arms consisted of a short spear, called frame 8 
 \framea\ and a shield of painted wood. Their order of c 
 battle was in the form of a wedge, surrounded on three sides 
 with a barricade of carriages, which sheltered the wives and 
 children of the combatants. Before and during the engage- 
 ment a battle-hymn was chanted by the bards. If the first 
 attack was unsuccessful, they retired to their barricades, 
 and renewed the fight, which was often won through the 
 assistance afforded them by their wives and children. 
 
 Manners and customs. The ancient Germans had 9 
 no towns, nor even connected villages ; but lived in de- D 
 tached wooden huts, thatched with straw, which were gene- 
 rally erected near the centre of their common field. A 
 number of these huts formed a mark, several marks a zent, 
 and several zents a gau. Their ordinary dress in summer 
 was a tunic, of wool for the men, and linen for the women ; 
 
4 GERMANY. [10. §3. 
 
 (9) and in winter, a coat of skins. Next to war, the chief 
 A business of their lives was the chase ; the cultivation of the 
 soil, as well as all other manual labor, being left to their 
 wives, children, and serfs. The Germans were fond of 
 games of hazard, and passed a considerable portion of their 
 time in banquets and drinking matches ; during which the 
 sword or war-dance was performed for the amusement of 
 the company, by naked youths, and the most important 
 affairs were frequently discussed. Chastity, a religious 
 observance of their conjugal obligations, and unbounded 
 hospitality, were the distinguishing virtues of this rude 
 B people. Atonement might be made for all crimes, including 
 even murder itself, by the payment of a fine, consisting of 
 a certain number of heads of cattle. 
 
 § 3. History of the Germans to the Period of the Migrations. 
 A. The German tribes. 
 10 It seems probable that the coasts of the Baltic were 
 known from the remotest antiquity to Phoenician and Greek 
 traders in amber ; but the first distinct accounts which we 
 have of the Germans commence with the invasion of the 
 Roman territory by separate tribes. Half German clans, 
 for instance, from the Alps, joined the Gauls in their expe- 
 dition against Rome ; and the Bastarnse formed an alliance 
 c with Perseus. But the most fearful invasion was that of the 
 Cimbri and Teutones (b.c. 1 1 3), who seem to have advanced 
 upon Noricum from two distinct points. For their war 
 with the Romans, see part i. 3, § 79. The next migration 
 was that of the Marcomanni, under one of their princes 
 named Ariovistus, who marched to the assistance of the 
 Sequani against their enemies, the Edui (b.c 72) ; and 
 after defeating them, continued to pour fresh troops into 
 Gaul, until he was finally overthrown by Csesar at Vesontio 
 (Besancon) (58), and compelled to recross the Rhine, 
 n After an obstinate struggle, the Belgic Germans (Nervii, 
 Aduatici, and Eburones) were subdued by Csesar, who 
 crossed the Rhine twice without any result, extinguished 
 an insurrection of the Belgse under Ambiorix, prince of 
 the Eburones, took Germans into his pay, and with their 
 assistance quelled an insurrection of the Gauls under 
 Vercingetorix, completed the subjugation of Gaul, and 
 gained the decisive victory of Pharsalus. Augustus 
 
11. §3.] GERMANY. 5 
 
 formed a body-guard of Germans. His step-sons, Drusus (10) 
 and Tiberius, conquered all the nations between the Alps A 
 and the Danube. In order to subdue, also, the Low- 
 German tribes, who were perpetually invading Roman 
 Gaul, Drusus took whole German clans into his pay, built 
 a fleet on the Rhine, which he united with the Yssel by 
 means of the fossa Drusi, undertook four expeditions into 
 Germany (b.c. 12 — 9), erected fortresses for the defence 
 of the Roman territory (50 ? on the Rhine), and advanced 
 as far as the Elbe. 
 
 B. The two first unions of German tribes. — B 
 The empireofthe Ma rcomanni and confederacy 
 of the Cherusci. 
 
 1. War of these two confederacies against 
 Rome. 
 
 After the death of his brother, Tiberius continued the 11 
 war in Germany, and threatened Mar bod, the founder of 
 the Marcomannic empire, which comprised all the S u e v i c 
 tribes between the Elbe and Danube (the Marcomanni, 
 Hermunduri, Langobardi, and Senones) ; but in conse- 
 quence of the simultaneous revolt of Pannonia and Dalma- 
 tia, he was compelled to grant peace on favorable terms. 
 Although the Low-German tribes had been rather gained c 
 over by promises and alliances than actually overcome, the 
 Romans nevertheless considered themselves masters of all 
 the country between the Rhine and the Elbe. The unjust 
 severity of their governor, L. Quinctilius Varus, in com- 
 pelling the Germans to adopt the Roman language, laws, 
 and system of taxation, occasioned a confederation of 
 the L o w-Ge r man tribes (Cherusci, Bructeri, and Marsi), 
 under the command of Herman (son of a prince of the 
 Cherusci named Siegmar), who had been educated at Rome. 
 In spite of the warning given him by the traitor Segestus d 
 (afterwards Herman's father-in-law), Varus, crediting the 
 intelligence of a revolt on the Ems, suffered himself to be 
 enticed into the Teutoburgian forest, where he was 
 attacked by Herman [Arminius], and after losing three 
 Roman legions, threw himself on his own sword (a.d. 9). 
 On receiving intelligence of this disaster, Augustus dis- 
 banded his German body-guard, and compelled all the 
 German residents to quit Rome. In the years 14 — 16, 
 throe campaigns in Germany, (principally against the Che- 
 
6 GERMANY. [12 14. §3. 
 
 (11) rusci, Bructeri, Marsi, and Catti,) were undertaken by 
 a Germanicus, the son of Drusus, who buried the bones of 
 those who had fallen in the Teutoburgian forest, and de- 
 feated Herman at Idistaviss [Idistavisus Campus], on the 
 Weser. On the homeward voyage a part of his fleet was 
 wrecked in a gale of wind, and Germanicus himself was 
 recalled by Tiberius, before he had succeeded in re-esta- 
 blishing the Roman supremacy in Germany. 
 
 2. War between the two confederacies. 
 
 12 The bravest of the Suevic tribes, the Langobardi and 
 B Senones, renounced their allegiance to Marbod, and joined 
 
 the Cheruscan league ; whilst, on the other hand, Hinkmar, 
 the uncle of Herman, who envied his nephew's reputation, 
 went over to the side of Marbod. The result of these 
 secessions was a double intestine war. 1. Between the 
 chiefs of the Cherusci. 2. Between the Cheruscan con- 
 federacy and the Marcomannic empire (a.d. 19). After 
 sustaining a defeat, Marbod was expelled from his king- 
 dom by a Gothonian named Catwald ; and Herman, who 
 was suspected of aiming at absolute power, was assassinated 
 by his own relations (a.d. 22 ?). 
 
 3. The Batavian war of liberation (69). 
 
 13 After the dissolution of these two confederacies, the 
 c domestic feuds of the Germans were fostered by the Ro- 
 mans so effectually as to prevent, for a century and a half, 
 the formation of any fresh leagues. An attempt, it is true, 
 was made by the Batavi (exasperated by CI. Civilis) to unite 
 several German tribes (Bructeri, Tencteri, Catti, Usipetes, 
 Mattiaci, and, at a later period, the Trieri, Lingones, and 
 Ubii) for a war of liberation ; but after sustaining several 
 defeats, most of the clans were induced, either by bribery 
 or by the fair promises of the Romans, to withdraw from 
 the confederacy. 
 
 4. The Marcomannic war, 166 — 180. 
 
 14 Whilst the Romans were occupied with a war against 
 d the Parthians, their provinces on the southern Danube 
 
 were invaded by several clans, among whom we hear, for 
 the first time, of the Vandals and Alans. The emperor 
 Marcus Aurelius, after undertaking nine campaigns against 
 these barbarians, died at Vienna, in the midst of his pre- 
 parations for the tenth. His son Commodus, who wished 
 to remain at Rome, granted peace to the Marcomanni, 
 
15, 16. § 3.] GERMANY. 7 
 
 Quadi, &c, on condition of their furnishing a yearly con- (14) 
 tingent. A 
 
 C. More extensive confederacies in the W. 
 and E. 
 
 a. In Western Germany. 1. The Alemanni, a general 15 
 name for the union (commenced by the Hermunduri) of 
 the hitherto distinct Suevic tribes in the south-west, from 
 the Mayn to the Alps. 2. The Franks, an appellation b 
 indicating a similar union of Low- German clans, most of 
 which had belonged to the Cheruscan league, but exclud- 
 ing the Cheruscans themselves. 3. The Saxons, whose 
 name and confederation extended southwards, from the 
 Cimbrian Peninsula, their original settlement, to the fron- 
 tiers of the Cheruscan territory. 
 
 b. In Eastern Germany were also three confederacies : 
 the Vandal, Gothic, and Alanic. 
 
 These confederacies, the origin of which might be traced 16 
 partly to the combination of different tribes against the c 
 Romans, and partly to the extension of the feudal system, 
 availed themselves of the confusion occasioned throughout 
 the Roman empire, by the frequent change of rulers, to raise 
 the standard of revolt on their respective frontiers. (About 
 250.) Whilst the Rhenish border was distracted by the 
 invasions of the Alemanni and Franks, the Goths appeared 
 in Illyria and Thrace, and, in conjunction with the Heruli, 
 carried on piratical warfare against the coasts and islands 
 of the Archipelago, until the restoration of the ancient 
 boundaries of the Roman empire by Aurelian, and the re- 
 establishment by Probus, after many struggles, of the fron- 
 tier wall between the Rhine and Danube. A great number 
 of Germans were, at the same time, transplanted into the d 
 Roman provinces. (Return to Germany of the Franks, 
 who had been removed to the shores of the Pontus Euxi- 
 nus.) After the death of Probus the frontier wall disap- 
 peared ; the Alemanni became masters of the Upper 
 Rhine, and extended their conquests into Vindelicia and 
 Rhceti, whilst the Franks took possession of the Batavian 
 islands, and forced their way through Belgium into Gaul. 
 These encroachments were met, on the part of the Romans, 
 by the establishment of additional settlements of German 
 auxiliaries in their frontier provinces. At the head of 
 these mercenaries Caesar Julianus defeated, near Strasburg, 
 
8 GERMANY. [17 19. §4. 
 
 (16) a body of Alemanni who had invaded Gaul, and five times 
 A pursued the Germans across the frontier into their own 
 territory. Notwithstanding this check, the Alemanni soon 
 afterwards recrossed the Rhine and Danube, and were again 
 expelled from Gaul by Valentinian I.; a portion of those 
 who had crossed the Danube being permitted to hold fiefs 
 on the banks of the Po. 
 
 II. The Migrations. 
 § 4. Destruction of the Gothic Empire by the Huns. 
 
 17 The two branches of the Gothic empire had extended in 
 b the fourth century ever the whole of north-eastern Europe; 
 
 the Western Gothic [or that of the Visigoths] occupying 
 all the territory between the Lower Danube and the Dnies- 
 ter (including what is now Moldavia, Wallachia, and Po- 
 dolia), and the Eastern Gothic [that of the Ostrogoths] 
 extending from the Baltic to the Black Sea. The former 
 of these empires was governed by an aged monarch named 
 Hermanric, the latter by Athanaric. 
 
 18 The Goths were the first German tribe who embraced 
 c Christianity, according to the teaching of the heresiarch 
 
 Arius. At the council of Nicsea, in 325, there appeared a 
 Gothic bishop, Theophilus, whose successor, Ulphilas, trans- 
 lated the four Gospels into the Gothic dialect. 
 
 19 The Huns, who originally inhabited that part of eastern 
 Asia which lies northwards of China, had rendered them- 
 selves formidable to the Chinese empire long before their 
 appearance in Europe ; and in the third century before 
 Christ, the great wall of China had been erected as a bar- 
 ID rier against them. At a later period the Hunnish empire 
 
 was divided into two kingdoms, the northern of which was 
 overthrown by a Tartaric clan, the Sienpi. The most 
 warlike of their tribes, however, moved westwards, and, 
 between the Volga and the Don, encountered the Alani 
 (about 375), a portion of whom retreated before them, 
 whilst the remainder surrendered, and were incorporated 
 into their army. Reinforced by these new auxiliaries, the 
 Huns assailed both the kingdoms of the Goths, who be- 
 sought the emperor Valens to grant them lands on the right 
 
20 22. §5.] GERMANY. 9 
 
 bank of the Danube. Only a portion of the West Goths, (19) 
 [Visigoths] the Thervingians, were permitted to settle in a 
 Moesia. These were soon goaded into revolt by the severity 
 of the J&oman governors ; and calling in the Huns and Alani 
 as auxiliaries, they crossed the Haamus into Thrace, attacked 
 Valens (378) near Adrianople, and compelled him to take 
 refuge in a hut, where he was accidentally burnt to death. 
 His successor, Theodosius, beat back the Goths, who were 
 advancing on Constantinople, and concluded a peace, by the 
 terms of which, the West Goths were permitted to settle in 
 Mcesia aud Dacia, and their allies, the Eastern Goths [Os- 
 trogoths], in Asia Minor, on condition of their furnishing a 
 contingent of mercenary troops, under their own com- 
 manders. The Eastern emperor, Arcadius, having neg- b 
 lected to pay the stipulated wages to these auxiliaries, the 
 West Goths chose Alaric to be their king, and invaded 
 Greece, which they were compelled to evacuate on the 
 approach of Stilico, who advanced with a fleet to the relief 
 of Peloponnesus. Alaric was invested with the prefec- 
 ture of the East-Roman province of Illyricum. 
 
 § 5.- General Immigration of the Barbarians into the Coun- 
 tries of the West. 
 
 From Illyria, Alaric, at the head of the Visigoths, 20 
 entered Italy in the year 403, but was twice defeated by c 
 Stilico, at Pollentia and Verona. 
 
 Soon after this invasion (406), several German clans ap- 21 
 peared in Italy under the command of their prince, R ad a- 
 gais. At the siege of Florence most of them either died 
 of starvation or were taken prisoners and sold as slaves. 
 A few cut their way through the enemy's army, and es- 
 caped into Gaul. 
 
 It was, however, towards the west, that the grand move- 22 
 ment took place from the interior of Germany. The Bur- d 
 gundians established themselves in eastern Gaul, on tfie 
 Upper Rhine (407), whilst the Alani and Suevi entered 
 Spain by the passes of the Pyrenees, and spread themselves 
 over the Peninsula, the Vandals and Suevi occupying 
 the western portion (Galicia), the Alani settling in Lusi- 
 tania and Carthagena, and a division of the Vandals taking 
 possession of the district called after them, Andalusia. 
 1* 
 
10 GERMANY. [23 25. §5. 
 
 (22) The Tarraconian province seems to have been the only 
 A portion of the Peninsula which remained in the hands of 
 the Romans. 
 
 23 After the assassination of Stilico, Alaric, disgusted at the 
 non-payment of the subsidies granted by Honorius, invested 
 Rome, and was only induced to spare the city by the pro- 
 mise of an enormous ransom. His overtures of peace 
 having been rejected by the court of Ravenna, Alaric ap- 
 peared a second time before Rome, in the year 400 ; but 
 again raised the siege, and marched to Ravenna; then re- 
 turned to Rome for the third time in 410, took the city by 
 treachery (Aug. 24), and punished the inhabitants by allow- 
 
 B ing six (?) days' pillage to his soldiers. He died at Con- 
 sentia, on the march into Lower Italy, and was buried in the 
 channel of the river Busentinus. His successor, Athaulf, 
 concluded a peace with Honorius, and led the Visigoths 
 into Gaul in 412, and into Spain in 414. His successor, 
 Wallia, overthrew the Suevi, Vandals, and Alani, who had 
 entered the country a short time before ; then recrossed 
 the Pyrenees, and took possession of the districts ceded 
 to him by Honorius in Aquitania (from Toulouse along 
 the Garonne to the sea, called also Septimania), and 
 chose Toulouse for the capital of his empire, which now 
 extended a considerable distance on each side of the 
 Pyrenees. 
 
 24 The Vandals and Alani, in the year 429, accepted 
 c an invitation from the Roman lieutenant, Bonifacius (who 
 
 had fallen into disgrace at the court of his empress), and 
 invaded the northern coast of Africa, where their 
 king, Geiseric [Genseric], after the capture of Hippo and 
 Carthage, founded the Vandalic empire, with Carthage 
 for its capital. This empire comprehended also the islands 
 of the western Mediterranean. 
 
 25 Ever since the abandonment of Britain by the Roman 
 D legions, the island had been ravaged by hordes of Picts and 
 
 Scats. After applying in vain for protection to the Romans, 
 the inhabitants invited the Saxons, Angles, and Jut- 
 landers, who landed in the year 449, under the command 
 of Hengist and Horsa, expelled the Picts, and settled in 
 the island, where they gradually formed seven Anglo-Saxon 
 kingdoms ; viz. Kent, Sussex, Wessex, Essex, Northum- 
 berland, East-Anglia, and Mercia. The Britons retired into 
 
86. §6.] GERMANY. 11 
 
 Wales and Cornwall, or emigrated to the opposite coast of (25) 
 ^.rmorica (Bretagne). 
 
 § 6. Dissolution of the Hunnish Empire. 
 
 The Huns, who, after the subjugation of the Eastern Goths 2(3 
 [Ostrogoths], had been wandering for fifty years about a 
 Southern Russia, Poland, and Hungary, again became for- 
 midable under the command of their king, Attila, orEtzel 
 (the scourge of God), who reigned in conjunction with his 
 brother Bleda, from 434 to 444, and alone from 444 to 453. 
 The Roman emperors of the east and west having united for 
 the purpose of rescuing Africa from the Vandals, Geiseric 
 persuaded Attila to invade the eastern empire. After thrice b 
 defeating Theodosius II., Attila appeared before Constan- 
 tinople ; but being unacquainted with the art of attacking 
 fortified places, he contented himself with exacting a yearly 
 tribute, in addition to the payment already guaranteed by 
 Arcadius, and compelling the emperor to cede a district of 
 Thr-ace. Then he entered Gaul at the head of 700,000 men, 
 but was defeated on the C a t a 1 a u n i a n plain, at Chalons 
 sur Marne (451), by the united forces of the West Goths 
 under their king Theodoric, and the Romans under their 
 general Aetius. In this engagement, the most sanguinary, c 
 perhaps, that ever occurred in Europe (106,000 slain), Ger- 
 mans were opposed to each other, some of them serving in the 
 Roman army, and others in that of the Huns. King Theo- 
 doric was slain. The following year (452) Attila demanded 
 in marriage Honoria, sister of Valentinian III., requiring 
 half the empire as her dowry. This proposal being rejected, 
 he suddenly entered Italy, sacked Aquileia, and plundered 
 all the cities of Lombardy, the inhabitants of which fled in 
 great numbers to the islands in the lagunes of the Adriatic, 
 where thejr founded the city of Venice. The Romans, d 
 headed by their pope, Leo I., petitioned for peace, which 
 was granted by Attila. After his death, in the following 
 year (453), his empire, which had extended from the Rhine 
 to the eastern bank of the Volga, rapidly crumbled away ; 
 the nations which had hitherto been subject to the Huns 
 driving them back to the shores of the Black Sea, and 
 forming kingdoms of their own, the Gepidae in Dacia, the 
 East Goths in Pannonia, and, at a later period, in Thrace. 
 
12 GERMANY. [27. §7. 
 
 § 7. Dissolution of the Western Roman Empire. 
 
 27 The progress of the Germanic tribes was favored by the 
 A intestine confusion of the Western Roman empire, the capi- 
 tal of which was plundered for fourteen days by the Van- 
 dals, in 455, and its sceptre wielded by a Suevian named 
 Ricimer, in the name of a succession of puppets, who bore 
 the title of emperor. The West Goths [Visigoths] extend- 
 ed their empire in Gaul to the Loire, the Rhone, and the 
 Ocean, and put an end to the Roman dominion in Spain, 
 where there remained only the little kingdom of the Suevi, 
 in Galicia and Lusitania.. The Burgundians spread still 
 more widely in south-eastern, and the Franks in central 
 Gaul. Two attempts of the Romans to reconquer Africa 
 B were rendered abortive by Geiseric, who annihilated their 
 fleet. Finally, Adoacer, who had entered the Roman ser- 
 vice as a mercenary, at the head of a band composed of 
 Heruleans, Rugians, &c, and had been refused a third 
 of the lands in Italy, put an end to the empire of the West 
 by deposing the emperor Romulus Augustulus, and was 
 proclaimed king of Italy by his German mercenaries, in 
 476. The Roman possessions in Gaul were retained for 
 a time by Syagrius, who was finally defeated by Chlodwig 
 [Clovis], at Soissons, and compelled to evacuate the pro- 
 vince in the year 486. 
 
THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 First Period. 
 
 From the Dissolution of the Western Empire to the Accession of the 
 Carlovingians and Abbasides, 476 — 752 (750). 
 
 A. The West. 
 § 8. Empires in Italy. 
 
 I. The Italian empire established by German 28 
 mercenaries under Odoacer (476 — 490). a 
 
 Theodoric, king of the Eastern Goths [Ostrogoths], who 
 had embraced the tenets of Arianism during his residence as 
 a hostage at Constantinople, and subsequently taken service 
 in the' armies of the eastern empire, proposed to the emperor 
 Zeno a plan for reconquering Italy with his Goths. This 
 proposal being accepted, Theodoric fought his way through 
 the territories of the Gepidse, and defeated Odoacer in 
 three engagements (on the Isonzo, the Adige, and the Adda). 
 Odoacer, after sustaining a siege for three years in the 
 strongly- fortified city of Ravenna, surrendered, and was 
 put to death with his family and followers, in 493. 
 
 II. Empire of the Ostrogoths in Italy, 490 — B 
 554. 
 
 Theodoric the Great (490 — 526) was recognized as king 29 
 of Italy by Anastasius, the successor of Zeno. This sove- 
 reign not only strengthened his newly-established throne by 
 wise laws and institutions, but extended his empire beyond 
 the boundaries of Italy, over the countries between the 
 Alps and the Danube, as well as Illyricum, and finally over 
 Provence. Imperial residence — Ravenna, and sometimes 
 Verona or Bern (hence his German name of Dietrich of 
 Bern). Prosperity of Italy, in consequence of his toleration c 
 of the Catholics ; encouragement of agriculture and com- 
 
14 THE MIDDLE AGES. [30. § 8. 
 
 (29) merce ; embellishment of the cities, drainage, and cultiva- 
 
 A tion of the Pontine marshes, &c. He succeeded, also, in 
 maintaining peace among the German princes, most of 
 whom were his relations. His brother-in-law, Chlodwig 
 (Clovis), king of the Franks, the only sovereign who offered 
 resistance, was compelled to lay down his arms. The Visi- 
 gothic throne was secured to Amalaric, a minor, the grand- 
 son of Theodoric, who undertook the office of guardian. 
 Theodoric died in 526, of remorse, it is said, on account of 
 the (perhaps) unjust execution of the learned senator Boe- 
 thius (who was suspected of having negotiated with the 
 
 B eastern emperor, Justinian, for the liberation of Italy from 
 the Goths), and his father-in-law, Symmachus. Theodoric 
 was succeeded by his daughter, Amalasuntha, who govern- 
 ed in the name of her son, Athalaric, a minor, and, after 
 his untimely death, shared the throne with her cousin, The- 
 odotus, by whom she was murdered. Under pretence of 
 avenging her death, Justinian revived those claims to the 
 sovereignty of Italy which had never been entirely aban- 
 doned by the eastern court. Hence arose the eighteen 
 years' war. The Byzantine general, Belisarius, soon made 
 himself master of Sicily and Italy ; but these advantages 
 were lost, in consequence of his being twice recalled, the 
 
 c Goths, under their leader Totila, reconquering the terri- 
 tory which had been wrested from them. Germans (Heru- 
 lians and Langobardi) now fought as mercenaries against 
 Germans, under Narses, who was victorious at Taginse, in 
 Etruria, where Totilas was slain. In this war Rome was 
 taken for the fifth time ; and the heroic king, Tejas, found, 
 like his brave predecessor, Totila, a soldier's grave on the 
 field of battle. A portion of the Goths capitulated, on con- 
 dition of being permitted to depart in peace ; whilst the 
 remainder, who had invited two German princes to enter 
 Italy at the head of the Franks and Alemanni, were over- 
 thrown, together with their allies, by Narses in 554, and 
 
 D compelled to submit to the conqueror. Italy became a 
 
 province of the eastern empire, and was governed by 
 
 exarchs resident at Ravenna, of whom Narses was the first. 
 
 III. Byzantine dominion in Italy. 
 
 In the year 568 the Langobardi entered Italy, and, after 
 
 30 a succession of battles, compelled the Romans to relinquish 
 
 their sovereignty over the whole of Italy, (which they had 
 
31. §8.] EMPIRES IN ITALY. 15 
 
 exercised for fourteen years), and confine themselves to the (30) 
 territories strictly comprehended within their exarchate, — A 
 Rome, Naples, and southern Italy, to which was added the 
 name of Calabria, although they had lost that province. 
 
 IV. Empire of the Langobardi. 568 — 774. 
 
 On their return from Italy, the Langobardi, who had 31 
 assisted Narses against the Ostrogoths, overthrew (under 
 the command of their king Alboin, and with the aid of the 
 Avari) the empire of the Gepidse, whose name, from this 
 time, merges in those of the neighboring tribes. Leaving 
 Pannonia to the Avari, the Langobardi returned to Italy, 
 by the invitation, as they pretended, of the disgraced gene- 
 ral, Narses, and with the aid of 20,000 Saxons, and some 
 other hordes, wrested from the Byzantines the whole of 
 Upper Italy, which thenceforward was named from them, 
 Lombardy. Pavia, after a siege of three years, surrendered b 
 to the conquerors, and was made the capital of their king- 
 dom. After the assassination of Alboin (at the instigation 
 of his wife Rosamond), the empire was extended south- 
 wards by his successor, Kleph, so as to comprehend almost 
 the whole of Italy, with the exception of a few strips of 
 land on the coast. The southern division formed the duchy 
 of Benevento. Kleph having been also assassinated, an 
 interregnum of ten years succeeded, during which the 
 country was governed by thirty-six dukes, among whom 
 the most powerful were those of Friuli and Benevento. At c 
 the end of this period it was found necessary to restore the 
 office of king, and Anthari, the son of Kleph, was raised to 
 the throne. The wife of this sovereign, a Bavarian Ca- 
 tholic named Theodolinda, commenced the conversion of 
 the Arian Lombards to the orthodox faith. Under suc- 
 ceeding kings, the eastern and western coasts of northern 
 Italy fell into the hands of the Langobardi, who confined 
 the exarchate within the limits of Calabria and the district 
 around Naples, and even laid claim to the sovereignty of 
 Rome and its territory. In his terror at this demonstration, d 
 Pope Stephen III. applied for aid to Pepin the Short [Pepin 
 le Bref ], king of the Franks, whom he had himself anointed. 
 After two campaigns in Italy, Pepin compelled the Lango- 
 bardi to cede to the Pope that portion of the coast of the 
 Adriatic which had most recently fallen into their hands, 
 and thus laid the foundation of his temporal power. The 
 
16 THE MIDDLE AGES [32, 33. § 9. 
 
 (31) interference of the Franks in disputes between the Pope and 
 
 A the Lombards, occasioned the incorporation of the Lango- 
 
 bardic empire into that of the Franks, in the year 774. 
 
 § 9. Empire of the Vandals in Africa, 429 — 534. 
 
 •32 Extent of the empire, a. In Africa : the whole 
 northern line of coast, from the Atlantic Ocean to Cyre- 
 naica, comprehending the ancient Roman provinces of 
 Mauritania, Numidia, Africa Propria, and the district of the 
 Syrtes. b. Out of Africa : the islands of Sardinia and 
 Corsica, the Balearic and Pityusian islands, and Sicily (at 
 first the whole island, but subsequently [493] only the 
 north-western part). 
 33 History. For the establishment of the empire by Gei- 
 
 B seric, see § 5. The Roman emperor, Valentinian III., 
 having fallen by the hand of Maximus, his widow, Eudoxia, 
 who had been compelled to marry the assassin, implores 
 the assistance of Geiseric, who lands on the coast of Italy, 
 and plunders Rome for fourteen days, in the year 455. 
 Maximus is slain ; Eudoxia, with her treasures and a crowd 
 of prisoners, conveyed to Carthage ; and all the Italian 
 islands ceded to the conqueror. In order to clear the 
 Mediterranean of Vandal pirates, a fleet of 1113 sail is 
 equipped, by the united exertions of the two emperors, 
 
 c and despatched to Carthage. This fleet is attacked in the 
 night by Geiseric, and the ships partly destroyed and partly 
 dispersed (468). The decline of the Vandal empire, which 
 commenced with the death of its founder, was accelerated 
 by the frequent attacks of the Barbary tribes, and the per- 
 secution carried on against the Catholics, of which Geiseric, 
 himself an Arian, had set the example. Availing himself 
 of this position of affairs, Justinian, the Byzantine emperor, 
 despatched a fleet to the coast of Africa, under the com- 
 mand of his general, Belisarius, who found the throne occu- 
 pied by Gelimer, the last of the Vandal kings, and suc- 
 
 D cessor of the deposed sovereign, Hilderic. After an en- 
 gagement, in which the Vandals were defeated, Carthage 
 surrendered, without offering any resistance ; and soon 
 afterwards the whole Vandal army was routed, and their 
 country entirely subdued (534). Gelimer, after gracing 
 the triumphal entry of Belisarius into Constantinople, re- 
 
34 — 36. §10, 11.] THE STJEVI THE "WESTERN GOTHS. 17 
 
 ceived an allotment of land in Asia Minor; the bravest of (33) 
 ithe Vandals were enrolled in the Roman cavalry, and the A 
 remainder absorbed into the mass of African tributaries. 
 
 § 10. Empire of the Suevi in Spain, 409 — 585. 
 
 The whole of Bcetica, together with the Carthaginian pro- 34 
 vince, had been occupied since the departure of the Van- 
 dals by the Suevi, who had settled in Galicia on their first 
 arrival in Spain. Their first Christian (Catholic) sove- 
 reign, Rechiar, was attacked in consequence of his frequent 
 inroads into the Roman province Tarraconensis, by The- 
 odoric II., king of the Visigoths, defeated at Paramo, on 
 the river Obrego, and executed. The empire of the Suevi B 
 seemed now at an end ; but the remnant of the nation 
 having assembled in a remote corner of Galicia, a new 
 king was chosen, and their former piratical practices re- 
 sumed. This independent Suevic kingdom, being distracted 
 by political struggles, was finally incorporated into the 
 Visigothic empire, in the year 585. 
 
 § 11. Empire of the Visigoths, 419 — 712. 
 
 Extent of the empire, a. In Gaul. At first (419), 35 
 Aquitania Secunda ; subsequently (439), the whole country c 
 bordering on the Mediterranean, from the Rhone to the 
 Pyrenees, at a later period styled exclusively Septimania; 
 from the time of Euric (475), the country between the 
 Rhone, the Loire, and the Ocean. After the battle of Vougle 
 (507), only the extreme southern part of their Gallic em- 
 pire remained in the hands of the Visigoths ; and even 
 of this a portion was wrested from them by the Franks, in 
 531. b. In Spain. At first only the country between the d 
 Pyrenees, the Mediterranean, and the Ebro ; from the time 
 of Euric, the whole of Spain, with the exception of the 
 Suevic kingdom and the territory of the Vasci in the north; 
 from the time of Leuwigild, the whole of Spain, with the 
 exception, at first, of some maritime cities in the south, and 
 a part of the northern district ; at a later period, Ceuta, in 
 Africa, with its territory. 
 
 History. Wallia, the founder of the Visigothic 36 
 empire (see § 5), was succeeded by Theodoric I., who 
 
18 THE MIDDLE AGES. [37, 38. §11. 
 
 (36) defeated a Roman army, extended his empire as far as the 
 A Rhone, and fell in the battle of the Catalaunian fields. 
 Theodoric II. subdued the greater part of the Suevic 
 empire. His successor, Euric, extended his empire in 
 Gaul to the Rhone, the Loire, and the Ocean ; expelled the 
 Romans from Spain, and compiled a catalogue of the legal 
 usages of the Goths. His violent persecution of the Catho- 
 lics compelled them to form an alliance with the half-con- 
 verted Frankish king, Chlodwig [Clovis], who, under pre- 
 tence of rooting out the Arian heresy, attacked Alaric II., 
 son and successor of Euric, slew him with his own hand in 
 the battle of Vougle, near Poitiers (507), and stripped 
 the Visigoths of all their possessions in Gaul, except a 
 B portion of Septimania. During the minority of his son and 
 successor, Amalric, the Visigothic empire was united, for 
 fourteen years, to his own dominions, by Theodoric, king 
 of the Ostrogoths. After the death of Amalric, who was 
 slain during a war occasioned by his ill-treatment of his 
 wife, Clotilda, a daughter of Chlodwig, the imperial resi- 
 dence was transferred to Toledo, in 531. 
 
 37 The Visigothic empire was still surther circumscribed 
 by the Byzantines, who invaded the country on the invita- 
 tion of Athanagild (an insurgent, and subsequently king), 
 
 c and conquered the whole southern line of coast. For this 
 loss they were in some measure indemnified by the sub- 
 jugation of the rebellious Cantabrians and Vasci, and the 
 conquest of the Suevic empire, by Leuwigild, who also 
 compelled the Byzantines to restore several of the cities 
 which they had taken. 
 
 38 After the establishment of a natural boundary-line, by 
 the expulsion of the Greeks from Spain (624), the attention 
 of the Visigothic kings was directed rather to the consolida- 
 tion of their own power, than the extension of their terri- 
 
 D tories. The only foreign conquest during this period was 
 a portion of Mauritania. Notwithstanding the amalga- 
 mation of the Visigoths and Romans, in consequence of 
 intermarriages, the adoption of the Catholic religion by the 
 former, and the establishment of a common code of laws, 
 the succession to the throne occasioned perpetual disputes, 
 for the settlement of which the Arabians were at last in- 
 vited over from Africa. On receiving this invitation, Musa 
 immediately despatched an army into Spain, under the 
 
39, 40. § 12, 13.] THE BURGUNDIANS. 19 
 
 command of his lieutenant, Tarek, who overthrew Roderic, (38) 
 the last of the Visigothic kings, at Xeres de la Fron-A 
 tera, after a struggle which lasted nine days (711). Musa 
 soon afterwards followed his lieutenant into Spain, and the 
 greater part of the Peninsula was already in their hands, 
 when the two generals were suddenly recalled by a com- 
 mand of their caliph. After their departure, the Pyrenaean 
 Peninsula was divided into — 1. Arabian Spain, governed 
 by lieutenants of the caliphs of Bagdad, until the establish- 
 ment (756) of an independent kingdom at Cordova, by 
 Abderrahman, the last Ommaijade. 2. The Christian 
 kingdom of Asturia, where a remnant of the beaten Visi- 
 goths maintained themselves against the Arabians. 
 
 § 12. Empire of the Burgundians in Gaul, 407 — 533. 
 
 The Burgundians (probably the people named by Taci- 39 
 tus, Burii) first appeared in the first century, in the neigh- B 
 bourhood of the Vistula. They seem to have been a 
 branch of the great Suevic stock. The loss of a battle 
 against the Gepidas (about 250) having compelled them to 
 retire westward, they settled on the Upper Rhine, in the 
 neighbourhood of the Alemanni ; and, at a later period, 
 received allotments of land from the Romans in Germania 
 Superior (Alsace). Thence they spread southwards, over 
 parts of Helvetia, Savoy, Dauphine, Lyonnois, and Franche- 
 Compte. At the head of the nation was a high-priest, who c 
 held his office for life (Sinist). Their kings (Hendinos), 
 who resided sometimes at Geneva and sometimes at Lyons, 
 were set aside for failure in war, or on account of per- 
 sonal deformity. Disputed successions occasioned the 
 introduction of Frankish kings (of Paris, Soissons, and 
 Metz), who conquered the kingdom and divided it 
 among themselves in the year 533 (?). The Burgun- d 
 dians were compelled to pay tribute and render military 
 service to the conqueror, but retained their own laws and 
 customs. 
 
 § 13. Empire of the Franks under the Merovingians. 
 
 Since the middle of the first century, bands of Frankish 40 
 warriors had been accustomed to cross the Rhine ; at first 
 
20 THE MIDDLE AGES. [40. § 13. 
 
 (40) for the mere purpose of plunder, and subsequently in the 
 
 A hope of obtaining settlements ; which they acquired partly 
 by force of arms and partly as rewards for their services in 
 the Roman army. These Frankish settlers in Gaul arei 
 divided into two principal branches: the S alii, between 
 the Scheld and Meuse; and Ripuarii, probably between 
 the Meuse, Moselle, and Rhine. Their clans lived indepen- 
 dently of one another, each under its own chief, until the 
 time of Chlodwig [Clovis], the grandson of Merovseus, 
 or Merwig, who succeeded his father as king of the Franks 
 
 B in 481. This monarch put an end to the Roman supremacy 
 in Gaul by the overthrow of their governor, Syagrius, at 
 Soissons, in 486 ; and, in conjunction with the Frankish 
 king, Siegbert, who resided at Cologne (?), subdued a por- 
 tion of the Alemanni (probably only those who dwelt on 
 the left bank of the Rhine, between the Moselle and Alsace) 
 in a battle fought (perhaps) near Tolbiacum or Zulpich. 
 Having embraced the Catholic religion, in fulfilment of a 
 vow made during the battle, Chlodwig caused himself to 
 be anointed and crowned king of the Franks by Remigius, 
 
 c bishop of Rheims. After subduing the Armorici in Brittany, 
 he marched against his southern neighbours, the Burgun- 
 dians and Visigoths ; who were reduced to the condition 
 of tributaries, after sustaining a defeat at Dijon in 500, 
 but speedily recovered their independence. Under pre- 
 tence of expelling the Arian heretics from Gaul, Chlodwig 
 again attacked them, and after obtaining a decisive victory 
 at Vougle, on the Vienne, near Poictiers, where he slew 
 their king, Alaric II., with his own hand (507), deprived 
 them of all their possessions in Gaul, except the southern 
 portion. After this war Chlodwig transferred his residence 
 
 d to Paris. All the Frankish clans were at length united into 
 one kingdom, their petty sovereigns (Siegbert of Cologne, 
 Chararich of Belgium, and Ragnachar of Cambrai) having 
 been previously removed by assassination. After the death 
 of Chlodwig, in 511, the empire was divided among his 
 four sons, Dietrich [Thierry], Clodomer, Childebert, and 
 Clotar [Clothaire], who fixed their respective residences at 
 Metz, Orleans, Paris, and Soissons. The king of Metz over- 
 threw the Thuringian and Burgundian empires about the 
 year 533, and shared the Burgundian territory with the kino-s 
 of Paris and Soissons, who had assisted him in its conquest. 
 
11 44. § 13.] THE MEROVINGIANS. 21 
 
 The empire of the Franks was still further enlarged when (40) 
 the Ostrogoths, in order to prevent the formation of an A 
 alliance between the Franks and Byzantines, ceded to the 
 [former the Ostrogothic territories in Gaul (Provence) and 
 .the Alemannic settlements in Rhcetia. The Bavarians, 
 jalso, were incorporated into the empire, retaining their 
 ,own duke. 
 
 The empire of the Franks was reunited under Clotar I. 41 
 [Clothaire], the youngest of Chlodwig's sons, who survived 
 all his brothers and their descendants. After his death 
 the monarchy, which had been consolidated for three years 
 (558 — 561), was again divided into four kingdoms, by 
 his four sons, an arrangement which remained until the 
 death of Charibert, king of Paris, in 569, when the number 
 was reduced to three : viz. 
 
 a. Austrasia, or the eastern empire, comprehending b 
 the north-eastern portion of Gaul, with parts of southern 
 Gaul ; and, in Germany, the territory of the Franconians, 
 Thuringia, and the duchies of Bavaria and Alemannia, 
 or Swabia. Capital — Metz. 
 
 b. N e u s t r i a, or the western empire, also Soissons, com- 
 prising the whole of north-western Gaul, from the Waal to 
 the Loire, and a part of Aquitania. Capital — Soissons. 
 
 c. Burgundy, or the southern empire, containing be- c 
 sides the ancient Burgundian territory, the former kingdom 
 of Orleans (as well as Sundgau, Alsace, Thurgau, and 
 parts .of Aquitania and Provence). Capital — Orleans. 
 
 Paris continued to be the common capital of the three 42 
 kingdoms. 
 
 The history of Clotar's [Clothaire's] successors is a cata- 43 
 logue of intestine disturbances, treasons, and murders, occa- 
 sioned principally by the rivalry of the two queens Brune- 
 hilde (who murdered ten kings and princes of the blood 
 royal) and Fredegunde. The empire was a second time 
 united by Clotar [Clothaire] II. in 613. 
 
 The Frankish empire under the administra-D 
 tion of the majores domus, 613 — 752. 
 
 In the reign of Clotar [Clothaire] II. we firsthear of three 44 
 majores domus, i. e. heads of the royal household (gasindi) ; 
 who acted also as chief stewards of the royal demesnes and 
 fiefs (see § 14) ; viz. one in Austrasia, one in Neustria, and 
 one in Burgundy. The major domus of Austrasia, Pepin of 
 
22 THE MIDDLE AGES. [45. § 14. 
 
 (44) Landen, of a distinguished house in Luttich, or Liege, in- : 
 A duced Clotar II. to cede Austrasia (in 622) to his elder I 
 son, Dagobert, who, after the death of his father and his 
 younger brothers, united the Frankish monarchy 
 for the third time (631). Pepin became major domus, 
 of the whole empire, from which, however, the Austrasians| 
 soon afterwards separated themselves, under Dagobert I.! 
 As few of his successors attained the age, and none pos-| 
 sessed the vigour, of manhood, the sceptre of the Frankish j 
 monarchy was in reality wielded by their majores domus. i 
 One of these officers, named Pepin of Heristal, al 
 grandson of Pepin of Landen, after his victory at Testrhi 
 in 687, became sole major domus of France, with the title 
 B of duke and prince of the Franks. After his death, in 714,1 
 the succession to the office was disputed among his sons for 
 ten years, and finally decided in favour of C h a r 1 e s Mar-' 
 tel, who reduced the rebellious dukes of the tributary) 
 nations Alemannia, Bavaria, and Thuringia, defeated thet 
 Arabians (who had invaded France) between Tours andi 
 Poictiers,in 732, and subdued the Frieses and a portion 
 of the Saxons. His sons Carloman and Pepin the Short 
 [Pepin le Bref] held the office conjointly, until the retire-: 
 ment of Carloman into a convent (Monte Cassino), whenr 
 c the entire administration of the kingdom devolved onr 
 Pepin. Having secured the respect of the nobles and 
 people by his bravery in the Saxon and Bavarian wars,; 
 and conciliated the clergy by the support which he afforded: 
 to Archbishop Bonifacius, in his plans for the reformation 
 of the Church, Pepin, with the consent of Pope Zacharias,; 
 summoned a general assembly of the empire, which met at 
 Soissons, and deposed the incapable king, Childeric III., 
 who retired into a convent. Pepin was then chosen king of 
 the Franks, and anointed by Bonifacius in the year 752. 
 
 § 14. Religion, Manners, and Customs of the West, par- 
 ticularly of the Frankish Empire. 
 
 1. Religion. 
 
 45 a. Introduction of Christianity. It is worthy of remark, 
 
 d that Arianism was adopted only by those German tribes 
 
 who had previously been worshippers of Odin, — the East 
 
 and West Goths, Vandals, and Lombards ; whilst, on the 
 
46. § 14.] RELIGION, ETC., OF THE WEST. 23 
 
 other hand, no trace can be found of such a worship among (45) 
 the disciples of Catholicism, — the Frieses, Franks, Ale- A 
 manni, Thuringians, Burgundians, and Suevi. At a later 
 period, the West Goths [or Visigoths] and Lombards were 
 persuaded by their kings to renounce Arianism, and embrace 
 the Catholic faith. At the commencement of this period the 
 Germans were still heathens, and their religion nearly the 
 same as that described by Tacitus. (Comp. § 2.) It would 
 seem, however, that the pure adoration of nature which they 
 originally professed, degenerated, after a time, into idolatry 
 (e. g. the Irminsul), in consequence of their intercourse 
 with civilized nations ; and eventually into a sort of Fetish 
 worship. Although Chlodwig and his followers embraced B 
 Christianity after their victory over the Alemanni, an ex- 
 ample which was gradually followed by the remainder of 
 the Frankish nation, no attempt was made either by that 
 monarch or his immediate successors, to convert their tri- 
 butaries in Germany, — the Alemanni, Bavarians, and Thu- 
 ringians. The Burgundians, soon after their settlement in 
 Gaul, embraced the Catholic religion. In the rejgn of 
 Dagobert I., some efforts were made by the Frankish 
 bishops for the propagation of the Gospel ; but the work 
 was still more effectually performed by missionaries from 
 Ireland. The Alemanni were converted by Columban and c 
 his disciple, Gallus, and some attempts were made by 
 Kilian in Thuringia ; but the conversion of the Germans is 
 principally due to Winfried [Winifred] of Wessex, after- 
 wards called Bonifacius, and the " Apostle of Germany " 
 (717 — 754), who preached to the Frieses and Catti, or Hes- 
 sians (destruction of the sacred oak at Geismar), founded 
 churches, convents and schools; established new bishoprics, 
 which were immediately subject to the see of Rome ; held 
 the first synods in Germany ; and after filling the office of 
 bishop (723) and archbishop (732) without any settled dio- 
 cese, was finally appointed archbishop of Mainz [Mayence] 
 (745), and suffered martyrdom among the Frieses in 754. 
 
 b. The Monastic Life, considered independently of those 46 
 ascetic institutions (the Pythagorean obligation, the Essenes, d 
 &c), which existed previously to the Christian sera, seems 
 to have originated with those holy men who were com- 
 pelled to lead secluded lives by the persecutions to which 
 they were exposed as professors of Christianity. A con- 
 
24 THE MIDDLE AGES. [47, 48. § 14. 
 
 (46) siderable number of these solitaries (monachi), who had 
 A taken refuge in the Egyptian desert, established themselves 
 in huts round the dwelling of St. Anthony (about 305), 
 whose disciple, Pachomius, assembled them on the island 
 Tabenna, in the Nile, within the walls of a single building, 
 denominated Ccenobium, or Monasterium, under the pre- 
 sidency of a chief (abbas, hence the term " abbot "). From 
 Egypt these Coenobites rapidly spread over the neighbour- 
 ing districts, as well as over Europe. In the west a new 
 form was given to this institution by St. Benedict, of 
 Nursia (480 — 543). His "rule," framed originally for 
 the convent (claustrum) founded by him on Monte Cassino, 
 near Naples, was gradually adopted in all the western 
 B monasteries. It required that all who entered a monastery 
 should, at the expiration of their novitiate, solemnly pro- 
 mise to pass the remainder of their lives in the convent, 
 and take the threefold vow of poverty, chastity, and obedi- 
 ence. From the sixth to the ninth century, the cultivation 
 of the soil, and the introduction of Christianity among the 
 German and Sclavonic tribes, made rapid progress, in con- 
 sequence of the activity and intelligence of the monks. 
 
 47 c. Relation of the Church to the State. As the king was 
 considered the protector of the Church within his own do- 
 minions, and the emperor its supreme defender, it followed, 
 of course, that the excommunication of the Church and the 
 
 c ban of the empire were inseparable. The most capricious 
 inroads on the privileges of the Church were made by the 
 emperor and kings ; in the collation, for instance, to epis- 
 copal sees, which the king or queen sometimes bestowed 
 even on laymen ; and in the confirmation, by the eastern 
 emperor, of the pope's election. The jurisdiction conceded 
 to the bishops, which at first had been restricted to eccle- 
 siastical causes, extended itself gradually to all matters in 
 which the duties of religion or of conscience were involved. 
 The heaviest ecclesiastical punishment was excommuni- 
 cation. 
 
 48 2. Political constitution. 
 
 D Origin and Development of the German States. — The 
 warlike enterprises of the ancient German nations were of 
 two sorts: 1. Those in which all the freemen capable of 
 bearing arms served under the command of a duke chosen 
 from one of the principal families. These were, generally 
 
48, 49. § 14.] GERMAN STATES. 25 
 
 speaking, defensive wars. 2. Expeditions or forays, under- (48) 
 taken by an army composed of vassals (Gasindi, Leudes), A 
 for purposes of plunder and conquest. Their leader was 
 either the proposer of the expedition, or a warrior chosen 
 for the occasion. A third of the land belonging to the 
 countries which they conquered was claimed by the con- 
 querors (e. g. Odoacer and Theodoric the Great), or some- 
 times two-thirds (theBurgundians, Suevi, West Goths, and 
 possibly Vandals), but rarely the whole (the Langobardi 
 and Anglo-Saxons). The conqueror established a settle- 
 ment in the conquered country. The leader retained his 
 office as lord or captain of his followers, even after the 
 conquest was completed ; and after his death his nearest 
 relation was elected to fill the vacant throne. Thus the B 
 German monarchies were at once hereditary and elective. 
 The election was followed by the elevation of the success- 
 ful candidate on a shield. The king always appeared in 
 public surrounded by the chiefs who composed the nobility 
 of his kingdom. This order comprehended, a. The dukes 
 and counts, or leaders of the divisions and sub-divisions of 
 the clansmen, who, as the king's lieutenants, exercised the 
 functions of commanders and judges, and were at the 
 same time invested with the four offices which existed at 
 every German court, viz. : Marshall, Chamberlain, Butler, 
 and Sewer, b. After the introduction of Christianity the c 
 order included also the superior clergy, namely, the Ab- 
 bots, Bishops, and Archbishops. The power of the kings 
 consisted in their prerogative of calling out the. army and 
 of pronouncing judgment on offenders. Their depend- 
 ence in some sort on the Roman Emperors, in whose 
 service many of them had fought their way to the throne, 
 was manifested by the eagerness with which some of them 
 (Chlodwig, Theodoric the Great) sought the title of Ro- 
 man Patricius or Consul ; and by the fact that they gene- 
 rally considered themselves, at least with reference to their 
 Roman subjects, as the Emperor's lieutenants. The influ- D 
 ence of Rome was also seen in the etiquette of their 
 courts, as well as in their civic and provincial administra- 
 tion, and the retention of the Roman code for the clergy 
 and the Roman population. 
 
 b. The feudal system. The territory obtained by 
 conquest was divided by the king among his followers 
 2 
 
26 THE MIDDLE AGES. [50. § 14. 
 
 (49) (Gasindi), each receiving an allotment termed Allodium, 
 A as an hereditary freehold which he was permitted to 
 sub-divide at his pleasure. In this division, the king him- 
 self received a larger allotment than the members of his 
 suite, and was therefore in a condition to confer on some of 
 his faithful followers (Vassen or Vassals), leasehold estates 
 (termed fiefs, allodia, or beneficia), tenable for life, on 
 condition of their swearing fidelity to the sovereign and 
 engaging to render military service when called on. Thus 
 the whole body of allodial proprietors were gradually 
 B reduced to the condition of vassals. The chief of these 
 - vassals was the major domus (regise), who, as the king's 
 first lieutenant, led the serfs to battle, disposed of the 
 royal patronage, and sometimes (in Austrasia), represented 
 the king on the judgment-seat, in the place of the Comes 
 Palatii, who was subject to his authority. At first, the 
 fiefs were not hereditary, but this privilege was gradually 
 either granted by the kings or usurped by the vassals. 
 As the feudal lord was bound to protect his vassals, many 
 of the small propriety's, conscious of their own weakness, 
 made over their allodes to some powerful neighbor, from 
 whom they received them back as fiefs ( feud um oblatum). 
 Thus many of the allodes were converted into feudal 
 c estates. At the same time their military system under- 
 went a revolution correspondent to the political changes 
 which had been effected among the Franks, Anglo-Saxons, 
 Lombards, and many other Germanic tribes. The army 
 was now composed partly of independent inhabitants of 
 separate Gaus, under the command of their Count, and 
 partly of vassals under their feudal Lords. The former 
 were called out, by a decree of the people, to defend the 
 lands in their own immediate neighborhood — the latter 
 served in campaigns of every description in obedience to 
 the sovereign's command. Among the Franks, the army 
 was annually reviewed in the Field of Mars. 
 50 c. Legislation. Until the middle of the fifth century 
 D the German tribes possessed only unwritten laws ; in the 
 three next centuries, written leges were introduced amongst 
 the united nations of the Frankish empire (Salii, Ripuarii, 
 Alemanni, Bavarians, Burgundians, &c), as well as 
 among the West Goths, Lombards, and Anglo-Saxons. 
 All these codes, with the exception of the Anglo-Saxon, 
 
51. § 14.] MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. 27 
 
 were drawn up in Latin, and seem to have been the work (50) 
 of deliberative councils, or the result of compacts made A 
 between the king and his people. Among the Eastern - 
 and Western Goths and Burgundians we find a statute book 
 published by the king, and containing simply Roman laws 
 (edictum Theodoricianum, breviarium Alaricianum, lex 
 Romano Burgundionum). These statutes, especially the 
 lex Salia, are almost exclusively penal. As a general rule 
 none but serfs could be punished with death, or undergo 
 corporal chastisement ; the freeman was allowed to com- 
 pound for his violations of the law by the payment of a 
 fine (compositio) ; if unable to discharge the penalty, he 
 became the slave of the injured party. Even murder could B 
 be expiated by the payment of a pecuniary compensation 
 (reckoned in solidis or shillings) to the relations of the 
 deceased. Their courts of justice were of three sorts. 
 1. The Gau-Court; held by the Count, assisted bySchoffen, 
 or jurymen chosen from the freemen. 2. Palatine courts, 
 in which the lord of an exempt district (immunitas), assisted 
 by his dependents, decided questions within the jurisdiction 
 of his court. 3. Feudal courts, in which the feudal lord 
 settled the disputes of his vassals, of whom a certain 
 number acted as his assessors. There were four sorts of 
 proof: — 1. Documentary (rare). 2. Witnesses. 3. Thee 
 oath of the prosecutor and his consacramentales. 4. The 
 Ordeal, which consisted of the trial by fire (red-hot iron, 
 ploughshares, coals, logs of wood, gloves, &c), the trial 
 by boiling or cold water, and the judicial combat, or duel 
 between the accused and his accuser. 
 
 III. Manners and Customs. 
 
 The advantages which agriculture derived from the 51 
 assiduous cultivation of their estates by the free proprietors, 
 and subsequently by the monks, were in some degree neu- 
 tralized by the manner in which the land was parcelled out 
 into large farms, and by the general employment of bonds- 
 men. The same circumstances and the absence of cities, d 
 were also obstacles to the advancement of manufacturing 
 industry: commercial enterprise was checked by numerous 
 imposts and by the insecurity of the roads ; and lastly, 
 Christianity, in consequence of the universal and deeply- 
 rooted depravity and ferocity of manners, scarcely exer- 
 
28 THE MIDDLE AGES. [52 54. § 15. 
 
 (51) cised any beneficial influence over the people until the 
 A commencement of the succeeding period. 
 
 52 IV. Scientific knowledge was almost exclusively 
 in the hands of the secular clergy and monks. Their 
 system of education comprised the seven liberal arts, 
 as they were called, or the Trivium (i. e. the study of 
 classical literature, rhetoric, and dialectics), and Quadri- 
 vium (arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music). 
 The best educational establishments were in England, at 
 Cambridge, York, and Canterbury, from which learned 
 men were from time to time sent out to enlighten the 
 neighboring continent. Among these the most remark- 
 
 B able were the Venerable Bede, Boniface, and Alcuin. 
 The literature of this period contains only works in the 
 Latin language. The most important are Boethii conso- 
 latio philosophise, the philosophical and historical writings 
 of Cassiodorus, extracts by Jornandes from the history of 
 the Goths by Cassiodorus, Frankish ecclesiastical history 
 by Gregory of Tours, Spanish by Isidorus, and English 
 by the Venerable Bede, who introduced the Christian mode 
 of reckoning time into the West. 
 V. Art. 
 
 53 The transition from the ancient to the modern style of 
 c architecture, is seen in the old Gothic style among the Os- 
 trogoths, and in the tasteless architecture of Lombardy, 
 which was adopted, with a mixture of the Byzantine in 
 all the other German states. First specimens of Christian 
 painting. 
 
 B. The East. 
 
 § 15. The Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) Empire, 
 395—867. 
 
 54 Extent of the empire: Since the year 395, from 
 D the Ionian (and at a later period from the Adriatic) Sea in 
 
 the West, the Tigranocerta on the Tigris, Circesium on the 
 Euphrates and the Arabian Desert in the East; and from 
 the Danube and the Black Sea in the North, to Ethiopia 
 and the Libyan Desert in the South. To this Empire was 
 added the kingdom of the Vandals in 534, the whole of 
 Italy in 554 — 568, and at a later period the Exarchate 
 
55. § 15.] HISTORY. 29 
 
 (the limits of which became daily more restricted), and a (54) 
 few cities on the southern coast of Spain. In the seventh a 
 century the empire lost all its Asiatic possessions with the 
 exception of Asia Minor ; in the seventh and eighth, 
 Africa, the islands of Sardinia and Corsica, Dalmatia, and 
 the right bank of the Lower Danube ; and in the ninth, 
 Sicily, Candia, and Cyprus. Military division of the 
 empire into twenty-nine Themata. 
 
 History. 
 
 1. Period of the rise of the empire — from the 
 year 395 to the death of Justinian in 565. 
 
 (1.) Arcadius (395 — 408), who had received for his 55 
 portion the larger (eastern) half, at the division of the empire B 
 by his father Theodosius (com. B. i. 3, § 111), was 
 governed at the commencement of his reign by a Gaul 
 named Ruffinus, then by the Eunuch Eutropius, at a later 
 period by Gainas a Goth, and finally by his avaricious 
 consort Eudoxia. The Huns, who had invaded the 
 Asiatic provinces, were conciliated by the payment of a 
 tribute, and Alaric, leader of the Western Goths, induced 
 to withdraw his forces from Macedonia and Greece by a 
 grant of the prefecture of Eastern Illyricum. (2.) His 
 son and successor, Theodosius I. (under the guardianship 
 of his sister Pulcheria), was twice compelled to increase 
 the yearly payment to the Huns (the last time to 2100 
 pounds of gold). On the other hand, when the Byzantines c 
 and' Persians divided between them the kingdom of Arme- 
 nia, Theodosius received the western part (and of the 
 western empire, Pannonia, Dalmatia, and Noricum). The 
 codex Theodosianus was the first published digest of laws. 
 Theodosius was succeeded by (3.) Pulcheria and her para- 
 mour Marcian, who, after the dissolution of the Hunnish 
 empire, added to the southern Danube provinces several 
 nations (e. g. the Eastern Goths), formerly subject to the 
 Huns. (4.) Leo I. (Macella), the first emperor crowned d 
 by the Patriarch of Constantinople, engaged unsuccessfully 
 in an expedition against the Vandals (see § 9). The 
 Ostrogothic Prince, Theodoric (who had been placed in 
 his hands as the pledge of an alliance which he had 
 purchased from that nation), was educated at Constan- 
 tinople, and became the conqueror of Italy under the 
 auspices of (5.) Zeno, the successor of Leo (comp. § 8). 
 
30 THE MIDDLE AGES. [56. § 15. 
 
 (55) (6.) Anastasius, after the first invasion of the Bulgarians, 
 a protected his capital by a long wall, which extended from 
 the Black Sea to the sea of Marmora. (7.) Justin I., a 
 Thracian peasant, was first appointed commander-in-chief 
 of the body-guard, and then raised to the imperial throne, 
 which he shared with his nephew. 
 56 (8.) Justinian, 527 — 565, who became sole emperor 
 at the end of four months. Theodora, the wife of this 
 emperor, a woman of debauched character, who had 
 formerly been an actress, exercised an influence which 
 her profligate and cruel disposition rendered exceedingly 
 injurious to the interests of the empire. His first and 
 greatest work was the Improvement of the Roman 
 Code by (a.) the Codex Justinianus (12 B.), a digest of 
 Roman law, prepared by ten distinguished lawyers, under 
 B the superintendence of Tribonian. This work was soon 
 found defective, and at the end of six years there appeared 
 a new and improved edition, b. The Institutiones, a 
 manual of Roman law. c. The Pandectse, or Digesta, a 
 collection of the most important interpretations and de- 
 cisions, from the writings of forty distinguished jurists, 
 d. The Novelise, or supplement, containing some laws of 
 Justinian, and others of succeeding reigns. The tranquillity 
 of the empire was disturbed by the N i k a, an insurrection 
 in the Hippodrome at Constantinople, occasioned by the 
 arrogance of the blue faction (which was favored by the 
 emperor), and suppressed (in 532) by the butchery of 
 c 30,000 of the green. The imperial palace, which had been 
 injured, and the church of St. Sophia, which was burnt 
 in this insurrection, were both restored in a style of 
 greater magnificence. Having secured his northern frontier 
 by a chain of more than, eighty fortresses, extending from 
 the Save to the mouth of the Danube, and the eastern 
 partly by entrenchments and alliances, and partly by 
 putting an end (by a bought peace) to the Persian war,* 
 which had broken out in the reign of Justin, Justinian un- 
 D dertook the restoration of the Roman empire. In 
 pursuance of this object the empire of the Vandals was de- 
 stroyed by Belisarius ; and after a war, begun by that gen- 
 eral and terminated by N arses at the end of eighteen years, 
 
 * In this war, the Persian general, Narses, went over to the By- 
 zantines, and Belisarius gained his first laurels. 
 
57. § 15.] HISTORY. 31 
 
 the Ostrogothic empire, already weakened by intestine (56) 
 divisions, became subject to Justinian. The conquests of A 
 Belisarius in Africa and Italy, excited jealousy and appre- 
 hension in the mind of the Persian kingChosroes (or Nushir- 
 wan), who renewed the war (partly at the instigation of the 
 Ostrogoths), invaded Syria, burnt Antiochia, and was 
 threatening Palestine, when the appearance of Belisarius 
 in the east compelled him to retreat. After long negotia- 
 tions, which were interrupted by a dispute respecting the 
 possession of the eastern shores of the Black Sea, peace 
 was concluded, the ancient frontier line being restored, and 
 Chosroes renouncing all claim to the disputed territories in 
 consideration of an annual tribute. Conquest of the b 
 southern coast of Spain (see § 11). The constant wars in 
 this reign, terminated in some instances by a disgraceful 
 peace, and the enormous sums expended in the erection of 
 costly buildings, soon exhausted the exchequer which 
 Anastasius had left full, and involved the empire in debt, 
 notwithstanding the attempts made to meet the expenditure 
 by the imposition of oppressive taxes, and the sale of 
 public offices and government monopolies. 
 
 II. Period of the decline of the empire from 
 565 to the accession of the Macedonian Em- 
 perors in 867. 
 
 In the reign of Justinian's immediate successor (his 57 
 nephew, Justin II.), began the conquests of the Lombards c 
 in Italy (comp. § 8. IV.), and a renewal of the wars with 
 Persia, which occupied almost without intermission the 
 four succeeding emperors, the last of whom He radius 
 (610 — 641), lost Syria, Palestine, Egypt, and Asia Minor 
 to the Persians, who were in the act of encamping under 
 the walls of his capital, when the suburbs were plundered 
 by the Avars, whose empire at that time extended from 
 the Volga to the Saale and Ems — northward to the Car- 
 pathian mountains, and southward to the Danube. In this D 
 extremity, the emperor would have fled to Carthage, but 
 at the intercession of the Patriarch he abandoned his inten- 
 tion, landed with an army in Syria, and after three cam- 
 paigns, and a victory at Nineveh (627), recovered the 
 four countries which had been wrested- from him by the 
 Persians. Soon afterwards, however, Syria, Palestine, 
 Phoenicia, and Egypt, fell into the hands of the Ara- 
 
32 THE MIDDLE AGES. [57. § 15. 
 
 (57) bians, and the southern coast of Spain into those of 
 
 A the Visigoths. Under his successors the limits of the 
 empire were still further circumscribed, in the west by 
 the Lombards, who were continually enlarging their 
 Italian dominions at the expense of the Exarchate (see 
 § 8. III.)? m the north by repeated invasions of the Bul- 
 garians, who made themselves masters of Mcesia, and in 
 the east and south by the Arabians. These last not only 
 subdued the islands of Cyprus and Rhodes, Armenia, the 
 whole northern coast of Africa, and (in the ninth century) 
 Crete, Sicily, and Sardinia, but even ventured to attack 
 Constantinople itself, which they besieged every summer 
 from 670 to 678, and again from 717 to 718, but were 
 
 B each time repulsed by the Greek fire. Whilst the pro- 
 vinces were thus falling, one after another, into the hands 
 of the neighboring powers, the empire itself was convulsed 
 by the disputes of political and religious parties. Succes- 
 sive emperors were hurled from the throne, deprived of 
 sight, maimed, shut up in convents, or put to death, some- 
 times through the intrigues of ambitious consorts and their 
 paramours, sometimes by their own sons, their ministers, 
 or the victorious generals of their armies. The religious 
 feuds were for the most part occasioned by dogmatic 
 differences, such for example as (1.) The controversy re- 
 specting the distinction between the divine and human 
 natures of our Lord, pronounced to be an orthodox doctrine 
 
 c by the council of Chalcedon, 451. This dispute not only 
 occasioned the separation of the Monophysites from the Ca- 
 tholic church, but was even productive of schisms among 
 those heretics themselves. An attempt of the Emperor 
 Heraclius to reconcile the contending dogmatists by a 
 declaration that two natures were indeed united in tho 
 person of our Lord, but that both had been actuated by 
 only one will, served merely to augment the number of 
 heresies by the addition of the Monotheletes, (2.) who were 
 condemned by a council held at Constantinople in the year 
 
 D 680. A remnant of these heretics formed the sect of the 
 Maronites. (3.) The iconoclastic controversy, which 
 lasted more than a hundred years, was occasioned by a 
 decree of the Emperor Leo III. (Isauricus), commanding 
 (in 726) the removal from the churches of all images, 
 except that of our Saviour. Notwithstanding the vehe- 
 
58, 59. § 15.] history. 33 
 
 ment opposition of the monks and the pope, this de- (57) 
 cree was carried into effect, and the images either dashed a 
 in pieces or burnt. The worship of images having been 
 condemned as heretical by the seventh oecumenical council 
 (held at Constantinople in 754), their destruction was 
 carried on with augmented zeal by succeeding emperors 
 until the reign of Irene, when it was interrupted for 
 awhile, to be renewed in the following reign. Their 
 restoration was at last effected by Theodora, the guardian 
 of her son Michael III. The degradation of the Patri- b 
 arch of Constantinople by this emperor, prepared the 
 way for the separation of the Greek and Roman churches. 
 He was assassinated on account of his acts of ferocious 
 cruelty, by his favorite, Basilius the Macedonian, in the 
 year 867. (4.) The persecution of the sect of the Pauli- 
 cians, who eventually, with the aid of the Arabians, 
 ravaged Asia Minor, and waged war successfully against 
 Michael III. 
 
 Political constitution, arts, sciences, &c. 
 
 1. The constitution which the Roman empire had re- 58 
 ceived from Constantine the Great (see B. i. 3. § 110), was 
 preserved in its integrity, the emperors continuing to enjoy 
 unlimited power. They were crowned and anointed by c 
 the -Patriarch of Constantinople, assumed the title of 
 Roman Emperors, and sought to conceal their real weak- 
 ness by the adoption of sounding titles, a gorgeous costume, 
 and* a rigid court ceremonial. The senate, it is true, still 
 remained, but without authority or political influence ; the 
 only deliberative council being the consistorium principis, 
 an assembly composed entirely of imperial favorites, who 
 were consulted from time to time as occasion required. 
 In the reign of Justinian, the Roman consulship ceased to 
 exist, even in name, the only dates now employed being 
 the years of the emperor's reign, according to the Indiction- 
 Cycle of fifteen years. Political importance of the colors d 
 in the Hippodrome. The provinces were handed over to 
 governors, who purchased their offices, and exercised 
 almost irresponsible authority, to the great disgust of the 
 oppressed and plundered provincials. 
 
 2. Language and Literature. The language of the court, 59 
 after its removal to Constantinople, continued for a time 
 
 to be Latin, but was afterwards a corrupted Greek. 
 2* 
 
34 THE MIDDLE AGES. [60,61. §15. 
 
 (59) Poetry was confined almost entirely to the epigram. 
 A Schools of the new Platonic philosophy, grammar, and 
 rhetoric, flourished at Constantinople, at Athens, until the 
 reign of Justinian, and at Edessa and Alexandria until the 
 Arabian dynasty. The most renowned school of jurispru- 
 dence was at Berytus in Phoenicia. Medicinal science was 
 most successfully cultivated at Alexandria. The writings 
 of the Byzantine historians were either chronicles from the 
 creation of the world to their own times (as Syncellus), or 
 biographies of individual emperors, for the most part mere 
 compilations without plan, judgment, or taste. 
 
 60 3. Art. The establishment of Christianity as the re- 
 b ligion of the state, and the removal of the Roman court to 
 
 Byzantium, gave new life to art, especially during the 
 brilliant reign of Justinian. The distinguishing features 
 of ancient Christian architecture, as seen in its greatest per- 
 fection in the church of St. Sophia, built by Justinian, 
 were the cruciform plan, and the dome resting on arches, 
 supported by massive piles. 1 Simplicity of taste was 
 almost lost amidst a profusion of marbles of the most 
 varied and brilliant colors. All visible personifications of 
 the Deity being forbidden by the Christian religion, the 
 only works of sculpture were statues representing emperors, 
 generals, and statesmen, in their gorgeous robes of office, 
 c ornaments for the altar, and sacred vessels. The interior 
 of the churches was generally ornamented with mosaic of 
 the most brilliant colors, composed of gold and costly 
 marbles. The earliest specimens of Christian sculpture 
 and painting are found in the ninth century, when images 
 of the saints were first permitted by the Greek church. 
 The modern Greek or Byzantine style of architecture 
 found its way into the west as far as Britain and the 
 Moorish settlements in Spain, as well as into Arabia. A 
 knowledge of painting was also generally diffused by the 
 artists who were driven from the east by the iconoclastic 
 controversy. 
 
 61 4. Commerce and Manufactures. The operations of 
 D commerce were sorely cramped by the almost perpetual 
 
 wars, barbarian invasions, the insecurity of the roads, and 
 oppressive taxation and monopolies. A direct trade was 
 
 \} See Gibbon, chap. xl. § 5. J 
 
62, 63. § 16.] Arabia. 35 
 
 carried on with the shores of the Mediterranean, which (61) 
 had been reconquered by Justinian, and were for the most A 
 part inhabited by rude and barbarous nations ; whilst, on 
 the other hand, the trade with India was conducted through 
 the intervention of the Persians, and at a later period of the 
 Arabians. The situation of Constantinople rendered it the 
 principal emporium for western as well as eastern produce. 
 Manufacturing industry was fostered by the luxury of a 
 brilliant court, and was greatly promoted by the introduc- 
 tion of silkworms, the eggs of which were brought in 
 hollow canes from China to Constantinople by missionaries 
 in the reign of Justinian. 
 
 5. Manners. — The demoralization of this luxurious 62 
 court extended to the great body of the people, who gave B 
 themselves up to coarse and sensual enjoyment in defiance 
 alike of ecclesiastical censures, severe laws, and the most 
 fearful punishments. 
 
 § 16. The Arabians. 
 Geography of Arabia. 
 
 The peninsula of Arabia, the superficial area of which 63 
 is four times greater than that of Germany or France, c 
 consists partly of a table-land traversed by ranges of moun- 
 tains, entirely destitute of water, and forming a huge sea 
 of shifting sands, and partly of narrow strips of fiat land 
 along the sea-coast, all equally barren, with the exception 
 of the south-western portion, which, on account of its 
 fertility, was called by the ancients Arabia Felix (hod. 
 Jemen). The inhabitants are partly "Bedouins, whose lives 
 are spent in wandering, either in single families under their 
 Scheiks, or in large clans under Emirs, in search of 
 water and pasture, and partly inhabitants of cities (of which 
 the most celebrated are Mecca and Medina), where they 
 maintain themselves by agriculture, trade, and manufac- 
 tures. Before the time of Mohammed, their religion was d 
 a worship of the stars. Their national sanctuary, the 
 Caaba or temple at Mecca (with its black stone, formerly 
 venerated as divine), was superintended by the family 
 of Haschem, of the tribe of Koreisch. Circumcision 
 and abstinence from pork, as among the Jews and 
 Egyptians. 
 
36 THE MIDDLE AGES. [64 66. § 16. 
 
 History of the Arabians. 
 
 64 The Arabians, who trace their origin to Ishmael, the son 
 a of Abraham and Hagar, have always retained their inde- 
 pendence, with the exception of the inhabitants of Arabia 
 Petrsea, which for a short time (a.d. 106) was subject to 
 the Romans. 
 
 1. From Mohammed to the Dynasty of the 
 Ommaijades, 622 — 661. 
 
 65 Mohammed was born at Mecca in the year 571, and 
 B after the death of his parents (who belonged to the power- 
 ful tribe of Koreisch, and the family of Haschem), was 
 brought up by an uncle (Abu-Taleb). By a fortunate 
 marriage with a rich widow, he was enabled to gratify 
 without restraint his taste for religious seclusion. One 
 month of every year was passed in a cave in the neighbor- 
 hood of Mecca, whence he sallied forth to proclaim himself 
 the ambassador of the One God, by whom, as he declared, 
 a commission had been granted him to restore the religion 
 
 c of Abraham. This doctrine, which at first was preached 
 (609) only to the members of his own family, but subse- 
 quently promulgated to the world, was vehemently op- 
 posed by the Koreischites, whose persecutions at length 
 drove him, in company with Abu-Bekr, to seek an asylum 
 in the city of Medina, July 15, 622. From this flight the 
 Arabians date their era Hegira (Hedschra). From Me- 
 dina, where he assumed the authority of king, and married 
 the daughter of Abu-Bekr, Mohammed propagated the 
 doctrines of Islamism by the sword. In the year 629, he 
 took the holy city of Mecca, converted the Caaba into the 
 national sanctuary of the true believers (Moslem), com- 
 pleted the conquest of Arabia, and invited the king of 
 Persia and the Byzantine emperor (Heraclius).to embrace 
 
 D Islamism. He died at Medina, in 632, leaving behind 
 him only one daughter, (Fatima), the wife of Ali. 
 The four first caliphs, 632—661. 
 
 66 1. Abu-Bekr (632— 34), the father-in-law of tne 
 prophet, who collected the sayings of Mohammed into a 
 book called the Koran. His general, Khaled, began a war 
 with Persia, and the conquest of Syria. 
 
67—69. § 16.] Arabia. 37 
 
 2. Omar (634 — 43), another father-in-law of the pro- 67 
 phet. His generals took Damascus, completed the con- a 
 quest of Syria, and made themselves masters of Palestine, 
 which was visited by Omar himself (in very humble guise) 
 for the purpose of concluding a capitulation with the 
 Christians at Jerusalem, to whom he granted full toleration 
 on condition of receiving a yearly tribute. The conquest of 
 Phoenicia enabled the Arabians to take rank as a maritime 
 power. The war with Persia was prosecuted successfully 
 (victory at Cadesia in 636, and Nohavend in 642). At 
 the same time, Amru subdued Egypt, after a war which 
 lasted two years (narrative of the burning of the Alexan- 
 drian library,' by order of Omar, probably incorrect), and 
 advanced into Africa as far as Tripoli. 
 
 3. Othman (643 — 56). A son-in-law of the prophet. 68 
 The conquest of the Persian empire was completed in 651, b 
 together with that of the whole of northern Africa, as far 
 
 as Ceuta; Cypress was compelled to pay tribute, Rhodes 
 taken, and the fragments of its famous Colossus sold. The 
 discontent occasioned by the avarice and nepotism of 
 Othman, produced an insurrection in Medina, which ended 
 in his assassination and the accession of 
 
 4. Ali (656 — 661), another son-in-law of the prophet 69 
 (husband of Fatima), was placed on the throne by the 
 assassins, but not generally recognized as Caliph, many 
 persons believing that the murder of Othman had been 
 perpetrated at his instigation. In order to strengthen his c 
 authority, Ali confided the administration of the provinces 
 
 to friends of his own ; an arrangement by no means ac- 
 ceptable to the governors actually in possession, most of 
 whom, (especially Moawijah, governor of Syria, who 
 caused himself to be proclaimed Caliph, and Amru, gover- 
 nor of Egypt), united to oppose the usurper. After several 
 (90) insignificant but bloody engagements, a conspiracy 
 was entered into by three Arabians, to restore tranquillity 
 by the murder of Ali, Amru, and Moawijah — all of whom 
 escaped the dagger of the assassin except Ali, whose son, 
 Hassan, succeeded him on the throne, but was compelled 
 to abdicate in favor of Moawijah. 
 
 [ l Gibbon's reasoning upon this subject (ch. 51), seems conclusive. 
 Some of his arguments had already been anticipated by the acute- 
 ness of Voltaire (Esai sur les Moeurs), and are confirmed by the 
 learned researches of Heeren, Geschichte der Classischen Literatur 
 im Mittehalter.] 
 
38 THE MIDDLE AGES. [70. §16. 
 
 2. The Ommaijad Caliphs 661—750. 
 
 70 Moawijali I., great-grandson of Ommaija, transferred 
 
 A the residence of the caliphs from Medina to Damascus, and 
 made the caliphate hereditary. Under the thirteen caliphs 
 of this dynasty, the Arabian dominions were more extensive 
 than at any other period of their history, a. Conquests in 
 the West. The African subjects of the Arabians, being 
 oppressed and compelled to pay tribute by the Byzantines 
 (who still retained possession of Carthage), applied for aid 
 to the Arabians, who stormed and sacked Carthage, ex- 
 pelled the Byzantines from Africa, extended their domi- 
 nions to the Atlantic, and strengthened their authority by 
 
 B the conversion of the Barbary tribes to Islamism. From 
 this province, Musa, on the invitation of a West-Gothic 
 chief (Julian), despatched his lieutenant Tarek into Spain, 
 where he overthrew the Goths, in a battle fought at Xerez 
 de la Frontera (711), and had well-nigh completed the 
 destruction of the West-Gothic empire, when Musa himself 
 arrived in Spain, and threw the conqueror into a prison, 
 where he was treated with great cruelty. Musa was on 
 the eve of crossing the Pyrenees, when both generals were 
 recalled by an order of the Caliph (Walid). After a long and 
 triumphal march from Spain to Syria, the aged commander- 
 in-chief was exposed to the heat of the sun, scourged, 
 
 c and compelled to pay a heavy fine. Meanwhile, his son 
 had been murdered in Spain, and his head forwarded to the 
 unhappy father. The Christians in Spain were permitted, 
 on payment of a moderate tribute, to retain their language, 
 laws, and the free exercise of their religion. The attempt 
 of the Spanish viceroy Abderrahman to wrest Gaul from 
 the feeble hands of the Frankish kings, was frustrated by 
 his defeat at Tours and Poitiers (comp. § 13). b. In the 
 East, the Arabians subdued Armenia, a portion of Asia 
 Minor, the countries between the Black and Caspian seas, 
 
 D and Turkestan. Even in India they had acquired possessions, 
 of no great extent, nor occupied for any considerable length 
 of time, but sufficiently important to place in their hands the 
 whole trade of that peninsula. Two attempts on Constanti- 
 nople were rendered abortive by the Greek fire (see § 15). 
 During the progress of these events, the reigning dynasty 
 was engaged in perpetual struggles with the family of 
 Haschem, and the adherents of Ali, as well as with the 
 
71, 72. § 16.] ARABIA. 39 
 
 rival caliphs, who were placed on the throne by the two (70) 
 contending parties. At length, on the accession (in 750) a 
 of Abul Abbas, a great-grandson of Abbas, uncle of the 
 prophet, the dynasty of the Ommaijades was swept away 
 in a torrent of blood (600,000 of their adherents having 
 been put to death in Khorassan alone), and the throne of 
 the Abbassides firmly established. Abderrahman alone 
 escaped into Spain, where he established the caliphate at 
 Cordova (comp. § 11). 
 
 Religion, arts, and sciences, &c. 
 
 1. The creed of the Arabians, or Islamism, was con- 71 
 sidered by its founder merely a restoration of the religion b 
 of Abraham, which, as he contended, had been also pro- 
 mulgated by Moses, and our Blessed Lord, but grievously , 
 disfigured by their disciples. To Mohammed himself, as 
 the last and greatest of the prophets, was intrusted the task 
 of restoring this religion to its original purity. The Mo- 
 hammedan system (Islam), is partly doctrinal (Iman), and 
 partly practical (Din). Its principal articles of faith are, 
 the unity of God, predestination, and retribution in the 
 world to come. The moral law enjoins control over the c 
 passions, war against unbelievers, prayer five times a day, 
 repeated purifications with water or sand, almsgiving, fasts 
 (during the month of Ramadan, daily, until sunset), absti- 
 nence from wine, and a pilgrimage to the Caaba. It allows 
 polygamy, and permits its followers to recompense evil 
 for evil. The sacred writings of the Mohammedans are the 
 Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospels, and the Koran, or 
 collection of the prophet's sayings, preserved by Abu-Bekr, 
 and arranged by Othman. This work was speedily fol- 
 lowed by the Sunna, a collection of moral precepts, which 
 many of the Mohammedans refused to recognize. Hence d 
 the two sects of the Sunnites and Schiites. Conversion to 
 Mohammedanism was produced not so much by argu- 
 ment and conviction, as by the sword. All vanquished 
 nations were compelled either to pay tribute or conform 
 
 to the new religion ; and slaves, prisoners, and malefactors 
 were restored to freedom on declaring their assent to the 
 doctrines of the Koran. These circumstances will account 
 for the rapidity with which the religion of the Arabian 
 impostor was propagated. 
 
 2. Political Constitution. The supreme ecclesiastical 72 
 
40 THE MIDDLE AGES. [73, 74. § 16. 
 
 (72) as well as civil authority was vested in the caliphs. At 
 A first they were required to render a weekly account of their 
 administration to the people, who were consulted by them 
 on all important occasions ; but at a later period (especially 
 since the establishment of an hereditary caliphate by 
 Moawijah) their power was completely despotic. The 
 mode of life of the earliest caliphs was exceedingly simple 
 (Omar's journey to Jerusalem), but they soon learnt to 
 imitate the luxury of the conquered nations, whose trea- 
 sures supplied them with the means of enjoyment. The 
 lieutenants of the provinces were invested with military 
 as well as civil authority. Hence their power, and at a 
 later period the renunciation of their . allegiance to the 
 caliphs. 
 
 73 3. Arts and Sciences. As early as the fifth century 
 B there were poetical contests at the fair of Mecca, and seven 
 
 poems are still extant (the Moallakat), composed by authors 
 whose names were inscribed in letters of gold on the walls 
 of the Caaba. The warlike enthusiasm of the nation and 
 the fierce eagerness with which the earlier caliphs pursued 
 their plans of conquest, prevented the cultivation of science, 
 properly so called, until the reign of the Abbasides, when 
 the Arabian conquerors learnt to emulate the learning of 
 the Greeks. The golden age of Arabian architecture 
 began (about 700) with the erection of mosques at Jeru- 
 c salem and Damascus. Painting and sculpture were out 
 of the question among a people whose religion condemned 
 every representation of the human form. 
 
 74 4. Trade and Manufactures being recommended by the 
 Koran as employments pleasing to God, were held in high 
 estimation among the Arabians. The conquest of the 
 Persian empire had placed in their hands the commerce of 
 India. Westward their maritime trade extended over the 
 whole of the Mediterranean as far as the Straits of Gibraltar; 
 in the south, they founded the settlements along the whole 
 eastern coast of Africa to the borders of CafFreland, and 
 in the east they had a considerable factory at Canton in 
 
 D China. The land traffic was carried on by means of cara- 
 vans, which conveyed merchandise from Egypt into the 
 interior of Africa on the one side, and on the other into 
 Syria, and thence into central Asia. The principal markets 
 for the products of the extreme west and east were, Me- 
 
75, 76. § 17.] THE PERSIAN EMPIRE. 41 
 
 dina, Mecca, Kufa, Bassora, Damascus, Bagdad, Mosul, (74) 
 and Madam. Notwithstanding the perpetual wars, trade A 
 and manufactures of every description continued to flourish, 
 especially on the shores of Barbary and Spain. 
 
 § 17. The Modern Persian Empire, 226 — 651. 
 
 The boundaries of the empire founded by Artaxerxes I. 75 
 (Ardeschir), the son of Sassan (see B. i. 2, § 49), varied 
 at different times. Under Chosroes I. it extended from the 
 Mediterranean to the Indus, and from the Jaxartes to 
 Arabia and Egypt, and under Chosroes II. to Jemen. The 
 empire was divided into four provinces, viz. Assyria, 
 Media, Persia, and Bactriana. The capital city was B 
 Ctesiphon, on the eastern bank of the Tigris, with the 
 suburb of Seleucia on the opposite side, forming together 
 Madain, or the "double city." 
 
 The Persians were engaged in almost perpetual warfare 76 
 either with the Turks or the eastern Roman empire (see 
 § 15). The most distinguished among the (25) Sassanides, 
 next to the founder of the dynasty, was Chosroes I., sur- 
 named Nushirvan, or the Just, a contemporary of Justinian, 
 who terminated a war with the Byzantines, which had been 
 inherited by his predecessor, but subsequently recom- 
 menced hostilities in Syria at the instigation of the Ostro- 
 goths. On the appearance, however, of Belisarius in the c 
 east, he retraced his steps, and devoted all his energies to 
 the Lazic war, at the conclusion of which he renounced his 
 claims on Colchis, on condition of receiving an annual tri- 
 bute. During the forty-eight years of his reign (531 — 79) 
 the prosperity of the empire was promoted not so much by 
 foreign conquests, as by the establishment of domestic 
 order and tranquillity. The government of the four great D 
 provinces was intrusted to four viziers, whose administra- 
 tion was subjected to a rigid supervision ; an improved 
 system of legislation, war, and finance was introduced; 
 agricultural enterprise encouraged by protection and by 
 the artificial irrigation of the soil, higher and elementary 
 schools established, learned Greeks entertained at his 
 court, and the most celebrated Greek and Indian authors 
 translated into Persian. Destruction of the empire by 
 the Arabians, see § 16. 
 
42 THE MIDDLE AGES. [77, 78. § 18. 
 
 C. The North-East of Europe. 
 § 18. The Sclavonians. 
 
 77 Until the beginning of the fifth century, the eastern 
 A neighbors of Germany were denominated Wendes and 
 
 Sarmatians. The last of these names was exchanged for 
 that of Slaves or Sclavonians. Under Hermanric, these 
 ti'ibes were incorporated into the Gothic empire, and under 
 Attila, into that of the Huns, and after the dissolution of 
 those kingdoms, remained possessors of the eastern portion 
 of Germany (as far as the Elbe), which had been depopu- 
 lated by the migration of the Germans. They were divided 
 into the Baltic Wendes, who retained their independence 
 B the longest. 2. The Sorbes in central Germany (between 
 the Elbe and -the Saale), who were made tributary to the 
 Franks. 3. The Slaves, in the more restricted significa- 
 tion of the term, southwards from the Danube to Illyria, and 
 westwards to Bavaria. The Slaves were delivered from 
 the dominion of the Avars by their commander Samo, a 
 Frank who had relapsed into heathenism. This general was 
 recognized as king by most of the Slavish tribes, from 
 Dalmatia to the Giant Mountains (Riesengebirge). After 
 his death, the confederacy of the Slavish tribes was again 
 dissolved, and new empires (e. g. those of the Croatians and 
 Servians) arose from its ruins. The southern Slaves 
 remained under the dominion of the Lombards. 
 
 78 A certain similarity between the Slavish and Germanic 
 c tribes appears not only in the vigorous structure of their 
 
 bodies, but also to a certain extent in their religion (wor- 
 ship of nature, without images), constitution (patriarchal), 
 manner of life (avoidance of cities), and moral character, 
 for example, in their hospitality, chastity, and fidelity to 
 the marriage-bed. On the other hand, we find traces of 
 physical and moral difference in the liveliness of the 
 Slaves, their love of ornament and revelry, and the want 
 of union among individual tribes under a common head ; in 
 their practice of attacking from an ambuscade, their rapa- 
 city after a victory, and the frequent cruelties practised 
 towards their prisoners ; the burning of widows after the 
 death of their husbands, the alacrity with which they 
 
79, 80. §19.] NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 43 
 
 adopted the customs of neighboring nations (Romans, (78' 
 Greeks, Germans) ; their commercial enterprise at an early a 
 period of their history, the navigation of their rivers; and, 
 in later times, their industrious cultivation of the soil which 
 had been abandoned to their occupation by the Germans. 
 The languages of the two nations exhibit some traces of a 
 common origin, but the principles on which they are con- 
 structed are totally dissimilar. 
 
 § 19. Other Nations in the East of Europe. 
 
 1. The Avars, who had been compelled by the Turks 79 
 to evacuate their settlements in the north of Circassia, b 
 ascended the Danube, and after twice demanding in 
 vain an allotment of land in the Eastern Roman empire, 
 took possession of Dacia, overthrew the empire of the 
 Gepidse, with the assistance of the Lombards, established 
 themselves in Pannonia, which had been abandoned by their 
 allies, and wrested Dalmatia from the Byzantines. Thus, 
 
 in the year 600, their empire extended from the Volga to 
 the Saale and Ems: but, in the following century, its limits 
 were gradually circumscribed by the secession of neigh- 
 boring states, — the Bulgarians declared themselves inde- 
 pendent, Dalmatia was wrested from them by the Croatians 
 and Servians, and the eastern portion of the empire fell 
 into the hands of the Chazares. 
 
 2. The Bulgarians. 
 
 The Bulgarians, a Tartaric tribe, who had occupied 80 
 from time immemorial the shores of the Volga and the Ural c 
 mountains, ascended the Danube, and about the end of the 
 fifth century made annual incursions into the Byzantine 
 empire, laying waste the whole of the country from the 
 Ionian Sea to the suburbs of Constantinople. Having 
 effected a breach in the wall erected by Anastasius (see 
 § 15), for the defence of the Thracian Chersonese, they 
 crossed the Hellespont, and returned laden with the spoils 
 of Asia. The fortresses erected by Justinian on the Danube, 
 opposed a barrier equally feeble to their destructive pro- 
 gress. Their deliverance from the tyranny of the Avars, d 
 to whom they had been tributary during a period of seventy 
 years (562 — 635), was effected by one of their princes, 
 named Kuvrat, who founded a mighty empire, which his 
 
44 THE MIDDLE AGES. [81, 82. § 20. 
 
 (80) sons divided among themselves after his death, the third 
 a receiving for his portion Bulgaria Proper, or the territory- 
 lying between the Danube and the Hsemus. 
 81 3. The Chaz ares (also a Tartaric tribe) were masters, 
 in the seventh century, of the whole of Southern Russia, 
 from the Volga to the Dnieper, and were engaged in almost 
 perpetual warfare with the Persians, and the Romans of the 
 eastern empire. The famous Caucasian wall was erected 
 by Chosroes I., as a barrier against their invasions. 
 
 Second Period. 
 
 From the Accession of the Carlovingians and Abbasides to the first 
 Crusade, 752—1096. 
 
 A. The West. 
 
 § 20. The Frankish Empire under the Carlovingians. 
 
 (752—888.) 
 
 1. Pepin the Short (752—768) 
 
 82 governed the three united kingdoms of 1 . Austrasia, which 
 b comprehended Alemannia or Swabia, Bavaria, Thuringia, 
 and a part of Friesland. 2. Neustria. 3. Burgundy with 
 Provence and Septimania. War in Italy. The Ducatus 
 Romanus having been threatened by the Lombards, Pope 
 Stephen III. (II.), after an ineffectual attempt to obtain 
 support from the eastern emperor, implored the aid of 
 Pepin, whom he a second time crowned and anointed at 
 St. Denys, with his two sons Charles and Carloman. The 
 Franks were required thenceforward to choose their kings 
 from the male descendants of Pepin, whom the Pope raised 
 to the dignity of a Roman patrician, conferring on him at 
 the same time the title of Protector of the Church, and 
 enjoining him to undertake a crusade against the Lom- 
 bards, for the purpose of securing the Exarchate for the 
 c Holy See. In obedience to these injunctions, Pepin in- 
 vaded Italy, and after two campaigns compelled the Lom- 
 bard king (Aistulf), to surrender the whole line of 
 Adriatic coast (from Commachio to Ancona), which he 
 presented to the Roman Pontiff. Wars with neighboring 
 nations. — The Frieses, who had assassinated St. Boniface, 
 
83 85. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 45 
 
 were again subdued; theSaxons(aftertwocampaigns)com- (82) 
 pelled to pay tribute; the Arabians (after the surrender of A 
 Narbonne) expelled from Southern Gaul and Aquitania 
 (after the death of Duke Waifar) re-united to the Frankish 
 empire. 
 
 2. Charlemagne (768 — 814), 
 
 born in 742 (on the 2nd April ?), perhaps at Aachen, or 83 
 Aix-la-Chapelle, during the first three years of his reign 
 shared the throne with his brother Carloman, by whose 
 sudden death, in 771, he became sole king of the Franks, 
 to the exclusion of his two nephews, who fled with their 
 mother to the Lombardic court. 
 The wars of Charlemagne. 
 
 a. Conquest of Lombardy, 774. In compliance with 84 
 the wishes of his mother, Charlemagne had divorced his 
 first wife, and married a daughter of Desiderius, king of 
 the Lombards, whom he soon repudiated, and formed a third 
 matrimonial alliance with Hildegarde, a daughter of the 
 Duke of Swabia.. Desiderius, indignant at this treatment, b 
 supported the sons of Carloman in their claims to the Frank- 
 ish throne, and on the refusal of the Pope (Hadrian I.) to 
 crown them, took possession of the patrimony of St. Peter. 
 On receiving intelligence of this outrage, Charlemagne 
 invaded Italy, besieged Desiderius in Pavia, and entering 
 Rome, confirmed the grant of Pepin to the Holy See, the 
 possessions of which were now augmented by the addition 
 
 of Spoleto. Desiderius was taken prisoner by Charle- 
 magne, who caused himself to be proclaimed king of the 
 Lombards (or of Italy), in the year 774. An attempt of 
 the Langobardic nobles to reinstate Desiderius on the throne, 
 was frustrated by a second invasion of Italy. 
 
 b. Wars with the Saxons, 772 — 804. The Saxon na- 85 
 tion was divided into Westphalia between the Rhine and c 
 Ems, Engern between the Ems and Weser, Eastphalia be- 
 tween the Weser and Elbe, and Transalbingia beyond 
 the Elbe. From the earliest times a feeling of hostility 
 seems to have existed between the Saxon and Frankish 
 races, and ever since the reign of Chlotar I., the Mero- 
 vingians and their Saxon neighbors had been engaged 
 
 in perpetual struggles, with no more important result than 
 the subjugation of a few gaus by the Franks. With 
 
46 THE MIDDLE AGES. [86. §20. 
 
 (85) equal obstinacy, the Saxons resisted the introduction of 
 
 A Christianity into their country, putting the missionaries 
 to death and demolishing the churches. At a diet held at 
 Worms, in 772, it was resolved to attempt the subjugation 
 and conversion of these obstinate Unbelievers. In the first 
 campaign, Charlemagne stormed the Eresburg (hod. Stadt- 
 berg on the Diemel), and destroyed the Irminsul, a statue 
 to which divine honors were paid, but which does not 
 seem to have been dedicated exclusively to any one god. 
 After his first Italian campaign (and a diet at Duren, in 
 775), Charlemagne marched against Wittekind and Alboin, 
 who had invaded his kingdom at the head of a Saxon army, 
 stormed their fortress of Sigiburg (at the confluence of the 
 Ruhr and Lenne, and compelled them to give hostages. 
 During his second campaign in Italy, and an expedition 
 into Spain, the Saxons again advanced to Deutz on the 
 
 B Rhine, but were driven back by Charlemagne, who sub- 
 dued their country as far as the Elbe. Charlemagne now 
 ventured to send detachments of Saxons with two Frankish 
 armies against the Sorbes, who had invaded Thuringia, 
 but his faithless allies turned their arms against their com- 
 rades, an act of treachery which was punished by the 
 execution of 4500 Saxons at Verden on the Aller. A 
 general insurrection followed, and for three years the Saxons 
 made head against their powerful enemy. At length, after 
 two indecisive engagements (at Detmold and on the Hase), 
 Wittekind and Alboin entered into negotiations with Char- 
 
 c lemagne, and embraced Christianity, with most of their 
 followers. No sooner, however, was Charlemagne occu- 
 pied with the Bavarians and Avares, than the Saxons again 
 broke out into open rebellion. At last, after eight cam- 
 paigns (793 — 804), Charlemagne, with the assistance of 
 the Obotrites (in the country now called Mecklenburg), 
 after transplanting many of the Saxons into other countries, , 
 and conciliating several of their most influential nobles by 
 grants of land, succeeded in persuading the people to ac- 
 knowledge his authority, and embrace Christianity, without 
 86 formally concluding a peace. 1 
 
 d 3. War in Spaiti (778). At a diet held by Charlemagne 
 
 [ 2 There was no peace concluded at Selz, as has been generally 
 supposed.] 
 
87 90. §20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 47 
 
 at Paderborn,on his return from his third campaign against (86) 
 the Saxons, a petition for assistance against the Emir A 
 Abderrahman was presented to the king by the banished 
 governor of Saragossa. Charlemagne immediately entered 
 Spain, and subdued the whole of the country lying between 
 the Pyrenees and the Ebro, which was annexed, under the 
 name of the Spanish March, to the Frankish empire, 
 but, even during the lifetime of Charlemagne, was fre- 
 quently lost and recovered. On the homeward march, his 
 army was attacked by the mountaineers of Gascony, and 
 well-nigh annihilated in the pass of Roncesvalles (where 
 the renowned Roland lost his life). 
 
 4. War with the Avars (788— 801). Duke Tassilo of 87 
 Bavaria, who had several times violated his oath of alle- B 
 giance to Charlemagne at the instigation of his wife (a 
 daughter of Desiderius, king of Lombardy), and been 
 overthrown after a short campaign in 787, again raised the 
 standard of rebellion in conjunction with the Avars, but 
 was a second time defeated, taken prisoner, and confined in 
 a monastery. His dukedom was incorporated into the 
 Frankish empire. Charlemagne then attacked the Avars 
 in their own country, which he ravaged as far as the Raab ; 
 and, at a later period, his son Pepin was sent to subdue the 
 whole of the territory from the Ems to the Raab, which 
 was now denominated the Avaric March. 
 
 5. ,A war was carried on oy his son Charles against the 88 
 Danes and Wilzes, who had attacked Charlemagne's c 
 allies, the Obotrites. After the murder of their king 
 Gottfried, the Danes concluded a peace (810), by which 
 the Eider was recognized as the boundary between 
 their country and that of the Franks. The Wilzes were 
 soon afterwards entirely subdued. 
 
 In order to secure the frontiers of his empire, which 89 
 now extended from the Ebro to the Raab, and from Bene- 
 vento to the Eider, Charlemagne established, especially in 
 the east, Margravates (Friuli, the Spanish, Avaric, and 
 Danish Marches, &c.) 
 
 Restoration of the Western Roman Empire 90 
 (800). Pope Leo III., having been shamefully ill-treated D 
 by the opposite party during a solemn procession, ap- 
 peared before the diet at Paderborn, and induced Char- 
 lemagne (who had already assumed the office of protector 
 
48 THE MIDDLE AGES. [91. §20. 
 
 (90) of the Church, in his character of Roman Patrician), 
 
 A to visit Rome and chastise the offenders. In return for 
 the assistance thus afforded, Charlemagne on Christmas- 
 day in the year 800, received from the Pope the title 
 of Roman Emperor, and immediately required from 
 his subjects an oath not merely of fidelity, but of unquali- 
 fied submission to his commands. The new relation be- 
 tween the Emperor and Pope was not that of a vassal to 
 his feudal lord, but rather the co-existence of two su- 
 preme authorities, the spiritual being exercised by 
 
 B the Pope and the temporal by the Emperor. This supre- 
 macy was mutually recognized ; the Pope, as restorer of 
 the western empire, enjoying the privilege of placing the 
 imperial crown on the head of the Emperor, to whom he 
 administered an oath of allegiance to the Holy See ; whilst, 
 on the other hand, no election of a Pope was valid unless 
 approved and confirmed by the Emperor. Both parties 
 pledged themselves to act in concert, and support one 
 another on all occasions. 
 
 Charlemagne's administration. 
 91 a. Ecclesiastical and educational establishments. For 
 
 c the confirmation of the Saxons in their profession of Chris- 
 tianity, Charlemagne founded eight bishoprics in that 
 country(Osnabriick and Miinster for the Westphalians, Min- 
 den and Paderborn for the Engernians ; Bremen, Verden, 
 and Hildesheim for the Eastphalians, and Halberstadt for 
 the Thuringians). To each of these cathedrals, as well 
 as to the monasteries, were annexed schools for instruc- 
 tion in the seven liberal arts (see § 14. IV). In the 
 establishment of these seminaries, Charlemagne was as- 
 sisted by his own tutor, the Anglo-Saxon monk, Alcuin. 
 
 D At the same time measures were adopted for restoring the 
 respectability of the clergy, by procuring for them a more 
 liberal education, introducing among them the canonical 
 life (a chapter of canons being attached to each cathedral), 
 prohibiting war and the chase, exempting them from the 
 jurisdiction of the civil courts, and appointing them to the 
 most important offices of state. His subjects were also 
 required to pay tithes to the Church. The affection of 
 Charlemagne for his mother-tongue induced him to give 
 German names to the months ; to compile, with the assist- 
 ance of Alcuin, a grammar of the Frankish language, and 
 
92—94. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 49 
 
 to publish a collection of old German heroic ballads. For (91) 
 the improvement of church music, professors of singing a 
 were invited from Rome by the advice of Alcuin. 
 
 b. Legislation. Codes of laws in the Latin language 
 were given to those nations (the Frieses, Saxons, and 92 
 Thuringians) which possessed no written statutes ; whilst, 
 
 at the same time, the ancient "leges" of the other tribes 
 (see § 14, 2. c), especially the lex Salica, were enlarged 
 by the addition of Capitularies, which were enacted at the 
 diet, and thenceforth became the law, not merely of those 
 tribes, but of the empire in general. To facilitate the 
 execution of the laws, the right of asylum possessed by 
 churches was considerably restricted. 
 
 c. The Constitution, in all essential particulars, remained 93 
 the same as it had been under the Merovingians ; the only b 
 changes introduced being such as were rendered necessary 
 by the progress of civilization. The feudal system was 
 more fully developed; but, in spite of the opposition of 
 Charlemagne, many of the fiefs became hereditary allodes. 
 The division of estates into gaus, under the presidence of a 
 count, who possessed the right of administering justice and 
 calling out the army, was still retained ; and the officers 
 
 of the court were the same as before, with the exception 
 of the Majordomat, which was now merged in the royal 
 dignity. These officers resided at the court of Aachen c 
 [Aix-la-Chapelle], or at Ingelheim, and accompanied the 
 emperor on his yearly progress through his dominions. 
 The Archchaplain (Apocrisiarius) acted as the sovereign's 
 vicegerent in spiritual matters, and the Comes Palatii in 
 temporal. 
 
 Besides the "field of May," or general review of the 94 
 army, at which all males capable of bearing arms were 
 present, Charlemagne held a second diet in the autumn, 
 which was attended by the spiritual and temporal dignita- 
 ries of the empire. At this diet, which assembled alter- d 
 nately at Worms, Aachen, Duren, Paderborn, &c, questions 
 of inferior moment were determined summarily, the more 
 important being reserved for discussion at the next field of 
 May. For the purpose of obtaining a more accurate 
 knowledge of each province, Charlemagne every year sent 
 into certain districts (legationes or missatica, each of which 
 comprised several counties or dioce c es) imperial commis- 
 3 
 
50 THE MIDDLE AGES. [95. § 20. 
 
 (94) sioners (missi dominici), one of whom belonged to the high- 
 
 a est rank of spiritual, and the other of temporal, nobility. 
 The duty of these commissioners was to hold visitations 
 (placita), at which the assembled ecclesiastics and nobility 
 of the district were required to render an account of the 
 different branches of administration. They were also em- 
 powered to settle disputes, inspect the imperial demesnes, 
 inquire into the condition of the churches and monasteries, 
 and the lives of the clergy, and prepare a list of male per- 
 sons capable of bearing arms. Every freeholder who 
 possessed three (afterwards four) mansi, or homesteads, 
 
 B was required to serve for three months in the army. Those 
 who possessed less than- the above qualification were 
 allowed to club together and arm one of their number. 
 The militia of each province was commanded by a duke. 
 A fine of sixty solidi was imposed on all who neglected to 
 appear in arms at the place of rendezvous, and those who 
 were unable to pay this penalty were sent to work it out 
 on the imperial farms. Spiritual persons were exempt 
 from military service, but were required to arm their able- 
 bodied vassals. The punishment of death continued to be 
 
 c inflicted on deserters. It was forbidden to carry weapons 
 in time of peace. The imperial revenues were derived 
 from the following sources : aa, the (163) crown demesnes; 
 bb, presents from his subjects in the month of May; 
 cc, duties; dd, land and poll taxes; ee, tributes of depen- 
 dent nations. 
 95 For the encouragement of commerce, which had been 
 severely crippled by his numerous wars, Charlemagne esta- 
 blished depots, opened annual markets, improved the high- 
 ways, and diminished the imposts. 
 
 After the conclusion of his war with the Saxons, the 
 emperor divided his dominions among his three sons, 
 Charles, Pepin, and Lewis, of whom only the youngest 
 
 d survived him. At a diet held at Aachen in 813, Lewis 
 was proclaimed his successor in the imperial and royal 
 dignities, and received the crown from the hands of his 
 father. Pepin's illegitimate son Bernard was permitted to 
 hold the kingdom of Italy as a fief from his uncle. On the 
 ' 28th January in the following year Clarlemagne died at 
 Aachen, and was buried in the cathedral of that city, which 
 he himself had founded. 
 
96, 97. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 51 
 
 3. Lewis the Pious (814—840). 
 
 Lewis, whose benevolence, love of justice, and piety 96 
 were, in a great measure, neutralized by his weakness of A 
 purpose and ignorance of human nature, promulgated, at a 
 diet at Aachen, a number of new regulations for the govern- 
 ment of spiritual persons, monks, and nuns. In the year 
 817 an imperial edict was issued, dividing the empire 
 among his three sons, Lothar [Lothaire], Pepin, and Lewis. 
 Lothar was raised to the imperial throne as the colleague of 
 his father; Pepin received Aquitania ; and Lewis, Bavaria. 
 Bernard of Italy was deprived of his sight for conspiring 
 against his uncle, and soon afterwards died. The crown 
 of Italy was then placed on the head of Lothar. 
 
 Soon afterwards the emperor married a second wife 97 
 (Judith, daughter of Count Welf ), by whom he had b 
 Charles the Bald. The settlement of Alemannia, Alsace, 
 and a part of Burgundy on this son, excited the envy of 
 his brothers, who entered into a conspiracy against their 
 father, which was followed up (after the compulsory ces- 
 sion of Aquitania by Pepin to Charles) by a declaration 
 of war. Lewis was taken prisoner in an engagement on 
 the plain of Colmar (called from the treachery of his 
 nobles the "perjurers' field"), deprived of his crown, and 
 compelled to do penance in a monastery at Soissons. But 
 the- arrogance of Lothar soon disgusted his brothers, who 
 replaced their father on the throne. The sons of Pepin c 
 (who died before his father) were excluded from the suc- 
 cession, and the dominions of Lewis divided (by the advice 
 of his wife) among his surviving children ; Charles the Bald 
 receiving the western portion as far as the Maas (Meuse), 
 Saone, and Rhone ; Lothar the eastern ; and Lewis only 
 Bavaria. 
 
52 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 [97. §20. 
 
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98 103. § 20.] FRANKISH EMPIRE. 53 
 
 The Successors of Lewis the Pious to 887. 
 
 Immediately after the death of Lewis, a quarrel arose 98 
 among his sons, in consequence of an attempt on the part A 
 of Lothar, as emperor, to exclude his brothers from all par- 
 ticipation in the government. A battle was fought in 841, 
 near the village of F on ten ay (Fontenaille), in Burgundy, 
 in which Lothar was defeated. The war, however, con- 
 tinued until 843, when Lothar found himself compelled to 
 conclude with his brothers the famous Treaty of Ver- 
 dun, by which 
 
 Lewis (surnamed the German) received all the Frank- 99 
 ish territory on the right bank of the Rhine (with the ex- 
 ception of Friesland), together with Spiers, Worms, and 
 Mainz. 
 
 Charles the Bald had all the western provinces as 100 
 far as the Scheld, Maas, Saone, and Rhone. b 
 
 Lothar had the territory eastward of those rivers to the 101 
 Alps and the Rhine, with the exception of three' cities. 
 The southern portion of this strip of land was called Bur- 
 gundy, and the northern Lorraine (Lotharii regnum). Italy 
 -and Friesland were also settled on him. 
 
 The three new kingdoms were soon disquieted by intes- 102 
 tine commotions, the quarrels of their sovereigns with one 
 another, and perpetual contests with a wild piratical race 
 called the Normans, or Northmen, who availed them- 
 selves of the distracted condition of the empire to make 
 descents on the coasts, especially of western France. Sail- c 
 ing in their light galleys up the Loire, Garonne, and Rhone, 
 they sacked the cities of Rouen, Paris, &c, ravaged the 
 country, and overthrew the armies of Charles the Bald. 
 Italy was also visited by these marauders, as well as by the 
 Arabian pirates. In Germany, the Normans sailed up the 
 Elbe, and burnt the city of Hamburg, but were beaten back 
 by Lewis. During the whole period of this prince's reign, 
 the eastern frontier of his kingdom was the scene of per- 
 petual struggles with Sclavonic tribes, particularly with 
 the Bohemians and Moravians. 
 
 The Emperor Lothar I. at his death, in 855, had divided 103 
 his kingdom among his three sons; the youngest of whom, d 
 Charles, died in 863, leaving his portion to be equally 
 distributed between his surviving brothers, the Emperor 
 
54 THE MIDDLE AGES. [104 109. § 20. 
 
 (103) Lewis II. and Lothar II. After the death of this Lothar, 
 A his kingdom of Lorraine was seized by his uncles, Lewis 
 the German and Charles the Bald. 
 
 104 Lewis II. having died without male issue, in 875, Charles 
 the Bald anticipating his elder brother, Lewis the German, 
 hastened into Italy, where he was crowned king of that 
 country and Roman emperor. On the death of Lewis the 
 German, in the following year (876), his kingdom was 
 divided among his three sons ; the youngest of whom, 
 Charles the Fat, became sole occupant of the throne 
 
 B after the decease of both his brothers. As none of the 
 descendants of Charles the Bald survived, after the death 
 of bis son Lewis the Stammerer (877 — 879), and two elder 
 grandsons, with the exception of an infant named Charles 
 the Simple, little difficulty was experienced by Charles 
 the Fat in reuniting the whole Frankish monarchy 
 (885 — 887), with the exception of the Spanish March, the 
 dukedom of Carinthia, and the cisjuranic kingdom of Bur- 
 gundy (separated in 879), the crown of which had been 
 conferred by the estates on Count Boso (of Vienne), 
 brother-in-law of Charles the Bald. The power of Charles, 
 however, was insufficient either to repress the intestine 
 disturbances of his kingdom, or make head against the 
 
 c Normans, who burnt Cologne, Bonn, and Treves. His 
 pusillanimity in consenting to pay tribute, and abandoning 
 Burgundy to the Normans, so displeased his subjects, that 
 at a diet held at Tribur, in 887, he was set aside, and died 
 in the beginning of the following year. The Frankish 
 empire was then broken up into five portions, viz. : — 
 
 105 1. The western Frankish empire was assigned 
 to Count Otho of Paris, brother-in-law of Lewis the 
 Stammerer. 
 
 106 2. Germany to Arnulf, Duke of Carinthia, a natural 
 D son of Carloman, and grandson of Lewis the German. 
 
 107 3 and 4. Burgundy was divided into transjuranic 
 andcisj uranic; the former founded by Rudolf Welf, pre- 
 viously Duke of the West Franks ; the latter governed, 
 since 879, by Boso, son-in-law of the Emperor Lewis II. 
 
 108 5. In Italy, the sovereignty was disputed between 
 Guido of Spoleto, and Berengar, Margrave of Friuli. 
 
 109 Domestic History (814—887). Under the feeble 
 successors of Charlemagne, there arose a temporal and 
 
109. §20.] FEANKISH EMPIRE. » 55 
 
 ecclesiastical aristocracy, whose influence increased (109) 
 in proportion to the decline of the imperial authority, and a 
 the subjugation of the common freeholders, most of whom 
 were compelled by violence and oppression to hold their 
 estates as fiefs from the nobility and clergy. These usur- 
 pations were facilitated by the practice, which daily became 
 more general, of making fiefs hereditary, and by the right 
 which the nobles had gradually acquired of electing their 
 own sovereign on the extinction of a dynasty, as well as 
 by the suppression of the royal commissioners. Instead of B 
 offering any effectual opposition to these encroachments, 
 the kings were only too happy, amidst partitions of the 
 empire, intestine disputes, and foreign wars, to conciliate 
 the favor of the nobles by the most unlimited concessions. 
 Among other instances of weakness, it may be mentioned, 
 that Charles the Bald granted to the West Frankish nobility 
 the right of resisting with the strong hand the introduction 
 of any measure which they might consider unjust. The 
 dukedoms which had been suppressed by Charlemagne 
 were now restored, especially in those provinces which 
 were threatened with foreign invasion, where the authority 
 of the king was inadequate to the maintenance of peace : in 
 Thuringia, for instance, against the Sorbes, and in Saxony 
 against the Normans, in the reign of Lewis the German. 
 The influence of the clergy over all classes became daily c 
 more confirmed, as the institutions of the Church developed 
 themselves ; and men discovered that the ecclesiastical body 
 enjoyed exclusive possession of the learning of those days. 
 The so-called decretals of St. Isidore did not, it is true, 
 establish a power which existed in its fullest extent before 
 their publication, but they served, by authoritatively pro- 
 claiming the actual supremacy of the Church, to consolidate 
 and uphold her claims to universal dominion. 1 
 
 [* About the year 867, a German deacon, named Benedictus Levita, 
 published a collection of ecclesiastical statutes, or "decretals," in which 
 the supremacy of the Pope over general councils, and his right of 
 appointing bishops and settling all ecclesiastical controversies, were 
 distinctly asserted. As it was important to assign to these decretals 
 a date antecedent to the empire, Benedict pretended that they were 
 the production of St. Isidore, a Spaniard who flourished in the 
 seventh century. Their genuineness was asserted by Pope Nicho- 
 las I., who made them the groundwork of the papal claims to 
 
56 THE MIDDLE AGES. [110—112. §21,22. 
 
 § 21. The East Frankish Empire under the two last 
 Carlovingians (887 — 911). 
 
 110 1. Arnulf (887 — 899) compelled Guido and the two 
 A kings of Burgundy to acknowledge him as their feudal 
 
 lord, and thus re-united Italy and Burgundy, as fiefs, to 
 the German empire. The utter defeat of the Normans 
 (891) served to raise the military reputation of Arnulf, 
 but not to scare them from their acts of piracy, in 
 which they were encouraged by the knowledge that the 
 Moravians (who, since the fall of the Avaric monai'chy, had 
 advanced as far as Hungary) were now, under their leader 
 Zwentibold, menacing the eastern frontier of Germany. 
 B By the aid of the Magyars, or Hungarians (who had 
 proceeded up the Danube after their expulsion from their 
 settlements on the Ural mountains by the Petschenegers), 
 the Moravians- were compelled to evacuate their country 
 (from the Gran to the Morawa), which was soon afterwards 
 occupied by the Magyars. Arnulf was crowned emperor, 
 but was unable to settle the disputes of the different can- 
 didates for the crown of Italy. 
 
 111 2. Lewis the Child (900 — 911). During the regency 
 c of Archbishop Hatto of Mainz, and Duke Otho of Saxony 
 
 (guardians of Lewis), the nobles had many opportunities 
 of consolidating their power. In Bavaria and Alemannia 
 national dukedoms were established for the protection of 
 those countries against the marauding incursions of the 
 Hungarians, who, since the overthrow of the Moravian 
 empire, had almost every year invaded Carinthia and 
 Bavaria, and, after the defeat of Lewis's army, had ravaged 
 Alemannia, Thuringia, and Saxona. The ducal dignity 
 was also re-established about this time in Lorraine and 
 Franconia ; so that, at the termination of the Carlovingian 
 dynasty, there were no less than six national dukes in 
 Germany. 
 
 § Empire of the East Franks under Conrad I. of 
 Franconia (911—918). 
 
 112 After the extinction of the Carlovingian race, an attempt 
 
 universal supremacy. — Wolf gang Menzels Geschichte derDeutsch.cn; 
 Capitel 13 7. J 
 
113. §23.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 57 
 
 was made by the nations in the south of Germany (the (112) 
 Alemanni and Bavarians) to establish independent king- A 
 doms. On the other hand, the Eastern Franks and Saxons 
 proceeded to the election of an emperor, and chose Otho 
 the Illustrious, duke of Saxony ; but that prince having 
 refused the crown on account of his advanced age, a second 
 election took place, and the East Frankish Duke Conrad 
 was chosen on his recommendation, the Alemanni and 
 Bavarians acquiescing in the choice. Lorraine, on the 
 other hand, became a province of the West Frankish em- 
 pire. During the whole of his reign, Conrad was occupied B 
 in fruitless attempts to render the vassals, especially the 
 dukes, subject to his authority ; the provinces being left in 
 the mean time to defend themselves, as best they might, 
 against repeated invasions of the Normans. Lorraine con- 
 tinued to be a dependency of the West Frankish empire. 
 The Duke of Bavaria, after sustaining a defeat, went over 
 to the Hungarians, hoping with their assistance to maintain 
 his independence. Henry, son of Otho the Illustrious, 
 not only held possession of all his father's fiefs, but even 
 established his right to the independent duchies of Saxony 
 and Thuringia. On his deathbed Conrad recommended c 
 Henry as his successor. There were now four German 
 dukedoms, viz., Eastern Franconia, Saxony, Swabia, and 
 Bavaria. 
 
 § 23. The German Empire under kings of the house of 
 Saxony (919—1024). 
 
 1. Henry I., surnamed the Fowler (919 — 936), 113 
 quickly carried into effect the plans of his predecessor, 
 subduing the Duke of Alemannia, who had availed him- 
 self of the change of sovereigns to declare his country 
 independent, as well as the Duke of Bavaria (who had 
 returned from Hungary), and re-uniting Lorraine to the 
 empire. An armistice for nine years was granted by the d 
 Hungarians in return for the restoration to liberty of 
 one of their princes, who had been taken prisoner in 
 Hungary, the Germans engaging to pay an annual tribute 
 during the whole of that period. This breathing time 
 was employed by Henry in placing the army on a more 
 efficient footing, building strongholds (Merseburg, Meissen, 
 Quedlinburg, Nordhausen, Goslar — hence his surname of 
 3* 
 
58 THE MIDDLE AGES. [114. §23. 
 
 (113) the "City-builder"), establishing an order of knighthood, 
 A and restoring the military games (the origin of tourna- 
 ments). At the same time the army was exercised in 
 warfare : 1. Against the Sclavonians from the Elbe to the 
 Baltic. The conquest of these tribes enabled him to ex- 
 tend the boundaries of the empire from the Elbe to the 
 Middle Oder. 2. Against, the Normans, who were com- 
 pelled to evacuate their territory from the Eider to Schles- 
 wig. Three Margravates were established for the defence 
 of the frontiers, viz. : a. North Saxony, against the Wilzes ; 
 b. Meissen, against the Sclavonians ; c. Schleswig, against 
 B the Normans. Having completed his preparations, Henry 
 refused the further payment of tribute, and when the Hun- 
 garians invaded Thuringia, overthrew them at Merseburg, 
 in the year 933. He was succeeded by his second son, 
 
 2. Otho I. (surnamed the Great), 
 
 114 the first king elected by the common suffrages of the five 
 principal nations. From this time the ceremony of coro- 
 nation was always performed at Aachen [Aix-la-Chapelle]. 
 The first years of his reign were passed in disputes with the 
 Dukes of Bohemia, Bavaria, Franconia. and Lorraine, who 
 had formed a confederacy with Otho's discontented brothers 
 Tankmar and Henry, and even with Lewis IV., king of 
 c France. After the termination of this contest, an attempt 
 was made by Otho to diminish the influence of the dukes 
 by the establishment in each province of a Count Palatine, 
 or imperial lieutenant ; his own authority being at the same 
 time strengthened by the elevation of four of his relations 
 to the dukedom. His friend Herman Billing was invested 
 with Otho's own dukedom of Saxony, in return for his 
 services in putting an end to the Bohemian war. The 
 D feudal supremacy of the emperor over the united (since 
 933) kingdoms of Burgundy, which had been in abeyance 
 since the death of Arnulph, was re-established; and in the 
 year 933 Lorraine was divided into two dukedoms, viz., 
 Upper Lorraine on the Moselle, and Lower Lorraine on the 
 Maas [Meuse] and the sea-coast. The same care was be- 
 stowed by Otho on ecclesiastical affairs and the establish- 
 ment of schools, as on the improvement of the constitution ; 
 laws were enacted against simony, the privileges of the 
 
115. §23.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 59 
 
 Church augmented, and bishoprics established, especially (114) 
 in the Sclavonic countries, Brandenburg and Havelberg. 
 
 Foreign Wars. 1. The Danes, who had invaded and laid 115 
 waste the Margravate of Schleswig (founded by Henry I.), a 
 were compelled (after a single campaign, in which Otho 
 advanced into Jutland as far as Ottesund) to recognize the 
 feudal supremacy of Germany, and embrace Christianity. 
 2. The Duke of Bohemia (Boleslav), who had a second 
 time thrown off his allegiance, submitted to Otho, became 
 a Christian, and founded the bishopric of Prague. 3. First 
 Italian campaign. Italy had been severed from Germany 
 since the days of Arnulf. Lothar, king of that country, 
 having been assassinated by Berengar II., (Margrave of 
 Ivrea), an appeal was made by Adelaide, widow of the mur- 
 dered man, to Otho, who entered Italy, and having liberated 
 and married the queen, was crowned king of the Lombards at 
 Pavia, and soon afterwards (at Augsburg) invested Berengar 
 with the sovereignty of Italy as a fief of Germany. 4. The b 
 Hungarians, who had entered Bavaria with an army of 
 100,000 men, were totally defeated on the plain of the 
 Lech, and never again appeared in Germany. The Chris- 
 tian religion was soon afterwards generally received among 
 them. 5. A victory over the Wendish Sclavonians was 
 followed by the recognition, on the part of the Duke of 
 Poland, of the feudal supremacy of the German empire, as 
 well as by the subjugation and conversion of all the Scla- 
 vonian tribes as far as the Vistula. 6. Second Italian 
 campaign. The complaints of Berengar's tyranny, which 
 reached Otho from all quarters, induced him to send his 
 son Ludolf into Italy, and after his death to visit that 
 country in person. Having deposed Berengar, and assumed c 
 the iron crown at Milan, Otho proceeded to Rome, where 
 he revived the title of Emperor of the West, 
 which, from that time (962), until the period of its extinction 
 in 1806, was always borne by the German kings. After 
 quelling repeated disturbances, and obtaining from the 
 Romans a promise that no Pope should be chosen without 
 his consent, Otho returned to Germany, where he endea- 
 vored to improve the condition of his cities by encou- 
 raging trade and manufactures, and especially by the 
 establishment of markets. 7. In a third Italian campaign 
 he wrested from the Greeks their possessions in Lower 
 
60 THE MIDDLE AGES. [116 118. §23. 
 
 (115) Italy, with the exception of Benevento and Capua, which 
 A were ceded to him by treaty ; the hand of the Greek princess 
 Theophania being at the same time bestowed on his son 
 Otho, who had already been crowned king and emperor. 
 
 3. Otho II. (973—983). 
 
 116 A war with France (during which KingLothar surprised 
 Otho II. in Aachen, but was driven back as far as Paris) 
 was terminated by Lothar's consenting to hold Lorraine as 
 a fief of the empire. The refusal of the Greeks to give up 
 certain lands in Apulia and Calabria, which he claimed as 
 the dowry of his wife, furnished Otho with an excuse for 
 entering Lower Italy, where he was defeated near Basan- 
 tello, by the forces of the Greeks, assisted by the Arabians, 
 whom they had summoned from Sicily for that purpose. 
 
 B He died at Rome, in the midst of his preparations for a 
 fresh campaign, and was succeeded by his son 
 
 4. Otho III. (983—1002), 
 
 117 a child of three years old, under the guardianship of his 
 mother Theophania, and, after herdeath, of his grandmother 
 Adelaide and his aunt the Abbess Matilda. Carinthia was 
 separated from Bavaria, and erected into a seventh duchy. 
 An attempt having been made by a party at Rome, headed 
 by the Consul Crescentius, to emancipate themselves from 
 the German yoke, Otho three times visited that city, and, 
 after restoring tranquillity, assumed the imperial crown, 
 and raised a nominee of his own to the papal chair, but, 
 happily for Germany, was unable to carry out his favorite 
 plan of making Rome the capital of the German empire. 
 
 c A separate election of each province placed on the throne 
 -as his successor a great-grandson of Henry I., 
 
 5. Henry II. (surnamed the Saint) (1002 — 1024), 
 
 118 the first king who was required, as the condition of his 
 election, to guarantee to each nation all the privileges which 
 had been at any time enjoyed by the people. During the 
 absence of Henry in Germany, where he was detained by 
 the intrigues of his enemies, an attempt was made by some 
 of the provinces to throw off* the German yoke. Harduin, 
 Margrave of Ivrea, caused himself to be proclaimed king 
 of Italy, whilst at the same time Duke Boleslav, of Poland, 
 
119, 120. § 24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 61 
 
 overran Bohemia and Moravia, and formed an alliance with (118) 
 the discontented German princes. After defeating Har- a 
 duin, and assuming the crown of Italy (at Pavia), Henry 
 compelled Boleslav to evacuate Bohemia, and recognize 
 him as his liege lord (probably only with reference to the 
 provinces of Lusatia and Silesia). During a second visit 
 to Italy, occasioned by a fresh attempt on the part of 
 Harduin to obtain possession of that country, Henry was 
 solemnly crowned emperor; and soon afterwards the death 
 of Harduin terminated for ever the contests between the 
 native and German princes for the possession of the Italian 
 crown. A third Italian campaign was signalized by the B 
 defeat of the Greeks, and the establishment in Apulia of 
 the Norman allies, to whose co-operation Henry was in 
 some measure indebted for his victory. 
 
 § 24. The German Empire under the Franconian Emperors 
 (1024—1125). 
 
 1. Conrad II. (1024—1039) 
 
 was chosen at Mainz by the unanimous suffrages of the 119 
 eight German dukes, and crowned at Aachen, Milan, and 
 Rome. The first act of his reign was to confirm the Nor- 
 mans in their settlements in Lower Italy. After the decease 
 of Rudolph III., king of Burgundy, who died without issue, 
 that country was added, as a lapsed fief, to the German 
 empire, and at the same time the supremacy of Germany 
 over Poland and Bohemia was re-established. On the c 
 other hand, the March of Schleswig, which was no longer 
 of any value as a barrier against the Normans, was ceded 
 by Conrad to Canute, the king of Denmark, Norway, and 
 England : and thus the Eider became again the northern 
 boundai'y of the German empire. During his second visit 
 to Italy, Conrad passed a law by which the smaller fiefs 
 were made hereditary both in Germany and Italy. His 
 family influence was extended by the nomination of four 
 members of the royal house to the vacant dukedoms of 
 Bavaria, Swabia, Franconia, and Carinthia. 
 
 2. Henry III. (1039—1056). 
 
 The first act of Henry's administration was to consoli- 120 
 date the family influence of which his father had laid D 
 the foundation. By retaining the dukedoms of Bavaria 
 and Swabia, which he had held before his elevation to the 
 
62 THE MIDDLE AGES. [121. §24. 
 
 (120) throne, and allowing those of Carinthia and Franconia to 
 
 A remain vacant, he established the imperial authority, with- 
 out the intervention of any secondary power, over the whole 
 of Southern Germany, as well as Italy and Burgundy. At 
 the same time Bretislav, duke of Bohemia, who had in- 
 vaded Poland, was reduced to submission, and the feudal 
 sovereignty over Hungary insured for a season (1045 — 
 1063) by the restoration of Peter, the exiled sovereign of 
 that country. At this period the German empire com- 
 prised three kingdoms (Italy, Burgundy, and Hungary); 
 six German dukedoms (Alemannia, Bavaria, Franconia, 
 Saxony, Upper and Lower Lorraine) ; and three Sclavo- 
 
 B nian (Bohemia with Moravia, Poland, and Carinthia). For 
 the better maintenance of peace in Alemannia, Bavaria, and 
 Carinthia, dukes were re-established in those countries, but 
 the dignity was never conferred on a native, and its pos- 
 sessor was entirely dependent on the imperial crown. 
 Franconia was already considered the hereditary property 
 of the royal house. Introduction into Germany of the 
 "Truce of God" (treuga Dei), by which all quarrels were 
 suspended from Wednesday evening to Monday morning, 
 as well as during the seasons of Lent and Advent. 
 121 Henry's next project was the reformation of the 
 Church, especially in Germany, with reference especially 
 to its two most glaring abuses, — simony, or the sale of 
 benefices, and the immoral lives of the clergy. As it was 
 desirable that these reforms should emanate from the pope 
 himself, Henry endeavored to re-establish unity in the 
 Church, by setling aside three rival pontiffs, and raising a 
 
 c German (Clement II.) to the papal throne. In return for 
 these services the new pope placed the imperial crown on the 
 head of Henry, and entered into a solemn engagement that 
 thenceforth no election of a pope should be considered 
 valid unless confirmed by the emperor. Stringent laws 
 against the luxury of the clergy, and against simony, were 
 enacted by Henry and four popes, who were successively 
 elevated by him to the throne of St. Peter ; whilst, on the 
 other hand, all his plans for subjecting the Church to the 
 temporal power were cautiously but effectually resisted by 
 
 D the papal chancellor, Hildebrand. The Normans were 
 confirmed by Henry in the possession of their conquests 
 in Apulia and Calabria, which they were afterwards con- 
 tent to hold as vassals of the see of Rome. 
 
122, 123. §24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 63 
 
 3. Henry IV. (1056—1106), 
 
 a child of six years old, succeeded his father, under the 122 
 guardianship of his mother the empress Agnes. The ad- a 
 ministration of the kingdom, which had been usurped by 
 Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, who had secured the person 
 of the young king, was wrested from his grasp by Adalbert, 
 archbishop of Bremen, whose insolence at last so irritated 
 the nobles of Germany, that, at a diet held at Tribur, they 
 offered Henry the choice either of renouncing his favorite 
 or resigning the crown. Adalbert was banished in conse- 
 quence of these threats, but at the end of three years he re- 
 appeared at the imperial court, and endeavored to annihilate 
 the party of his opponents. Otho, duke of Bavaria, was b 
 falsely accused of high treason and deprived of his dukedom 
 (which was conferred on his son-in-law We If [Guelph], 
 founder of the junior Welfic [Guelphic] line; and his ally 
 Magnus, son of the Duke of Saxony, was thrown into prison. 
 After the death of Adalbert in 1072, Hanno again resumed 
 the reins, which the infirmities of old age compelled him to 
 resign at the end of a year. Being now left to himself and c 
 his own evil passions, Henry committed the most capricious 
 excesses, conferring dukedoms and bishoprics on his un- 
 worthy favorites, and endeavoring to render Saxony 
 immediately subject to the imperial crown. With this view 
 fortresses were built, and garrisons distributed over the 
 whole country ; and Magnus, who had been elected duke 
 on the death of his father, was still detained a prisoner. 
 
 War with the Saxons (1073—1075). 
 
 The oppressive administration of the king, the insolence 123 
 with which he treated the assembled nobles of Saxony, and d 
 the lawless proceedings of the royal garrisons, so irritated the 
 Saxons, that an insurrection at length broke out, and 60,000 
 men appeared before Goslar, where Henry was at that time 
 residing. In the extremity of his terror Henry fled to Harz- 
 burg, and thence to Worms, where he was received with 
 every mark of respect by the citizens, notwithstanding the 
 opposition of their bishop. A peace was concluded at Gerstun- 
 gen, the chief condition of which was, that all Henry's for- 
 tresses in Saxony should be levelled with the ground. This 
 peace the princes of Upper Germany and the Rhineland re- 
 fused to ratify; and Henry in consequence again took the field, 
 and overthrew the Saxons at Hohenbum on the Unstrut. 
 
64 THE MIDDLE AGES. [124. §24. 
 
 Contest between Gregory VII. and the princes 
 of Germany (1073—1085). " 
 124 As archdeacon and chancellor of five successive popes, 
 
 A Hildebrand had been gradually preparing the way for the 
 development of his mighty project of rendering the Church 
 independent, of the State, and using the authority thus acquired 
 for the improvement and reformation of the Church itself. l 
 
 B With this view he had, as early as the year 1 059, persuaded a 
 council held in the church of St. John Lateran, to pass a reso- 
 lution that thenceforth the pope should be elected by a college 
 of cardinals, and accepted by the rest of the clergy and the 
 Roman people; the emperor's right of confirming their choice 
 being conferred on bim, after each election, by the pope him- 
 self. As the most effectual mode of carrying this decree into 
 effect, the pope conferred the title of Duke on the Norman 
 prince Robert Guiscard, together with the fiefs of Apulia and 
 Calabria, and invested him, by anticipation, with the sove- 
 
 c reignty of the still unconquered island of Sicily. In return 
 for these benefits, Guiscard solemnly pledged himself to 
 secure freedom of election to the college of cardinals. In 
 the year 1073 Hildebrand himself became pope, and by way 
 of protest against the illegal removal of Gregory VI. by the 
 Emperor Henry III. assumed the title of Gregory VII. In 
 order fully to establish the independence of the clergy. Gre- 
 gory renewed the laws against the marriage of spiritual 
 persons and against simony, forbidding bishops and abbots to 
 receive investiture (i. e. the ring and staff, which were in 
 most instances purchased simoniacally) from the hands of 
 
 D temporal sovereigns. Henry, whostill continued this practice 
 in defiance of the pope's prohibition, was summoned to plead 
 before a synod at Rome ; but, instead of obeying the mandate, 
 he immediately assembled (at Worms, in 1076) a council of 
 German and Lombard bishops, who deposed Gregory from 
 the popedom. On receiving intelligence of this bold pro- 
 ceeding, Gregory pronounced sentence of excommunication 
 against the emperor, and absolved all his subjects from their 
 
 1 ["The object of Gregory VII. in attempting to redress those more 
 flagrant abuses which for two centuries had deformed the face of the 
 Latin Church, is not incapable, perhaps, of vindication, though no 
 sufficient apology can be offered for the means he employed. But the 
 disinterested love of reformation, to which candor might ascribe the 
 condition against investitures, is belied by the general tenor of his con- 
 duct, exhibiting an arrogance without parallel, and an ambition that 
 grasped at universal and unlimited monarchy." — Hallam,vol.h.p.270 .] 
 
125. § 24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 65 
 
 oath of allegiance. An attempt was now made by Henry (124) 
 to place Pope Gregory under the ban of the empire ; but a A 
 meeting of German princes at Tribur, for the purpose of 
 electing a new emperor, so alarmed him, that he crossed 
 the Alps in the winter of 1077, and after three days of 
 humiliation in the castle of Canossa, obtained from Gregory 
 the reversal of the sentence of excommunication ; he, on his 
 part, engaging to exercise none of the functions of royalty, 
 until a diet of the empire should decide whether he might 
 continue to wear the crown of Germany or not. During b 
 Henry's absence the nobles had chosen in his room Duke 
 Rudolph of Swabia, who pledged himself not to inter- 
 fere in the election of bishops, and agreed that thenceforward 
 the king's son should succeed to the throne only in virtue 
 of his election, and not by hereditary right. After two in- 
 decisive engagements (at Melrichstadt near Fulda, and 
 Flarcheim near Miihlhausen) between Rudolph and Henry, 
 the latter was again excommunicated by the pope, and in 
 return deposed Gregory, and placed the Archbishop of 
 Ravenna (Clement III.) on the papal throne. In a third 
 battle (on the Elster), Rudolph was mortally wounded by 
 Duke Godfrey of Bouillon. Henry now left the prosecu- c 
 tion of the war in Germany to Frederic of Hohenstaufen 
 (on whom he had conferred the dukedom of Swabia, void 
 by the elevation of Rudolph to the throne), and marching 
 into Italy, took Rome after a siege of three years, and re- 
 ceived the imperial crown from the hands of Clement III. 
 Gregory, who had taken refuge in the castle of St. Angelo, 
 was released by Robert Guiscard, and immediately fled to 
 Monte Cassino, and subsequently to Salerno, where he died 
 in 1085, after again pronouncing sentence of excommuni- 
 cation against Henry. During Henry's absence the Saxons d 
 and Swabians had elected Count Herman of Luxem- 
 burg (1081 — 1088), who obtained one victory over Henry 
 (at Bleichfield near Wiirtzburg in 1086), and soon after- 
 wards resigned his crown. 
 
 Rebellion of the sons of Henry IV. against 
 their father (1093—1105). 
 
 Henry's eldest son Conrad, who had already been 125 
 crowned as his successor in Germany, raised the standard 
 of rebellion against his father, and assumed the crown of 
 
66 THE MIDDLE AGES. [126. § 24. 
 
 (125) Italy at the instigation of the adversaries of Clement IN., 
 A who had elevated Urban II. to the papal throne. For this 
 act of treason Conrad was deprived of the succession by- 
 sentence of a diet assembled at Cologne, and the crown 
 secured to his brother Henry, who was required to pro- 
 mise that he would not claim the sovereign authority 
 during the lifetime of his father. Henry, however, soon 
 violated his engagement, and headed an insurrection under 
 the auspices of Pope Pascal 11., who had renewed the bull 
 of excommunication against Henry IV. on learning that 
 the emperor was making preparations for the election of an 
 B anti-pope. Although his personal liberty had been three 
 times guaranteed by his son, Henry was seized and com- 
 pelled to sign his abdication at Ingelheim. Thence he fled 
 to Liege, where he died in the year 1106. His body was 
 afterwards disinterred, and removed to Spiers, where it was 
 buried on the removal of the ban of excommunication in 
 1111. 
 
 4. Henry V. (1106—1125) 
 
 126 had a twofold object in view : 1. The restoration of 
 the royal authority, which had fallen into contempt ; 
 2. The termination oft he disputes with the pope 
 respecting investiture, which had been revived by a 
 
 c fresh decree of Pascal II. The first of these objects was 
 promoted by the re-assertion of the almost obsolete claims 
 of the German king to feudal supremacy over Bohemia 
 and Poland, both of which countries were again compelled 
 to pay tribute. A proposal of the pope, that the king 
 should renounce the right of investiture, on condition of 
 the bishops restoring to the empire all the fiefs which had 
 belonged to it since the days of Charlemagne, having been 
 generally resisted by the German clergy, Henry seized the 
 person of the pope, and compelled him to renounce his own 
 claim to the right of investiture, and place the imperial 
 
 D crown on the head of his adversary. No sooner, however, 
 had he quitted Italy, than the pope annulled the decree, on 
 the ground of its having been obtained by intimidation, and 
 pronounced the ban of excommunication against Henry, 
 which was renewed by the two succeeding popes. At 
 length the contest, which had lasted fifty years, was ter- 
 minated by the conclusion, in the year 1122, of the Con- 
 
127, 128. §24.] GERMAN EMPIRE. 67 
 
 cordat of Worms, in which Henry, whose kingdom was (126) 
 disquieted by the insurrections of his nobles, agreed to A 
 renounce the right of investiture with the ring and staff, 
 retaining only the sceptre; the pope, on his part, consent- 
 ing that the election of bishops and abbots should take 
 place in the imperial presence, and that, in the event of a 
 disputed election, the question should be decided by the 
 emperor, the archbishop and provincial bishops acting as 
 his assessors. 
 
 Changes in the constitution during the Saxoii and 
 Franconian period. 
 
 The Monarchy. With the extinction of the Carlovingian 127 
 line disappeared also the practice of dividing the kingdom B 
 among sons ; but the hereditary right of succession was in 
 some sort retained ; inasmuch as the heir was invariably 
 chosen by the electors as long as any member of the family 
 survived. The election (from the same dynasty), and at a 
 later period the coronation of the successor to the throne, 
 took place during the lifetime of the reigning monarch. 
 Whilst the officers appointed by the king were acquiring 
 the right of hereditary succession, the monarchy itself was 
 gradually becoming elective ; and the legality of this mode 
 of proceeding was at length formally asserted at the-election 
 of Rudolph of Swabia. The limits of the royal authority c 
 were' not defined by statute, its greater or less extent 
 depending principally on the family or personal influence 
 of the sovereign. 
 
 The Dukes, who had been restricted by Charlemagne 128 
 to the duty of leading the people in time of war, for 
 which they were originally appointed, extended their 
 sphere of action, after his death, by assuming the functions 
 of the suppressed royal missi or commissioners, especially 
 as regarded the presidency in courts of justice and pro- 
 vincial assemblies. Thus they acquired no inconsiderable d 
 influence in the election of kings ; whilst, on the other 
 hand, their authority was crippled by the rising power of 
 the cities, and the establishment of principalities under 
 Margraves, Landgraves, &c. They were nominated by 
 the king, but could only be removed for scandalous 
 offences, and with the consent of the diet. Under Henry 
 IV . most of the dukedoms became hereditary. 
 
68 THE MIDDLE AGES. [129—133. §25. 
 
 129 The Margraves, the number of whom was increased in 
 A the reign of Henry I. by conquests in the east, remained 
 
 almost entirely independent of the dukes, whose military 
 power they possessed in conjunction with the judicial 
 authority of the counts. 
 
 130 The Counts Palatine were appointed partly for the 
 superintendence of single palaces or fortresses with their 
 districts, and partly for the government of entire provinces, 
 in which, as the king's lieutenants, they watched over the 
 administration of the law. The most important among 
 them was the Count Palatine of the Rhine. 
 
 131 The Counties were all hereditary under the Franconian 
 B princes. The most important duty of the count was the 
 
 administration of justice. 
 
 § 25. Italy (888—1125). 
 A. The kingdom of Italy, 
 
 132 comprising upper and central Italy, was governed 1) by 
 kings of its own until the year 961. After the death of 
 Arnulf, whose claims to the Italian orown could only be 
 supported as long as he remained in Italy, fresh disputes 
 arose between Friuli and Spoleto ; and until the reign of 
 Otho I., who re-united Italy to Germany in 961 (see § 78), 
 each king had to contest the possession of the crown with 
 
 c a rival claimant. At the same time the country was 
 ravaged by the Hungarians, whose assistance was invoked 
 sometimes by one party, and sometimes by the other. 
 
 133 2) by German kings, who remained in undisturbed pos- 
 session of the Italian throne, with the exception of a fruit- 
 less attempt on the part of the Margrave Harduin of Ivrea 
 (see § 80) to depose Henry II. From the time of Otho 
 I., Italy seems to have been split into a number of fiefs, 
 some of them spiritual (in which episcopal vicecomites 
 exercised the functions of counts), and some temporal 
 
 D (under counts and margraves). Under the Othos, all the 
 privileges which had before belonged to the kings (the 
 right of imposing duties, of coining money, establishing 
 markets, &c, were gradually conferred c« Italian sub- 
 jects, principally on the priesthood ; but in order to pre- 
 vent the great feudal lords from becoming too powerful, 
 
134, 135. §25.] italy. 69 
 
 the inferior fiefs were made hereditary by a constitution of (133) 
 the Emperor Conrad, promulgated on the plains of Ron- A 
 caglia in 1038 ; and a law was at the same time passed, 
 securing to every man the right of being tried by his peers. 
 During the decline of the imperial authority, consequent on 
 the disputes of Henry IV. and V. with the Church, the 
 Lombard cities repudiated the government of the emperor's 
 lieutenants, and formed themselves into republics, under 
 consuls and magistrates of their own, the German king still 
 retaining his title of King of Italy. 
 
 B. Venice. 
 
 The Venetian islands, which had been peopled by the 134 
 emigration consequent on Attila's invasion of Italy, were, B 
 in the first instance, governed by tribunes, and subject to 
 the Roman empire, then to the Ostrogothic, and at a later 
 period again to the Roman. In the year 697 the whole 
 group was placed under the administration of an officer 
 named Dux or Doge; but their political relations with the 
 eastern empire continued until the separation of Venice 
 and the other Italian states from the Byzantine government, 
 occasioned by the edicts of the iconoclastic emperors. 
 About the year 800, the seat of government was esta- 
 blished on the Rialto, an island which had successfully 
 resisted the attacks of King Pepin (son of Charlemagne). 
 Being joined by bridges to the other islands, it became the c 
 centre of a maritime city, which enlarged its dominions by 
 conquests in Dalmatia, about the year 1000 ; and by means 
 of an extensive commerce, for which its position between 
 two of the most powerful states of Europe afforded extra- 
 ordinary facilities, soon became one of the most important 
 cities of Italy, and eventually of the world. 
 
 C. Papal Italy, or the States of the Church. 
 
 The foundation of the pope's temporal power was laid 135 
 by Pepin (see § 59), who settled on the popedom the pro- d 
 vinces of Romagna and Urbino, an endowment which 
 Charlemagne not only confirmed, but augmented by grants 
 of land in Tuscany ; and perhaps of those estates on the 
 other side of the Tiber, which had been ceded to the 
 empire by the Duke of Benevento. To this patrimony of 
 St. Peter, as it was called, Henry III. added the city of 
 
70 THE MIDDLE AGES. [136, 137. §25. 
 
 (135) Benevento, in return for the renunciation by the pope 
 A (Leo IX.) of the revenues and patronage of certain 
 Frankish churches; and a still more important accession of 
 territory was obtained through the liberality of the Mar- 
 gravine Matilda of Tuscany, who bequeathed (in 1077, not 
 in 1102) all her allodes to the see of Rome. Lastly, the 
 Normans consented to hold Apulia and Calabria as fiefs ; 
 but, during this period, no temporal authority was exercised 
 by the pope over Rome itself, or the dukedom in which it 
 was situated. 
 
 D. Lower Italy. 
 
 136 On the ruins of the Lombard empire arose the Lorn- 
 b bardic dukedom of Benevento, which comprehended 
 
 the greater part of the present kingdom of Naples, and was 
 at first independent, but subsequently became a Frankish 
 fief. At a later period Salerno and Capua separated 
 from Benevento, and formed a second and third Lombardic 
 principality. The Greeks retained only Calabria, and a 
 narrow strip of territory along the western coast (with the 
 cities of Terracina, Naples, Gaeta, and Amalfi), which 
 were exposed to perpetual attacks from the Arabians, who 
 had been settled in Sicily since the year 827, and in a 
 short time established themselves also in Bari. 
 
 137 In the fourteenth century the whole of lower Italy 
 c became a prey to the Normans, who had first visited Italy 
 
 as adventurers in the year 1017, and, in return for certain 
 military services, had obtained from the Greek duke a strip 
 of land, on which they built the city of Aversa. From this 
 stronghold the twelve sons of Count Tancred, of Haute- 
 ville, sallied forth to subdue Calabria and Apulia; and 
 one of them, Robert Guiscard (surnamed the Cunning), was 
 invested by Pope Nicholas II. with the dignity of duke, 
 and thefiefsof Apulia, Calabria, and Sicily, the last of which 
 had been conquered by his brother Roger after a thirty 
 D years' war. Under pretence of replacing on the throne 
 the deposed Emperor Michael VIII. (father-in-law of his 
 daughter), Robert Guiscard raised an army, and after 
 obtaining a victory at Durazzo, and placing a garrison in 
 that key of the eastern empire, advanced towards Con- 
 stantinople; but the exhaustion of his army, an insurrec- 
 tion of the Apulian cities, and the expedition of Henry IV. 
 
138—144. §26.] France. 71 
 
 against Pope Gregory VII., compelled him to retrace his (137) 
 steps. After liberating the pope, Robert undertook a a 
 second expedition against Greece, and died during the 
 campaign (at Cephalonia, in 1085). After the decease of 
 his grandson (who died without issue), Apulia and Cala- 
 bria were united with Sicily, by Roger II., son of his 
 youngest brother, who was crowned King of the Two 
 Sicilies in 1130. 
 
 E. The Islands. 
 
 1. Sicily was taken from the Byzantines (in 827) by 138 
 the Arabians, who were compelled to surrender it to the b 
 Normans in 1060. 
 
 2. Sardinia was wrested from the Byzantines (850) by 139 
 the Arabians, and from the Arabians by Pisa (1022). 
 
 3. Corsica at first was subject to the Arabians, and 140 
 then became the object of a struggle, which lasted 200 
 years, between Genoa and Pisa. 
 
 § 26. France under the last Carlovingians. 
 
 As Chai'les, third son of Lewis the Stammerer, was still 141 
 a child, when the Frankish empire was divided for the 
 third time, the nobles, who were hard-pressed by the 
 invading Normans, elected 
 
 l.'Otho, Count of Paris (888—898), who was unable 142 
 either to restrain the insolence of the Normans, or obtain c 
 a general recognition of his title to the throne. 
 
 2. Charles III., surnamed the Simple (898—929), 143 
 who was elected in opposition to Otho (in 893), and after his 
 death recognized as sole king, conferred on Rollo (or Rolf, 
 
 a Norman prince, who had embraced Christianity, and 
 been baptized by the name of Robert), the dukedom of 
 Normandy with the feudal sovereignty of Bretagne, an 
 arrangement which put an end to the Norman invasions. 
 After the extinction of the Carlovingian race in Germany, d 
 Charles took possession of Lorraine. Several nobles of 
 the kingdom, being discontented with Hagano, the minister 
 of Charles, conspired against the king, and elected (922) 
 
 3. Robert, duke of Francia, brother of Count Otho, 144 
 who was slain (after reigning one year) in a battle against 
 Charles at Soissons. fie was succeeded by his son-in-law, 
 
72 THE MIDDLE AGES. [145 — -149. §26. 
 
 145 4. Rudolph, duke of Burgundy (923—936). Charles 
 A died in prison in 929. Lorraine re-united with Germany 
 
 by Henry I. Repeated invasions of the Hungarians. On. 
 the death of Rudolph, without male issue, 
 
 146 5. Lewis IV. (surnamed the Stranger), the son of 
 Charles the Simple, returned from England, and ascended 
 the throne (936 — 954). Unsuccessful attempt to recover 
 Normandy. His son and successor 
 
 147 6. Lothar (954 — 986) carried on a war with Otho II. 
 b for the re-conquest of Lorraine, with no success, be- 
 yond obtaining for his brother Charles a grant of Lower 
 Lorraine, to be held as a fief of Germany. On the death 
 of his son 
 
 148 7. Lewis V. (Faineant) without male issue, after a 
 reign of fourteen months, his uncle Charles, duke of Lower 
 Lorraine, was excluded from the succession, as being a Ger- 
 man vassal, and Hugo [Hugh], surnamed Capet (from 
 the robe,, cappa, which he wore as a lay abbot ?), duke of 
 Francia, was proclaimed king by his vassals in 987. 
 
 149 France about this time was split into a multitude of 
 c greater and smaller fiefs, which became at length so nume- 
 rous, as to leave no territory subject to the immediate 
 control of the last Carlovingians except Soissons, Laon, and 
 a few insignificant provinces. The immediate fiefs of the 
 crown, the possessors of which might be said to share the 
 sovereignty of the country with the king, rather than to be 
 dependent on him, were the four dukedoms of Francia 
 (between the Seine and Loire), Normandy with Bretagne, 
 Aquitaniaor Guienne (to which the dukedom of Gascony was 
 united at a later period), and Burgundy , and the threecoun- 
 ties of Toulouse, Flanders, and Vermandois (of which St. 
 
 D Quentin was the capital) . At the same time a distinction was 
 established between northern and southern France, 
 founded on the difference of language (the langue d'oil, or 
 d'oui, also langue Frangaise, being spoken north of the 
 Loire, and southwards of that river the langue d'oc, which 
 at a later period was termed the Provenqal tongue), man- 
 ners (the northern French character being more daring, 
 warlike, and fond of display ; the southern more quick-wit- 
 ted and cunning, but at the same time more industrious and 
 
150— 155. §27, 28.] England. 73 
 
 contented), and legal codes (in the north the Territorial ; in (149) 
 the south the Roman). A 
 
 § 27. France under the four first Capets (987 — 1108). 
 
 1. Hugh Capet (987— 996), Duke of Francia and 150 
 Count of Orleans, annexed the dukedom of Francia to the 
 crown, and having gained over the clergy by granting 
 them benefices, and the lay nobles by confirming them in 
 the hereditary possession of their fiefs, was universally 
 recognized as king, after the death of Duke Charles of 
 Lower Lorraine, the last scion of the Carlovingian house. 
 
 He was, however, merely the first of more than forty no- 
 bles. His son B 
 
 2. Robert (996—1031) added the dukedom of Bur- 151 
 gundy to the possessions of the crown, and bestowed it as 
 
 a fief on his third son Robert (founder of the younger 
 Burgundian line, and ancestor of the kings of Portugal). 
 
 3. Henry (1031— 1060). Establishment of the Treuga 152 
 Dei by the decrees of several councils. 
 
 4. Philip I. (1060—1108). At the beginning of his 153 
 reign, under the guardianship of Count Baldwin of Flan- c 
 ders, Duke William of Normandy conquers England, 
 which is separated from Normandy after his death, his son 
 William (Rufus) inheriting the former, and his eldest son 
 Robert the latter. 
 
 § 28. England under the West Saxon kings (827 — 1016). 
 
 The Seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, or Saxon Heptarchy, 154 
 after a series of struggles, were united under one crown by 
 Egbert, king of Wessex, the first who gave the name of 
 England (in 800) to the island of Britain. The Danes orD 
 Normans, who for half a century (since 787) had harassed 
 the separate Anglo-Saxon kingdoms by repeated inva- 
 sions, renewed their attacks towards the end of Egbert's 
 reign, and continued to ravage the country until the time 
 of his youngest grandson 
 
 Alfred the Great (871—901), 
 
 who had been anointed by the pope while yet a child. On 155 
 his accession, Alfred found the whole of England, as far as 
 Wessex, and subsequently as far as Somerset, in the hands 
 of the Danes ; and as most of the native inhabitants had 
 4 
 
74 THE MIDDLE AGES. [156, 157. §29. 
 
 (155) either abandoned the island, or submitted to the invader, 
 A he was compelled to pass one winter as a fugitive in the 
 forests of Somersetshire. In the disguise of a minstrel, 
 Alfred visited the Danish camp, and, availing himself of 
 the information thus acquired, he took the field at the head of 
 the loyal inhabitants of three Gaus, and defeated the Danes 
 at Heddington. Gothrun, the Danish leader, was per- 
 suaded to embrace Christianity, and surrender East Anglia, 
 Northumbria, and a few cities of Mercia to the conqueror. 
 
 156 Having thus secured peace, at least for a season, Alfred 
 b employed the time in restoring the cities (London among 
 
 the rest) and fortresses which had been demolished by the 
 Danes, building a fleet, fortifying the coasts against foreign 
 invaders, and facilitating the administration of justice by 
 the publication of a code of laws, and the division of the 
 country into counties, hundreds, and tithings. Schools were 
 also established in all parts of the country, learned men 
 invited to visit England, and Latin authors translated into 
 the vernacular language of England by Alfred himself. 
 From these peaceful occupations, Alfred was summoned to 
 defend his kingdom against the Normans, who had landed 
 on the coast of Britain after their defeat at Louvain by 
 
 c Arnulph. At the same time his hereditary dominions were 
 assailed by two fleets manned by rebellious East Anglians 
 and Northumbrians, who were soon compelled to return to 
 their allegiance; but it required a war of three years, and 
 a succession of decisive battles, to drive the Normans out 
 of England. The reigns of Alfred's successors were dis- 
 quieted by repeated insurrections of the Anglo-Danes, 
 reinforced by bands of their continental brethren. Ethel- 
 red three times purchased peace at the expense of an 
 annual tribute, termed the Danegeld ; but these concessions 
 
 D only incited the Danes to fresh acts of plunder. The dis- 
 covery of a conspiracy against the king's life induced 
 Ethelred to command the massacre of all the Danes in his 
 dominions on the same day (Nov. 13, 1002), an act of 
 cruelty which Sweyn and his son and successor Canute 
 avenged by conquering the whole of England. 
 
 § 29. Supremacy of the Danes in England (1016 — 1042). 
 
 157 Canute (1016 — 1035), who at first shared the throne 
 with Edmund Ironsides, the son of Ethelred, became, by 
 
158, 159. §30, 31.] England. 75 
 
 the death of his colleague, monarch of all England, which (157) 
 he divided into four provinces, viz., Wessex, Mercia, A 
 East Anglia, and Northumbria, secured their rights of 
 property to the Anglo-Saxons as well as to the Danes, by 
 legislative enactments, forbad heathenish rites, increased 
 the number of churches and convents, and enriched them 
 with liberal gifts. By a convention with the Emperor 
 Conrad II., Canute became master of the March of 
 Schleswig. In the year 1028 he also conquered Nor- 
 way and the north British kingdoms of Scotland and 
 Cumberland. His pilgrimage to Rome. After his death, B 
 his mighty empire was divided between his son Hardica- 
 nute, who received Denmark as his portion, and his two 
 (probably) supposititious sons, Sweyn and Harold, the 
 former of whom was crowned King of Norway, and the 
 latter of England. After Harold's death, Hardicanute 
 became also king of England, and, dying suddenly with- 
 out issue, was succeeded by an Anglo-Saxon prince, 
 Edward the Confessor, youngest and only surviving 
 son of Ethelred. 
 
 § 30. Restoration and extinction of the Anglo-Saxon 
 dynasty (1042—1066). 
 
 Edward III. (The Confessor (1042—1066) was 158 
 entirely under the influence of Norman favorites and of c 
 Earl Godwin, whose daughter was married to the king, and 
 who with his sons possessed the larger and richer half of 
 England. The introduction of the Norman language, man- 
 ners and customs into England excited universal discontent 
 among the Saxon inhabitants. After his death the throne 
 was occupied by his brother-in-law, Harold II., who D 
 made head against his rebellious brother and his ally the 
 King of Norway, but was overthrown- and lost his life in 
 a battle fought near Hastings (Oct. 14, 1066), where 
 William of Normandy had landed with 60,000 
 picked soldiers. By this victory William gained the 
 English crown, and the surname of " The Conqueror." 
 
 § 31. Scotland. 
 
 The earliest inhabitants of Scotland were the Picts and 159 
 Scots, the one a Celtic, the other an Irish race, both 
 governed by kings of their own until the year 842, when 
 
76 THE MIDDLE. AGES. [160,161. §32,33. 
 
 (159) Kenneth II., King of the Scots, having conquered the 
 A Picts, united the two kingdoms under the name of Scot- 
 land. The Norman piratical hordes from Denmark and 
 England were successfully withstood by the Scots, who 
 formed an alliance with the Anglo-Saxons. The kingdom 
 of Cumberland was conferred as a fief on Malcolm I. by 
 Edmund Ironsides, grandson of Alfred ; the Scotch 
 monarch pledging himself to render military service 
 whenever called on. Scotland and Cumberland were con- 
 quered by Canute, but permitted to retain their own kings 
 as feudatories of England. 
 
 § 32. Ireland. 
 
 160 Ireland, at its conquest by the English in 1172, seems to 
 b have been divided into five states — Connaught, Ulster, 
 
 Leinster, Munster, and Meath, each governed by its own 
 king, but on some occasions subject also to one of the 
 number, who exercised a sort of feudal authority over the 
 others. As early as the fifth century the Irish were con- 
 verted to Christianity (by St. Patrick ?), convents and 
 schools were established, and holy men visited the con- 
 tinent for the purpose of converting the heathen German 
 c tribes (Comp. § 14, 1, a). A code of Irish laws (Brehon 
 laws, i. e. decisions of the judges) is still extant. The 
 progress of civilization was retarded for three centuries 
 (from 795) by the piratical invasions of the Normans, who 
 conquered portions, but were never able to establish their 
 authority over the whole island. 
 
 § 33. Spain. 
 
 161 1. The Arabian portion of the Peninsula, which 
 D (until the year 1087)was separated from Christian Spain by 
 
 the river Duero [Douro], enjoyed a period of uninterrupted 
 prosperity under the Ommaijad Caliphs of Cordova (756 — 
 1028), especially during the fifty years administration of 
 Abderrahman III., (who subjugated the whole of Maurita- 
 nia), and the reigns of his learned son Hakim II. and the 
 great leader Almanzor. The country south of the Duero 
 [Douro] had a population of twenty-five to thirty millions, 
 with eighty cities of the first class. Cordova, the capital, 
 contained more than a million of inhabitants, 600 mosques, 
 eighty public schools, and a university with a library of 
 
162—164. §33.] spain. 77 
 
 600,000 volumes. The descriptions given by contem- (161) 
 porary writers of the splendor of the court and the mag- A 
 niflcence of the royal palaces (Azzehra with its 4300 
 marble columns), border on the fabulous. Agriculture, 
 horticulture, mining operations, and commerce (principally 
 with Constantinople) employed a large portion of the 
 population, whilst at the same time architecture, poetry, 
 and the sciences, especially mathematics, astronomy, with 
 astrology, chemistry, and medicine, were cultivated with 
 great zeal and success. 
 
 After the death of the last Ommaijad, the lieutenants of 162 
 the different cities established a number of petty king- B 
 doms, all of which, with the exception of Saragossa, were 
 overthrown by Jussof, king of Morocco (of the dynasty of 
 the Morabethes), who annexed Arabian Spain to his own 
 dominions. 
 
 2. Christian Kingdoms, a. The kingdom of A stu- 163 
 ria, founded by the Visigoths (who had been driven by 
 the Arabians into the mountains of the North), was also 
 called the kingdom of Leon, after the removal of the seat 
 of government from Oviedo to that city. 
 
 b. The Spanish March, which had been conquered 164 
 by Charlemagne, was divided by his feeble successors into c 
 two counties — Barcelona and Navarre. As the Counts of 
 Navarre assumed the title of king, there were at this 
 period two Christian kingdoms in Spain. After the death 
 of King Sancho III., (Mayor), Navarre was subdivided into 
 four, and soon afterwards into three provinces — Casti/Ie, 
 Arragon and Navarre, which were subsequently re- 
 united. At the conclusion of this period Christian Spain d 
 comprised — 
 
 a. The county of Barcelona (independent of 
 France since the year 997). 
 
 b. The kingdom of Castile and Leon, of which 
 Portugal formed a portion, until the year 1095, when it 
 was granted as a county by King Alfonso VI. to his son- 
 in-law, Henry of Burgundy. 
 
 c. The kingdom of Arragon and Navarre. 
 
78 THE MIDDLE AGES. [165—167. § 34, 35. 
 
 B. The East. 
 
 § 34. The Byzantine empire under the Macedonian em- 
 perors (867—1056). 
 
 165 At the commencement of this period the empire com- 
 A prehended Thrace, Macedonia, Greece, and the islands of 
 
 the iEgean Sea, a portion of Lower Italy and Asia Minor. 
 The code of Justinian was republished under the title of 
 "Basilikai," byBasilius, who also reformed the financial ad- 
 ministration of the empire. His successors, the philosophi- 
 cal Leo VI. and Constantine V. (Porpbyrogenetus), devoted 
 themselves entirely to literary and scientific pursuits, whilst 
 the Arabians, Bulgarians, and Russians ravaged their domi- 
 B nions without encountering any opposition. On the other 
 hand, Armenia, the countries between the Black and Cas- 
 pian Seas, Avith the islands of Crete and Cyprus, Northern 
 Syria and Sicily, were wrested from the Arabians by the 
 Emperors Nicephorus, Phocas, and John Tzimisces. Basi- 
 lius II. conquered Bulgaria, and put out the eyes of 15,000 
 Bulgarians. After the extinction of the Macedonian male 
 line, five individuals were raised to the throne by the 
 daughters of the last emperor (Zoe and Theodora). The 
 last of these rulers was deposed by Isaac Comnenus, 
 who was proclaimed emperor by the army. 
 
 166 Notwithstanding its gradual decline, the Eastern empire 
 c was still the most considerable among the kingdoms of the 
 
 Christian world, its population the most numerous and 
 industrious, and its capital city the largest. Until the 
 period of its dissolution the people continued to reject with 
 scorn the appellation of "Greeks," bestowed on them by 
 the Franks, and to speak of themselves as the "Roman" 
 D people. Luxury, profuse expenditure, and unmeaning 
 etiquette still reigned at the imperial court. The legisla- 
 tive and executive authorities were united in the person 
 of the monarch ; and even the shadow of power retained 
 by the senate was at last annihilated by a decree of Leo 
 the Philosopher. 
 
 § 35. The Arabians under the Abbasides (750 — 1258). 
 
 167 Soon after the accession of the Abbasides, the seat of 
 government was transferred to Bagdad, a city on the 
 
167. § 35.] THE EAST. 79 
 
 western bank of the Tigris, which had been built on (167) 
 a magnificent scale by Al Mansur, and soon became the A 
 capital of the commercial enterprise and civilization of the 
 world. For the separation of Spain from the Caliphate, 
 and establishment of a Caliphate at Cordova, see § 11. 
 In the fifth Caliph, Harun al Raschid, the contemporary 
 and friend of Charlemagne, and still more in his son, 
 Mamun (the seventh Abbaside), the arts and sciences, as 
 well as commercial and manufacturing industry, found 
 enlightened and liberal protectors ; and throughout the 
 empire, at that period the largest in the world, the muni- 
 ficent example of the sovereign was followed by the pro- 
 vincial governors. Notwithstanding these appearances ofs 
 prosperity, the work of dissolution had already com- 
 menced — 1. In the secession, at first of the more remote, 
 and subsequently of the nearer provinces, which were 
 erected into independent sovereignties by their rulers. 
 Thus, for example, in Spain, the empire of the Ommai- 
 jades was established at Cordova as early as the year 756; 
 in Africa those of the Aglabides, Edrisides, Fatimides, 
 and Morabethes ; and in Asia a multitude of dynasties, 
 almost all of which gradually became subject to the Selds- 
 chuks, by whom towards the end of the eleventh century 
 most of the Asiatic possessions of the caliphs were united 
 under one crown. Scarcely, however, had the empire of c 
 the Seldschuks been established on this extensive basis, 
 when it was again split (after the death of the third sultan 
 in 1092) into several small sovereignties (in Iran, Kerman, 
 Aleppo, Damascus, and Iconium, or Rum), nothing re- 
 maining to the caliphs but the city of Bagdad, with its 
 immediate neighborhood. 2. In the admission into Bag- 
 dad of a Turkish body-guard of 50,000 men, who soon 
 exercised uncontrolled influence, deposing and appointing 
 caliphs at their pleasure. 3. In constant political and D 
 religious dissensions (formidable sects of the Carmathians 
 and Assassins). 4. In a succession of feeble, and at the 
 same time cruel and oppressive rulers, who since the year 
 955 had intrusted the affairs of government to a Turk, 
 under the title of Emir a 1 O m r ah, reserving to them- 
 selves only the high priesthood. 
 
80 THE MIDDLE AGES. [168 170. §36. 
 
 C. The North-east of Europe. 
 § 36. Scandinavia. 
 
 168 1. Norway and Iceland. The provinces of Norway 
 A existed as independent sovereignties, each governed by its 
 
 own petty monarch until the end of the ninth century, when 
 they were united under Harald Harfagr, who founded a 
 Norwegian kingdom, to which he soon afterwards added, 
 by conquest, the Hebrides, Feroe, and Shetland islands, 
 and the Isle of Man. The chieftains who refused to sub- 
 mit to his authority, either emigrated to Western Europe 
 or Sweden, or colonized the recently (in 861) discovered 
 island of Iceland, where they established a fourth Scan- 
 dinavian state, which was soon raised into importance by 
 the commercial and manufacturing activity of its founders, 
 and their extensive voyages of discovery (to Greenland, 
 B North America, &c). About the year 1000 Christianity 
 was introduced by Olaf I. and Olafthe Saint. At the same 
 time Norway was conquered and divided by the Danes and 
 Swedes. Olaf the Saint, who had made head for a long 
 period against the invaders, was at length conquered and 
 slain in a battle with Canute the Great ; but the independ- 
 ence of Norway was re-established by his son Magnus. 
 
 169 2. Sweden was inhabited by two principal races, the 
 c Fins and Germans ; the latter being also subdivided into 
 
 Goths and Swedes, who, (about the time when Harald 
 formed the petty principalities of Norway into one king- 
 dom) were placed by Erich, the son of Edmund, under one 
 sovereign, who resided at Upsala, the city of the gods. 
 The Christian religion, although known in Sweden as early 
 as 800, was not generally received until the year 1000, 
 when the repeated attempts of missionaries from Hamburg 
 and Bremen, to convert the people, were at length crowned 
 with success. 
 
 170 3. Denmark. The Danish islands and Jutland had 
 D each their own king, until the time of Gorm the Elder, 
 
 king of Zealand (of the race of the Skioldings, who trace 
 their descent from Odin), who overthrew the other chief- 
 tains, and compelled the whole nation to recognize him as 
 their sovereign, in the year 900. His male descendants 
 occupied the throne until the middle of the eleventh cen- 
 
171. §37.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 81 
 
 tury. For the conquest of Schleswig, by Henry I., and (170) 
 the expedition of Otho the Great to Jutland, see § 23. a 
 Sweyn conquered England, to avenge the murder of the 
 Danes, and also Norway (in conjunction with the Swedes). 
 He was succeeded in England by Canute the Great 
 (1014), who also ascended the Danish throne after the 
 death of his elder brother Harold (in f 1016). Under 
 this sovereign Schleswig was annexed to the kingdom of 
 Denmark, by a convention with the Emperor Conrad II.; 
 and Norway, which had re-asserted its independence under 
 Olaf the Saint, was again reduced to submission. For the B 
 confirmation of the Christian religion, which had been 
 established by his father, Canute founded churches, con- 
 vents, and bishoprics. After his death and that of his son, 
 Denmark was for a short time subject to Magnus, king of 
 Norway, until its emancipation by Sweyn Estritson, who 
 founded the dynasty of the Estritides (1047 — 1375). 
 
 § 37. Russia. 
 
 Russia, the southern portion of which was inhabited by 171 
 the Chazares, and the north and centre by Tschudish and c 
 Sclavonian tribes, was visited in the year 862, on the 
 invitation of the Sclavonians, by the Varogian chieftain 
 Ruric (a prince of the Swedish tribe of Russ), who 
 founded the grand- dukedom of Russia, with its capital 
 Novgorod, from which the government was soon afterwards 
 transferred to Kiev, where the family of Ruric continued 
 to reign until the end of the sixteenth century (1598). 
 Under his immediate successors, the Normans, in conjunc- n 
 tion with the Sclavonians, following the course of the 
 Dnieper, made several predatory descents on the coasts of 
 the Byzantine empire ; but being unable to withstand the 
 destructive Greek fire, they concluded a truce, the result 
 of which was a peaceful commercial intercourse with their 
 former enemies, and the introduction of Christianity into 
 Russia. Vladimir the Great (988) embraced Christianity 
 on his marriage with a Byzantine princess (Anna), and 
 endeavored to spread the knowledge of the true faith by 
 building churches and convents. The district known as 
 "Red Russia " was conquered by this sovereign, who 
 endeavored to introduce Byzantine civilization among his 
 4* 
 
82 THE MIDDLE AGES. [172, 173. § 38, 39. 
 
 A subjects. Kiev, with its 400 churches, was popularly 
 spoken of as a second Constantinople. 
 
 § 38. Poland. 
 
 172 The Slaves on the middle Vistula (whose capital was 
 Gnesen) were called Poles. In the year 840 they chose 
 for their Duke a peasant named Piast, whose family 
 continued to reign for more than five centuries (until 
 1370). In the year 965, one of their dukes named 
 Miecislav, embraced Christianity, founded a bishopric at 
 Posen, and recognized the Emperor of Germany as his 
 
 B feudal sovereign. His son Boleslav, with the assistance 
 of St. Adalbert, exterminated the remnants of heathenism, 
 and founded bishoprics at Breslau, Colberg, and Cracow, 
 and an archbishopric at Gnesen. This prince carried on 
 several wars successfully against the Russians, united un- 
 der his rule the Lechites, Poles, Masovians,Cracovvians,and 
 Silesians, compelled the Pomeranians to pay tribute, and 
 a short time before his death caused himself (in 1024) to 
 be crowned King of Poland, by his bishops. Bolis- 
 lav II. having abandoned his dominions, in consequence of 
 a sentence of excommunication pronounced against him by 
 Pope Gregory VII. for the murder of St. Stanislaus, bishop 
 of Cracow, Poland again became a dukedom (from 1079 
 to 1295). 
 
 § 39. Hungary. 
 
 173 Towards the end of the ninth century (889) the Hunga- 
 c rians (called also Magyars from the name of their principal 
 
 tribe) advanced from the centre of Asia into the country of 
 the Avares, under the command of a leader named Arpad, 
 whose family continued to reign until the end of the thir- 
 teenth century. After assisting King Arnulf against the 
 Moravians, and taking possession of their country, squa- 
 drons of Hungarian cavalry overran Southern Germany, 
 Burgundy, and Italy, until they were driven back by Henry 
 D I. and Otho I. Christianity was introduced among them 
 towards the end of the tenth century, and several bishop- 
 rics (nine or ten, including the archbishopric of Gran) were 
 founded by Duke Stephen the Saint, who was crowned 
 king by Pope Sylvester II. in the year 1000. Peter, the 
 son and successor of this Stephen, having irritated the 
 
174. § 40.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 83 
 
 people beyond endurance by his excesses, was deprived of (173] 
 the throne, which he recovered by the aid of Henry III., a 
 to whom he took the oath of fealty as a vassal of the 
 empire. He was deprived of his sight by a savage faction 
 (who desired the re-establishment of paganism), and died in 
 prison. After thirty years of intestine confusion, tran- 
 quillity was at length restored by Ladislav the Saint. 
 
 § 40. Religion, arts, sciences, fyc, during the second period. 
 
 The Church. The increasing influence of the clergy 174 
 was viewed by the temporal power with a jealousy, which b 
 was the natural result of the vague and ill-defined position 
 occupied by the two parties with reference to each other. To 
 the pope belonged the privilege of crowning the emperors, 
 the supreme legislative authority in ecclesiastical matters, 
 and judicial power, not only over spiritual persons, but in 
 questions affecting the interests of the Church, over laymen 
 also (the interdict and excommunication). He also en- 
 joyed the right of appointment to the highest ecclesiastical 
 offices (gift of the pallium to the bishops), and the posses- 
 sion of the territories conferred on the Church by Pepin. 
 The number of c o n v e r t s was greatly increased, especially c 
 in Germany, between the ninth and eleventh centuries. 
 The monks, most of whom (since the tenth century) were 
 priests, employed themselves, according to the rule of St. 
 Benedict, in agriculture, various handicrafts, the instruction 
 of youth, transcribing of ancient writers, the compilation of 
 chronicles, &c. ; but the general profligacy and coarseness 
 of the times, the introduction of lay brethren, and, more 
 than all, the increasing wealth of these establishments, pro- 
 duced, in many instances, a laxity of discipline utterly sub- 
 versive of morality. A partial reformation was effected d 
 by the establishment of a convent at Clugny in Burgundy, 
 after the rule of St. Benedict, whose improvements were 
 adopted in seventeen other convents. At the same time 
 strenuous efforts were made by the Abbot Dunstan for the 
 introduction of the same rule into the convents of England. 
 Some additions to the rule of St. Benedict in the eleventh 
 century occasioned the establishment of the Cistercian 
 order (so named from their first convent at Citeaux near 
 Dijon), out of which arose the Bernardine (founded by St. 
 
84 THE MIDDLE AGES. [175, 176. §40. 
 
 (174) Bernard of Clairvaux) and the Carthusian (by St. Bruno of 
 a Cologne in 1086). Cathedral chapters, the members of 
 which, from the regularity of their lives, were termed 
 canonici or canons, 1 were founded in 760, by Chrodogang, 
 bishop of Metz, and generally established by a diet held by 
 Lewis the Pious at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) in 816; but. 
 as early as the eleventh century, many of them had relaxed 
 the strictness of their original discipline. 
 
 175 For the propagation of Christianity, and the develop- 
 ment of the various political constitutions, see the 
 history of the different countries. 
 
 176 Art s and Sciences. During the whole of this period 
 B the arts and sciences flourished not only among the Asiatic, 
 
 but in a still higher degree among the Spanish Arabians (see 
 § 33). The Caliphs (especially Mamun) spared no ex- 
 pense for the purpose of procuring Greek, Persian, Coptic, 
 and Chaldaic manuscripts, which were translated into 
 Arabic by societies of learned men. In all the Arabian 
 provinces, particularly in Bagdad, Alexandria, Ispahan, 
 Samarcand, Damascus, Kufa, Bassora, and, above all, in 
 Cordova, there existed schools and universities, in which 
 not only Mussulmans, but Christians and Jews, and even 
 some of the Caliphs themselves, received instruction in 
 philosophy, medicine, mathematics, and physical science. 
 
 c The poetry of this period, although fostered by poetical 
 contests at the courts of the Caliphs, was deficient in 
 comprehensiveness, variety, and arrangement. The litera- 
 ture of the Arabians is rich in legendary tales and romances 
 of chivalry, the latter of which were invented by the 
 writers of that country ; but their best works have all the 
 
 d dryness of ancient chronicles. Geographical science was 
 also greatly advanced by their conquests, voyages, and pil- 
 grimages; but their most successful efforts were in the 
 department of natural science, including every branch of 
 medicine except anatomy, the practice of which was for- 
 bidden by the Koran. This defect was, however, in some 
 measure supplied by a diligent study of botany, and by the 
 discoveries for which chemistry was indebted to the per- 
 severing but fruitless attempts of the alchemists to produce 
 the philosophers' stone. In philosophy and physics they 
 
 1 [From the Greek word, Kavdov, a rule.] 
 
176. §40.] THE NORTH-EAST OF EUROPE. 85 
 
 never advanced beyond the principles of Aristotle, which (176) 
 were often misunderstood. Algebra, trigonometry, and A 
 astronomy were simplified, and enriched with new dis- 
 coveries : astrology was also highly esteemed. The Ara- 
 bian school of architecture, the characteristics of which were 
 lightness and profuse ornament, produced several magnifi- 
 cent works, especially in Spain. In Persia also poetry 
 flourished under the Ghasnavides and Seldschuks. The 
 most renowned of the Persian epic poets, Firdusi, who 
 celebrated in his verses the heroic deeds of the Persian 
 kings, lived at the court of Ghasna about a.d. 1000. In b 
 the Byzantine empire, Greek literature, which had been 
 neglected during the iconoclastic controversy, began again 
 to be cultivated in the ninth century, but with little result 
 beyond the publication of extracts (by Photius and Con- 
 stantinus Porphyrogenetus) from the ancient writers. His- 
 torical writing was almost entirely limited to the compilation 
 of dry chronicles. Suidas in his grammatical and historical 
 Lexicon, and the author of the Etymologicum Magnum, 
 exhibit an intimate acqaintance with the works of classical 
 writers. In sculpture and painting, simplicity and good 
 taste were rapidly disappearing before a love of the elabo- 
 rate and minute. In the West, learning was exclusively c 
 in the hands of the clergy, who studied in the renowned 
 convents and capitular schools of St. Gall, Corvey, Fulda, 
 Paderborn, and Hildesheim, as well as at Paris and in 
 Normandy. Several historical works, all in the Latin 
 language, were published by the German clergy ; Witte- 
 hind (history of the Saxons), Dithmar (History of the 
 Saxon Emperors, 876 to 1018), Wippo(Life of Conrad II.), 
 Hermannus Contractus (Chronicles), Lambert of Aschaffen- 
 burg (Annals). The scholastic philosophy taught in the d 
 church schools, especially at Paris, consisted in the adapta- 
 tion of the dialectics of Aristotle to the discussion of theo- 
 logical theses. The most distinguished professors of this 
 philosophy and of the mysticism of the Middle Ages were 
 Joh. Scotus Erigena (at the court of Charles the Bald), 
 and two archbishops of Canterbury, Lanfranc and An- 
 selm. The most renowned school of jurisprudence was 
 at Bologna, and of medicine at Salerno. The study of 
 mathematical science was promoted in France by Gerbert, 
 archbishopof Rheims (afterwards Pope Sylvester II.), who 
 had received his education in Moorish Spain. Natural 
 
86 THE MIDDLE AGES. [177. §40. 
 
 (176) philosophy was rather speculative than experimental ; 
 
 A hence the study of astrology, magic and alchemy. Latin 
 ceased to be a living tongue in the ninth century, the 
 Roman and German languages having now assumed a 
 settled form. The earliest specimens of German literature 
 are the Ludwigslied (Lay of Lewis), Otfried's Christ (a 
 harmony of the Gospels in rhyme), and Notker's transla- 
 tion of the Psalms. — Among the arts, architecture produced 
 the most considerable works in a mixed Lombardo-Byzan- 
 tine style, e. g. in the noble Minsters at Bamberg, Worms, 
 
 B Mainz, Spiers, &c. Baronial castles were first built in 
 the eleventh century (the Wartburg in 1067). — Sculpture 
 and painting seem to have been at the lowest ebb in this 
 century, with the exception of painting on glass, which had 
 become very general. Music made considerable progress, 
 in consequence of the invention of a new system of notes, 
 by Guido of Arezzo ; and of time, by Franco of Cologne. 
 177 Trade and manufacturing industry flourished 
 
 c principally in the Arabian countries, especially in Spain 
 (compare § 33), where they found in the Abbasides patrons 
 no less zealous than the Ommaijades had been at an 
 earlier period. The commerceof Byzantium was gradually 
 transferred to the Italian sea-ports of Venice, Pisa, Genoa, 
 and Amalfi, which had already established themselves as 
 emporia, whilst the trade of the other western ports was 
 still limited to the mere supply of the daily wants of the 
 inhabitants. Indian and Levantine wares were brought 
 
 D into Germany up the Danube from Constantinople. Re- 
 gensburg [Ratisbon], at that period the most populous and 
 important city of Germany, was the emporium of the 
 commerce not only between the East and West, but also 
 between the North and South, that is to say, between 
 Poland, Prussia, and Russia on the one side, and Italy on 
 the other. The cities of the South of France, especially 
 Marseilles, traded for the most part to the Levant ; and 
 those of the North (as well as of Friesland and the North of 
 Germany) to England. Commercial relations also existed 
 between the Sclavonians on the Elbe and Baltic, and the 
 neighboring countries. Manufacturing industry was pro- 
 moted by the rapid increase in the number of cities, the 
 establishment of fairs, and the discovery of gold and silver 
 mines in the Hartz mountains, in the reign of Otho the 
 Gi'eat. 
 
178. §41.] THE CRUSADES. 87 
 
 Third Period. 
 
 AGE OF THE CRUSADES (1096—1273). 
 
 §41. The Crusades (1096—1273). 
 
 The First Crusade (1696—1100). 
 
 For many years it had been the practice of Christians 178 
 from all parts of the Roman empire, to perform pilgrim- A 
 ages to the Holy Sepulchre, where a magnificent church 
 had been erected by Constantine the Great. The number 
 of those who visited Jerusalem had gone on steadily in- 
 creasing, even after the occupation of the city by the 
 Arabians (636) ; but under the Fatimides and Seldschuks 
 a system of persecution was carried on against the Chris- 
 tians, who were compelled by the Turks to pay a heavy 
 tax for the privilege of visiting the Holy City. Instead, B 
 however, of diminishing the number of pilgrims, the effect 
 of this intolerant measure was to excite throughout Chris- 
 tendom a general desire to make Palestine again a 
 Christian kingdom. The complaints of the Eastern 
 Christians were seconded by Peter of Amiens, or Peter 
 the Hermit, as he is generally called, who had recently 
 returned from the Holy Land, and was now traversing 
 Italy, France, and Germany, and every where describing 
 the atrocities of which he had himself been an eye-witness. 
 Councils of the Church were also held at Piacenza and c 
 Clermont, at which Pope Urban II. exhorted the people to 
 assist in the good work of delivering Jerusalem out of the 
 hands of the unbelievers. In the Spring of 1096, the 
 crusade was commenced by detached bands of adventurers 
 from France, Italy, and Lorraine, who penetrated as far as 
 Hungary and Bulgaria, where most of them were cut to 
 pieces by the inhabitants. The remainder, under Peter 
 the Hermit and Walter of Pexeijo, a needy adventurer, 
 surnamed in derision the Lord of Lackland (Habenichts), 
 
88 THE MIDDLE AGES. [179. §41. 
 
 (178) advanced as far as Nicsea, where their army was well nigh 
 
 A annihilated. On the 15th of August, 1096, an expedition 
 on a larger scale, and under more favorable auspices, was 
 undertaken by Godfrey de Bouillon, duke of Lower 
 Lorraine, his brother Baldwin, Count Robert of Normandy 
 (brother of the King of England), Robert, count of Flan- 
 ders, Raymond, count of Toulouse, Boemund, prince of 
 Tarento, and his nephew Tancred. The grand army, the 
 several divisions of which reached Asia Minor by different 
 routes, numbered, we are told, more than half a million of 
 
 B men. The city of Nicsea was first attacked and carried 
 by storm. Then the crusaders took Edessa, and conferred 
 the sovereignty of that district on Baldwin of Lorraine. 
 Antiochia, which had surrendered after a siege of nine 
 months, was on the eve of falling again into the hands of 
 the Turks, when the besieged, re-assured, it is said, by the 
 discovery of the sacred lance, 1 made a sally from the gates, 
 dispersed the Turkish army, and established a Christian 
 
 C principality under Boemund of Tarento. The army of the 
 crusaders, reduced to 20,000 infantry and 1500 cavalry, at 
 last reached Jerusalem, which, a few years before (in 1095) 
 had been re-conquered by the Fatimides. After closely 
 investing the city for thirty-nine days, the assailants scaled 
 the walls on the 15th of July, 1099, and put the infidels to 
 death without mercy. Godfrey de Bouillon, as the 
 best and bravest of their leaders, was proclaimed King of 
 Jerusalem, but refused to accept any higher title than that 
 of duke. 
 179 A Christian state was also founded at Tripolis, by Ray- 
 
 D mond of Toulouse. An army of 140,000 men was collected 
 for the re-conquest of Palestine, by the Caliph of Egypt, 
 who was drawn into an ambuscade near Ascalon, and 
 defeated by Godfrey de Bouillon, with only 20,000 men. 
 In the year 1100 Godfrey died, in consequence of the 
 fatigues which he had undergone during the siege, and was 
 succeeded by his brother Baldwin I., prince of Edessa, 
 who accepted the title of king, and being supported by the 
 free states of Italy, Genoa, Pisa, and Venice, added the 
 maritime cities of Csesarea, Tripolis, Berytus, and Sidon 
 to the kingdom of Jerusalem, which at its first establish- 
 
 [' The spear, according to tradition, with which the side of our 
 Blessed Saviour was pierced.] 
 
180 182. §41.] THE CRUSADES. 89 
 
 ment consisted merely of the capital with the city of (179) 
 Joppa, and about twenty hamlets. Division of the king- A 
 dom into — 1. the crown-lands; 2. the county of Tri- 
 polis; 3. the principality of Antiochia; 4. the county of 
 Edessa. 
 
 The Second Crusade (1147—1149). 
 
 After repeated attempts on the part of the Egyptian 180 
 caliphs to regain possession of the Holy Land, Edessa was b 
 taken by storm, during the minority of Baldwin III., and 
 its inhabitants put to the sword, or sold as slaves. On 
 receiving intelligence of this disaster, Bernard, abbot of 
 Clairvaux, persuaded the emperor, Conrad III., and 
 Louis VII., king of France, to undertake a second cru- 
 sade. The two armies marched through Hungary with 
 little loss, and entered the Byzantine dominions; but soon 
 afterwards the German division was abandoned by its 
 Greek guides near Iconium, and, after suffering severely 
 from want of provisions, was attacked by the forces of the 
 Sultan of Iconium so fiercely, that scarcely a tenth part 
 survived the engagement. After sustaining considerable c 
 loss, some joined Conrad at Jerusalem, and the two sove- 
 reigns proceeded to lay siege to Damascus; but, failing in 
 their attempt, they abandoned the Holy Land, and re- 
 turned to their own dominions. 
 
 The Third Crusade (1189—1193). 
 
 The dynasty of the Fatimides in Egypt was sustained 181 
 (1163) by the generals of Nureddin, sultan of Damascus, o 
 who was soon succeeded by his nephew Salad in. This 
 monarch revived the claims of Egypt to Syria and Pales- 
 tine, defeated the Christians near Damascus, took their 
 king, Guy de Lusignan, prisoner, and entering Jerusalem 
 in triumph, put an end to the kingdom which had lasted 
 eighty-eight years. 
 
 The loss of the Holy City occasioned the third crusade, 182 
 which was undertaken by the emperor, Frederic I. (Bar- 
 barossa), now in his seventieth year, Philip Augustus, king 
 of France, and Richard Cceur de Lion of England, with the 
 
90 THE MIDDLE AGES. [183, 184. §41. 
 
 (182) flower of their chivalry. Barbarossa, whose army was the 
 A first in the field, entered Asia Minor, and, having defeated 
 the Sultan of Iconium, stormed that city, but soon after- 
 wards was drowned in the river Calycadnos. 
 183 The remains of his army, the ranks of which were daily 
 thinned by pestilence and desertion, at last reached Accon, 
 Acra, or Ptolemais (St. Jean d'Acre), where their com- 
 mander, Duke Frederick of Swabia, son of the late empe- 
 ror, instituted the order of Teutonic Knights, and soon 
 afterwards died of the plague, during the siege of the city, 
 Bin the year 1191. Soon after his death the place was 
 surrendered to the kings of France and England. It was 
 oil this occasion that Richard Cceur de Lion insulted 
 Leopold, duke of Austria, by trampling on his banner. 
 Philip and Richard having disagreed respecting the par- 
 tition of their conquests, and the mode of carrying on the 
 war, the former returned to France; and Richard, after 
 raising the siege of Joppa, concluded an armistice with 
 Saladin, by the terms of which the whole line of coast from 
 Joppa to Accon remained in the hands of the Christians, 
 free access to the holy places being also secured to them, 
 c The island of Cyprus, which had been conquered by 
 Richard, was sold by him to Guy, the last king of Jeru- 
 salem: hence the kingdom of Cyprus (to the year 1480). 
 On his return from Palestine, Richard was seized by 
 Leopold VI. of Austria, and delivered up to the emperor, 
 Henry VI., by whom he was released after two years' 
 imprisonment, on payment of a ransom of 150,000 marks. 
 
 The (so-named) Fourth Crusade (1202—1204). 
 
 184 Fresh bands of crusaders were sent out by the emperor, 
 d Henry VI., and, having reached Syria by the route of 
 Constantinople, regained possession of Sidon, Tyre, and 
 Berytus. Meanwhile the emperor himself died in Sicily. 
 The (so-called) fourth crusade was undertaken by the 
 Franks and Venetians, whose forces, instead of advancing 
 into Palestine, remained at Byzantium, for the purpose of 
 restoring the emperor, Isaac Angel us, who had been de- 
 posed and blinded by his brother Alexius. Finding, how- 
 ever that the promises made on behalf of his father by 
 
185. §41.] THE CRUSADES. 91 
 
 Alexius the younger (son of the Emperor Isaac), were not (184) 
 likely to be fulfilled (Isaac having died of grief and terror a 
 during an insurrection of the Greeks), the French and 
 Venetians a second time took possession of Constantinople, 
 chose Baldwin, count of Flanders and Hennegau, for their 
 emperor, and thus founded the Latin Empire (1204 — 
 1261). Baldwin received only a fourth part of the empire, 
 with the title and authority of feudal sovereign over the 
 rest, which was divided among the Venetians, who ob- 
 tained possession of the shores of the Adriatic, iEgean, and 
 Black Seas, together with most of the Greek islands; and 
 the French and Lombard nobles, one of whom, the Mar- 
 quis of Montferrat, received for his share the whole of 
 Macedonia and a portion of Greece, which were named the 
 kingdom of Thessalonica. A Greek empire was soon after- b 
 wards established at Nicsea by Theodore Lascaris (one 
 of the family of the Comneni), whilst at the same time 
 another Byzantine prince reigned independently, with the 
 title of emperor, at Trebizond. In the year 1261, the 
 Emperor of Nicsea, Michael Palseologus (with the assist- 
 ance of the Genoese, who were jealous of the Venetians), 
 took Constantinople, and put an end to the Latin empire. 
 
 The Crusade of Frederic II. (1228). 
 
 The attempts of Pope Innocent III. to regain Palestine, 185 
 by means of a general crusade, were utterly unsuccessful, c 
 The childi'en's crusade in 1213, and the expedition to 
 Syria of Andrew II., king of Hungary, terminated in dis- 
 appointment and disgrace, whilst the advantage obtained 
 by the titular King of Jerusalem (John of Brienne), through 
 the capture of Damietta, was again lost by the surrender 
 of that fortress to the infidels in the year 1221. One 
 receiving intelligence of this calamity, Pope Honorius III. 
 vehemently urged on the emperor, Frederic II., the neces- 
 sity of fulfilling the promise which he had made at his 
 accession, and again at his coronation; but so many diffi- 
 culties intervened, that the commencement of the crusade 
 was deferred until the year 1227. Scarcely had the empe- 
 ror assembled his forces, when sickness compelled him 
 again to defer the expedition ; and the pope (Gregory IX.), 
 who believed this to be a mere pretext, at once published 
 
92 THE MIDDLE AGES. [186—188. §41. 
 
 (185) the sentence of excommunication against him. In the year 
 
 a 1258, Frederic visited Palestine, and placed on his own 
 
 head the crown of Jerusalem, which had been ceded to 
 
 him, together with the surrounding territory as far as Tyre, 
 
 by Camel, sultan of Egypt. 
 
 The Sixth Crusade (1248). 
 
 186 A violation of the armistice by some pilgrims, under the 
 B command of the King of Navarre, again occasioned the 
 
 loss of Jerusalem in 1239; and five years later (1244) the 
 city was taken from the Turks by the Carizmians, who had 
 been driven out of Khorassan by the Monguls. About 
 this time Louis IX., king of France, commonly called 
 St. Louis, undertook his crusade in fulfilment of a vow which 
 he had made during a severe illness, and landing in Egypt, 
 the possession of which seemed an indispensable prelude 
 to an attempt on the Holy Land, took Damietta, and 
 c defeated the Turks. Advancing towards Cairo, he was 
 taken prisoner, with his whole army ; and after a long nego- 
 tiation was at length released, on condition of evacuating 
 Damietta, and paying a ransom of 800,000 pieces of gold. 
 After his liberation, Louis still lingered in Accon until the 
 year 1254, and fortified the sea-ports of Palestine. 
 
 The Seventh Crusade (1270). 
 
 187 The possessions of the Christians in the East having 
 D fallen one by one into the hands of the Mamelukes, who 
 
 had overthrown the dynasty of Saladin, and raised them- 
 selves to the rank of sultans of Egypt (1254 — 1517), 
 Louis undertook another crusade, and at the instance of 
 his brothei", Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, landed at 
 Tunis, where a pestilence carried off himself and the 
 greater part of his army. In the year 1291, Accon, the 
 last of the Christian possessions in Palestine, fell into the 
 hands of the Mamelukes. 
 
 Results of the Crusades. 
 
 A. Political Consquences. 
 
 188 1. To the Hierarchy, a. The exaltation of the papal 
 power was the natural consequence of a system in which 
 
189, 190. §41.] RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 93 
 
 the pope appeared as the originator of plans, which the (188) 
 temporal sovereigns of Europe were called on to execute. A 
 b. The authority of the pope over the clergy was also aug- 
 mented by the opportunities which the crusades afforded 
 him of appointing legates, who exercised, as representatives 
 of the Holy See, considerable influence over the arch- 
 bishops and bishops, and of placing episcopal vicars in the 
 dioceses during the absence of the bishops, c. The wealth 
 of the clergy was greatly increased by the opportunities 
 afforded to churches and convents of purchasing, at a cheap 
 rate, the estates of those who were anxious to join the 
 crusades. 
 
 2. To the Sovereigns of Europe. Increase in the num- 189 
 ber of estates belonging immediately to the crown, occa- b - 
 sioned by the falling in of several fiefs, especially in France 
 under Philip II. — Another result of the wars against the 
 infidels, was the extension in European countries of the 
 dominions of Christian sovereigns (e. g. in Spain), and the 
 establishment (e.g. in Prussia) of new Christian states. 
 
 3. To the Nobility, the consequences of the crusades 190 
 were most important, a. The spirit of aristocracy de- c 
 veloped itself in the formation of the knightly character, 
 which was a compound of religious enthusiasm, reckless 
 courage, and love of adventure in the service of religion 
 
 or of beauty, b. The distinctive forms of nobility were 
 created by the adoption of family names and coats of arms, 
 and the institution of degrees of chivalry (pages, esquires, 
 knights), c. Origin of the religious orders ofknight-D 
 hood. aa. The Knights Hospitallers, or Knights of St. 
 John. Some merchants from Amalfi had founded at Jeru- 
 salem a convent and hospital for sick pilgrims. The 
 monks of this institution, which was dedicated to St. John, 
 were afterwards sworn to do battle against the infidels, and 
 were divided into three classes, viz. chaplains, who con- 
 ducted the public worship; knights, who bore arms; and 
 lay-brethren, on whom devolved the care of the sick and . 
 poor. This order spread over the whole of Europe, and 
 was divided into eight "tongues," according to the lan- 
 guages of the different states in which it was established. 
 The president had at first the title of " Master," and after- 
 wards of "Grand Master." After the loss of Palestine, 
 the Knights Hospitallers established themselves at Cyprus, 
 
94 THE MIDDLE AGES. [1.91 • §41. 
 
 (190) and in the year 1309 took possession of Rhodes (hence 
 
 A their title of Knights of Rhodes), which they held against the 
 Turks until 1522, when they were driven from it by 
 Soliman. In 1530, they were presented by the emperor, 
 Charles V., with Malta, Gozzo, and Comino (hence their 
 title of Knights of Malta), on condition of their waging 
 perpetual war against infidels and pirates. Malta was 
 
 B taken from them by Napoleon, in the year 1798. bb. The 
 Knights Templars. The nucleus of this order existed as 
 early as the year 1118, in an association of nine French 
 knights, for the protection of pilgrims on the high roads. 
 Their name was derived from their residence near the site 
 of Solomon's temple, in a building granted to them by 
 Baldwin II. After the loss of the Holy Land, most of the 
 Templars sought an asylum in France, where they were 
 cruelly put to death by Philip IV. (1312), after a mock 
 trial on charges substantiated by no better evidence than 
 
 c confessions extorted from them by the rack. cc. The 
 Teutonic Order was founded during the siege of Accon (in 
 1190) by a number of German knights and pilgrims, who 
 formed an association for the relief of persons attacked by 
 a pestilential disease, which at that time raged in the Ger- 
 man camp. The knights were exclusively Germans. Their 
 president had the title of Teutonic Master, or Grand 
 Master. Their residence was removed from Jerusalem to 
 Venice by their fourth grand master, the renowned Her- 
 man of Salza, who undertook the conversion of the heathen 
 Prussians. After a struggle, which lasted fifty-three years, 
 Herman obtained possession of Prussia, and transferred his 
 
 d residence from Venice to Marienburg in 1309. The es- 
 tablishment of these orders contributed essentially to the 
 formation and consolidation of an aristocracy, and prepared 
 the way for the institution of similar orders of knighthood 
 in Europe. In Palestine they supplied the place of astand- 
 ing army, and in the struggles between the ecclesiastical 
 and temporal powers, rendered essential service to the par- 
 ty which had the good fortune to secure their adherence. 
 191 4. To the Burgher Order. Guilds, or fraternities of 
 Burghers, were established, which obtained various privi- 
 leges, generally by purchase, when their lords were in want 
 of money. The growth and prosperity of their cities were 
 promoted by the absence of the nobles, as well as by the 
 increasing activity displayed in commercial pursuits. 
 
192 194. §41.] RESULTS OF THE CRUSADES. 95 
 
 5. To the peasant order. The necessity which existed of (191) 
 employing freemen in the cultivation of those farms from A 
 which the serfs had been withdrawn, to supply the ranks of 
 the crusaders, occasioned a diminution in the number of 
 vassals, and the gradual establishment of a free peasantry. 
 
 B. Consequences to Trade and Manufactures. 
 
 1. To maritime enterprise. Important commercial privi- 192 
 leges were acquired by the Venetians, and to a certain b 
 extent by the Genoese and Pisans, in all the principal cities 
 
 of the Byzantine empire, as well as of Syria and Palestine. 
 During the fourth crusade, the Venetians obtained possession 
 of most of the seaports and islands of the empire, where 
 they established colonies ; the command of the Black Sea 
 securing to their merchants a monopoly of the northern 
 trade, and a considerable share in that of Asia. On the c 
 re-establishment of the Byzantine government at Constan- 
 tinople, the Venetians were expelled from the capital, their 
 place being occupied by the Genoese ; but this disaster was 
 comparatively of little importance, as they were at the same 
 time enabled to conclude commercial treaties with the 
 Saracens, by which the iEgypto-Indian trade, and a share 
 in- the commerce carried on by caravans in the interior of 
 Africa, were secured to them, together with permission 
 to establish settlements on the northern coast of that pe- 
 ninsula. 
 
 2. To the overland trade. The commerce of the inte- 193 
 rior, which in former days had been for the most part D 
 confined to the beaten route from Constantinople to Ger- 
 many, along the banks of the Danube by Vienna and Ra- 
 tisbon, was diverted into various other channels during the 
 period of the crusades: a. from the seaports of Italy into 
 Germany : b. from the ports of the South of France into 
 the interior of that country, as well as into Brabant and . 
 Flanders. It was not, however, until the following period, 
 that this commercial intercourse was fully developed. 
 
 3. To manufacturing industry. Extension to Europe 194 
 (to the South in the first instance) of the manufacture of 
 silk and cotton stuffs, and the production of sugar, together 
 with a more active exportation of European produce to 
 
96 THE MIDDLE AGES. [195, 196. §42. 
 
 (194) Greece and the East. Increase of luxury in the cities, a 
 A consequence of their manufacturing prosperity. 
 
 C. To the Sciences. 
 
 195 The mass of geographical information was considerably 
 augmented by the knowledge of eastern lands, acquired 
 through the crusaders, as well as by the accounts of mis- 
 sionaries (since the thirteenth century), and the travels of 
 Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant; but the defective state 
 of mathematical science occasioned grievous mistakes re- 
 
 B specting the position of different countries. Historical 
 works, for which there was abundant material, began now 
 to be written (after the example of the Orientals) in the 
 vernacular tongue. Natural history and medicine were 
 more generally studied. 
 
 A. The West. ■ 
 
 § 42. The German empire under Lothar the Saxon. 
 (1125—1137.) 
 
 196 Henry V. had nominated as his successors the two sons 
 c of his sister Agnes, Frederick and Conrad of Hohenstaufen ; 
 
 but, under the influence of the Archbishop of Mainz, the 
 choice of the electors fell on Lothar [Lothaire] duke of 
 Saxony, who agreed, as the condition of his election, that 
 the Church should enjoy the undisputed right of appointing 
 her own officers, and that the investiture of bishops by the 
 emperor should not take place until after their consecra- 
 tion. The vacant dukedom of Saxony, and the hand of 
 his daughter, were conferred by Lothar on Henry the Proud, 
 duke of Bavaria (of the house of Welf [Guelph]), by whose 
 aid he defeated Frederick and Conrad of Hohenstaufen, 
 and compelled the latter to renounce the title of King of 
 d Germany. Lothar made two journeys to Rome. On the 
 first occasion he restored Pope Innocent II., who had been 
 expelled from Rome by his rival, Anaclete II., and re- 
 ceived the imperial crown from his hands, together with a 
 grant of the lands of Matilda, margravine of Tuscany, to 
 be held as a fief of the Holy See. On the second, he 
 expelled Roger II. from Apulia and Calabria ; but no 
 sooner had he quitted Italy, than the exiled king returned 
 to his dominions. 
 
197. § 42.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 
 
 97 
 
 197 
 
 
 
 CO ^ 
 
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98 THE MIDDLE AGES. [198,199. §43. 
 
 § 43. The German empire under the Hohenstaufen. 
 (1138—1254.) 
 
 1. Conrad III. (1138—1152.) 
 
 198 After Lothar's death, the claims of his unpopular son-in- 
 A law, Henry the Proud, who had already possessed himself 
 
 of the crown jewels, were set aside by the electors, whose 
 choice fell on a Hohenstaufen, Conrad, duke of Franconia. 
 Henry, on being required to resign one of his two duke- 
 doms, renounced his allegiance, and was placed under the 
 ban of the empire; his dukedom of Bavaria being conferred 
 on Leopold, margrave of Austria (half-brother of Con- 
 rad III.); and Saxony on Albert the Bear (grandson of 
 Duke Magnus of Saxony). After Henry's death, the war 
 was carried on by his brother Guelph (his son, Henry the 
 B Lion, being still a mere child). The city of Weinsburg, in 
 which Guelph had shut himself up, was taken after a long 
 siege (in 1140), and the livesof the garrison saved through 
 the fidelity of their wives : hence the name of " Weiber- 
 treue" (woman's fidelity), which the hill still retains. A 
 treaty was concluded, by which Saxony was restored to 
 Henry the Lion. Conrad was the first king, since Otho 
 the Great, on whose head the imperial crown was not 
 placed by the pope. — For his crusade, see page 89. 
 
 2, Frederick I., Barbarossa (Red-beard). 
 (1152—1190.) 
 
 199 Conrad was succeeded by his nephew, his son being still 
 c a child. Frederick, who was a Hohenstaufen, Or Ghibel- 
 
 line, on the side of his father, and a Guelph on that of his 
 mother, endeavored to reconcile the two houses ; and with 
 that view restored Bavaria to Henry the Lion (who had 
 accompanied him in his first Italian campaign) ; the Mar- 
 grave of Austria being indemnified by the elevation of his 
 marquisate to the rank of an independent dukedom, here- 
 ditary in the female as well as the male line. His great 
 object was to re-establish the imperial authority, which, in 
 Italy especially, had sunk into insignificance during the 
 reigns of his predecessors. For this purpose he visited 
 Italy six times. 
 
200,201. §43.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 99 
 
 First Italian campaign (1154). The city of Milan 200 
 having declared itself independent, Henry addressed a a 
 letter of remonstrance to the magistrates, which was torn 
 in pieces, and thrown into the face of his messenger. On 
 entering Italy for the first time, Frederick, although un- 
 prepared to attack Milan, was able to reduce three other 
 rebellious towns (Asti, Chieri, and Tortona). After their 
 surrender, he assumed the iron crown of Italy in the city 
 of Pavia, and marched at once to Rome, whither he had 
 been summoned by Pope Adrian IV., whose subjects had 
 been persuaded by Arnold of Brescia to throw off the 
 papal yoke, and establish a senate with sovereign authority, 
 as in days of yore. Arnold was taken prisoner by Frede- b 
 rick, delivered up to the prefect of the city, and hung. 
 His body was burnt, and the ashes thrown into the Tiber 
 (1155). Frederick now received the imperial crown from 
 the hands of the pope, whose stirrup he held previously to 
 the ceremony. A terrible disease, which soon afterwards 
 broke out among his troops, compelled Frederick to return 
 to Germany, where he re- united the Burgundian and Ger- 
 man kingdoms by a marriage with Beatrice, heiress of 
 Burgundy, compelled the Poles again to pay tribute, and 
 elevated the Duke of Bohemia to the rank of king. 
 
 In his second Italian campaign (1158 — 1162), Frederick 201 
 placed Milan (which had been perseveringly enlarging its c 
 territories) under the ban of the empire, and laid siege to 
 the city. After sustaining great hardships, the Milanese 
 signed a capitulation, one of the principal conditions of 
 which was, that the election of their magistrates should 
 thenceforward be subject to the emperor's approval. At 
 a diet held on the Roncalian plain near Piacenza, the rela- 
 tions of Italy to the emperor were settled On terms exceed- 
 ingly advantageous to the latter. Even the Milanese were d 
 willingto accept of the new constitution, although it deprived 
 them of the right secured to them by the capitulation of 
 electing their own magistrates, who were thenceforth to 
 be nominated by the emperor himself. An attempt on the 
 part of the citizens of Milan to re-assert this right, occa- 
 sioned a fresh war. After a siege of two years, Milan 
 surrendered unconditionally; the fortifications of the city 
 were dismantled, and the inhabitants, after sustaining fresh 
 humiliations, were compelled to establish themselves in 
 
100 THE MIDDLE AGES. [202—205. §43. 
 
 (201) four separate townships. A double election having been 
 A made by the college of cardinals, Victor IV., and after his 
 death Paschal III., were recognized by Frederick and the 
 bishops immediately under his influence, in opposition to 
 Alexander III., who was supported by a large majority of 
 the priesthood. 
 
 202 In his third visit to Italy (1163) without an army, 
 Frederick, who had been excommunicated by Pope Alex- 
 ander III., endeavored to allay the discontent occasioned 
 by the severity of his functionaries. 
 
 203 In his fourth Italian campaign (1166 — 1163) he com- 
 b pelled the Romans to receive Paschal III. in the place of 
 
 Alexander III., who had fled from the city. Frederick 
 and his consort were crowned by the new pope ; but soon 
 afterwards a frightful pestilence well-nigh annihilated his 
 army, and compelled him to re-cross the Alps in disguise, 
 and almost alone. The Lombard cities, being unable to 
 obtain redress for the cruelties perpetrated by the imperial 
 governors, entered into a confederacy, re-established the 
 exiled Milanese in Milan, and built a fortress, to which, 
 in defiance of the emperor, they gave the name of Alex- 
 andria. 
 
 204 In his fifth campaign (1174 — 1178) he was abandoned 
 c by Henry the Lion during the siege of Alexandria, and in 
 
 consequence of this defection was compelled, after sustain- 
 ing a defeat at Legnano on the Ticino(1176) to conclude 
 (at Venice) a peace with Alexander III., and an armistice 
 with the Lombards for six years ; at ihe expiration of which 
 a formal peace was concluded at Constance. By this 
 new treaty the right was confirmed to the emperor of 
 appointing magistrates and levying taxes ; the cities being 
 permitted to retain their own laws and institutions, and to 
 continue members of the confederacy which they had 
 formed a few years previously. 
 
 205 On his return to Germany, Frederick published the ban 
 D of the empire against Henry the Lion, (who had neglected 
 
 to appear after being five times cited), gave Bavaria to the 
 Count Palatine Otho of Wittelsbach, and West Saxony to 
 the Archbishop of Cologne, conferred the dignity of Duke 
 of Saxony on Count Bernard of Anhalt, and having sub- 
 dued Henry after a war of two years, released him from 
 the ban, and restored his family estates of Brunswick and 
 
205, 207. § 43.] the German empire. 101 
 
 Luneburg, on condition of his absenting himself from (205) 
 Germany for three years. Henry acceded to these terms, a 
 and sought an asylum at the court of his father-in-law, 
 Henry II. king of England. 
 
 After holding a brilliant diet at Mainz (1184), at which 206 
 his two eldest sons, Henry and Frederick, were admitted to 
 the degree of knighthood, Frederick appearedybr the sixth 
 time in Italy, where he was received with enthusiasm, and 
 celebrated in the city of Milan, which had been lately 
 rebuilt, the marriage of his eldest son, the Roman King 
 Henry, with Constance, daughter of Roger II., and heiress 
 of the kingdom of Apulia and Sicily, — For an account of 
 his crusade and death, see pages 89, 90. 
 
 3. Henry VI. (1190—1197). 
 
 Henry, who had governed the empire as regent, during 207 
 the absence of his father in the Holy Land, hastened into b 
 Italy on receiving intelligence of the death of William II. . 
 of Sicily, for the purpose of securing the birthright of his 
 consort ; but the Sicilians, who hated the Germans, had 
 already placed on the throne Count Tancred, an illegiti- 
 mate scion of the Norman royal house. Henry, after 
 receiving the imperial crown at Rome, advanced by forced 
 marches to Naples, but was soon compelled by the sick- 
 liness of his troops, and the intelligence which reached him 
 of his brother's death, to return to Germany. The ransom c 
 of Richard Cceur de Lion (see page 90), afforded him the 
 means of undertaking a second campaign to Italy, where 
 all opposition had ceased since the death of Tancred. At 
 Palermo, the crown of Sicily was added to the four which 
 he already possessed. The discovery of an unsuccessful 
 conspiracy furnished the emperor with a pretext for in- 
 flicting the most terrible punishments on his enemies. 
 Tancred's widow and daughters were thrown into prison, D 
 his son William deprived of his eyes, and archbishops, 
 bishops, counts, and nobles, put to death by tortures too 
 horrible to relate. These acts of cruelty, together with 
 his treatment of Richard Cceur de Lion, provoked the 
 pope (Coslestine III.) to pronounce sentence of excommu- 
 nication on Henry. A plan which he had long cherished, 
 of making the imperial dignity hereditary in his family, 
 was rendered abortive by the opposition of the nobility, 
 
102 THE MIDDLE AGES. [208—210. §43. 
 
 (207) especially of the higher orders of the clergy. The follow- 
 A ing year, during his preparations for the conquest of the 
 Byzantine empire, Henry suddenly expired at Messina, to 
 the great delight of all the Italians. 
 
 208 Henry the Lion had returned from England to Ger- 
 many, where he found many adherents; but all his attempts 
 to recover his former possessions ended in disappointment. 
 He died at Brunswick, in the year 1195. 
 
 4. Philip of Swabia (1198—1208). 
 Otho IV. (1198—1215.) 
 
 209 After Henry's death, the German nobles were divided into 
 B two parties : that of the Hohenstaufen, which supported 
 
 Henry's youngest brother, Philip of Swabia (Henry's 
 son Frederick being scarcely three years old when his father 
 died) ; and the Guelphic, which chose Otho, second son of 
 Henry the Lion. Innocent 111.(1198 — 1216), to whose 
 arbitration the disputed election was referred, decided in 
 favor of Otho. Philip, who had conferred the hereditary 
 sovereignty of Bohemia on Ottocar( 1198), and had already 
 obtained some advantages over Otho, and entered into 
 negotiations with the pope, was murdered at Bamberg, in 
 the year 1208, by the Count Palatine Otho of Wittels- 
 bach, to whom he had promised one of his daughters in 
 marriage, and neglected to fulfil the engagement. 
 110 The first act of Otho's reign, after the death of his rival, 
 c was to place Otho of Wittelsbach under the ban of the 
 empire, and command his assassination. After effecting a 
 reconciliation with the house of Hohenstaufen by means of 
 a marriage with Beatrice, the youngest daughter of Philip 
 of Swabia, Otho visited Rome, and received the Italian and 
 imperial crowns ; but soon afterwards having involved 
 himself in a dispute with Pope Innocent III., through an 
 attempt to re-establish the imperial authority in Italy, he 
 D conquered Apulia, and attacked the King of Sicily, who 
 happened to be the pope's ward. Innocent immediately 
 excommunicated him, and invited the German nobles to 
 confirm their former election of Frederick, the only sur- 
 viving prince of the house of Hohenstaufen, who was 
 crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in 1215. Otho, who pre- 
 viously to this event had been defeated by the French king, 
 
211. §43.] THE GERMAN EMPIRE. 103 
 
 Philip Augustus, at Bovines, in Flanders (where he was (210) 
 assisted by his ally, King John of England), was compelled A 
 to retire to his hereditary estate of Brunswick, where he 
 died (at Harzburg) in 1218. 
 
 5. Frederick II. (1215—1250). 
 
 On his accession, Frederick had promised the pope, 211 
 (1) that thenceforward the German and Sicilian crowns 
 should be disunited ; and (2) that he would undertake a 
 crusade. Both these engagements were violated ; the first 
 by his nominating his son Henry (to whom he had resigned 
 the kingdom of Sicily) to be his successor on the German 
 throne, and causing him to be crowned Roman king in 1222 ; 
 and the second (which he had renewed at his coronation), 
 by his deferring the crusade until the year 1227, the inter- 
 vening time being occupied in arranging the affairs of his 
 hereditary estates. On his return from Palestine, Frede- b 
 rick found Apulia in the occupation of the papal troops ; 
 and having re-conquered that province, effected a recon- 
 ciliation with the pope, through the intervention 'of Her- 
 man of Salza, grand master of the Teutonic order, and 
 thoroughly reformed the legal code of his hereditary domi- 
 nions, he re-visited Germany, where his son Henry had 
 raised the standard of rebellion during his absence. Henry 
 was taken, solemnly disinherited at Mainz, and thrown into 
 prison, where he remained until his death in 1242. At c 
 the same diet, Frederick conferred on Otho [the Child] the 
 allodes of his father, to be held thenceforward as the here- 
 ditary duchy of Brunswick Liineburg, with succession in 
 the female as well as the male line. After proclaiming a 
 general peace throughout Germany, the emperor revisited 
 Italy, for the purpose of chastising those Lombard cities 
 which had taken part with his eldest son, leaving the 
 second, Conrad, to administer the affairs of the kingdom 
 during his absence. Having reduced all the cities to sub- D 
 mission with the exception of four, and obtained a decisive 
 victory at Cortenuova (1237) by the aid of his general, 
 Ezzelino Romano, Frederick summoned the Milanese to 
 surrender at discretion, but was prevented from attaining 
 his object, by a misunderstanding with Pope Gregory IX., 
 in consequence of the elevation of the emperor's natural 
 
104 THE MIDDLE AGES. [212 214. §43. 
 
 (211) son, Enzio, to the throne of Sardinia, of which the sove- 
 a reignty was claimed by the holy see, as a part of St. 
 Peter's patrimony. 
 
 212 Sentence of excommunication was passed on Frederick ; 
 but the endeavors of the pope to place a rival on the 
 imperial throne were unsuccessful. About the same time, 
 Russia and Poland were overrun by the Mongols, who 
 penetrated as far as Silesia, and defeated the army of 
 Henry the Pious, duke of Lower Silesia, at a place called 
 from this engagement Wahlstatt, or the battle-field. 
 Then they marched through Morovia and Hungary, and 
 after sustaining a defeat somewhere in Austria, retired to 
 the steppes, whence they had originally sallied forth. 
 
 213 In the same year, Gregory IX. died, at the age of one 
 B hundred years. In the year 1243, Pope Innocent IV. fled 
 
 to Lyons, where he called together a general council, and 
 solemnly deposed the emperor and his son Conrad. The 
 bishops then elected the Landgrave Henry Raspe of 
 Thuringia (1-246), whose elevation to the throne by the 
 votes of the clergy, without the consent of the temporal 
 electors, procured him the nick-name of the " Parson's 
 King" (der PfafFenkonig). The usurper obtained some 
 advantages near Frankfort ; but died in the following year 
 at the Wartburg, in consequence of wounds received in an 
 c engagement in the neighborhood of Ulm. The choice of 
 the th ree Rhenish archbishops then fellonCountWilliam 
 of Holland, who was also supported by one of the tem- 
 poral electors, the King of Bohemia. Leaving his son 
 Conrad to oppose the usurper in Germany, Frederick, in 
 conjunction with his natural son Enzio (who was taken 
 prisoner in a bloody engagement near Fossalta), and his 
 general, Ezzelino Romano, resumed the war in Lombardy, 
 which continued with various success until his death (at 
 Firenzuelo, near Luceria), in 1250. 
 
 6. Conrad IV. (1250— 1254). William (1256). 
 
 214 After sustaining a defeat at Oppenheim, Conrad quitted 
 D Germany, where the mendicant friars were preaching a 
 
 crusade against him, and sought an asylum in Apulia, 
 which was occupied by the forces of his illegitimate bro- 
 ther Manfred. He died in 1254, leaving behind him one 
 
215 — 217. §44,45.] the two sicilies. 105 
 
 son, named Conradin, an infant of two years old. Almost (214) 
 the only public act of William of Holland was the giving A 
 his sanction to a confederacy which had been formed by a 
 number of towns on the Rhine about the time of his own 
 election. He was slain in a frozen morass, by the inha- 
 bitants of Friesland, from whom he had attempted to extort 
 tribute. 
 
 § 44. The interregnum in Germany (1257 — 1273). 
 
 So distracted was the empire at this period of our history, 215 
 that no native prince would suffer himself to be put in b 
 nomination as William's successor : the choice, therefore, 
 of the electors fell on two foreigners, Richard of Corn- 
 wall (who obtained the majority of votes), and Alfonso 
 of Castille. The former, who was crowned at Aix-la- 
 Chapelle, visited Germany four times. After his death, in 
 1272, Alfonso, who had never quitted Spain since his elec- 
 tion, was set aside by the electors, and Count Rudolph, of 
 Habsburg, raised to the imperial throne, in 1273, chiefly 
 through the influence of the Archbishop of Mainz. 
 
 § 45. The kingdom of the two Sicilies (1130 — 1282). 
 
 a. Under the Normans (1130 — 1194). The immediate 216 
 successors of Roger II., founder of the kingdom of the Two c 
 Sicilies (see § 25, d), and conqueror of the northern coast 
 
 of Africa, from Tunis to Tripoli, were William I., surnamed 
 the Bad, who lost the possessions of the Sicilian crown in 
 Africa; and William (II.) the Good. The legitimate suc- 
 cessors of the latter were Constance, daughter of Roger II., 
 and her consort, the emperor Henry VI. ; but the throne 
 was usurped during a period of five years, by Tancred, a 
 natural son of Roger II., and his son William III. 
 
 b. Under the Hohenstavfen (1194—1266). Henry I. 2H 
 (VI.) was succeeded by his son Frederick I. (II.) a child d 
 
 of three years old, who was placed under the guardianship 
 of the pope. This sovereign transferred the royal residence 
 from Palermo to Naples (where he founded a university), 
 and gave the nation a new code of laws, most of which 
 were borrowed from the ancient Norman constitutions. 
 All peculiar jurisdictions were abolished, and thus a check 
 5* 
 
106 THE MIDDLE AGES. [218—220. §46. 
 
 (217) was given to the progress of immorality and luxury. His 
 A son Conrad IV. left behind him one son, named Conradin, 
 a minor, whose guardian, Manfred, assumed the crown 
 without the sanction of his feudal sovereign the pope. On 
 receiving intelligence of this proceeding, Urban conferred 
 the kingdom on Charles of Anjou, brother of St. Louis 
 of France. In the year 1266, a battle was fought near 
 Benevento, in which Manfred lost his life. 
 218 c* Under the house of Anjou (1266— 1282). The ad- 
 B herents of Manfred fled to Germany, and joined the army 
 of Conradin, who entered Italy accompanied by his friend 
 Frederick of Austria, and after sustaining a defeat at 
 Tagliacozzo, or Scurcola, in the neighborhood of Alba 
 (August 23), was taken prisoner and executed (with his 
 companion) in the market-place of Naples (1268). On 
 the scaffold he bequeathed his claims to Peter III. of 
 Arragon, Manfred's son-in-law. The flames of discontent, 
 kindled by the insolence and tyranny of Charles of Anjou, 
 burst forth on Easter-Monday, 1282, during the Vesper 
 service at Palermo (the Sicilian vespers), when all the 
 Frenchmen in the island were massacred, and the crown 
 of Sicily placed on the head of Peter of Arragon, Charles 
 still retaining the kingdom of Naples. 
 
 § 46. France (1108—1270). 
 
 219 5. Louis (VI.) the Fat (1108— -1137). The gradual 
 c abolition of serfdom and the formation of free guilds, or 
 
 companies (communes) in the cities, contributed in no 
 small degree to the consolidation of the sovereign authority, 
 and the depression of the powerful vassals of the crown. 
 Normandy was still held by the King of England as a 
 French fief, in spite of three attempts made by Louis VI. 
 to restore Robert, duke of that country, who had been 
 deposed and imprisoned by his brother, Henry I. 
 
 220 6. Louis VII. (1137 — 1180) was persuaded by the 
 D Abbot Bernard of Clairvaux to take part in the second 
 
 crusade (see page 89), during which the affairs of his 
 kingdom were well administered by the Abbot Suger. On 
 nis return, Louis divorced his wife Eleonora, heiress of 
 Poitou, Guienne, and Gascony, who immediately married 
 
221. §46.] FRANCE. 107 
 
 Henry, duke of Normandy and count of Anjou. Two (220) 
 years later, on the accession of this prince to the English A 
 throne, the whole western half of France was annexed to 
 England. 
 
 7. Philip II. (1180— 122|), surnamed Augustus (on 221 
 account of his conquests), quarrelled with Richard Coeur 
 de Lion during the third crusade, and made an unsuccess- 
 ful attempt on the English possessions in France. On the 
 other hand, Richard's successor, John (surnamed Lack- 
 land), whom Philip had in vain cited to appear before the 
 chamber of peers at Paris, and clear himself from the 
 charge of having murdered his nephew, Arthur of Brittany, 
 was compelled to relinquish all his French fiefs except 
 Guienne. By the consolidation of these fiefs, the crown of 
 France obtained an influence infinitely greater than that 
 possessed by its vassals individually. King John having b 
 quarrelled with the pope respecting the election of an 
 Archbishop of Canterbury, Innocent III. excommunicated 
 him, and invited Philip II. to take possession of England. 
 An arrangement was subsequently effected, by which John 
 consented to hold his territories as a fief of the see of 
 Rome ; but, notwithstanding this change in the aspect of 
 affairs, Philip, who had obtained a victory at Bovines over 
 John and his allies (the Emperor Otho IV. and the Count 
 of Flanders), sent his son Louis into England, whence he 
 was expelled at the end of a year. During the progress of c 
 these events a fierce civil war was raging in the south of 
 France, where the A lbigenses (a designation common to 
 several sects which had arisen in that quarter of the king- 
 dom, especially in the province of Albigeois, towards the 
 close of the twelfth century) had refused to recognize 
 either the spiritual or secular authority of the pope, and 
 placing themselves under the protection of Count Rai- 
 mond VI. of Thoulouse, had destroyed several churches 
 and ill-treated the clergy. Sentence of excommunication d 
 having been passed on the count by Pope Innocent III., 
 and preachers sent forth to proclaim a crusade against the 
 heretics, the cities of Beziers and Carcassonne were laid in 
 ashes (1209), the inhabitants butchered without distinction 
 of age or sex, and the greater part of Languedoc overrun 
 by the crusaders. Origin of the "pairs de France" (six 
 temporal, viz. the dukes of Normandy, Guienne, and Bur- 
 
108 THE MIDDLE AGES. [222, 223. § 46. 
 
 (221) gundy, the counts ofThoulouse, Champagne, and Flanders; 
 A and six spiritual, viz. the Archbishop of Rheims and five 
 bishops) ; and of appeals from the baronial courts to the 
 king. 
 
 222 8. Louis VIII. (1213—1226) undertook a fresh cru- 
 sade against the Albigenset and Raimond VII., and died 
 before its termination. 
 
 223 9. Louis IX. (St. Louis, 1226— 1270), the most pious 
 prince of the middle ages, commenced his reign under the 
 guardianship of his mother, Blanche of Castille, and termi- 
 nated the Albigensian war in 1229, by concluding a peace 
 with Raimond VII., who was compelled to cede a portion 
 of his dominions to the crown, and bequeath the remainder 
 
 B to his son-in-law, a brother of the king. The Albigenses 
 were exterminated partly through the vigilance of the 
 recently-established inquisition, and the exertions of the 
 Dominican preachers, and partly by actual violence. — For 
 his first crusade, see page 92. A permanent peace with 
 England was established by the restoration of four pro- 
 vinces south of the Charente to Henry III., who, on his 
 part, consented to abandon his claims to all other portions 
 of the French territory formerly possessed by England, 
 and to take the oath of feudal allegiance to Louis; after 
 which he was enrolled among the peers of France, as duke 
 
 c of Guienne. For the preservation of peace at home, all 
 private feuds were strictly forbidden, wager of battle 
 abolished on the estates belonging to the crown, the rights 
 of the Church secured by a pragmatic sanction, and the 
 baronial jurisdiction gradually subjected to the royal 
 courts, which were duly supplied with advocates. — For 
 his second crusade and death, see page 92. 
 
224—228. §47.] England. 109 
 
 § 47. England (1066—1272). 
 a. Under Norman kings (1066 — 1154). 
 
 William I. t 1087. 224 
 
 i ■> /^ 
 
 Robert, William II. Henry I. Adelaide, 
 
 Duke of Normandy. t 1100. t 1135. mar. Stephen, 
 
 i * > Count of Blois. 
 
 Matilda, 
 
 mar. 1. The. Emperor Henry V. Stephen, 
 
 2. Geoffrey Plantagenet, King, t 1154. 
 
 Count of Anjou. 
 
 Henry II. tll89. 
 
 1. William (I.) the Conqueror (1066— 1087), in- 225 
 troduced the feudal system into England, and divided the b 
 conquered territory into 60,215 portions, of which 14,000 
 were retained by the crown, and 20,215 conferred on the 
 clergy, who were bound, no less than the temporal barons, 
 
 to render military service for their fiefs. As the best 
 security for the stability of his usurped throne, William 
 filled all the great offices of state with Normans, intro- 
 duced the French language into the courts of law and 
 schools, and published an exact register of the lands of 
 England, which still exists, under the title of Domesday 
 Book. 
 
 2. William (II.) Rufus (1087—1100), succeeded 226 
 his father on the English throne, to the exclusion of his c 
 elder brother Robert, who inherited the dukedom of Nor- 
 mandy, and joined the crusaders. 
 
 3. Henry I. (1100 — 1135) seized on the crown during 227 
 the absence of his elder brother in Palestine, and on his 
 return robbed him also of Normandy, which was united to 
 England in 1106. Robert was deprived of his eyes, and 
 died in prison. A charter by which the severity of the D 
 feudal constitution was in some degree qualified, was 
 granted by Henry to the nobility and the city of London. 
 The recognition by the nobility of Henry's daughter Ma- 
 tilda, and her second husband Geoffrey Plantagenet, intro- 
 duced the principle of female succession into England; but 
 Henry having died in Normandy, a rival candidate for the 
 throne appeared in the person of 
 
 4. Stephen of Blois, who was defeated by the forces 228 
 
110 THE MIDDLE AGES. [229—231. §47. 
 
 (228) of Matilda near Lincoln, thrown into prison, and only per- 
 A mitted to retain the crown during his life, on condition of 
 nominating Matilda's son Henry as his successor. 
 
 b. Under the four first kings of the house of An- 
 jou or Plantagenet (1154 — 1272). 
 
 229 1. Henry II. (1154 — 1189) inherited Normandy from 
 his mother, and Anjou, Maine, and Touraine, from his 
 father; and held Guienne and Poitou (see § 45) in right 
 of his wife. The attempts of Henry to subject (by the 
 constitutions of Clarendon) ecclesiastics to the jurisdic- 
 tion of the temporal courts in matters purely secular, and 
 to restrain the practice of appealing to Rome, were de- 
 feated by the pertinacity of Thomas a Becket, archbishop 
 of Canterbury, who was murdered in his own cathedral by 
 
 B four noblemen. To satisfy the people, Henry did penance 
 at the archbishop's tomb. Ireland, which was distracted 
 by intestine feuds, was conquered in 1172, and the King of 
 Scotland compelled to take the oath of vassalage to the 
 crown of England. Henry died of grief, occasioned by 
 repeated acts of rebellion, committed at the instigation of 
 his consort, by his two sons, who were abetted in their 
 treason by the King of France. 
 
 230 2. Richard Cceur de Lion (1189— 1199) sold his 
 c feudal supremacy over Scotland, passed three years in 
 
 Palestine, and two in a German prison, and lost his life 
 before a fortress during a war which he had undertaken 
 against France, in consequence of the support afforded by 
 that power to his rebellious brother John. 
 281 3. John (surnamed Lackland) (1199—1216 was 
 deprived of all his French fiefs, except Guienne, as a 
 punishment for the murder of his nephew, Arthur of Brit- 
 tany, whose claims to the English crown were supported by 
 D Philip Augustus. About the same time, John was excommu- 
 nicated by Pope Innocent III. (in consequence of a dispute 
 respecting the nomination of an archbishop of Canterbury), 
 and the sovereignty of England offered to the King of 
 France (compare § 46). Having effected a reconciliation 
 with the pope, by consenting to hold his kingdom as a 
 fief of the Holy See, John made an unsuccessful attempt to 
 abrogate the charter of English liberty (Magna Charta 
 
232. §47.] ENGLAND. Ill 
 
 libertatum), which his insurgent barons had forced him (231) 
 to sign in 1215, and soon afterwards died of fever, occa- A 
 sioned by the fatigue of a precipitate flight. 
 
 4. Henry III. (1216 — 1272) was only ten years of age 232 
 when he ascended the throne. Prince Louis of France, 
 who had assumed the title of King of England, in con- 
 sequence of the pope's invitation (compare page 107), was 
 defeated by the Earl of Pembroke (Henry's guardian) near 
 Lincoln, and also in a naval engagement, and compelled 
 to renounce his claims. Scarcely, however, was Henry 
 securely seated on the throne, when his incapacity mani- 
 fested itself in the injudicious selection of his generals and 
 ministers, and the favor shown to foreign adventurers, 
 as well as in the oppression of his own subjects, notwith- 
 standing his assurances (renewed during a period of thirty 
 years, on the occasion of every fresh subsidy) that their 
 privileges should be respected. The discontent excited by b 
 his weakness and treachery burst forth at last in an insur- 
 rection of the barons (1258, headed by Henry's brother- 
 in-law, Simon de Montfort, earl of Leicester). Henry was 
 compelled to assemble a parliament at Oxford, and commit 
 the administration of his kingdom to a council composed of 
 twenty-four barons. An attempt on the part' of the king c 
 to resume the reins of government, occasioned the battle of 
 Lewes (1264), in which Henry (with his brother, Richard 
 of Cornwall, king of Germany) was taken prisoner, and 
 forced to purchase his freedom by consenting to re-establish 
 the council of barons. The haughty demeanor of Leices- 
 ter offended the barons; but, on the other hand, the favor 
 of the people was conciliated by his calling to the parlia- 
 ment two knights from each county, and two burgesses as 
 representatives of each town, thus laying the foundation of 
 a House of Commons. Meanwhile Edward, the heir- d 
 apparent to the throne, had assembled the adherents of the 
 king, and marched to Evesham, where a battle was fought 
 in 1265, in which Leicester was slain, and the baronial 
 aristocracy completely crushed. The result of this victory 
 was the re-establishment of peace between the king and 
 his people. — For an account of the termination of the dis- 
 putes with France, by a peace with Louis IX., see page 108. 
 
112 THE MIDDLE AGES. [233— 235. § 48, 49. 
 
 § 48. Spain. 
 
 233 1. The kingdom established by the Arabians in Spain 
 A remained until the end of this period (1269) in close con- 
 nection with the empire of Morocco ; but the Moorish 
 power, both in Africa and in the peninsula, had been gra- 
 dually declining since the defeat of their forces at Tolosa 
 (1212), by the united armies of the kings of Arragon, 
 Castille, and Navarre. In Spain especially, Christianity 
 had gradually obtained a preponderance over Islamism, 
 through the acquisition of provinces, which had either been 
 re-conquered from the unbelievers, or conferred by them 
 as fiefs on the native princes. 
 
 234 2. Christian Spain, a. The kingdom of Leon and 
 B Castille (compare § 33, 2) was divided by Alfonso VII. 
 
 into two sovereignties (1157), which were re-united by 
 Ferdinand the Saint (1230), and augmented by the addi- 
 tion of several' Moorish provinces (Cordova, Estremadura, 
 Murcia, Jaen, and Seville), the conquest of which was 
 principally achieved by the knights of the three Castilian 
 orders (Alcantara, Calatrava, and St. Jago de Compostella), 
 established towards the middle of the twelfth century. 
 His son Alfonso X. (surnamed the Wise) was elected 
 
 c King of Germany (compare § 44). b. Navarre was again 
 separated from Arragon, and continued to be an indepen- 
 dent kingdom until 1284, when it was annexed to France. 
 c. On the other hand, Barcelona, the Balearic isles, and 
 the kingdom of Valencia, were added to the kingdom of 
 Arragon, the first through the marriage of Count Raimond 
 of Barcelona with the heiress of Arragon, and the others 
 by the sword** of James I., surnamed the Conqueror. 
 
 D Pedro III., son- of this monarch, whom Conradin imme- 
 diately before his execution had nominated heir of his 
 claims to the Neapolitan throne, became King of Sicily 
 after the Sicilian vespers. 
 
 § 49. Portugal. 
 
 235 About the time of the first crusade (1096), Alfonso VI., 
 of Castille, granted to his brave son-in-law, Henry, duke 
 of Burgundy (great-grandson of Hugh Capet), the whole of 
 the territory between the Minho and Douro, which derived 
 
236. §50.] THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE. 113 
 
 its name of Portugal from the city of Porto. 1 The capital (235) 
 was Coimbra. Alfonso I., who had been enabled to extend A 
 the boundaries of his infant kingdom by a victory over the 
 Arabians at Ourique (1139), assumed the title of king (for 
 the recognition of which he engaged to pay a yearly tribute 
 to the pope), obtained a constitution for his new kingdom 
 from the Cortes of Lamego, and with the assistance of 
 some English and North-German crusaders, wrested Lis- 
 bon from the infidels. Alfonso III. further enlarged the 
 kingdom by the conquest of Algarves in 1253. 
 
 B. The East. 
 
 § 50. The Byzantine empire. 
 
 1. Under the Comneni and Dukas (1157— 1185]. 236 
 The soldiers, weary of their dependence on the two prin- b 
 cesses (compare § 34), had placed their comrade Isaac 
 Comnenus on the imperial throne ; but the newly-elected 
 emperor was soon compelled by bodily infirmity to resign 
 his crown and retire into a monastery. A friend of his 
 house, named Constantine Dukas, was then invested with 
 the purple, which he bequeathed to his wife (Eudocia), to be 
 held in trust for his three sons, subject to the condition that 
 the empress should remain unmarried. Scarcely, however, c 
 had seven months expired, when Eudocia, disregarding 
 her lord's injunctions, bestowed her hand on her general, 
 Romanus Diogenes, who was defeated and taken prisoner 
 in a war with the Seldschuks. After a short captivity, 
 Diogenes was generously set at liberty by his conquerors, 
 and returning home, found his wife imprisoned in a con- 
 vent, and the throne in possession of Michael VII. (eldest 
 son of Constantine Dukas), who defeated him and put out 
 his eyes. The greater part of Asia Minor had been d 
 already wrested from the empire by the Seldschuks (hence 
 the Sultanate of Iconium, or Rum), and the whole of 
 Lower Italy by the Normans, when the Comneni again 
 ascended the throne. Three emperors of that house, each 
 distinguished for his bravery, viz. Alexius Comnenus, 
 his son Kalo- Johannes, and grandson Manuel (whose 
 united reigns occupied 100 years, 1081 — 1180), resisted 
 manfully the encroachments of the Seldschuks in the east, 
 
 [ 1 Called by us " O Porto, the port."] 
 
114 THE MIDDLE AGES. [237—239. §51. 
 
 (236) the Normans in Lower Italy, and the Petschenegens and 
 A Cumanes in the north, notwithstanding the feebleness to 
 which the empire had been reduced by the corruption of 
 the court and the struggles of party. Manuel's son, 
 Alexius II. (a minor) was murdered after a short reign by 
 his guardian, Andronicus, whose cruel reign of three 
 years was terminated by an insurrection of Isaac An- 
 gel us, a collateral relation of the Comneni, who had 
 been condemned to suffer an ignominious death. 
 
 237 2. Under the house of Angelus (1185—1204). 
 The weak Isaac Angelus, who had been unable to 
 prevent the revolt of the Bulgarians, and the loss of 
 Cyprus, was set aside by his brother Alexius III., who 
 
 B put out his eyes and threw him into prison. The fourth 
 crusade, as it was called, was undertaken by the Vene- 
 tians and French, for the purpose of replacing him on 
 the throne, from which he was a second time deposed (see 
 paa;e 90). 
 
 238 3. The Latin empire (1204— 1261). For an ac- 
 count of this empire, as well as those of Nicaea and Trebi- 
 zond, see page 91. 
 
 § 51. The Arabians. 
 
 239 The Caliphate of the Abbasides was extin- 
 c guished in the year 1258 by the Mongols, who stormed 
 
 Bagdad (the only city still possessed by the caliphs), and 
 for seven days deluged its streets with blood. Motazem, 
 the fifty-sixth and last caliph, was sewn up in a cow's hide, 
 and dragged by the conquerors through the streets of his 
 capital. The descendants of Prince Hakim, who escaped 
 the general destruction, continued to exercise a spiritual 
 supremacy in Egypt (without any admixture of secular 
 authority) until the conquest of that country by the Turks 
 D in 1517. Of the African dynasties, the Aglabides and 
 Edrisidps had become extinct during the preceding period ; 
 the Fatimides in Egypt were overthrown by Nureddin ; and 
 the Morabethes, who had founded the empire of Morocco and 
 conquered the south of Spain, were expelled by the Almo- 
 hades (whose supremacy terminated in 1269). The whole, 
 therefore, of Arabian Africa was now shared by three re- 
 cent dynasties (the Abuhassians, Merinides, and Zianides), 
 
240, 241. §52, 53.] Arabians, seldschuks, etc. 115 
 
 who had already from time to time obtained possession of (239) 
 particular portions. 
 
 § 52. The Seldschuks. 
 
 About fifty years before the commencement of the cru- 240 
 sades, a nomadic Turkish tribe, named the Seldschuks, A 
 under the command of their Sultan Togrul Beg, a grand- 
 son of the Turkish Emir Seldschuk, conquered all the 
 countries between the Oxus and Euphrates, and having 
 established their head-quarters at Bagdad (where their 
 leader enjoyed the dignity of emir al Omrah), made them- 
 selves also masters of Syria and Asia Minor. After the B 
 death of their third Sultan (Malek) in 1092, the mighty 
 empire, which in its palmy days extended from the frontier 
 of China to the Mediterranean, and from Samarcand to the 
 southern coast of Arabia, after a succession of civil wars, 
 was split into five small governments, which during the 
 crusades fell into the hands of other Turkish hordes. The 
 kingdom of Iconium alone continued to exist, although in 
 a state of dependence on the Mongols, until the thirteenth 
 century. 
 
 § 53. The Mongols. 
 
 The Mongols, a nomadic tribe closely connected with 241 
 the Huns, who inhabited the ti'ackless plains stretching c 
 southwards from Siberia to the greater Bucharia and the 
 Desert of Kobi, in the year 1206 conferred the title of 
 Dsc-hingis-Kh an (i.e. Khan of Khans), on Ternud 
 Schin, the son of a khan. Under the command of this 
 chieftain, they conquered a portion of northern China, 
 expelled Mohammed, sultan of the Chowaresmians, 
 (whose dominions extended from India to the Cas- 
 pian Sea), invaded Russia, and overthrew the Prince of 
 Kiev (on the Kalka). Under the four sons of Dschingis- D 
 Khan (among whom the empire of Kiev was divided), 
 the whole of Northern China fell into the hands of the 
 Mongols, who then overran Russia, Poland, Silesia (where 
 they were victorious in the bloody battle of Wahlstadt, 
 compare page 104), Moravia, and Hungary, and entering 
 Austria, sustained a defeat, which compelled them to re- 
 trace their march through Asia Minor, — a measure which 
 was rendered still more necessary by the death of their 
 
116 THE MIDDLE AGES. [242—245. §54. 
 
 (241) great khan. In the year 1258 they took Bagdad, and put 
 A an end to the dynasty of the Abbasides. Towards the end 
 of the thirteenth century, the empire of the Mongols, which 
 now included Thibet and southern China, had reached its 
 widest limits, extending from the wall of China to the 
 frontier of Poland, and from India to Siberia. The resi- 
 dence of the great khan was at Pekin. The administra- 
 tion of the provinces was committed to inferior khans, of 
 the race of Dschingis-Khan ; the most powerful of whom 
 were the khans of Kaptschak on the Wolga, and Dschag- 
 atai in Turkestan. 
 
 C. The North-East of Europe. 
 § 54. Scandinavia. 
 
 242 1. Iceland remained independent until nearly the end 
 B of this period (1261 ?), when it became a province of 
 
 Norway. In no country were the ancient Scandinavian 
 manners, language, and literature so little affected by 
 the influence of western Europe, of which scarcely any 
 traces are discernible, except in the ecclesiastical consti- 
 tution of the island. 
 
 243 2. In Norway, the dynasty of the legitimate descend- 
 ants of Harald Harfagr expired in 1103, with Magnus III., 
 whose natural children threw the whole kingdom into 
 confusion by their contests for the crown. Iceland and 
 Greenland were annexed to Norway, and the Hebrides 
 sold to Scotland. 
 
 244 3. Sweden, like Norway, was distracted during this 
 c period by factions and civil wars, occasioned not so much 
 
 by disputed successions, as by the antagonism which sub- 
 sisted between the Gothic and Swedish races, as well as 
 between the Christians and heathens. The frequent result 
 of these disputes was the division of Norway into two 
 kingdoms, at first into Christian and heathen, and subse- 
 quently into a Gothic and Swedish. 
 
 245 4. In Denmark, Avhich comprehended also southern 
 D Sweden, or Schonen, the reigning family was that of the 
 
 Estrides, who conquered the island of Rugen, as well as 
 the whole line of coast from Esthonia to Holstein, together 
 with the towns of Liibeck and Hamburg. The whole of 
 this conquered territory, with the exception of northern 
 
246, 247. § 55, 56.] Russia — Poland. 117 
 
 Esthonia, was afterwards surrendered by Waldemar II. to (245) 
 the Count of Schwerin, as the price of his liberation from A 
 prison. Since the abandonment of voyages to England, the 
 intercourse between the two countries had given place to 
 an intimate connection with Germany (especially after the 
 conquest of the south-eastern shores of the Baltic), which 
 produced an imitation of German institutions, especially as 
 regarded the creation of orders of chivalry, and the establish- 
 ment of regulations for the government of their cities. 
 
 § 55. Russia. 
 Besides the two grand principalities of Kiev and Vladi- 246 
 mir, there existed no less than fifty of inferior note. In b 
 the year 1238, the whole of Russia was occupied (after the 
 victories on the banks of the Kalka and at Sita) by the 
 Mongols, who burnt the cities of Vladimir, Moscow, and 
 Kiev. Novgorod alone (which had been a distinct prin- 
 cipality since 1137) retained its independence, and became 
 in 1267 one of the commercial stations of the Hanseatic 
 league. The grand principalities were permitted to re- 
 main, their rulers engaging to pay tribute to the Mongols. 
 During this period of dependence, the grand prince of c 
 Vladimir (Jaroslav) conquered Finland, and his son Alex- 
 ander, prince of Novgorod, and afterwards of Vladimir, 
 obtained a brilliant victory over the Swedes on the banks 
 of the Neva. Hence his surname of Nevskoi. 
 
 § 56. Poland under the Piasts. 
 During this period Poland, which had again become a 247 
 dukedom, and now comprehended Silesia and eastern Po- 
 merania, with its capital Dantzic, improved rapidly under 
 the influence of German civilization, notwithstanding the 
 wars in which she was engaged with the wild tribes on her 
 northern and eastern frontiers, and the civil commotions 
 occasioned by the partition of the dukedom among the 
 four sons of Boleslav III. The new sovereignties were — d 
 1. Cracow and Silesia; 2. Great Poland; 3. Masovia 
 and Cujavia ; 4. Sendomir and Lublin. In addition to his 
 dukedom of Cracow and Silesia, the eldest exercised a sort 
 of feudal supremacy over the others. Conrad, duke of 
 Masovia, being too feeble to withstand the attacks of the 
 Prussians, called in the knights of the Teutonic order, who 
 were rewarded for their services with a grant of the ter- 
 ritory of Culm. The invasion of Poland and Silesia by the 
 
118 THE MIDDLE AGES. [248 — 250. §57 59. 
 
 A Mongols, although of short duration, occasioned fearful 
 havoc, but no actual loss of territory. 
 
 § 57. Prussia. 
 
 248 The Prussians, a half-civilized horde, inhabiting the line 
 of coast from the Vistula to the Niemen, not only resisted 
 successfully the attempts of the Poles to reduce them to 
 submission, under pretence of converting them to Chris- 
 tianity, but becoming themselves the aggressors, compelled 
 Conrad, duke of Masovia, to apply for assistance to the 
 "Brethren of the Sword" (an order originally established 
 in Livonia), and subsequently to the knights of the Teutonic 
 
 B order. After an obstinate struggle, in which they were 
 supported during a period of fifty-three years (1230 — 
 1283) by crowds of adventurers from Pomerania, Austria, 
 and Brandenburg, the Teutonic knights became masters of 
 Prussia, where they founded the cities of Thorn, Marien- 
 werder, Elbing, &c, and introduced German civilization. 
 The government of the conquered territory was adminis- 
 tered by a provincial master, until the establishment of the 
 order itself at Marienberg, in the year 1309. 
 
 § 58. Hungary under the Arpads. 
 
 249 Ladislav the Saint (see § 39) was succeeded by fifteen 
 c kings of the Arpadic family, which became extinct in 1301. 
 
 During the whole of this period the Hungarians were en- 
 gaged in wars with German kings and dukes, with Venice, 
 the revolted maritime cities of Croatia and Dalmatia, with 
 the Byzantine emperors, the Bohemians, Poles, and Rus- 
 sians, and in domestic feuds occasioned partly by disputed 
 successions, and partly by insurrections of the nobles, who 
 compelled King Andrew II. (after his return from Syria) 
 D to grant them a charter, called " the Golden Book." But 
 the heaviest calamity of all was the terrible invasion of 
 the Mongols, in 1241. Bela IV., who then occupied Jhe 
 throne, was compelled to seek an asylum in Dalmatia ; 
 but on his return he exerted himself manfully to restore 
 the prosperity of his kingdom, which had been well-nigh 
 depopulated by the war. 
 
 § 59. Religion, Arts, Manufactures, 8fC., during the Third 
 Period,. 
 
 250 1. The Church. The attempts of Gregory VII. to 
 exalt the spiritual above the temporal power were followed 
 up by his successors, particularly by Urban II., Paschal II., 
 
250. §59.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 119 
 
 Innocent III. and IV., and towards the end of this period (250) 
 produced not only the complete emancipation of the Church A 
 from secular control, but the elevation of the pope to the 
 rank of supreme judge over all temporal princes, whose 
 crowns were placed at his absolute disposal. At the same b 
 time, the ecclesiastical authority of the popes was strength- 
 ened — I. By assemblies of the Church, in which term are 
 comprehended, (1) oecumenical councils, convoked and pre- 
 sided over by the pope himself; (2) synods held annually 
 at Rome ; and (3) provincial synods summoned by the 
 pope's legates. II. By sending legates with unlimited 
 powers to all the countries of Europe. III. By the esta- 
 blishment of an appeal to Rome from the sentences of 
 metropolitans and bishops. IV. By an unscrupulous ex- 
 ercise of the right of suspending refractory sovereigns, or 
 placing their kingdoms under an interdict. The monastic c 
 system was also greatly enlarged: 1. By the establish- 
 ment of the three religious orders of chivalry in Pales- 
 tine, of three similar orders in Spain, and of the order 
 of Knights of the Sword in Livonia (1199). 2. By 
 the creation, from time to time, of fresh orders,' with 
 more stringent rules of discipline, a. The Prasmonstra- 
 tenses (founded by S. Norbert of Xanten, at Premontre, 
 near Laon). b. The Trinitarians, c. The Carmelites (on 
 Mount Carmel). d. The Dominicans, or Preachers (founded 
 by S. Dominic, a Spaniard), especially for the conversion 
 of heretics in the south of France, c. The Franciscans 
 (founded by S. Francis of Assisi). The rules of the three 
 last enjoined poverty, in the strictest sense of the term. 
 All attempts to re-unite the Greek and Latin churches d 
 were fruitless ; but, on the other hand, the Maronites, and, 
 to a certain extent, the Armenians, were reconciled to the 
 Church of Rome. The teaching of Peter Abelard, his dis- 
 ciple Arnold of Brescia, and other schoolmen of the twelfth 
 century, produced a variety of sects — the Cathari in Ger- 
 many and Italy ; the Waldenses, or Vaudois (founded by 
 Peter Waldes, a rich merchant of Lyons) ; and the Albi- 
 genses, in the south of France, which united towards the 
 end of the 12th century, and were supported by many of 
 the temporal nobles in their resistance to their bishops. For 
 the suppression of these heresies 1 crusades were preached, 
 
 [ 1 "It is beyond a doubt that many of these sectaries [the Cathari, Picards, 
 Paterins, and Albigenses] owed their origin to the Paulicians." " Those who 
 
120 THE MIDDLE AGES. [251. §59. 
 
 A and the court of inquisition established, subject at first to 
 the authority of the bishops, but at a later period almost 
 exclusively under the control of the Dominicans. 
 251 2. Political Constitution. The distinguishing cha- 
 racteristic of this and the following period is the spirit of 
 political communism which pervades every relation of 
 life, and manifests itself in the establishment of orders of 
 chivalry, Hanseatic leagues among merchants, guilds and 
 companies of handicraftsmen, universities and their nations, 
 bands of mercenary soldiers, unions of architects and 
 
 B painters, &c. Two of the most important results of this 
 spirit are — 1. Chivalry, the germ of which may be found 
 in the practice of the ancient Franks (among whom the 
 horse-soldier was highly esteemed), but for its develop- 
 ment it is indebted to the military exercises, at the courts 
 of the German kings, and the combats of the Christians 
 
 c with the Moors in Spain. Since the establishment of the 
 feudal system, it had been the custom for proprietors of 
 the larger estates to serve on horseback ; and this union 
 of persons, pledged to the performance of the same duties, 
 soon assumed the form of a distinct order of chivalry, which 
 spread, by means of the crusades, over the east as well as 
 the west ; its character being of course modified by the 
 various circumstances of the countries in which it was 
 
 D established. The degrees of chivalry were — (a) The page 
 (from seven years old to fourteen), who was raised to the 
 rank of (b) Esquire, and declared capable of bearing arms, 
 by the delivery of a sword. The esquire was dubbed (c) a 
 Knight (generally in his twenty-first year) by the blow of a 
 sword on his shoulder. The chief duties of knighthood 
 were protection of the Church, widows, and orphans ; 
 
 ■ maintenance of personal honor, even at the cost of life ; 
 and a courteous and modest demeanor towards ladies 
 (galanterie) . For the faithful performance of these duties, 
 the knight was rewarded with the approbation of mankind 
 and the panegyrical strains of minstrels. The most splen- 
 did exhibition of chivalry was the tournament, — a develop- 
 
 are absolutely free from any taint of ManichaBism are properly called Waldenses ; 
 a name perpetually confounded in later times with that of Albisenses, but dis- 
 tinguishing a sect probably of separate origin, and at least of different tenets." 
 
 " These pious and innocent sectaries [the Waldenses], of whom the very 
 
 monkish historians speak well, appear to have nearly resembled the modem Mo- 
 ravians." " The Waldenses were always considered as much less erroneous in 
 their tenets than the Albigenses or Manichaeans."— Hallam, vol. iii. p. 45. 
 
251. § 59.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 121 
 
 ment of the ancient military exercises, which assumed a (251) 
 more systematic character towards the end of the twelfth a 
 century, and soon became popular in every country of 
 Europe. For the union of chivalry and monasticism, see 
 p. 119. — 2. The establishment and development of a free 221 
 and privileged Burgher order throughout the whole of what 
 was once the Carlovingian empire, (a) especially in Upper 
 and Central Italy, where, during the disputes respecting the 
 right of investiture, all affairs of police, finance, and ex- 
 ecutive government in the cities, had been administered by 
 civic magistrates, with the consules communis at their head. 
 At a diet held on the Roncalian plain during the second b 
 campaign of Frederick I. in Italy, the supremacy of the 
 emperor was established, and imperial lieutenants (podesta) 
 appointed to execute his decrees ; but the misconduct of 
 these officers soon occasioned their removal, and the ap- 
 pointment of civic podesta. At a later period, even the 
 handicraftsmen claimed a share in the government, which 
 until that time had been entirely in the hands of the patri- 
 cians, and compelled the authorities to sanction the appoint- 
 ment of a capitano del popolo, who became thenceforward 
 the opponent of the podesta. Whenever it was requisite c 
 that the contending parties should act in concert, the 
 supreme political authority (signoria) was placed for a 
 definite period in the hands of some neighboring prince, 
 or renowned leader (condottiere). All these free cities 
 adopted the Roman code, and a system of indirect taxation. 
 (b) In Germany, especially in the times of Frederick II. and 
 the interregnum, the cities, partly by purchase and partly 
 by the strong hand, became possessed of similar though 
 less extensive immunities, such as immediate dependence 
 on the empire, self-government, the right of coining money, 
 imposing taxes, and holding markets, with various com- 
 mercial privileges, and free trade to a certain extent. The D 
 conservation of these privileges was intrusted to a burgo- 
 master, assisted by a college of counsellors, until the four- 
 teenth century, when the guilds, or trades-unions, seem to 
 have taken forcible possession if not of all, at least of the 
 most important civic offices, (c) In France, political 
 privileges were granted to the cities by the nobility and 
 clergy, either for a pecuniary consideration, or because 
 they had sagacity enough to perceive that their own pros- 
 6 
 
122 THE MIDDLE AGES. [252, 253. § 59. 
 
 (251) perity was closely interwoven with that of their vassals. 
 
 A (d) In Arragon,the executive authority was shared by royal 
 and civic functionaries. In the north and east of Europe, 
 towards the middle of the thirteenth century, cities were 
 founded after the model of those in the west, or civic 
 privileges granted to existing communities. It was only, 
 however, in the maritime cities of Upper Italy that the 
 attempt to emancipate themselves from the authority of 
 their feudal sovereign was entirely successful. In Ger- 
 many, especially, the imperial cities remained subject to the 
 
 b emperor, and the others to the great nobles. Delegates 
 from the cities appeared at diets first at Barcelona, then in 
 Italy, and at a later period in England. 
 
 252 3. Legislation and legal practice. The written 
 codes of this period were either abstracts of existing laws com- 
 piled by command of princes, or the works of private indivi- 
 duals, which in process of time were recognized as public 
 documents; such, for example, as the Lombardic feudal 
 code and the Saxon and Swabian mirrors (Sachsenspiegel 
 and Schwabenspiegel), the former for Northern, and the lat- 
 
 c ter for Southern Germany : or they were charters granted by 
 kings to their subjects, e. g. the Charta Magna Libertatum 
 of King John, and the Charter of Andrew II. of Hungary. 
 The compilation of civil codes was also common during 
 this period. Towards its conclusion the judicial combat 
 and the ordeal fell into disuse, but the practice of torturing 
 suspected persons became more frequent, and the punish- 
 ments inflicted on criminals- more cruel and sanguinary. 
 
 253 4. During this period the sciences, the study of which 
 had hitherto been confined to the cloister, began to be 
 cultivated by laity as well as clergy, under the auspices of 
 the spiritual and temporal princes, whose object was greatly 
 promoted by the increased number of schools and the 
 
 D establishment of universities. The most ancient of .these 
 foundations owe their origin to the assemblages of young 
 persons, who flocked to the theological and philosophical 
 schools of Paris, where Abelard lectured, and to the 
 schools of jurisprudence at Bologna, in which the principles 
 of the Roman law were expounded by Irnevius. The 
 pupils and teachers formed a privileged corporation, or 
 universitas, with peculiar jurisdiction. After the model 
 of these two universities (at which the other sciences began 
 
254. §59.] RELIGION, AETS, ETC. 123 
 
 gradually to be taught), establishments were formed during (253) 
 this period at Padua, Naples, Thoulouse, Salamanca, Fer- A. 
 rara, Oxford, and Cambridge. The scholastic mode of 
 treating theological subjects, which had been introduced by 
 Lanfranc and Anselm (f 1143), was pursued by Abelard 
 (whose dogmas were condemned as heretical by St. Bernard) 
 and by his disciple Peter Lombard, whose manual of 
 theology was used as a text book for more than 300 years. 
 In the thirteenth century, the discovery of the metaphysical, 
 physical, and ethical works of Aristotle (his Logic having 
 been the only one of his treatises hitherto studied) laid the 
 foundation of philosophical scholastics, in which Albertus 
 (count of Bollstadt) Magnus (f 1280), his disciple, Thomas 
 Aquinas (j- 1274), and Duns Scotus(f 1308) especially dis- 
 tinguished themselves. Next to theology and philosophy the b 
 canon and Roman laws were most zealously studied. His- 
 tory, in central and western Europe, was written in Latin, 
 until the time of GeofTroy and Joinville, two Frenchmen, 
 who published the first historical work in the vernacular 
 tongue. Mathematical science was learnt from the Ara- 
 bian writers or from Arabic translations of Greek treatises. 
 The most celebrated student in this department, and in 
 chemistry, was Roger Bacon (j - 1294). Mechanics were c 
 brought to great perfection during the erection of the noble 
 buildings of this period. The use of the mariner's com- 
 pass was also discovered. Byzantine literature was con- 
 fined to historical works (Anna Comnena, Joh. Zonaras), 
 critical expositions of the ancient Greek writers (Homer, 
 by Eustathius), and treatises on jurisprudence and theolo- 
 gy. Among the Arabians, Averroes was distinguished as 
 a philosophical writer, Abulfaradsh as a historian, and 
 Geber as a mathematician. 
 
 5. Art. 254 
 
 (a) The poetry of this period was deeply imbued with d 
 the romantic spirit of the crusades and of chivalry. In 
 Germany epic and lyric poetry attained their highest degree 
 of excellence under the patronage of the Hohenstaufen. 
 The productions of the former were of three sorts: 1. 
 Original German compositions (the Nibelungen Noth, and 
 other poems); 2. Imitations of northern French works 
 (legends of Charlemagne, Arthur, and the Knights of the 
 Round Table) or of Provencal romances ; 3. Poetical ver- 
 
124 THE MIDDLE AGES. [255, 256. § 59. 
 
 (254) sions of ancient myths. The most distinguished professors 
 A of lyric poetry were the Minne- singers; Henry von Val- 
 deck, Hartmann von der Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach, 
 Walter von der Vogelweide, &c. " The war on the Wart- 
 burg" is a curious specimen of the poetical contests of 
 those days. In the south of France, Provencal minstrelsy 
 was cultivated successfully during an entire century by the 
 Troubadours, who recited their compositions at the courts 
 of the counts of Thoulouse, Provence, &c, whilst in the 
 north, epic (principally the chivalrous romance, the contes 
 and fabliaux), and at a later period didactic, allegoric, and 
 lyric poetry flourished in the hands of the Trouveres. 
 The minstrelsy of the Troubadours travelled from Provence 
 B to the east of Spain and Lombardy. In Castille the ex- 
 ploits of the Cid furnished a fruitful subject for romance. 
 In the north, Scandinavian poetry was cultivated with con- 
 siderable success, especially in Iceland, where the mythic 
 songs of the ancient Scalds and innumerable Sagas were 
 brought together in the older and more recent Edda. 
 
 255 (b) The German or new Gothic style of architecture, 
 with its characteristic features, the pointed arch, slender 
 column, and elegant tracery, was imported from England 
 by brotherhoods or unions of architects (freemasons' 
 lodges), and attained its highest perfection in the thirteenth 
 
 c century. The most magnificent specimens of this style 
 of architecture, such as the minsters of Strasburg (begun 
 in 1018) and Friburg, the church of St. Stephen at Vienna 
 (1140), the domes of Magdeburg and Cologne (1248); in 
 France, the cathedrals of Rouen, Rheims, and Amiens; 
 in England, St. Peter's at York, and Westminster Abbey 
 in London ; and in Spain, the cathedrals of Burgos and 
 Toledo, were at least commenced in this century. Secular 
 buildings of every description, such as bridges, palaces, 
 council-houses, monasteries, &c, were also erected at an 
 enormous cost of labor and money. 
 
 256 (c) Of the other arts, those were especially cultivated 
 D which contributed to the embellishment of churches, cast- 
 ing in bronze, for instance, and painting on glass, which was 
 invented in the eleventh century, and had now attained 
 great perfection. Sculpture and painting were not elevated 
 to the rank of independent arts until the thirteenth century 
 (the former by Nicolo Pisano, j - 1270, and the latter by 
 
257. § 59.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 125 
 
 Cimabue, 1249 — 1300). Companies or unions of painters A 
 were also formed in the thirteenth century. 
 
 6. Commerce. — {a) Maritime trade, (aa)intheMediter- 257 
 ranean, was carried on, for the most part, by Genoa, Venice, 
 and Pisa, and also by Marseilles and Barcelona, with the 
 sea-ports of the Holy Land and Syria, the northern coast of 
 Africa, Egypt, Cyprus, Asia Minor, and the Byzantine 
 empire. For the trade of the Venetians and Genoese out 
 of Constantinople, see page 95. (bh) The commerce of 
 the north of Europe flourished principally in (a) northern 
 Germany, including Liibeck, Bremen, and Hamburg ; (/?) 
 in the Netherlands, especially in the cities of Ypres, B 
 Bruges, and Ghent, where Germans, Frenchmen, and 
 Italians, were accustomed to meet for the purposes of trade ; 
 (y) in the island of Gothland, with its capital Wisby, the 
 general emporium of the commerce carried on by German, 
 Norman, and Sclavonian adventurers in the Baltic, and 
 thence overland by Novgorod into the interior of Russia. 
 (b) The chief stations of the inland trade were Ratisbon, 
 Vienna, Troyes, Lyons, Beaucaire, Augsburg, Niirnberg, 
 Frankfort on the Main, and Cologne. The natural result 
 of a commercial league between the cities of Southern 
 Germany (Ratisbon, Zurich, Augsburg, and Strasburg), and 
 the Italian towns of Genoa and Venice, was an active in- 
 terchange of merchandise through the passes of the Alps. 
 Even among merchants, especially those of Germany, the c 
 spirit of the age manifested itself in the formation — 1. Of 
 several Hansas, or unions of commercial men, in one or 
 more cities, for the promotion and protection of their trade 
 with foreign countries, in which they obtained various pri- 
 vileges, and were permitted to erect warehouses and halls 
 for the transaction of their business (e. g. the merchants of 
 Cologne and other cities in the Netherlands enjoyed a 
 monopoly of the trade with England, and had a Guildhall in 
 London). 2. Provincial unions, especially of cities in the d 
 south of France and north of Germany, for the conservation 
 of peace within the district over which their commerce ex- 
 tended. Out of these two elements was formed in the fol- 
 lowing century the great German Hansa. During this period 
 the enactments respecting maritime enterprise and com- 
 merce consisted, for the most part, of letters-patent granting 
 privileges to particular unions or places. The Church 
 
126 THE MIDDLE AGES. [258, 259. § 60. 
 
 (257) raised her voice in vain against commercial intercourse 
 A with the Mahometans, but was more successful in her 
 efforts to suppress the slave-trade. 
 258 7. Manufactures, &c. Agriculture flourished during 
 this period under the protection of the Treuga Dei, and 
 derived considerable advantage from the establishment of 
 a free peasant order during the crusades, and the settlement 
 of Netherlander in north-eastern Germany. The cultiva- 
 tion of the vine was eminently successful in the soutli of 
 France and Christian Spain, and mining operations in 
 B Bohemia and Moorish Spain. The importance of manual 
 crafts was greatly augmented by the establishment of 
 guilds, or companies, the freemen of which dwelt in the 
 same street or quarter of the city, and exposed their wares 
 for sale on rows of benches or in halls. The manufac- 
 ture of cloth flourished chiefly in Flanders, Upper Italy, 
 Germany, and the south of France ; that of silk, in 
 Italy ; of leather, in Moorish Spain ; of paper, in Italy 
 and Spain. The best articles of hardware, especially 
 swords, were produced in the Netherlands, Upper Italy, 
 c and Moorish Spain. The trade in glass was almost 
 monopolized by Venice. Commercial prosperity was 
 greatly promoted by the establishment of annual fairs, the 
 erection of warehouses and depots, and the invention by 
 the Lombards of bills of exchange. 
 
 Fourth Period. 
 
 From the termination of the Crusades to the discovery of America, 
 1273—1492. 
 
 A. The West. 
 
 § 60. Germany and Switzerland. 
 
 Geographical view of Germany between the 
 years 1300 and 1500. 
 
 259 1. The seven electorates, a. Three archbishoprics :— 
 
 D viz. Mainz, Treves, and Cologne. b. Four temporal 
 
 principalities: viz. 1, the Palatinate (cap. Heidelberg); 
 
 2, Saxony (Wittenberg) ; 3, Bohemia (Prague), with 
 
 Moravia and Silesia ; 4, Brandenburg (Brandenburg). 
 
260. §60.] GEEMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 127 
 
 2. The Duchies, a. In the west : — 1. Lorraine (cap. (259) 
 Nancy) ; 2, Lutzelburg or Luxemburg (Luxemburg), A 
 with the county of Saarbriicken ; 3, Limburg (Limburg), 
 Brabant (Brussels) ; 4, Cleves (Cleves), with the counties 
 
 of Mark, Juliers, and Berg (Dusseldorf) ; 5, Guelderland. 
 b. In the south : — 1, Wurtemberg (Stuttgart); 2, Bavaria 
 (Munich ) ; 3, Austria (Vienna), with Styria and Carniola ; 
 4, Carinthia. c. In the north : — 1, Brunswick-Luneburg; 
 2, Holstein ; 3, Lauenburg ; 4, Mecklenburg (Schwerin 
 and Stargard) ; 5, Pomerania. 
 
 3. The Principalities — Nassau and Anhalt. B 
 
 4. The Margravale of Baden. 
 
 5. The Landgravates — Alsace, Hesse, and Thiiringia. 
 
 6. The Burgravate of Niirnberg. 
 
 7. Several Counties (Holland, Hennegan, Flanders, ■ 
 Namur, &c.) 
 
 8. The Archbishoprics (exclusive of the three spiritual 
 electorates), Salzburg, Magdeburg, and Bremen. 
 
 9. Several (21) Bishoprics. 
 
 10. The (95) free imperial cities. Of these the most c 
 considerable were : — a. In Franconia — Spires, Worms, 
 Mainz, Frankfort, Wetzlar, Erfurt, b. In Bavaria, Niirn- 
 berg and Ratisbon. c. In Swabia — Ulm and Augsburg. 
 d. In Alsace — Strasburg. e. In Lorraine — Metz, Treves, 
 Cologne, Aachen or Aix-la-Chapelle, Diiren. f. In 
 Saxe-ny — Dortmund, Magdeburg, Bremen, Hamburg, 
 Liibeck. 
 
 The kingdom of Burgundy, after its dismemberment, 
 was divided between France and the Dukes of Burgundy. 
 
 A. Kings of different houses, 1273—1347. 
 
 1. Rudolf of Habsburg (1273—1291). As early as 260 
 
 the beginning of the thirteenth century, the right of election n 
 to the throne of Germany had been transferred from the 
 ancient dukes, or popular leaders, to the great officers of 
 the imperial household : viz. 1, the Archbishop of Mainz, 
 as Arch-Chancellor of the German empire ; 2, the Arch- 
 bishop of Treves, as Arch-Chancellor of the kingdom of 
 Aries ; 3, the Archbishop of Cologne, as Arch-Chancellor 
 of the kingdom of Lombardy ; 4, the Count Palatine of the 
 Rhine, as Grand-Sewer ; 5, the Duke of Saxony, as Grand 
 
128 THE MIDDLE AGES. [261, 262. § 60. 
 
 (260) Marshal ; 6, the King of Bohemia, as Grand Butler ; 7, the 
 A Margrave of Brandenburg, as Grand Chamberlain. After 
 the death of Richard of Cornwall, the electors, on the 
 motion of the Archbishop of Mainz, chose Rudolf of 
 Habsburg, a nobleman of very moderate political in- 
 fluence. The ambassador of Bohemia having been 
 excluded from the hall of election, his master Ottocar 
 refused to recognize Rudolf; and being placed under the 
 ban of the empire, was compelled to relinquish his claims 
 to the sovereignty of Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and Car- 
 niola ; and in a second war was defeated and slain on the 
 B Marchfield (1278). Rudolf granted Carinthia to Count 
 Mainhard of the Tyrol, and the three remaining prin- 
 cipalities to his sons Albert and Rudolf. Ottocar's son, 
 Wenceslaus, was allowed to retain Bohemia and Moravia. 
 From this period the grand object of the German kings 
 seems to have been to establish hereditary power in their 
 families. 
 
 261 2. Adolphus of Nassau (1291—1298), a cousin 
 c of the Archbishop of Mainz, was placed on the throne 
 
 through the influence of his kinsman, and in order to 
 strengthen the interests of his family, purchased Thuringia 
 and Meissen from the Landgrave, Albert the Degenerate, 
 whose sons, Frederick with the Bitten Cheek, and Diezman, 
 refused to recognize the compact. In the war which 
 ensued, such fearful barbarities were perpetrated by 
 Adolphus, that three of the electors, who were already 
 disgusted at his breach of faith, declared the throne void, 
 and chose Albert of Austria, a son of Rudolf I. Adol- 
 phus was killed in the battle of Gelheim, near Worms. 
 
 262 3. The choice of the electors, which had fallen on 
 D Albert I. of Austria (1298 — 1308), during the lifetime 
 
 of Adolphus, was now confirmed by a second election. His 
 plans for the aggrandizement of his house, and for render- 
 ing the imperial dignity hereditary in the family of Habs- 
 burg, were unsuccessful ; nor was he more fortunate in 
 the revival of his claims to the sovereignty of Thuringia. 
 The extinction of the ancient royal family in Bohemia 
 afforded him an opportunity of placing his son Albert on 
 the throne of that country ; but this connection was soon 
 dissolved by the death of the new sovereign, and the elec- 
 tion of the Duke of Carinthia by the Bohemian people. 
 
263,264. §60.] Germany and Switzerland. 129 
 
 The three forest cantons of Switzerland, Schwyz, Uri, (262) 
 and Unterwalden (which had voluntarily placed them- a 
 selves under the protection of the empire), having resisted 
 an attempt of Albert to render them hereditary possessions 
 of his own family, were grievously oppressed by the impe- 
 rial governors Herman Gessler of Bruneck and Be rin- 
 ger of Landenberg (?) The conspiracy of Werner 
 St a u f f a c h e r of Schwyz, Walter F ii r s t (of Attinghausen 
 in Uri), and Arnold Melchthal of Unterwalden, with 
 thirty confederates, including the renowned William Tell, 
 laid the foundation of the Swiss Confederacy (1307). 
 Gessler was shot dead by an arrow from the bow of Tell, B 
 and Landenberg defeated by a stratagem, and expelled the 
 country. In the midst of his preparations for a Swiss cam- 
 paign, Albert was assassinated in Aargau by his nephew 
 Duke John (Parricida), from whom he had unjustly with- 
 held his portion of the Habsburg estates. 
 
 4. Henry VII., of Luxemburg (1308—1313), a 263 
 brave and experienced warrior, was chosen by the electors 
 
 on the motion of the Archbishop of Mainz. The attempts 
 of Henry to extend the influence of his family wefe more 
 successful than those of his predecessors, Bohemia having 
 been made a fief of his house by the marriage of his son 
 John with the heiress of that kingdom. A succession of c 
 victories enabled him to enter Rome in triumph, and place 
 on his head the imperial crown, thus restoring the empire, 
 which had been in a state of abeyance for sixty-two years. 
 He. was on the point of attacking the King of Naples, the 
 head of the Guelphic party, when death put an end to his 
 ambitious projects. 
 
 5. Louis I V., the Bavarian (1313— 1347), and Fre-264 
 derick of Austria (1313 — 1330)", the former chosen by d 
 the Luxemburg, the latter by the Habsburg party. The 
 house of Habsburg engaged in hostilities with the Swiss, 
 who defeated Frederick's brother, Duke Leopold of Austria, 
 
 at Morgarten (1315), and with the rival king at Muhl- 
 dorf (1322), where Frederick was defeated and taken 
 prisoner (by Schweppermann). A reconciliation was after- 
 wards effected (at Trausnitz) between the two kings, who 
 shared the throne until the death of Frederick, in 1330. 
 After the battle of Miihldorf, Louis had sent an army into 
 Italy to assist the Ghibellines against the Guelphs, the 
 
130 THE MIDDLE AGES. [265. §60. 
 
 (264) devoted adherents of the pope, and was in consequence 
 
 A excommunicated by John XXII. (at Avignon), his king- 
 dom placed under an interdict, and the German crown 
 offered to France. In defiance of this sentence, Louis 
 marched to Milan, where he was crowned King of Lom- 
 bardy, and then proceeding to Rome, received the imperial 
 crown from the hands of the capitano del popolo, and 
 placed a rival pope, Nicholas V., on the papal throne. 
 
 B Finding himself, however, too feeble to maintain his autho- 
 rity in Italy, he returned, after the death of Frederick, to 
 Germany, where the electors, after endeavoring without 
 success to effect a reconciliation between the pope and 
 emperor, assembled the first electoral diet at Rense 
 (from which the King of Bohemia alone was absent), and 
 declared the empire independent of the popedom, swearing 
 at the same time to maintain the privileges of the emperor 
 and their own rights. Louis increased the possessions of 
 his family by — 1, granting the March of Brandenburg as a 
 fief to his son Lewis, after the extinction of the Ascanian 
 family ; 2, annexing the Tyrol to his hereditary dominions, 
 by the marriage of hisson Lewis with the Countess Margaret 
 
 c Maultasch. In this instance he usurped the authority of 
 the pope, by himself divorcing Margaret from her husband 
 (John Henry of Bohemia), and granting a dispensation for 
 marriage within the third degree of consanguinity ; 3, by 
 seizing on the counties of Holland, Zealand, Friesland, 
 and Hennegau, as lapsed fiefs of the empire, and conferring 
 them on his wife (a sister of the Count of Holland, who 
 had died without issue). The unconstitutional annexation of 
 the Tyrol so disgusted the nobles of Germany, that the pope 
 found little difficulty in persuading five of the electors to 
 declare the throne vacant, and elect (in 1346) Charles, son 
 
 D of John, king of Bohemia. The Bohemian party, on the 
 death of Louis in the following year, elected Count Giin- 
 ther of Schwartzburg, who contested the possession of the 
 crown until his decease in 1349, when Charles was univer- 
 sally recognized as King of Germany. 
 
 B. Kings of the house of Luxemburg. 
 265 1. Charles IV. (1347— 1378). After receiving the 
 
265. §60.] GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 131 
 
 impei-ial crown, through his ambassador, from the hands of (265) 
 the pope, Charles devoted his chief attention to the re- A 
 moval of the evils necessarily attendant on the ill-defined 
 form of election to the imperial throne which had hitherto 
 been adopted. For the promotion of this object, he pub- 
 lished (at the diets of Nurnberg and Metz, in 1356) a 
 document termed the golden bull, in which the mode 
 of election, the rights of the electors, and the terms on 
 which peace was thenceforth to be maintained in Germany, 
 were definitively settled. By this constitution it was pro- b 
 vided, that within three months of the death of an emperor, 
 the Archbishop of Mainz, as arch-chancellor, should sum- 
 mon the seven electors to hold a new election, the result of 
 which should be decided by a plurality of votes : that the 
 coronation of the sovereign should take place at Aachen; 
 the electors should hold the first rank among the dignita- 
 ries of the empire, and their territories be indivisible. All 
 the other efforts of Charles were directed to the aggran- 
 dizement of his hereditary kingdom of Bohemia, to which, 
 under various pretences, he contrived to annex the March 
 of Brandenburg, Silesia, the two Lusaces, and a portion of 
 the Upper Palatinate. In pursuance of his plan, he also c 
 founded the first German university at Prague (1348), 
 which soon numbered from 5000 to 7000 students, in- 
 creased the number of convents and churches, promoted 
 commerce, agriculture, and mining, effected an improve- 
 ment in the framing and administration of the laws, and de- 
 molished the robber-castles. The funds necessary for these 
 improvements were obtained by granting extensive privi- 
 leges to the imperial cities, in return for large sums of 
 money, or equivalent advantages. The most important of 
 these privileges were, the right of self-taxation, forming 
 alliances, and making war and peace; exemption from all 
 external jurisdiction and inviolability. During his reign, d 
 the influence of the aristocratic order was augmented by 
 the addition of five new dukedoms, viz. Mecklenburg, 
 Luxemburg, Bar, Liege or Liittich, and Berg; and the 
 number of confederacies of towns increased to five, viz. the 
 German Hansa, now at the summit of its power, the con- 
 federacy of the seven Frieslandic maritime districts, the 
 Rhenish, Swiss, and Swabian confederacies; besides 
 those of the nobility (the order of St. George, in Swabia ; 
 
132 THE MIDDLE AGES. [266, 267. § 60. 
 
 A the associations of the Lion and Falcon, &c.) Charles 
 was succeeded by his eldest son, the Roman king. 
 
 266 2. Wenzel, or Wenceslaus (1378— 1400), who re- 
 tained Bohemia and Silesia, to which the dukedom of Lux- 
 emburg was added after the death (without issue) of his uncle 
 Wenzel. His brother Sigismund received Brandenburg as 
 his portion. The cities and knights having renewed and 
 strengthened their confederacies, and a union of the three 
 estates, princes, knights, and cities, having been formed in 
 Swabia, under the auspices of Count Eberhard of Wurtern- 
 berg, Wenceslaus, in order to maintain his influence, esta- 
 blished a general union in southern Germany, and placed 
 
 B himself at its head. A plan was already in progress for 
 establishing a confederacy of the entire empire, when the dis- 
 putes between the nobles and cities occasioned a war, which 
 terminated in the defeat of the cities (near Doffingen and 
 Worms in 1388). Wenzel now took part with the victorious 
 nobles, dissolved the confederacies of the cities, and pro- 
 claimed a general peace. About the same time the Swiss 
 confederation (which had been recently strengthened by the 
 accession of Lucerne, Zurich, Glarus, Zug, and Bern) 
 defeated their oppressor Leopold of Austria, near Sera- 
 pach (1386), chiefly through the patriotic self-sacrifice of 
 
 c Arnold of Winkelried. A second victory, obtained 
 in 1388 over the duke's sons at Nafels, secured to the 
 Swiss the undisturbed possession of their conquests. The 
 capricious tyranny exercised by Wenceslaus in Bohemia, 
 where he constantly resided, and his utter indifference to 
 the interests of the empire, rendered him an object of 
 universal contempt. He was at length imprisoned by his 
 brother Sigismund, and set aside by the three spiritual 
 electors, who chose the Count Palatine Rupert as his 
 successor (1400); but the recognition of this prince was 
 by no means universal. 
 
 267 3. Wenzel and Rupert (1400— 1410). An attempt 
 D to force his way through Italy to Rome ended in defeat, 
 
 and lost Rupert the confidence of the nation. On his 
 return to Germany he endeavored to restore order by 
 measures of extreme severity, which were vehemently 
 opposed by a confederacy of nobles and cities- After his 
 death a double return was made by the electors, one party 
 choosing Wenzel's brother Sigismund, Margrave of Bran- 
 
268. §60.] GERMANY AND SWITZERLAND. 133 
 
 denburg, and by marriage King of Hungary ; the other (267) 
 giving their votes to his cousin Jobst (Jodacus), Margrave A 
 of Moravia. Germany had now three kings ; but Jodacus 
 dying a few months after his election, Sigismund remained 
 undisputed occupant of the throne. 
 
 4. Sigismund, universally recognized from 1410 to 268 
 1437. The great object of his reign was the extermina- 
 tion of schism. For nearly forty of the seventy years 
 during which the popes had been resident at Avignon, it 
 had been the practice of the Roman and French colleges of 
 cardinals to elect each its own pope. A council held at B 
 Pisa in 1409, instead of suppressing, increased this irregu- 
 larity, by deposing both Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. , 
 and recognizing Alexander V., and after his death 
 John XXIII. as sovereign pontiff; but the previously 
 elected popes refusing to resign, there were now three rival 
 claimants to the papal throne. For the removal of these c 
 irregularities, a general council was summoned by the 
 emperor (and pope 1) to meet at Constance in 1414. The 
 council was divided, for the convenience of voting, into 
 four nations — the Italian, French, German, and English, to 
 which were afterwards added five votes of the Spaniards. 
 Its three principal objects were (1) The entire suppression 
 of schism. This was attained by the removal of the three 
 rival popes. Benedict XIII. and John XXIII., who had 
 fled "from Constance, were deposed ; Gregory XII. abdi- 
 cated voluntarily. A new pope, Martin V., was then 
 elected. 2. The extirpation of heresy. The writings of d 
 the Oxford theologian, John Wickliffe, who had attacked 
 not only the system of monachism and the supremacy of 
 the pope, but the doctrine of transubstantiation and other 
 dogmas of the Church, had been brought to Prague by a 
 Bohemian nobleman, Hieronymus, or Jerome, Faulfisch 
 (commonly called Jerome of Prague), who had studied at 
 Oxford. The Bohemian theologians, who were for the 
 most part realists, in opposition to the German nominalists, 1 
 eagerly embraced doctrines which accorded so well with 
 
 [' The realists maintained that universal or general ideas of things 
 were objective, i. e. independent of the human understanding; the nomi- 
 nalists, that they were subjective, i. e. existent only in the mind. — Note 
 by the Translator. 
 
134 THE MIDDLE AGES. [268. § 60. 
 
 (268) their own system. Among their professors was John 
 
 A Huss, who wrote against indulgences, notwithstanding the 
 repeated prohibitions of the Archbishop of Prague and the 
 pope. Huss appeared before the council, and in direct 
 violation of a safe conduct granted to him by Sigismund, 
 was condemned as a heretic, and delivered up to the em- 
 peror, who commanded him to be burnt, and charged the 
 elector palatine with the execution of the sentence. His 
 friend, Jerome of Prague, at first recanted, but subsequently 
 withdrew his recantation, and suffered the same punish- 
 
 B ment. (3) A thorough reform of the Church. This plan 
 almost entirely miscarried through the dissensions of the 
 different nations ; a few only of the more pressing demands 
 being met by concordats with each nation separately. 
 The Hussite war (1420—1436). The disciples of 
 Huss (who had also adopted the opinion of Professor 
 Jacob of Meiss, that the Holy Communion ought to be 
 administered in both kinds to the laity) chose Huss's liege 
 lord, Nicholas of Hussinecz, to be their leader, and de- 
 manded of Wenceslaus permission to celebrate their service 
 
 c in all the churches. This being refused, they assembled 
 on a mountain, to which they gave the name of Tabor, 
 placed themselves under the command of a brave knight 
 named John Ziska, and stormed the council-house of 
 Prague. In the midst of these disorders, Wenceslaus died 
 of apoplexy, and was succeeded in his hereditary domi- 
 nions by his brother Sigismund. The opposition of the 
 Hussites to their new sovereign was even more violent 
 than it had been to his predecessor, because it was to him 
 that they attributed the murder of their master, Huss. The 
 
 D pope commanded the preaching of a crusade against them ; 
 but the Hussites (although divided after Huss's death into 
 four parties, viz., the Taborites, Orphans, Horebites, and 
 Pragueites) maintained their position in the mountains, 
 until they had extorted from the council of Basle permis- 
 sion to receive the Holy Communion in both kinds, it being 
 at the same time distinctly taught that its reception under 
 one form was equally efficacious. The embarrassments in 
 which Sigismund was involved, compelled him not only to 
 pledge and alienate many of the privileges and possessions 
 of the empire, but even to sell his own hereditary margra- 
 
269, 270. § 60.] Germany and Switzerland. 135 
 
 c 
 vate of Brandenburg, with its electoral dignity, to the Bur- (268) 
 grave Frederick of Nurnburg, for 400,000 ducats (in the a 
 year 1415). 
 
 C. Kings of the house of Austria (from 1438). 
 
 1. Sigismund was succeeded on the German throne, as 269 
 well as in Bohemia and Hungary, by his son-in-law, 
 Albert of Austria (1438, 1439), who revived the 
 question of the division of Germany into circles, which 
 was again brought forward by his cousin and successor, 
 
 2. Frederick 111.(1440 — 1493), who undertook the 270 
 guardianship of Ladislaus, the infant son of Albert II. b 
 But the want of unanimity among the nobles rendered such 
 
 a measure impracticable, and also prevented, at a sub- 
 sequent period, the accomplishment of a plan for the esta- 
 blishment of an imperial chamber of justice. Proclamations, 
 it is true, were issued from time to time, strictly enjoining 
 peace throughout the empire ; but the feuds of her nobles 
 still continued to exhaust the energies of Germany. In c 
 conjunction with Zurich (which had quarrelled withSchwyz 
 respecting the county of Toggenburg), Frederick at the 
 head of an army of French mercenaries, the Armagnacs, 
 entered Switzerland, in the hope of recovering the Austrian 
 provinces which had been wrested from Leopold, but was 
 compelled, after sustaining two defeats, to confirm the con- 
 federates in the possession of the conquered territory. The 
 council of Basle, which had attempted to reduce the power 
 and revenues of the papal see, was vehemently resisted by 
 Pope Eugenius IV., who summoned another council to 
 meet at Ferrara. In consequence of this proceeding, the d 
 council of Basle elected a rival pope (Felix V.); but the 
 conclusion of the concordat of Aschaffenburg, or Vienna, 
 by Frederick II. (through his private secretary iEneas 
 Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pius II.) with Pope 
 Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius IV., restored to 
 the pope most of the rights of which he had been deprived 
 by the council, which soon afterwards dissolved itself, and 
 also persuaded itscreature, Felix V., to abdicate. A cru- 
 sade against the Turks, who had taken Constantinople, and 
 now threatened the western empire, was in vain proclaimed 
 by the pope and emperor. Frederick, the last emperor 
 
136 THE MIDDLE AGES. [271. §61. 
 
 (270) who received the imperial crown at Rome, increased his 
 A hereditary possessions by (]) sharing with his brother 
 Albert the dukedom of Austria, vacant by the death of the 
 young Ladislaus (son of Albert II.). After his brother's 
 death, Frederick became sole duke of Austria ; but the 
 Bohemians and Hungarians elected two native kings, the 
 former George Podiebrad, and the latter Matthias Cor- 
 vinus, both of whom successfully resisted the attempts of 
 the emperor to reduce them to submission. In the year 
 1485, Corvinus took possession of Austria, which he 
 B retained until his death (in 1490). 2. But the most im- 
 portant acquisition of territory was that of the Netherlands 
 and Burgundy, by the marriage of his son Maximilian with 
 Mary, daughter of Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy 
 (1477). The possession of these territories was success- 
 fully maintained by Maximilian in a war with France. 
 
 § 61. The States of Italy. 
 
 A. In Upper Italy. 
 
 271 4. Venice, which had been raised by the crusades to 
 c the rank of a first-rate commercial and naval power, and 
 possessed most of the islands and maritime towns of the 
 Byzantine empire, was engaged for 125 years in a war 
 with Genoa (1256 — 1381) respecting the trade of the 
 Black Sea. At the end of that period a peace was con- 
 cluded at Turin, on terms advantageous to Venice. The 
 most palmy days of the republic were in the first half of 
 the fifteenth century, when a monopoly of the Indian trade, 
 by way of Egypt, was secured to her by a treaty with the 
 Sultan of Egypt, an increase of territory obtained in Upper 
 Italy and Dalmatia (partly by treaties and partly by con- 
 quest), and the islands of Corfu aud Cyprus added to her 
 D possessions. Most of these Greek dominions were after- 
 wards wrested from them by the Turks; and the discoveiy 
 of a new passage to the East Indies destroyed their mono- 
 poly of the Indian trade, and completed their ruin. The 
 sovereign authority was in the hands of a great council of 
 480 members, who at first were chosen annually by the 
 people out of the entire body of citizens, but at a later 
 period (1297) the right of sitting in the council being con- 
 
272 — 274. §61.] the states of italy. 137 
 
 fined to the actual members and their families, an hereditary a 
 aristocracy was created. 
 
 2. In Milan, the struggle between the Ghibelline no- 272 
 bles, headed by the family of Visconti, and the Guelphic 
 burghers, supported by the family of Delia Torre, was 
 terminated by Henry VII. , who expelled the Torre, and 
 nominated Matteo Visconti imperial lieutenant (vicar) of 
 Milan (1310). The conquest of several neighboring cities 
 enabled Visconti to increase the possessions of his house, 
 which under John Galeazzo Visconti (who obtained the 
 grant of an hereditary dukedom from Wenceslaus) was 
 owner of almost the whole of Upper Italy. After the b 
 extinction of the male line of the Visconti, the supreme 
 authority was conferred on Francesco Sforza, a mercenary 
 soldier in the Milanese service, who made the dukedom 
 hereditary in his family. 
 
 3. The republic of Genoa acquired some maritime 273 
 towns and considerable commercial advantages in con- 
 sequence of the restoration of the Greek empire. The 
 conclusion of a struggle of 200 years with Pisa, placed ate 
 their disposal the greater part of Corsica and Sardinia ; 
 but their long war with Venice, and still more their own 
 intestine feuds, so weakened them, that they were com- 
 pelled to submit sometimes to Milanese, sometimes to 
 French domination. 
 
 B. In Central Italy. 
 
 1 . In F 1 o r e n c e the people, or guilds, after a long strug- 274 
 gle with the nobles, obtained the ascendency, conquered the 
 neighboring districts, and divided themselves into three 
 classes, viz. higher and lower guilds, and commons, i. e. 
 persons not belonging to any guild. The members of the d 
 higher guilds were, generally speaking, bankers; hence 
 arose an aristocracy of wealth, headed in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury by the rich and powerful family of the Medici. The 
 foundation of their importance was laid by John di Me- 
 dici, the wealthiest banker of Florence. His son Cosmo 
 (1429 — 1464) was driven into exile by the jealousy of the 
 other bankers, but within a year he was recalled, and 
 honored with the title of father of his country, a distinc- 
 tion richly merited by his political sagacity and liberal 
 
138 THE MIDDLE AGES. [275 279. §62. 
 
 (274) patronage of the fine arts. Not only in Florence and 
 A Tuscany, but in Umbria, Venice, and even in Jerusalem, 
 the most magnificent works of architecture, sculpture, and 
 painting, bore witness to his exquisite taste. His son 
 Peter died soon after his father (1469), to whom he bore 
 little resemblance, and was succeeded by Lorenzo, whose 
 munificent patronage of the arts and sciences elevated 
 Florence to the rank of a second Athens (1469 — 1492). 
 
 275 2. States of the Church. During the residence of 
 Bthe popes at Avignon (1305 — 1376) several cities, prin- 
 cipally in the March of Ancona, threw off the papal yoke, 
 and placed themselves under the control of tyrants. Even 
 Rome itself was distracted by frequent revolutions (in one 
 of which a plebeian named Cola Rienzi assumed the title 
 of tribune), and by the feuds of the Colonna (Ghibellines) 
 and Ursini (Guelphs). It was not until the end of this 
 period that the States of the Church were'Te-united. Avig- 
 non was added to them by purchase in 1348. 
 
 C. In Lower Italy. 
 
 276 !• In Naples, the house of Anjou occupied the throne 
 c until 1442, when the country was conquered by Alfonso V. 
 
 of Arragon, who already possessed Sicily. At his death 
 Alfonso bequeathed Naples, as a separate kingdom, to his 
 natural son Ferdinand, whose posterity continued to reign 
 until the year 1504. 
 
 277 2. Sicily remained a distinct kingdom under the sons 
 of Peter III. of Arragon and their successors, until the 
 extinction of the family, when it was united to Arragon. 
 
 § 62. France. 
 
 A. Under the last Capets 
 
 (1270—1328). 
 
 278 10. Philip III. (1270—1285), after the death of his 
 D father, withdrew his army from Tunis, married his son 
 
 Philip to Johanna, heiress of Navarre, and died on his 
 return from an unsuccessful expedition against Arragon. 
 
 279 11. Philip IV., Le Bel (1285— 1314), king also of 
 Navarre, in right of his wife Johanna. This monarch, the 
 distinguishing features of whose character were ambition, 
 
280, 281. §62.] France. 139 
 
 cunning, avarice, and cruelty, obtained possession of Gui- (279) 
 enne (which he afterwards restored) during a war with A 
 England, occasioned by a quarrel between some English 
 and French sailors. A successful insurrection of the Flem- 
 ings, at that time allies of England, compelled him to 
 abandon Flanders, which had also fallen into his hands. 
 Pope Boniface VIII., who had excommunicated Philip for 
 extorting contributions from the clergy for the prosecution 
 of this war, was seized by the king's servants, and died of 
 grief. The next pope but one, Clement V. (Archbishop 
 of Bourdeaux), established himself at Avignon, which con- 
 tinued to be the papal residence from 1305 to 137G. As 
 cruel persecution was carried on against the Knights Tem- 
 plars, whose wealth had excited the cupidity of Philip. 
 After a long but most unfair trial, many members of the 
 order were condemned to be burnt, on the evidence of 
 perjured witnesses, or after confessions extorted by the 
 rack. The order itself was entirely suppressed by Pope 
 Clement V. (at the council of Vienne). 
 
 After the death of Philip IV. the crown was worn in 280 
 rapid succession by his three sons, Louis X., Philip V. c 
 (who persuaded the estates of his kingdom to pass an act 
 excluding females from the throne), and Charles IV., who 
 died without male issue, and was succeeded by his cousin, 
 Philip of Valois. Navarre was settled on Johanna, daugh- 
 ter of Louis X., and was not re-united to France until the 
 accession of the Bourbons in 1589. 
 
 B. Under kings of the house of Valois 
 (1328—1589). 
 
 Louis IX. 281 
 
 . A . 
 
 Philip III. Robert de Clermont, 
 
 founder of the Bourbon 
 
 Philip IV. Charles of Valois. family. 
 
 Louis X.,Philip V.,CharlesIV., Isabella Philip VI. 
 
 mar. 
 Johanna. Edward II., 
 
 King of England. 
 
 Edward III. 
 
140 THE MIDDLE AGES. [282—284. §62. 
 
 282 I. Philip VI. (1328—1350). The claims to the 
 A throne of France advanced by Edward III., as grandson of 
 
 Philip IV., on the ground that his mother alone, and not 
 her male issue, was excluded from the succession, occa- 
 sioned a war between England and France, which lasted 
 more' than a hundred years (1339 — 1453). Edward III. 
 (who had assumed the title of King of France) formed an 
 alliance with the Flemings, under Artevelde, a brewer of 
 Ghent, and the Count of Artois, who had been expelled 
 from France for forgery, and obtained a splendid naval 
 B victory offSluys (1340); then landed in Normandy with 
 his son, Edward the Black Prince, defeated the French at 
 Cressy (1346), and took Calais, which was entirely colo- 
 nized by the English, and remained in their possession 
 until the year 1558. Philip added Dauphine, Champagne, 
 and Brie, to the possessions of the French crown. The 
 right of voting grants of the public money was conceded 
 by him to the estates of the realm. He died during an 
 armistice with England. 
 
 283 2. John the Good (1350 — 1364) was defeated by 
 c the Black Prince at Maupertuis, near Poitiers (1356), 
 
 where he was taken prisoner with his youngest son Philip, 
 and conveyed to London. During his captivity a demo- 
 cratic party was formed at Paris by Marcel, president of 
 the Parisian guild of merchants, whilst almost at the same 
 time a disturbance broke out in the north of France, among 
 the peasants (Jaquerie), who were grievously oppressed by 
 the nobles. After defeating these undisciplined bands, the 
 nobles tendered their services to Prince Charles, who 
 obtained quiet possession of Paris after the assassination 
 D of Marcel. A peace was concluded at Bretigny (near 
 Chartres), on the following terms, — Edward III. received 
 Guienne, Poitou, Calais, &c, as souverain possessions, in 
 return for his renunciation of the title of King of France, 
 and of the provinces formerly held by England. On the 
 other hand, King John agreed to pay a considerable ransom 
 for his liberation: but this not being forthcoming, he re. 
 turned to London, where he died a prisoner, after bestow, 
 ing the vacant dukedom of Burgundy on his youngest son, 
 Philip the Hardy. 
 
 284 3. Charles V., the Wise (1364—1380). His distin 
 guished general, Bertrand du Guesclin, cleared the kingdom 
 
285, 286. § 62.] France. 141 
 
 of marauding bands of mercenaries, whom he led into Spain, (284) 
 where a disputed succession to the Castilian throne had a 
 occasioned a civil war. The same general, in a war which 
 soon afterwards broke out between France and England, 
 wrested from the English crown all its possessions in France 
 except Calais and a part of Guienne. 
 
 4. Charles VI. (1380—1422) at first, on account of 285 
 his minority, and afterwards of his imbecility, 1 was placed B 
 under the guardianship of his uncles the Dukes of Berry 
 and Burgundy, whose right to this office was vehemently 
 contested by the Duke of Orleans, brother to the king. 
 These conflicting claims occasioned the formation of two 
 parties, one of which sided with Burgundy, whilst the other 
 (headed by the Compte d'Armagnac) supported the Duke of 
 Orleans. After the assassination of Orleans, a bloody civil 
 war raged between the two factions, during which the 
 English again entered France and gained the victory of 
 Azincourt (1415). The Burgundian party obtained pos- c 
 session of the city of Paris, which they held until the death 
 
 of the Duke of Burgundy, who was assassinated by the 
 attendants of the Dauphin, on the bridge of Montereau (on 
 the Yonne). His son, Philip the Good, of Burgundy, im- 
 plored the assistance of Henry V. of England, who entered 
 Paris, married Catherine, daughter of Charles VI., and was 
 proclaimed heir-presumptive to the throne of France; but 
 died before Charles, leaving an infant son. Two months 
 after his decease Charles died also, and was succeeded by 
 the Dauphin as 
 
 5. Charles VII. (1422— 1461), whilst at the same 286 
 time Henry VI. of England was proclaimed king in the north d 
 of France. After sustaining two defeats, Charles was com- 
 pelled to cross the Loire, and the city of Orleans was on the 
 eve of surrendering to the English, when a peasant girl 
 named Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans, a native of Dom 
 Remy, near Vaucouleurs, in Champagne, placed herself at 
 the head of the French army, and compelled the English to 
 raise the siege (1429). Then she conducted Charles VII. 
 
 in triumph to the city of Rheims, where he was crowned; 
 but falling (1430) into the hands of her enemies during 
 
 1 Cards were invented, it is said, for the amusement of Charles VI. 
 
142 THE MIDDLE AGES. [287. §62. 
 
 (286) the siege of Compiegne, she was tried for witchcraft, and 
 
 a burnt at Rouen, on the 30th of May, 1431. A recon- 
 ciliation was effected between the Duke of Burgundy and 
 Charles VII., the city of Pai'is surrendering to the king, 
 whilst the English, deprived of Normandy and Guienne, 
 were compelled, after a fruitless struggle, to content them- 
 selves with the possession of Calais and the Channel 
 Islands. The war was terminated, without any formal 
 conclusion of peace, in consequence of the struggles be- 
 tween the factions of the red and white roses in England. 
 The organization of some companies of cavalry, and of the 
 francs- arc hers, or free sharpshooters, as a body of infantry, 
 
 B laid the foundation of a standing army. The influence 
 exercised over the mind of the king by his mistress, Agnes 
 Sorel, occasioned an estrangement between Charles and 
 the Dauphin, who sought an asylum at the court of the 
 Duke of Burgundy, after an unsuccessful attempt to de- 
 prive his father of the crown. 
 287. 6. Louis "XI. (1461 — 1483) attempted to establish the 
 absolute power of the crown by the following measures: 
 1 . All the servants of his father were dismissed, and their 
 places supplied by persons who were indebted for their 
 advancement solely to Louis himself. 2. The estates of 
 the different provinces were convoked instead of the great 
 council of estates of the realm. 3. Measures were adopted 
 for humbling the princes of the blood, and two great vassals 
 
 c of the crown, the Dukes of Burgundy and Brittany. The 
 result of this policy was the formation of a league, termed 
 "la ligue du bien public," between the disgraced ministers 
 of the crown and the two dukes, who compelled the king, 
 after an indecisive battle at Montlheri, to make important 
 concessions, which he afterwards refused to ratify. The 
 league was soon afterwards dissolved through the intrigues 
 of Louis, by whom the Liegeois were urged to make 
 
 D repeated incursions into the Burgundian territory. During 
 one of these inroads, Louis, who had rashly visited the 
 Duke of Burgundy at Peronne, was detained a prisoner, 
 and only released on condition of granting several impor- 
 tant immunities to his powerful vassal. In revenge, Louis, 
 during the absence of Charles the Bold (who was engaged, 
 as protector of the Archbishop of Cologne, in reducing the 
 revolted city of Neuss), stirred up the inhabitants of Loi'- 
 
288, 289. § 62.] England and Scotland. 143 
 
 raine and the Swiss to make war on Burgundy. After re- (287) 
 ducing Lorraine, Charles marched into Switzerland, where A 
 he was defeated at Granson and Murten, in 1476. 
 The Duke of Lorraine, who had been deprived of his 
 dominions, was restored by the Swiss ; and Charles, in an 
 attempt to avenge this insult, lost his life before Nancy 
 in 1477. The dukedom of Burgundy lapsed, as a void b 
 male fief, to the crown of France; but the numerous Ger- 
 man seignories which had been incorporated with Burgundy 
 by marriage, purchase, and inheritance, and even some of 
 the smaller French fiefs, were afterwards acquired by 
 Austria, through the marriage of the Archduke Maximilian 
 with Mary of Burgundy, daughter and sole heiress of 
 Charles the Bold. The death of his brother enabled Louis 
 to annex Guienne and Normandy to France; and when 
 the house of Anjou became extinct, he inherited Anjou, 
 Provence, and Maine, together with the claims of that 
 family to the Neapolitan throne. His son, 
 
 7. Charles VIII. (1483— 1498) conquered Naples, 288 
 but was compelled to abandon his conquest by the .united c 
 forces of the pope, the Emperor Maximilian, Ferdinand 
 the Catholic, the Duke of Milan, and the Republic of 
 Venice. With him expired the elder line of the house of 
 Valois. 
 
 § 63. England and Scotland. 
 
 A. Kings of the house of Plantagenet. 
 
 5. Edward I. (1272—1307) annexed Wales to the 289 
 English crown. His son Edward assumed the title of d 
 Prince of Wales, which has ever since been borne by the 
 heir-apparent. The extinction of the dynasty of the house 
 of Kenneth (1286) was followed by the disputes of thir- 
 teen claimants to the Scottish throne, among whom the 
 most powerful were Balliol and Bruce. Edward, as feudal 
 sovereign of Scotland, decided this dispute by placing 
 John Balliol on the throne ; but the new king immediately 
 renounced his allegiance to the crown of England, and 
 was deposed by Edward, who subdued Scotland, but died 
 during a campaign against Robert Bruce, who had been 
 crowned by the insurgent Scots. 
 
144 THE MIDDUE AGES. [290,291. §63. 
 
 (289) 6. Edward II. (1307— 1327), son-in-law of Philip IV. 
 A of France. The feeble government of this monarch, who 
 was a mere tool in the hands of unworthy favorites, 
 encouraged the nobles to resist the authority of the crown, 
 whilst at the same lime the Scotch not only maintained 
 their independence, but even made frequent incursions into 
 England, and at length compelled the king to grant an 
 armistice. His wife Isabella, who had visited France, in 
 .the hope of putting an end to a war which had broken out 
 between Edward and her brother Charles IV., conspired 
 with her paramour Mortimer against the unfortunate king, 
 and having landed in England at the head of some Nether- 
 landish troops, and gained over a majority of the nobles 
 and the rabble of London, she compelled the parliament 
 to depose Edward (who was soon afterwards brutally 
 murdered) and to proclaim his son 
 
 290 7. Edward III. (1327—1337), who emancipated him- 
 B self from all control by hanging Mortimer, and banishing 
 
 his mother from court. After the death of the Scotch 
 king, Robert Bruce (f 1329), his son David was called to 
 the throne, but was soon compelled by the English to 
 abdicate in favor of Edward Balliol, who consented to 
 recognize the supremacy of Edward III. The disputes 
 respecting the right to the Scottish throne continued until 
 c the accession of the Stuarts in 1371. The frequent pecu- 
 niary embarrassments, occasioned by the expenses of a war 
 with France, compelled Edward to convoke his parliament 
 seventy times. During this reign the great council of the 
 nation was first divided into the Upper House (prelates 
 and barons), and the Lower (inferior nobles and represen- 
 tatives of cities). 
 
 291 8. Richard II. (1377—1399), son of the Black 
 d Prince, suppressed an insurrection of the people, occa- 
 sioned by the oppressive system of taxation; but after- 
 wards became the slave of unworthy favorites, and was 
 deprived of almost all his authority by his uncle the Duke 
 of Gloucester and a commission of regency. The reins of 
 government were again placed in his hands by the parlia- 
 ment, and a second time wrested from him by Henry, 
 duke of Lancaster (a grandson of Edward III., who 
 had been banished by Richard). The unfortunate king 
 
292, 293. § 63.] eng-Eand and Scotland. 145 
 
 was taken prisoner, and compelled by the parliament to (291) 
 abdicate in favor of his rival. A 
 
 B. Three kings of the house of Lancaster, 
 
 a collateral branch of the house of Planlagenet. 
 
 (1399—1461.) 
 
 1. Henry IV. (1399 — 1413.) His reign was dis- 292 
 turbed by repeated conspiracies, all of which were rendered b 
 abortive by the courage and sagacity of the king. His 
 brave son, 
 
 2. Henry V., obtained a brilliant victory over the 293 
 French at Agincourt, and conquered Normandy. He 
 married the daughter of Charles VI., and was nominated 
 successor to the French throne after the death of his father- 
 in-law, but died before him, and was succeeded by his 
 infant son. 
 
146 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 [294. §63. 
 
 294 
 
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295 — 297. §63.] England and Scotland. 147 
 
 3. Henry VI. (1422 — 1461), who assumed the title 295 
 of King of France, but was soon deprived of all his pos- a 
 sessions in that country, with the exception of Calais and 
 the Channel Islands. These losses, added to the disgust 
 occasioned by the conduct of the king's favorites, pro- 
 duced an opposition in parliament, headed by his cousin, 
 Richard duke of York, who claimed the crown as a de- 
 scendant of the second son of Edward III., the house of 
 Lancaster tracing its descent from the third. This dispute 
 occasioned the wars of the red (Lancaster) and white 
 (York) roses. Richard was nominated protector during 
 the insanity of the king, but refused to resign the office 
 on his recovery. Two battles were then fought (at St. B 
 Alban's in 1455, and Northampton in 1460), in each of 
 which the king was taken prisoner, but released ; and 
 finally, he agreed to abdicate in favor of Richard. The 
 war having been renewed by the queen, Margaret of Anjou, 
 Richard was slain in the battle of Wakefield. His son 
 Edward then assumed the title of king, and defeated the 
 Lancastrian party near Towton. 
 
 C. Three kings of the house of York. 
 (1461—1485.) 
 
 1. Edward IV. (1461—1483.) After an ineffectual 296 
 attempt to replace her husband on the throne by means of c 
 French troops, Margaret formed an alliance with the Earl 
 
 of Warwick (who had been ill-treated by Edward, and had 
 taken refuge in France), and with his son-in-law, the 
 Duke of Clarence. Warwick returned to England, de- 
 posed Edward, and reseated Henry on the throne (1470); 
 but in the following year, Edward, who was supported by 
 his brother-in-law, Charles the Bold, of Burgundy, re- 
 appeared in England, and defeated the forces of Warwick 
 and Margaret. Henry VI. died suddenly in the Tower 
 (possibly by the dagger of Richard, duke of Gloucester), 
 and the house of Lancaster became extinct, with the ex 
 ception of Henry Tudor, who fled to Brittany. 
 
 2. Edward V. (1483), soon after his father's death, 297 
 was set aside by his guardian and uncle, Richard of Glou- d 
 cester, who ascended the throne as 
 
148 THE MIDDLE AGES. [298—301. §64,65. 
 
 298 3. Richard III. (1483— 1485.) In the year 1485 he 
 A was slain at the battle of Bosworth, and Henry Tudor 
 
 (earl of Richmond) as King Henry VII., reconciled the 
 conflicting claims of the two houses, by a marriage with 
 Elizabeth of York. 
 
 § 64. The Pyrencean Peninsula. 
 
 299 The only possession which still remained (in 1237) in 
 the hands of the Moors, was the little kingdom of Granada, 
 generally dependent on Castile, but enjoying considerable 
 political, agricultural, and commercial prosperity, until its 
 union with Castile (in consequence of a disputed succes- 
 sion) in 1492. 
 
 300 The two Christian kingdoms— Arragon (to which 
 B Sardinia, and afterwards Sicily, and, for a short time, 
 
 Naples, were annexed, and which was partly governed by 
 a peculiar magistracy (the Justitia), acting as a mediator 
 between the king and the estates of his realm) and Cas- 
 tile, were united in 1479, by the marriage of Ferdinand 
 of Arragon with Isabella, the heiress of Castile. Each 
 kingdom retained the constitution by which it had been 
 governed previously to the union. Granada was added in 
 1492. Navarre, which had been annexed at an early period 
 to France, was settled in 1316 on Johanna, daughter of 
 Louis X.,and became thenceforward a separate independent 
 c kingdom. In Portugal, after the extinction of the legitimate 
 Burgundian line in 1383, a new dynasty was founded by 
 John I., a natural son of Peter I. In the fifteenth century 
 Madeira, the Azores, the Cape Verd Islands, and the coast 
 of Guinea, were discovered by Henry the Voyager (third 
 son of John I.). In 1486, Bartholomew Diaz reached the 
 cabo tormentoso, afterwards named by John II. cabo de 
 bonna esperanza (Cape of Good Hope). 
 
 B. The East. 
 § 65. The Byzantine empire under the Palceologi. 
 (1261—1453.) 
 301 Under the dynasty of the Palasologi, the fragments of the 
 D ancient Byzantine empire were re- united, with the exception 
 
302, 303. § 66, 67.] Byzantine empire. 149 
 
 of a few small independent seignories, which had been (301) 
 established by the Latin knights ; but the government of A 
 sovereigns, of whom the majority were feeble-minded and 
 incapable, and whose administration was frequently embar- 
 rassed by civil wars, ecclesiastical disputes, and court- 
 intrigues, opposed but an ineffectual barrier to the ad- 
 vancing tide of Ottoman encroachment. An unsuccessful 
 attempt was made to obtain assistance from the West, by a 
 union of the Greek and Latin Churches, and the empire 
 was now on the verge of destruction, when an invasion of 
 the Mongols withheld their enemies for a time ; but the 
 respite was of short duration, for on the 29th of May, 
 1453, Constantinople, after a short siege, surrendered to 
 Mohammed II. The empire, also, of Trebizond, and all B 
 the smaller Greek states in the islands, the Morea, Epirus, 
 and Attica, fell into the hands of the conqueror. The 
 kingdom of Cyprus alone became a dependency of the re- 
 public of Venice. 
 
 § 66. The Osmans. 
 
 An independent empire was founded in the fourteenth 302 
 century, on the ruins of the Seldschuk kingdom of Iconium, c 
 by Osman, emir of a nomadic tribe. Its boundaries, 
 which at first comprehended only Bithynia, were rapidly 
 extended, until they embraced the greater part of Asia 
 Minor and Thrace. Adrianople became the imperial resi- 
 dence in 1365. The Osmans had already compelled 
 Macedonia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Moldavia, to ac- 
 knowledge their supremacy, and were advancing into 
 Styria, after a victory over Sigismund, king of Hungary, 
 near Nicopolis in 1396, when they were themselves de- 
 feated in the East by the great Mongol conqueror, Timur D 
 Lenk (Tamerlane). Notwithstanding, however, this check, 
 the power of the Osmans was speedily re-established, and 
 in the year 1453, Mohammed II. became master of the 
 Byzantine empire and the empire of Trebizond (see § 65), 
 Servia, Wallachia, Bosnia, Albania, and several settlements 
 of the Genoese on the Black Sea. 
 
 § 67. The Mongols. 
 
 The Mongols became again a formidable power under 303 
 Timur L e n k, or Tamerlane, a descendant of Dschingis 
 
150 THE MIDDLE AGES. [304, 305. § 68, 69. 
 
 (303) Khan (1369 — 1405), who founded a kingdom at Samar- 
 A cand, in great Bucharia, and thence carried on successful 
 wars against Persia, a portion of India, and Natolia; 
 sacked Moscow and Asof in Russia, and died on an expe- 
 dition against the Chinese. After his death, this mighty 
 empire, which extended from the wall of China and the 
 Ganges to the shores of the Mediterranean, was split into 
 a number of petty principalities. 
 
 C. The north-east of Europe. 
 § 68. Scandinavia. 
 
 304 Denmark, at the commencement of this period, was 
 b divided (among the sons of Eric IV.) into several prin- 
 cipalities, which were re-united by Waldemar III., after 
 the loss of Esthonia. Margaret, daughter of this sove- 
 reign, married Haco VIII., King of Norway, and after the 
 deaths of her father and husband, governed the two king- 
 doms as guardian of her son Olaf, whose early decease 
 
 c placed both Denmark and Norway at her absolute dis- 
 posal. In Sweden, which at an earlier period had been 
 united to Norway (from 1319 to 1365), the estates, dis- 
 gusted at the avarice of their king (Albert, a prince of 
 Mecklenburg), offered the crown to Margaret of Denmark. 
 Thus the three Scandinavian kingdoms of Sweden, Den- 
 mark, and Norway, were united (by the treaty of C a 1 m a r, 
 1397) under one sovereign, each, nevertheless, retaining 
 its own parliament and code of laws. Margaret was suc- 
 ceeded by Eric of Pomerania, her sister's grandson, and his 
 
 D nephew Christopher of Bavaria. The throne of Denmark 
 and Norway was then filled by Christian I. (of the house 
 of Oldenburg), who had married Christopher's widow. 
 Schleswig and Holstein were soon added by inheritance to 
 the possessions of the new royal house, which was either 
 not recognized at all in Sweden, or compelled to intrust 
 the administration of that kingdom to a native viceroy, or 
 president. 
 
 § 69. Russia. 
 
 305 Russia, where the grand principality of Wladimir (which 
 comprised also Novgorod) was united to Moskwa, or Mos- 
 cow, in 1328, was deprived by the Lithuanians and Poles 
 
306, 307. § 70.] RUSSIA— POLAND. 151 
 
 (during the period of its dependence on the Mongol empire) (305) 
 of several of its western provinces, such as Volhynia, Kiev, A 
 Podolia, Red and White Russia; but after several long 
 and bloody struggles (during which a brilliant victory was 
 obtained on the Don, by Demetrius Donski, and successful 
 resistance was offered to the attacks of Timur), the Rus- 
 sians under Ivan the Great emancipated themselves from 
 the tyranny of the (so called) golden Horde in Kaptschak. 
 The Khanate of Kaptschak was then divided into four 
 kingdoms (Crim, Astrachan, Kasan, and Turan). Ivan the B ■ 
 Great, the real founder of the Russian empire, extended 
 his dominions to the borders of Lithuania, exacted tribute 
 from the Khanate of Kasan, laid the foundation of an im- 
 proved constitution, and was the first Russian sovereign 
 who assumed the title of Czar. 
 
 § 70. Poland. 
 
 1. Under the Piasts (840 — 1386), who re-assumed the 306 
 title of king in 1320, Great Poland (on the Lower Warthe), c 
 and Little Poland (on the Upper Vistula, or Cracow and 
 Sendomir) were united, Cracow being the place appointed 
 
 for the coronation of the Polish kings. Casimir the Great, 
 the last king of the Piast male line, was deprived of Silesia 
 by Bohemia, and of Pomerella by the knights of the Teu- 
 tonic order ; but on the other hand, Galicia, or Red Russia, 
 Podolia, and the feudal sovereignty of Masovia, were 
 acquired by this monarch, who greatly improved the con- 
 dition of his people by the establishment of a supreme 
 court of justice and a university at Cracow, and by a 
 succession of benefits conferred on the citizen and peasant 
 estates (hence his title of the "peasant's king"). Casimir 
 was succeeded by his sister's son, Lewis the Great, king 
 of Hungary, who secured the succession for one of his 
 daughters, by granting various important privileges to the 
 nobility. Lithuania, which since the Mongol invasion had d 
 become an independent government, was re-united to 
 Poland by the marriage of Hedwig (youngest daughter of 
 the king of Poland) to Jagello, duke of Lithuania, who was 
 baptized (with all his subjects), and assumed the name of 
 Wladislaw II. 
 
 2. Under the descendants of Jagello (1386 — 
 
152 THE MIDDLE AGES. [308,309. §71,72. 
 
 307 1572), Wladislaw II. was compelled to recognize the right 
 A of election claimed by the estates, and to allow the Lithu- 
 anians grand dukes of their own, subject to the supremacy 
 of the Polish crown (— 1502). In the year 1410 Wla- 
 dislaw defeated the Teutonic order at Tannenberg, and 
 obtained possession (by the peace of Thorn) of Samogitia, 
 to which by a second peace, concluded at the same place 
 (in 1466), Casimir II. added West Prussia, and the feudal 
 sovereignty of East Prussia. Thus the kingdom of Poland 
 extended from the Black Sea to the Baltic. 
 
 § 71. Prussia under the Teutonic order. 
 
 308 The Teutonic order, which since the year 1309 had 
 b been settled at Marienburg, had acquired, partly by con- 
 quest and partly by purchase, Pomerella, Esthonia, Neu- 
 mark, and Samogitia, so that its empire at last compre- 
 hended the entire coast of the Baltic from Dantzic to 
 Narva, with the islands of Gothland and Oesel. The 
 golden period of this dynasty was from 1351 to 1382, un- 
 der the Grand Master Winrich von Kniprode ; but a single 
 defeat at Tannenberg, in 1419 (which terminated the 
 war between the Lithuanians and Poles), completely shat- 
 tered its power, although the brave defence of Marienburg, 
 by Henry von Plauen, obtained for it (at the peace of 
 Thorn, in 1411, see § 70) more favorable terms than could 
 
 c reasonably have been anticipated. The insufferable 
 tyranny of the order was soon afterwards resisted by a 
 confederacy of nobles and cities (at Marienwerder), which 
 publicly repudiated its authority, and sought the protection 
 of Poland. After a twelve years' war with the confeder- 
 ation and Poland, a second peace was concluded at Thorn 
 in 1466, the order ceding Western Prussia to Poland, and 
 
 D consenting to hold Eastern Prussia as a Polish fief. The 
 head-quarters of the order were transferred to Konigsberg. 
 Until the year 1513 Livonia, Esthonia, and Courland, 
 were governed by the provincial grand master of the Or- 
 der of the Sword, subject to the supreme authority of the 
 Teutonic order. 
 
 § 72. Hungary. 
 
 309 Scarcely had Hungary (including Transylvania, Scla- 
 vonia, Croatia, and Bosnia) begun to recover from the 
 
310. §73.] PRUSSIA HUNGARY. 153 
 
 effects of the Mongol invasions, when the extinction of (309) 
 the Arpad dynasty occasioned fresh struggles, which ter- a 
 minated at length in the accession of a prince of the 
 House of Anjou, Charles Robert (1308 — 1342), a 
 great-grandson of Stephen V., whose vigorous govern- 
 ment, followed by the wise administration of his son 
 Lewis the Great, raised Hungary to a position which she 
 had never before occupied. Lewis the Great (1342 — 
 1382), by the acquisition of Dalmatia, the feudal supre- 
 macy of Servia, Bulgaria, Wallachia, and Moldavia, and 
 finally of the crown of Poland (as nephew and heir of 
 Casimir III.), became the most powerful monarch of 
 Europe. He was succeeded, after a short struggle be- B 
 tween rival candidates, by his son-in-law Sigismund, a 
 prince of the house of Luxemburg (1387 — 1437), who 
 was too feeble either to maintain the prerogative of the 
 crown against rebels at home, or to protect the kingdom 
 from foreign enemies. The short reigns of his son-in-law 
 Albert of Austria, and the King of Poland, were fol- 
 lowed by the accession of Albert's posthumous son Ladis- 
 laus, who was succeeded by a native prince, Matthias Cor- 
 vinns (son of the brave Hunyad, regent of the kingdom 
 during Albert's minority). His violation of the conditions c 
 to which he had solemnly pledged himself at his election 
 so .offended the electors, that they offered the crown to 
 the Emperor Frederick III.; but the claims of this new 
 candidate were successfully resisted by Matthias, whose 
 victories over the Osmans, Bohemians, and the emperor, 
 procured for himself and his kingdom a reputation, which 
 was maintained by the establishment of a standing army, 
 the encouragement which he afforded to artists and learned 
 men, and the great improvement effected (though not 
 without the imposition of heavy taxes) in every branch of 
 the administration. 
 
 § 73. Religion, Arts, Sciences, 8fC, during the Fourth 
 Period. 
 
 1. The Church. Lithuania, the last heathen nation of 310 
 Europe, had embraced, as we have seen, the Christian d 
 religion, and discoveries on the western coast of Africa 
 were preparing the way for its reception in a quarter of the 
 globe still more barbarous. During this period the influ- 
 7* 
 
154 THE MIDDLE AGES. [311. §73. 
 
 (310) ence of the papacy, although never lost, was grievously 
 a endangered by the disputes of the pope with Philip IV. of 
 France and Louis the Bavarian, as well as by the teaching 
 of Wickliffe and Huss, and more than all, by the seventy 
 years' residence of the popes at Avignon, the forty years' 
 schism, and the contest between the council of Basle and 
 Eugene IV. The great object of that council, as well as 
 of the council of Constance, had been the limitation of the 
 papal power; but the hopes of ecclesiastical reform, which 
 thousands had cherished at the opening of the latter, had 
 vanished long before the termination of its session. A 
 terrible pestilence, termed the "Black Death," which 
 devastated western Europe in the fourteenth century, occa- 
 sioned the formation of societies of both sexes for the care 
 
 B of the sick and the burial of the dead. Renewed attempts 
 to re-unite the Greek and Latin churches were successful 
 to a certain extent, a convention having been executed by 
 representatives of the two parties, at a synod held at 
 Florence; but the proceedings of the synod were never 
 recognized either by the people, or those of the clergy 
 who remained at Constantinople. 
 311 2. Political Constitution. The spirit of political 
 
 c combination, which had been awakened in the preceding 
 century, continued to spread, particularly in Germany, 
 where confederacies of cities, nobles, &c, manifested the 
 extent of its influence. In France, the power of the king 
 was steadily augmented by the acquisition of crown lands, 
 whilst the reverse was the case in Germany, where the 
 narrow-minded personal ambition of the emperors led 
 them to seek the aggrandizement of their own families at 
 the expense of the imperial prerogative, which was weak- 
 ened by their reckless grants of immunities and revenues 
 to cities and nobles, in return for some personal benefit. 
 
 D By this policy the German empire was split into a number 
 of petty principalities, forming a sort of federal republic, 
 with an elective president at its head. In Italy, a system 
 of political counterpoise was maintained, chiefly by means 
 of Florence, which occupied a middle position between the 
 commonwealth of the north (Venice and Milan), and the 
 absolute monarchies of the south (States of the Church and 
 Naples). The constitution of the east was a military 
 despotism. At this period the most remarkable pecu- 
 
312. §73.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 155 
 
 liarity in the administration of justice, was the existence of (311) 
 the Free Court, or Vehmgericht of Westphalia, a dark and a 
 mysterious tribunal, which judged in secret, and soon 
 spread over the whole of Germany. The origin, charac- 
 ter, limits, and regulations of this institution, are involved 
 in impenetrable obscurity. 
 
 3. In the Sciences, three causes united to produce 312 
 new life : (1) the rapid increase in the number of universi- 
 ties, of which more than fifty were founded at this period 
 (in Germany: Prague, 1348; Vienna, 1365; Heidelberg, 
 1386; Cologne, 1388; Erfurt; and in the fifteenth cen- 
 tury, Wijrtzburg, Leipzic, Rostock, Greifswalde, Freiburg, 
 Treves, Ingoldstadt, and Mainz) : (2) ike revival of the 
 study of classical literature. The attempted reconciliation B 
 between the Eastern and Western Churches, and still more, 
 the conquest of the Byzantine empire by the Turks, had 
 inundated Italy with a host of learned Greeks, who brought 
 with them their literary treasures, and were installed as 
 professors of their native language at the universities, or 
 found an honorable asylum in the palaces of the 'Medici 
 and other noble Italian families. Thus a better taste in c 
 literature was introduced and propagated through the 
 exertions of these illustrious foreigners and their native 
 disciples, Joh. Boccaccio, Laurentius Valla, Marcilius Fici- 
 nus,- &c. ; and the German writers, Agricola and Reuchlin. 
 At the same time academies, or learned societies {e.g. that 
 of the Platonic philosophy founded at Florence, by Cosmo 
 di Medici) ; new schools and libraries (the Vatican, &c), 
 were established in different parts of Europe : (3) the 
 invention of printing, byJohnGansfleisch, of Sul- 
 geloch (Sorgenloch), commonly called Gutenberg of 
 Mainz, who had already tried many experiments, during a 
 sojourn of twenty [?] years at Strasburg, and on his return 
 (1445) to his native town, brought his plans to perfection, 
 with the assistance of Peter Schoft'er, and a rich goldsmith 
 named John Fust (1450). The first printed book was Gu- d 
 tenberg's Latin Bible (finished in 1456). In the scholastic 
 Aristotelic philosophy (which was not superseded by the 
 new Platonic philosophy until the end of the mediaeval 
 period), the distinction continued to exist between the 
 Realists (who maintained that general ideas were things), 
 and the Nominalists (who contended that they were only 
 
156 THE MIDDLE AGES. [313. §73. 
 
 (312) words). Both these schools were opposed to the Mystics. 
 
 a The use of the vernacular language in historical writing 
 became more common. Geographical science was pro- 
 moted by the travels of missionaries, ambassadors, and 
 merchants, and the discoveries of the Portuguese ; the 
 study of mathematics and medicine by translations of 
 the best Greek treatises on those subjects. 
 313 4. Art. (a) Poetry nourished most in Italy, where the 
 
 b Florentine Dante Alighieri (j- 1321) won for himself the 
 title of " Father of Italian poetry," by the publication of 
 his " Divina Commedia" (Wanderings in Heaven, Hell, 
 and Purgatory). The sonnets of Francesco Petrarca (Pe- 
 trarch), on Laura of Sade (fl374), and the Decamerone 
 of Giovanni Boccaccio (-[1375), are also works of no 
 ordinary merit. The Tuscan dialect, in which Boccaccio 
 wrote, became thenceforward the language of Italian lite- 
 rature. In Germany, as in France, the drama owed its 
 development to. the mysteries and Shrovetide mummeries 
 
 c (as they were called) of the Romish Church. The ser- 
 mons of John Tauler are the earliest attempt at German 
 prose composition. The father of English poetry was 
 Geoffrey Chaucer (fl400). (b) Architecture. In addi- 
 tion to the Gothic, which was occupied partly in com- 
 pleting the works commenced in the preceding century, 
 and partly in constructing new edifices (the church of 
 St. Mary, at Nurnburg ; the cathedrals of Ulm, Antwerp, 
 and Milan), there arose in Italy a new school, which pro- 
 fessed to copy the monuments of classical antiquity. The 
 best architects in this style were at Pisa and Florence. 
 
 D (c) Painting was brought to great perfection (a) in Italy 
 by the Tuscan or Florentine school (which numbered 
 among its professors Leonardo da Vinci (flSlQ), the 
 inventor of perspective), as well as by the Roman and 
 other schools : (b) in Germany, by the earlier Cologne 
 (Meister Wilhelm) and Flemish schools (the two brothers 
 van Eyck). (d) Sculpture in clay, bronze, and marble (by 
 Donato of Florence and others) emulated the perfection of 
 ancient art. (e) Copperplate printing was invented in Ger- 
 many in the fifteenth century. (/) Music was improved by 
 the invention of singing in parts, the addition of pedals to 
 the organ, and various important alterations in the con- 
 struction of other instruments. 
 
313. §73.] RELIGION, ARTS, ETC. 157 
 
 5. Trade, Navigation, and Manufactures, (a) In (313) 
 the south, the maritime trade was almost exclusively in the A 
 hands of the Italians. The command of the Mediterranean 
 was at first divided between Venice and Genoa, the former 
 possessing the East Indian, Syrian, and African trade, the 
 latter the trade to the Black Sea, Byzantium, and the 
 Levant ; both republics having also settlements in the 
 islands, and even in Greece and the Tauric Cherso- 
 nesus. But the long war (see § 61), which ended in the 
 triumph of Venice over her rival, placed at her disposal 
 the trade to the Levant and the Black Sea, in addition to 
 her former commercial advantages. (Z>) All the coasts of B 
 western and northern Europe belonged to the German 
 Hansa. This union of nearly eighty Netherlandish, 
 North-German, and Prussian cities, for the protection of 
 their commerce from piracy and violence, had gradually 
 been formed (since the thirteenth century) out of several 
 smaller Hansas or associations, and was at first divided 
 into three branches: (1) the Wendish-Saxon ; (2) the 
 Westphalian-Prussian ; and (3) the Gothlandish towns ; 
 i. e. the Germans in Gothland, Livonia, and Sweden ; and 
 at a later period into four, viz. the Westphalian, of which 
 Cologne was the centre ; the Prussian, which had Dantzig ; 
 the Wendish, Liibec ; and the Saxon, Brunswick, for 
 their respective commercial capitals. The Hansa had c 
 depots at Bruges, Novgorod, in all the seaports of the 
 Baltic and German Ocean, and even in Spain. It main- 
 tained also a considerable navy, held diets, and carried on 
 wars. After a long struggle with Cologne, Liibec was 
 recognized as the chief city of the Union. The overland 
 trade between the east and west, as well as between the 
 north of Europe and Italy (from Dantzic and Kiev to 
 Venice), was in the hands of the Viennese, Ratisboners, 
 Nurnburgers, and Augsburgers ; but a considerable inter- 
 change of commodities between the north (Prussian and 
 Slavish provinces), and South (Constantinople and Venice), 
 was effected through the agency of Breslau merchants. 
 Towards the end of the mediaeval period, the fairs held D 
 at Frankfort-on-the-Maine were in general repute. The 
 principal emporium of the French overland trade was at 
 first Troyes, and at a later period (1445) Lyons. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 THE MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 First Period. — From, the fall of the western empire to the accession 
 of the Carlovingians and Abbasides, 476 — 750. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 476 — 493. The Italian empire of Odoacer. 
 
 486. End of the Roman supremacy in Gaul. Syagrius defeated 
 
 by Clovis near Soissons. 
 493 — 555. Empire of the Ostrogoths in Italy. 
 496. Battle of Ziilpich. 
 
 507. Southern France wrested from the Visigoths by Clovis. 
 527 — 565. Justinian I. Legislation. Nika. Architectural works. 
 531 — 712. Elective Visigothic monarchy in Spain. 
 
 533. Kingdoms of Thuringia and Burgundy united to Spain. 
 
 534. Empire of the Vandals overthrown by Belisarius. 
 
 535 — 555. War between the Ostrogoths (under Totilas and Tejas) 
 
 and the Byzantines (under Belisarius and Narses). Rome 
 
 taken five times. 
 555 — 568. The whole of Italy subject to the Byzantine government. 
 558 — 561. The Frankish monarchy re-united under Chlotar I. 
 568 — 774. Kingdom of the Lombards in Upper and Central Italy, 
 
 founded by Alboin. 
 585. Union of the empire of the Suevi with that of the Visigoths. 
 613. The Frankish monarchy re-united under Chlotar II. 
 622. Flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina. 
 632. Death of Mohammed. 
 632 — 661. Four caliphs of the race of Kureish, viz. Abu Bekr, 
 
 Omar, Othman, and Ali. Conquest of Syria, Palestine, 
 
 Phoenicia, Egypt, the northern coast of Africa, Cyprus, and 
 
 Rhodes. 
 661 — 750. The thirteen Ommaijad caliphs. Great extension of the 
 
 Arabian empire. 
 687. Pepin of Heristal sole Major-Domus of the Frankish empire 
 
 (after his victory at Testri). 
 
 711. Victory of Tarik over the Visigoths at Xeres de la Frontera. 
 
 712. The whole of Spain, except Asturia, in possession of the 
 
 Arabians. 
 716 — 754. Bonifacius in Germany. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 159 
 
 A. D. 
 
 732. Charles Martel defeats the Arabians between Tours and 
 
 Poitiers. 
 750. Assassination of the Ommaijades. 
 
 Second Period. — From the accession of the Carlovingians and Ab- 
 basides to the Crusades, about the year 1100. 
 
 750—1258. The Abbaside caliphs. 
 
 752—911 (987). The Carlovingians 
 
 752 — 758. Pepin the Short. Two expeditions into Italy for the pro- 
 tection of the pope against the Lombard King Aistulf. 
 
 756 — 1028. Cordova an independent caliphate. 
 
 768 — 814. Charlemagne. 
 
 771. Charlemagne becomes sole ruler by the death of his brother 
 Carloman. 
 
 772—804. War with the Saxons. 
 
 773 — 774. Conquest of the Lombardic kingdom. 
 
 778. War in Spain. Defeat of the Mohammedan governors on 
 this side the Ebro. Disastrous retreat. 
 
 787 — 788. Defeat and removal of Duke Tassilo of Bavaria. 
 
 791 — 799. War with the Avares. Extension of the empire to the 
 banks of the Theiss. Subjugation of the Slavish tribes on 
 the eastern frontier of the empire. 
 
 800. Charlemagne receives the imperial crown. 
 
 814 — 840. Lewis the Pious. Partition of the empire among his 
 three sons. Birth of Charles the Bald, and consequent re- 
 division of the empire. The elder sons make war on their 
 father. Plans for a further division. 
 
 827 — 1016. Monarchy of the West-Saxon kings in England. 
 
 840—1370. The Piasts in Poland. 
 
 840 — 843. Lewis the German and Charles the Bald make war on 
 their brother Lothar. 
 
 843. Partition of the Frankish empire by the convention of 
 , Verdun. 
 
 864—1598. The Rurik dynasty in Russia. 
 
 867 — 1056. Macedonian emperors at Constantinople. 
 
 871—901. Alfred the Great. 
 
 885 — 887. The Frankish monarchy re-united under Charles the 
 Fat, by the exclusion of Charles the Simple. 
 
 887. Charles the Fat deposed. Final division of the Frankish 
 empire into five portions. 
 
 887 — 987. The last Carlovingians in France. 
 
 887. Arnulf of Carinthia. Defeat of the Normans near Louvain. 
 Arnulf forms an alliance with the Magyars against Zwenti- 
 bald, king of the Moravians. 
 
 888 — 962. Italy under native sovereigns. 
 
 889—1301. The Arpads in Hungary. 
 
 About 900. Four Scandinavian kingdoms. 
 
 900 — 911. Lewis the Child. Germany invaded by the Hungari- 
 ans. 
 
 911 — 918. Conrad of Franconia. His authority disputed by the 
 nobles. Lorraine annexed to France. Irruptions of the 
 Hungarians. 
 
160 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 919—1024. Saxon Emperors. 
 
 919—936. Henry I. The empire re-united. Lorraine restored to 
 Germany. Nine years' truce with the Hungarians. Mili- 
 tary improvements. Subjugation of Bohemia and the 
 Wendish tribes as far as the Oder. Defeat of the Hun- 
 garians (at Merseburg). The northern frontier of the 
 empire extended to the (so-called) Danawirk. 
 
 936 — 973. Otho (I.) the Great. Insurrection of the dukes. Ex- 
 pedition to Jutland. 
 
 951. First Italian campaign. Berengar a vassal of the German 
 crown. 
 
 955. Final defeat of the Hungarians on the banks of the Lech. 
 The Sclavonians subdued. 
 
 962. Second Italian campaign. Otho crowned at Rome. Berengar 
 taken prisoner. 
 
 966 — 972. Third Italian campaign. War with the Greeks in Lower 
 Italy. 
 
 973 — 983. Otho II. War with Lothar of France for the possession 
 of Lorraine. Otho defeated in Lower Italy. His death. 
 
 983—1002. Otho III. Rebellion of Henry, duke of Bavaria. 
 Otho crowned at Rome. 
 
 987—1328. The Capets in France. 
 
 1002 — 1024. Henry II. Wars with the Italians, Poles, and Bo- 
 hemians. 
 
 1002. Massacre of all the Danes in England. 
 
 1016 — 1042. The Danes conquer all England. Canute. 
 
 1024 — 1125. Franconian Emperors. 
 
 1024 — 1039. Conrad II. Burgundy annexed to the German crown. 
 The March of Schleswig ceded to Canute. A law passed 
 rendering the smaller fiefs hereditary. 
 
 1039 — 1056. Henry III. Greatest extension of the empire. The 
 "Treuga Dei," or God's truce. 
 
 1042 — 1066. Restoration of the Anglo-Saxon kings in England. 
 
 1056 — 1106. Henry IV. Regency of the Empress Agnes. Influ- 
 ence of the Archbishops of Cologne and Bremen. 
 
 1057 — 1185. The Byzantine empire under the Comneni and Dukas. 
 
 1066 — 1154. Norman kings in England. 
 
 1073 — 1075. The Saxons renounce their allegiance. 
 
 1073 — 1085. Disputes between Henry and Pope Gregory VII. re- 
 specting the right of investiture. 
 
 1077. Henry visits the pope at Canossa. 
 
 1087. The Arabian empire in Spain united to Morocco. 
 
 1094. The county of Portugal, at first a Castilian fief, afterwards 
 independent. 
 
 Third Period. 
 
 1096—1273. Age of the Crusades. 
 
 1096 — 1100. The First Crusade. Peter of Amiens. Councils of 
 
 Piacenza and Clermont. Storming of Nicsea and Antiochia. 
 
 Edessa and Antiochia Christian principalities. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 161 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1099. The Crusaders take Jerusalem. Godfrey de Bouillon 
 
 elected king. Battle of Antioch. 
 1099 — 1187. Kingdom of Jerusalem. 
 
 1100. Death of Godfrey de Bouillon. 
 1106—1125. Henry V. 
 
 1122. The dispute respecting investiture terminated by the Con- 
 cordat of Worms. 
 
 1125—1137. Lothar the Saxon. Bavaria and Saxony united 
 under the house of Guelph. Struggles with the Hohen- 
 staufen. 
 
 1130—1194. The sovereignty of the Two Sicilies in the hands of 
 the Normans. 
 
 1138 — 1254. The Hohenstaufen. 
 
 1138 — 1152. Conrad III. Henry the Proud deprived of both his 
 dukedoms. Siege of Weinsberg. 
 
 1147—1149. The Second Crusade. Edessa taken by the Turks. 
 Unsuccessful campaign of Conrad III. and Louis "VII. in 
 Palestine. 
 
 1152 — 1190. Frederick (I.) Barbarossa. His first Italian cam- 
 paign. Destruction of three of the Lombard cities. Ex- 
 ecution of Arnold of Brescia. Bavaria restored to Henry 
 the Lion. 
 
 1154 — 1399. England under the house of Plantagenet. 
 
 1158 — 1162. Frederick's second Italian campaign. The Milanese 
 humbled. Diet on the Roncalian plain. Milan destroyed. 
 
 1166 — 1168. Frederick again visits Italy for the purpose of placing 
 Paschal III. on "the papal throne. Returns without his 
 army. Alexandria built. 
 
 1174—1178. Fifth Italian campaign. Defection of Henry the Lion. 
 
 1176. Frederick defeated at Legnano. 
 
 1183. Peace concluded at Constance between Frederick and the 
 Lombards. Henry the Lion placed under the ban of the 
 empire, and his estates divided. 
 
 1186. Sixth Italian campaign. Frederick's son Henry marries Con- 
 
 stance, heiress of Apulia and Sicily. 
 1185 — 1204. The Byzantine empire under the house of Angelus. 
 
 1187. Defeat of the Christians at Hittin. Jerusalem re-taken by 
 
 the Turks. 
 1189 — 1193. Third Crusade. Death of Frederick Barbarossa. 
 
 The Teutonic order instituted in the camp before Acre. 
 
 Misunderstanding between Philip II. and Richard Coeur 
 
 de Lion. Truce with Saladin. The kingdom of Cyprus. 
 
 Captivity of Richard. 
 1190 — 1197. Henry VI. His cruelties in Apulia and Sicily. 
 1194 — 1266. Kingdom of the Two Sicilies under the Hohenstaufen. 
 1198 — 1208. Philip of Swabia and Otho IV. Ten years' dispute 
 
 terminated by the assassination of Philip, by Otho of 
 
 Wittelsbach. 
 1203 — 1204. The Fourth (so-called) Crusade. The Crusaders visit 
 
 Constantinople for the purpose of replacing the Emperor 
 
 Isaac on the throne. They quarrel with the emperor. 
 
 Constantinople taken, 
 
162 CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1204 — 1261. The Latin Empire. Division of the empire. Sove- 
 reignties of Nicsea and Trebizond. 
 
 1206. Temudschin becomes Tschingis-Khan. Religious wars in 
 the south of France. The Cathari and Waldenses. 
 
 1208 — 1215. Otho IV. sole emperor. He quarrels with the pope. 
 
 1212 The Childrens' Crusade. 
 
 1215. Magna Charta Libertatum in England. 
 
 1215 — 1250. Frederick II. His disputes with the pope respecting 
 the union of the German and Sicilian crowns, and the 
 crusade. 
 
 1224. Victory of the Mongols on the Kalka. 
 
 1228. Crusade of Frederick II. Treaty with Sultan Camel. 
 Jerusalem restored to the Christians. 
 
 1230 — 1283. War between the Teutonic order and the Prussians. 
 
 1237. Frederick defeats the Lombards at Cortenuova. Second 
 irruption of the Mongols. Eussia subject to them for more 
 than 200 years. 
 
 1241. Victory of the Mongols at Wahlstatt. They invade Hungary. 
 Henry of Thuringia elected emperor in opposition to Frede- 
 rick. He dies at the end of a year. Election of William 
 of Holland. 
 
 1248. The Sixth Crusade. Louis IX. in Egypt. 
 
 1250—1256. Conrad IV. (t 1254) and William of Holland rival 
 emperors. 
 
 1256 — 1273. The interregnum in Germany. Richard of Cornwall 
 and Alfonso of Castille. 
 
 1258. End of the Arabian caliphate in Bagdad. 
 
 1266. Charles of Anjou defeats Manfred near Benevento. Con- 
 quers Italy and Sicily. 
 
 1268. Conradin defeated near Scurcola, and executed at Naples. 
 
 1270. The Seventh Crusade. Lewis IX. dies before Tunis. 
 
 Fourth Period. 
 
 1273 — 1492. From the end of the Crusades to the Discovery 
 of America. 
 
 1273 — 1291. Rudolf of Habsburg. War with Ottocar of Bohe- 
 mia. The house of Habsburg acquires Austria, Styria, 
 and Carinthia. 
 
 1282. Sicilian vespers. Expulsion of the French from Sicily. 
 
 1291. The Christians lose Acre, the last of their possessions in 
 Palestine. 
 
 1292 — 1298. Adolphus of Nassau. War with the sons of Albert 
 the Degenerate (of Thuringia). Adolphus slain in the 
 battle of Worms. 
 
 1298 — 1308. Albert I. of Austria. 
 
 1305. The papal see transferred to Avignon. 
 
 1307. The Swiss confederation. 
 
 1308. Albert assassinated by his nephew. 
 
 1308 — 1313. Henry VII. of Luxemburg. Bohemia re-annexed 
 to the German crown. 
 
CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 163 
 
 A. D. 
 
 1309. Head-quarters of the Teutonic order transferred to Marien- 
 burg. 
 
 1312. Extermination of the Knights Templars in France. 
 
 1313 — 1347. } Lewis IV. the Bavarian, with Frederick op 
 1330. $ Austria. 
 
 1315. Leopold of Austria defeated by the Swiss at Morgarten. 
 
 1322. Battle of Miihldorf. Frederick taken prisoner. Lewis and 
 Frederick reign conjointly. Lewis quarrels with Pope 
 John XXII. 
 
 1328 — 1498. Elder line op the house op Valois in France. 
 
 1338. The electoral diet at Rhense declares the emperor indepen- 
 dent of the pope. 
 
 1339 — 1453. War between England and France in consequence of 
 the claims of the King of England to the French throne. 
 The English victorious at Sluys, Crecy, Maupertuis, and 
 Agincourt. Charles of Bohemia elected king in opposition 
 to Louis ; and (after the death of Louis) Count Giinther 
 of Schwarzburg in opposition to Charles. 
 
 1347 — 1437. German kings op the house op Bohemia. — Luxem- 
 burg. 
 
 1347—1378. Charles IV. 
 
 1348. First German university founded at Prague. 
 
 1356. The Golden Bull. 
 
 1378 — 1400. Wenceslaus. Repeated attempts to establish a uni- 
 versal peace throughout Germany. 
 
 1397. The union of Calmar. 
 
 1399 — 1461. The house of Lancaster in England. 
 
 1400 — 1410. Rupert of the Palatinate. — Unsuccessful expedi- 
 tion against Wenceslaus. 
 
 1414 — 1418. Council op Constance. Termination of the papal 
 schism. Four concordats instead of a real reform in the 
 Church. Martyrdom of John Huss and Jerome of Prague. 
 
 1417. The March of Brandenburg granted as a fief to the Bur- 
 grave. Frederick of Niirnberg, of the house of Hohenzol- 
 lern. 
 
 1419—1436. The Hussite war. John Ziska (f 1424). Five un- 
 successful campaigns of the imperial army against the 
 insurgents in Bohemia. The war terminated by a conven- 
 tion between the insurgents and the council of Basle. 
 
 1429 — 1431. Joan of Arc, the Maid of Orleans. 
 
 1438 — 1806. Emperors op the house op Austria. 
 
 1438 — 1439. Albert II. Unfortunate expedition against the Turks. 
 
 1440—1493. Frederick II. 
 
 1453. Constantinople taken by the Turks. 
 
 1459 — 1485. War of the red and white roses in England. 
 
 1461 — 1485. England under the house of York. 
 
 1466. West-Prussia incorporated with Poland. East-Prussia a 
 Polish fief. 
 
 1476. Charles the Bold of Burgundy defeated at Murten and 
 
 Granson. 
 
 1477. Charles of Burgundy slain at Nancy. Austria acquires the 
 
 Netherlands and Burgundy by the marriage of Maximilian 
 
 with Mary of Burgundy. 
 1486. Diaz discovers the Cape of Good Hope. 
 1492. Columbus discovers America. 
 
QUESTIONS. 
 
 § 1. Geography of Germany in the First Century after Chrisil 
 
 [1] In what part of Germany were the principal Roman settle! 
 
 a ments at the commencement of the first century 1 By whal 
 works were these settlements protected'? To whom did tin] 
 territory southward and westward of this frontier belong 1 In] 
 
 b to how many provinces was it divided, and what were thei 
 
 names 1 By what people was the rest of Germany inhabited 
 
 [2] By what Roman writers is the soil of Germany described 
 
 "What account do they give of it 1 What forest is particularly 
 
 mentioned, and what was its extent "? How was the climat< 
 
 a affected by these peculiarities of the soil 1 What animal 
 were produced in Germany'? Describe the vegetable an( 
 mineral productions of the soil. 
 [3] Into how many nations were the Germans divided at thij 
 
 b period'?- Name the first of these divisions, and the various 
 
 tribes of which it was composed, with their respective posi 
 
 tions. 
 
 [4] Name the second division with its tribes. 
 
 [5] Name the third division. To what nations is this genera 
 
 c term applied by Tacitus 1 How many of these tribes are es> 
 pecially mentioned by the historian 1 "Why are they thu: 
 particularized'? Name and describe each of them. Of hov 
 many smaller tribes was the second of these composed 1 Wha 
 
 d deity did they worship 1 Name the other tribes belongin| 
 to the same stock but not especially mentioned by the histo 
 rian. What circumstances indicate the common descent ol 
 all these tribes from a distinct and unmixed race 1 
 
 § 2. Religion, Manners, and Customs in the First Century oj 
 the Christian JEra. 
 
 [6] Under what names was the Supreme Being worshipped b3 
 
 a the Germans ] Where were sacrifices offered to these deities 
 
 and from what occurrences were auguries derived 1 Wha 
 
 was their idea of a future state 1 Describe the peculiaritiei 
 
 of a German chief's funeral. 
 
 [7] What distinction existed between freemen and serfs? A]j 
 b what seasons did their great national councils assemble, anc 
 for what purposes 1 How were the assent and disapprobatioi 
 of the assembly expressed 1 To what privileges were then 
 young men admitted at these assemblies 1 From what classes 
 were their princes and dukes chosen 1 What was the extern 
 of their authority 1 
 
3 14.] QUESTIONS. 165 
 
 "8] Describe their arms offensive and defensive. In what flg- 
 ' c ure was their order of battle formed and how was it protected 1 
 What religions ceremony was performed before and during 
 the battle 1 To whom were they frequently indebted for vic- 
 tory after the failure of their first attack 1 
 9] Describe the habitations of the ancient Germans. Explain 
 d the terms mark, zent, and gau. Describe the ordinary sum- 
 a mer and winter dress of men and women. What were the 
 two chief employments of their lives 1 By whom was the soil 
 cultivated 1 How did they pass most of their leisure time 1 
 What subjects were frequently discussed at their feasts 1 
 B What were the distinguishing virtues of the Germans 1 In 
 what manner was atonement made for violations of the 
 law? 
 
 § 3. History of the Germans to the Period of the Migrations. 
 
 10] To whom were the shores of the Baltic probably known 
 from the remotest antiquity 1 With what events do our first 
 distinct accounts of the Germans commence'? Mention some 
 
 c instances. Who were the most formidable of these invaders, 
 and what Eoman post did they attack 1 Describe the next 
 migration. Who was their leader ] By whom and at what 
 
 D place was he defeated 1 What nations were subdued by Cae- 
 sar'? By whom was the subjugation of Gaul completed 1 
 
 A What decisive victory did he gain 1 What emperor formed 
 a body-guard of Germans 1 What nations were subdued, by 
 his step-sons'? What measures were adopted by Drusus for 
 
 B the subjugation of the Low German tribes 1 How far did he 
 advance % Name the two first unions of German tribes. 
 
 11] By whom was the war in Germany continued after the 
 death of Drusus % What empire did he threaten, and of what 
 tribes was it composed 1 By whom was this empire founded 1 
 
 , c What occurrence put an end to the war 1 What was the po- 
 sition of the Romans in Germany at this period 1 What cir- 
 cumstances occasioned a confederation of the Low German 
 tribes'? Who was the Roman governor, and what was his 
 
 D conduct"? By whom was he resisted 1 Where were the Ro- 
 mans attacked, and what was the result of the battle 1 What 
 
 i measures were adopted by Augustus in consequence of this 
 
 A disaster 1 By whom was the slaughter of the Roman legions 
 
 i avenged 1 In what battle 1 What prevented the re-establish- 
 
 i ment of Roman supremacy in Germany 1 
 
 12] What German tribes renounced their allegiance to Marbod 
 
 s B at this period 1 By whom were their places supplied 1 What 
 was the result of these secessions % What became of Marbod 1 
 What was the fate of Herman 1 [Arminius.] 
 
 '13] After the dissolution of these confederacies, what was the 
 c result of the Roman policy in Germany 1 Were not some 
 attempts made to throw off the Roman yoke 7 ? With what 
 success ? 
 
 [14] On what occasion do we first hear of the Vandals and 
 D Alans 1 By whom were several campaigns undertaken against 
 
166 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [15 — 23.| 
 
 a these barbarians, and where did he diel By whom and or 
 
 what conditions was peace granted to several German tribes ' 
 
 [15] Of what tribes was the confederacy in "Western Germany 
 
 b composed 1 
 [16] How many confederacies existed in Eastern Germany' 
 
 c To what circumstances may the origin of these confederacies 
 be traced 1 In what countries did the Goths first appear, and 
 where did they carry on their warfare 1 Who re-establishe^ 
 
 d the frontier wall between the Rhine and Danube 1 "What 
 transplantation of German tribes took place at the same time | 
 Trace the progress of the Alemanni and Franks. How were 
 
 a these encroachments met by the Romans 1 By what general 
 and where were the Alemanni defeated"? By whom were 
 they finally expelled from Gaul 1 
 
 § 4. Destruction of the Gothic empire by the Huns. 
 
 [17] "What portions of Europe were occupied by the Ostrogoths 
 d and Visigoths in the fourth century ? By whom were they 
 
 governed 1 
 [18] What German tribe first embraced Christianity'? "Was 
 c their belief orthodox or heretical 1 At what council was a 
 Gothic bishop present 1 Who was his successor and what 
 book did he translate into the Gothic language 1 
 [19] "What quarter of the globe did the Huns originally inhabit'? 
 . To what empire had they rendered themselves formidable 1 
 D "What barrier was erected against their encroachments 1 Into 
 how many kingdoms was the Hunnish empire divided at a 
 later period 1 By whom was their Northern kingdom over- 
 thrown 1 By what tribe were they encountered between the 
 Volga and the Don 1 "What was the result of the contest be- 
 tween the Huns and Goths 1 
 [19] Where were the Visigoths permitted to settle 1 "What in- 
 a duced them to revolt 1 What auxiliaries did they call in and 
 what was the result of their expedition into Thrace ? What 
 became of Valensl By whom was he succeeded'? "What 
 B terms did the new emperor make with the Goths 1 "Who 
 was chosen king of the Visigoths, and for what reason 1 
 "What country did they invade 1 By whom were they com- 
 pelled to retire 1 "What command was conferred on Alaric 1 
 
 § 5. General immigration of the Barbarians into the Countries 
 of the West. 
 
 [20] What country was next invaded by Alaric, and with what 
 c success % 
 [21] What German chief led his forces into Italy 1 What was 
 
 their fate 1 
 
 [22] In what direction did the grand movement take place from 
 
 d the interior of Germany ] What countries were respectively 
 
 occupied by the Burgundians, Alani. Vandals, and Suevil 
 
 a "What portion of the Spanish Peninsula remained in the hands 
 
 of the Romans 1 
 [23] How often was Rome besieged by Alaric 1 "What was the 
 
24 29.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 167 
 
 result of the last attack 1 How were the inhabitants pun- 
 B ishecn Where did Alaric die, and where was he buried'? 
 By whom was he succeeded 1 What countries did he invade % 
 Who was the next Gothic sovereign ? What nations did he 
 conquer 1 Where did he fix the seat of government 1 
 [24] What new empire was established by the Vandals'? By 
 c whom were they led 1 What was the capital of the Vandalic 
 empire ? What islands did it comprehend 1 
 [25] What was the condition of the Britons at this time 1 To 
 d whom did they apply in vain for protection ! What German 
 tribes accepted their invitations 1 By whom were they com- 
 manded'? What kingdoms did they establish in Britain'? 
 What became of the original inhabitants 1 
 
 § 6. Dissolution of the Hunnish empire. 
 
 [26] What became of the Huns after the conquest of the Ostro- 
 a goths "? Under whose command did they again become for- 
 b midable 1 With whom did he share the throne 1 By whom 
 was Attila persuaded to invade the Eastern empire 1 What 
 emperor was defeated by him 1 Under what circumstances 
 was the siege of Constantinople raised 1 Where and by what 
 c generals was Attila defeated "? By what peculiarity was this 
 battle distinguished 1 For what reason, and with what suc- 
 cess, did Attila invade Italy 1 What became of the inhabit- 
 D ants of the Lombard cities 1 At whose instance was peace 
 granted to the Romans 1 What happened to the Hunnish 
 empire after the death of Attila 1 What was its extent in his 
 lifetime 1 By what nations were new kingdoms formed 1 
 
 fy 7. Dissolution of the Western Roman empire. 
 
 [27] By what circumstances was the progress of the Germanic 
 a tribes favored 1 By whom was the capital of the Western 
 empire plundered"? Over what countries did the Visigoths 
 "extend their empire'? What tribes spread over Gaul"? By 
 whom were the attempts of the Romans to reconquer Africa 
 B rendered abortive ? Who was Odoacer 1 What sovereign did 
 -he depose, and by whom was he proclaimed King of Italy 1 
 By whom was the last Roman governor compelled to evacuate 
 Gaul 1 
 
 § 8. Empires in Italy. 
 
 [28] By whom was the Italian empire established in 476 1 Who 
 
 a was Theodoric, and what plan did he propose to the emperor 
 
 Zeno 1 What religion did he profess 1 What victories did 
 
 he gain, and what Italian city did he besiege and take 1 What 
 
 B was the fate of Odoacer % By what surname is Theodoric 
 
 generally distinguished 1 
 
 [29] By whom was he recognized as king of Italy 1 Over what 
 
 countries did he extend his empire ? Where did he establish 
 
 the imperial residence'? By what name is he commonly 
 
 c known in Germany 1 To what circumstances do you attribute 
 
 a the prosperity of Italy during his reign? Among what 
 
 princes did he succeed in maintaining peace 1 Which of the 
 
168 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [30 34. 
 
 German sovereigns opposed his plans'? To whom was the 
 Visigothic throne secured 1 "What circumstances occasioned 
 
 B the death of Theodoric 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 In 
 whose name did she govern 1 What was her fate % Under 
 what pretence did Justinian revive the claims of the Eastern 
 emperor to the throne of Italy 1 "What was the result of this 
 demand'? What was the name of the Byzantine general, and 
 what advantages were gained by him % How were these ad- 
 
 c vantages lost 1 Under what leader were the Goths victorious 1 
 What German tribes fought as mercenaries against their 
 countrymen, and under what leader 1 What was the fate of 
 Totila 1 ? What became of one portion of the Goths'? By 
 
 D whom were the remainder overthrown 1 What form of gov- 
 ernment was now established in Italy 1 
 [30] By whom were the Romans compelled to relinquish their 
 sovereignty over the whole of Italy 1 How long had they 
 
 a exercised this authority 1 To what territories were they now 
 
 restricted 1 
 [31] What nation was subdued by the Langobardi on their return 
 from Italy 1 By whom were they commanded'? By what 
 nation were they assisted 1 What portion of Italy did they 
 wrest from the Byzantines 1 What name was given to this 
 
 B portion 1 What city was made the capital of this new king- 
 dom 1 What was the fate of Alboin 1 By whom was he suc- 
 ceeded 1 What was the extent of the Lombard empire during 
 his reign 1 What was his fate, and what form of government 
 
 c was established after his death 1 Who was chosen king when 
 the restoration of monarchy was found necessary 1 By whom 
 were many of the Lombards converted to the orthodox faith 1 
 
 D Within what limits was the exarchate confined by succeeding 
 Lombard kings 1 By whom were the Lombards compelled 
 to cede a portion of the coast of the Adriatic to the pope 1 
 
 a What was the effect of this concession 1 What circumstance 
 occasioned the incorporation of the Langobardic empire into 
 that of the Franks'? 
 
 § 9. Empire of the Vandals in Africa. 
 [32] What was the extent of the empire in Africa"? What 
 
 islands in the Mediterranean did it also comprehend % 
 [33] By whom was Geiseric [Genseric] invited into Italy? What 
 b was the result of this invasion 1 What became of Eudoxia % 
 What measures were adopted for clearing the Mediterranean 
 c of Vandal pirates 1 What was the result 1 By what circum- 
 stances was the decline of the Vandal empire accelerated'? 
 In what manner did Justinian avail himself of this position 
 d of affairs 1 What sovereign occupied the Vandal throne at 
 this time 1 What was the issue of the attack on Carthage, 
 a and by what important consequences was it followed 1 What 
 became of Gelimer and his Vandal soldiers 1 
 
 § 10. Empire of the Suevi in Spain. 
 [34] By what nation had Boetica been occupied since the de- 
 parture of the Vandals 1 Who was their first Christian sove- 
 
35 40.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 169 
 
 reign'? By whom, and for what reason, was he attacked? 
 
 B What was his fate ? By whom was a new Suevic kingdom 
 
 established, and into what empire was it finally incorporated ? 
 
 §11. Empire of the Visigoths. 
 
 [35] What was the extent of the Visigothic empire in Gaul 1 
 c What portion remained in their hands after the battle of 
 d Vougle ] Describe their possessions in Spain at different pe- 
 * riods. What African territory belonged to them 1 
 [36] Who was the founder of the Visigothic empire, and by 
 a whom was he succeeded 1 What conquests were achieved by 
 this sovereign, and what was his fate 1 What nations were 
 subdued by Theodoric II. and Euric 1 Who succeeded Euric 
 on the throne"? With whom did the Visigothic Catholics 
 form an alliance 1 Under what pretence did he attack Alaric 
 11."? Where was the battle fought, and with what result 1 
 What was the fate of Alaric 1 What portion of their posses- 
 B sions in Gaul were the Visigoths allowed to retain 1 In whose 
 reign, and for how long a period, were the Visigothic and Os- 
 trogothic empires united '? To what place was the imperial 
 residence transferred after the death of Amalric 1 By whom, 
 and under what circumstances, was he slain 1 
 [37] By what people was the Visigothic empire still further cir- 
 c cumscribed ? By whose invitation did they invade the coun- 
 try % What tribes were reduced to submission by Leuwigild 1 
 [38] To what object was the attention of the Visigotliic kings 
 d directed after the expulsion of the Greeks from Spain 1 What 
 foreign conquest was achieved during this period ? By whom, 
 and under what circumstances, were the Arabians invited 
 over from Africa 1 By whom was their army commanded 1 
 a Who was king of the Goths at this time, and where did he 
 encounter the invaders 1 How long did the battle last, and 
 * what was the result 1 By whom were the Moorish generals 
 recalled? What division of the Pyrenasan peninsula took 
 place after their departure 1 By whom was Arabian Spain 
 , governed, and until what period 1 
 
 § 12. Empire of the Burgundians in Gaul. 
 
 [39] What name was probably given by Tacitus to the Burgun- 
 b dians 1 In what part of Europe did they first appear in the 
 
 first century 1 What disaster compelled them to retire west- 
 c wards 1 Where did they next settle 1 What was their form 
 
 of government 1 For what reasons Avere their kings set aside 1 
 
 By whom, and under what circumstances, was their kingdom 
 D conquered and divided 1 What privileges were the Burgun- 
 
 dians permitted to retain 1 
 
 § 13. Empire of the Franks under the Merovingians. 
 
 [40] How did the Franks obtain settlements in Gaul 1 Into how 
 a many principal branches were they divided ? By what mon- 
 b arch was the Roman supremacy in Gaul destroyed % What 
 
170 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [41 45. 
 
 people did he subdue 1 By whom was he assisted 1 "Why 
 did he embrace the Catholic religion 1 By whom was he 
 
 c crowned ] What nations were reduced by him to the condi- 
 tion of tributaries ] Did they ever recover their independ- 
 ence ] Under what pretence did he attack the Visigoths ] 
 Where was the battle fought, and what was the result ] To 
 
 d what city did he now transfer his residence ] By whom were 
 the Frankish clans united into one kingdom] By what 
 means Avas this arrangement facilitated] Into how many 
 portions was the Frankish empire divided after the death' of 
 Clovis ] By whom were these new kingdoms governed, and 
 where did they respectively fix their residences 1 What con- 
 quest was achieved by the king of Metz ] With whom did 
 
 a he share the Burgundian territory % By what accession of 
 territory was the empire of the Franks further augmented ] 
 What privilege were the Bavarians permitted to retain 1 
 [41] Under what sovereign was the Frankish empire reunited"? 
 Into how many portions was it divided after his death ] How 
 long did this arrangement continue 1 What was the next di- 
 
 b vision] Describe these kingdoms, and give the names of 
 
 c their respective capitals. 
 [42] What city continued to be the common capital of the three 
 
 kingdoms ] 
 [43] What was the character of Clothaire's successors] By 
 whose misconduct were these calamities chiefly occasioned ] 
 
 d Under what sovereign was the empire a second time united ] 
 What change took place in the administration of the Frank- 
 ish empire during the reign of Clothaire II. ] 
 [44] How many of these officers were there, and what district 
 
 a was assigned to each ] What were their duties ] By whom 
 was the Frankish monarchy united for the third time ] Who 
 became major domus of the whole empire ] What nation 
 soon separated itself from the empire 1 What was the char- 
 acter of the Frankish kings, and what authority was exer- 
 cised by the majores domus during this period ] On whom 
 was the title of duke and prince of the Franks conferred] 
 
 b After what victory ] By whom was the successor to the office 
 of major domus disputed after his death ] In whose favor 
 was the dispute finally decided] What conquests were 
 
 c achieved by him ] By whom was the Merovingian dynasty 
 supplanted] How had he conciliated the clergy] 
 
 (j 14. Religion, Manners, and Customs of the West, particularly 
 of the Frankish empire. 
 [45] By what German tribes were Arianism and Catholicism re- 
 
 d spectively adopted ] What tribes were afterwards persuaded 
 
 a to renounce Arianism ] What was the religion of the Ger- 
 mans at the commencement of this period ] Into what had 
 the pure adoration of nature which they originally professed 
 
 b degenerated ] Prove this by an instance. What nations re- 
 mained in a state of heathenism after the conversion of Clo- 
 vis] At what period did the Burgundians embrace the 
 
 c Catholic religion ] By whom was the Gospel most effectually 
 
46 51.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 171 
 
 propagated in Germany 1 By what title was lie generally 
 known 1 What offices did he fill in the Church 1 What was 
 his fate % 
 [46] What was the origin of the Christian monastic life 1 Who 
 
 d was the chief of the Egyptian monks 1 By whom were they 
 
 a assembled within the walls of one building'? What names 
 were given to this house 1 What was the title of their presi- 
 dent 1 By whom was a new form given to this institution in 
 
 b the West"? For what convent was his "rule" originally 
 framed 1 What were its provisions 1 What was the general 
 character of these monks between the sixth and ninth centu- 
 ries, and what results were produced 1 
 [47] What circumstances rendered the excommunication of the 
 
 c Church and the ban of the empire inseparable 1 Mention 
 some instances in which the privileges of the Church were 
 violated by the kings. In what causes did the bishops exer- 
 cise a peculiar jurisdiction 1 What was the heaviest ecclesi- 
 astical punishment 1 
 [48] Of how many sorts were the warlike enterprises of the an- 
 
 d cient German states 1 Who was the leader in each of these 
 
 a instances 1 What proportion of the land belonging to the 
 
 b vanquished was generally claimed by the conquerors 1 In 
 what manner was the German throne at once hereditary and 
 elective'? How was the successful candidate inaugurated'? 
 
 c What offices in the royal household were held by the nobles 
 of the kingdom 1 What addition was made to this order after 
 the introduction of Christianity 1 In what did the power of 
 the kings consist 1 What circumstances indicate their de- 
 
 d pendence on the Roman emperors 1 In what other particu- 
 lars was the influence of Rome perceptible'? 
 [49] What division was made of the territory obtained by con- 
 
 a quest 1 What name was given to these allotments 1 What 
 privilege was enjoyed by the possessors of them 1 What was 
 the origin of vassalage 1 On what terms were the fiefs held 1 
 
 b Who was the chief of these vassals, and what was his office 1 
 
 o How did these fiefs become hereditary 1 Under what circum- 
 stances were many of the allodes converted into feudal estates 1 
 What revolution took place in their military system 1 Of whom 
 was the army now composed 1 Describe the manner in which 
 these parties respectively were called into active service. How 
 often, and in what place, was the Frankish army reviewed % 
 [50] Among what nations, and at what period, were written laws 
 
 d first introduced '? In what language were all these codes drawn 
 
 a up'? Was there not one exception'? Under what circum- 
 stances were they probably compiled 1 What laws are found in 
 the statute books of the eastern and western Goths and Bur- 
 
 b gundians 1 What remarkable difference existed between the 
 punishments inflicted on serfs and on freemen 1 How many 
 
 c sorts of courts of justice had they 1 How many sorts of proof? 
 By what circumstances was agricultural improvement in some 
 measure retarded'? 
 [5l] What obstacles also existed to the advancement of manu- 
 
 a facturing and commercial industry ? To what causes do you 
 
172 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [52 57. 
 
 attribute the little influence exercised by Christianity during 
 this period! 
 
 [52] In whose hands was scientific knowledge at this time 1 De- 
 scribe their system of education. What do you understand 
 by the terms Trivium and Quadrivium 1 Where were the 
 b best educational establishments'! Mention some of their most 
 distinguished scholars. In what language were all the works 
 of this period written 1 
 
 [53] Enumerate the most important of these works. What 
 c specimens have we of the transition from the ancient to the 
 modern style of architecture 1 
 
 § 15. Tlie Eastern Roman (or Byzantine) empire. 
 
 [54] What were the limits of the Byzantine empire from a. d. 
 
 d 395 to 531 1 What additions were made to the empire in 
 
 a subsequent years 1 What losses did it sustain in the seventh, 
 eighth, and ninth centuries'? What military arrangement 
 was adopted during this period 1 
 [55] What portion did Arcadius receive at the partition of the 
 
 b empire by Theodosius 1 What was his character % Mention 
 the names of some of his favorites. By what concessions 
 were the Huns and Visigoths conciliated 1 By whom was 
 Arcadius succeeded 1 Who was his guardian 1 What further 
 
 c concessions were extorted from him by the Huns % Was not 
 this loss counterbalanced by an accession of territory 1 By 
 whom, and under what title, was the first digest of laws pub- 
 lished ! What provinces were added to the empire by his 
 
 d immediate successors 1 Name the first emperor crowned by 
 the patriarch of Constantinople. Against what nation did he 
 undertake an expedition, and with what success 1 Who was 
 placed in his hands as security for the fulfilment of a treaty 
 by the Ostrogoths ! Where was he educated 1 How did he 
 
 a afterwards distinguish himself? Under whose auspices'? 
 What military work was undertaken and completed by Ana- 
 stasins 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 
 [56] With whom did the new emperor share his throne 1 How 
 long did they reign conjointly'? By whom was Justinian gov- 
 erned '? What was his first and greatest work 1 Were any 
 
 b other works on jurisprudence published during his reign'? 
 
 c What was the Nika ■? How was it suppressed % What build- 
 ings were restored after the suppression of the insurrection 1 
 
 d By what measures did Justinian secure his northern and 
 eastern frontiers 1 What great work did he next undertake 1 
 By what general was the empire of the Vandals destroyed 1 
 By whom was the Ostrogothic empire conquered and annexed 
 
 a to the Byzantine empire 1 What Persian king renewed the 
 
 b war 1 On what terms was peace concluded 1 By whom was 
 the imperial exchequer left full, and how was it exhausted 
 during this reign 1 
 [57] Who succeeded Justinian on the throne 1 What important 
 
 c military operations were commenced or renewed in his reign 1 
 What heavy losses were sustained by the Emperor Heraclius ■? 
 
 d By what tribes were the suburbs of his capital attacked 1 
 
58 63.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 173 
 
 "What plan was proposed by the emperor in this extremity ] 
 By whom was he persuaded to abandon it 1 What was the 
 result of this change of policy 1 What losses did the empire 
 
 a sustain soon afterwards 1 By the encroachments of what na- 
 tions were the limits of the empire still further circumscribed ] 
 By whom and how often was the city of Constantinople itself 
 
 b besieged] How were the besiegers repulsed] What was 
 
 c the intestine condition of the empire at this time ] To what 
 
 d cause do you attribute the religious feuds of this period ] 
 
 a Mention the most remarkable of these controversies. By 
 what council was the worship of images condemned'? By 
 
 b whom was their restoration at last effected'? What act pre- 
 pared the way for the separation of the Greek and Roman 
 Churches 1 What was the fate of Michael III, 1 
 [58] From what emperor did the Roman empire receive a con- 
 
 c stitution] By whom were the emperors crowned] What 
 title did they assume ] How did they endeavor to conceal 
 their real weakness ] Of what description of persons was the 
 supreme deliberative council composed ] What change took 
 
 d place in the mode of reckoning time ] By what sort of per- 
 sons were the provinces governed ] 
 [59] What languages were spoken by the court after its removal 
 to Constantinople ] To what species of composition was po- 
 
 a etry restricted ] In what cities do we find the most flourishing 
 
 schools of philosophy ] Where was the most renowned school 
 
 of jurisprudence] Where was medicine most successfully 
 
 studied ] What was the character of the Byzantine historians ] 
 
 [60] By what favorable circumstances was new life given to art ] 
 
 b What were the distinguishing features of ancient Christian 
 architecture] Where are these peculiarities seen in the 
 
 c greatest perfection] To what descriptions of work were 
 sculptors confined] In what age do we find the earliest 
 specimens of Christian sculpture ] Into what western coun- 
 tries did the Byzantine style of architecture find its way % 
 [61] By what artists was a knowledge of painting generally dif- 
 
 d fused ] By what obstacles were the operations of commerce 
 
 a • impeded ] In what manner was trade carried on with the 
 shores of the Mediterranean and with India ] What city was 
 the principal emporium for western as well as eastern pro- 
 duce ] To what circumstances do you ascribe the success of 
 manufacturing industry ] 
 [62] By whom, and from what country, were silk- worms brought 
 
 b to Constantinople ] What was the moral condition of the 
 people at this period ] 
 
 % 16. Geography of Arabia. 
 
 [63] What is the extent of the Arabian peninsula ] What is 
 c the character of the soil ] What name was given by the an- 
 cients to the south-western portion ] By what description of 
 d persons is it inhabited ] Name their most celebrated cities. 
 What was their religion before the time of Mohammed] By 
 what name was their national sanctuary distinguished ] By 
 
174 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [64 — 70. 
 
 what family was it superintended 1 What rites were practised 
 by the Arabians in common with the Jews and Egyptians 1 
 [64] To whom do the Arabians trace their origin 1 To what 
 
 a people was one of the districts of Arabia for a short time sub- 
 ject 1 
 [65] Where and in what year was Mohammed born 1 By whom 
 
 b was he brought up 1 What fortunate circumstance enabled 
 him to gratify his taste for seclusion 1 Where did he pass 
 one month in every year 1 Of what commission did he pro- 
 
 c claim himself the bearer 1 To whom was this doctrine exclu- 
 sively preached at first 1 By whom was he opposed 1 What 
 was the effect of this persecution 1 From what event do the 
 Arabians date their sera 1 Where did he assume the author- 
 ity of king 1 Whom did he marry 1 By what means were 
 his doctrines propagated 1 In what city did he establish the 
 national sanctuary 1 What conquests did he achieve 1 What 
 
 d potentates did he invite to embrace Islamism 1 Where did 
 
 he die 1 What issue did he leave behind him 1 
 [66] Who was the first caliph 1 What celebrated work did he 
 compile 1 What wars were begun by his general 1 By whom 
 was he succeeded 1 
 [67] What city was taken by his generals 1 Were any other 
 
 a conquests achieved by them 7 For what purpose did he visit 
 Palestine'? On what terms was toleration granted to the 
 Christians 1 What fortunate event enabled the Arabians to 
 take rank as a naval power 1 By whom was Egypt subdued 1 
 What account of the destruction of the Alexandrian library 
 is supposed to be incorrect 1 
 [68] By whom was Omar succeeded'? What conquests were 
 
 b completed by him 1 What famous work of art was soldi 
 
 What was the fate of Othman'? 
 [69] By whom was he succeeded 1 By whom was the new caliph 
 placed on the throne 1 Why was he not generally recog- 
 
 c nized? What measures did he adopt for the purpose of 
 strengthening his authority'? By whom was he resisted? 
 What conspiracy was entered into, and what were its results 1 
 In whose favor was Ali compelled to abdicate % 
 [70] From whom is the name of Ommaijad derived'? To what 
 place did the first caliph of this race transfer the royal resi- 
 
 a dence 1 What other important change did he effect 1 Under 
 what sovereigns were the Arabian dominions most extensive 1 
 By whom were they invited into Africa 1 What conquests 
 
 B did they achieve in that quarter of the globe 1 By whom 
 were they invited into Spain 1 Where did they engage the 
 Goths, and with what success 1 By whom were the Arabian 
 
 c generals recalled 1 How was the bravery of Musa rewarded 1 
 What privileges were the Spanish Christians permitted to re- 
 tain 1 By whom was an attempt made to wrest Gaul from 
 the Frankish kings, and with what success'? Where were 
 
 D battles fought 1 What eastern countries were subdued by 
 the Arabians 1 What was the effect of their success in India 1 
 In what struggles were the reigning dynasty engaged during 
 the progress of these- events'? By whom was the throne of 
 
71 77.] OP MEDIiEVAL HISTORY. 175 
 
 a the Abbasides firmly established 1 What sanguinary meas- 
 ures were, adopted for the destruction of the Ommaijad dy- 
 nasty ? Which of the Ommaijad princes escaped, and where 
 did he establish himself? 
 [71] In what light was Islamism viewed by its founder ? Name 
 
 b the different branches of the Mohammedan system. What 
 
 c are its principal articles of faith? What duties are enjoined 
 by the moral law ? What sins are permitted ? Of what writ- 
 ings do the sacred books of the Mohammedans consist ? Was 
 
 D any other work subsequently published ? To what sects did 
 the publication of this work give birth ? To what circum- 
 stances do you attribute the rapid propagation of Mohamme- 
 danism ? 
 [72] In whom was the supreme authority vested ? What share 
 
 a had the people in the administration 1 At what period did 
 the power of the caliphs become completely despotic ? To 
 what circumstances do you ascribe the gradual increase of 
 luxury ? What authority was possessed by the lieutenants 
 of the provinces ? What effects resulted at a later period 
 from their possession of this authority ? 
 [73] What specimens of early Arabian poetry are extant? 
 
 b Where are the names of their authors inscribed ? What cir- 
 cumstances prevented the cultivation of science during the 
 reign of the Abbasides ? With the erection of what works 
 
 c did the golden age of Arabian architecture commence? Why 
 
 were painting and sculpture utterly neglected ? 
 [74] Why were trade and manufactures in high estimation 
 among the Arabians ? How far did their maritime trade ex- 
 
 D tend westward and southward ? By what means was their 
 land traffic carried on ? Where were the principal markets 
 
 a for eastern and western produce ? On what shores did com- 
 merce especially flourish ? 
 
 § 17. The modem Persian empire. 
 [75] By whom was the Persian empire founded ? What was its 
 extent under Chosroes I. and II. ? Into how many provinces 
 b" was it divided ? What name was given to the capital city 
 
 with its suburbs ? 
 [76] With what nations were the Persians generally at war? 
 c What is recorded of Chosroes I. ? Before whom was he com- 
 pelled to retreat ? On what conditions did he renounce his 
 claims on Colchis? How long did he reign? By what 
 D measures did he promote the prosperity of the empire ? To 
 what offices was the government of the four provinces in- 
 trusted? How did he encourage agricultural enterprise? 
 What plans did he adopt for the promotion of learning ? 
 
 § 18. The Sclav onians. 
 
 [77] By what names were the eastern neighbors of Germany dis- 
 
 a tinguished until the beginning of the fifth century ? For what 
 
 name was the last of these exchanged ? By whom were these 
 
 tribes incorporated into the Gothic and Hunnish empires? 
 
 What territory did they retain after the dissolution of these 
 
176 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [78 85. 
 
 B kingdoms 1 Into how many tribes were they divided ? Who 
 was recognized as king by most of the Slavish tribes ? What 
 happened to the Slavish confederacy after his death ? Mention 
 some of the new empires which arose from its ruins. Under 
 whose dominion did the southern Slaves remain ? 
 [78] Mention some particulars in which a similarity is discernible 
 
 c between the Slavish and Germanic tribes. What traces do we 
 
 d find of physical and moral difference ? Did their languages 
 
 a at all resemble one another 1 
 
 § 19. Other nations in the East of Europe. 
 [79] In what countries did the Avari establish themselves? 
 b What was the extent of their empire in the year 600 ? By 
 the secession of what states were its limits circumscribed in 
 the following century'? 
 [80] What countries had been occupied from time immemorial 
 c by the Bulgarians ? In what century did they invade the 
 d Byzantine empire ? What barriers did they surmount ? To 
 whom were they indebted for deliverance from the tyranny 
 a of the Avars 1 How long had they been tributary to that 
 nation ? What portion of his empire was inherited by his 
 third son'? 
 [81] Of what countries were the Chazares masters in the seventh 
 century ? With what nations were they engaged in almost 
 perpetual warfare'? By whom, and for what purpose, was 
 the Caucasian' wall erected? 
 
 § 20. The Frankish empire under the Carlovingians. 
 [82] What kingdoms were governed by Pepin the Short? By 
 
 b whom, and under what circumstances, was Pepin invited into 
 Italy ? What title was conferred on him by the Pope ? Against 
 what nation was he enjoined to undertake a crusade ? What 
 possessions were wrested from the Lombards? To whom 
 
 a were they presented ? What grievous crime had been com- 
 mitted by the Frieses ? What other nations were subdued 
 by Pepin ? 
 [83] Where and in what year was Charlemagne born? With 
 whom did he share the throne ? By what event was he made 
 sole king of the Franks ? Whom did he exclude from the 
 succession? 
 [84] In what manner did this act of injustice eventually occasion 
 
 b the invasion of Lombardy ? In what city was Desiderius be- 
 sieged ? What was the issue of this war ? How did Charle- 
 magne frustrate an attempt of the Lombard nobles to reinstate 
 Desiderius on the throne ? 
 [85] Into how many provinces was the Saxon nation divided ? 
 
 c With whom had they been engaged in hostilities from the 
 
 a eaiiiest times? How was the preaching of the Frankish mis- 
 sionaries received by the Saxons ? What measure was de- 
 termined on at the diet of Worms? What fortress was 
 stormed by Charlemagne in the first campaign? Against 
 whom did Charlemagne march after his first Italian campaign ? 
 
 B What success attended this movement? What happened 
 
86 — 94.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 177 
 
 - during his second campaign in Italy 1 Of what act of treach- 
 ery were the Saxons guilty, and how was it punished 7 What 
 
 c was the immediate effect of this severity 7 What became of 
 the Wittekind and Alboin 7 How were the Saxons finally 
 subdued 7 
 [86] At whose instance did Charlemagne invade Spain 7 What 
 
 d name was given to the district annexed to the Frankish em- 
 
 a pire 7 What celebrated commander was slain at Roncesvalles 7 
 [87] By whom was Duke Tassilo abetted in his rebellion against 
 
 b Charlemagne 7 How was he punished 7 What punishment 
 
 was inflicted on his confederates 7 By what sovereign was 
 
 the whole of their country afterwards ravaged 7 By what 
 
 name was it now distinguished 7 
 
 [88] What was the result of the war carried on by Charle- 
 
 c magne's son against the Danes and Wilzes 7 What river was 
 recognized as the boundary between the Danish and Frankish 
 territories 7 
 [89] What measures were adopted for the defence of the different 
 
 frontiers 7 
 [90] By whom and with what object was Charlemagne invited 
 
 a to visit Rome 7 What dignity was conferred on him in return 
 
 b for these services 7 What was the character of the new re- 
 lation between the pope and the emperor 7 In what manner 
 was this supremacy mutually recognized 7 
 [91] What bishoprics were founded by Charlemagne in Saxony 7 
 
 c By whom was Charlemagne assisted in the establishment of 
 
 d schools 7 What measures were adopted for restoring the re- 
 spectability of the clergy 7 What proofs have -we of the 
 
 a affection of Charlemagne for his mother tongue 7 What plan 
 was adopted for the improvement of church music 7 
 [92] To what nations were codes of laws given 7 In what man- 
 
 a ner was a code formed for the empire in general 7 By what 
 
 measure was the execution of the laws facilitated 7 
 [.93] Were any important changes effected in the constitution by 
 
 b Charlemagne 7 What sort of opposition did the emperor 
 encounter in establishing the feudal system 7 What division 
 
 c of estates was still retained 7 Which of the court offices 
 was abolished, and for what reason 7 Who were the em- 
 peror's vicegerents in spiritual and in temporal matters 7 
 [94] How many general assemblies were held in the course of 
 the year 7 What name was given to the first of these meet- 
 
 d ings, and for what purpose was it convened 7 At what place 
 was the second meeting held 7 What sort of questions were 
 decided at it 7 What plan did Charlemagne adopt for obtain- 
 
 a ing a more accurate knowledge of each province 7 From 
 what classes of persons were these officers selected 7 What 
 were their duties 7 From what description of persons was 
 
 B military service required 7 What indulgence was granted to 
 those who possessed less than the legal qualification 7 By 
 whom was the militia of each province commanded 7 What 
 fine was imposed on those who neglected to appear at the 
 
 c place of rendezvous 7 Were any persons exempt from this 
 service 7 On whom was the punishment of death still inflicted 7 
 From what sources were the imperial revenues derived 7 
 8* 
 
178 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [95 109. 
 
 [95] What measures were adopted for the encouragement of 
 commerce ? How had it been crippled ? Among whom did 
 d Charlemagne divide his empire ? Who succeeded him in the 
 imperial and royal dignities ? From whom did he receive his 
 crown 1 To whom was the kingdom of Italy granted, and on 
 what condition? When and where did Charlemagne die, and 
 where was he buried'? 
 [96] What was the character of Lewis the Pious ? What new 
 a regulations did he promulgate ? Among whom did he divide 
 his emphe ? Which of his sons was raised to the imperial 
 throne ? What portions of the empire were granted to the 
 others ? On what prince was an atrocious act of cruelty per- 
 petrated 1 Who succeeded him as king of Italy ? 
 [97] What was the name of the emperor's second wife, and what 
 b issue had he by her ? What provocation occasioned the re- 
 bellion of the emperor's sons ? Where was a battle fought, 
 and what name was given to the field ? What was the result 
 c of this engagement? By whom was Lewis restored ? What 
 became of Pepin and his sons ? Among whom, and by whose 
 advice, were the dominions of Lewis divided'] What district 
 was allotted to each ? 
 [98] What circumstances occasioned the battle of Fontenay, and 
 a what was its result ? What famous treaty was concluded at 
 [99] the end of this war? 
 
 [100] Describe the districts severally allotted to the three sons of 
 [101] Lewis the Pious ? 
 
 b Whence do you derive the name of Lorraine 1 
 [102] By what untoward circumstance were these three king- 
 c doms thrown into confusion ? Who were the Normans, and 
 in what part of France did they carry on their predatory war- 
 fare ? Did any other pirates visit Italy? What depredations 
 did the Normans commit in Germany ? By what tribes was 
 the eastern frontier of his kingdom disturbed during the 
 reign of Charles the Bald ? 
 [103] Among whom did Lothar I. divide his kingdom? By 
 a whom was Lorraine seized after the death of Lothar II. 
 [104] Who succeeded Lewis II. as king of Italy and Roman em- 
 peror? Among whom was the kingdom of Lewis the German 
 divided ? Which of these became sole occupant of the throne 
 b after the death of his brothers ? By whom, and in conse- 
 quence of what events, was the Frankish monarchy reunited? 
 What provinces were excluded from this arrangement? 
 c What cities were destroyed by the Normans? For what 
 reasons was Charles the Bald deposed by his subjects ? Into 
 how many portions was the Frankish empire divided after 
 his death ? 
 [105] To whom was the Western Frankish empire assigned ? 
 [106] Who reigned in Germany? 
 [107] Into how many portions was Germany divided, and by 
 
 whom were they governed ? 
 [108] Between whom was the sovereignty of Italy disputed ? 
 [109] To what circumstances do you ascribe the origin and influ- 
 a ence of the temporal and ecclesiastical aristocracy under the 
 successors of Charlemagne ? By what practices were these 
 
110 114.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 179 
 
 usurpations facilitated ] "What was the policy of the kings 
 during this period 1 Mention one instance of their weakness. 
 c In what provinces were the suppressed dukedoms restored 1 
 To what circumstances do you attribute the increased influ- 
 ence of the clergy during this period 1 What were the de- 
 cretals of S. Isidore, and what effect was produced by them 1 
 
 § 21. The East Prankish empire under the two last 
 Carlovingians. 
 [110] By whom and in what manner were Italy and Burgundy 
 a reunited to the German empire 1 By whom were the Nor- 
 mans utterly defeated 1 To what circumstances do you as- 
 b cribe their perseverance in acts of piracy after this defeat ] 
 By whom were the Moravians expelled from their country 1 
 [111] Who were the guardians of Lewis the Child] In what 
 c countries, and for what purpose, were national dukedoms 
 established'? Where was the ducal dignity re-established] 
 How many national dukes were in Germany at this period ] 
 
 § 22. Empire of the East Franks under Conrad I. of Franconia. 
 [112] By what nations was an attempt made to establish indepeu- 
 
 a dent kingdoms after the extinction of the Carlovingian race 1 
 By whom was Otho the Illustrious elected emperor, and on 
 what grounds did he refuse the crown] Who was then 
 chosen ] Was not the election more unanimous on this than 
 
 b on the former occasion 1 What becnme of Lorraine ] How 
 was Conrad occupied during the whole of his reign] By 
 what marauders were the provinces infested ] What was the 
 
 c conduct of the Duke of Bavaria ] Whom did Conrad recom- 
 mend as his successor ] How many German dukedoms were 
 there at this time 1 
 
 ^ 23. The GcrmoM empire under kings of the house of Saxony. 
 
 .[113] By what surname was Henry I. distinguished] How did 
 
 he carry into effect the plans of his predecessor] What 
 
 d province did he reunite to the empire ] For how long a pe- 
 riod, and on what terms, did he conclude an armistice with 
 the Hungarians ] How was this time employed ] What for- 
 
 a tresses did he build] What surname did he obtain from 
 this circumstance ] Against what nations was the army ex- 
 ercised in warfare ] What advantage was obtained by the 
 conquest of the Sclavonians] How many mai'gravates were 
 
 b established for the defence of the frontiers ] Where did Hen- 
 ry engage the Hungarians, and with what success ] 
 [114] By whom was he succeeded ] What remarkable circum- 
 stance distinguished his election ] Where was the ceremony 
 of coronation performed from this time ] With whom was he 
 
 c engaged in disputes during the first years of his reign ] In 
 what manner did Otho attempt to diminish the influence of 
 the dukes ] How was his own authority strengthened ] On 
 whom, and for what service, did he confer his own dukedom 
 
 D of Saxony ] Into how many districts did he divide Lorraine ] 
 By what measures was the constitution in church and state 
 materially improved ] 
 
180 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [115 — 120. 
 
 [115] "What was the issue of his war with the Danes 1 "What 
 
 a happened to the duke of Bohemia ? What circumstances oc- 
 casioned Otho's first campaign in Italy ? Whom did he mar- 
 
 b ryi On whom did he bestow the sovereignty of Italy? 
 Where were the Hungarians defeated, and what important 
 event followed ? What effect was produced by a victory over 
 
 c the Wendish Sclavonians ? What title was revived by Otho 
 1. ? How long was this title borne by the German kings ? 
 By what measures did Otho endeavor to improve the condi- 
 
 a tion of his cities ? What advantages did he gain in his third 
 
 Italian campaign'? To whom did he marry his son"? 
 
 [116] What events occurred during the war between Otho II. 
 
 and the King of France ? How was this war terminated ? 
 
 What circumstance furnished Otho with an excuse for enter- 
 
 b ing Lower Italy with an army ? By whom and where was he 
 attacked, and with what result ? Where did he die ? 
 [117] By whom was he succeeded? Who were the guardians of 
 the young king ? "What province was erected into a seventh 
 duchy? By what party was an attempt made to emancipate 
 Eome from the German yoke ? What measures were adopted 
 by Otho in consequence of this rebellion ? What favorite pro- 
 
 c ject was he unable to carry out ? By what peculiarity was 
 
 the election of his successor distinguished ? 
 
 [118] What surname was given to him ? What conditions were 
 
 required from him, which had never been imposed on any of 
 
 his predecessors ? What attempts were made by some of the 
 
 a provinces during his absence in Germany ? How were these 
 attempts defeated by Henry ? What circumstance occasioned 
 his second visit to Italy ? What event terminated the con- 
 tests between native and German princes for the possession 
 
 b of the Italian crown? What advantages were gained in a 
 third Italian campaign? To whom was Henry in a great 
 measure indebted for his victory ? How were they rewarded ? 
 
 ty 24. The German empire under the Franconian emperors. 
 
 [119] By whose suffrages was Conrad II. elected ? Where was 
 he crowned? What was the first act of his reign? What 
 country was added to the German empire, and under what 
 circumstances ? Over what countries was the supremacy of 
 c Germany re-established ? To whom did Conrad cede a por- 
 tion of his dominions ? What was the effect of this cession ? 
 What law was passed by Conrad during his second visit to 
 Italy ? By what measure was his family influence extended ? 
 
 [120] What was the first act of Henry's administration? In 
 a what manner did he establish the imperial authority, without 
 the intervention of any secondary power, over the whole of 
 southern Germany? Was the same effect produced in any 
 other countries ? What foreign prince was reduced to sub- 
 mission? How was the feudal sovereignty over Hungary 
 secured? What kingdoms and dukedoms did the German 
 B empire comprise at this time ? What measures were adopted 
 for the better maintenance of peace in Alemannia. Bavaria, 
 and Carinthia ? What was the condition of Franconia at this 
 time ? What was the " Treuga Dei ? " 
 
121 126.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 181 
 
 [121] "What was Henry's next project 1 What were the two most 
 glaring- ecclesiastical irregularities at this time] In what 
 manner did Henry endeavor to re-establish unity in the 
 
 c Church'? How was he rewarded for these services 1 What 
 sort of ecclesiastical laws were enacted 1 Who resisted his 
 
 d plans for subjecting the Church to the temporal power % 
 
 What benefit did Henry confer on the Normans 1 By what 
 
 tenure were they afterwards content to hold their possessions 1 
 
 [122] At what age was Henry IV. called to the throne 1 Who 
 
 a was his guardian 1 By whom was the administration of the 
 kingdom usurped 1 Who wrested it from his hands 1 What 
 sentence was passed on Adalbert] By whose threats was 
 
 b Henry compelled to adopt this measure 1 ? What German 
 prince was unjustly deprived of his dukedom, and on whom 
 was it conferred ] What was the conduct of Henry after the 
 
 c death of Adalbert 1 Against what country did he particu- 
 larly carry on his operations 1 Whom did he detain a pris- 
 oner 1 
 [123] What circumstances occasioned the Saxon insurrection 1 
 
 d Before what city did the Saxon, army first appear 1 Whither 
 did Henry fly, and how was he received by the citizens'? 
 
 a Where and on what terms was peace concluded'? Who 
 
 refused to ratify this peace "? What was the effect of their 
 
 refusal 1 
 
 [124] What offices had been held by Hildebrand before his 
 
 elevation to the papal throne 1 What was his favorite pro- 
 
 b ject 1 How did he prepare the way for its ultimate success 1 
 
 c What important ally was secured 1 What title did Hilde- 
 brand assume, and for what reason 1 What measures did he 
 adopt for securing the independence of the clergy '? What is 
 
 d meant by " investiture 1 " What was the conduct of Henry 
 
 a under these circumstances'? How did Gregory punish his 
 audacity 1 Why did Henry cross the Alps, and how was he 
 _ treated by the Pope on his arrival in Italy 1 On what condi- 
 tions did he obtain a reversal of the sentence of excommuni- 
 
 b cation % Who had been chosen emperor during his absence 1 
 On what terms was the new emperor elected 1 What was his 
 
 c ' fate 1 Whom did Henry place on the papal throne in the 
 room of Gregory VII. 1 To whom did he leave the prosecution 
 of the war in Germany 1 From what pope did he receive the 
 imperial crown 1 After what important victory 1 What be- 
 
 r> came of Gregory VII. "? Where did he die 1 Who had been 
 elected emperor during Henry's absence in Italy 1 By what 
 nations was he chosen '? How long did he reign 1 
 [125] By whom, and at whose instigation, was the crown of Italy 
 
 a assumed] How was he punished for this act of treason'? To 
 whom was the succession secured, and on what conditions 1 
 
 b How was this compact violated'? Of what act of violence 
 
 were the conspirators guilty, and what was its effect 1 
 
 Where did Henry IV. die 1 Where was his body afterwards 
 
 buried 1 
 
 [126] What twofold object had Henry V. in view 1 ? How was the 
 
 c first of these objects promoted 1 What proposal was made by 
 the pope, and how was it received by the German clergy 1 
 
182 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [127 135. 
 
 D To what conditions was he compelled to accede 1 On what 
 grounds was this decree annulled '? How long did the contest 
 
 a last, and how was it terminated 1 What were the conditions 
 of this compact 1 
 
 Changes in the Constitution during the Saxon and Franconian 
 period. 
 [127] What practice disappeared with the extinction of the Car- 
 b lovingian line 1 Was the hereditary right of succession en- 
 tirely abolished 1 When did the election of the successor to 
 the throne take place 1 At whose election was the elective 
 c character of the monarchy fully established 1 How were the 
 limits of the royal authority defined 1 
 [128] Whose functions were usurped by the dukes after the 
 d death of Charlemagne 1 How was their authority crippled 1 
 By whom were they nominated 1 ] In whose reign were most 
 of the dukedoms made hereditary % 
 [129] In whose reign was the number of margraves increased 1 
 a What powers did they possess 1 
 [130] What were the duties of the counts palatine 1 Who was 
 
 the most important among them 1 
 [131] Were the counties hereditary or elective under the Fran- 
 b conian kings 1 What was the most important duty of the 
 count 1 
 
 §25. Italy. 
 
 [132] How long was Italy governed by kings of its own 1 By 
 whom was it reunited to Germany 1 What was its condition 
 
 c after the death of Arnulf 1 By whom was the country ravaged 
 
 during this period'? 
 [133] By whom was a fruitless attempt made to deprive Henry 
 
 a II. of the Italian crown 1 What was the condition of Italy 
 under the Othos 1 What privileges were conferred by them 
 on the priesthood'? What measures were adopted by the 
 Emperor Conrad for restraining the power of the great feudal 
 lords 1 What important privilege was at the same time se- 
 cured to the people'? What revolutionary measure was 
 adopted by the Lombard cities during the reigns of Henry 
 IV- and Henry V. 
 [134] By whom were the Venetian Islands originally peopled 1 
 
 b How were they governed in the first instance % To what na- 
 tions were they successively subject? At what period was 
 the form of government changed 1 When, and for what cause, 
 was their connection with the Byzantine empire dissolved'? 
 
 c What island became the seat of government and centre of a 
 maritime city'? By what conquests did the Venetian repub- 
 lic enlarge its dominions'? To what advantageous circum- 
 stances was it indebted for its importance 1 
 [135] Who laid the foundation of the pope's temporal power'? 
 
 d What provinces were settled on the papal see, and by whom 
 was this endowment confirmed 1 By what name was this ter- 
 ritory distinguished'? What addition was made to it by 
 Henry III.'? What- concession was made by the pope in re- 
 turn for this benefit 1 Through whose liberality was a still 
 
136 — 149.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 183 
 
 more important accession of territory obtained"? On what 
 terms were Apulia and Calabria held by the Normans 1 Of 
 what nature was the pope's authority within the walls of 
 Rome, and throughout the dukedom in which it was situated 1 
 
 [136] "What sort of government was established in Lower Italy 
 b on the ruins of the Lombard empire 1 "What was its condition 
 at first, and subsequently 1 "What provinces separated from 
 it, and formed independent principalities'] "What districts 
 were retained by the Greeks 1 By what people were these 
 districts perpetually molested'? 
 
 [137] To whom did the whole of Lower Italy become a prey in 
 c the fourteenth century 1 "When did they first visit Italy 1 
 "What city did they build 1 "What Norman noble was invested 
 by the pope with the dignity of duke, and what fiefs were 
 D granted to him 1 Under what pretence did he raise an army 1 
 Where did he obtain a victory 1 Against what city did he 
 a advance 1 By what circumstances was he compelled to re- 
 turn "? Where, did he die 1 By what prince were Apulia and 
 Calabria united with Sicily 1 ? What name was given to the 
 new kingdom 1 
 
 [138] By whom was Sicily taken from the Byzantines, and to 
 whom were the conquerors compelled to surrender it 1 
 
 [139] To whom did Sardinia belong from the year 850 to 10221 
 
 [140] To whom was Corsica at first subject 1 What two nations 
 afterwards contended for the possession of it, and how long 
 did the struggle continue 1 
 
 § 26. France under the last Carlovingians. 
 
 [141] By whom, and under what circumstances, was Otho elected 
 king of France'? 
 
 [142] Were the anticipations of the electors realized 1 
 
 [143] Who succeeded Otho % What dignities did he confer on 
 Rollo'? What was the effect of this arrangement'? Of what 
 • province did Charles take possession after the extinction of 
 the Carlovingian race in Germany 1 
 
 [144] By whom, and for what reason, was Robert elected 7 What 
 - was his fate 1 
 
 [145] By whom was he succeeded 1 What became of Charles % 
 a By whom was Lorraine reunited with Germany % 
 
 [146] Who succeeded Rudolph 1 What surname did he bear 1 
 
 [147] Against whom, and with what results, did his successor 
 b carry on war *? How long did Lewis V. reign, and by whom 
 was he succeeded'? 
 
 [148] Why was his uncle Charles excluded from the succession'? 
 Whence did Hugo derive his surname of Capet? 
 
 [149] What was the political condition of France at this time 1 
 What provinces were under the immediate control of the Car- 
 lovingians 1 Name the immediate fiefs of the crown 1 What 
 was the foundation of the distinction between Northern and 
 Southern France "? By what peculiarities of character were 
 a the inhabitants of these two districts distinguished 1 What 
 distinct legal codes were established in the North and in the 
 South of France 1 
 
184 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [150 159. 
 
 § 27. France under the four first Capets. 
 
 [150] By whom was the dukedom of Francia annexed to the 
 
 crown? What measures did he adopt for conciliating the 
 
 clergy and lay nobles ? After whose death was he generally 
 
 b recognized as king 1 What was the extent of his authority ? 
 
 [151] By whom was he succeeded ? What territory was added 
 by the new sovereign to the possessions of the crown ? On 
 whom was it conferred"? Of what royal family was he the 
 ancestor ? 
 
 [152] By what authority was the Treuga Dei established'? 
 
 [153] What remarkable event occurred in England during the 
 c reign of Philip I. of France? 
 
 ty 28. England lender the West Saxon kings. 
 [154] By whom were the seven Anglo-Saxon kingdoms united 
 under one crown ? What name did he give to the island of 
 d Britain ? By what foreign invaders was the kingdom ravaged 
 during the reign of Egbert ? 
 [155] What was the condition of England at the accession of 
 a Alfred the Great ? Where was he compelled to pass a winter ? 
 How did he obtain information respecting the Danes? In 
 what manner did he avail himself of this knowledge ? What 
 concessions were extorted from the Danish leader ? 
 [156] What measures were adopted by Alfred for the security 
 b of his kingdom ? How was the administration of justice fa- 
 cilitated ? What plans were adopted for the advancement of 
 c learning ? Against what enemies was Alfred now compelled 
 to take the field ? By what Anglo-Saxon king was tribute 
 paid to the Danes, and what was the effect of this compro- 
 D mise ? What cruel act was perpetrated byEthelred, and how 
 was it avenged ? 
 
 § 29. Supremacy of the Danes in England. 
 [157] With whom did Canute at first share his throne ? Into 
 a how many provinces did he divide England ? What impor- 
 tant reforms did he effect ? Of what other dominions did he 
 b become possessed by negotiation or conquest ? Among whom 
 was his empire divided after his death? Who succeeded 
 Harold on the English throne ? 
 
 § 30. Restoration and extinction of the Anglo-Saxon dynasty. 
 
 [158] By whom was Edward the Confessor governed ? What 
 c innovations excited discontent among the Saxon inhabitants ? 
 d By whom was he succeeded ? What was the fate of Harold 
 
 II.? What surname was given to William in consequence of 
 
 this victory ? 
 
 § 31. Scotland. 
 
 [159] By what races was Scotland inhabited ? By whom, and 
 
 a under what name, were the two kingdoms united? What 
 
 enemies were successfully resisted by the Scots ? By what 
 
 English monarch was Cumberland granted to the king of 
 
 Scotland ? On what conditions ? By whom were Scotland 
 
160 — 167.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 185 
 
 and Cumberland conquered ? On what terms were they per- 
 mitted to retain their kings ? 
 
 § 32. Ireland. 
 
 [160] Into how many states was Ireland divided at the period of 
 
 b its conquest by the English ? Name these states. In what 
 
 century, and by whom, were the Irish converted to Christi- 
 
 c anity ? By what unfavorable circumstances, and for how long 
 
 a period, was the progress of civilization retarded in Ireland ? 
 
 <) 33. Spain. 
 [161] Under what Caliphs, and for how long a period, did the 
 d Arabian portion of the Peninsula enjoy uninterrupted pros- 
 perity ? By what river was Arabian separated from Christian 
 a Spain, and what was the amount of its population ? Describe 
 its capital city. "What were the chief employments of the 
 population ? To what extent were the arts and sciences cul- 
 tivated'? 
 [162] After what event, and under what circumstances, was 
 b Arabian Spain annexed to the empire of Morocco ? 
 [163] How many Christian kingdoms were there in Spain at the 
 
 conclusion of this period? 
 [164] To which of these kingdoms did Portugal belong? In what 
 c, d year was it separated ? 
 
 § 34. The Byzantine empire under the Macedonian emperors. 
 [165] What countries did the empire comprehend at the com- 
 
 a mencement of this period ? By whom, and under what title, 
 
 b was the code of Justinian republished ? What countries 
 were wrested from the Arabians, and by whom ? By what 
 emperor was Bulgaria conquered ? Who were raised to the 
 throne after the extinction of the Macedonian male line ? By 
 whom was the last of these rulers deposed ? 
 [166] What position did the Byzantine empire occupy at this 
 
 c period among the kingdoms of the Christian world? By 
 what name did the Byzantines designate themselves, and what 
 
 i) appellation did they reject with scorn ? In whom were the 
 legislative and executive authorities united ? By whom was 
 the senate deprived of its last vestige of power ? 
 
 § 35. The Arabians under the Abbasides. 
 [167] To what city was the seat of government transferred soon 
 
 a after the accession of the Abbasides'? By whom was this city 
 built ? Of what Christian sovereign was the Caliph Harun 
 al Raschid a contemporary and friend ? By which of the 
 
 b Caliphs were the arts and sciences fostered ? Mention the 
 causes which eventually produced the dissolution of the Ca- 
 liphate. How did the first of these causes operate in Spain, 
 Africa, and Asia ? By whom, and at what period, were most 
 of the Asiatic possessions of the Caliphs united under one 
 
 c crown ? After what event was this union dissolved ? What 
 portion of the empire remained in the hands of the Caliphs ? 
 
 D What power was exercised by the Turkish body-guard? 
 What formidable sects existed at this period ? To whom did 
 
186 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [168 173. 
 
 the Caliphs intrust the affairs of government, and what office 
 did they reserve to themselves 1 
 
 § 36. Scandinavia. 
 
 [168] What was the political condition of Norway until the ninth 
 
 a century 1 Who founded the Norwegian kingdom, and what 
 islands were added to it by conquest 1 What became of the 
 chieftains who refused to submit to his authority 1 What 
 
 b kingdom did they found 1 By whom was Christianity intro- 
 duced 1 Who conquered and divided Norway % 
 [169] By whom was its independence re-established 1 By how 
 
 c many races was Sweden inhabited 1 How were the latter sub- 
 divided 1 Who placed the different tribes under one sove- 
 reign 1 Where did he reside 1 By whom, and at what period, 
 were the Swedes converted to Christianity 1 
 [170] By whom were the Danish islands and Jutland united into 
 one kingdom 1 From what fabulous hero did he trace his 
 
 a descent 1 How long did his male descendants occupy the 
 throne 1 What countries were conquered by Sweyn 1 By 
 Avhom was he succeeded in England 1 By whom was Schles- 
 wig annexed to the kingdom of Denmark 1 By a convention 
 
 B with what emperor 1 What kingdom was again reduced to 
 submission 1 In what manner did Canute endeavor to pro- 
 mote Christianity 1 To whom was Denmark subject after his 
 death 1 By whom was it emancipated 1 
 
 § 37. Russia. 
 [171] By what tribes were the southern, northern, and central 
 
 c parts of Russia inhabited % By what chieftain and at what 
 period, was the grand duchy of Russia founded 1 What was 
 its capital 1 To what city was the government afterwards 
 
 D transferred 1 Under what circumstances was Christianity in- 
 troduced into Russia 1 What Russian sovereign first em- 
 braced Christianity 1 What district was conquered by this 
 sovereign 7 In what manner did he endeavor to civilize his 
 
 a subjects 1 By what title was Kiev popularly designated 1 
 
 § 38. Poland. 
 
 [172] By what name were the Slaves on the middle Vistula gen- 
 erally known 1 Whom did they first choose for their duke, 
 and what was the date of his election 1 How long did his 
 family reign in Poland 1 Which of their dukes first embraced 
 b Christianity 1 Whom did he recognize as his feudal sove- 
 reign? By whose assistance did his son exterminate the 
 remnants of heathenism 1 In what cities did he found bish- 
 oprics 1 Against what nations did he carry on wars, and with 
 what success 1 What dignity did he assume a short time 
 before his death 1 Under what circumstances did Poland 
 again become a dukedom 1 
 
 § 39. Hungary. 
 
 [173] By what other name were the Hungarians known 1 ? 
 c Whence did they come 1 Under what leader 1 What country 
 
174 178.] OF MEDLEVAL HISTORY. 187 
 
 did they enter 1 Of what countries did the Hungarians ob- 
 D tain possession'? By whom were they driven back 1 ? In 
 
 what century was Christianity introduced among them 1 By 
 
 what king were several bishoprics founded 1 By whom, and 
 a in what year, was he crowned 1 What became of his son ! 
 
 By whose assistance did he recover his throne 1 By whom 
 
 was tranquillity eventually restored 1 
 
 $40. Religion, arts, sciences, fyc, during the first period. 
 [174] In what light was the increasing influence of the clergy 
 
 b viewed by the temporal power 1 What privileges belonged 
 to the pope 1 In what cases had he judicial authority over 
 laymen 1 What territories did he possess 1 How were the 
 
 c monks generally employed ! To what causes do you attribute 
 
 d the laxity of monastic discipline at this period 1 By what 
 circumstance was a partial reformation effected 1 By what 
 rule were the new convents governed 1 Who endeavored to 
 introduce this rule into the convents of England 1 What new 
 
 A orders were founded in the eleventh century '? At what pe- 
 riod were cathedral chapters founded % By whom were they 
 generally established % 
 [175J In what manner was the cultivation of the arts and sci- 
 ences promoted by the Caliphs during this period 1 
 [176] What learned establishments existed in the Arabian pro- 
 
 b vinces ] What is the general character of Arabian literature 1 
 
 c In what sciences were the labors of their learned men most 
 
 D successful % Why was the study of anatomy omitted "? How 
 
 a was this defect in some measure supplied'? What works 
 were produced by the Arabian school of architecture, and 
 what were its characteristics 1 Who was the most renowned 
 
 B of the Persian poets 1 What was the state of Greek litera- 
 ture at this period 1 Mention the chief philosophical writers. 
 
 c In what condition were sculpture and painting 1 Mention the 
 historical works published in the West of Europe. Describe 
 
 D the scholastic philosophy taught in the church schools during 
 this period. Name the most distinguished professors of phi- 
 
 a losophy. Where were jurisprudence and mathematics most 
 successfully studied 1 At what period did the Latin cease to 
 
 B be a living language 1 Mention the earliest specimens of 
 German literature. What architectural works were produced 
 during this period 1 In what condition were painting and 
 music 1 In what countries did trade and manufacturing in- 
 dustry principally flourish 1 
 [177] To what ports was the commerce of Byzantium gradually 
 
 c, d transferred 1 What German city was the emporium of the 
 trade between the East and West, and between the North and 
 South 1 To what ports did the cities of the North and South 
 of France trade % By what circumstances was manufacturing 
 industry chiefly promoted % 
 
 § 41. The First Crusade. 
 [178] What practice had existed for many years among the 
 a Christians of the Roman empire 1 By whom were the pil- 
 b grims persecuted, and what was the effect of this intolerant 
 
188 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [179 185. 
 
 measure'? By whom were the complaints of the eastern 
 
 c Christians seconded ? What was the immediate effect of his 
 preaching 1 Describe the commencement of the Crusade. 
 
 a What was the fate of the first detachment of crusaders 1 By 
 whom was an expedition on a larger scale undertaken 1 Who 
 was the commander-in-chief, and what was the amount of the 
 
 B force under his command 1 What Asiatic cities first fell into 
 the hands of the crusaders 1 What extraordinary circum- 
 stances attended the siege of Antiochia 1 On what general 
 
 c was the principality of that district conferred ] By whom 
 was another principality established 1 Describe the capture 
 of Jerusalem. What dignity was offered to Godfrey de 
 
 d Bouillon 1 By whom, and under what circumstances, was the 
 
 Caliph of Egypt defeated 1 By whom was Godfrey succeeded 1 
 
 [179] What cities were added to the kingdom of Jerusalem by 
 
 a the new sovereign 1 Into how many districts was the king- 
 dom now divided 1 
 
 The Second Crusade. 
 
 [180] What circumstance occasioned the second Crusade 1 By 
 b what sovereigns was it undertaken, and at whose instance 1 
 c What fate befell the German division of the army 1 What 
 was the result of this expedition 1 
 
 The Third Crusade. 
 
 [181] By what monarch were the claims of Egypt to Syria and 
 
 d Palestine revived 1 What was the result of his operations 1 
 
 [182] What circumstance occasioned the third Crusade 1 By 
 
 a what sovereigns was it undertaken'? How did Frederick I. 
 
 lose his life 1 
 
 [183] What order of knighthood was instituted by his son 1 On 
 
 b what occasion was the banner of Austria insulted, and by 
 
 o whom 1 On what terms was a truce concluded with Saladin 1 
 
 What became of the island of Cyprus 1 What happened to 
 
 Richard on his return from Palestine 1 
 
 The (so-named') Fourth Crusade. 
 
 [184] By what sovereign were fresh bands of crusaders sent out 1 
 
 d Of what cities did they regain possession 1 By what nations 
 
 was the fourth crusade undertaken 1 Did they reach Jeru- 
 
 a salem"? What empire did they found"? Who was elected 
 
 emperor, and what territories were assigned to him 1 What 
 
 portions were assigned severally to the Venetians, French, 
 
 and Lombards 1 What noble obtained the largest share, and 
 
 b what kingdom did he found 1 By whom was a Greek empire 
 
 established at Nicasa'? Was any other independent empire 
 
 founded in Asia 1 By whom was the Latin empire destroyed 7 
 
 The Crusade of Frederick II. 
 
 [185] What unsuccessful attempts to regain Palestine had been 
 c made previously to the Crusade of Frederick II. 1 What oc- 
 d currence induced the pope to urge on Frederick the necessity 
 
186 191.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 189 
 
 of fulfilling- the promise made at his coronation 1 "What cir- 
 cumstance compelled him to defer the expedition, and in what 
 a light was his conduct viewed by the pope 1 Did he revisit 
 Palestine 1 
 
 The Sixth Crusade. 
 
 .[186] What causes occasioned, the sixth Crusade 1 By what 
 
 b sovereign was it undertaken 1 "Where did he first land, and 
 
 c what success attended his operations in that country ? What 
 
 check did he receive, and on what conditions was he released 
 
 from captivity 1 How was he employed after his liberation ? 
 
 The Seventh Crusade. 
 
 [187] By whom, and under what circumstances, was the seventh 
 
 d Crusade undertaken 1 "What was his fate 1 In what year did 
 
 the last of the Christian possessions in Palestine fall into 
 
 the hands of the Mamelukes 1 "What was the name of this 
 
 fortress 1 
 
 Results of the Crusades. 
 
 [188] In what manner was the hierarchy affected by the Cru- 
 
 a sades 1 Mention another circumstance by which the author- 
 ity of the pope over the clergy was augmented. By what 
 circumstances was the wealth of the clergy increased 1 Men- 
 tion an important result of the wars against the infidels as re- 
 [189] gards the extension of Christian influence. 
 
 b How was the position of the European sovereigns affected 
 
 by the Crusades 1 
 [190] What were the consequences of the Crusades to the nobili- 
 
 c ty 1 Describe the development of the knightly power. In 
 what manner were the distinctive forms of nobility created? 
 
 d Mention the degrees of chivalry. Describe the institution of 
 
 . the order of Knights Hospitallers. Were they known by any 
 other name 1 Into how many classes were they divided, and 
 what were the duties of each class 1 Into what sections was 
 
 a the order again subdivided'? In what countries did the 
 Knights Hospitallers establish themselves after the loss of 
 
 b Palestine 1 By whom were they deprived of the last of their 
 settlements'? Describe the origin of the order of Knights 
 Templars. Whence did they derive their name 1 In what 
 country did they seek an asylum after the loss of the Holy 
 
 o Land, and what was their fate'? At what period was the 
 Teutonic order founded, and by whom 1 For what benevo- 
 lent purpose was it established 1 Of what countiy were all 
 the knights natives'? What was the title of their president? 
 By whom was the residence of the order removed from Jeru- 
 salem, and to what place was it transferred'? What country 
 was conquered by the knights, and in what city did they es- 
 
 d tablish their residence after that conquest 1 What effect had 
 
 the establishment of these orders on European society? 
 
 What service did they render in Palestine 1 
 
 [191] What effect had the Crusades on the Burgher order 1 To 
 
 what circumstances do you ascribe the growth and prosperity 
 
190 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [192 — 200. 
 
 a of their cities'? How was the peasant order affected by the 
 Crusades ? 
 
 Consequences to Trade and Manufactures. 
 [192] By what nations were important commercial privileges ac- 
 b quired during- the period of the Crusades ? In what coun- 
 tries did the Venetians establish colonies during the fourth 
 c Crusade 1 ? At what period, and by whom, were they expelled 
 from Constantinople'? What circumstances rendered this 
 disaster comparatively unimportant ? 
 [193] To what route had the overland trade been confined in 
 d former days, and into what other channels was it directed 
 during the period of the Crusades ? 
 [194] When was this commercial intercourse fully developed? 
 a What manufactures were introduced into Europe, and to what 
 countries was European produce exported during this period ? 
 What was the result of this manufacturing prosperity ? 
 [195] By what circumstances was the mass of geographical in- 
 b formation augmented ? To what traveller was Europe indebted 
 for information on this subject"? 
 
 § 42. The German Empire under Lothar [Lothaire] the Saxon. 
 [196] Who were nominated as his successors by Henry V., and 
 
 c on whom did the choice of the electors fall ? What conces- 
 sions did he make to the pope ? On whom did Lothar bestow 
 the hand of his daughter and the dukedom of Saxony? 
 
 d What service did his son-in-law render to Lothar ? How often 
 did Lothar visit Rome, and what was his object on each of 
 these occasions? 
 
 ty 43. The German Empire under the Hohenstanfeji. 
 
 [198] Who ascended the German throne after Lothar's death? 
 a What became of Henry the Proud ? On whom was his duke- 
 dom of Bavaria conferred ? By whom was the war carried on 
 b after Henry's death ? What remarkable circumstance attend- 
 ed the capture of Weinsberg ? What name was given to the 
 hill in commemoration of this event? To whom was the 
 dukedom of Saxony restored ? In what respect was Conrad 
 inferior in dignity to his predecessors ? Had this happened 
 on any previous occasion ? 
 
 [199J By whom was Conrad succeeded ? In what manner was 
 c he connected with each of the rival houses ? How did he en- 
 deavor to effect a reconciliation between the two factions? 
 On whom was Bavaria bestowed, and how was the Margrave 
 of Austria indemnified for the loss ? What was the great ob- 
 ject of the new emperor's policy ? How many times did he 
 visit Italy ? 
 
 [200] What cities were taken in his first campaign ? For what 
 
 a, b purpose was he summoned to Rome, and what measures did 
 he adopt on entering that city? What homage did Frederick 
 render to the pope ? What calamity compelled him to return 
 to Germany ? By what marriage did he reunite the kingdoms 
 of Germany and Burgundy ? What duke was elevated to the 
 rank of king ? 
 
201 211.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 191 
 
 [201] To what city did Frederick lay siege in his second Italian 
 c campaign 1 What were the principal conditions of the capi- 
 tulation signed by the inhabitants 1 At what diet were the 
 d relations of Italy to the emperor settled 1 What attempt on 
 the part of the Milanese occasioned a fresh war 1 What was 
 a the fate of Milan 1 Which of the two popes elected by the 
 college of cardinals was supported by Frederick 1 
 [202J What occurred during Frederick's third visit to Italy 1 
 [203] What pope was placed on the papal throne in Frederick's 
 b fourth Italian campaign 1 What disaster compelled him to 
 recross the Alps 1 What circumstance occasioned the revolt 
 of the Lombard cities, and what were the results of that 
 movement 1 
 [204] By whom was Frederick abandoned in his fifth campaign 1 
 c What were the consequences of this defection 1 At what place 
 was a formal peace concluded with the Lombards! What 
 were the conditions of this new treaty 1 
 [205] What measures were adopted by Frederick on his return 
 d, a to Germany 1 What became of Henry the Lion 1 In what 
 court did he seek an asylum 1 On whom were Bavaria and 
 Saxony bestowed ! What occurred at the diet of Mainz 1 
 [206] How was Frederick received by the Italians on his sixth 
 visit to Italy 1 To whom did he marry his eldest son Henry 1 
 Where was the marriage celebrated 1 
 [207] What office had Henry filled during the absence of his 
 b father in Palestine 1 What was the result of his visit to Na- 
 ples 1 Who was placed on the Sicilian throne 1 Where did 
 c Henry receive the imperial crown 1 Whence drd he derive 
 funds for a second campaign in Italy 1 What was the result 
 d of that campaign'? What acts of cruelty were perpetrated 
 by Henry, and how was he punished by the pope 1 What 
 cherished plan of Henry's was rendered abortive, and by 
 a what circumstance 1 Where did he die, and what feelings 
 were excited by his death 1 
 [208] What was the fate of Henry the Lion 1 
 [209] What two princes were elected to fill the vacant throne 1 
 _ b By what party was each of them supported % To whose arbi- 
 tration was the disputed election referred, and how did he 
 decide 1 What was the fate of Philip 1 
 [210] What was the first act of Otho's reign 1 By what means 
 c did he effect a reconciliation with the house of Hohenstaufen 1 
 d What insult did he offer to the pope, and how was it avenged % 
 a Where did Otho die, and under what circumstances 1 
 [211] What promises were made to the pope by Frederick II. on 
 b his accession 1 Were these engagements fulfilled % In what 
 condition did Frederick find Apulia on his return from Pales- 
 tine 1 Through whose intervention did he effect a reconcilia- 
 tion with the pope 1 What important reform was effected in 
 c Apulia 1 What was the fate of Frederick's son Henry 1 On 
 whom, and subject to what conditions was the duchy of 
 Brunswick Lflneburg conferred'? For what piu-pose, and 
 with what result, did Frederick visit Italy 1 Who acted as 
 d regent during his absence 1 What circumstance retarded the 
 surrender of Milan % 
 
192 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [212 221. 
 
 [212] "What success attended the endeavors of the pope to place 
 a rival sovereign on the German throne 1 By what tribes was 
 the North-East of Europe overrun at this time % How far did 
 they penetrate, and where did they engage the Germans 1 
 
 [213] By whom was Gregory IX. succeeded, and what was the 
 e policy of the new pontiff? Who was elected in opposition to 
 Frederick, and by what nick-name was he distinguished'? 
 c How long did he survive his election 1 "Who was then chosen, 
 and by what electors 1 Who was left to oppose the usurper 
 in Germany'? By what generals was Frederick assisted in 
 the Lombard war'? Where did Frederick die"? 
 
 [214] What circumstance induced Conrad to quit Germany? 
 
 d, a What issue did he leave 1 By what public acts was the reign 
 of William of Holland distinguished 1 "What was his fate 1 
 
 § 44. The Interregnum in Germany. 
 
 [215] On whom did the choice of the electors fall after William's 
 b death 1 "What was the condition of the empire at this period 1 
 Which of the rival sovereigns was afterwards set aside by the 
 electors, and on whom did their choice then fain 
 
 § 45. The kingdom of the Two Sicilies. 
 
 [216] By whom was the kingdom of the Two Sicilies founded 1 
 
 c "Who were his immediate successors 1 By whom, and for how 
 
 long, was the Sicilian throne usurped 1 
 
 [217] What reforms were effected by Frederick I. (Hohenstau- 
 
 a fen) "? Who was Manfred, and what was his fate 1 "Who was 
 
 Cohradin'? 
 [218] By whom was he assisted, what battle did he fight, and 
 b what was his fate 1 To whom did he bequeath his claims 1 
 "Who wore the Sicilian crown at this time 1 How Avas the 
 murder of Conradin avenged 1 "What division of the Sicilian 
 empire now took place 1 
 
 {) 46. France. 
 [219] By what surname was Louis VI. distinguished 1 By what 
 c measures was the sovereign authority consolidated during his 
 reign ? By whom, and subject to what conditions, was ISTor- 
 mandy held at this time 1 Were any attempts made to alter 
 this arrangement 1 
 [220] By whom was Louis VII. persuaded to take part in the 
 d second Crusade 1 Who administered the affairs of his king- 
 a dom during his absence 1 What portion of France was an- 
 nexed to England during his reign, and under what circum- 
 stances 1 
 [221] With whom did Philip II. quarrel, and what attempt did 
 he make in consequence of this dispute 1 What punishment 
 was inflicted on John, king of England, and for what crime 1 
 What advantage did the king of France gain by this arrange- 
 B menf? By whom, and under what circumstances, was the 
 crown of England offered to Philip 1 On what terms was an 
 arrangement subsequently effected'? What advantage was 
 c gained by Philip, and, what use did he make of if? What 
 D religious war raged during the progress of these events] 
 
222 — 232.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 193 
 
 a What steps were taken by the pope to check the progress of 
 heresy"? What changes took place at this time in the politi- 
 cal and ecclesiastical condition of France 1 
 [222J By whom was a fresh crusade against the Albigenses un- 
 dertaken 1 
 [223] By what surname is Louis IX. known in history 1 Under 
 
 b whose guardianship did he commence his reign 1 What be- 
 came of the Albigenses 1 On what terms was peace esta- 
 
 c blished with England? What measures were adopted for the 
 preservation of peace at home 1 
 
 § 47. England. 
 
 [224. a] Trace the pedigree of Henry II. and Stephen. 
 [225] What changes were made by William the Conqueror in 
 b the constitution of England 1 ? What measures did he adopt 
 for the security of his throne 1 Under what title does the 
 register of the lands of England still exist 1 ? 
 [226] By whom was William I. succeeded, and whom did he ex- 
 c elude from the succession'? 
 
 [227] How did Henry I. obtain the crown 1 Did he commit any 
 other act of usurpation 1 What cruel punishment was inflict- 
 d ed on Robert 1 To what public bodies were privileges granted 
 by Henry 1 Who was recognized as his successor by the no- 
 bles 1 What change did this recognition effect in the consti- 
 tution of England] 
 [228] By whom was the succession disputed 1 What was the 
 a result of this opposition ] 
 [229] What dominions were inherited by Henry II. 'from his 
 father and mother 1 Did he not also hold certain provinces 
 in right of his wife 1 By whom were the attempts of Henry 
 b to restrict the privileges of the clergy successfully resisted 1 
 What was his fate, and how was Henry punished for his par- 
 ticipation in this bloody act 1 To what unhappy circumstance 
 . do you attribute the death of Henry'? 
 [230] What prerogative of the English crown was alienated by 
 c Richard 1. 1 How long did he remain in Palestine, -and what 
 befell him on his journey homewards 1 
 [231] Why was John deprived of his French fiefs % By what 
 d pope, and for what offence, was he excommunicated 1 On 
 a what terms was a reconciliation with the pope effected 1 
 What important public instrument did he endeavor to set 
 aside, and with what success 1 By what disease was his death 
 occasioned 1 
 [232] How old was Henry III. when he ascended the throne'? 
 Was there not a rival candidate % By whom was he com- 
 pelled to renounce his claims 1 How was the incapacity of 
 b Henry manifested 1 What was the result of the discontent 
 occasioned by his misgovernment % By whom was this insur- 
 c rection headed 1 What measures was the king compelled to 
 adopt 1 What occasioned the battle of Lewes 1 On what 
 conditions was the king liberated ? Was any other member 
 of the royal family taken prisoner 1 What important change 
 was effected in the constitution during t' is reign ? By whom 
 
 9 
 
194 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [233 237. 
 
 d was this measure introduced 1 Who commanded the royal- 
 ists at the battle of Evesham 1 In what year was that battle 
 fought, and with what results 1 "What person of note was 
 slain 1 
 
 § 48. Spain. 
 
 [233] "With what empire did the Arabian kingdom of Spain con- 
 
 a tinue in close connection until the end of this period'? From 
 what event do you date the gradual decline of Moorish power 
 both in Africa and the peninsula 1 To what circumstances 
 do you ascribe the gradual preponderance of Christianity over 
 Islamism in Spain 1 
 [234] By whom, and into how many sovereignties, was the king- 
 
 b dom of Leon and Castille divided 1 By whom were they re- 
 united? "What provinces were added to them'? By whom 
 was the conquest of these provinces principally achieved'? 
 
 c "What Spanish sovereign was elected King of Germany 1 
 "When did Navarre cease to be an independent kingdom'? 
 "What provinces were added to the kingdom of Arragon 1 By 
 
 D whom, and under what circumstances, were these provinces 
 annexed'? "What Spanish monarch became King of Sicily'? 
 By whom had he been nominated heir to the Neapolitan 
 crown 1 "What event placed him on the throne 1 
 
 § 49. Portugal. 
 
 [235] Whence does Portugal derive its name 1 To whom was a 
 grant of territory first made in that country 7 What were its 
 a boundaries 1 What was its capital 1 Who first assumed the 
 title of King of Portugal 1 By what fortunate events was he 
 enabled to extend the boundaries of his infant kingdom 1 
 How did he obtain the recognition of his title by the pope 1 
 From what public body did he procure a constitution for his 
 new kingdom 1 What city did he wrest from the infidels % 
 By whom was he aided in this exploit 1 How did he further 
 enlarge his kingdom 1 
 
 § 50. The Byzantine empire. 
 
 [236] By whom was Isaac Comnenus placed on the imperial 
 
 b throne'? Did he retain the crown longl Whither did he 
 retire 1 Who was then invested with the purple "? To whom 
 did he bequeath the imperial dignity, and on what conditions 1 
 
 c What was the conduct of the empress 1 By whom was her 
 husband defeated and imprisoned 1 In what state did he find 
 the capital on his return 1 What dreadful punishment was 
 
 d inflicted on him 1 In what condition was the empire when 
 the Comneni again ascended the throne 1 By what emperors 
 of that race were the encroachments of the enemies of the 
 empire successfully resisted 1 From what quarters, and by 
 
 a whom, were these attacks made'? To what circumstances do 
 
 you attribute the feebleness of the empire at this time 1 What 
 
 was the fate of Alexius II. 1 How long did the last of the 
 
 Comneni reign, and by whom was he superseded 1 
 
 [237] Who was the first emperor of the house of Angelus, and 
 
238 244.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 195 
 
 by whom was he set aside 1 For what reason ] "What cruel- 
 ties were inflicted on him'? By whom, and for what purpose, 
 was the fourth (so-called) Crusade undertaken"? 
 [238] Give some account of the Latin empire, and those of 
 Nicsea and Trebizoud. 
 
 § 51. The Abbasides. 
 [239] By what people and in what year was the caliphate of the 
 
 c Abbasides extinguished 1 "What city was taken by the in- 
 vaders 1 "What cruel punishment was inflicted on the last of 
 the caliphs 1 What member of the royal family escaped the 
 general destruction "? In what country and during what peri- 
 od did the descendants of this prince continue to exercise 
 
 D authority 1 What was the nature of their supremacy 1 "What 
 African dynasties became extinct during this and the preced- 
 ing period] By what dynasties was the whole' of Arabian 
 Africa now shared 1 
 
 § 52. The SeldschuJcs. 
 [240] Who were the Seldschuks 1 "What countries did they sub- 
 a due, and under what c'ommander 1 "Where did they establish 
 their head-quarters 1 Of what other countries did they make 
 B themselves masters ] Into how many governments was this 
 empire divided after the death of Malek ] What was the ex- 
 tent of their empire in its most prosperous days 1 Into whose 
 hands did these small governments fall during the Crusades 1 
 Which of them continued to exist, in what condition, and 
 how long 1 
 
 § 53. The Mongols. 
 [241] Who were the Mongols, and what countries did they in- 
 
 c habit 1 Who was the most renowned of their chieftains'? 
 What title did they confer on him 1 What countries did he 
 
 D conquer'? What Russian prince was overthrown by him'? 
 What countries were overrun by the sons of Dschingis-Khan 1 
 What bloody victory did they gain] Where were they de- 
 feated, and what measures did they adopt in consequence of 
 this check 1 Was this operation rendered necessary by any 
 
 a other circumstance 1 What dynasty did they extinguish, and 
 in what year 1 In what century had their empire reached its 
 widest limits'? Describe its boundaries. Where did the 
 great khan reside'? To whom was the administration of the 
 provinces committed'? 
 
 § 54. Scandinavia. 
 
 [242] How long did Iceland remain independent, and by whom 
 b was it at last subjugated 1 By what peculiarity were its man- 
 ners, language, and literature distinguished'? Is there any 
 exception to this general remark'? 
 
 [243] Who was the last of the legitimate descendants of Harold 
 Harfagr'? and what was the condition of Norway after his 
 death 1 What islands were annexed to the Norwegian crown 1 
 Was any portion of their empire alienated, and to whom 1 
 
 [244] By what circumstances were the disturbances in Sweden 
 
196 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [245 249. 
 
 c during this period chiefly occasioned 1 "What was the frequent 
 result of these disputes 1 
 [245] "What countries were comprehended under the name of 
 d Denmark'? What additions were made to the Danish empire 
 a by conquest 1 To whom, and under what circumstances, was 
 the greater part of this conquered territory afterwards sur- 
 rendered 1 To what circumstance do you ascribe the cessa- 
 tion of intercourse between Denmark and England! With 
 what country was an intimate connection formed, and what 
 were its results 1 
 
 § 55. Russia. 
 
 [246] Which were the two great principalities of Russia 1 How 
 b many inferior principalities were there 1 By what people was 
 the whole of Russia occupied in 1238 1 What cities did they 
 destroy"? "Which of the Russian states retained its independ- 
 ence 1 What important position did it occupy in 1267 1 On 
 what conditions were the grand principalities permitted to 
 c remain 1 What country was conquered during this period of 
 dependence, and by whom! What brilliant victory was 
 gained by his son, and what surname was given to him in 
 consequence of this success'? 
 
 § 56. Poland under the Piasts. 
 
 [247] To what favorable circumstance do you attribute the rapid 
 improvement of Poland during this period 1 What countries 
 did she now comprehend 1 What was the capital of Eastern 
 Pomerania 1 Were there any obstacles to her advancement 1 
 Into how many new sovereignties was the dukedom divided 
 D after the death of Boleslav III. 1 Name them. What priv- 
 a ilege was enjoyed by the eldest sonl By whom were the 
 knights of the Teutonic order called in, and how were they 
 rewarded 1 ? What were the results of the invasion of Poland 
 and Silesia by the Mongols 1 
 
 § 57. Prussia. 
 
 [248] Who were the Prussians, and what country did they in- 
 b habit 1 What measures did they compel Conrad, duke of 
 Masovia, to adopt 1 How long did this struggle continue 1 
 By whom were the Teutonic knights supported 1 What cities 
 did they found in Prussia 1 By whom was the government 
 of the conquered territory administered 1 Where was the 
 order finally established, and in what year 1 
 
 § 58. Hungary under the Arpads. 
 
 [249] By how many kings of the Arpadic family was Ladislav 
 c the Saint succeeded 1 In what year did this family become 
 extinct 1 With what nations were the Hungarians engaged 
 T) in war during this period 1 By what monarch was a charter 
 granted to the Hungarians'? What terrible calamity was ex- 
 perienced by the nation 1 Who was king of Hungary at that 
 time, and how did he- behave 1 
 
250 — 252.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 197 
 
 § 59. Religion, Arts, Manufactures, <$*c, during the Third 
 Period. 
 [250] "What attempts were made by Gregory VII., and by whom 
 
 a were they followed up ? "What effects were produced by their 
 
 b exertions, towards the end of this period 1 By what arrange- 
 ments was the ecclesiastical authority of the popes strength- 
 
 c ened ? Name the religious orders of chivalry established in 
 Palestine. Spain, and Livonia 1 "What fresh orders were cre- 
 
 d ated from time to time ? "What was the result of attempts to 
 reunite the Greek and Latin Churches'? "What religious 
 communities were partially reconciled to the Church of Rome? 
 By whose teaching iu the twelfth century was a variety of 
 
 a sects produced 1 Name these sects. "What measures were 
 
 adopted for their suppression ? 
 [251] Mention the distinguishing political characteristic of this 
 
 b and the following period. What results were produced by 
 
 c this spirit ? In what practice do we find the germ of chival- 
 
 d ry? To whom is it indebted for its development 1 Describe 
 the degrees of chivalry. "What were its chief duties 1 How 
 
 a was the knight rewarded for the faithful discharge of these 
 duties ? "What was the origin of tournaments ? At what pe- 
 riod did those exercises begin to assume a systematic charac- 
 ter ? In what part of the empire was the establishment of a 
 
 B free Burgher order most general ? To what circumstance do 
 you attribute this ? Where did Frederick I. hold a diet dur- 
 ing his second Italian campaign] What was the result? 
 Who were appointed to execute the emperor's decrees 1 By 
 whom, and for what reason, were those officers superseded? 
 In whose hands had the government hitherto been ? By 
 whom were the Patricians compelled to receive a more demo- 
 cratic constitution 1 What name was given to the chief pop- 
 ular magistrate % Of whom was he the constant opponent ? 
 
 o What measure was adopted, whenever it was necessary 
 
 • that the contending parties should act in concert ? By what 
 name did they designate the supreme political authority? 
 What do you understand by the term " Condottiere? " What 
 code and system of taxation was adopted by these cities ? In 
 what reign, and by what means, did the German cities acquire 
 similar privileges ? Mention some of the most important of 
 
 D these privileges. To what officer was the conservation of 
 them intrusted ? By whom was he assisted ? What violent 
 change was effected in the fourteenth century ? By whom 
 were political privileges granted to the French cities ? By 
 
 a what motives were they induced to make these concessions? 
 How was the executive authority divided in Arragon ? At 
 what period and after what model were cities founded in the 
 north and east of Europe ? What advantage was obtained 
 by existing communities ? Was the attempt to emancipate 
 the cities from the authority of their feudal sovereign gener- 
 
 b ally successful ? In what country especially was this authority 
 
 maintained 1 In what country did delegates from the cities 
 
 first appear at diets ? Was this practice imitated in other 
 
 countries 1 
 
 [252] From what materials were the written codes of this period 
 
198 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [253 256. 
 
 generally compiled 1 Mention some of them which were the 
 
 c work of private individuals. Give examples of charters 
 granted by kings to their subjects. What changes took place 
 in the administration of justice towards the conclusion of this 
 period 1 
 [253] By whom had the sciences hitherto been exclusively culti- 
 vated 1 Under whose auspices was education more generally 
 
 D diffused 1 How was this object mainly promoted 1 To what 
 circumstance do the most ancient of these foundations owe 
 their origin 1 "Where were the most celebrated theological, 
 philosophical, and legal schools established 1 "Who were the 
 most renowned lecturers at these schools 1 In what countries, 
 
 A and after what model, were other universities founded 1 Name 
 some of the most remarkable. By whom was the scholastic 
 mode of treating theological subjects introduced 1 By what 
 writer were the dogmas of Abelard condemned as heretical 1 
 In what estimation were the writings of Peter Lombard held 
 by the Church 1 What discovery was made in the thirteenth 
 century, and what was its effect on the scholastic literature 
 
 B of that period 1 Who were the most distinguished professors 
 of philosophical scholastics 1 What studies were considered 
 next in importance to theology and philosophy'? In what 
 language was history written in central and western Europe 1 
 By whom was the first historical work in the vernacular lan- 
 guage published'? From what sources was mathematical 
 science derived 1 Who was the most celebrated student in 
 this department 1 Was he famous for proficiency in any other 
 science "? To what circumstance do you ascribe the perfec- 
 tion to which mechanics were brought ? What important 
 
 c discovery was made during this period 1 To what subjects 
 was Byzantine literature confined 1 Name some of the most 
 distinguished Byzantine and Arabian writers. 
 [254] What was the character of the poetry of this period'? Un- 
 
 d der what dynasty did epic and lyric poetry attain their high- 
 est degree of excellence in Germany'? How many sorts of 
 
 a epic poetry were there 1 Name some of the most distinguished 
 professors of lyric poetry. What specimen do we possess of 
 the poetical contests of those days'?- What sort of poetry 
 was cultivated in the south of France 1 What name was given 
 to its professors, and at what courts did they recite their com- 
 positions 1 Name the different sorts of poetry cultivated at 
 different periods in the north of France. By whom was it 
 professed"? Into what countries did the minstrelsy of the 
 
 B Troubadours travel 1 Mention the most fruitful subject for 
 romance in the history of Castille. Where was Scandinavian 
 poetry most successfully cultivated "? What was the Edda % 
 [255] From what country was the German or new Gothic style 
 of architecture imported'? By whom was it introduced'? 
 What were its characteristics 1 At what period did it attain 
 
 c its highest perfection 1 Mention some of the most magnifi- 
 cent specimens of Gothic architecture commenced in this 
 century. Were secular buildings erected on a similar scale 
 of grandeur 1 
 [256] Mention some of the other arts which were more especially 
 
257 261.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 199 
 
 d cultivated during this period. To what do you attribute this 
 preference 1 In which century was painting on glass invent- 
 ed? When and by whom were sculpture and painting 
 elevated to the rank of independent arts 1 In what century 
 were companies or unions of painters formed 1 
 [257] By what countries was the Mediterranean trade chiefly 
 a carried on? With what eastern seaports'? In what towns 
 b did the commerce of the north of Europe principally flourish 1 
 c What were the chief stations of the inland trade 1 Between 
 what German and Italian cities was a commercial league 
 formed, and what was the natural result of this policy'? In 
 what respects did the spirit of the age manifest itself among 
 merchants'? Where was this especially the case % For what 
 purpose were Kansas established 1 What privileges did they 
 D enjoy in foreign countries 1 What was the object of provin- 
 cial unions "? What great commercial union was formed out 
 of these two elements 1 Of what nature were the enactments 
 a respecting maritime enterprise and commerce during this pe- 
 riod 1 Were any branches of commercial adventure forbid- 
 den by the Church 1 With what success 1 
 [258] What circumstances were favorable to agriculture during 
 this period 1 In what part of Europe was the cultivation of 
 the vine most successful 1 Where were mining operations 
 B carried on most vigorously? By what circumstance was the 
 importance of manual crafts greatly augmented 1 What was 
 their mode of carrying on business 1 Mention the principal 
 sorts of manufacture, and state in what countries they were 
 carried on most successfully. Where were the best articles 
 c of hardware produced 1 By what city was the trade in glass 
 monopolized ? Mention the circumstances which contributed 
 to the advancement of commercial prosperity during this 
 period. 
 
 § 60. Germany and Switzerland. 
 
 [259] Name the seven electorates, distinguishing between the 
 d spiritual and temporal. Mention the duchies (with their cap- 
 a itals) in the west, south, and north. Enumerate the Princi- 
 •B palities, Margravates, Landgravates, Burgravates, Counties, 
 c Archbishoprics, and Bishoprics. How many imperial cities 
 were there 1 Mention the most considerable. Between what 
 sovereigns was the kingdom of Burgundy divided after its 
 dismemberment 1 
 [260] In what century was the right of election transferred from 
 d the dukes to the great officers of the imperial household 1 
 a Name these officers. Who was elected King of Germany af- 
 ter the death of Richard of Cornwall 1 By whom was he pro- 
 posed ? Who refused to recognize Rudolf? For what reason 1 
 B How was he punished for his contumacy % What was his 
 fate 1 On whom did Rudolf confer his forfeited principali- 
 ties 1 What seems to have been from this period the grand 
 object of the Gei-man kings 1 
 [261] Through whose influence was Adolphus of Nassau placed 
 on the throne 1 By what measures did he strengthen the in- 
 c fluence of his family 1 How did these proceedings ultimately 
 
200 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [262 266. 
 
 occasion the removal of Adolplms from the German throne 1 
 Who was elected in his place ? AVhat was the fate of Aclol- 
 phus ? 
 [262] What success attended the plans of Albert I. for the ag- 
 grandizement of his house ? What claims did he revive, and 
 
 d with what success ? What circumstance afforded him an op- 
 portunity of placing his son on the throne of Bohemia'? How 
 
 a was this connection dissolved ? What attempt of Albert was 
 resisted by the three forest cantons of Switzerland 1 By 
 whom were the Swiss oppressed ? Who laid the foundation 
 
 b of the Swiss confederacy? What happened to the two gov- 
 ernors ? What was the fate of Albert 1. ? 
 [263] By whom was he succeeded ? On whose motion was the 
 new sovereign elected ? What success attended the attempts 
 of Henry to extend the influence of his family ? To what cir- 
 cumstances was he chiefly indebted for this good fortune ? 
 
 o AYhat did he restore 1 How was he enabled to effect this ? 
 
 What project was interrupted by his death? 
 [264] By whom was he succeeded ? By what parties were the 
 
 d new kings respectively elected ? With what nation did the 
 house of Habsburg engage in war ? What were the results 
 of the battles of Morgarten and Mtihldorf? What arrange- 
 
 a ment was made between the two kings ? By what pope, and 
 for what offence, was Louis excommunicated ? To whom was 
 the German crown offered ? What respect was paid by Louis 
 to this sentence? What dignity did he assume at Milan? 
 By whom was he crowned at Rome ? Whom did he place on 
 the papal throne ? Why did he return to Germany ? Where 
 was the first electoral diet held ? What important resolution 
 
 e was passed at it ? Which of the electors was absent? How 
 
 c did Louis increase the possessions of his family? Which of 
 these measures disgusted the German nobles? What was 
 the effect of this distaste ? On whom did the choice of the 
 electors fall? Who was elected after the death of Louis? 
 By what party ? How was the contest terminated ? 
 [265] From whose hands, and through whom, did Charles IV. 
 
 d receive the imperial crown? To what subjects did he devote 
 
 a his chief attention ? What measures did he adopt for the 
 promotion of this object? What were the provisions of this 
 instrument ? What mode of proceeding did it prescribe on 
 the death of an emperor ? Where was the coronation to take 
 
 B place? What rank was assigned to the electors? What 
 plans of family aggrandizement were pursued by Charles? 
 What provinces were annexed to his hereditary dominions ? 
 Where was the first German university founded? What 
 
 o other plans of improvement were adopted? How did he ob- 
 tain the funds necessary for his operations ? Mention some 
 of the most important privileges granted to the imperial cities. 
 
 d What additions were made to the aristocratic order ? Enu- 
 merate the confederacies of towns and those of the nobility. 
 
 [266] By whom was Charles succeeded? What sovereignties 
 
 a did he retain? What addition was made to his dominions? 
 What union was formed in Swabia ? Under whose auspices ? 
 What measure was adopted by Wenceslaus in consequence 
 
267 270.] OF MEDIEVAL HISTORY. 201 
 
 of this proceeding- 1 By what circumstances was the dissolu- 
 
 B tion of the confederacies of cities occasioned 1 Between what 
 parties, and with what result, was the battle of Sempach 
 
 c fought? To whom were the conquerors chiefly indebted for 
 their victory ] What was the effect of a second victory 1 In 
 what light was Wenceslaus regarded by his subjects 1 Where 
 did he usually reside 1 What measures were adopted in con- 
 sequence of his incapacity 1 
 [267] How did Rupert forfeit the confidence of the nation ? 
 
 d What measures did he adopt on his return to Germany 1 
 
 Who were elected after his death 1 How many kings had 
 
 Germany at this time 1 
 
 [268] What was the great object of Sigismund's reign 1 What 
 
 practice had been adopted for many years by the Roman and 
 
 B French colleges of cardinals'] Where was a council held, 
 and with what results ! How many rival claimants to the 
 popedom were there at this time 1 What measure was adopt- 
 ed for the removal of these irregularities 1 Where was the 
 council assembled, and in what year'? What were its three 
 
 c principal objects 1 How was the first of these objects attained 1 
 Who were the Bohemian reformers, and where had they 
 
 D learnt their doctrine 1 To what circumstance do you ascribe 
 
 a the ready reception of these doctrines by the Bohemian the- 
 ologians 1 What was the fate of the two reformers 1 To what 
 
 B circumstance do you attribute the miscarriage of the third 
 plan 1 Who was chosen as their leader by the disciples of 
 Huss 1 What demand was made by them, and how did they 
 act when it was refused 1 What name did they give to their 
 
 c camp 1 Who commanded them 1 What act of violence did 
 they commit 1 Who succeeded Wenceslaus in his hereditary 
 dominions 1 How was he received by the Hussites 1 What 
 was the cause of this opposition? Into how many parties 
 
 d were they divided after Huss's death 1 What permission did 
 
 a they extort from the council of Basle 1 To whom did Sigis- 
 
 mund sell the electorate of Brandenburg 1 
 [269] Who succeeded Sigismund on the German throne 1 What 
 
 question did he revive 1 ^ 
 
 [270] By whom was this question again brought forward 1 Of 
 
 b whom did he undertake the guardianship 1 How was such 
 a measure rendered impracticable ? What other plan failed 
 from the same cause 1 What was the condition of Germany 
 at this time 1 With what Swiss canton did Frederick form 
 an alliance'? By what foreign troops was he supported'? 
 
 c What was the result of his Swiss campaign'? What measures 
 were adopted by Pope Eugenius IV. with reference to the 
 council of Basle 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 Through 
 whose intervention was a concordat concluded between the 
 emperor and the pope 1 What effect had this proceeding on 
 
 D the council and the rival pope 1 What success attended the 
 proclamation of a crusade against the Turks ? What reasons 
 
 a were assigned for this proclamation'? Who was the last em- 
 peror crowned at Rome 1 How did Frederick increase his 
 
 B hereditary possessions 1 What opposition did he encounter 
 in Bohemia and Hungary 1 By what alliance did Frederick 
 
 9* 
 
202 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [271 277. 
 
 acquire the Netherlands and Germany'? Against what coun- 
 try did Maximilian successfully maintain possession of these 
 territories 1 
 
 <j 61. The States of Italy. 
 
 [271] By what circumstances had Venice been raised to the rank 
 
 c of a first-rate commercial and naval power? What islands 
 and seaports had she acquired 1 With what state, and for 
 how many years, was she engaged in war 1 Where was peace 
 concluded, and on what terms ] To what circumstances do 
 you chiefly attribute the prosperity of Venice 1 When were 
 
 d her most palmy days 1 By what power was she afterwards 
 deprived of most of her Greek dominions 1 What circum- 
 stance completed her ruin 1 In whom was the sovereign au- 
 thority lodged 1 By whom were they chosen "? What change 
 was introduced at a later period 1 
 [272] By whom were the struggles of the Milanese parties terrni- 
 
 a nated 1 Who were the heads of these parties 1 What mea- 
 sures were adopted by Henry VII. 1 What noble family be- 
 came the possessor of almost the whole of Upper Italy 1 By 
 what means 1 On whom was the supreme authority conferred 
 after the extinction of the Visconti '? What change did he 
 effect in the tenure of the dukedom "? 
 [273] What advantages did Genoa obtain by the restoration of 
 
 b the Greek empire 1 How long was she engaged in war with 
 Pisa, and with what results 1 To what causes do you attribute 
 her weakness 1 
 [274] What was the result of the struggle between the people of 
 
 c Florence and the nobles ] Into how many classes were the 
 commons divided 1 What business was carried on, generally 
 speaking, by the members of the higher guilds'? By what 
 family was this aristocracy of wealth headed in the fifteenth 
 
 D century'? Who laid the foundation of their importance'? 
 How was his son treated by the other bankers 7 What dis- 
 tinction was afterwards conferred on him 1 How did he merit 
 
 a this distinction 1 What cities did he embellish "? By whom 
 
 was he succeeded 1 To which of the Medici is Florence most 
 
 indebted 1 
 
 [275] What happened in the March of Ancona, and other parts 
 
 of the States of the Church, during the residence of the popes 
 
 B at Avignon ?• What was the condition of Rome at this time 1 
 What title was assumed by a plebeian in one of these revolu- 
 tions 1 At what period were the States of the Church re- 
 united 1 What city was afterwards added to them 1 
 [276] By what family was the Neapolitan throne occupied until 
 
 c 1435 1 Who conquered the country in that year 1 To whom 
 did he bequeath Naples 1 How long did his posterity con- 
 tinue to reign % 
 [277] To what kingdom was Sicily annexed 1 When, and under 
 what circumstances 1 
 
278 — 286.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 203 
 
 § 62. France. 
 
 [278] From what country did Philip III. withdraw his army 
 d after the death of his father 1 To whom did he marry his 
 son ] What unsuccessful expedition did he undertake 1 
 [279] By whom was he succeeded 1 Had the new monarch any 
 other kingdom 1 What was his character ] Of what English 
 a province did he obtain possession ] What occasioned the 
 war 1 Why did Philip abandon Flanders ] For what offence 
 was he excommunicated, and how did he avenge himself 1 
 Where did the next pope but one establish his residence ] 
 B How long did the pope continue to reside there'? By whom 
 was the order of Knights Templars suppressed ] 
 [280] Who succeeded Philip IV. 1 What act was passed in the 
 c reign of Philip V. 1 By whom was Charles IV. succeeded % 
 On whom was Navarre settled'? When was it reunited to 
 France 1 
 [281, d] Give the pedigree of Philip of Valois. 
 [282] What occasioned the war between England and France % 
 a How long did it continue 1 With whom did Edward III. of 
 England form an alliance 1 By whom were they commanded 1 
 B Where were the English victorious ] Who commanded the 
 English army! What important town fell into his hands'? 
 How long did it remain in possession of the English ] What 
 provinces were added by Philip to the possessions of the 
 French crown ] What right was conceded to him by the es- 
 tates of the realm ] 
 [283, c] By whom was he succeeded'? What misfortune befell 
 him 1 Who commanded the English in this battle 1 What 
 happened in France during his captivity 1 By whom were 
 the insurgents commanded 1 What was his fate % On what 
 D terms was peace concluded between England and France 1 
 What concession was made by Edward III. 1 On what terms 
 was liberty offered to the king of France ] Where did he die ] 
 On whom did he bestow the dukedom of Burgundy ] 
 [284] What distinguished services were rendered to Charles V. 
 a by his general Bertrand du Guesclin ] 
 [285] Under whose guardianship was Charles VI. placed'? What 
 b was his character 1 By whom was the right of his guardians 
 contested 1 What was the effect of these conflicting claims 1 
 What was the fate of Orleans ] What important victory was 
 c gained at this time by the English 1 By whom was the Duke 
 of Burgundy assassinated ] To whom did his son apply for 
 assistance ? Whom did Henry V. of England marry] What 
 important advantage did he gain by this marriage 1 What 
 issue did he leave 1 
 [286] By whom was Charles VI. succeeded] What foreign 
 d monarch was now proclaimed king of France 1 Who com- 
 pelled the English to raise the siege of Orleans 1 Where was 
 a Charles VII. crowned 1 ? What became of Joan of Arc 1 On 
 what terms was a reconciliation effected between Charles VII. 
 and the Duke of Burgundy ] What losses of territory were 
 sustained by the English] To what circumstance do you as- 
 cribe the termination of the war ] How was a standing army 
 
204 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [287 295. 
 
 B first organized in France 1 What occasioned the estrange- 
 ment between Charles and his son? At whose court did the 
 Dauphin seek an asylum 1 
 [287] By what measures did Louis XL attempt to establish the 
 
 c absolute power of the crown 1 What was the result of this 
 
 d policy 1 What occasioned the dissolution of the league 1 Of 
 what rash act was Louis guilty 1 On what terms did he re- 
 
 a gain his liberty'? How did he avenge himself 1 Who were 
 victorious at the battles of Granson and Murten 1 Where did 
 
 b Charles of Burgundy lose his life? What became of the 
 
 dukedom of Burgundy 1 What territories were afterwards 
 
 acquired by Austria 1 By what means 1 What provinces 
 
 were annexed to France'? 
 
 [288] What conquest was achieved by Charles VIII. 1 By whom 
 
 c was he compelled to abandon it 1 What line expired with him % 
 
 \ 63. England and Scotland. 
 
 [289] What province was annexed to the English crown by Ed- 
 
 d ward 1.1 What title was assumed by his son? By whom, 
 and in whose favor, was the disputed succession to the throne 
 of Scotland decided 1 How was the new king's breach of 
 
 a faith punished 1 Who was crowned by the insurgent Scots 1 
 Who succeeded Edward 1 What was his character'? AVhat 
 advantage was taken of his weakness by the English nobles 
 and by the Scots 1 Who conspired against Edward 1 What 
 continental troops were brought against him'? What was his 
 fate 1 ? 
 [290] How were the conspirators punished by Edward 111.1 
 
 b Who succeeded Eobert Bruce on the throne of Scotland "? In 
 whose favor was he compelled to abdicate 1 By what conces- 
 sion bad Balliol secured the favor of Edward 1 How long did 
 
 c the disputes respecting the right to the Scottish throne con- 
 tinue 1 How often, and for what purpose, did Edward con- 
 voke his parliament? What division of the great council of 
 the nation took place in this reign 1 
 [291] Whose son was Eichard II. ? How did he commence his 
 reign 1 Did he continue to reign wisely 1 By whom was he 
 
 d deprived of almost all his authority'? Who placed the reins 
 of government again in his hands 1 By whom were they a 
 
 a second time wrested from him i What became of Richard 1 
 [292] How was the reign of Henry IV. disturbed 1 Were these 
 
 b attempts successful 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 
 [293] What brilliant victory did Henry V. obtain 1 What prov- 
 ince did he conquer ? Whom did he marry 1 What impor- 
 tant advantage did he gain by this marriage 1 What circum- 
 stance prevented his availing himself of it 1 
 [294] By whom was he succeeded 1 Give the genealogical table 
 
 of the houses of York and Lancaster. 
 [295] What title did the new king assume 1 What became of 
 
 a his possessions in that country 1 Was there no exception 1 
 What effect had these losses on the minds of his subjects 1 
 What was the immediate result of their discontent 1 By whom 
 was this opposition headed 1 On what grounds did he claim 
 
296 303.] OF MEDIAEVAL HISTORY. 205 
 
 the crown 1 What wars were occasioned by this dispute ] 
 B Who was nominated protector, and during what period] 
 Where did the two armies meet, and with what results ] To 
 what temis did Henry eventually consent] By whom was 
 the war renewed] What was the fate of Richard ] 
 
 [296] By whom was the title of king then assumed ] With whom 
 c did Queen Margaret then form an alliance ] What was the 
 result of this measure ] By whom was Edward supported in 
 his attempt to recover the English crown] What was the 
 fate of .Henry VI. ] What became of the house of Lancas- 
 ter ] What member of that house escaped, and where did 
 he seek an asylum ] 
 
 [297] By whom was Edward IV. succeeded] What was his 
 fate] 
 
 [298] Who next ascended the throne ] In what battle was he 
 a slain] What claims were reconciled by the accession of 
 Henry VII. 1 
 
 § 64. The Pijrencean Peninsula. 
 
 [299] What possession still remained in the hands of the Moors 
 in 1237 ] On what kingdom was it generally dependent ] 
 What was its condition ] 
 
 [300], b] Name the two Christian kingdoms in Spain. How was 
 Arragon governed] In what year, and by whose marriage, 
 were the two kingdoms united ] What kingdom was added 
 in 1492 ] From what event do you date the independence of 
 c Navarre ] By whom was a new dynasty founded in Portugal ] 
 By whom were Madeira and the Azores discovered ] Did he 
 make any other discoveries ] By whom, and in what year, 
 was the Cape of Good Hope discovered ] What was its first 
 name ] 
 
 § 65. The Byzantine Empire under the Palaologi. 
 
 _[301] By whom was the Byzantine empire reunited ] With what 
 d exception ] What was the character of the sovereigns of this 
 a dynasty ] What attempt was made to obtain assistance, and 
 with what success ? By what circumstances were the Otto- 
 mans withheld for a time ] To whom, and in what year, did 
 B Constantinople surrender ] What other states fell into the 
 hands of the conqueror ] Of what nation did the kingdom of 
 Cyprus become a dependency ] 
 
 % 66. The Osmans. 
 
 [302, c] Who was Osman ] On the ruins of what kingdom did 
 
 he found an empire ] What were its original boundaries ] 
 
 How were they afterwards extended] What city became 
 
 D the imperial residence ] By whom were the Osmans defeated ] 
 
 What conquests were achieved by Mohammed II. ] 
 
 % 67. The Mongols. 
 
 [303] Under whom did the Mongols again become a formidable 
 a power ] Of whom was he a descendant ] What kingdoms 
 
206 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK [304 308. 
 
 did he found 1 Against what countries did he carry on suc- 
 cessful wars'? What was the extent of the empire at his 
 death 1 
 
 § 68. Scandinavia. 
 
 [304] By whom were the several Danish principalities reunited 1 
 b Whom did the daughter of this sovereign marry 1 What 
 kingdoms were placed at her disposals By what circum- 
 c stances 1 To whom did the estates of Sweden offer the 
 Swedish crown 7 By what treaty were the three Scandina- 
 vian kingdoms united 1 What privileges were retained by 
 d each 1 By whom was Margaret succeeded 1 By whom was 
 the throne of Denmark and Norway then filled 1 What prov- 
 inces were added to the possessions of the new royal house 1 
 
 § 69. Russia. 
 
 [305] What grand principalities were united to Russia 1 Of 
 a what provinces was it deprived 1 By whom, and during what 
 period 1 Under which sovereign did the Russians emancipate 
 B themselves 1 From the tyranny of what horde 1 Into how 
 many kingdoms was the Khanate of Kaptschak divided 1 
 Who was the real founder of the Russian empire 1 How far 
 did he extend his dominions 1 From what nation did he ex- 
 act tribute 1 What title did he assume 1 
 
 § 70. Poland. 
 
 [306] Under what dynasty were Great and Little Poland united 1 
 c Of what territories was Casimir the Great deprived, and by 
 whom 1 What new possessions did he acquire 1 What title 
 was given him, and for what reason 1 By whom was he suc- 
 ceeded 1 By what means did he secure the succession for 
 D his daughter 1 What province was reunited to Poland 1 By 
 whose marriage 1 What name was assumed by the new sove- 
 reign 1 
 [307] What concessions were extorted from Wladislaw II. 1 Af- 
 a ter what victory did he obtain possession of Samogitia'? 
 Where was peace concluded 1 What territories were added 
 by a second peace 1 In whose reigu 7 What was then the 
 extent of Poland 7 
 
 § 71. Prussia under the Teutonic Order. 
 
 [308, b] Where was the Teutonic order settled 7 Since what 
 year 7 What countries had it acquired by conquest 7 Under 
 what grand master was the order most flourishing 7 By what 
 defeat was its power shattered 1 What war was terminated 
 by this battle 1 ? By whom, and with what result, was Marien- 
 
 c burg defended 1 By whom was the tyranny of the order re- 
 sisted 1 Where was a second peace concluded 1 What con- 
 
 D cessions were made by the order 1 Whither were its head- 
 quarters transferred 1 By whom were Livonia, Esthonia, and 
 Courland governed until 1513 % 
 
309 — 313.] OF MEDIJEVAL HISTORY. 207 
 
 § 72. Hungary. 
 
 [309] What was the result of the struggles occasioned by the ex- 
 a tinction of the Arpad dynasty 1 Under what kings was the 
 political condition of Hungary greatly improved 1 What Hun- 
 garian sovereign became the most powerful monarch of Eu- 
 B rope 1 By what conquests 1 By whom was he succeeded 1 
 Of what family was the new king a member'? Name the 
 c three next kings. By whom was he succeeded 1 How did 
 he offend the electors 1 To whom did they offer the crown % 
 To what circumstances do you ascribe the great renown of 
 Matthias Corvinus"? 
 
 § 73. Religion, Arts, Sciences, fyc, during the Fourth Period. 
 
 [310] What circumstances were preparing the way for the recep- 
 
 d tion of Christianity in Africa'? How was the influence of the 
 papacy endangered during this period "? What was the great 
 object of the councils of Basle and Constance 1 Was this ob- 
 ject attained 1 What terrible pestilence devastated Europe 
 in the fourteenth century 1 What was the result of renewed 
 attempts to reunite the Greek and Latin Churches "? Who 
 refused to recognize the proceedings of this synod'? 
 [311, c] How was the spirit of political combination manifested 
 in Germany 1 By what means was the power of the French 
 
 D kings augmented 1 What was the result of an opposite poli- 
 cy in Germany'? What system was maintained in Italy"? 
 
 a By means of what state 1 What was the constitution of the 
 East 1 What was the most remarkable peculiarity in the ad- 
 ministration of justice at this period'? 
 [312] Mention the three causes which united to produce new life 
 
 b in the sciences. To what circumstances do you ascribe the 
 
 c revival of the study of classical literature '? By whom was a 
 better taste in literature introduced and propagated"? By 
 whom was the art of printing invented 1 By whom was he 
 
 D assisted"? What was the first book printed"? What distinc- 
 
 A tion existed in the scholastic Aristotelic philosophy 1 By 
 what circumstances were the studies of geography, mathe- 
 matics, and medicine severally promoted 1 
 [313, b] In what country did poetry most flourish 1 Name a few 
 of the most distinguished Italian writers. What dialect be- 
 
 c came the language of Italian literature 1 Who was the earli- 
 est German prose writer'? Who was the father of English 
 poetry 1 What new school of architecture arose during this 
 
 D period 1 Where were the best architects 1 Who was the 
 inventor of perspective 1 Who were the most distinguished 
 masters in the earlier Cologne and Flemish schools 1 In what 
 
 a country, and when, was copper-plate printing invented 1 In 
 whose hands was the maritime trade of the South 1 Between 
 what nations was the command of the Mediterranean at first 
 
 B divided 1 What advantages were obtained by Venice during 
 the long war 1 To what confederation did the coasts of wes- 
 tern and northern Europe belong 1 Of how many cities did 
 this union consist 1 Name its three branches. What divi- 
 
208 QUESTIONS TO HANDBOOK, ETC. 
 
 c sion took place at a later period 1 Where were its principal 
 depots 1 What city was at last recognized as the chief of the 
 
 D Union 1 In whose hands was the overland trade 1 ? What 
 fairs were in general repute towards the end of this period 1 
 Where was the principal emporium of the French overland 
 trade 1 
 
APPENDIX. 
 
 REFERENCES FOR A FULLER COURSE. 
 
 In preparing the following references, I have confined myself 
 to such works as are generally found in every good library, with- 
 out aiming at even a partial bibliography of the Middle Ages, 
 which will be given in another place. The student will also find 
 some useful hints in Smith's Lectures, although the references in 
 that work to Continental and French history are very imperfect 
 even in the last edition. 
 
 (The Arabic numerals refer to the Sections in the text.) 
 
 FIRST RERIOD. 
 
 § 1. The original sources for the ancient Germans are Tacitus 
 Germania (V. the valuable notes, though too brief, in Tyler's 
 edition) and Gsesar de Bello Gall., L. VI. 
 
 . Moderns. V. Greene's Historical Series, v. 3, ch. 1 ; also Hist. 
 Geography, ch. 2 ; Gibbon, ch. 9 and part of 10 (Milman's edi- 
 tion) ; Sismondi, Fall of the Roman Empire, ch. 3. 
 
 §8. V. Greene's Hist. Series, ch. 2 ; Gibbon, ch. 39, 41, 43, 45 ; 
 Sismondi, ch. 9, 10, 11 ; Lord Mahon's Bellisarius. 
 
 § 9. Hist. Series, ch. 1, 84 ; ch. 5, 73 ; Gibbon, ch. 33, 36. 37, 
 41 ; Sismondi. ch. 6, 7, 8, 10. 
 
 § 10. Hist. Series, 33. 
 
 $11. Hist. Series, ch. 11, §11; Gibbon, ch. 31, 35, 36, 38, 51; 
 Sismondi. 6, 7, 8, 15. 
 
 § 12. Hist. Series, 51, 52, pass. ; Gibbon, ch. 25, 31, 38 ; Sis- 
 mondi, 8. 
 
 ()13. Hist. Ser., ch. 4, part 1; Gibbon, ch. 35, 38; Sismondi, 
 8, 9, 11, 12. 
 
 §14. Hist. Ser., ch. 4, part 2; ch. 6, pass; Gibbon, by Index. 
 
 <\ 15. Hist. Ser., ch. 5 ; Gibbon and Sismondi, by Index. 
 
 § 16. Hist. Ser., ch. 7 ; Gibbon, ch. 50, 51, part of 52 ; Sis- 
 mondi. 13, 14, part of 15; Iiwing's Mahomet and his Successors; 
 Hallam's Middle Ages, ch. 6; Bush, Life of Mahomet (Fam. 
 Lib.). 
 
210 APPENDIX. 
 
 § 17. Hist. Ser., ch. 5, pass. ; Gibbon, cb. 8, part of 18, 24, 25, 
 42, 46 ; Sismondi, 3, 10, 12, 14. 
 
 § 18. Hist. Ser., cb. 17 ; Gibbon, by Index. 
 § 19. Hist. Ser., cb. 17 ; Gibbon, by Index. 
 
 SECOND PERIOD. 
 
 § 20. V. Hist. Ser., ch. 8, 9 ; Gibbon, 49 ; Sismondi, 16, 17, 18, 
 19, 20 ; Hallani's Middle Ages, cb. 1, p. 1 ; James's History of 
 Charlemagne. 
 
 621. Hist. Ser., cb. 11 ; Gibbon, cb. 49; Sismondi, pass. 
 
 §22. Hist. Ser., ch. 11. 
 
 § 23. Hist. Ser., ch. 11 ; Gibbon, ch. 49 ; Sismondi, 23 ; Hal- 
 lam, parts of ch. 5. 
 
 §24. Hist. Ser., ch. 11; Gibbon, 56; Hallam, ch. 5, part of 
 ch. 7. 
 
 § 25. Hist. Series, ch. 10, 11 ; Sketches of Venetian History 
 (Family Library) ; Gibbon, by Index, and ch. 56 ; Sismondi, 
 Italian Republics (Cab. Cyc). ch. 1. 
 
 ft 26. Hist. Ser., ch. 9; Hallain, ch. 1, part 1. 
 
 § 27. Hist. Ser., ch. 9. 
 
 §28. Hist. Ser., ch. 3; Hume (Alfred), Lingard id. Turner 
 Anglo Saxons, pass. 
 
 § 29. Hist. Ser., eh. 3 ; Hume, Lingard, Turner, by Index. 
 
 §30. Hist. Ser., cb. 10; Thierry's History of the Norman Con- 
 quests ; Hume ; Line-ard ; Turner. 
 
 §32. Hist, Ser., 89. 
 
 §33. Hist. Ser., ch. 7, part 2; Hallam, ch. 4. 
 
 §36, 37, 38, 39, Hist. Ser., ch. 17. 
 
 THIRD PERIOD. 
 
 §41. Hist. Ser., ch. 12; Gibbon, ch. 58, 59, part of 60; Mill's 
 History of the Crusades ; James's do. 
 
 §42, 43, 44. Hist. Ser., ch. 11, §4, id. nos. 217, 218; Hallam, 
 ch. 3, p. 1, ch. 5; Sismondi. Ital. Repub., chn, 2, 3. 
 
 §45. Hist. Ser., ch. 14; Sismondi, Ital. Repub., pass. 
 
 §46. Hist. Ser., cb. 15, §1. 
 
 §47. Hist. Ser., ch. 16, §2. 
 
 §48, 49. Hist. Ser.. ch. 18; Hallam, ch. 4. 
 
 §50. Hist. Ser., ch. 12. 
 
 §52. Gibbon, ch. 57. 
 
 § 53. Gibbon, ch. 64. 
 
 §54 et sq. Hist. Ser., ch. 17. 
 
 § 59. Hallam, ch. 9. 
 
APPENDIX. 211 
 
 FOURTH PERIOD. 
 
 § 60. Koch, Revolutions of Europe, period 5th, part of 6th ; 
 Hist. Ser., pass. 
 
 §61. Hist. Ser., ch. 14; Koch, Rev. of Europe, period 5th, 
 part of 6th. 
 
 ', 62. Hist. Ser., ch. 15, 16 ; Koch, ut sup. 
 
 1 63. Hist. Ser., ch. 15, 16; Koch, ut sup. 
 
 ,64. Hist. Ser., ch. 18. 
 
 1 65, 66, 67. Hist. Ser., ch. 19. 
 
 ,68, 69, 70, 71, 72. Hist. Ser., ch. 17. 
 
 ,73. Hist. Ser., ch. 20; Hallam, ch. 9. 
 
 THE END. 
 
BOJESEN AND ARNOLD'S 
 
 If OUALS of GREEK and ROMAN ANTIQUITIES 
 
 A MANUAL OF GRECIAN ANTIQUITIES. 
 
 BY DR. E. F. BOJESEN, 
 
 Professor of the Greek Language and Literature in the University of Uoro. 
 
 Translated from the German. 
 
 BWTED, WITf. .lOTES AND A COMPLETE SERIES OF QUESTIONS, BY THE REV. THOMAJ 
 K. ARNOLD, M. A. 
 
 •»tRST AMERICA!* EDITION, REVISED WITH ADDITIONS AND CORRECTIONS 
 
 One neat volume, 12mo. Price 62£ cents. 
 
 A MANUAL OF ROMAN ANTIQUITIES 
 
 WITH A SHORT 
 
 HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE. 
 
 BY DR. E. F. BOJESEN. 
 
 EDITED BY THOMAS K. ARNOLD, M. A. 
 
 One neat volume. 12mo. Price 62i cents. 
 
 %* THE ABOVE TWO VOLUMES BOUND IN ONE. PRICE $1. 
 
 The present manuals of Greek and Roman Antiquities are far superior to any thing on the same 
 
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 levents the superficial observer from perceiving the essential superiority of the book to its prede 
 
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 being mot up and retained." 
 
 From Professor Lincoln, of Brown University. 
 i found on mj table after a short absence from home, your edition of Bojesen s Greek and Ro 
 can Antiquities. Pray accept my acknowledgments for it. I am agreeably surprised to find on 
 •lamming it, that within so very narrow a compass fo- so comprehensive a subject, the book con- 
 tains so much valuable matter, and indeed so far as I see, omits noticing no ropics essential 
 It will be a very useful book in Schools and Colleges, and it is far superior to anv thing that 1 
 brow of the same kind. Besides being cheap and accessible to all students it has (' ~ ?rea< maiitat 
 *«cussirjg 'ts topics in a consecutive anil connected manner." 
 
 19 
 
A MANUAL OF ANCIENT AND MODERN HISTORY, 
 
 COMPRISING : 
 
 I. Ancient History, containing the Political History, Geographical Position, and Socia! 
 State of the Principal Nations of Antiquity, carefully digested from the Ancient Writers, and il- 
 lustrated by the discoveries of Modern Travellers and Scholars. 
 
 II. Modern History, containing the Rise and Progress of the principal European Nations, 
 their Political History, and the changes in their Social Condition: with a History of the Coloniea 
 Fmindedbv Europeans. Bv W. COOKE TAYLOR, LL.D.,cf Trinity College, Dublin. Revised, 
 with Additions on A mencan History, by C. S. Henry, D. D., Professor of History in the Univer- 
 sity of N. Y., and Questions adapted for the Use of Schools and Colleges. One handsome vol., 
 fetfo, ol 800 pages, $'J,25 ; Ancient History in 1 vol. $1,25, Modern History in 1 vol., $1,50. 
 
 The Ancient History division comprises Eighteen Chapters, which include the general 
 outlines of the History of Egypt — the Ethiopians — Babylonia and Assyria — Western Asia— Pal 
 estine — de Empire of the Medes and Persians — Phoenician Colonies in Northern Africa — Found- 
 ation and History of the Grecian States — Greece — the Macedonian Kingdom and Empire— the 
 States that arose irom the dismemberment of the Macedonian Kingdom and Empire — Ancient 
 Italy — Sicily — the Roman Republic — Geographical and Political Condition of the Roman Empire. 
 --History of the Roman Empire — and India — with an Appendix of important illustrative articles 
 
 This portion is one of the best Compends of Ancient History that ever yet has appeared. It 
 contains a complete text for the collegiate lecturer ; and is an essential hand-book for the student 
 who is desirous to become acquainted with all that is memorable in general secular archaeology, j 
 
 The Modern History portion is divided into Fourteen Chapters, on the following general 
 subjects : — Consequences of the Fall of the Western Empire — Rise and Establishment of the ' 
 Saracenic Power — Restoration of the Western Empire — Growth of the Papal Power — Revival 
 of Literature — Progress of Civilization and Invention — Reformation, and Commencement of tht 
 States System in Europe — Augustan Ages of England and France — Mercantile and Colonial Sys- 
 tem—Age of Revolutions — French Empire — History of the Peace — Colonization — China— the 
 Jews — with Chronological and Historical Tables and other Indexes. Dr. Henry has appended a 
 new chapter on the History of the United Status. 
 
 This Manual of Modern History, by Mr. Taylor, is the most valuable and instructive work 
 concerning the general subjects which it comprehends, that can be found in the whole department 
 of historical literature. Mi. Taylor's book is fast superseding all other compends, and is already ! 
 adopted as a text-book in Harvard, Columbia, Yale, New-York, Pennsylvania and Brown Uni- 
 versities, and several leading Academies. 
 
 ANUAL 
 
 ANCIENT GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY. 
 
 BY WILHELM PUTZ, 
 
 PRINCIPAL TUTOR IN THB GYMNASIUM OP DUREN. 
 
 Translated from the German. 
 EDITED BY THE REV. THOMAS K. ARNOLD, M. A. 
 
 Author of a Series of" Greek and Latin Text-Books." 
 
 One volume, 12mo. $1. 
 
 £r3™ This work supplies a desideratum in our classical Schools. 
 
 " At no period has History presented such strong claims upon the attention of the learned, as at 
 the present day ; and to no people were its lessons of such value as to those of the United States. 
 With no past of our own to revert to, the great masses of our better educated are tempted to over- 
 look a science, which comprehends all others in its grasp. To prepare a text-book, which shall 
 present a full, clear, and accurate view of the ancient world, its geography, its political, civil, 
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 of the present volume leads us to believe, that as a text-book on Ancient History, for Colleges 
 and Academies, it is the best compend yet published. It bears marks in its methodical arrange- 
 ment, and condensation of materials, of the untiring patience of German scholarship ; and in its 
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 best institutions. A noticeable feature of the book, is its pretty complete list of " sources of in- 
 formntion'"" upon the nations which it describes. This will be an invaluable aid to the studeol 
 fat his future course of reading " 
 
 18 
 
THE SHAKSPEAMAN READEB,.' 
 
 4 COLLECTION DF THE MOST APPROVED PLAYS OF 
 
 SHAKSPEARE. 
 
 Carefully Revised, with Introductory and Explanatory Notes, and a Memoir 
 
 of the Author. Prepared expressly for the use of Classes, 
 
 and the Family Reading Circle. 
 
 BY JOHN W. S. HOWS, 
 
 Professor of Elocution in Columbia College. 
 
 The Man, whom Nature's self hath made 
 
 To mock herself, and Truth to imitate. — Spenser. 
 
 One Volume, 12mo, $1 25. 
 
 At a period when the fame of Shakspeare is "striding the world like a colossus," and edi 
 tions of his works are multiplied with a profusion that testifies the desire awakened in all classes 
 #1 society to read and study his imperishable compositions, — there needs, perhaps, but littla 
 apology for the following selection of his works, prepared expressly to render them unexcep- 
 tionable for the use of Schools, and acceptable for Family reading. Apart from the fact, that 
 Shakspeare is the " well-spring " from which may be traced the origin of the purest poetry in 
 our language, — a long course of professional experience has satisfied me that a necessity exists 
 for the addition of a work like the present, to our stock of Educational Literature. His writings 
 are peculiarly adapted for the purposes of Elocutionary exercise, when the system of instruction 
 pursued by the Teacher is based upon the true principle of the art, viz. — a careful analysis of 
 the structure and meaning of language, rather than a servile adherence to the arbitrary and me- 
 chanical rules of Elocution. 
 
 To impress upon the mind of the pupil that words are the exposition of thought, and that in 
 reading, or speaking, every shade of thought and feeling has its appropriate shade of modulated 
 lone, ought to be the especial aim of every Teacher; and an author like Shakspeare, whose 
 svery line embodies a volume of meaning, should surely form one of our Elocutionary Text 
 Bonks. * * * Still, in preparing a selection of his works for the express purpose contem- 
 plated in my design, I have not hesitated to exercise a severe revision of. his language, beyond 
 that adopted in any similar undertaking — "Bowdler's Family Shakspeare " not even excepted; — 
 ami simply, because I practically know the impossibility of introducing Shakspeare as a Class 
 Book, or as a satisfactory Reading Book for Families without this precautionary revision.— 
 Extract from the Preface. 
 
 (NEARLY READY.) 
 
 MANUAL OE THE GEOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 MIDDLE AGES. 
 
 ranslated from the French of M. Des Michels, Rector of the College of Rouen, 
 with Additions and Corrections. 
 
 BY G. W. GREENE, 
 
 Professor of Modern Languages in Brown University. 
 
 Accompanied with Numerous Engravings and Maps. One Volume, l2mo. 
 TO BE FOLLOWED BY 
 
 A Manual of Modem History, down to the French Revolution. 
 A Manual of Ancient History. 
 A History of Rome. 
 
 \" Great pains will betaken to adapt these books to the practical purposes of the Cl«» 
 Room, and for the guidance of private students. 
 
 16 
 
ftigliaji. 
 
 HISTORICAL 
 MISCELLANEOUS QUESTIONS. 
 
 BY RICHMALL MANGNALL. 
 
 first American, from the Eighty-fourth London Edition. With large Aadiflon» 
 
 Embracing the Elements of Mythology, Astronomy, Architecture, 
 
 Heraldry, &c. Adapted for Schools in the United States 
 
 BY MRS. JULIA LAWRENCE. 
 
 Illustrated with numerous Engravings. One Volume, 12mo. $1. 
 
 CONTENTS. 
 
 A Short View of Scripture History, from the Creation to the Return of the Jews — Question 
 from the Early Ages to the time of Julius Caesar — Miscellaneous Questions in Grecian History 
 —Miscellaneous Questions in General History, chiefly Ancient— Questions containing a Sketch 
 of the most remarkable Events from the Christian Era to the close of the Eighteenth Century- 
 Miscellaneous Questions in Roman History— Questions in English History, from the Invasion of 
 Cassar to the Reformation— Continuation of Questions in English History, from the Reformation 
 to the Present Time— Abstract of Early British History— Abstract of English Reigns from the 
 Conquest — Abstract of the Scottish Reigns — Abstract of the French Reigns, from Pharamond to 
 Philip I— Continuation of the French Reigns, from Louis VI to Louis Phillippe — Questions Re- 
 lating to the History of America, from its Discovery to the Present Time — Abstract of Roman 
 Kings, and most distinguished Heroes — Abstract of the most celebraied Grecians— Of Heathen 
 Mythology in general — Abstract of Heathen Mythology — The Elements of Astronomy— Expla- 
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 Questions on Architecture — Questions on Heraldry — Explanations of such Latin Words and 
 fhrases as are seldom Englished — Questions on the History of the Middle Ages. 
 
 " This is an admirable work to aid both teachers and parents in instructing children and youth, 
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 HISTORY OF ENGLAND, 
 from the Invasion of Julius Caesar to the Reign of Queen Victoria. 
 
 BY MRS. MARKHAM. 
 
 A imw Edition, with Questions, adapted for Schools in the United States. 
 
 BY ELIZA ROBBINS, 
 
 Author of " American Popular Lessons," " Poetry for Schools," Sfc. 
 
 One Volume, 12mo. Price 75 cents. 
 
 There is nothing more needed in our schools than good histories ; not the dry compends h, 
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 Mr. Markham's history was used by that model for all teachers, the late Dr. Arnold, mastei 
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 p ice acceptable in the schools in the United States. I have recently revised it, and trust that it 
 (nay be extensively serviceable in education. 
 
 The principal alterations from the original are a new and more convenient division of para- 
 
 fT^phs, and entire omission of the conversations annexed to the chapters. In the place of thess 
 have affixed questions to every page that may at once facilitate the work of the teacher and 
 the pupil. The rational and moral features of this book first commended it to me, snd I have 
 need it successfully with my own scholars. — Extract/rom the American Editor's Preface 
 
 17 
 
D. Apj)leton Sf Co.'& Publications. 
 
 French, German, Spanish, and English Dictionaries. 
 A DICTIONARY 
 
 OF THE 
 
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 " The value of the work has been greatly enhanced by a careful revision, and the addition of 
 in appendix containing matter essential to its compeleteness either as a book for the use of 
 teachers or for self-instruction." — New- York Commercial Advertiser. 
 
 OLLENDORFF'S 
 FIRST LESSONS IN FRENCH, 
 
 OR 
 
 ELEMENTARY FRENCH GRAMMAR, 
 
 INTRODUCTORY TO OLLENDORFF'S LARGER GRAMMAR, 
 
 BY G . W. GREENE, 
 
 Instructor of Modern Languages in Brown University. 
 One volume, 16mo. 38 cents. ; with a Key, 50 cents. 
 
 This volume is intended as an introduction to " Ollendorff's complete French Method," 
 &» ' is published in accordance with a very general demand made for a more elementary work 
 ti»in the larger Grammar. 
 
 "It is believed that the student who shall take the pains to go carefully through this volume, 
 in the manner suggested in the Directions for studying it, will come to the study of the 
 ' Complete Method ' with a degree of praparation which will render his subsequent progress 
 eaey and agreeable." 
 
 OLLENDORFF'S NEW METHOD 
 
 OF LEARNING TO READ, TRANSLATE, WRITE, AND SFF. K 
 
 THE FRENCH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Preceded by a Treatise on French Pronunciation, by which that difficult part of a spofeen 
 
 language can be 'easily acquired in 12 Lessons. 
 
 Together with a Commercial Correspondence, a Complete Grammatical 
 
 Synopsis, and a Correct Index. 
 
 BY V. VALUE, 
 
 Professor of the French Language. 
 
 One vol. 12mo. 
 
 7 
 
Station* 
 
 OLLENDORFF'S NEW METHOD 
 
 OF 
 
 LEARNING TO READ, WRITE, AND SPEAK 
 
 THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 With Additions and Corrections by Felix Foresti, Prof, of the Italian Language in Columbia 
 College, New-York City. One volume. 12mo. $1 50. 
 
 KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 
 
 One vol. 12mo. 75 cts. 
 United States' Gazette. 
 '• Ollendorff's Italian Grammar. — The system of learning and teaching the Uving lan- 
 guages by Ollendorff is so superior to all other modes, that in England and on the continent oj 
 Europe, scarcely any other is in use, in well-directed academies and other institutions of learning. 
 To those who feel disposed to cultivate an acquaintance with Italian literature, this work will 
 prove invaluable, abridging, by an immense deal, the period commonly employed in studying 
 the language." 
 
 ACCOMPANIMENT TO OLLENDORFF'S ITALIAN GRAMMAR. 
 
 CEESTOMAZIA ITALIANA. 
 
 A COLLECTION OF 
 
 SELECTED PIECES IN ITALIAN PROSE, 
 
 DESIGNED AS A 
 
 CLASS READING BOOK FOR BEGINNERS 
 
 IN THE STUDY OF 
 
 THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 BY E. FELIX FOREST!, LL. D., 
 
 PROFESSOR OF THE ITALIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN COLUMBIA COLLEGE 
 
 AND IN THE UNIVERSITY OF THE CITY OF NEW- YORK. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. Price $1. 
 
 ". The Italian Reader is compiled by Mr. Foresti, Professor of the Italian Language in the 
 Columbia College and the University of New- York. It appears to be designed to follow the study 
 of Ollendorff's Italian Grammar, on which work many correct judges have pronounced that na 
 important improvement can well be made. In making selections for the book before us, Mr. 
 Foresti has preferred modern Italian writers to the old school of novelists, historians, and poets. 
 In this he has done a good thing ; for the Italian Reader contains the modem language. True, 
 ihere are some innovations, some changes which many would deem a departure from original 
 punty, but nevertheless it is the language which one finds and hears spoken in Italy. These 
 changes have gone on under the eye and against the stern authority of the Academy delta Crusca, 
 and in their magnificent new dictionary, new in process of publication, they have found them- 
 selves compelled to insert many words which are the growth not only of modern necessity, but 
 of caprice. 
 
 " The selections in the Italian Reader are from popular authors, such as Botta, Manzoni, 
 Machiavelli, Villani, and others. They are so made as not to constitute mere exercises, but con- 
 tain distinct relations so complete as to gratify the reader and engage his attention while they 
 instruct. This is a marked improvement on that old system which exacted much labor without 
 enlisting the sympathies of the student. The selections from Manzoni, for example, are from 
 the " Promessi Sposi," one of the noblest works of fiction ever issued from the press — a work 
 bo popular as to have gone through an incredible number of editions in Italy, while it has been 
 translated into every language of Europe. There have been, we believe, no less than three dis- 
 tinct English translations made, two of which were done in this country. The Reader contains 
 six extracts from this novel, among which are the beautiful episodes of Father Cristoforo and 
 thie Nun oI'Monza, and a description of the famine and plague of Milan in the year 1630. The 
 account of the plague rivals the celebrated one of Boccacio in his Decameron. The idioms 
 that occur in the selections are explained by a glossary appended to each. The Italian Reader 
 can with confidence be recommended to students in the language as a safe and sure guide. After 
 mastering it, the Italian poets and other classicists may be approached with confidence." — Savor* 
 nah Republican. 
 
 ll 
 
dtaura. 
 
 OLLENDORFF'S NEW METHOD 
 
 OF LEARNING TO READ, WRITE, AND SPEAK 
 
 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 Reprinted from the Frankfort edition, to which is added a Systematic Outline of the different 
 
 Parts of Speech, their Inflection and Use, with full Paradigms, and a 
 
 complete List of the Irregular Verbs. 
 
 BY GEORGE J. AOLER, A. B., 
 
 Pnfessor of German in the University of the City of New-York. One volume, 12mo. $1 99. 
 
 0= A KEY TO THE EXERCISES, in a separate voume. 75 cts. 
 
 " Ollendorff's new method of Learning to Read, Write, and Speak the German Lan- 
 guage, with a systematic outline of German Grammar, by George J. Atuer, is one of those rare 
 works which leave nothing to be desired on the subjects of which they treat. The learner's dif- 
 ficulties are so fully and exactly provided for, that a constant sense of satisfaction and progress 
 is felt from the beginning to the end of the book. A bare inspection of one of the lessons will 
 satisfy any one acquainted with the elements of German grammar, that it adapts itself perfectly 
 to his' wants. With the systematic outline of grammar by Prof. Adler, the new method is sub- 
 stantially perfect, and it is probably second in its advantages only to residence and intercourse 
 with educated Germans." 
 
 " The study of the German is becoming so essential a part of an ordinary education, that 
 every work tending to facilitate the acquisition of the language should be welcomed. An Ameri- 
 can edition of Ollendorff has been much wanted. His system is based upon natural principles. 
 He teaches by leading the student to the acquisition of phrases, from which he deduces the rules 
 of the language. The idioms are also carefully taught, and the entire construction of the system 
 Is such that, if adhered to with fidelity and perseverance, it will secure such a practical know- 
 ledge of the German as can be acquired by no other mode, so rapidly and thoroughly^ We 
 heartily commend the book to all who really wish to understand a tongue which contains so 
 many treasures. 
 
 A PROGRESSIVE GERMAN READER, 
 
 PREPARED WITH REFERENCE TO 
 
 OLLENDORFF'S GERMAN GRAMMAR, 
 
 WITH COPIOUS NOTES AND A VOCABULARY, 
 
 BY G. J. ADLER, 
 
 Professor of the German Language and Literature in the University of the City of N. Y. 
 One volume, 12mo. $1. 
 The favorable reception which Ollendorff's German Grammar has received from the Ameri- 
 can public, has induced the Publishers and the Editor to comply with the very general demand 
 for a German Reader. 
 
 The plan of this Reader is as follows, viz. : 
 
 1. The pieces are both prose and poetry, selected from the best authors, and are so arranged 
 as to present sufficient variety to keep alive the interest of the scholar. 
 
 2. It is progressive in its nature, the pieces being at first very short and easy, and increasing 
 in difficulty and length as the learner advances. 
 
 3. At the bottom if the page constant references to the Grammar are made, the difficult pas- 
 sages are explained and rendered. To encourage the first attempt of the learner as much as pos- 
 sible, the twenty-one pieces of the first section are analyzed, and all the necessary words given at 
 the bottom of the page. The notes, which at first are very abundant, diminish as the learnei 
 advances. 
 
 4. It contains _/h'e sections. The first, contains easy pieces, chiefly in prose, with all the wordi 
 necessary for translating them ; the second, short pieces in prose and poetry alternately, witf 
 copious notts and renderings ; the third, short popular tales of Grimm and others; the fourth 
 select ballads and other poems from Buerger, Goethe, Schiller, Uhland, Schyver, Cha 
 Misso, &c. ; the fifth, prose extracts from the first classics. 
 
 5. At the end is added a vocabulary of all the words occurring in the book. 
 
 JUST READY, 
 
 THE PRACTICAL GERMAN GRAMMAR; 
 
 OR, A NATURAL METHOD OF LEARNING TO READ, WRITE, AND SPEAK 
 
 THE GERMAN LANGUAGE. 
 
 By CHARLES EICHHORN. One vol. 12mo, $1. 
 
 12 
 
€nnk anil iCnfiu. 
 
 THE HISTORIES 
 
 OF 
 
 CAIUS CORNELIUS TACITUS, 
 
 WITH NOTES FOR COLLEGES. 
 
 BY W. S. TYLER, 
 
 Professor of Languages in Amherst College. 
 One volume, 12mo. $1 =00. 
 
 The text of this edition follows, for the most part, Orelli's, Zurich, 1848, which, be»ig based oa 
 a new and most faithful recension of the Medicean MS., by his friend Baiter, may justly be con- 
 sidered as marking a new era in the history of the text of Tacitus. In several passages, however, 
 where he has needlessly departed from the MS., I have not hesitated to adhere to it in company 
 with other editors, believing, that not urrfrequently " the most corrected copies are the less correct." 
 Ths various readings have been carefully compared throughout, and, if important, are referred toia 
 the notes. 
 
 The editions which have been most consulted, whether in the criticism of the text or in the 
 preparation of the notes, are, besides Orelli's, those of Walther, Halle, 1831 ; Ruperti, Hanove r 
 I8:i9 ; and Doderlein, Halle, 1847. * * * * 
 
 It vvili be seen, that there are not unfrequent references to my edition of the Germania and 
 Agricula. These are not of such a nature, as to render this incomplete without that, or essentially 
 dependent upon it Still, if both editions are used, it will be found advantageous to read the 
 Germania and Agricola first. The Treatises were written in that order, and in that order they best 
 illustrate the history of the author's mind. The editor has found in his experience as a teacher, 
 that students generally read them in that way with more facility and pleasure, and he has con- 
 sinicied nis notes accordingly. It is hoped, that the notes will be found to contain not only the 
 grammatical, but likewise all the geographical, archaeological and historical illustrations, that are 
 necessary to render the author intelligible. The editor has at least endeavored to avoid the fault, 
 which Lord Bacon says " is over usual in annotations and commentaries, viz., to blanch the 
 obscure places, and discourse upon the plain." But it has been his constant, not to say his chief 
 aim, to carry students 'teyond the dry details of grammar and lexicography, and introduce them 
 into a familiar acquaintance and lively sympathy with the author and his times, and with that 
 great empire, of whose degeneracy and decline in its beginnings he has bequeathed to us so profound 
 and instructive a history. The Indexes have been prepared with much labor and care, and, it if 
 believed, will add materially to the value of the work. — Extract from Preface. 
 
 THE GERMANIA AND AGRICOLA 
 
 OF 
 
 -CAIUS CORNELIUS TACITUS. 
 
 WITH NOTES FOR COLLEGES. 
 
 BY W. S. TYLER, 
 
 Professor of the Greek and Latin Languages in Amherst College. 
 Oue very neat volume, 12mo. 62£ cents. 
 
 " Ws welcome the book as a useful addition to the classical literature of our country. It is *wr* 
 •orrectly and elegantly prepared and printed. Thirteen pages are occupied by a well-written Life 
 Of Tacitus, in w"l 'ch not - merely outward events are narrated, but the character of the bistoi.ao, 
 both as a man ana a writer, is minutely and faithfully drawn. The notes to each ot the tieatiset 
 are introduced by a general critique upon the merits and matter of the work. The body ot th/s 
 notes is drawn up with care, learning, and judgment. Points of style and grammatical const.au- 
 tifMK and historical references, are ably illustrated. We have been struck with the elegant 
 precision which marks' these notes: they hit the happy medium between the too much oi some 
 commentators, and the to u little of others."— JVo?-*A American Review. 
 
 Anion" the numeious classical Professors who have highly commended and introduced this 
 voinme are FutroN of Howard, Lincoln of Brown University, Crosby of Dartmouth, Coi.xhas 
 of Princeton, North of Hamilton, Packard of Bowdoin. Owen of New-York, CmMPLiN oJ 
 WatervUle, &c &.c 
 
 * 
 
 
fork rnifr Intra. 
 
 TITUS LIVIUS. 
 
 CHIEFLY FROM THE TEXT OF ALSCHEFSKI. 
 
 WITH 
 
 ENGLISH NOTES, GRAMMATICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 
 
 TOGETHER 
 WITH A GEOGRAPHICAL AND HISTORICAL INDEX. 
 
 BY J. L. LINCOLN, 
 
 Professor of Latin in Brown University. 
 
 WITH AN ACCOMPANYING- PLAN OF ROME, AND A MAP OF THE PASSAGE Oi HANNIBAL. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. Price $1. 
 
 The publishers believe that, in the edition of Livy herewith announced, a want is supplied 
 which nas been universally felt ; there being previous to this no American edition furnished wit! 
 the requisite apparatus for the successful prosecution of the study of this Latin author. 
 
 OPINIONS OF CLASSICAL PROFESSORS. 
 
 From Professor Kingsley, of Yale College. 
 
 "I have not yet been able to read the whole of your work, but have examined it enough to ao 
 satisfied that it is judiciously prepared, and well adapted to the purpose intended. We use il 
 for :he present year, in connection with the edition that has been used for several years. Most 
 of the class, however, have procured your edition ; and it is probable that next year it will be 
 used by all." 
 
 From Professor Tyler, of Amherst College. 
 
 "The notes seem to me to be prepared with much care, learning, and taste ; the grammatical 
 illustrations are unusually full, faithful, and able. The book has been used by our Freshman 
 Class, and will I doubt not come into general use in our colleges. 
 
 From Professor Packard, of Bowdoin College. 
 " T have recommended your edition to our Freshman Class. I have no doubt that your labors 
 will give a new impulse to the study of this charming classic. 
 
 From Professor Anderson, of Walerville College. 
 "A careful examination of several portions of your work has convinced me that, for the use 
 of students it is altogether superior to any edition of Livy with which I am acquainted. Among 
 its excellences you will permit me to name, the close attention given to particles — to the sub- 
 junctive mood — the constant references to the grammars — the discrimination of words nearly 
 synonymous, and the care in giving the localities mentioned in the text. The book will be here- 
 after used in our college." 
 
 From Professor Johnson, of New- York University. 
 
 " I can at present only say that your edition pleases mo much. I shall give it to one of my 
 tlasses next week. I am prepared to find it just what was wanted." 
 
 NEARLY READY. 
 
 WORKS OF HORACE. 
 
 WITH ENGLISH NOTES, CRITICAL AND EXPLANATORY. 
 
 BY J- L. LINCOLN, 
 Professor of Latin in Brown University. 
 
 WITH MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS. 
 
 One volume, 12mo. 
 
 The text of this edition will be chiefly that of Orelli ; and the No'es, besides embodying what- 
 ever is valuable in the most recent and' approved German editions of Horace, will contain the 
 results of the Editor's studies and experience as a College Professor, which he has been gather- 
 ing and maturing for several years with a view to put'ication. It will be the aim of both the 
 Publishers and the Editor to make this edition in all respects suitable to the wants of American 
 schools and colleges. 
 
fek ml ICatnu 
 
 C. JULIUS CAESAR'S commentaries 
 
 GALLIC WAR. 
 
 With English Notes, Critical and Explanatory ; A Lexicon, Geographical and 
 Historical Indexes, &c. 
 
 BY REV. J. A. SPENCER, A. M„, 
 
 Editor of "Arnold's Series of Greek and Latin Books" etc. 
 
 One handsome vol. 12mo, with Map. Price $1. 
 
 The press of Messrs. Appleton is becoming prolific of superior editions of the classics used 
 in schools, and the volume now before us we are disposed to regard as one of the most beautiful 
 and highly finished among them all, both in its editing and its execution. The classic Latin in which 
 the greatest general and the greatest writer of his age recorded his achievements, has been sadly 
 corrupted in the lapse of centuries, and its restoration to a pure and perfect text is a work re- 
 quiring nice discrimination and sound learning. The text which Mr. Spencer has adopted is (hat 
 of Oudeudorp, with such variations as were suggested by a careful collation of the leading critics 
 of Germany. The notes are as tlu/ should be, designed to aid the labors of the student, not to 
 supersede them. In addition to these, the volume contains a sketch of the life of Caesar, a brief 
 Lexicon of Latin words, a Historical and a Geographical Index, together with a map of the 
 country in which the great Roman conqueror conducted the campaigns he so graphically de- 
 scribes. The volume, as a whole, however, appears to be admirably suited to the purpose for 
 which it was designed. Its style of editing and its typographical execution reminds us of Prof. 
 Lincoln's excellent edition of Livy — a work which some months since had already passed to a 
 second impression, and has now been adopted in most of the leading schools and -:: lieges of the 
 country. — Providence Journal. 
 
 CICERO DE OFFICII S. 
 
 WITH CRITICAL AND PHILOLOGICAL NOTES, INDEXES, &0 
 
 BY PROFESSOR THATCHER, 
 
 Of Yale College, New Haven. 
 
 One Volume, 12mo. (Just ready.) 
 
 . CICERO'S ORATIONS. 
 
 WITH CRITICAL AND PHILOLOGICAL NOTES, INDEXES, 
 
 BY E, A, JOHNSON, 
 
 Professor of Latin in the University of the City of New- York. 
 
 One Volume, 12mo. (Nearly ready.) 
 
 EXERCISES IN GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION, 
 
 ADAPTED TO THE 
 
 FIRST BOOK OF XENOPHON'S ANABASIS. 
 
 BY JAMES R. BOISE, 
 
 Professor in Brown University. 
 
 One Volume, 12mo. Price Seventy-five Cents 
 
 For the convenience of the learner, an English-Greek Vocabulary, a Catalogue of the lrreg 
 Ular Verbs, and an Index to the principal Grammatical Notes, have been appended 
 
D. Appleton Sf Co.'s Educational Publications. 
 
 French, German, Italian, and Spanish Reading Books, 
 
 NEW ELEMENTARY FRENCH READER. 
 
 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE TRENCH LANGUAGE. 
 
 Containing Fables, Select Tales, Remarkable Facts, Amusing Anecdotea, 
 
 &c. With a Dictionary of all the Words, translated into English. 
 
 By M. De Fivas, Member of Several Literary Societies. 
 
 One neat volume, 16mo. Price 50 cents. 
 
 II. 
 
 NEW MODERN FRENCH READER. 
 
 MORCEAUX CHOISIES DES AUTEURS MODERNES, 
 
 A LA USAGE DE LA JEUNE3SE; 
 With a Vocabulary of the New and Difficult Words and Idiomatic Phrasee 
 adopted in Modern French Literature. By F. Rowan. Edited by 
 J. L. Jewett, Editor of Ollendorff's French Grammar. 
 One volume, 12mo. 75 cents. 
 
 III. 
 NEW DRAMATIC FRENCH READER. 
 
 CHEES-D'(EUVRES DRAMATIUUES 
 DE LA LANGrUE FRANCAISE. 
 
 Mifl en Ordre Progressif, et Amide's, pour en faciliter L' Intelligence. PAr 
 
 A. G. Collot, Professor de Langues et de Litterature. 
 
 One volume, 12mo, of 520 pages. Price $1. 
 
 A PROGRESSIVE GERMAN READER, 
 
 Prepared with reference to Ollendorff's German Grammar, with copious Note* 
 
 and a Vocabulary. By G J. Adler, Professor of the German Language 
 
 and Literature in the University of the City of New- York. 
 
 One neat volume, 12mo. $1. 
 
 V. 
 
 NEW ITALIAN READER. 
 
 CRESTOMAZIA ITALIANA: 
 
 A Collection of Selected Pieces in Italian Prose, designed as a Class Reading- 
 Book for Beginners in the Study of the Italian Language. By E. Felix 
 Fokesti, LL. D., Professor of the Italian Language and Literature in 
 Columbia College and in the University of the City of New- York. 
 One neat volume, 12mo. Price §1. 
 
 A NEW SPANISH READER. 
 
 Csraisting of Passages from the most approved Authors in Prose and Verse 
 arranged in Progressive Order ; 
 
 For the use of those who wish to obtain easily a Practical Knowledge of the Castilian 
 
 Language ; with Plain Rules for its Pronunciation, Notes Explanatory of the 
 
 Idioms and Difficult Constructions, and a Copious Vocabulary. 
 
 MUM a ■iqoil to Ollendorff's method of learning to riad, writs, ard inu 
 
 THE SPANISH LANGUAGE. 
 
 By MARIANO VELAZCUEZ DE LA CADENA, 
 Editoi of Ollendorff's Spanish Grammar. One nest volume I2mo. Price 81.25 
 
(ftogltajf. 
 A DICTIONARY OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE, 
 
 •IONTAINING THE PRONUNCIATION, ETYMOLOGY, AND EXPLANATION OP ALL WORDS A> 
 THORIZED BY EMINENT WRITERS J 
 
 To which are added, a Vocabulary or' the Roots of English Words, and an Accented 
 List of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names 
 
 BY ALEXANDER REID ? A.M., 
 
 Rector of the Circus School, Edinburgh. 
 
 With.l Critical Preface, by Henry Reed, Professor of English Literature in the University a 
 
 Pennsylvania, and an Appendix, showing the Pronunciation of nearly 300Q * 
 
 the most important Geographical Names. One volume, Ylw 
 
 of nearly 600 pages, bound in Leather. Price $1 
 
 Among the wants of our time was a good dictionary of our own language, especially adapted 
 for academies and schools. The books which have long been in use were of little value to the 
 junior students, being too concise in the definitions, and immethodical in the arrangement 
 Reid's English Dictionary was compiled expressly to develop the precise analogies ano ^.triou 
 properties of the authorized words in general use, by the standard authors and orators who use 
 our vernacular tongue. 
 
 Exclusive of the large number of proper names which are appended, this Dictionary includes 
 four especial improvements — and when their essential value to the student is considered, the 
 stealing character of the work as a hand-book of our language will be instantly perceived. 
 
 The primitive word is distinguished by a larger type ; and when there are any derivatives 
 from it, they follow in alphabetical order, and the part of speech is appended, thus furnishing a 
 complete classification of all the connected analogous words of the same species. " 
 
 With this facility to comprehend accurately the determinate meaning of the English word, is 
 conjoined a rich illustration for the linguist. The derivation of all the primitive words is dis- 
 tinctly given, and the phrases of the languages whence they are deduced, whether composite or 
 eimple ; so that the student of foreign languages, both ancient and modern, by a reference to 
 any word, can ascertain the source whence it has been adopted into our own form of speech. 
 This is a great acquisition to the person who is anxious to use words in their utmost clearness 
 of maa.ii.'.g. 
 
 To these advantages is subjoined a Vocabulary of the Roots of English Words, which is of 
 peculiar value to the collegian. The fifty pages which it includes, furnish the linguist with a 
 wide-spread field of research, equally amusing and instructive. There is also added an Ac 
 cented List, to the number of fifteen thousand, of Greek, Latin, and Scripture Proper Names. 
 
 • BURNHAM'S SERIES OF ARITHMETICS 
 
 FOR 
 
 COMMON SCHOOLS AND ACADEMIES. 
 
 PART FIRST is a work on Mental Arithmetic. The philosophy of the mode of teaching 
 adopted in this work, is : commence where the child commences, and proceed as the child pro- 
 ceeds : fall in with his own mode of arriving at truth ; aid him to think for himself, and do nof 
 the thinki ig for him. Hence a series of exercises are given, by which the child is made familiar 
 with the process, which he has already gone through with in acquiring his present knowledge. 
 These exercises interest the child, and prepare him for future rapid progress. The plan is 29 
 clearly unfolded by illustration and example, that he who follows it can scarcely fail to securo 
 OR the part of his pupils, a thorough knowledge of the subject. 
 
 PART SECOND is a work on Written Arithmetic. It is the result of a long experience 
 m teaching, and contains sufficient of Arithmetic for the practical business purposes of life. It 
 illustrates mo'e fully and applies more extendedly and practically the principle of Cancellation 
 than any other Arithmetical treatise. This method as here employed in connection with the or- 
 dinary, furnishes a variety of illustrations, which cannot fail to interest and instruct the scholar. 
 It is a prominent idea throughout, to impress upon the mind of the scholar the truth that he will 
 never discover, nor need a new principle beyond the simple rules. The pupil is shown, by a 
 variety of new modes of illustration, that new names and new positions introduce no new prin- 
 ciple, but that they are merely matters of convenience. Fractions are treated and explained the 
 Bame as whole numbers. Formulas are also given for drilling the scholar upon the Blackboard, 
 which will be found of service to many teachers of Common Schools. 
 
THE 
 
 FIE ST HISTQEY OF EOME, 
 
 WITH QUESTIONS. 
 
 BY E. M. SE WELL, 
 
 Author of Amy Herbert, &c. &c. One volume, 16mo. 50 cts. 
 
 Extract from Editor's Preface. 
 
 " History is the naiTative of real events in the order and circumstances in which they occurred 
 aad of all histories, that of Rome comprises a series of events more interesting and instructive f* 
 youthful readers than any other that has ever been written. 
 
 " Of the manner in which Miss Sewell has executed this work we can scarcely speak in terms 
 of approbation too strong. Drawing her materials from the best — that is to say, the most reli- 
 able — sources, she has incorporated them in a narrative at once unostentatious, perspicuous. 
 anci graphic; manifestly aiming throughout to be clearly understood by those for whom she 
 wrote, and to impress "deeply and permanently on their minds what she wrote; and in both 
 of these aims we think she has been eminently successful." 
 
 MYTHOLOGY OF ANCIENT GREECE AND ITALY, 
 
 FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS. 
 
 BY THOMAS KE1GHTLEY. 
 
 One vol. 16mo. 42 cts. 
 " This is a neat little volume, and well adapted to the purpose for which it was prepared. It 
 presents, in a very compendious and convenient form, every thing relating to the subject, 0/ 
 importance to the young student." — L. 1. Star. 
 
 r F N F T! AT 
 
 HISTOEY OF CIVILIZATION IN EUEOPE, 
 
 FROM THE FALL OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE TO THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. 
 BY M. GUI ZOT. 
 
 Eighth A merican, from the second English, edition, with occasional Notes, by C. S. Henry, D. D. 
 One volume, 12mo. 75 cts. 
 
 " M. Guizot, in his instructive lectures, has given us an epitome of modern histor r , distm-: 
 guished by all the merit which, in another department, renders Blackstone a subject of such 
 peculiar and unbounded praise. A work closely condensed, including nothing useless, omit- 
 ting nothing essential ; written with grace, and conceived and arranged with consummate 
 »bility." — Boston Traveller. 
 
 t£S~ The above valuable work has been introduced into Harvard University, Union 
 College, University of Pennsylvania, New- York University, Sfc. #c. 
 
 IN PREPARATION, 
 
 EASY LESSONS IN LANDSCAPE, 
 
 FOR THE PENCIL. 
 
 BY F. N. OTIS. 
 
 IN THREE PARTS, EACH CONTAINING SIXTEEN LESSONS. 
 
 Price, 38 cts. each part. 
 
 These Lessons are intended for the use of schools and families, and are so arranged that 
 With the aid of the accompanying directions, teachers unacquainted with drawing may intro 
 duce it successfully into their schools; and those unable to avail themselves of the od vantagal 
 Ufa teacher, may pursue the atudy of drawing without difficulty. 
 
 1 . 
 
iBiigltsjj. 
 PROF. MANDEVILLE'S READING BOOKS. 
 
 I. PRIMARY, OR FIRST READER. Price 10 cents. 
 
 II. SECOND READER. Price 16 cents. 
 
 These two Readers are formed substantially on the same plan ; anc the second is a continua- 
 tion of the first. The design of both is, to combine a knowledge of the meaning and pronuncia- 
 tion of words, with a knowledge of their grammatical functions. The parts of speech are in- 
 troduced successively, beginning with the articles, these are followed by the uemonstrative pre- 
 nouns ; and these again by others, class after class, until all that are requisite to form a sentence 
 jave been separately considered ; when the common reading lessons begin. 
 
 The Second Reader reviews the ground passed over in the Primary, but adds largely to th 
 (mount of information. The child is here also taught to read writing as well as printed matter; 
 and in the reading lessons, attention is constantly directed to the different ways in which 
 sentences are formed and connected, and of the peculiar manner in which each of them is deliv- 
 ered. All who have examined these books, have pronounced them a decided and important ad- 
 vance on every other of the same class in use. 
 
 m. THIRD READER. Price 25 cents. 
 
 IV. FOURTH READER. Price 38 cents. 
 
 In the first two Readers, the main object is to make the pupil acquainted wiu the meaning 
 and functions of words, and to' impart facility in pronouncing them in sentential connection : the 
 leading design of these, is to form a natural, flexible, and varied delivery. Accordingly, the 
 Third Reader opens with a series of exercises on articulation and modulation, containing numer- 
 ous examples for practice on the elementary sounds (including errors to be corrected) and on the 
 different movements of the voice, produced by sentential structure, by emphasis, and by the pas- 
 sions. The habits formed by these exercises, which should be thoroughly, as they can be easily 
 mastered, under intelligent instruction, find scope for improvement and confirmation in the 
 reading lessons which follow, in the same book and that which succeeds. 
 
 These lessons have been selected with special reference to the following peculiarities : 1st. 
 Colloquial character ; 2d, Variety of sentential structure ; 3d, Variety of subject matter ; 4th 
 Adaptation to the progressiv; development of the pupil's mind; and, as far as possible, 5th, 
 Tendency to excite moral and religious emotions. Great pains have been taken to make tha 
 books in these respects, which are^ in fact, characteristic ol the whole series, superior to any 
 oAers in use ; with what success, a brief comparison will readily show. 
 
 V. THE FIFTH READER ; OR, COURSE OF READING. Price 75 cents. 
 
 VI. THE ELEMENTS OF READING AND ORATORY. Price $1. 
 
 These books are designed to cultivate the literary taste, as well as the understanding and voca. 
 powers of the pupil. 
 
 The Course op Reading comprises three parts ; the first part containing a more elaborate 
 description of elementary sounds and the parts of speech grammatically considered than waa 
 deemed necessary in the preceding works ; here indispensable : part second, a complete classifi- 
 cation and description of every sentence to be found in the English, or any other language; ex- 
 amples ol" which in every degree of expansion, from a few words to the half of an octavo page 
 in length, are adduced, and arranged to be read ; and as each species has its peculiar delivery as 
 well as structure, both are learned at the same time ; part third, paragraphs ; or sentences in 
 their connection unfolding general thoughts, as in the common reading books. It may be ob- 
 served that the selections of sentences in part second, and of paragraphs in part third, comprise 
 some of the finest gems in the language : distinguished alike for beauty of thought and facility 
 of diction. If not found in a school book, they might be approprately called " elegant extracts " 
 
 The Elements op Reading and Oratory closes the series with an exhibition of the whole 
 theory and art of Elocution exclusive of gesture. It contains, besides the classification of sen- 
 tences already referreu is, but here presented with fuller statement and illustration, the laws of" 
 punctuation and delivery deduced trom it: the whole followed by carefully selected oieces fot 
 sentential analysis and vocal practice. 
 
 The Result.— The student who acquaints himself thoroughly with the content of this 
 book, will, as numerous experiments have proved; 1st, Acquire complete knowledge of ths 
 structure of the language ; 2d, Be able to designate any sentence of any book by name at a 
 glance ; 3d, Be able to declare with equal rapidity its proper punctuation ; 4th, Be able to delare, 
 and with sufficient practice to give its proper delivery. Such are a few of the general character- 
 istics of the series of school books which the publishers now offer to the friends and patrons 
 of a sound common school and academic education. For more particular information, reference 
 is respectfully made to the " Hints," which may be found at the beginning of each volume. 
 
 N. B. The punctuation in all these books conforms, in the main, to the sense and proper de- 
 livery of every sentence, and is a guide to both. When a departure from the proper punctuation 
 occurs, the proper delivery is indicated. As reading books are usually punctuated, it is a matter 
 of surprise that children should learn to read at all. 
 
 *.* The above series of Reading Books are already very extensively introduced and com- 
 mended by tne most experienced Teachers in the country. "Prof. Mandeville's system is emi- 
 nently original, scientific and practical, and destined wherever it is introduced to supersede at 
 Mice all others." 
 
 22 
 
§xnk aul Mil 
 
 ARNOLD'S CLASSICAL SERIES. 
 
 i. 
 
 A FIRST AND SECOND LATIN BOOK 
 
 AND PRACTICAL GRAMMAR. By Thomas K. Arnold, A.M. Revised and can All's 
 Corrected, by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12mo., 75 cts. 
 
 it 
 LATIN PROSE COMPOSITION: 
 
 A Practical Introduction to Latin Prose Composition. By Thomas K. Arnold, A. ML 
 Revised and Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., $1. 
 
 FIRST GREEK BOOK; 
 
 With Easy Exercises and Vocabulary. By Thomas K. Arnold, A. M. Reviseo. and Coj 
 rected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., 63 cts. 
 
 IV. 
 
 GREEK PROSE COMPOSITION: 
 
 A Practical Introduction to Greek Prose Composition. By Thomas K. Arnold, A M. 
 Revised and Corrected by J. A. Spencer, A. M. One vol. 12mo., 75 cts. 
 
 GREEK READING BOOK, 
 
 For the Use of Schools; containing the substance of the Practical Introduction to Greek Con 
 
 struing, and a Treatise on the Greek Particles, by the Rev. Thomas K. Arnold, 
 
 A. M., and also a Copious Selection from Greek Authors, with English 
 
 Notes, Critical and Explanatory, and a Lexicon, by 
 
 J. A. Spencer, A. M. 12mo., $\ 50 
 
 CORNELIUS NEPOS; 
 
 With Practical Questions and Answers, and an Imitative Exercise on each Chapter. By 
 
 Thomas K. Arnold, A. M. Revised, with Additional Notes, by Prof. Johnson, 
 
 Professor of the Latin Language in the University of the City of 
 
 New- York. 12mo. A new, enlarged edition, with 
 
 Lexicon, Index, &c, $1. 
 
 "Arnold's Greek and Latin Series. — The publication of this valuable collection of 
 Classical school books may be regarded as the .presage of better things in respect to the mode of 
 teaching and acquiring languages. Heretofore boys have been condemned to the drudgery o* 
 going over Latin and Greek Grammar without the remotest conception of the value of wha 
 they were learning, and every day becoming more and more disgusted with the dry and un- 
 meaning task; but now, by Mr. Arnold's admirable method— substantially the same with that of 
 Ollendorff— the moment they take up the study of Latin or Greek, they begin to learn sentences. 
 to acquire ideas, to see how the Romans and Greeks expressed themselves, how their mode of 
 expression -differed from ours, and by degrees they lay up a stock of knowledge which is utterly 
 astonishing to those who have dragged on month alter month in the old-fashioned, dry, and 
 tedious way of learning languages. 
 
 " Mr. Arnold, in fact, has had the good sense to adopt the system of nature. A child learns 
 his own language by imitating what he hears, and constantly repeating it till it is fastene J in 
 the memoiy ; in the same way Mr. A. puts the pupil immediately to work at Exercises in I urn 
 and Greek, involving the elementary principles of the language — words are supplied— the iv ide 
 of putting them together is told the pupil — he is shown how the ancients expressed their ideas ; 
 and then, by repeating these things again and again — iterum iterumque — the docile puril has 
 them indelibly impressed upon his memory and rooted in his understanding. 
 
 "The American Editor is a thorough classical scholar, and has been a practical teacher for 
 years in this city. He has devoted the utmost care to a complete revision of Mr. Arnold's works 
 has corrected several errors of inadvertence or otherwise, has rearranged and improved various 
 matters in the early volumes of the series, and has attended most diligently to the accurate print- 
 ing and mechanical execution of the whole. We anticipate most confidently the speedy adoption 
 of these works in our schools and colleges." 
 
 *.* Arnold's Scries of Classical Works has attained a circulation almost unparalleled, being 
 uitxoduced into nearly all the Colleges and leading Educational Institutions in the United States 
 

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