OF THE :w?'' ^^ V V .H -n* WASHINGTON TAKING COMMAND Ob' THE AKMY. A SCHOOL HISTOEY OF THE UNITED STATES, SUSAN PENDLETON LEE, AUTHOR OF "LIFE OF GENERAL, WILLIAM N. PENDLETON." WITH Questions and Summaries for Reviews and Essays, BY LOUISE MANLY, TEAOHEH OF LITERAXrRE AND LANGUAGES AND AUTHOR OF " SOUTHERN LITERATURE." JUL 17 1895 KICHMOND, VA.: B. F. JOHNSON PUBLISHING COMPANY, 1895- Copyright, 1895, by Susan Pendleton Lee. ^i^ PREFACE. This Histoky has been prepared with the desire to give the children and youth of the United States, and especially those of the Southern States, a fair and just and interesting- account of the whole country from Maine to Texas and California. Most of the School Histories now in use tell in detail the story of the northern half of the country, while only a few chapters are devoted to its southern half. In this book, an honest effort is made to speak truthfully of both without sectional passion or prejudice. Adding the history of the Southern States and of the Civil War, to what is told in other School Histories, has necessarily made this volume larger. After all possible condensation, it has not been found i:)racticable to compress truth into a smaller com- pass without reducing it to a dry compendium of facts and dates utterly devoid of interest, and impossible to remember. A list of some of the principal authorities for the statements made is appended to each chapter. Many, many besides these have been carefully consulted. The figures and accounts of the Civil War have been taken with great care from the " Official Records of the Union and Confederate Armies," published by the United States War Department in Washington, and can be fully substantiated by reference to them. The Author acknowledges gratefully the valuable assistance she has received from the Libraries of Washington and Lee University and the Virginia Military Institute. She is also specially indebted to Professor Henry Alexander White and Hon. William A. Anderson of Lexington, and to Mr. Rosewell Page of Richmond, Va., for the helpful and important aid given by them in examining and criti- cising her manuscript. A Southern Book, in the writing and publication, it is hoped that it may commend itself especially to the Southern public, while exciting no prejudice, nor eliciting harsh criticism from Northern readers. Lexington, Viugixia, TABLE OF CONTENTS. First Period— Discovery and Settlement, 985-1688. Chapter. * Pagb. I. Discovery and Naming of the New World 9 II. The American Indians 1^ III. Settlement of Virginia ^^^■ IV. Settlement of New England ^2 V. Settlement of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware 38 Vl. Settlement of Maryland • 41 VII. Virginia and Maryland under the Connnonwealth 44 VIII. New England under the Commonwealth— The Quakers 49 IX. Virginia after the Restoration •'^'^ X. Bacon's Rebellion ^2 XL Northern Colonies after the Restoration— Settlement of the Carolinas. 67 XII. Settlement of Pennsylvania '^^ XIII. Colonies under James II "^^ XIV. The Colonies in 1688 81 XV. The French in the North and West 89 Summary for Reviews and Essays 95 Second Period— French, and Indian Wars, 1689-1T63. XVI. King William's and Queen Anne's AVars 100 XVII. The Colonies under George 1 104 XVIII. Settlement of Georgia HO XIX. Settlement of the Valley of Virginia— The French in the West 118 XX. Opening of the Colonial War 133 XXI. Colonial War 138 XXII. Indian Wars 1^^ Summary for Reviews and Essays 136 Third Period— The Revolution, 1763-1783. XXIII. Causes of the American Revolution 138 XXIV The Colonies in 1760-75— Settlement of Kentucky and Teu- 141 nessee. .-. XXV. First Continental Congress— Indian Wars in Virginia 151 XXVI. Opening of the Revolution 1'''''' XXVII. Battle of Bunker Hill • • • - l**^ [5.1 6 Table of Contents. Chapter. Page. XXVIII. Invasion of Canada— Fall of Boston 166 XXIX. Southern Colonies — Declaration of Independence 169 XXX. Defence of Charleston — Battles around New York 175 XXXI. Aid from France— Battles around Philadelphia 180 XXXII. Burgoyne's Campaign and Surrender 184 XXXIII. Valley Forge— Monmouth— Wyoming 188 XXXIV. French Fleet— Cherokee ^Xa,T in the South 193 XXXV. Clarke's Taking of the Northwest 196 XXXVI. Stony Point — Savannah and Charleston 201 XXXVII. Arnold's Treachery— The War in the South 206 XXXVIII. King's Mountain 209 XXXIX. Cowpens— Guilford — Eutaw Springs S13 XL. The War in Virginia 218 XLI. Victory at Yorktown— John Paul Jones 222 Summary for Reviews and Essays 229 Fourth Period— Under the Constitution, 1783-1861. XLII. Condition of the Thirteen States in 1783 233 XLIII. The Federal Convention of 1787 237 XLIV. Continental Congress — Beginning of Constitutional Govern- ment. 242 XLV. Washington's Administration — Vermont and Kentucky be- come States ~ 246 XLVI. Washington's Administration, continued — Difficulties with France and England — Washington's Death 250 XLVII. Adams's Administration — Progress of the Country 255 XLVIII. Jefferson's Administration — Purchase of Louisiana — Ex- tinction of Slave Trade 261 XLIX. Madison's Administration— War of 1812 266 L. Madison's Administration, continued— Defeat of Great Bri- tain 271 LI. ]\Ionroe's Administration — Missouri Compromise 276 LII. Monroe's Administration, continued — John Quincy Adams's Administration 382 LIII. Andrew Jackson's Administration — Nulfification 285 LIV. Jackson's Administration, continued — Continued Agitation of the Slavery Question 289 LV. Van Buren's Admini'stration — General Harrison's Death. . . . 294 LVI. Tyler's Administration — Annexation of Texas 298 LVII. Polk's Administration — Mexican War 303 LVIII. Polk's Administration — Mexican War, continued ' 309 LIX. Sectional Antagonism — Taylor's Administration 313 Table of Contents. 7 Chapter. Page. TiX. Fllluiore'.s Adininislratioii — Foreign Immigration 319 LXI. Pierce's Administration — Kansas Troubles — Advance in Sci- ence 324 LXII. Buchanan's Administration — Sectional Discord — John Brown's Raid 333 Summary for Reviews and Essays 340 Fifth Period— Civil War and Reconstruction, 1861-1895. LXIII. Election of Abraham Lincoln — Secession of South Carolina and the Gulf States — Formation of Confederate States Government 34G LXIV. Lincoln's Administration — Beginning of the Civil War — Causes of the War 355 LXV. Lincoln's Administration, continued — Call for 75,00 men- Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas Secede, 361 LXVI. Invasion of Virginia — Battles of Big Bethel, Rich Mountain, First Manassas, Ball's Bluff 369 LXVII. War in Missouri — Battles of Wilson's Springs and Belmont. 379 LXVIII. Fighting in Kentucky — Surrender of Fort Henry and Fort Donelson— Battles of Pea Ridge and Shiloh 387 LXIX. Capture of Roanoke Island — Naval Fight in Hampton Roads ; Armies in the Peninsula — Battles of Williamsburg and Seven Pines 394 LXX. Jackson's Valley Campaign — Battles of McDowell, Win- chester, Cross Keys, I'ort Republic, Seven Daj^s' Battles Around Richmond 402 LXXI. Pope's Campaign — Lee in Maryland — ^ Battles of Sharpsburg and Fredericksburg 411 LXXII. Capture of New Orleans — Confederate Advance into Ken- tucky — Battles of Richmond, Perryville, luka, and Corinth, 421 LXXIII. Emancipation Proclamation — Scarcity in the South 433 LXXIV. Affairs on the Coast — Battle of Chancellorsville 440 LXXV. Lee in Pennsylvania — Gettysburg — Campaign of Strategy. . 448 LXXVI. Siege and Svu-render of Vicksburg 457 LXXVII. Cavalry Raids — Battles of Chickamauga, Lookout Mountain, Missionary Ridge 463 LXXVIII. Small Confederate Successes — Banks's Red River Expedi- tion^ — Battle of Mansfield — Battles of The Wilderness, Spotsylvania, Cold Harbor, New Market 473 LXXIX. Sherman's Advance upon Atlanta — Fall of Atlanta — Hood's Advance into Tennessee — Battles of Franklin and Nash- ville 485 8 Table of Contents. Chapter. Page. LXXX. Grant Crosses James River — Siege of Petersburg — Earlj^'s Advance into Maryland— Battles of INIonocacy, Winches- ter, Cedar Creek — Sheridan's Destruction of the Valley. . 495 LXXXI. Sherman's March to the Sea — Devastation of Georgia — Re- election of Abraham Lincoln 505 LXXXII. Siege of Petersburg, continued — Capture of Fort Fisher — Sherman's March and Devastations in the Carolinas — Evacuation of Petersburg 514 LXXXIII. Surrender at Appomattox — Assassination of President Lin- coln — Close of Civil War — Imprisonment of Jefferson Davis 526 LXXXIV. Reconstruction Period — Administration of Andrew John- son — Oppression and Robbery in the South — Thirteenth and Fourteenth Amendments 538 LXXXV. Reconstruction, continued — Impeachment of Andrew John- son — Fifteenth Amendment— Ku Klux — Force Bill — The South slowly regains its rights 547 LXXXVI. Notable Events from 1866 to 1876 555 LXXXYII. Events from 1876 to 1895 564 LXXXYIII. Progress since 1850 — Colleges— Literature 572 Summary for Reviews and Essays 579 HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT, 985-1688. CHAPTER I. DISCOVERY. Legends of Discovery. — The continent of America was practically unknown to the rest of the world until four hun- dred years ago, although there were some legends concern- ing a strange land in the Western sea. One of these said that Hanno, of Carthage, had been driven v/estward by storms, B. C. 300, and had seen a new and terrible shore. Another told of Madoc,a Welsh prince, who had sailed toward the setting sun and established himself in a goodly country. Eric and Leif, 985 A. D. — The first certain knowledge of the fabled la.nd was when the Iceland "Vikings" or "Sea Rovers," in their long ships moved by oars as well as sails, led by Eric the Red, discovered and settled on the south- ern coast of Greenland, about 985 A. D. The bold Norse- men sailed southward from Greenland and coasted along the eastern shore of North America. Attracted by their report of the land they had seen, Leif, the son of Eric, fol- lowed his father to Greenland. Then he, too, sailed south- ward. Entering one of the bays of the coast, he found a country fair to his eyes, where grapes were so plentiful that he called the place " Vinland the Good." This was probably in Massachusetts or Rhode Island. Settlement in Vinland. — For twelve years, ships continued to come from Greenland to Vinland, and the settlement suc- ceeded well. The Pope appointed a Bishop for it, as he had done before for Greenland ; and Gudrid, the wife of one of the bold seamen, came and lived there for three years. Western Land Forgotten. — How the settlements in America died out and w^ere forgotten, we do not know, but for several hundred years all knowledge of the western land passed away. Advance of Learning. — Men's minds were, however, be- coming more enlightened. The truth that the world was round [9] 10 History of the United States. like a ball, and not flat, was gradually coming to be believed. The mariner's compass was being more and more used, so that long voyages were not so dangerous and uncertain. God's providence was preparing the way for the permanent discovery of the New World. Christopher Columbus, of Genoa, in Italy, was the man who brought it to the definite knowledge of the Old World. Christopher Columbus and His Plan. — Columbus was born in 1435. Of his early life we know little, but are told that he was eager for knowledge, of an adven- turous disposition, and that he became a sailor when only thirteen. Studying what- ever came in his way about geography as then known, Columbus became convinced that the world was round, and that by sail- ing westward he must come to the shores of Asia, which had been visited by Marco Polo and other travellers, going always east- coj^ujuiiu-i. ward. Columbus was too poor to prepare for such a voyage, and he tried to persuade first the king of Portugal and then the king of Spain to assist him, and also sent his brother to England to ask King Henry VII. to fur- nish him with the means for it. Voyage of Columbus and Discovery of America, 1492. — At last Queen Isabella of Spain became so much inter- ested in Co- lumbus a n d his projects that she is even said t o have pledged her jewels to raise money for him LANDING OF COLUMBUS. Her husband. King Ferdinand, joined her, and three small vessels, the Pirda, the Nina, and the Santa Maria, were fitted out and sailed, with ninety men, un- der command of Columbus, from Palos, in Spain, on August 3, 1492. . It was a bold act. No one had ever crossed the unknown sea before them. The sailors soon became very Discovery ' 11 uneasy and greatly alarmed, but Columbus was full of courage and he cheered and encouraged them, and after two months there were signs on the waters which made him think they were reaching land. He kept an anxious watch, and in the early morning of October 12th there was a joyful cry from the outlook on the Pinta of "Land! Land!" It proved to be one of the Bahama Islands. " Indians " — Return of Columbus to Spain. — From this first island Columbus sailed along the coasts of Cuba and Hayti, landing at various places, examining the country and col- lecting specimens of plants, birds and animals to take back to Spain. He thought he had come to Japan, Cipango as it was then called, or some other part of Asia, probably India; and he called the simple, kindly people of the islands, " Indians." Several of these also were carried back to Spain. When the little fleet returned to Palos, not quite eight months after leaving it, there was great excitement and rejoicing; and Columbus was welcomed by the king and queen with much ceremony, and loaded with honors. His fame and success excited interest in all the maritime countries of Europe. The Spanish Search for Gold. — There was no more diffi culty in his procuring men and ships in abundance. The one thing the Spaniards were after was gold. They did not want to establish prosperous colonies and become rich, gradually, by honest work. They wanted to gather wealth at once and return to Europe to squander it. Ill Treatment of Columbus — Discovery of South America. There was little gold to be found in the islands, and soon the disappointment of the Spaniards led to quarrels and strife. The lailure of their hopes made them hostile to Columbus. They accused him of many misdeeds. He lost favor at court, and was treated with indignity instead of honor. In his third voyage he saw the coast of South America, but never visited North America. Death of Columbus, 1506. — From this voyage he was sent to Bpain in fetters, and died in 1506, at the age of seventy, poor and neglected, but firm in his trust in God. Naming of the New World. — You may naturally think that the land he discovered should have been named for him. The Spanish greed for gold, no doubt, had a great 12 History of the United States. deal to do with its not being so named. Printing had been invented about the time that Columbus was born, and so knowledge was more rapidly spread than before. But neither Columbus nor any of his immediate followers took time to write and publish an account of the new land they had found. Amerigo Vespucci. — Amerigo Vespucci, a gentle- man of Florence, became interested in the western discoveries and took part in them. An expedition with which he sailed coasted along South America for hundreds of miles, and Amerigo and others were convinced that it was not Asia, but a new VESPUCCI, continent, which lay before them. The New World Named America. — When he returned to Europe, Amerigo wrote an account of the new land and its productions, and gave his reasons for believing that it was a new world. This book and others attracted the attention of Europe, and the new country received its name from the first man who had observed it closely and described it faithfully. English Expedition of Discovery. — Other navigators car- ried on the discoveries of Columbus. His brother, Bar- tholomew, had been captured by pirates, and so did not get to England in time to obtain aid for him from the English king. But as soon as the tidings of his discovery of land in the west reached England, Henry VU. sent out John Cabot and his son Sebastian to sail westward and take pos- session for England of all unknown lands they might discover. Discovery of North America by John and Sebastian Cabot, 1497. — With one little ship and eighteen men, Cabot reached the coast of North America on June 24, 1497, and so became the real discoverer of our continent. The New-found-land was either the island of that name or the coast of Labrador. Sebastian Cabot the next year cruised southward along the coast as far as the Carolinas, and took cabot. possession of the whole in the name of the English king, as his father had done before of his more northern dis- covery. Thus we owe our country neither to Columbus and his Spaniards, nor to Amerigo Vespucci, but to the brave hearts and strong hands of Anglo-Saxon sailors sent out by an English king. French Expedition under Cartier. — The French king Discovery. 13 Francis I., also sent expeditions westward. Jacques Cartier, commanding one of these, took posession of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick for France, and, sailing through the gulf and up the river he named St. Lawrence, claimed it also for his king. Right of Discovery. — In those days what was called " the right of discovery " was thought to give a title to the pos- session of a country. To strengthen this right, the Pope bestowed upon Spain and Portugal all the lands in the New World. We know he had no power to do this, but the Spaniards and Portuguese thought themselves very secure in their new possessions when the Pope confirmed their title. "Line of Demarcation," and Discovery of Brazil, 1500. — To quiet the jealousy of the two nations, the meridian 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands was called the "Line of Demarcation." All land discovered east of this was to belong to Portugal; all west of it to Spain. In 1500, Cabral, a Portuguese sailor who had set out to follow Vasco de Gama's famous voyage round the Cape of Good Hope in the previous year, going too far to the westward, discovered the coast of Brazil, not far from the mouth of the Amazon. The land lay east of the " Line of Demarcation," and so Brazil became a Portuguese and not a Spanish country. Discovery of the Pacific by Balboa, 1513. — Led on by thirst for gold, the Spaniards pushed their discoveries always to- wards the west and south, where the Indians assured them gold was to be found. One expedition was wrecked on the coast of Panama, and Balboa, one of the adventurers, crossed the mountains of the isthmus and obtained the first sight of the Pacific Ocean, in 1518. Discovery of Florida, 1513. — In this same year Ponce de Leon, searching not for gold like his countrymen, but for a fountain which the Indians declared would restore a man to perpetual youth, came upon another unknown coast. It was on Easter Sunday, in Spanish "El Pascua Florida,'^ and the new land has borne the name " Florida " ever since. Conquest of Mexico and Peru. — Within the next twenty years, Hernando Cortez conquered Mexico, and Alonzo Pizarro, with ships built on the Pacific Coast, seized on Peru. In these rich countries the Spanish thirst for gold might have been satisfied with what the natives gave them; 14 History of the United States. but the conquerors practiced the most frightful cruelties upon both Mexicans and Peruvians to extort from them still greater stores of treasure. First Voyage Round the World. — While Pizarro was busy torturing and robbing in Peru, Fernando Magellan, a Por- tuguese captain of a Spanish ship, sailed farther south and west than any one else had done, passed through the strait which ])ears his name, and entered the great quiet ocean, which he called " Pacific." Magellan died at sea, but his ship got safely back to Spain, having made the first voyage round the world. Discovery of the Mississippi River by De Soto, 1541. — In 1539, Ferdinand De Soto, with a large force of men and a good number of horses, landed on the coast of Florida, still on the search for gold. The Spanish cruelties had made all the Indians hostile to them, and De Soto had to fight his way westward to the Mississippi River. He crossed the great river and proceeded some distance up the western bank, always disappointed in not finding gold. The party endured great hardships, and De Soto himself died of fever. His followers buried him in the Mississippi to secure his body from the vengeance of tlie savages, and after many days of suffering made their way back to Mexico. AUTHORITIES. — Irving's Columbus; Fiske's Discovery of America; Prescott's Ferdinand and Isabella, and Conquest of Mexico; Bancroft's History of the United States, Vol. I.; Century Papers on Columbus; Monette's History of Louisiana and the Mississippi Valley; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. II. QUESTIONS.— 1. What is the legend about Hanno? 2. Where is Car- thage ? 3. The legend of Madoc ? 4. Where is Wales ? 5. Who was Eric ? 6. Where is Iceland ? 7. What did Eric and Leif discover ? 8. Describe Vinland and its settlement ? 9. Where was it ? 10. Were other settlements made then ? 11. When did this occur ? 13. How long has the American conti- nent been known to the world? VS. Tell of the advance of learning 14. Who was Christopher Columbus? 15. What was his plan? 16. Who helped him? 17. When did he sail and where is Palos? 18. When was America thus discovered and where? 19. Why did Columbus call the new people "Indians"? 20. Tell of his return to Spain and further voyages. 21. For what did the Spaniards search? 22. When did Columbus die? 28. Why was not America named for Columbus? 24. After whom was it named? 25. Why? 26. Whom did the English send out to the New World ? 27. What part of the continent did they discover? 28. Tell of the French expedition. 29. The "right of discovery." 80. The "Line of Demarcation." 31. How did Brazil become Portuguese ? 32. Who discovered the Pacific and when ? 33. Tell of the discovery and naming of Florida. 34. Conquest of Mexico and Peru. 35. First voyage around the world. 36. Who discovered the Mississippi? 37. Find all these places on the map. CHAPTER 11. THE AMERICAN INDIANS. S^ ^ INDIAN WEAPONS. Appearance of the Indians. — The people found by the Europeans in America all received the name of Indians, as those of the islands had already done. They were a race unlike any other, and, while differing greatly in the differ- ent parts of the conti- nent, and being called by m™.-^ ri'v «/ -^fcw" different names, were alike i n so many respects that they are believed to have sprung from the same stock. They were all of a dusky brown or copper color, from which they were afterwards known as ["red men." They had straight, coarse, black Ihair and black eyes and very little beard. Their cheek bones were very high, their hands and feet small, and their bodies generally slen- der and spare. A¥hile alike in so many re- spects, there were great differences in the size and appearance, .and in the customs and modes of life of the Indian tribes. Distinguishing them by their habits, we may call them savage, bar- barous, and half-civilized. The Savage Indians. — The savage Indians dwelt in the region extending from the west of Hudson Bay southward to Mexico, between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Coast. Like their descendants, the Apaches and Athabascans, they had no settled homes, but moved from place to place, lived in rude tents or wigwams covered with skins, subsisted by hunting and fishing, and did very [15] h 16 History of the United States, little in cultivating the soil. The vast herds of buffaloes and deer and the lish in the rivers and lakes along which they wandered supplied them with food. They could weave baskets, but do not appear to have known the art of making even rude pottery. Such scant clothing as they had was simply the skins of the animals killed in hunting. The Barbarous Indians. — East of the Rocky Mountains to the Atlantic Ocean, and southward to the Gulf of Mexico, the red men may be characterized as barbarous Indians. They dwelt in settlements or villages and understood some little about agriculture, raising maize, or Indian corn, in considerable quantities, as well as some other vegetables — such as pumpkins, beans, and tobacco. Their implements INDIAN VILLAGE. for cultivating their patches were clumsy stone hoes. Their dwellings were either rude wooden structures covered with bark, or were made of sun-baked clay. These houses were occupied by several families, sometimes as many as fifty under one roof. These families were all the descendants of some one grandmother, or more remote ancestress, and con- stituted what we call a clan. Several clans, speaking the same language and probably being kindred in blood, com- posed a tribe. Arts and Habits of the Barbarous Indians. — The barba- rous Indians practiced some rude household arts, such as making pottery and weaving a coarse kind of cloth. They made baskets, canoes, and weapons of stone and polished flints; and some tribes had quite beautiful robes of feathers interwoven with grass or their coarse thread. All these The American Indians. 17 arts, except the making of tomahawks and spears and arrow heads, were practiced by the women alone, who also per- formed all other kinds of labor, for the men scorned work of any sort, and occupied themselves only in hunting, fish- ing, fighting their enemies, and meeting in the councils of their tribes. It was the women who prepared the game killed by the men, cultivated and gathered in their slender crops, carried the skins for the wigwams and their few pos- sessions, when a tribe moved its place, and set up what shelters they had. They car- ried their children — the " pa- pooses"— on their backs, along with their other burdens. Neither the savage nor the barbarous Indians had any written language. They were without any history, any sys- tematic government or settled form of religion, and had no domestic animals except a few miserable dogs. Each clan had some symbol of its own, usually the rude picture or figure of some animal, which was called a "totem," and had, also, its peculiar religious ceremonies. The sachem, or chief, was chosen by the war- riors of the clan, who also elected their war chiefs. These chiefs composed the council of the tribe. The Half-civilized Indians. — The half-civilized Indians, within the United States, were not numerous, and were found only in Arizona and New Mexico. They lived in strong, fortified towns, usually built on some steep, inac- cessible height, and were called by the Spaniards " Pueblo Indians." They extended from New Mexico down to Chili in South America. The Aztecs and Peruvians. — The Aztecs in Mexico and the people of Peru were the most advanced in civilization, 2 PUEBLO INDIAN AT PRAYER. 18 History of the United States. They built splendid temples and palaces, had fine cities and gardens, an organized system of government, a state religion, good roads, a mode of hieroglyphic writing, and many other civilized habits and customs. The Esquimaux. — The Esquimaux, whom Eric the Red found in Greenland, were the same short, stout people who live there to-day. Origin of the Indians. — Where these original inhabitants of the continent came from, cannot be known. It is not to be doubted that they were descended from Adam and Eve. Some things in their language, their superstitions, and their traditions resemble those of Asiatic nations. Perhaps they MOUNDS NEAE MARIETTA, OHIO. came from Asia or Europe long, long before Eric or Colum- bus crossed the sea. But whether they drifted across from Asia or Europe, or passed from Siberia to Alaska, no man can say. The Indians themselves had the scantiest tradi- tions as to their orighi. Some claimed to have come from the north, others from the south, and others again to have sprung from the ground. Indian Mounds. — Not only are we ignorant of the origin of the people whom Columbus and Cortez found in Americ-a, but there are everywhere to be seen ruins and antiquities of older races than they. All through the region from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico are traces of a race known as the " Mound Builders," from the great mounds or earth- works left by them. Some of these mounds are tombs, some The American Indians. 19 temples, others fortifications. In the burial mounds, skele- tons, burial urns, trinkets of silver and copper, arms, pipes, vases of pottery with designs traced on them, and articles of coarse cloth, have been found. These mounds are seen in Vir- ginia, Ohio, and the States soutli and west of them. The fortifica- tion mounds also exist in many- places. Earthworks in the form of animals or reptiles are more ^^dian mounb m west Virginia. curious still, and are supposed to have had some religious meaning. They are found on both sides of the Mississippi River. The Indians living here when the white men came could not have made these mounds, and seem to have been too stupid to be impressed by them. They never told the white men any tradition concerning them. Some Bad Traits of Indian Character. — The character of the savage and barbarous Indians was much the same every- where. They were idle, boastful, treacherous, full of revenge, and merciless in their cruelty. Truth they had no regard for. In his wigwam, the Indian was a tyrant, and often a very cruel one to his wife or "squaw," whom he could beat or drive away or kill without hindrance. The men were fond of their children, especially of their sons, whom they trained to be warriors. Some Good Traits. — They had some idea of hospitality and were sometimes faithful friends, while always cruel and revengeful enemies. It was their pride to show neither wonder nor curiosity, to manifest no grief nor pleasure, and above all to allow no expression of fear or pain to escape from them even when in the greatest torture. Their facul- ties of observation were so highly cultivated that they could follow a friend or track a foe through the unknown wilder- ness by the crumpling of a leaf, the breaking of a twig, or the upturning of a pebble. To take the scalps of their enemies was their greatest pride, and an Indian youth could only be recognized as a "brave," an acknowledged warrior, by taking a certain number of scalps. The Indian Religion. — The Indian religion was not idola- try, but it had nothing in it to make them better or more civilized. They believed in a Great Spirit, who was wor- 20 History of the United States. shipped with dances and incantations. When a warrior died they thought he went to tlie "happy hunting grounds," and they burned or buried with him his bow and arrows, his knife and tomahawk, sometimes his dog, and later on his horse. "Pipe of Peace." — Tobacco seems to have been the only Indian luxury. It entered largely into their amusements or deliberations. " Smoking the pipe of peace " ensured peace and friendly relations among all who were permitted to join in it. Three Different Races. — The various tribes of barbarous Indians may be collected in three races: The Algonquins, the Iroquois, and the Maskoki or Muskogees. Different tribes of the Maskoki, such as the Choctaws, Chickasaws, Seminoles, and Creeks, were scattered through the region south of the Tennessee and west of the Mississippi Rivers. Among them dwelt the Cherokees, who belonged to the Iro- quois race, as did the Tuscaroras in North Carolina, the Susquehannocks in Pennsylvania, the Five Nations in New York, together with the Hurons and Eries. To the Algon- quin division belonged all the other Indian tribes from Labrador to the Carolinas, extending even west of the Mis- sissippi. The Powhatans of Virginia, the Mohegans and Narragansetts of New England, the Leni-Lenapes of Delaware, the Shawnees of the Ohio Valley, and the Chip- pewas and Sacs and Foxes near the Great Lakes were the most famous of the Algonquin tribes. The Chippewas were the least civilized and the Iroquois the most civilized of all the barbarous Indians. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft, Vol. III., chapter XXIV.; Fiske's History of the United States; living's Columbus, and Prescott's Conquest of Mexico; Scudder's History of the United States, chapter XXI.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. I. ; Fisher's Colonial Era, chapter II. ; Drake's Indians of North America. QUESTIONS.— 1. Were the Indians all alike? 2. Describe their general appearance. 3. What three divisions are there according to their habits? 4. Who were the savage tribes ? 5. Describe them. 6. Where did the barba- rous Indians live? 7. Describe them. 8. What arts had they? 9. What habits of life and government? 10. Tell of tho half-civilized Indians. 11. The Aztecs and Peruvians. 12. Find the places mentioned. 13. Where did the Esquimaux live? 14. What is the origin of the Indian races ? 15. Were they the first people of this country? 16. Tell of the Mound-Builders. 17. Have you ever seen a Mound or any of the curiosities found in one ? 18. Mention some of the good and some of the bad traits of the Indian charac- ter. 19. What was their religion ? 20. What three races were there ? 21. Tell their subdivisions and where each dwelt. (See map of the Indian Tribes.; CHAPTER III. SETTLEMENTS ON THE ATLANTIC COAST. Spanish Settlement, 1565. — The Spaniards claimed the whole American coast, but made no attempts to settle on it north of St. Augustine, in Florida, which was founded in 1565. French Attempted Settlements. — Three years before that, a band of French Protestants, Huguenots as they were called, had built a fort called Carolana near Port Royal, in South Carolina. They soon be- mm:^_- * , came discouraged and left S America. A second party, Ig however, came over in '" 1564, seeking a place where they might carry out their religion in safety, and es- tablished themselves on the St, John's River in Florida. Against them came the Spanish Gover- nor Melendez from Cuba, who fell on the colony and destroyed it, slaying the whole nine hundred men, women and children. Some of them were hung with the inscription — "Not as unto Frenchmen, but as unto heretics." Four years later a body of French soldiers, in their turn, attacked the Spanish settlements, killed three hundred of them, and showed that it was done in retaliation by affixing to some of them the words, " Not as Spaniards, but as murderers." French Settlements in Canada, 1605. — The first success- ful French settlement was made in Nova Scotia, and three years later Champlain settled Quebec. English Attempts. — The English had made one or two futile efforts at colonizing America. One of these expedi- [31] OLD GATEWAY AT ST. AlUi'JSTINE. 22 History of the United States. tions, commanded by Frobisher in 1576, was to Labrador, where he expected to find gold. A second was by Sir Humphrey Gilbert to settle Newfoundland in 1585. On his last voyage his vessels were scattered by a storm. Sir Humphrey refused to leave his ship, The Squirrel, and the last words heard from him were ; " We are as near heaven by sea as by land." Sir Francis Drake. — Meantime, the En- glish sailors were becoming the boldest and most accomplished seamen. They took ad- vantage of the war with Spain to attack her colonies and capture her treasure ships. Among the most daring of these was Fran- cis Drake. He had seen the Pacific Ocean, while on an expedition against Darien, in '•^ 1567, and determined to explore its un- BIB FRANCIS DBAKE. , . ^ known waters. " Northwest Passage." — The idea in Europe was that Ame- rica was one large island, or a series of smaller islands, sail- ing around which one might reach Asia. The Portuguese claimed the route round Africa discovered by their sailor De Gama. The Spaniards made a similar claim to Magel- lan's route round South America. The rest of Europe believed that another route called the " Northwest Passage " round the northern coast of the New World would bring them more speedily to the Pacific Ocean. Hoping to find this passage, Frobisher, Davis, Henry Hudson, and other brave sailors wasted time, men, and money in the frozen waters north of Labrador. Their efforts are commemorated in the bays and straits which bear their names. Second Voyage Round the World. — Drake had no mind to spend his labors on an uncertain voyage. In 1577, he left England with five ships and one hundred and sixty-four men, took the course followed by Magellan, passed through the strait of that name and sailed up the western coast of South America. Here he plundered the Spanish settle- ments and took several million dollars' worth of gold and silver from one of the great Spanish galleons. To escape Spanish vengeance, he then continued his course northward with an idea, perhaps, that he might make his way back into the Atlantic Ocean. He does not appear, however, to Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. 23 have gone farther north than Oregon. He wintered near the present city of San Francisco, and then turning west and south, passed through the Pacific and Indian Oceans and returned to Europe round the Cape of Good Hope. This second voyage round the world was made in two years and ten months. Queen Elizabeth's Colonies. — The reports of her sailors concerning America and the treasures they brought home, determined Queen Elizabeth of England to send colonies thither. The first of these was that of Sir Humphrey Gil- bert already mentioned. Sir Walter Raleigh's First Expedition — Naming of Virginia. — In 1584, Sir Walter Raleigh, under a charter from the queen, sent out an expedition which coasted along North Carolina. They landed in several places and were delighted with all they saw of the coun- try, but returned to England in a few months. '' *^^^^il:'r?^ The new, pleasant land was called Virginia, in compliment to the Virgin Queen. falter ealeigh. Second and Third Expeditions — Birth of Virginia Dare. — Two colonies were then sent by Raleigh to Virginia. Sir Richard Grenville, commanding the first, placed a band of settlers on Roanoke Island, but they became dissatisfied and soon abandoned it. In 1587, a second colony, well provided with what seemed necessary for its success, came over under Captain John White. For a while things went well with it, and Captain White had a little grand-daughter, " Virginia Dare," born there, the first white native of the present United States. " Lost Colony of Roanoke." — Unfortunatelj', Captain White was obliged to return to England. He was detained there for three years, and when he did get back to Roanoke Island, all trace of the colony had disappeared except the single word Croatan carved on a tree. The fate of the unhappy settlers never could be learned. Gosnold's Voyage to New England. — The ill success of Raleigh's venture put a stop to English colonizing for some years. But the spirit for it was revived by Bartholomew Gosnold, who discovered a shorter route to America by sail- ing almost straight across the Atlantic. In 1602, the last year 24 History of the United States. of Queen Elizabeth's reign, Gosnold coasted New England, so called by Captain John Smith a few years later, and gave names to Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Elizabeth Island. RUINS OF KOANOKE. Patents to Virginia and Plymouth Companies. — Influ- enced by Gosnold's energy, King James I. issued a " broad patent " in 1606 to two companies for colonizing America. The Virginia Company was authorized to settle anywhere between 34° and 38°, and the Plymouth Company between 41° and 45° north latitude; and these grants extended to the Pacific Ocean. The country between was open to both, but they were not to approach nearer than within one hundred miles of each other. In the charters thus granted and the orders which accompanied them, there were some admir- able instructions, which, if carried out, might have averted many of the troubles which the colonists experienced. They were expressly admonished to be " all of one mind for the good of the country and your own, and to serve and fear God, for every plantation which our Heavenly Father hath not planted shall be rooted out." The Virginia Colony. — The Virginia Colony was entrusted to gentlemen who were mostly Londoners. An expedition set sail from Blackwell on the 19th of December, 1606, with Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. 25 three vessels, the Susan Constant, commanded by Chris- topher Newport ; the God-speed, commanded by Bartholo- mew Gosnold, and the Discovery, by John RatclifFe. The first was a little craft of one hundred tons, the others, forty and ten tons respectively. Besides their crews they brought one hundred men to form the colony. Of these, fifty are reg- istered as " gentlemen." There were, also, among them the council for the colony and the chaplain, the Rev. Robert Hunt. Captain John Smith. — The man among the colonists who became most distinguished was Captain John Smith, an English gen- tleman, who had been a soldier of fortune, and had experienced many thrilling adven-^^ tures while fighting among the Christians, and Turks. He had returned to England not long before this, and joined the expedi- tion to colonize America. On the voyage he, some how, incurred the displeasure of ''^^^- '^^^ '"""• the officers, and was falsely accused of stirring up the men to mutiny. Settlement of Jamestown, 1607. — Captain Newport in- tended going to the place of the former settlement on Roanoke Island, but a storm drove the party from that dan- gerous coast into the mouth of Chesapeake Bay. They landed first on Cape Henry, but soon continued their course across the bay to Point Comfort, so called from the good harbor they found there. After examination of the neigh- boring localities, they selected a place about forty miles up a river which they called after King James. Here they landed on May 13, 1607, and laid the foundation of .James- town, the first permanent English settlement in America. The First Church. — For a time matters went flourishingly. The colonists set to work building shelters and making gardens. One of their first cares was to provide a place of worship by hanging an old sail between four trees as an awning, and rolling up logs for seats. Here Mr. Hunt read the service of the English Church every day, and preached twice on Sunday. Visit to Powhatan at the Falls of the James. — In three weeks Newport, Smith, and twenty others were sent to search 26 History of the XJnited States. for the head of the river which, of course, they did not find. But they came to the Indian town Powhatan, one of the residences of the king of that name, where the city of Rich- mond now stands. They visited the falls of the river and set up a cross there. Trials of the Colonists, and Captain Smith's Good Help. — The Indians had been very friendly to this exploring party, but when they returned to Jamestown, they found that their companions had been attacked and some of them killed. From this time the colonists experienced great hardships. Newport and the ships had gone back to Eng- land. Their provisions gave out. Fevers and agues disa- bled them. The Indians persecuted them and destroyed them whenever they could ; and only the dauntless spirit and unfailing resources of Captain John Smith saved them from destruction. He was made president of the colony and at once infused new, life into it by his courage and energy, taking upon himself the heaviest part of all their labors and hardships. His own account of the difficulties and dangers of the colony and of the new country is most interesting and instructive. Pocahontas and the Colony. — At one time, while seeking food for the colony, he was captured and carried before the chief Opecancanough, whose thoughts he diverted from i'^/'SMi POCAHONTAS SAVING SMITH. vengeance by showing him his pocket compass. At another, when King Powhatan had sentenced him to be beaten to death, his life was saved by Powhatan's daughter, Pocahon- tas, who rushed forward and shielded him with her body just as the Indian clubs were about to fall on his head. The friendship of Pocahontas proved of great service to the Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. 27 colony, as she repeatedly warned it of her father's plans for its destruction and furnished the whites with food. New Colonists — Fire. — Gold Fever. — In spite of all that Smith could do for them, the colonists were reduced to forty men, when Newport returned from England in the autumn, bringing a supply of provisions and one hundred new set- tlers. These might have established themselves comforta- bly before the winter, but for a fire which destroyed James- town in December. A worse calamity was a gold fever which set the colonists to digging a worthless yellow sand instead of doing profitable work. Smith's Map of the Country — First Women Settlers. — In the summer of 1G08, Smith, with fourteen companions in an open boat, explored the coasts of the Chesapeake Bay and ascended all the rivers flowing into it. He made a map of the country, which is wonderful in its accuracy, and sent it to England, and wrote an account of all he saw. The first white women, Mrs. Forrest and her maid, Anne Bur- russ, came to Virginia in the fall of this year. Newport's orders from England were to bring back a lump of gold, to discover the South Sea, to find Sir Walter Raleigh's lost colonists. There was great disappointment when he returned without executing any one of these impossible com- missions. New Charter and New Settlers 1609 — Smith's Departure — "Starving Time." — A new charter was now granted the Virginia company which greatly increased its territory ; and greater efforts were made to ensure success to the col- ony. Nine ships were sent out carrying five hundred men and women. Part of them were driven by a storm on the Bermuda Islands, the rest reached Jamestown after many disasters. Shortly after this, Smith was so severely injured by an explosion of gunpowder that he was obliged to return to England for surgical treatment, and he never got back to Virginia. He left nearly five hundred people in the colon}^ well suj)plied with food, tools and domestic animals ; but it was soon seen that he had been the moving spirit of any- thing like success. Illness, waste and vice took possession of the colonists. Indian hostility, starvation, and sickness destroyed them rapidly, and within a year after Smith's departure, only sixty of them were living. 28 History of the United States. Coming of Lord Delaware, 1610. — In May, the crews wrecked on Bermuda, made their way to Jamestown in two small vessels they had built. The colony was so wretched and helpless that there seemed nothing for them all but to return to England. On the 7th of June they sailed from y..t •'* rWtAWS COMING OF LORD DELAWARE. Jamestown, but before they reached the capes thej^ met a part of Lord Delaware's fleet bringing more settlers and a good store of provisions, and they all returned to Jamestown together. This coming of Lord Delaware proved the turning point in the history of Virginia. The colonists had hard times still — they suffered from scarcity, from sickness, and from the Indians ; but they never again thought of abandoning their new land. Division of the Land — ^Raising Tobacco. — Sir Thomas Dale, who succeeded Lord Delaware as governor of the colony, gave to each settler a portion of land for his own, and required him to pay a certain amount of his crop into the public granary. Up to this time everything had been held in common, and the idle had consumed what the indas- Settlements on the Atlantic Coast 29 trious had worked for. This division of land, and the new in- dustry of planting tobacco gave a life and vigor to the colony- it had not known before. The soil of the region is specially suited for growing tobacco, the use of which had become very fashionable in England, in spite of King James's aver- sion to it, and for many years it continued to be the staple production and the principal source of wealth in the colony. First Legislative Assembly — Introduction of Slavery. — In 1619, two years before there was any other English settle- ment in America, the first legislative assembly on the con- tinent, the Virginia House of Burgesses, consisting of two members elected from each borough, met at Jamestown, and from this time on showed constant jealousy to protect the personal rights of each citizen of the colony. This was the more important because King James was restricting the rights of his subjects in England in every possible way, and many of them came to Virginia where civil liberty might still be enjoyed. In August of this same year a cargo of twenty negroes was brought in by a Dutch man-of-war, and sold as slaves to the Virginia planters. Slavery Throughout the World in 1619. — Slavery has been abolished in the United States, and will, no doubt, before many years, be done away with among all Christian nations ; but in 1619 it was widely prevalent. The Span- iards made slaves of the Indians in the West Indies. When the Indians proved unfit for continued work, they brought negroes from Africa to work their mines and cultivate their fields. When the bringing of the Africans to the West Indies was found to be very profitable, many English ships engaged in the slave-trade. Sir John Hawkins, one of Eliz- abeth's great sea captains, made so much money by the sale in Cuba of a cargo of Africans, that the queen herself became a partner with him in a second venture, and derived much profit from it. Not only was African slavery coun- tenanced, but it was customary to bring from England and sell for a term of years, white servants, and those upon whom the hand of the law fell during various rebellions against the English crown. Although she did not bring the first African slave to America, England entered largely into the African slave-trade, carrying negroes not only to her colonies, but also to the Spaniards in the West Indies. 30 History of the United States. From this time until the early part of this century the African slave-trade was carried on by the civilized nations of Europe Avithout any scruple. When the United States came into existence, there was great aversion to the continuance of slavery, especially among the Southern States, where the negroes were most abundant. But the difficulty, then, as afterwards, was to know how to get rid of it without perpetrating equal if not greater wrong. Shipload of Girls, 1620. — In this year a cargo, which greatly influenced the history of the colony, was brought to Jamestown. It consisted of a shipload of respectable young English girls to furnish wives for the colonists. Each man taking a wife paid one hundred and fifty pounds of tobacco for the expense of her passage. Anne Burruss was the only unmarried woman who had come to Virginia before this; and these young women established happy homos in all parts of the colony. Cargo of Criminals. — King James also sent to Virginia one hundred convicted criminals, in spite of the remon- strance of the Virginia Company. Parliament authorized that criminals should be sent to all the colonies, and there is little doubt that cargoes of them were landed elsewhere, and not in Virginia alone. Many of these convicts were condemned for very slight offences. Marriage and Death of Pocahontas. — After Captain Smith left Virginia, Pocahontas ceased her intercourse with the English, and Powhatan showed himself ver}^ unfriendly towards them. Captain Argall, an unscrupulous English- man, got possession of Pocahontas by stratagem and carried her to Jamestown. Here she became a Christian and mar- ried, in 1613, Mr. John Rolfe, one of the colonists. In 1616 she went to England with her husband, where she was much .noticed as the " Lady Rebecca." Meeting her old friend. Captain John Smith, on one occasion, she showed great emotion, addressed him as "Father," and insisted on his calling her " Child." She died in England, leaving one son, from whom a number of Southern families are descended. The Indian' Massacre, 1622. — Old King Powhatan was reconciled to the English by his daughter's marriage, but Settlements on the Atlantic Coast. 31 his successor, Opecancanough, hated them, and made a deep-laid plan to destroy them. There were now about four thousand whites in the colony, but they were scattered - on their plantations along the rivers and streams. Ope- cancanough persuaded -nearly all the Indians to join in his plot, and fixed upon the 22d of March, 1622, for the exter- mination of the whites. On the morning of that day the Indians came and went among them in their usual friendly manner, but at midday the work of destruction began. Before the settlers could defend themselves, three hundred of them had been slain in the . most barbarous manner. When the whites did resist, the Indians fled. Such was the dread produced by this massacre that the people abandoned their plantations and crowded together for protection. In time the whites recovered from their alarm, but never resumed friendly relations with the Indians. English Perseverance and Self-Government. — Just before James I. died he dissolved the London Company, and A^ir- ginia became a royal province. The story of the "settle- ment of this first of the English colonies on the globe shows the great value of the English spirit of perseverance, and furnished the other American colonies with a model for self- government, which each copied in a greater or less degree. AUTHORITIES.— Captain John Smith's Generall Historie of Virginia; Bancroft, Vol. I.; Brown's Genesis of the United States; Campbell's History of Virginia; Cooke's History of Virginia; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. II. ; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. 1. QUESTIONS. — 1. Where and when was the first known settlement in Ame- rica ? 2. Tell of the attempted French settlements before that, and their fate. 3. When and by whom was Canada settled ? 4. Relate the English attempts. 5. Who was Sir Francis Drake? 6. What is the meaning of the " jSTorthwest Passages"? 7. Tell of the search for it. 8. Describe the second voyage around the world. 9. What colonies did Queen Elizabeth send out? 10. Tell of the Lost Colony of Roanoke. 11. Did Sir Walter Raleigh ever come to America? 12. Tell what you know of ■ Virginia Dare. 13. When did Gosnold come to New England? 14. What two companies were organized for coloniz- ing? 15. What good advice did the king give them? 16. Tell of the Vir- ginia Colony, and of Captain John Smith. 17. Settlement at Jamestown. 18. Where is Jamestown? 19. Describe the first church. 20. The visit to King Powhatan. 21. What trials had the colonists, and who helped them? 22. Tell the story of Pocahontas. 23. What fmlher trials beset the new colony? 24. Who were the first women settlers? 25. Why did Captain Smith leave, and when? 2(i. Who saved the colony in 1610? 27. What wise provision did Sir Thomas Dale make? 28. When and how was slaveiy intro- duced ? 29. Opinion and ]>ractice of slavery at that time. 30. What sort of a cargo was, brought in 1620? 31. What other sort? 32. Tell of the mar- riage and death of Pocahontas. 33. The Indian massacre, 1622. CHAPTER IV. SETTLEMENT OF NEW ENGLAND. New England in 1607-14. — Like the London Company, the Plymouth Company made an effort to settle on the ter- ritory granted by their charter by sending a colony to the banks of the Sagadahoc, or Kennebec River, in Maine, in 1607. The settlers, however, became discouraged and re- turned to England. English ships seem to have come fre- quently to the coast, attracted by the fine fishing found there, and Captain John Smith, in 1614, four years after he left Virginia, examined the region, made a map of it, and called it New England. Landing of the Pilgrims, 1620.— In 1620 a band of English people known as " Separatists," because they had disapproved of the English Church and had separated them- selves from it, determined to seek a home in America, where they could enjoy their religious opinions without the persecutions they expe- rienced in England. They had tried Holland, but did not find it congenial, and turned their thoughts to the New World. After many difficulties and delays they sailed from Plymouth in the May- flower, intending to go to the Dutch settlement in New -Jersey. Storms drove them from their course and they landed first on Cape Cod, and then crossing the bay, on a spot to which Captain Smith had, curious to say, given the name of Plymouth several years before. This was on December 11 (old style), 1620. Before they left the ship, the Pilgrims, as they called themselves, signed an agreement under which the colony was governed peaceablv for several years. [32] THE Hr AYn.OWEK. Settlement of New England. 33 Misfortunes of the Settlers.— The winter was a severe one and the colonists suffered so much from exposure in the poor shelters they were able to provide that before spring one-half of their number had died, among them the gov- ernor, John Carver, with his wife and child. William Bradford was then chosen governor and the defence of the colony was put in charge of the stout soldier. Captain Miles Standish. Having their wives and children with them was a great stimulus to encourage these colonists, who, besides this advantage, suffered no molestation from the Indians. A pestilence had destroyed nearly all the natives of the re- gion, and the whites more than once obtained from their deserted wigwams welcome supplies of food. In 1G21 the colony made a treaty of peace with Massasoit, chief of the Wampanoag Indians, their neighbors, which was faithfully kept for fifty years. Later Colonies in New England. — Following the Pilgrims came other colonists to other points on the New England coast. The Massachusetts Bay Colony was established by the Puritans at Salem in 1628. Charles I. gave the Massa- chusetts Bay Company a charter the next year, and they sent out more colonists. In 1630 the company itself moved over to America, bringing its previous charter with it. Fif- teen hundred settlers came at once, headed by Governor John Winthrop, and settled at Boston, Cambridge, Lynn, and other places. Later on, the colonies of Connecticut, New Haven, Providence, and Rhode Island were established. All these colonies originated under the influence of religious feeling. The Puritans. — The Puritans opposed the tyrannical gov- ernment of King Charles, and were especially hostile to the Church of England and to the forms and ceremonies of its worship. Charles hated them, and employed many perse- cutions against them, and it was to enjoy more civil liberty and to practice their religion in peace that they came to America. Numbers of the first comers were unfit for the hardships which they had to encounter. A hundred of them returned to England. Two hundred died within the first year. The rest — ;stronger, braver, and more perse- vering — set about making homes in the new land. They had been prosperous folk, in England, and they brought -8 34 History of the United States. over their thrift and industry with them. They possessed noble English qualities. They were brave, hardy, indus- trious, pure in their speech and in their lives; but they had none of that Christian charity which " sufFereth long and is kind," They learnt no lesson of kindness from the per- secution from which they had suffered, but brought to America the same intolerance and bigoted adherence to their own religious views which had made them hostile to all who differed with them in England. Puritan Idea of Religious Liberty. — They soon made it apparent that the "freedom to worship God " which they sought was to be shared by none who did not think as they thought. Religious liberty was to be granted to none, unless they held and practiced the strictest Puritan belief. They not only thought themselves absolutely right, but held that all who differed with them were absolutely wrong and must be punished and not tolerated b}'^ them. Puritan Laws of Governor Endicott. — The Plymouth Sep- aratists had had their views enlarged by their sojourn in Holland, and were less disposed to persecute their opponents than the others. The Salem Colony were peculiarly strong in intolerance of any views but tlieir own. Endicott, their first governor, was the most rigid of Puritans. He cut the cross out of the British flags and compelled the men to cut their hair short, and the women to wear veils on their heads in church. When some of the settlers of Salem who were members of the English Church desired to use the English liturgy, Governor Endicott immediately shipped them back to England. One of the ministers of the town was, not long after this, banished from the colony for holding more liberal opinions. Law as to Voting, 1631. — The charter of Massachusetts Bay Colony allowed all important laws to be enacted by the freemen of the colony. At first all were permitted to exer- cise this right, but in 1631 the general court in Boston de- cided that no one should vote in any political assembly who was not a member of one of the churches in the colony. The ministers now became the controlling power. Roger Williams, a young Puritan preacher, saw that this law pre- vented civil as well as religious freedom. He said that the civil authority had no right to dictate to a man's conscience Settlement of New England. 85 or interfere with his rehgious opinions; that the magistrates had power only over the persons and property of men, but had nothing to do with their souls; and that to choose the magistrates from the members of the church alone was no more sensible than to select a " doctor of physic as a pilot because he stood well with the church." Roger Williams Exiled — Settlement of Rhode Island, 1636. — For these utterances Roger Williams was driven from his church in Salem, and when his congregation called him back, the court in Boston took from them their land. They also determined to banish him from the colony and ROGER WILLIAMS LANUINli AT PROVIDENCE, ship him back to England. To avoid this Williams escaped from Salem and made his way southward through the snow to some friendly Indians. Five of his followers joined him, and they fixed their abode on Narragansett Bay. In grati- tude to God he called his settlement Providence. This was the beginning of the State of Rhode Island, in 1636. Other settlers came, and Williams obtained a deed from his Indian friend, Canonicus, for the territory of that State. Not long after settling in Rhode Island, Williams became a Baptist. 36 History of the United States. In 1644 "Williams obtained a charter from Parliament which gave to the people of Rhode Island considerable liberty, both civil and religious. This charter and a later one united all the settlements under the title of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. Story of Anne Hutchinson. — Anne Hutchinson also trou- bled the Massachusetts Colony about this time with peculiar religious teaching. Among other absurdities, she professed to have special revelations from God. Instead of consider- ing her a person of unsound mind, the whole colony was full of strife between those who opposed and those who favored her. At last her opponents succeeded in banishing Anne and some of her disciples. They went first to Rhode Island, and then to New York. Some years afterwards Mrs. Hutchinson was killed in an Indian outbreak. Growth of Massachusetts. — In spite of these quarrels and disturbances, Massachusetts continued to grow, and in twenty years from the first coming of the Pilgrims had 15,000 English residents. Settlement of Connecticut. — The valley of the Connecti- cut lay within the region granted to the first Plymouth Company. The Dutch established a trading post at the mouth of the river, near the present city of Hartford; but the English soon took possession of the land. One party established themselves at Windsor, led by Thomas Hooker. Another moved through the unknown forests with their families, their cattle, and other possessions, and settled the towns of Wethersfield, Windsor, and Hartford. Many of these settlers left Massachusetts to avoid the religious tyranny there. Settlement Under John Winthrop. — About the same time. Lord Say and Lord Brooke obtained from the Earl of War- wick a grant which the Plymouth Company had made him of the territory of Connecticut. They sent out a colony under -lohn Winthrop, son of the governor of Massachu- setts, who drove off the Dutch and built a fort, which he called Saybrooke, at the mouth of the river. In 1639 the men of the Connecticut settlement met at Hartford and formed for themselves a liberal constitution, which is claimed to have been the first written constitution. New Haven was settled later. In a few years all these settlements obtained a Settlement of Neiu England. 37 charter as the colony of Connecticut. Many of the early colonists were men of learning, and their descendants have generally cherished a love for letters and science. The same religious opinions prevailed as in Massachusetts. New Haven allowed none but church members to vote, and the different settlements were principally governed by the min- isters or "pillars of the church." Pequot War. — The Indians of Connecticut were the Pe- quots, who were very unfriendly to the whites and did all in their power to destroy them. They killed the men at their work, burned some to death, and tortured others in cruel ways. The settlers rose against them, attacked the Pequot fort near Stonington, and gained such a complete victory that out of seven hundred Indians only five escaped alive. The tribe was entirely destroyed, and the other Indians were so much intimidated by the prowess of the whites that for thirty-eight years they ceased to molest them anywhere in New England. Settlement of New Hampshire, 1623, and Maine, 1630. — The territory which now forms the States of Maine and New Hampshire was granted to two Englishmen, Gorges and Mason. In 1623 the towns of Portsmouth and Dover, on the Piscataqua, were settled, and seven years later Saco and Biddeford in Maine. Gorges and Mason then divided their territory. Gorges taking what is now Maine, and Mason the region south of it, which he called New Hampshire. After Mason's death his territory came under the control of Massachusetts, but was in 1679 set off to itself as the colony of New Hampshire. A number of the early settlers in this colony belonged to the Church of England, but Massachu- setts appears to have interfered with them very little on that account. The population of New England had grown to 26,000 in twenty years — 15,000 in Massachusetts, the rest in the other colonies. When the strife began in 1640 be- tween Charles I. and the Long Parliament, the Puritans stopped coming to New England. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft. Vol. I.; Fiske's Beginnings of New England: Brown's Genesis of the United States ; Scudder's History of the United States; Thalheimer's, Montgomery's, Hildreth's, and other Histories of the United States; Winsor s Narra- tive and Critical History of the United States, Vol. III. QUESTIONS.— 1. What happened in New England in 1007-14? 3. Tell of the Pilgrims and of the landing of the Mayflower. 3. Misfortunes and bravery 88 History of tlie United States. of the settlers, and treaty with the Indians. 4. What other colonies came later? 5. Find the places where they settled. 6. Describe the Puritans. 7. Their idea of religious liberty. 8. Laws made by Governor Endicott. 9. What law of voting was made in 1631? 10. What did Roger Williams say of it? 11. AVho was he? 12. What happened to him for his freedom of speech? 13. When and how was Providence settled? 14. Tell the story of Anne Hutchinson. 15. How many residents in Massachusetts in 1640? 16. Who settled Connecticut? 17. Where? 18. Tell of John Winthrop. and of religion and education in Connecticut. 19. Relate the Pequot War. 20. The settlement of New Hampshire and Maine, and the growth of New England. CHAPTER V. IfEW YORK, NEW JERSEY, DELAWARE. Discovery of the Hudson, 1609 — Settlement of New Neth- erland. — New York, New Jersey, and Delaware were all first settled by the Dutch. When Holland had become free and strong, after her great struggle with Spain, her people en- gaged largely in trade and commerce, and her seamen were famous all over the world. A company of wealthy mer- chants employed Henry Hudson to find a short route to In- dia. While searching for this, Hudson sailed, in 1609, into what is now New York Harbor and up the great river which bears his name. There was much disappointment that neither this river nor Hudson Bay, afterwards discov- ered, led to the Pacific Ocean, and the Hollanders do not seem to have valued very much the discoveries Hudson had made. Some merchants, however, sent vessels back to America to trade for furs, and settle- ments were made on Manhattan Island, near Albany, "'^'"^°'^- and on some points in New Jersey and Delaware. Forts were built and the territory was called "New Netherland." Some of the settlers who came over were " Walloons," Pro- testants who had taken refuge in Holland from persecution in Flanders. Patroons. — The Dutch did not hold all the land they had taken possession of in common. They gave to any one who bought land from the Indians and settled fifty persons upon it an almost absolute right over the land and the colonists. The owners were called " patroons," and many of them ac- Ncu) York, New Jersey, Delaware. 39 quired immense tracts of land. These patroons took up the land on hoth sides of the Hudson, and even as far down the coast as Delaware Bay, and sent over farmers, cattle, tools, and everything necessary to make their enterprise success- ful. They were great traders, and their principal occupa- tion was trading with the Indians for furs. We have seen how they had gone into the Connecticut Valley for this pur- pose. Increase of the Dutch Colony. — The Hollanders had at home few individual political rights, so their colonists in America claimed none. They were accustomed to a govern- ment composed of the rich merchants, the rulers of the cities, and the hereditary noblemen of the country, and were satisfied to be ruled in the same way by the patroons and the rich merchants and the governor of New Amster- dam. But as their native country was the refuge in Europe of all Protestants oppressed elsewhere, so also in New Netherland an asylum was found by men of every shade of Protestantism. Free passage was offered to all who were willing to emigrate. " Mechanics, farmers, and laborers" were especially invited. And the colony increased in num- bers, in prosperity and wealth. Slave Ships. — The Dutch had brought African slaves to Virginia in 1G19, and introduced them into Manhattan in the earlier years of their settlement there. Indeed, they seem to have been the great slave carriers of the world at that time, and one of the later governors of New Amster- dam, Peter Stuyvesant, was instructed to promote the sale of negroes as far as possible. Strife with Indians and Peace at Battery Park. — At fil-st the colony held friendly relations with the Indians, but under the influence of rum the savages and the traders fell into strife, and murders were perpetrated on both sides. A mid- night massacre of the Indians around Manhattan by soldiers and citizens from New Amsterdam, in which one hundred un- off^ending Indians perished, was followed by an outburst of vengeance on the part of the Algonquin tribes. They harried the country, burnt the villages, and murdered the men at their work. The whole colony seemed threatened with destruction. Providentially, Roger Williams was at Manhattan at the time, on his way to England to procure a charter for Rhode 40 History of the United States. Island, and he was able to moderate the wrath of the Indian sachems and to make a temporary peace between them and the whites. In this Indian outbreak Anne Hutchinson and her family were killed. For two years the strife went on, until both sides were weary, and then the Mohawks sent an embassy to desire peace. There was a great meeting of In- dian sachems and the Dutch authorities on what is now the beautiful " Battery Park," at the foot of Manhattan Island, and a treaty of peace was solemnly signed. Great rejoicing followed, and the governor, Keift, who had ordered the mas- sacre of the Indians, was held in abhorrence as the author of so much bloodshed and strife. Under Stuyvesant, Keift's successor, the Indians were treated kindly and the whole colony flourished. During this period New Jersey continued under Dutch rule. Swedes in Delaware. — Delaware had also several Dutch settlements. The principal of these, made by De Vries, near Lewistown, at the mouth of the Delaware River, was entirely destroyed by the Indians. A few years after this a company of Swedes, provided with a religious teacher, with provisions, and articles for trading with the Indians, sailed into Delaware Bay. They bought from the natives the country from Cape Henlopen to Trenton, and built a fort within the present State of Delaware, which, as well as the creek on which it stood, they called Christiana, after the little queen of Sweden. The country appeared so smiling and beautiful to these settlers from the frozen north that they called Cape Henlopen " Paradise Point." Sweden had a great name at this time, because its king, Gustavus Adolphus, was a great warrior; and though the Dutch in New Netherland grumbled greatly at the Swedish occupa- tion of the country they considered as theirs, they did nothing but protest againt it. Delaware, or New Sweden, Taken by the Dutch, 1655. — A report of the loveliness of the region occupied by their countrymen attracted many emigrants from Sweden and Finland, and settlements were made all along the Delaware to the falls of the river, and the region was called New Sweden. The governor of the colony built a fort and estab- lished his quarters a little below Philadelphia, and a suburb of that city itself was colonized by the Swedes. The Settlement of Maryland. 41 Swedish settlers became prosperous and the lands they held were well cultivated and fruitful, but in the meantime the Swedish kingdom in Europe had lost its power. The Dutch governor at New Amsterdam was ordered by the govern- ment in Holland "to drive the Swedes away, or to compel their submission." Accordingly, in 1655, Governor Stuy- vesant sailed from Manhattan into Delaware Bay, overpow- ered the Swedes, captured their forts, and re-established the Dutch authority. New Sweden disappeared, but her colonists and their descendants remained an upright, honest, sturdy race, devoted to the religion of their Protestant fathers, and cherishing great attachment to their fatherland. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. I., II.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of tlie United States, Vols. III., IV.; Campbell's His- tory of Virginia; Cooke's History of Virginia; Fiske's History of the United States; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. I.; Appleton's Encyclopedia. QUESTIONS.— 1. When was the Hudson discovered? 2. By whom? 3. What was he looking for ? 4. How did New Netherland come to be set- tled? 5. What are the present names of this territoiy? 6. Tell of the Pa- troons. 7. Increase of the Dutch Colony. 8. Where is Manhattan? 9. What is said of the slave ships? 10. Relate the troubles with the Indians. 11. Where was the treaty of peace signed? 12. Tell of the Dutch and Swedish settlements in Delaware. 18. Who was Gustavus Adolphus? 14. Which power gained Delaware, and how? 15. Find all the places men- tioned. CHAPTER VI. SETTLEMENT OF MARYLAND. Clayborne's Settlement on Kent Island, 1627. — The State of Maryland belonged to the region originally granted to the London ComJ3any. Captain John Smith explored the land lying on both sides of the Chesapeake Bay, went up the rivers within the limits of Maryland, and even into the mouth of the Susquehanna, and made a map of the whole country. The fertility of the land attracted settlers, and, in 1627, William Clayborne, a citizen of Virginia, obtained authority from the governor of the colony to explore and settle any part of Virginia lying about the northern parts of the Chesapeake Bay. Clayborne then took much pains and spent a good deal of money in establishing a settlement on Kent Island, not far from the city of Annapolis. 42^ History of the United States. Lord Baltimore. — One year after this, there came to Vir- ginia the English Lord Baltimore, who was a Roman Catholic. The English government did not love the Roman Catholics any more than it did the Puritans, and Lord Baltimore had tried to establish a colony for men of his own faith on the lord shore of New Foundland, but had been forced to ''''''"*'°''^- give it up on account of the climate and the hostility of the French. Naming of Maryland. — He then came to Virginia, hoping to find an asylum there. But the Virginians were loyal to the king and the English Church. Lord Baltimore was a man of noble character, fine sense, and excellent disposi- tion, but he could not take the oath of supremacy which the law required, and he was therefore obliged to go elsewhere. He, therefore, returned to England and obtained from Charles I. a grant of the territory which now forms the State of Maryland, and called it Terra Marise — Mary's Land — in honor of Queen Henrietta Maria. This land had been given away twice before — once to the London Com- pany and once to Clayborne. but that made no diff'erence to King Charles. " Pilgrims of St. Mary's," 1634.— The first Lord Baltimore died before he could take possession of the land, but the patent was at once given to his son, Cecil Calvert, the second lord, who was a noble, high-souled gentleman like his father. Cecil Calvert did not come to America himself, but sent his brother Leonard in charge of the first set of colo- nists for the new colony. Leonard sailed with two hundred companions, gentlemen of fortune and respectability, having with them two Jesuit priests. They stopped at James- town in 1G34 to pay their respects to the Virginia govern- ment. The governor and council received them courte- ously, but told them that their grant was not a just one, since the territory belonged to Virginia. The new-comers then sailed on up the Chesapeake in their two ships. The Dove and The Ark. They bought land from the Indians and made their first settlement at St. Mary's, from which they were sometimes called the " Pilgrims of St. Mary's." Religious Freedom. — Like the Pilgrims of Plymouth Rock, these colonists had come to the New World seeking a Settlement of Maryland. 43 place where they might enjoy their religion in peace. The recollection of the tortures and burnings under Queen Mary was still fresh in English memories. But the Calverts were wise and liberal beyond most men of their day, and the charter they obtained from the king showed their great wis- dom and sagacity. It gave ample power to the lord pro- prietor, but it also secured the independence of the colonists, and the laws could only be established by the majority of the freemen. The proprietor had no authority over the life or property of any settler. But, far more than these, it se- cured to all not only equal civil, but also equal religious lib- erty. Leonard Calvert was the first governor, and in the oath which he took is this , , memorable sentence: Ml will not, by myself or any other, ^ directly or indirectly, molest #^ ^ J^, %§im PILGRIMS OF ST. MARY'S. any per- son pro- '^-^ t". ., fessi ng to b e- lieve in Jesus Christ, for or in respect of religion." This was before Roger AVil- liams became a witness to his belief in civil and religious liberty, and Maryland has the honor of being the first coun- try on the globe where that grand doctrine was openly pro- claimed. It is pleasant to remember that this principle, which is now the pride of the United States, was brought 44 History of the United States. to her shores by good, noble, Christian men, sailing in The Dove and The Ark. Strife Between the Settlements. — Clayborne was much in- censed at what he thought an infringement upon his rights. He refused to acknowledge the authority of Governor Cal- vert, and at last open war broke out between them. At one time Clayborne was obliged to flee for his life, and all his possessions were confiscated; at another he obtained the upper hand and forced Governor Calvert to take refuge in Virginia. Growth of Maryland. — Through all this strife the Mary- land colony prospered and grew. The men learned from the Indians the best modes of raising tobacco and Indian corn, the women how to make corn-bread and hoe-cakes, while the good priests — White and Altham — established regular missions among them, which brought numbers of the savages into the Christian church. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. I., II.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vols. III., IV.; Campbell's His- tory of Virginia; Cooke's History of Virginia; Fiske's History of the United States; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. I.; Appleton's Encyclopedia. QUESTIONS. — 1. Who first explored Chesapeake Bay and made a map of it? 2. Who made the first settlement in Maryland, and where? 3. Who was Lord Baltimore ? 4. For whom was Maryland named ? 5. Tell of the "Pil- grims of St. Mai-y's." 6. Tell some of the laws of the colony, and especially in regard to religion. 7. What strife soda arose ? 8. Describe the growth of Maryland. CHAPTER VII. VIRGINIA AND MARYLAND UNDER THE COMMONWEALTH. Downfall of Charles I., 1649. — The state of things in England was now very bad and had great effect upon the colonies in America. Charles I. found himself obliged to summon a meeting of Parliament in 1640. This Parlia- ment, which at first seemed to promise liberty, afterwards showed itself as tyrannical as the king had been, and in Virginia and Maryland Under iJte Commonwealth. 45 1642 the civil war between them began. This strife con- tinued with much oppression, destruction and bloodshed until 1648, when the king was captured, imprisoned and condemned to death. He was executed on January 30, 1649. Sir William Berkeley made Governor of Virginia. — The consequences of the disturbances in England were different in the different colonies. But it was fortunate for them all that the mother country was so much taken up with her own affairs that she had little leisure to interfere with them ; and so left them to regulate themselves as circum- stances should seem to direct. Just about the time that the civil war began in England, Sir William Berkeley was made governor of Virginia. He was a gentleman of good blood and connections, of fine manners and upright principles, and, in spite of narrow views of government, was at first popular among all classes. He was entirely devoted to the king and the royal cause, and to the English Church and liturgy, in which sentiments most of the colonists agreed with him. Laws as to the Church.— Thinking that the troubles in England had originated in, and been fostered by, the Puritans and those who opposed the established Church, the Assem- bly of Virginia passed a law requiring strict conformity to the English Church and banishing both Roman Catholics and Non-conformists from the colony. Intolerance and persecution were freely practiced in those days by all nations and churches, but, while we can only blame the action of Virginia, we can rejoice that she never was stained with the blood of any Christian for dissenting from her peculiar faith. Although the assembly felt so little the obligation of guaranteeing religious lib- erty, it was watchful over the civil rights of the peo- ple. At the session of 1642-43, it passed a law forbid- ding the governor and council to lay any taxes upon persons or property unless the assembly gave them au- thority to do so. Opecancanough's Second Attack on the Whites. — Hostil- ity had continued between the Indians and the colonists ever since the massacre in 1622, and twenty-one years afterwards 46 History of the United States, the assembly enacted that there should be no peace with the red men. But the strife among the English at home had gotten to the ears of the savages, and they thought the time favorable for another onslaught on whites. Old Opecancanough was 11 living, and though one hundred '^ears old, blind and feeble, was fierce nd vindictive enough to induce the Indians to engage in a gene- ral massacre. Before the whites could organize any resistance, five hundred of them were killed ; but the murderers soon became alarmed and fled to the woods. Governor ^\^ Berkeley collected and followed them. '^^^ of the INDIAN ATTACK. a force Many savages were slain, and the aged Opecancanough was captured, and carried a prisoner to Jamestown. A brutal soldier inflicted on him a mortal wound, but the old chief resented more than everything else being subjected to the curious gaze of the common people who crowded around him. This was the last serious trouble with the Indians in lower Virginia. A peace was made with Opecancanough's successor, and they gradually died out before advancing civilization. Prosperity of Virginia. — The colony prospered in every way. Unhealthiness disappeared before good cultivation. Trade' and commerce increased. Happy homes were established in many places; and the ports were busy with ships and emi- grants. In 1648 there were ten tradingvessels which came and went regularly from London to Virginia ports, two from Ply- mouth, twelve from Holland, and seven from New England. Loyalty of the Colony. — When Virginia learned that Par- liament had triumphed and that the king had been executed, the assembly passed an act which declared the loyalty of the colony to the late king ; their devotion to his memory ; and their adherence to his son, Charles II. There were many of the colonists who differed from this opinion, but the majority were intensely loyal. A large emigration of Virginia and Maryland Under the Commonwealth. 47 cavaliers and gentlemen who were devoted to the royal cause came to Virginia in the next few years, where they were everywhere received and welcomed with great hospi- tality. Governor Berkeley was especially kind to them, and his house and purse were open to them all. Virginia Yields to Parliament, 1652. — But Parliament had no mind to allow its authority to be defied, and sent out a naval force to reduce Virginia as well as some of the West Indies, which it declared rebellious. Captain Davies sailed into the Virginia waters in 1652 and demanded the surren- der of the colony. England was at war with the Dutch, but Virginia had never ceased to trade with them on that account, and there were several Dutch ships lying at James- town. It has been said that Governor Berkeley intended to make fight against the English fleet by the aid of the Dutch vessels. It may be that seeing the Virginians not without defence, the English commander thought it best not to come to blows. Certain it is that after some days' consideration the colony capitulated on terms most advantageous to its rights and liberties. It was stipulated that the people of Virginia should have all the freedom and privileges of free- born Englishmen, that they should continue to govern themselves, and should have the right to trade freely to all places and with all nations. Protection was also granted to Governor Berkeley, who was permitted to send an agent to inform Charles II. of the surrender of the country. Religion in the Colony. — Sir AV^illiam Berkeley at once withdrew to his country home, and a new government was organized and a republican governor elected. Three of these governors ruled the colony during the next eight years ; but their power was mild and not injurious to the liberty of the Virginians. By the treaty, it had been allowed to use the English prayer-book and church services for one year, but no prohibition was enforced, and public worship con- tinued without interruption. It was, no doubt, fortunate for the liberties of A^irginia, that so many difficulties arose in England between the Parliament and Oliver Cromwell, that neither had opportunity to interfere very much with the government of the people by their burgesses. The Vir- ginians regulated their own taxes, built and garrisoned the forts in their borders, ordered all things respecting their 48 History of the United States. modes of worship and their parishes, traded freely to all parts of the world, and extended liberty of conscience to all, even the Quakers, who, although excluded from their terri- tory in 1660 by an act which was repealed in 1717, still re- mained and practiced their religion with little hindrance. The government was one of universal suffrage, for all free- men were entitled to vote. Parliament Triumphs in Maryland. — Clayborne, who had contended with Lord Baltimore for the possession of Mary- land, was one of the commissioners appointed by Parliament to compel the submission of the colonies of the Chesapeake Bay. From Jamestown he proceeded to Maryland, where he estab- lished a provisional government with Stone at its head. Strife and misery followed this change of authority. Lord Baltimore tried to regain his power and control the colony. The Puritan settlers who had come into Maryland when they were no longer per- mitted to remain in Virginia, took up arms against Lord Balti- more's party, and a bloody fight took place not far from An- napolis. The adherents of the Calverts were defeated, the priests had to flee for their lives to Virginia; and, under the Puritan ascendancy, Roman Catholics were excluded from the religious freedom they had allowed to all other Christians. Oliver Cromwell did not approve of this persecution, and commanded the commissioners "not to busy themselves about religion, but to settle the civil government." AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. I., II.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vols. III., IV.; Campbell's His- tory of Virginia; Cooke's History of Virginia; Fiske's History of the United States; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol.1. ; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Mcllwaine's Religious Toleration in Virginia. QUESTIONS.— 1. What event happened in England in 1649? 2. Who was Governor Berkeley, and what religious laws were passed in his time ? 3. Re- late Opecancanoiigh's second war, and his death. 4. Was there any other serious Indian war in east Virginia ? 5. Tell of the prosperity of Virginia. 6. Her loyalty to the English king. 7. Her final yielding to the Parliament under Cromwell. 8. What of her trade, her religious liberty, and her self-govern- ment ? 9. Tell the story of Maryland during this time. 10. Find on the map all the places mentioned. CAVALIEE SOLDIER. CHAPTER VIII. IfEW ENGLAND UNDER THE COMMONWEALTH— RISE OF THE QUAKERS. Puritans Cease Coming to America. — It has already been told you that when the Long Parliament was summoned in 1G40, the coming of Puritans to New England suddenly Early Settlements JTEW ESrlJliAND, — r and — Distribution of the Indfan Tribes.' 100 Bog»OftCoXin. " ceased. They found good opportunity then in England to employ their enthusiasm and their energies, and so stayed at home. Self-Government in New England. — The sympathies of the Puritans in New England were fully with their fellow- 4 [49] 50 History of the United States. religionists in the mother country, and they rejoiced when the king and the English Church both seemed conquered. But their interest in English affairs did not blind them to their own. Like Virginia, they profited by the inability of England to interfere with them, and regulated their own concerns as seemed to them best. The settlements made by Mason on the Piscataqua River were annexed to Massa- chusetts with their own consent, and without being required to give up their clmrchmanship. United Colonies of New England, 1643. — When the coming of fresh bands of settlers ceased, the colonies found them- selves too weak to contend single-handed against the Dutch who threatened Connecticut on the west; against the In- dians who in strong numbers lay between the scattered set- tlementis, and against encroachments of the French on the north. For mutual protection and defence, the four colo- nies of Massachusetts, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven formed a confederacy called " The United Colonies of New England," which greatly promoted the prosperity of them all. Each colony was to retain its individual govern- ment and rights, to regulate its own taxes and internal con- cerns, and each sent two commissioners to direct the affairs of the confederacy. The commissioners had authority to legislate concerning peace and war, and especially on all questions regarding the Indians; but nothing they decreed became a law unless the people in the colonies agreed to it. The only qualification insisted on was that every commis- sioner must be a member of one of the churches. This con- federacy did not include the settlements in Maine, and the colonies in Rhode Island were refused admittance to the benefits of it because of their liberal views of religious free- dom. Strife with the Indians. — The principal office of the con- federacy was to secure the settlements against the Indians. The Narragansetts and the Mohegans were the tribes nearest them, and the two were deadly enemies. Gorton, a friend of Anne Hutchinson in Rhode Island, was much disliked in Massachusetts for the wild doctrines he preached. He had bought from Miantonomo, the chief of the Narragansetts, a tract of land on Narragansett Bay. Two other chiefs claimed the land and asked Massachusetts to protect their New England — Rise of the Quakers. 51 rights. Hating Gorton and any friend of his, tlie commis- sioners summoned them all to Boston, and decided the ques- tion against Gorton and Miantonomo. Uncas, the chief of the Mohegans, took advantage of the trouble to kill and scalp some of the Narragansetts. Miantonomo in his turn attacked the Mohegans, was defeated and captured. No doubt he would have been tortured to death immediately, but that Gorton threatened Uncas with dire vengeance if his friend were injured. Uncas sent his prisoner to the commissioners at Boston to decide his fate. The commis- sioners were puzzled what sentence to give, and they laid the question before the ministers who were holding a synod in Boston. Killing of Miantonomo. — There was no English law under which Miantonomo could be put to death, but either through fear of the Mohegans, or ha- tred to Gorton, the preachers quickly decided that the cap- tive chief must die, and sent him back to Uncas, accompa- nied by two men to ensure that he should not be tortured. Uncas marched his enemy to the battlefield where he had defeated him, and then gave the sign to a Mohegan war- rior, who instantly buried his tomahawk in Miantonomo's brain. Uncas tore the flesh from the quivering body, and devoured it in savage triumph. Gorton and his followers were now captured and brought to trial, and by the clergy convicted of heresy, and condemned to death. This sen- tence was not, however, executed. John Eliot. — .Just here, I will tell you of the last and worst outbreak of the Indians in New England, in 1675. The constantly increasing strength of the white men made the Indians very uneasy. Massasoit's treat}^ and the terror produced by the Pequot massacre, however, kept them quiet, as has been before mentioned, for thirty-eight years. Many efforts were made to elevate and Christianize them during CHUECH AT HARTFOKD, 1038. 52 History of the United States. JOHN ELIOT. this time. John Eliot, a man of great learning and piety, devoted his life to this work. He studied the Indian lan- guage so thoroughly that he made a gram- mar of it and translated the Bible into it. His labors and those of the other mission- aries were so successful that in 1674 there were 4,000 Christians — " praying Indians " — in Massachusetts. Most of these seemed j\ friendly to the whites, but their brethren were becoming constantly more hostile to them. Outbreak of King Philip's War, 1675.— By this time the Indians had learned the use of firearms. Philip, son of Massasoit, the chief of the Wampanoags, was the leader in a bloody war which broke out between the Indians and the whites in June of this year. Philip and his tribe and the Narragansetts were near neighbors of the Massachusetts and Rhode Island settlements. They numbered about 1,700 warriors. Attack on Swanzey and Other Places. — The first attack was made on Swanzey on a Sunday in June. The village was burned and the people savagely butchered. When the Indians were driven from one place they swooped down upon another with fire, tor- ture, and murder, sparing neither men, women, nor children. The Nip mucks in the Connecticut Valley took up the quarrel and inflicted the same outrages on the set- tlements there. When the Wampanoags were defeated, Philip took refuge among the Nipmucks and the work of destruction grew worse than ever. End of the War. — Canonchet, the sachem of the Narra- gansetts, had never forgiven the English for their share in the murder of his father, Miantonomo, and with his tribe took part in the war. Just within the borders of Rhode Island he had established a palisaded stronghold in the THE HIDDEN FOE. Settlement of New England. 63 midst of a swamp, which he held with 3,000 Indians. Against this a force of 1,000 white men carried on such a fierce attack that the fortress was captured and 1,000 of the Narragansetts slain. The war still went on until Philip and Canonchet were both shot, and their followers nearly annihilated. Those Indians who were captured, Philip's little son, only nine years old, among them, were taken to the West Indies and sold into slavery. In this terrible struggle twelve towns were entirely destroyed, more than forty others had suffered from fire and bloodshed, and more than 1,000 of the whites were slain. Even after the Indian power in southern New England was broken, the same sav- age warfare was kept up in the scattered settlements in Maine. Effort to Obtain Equal Rights. — A party had by this time .arisen in Massachusetts which was opposed to the religious intolerance of the colony, and especially to the restriction of the right of suffrage to Puritan church members. The great religious contest in England now was between the Puritans or Independents, and the Presbyterians. Parliament was Presbyterian, the army under Cromwell mainly Inde- pendent. The Puritans of New England were as hostile to the Presbyterians as they had ever been to the Church of England. Quite a number of Presbyterians had come to Massachusetts, and their leading men, emboldened by the enlarged views of some of the people, petitioned to be ad- mitted to communion with the New England churches and to equal civil rights. This petition enraged the Massachu- setts authorities. The men who signed it were heavily fined and put in jail for six months. A synod of the clergy from all the churches of the colonies was called, and the Congre- gational Church was organized and made the established church of the colonies; and this by the very men who had so bitterly opposed an established church in England. New England S3rmpathizes with Cromwell, 1648. — These events took place before the overthrow of the monarchy and the execution of Charles I. The New England Confede- racy, although they were opposed to the king, did not tamely submit to the Parliament, refused to surrender their charter to Parliament, and likewise declined to take a hostile position against the Dutch on Manhattan Island. Their sympathies 54 History of the United States. were with Cromwell and the army. The great Lord Pro- tector looked upon them with peculiar favor, and always left them their independence and favored their trade. When his stern policy and far-sighted statesmanship had subdued Ireland, and taken possession of Jamaica, he offered each of these smiling islands to the New Englanders in exchange for their barren rocky territory. But while Massachusetts would not herself yield to the Parliament, she was very willing to censure others for not doing so, and passed resolutions prohibiting all intercourse with Virginia until that colony should acknowledge the supremacy of the Commonwealth. This statute was, however, soon repealed, because it was found injurious to the commerce of New England. Rise of the Quakers. — One of the remarkable men who arose in England about this period was George Fox, a brave, pious man, who after much distress and perplexity of mind thought that he had received a special enlightenment from heaven, and that he was obliged to communicate his belief to every one else, which he at once began to do. A number of followers received his teachings, who called themselves Friends, though others gave them in derision the name " Quakers." They went further than the Puritans had ever done in abolishing forms and ceremonies, and said that the Scripture directions to say " yea, yea," "nay, nay," must be literally fulfilled. They allowed no distinction of titles, as master and mistress, but addressed all by their Chris- tian names. They thought that fighting and contention were wrong, and always wore their hats as a proof that they rendered homage to no human creature, but to God alone. These things seem rather trifling and amusing, and to do harm to no one. Certainly in their lives the Quakers did harm to no living creature, but showed kindness and benevolence to all. But unfortunately for themselves they thought it their duty to "testify before the Lord " concern- ing everything that was contrary to the "inward light" which each one thought shone in his own soul, and which they claimed freed them from obedience to any other law. Persecution of the Quakers. — Now, whether the real purity of the Quakers' lives, or their disagreeable habit of speaking their minds on all occasions to all sorts of people, New England — Rise of the Quakers. 55 set others against them, is hard to say. But it is certain that they were thoroughly hated and even persecuted by the whole of Christendom. In England, Churchman, Presbyte- rian, Puritan, and Independent alike despised and ill-treated them. Parliament sentenced them to fines, whipping, im- prisonment, and exile; sometimes even they were sold into slavery. Cromwell, grand and successful ruler as he was, proved no protector to them. But it was in Massachusetts that they met their worst fate. Winthrop, the wise, noble- minded governor of Massachusetts, and Cotton, the leading spirit among the preachers, had not long died, when their " inward light " brought some of these hated Quakers, two women, Anne Austin and Mary Fisher, to Boston. Gover- nor Winthrop had been succeeded by Governor Endicott, who was filled with the spirit of persecution. Endicott was absent when the Quaker women arrived, and there was, as yet, no law enacted against the Quakers. But the deputy- governor seized the two poor women and locked them up in jail, where their windows were boarded up to keep them from preaching to the crowd outside. A council, hastily summoned, pronounced their doctrines blasphemous and devilish; their books were taken and burned, and the poor creatures nearly starved in the jail until they could be shipped back to Barbadoes. Quakers Banished from the United Colonies. — Eight other Quakers came immediately to the colony. Massachusetts not only decided to banish them, but asked Rhode Island to do the same thing. Roger Williams disliked the Quakers too, but he was true to his principles and declined to pro- ceed against them, and when Massachusetts in a rage threatened to cut off trade with her, Rhode Island appealed to Cromwell. The four United Colonies then passed laws banishing the Quakers and decreeing severe punishment to ship captains who should bring any of them to their shores. These laws were not all equally severe. Those of Connecticut were the mildest. But in Massachusetts they were very harsh. Further Persecution. — The Quakers persisted in coming in spite of prohibition. So it was enacted that the first offence of returning to the colony was to be punished with flogging and imprisonment with hard labor; the second with 56 History of the United States. cutting off the ears; for the third the tongue was to be bored through with a hot iron. Still the Quakers would come and testify, and in 1658 the federal commissioners at Boston decreed that capital punishment should be inflicted on them. Massachusetts was the only colony that agreed to the making of this savage law, and, strange to say, it seems to have been adopted there by the influence of Gov- ernor Endicott and the preachers ! To be sure. Governor Endicott did beg that none of the banished Quakers would return. But some of them soon came, expressly to defy the law. Two men and one woman were sentenced to death. The woman was rescued by her son, who promised to take her away. The men were hung and their bodies refused Christian burial. This same woman, Mrs. Dyer, came back again and was hung. One more man was put to death and another sentenced, before public opinion revolted against such unreasonable barbarity, and even then savage old Endicott might have succeeded in having others executed, had not Charles II., who had just come to the throne, inter- fered and stopped the cruel proceedings against the Quakers. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States. Vols. I., II.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of tlie United States Vols. III., IV.; Campbell's His- tory of Virginia; Fiske's History of the United States; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. I.; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Fiske's Beginnings of New England. QUESTIONS.— 1. Why did no more Puritans eomo to America after 1640? 2. How did the New England C'olonies use their freedom from English con- trol? 3. What union was made, 1()48? 4. For what reasons? 5. On what conditions? 6. Tell of the Indian troubles, and of Gorton, Miantonomo, and Uneas. 7. Death of Miantonomo. 8. What missionaiy worked among the Indians, and with what results? 9. Tell of King Philip's War; death of Canonchet and Philip. 10. Its results. 11. What petition was made by the Presbyterians, and what church esta])lished in th(^ United Colonies ? 12. With which party in England did New England sympathize, and why ? 13. Tell of George Fox and the Quakers. 14. Persecution of the Quakers. 15. Their banishment from Massachusetts. 16. What do they call themselves ? 17. What stopped the last persecution ? CHAPTER IX. VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION. The Restoration in England, 1660. — Charles II. was brought back to the English throne in 1660. He was a selfish, profligate, unprincipled man, whose only good trait was an indolent kind-heartedness. As a king he cared nothing for the good of his subjects, but only for his own wicked pleasures. The Restoration in Virginia. — The Virginians had con- tinued loyal to the monarchy, and, when the last republican governor, Matthews, died, they elected Sir William Berkeley, who was loyal to King Charles, and who was at the head of the colony when the restoration took place. The king soon confirmed Berkele}^ in his power, and sent him instructions as to the manner in which the colony was to be governed. There was much rejoicing in Virginia when "the king came to his own again." A new assembly was elected composed almost entirely of royalists, who showed themselves ready to comply with the will of the king, by passing laws and instituting practices contrary to the spirit of liberty which had flourished in the colony. Freedom of the Colonies Restricted. — The English Parlia- ment now restricted all trade from the colonies, to English ports and to English vessels, and imposed such heavy taxes upon the colonists that they became greatly dissatisfied, and sent Governor Berkeley to England to ask for milder and more considerate legislation. Virginia had been so loyal to the king that she naturally expected that he would show her some favor. But her hopes were disappointed. Berke- ley did nothing for the colony, although he took care to pro- cure a large grant of territory for himself and some of his friends. He came back to Virginia fully imbued with the spirit of intolerance and oppression which prevailed in England. The assembly had been elected for two j^ears, but continued to hold authority for nearly fourteen. Taxes were laid without consent of the people. None but land- owners and housekeepers were permitted to vote. Large [57] 58 History of the United States. salaries were ordered to be paid to the governor and all members of the government. Religious toleration was with- drawn, and strict conformity to and attendance upon the Church of England required. Resistance. — The liberty-loving Virginians could not quietly submit to these unjust restrictions, and tried va- rious ways of resisting them. At one time the planters resolved to plant only small crops of tobacco, so as to raise the price and lessen the burden of taxation. At another time a considerable insurrection against the authorities was organized secretly, and might have proved formidable but that one of the conspirators betrayed the plot to his master. Immediately a counterplot was laid, and the insurgents were to be seized and disarmed one by one as they came to the appointed meeting place. Many took the alarm and escaped, but of those captured four wore hanged. Giving Away the Lands of the Colonists. — While the pros- perity of Virginia was crippled by Parliament, and the free- dom and rights of the people restricted by tlieir own assem- bly, the greatest wrong done to them was perpetrated by the king himself. Charles first gave Lord Culpeper the country called the " Northern Neck," lying between the Potomac and Rappahannock Rivers, although many plantations had been settled there, and then proceeded to give to the Earl of Arlington for thirty-one years, " all the dominion of land and water called Virginia." This reckless bestowal upon others of the lands which their courage and labor had re- claimed from the savages and brought into cultivation; the threatened destruction of their homes, their property, and all their liberties, could not be tamely borne by the Virginians. Petition to the King. — The people could scarcely be influ- enced to abstain from revolting against such unjust tyranny; and the assembly itself, which, under a false idea of the rights of the king and the blessings to be hoped from a re-established monarchy, had done wrong to the colony by harsh and unjust legislation, was now aroused to vindicate its rights. Three agents were sent by the burgesses to Eng- land to remonstrate with the king for setting over them any authority save his own. To show their faithful loyalty they requested that Berkeley should be made governor for life, while they humbly asked that they should not be Virginia After the Restoration. 59 submitted to their fellow-subjects and enslaved to their will. Efforts to Secure a New Charter. — The agents nobly car- ried out their instructions to secure for the colony the rights of a corporation ; in other words, a new charter. They did more. They engaged able counsel, and enlisted strong influence to plead for them, while they asserted the natural liberties of the colonists, claimed for them the birthright as Englishmen to legislate for themselves, and insisted that they should not be liable to arbitrary taxation. But all they could say and do was in vain. The agents were kept in London a whole year without receiving any satisfaction. In the mean time things were going from bad to worse in Virginia. Trouble with the Indians. — It has never been the habit of the Virginia settlers to congregate in towns. Their principal occupation was raising tobacco, which being planted for suc- cessive years on the same soil greatly exhausts the land and requires new soil every few years. The planters were thus accustomed to take up large tracts of land and to live isolated one from another. The distance between their settlements made them specially liable to Indian attack and outrage. The Tidewater Indians had been subdued, but in 1656, nearly twenty years before this time, a body of Ricahecrian Indians, a fierce mountain tribe, poured down into the country around the falls of James River and seemed disposed to settle there. A force of the colonists and their allies, the Pamunkey Indians, had a desperate fight with them, which was not very successful, and Totopotomoi, the Pamunkey chief, was killed. From that time the Ricahecrians had continued to infest the Piedmont country and to commit outrages upon the peaceful settlers. The Indians north of the Potomac now also showed an alarming spirit of hostility not only to the Marylanders, but also to the Virginians. Expedition Against Them. — Against the Susquehannocks, who had fortified themselves in Maryland, an expedition was organized by the people of Maryland under Major Tru- man, and by the people of Virginia, under Colonel John Washington, great-grandfather of George Washington. Many of the Indians escaped, crossed over into Virginia, and carried murder and cruelty everywhere. The whole 60 History of the United States. country was in a state of terror. The families of the settlers were crowded together in the houses which seemed to offer the best protection. The men worked or moved from place to place in bands, carrying their arms, and always keeping on the watch for their unseen foes. In this dire distress Governor Berkeley did nothingtoprotectthe colonists and the people resolved to take their defence into their own hands. Nathaniel Bacon Against the Indians. — Nathaniel Bacon, a young Englishman of good family, dauntless courage, and fine education, had come to A^irginia about three years *., ^.X ^ before. He had settled on the lower "-fc^ '" '-, James River, and speedily became popu- '^A lar for his hospitality, his affability, and i^-^ benevolence. Like his neighbors. Bacon experienced the dangers of the Indian raids, and when his overseer and one of his ser- vants were murdered on his plantation near the site of Richmond, he, too, vowed vengeance upon the savages. The sufferers from the In- dians now had a leader ready to c o m m a n d them, on whose courage they could rely. They assem- bled in hundreds, chose Bacon for their commander, and applied to Governor Berkeley to give him a commis- sion. Governor Berkeley's Injustice to Bacon. — Bacon M^as a member of the council, and Berkeley was unfriendly to him on account of his liberal views and opposition to tyranny, and therefore would not give the commission. The danger from the Indians became every hour more serious, and, without waiting for the commission. Bacon moved forward against the savages. Berkeley,* enraged at what he consid- ered a defiance of his authority, issued a proclamation de- claring all who did not return to their homes, rebels and traitors. The majority of Bacon's men, fearing the conse- quences, yielded to this threat and went home. But Bacon, EARLY SETTLERS. Virginia After the Restoration. 61 with about fifty men, pressed on and inflicted severe pun- ishment on the Indians. Berkeley had collected a force to pursue Bacon, when tidings reached him which compelled him to return to Jamestown. The people of the lower coun- ties, considering that the long continued assembly was the cause of their troubles, rose up in arms and demanded that it should be at once dissolved. So universal was this de- mand that Berkeley was compelled to comply with it. The old assembly was dissolved, and writs wore issued for the election of a new one. The county of Henrico returned Bacon as their delegate, and many of the assembly were of his way of thinking. Seeming Adjustment of the Difficulty. — But Berkeley could not forgive Bacon, and had him arrested on his way to Jamestown. The new assembly was friendly to Bacon, and succeeded in making a compromise between him and the governor. Bacon was to acknowledge that he had been in the wrong, ask pardon of the governor, and promise not to offend again. He was then promised a commission and appointed commander-in-chief of the force against the In- dians. Bacon performed his part of the agreement, and was permitted to take his seat in the house. The new assembly then set about repealing the oppressive laws of the former ones, and redressing the grievances of the people; and for a while it seemed as if freedom and justice were restored to Virginia. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. III.. IV. ; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vols. III., IV. ; Ilildreth's History of the United States, Vol. I.; Fiske's History of the United States; Campbell's and Cooke's Histories of Virginia; Macaulay's History of England; Tucker's Hansford; Appleton's Encyclopedia. QUESTIONS.— 1. What is meant by the Restoration in England? 2. How did it afflict Virginia? 3. What later changes? 4. What feeling then arose and wliat opposition? .'5. What act of injustice did the king now commit against the people of Virginia? 6. Where is the " Noi-thern Neck," and Ar- lington? 7. What steps did the assembly take? 8. With what success, or ill-success? 9. Tell of the Indian settlement about the falls of the James. 10. Of the expedition against the Susquehannocks, and under what leaders. 11. Who was Nathaniel Bacon? 12. Why was Governor Berkeley not friendly to him? 13. What difficulty arose, and how was it settled ? 14. Was Bacon a patriot? 15. Why did he wish to get a commission and raise an army? CHAPTER X. BACON'S REBELLION. Bacon's Boldness, 1676. — Governor Berkeley now seemed to become daily more arbitrary. He was unwilling to sanc- tion any decrees of the assembly, and refused absolutely to sign the commission promised to Bacon. The young leader learned that the governor was plotting against his liberty and life, and withdrew secretly from Jamestown. Great in- dignation was felt at the injustice done him, and men quickly ^m^^i A FAIR MAEK— shoot!' flocked around him. Meantime the Indian outrages grew worse and worse, and resistance to them became a necessity. At the head of four hundred men Bacon marched to James- town, and demanded the promised commission from the governor and council. Berkeley had summoned the militia to defend Jamestown, but could only collect one hundred men. The rest had joined Bacon. [62] Bacon's Rebellion. 63 Bacon Obtains the Commission. — When Bacon appeared at the head of his troops, and asked for an interview with the governor, the old cavalier, who was no coward, advanced towards the troops, bared his breast, and called out with a loud voice, "A fair mark — shoot!" Bacon replied courteously that they had not come to harm him or any other man, but only for the commission promised him, that they might have authority to defend themselves and their friends from the Indians — and that they intended to have it. The bur- gesses were all anxious to give the commission, and in spite of his reluctance the governor was at last induced to sign it. Not only so, but he joined the burgesses and council in sending high praises of Bacon's zeal, loyalty, and patriotism to England, and also ratified the wise and beneficial laws made by the assembly. Berkeley Declares Bacon a Rebel. — There was great re- joicing in the colony when Bacon secured his commission, and marched against the Indians. But the joy was short- lived. Berkeley, enraged at having been obliged to give up his own will, declared that Bacon was a rebel and a traitor, and that his commission was forfeited. He then went to the loyal county of Gloucester, and tried to raise a force to go against Bacon. To his disgust the people would not join him, but said that they considered Bacon their brother and defender. Bacon's Return to the Coast. — Tidings of Berkeley's treachery and hostility were carried to Bacon by two earnest patriots, Drummond and Lawrence. The young commander was roused to righteous anger, and at once marched to Gloucester to compel the governor to keep his word. But Berkeley had no mind to meet the man he had so greatly wronged. He first took away the powder and ammunition from Fort York, which was the principal defence of that part of Virginia, and then crossed the Chesapeake Bay to Accomac, where he tried to collect an army by threats and bribery. Bacon's Rebellion Against Tyranny. — Bacon now called on all the freemen of the colony to assemble in convention and free the colony from Berkeley's tyranny. This call brought together a large assembly of citizens to " Middle Planta- tions," afterwards Williamsburg. They were enthusiastic in the cause of their liberties, and declared that Governor 64 History of the United States. Berkeley had abdicated his office by his retreat. Bacon and four other members of the council issued writs for the elec- tion of a convention to govern the colony. The whole con- vention took an oath to protect Bacon against the governor, and to join him against the Indians. They also signed a paper setting forth their grievances under the Navigation laws, the oppressive taxes, and their unprotected exposure to Indian barbarities. They even said that as Berkeley had declared them rebels and traitors, and had asked the king to send troops against them, they would resist those troops until the king could be told the true state of affairs in the colony. First Declaration of Rights, 1676. — I would like you to remember that these things were done in the year 1676, just one hundred years before the Declaration of Independence was written by another young Virginian leader, and signed by another assembly of American freemen. Defeat of Indians at Bloody Run. — When these measures had been taken, Bacon and his army marched against the In- dians. He destroyed several hostile towns, and then at- tacked them in their strong- hold near Richmond, routed them completely, and broke their power in Virginia for- ever. How desperate this fight was is told by the name of the little stream along which it was fought, which has ever since been known as " Bloody Run." Burning of Jamestown. — Berkeley collected in Accomac a body of followers consisting of servants to whom he promised their freedom, idlers to whom he promised abun- dant plunder, Indians, and white men as degraded as they. With these and the English vessels in the Chesa- peake Bay he returned to Jamestown, and again proclaimed Bacon a traitor and a rebel. As soon as Bacon learned of the governor's return he got together such of his men as could be hastily summoned and marched upon Jamestown. Berkeley's larger force was intimidated at Bacon's approach. BLOODY RUN. Bacon's Rebellion. 65 and after making an unsuccessful sally against him, they stole off in the night to their ships. Bacon entered the deserted town the next morning, and, to prevent its harbor- ing his enemies again, determined to burn it. Lawrence and Drummond themselves set fire to their two excellent houses, and the town was soon reduced to ashes. Bacon then moved northward to meet a force of twelve hundred men which was coming against him. But most of the men deserted their leaders and joined him. Death of Bacon. — While he was thus engaged in defend- ing the principles of free government, and preparing to march again against the Indians, he was taken with an ill- ness from fatigue and exposure, and died. His friends, fearing that some outrage might be committed upon his dead body, buried him secretly, and his grave is still un- known. He was a noble, high-souled man, a lover of free- dom, and a true patriot, and but for his untimely death might possibly have achieved liberty for Virginia a hundred years before she did win it. Berkeley's Vengeance. — After Bacon's death, his followers vainly attempted to continue resistance to the royalist power, but they were scattered and gradually disheartened. Berkeley, backed by commissioners from England, hunted down, captured, and hanged twenty-two of the most promi- nent of Bacon's followers, and such a reaction took place that for years the Virginians were more oppressed than ever. Planters Resist Oppressive Laws, 1677. — Berkeley was recalled to England in 1677, and died soon after, some said of mortification at not being able to regain the favor of the king. Culpeper, his successor, who was appointed for life, proved to be very covetous, and oppressed the Virginians by every means which promised to wring money from them. The English passed a law requiring that towns be built at specified places, and that no tobacco or produce be shipped except at these towns. This bore very hardly upon the planters who were scattered along the rivers, and on the low-grounds of all the streams. They therefore openly dis- obeyed the law, and when the government showed signs of displeasure, the planters in several counties destroyed their young plants, that the government should not reap the 5 66 History of the United States. profit it had lioped for, Tliis was considered so serious an offence that it was declared to be treason and was punished with hanging. Treaty with the Five Nations, 1684. — Culpeper was suc- ceeded by Lord Effingham. Not long after he came into power, the frontiers of Virginia were threatened by war parties from the Five Nations. It was thought most pru- dent to treat with these Indians in New York, and accord- ingly, Governor Effingham, with Governor Dongan, of New York, and commissioners from Massachusetts, held a con- ference at Albany with the sachems of the Mohawk, Oneida, Onondago, and Cayuga tribes. After much talking on both sides, a covenant of peace was entered into, the tomahawk was buried, the peace-pipes were smoked, and the Indians chanted their songs of peace. This was in 1684, the year in which the charter of Massachusetts was taken from her. Maryland after the Restoration. — Maryland fared much better after the Restoration than Virginia. With the return of the king, Lord Baltimore regained his power over the colony, but he exercised it so wisely and beneficially that Maryland prospered and increased steadily in wealth and population. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. III.. IV ; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vols. III., IV.; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol.1.; Fiske's History of the United States; Campbeirs and Cooke's Histories of Virginia; Macaulay's History of England; Tucker's Hansford. Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Appleton's Encyclopedia. QUESTIONS. — 1. How did Governor Berkeley treat Baeon, and what did Bacon do? 2. Tell of his interview with the old governor, and of the action of the council. 3. What did Berkeley then call Bacon? 4. What order did he give? 5. Where did he go ? 6. What step did Bacon now take ? 7. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence just one hundred years after this? [Thomas Jefterson.] 8. Tell of the attack and defeat of the Indians at Bloody Run. 9. The burning of Jamestown. 10. Why was it burnt? 11. Der„th and burial of Bacon. 12. Berkeley's vengeance. 18. Berkeley's death. 14. What law was made which the planters resisted? 15. Tell of the treaty with the Five Nations in 1684. 16. Who was then governor of Virginia? of New York? 17. How did Maiyland fare? 18. Find the places on the map. CHAPTER XI. NORTHERN COLONIES AFTER THE RESTORATION— SETTLE- MENT OF THE GAROLINAS. New England After the Restoration. — The return of Charles II. to the throne affected the New England colonies in very different ways. As they had been settled by those who had opposed his father, and as two of his father's judges had taken shelter in Massachusetts and New Haven, it was not unnatural that the English king should not be very friendly to them. When news of his restoration to power came over the sea, the colonies of Connecticut, Hart- ford, Plymouth, Rhode Island, and even New Haven, pro- claimed him king. Massachusetts took no notice of the change of government for more than a year. Charter of Connecticut. — Connecticut at once sent over her governor, John Winthrop, a prudent, wise, and accom- plished gentleman, to represent her interests to the king, and to ask for a charter. Winthrop enlisted the influence of the aged Lord Sa3^-and-Seal in behalf of his errand, and was successful in procuring from the king a very liberal charter for the Connecticut Colony, in which Hartford and New Haven were both included. This charter allowed the people to make their own laws, and elect their own officers, and gave to Connecticut a jurisdiction extending westward to the Pacific Ocean. Charter of Rhode Island. — To Rhode Island Charles showed even a more friendly spirit and granted it all the privileges for which Roger Williams had asked. The king ma}'^ have wished to limit the power of Massachusetts, and show his disfavor to New Haven, by thus encouraging their neighbors; but from whatever motive he acted, he did a good part in granting these excellent charters, and the colo- nies of Connecticut and Rhode Island grew and prospered for a number of years. Independence of Massachusetts — Her Subjection. — Charles, for a while, took no hostile steps against Massa- chusetts, though there was mutual antagonism between them. Indeed, he promised to respect her charter if she [67] 68 History of the United States. would administer justice in his name, allow the right of voting to all citizens, and permit the services of the Church of England to be held in the colony. The people of Mas- sachusetts complied with the first direction, but took no no- tice of the others. After a few years, the king's dislike manifested itself. Complaints of the independence and arrogance of the colony were poured into his ears. It had coined money for its own use; it had traded freely with the other colonies and with European ports; it sturdily maintained its right to govern itself; and the king determined to assert his authority. In 1664, notwithstanding the charter he had granted to Connecticut, and the settlements of the Dutch in New Netherland, Charles bestowed upon his brother, the Duke of York, along with the country between the Kenne- bec and St. Croix Rivers, the territory stretching from the Connecticut to the Delaware River. The war-ships which came to take possession of this grant brought also to Boston commissioners appointed to look into the affairs of New England. In 1684 Charles sent agents to Boston to inquire whether his conditions of seventeen years before had been complied with. You have seen that they had not. The king demanded that the charter should be surrendered to him, and, when the assembly declined to do so, he annulled it, and converted the whole region into a royal province. New Netherland Becomes New York, 1674. — England w as at peace with Holland, but she did not scruple to attack the Dutch colony, and the New England settlements saw no wrong in it. Not only did Massachusetts furnish a contingent of soldiers, but the excellent Governor Winthrop of Connecticut sailed with Nicholls, the commander of the expe- dition, to counsel New Amsterdam to sur- render to the English crown. Many English emigrants had moved into the Dutch ter- ritory, and had, before this, begun to de- mand the right to choose their own officers, GOV. STUYVESANT. j^^^ke thclr own laws, and lay their own tolls. When the English vessels appeared in the harbor at New Amsterdam, Governor Stuyvesant found the majority of the people in the colony so opposed to him and his arbi- trary rule, that he was forced to jdeld. A continuance of Northern Colonies — The Carolinas. 69 their liberties, their rights, and their property was guaran- teed to the colonists. New Netherland became New York. Fort Orange had its name changed to Albany. The league which had been made by the Dutch with the Five Nations was renewed by the English governors, and the entire change was peaceably affected. Delaware Settlements Become New Jersey. — In a few months, the Dutch and Swedish settlements on the Dela- ware also submitted to England, which now possessed the whole Atlantic coast. The Duke of York gave the territory they occupied to two English noblemen, and under the name of New Jersey it now became a separate colony. The Carolinas Given Away by the King, 1663. — A year before bestowing the territory of New York, New Jersey, and Delaware upon his brother. King Charles had given to a company of lords and gentlemen, among whom was Gov- ernor Berkeley of Virginia, the territory now known as the States of North and South Carolina. The southern part of this grant was claimed by Spain ; the northern part had been included in the grant to the Virginia Company, and had, besides, been promised in parts to different individuals. But King Charles regarded neither the promises of his father and grandfather, nor his own, and he now gave to eight of his courtiers the whole country between 31° and 36° of latitude, stretching all the way to the Pacific Ocean. The charter bestowed almost absolute power upon the pro- prietary owners, though it contained clauses guaranteeing, at the same time, the right of legislation and religious free- dom to the freemen of the colony. Settlements in North Carolina. — This was not an unset- tled country, as Virginia and New England had been. Pu- ritans had come from New England to the banks of the Cape Fear River, and when Non conformists had been ban- ished from Virginia they moved southward to the banks of the Chowan and along Albemarle Sound. Settlers had also come thither from Barbadoes, so that there were several established settlements and scattered hamlets in the eastern part of the country. As Governor Berkeley of Virginia was one of the eight to whom Carolina had been given, he set up a separate government there, and appointed as the first governor William Drummond,who has been mentioned 70 History of the United States. as taking part with Bacon in the struggle for liberty in Vir- ginia. The " Grand Model," and Freedom, — When the company in England got their charter, they planned to setup a model -government which would perpetuate some of the forms and principles of the most tyrannical countries in Europe. They therefore employed John Locke, a famous philosopher and a pure, good man, who was devoted to the king and to royal rule, to draw up a constitution for the new province of the Carolinas. You would scarcely understand this constitution if I should repeat it to you, and as this " Grand Model," as it was called, contained JOHN LOCKE. Ill i_ 1 J • a hundred separate regulations, you may be very glad that you are not obliged to puzzle your heads over it. But the people of the country were lovers of free- dom, and set to work to form a government to suit them- selves. Before the " Grand Model " was finished, in 1669, the freemen of the Albemarle settlement made a few laws which bestowed privileges upon new immigrants and protected the civil rights of all. The new constitution was, however, brought over, and governor after governor tried to enforce its fanciful and impossible provisions upon the people. Among these rulers were some unprincipled men who op- pressed and robbed the people. Others again tried honestly and faithfully to set up the "Grand Model." But the sturdy freemen of Carolina would not quietly submit to its unrea- sonable requirements. Numbers of the liberty-loving follow- ers of Bacon in Virginia took refuge among tbe Carolinians from Berkeley's vengeance and fostered their hatred of op- pression. And, at last, when a wicked and tyrannical crea- ture named Sothel had ill-treated the colony for five years, the people rose up against him, deprived him of his office, and banished him from the colony. South Carolina Established, and Settled, 1670. — The pro- prietors hoped that their "Grand Model" would have more success if they established a new colony in the southern part of their possessions; and they encouraged people from different parts of Europe and from other American colonies, to emigrate thither. A number of English, under William Northern Colonies — The Carolina^. 71 Sayle, made the first settlement at Port Royal, but after- wards removed to the place where the city of Charleston now stands. The next year came Sir John Yeamans from Cape Fear, bringing with him the colony he had originally led from Barbadoes, and two hundred African slaves. From the Dutch settlements in New York, from Holland, from Ireland, from Scotland, and again and again from England, bodies of emigrants came into the new colony, attracted by the fertility and pleasant climate of the region, and by the prospect of civil and religious freedom. Among them the arbitrary regulations of the "Grand Model" found as little favor as they had done in North Carolina. There was a constant struggle against the governors appointed by the proprietors, and the people established a representative government, and made laws for their own regulation, pay- ing little attention to those of the proprietors. Coming of the Huguenots, Their Character. — In an earlier chapter you have read of a colony of French Protestants under John Ribault, which settled near Port Royal, more than a hundred years before this time, and of another further south which was destroyed by the Spaniards. The persecutions against the Huguenots in France had been revived within a few years, and the French king, Louis XIV., seemed determined to destroy them. They were imprisoned, tortured and executed if they re- mained in France, and yet were forbidden to leave that country. Strong in their faith, however, and courageous to face any danger rather than renounce it, they man- aged to escape by hundreds and thousands. Indeed, as many as five hundred thousand of them eluded the vengeance of their persecutors, and made their way to for- eign shores. They were among the best of the French population, nobles, gentlemen, worthy citizens, honest tradesmen, and skilful artisans ; and they were welcome wherever they went. A large number of them came to America, to New England, New York, Virginia and North Carolina ; but in far greater numbers to South Carolina, where the climate was more like their native France. As many as sixteen thousand came to South Carolina, and set- tled principally along the Cooper and Santee Rivers. At first the English settlers, who hated everything French^ 72 History of the United States. looked coldly upon the Huguenots, and tried to exclude them from the rights and privileges enjoyed by themselves. But the French emigrants were almost all people of good birth and breeding, cultivated, refined, courageous. They had been trained to noble virtues and character in the school of adversity, and before many years became the most prosperous and prominent part of the population of South Carolina. Indeed, the descendants of the Huguenots in all parts of the United States have been the friends and advocates of liberty, of education, and of purity of character and life. Banishment of Colleton. — Like North Carolina, South Carolina before many years deposed an oppressive and unpopular governor, Colleton, and banished him from the province. Troubles with Indians. — In these colonies, as in Virginia, the settlers suffered grievously from Indian outrage for many years. Again and again they had to band together to drive off their savage foes, and more than once were compelled to seek aid from Virginia to contend successfully with the Indians, who greatly outnumbered them. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States. Vols. III., IV. ; Winsor s Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vols. III., IV. ; Hlldreth's His- tory of the United States, Vol. I.; Fiske's History of the United States; Campbell's and Cooke's Histories of Virginia; Macaulay s History of England; Fiske's Begin- nings of New England; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Williamson's History of North Carolina, Ramsay's History of South Carolina, QUESTIONS.— 1. How did the Restoration affect the New England colo- nies ? 2. Which one held out against the king ? 3. What charters did Con- necticut and Rhode Island obtain ? 4. Tell of the independence of Massachu- setts and her final subjection. 5. Upon whom did the king bestow a lai'ge tract ? 6. What were its boimdaries ? 7. What now became of New Nether- land? 8. Of the Delaware settlements? 9. Of the Carolinas? 10. Tell of the settlements in North Carolina. 11. Who wrote the " Grand Model" and what was it ? 12. Where was the first settlement in South Carolina ? 13. Tell of its growth. 14. Tell of the Huguenots. 15. Banishment of Colleton, 16. Indian troubles. 17. Where are all the places mentioned ? CHAPTER XII. SETTLEMENT OF PENNSYLVANIA, Grant of Land to William Penn, 1681. — The southern part of the territory given to the Duke of York, now the State of Delaware, had been sold for a thousand pounds to a band of English Quakers, and had already furnished an asylum to a number of them, when William Penn, who was a strange mixture of an accomplished courtier and an earnest Friend, obtained from Charles II., a grant for the territory lying west of the Delaware River, which now forms the State of Pennsylvania. This land was not a gift, as the Carolinas had been. It was granted to Penn in payment of a debt of sixteen thousand pounds which his father, a famous English sailor, had lent to King Charles when he was in exile and poverty. Admiral Penn had been greatly provoked when his son joined the despised Quakers, and when he could not dissuade him from it, tried at least to induce him to take off his hat before the Duke of York and the king. But William Penn would not give up his Quaker profession even in this small particular, and again and again suffered punishment and imprisonment for his devotion to it. Naming of Pennsylvania. — Notwithstanding his adherence to the sect everywhere despised, William Penn was held in great favor by the king and his brother, and, in spite of opposition, Charles discharged the debt to his father by granting to him the territory he asked, on condiion that he should pay two beaver skins a year to the king. Penn modestly called his new possession " Sylvania " — the Latin name for the great forests which covered it — but King Charles, in compliment to the Quaker owner, gave it the name Pennsylvania, which it has retained. Penn sent out his first band of settlers in 1681, under William Markham, who made a settlement near Philadelphia. For the first winter these settlers lived in holes dug in the hillsides, [73] WILLIAM PENN, 74 History of the United States, Founding of Philadelphia, 1682. — The next year Penn came himself, with another company of Quakers, to organize and set going the " Holy Experiment " of " a free colony for all mankind." The Duke of York, who still claimed jurisdic- tion over the " lower counties," as Delaware was called, ap- pointed Penn the governor over them. He was welcomed heartily by the Swedes, Dutch, and English who were already living in Delaware, and at once proceeded to carry out his purpose to establish a free and liberal government, under which all men might enjoy full freedom, both civil and religious. Penn had instructed his first colony to lay out a town with broad streets and wide gardens. This city, built along the Delaware and Schuylkill Rivers, was laid out in exaet squares, and called by Penn " Philadelphia," or Brotherly Love, to show how much he valued peace and good will among his people. Penn's Treaty with the Indians. — Penn believed that by dealing fairly and honestly with the Indians, the quarrelling and bloodshed which had afflicted the other colonies might be avoided. Before coming to Pennsylvania himself, he wrote a letter to the Indians assuring them of his peaceful intentions, and begging them to be friendly to the settlers. Shortly after he came to the colony, he invited the Indian chiefs to meet him in consultation, and agree upon a treaty of peace and love. This assembly took place under an elm tree, standing on what is now part of the great city of Philadelphia. The spot, which the Indians called "Shack a max on," is marked by a marble monu- ment. It is a reminder of a remarkable assembly. The Indians, without their weapons, calmly smoked their pipes of peace, while William Penn, accompanied by other Quakers in their peculiar dress, made them a speech declaring that he regarded and would treat the Indians as PENN'S TREATY. Settlement of Pennsylvania. 75 his brothers, and asking that they would look upon the whites in the same friendly way. The Indians were much pleased with the Quaker's kindliness, and with the presents he offered them. In their turn they gave him the wam- pum-belt, a token of peace, and promised to live in peace with Penn and his children as long as the sun and moon endured. Growth of the Colony. — Penn afterwards paid the Indians for the land occupied by his settlers, and the treaty of peace was faithfully kept. But we must remember that the power and success of the English in Virginia and New England had made them formidable to the Indians; and also that these Indians with whom Penn's treaty w^as made were the Lenni Lenapes, who had been conquered and subdued by the Iroquois. They had been forced to give up their weapons, and had been declared '• no better than women." They knew that if they ventured to raise their hands against the English, whom the Iroquois regarded as allies, their dreaded conquerors would visit them with sore vengeance. Free- dom from fear of Indian outrage may have been one cause for the rapid growth of Penn's colony. The invitation he extended to the good and oppressed of every nation brought numbers of worthy settlers to the fertile banks of the Delaware. From Eng- land and Wales, from Ire- land, Scotland, and Ger- many, they came in crowds, so that within three years Philadelphia had become a town of six hundred houses; and when Penn had to re- turn to England in 1 684, he left a prosperous city and a colony with ten thousand people. The government was a free one; the law-makers were chosen by all the freemen. Land was sold at a very low price to any who had money to buy it, and equal rights and privileges were assured to each law-abiding citizen. AND WCINITV 76 History of the United States. Delaware Made a Separate Colony in 1703. — Delaware continued under the same government as Pennsylvania until 1703, when it was separated to itself with its own assembly and laws. I have now given you the story of the settlement of each of the thirteen original States, save Georgia, which did not take place till fifty years later. Death of Charles II., 1685. — Charles II. became more tyrannical as he grew older, and was about to practice sevei'e measures towards the colonists when he died of apoplexy in 1685. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. III., IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of tlie United State;^, Vols. III., IV.; Hildretti's His- tory of the United States, Vol. I' Piske's History of the United States; Campbell's and Cooke's Histories of Virginia; Maeaulays History of England: Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Appleton's Encyclopedia, QUESTIONS.— 1. Who had bought the land no'w the State of Delaware? 2. Who was William Penn? 3. What grant was made to him, or payment of a debt rather ? 4. Tell of the naming and settling of Pemisylvania. 5. Found- ing of Philadelphia. 6. What does the name mean ? 7. How did Penn treat the Indians? 8. Tell of the Treaty. 9. Describe the Indians, and the growth of the colony. 10. When did Delaware become independent? 11. When did Charfes II. die ? 12. Find on the map all the places in the lesson. CHAPTER XIII. COLONIES UNDER JAMES IT. James II. Revokes the New England Charters, 1685. — James II. was a narrow-minded, bigoted man, and a worse ruler than his brother. His bearing towards the colonies was not quite so tyrannical as to his English subjects, but he made determined efforts to deprive them of what liber- ties Charles had left them. Sir Edmund Andros had atone time been governor of New York. He then had a quarrel with Connecticut, and he disliked the whole of New England. For this reason, no doubt, King James sent him over to Boston to govern not only that colony, but all of New England. Rhode Island and Connecticut were ordered to give up their precious charters. Rhode Island did not obey at once, and Andros went there, dissolved the colonial gov- ernment, and broke the seal which affirmed the charter, and the brave little colony saw no alternative but to submit. Colonies Under James 11. 77 CHAETEE OAK. Tale of the Charter Oak, 1687. — In October of the same year, Governor Andros went to Hartford to seize the charter of Connecticut. Gal- lant old Robert Treat, who had fought so well in King Philip's war, was governor of Con- necticut, and he ear- nestly argued with An- dros and pleaded the right of the colony to retain its charter. The discussion continued after nightfall. The charter lay on the table in view of all present. Suddenly the candles were blown out, and when, after some moments of confu- sion, they were re-lighted, the charter had disappeared. Captain William Wads worth, of Hartford, had carried it off in the darkness and hidden it in the hollow trunk of an old oak tree near by. Andros at once assumed command of the government, and the next day the secretary of the colony wrote " Finis " on the book of colonial records, in token that he thought liberty at an end in Connecticut. Within the next year New York and New Jersey were also placed under Andros, who thus governed the whole English terri- tory from Maine to the Delaware River. Andros's Tyranny. — Under his oppressive rule, Indian warfare destroyed many lives on the Maine frontier, while in the rest of New England the colonists were tyrannized over in every way. Andros dissolved the general court and claimed the power to lay all the taxes. Nothing could be printed without his approval, and the personal liber- ties of the people were greatly restricted. The king had ordered that the service of the Church of England should be held in one of the principal churches of Boston until the king's chapel could be built. This order was per- haps more grievous to the people of Boston than any other wrong inflicted upon them. Sir Edmund Andros for- mally demanded the use of the Old South meeting-house 78 History of the United States. for the Episcopal service, and was flatly refused. He then took possession of it, and the Church of England service was held there alternately with the regular services, until Andros lost his power. James Friendly to Quakers. — James was the personal friend of William Penn, and he not only left Penn's colony unmolested, but, at the solicitation of the Quaker, released from prison not lessthan twelve hundred Friends who had languished in captivity, some of them for years. James Unfriendly to Maryland. — Special leniency might have been looked for from the Catholic James towards the Catholic Lord Baltimore and his territory of Maryland. But the oppressive laws of trade bore hardly on the colony; and the king wished to get the whole American territory into his own hands and place it all under one government. He had taken steps to obtain possession of Maryland when his downfall came. Virginia also Oppressed by James. — In Virginia, the same struggle continued between the crown and people that had gone on for some years. The council appointed by the gov- ernor was generally obedient to his Avishes, while the as- sembly elected by the people was strenuous in guarding their rights. The first assem- bly that met after the acces- sion of King James protested against the governor's exercise of the "veto power"; that is, the power to set aside a decree of the assembly simply by for- bidding it. King James was much enraged at this. He or- dered that the assembly should be dissolved, and that Robert Beverley, whom they had chosen their clerk and who was the leader of the opposition to the royal oppression, should be prosecuted and disfran- chised, and that from that time the clerk of the assembly should be appointed by the governor. OLD SOUTH CHURCH. Colonies Under James II. 79 Pate of Robert Beverley. — Beverley had at one time been a devoted royalist, but he was too true a patriot to approve of the tyrannical oppressions of the throne, and became strong in opposing them. For his daring defence of liberty he was persecuted, imprisoned, disfranchised, and died the victim of royal spite and disfavor. Monmouth's Supporters Brought to Virginia as Slaves. — When the attempt of the ill-fated Duke of Monmouth to gain the English throne was defeated at Sedge moor, James wreaked bitter vengeance upon his unfortunate supporters. Hundreds of those who were taken prisoners were sent over to Virginia, and, by the express order of the king, sold into slavery. James enjoined upon Lord Effingham to have a law passed that these prisoners should continue in slavery for ten years, and should not be permitted to redeem them- selves before that time, either by money or any other means. Children were also kidnapped in the towns and sent to the colonies and sold. In this shameful traffic, the queen and great ladies took part and made money. Monmouth's fol- lowers had, most of them, been honest, worthy people, who thought that by adhering to him they could establish a more just and moderate rule in England. Virginia received the unhappy soldiers kindly, and passed no laws injurious to them. By the course of events they were soon restored to freedom and the possession of their civil rights. Indian Forts Built in New York. — King James was, you remember, the proprietor of New York, under a gift from his brother. Either because he felt a special interest in that colony, or because he really did think it right to protect it from the Indians, he directed the governor of New York to build forts to defend his territory, and desired that Vir- ginia should bear part of the expense for them. This Vir- ginia declined to do, since the Indians could come down upon her borders without passing within a hundred miles of these forts. Uprising of Protestant England. — James was, as I have told you, a bigot as to his religion, and intended to place all his dominions under the power of the Roman Catholic Church. There was nothing which the English nation feared and hated so much as they did this. Their antagonism and dread of it had within a few years been revived and intensi- 80 History of the United States. fied by the fierce persecution exercised in France against the Huguenots, many of whom had escaped into their midst and bore witness to the relentless cruelty of Rome and her adherents. The whole of England was stirred up. Church- men, Presbyterians, Independents, Quakers, by whatever name or mode of faith the Protestants called themselves, no matter how great the difference and how little the love might be between them, equally opposed the Roman Church, and were equally resolved not to submit to it. Against it they all stood shoulder to shoulder; and William of Orange and Mary his wife, he as the representative of Protestantism in Europe, and she as an English princess, the next heir to the throne, were invited by all classes and by men of all shades of opinion to come and take possession of it. Their coming was welcomed by the whole people, and James saw himself deprived of his kingdom and obliged to fly for his life, without a blow's being struck in his defence. William and Mary Become Sovereigns of England, 1688. Parliament assembled, formally deposed King James, and after drawing up a declaration of the rights they claimed to exercise, and those to which the king must not pretend, bestowed the kingdom upon the Prince and Princess of Or- ange. William accepted for himself and his wife, and prom- ised that they would be guided by the wishes and advice of Parliament. Thus the second revolution in England was accomplished. Effects in America. — As soon as the news that James had been deposed reached Boston, the people revolted against Andros, and established their own government as they had managed it under the charter. Rhode Island did the same thing, and the precious charter of Connecticut was brought from its hiding place. The charters of these two colonies were so liberal that they remained tlie rule under which both States regulated their affairs until within the present century. Leisler's Usurpation. — There was a similar uprising in New York, and Leisler, who headed it, for a while got pos- session of the government. But he had not the confidence of the English residents, his main supporters being among the Dutch, and he was afterwards accused of treason, was captured and executed. The Colonies in 1688. 81 AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. III., IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vols. III., IV.; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. I.; Fiske's History of the United States; Campbell's and Cooke's Histories of Virginia; Maeaulay's History of England; Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Appleton's Encyclopedia. QUESTIONS. — 1. — What act of tyramiy did James II. commit against New England? 2. Tell of the Charter Oak. 3. Andros'styraimy and the Old South meeting-house. 4. What did James do for the Quakers? 5. How did he act towards Maryland? 6. Towards Virginia? 7. Tell the fate of Robert Bev- erley. 8. Tell of the white slaves sent from England. 9. How did James pro- tect New York ? 10. Relate the uprising against James in England. 11. Who then came to the throne? 12. In what year? 13. What effects in America had the Revolution of 1688? 14. Who was Leisler? 15. Find all the places on the map. CHAPTER XIV. THE COLONIES IN 1688. The Twelve English Colonies. — We have now gone over the settlement of the twelve English colonies on the Atlantic coast during the seventeenth century: Virgmia by the English, at Jamestown 1607 New York by the Dutch, at New York 1614 Massachusetts by the English, at Plymouth 1620 New Hampshire by the English, at Portsmouth 1623 Connecticut by the English, at Windsor 1633 Maryland by the English, at St. Maiy's 1634 Rhode Island by settlers from Massachusetts, at Providence. 1636 Delaware by the Swedes, at Christiana 1638 Pennsylvania by the Swedes, at Philadelphia 1643 North Carolina by the English, near Albemarle Sound 1663 New Jersey by the English, at Elizabeth Town 1664 South Carolina by the English, at Charleston 1670 The Dutch and Swedish settlements in New York, Dela- ware and Pennsylvania had, as you have read, passed into the power of England; and when William and Mary came to the throne in 1688, the whole Atlantic coast from New Brunswick to Florida belonged to the English. You have seen that the people in these colonies were in some things very much alike, in others widely different. Resemblances Among the Colonists. — They almost all spoke the same language, used the English Bible, and,wath the exception of those in Maryland, were all Protestants. Indeed, by 1688 there were more Protestants than Catholics even in Maryland. They also all loved and desired freedom, and claimed it as their right to govern themselves according to 6 82 History of the United States. their own laws and to impose their own taxes. In their early experiences, too, the settlers fared much alike. They had to contend with severe winters, with threatened starva- tion, and to protect themselves against the enmity of the cruel, crafty Indians. Virginia and Massachusetts lost half of their numbers again and again from want, disease, and Indian outrages. But the worst times for the colonies were over, and though the people still had many difhculties to contend with, there had been steady progress for many years. Differences Among" the Colonies. — The differences among the colonies are scarcely less evident than their resem- blances. They differed in their modes of life and habits, in their forms of religion, and in their views of the relations they sustained towards each other. Character of the Virginians. — Virginia was settled by loy- alists, and under the auspices of the Church of England. The larger part of her colonists were from the middle and aristocratic classes of the mother country. Cavaliers by birth and education, they retained their love and reverence for the king and the church, and while steadfast in claiming, and stout in contending for the personal rights of each free- man, they were slow to try new ways and to upset the estab- lished forms of government. Conservative is the word which best describes them, and though some of you may not understand it now, j'^ou will come to learn that the wisest men of all ages have been conservative of what was good and true in their times. Feeling of Virginia toward Her Neighbors. — The Virgin- ians' belief in the liberty and rights of every one, gave them toleration and respect for the freedom of thought and action of their neighbors. They were jealous of the rights of the colony to all the land given in its charters, but beyond that they never interfered with the neighboring colonies, except to extend them some kindness. To Lord Baltimore's Mary- land colony, they gave cattle, hogs, poultry, fruit trees, and seeds which they themselves had gotten from the mother country and had raised with many years' hard labor. To Maryland, too, they lent help against the Indians, as they did later to North and South Carolina. Country Life. — From their first coming to America they showed little desire to establish themselves in compact set- The Colonies in 1688. 83 tlements, and to build up large towns. They preferred to settle on their own farms and plantations, surrounded by their servants and dependents. This habit of living to themselves was fostered by the universal cultivation of to- bacco, requiring broad acres and much sunshine. The dis- tances between the dwelling houses prevented the early es- tablishment of common schools and the regular attend- ance upon public worship. But you must not suppose that education and religion whereon that account wholly neglected. One of the first buildings put up at Jamestown was the church. And the brick tower of a later church which was burnt in Bacon's Rebellion is still standing. Following this example, substantial churches, some of wood, others of brick, were built wherever there was a sufficient number of settlers or plantations within reach. Provision for Churches and Schools. — One hundred acres were given as a "glebe" for the support of the minister, whose salary was paid in tobacco, the colonial currency. To these churches parish schools were sometimes attached. As early as 1619, fifteen hun- dred pounds were raised by churchmen in England to found a college at Governor Dale's city of Henrico, five hundred and fifty pounds more for the education of Indian children, and com- munion plates and furni- ture were given for the col- lege church. A year or two later, a school called the East Indian school, because it was endowed by persons engaged in the East Indian trade, was established if Charles City County. The:- early attempts at general and advanced education °^" '"^^^" ^'^^"'^ ^'^ jxmestown.^ were, however, brought violently to naught by the Indian massacre in 1622. 84 History of the United States. Education of the Young Cavaliers. — Charles II. and James II. through their oppressive governors did every- thing to discourage education, and when Sir William Berkeley wished to be very agreeable to his royal master he wrote word that there was not a free school nor a printing press in the colony. This did not check the education of the higher classes. Many of them were men of university training, who sent their eldest sons back to England for school and college teaching, and employed tutors for their other children from among the needy refugees or " in- dented" colonists, some of whom had been well educated at home. If their libraries were small, they had always at least the Bible, Shakespeare, and the English Prayer-Book constantly in use, as teachers of high morality and pure, vigorous English. Mode of Life. — The wealthy planters had spacious houses of wood and brick, with English gardens and orchards, while the offices and " quarters " for the negro and white servants near by formed quite a settlement. Their stables were ample, and their horses among the best in the world. In these plantation homes free-handed hospitality was exer- cised towards all comers, and the fertile soil, the plentiful game, and the abundant fish and oysters in the rivers en- abled even a poor man to spread a bountiful table. The kindness and courtesy which springs from good feeling gave softness and gentleness to the manners of even the rudest among the colonists. Sketch of the Massachusetts Settlers. — Massachusetts, on the contrary, as we have seen, was settled by men who hated alike the English monarchy and the English church. They came to America to establish a government to suit them- selves, and that government was, as far as it could be made so, to resemble the government of Moses over the Israelites. None but those who held their peculiar views were consid- ered to have any rights, civil or religious, and a share in the government was closely restricted to the church mem- bers. They also, at once, began the building of towns, and each settlement constituted a separate independent power, jealous of its own rights, and looking askance at its neigh- bors. Those who came among them and differed from them could not be endured. They must go, into the wilderness, The Colonies in 1688. 85 among the savages, it did not matter where, so that Puritan eyes and ears were not offended by them. The Puritans "a Peculiar People". — Indeed, it seemed an especial pleasure to the Puritans to emphasize their differ- ence from other men in all possible ways. They changed the names of the months, of the seasons, of their churches, their children, so that they should not resemble those in common English use. Christmas Day they treated with special scorn and desecration. Family Life and Dress. — The sons of the family might be Timothy, and Jonathan, and Josiah, Habbakuk, Make-peace and Accepted; the daughters were almost sure to be Abigail, Jerusha, Prudence, Temperance, Faith, and other Christian virtues. And as the boys and girls must answer to harsh unmusical names, so they must wear solemn faces, dress in sad-colored clothes, with long narrow sleeves, and closely-cut, uncurled hair. These things were thought important enough to be regulated by law. First College in America, 1636. — Living close together in towns made it easy to _____________________ establish c o m m o n f ' " """" ^~~\ schools where all the children could be taught together, and their mothers freed from the care of them during a good part of the day. Indeed, edu- cation was highly prized among the peo- ple of New England, and the meeting- house and school- house stood close to- gether in every village. The first college in America was that which still bears the name of its founder, John Harvard, at Cambridge, now part of Boston, established in 1636. New England Colonies and their Neighbors. — THe model- ling of their government on the Jewisli theocracy was one reason of the sudden and violent measures practiced by New England upon the Indians. Moses and Joshua, under HARVARD COLLEGE, 1895. 86 History of the United States. God's command, destroyed the idolatrous nations of Canaan, and God's elect in America could do no better than exter- minate the savages around them in like manner. Then, too, as they thought none but themselves were right, or had rights, they felt themselves entitled to interfere in their neighbors affairs, and to give advice unasked for. Thus, the colony of Rhode Island was excluded from the New England Confederacy, as its founders had been driven from Massachusetts. Trade with Virginia was forbidden when she would not adopt the views of Parliament, and the Dutch in New York were overpowered by an English commander, who was backed up by the governor of Connecticut and agents from Massachusetts. The cold climate and barren soil of New England were not conducive to agriculture, and the people early turned their attention to ship-building, fishing, and manufactures, in which they have ever since excelled. Social Distinctions. — There was quite as much difference in the classes of society among the Puritans in New England, as the Cavaliers in Virginia. The governors and ministers were reverenced almost with awe. But life everywhere there was plainer and on a ruder plan, for the elegances and luxuries of the higher classes in England were frowned upon as belonging to the vices of the English court. Character of the Settlers in other Colonies. — In New York, the habits of the people partook of the simplicity and stiff- ness of the Dutch settlers. In New Jersey and Delaware, Quaker plainness of life, dress, and speech were the rule, and afterwards in Pennsylvania. Education was fostered by the Quakers, and the settlers in these colonies both built towns like the New Englanders and spread themselves over the fertile, level country like the Virginians. Maryland was similar to Virginia in the general character of her people, and their habits of life. In the Carolinas, climate, soil, the productions of the country and the inclinations of the set- tlers, caused agriculture and plantation life to prevail, as has been the case ever since throughout the Southern States. Slavery in all the Colonies: Why More Slaves at the South. — There was one other important respect in which all twelve of these colonies were alike. They were all slave- The Colonies in 1688. 87 holding communities. Negroes had been sold by the Dutch to Virginia planters in 1619, and at the period of which we are now speaking and for nearly a hundred years later, African slavery existed in all the colonies. This was the case when the Declaration of Independence was adopted. We have seen the prisoners after the Pequot massacre and King Philip's war, sold as slaves by the Massachusetts Puritans, who had at that time no conscientious scruples about selling and buying either Indians or negroes. But the African comes from a warm climate, and flourishes only beneath a sultry sky. His aptitude is far greater for out-door work in the field than for labor in manufactories. In the planting PRIMITIVE SCHOOL. of tobacco, rice, cotton, and sugar, which gradually became the prime products of the southern colonies and States, he found the occupation suited to his health and capacities, while he dwindled and was comparatively useless when exposed to the long, cold northern winters. To hold him in 88 History of the United States. slavery became more and more unprofitable to the men of the northern regions, and he was sold to their southern neighbors before any question was raised as to the moral right of either to buy and sell him. The opinion of the world has changed on these points, but we must be careful to see the facts as they appeared, to our ancestors. Some Differences in Life Then and Now. — The condition of the country was such as you can scarcely picture to your- selves. There were no stoves nor grates, no furnaces to warm the houses ; great wood fires in huge open chimneys were the only ways of giving heat in winter. There were few public roads, no public conveyances. All journeys by land were made on foot or on horseback ; along the rivers and streams the people went from place to place in their boats. There were no newspapers and no post-offices. News was carried by messengers or by runners, and letters only by private hands. The thread and yarn for clothing were spun and woven by the women of the family, or by the slaves on the plantations, and the garments made by the same hands. Only the rich and prominent could afford, even for Sundays and holidays, the handsome and costly garments brought from England at a high price. But the people were healthy, independent, and virtuous, and did not miss all these things which seem so necessary to us, two hundred years later. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States. Vols. III.. IV. ; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of tlie United States, Vols. III., IV.; Hildretli's Hia- iiiiig,,, ui i,^« .i^i.fsicv.i^^, .Lxt,^..vvv... o ^..v.j^.„^^^ — , ...w.^^o^i. .= History Carolina; Ramsay's History of South Carolina. QUESTIONS.— 1. How many colonies had been settled before 1700? 2. What were their names ? 3. What nation settled each ? 4. In what year was the first? the latest? 5. When was your State, or the State of your an- cestors, settled? 6. What nation controlled the Atlantic coast? 7. Were all the colonies alike ? 8. Mention some resemblances. 9. In what did they differ? 10. What class settled Virginia? 11. Their character? 12. Virginia country life. 13. What provision was made for churches and schools? 14. Where were the young men educated? 15. Mode of life. IG. Describe the ]\Iassachusetts settlers. 17. Their peculiarities. 18. Family life and dress. 19. What college was first established? 20. New England and her neighbors. 21. Social distinctions. 22. Settlers in other colonies. 23. Did slavei-y exist in all ? 24. Why were there more slaves in the South ? 35, Tell some of the differences between life then and now. CHAPTER XV. THE FRENCH IN THE NORTH AND WEST. The French Against the Iroquois. — When Champlain settled at Quebec in 1608, he found the Huron and Algon- quin Indians in possession of the country north of Lake Ontario and the St. Lawrence River. They were deadly enemies to the Iroquois, who held the region south of that river. To make friends with his immediate neighbors, Champlain joined them in an expedition against the Iro- quois. In this march he discovered and explored the lake which bears his name. He and his party were the first white ■ men who had ever entered the country. Their fire- arms won a victory for their Indian allies. The Iroquois never forgave the French for coming against them, and avenged themselves for ninety years, with fire and bloodshed. French Missionaries. — Their hostility prevented Cham- plain from pushing southward, and, as he was most desirous to extend the dominion of France in the New World, he pressed westward. Paddling up the Ottawa River, he made his way across into Lake Huron as early as 1615, five years before the Pilgrims came to Plymouth. To make friends with the Indians was the surest way to build up the power of France. The better to accomplish this, Champlain called to his aid the missionary zeal of the Roman Catholic Church. Foremost among these missionaries were the Franciscan brothers and the Jesuit priests, who exhibited in their labors among the Canadian Indians the courage and devotion of the early mart3'rs. From eastern Maine to the west of Lake Huron these faithful preachers carried the cross, setting up their rude chapels and chanting their litanies in the midst of the savage tribes. Their earnest teachings and pious lives gave them great success, especially among the Hurons; and, as the stor}' of their efforts and their doings spread, messengers from more distant tribes came to see and hear the wonderful white teachers. French Settlements on the Great Lakes. — Fur traders brought eastward an account of Lake Superior, the vast [89] 90 History of the United States. inland sea still farther to the west, and the missionaries pressed on thither. Father Claude Allouez, in his journey, gave the name Sault St. Marie to the falls between Lakes Superior and Huron, where Dablon and Marquette estab- lished a mission station, the first European settlement in Michigan. For two years Allouez remained alone among the Indians, preaching to the Chippewas and to emissaries from the Pottawotamies, the Sacs and Foxes, the Illinois, and even to warriors from the great Sioux Nation, who dwelt on the banks of the great river, the " Meche Sepe.'* Plan to Explore the Mississippi. — De Soto was known to have crossed this river in 1541, but since that time it had been unknown to the white men. The glowing accounts given by the priests of the vast country and powerful tribes in the west made the French authorities eager to take pos- session of it. Marquette's project for discovering the Mis- sissippi River was, therefore, encouraged by Talon, the gov- ernor of New France, who sent Joliet, an experienced trader, to take part in it. Discovery of the Upper Mississippi in 1673. — In the sum- mer of 1673 Marquette and Joliet, with five Frenchmen and two Indian guides, carried their canoes across from the Fox River, flowing north, into the Wisconsin, flowing south. No Frenchman, no Christian, had ever passed beyond this point. The guides refused to go farther. But France and Christianity were bolder, and the seven Frenchmen passed on. First Trip Down the Mississippi. — For seven days they floated down the Wisconsin and, at length, entered the Great River "with a joy that could not be expressed." Down past the Des Moines, the Missouri and Ohio they went, making friendly demonstrations and preaching to such Indians as they saw, and claiming the whole country for France. The Indians of the southern tribes had guns and axes of steel, which showed that they must have had some intercourse with white men. After passing below the mouth of the Arkansas River, the explorers became con- vinced that the great river ran always south, and learning that they were still very far from its outlet, they turned their faces once more towards the north. Slowly they made their way against the current, and passed up the Illinois River, at the head of which they separated. Joliet carried French in the North and West. 91 to Quebec the news of their success. Marquette resumed his labors among the Indians on the shores of Lake Michi- gan. Here he died, two years later, and was buried near the stream which bears his name. La Salle. — Joliet's account of the great country through which he had travelled, and of his journey down the Mis- sissippi, was received with joy by the residents of New France. It aroused the ambition and kindled the enthusi- asm of the Chevalier La Salle, a young Frenchman who held Fort Frontenac, at the eastern end of Lake Ontario. La Salle's Plan. — La Salle went to France and succeeded in interesting King Louis and his ministers in favor of the plan he had formed to traverse the whole length of the Mississippi ; to make friends of the Indians along its banks; and to plant French colonies among them, thus ensuring the whole vast region to France. He obtained a commis- sion from the king to discover the whole length of the Mississippi ; and returned to America accompanied by the Chevalier de Tonti and a colony of thirty Frenchmen. La Salle's First Trials. — In 1679, La Salle built and launched on the Niagara River the first vessel ever seen in those waters — the Griffin, a little craft of forty-five tons burden. Passing through Lakes Erie, Huron and Michi- gan, La Salle landed on the shore of Green Bay, loaded the vessel with skins and furs, and sent her back to Lake Erie for supplies. The Griffin was lost on this voyage, and, after waiting in vain for her return, the explorers moved south- ward and built a fort in Illinois, to which, from their many disappointments, they gave the name of " Creve Coeur," or Broken Heart. From this point Hennepin was sent to explore the upper Mississippi. La Salle with four French- men and an Indian guide returned through the untried wil- derness, a thousand miles, to Montreal, leaving Fort Creve Coeur under command of De Tonti. Part of the garrison thus left mutinied and destroyed the fort. The rest, with De Tonti, sought refuge first among the Illinois Indians, and then returned to Green Bay. Ascent of the Mississippi. — Father Hennepin's expedi- tion along the upper Mississippi was very successful. His party ascended eight hundred miles from the mouth of the Illinois to the Falls of St. Anthony, so named in 92 History of the United States. honor of Hennepin's patron saint. After exploring a while his party also retreated to Green Bay. La Salle's Descent to the Gulf, 1682. — La Salle met with many delays and disappointments, but he was not to be dis- couraged. In February, 1682, he again passed down the Illinois River and on into the Mississippi, down which he floated to its mouth. The ^^^v^j^^'^'m- o, * river he called St. '^^^^-^'^^ Louis, a s Henne- ■ '"^ pin had done, _— r^sTrr-^*?-— =^" "s^^?^ and the vast .**^^C^^)^^^^pi^fe^l-'^ region throuo;h DEATH OF LA SALLE. which it flowed, Louisiana, in honor of the French king. On the 9th of April, 1682, he planted a cross with the arms of France, near the mouth of the river, and claimed all the territory drained by it and its tributaries for King Louis. Death of La Salle, 1686. — To establish this claim it was important to take military possession of it. La Salle, there- French in the North and West. 93 fore, went to France for men and arms. An expedition was fitted out, and sailed for the mouth of tlie Mississippi. The pilots did not know the coast and carried the ships to Mata- gorda Bay, four hundred miles too far west, and thus Texas became a part of Louisiana. The colonists who were landed here endured many hardships for two years. Then La Salle determined to make his way overland to Canada, and bring them succor. The party with whom he set out muti- nied and murdered their patient, intrepid, persevering leader. A pitiful fate for a man who had won for his coun- try so magnificent a territory. D'Iberville's Fort at Biloxi, 1699. — Louisiana was settled when D'Iberville built a fort at Biloxi and planted the first white colony on the coast of Mississippi. But France maintained her title to the whole great valley, along which there was intercourse kept up by the traders. De -*^*?- ~ Tonti came D'IBERVILLE'S FORT AT BILOXI. down the river once seeking for La Salle, and again to visit the French, who had made the settlement the great explorer had so longed to establish. French Names in the Mississippi Valley. — The routes and explorations of the French pioneers may be traced on the maps by the names they gave to different places and rivers. The St. Marys, St. Josephs, St. Francises, St. Louis, and other saints' names show especially where the missionaries went. Eau Claire, Prairie du Chien, Lac qui Parle, Terre Haute, and like French titles show how the discoverers observed the natural characteristics of the country. Des 94 History of the United States. Jfbmes River is where pious monks preached to the Indians; and you may find other equally interesting names which tell the same story. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's mstory of the United States, Vols. I., II.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vols. IV., V. ; Monette's Louisi- ana and the Mississippi \ alley ; Hildretli's History of the United States, Vols I., II. QUESTIONS. — 1. What made the Iroquois enemies to the French in Canada ? 3. Who was leader of the French in 1608 ? 3. Who came over to help make friends of the Indians ? 4. Tell about their life and work. 5. What set- tlements were made on the Great Lakes ? 6. What was the Indian name of the Mississippi River? 7. Who planned to explore it? 8. Who discovered the upper part? 9. Tell of the first ti'ip down the river, and how far was it? 10. Who was La Salle ? 11. His plan. 12. His first trials. 13. Naming of St. Anthony's Falls. 14. La Salle's trip to the mouth. 15. When? 16. What claim did he make ? 17. Death of La Salle. 18. First settlement of Louis- iana. 19. Give some of the French names in the Mississippi Valley, and their meanings, if you can find them. 30. Be sure to hunt up all the places on the map. SUMMARY FOR REVIEWS AND ESSAYS. DISCOVERY AND SETTLEMENT- 985-1688. Chapters 1-15. Discoveries in the New World : Legends of discovery, 9. Eric and Leif in Greenland and Vinland, 985 A. D., 9. Voyage of Columbus and discovery of America, 1492, 10. Discovery of South America, 11. English expedition of discovery, 12. Discovery of North America by John and Sebastian Cabot, 1497, 12. French expedition under Cartier, 12. Discovery of Brazil, 13. Discovery of the Pacific by Balboa, 1513, 13. Discovery of Florida, 1513, 13. Discovery of the Mississippi by De Soto, 1541, 14. Sir Walter Raleigh's first expedition ; naming of Virginia, 23. New England in 1607-14, 32. Discovery of the Hudson, 1609, 38. Plan to explore the Mississippi. 90. Discovery of the upper Mississippi, 1673, 90. First trip down the Mississippi, 90. La Salle's descent to the Gulf, 1682, 92. Columbus : Advance of learning, 9. Columbus and his plan, 10. Voyage of Columbus, 10. Return of Columbus to Spain, 11. The Spanish search for gold, 11. Ill-treatment of Columbus, 11. Death of Columbus, 1506, 11. Amerigo Vespucci : Naming of the New World, 11. The new world named America, 12. Right of Discovery : "Line of demarcation," 13. First voyage round the world, 14. Sir Francis Drake, 22. " Northwest Passage," 22. Second voj'age round the world, 22. Gosnold's voyage to New England, 23. La Salle, 91. La Salle's plan, 91. La Salle's first trials, 91. Ascent of the Mississippi, 91. Death of La Salle, 1686, 92. French names in the Mississippi Valley, 93. [95] 96 History of the United States. Indians in America : " Indians," 11. Appearance of the Indians, 15. Tlie savage Indians, 15. The barbarous Indians, 16. Arts and habits of the barbarous Indians, 16. The half-civilized Indians, 17. The Aztecs and Peruvians, 17. The Esquimaux, 18. Origin of the Indians 18. Indian mounds, 18. Some bad traits of Indian character, 19. Some good traits, 19. The Indian religion, 19. " The pipe of peace," 20. Three different races, 20. Visit to Powhatan, 25. Pocahontas, 20. Marriage and death of Pocahontas, 30. Indian dealings with the settlers (as found in the various stories of settle- ment). First settlement in America : Eric and Leif in Greenland and Vinland, 985 A. D., 9. Settlement in Vinland, 9. Western land forgotten, 9. Spanish settlement : Conquest of Mexico and Peru, 13. Spanish settlement in Florida, 1565, 21. French attempted settlement, 21. French settlement : French attempted settlement, 1562, 21. French settlement in Canada, 21. Coming of the Huguenots; their character, 71. The French against the Iroquois, 89. French missionaries, 89. French settlements on the Great Lakes, 89. D'Iberville's fort at Biloxi, 1699, 93. English settlement in Virginia: English attempts. 21. Queen Elizabeth's colonies, 23. Sir Walter Raleigh's first expedition ; naming of Virginia, 23. Second and third expeditions ; birth of Virginia Dare, 23. Lost colony of Roanoke, 23. Patents to Virginia and Plymouth companies, 24. The Virginia Colony, 24. Captain John Smith, 25. Settlement at Jamestown, 1607, 25. The first church, 25. Visit to Powhatan at the falls of the James, £5. Trials of the colonists and Captain Smith's good help, 26. Pocahontas and the colony, 26. New colonists ; fire ; gold fever, 27. Smith's map of the country; first women settlers, 27. New charter and new settlers ; Smith's departure ; " starving time," 27. Summary for Reviews and Essays. 97 English settlement in Virginia — Continued: Coming of Lord Delaware, 1610, 28. Division of the laud ; raising tobacco, 28. First legislative assembly ; introduction of slavery, 29. Slavery throughout the world in 1619, 29. Ship-load of girls, 1620, 30. Cargo of criminals, 30. MaiTiage and death of Pocahontas, 30. Indian massacre, 1622, 30. English perseverance and self-government, 31. English settlement in Massachusetts : Patents to Virginia and Plymouth companies, 24. Landing of the Pilgrims, 1620, 32. Misfortunes of the settlers, 33. Later colonies in New England, 33. The Puritans, 33. Puritan idea of religious liberty, 34. Puritan laws of Governor Endicott, 34. Law as to voting, 1631 , 34. Roger Williams exiled, 35. Stoiy of Anne Hutchinson, 36. Growth of IMassachusetts, 36. Dutch settlements: Settlement of Connecticut, 36. Settlement of New Nether land, 38. Patroons, 38. Increase of the Dutch colony, 39. Slave ships, 39. Strife with Indians and peace at Battery Park, 39. Swedes in Delaware, 40. Delaware, or New Sweden, taken by the Dutch, 1655, 40. Other English settlements in New England : Settlement of Rhode Island, 1636, 35. Settlement of Connecticut under John Winthrop, 36. Pequot War, 37. Settlement of New Hampshire, 1623, and of Maine, 1630, 37. English settlement in Maryland : Claybome's settlement on Kent Island, 1627, 41. Lord Baltimore, 42. Naming of Maryland, 42. " Pilgrims of St. Maiy's," 1634, 42. Religious freedom, 42. Strife between the settlements, 44. Growth of Maiyland, 44. English settlements in the Carolrnas ■. The Carolinas given away by the king, 1663, 69. Settlements in North Carolina, 69. The " Grand Model" and freedom, 70. South Carolina established and settled, 1670, 70. Coming of the Huguenots ; their character, 71. Banishment of Colleton, 72. Troubles with Indians, 72. 7 98 History of the United States. The Quakers : Rise of the Quakers, 54. Persecution of the Quakers, 54. Quakers banished from the United Colonies, 55. Further persecution, 55. Grant of land to William Penn, 1681, 73. Naming of Pennsylvania, 73. Founding of Philadelphia, 1682, 74. Penn's treaty with the Indians, 74. Growth of the colony, 75. James friendly to the Quakers, 78. English possession of the Dutch colonies : New Netherland becomes New York in 1674, 68. Delaware settlements become New Jersey, 69. English Settlement in Pennsylvania: Grant of land to William Penn, 1681, 73. Naming of Pennsylvania, 73. Founding of Philadelphia, 1682, 74. Penn's treaty with the Indians, 74. Growth of the colony, 75. Delaware made a separate colony in 1703, 76. Death of Charles II. , 1683, 76. (For the settlement of Georgia, the thirteenth original colony, see Ch. XVIll. Advance of the Virginia colony : Downfall of Charles I., 1649, 44. Sir William Berkeley made governor of Virginia, 45. Laws as to the church, 45. Opecancanough's second attack on the whites, 45. Prosperity of Virginia, 46. Loyalty of the colony, 46. Virginia yields to Parliament, 47. Religion in the colony, 47.,,- Parliament triumphs in Maryland, 48. The Restoration in England, 1660, 57. The Restoration in Virginia, 57. Freedom of the colonies restricted, 57. Resistance, 58. Giving away the lands of the colonists, 58. Petition to the king, 58. Efforts to secure a new charter, 59. Advance of the New England colonies : Puritans cease coming to America, 49. Self-government in New England, 49. United Colonies of New England, 1643, 50. Strife with the Indians, 50. Killing of Miantonomo, 51. John Eliot, 51. Outbreak of King Philip's war, 1675, 52. Attack on Swanzey and other places, 52. End of the war, 52. Effort to obtain equal rights, 53. New England sympathizes with Cromwell, 1648, 53. New England after the Restoration ; charter of Connecticut, 67. Summary for Reviews and Essays. 99 Advance of the New England colonies — Continued: Charter of Rhode Island, G7. Independence of Massachusetts ; her subjection, 67. Bacon's Rebellion : Trouble with the Indians, 59. Expedition against them, 59. Nathaniel Bacon against the Indians, 60. Oovenior Berkeley's injustice to Bacon, 60. Seeming adjustment of the difficulty, 61. Bacon's boldness, 1676, 62. Bacon obtains the commission, 63. Berkeley declares Bacon a rebel, 63. Bacon's return to the coast, 63. Bacon's rebellion against tyranny, 63. First declaration of rights, 1676, 64. Defeat of the Indians at Bloody Rmi, 64. Burning of Jamestown, 1676, 64. Death of Bacon, 65. Berkeley's vengeance, 65. Planters resist oppressive laws, 1677, 65. Treaty with the Five Nations, 1684, 66. Maryland after the Restoration, 66. Colonies under James II : James II. revokes the New England charters, 1685, 76. Tale of the Charter Oak, 77. Andres's tyranny, 77. James friendly to the Quakers, 78. James unfriendly to Maiyland ,78. Virginia also oppressed by James, 78. Fate of Robert Beverley, 79. Monmouth's supporters brought to Virginia as slaves, 79. Indian forts built in New York, 79. Uprising of Protestant England, 79. William and Mary become sovereigns of England, 1688, 80. Effects in America, 80. Leisler's usm'pation, 80. The Colonies in 1688 : The twelve English colonies, 81. Resemblances among the colonists, 81. Differences among the colonies, 82. Character of the Virginians, 82. Virginia and her neighbors, 82. Countiy life, 82. Provision for churches and schools, 83. Education of the young cavaliers, 84. Mode of life, 84. Sketch of the Massachusetts settlers, 84. The Puritans "a peculiar people, 85." Family life and dress, 85. First college in America, 1686, 85. New England colonies and their neighbors, 85. Social distinctions, 86. Character of the settlers in other colonies, 86. Slavery in all the colonies; why more slaves in the South, 86. Some differences in life then and now, 88. FRENCH AND INDIAN WARS, 1689-1763. CHAPTER XVI. KING WILLIAM'S WAR AND QUEEN ANNE'S WAE. Beginning of the War of 1689. — When William and Mary came to the English throne, there were in the Ameri- can colonies about two hundred thousand people who held the narrow territory east of the mountains along the At- lantic coast. The white population of New France at the same time was only about twelve thousand, but she claimed the whole region west of the mountains from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the Gulf of Mexico. All the Indian tribes of that region were friendly to France except the Iroquois, who inhabited the country just south of the St. Lawrence River and Lakes Ontario and Erie. They w^ere steady allies of the English. Louis XIV. of France and William of England had been enemies a long time. Louis wished to put James II. back on the English throne, and a fierce war broke out which soon extended to America. French and Indian Attacks, 1689. — Count Frontenac,, the warlike governor of New France, by the help of his Indian allies, attempted to seize upon New York. Their plan was foiled by an attack made by the Iroquois on Montreal, where much savage cruelty was perpetrated. Old Frontenac had now to defend Canada, but he sent raiding parties into New York and the New England colonies, which rivalled the Iro- quois in their barbarous deeds. Schenectady was surprised in the night, sixty of the inhabitants were massacred and the rest escaped in their night clothes to Albany, after a fearful tramp through the snow. Another party inflicted similar destruction at Salmon Falls in New Hampshire. For several years this dreadful work of midnight surprises, conflagrations and massacres went on. If the people of the villages had warning of the approach of their enemies, they took refuge in their block houses. But often the destruction [100] King William^ s and Queen Anne*s Wars. 101 fell upon them suddenly. In 1692, the town of York in Maine had a third of its inhabitants slaughtered. Two years later, more than a hundred people, mostly women and child- ren, were massacred at Durham in New Hampshire. Some of them were even burned alive. At Groton in Massachu- setts, forty people were slain in a sudden attack. The Cana- dian governor received with pleasure any English scalps which were brought to him, and the priests urged their igno- rant Indian converts to these deeds of bloodshed and rapine. Escape of Mrs. Dustin. — Marauding bands ventured within thirty-four miles of Boston. One of these carried off Mrs. Dustin, her baby, her nurse, and a boy of thir- teen. The poor baby was dashed against a tree and killed. After some weeks of wretched captivity, Mrs. Dustin formed a bold plan i^^ of escape. The boy under- | stood the Algonquin lan- guage and learned that they were to be tortured when they reached their journey's end. Waiting till the nine warriors and three squaws of the party were asleep one night, the prisoners arose, possessed themselves of the tomahawks, and with rapid blows killed and scalped all the Indians, except one boy and one woman, who escaped. They then made their way to the settlements with the scalps they had taken. A marble monument at Boscawen, New Hampshire, tells wliere tliis bold escape was made. Resistance of New England. — The New England colonists did not submit quietly to these outrages. Expeditions were sent against both Quebec and IMontreal, but neither of them had any success. Port Royal in Acadia, however, sur- rendered to a fleet which appeared before it. Peace of Ryswick, 1697. — Frontenac now attacked the Iroquois and greatly weakened their power by the havoc he wrought amongst them. In 1697, the war in Europe ended INDIANS AND THEIR PRISONERS. 102 History of the United States. by the treaty of Ryswick, and peace for a while followed in America. But this war was but one outbreak of a strife which continued for more than fifty years longer between France and England, and their colonies in America. Queen Anne's War, 1702. — When Queen Anne succeeded William and Mary, the war was renewed with France be- cause King Louis wished to make her young half-brother, son of James II., king of England in her place. The colo- nists took part in this war also. In the south, the Spaniards in Florida, who were allies of France, brought a fleet from Cuba to attack Charleston, but the brave South Carolinians drove their enemies off". There was a good deal of fighting also between the colonists and the Indians, both in North and South Carolina. The Appalachee Indians in South Caro- lina were completely humbled and sued for peace, so that the colony was freed from dread of Indian outrages. Indian War in North Carolina. — In North Carolina the Tuscarora and Coree Indians became restless at the increase in numbers of the white settlers, and made an effort to rid themselves of them by a sudden and wholesale massacre. At first fearful destruction and many murders were com- mitted, but at last by the help of troops from South Caro- lina, the Indians were so thoroughly defeated that they gave up the contest, abandoned Carolina, and marched to the north, where they joined the confederacy of the Iroquois in New York, which, from that time, was known as the Six Na- tions. Indian Atrocities. — The war in the north was filled with the same Indian atrocities that had taken place formerly, only, perhaps, rather worse. Burnings, murders, scalpings, and tortures were dealt out all along the border country. At last the English offered a bounty of ten pounds or more for every Indian scalp. Peace of Utrecht, 1713. — A second expedition against Quebec was unsuccessful; but Nova Scotia was conquered by a combined force from England and the colonies, and when peace was made in Europe in 1713, that province remained in the English possession, as did the Hudson Bay territory and the island of Newfoundland. French Strength in the West. — Through all this fighting, France was strengthening her power in the west. A series King William's and Queen Anne's Wars. 103 of French forts connected the Great Lakes with the Missis- sippi Valley. Kaskaskia, Cahokia, Vincennes, and Detroit were among them. To prevent this, William Penn and Governor Spotswood of Virginia urged the English govern- ment to establish military posts west of the Alleghany Mountains. The legislature of New York petitioned Queen Anne on the subject, and Governor Schuyler took five Iro- quois chiefs to London to assure the queen that their people and allies would help the English to drive out the French. Condition of the Central Colonies. — The central colonies took no part in this war, and grew and prospered through- out the whole period, although their trade was interfered with; and there was always strife for power between the assemblies which were elected by the people, and the gov- ernors who were appointed by the crown. Queen Anne as a Slave-Carrier. — The Peace of Utrecht, which ended Queen Anne's war, contained one shameful provision. "Her Brittanic Majesty did offer to undertake, by persons whom she shall appoint, to bring into the West Indies of America, belonging to his Catholic Majesty, in the space of thirty years, one hundred and forty thousand negroes." By this disgraceful agreement the English queen became the slave-carrier for Spain. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vol. II., III.; Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. II. ; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. III.,V. ; Campbell's History of Virginia; Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Cooke's History of Virginia; Ramsay's History of South Carolina. QUESTIONS.— 1. How many settlers were in America in 1688? 2. What territoiy did the French claim ? 3. What was the cause of King William's war? 4. Tell of the attacks on New York; on New England. 5. Relate the story of Mrs. Dustin. 6. What resistance was made by New England? 7. When was the Peace of Ilyswick ? 8. How long did Queen Anne's war last? 9. Tell of the Spanish attack on South Carolina. 10. The defeat of the Tuscarora tribe in North Carolina. 11. Indian atrocities. 12. Fall of Nova Scotia, and Peace of Utrecht in 1713. 13. How did the French grow stronger in the west? 14. Tell of the central colonies. 15. What trade did the English undeitake? 16. Find all the places as you come to them. CHAPTER XVII. THE COLONIES UNDER OEORQE I. Growth of Population, 1688-1714. — When Queen Anne was succeeded by the German, George I., the American colo- nies were in far better condition than when William and Mary came to the English throne. Notwithstanding the wars north and south of which you have read, the popu- lation had risen from 232,000 in 1688 to 465,000 in 1715— had doubled itself in twenty-six years. There had been consid- erable immigration from Europe. Germans had come from the devastated country along the Rhine, French Huguenots from England, bands of Scotch and Irish from their poor homes seeking comfort and prosperity in America. These foreigners were to be found in almost all of the colonies, and formed an important element in the thrift and industry of the country; but their numbers were not great enough to account for the surprising increase of the population. Most of that was native, and is proof of the health and plenty which pervaded the land. Peace in George I.'s Reign. — Old German George was a bad old man who knew little of his English dominions and loved them less. He spent most of his time in his dear Hanover, and let his Englishmen govern themselves in the main. As for America, he did not meddle with it at all. The English ministers of the crown had their hands full at home, and so the colonies were left pretty much alone. It was a time of peace in Europe, when all the nations were glad to rest after their exhausting wars. Peace also was kept in America, except for occasional contests with the Indians, and in these the whites had always the best of it. Yemassee War in South Carolina, 1715. — The most heated of these contests was in South Carolina. The Yemassee Indians dwelling in the southwestern part of the colony had always been friendly to the English, and had even aided them against the Tuscaroras. But now they became hostile, and made a sudden onslaught upon the whites. At dawn of April 17th Pocotaligo was attacked, and one hundred whites were butchered without warning. People from other vil- [104] The Colonies Under George I. 105 lages fled to Charleston, and the country was filled with terror. Defeat of the Yemassees. — The Yemassees were nine thousand strong, while the whites could only number a few hundred men. Governor Craven, however, collected all the white men, and some faithful slaves, and made prompt resistance against the Indians. Their warfare was as treach- erous and cruel as it had been in New England. North Carolina and Virginia sent men, and New England arms, to assist the South Carolinians, and at last the Yemassees were driven across the Savannah River and into Florida. Among the forces which distinguished themselves in this time of danger were " The Goose Creek Militia," under com- mand of Captain Chicken, who was afterwards called the gallant " game cock." South Carolina Becomes a Royal Province. — Not long after this, the South Carolinians threw off the power of the proprietary rulers, and elected Col. Moore to govern them. Their action was approved in England, and South Carolina became a royal province. Governor Spotswood in Virginia. — Queen Anne had sent to Virginia, in 1710, Alexander Spotswood, the best royal gov- ernor the province ever had. Colonel Spotswood had been a gallant soldier, and was severely wounded in the battle of Blenheim. The Virginians welcomed Governor Spotswood, not only because he was a distinguished officer, and a cul- tivated, accomplished gentleman, but especially because he brought to the colony a revival of the right of Habeas Corpus, the exercise of which had hitherto been in a great degree withheld from them. This is the law which protects an Englishman from illegal imprisonment. On the whole, they got on well for a long time with Spotswood, though sometimes the assembly refused to vote the money he asked for to carry out improvements, and sometimes the council thwarted his regulations. But, notwithstanding these checks, his administration did much to develop the resources, pros- perity and advance of Virginia. He held the tributary Indians firmly to their treaties of peace, while he built and supported schools for the education of their children. Teach, or Blackbeard. — He acted with so much vigor against the pirates that the most famous and destructive 106 History of the United States. among them, John Teach, or Blackbeard, was defeated by Lieutenant Maynard with a Virginia vessel in Pamlico Sound. Teach was killed and his beard was cut off and hung to the bowsprit of Maynard's ship. Thirteen of Teach's men were brought to Williamsburg, tried, and hung, in 1718. Governor Spotswood's Iron Furnaces in 1714. — Spots- wood also interested himself in planting and mining. He improved the staple of tobacco; and established in 1714, on his estate at Germanna, on the Rappahannock, where he had placed a band of German immigrants, one of the first fur- naces for forging iron in Virginia, among the first in the English colonies. At another furnace on his estate of Mas- saponax, lower down the Rappahannock, there was a foun- dry where many simple utensils were cast, such as andirons, firebacks, pots, shovels, parts of wagons, and gardening tools. These utensils were much better and cheaper than those brought from England, and were in great demand. The Alleghany Mountains. — The deed by which Spots- wood is best known is his march, or exploring expedition, beyond the Blue Ridge Mountains. Monks and traders had, as we have seen, penetrated into the region lying along the Mississippi. Traders had also gone from the southern part of Carolina among the Indians as far as Natchez. But from New York to Carolina, where the great mountain bar- riers lie, range after range, between the tidewater slopes and the great prairie country, few white men had ever crossed them. No one had brought back any reliable description of what lay beyond the mountains. Immigration was working its way up the great rivers of Virginia. The governor had established a stately home at Germanna, and became eager to find for himself what the mountains held in their keep- ing. Expedition Across the Blue Ridge, 1716. — Having in- spired some of the Virginians with a desire to share in the enterprise, the governor left Williamsburg, early in August, 1716, and went to " Chelsea," the home of his son-in-law, Austin Moore, on the Mattaponi, a few miles from the head of the York River. Here assembled the party of twelve gentlemen, two small companies of rangers, and four Meherrin Indians, to act as interpreters, if any strange The Colonies Under George I. 107 Indians were encountered. At Germanna the horses were all shod that they might better travel the rough paths of the mountain region. Right up the Rappahannock they took their course, and were filled with admiration of the fine country, the rich grass, and grand trees about its head- waters. Game of all sorts abounded, and gave them fine sport and luxurious fare. On the 5th of September, thirty- six days after leaving Williamsburg, Spotswood had the happiness of climbing to the top of the Blue Ridge and gazing upon the beautiful Valley of Virginia which lay spread out before the delighted eyes of himself and his SPOTSWOOD CROSSING THE BLUE EIDGE. companions. It is not known certainly at what point in the range this crossing was made, but Swift Run Gap is thought to be the place. Valley of Virginia Taken by the " Knights of the Golden Horseshoe." — The trumpets were sounded, King George's health was drunk, and the whole region declared a part of his dominions. Descending to the western side of the mountains, the explorers went seven miles farther, crossed the Shenandoah River, which they called the Euphrates, fished in its waters, camped on its banks, again drank healths to the king, to each other, and to everybody else, in wine, brandy, rum, champagne, canary, and cider, for they were mighty drinkers in those days ; and the next day the gentlemen turned their faces homewards, leaving the rangers to explore the valley farther. Spotswood had small 108 History of the United States. golden horseshoes made for each of his companions on this expedition, and wished to establish the Order of the " Knights of the Golden Horseshoe." But the English government did not encourage it, and it came to nothing. The horseshoes became only souvenirs, and the order a ro- mance. Not one of the horseshoes is still in existence. The frontier of Virginia was now extended, and the new county of Spotsylvania took in the pass through which the " Knights of the Golden Horseshoe " had discovered the Shenandoah Valley. Spotswood Displaced by the Council. — Notwithstanding his ability, his public spirit, and unfailing interest in the welfare of the colony, Spotswood gave great umbrage to the Virginians by taking sides with the clergy against the ves- tries; and as both the people and the council were opposed to him, he was displaced in 1722. Power of the Council. — The council had become very powerful in Virginia. Its twelve members were also the principal judges and the chief militia officers in the colony. By a unanimous vote they could set aside any decree of the governor. When there was no governor, the president of the council became the head of the colony. To be a member of the body was almost equal to a patent of no- bility. Colonial "Postal System. — Colonel Spotswood remained in Virginia dividing his time between his different estates. William of Orange had established a colonial postal system in 1693, but the thinness of the population, and the dis- tance between the settlements, prevented its becoming of much effect. In 1730 Colonel Spotswood was made deputy postmaster-general for the colonies, and put such energy into the work that he brought Williamsburg and Philadel- phia within eight or ten days of each other. Benjamin Franklin was appointed a deputy postmaster under Gover- nor S})otswood. Prosperity of Virginia. — It is amusing to read from Spotswood's letters to England that the people of Virginia were opposed to the postal system, because they thought the postage they were required to pay was a tax on them which the English had no right to lay. Under Spotswood's administration and during his residence in Virginia, The Colonies Under George I. 109 that colony attained as much importance and enjoyed as much prosperity as she did at any time previous to the Revohition, How the Planters Lived. — The wealthy planters, follow- ing his example, lived in much elegance at their stately homes, some of which still adorn the old plantations along the river banks. Their oldest sons were sent to England for school and university training. The younger sons were graduated at William and Mary College; while the daughters, ■WILLIAM AND MAEY COLLEGE, KOUNDED 1693. With as much education as was customary for women in those days, went with their dignified mothers to Williams- burg during the season, danced at the governor's balls given in honor of the king's birthday, and assisted in the enter- tainment of the guests in their hospitable homes. Indian Fighting in Maine. — Under the treaty made at Utrecht, France was bound not to molest the Iroquois, and New York was protected by these Indians lying between her and Canada. But both France and England claimed the east- ern half of Maine, and there was another outburst of savage warfare along the Kennebec. The French settlement at Norridgewock was surprised by a party from New England. In the fierce hand-to-hand fight which ensued, the aged Rasles, the last of the Jesuit missionaries among the Abe- nakis, was cruelly mangled and slain. After more fighting, 110 History of the United States. the Indians acknowledged the English power and made a treaty of peace, which was long and faithfully kept. The St. John's River then became the eastern boundary of Maine. Steady Advance of the Colonies. — This local struggle with the Indians did little to retard the advance and pros- perity of the colonies. There was always more or less con- test between the royal governors and the colonial assemblies in the other colonies, as we have seen it exist in Virginia. But education and the enlightenment of the people steadily increased. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vols. II., III.; Hildreth's History of tlie United States, Vol. II. ; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of tiie United states. Vols. III., V. ; Campbell's History of Virginia; Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Cooke's History of Virginia; Ramsay's History of South Carolina. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the growth of population in 1G88-1714. 3. How did George I. reign ? 3. Tell of the Yemassee war in South Carolina, and its result. 4. Who were two of its leaders ? 5. What did South Carolina become about this time? 6. Tell of Governor Spotswood; and of Blackbeard. 7. Who first made utensils and tools of iron in the colonies ? 8. Had the Alle- ghany Mountains been explored ? 9. What expedition did Spotswood lead ? 10. Describe the Valley of Virginia and its discovery. 11. When was Spots- wood displaced ? 12. How long had he been governor? 13. What power had the council? 14. Tell of the postal system of those days. 15. How did the planters live ? 16. Tell of the troubles in Maine. 17. The prosperity of the colonies. CHAPTER XVIII. SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA. James Edward Oglethorpe. — In 1733, James Oglethorpe brought over a colony of Englishmen and settled them where the city of Savannah stands. The origin of this new settlement was a most interest- ing one. The laws of England were very hard towards poor men. Imprisonment was the fate of every one who contracted a debt and had no means to pay it. Seeing the thousands who were languishing in jail with no hope of release, Oglethorpe, who was a member of Parliament, became OGLETHORPE. dccply conccmed at their hopeless misery. He was a man of fine education, of noble character, and of Settlement of Georgia. Ill excellent judgment, and was besides an experienced soldier. He first engaged the Parliament to do something for the imprisoned debtors, and then, seeing that they needed help and comfort, as well as release, he laid a plan to provide them with homes and work in America. Settlement at Savannah, 1733. — George II. had succeeded his father in 1727. He saw the advantage of making a new settlement south of the Savannah River, and granted to Oglethorpe a patent for the country lying between that river and the Altamaha, calling it Georgia in honor of himself. To release the debtors and provide for them and their fami- lies and for all the expense of making the new settlement, required a great deal of money, but Oglethorpe had aroused so much interest in his project that large contributions were made to it. Parliament voted ten thousand pounds and rich men and missionary organizations gave so much more, that about half a million dollars were raised. Ogle- thorpe not only gave his means — he gave himself %,lso. Coming out with his first supply of one hundred and fifty emigrants, he selected the site for his first town on the bluff where Savannah now stands. City of Savannah. — Here he pitched his tent, and occu- pied himself in laying off the new town. The situation was beautiful, the climate delightful, and the new settle- SEXTLEMENT OF SAVANNAH, 1733. ment soon presented an encouraging appearance with its regular streets and neat wooden cabins. A large garden was laid out on the river bank, where seeds from Europe 3,nd wild plants from the woods were to be grown. 112 History of the United States. Treaties with Indians. — The Yamacraw Indians were only- half a mile away from the new town, but they were friendly and brought the white men a present of a buffalo skdn, painted on the inside with the head and feathers of an eagle. "The feathers of the eagle are soft, and signify love," said Tomo-chichi, their chief. Before long, eight chiefs of the Muskogees, who claimed the country south of the Savan- nah, also sought for friendship with the English. Ogle- thorpe received them kindly, and a treaty was made. Under this treaty, the English afterwards claimed authority over the country to the St. John's River. The Cherokee Indians also came from the mountain region seeking friendly rela- tions; and even the Avestern Choctaws sent to proffer friend- ship and trade. They complained that the French were building forts among them, and said that they preferred the English. Salzburger Settlement. — Oglethorpe not only planned a refuge for oppressed Englishmen, but offered, also, an asy- lum to persecuted Protestants. Only Roman Catholics were excluded from his province. The first settlers who accepted his invitation to enjoy religious freedom were a band of Ger- man Protestants from Salzburg, who came over as early as 1734 with Baron von Reck at their head, and who brought their pastor, Martin Bolsius, with them. The trustees, or body of Englishmen in whose hands Oglethorpe had placed the control of Georgia, furnished the passage for these im- migrants, and provided for them on their arrival. Ogle- thorpe himself went down to the mouth of the river to meet and welcome them. They chose a tract of land about thirty miles up the river, where they established a peaceful and prosperous settlement. Other Salzburgers followed, and ere long a Moravian congregation, led by their pastor, crossed the sea, and took their place close by their German coun- trymen. These people were industrious, hardy, and thrifty. They brought with them their frugal German habits, and were inured to hardship and privation. Other bands of Germans followed them. Italians came also to introduce the culture of silk; and all proved helpful in building up the prosperity and developing the resources of the new country. It was well that they had come, for the poor Eng- lish people who had been brought over were little used to Settlement of Georgia. 113 labor, and were helpless and dissatisfied, and left by them- selves would have accomplished little in aid of the colony. Scotch in Darien. — After settling the Germans, Ogle- thorpe went back to England to stir up the interest there, and to bring out fresh colonists. He persuaded his friend Tomo-chichi and a band of his Indians to go with him. These Indians excited much admiration. The new colony was widely talked of; and before long Oglethorpe was able to return to Georgia with several hundred recruits. It was important to extend the bounds of the colony, and to make settlements especially towards the south near the Span- iards. A body of Highlanders from Scotland with their wives and children and their pastor, the Rev. John McLeod, was given land at the most southern point — the post of danger — on the banks of the Altamaha river, about sixteen miles from St. Simon's Island. These sturdy Scots set to work and built a fort for their defence, and made homes for themselves, calling the country about them Darien. Ogle- thorpe established a trading post at Augusta, and then made a fortified town on the west side of St. Simon's Island, which was well laid out and strongly defended. This town was called Frederica, and was intended to be the chief military post of Georgia. Slavery and Rum Prohibited. — During his visit to Eng- land, Oglethorpe had induced Parliament to prohibit the carrying of slaves or rum into Georgia. Many of the set- tlers were dissatisfied with this prohibition. They saw that white labor could not accomplish as much as that of the negro in the southern climate, and were eager to do as their neiglibors did. The Wesleys and Whitefield.— Two clergymen of the Church of England, afterwards famous as teachers and preach- ers of the gospel, the brothers John and Charles Wesley, had come from Eng- land, in 1736, hoping to do much good in preaching to the colonists and Christian- izing the Indians. They were much im- pressed by the piety and purity of the Moravians, and John declared that he was Jo^^ wksley. truly converted under their influence. They both 8 114 History of the United States. strongly opposed the introduction of slaves during the two years they remained in Georgia. George Whitefield also, the most elo- quent preacher of his day, came out to the new colony. He was so struck with an orphan asylum among the Moravians that he established one at Savannah, which exists there still. Whitefield j.j,w, favored the introduction of negroes, on ' |. vl-v ' the ground that it was the best means of GEORGE WHITEFIELD. doiug thosc poor savagcs good. He proved to be on the stronger side, and African slavery was practiced in Georgia as in the other twelve colonies. Preparations for War with the Spaniards. — If the Span- iards in Florida had been jealous of South Carolina, they were still more hostile to the settlements in Georgia. In a few years, it became evident that there must be fighting, for the Georgians would not submit to have their slaves enticed away and the Indians stirred up against them by their enemies in Florida. Oglethorpe now prepared for the war which he saw must come. He went to England and raised a regiment of six hundred men for the conflict. The king made him a general, and appointed him commander-in- chief of all the forces in Georgia and South Carolina. He brought his regiment over to his town of Frederica, which was as strongly fortified as his resources allowed. Before making war on the Spaniards, General Oglethorpe renewed his treaties with the Indians. To eff'ect this, he travelled through the wild country to the banks of the Chattahoochee, where he met the chiefs of the Creeks, the Muskogees, the Choctaws, the Chickasaws, and other tribes, gave them presents, smoked the pipe of peace, and obtained a confirmation of the English title to the lands which com- pose the State of Georgia. Having thus secured peace to the westward, he was the more ready for war at the south. Attack on St. Augustine. — War broke out between Eng- land and Spain in 1739, and Oglethorpe was ordered to invade Florida and capture St. Augustine. His attempt to carry out this order was rendered unsuccessful by the coming in of Spanish vessels and by dreadful sickness among his troops. Forced to return to Georgia, General Settlement of Georgia. 115 Oglethorpe devoted his energies to strengthening his own defences, feeling sure that he would be attacked in his turn. Fleet Before Savannah. — Sure enough, in June, 1742, a Spanish fleet of fifty sail, with five thousand troops on board, appeared off the coast of Geor- gia, intending to capture Frede- rica and destroy all the English settlements south of the Savan- nah River' To oppose this for- midable attack, Oglethorpe had not more than a thousand men, a few small armed vessels, and some inconsiderable forts. He made wonderful use of these inadequate resources. On one occasion, when he knew that a deserter had betrayed his weak- ness to the Spaniards, he wrote the deserter a letter asking him to persuade them to attack him at once, or, if he could not do this, to induce them to remain three days longer, as by that time he would be reinforced by six British war vessels and two thousand troops. This let- ter was given to a Spanish prisoner, who, of course, carried it to the Spanish commander. The Spainards were much perplexed, and while they were making up their minds, some ships sent down from Charleston made their appear- ance. The Spaniards became panic-stricken, burned their fortifications, and retreated, leaving their cannon and stores. It seemed little less than a miracle, and the deliverance of Georgia may rightly be attributed to the care of Providence, perhaps an answer to the prayers of good men and women who were asking God to protect them from the cruel Span- iards. Death of Oglethorpe. — After some years. General Ogle- thorpe returned to England, where he was afterwards made the commander-in-chief of the English army. He lived to a great age, much respected by all. Georgia Becomes a Royal Province, 1752. — In 1752 Georgia became a royal province, and continued to increase MARTELLO TOWER. ON TTBBE ISLAND. 116 History of the United States. steadily in population and prosperity to the beginning of the war of the American Revolution. King George's War. — Besides fighting for King George in Georgia the colonies took part in an English expedition against the Spanish possessions in South America, on which expedition they sent four thousand men. Nothing was ac- complished by it save the battering down of some Spanish forts. But the unhealthiness of the country wrought deadly havoc to the English troops, and of the four thousand American soldiers, only four hundred lived to return home. Indians Sell the Northwest to Virginia, 1744. — After three years of peace, war was again declared between France and England; but it did not disturb the colonies. In 1722, Governor Spotswood of Virginia had made a treaty of peace with the Six Nations. In this year another treaty was made with them, by which they bound themselves for four hundred pounds, to make a deed " recognizing the king's right to all the lands that are or shall be by his Ma- jesty's appointment in the colony of Virginia." This deed, like her charters, extended the claims of Virginia indefi- nitely towards the west and northwest. War in New England. — Wherever the French and Eng- lish settlements were near together there was constant dan- ger of strife. This was particularly the case between the New Englanders and the French colonies on the coast. The New Englanders now felt themselves strong enough to send an expedition against Louisburg on Cape Breton Island, the strongest French fortress after Quebec. Capture of Louisburg — Pesxe, 1748. — After a siege of six weeks, Louisburg was taken on .June 17th, 1745, by four thousand New England soldiers assisted hj four English war ships. This was a gallant exploit and was greatly praised in England. The commander, William Pepperell, a rich Maine merchant, was made a baronet, and all New England was very proud of him and his success. When peace was again declared, in 1748, it was agreed that every- thing should stand as it had been before the war began, and, to the disgust of New England, Louisburg was restored to France. Steady Improvement. — I have already told you that there was constant progress and improvement in the colonies Settlement of Georgia. 117 during these wars with the French and Indians. Their population had more than doubled in fifty years. Their commerce had improved even more, and although the mother country steadily discouraged and even prohibited their manufactories, their spirit of industry and invention and their efforts to develop the resources of their coun- try could not be restrained. First Newspaper. — Boston was the leading town in com- merce and ship-building, and New England had already built fine war vessels for the English navy. In Boston, too, the first American newspaper. The Neius Letter, bad been published, in 1704. By this time there were several other papers in New England, in New York, Philadelphia, Mary- land, Virginia, and South Carolina. No college had as yet been added to the three already mentioned — Harvard at Boston, William and Mary in Virginia, and Yale in Con- necticut. Printing in Virginia — Foundation of Baltimore and Rich- mond. — Printing, so long prohibited in Virginia, had at last made its way into the colony, and although the Vir- ginians do not seem to have been writers of letters and keepers of diaries, as were the New Englanders, nor so eager to have their sermons, speeches, and abuse of one an- other printed, a History of Virginia, and The Laws of the Colony, had been printed there. In 1729, the city of Balti- more was laid out, and Richmond in 1737. In this same year, when Spotswood was deputy postmaster-general for the provinces, there was a weekly mail from the north to Williamsburg, Virginia. From there a mail was sent once a month to Edenton, North Carolina, by way of Norfolk- town. Benjamin Franklin — George Washington. — In 1724, there had come to Philadelphia from Boston, having run away from an unreasonable brother to whom he was apprenticed, a young printer, Benjamin Franklin by name. He had received little education, but had a fine intellect, a healthy body, industrious habits, and great perseverance. He understood his trade well, and soon found employment in Philadelphia. His good sense and clear judgment gained him many friends, and you will see what an important part he played in the stirring times about to open before you. 118 History of the United States. Other men greater and better even than Franklin were now growing up and being trained for the work before them in shaping the destinies of their country. Foremost among these was George Washington, who was born at " Wake- field," near Bridges' Creek, on the banks of the Potomac, in Westmoreland County, Virginia, on February 22, 1732. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft s History of the United States. Vol. III., chapter XXII. ; Hildreths History of the United States, Vol. II.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States. Vol, V.; Appleton's Encyclopedia— articles, Ogle- thorpe and Georgia; Irving's Life of Washington; Campbell's History of Virginia; Fiske's BeginningE of New England. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who was James Edward Oglethorpe? 2. When was Georgia settled? 3. Describe the city of Savannah in 1733. 4. Who were the Salzbnrgers ? 5. Who was their leader ? 0. Where did the Scotch set- tle ? 7. What were at first prohibited ? 8. Describe the work of Wesley and Whitefield in Georgia. 9. With whom was a war now declared ? 10. What treaties did Oglethorpe make ? 11. Why was the attack on St. Augustine a failure ? 13. Relate the story of the Spanish fleet before Savannah. 13. Where did Oglethorpe die? 14. When did Georgia become a royal province? 15. Tell of the expedition against South America. 16. How did Virginia now gain the northwest ? 17. What town was captured by the New Englanders? 18. When was peace made? 19. Tell of the steady improvement. 20. When and where was the first newspaper published? 21. What was its name? 22. What books were printed in Virginia ? 23. Tell of Benjamin Franklin and George Washmgton. CHAPTER XIX. SETTLEMENT OF THE VALLEY OF VIRGINIA— THE FRENCH IN THE WEST. Settlement of the Valley of Virginia, 1732. — Some years elapsed after Spotswood's visit to the Valley of the Shenan- doah before permanent settlements were made beyond the Blue Ridge Mountains. The reports brought by hunters and traders gradually attracted attention to the fair land, and a tide of emigration set in thither. The first settlement had been made by Joist Hite, who brought from Pennsylvania his own family and a number of others, and settled on the Opequon Creek in 1732. Other and more numerous parties of Scotch-Irish Presbyterian immigrants moved southward from Pennsylvania, and established themselves at different points along the branches and tributaries of the Shenan- doah. These settlers coming from Pennsylvania had little Settlement of the Valley of Virginia. H9 difficulty with the Indians, who had always been friendly to Penn's colony. For the Virginians — the Long Knives — the savages had great hatred, and were much opposed to their coming into the valley. The beginning of the town of Winchester had been two cabins, built there in 1738, near the Shawnee Springs, where the Indians used to camp when on their hunting parties. Salling-'s Exploration. — About this time John Marlin, a peddler, and John Sailing, a weaver, set out to explore the great valley running southward. They got as far as the Roa- noke River, when a band of Cherokee Indians attacked them. Marlin escaped, but Sailing was taken prisoner and carried from place to place among the Indians for six years. When Sailing got back to Williamsburg, he found there a party of Scotch-Irish immigrants who had just come from the old country to settle in America. Two of the leading men among them, John Lewis and John Mackey, were so much pleased with Sailing's account of the valley that they at once visited it with him. Delighted with the country, Lewis established himself near Staunton and built a stone house — Lewis's Fort; Mackey settled farther west, near the Buffalo Gap; and Sailing, fifty miles away, built his cabin at the forks of the James River, where " Sailing's Moun- tain " tells of his exploration. Daniel Burden in Rockbridge County. — Not long after this, Daniel Burden, the agent of Lord Fairfax, visited his countryman Lewis, in his backwoods home. To see the region was to desire it, and Burden lost no time in obtaining permission to take up five hundred thousand acres of land, on condition that he should within ten years settle upon it one hundred families. This grant comprised a good deal of what is now Rockbridge County in Virginia. The fami- lies brought over by Burden were also Scotch-Irish. The first settlers of this Rockbridge land were Ephraim Mc- Dowell and James Greenlee, who established their homes in 1739. The Scotch-Irish Settlers. — The Scotch-Irish settlers were a manly, sturdy race, whether they came direct from the old country or moved southward from Pennsylvania. Among them were men of good family and education. As soon as they had provided homes for their families, they set about 120 History of the United States. building churches. Dreading to leave the women and chil- dren to be frightened, if not attacked, by Indians, the whole community repaired to the place where a church was to be built, and, while some worked, others stood guard against any attack from the crafty savages. These old stone churches are still to be seen, where the women brought sand for the mortar in their aprons, while their husbands and sons built up the rock they had quarried with hard labor. There seem to have been no permanent Indian settlements in the valley, but roving bands of Indians were constantly on the move, hunting for game or scalps, and taking whatever suited their fancy. The lot of these early settlers was one of hardship and anxiety. But they continued to come, and extended their settlements southwestward to the Cumber- land Mountains. Religious Toleration. — Virginia had, you remember, been settled by cavaliers and English churchmen, and laws had been made bearing hardly upon dissenters, but active per- secution had never been practiced, although there was little liking for other modes of faith and worship east of the mountains. When, however, the emigration of Presbyte- rians from Pennsylvania took place to the Valley of Vir- ginia, a petition was made that they should be allowed " the free enjoyment of their civil and religious liberties." Gov- ernor Gooch was favorable to them and granted them full tolefation. Germans in the Valley, 1745. — Besides the Scotch-Irish, there came into Virginia numbers of Germans from Penn- sylvania, who settled on the Potomac at Shepherdstown, and also in what are now the counties of Shenandoah and Rockingham, where many of their descendants still remain. George Washington, the Young Surveyor. — From his great estate on the Rappahannock to his broad lands in the val- ley came, in 1745, Thomas, Lord Fairfax, and settled at Greenway Court, thirteen miles from Winchester. George Washington was a connection of Lord Fairfax, and in 1748, when he was not seventeen years old. Lord Fairfax em- ployed him to survey the vast tract of land, embracing several counties, which he claimed by virtue of the king's patent. So thorough and accurate was the work done by 1 BIENVILLE. Settlement of the Valley of Virginia. 121 the youthful surveyor, that no later engineer has ever been able to find a mistake in any of the plats made by him. The French in the West and North. — While the English had, after so long a time, only reached the slopes of the Alleghany Mountains, the French had steadily pushed and strengthened their claims in the great country west of them. They kept up the military posts and forts established by La Salle on the Illinois and Mississippi Rivers. Bienville settled Louisiana and founded New Orleans in 1718, and from j^ that time continual intercourse was kept K up between Canada and Louisiana. At first the southern colony kej^t on friendly terms with the Indians, as Canada had done, but when the French pushed their settlements up the Mississippi and established forts among the red men, strife and hatred grew up between them. The Natchez Indians massacred all the whites settled among them, and were in their turn harried and destroyed by the French. In the Illinois country there were flourish- ing settlements with some two thousand French inhabi- tants. The French traders and farmers frequently married the Indian women, and thus a half-breed population grew up. Farming was prosperous in the fertile prairie soil, and abundant supplies of flour, corn, pork and beef, fowls and game, with leather, tallow, and other productions of the country, were floated down the river to the French at New Orleans and elsewhere. In 1736 the Chickasaws had evinced a hostile spirit, and Bienville determined to attack them with two columns — one led by himself from the south, and the other to come from the Illinois country. The plan was good, but the forces did not arrive at the same time, and so the Indians were able to defeat them separately. The captives taken were treated with the most savage bar- barity. French Claims to the Ohio. — Still the establishment of French posts went on. Fort Niagara had been built in 1728. Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, in 1731. They now gave the name of Vincennes to their principal post on the Wabash. By the middle of the century they had es- 122 History of the United States. tablished sixty posts and forts between the Lakes and the Gulf of Mexico. They had taken possession of little territory except that lying immediately on the Illinois, the Wabash, and the Mississippi Rivers. But they now turned their at- tention to the Ohio — la belle rivih^e — the beautiful river, and the fertile country drained by its waters. Celeron was sent to explore and claim it for France. This he did by nailing to the trees and burying in the ground, at the mouths of the rivers running into the Ohio, leaden plates with an inscription on them that France claimed all the land lying upon the Ohio and its tributaries on both sides, and would defend its claim by force of arms. Resistance to the French Claims. — To this claim, both the English in the colonies and the Indians along the rivers were opposed. The colonies had repeatedly protested against the French advance into the country they consid- ered their own, and had, in vain, tried to induce the Eng- lish government to prevent it. They could not now sit still and submit to be shut out from the regions beyond the mountains, into which their traders and adventurous hunters were gradually pushing westward. Pennsylvania sent Ben- jamin Franklin to consult with the Indian tribes along the headwaters of the Ohio. A council was held at Logstown, not far from Pittsburg, and the Indians determined to op- pose the French. They did not wish either white nation to take possession of tlieir country, and sent their chief, "The Half King," to tell the French com- mander this at his fort near Lake Erie. The Frenchman repulsed the Indian em- bassy rudely, and flung back the wampum belt they offered him. This incensed the Indians and they agreed to Franklin's proposition that the}^ should join the col- onies in helping to drive out the French. Franklin carried back to Philadelphia the threatening intelligence that the French had already built forts at Erie, at Waterford, and Venango on the Alleghany River, and that they were pre- paring to do the same on the Monongahela. Grant to the Ohio Company of Virginians, 1749. — The Ohio Company of Virginians was established by the English Par- HALF KING. Settlement of the Valley of Virginia. 123 liamentin 1749, to which were given six hundred thousand acres of land on the south side of the Ohio, and permission to trade exclusively with the Indians south of the river. Sur- veyors were sent out to explore and take up the land; and it is no wonder that when the Indians saw Celeron with his leaden plates on the north, and the English with their com- passes and chains on the south , treating the land as their own, they should have enquired where the lands of the Indians lay. The advance of the French to the Monongahela would bring them into Virginia territory, and the time had come for the Virginia colony to assert itself in opposition to such encroachment. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vol. III. ; Winsor's Nar- rative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. V. ; Campbell's and Cooke's His- tories of Virginia; Roosevelt's Winning of the West; Marshall's and Irving's Lives of Washington. QUESTIONS.— 1. When and by whom was the Valley of Virginia settled? 2. Relate the story of Sailing's exploration. 3. Of Daniel Burden in Rock- bridge County. 4. Where did the Scotch-Irish settle? 5. How did they build their churches? 6. Was there religious freedom in Virginia? 7. What other race settled in the Valley ? 8. Tell of George Washington as a surveyor. 9. The advance of the French in the west and north. 10. To what river did they now lay claim ? 11. Who resisted their claim? 13. What grant was made to Virginia in 1749 ? CHAPTER XX. OP SWING OF THE COLONIAL WAB. Cause of the Colonial War, 1750. — The war now about to open was different from the previous American wars, which had been fought with the Indians for self-preservation, or with the French and Spanish, because England had quar- relled with them. This war was begun by the colonies in defence of what they considered their rights. Most of the people were native born and strongly attached to their country. They had increased until there were nearly two millions of them, while in the vast regions claimed by France not more than twenty thousand whites were to be found. It is true, that the French had at last made friends with the Iroquois, and were in alliance with the In- dians of the Northwest. But the native colonists did not 124 History of the United States. dread the Indians as the early settlers had done. They had learned their modes of warfare, and the traders and hardy back-woodsmen were as rapid in movement, as secret and sudden in attack, as alert on the march or in the camp, as fearless in danger, and as stoical in defeat as the red men. Washington's Embassy to the French. — Governor Dinwid- dle, of Virginia, informed the English government that the French had built forts on the headwaters of the Ohio. The authorities remonstrated with the French king against this invasion of their rights, in- structed the colonists to defend themselves, and sent to Vir- ginia thirty light cannon and eighty barrels of powder. Before coming to open hostili- ties, Dinwiddle thought best to send to the French com- mander on the Ohio a protest against his occupying that part of Virginia, and a notice that if he did not withdraw war would be the consequence. For this dangerous and deli- cate mission, where both cunning savages and sagacious Frenchmen were to be encountered, George Washington, who was just twenty-one, and who had been commissioned a major, seemed the fittest person. Accepting the service, Washington set out from Williamsburg on October 30, 1753. He took with him, to act as interpreter with the Frenchmen, his old fencing master, Van Braam, with whom he proceeded first to the stockade at Winchester, and then to Will's Creek — now Cumberland, Maryland — where the Ohio Company had a trading post. Here Christopher Gist, the agent of the company, joined the party, as did several Indian traders. Through the forest and over the mountains of the strange region, they made their way to Logstown to confer with the Indian chiefs. The savages were in sympa- thy with Washington's errand, and the Half King and three VICINITY OF PITTSBURG. Opening of the Colonial War. 125 other chiefs accompanied him to seek the French com- mander. So slow were they that Washington did not reach Venango for a whole month after leaving Williamsburg. Other delays detained him, but at last he got to the French post on French Creek, fifteen miles south of Lake Erie. The Chevalier de St. Pierre received and entertained the young Virginian courteously, but did everything possible to entice the Indians to forsake him and join the French. While carefully noting everything about the fort and the forces, Washington made great efforts to prevent the Indians yielding to the cajolements and the rum bestowed on them. Homeward Journey, 1753. — It was the 15th of November before he set out on his homeward journey, and great were the perils and hardships of the way. At last Washington and Gist, with their papers, their guns and their blankets, struck out on foot from the western part of Pennsylvania to make their way back to Virginia. By the 2d of January, they reached Gist's home on the Monongahela. Here Washington got a horse, and proceeded as fast as he could to Williamsburg to deliver his letter, which he did two weeks later. Result of the Embassy. — The French commander sent a civil reply to Dinwiddie, but said he could only obey his superiors. Major Washington was sure, from what he had seen, that the French would come down the Ohio in the spring ; and advised that a fort should be built at the "forks of the river," where Pittsburg now stands. Fort at Pittsburg- Captured by the French — Recaptured by Washington. — Governor Dinwiddie immediately gave direc- tions for raising a force of six companies in Virginia. The assembly voted two thousand pounds, and the Ohio Com- pany sent a small force to build a fort at the junction of the Alleghany and Monongahela Rivers. The command of the troops was given to Colonel Joshua Fry, an Englishman, with Washington, now made lieutenant-colonel, as second in command. As soon as two of the companies were ready, Washington set out from Alexandria for Will's Creek. Here he learned that nearly a thousand Frenchmen with cannon had descended the Alleghany River in canoes, had driven away the workmen of the Ohio Company, and had finished their fort, garrisoned it, and called it Fort Du- 126 History of the United States. quesne, after the Governor of Canada. This attack of the French on the Ohio Company made it necessary to treat them as enemies. Washington, upon whom the whole responsibility had fallen by the sudden death of Colonel Fry, sent messengers to Governor Dinwiddle and to the assembly of Pennsylvania telling of the French and Fort Duquesne, and then advanced very cautiously towards the fort. The Indians continued friendly, and the Half King kept him informed of the approach of bodies of French troops. A small force of the French was met at early dawn of the 28th of May, 1754. Both parties fired. The French com- mander, De Jumonville, and ten of his men were killed, and when the provincials rushed forward the others surren- dered. Washington had one man killed and three wounded. Notwithstanding this first success, the Indians told him that the French were as thick as pigeons in the woods, and he was obliged to fall back to some place where he could fortify and protect his small force. Defeat at Great Meadows. 1754. — Retreating to Great Meadows, Washington put up a small stockade fort, which he called Fort Necessity. He had about four hundred men, and before his fort was done, the French, fifteen hundred strong, advanced upon it under M. DeVillier. From ten o'clock until dark they fought, and Washington was most of the time among his men up to his knees in mud and water. By nightfall two hundred Frenchmen had been killed or wounded, and DeVillier asked for a parley. Return to Virginia. — Bravely as the Americans had fought, it was impossible for them to keep it up, and an honorable capitulation was arranged on the 4th of July, and with the promise that the savages should not molest them, they set out on their homeward journey. This promise was not kept, and the savages harassed them severely. When the regiment got back to Williamsburg, a vote of thanks was given to Washington and his officers, and a sum of money to be divided among the men. Braddock's Coming, and Plan of the War. — When the news of these American fightings reached Europe, Louis XV. of France sent three thousand soldiers to Canada, and England made preparations to assist the colonists, though each nation professed to be at peace with the other. Early Opening of the Colonial War. 127 in 1755, Major-General Braddock, with two regiments of British regulars, reached Virginia, and was soon joined by the colonial troops and military supplies. In April, a coun- cil of war was held at Alexandria, in which the governors of Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, New York, and Mas- sachusetts took part. It was decided to attack the French in four separate directions. One force was to be sent against them in Nova Scotia; one under Colonel William Johnson against Crown Point, one under Governor Shirley of Massachusetts against Fort Niagara, and the most im- portant of all under General Braddock against Fort Du- quesne and the French in the Ohio Valley. Exile of the Acadians. — The expedition against Acadia was entirely successful. The Acadians, under the advice of their priests, refused to become English citizens, and were, therefore, expelled from their coun- They were taken on board the English vessels, seven thousand of the m , and carried to dif- ferent parts of the Eng- lish colonies. They were a simple, kindly folk, devoted to their king and their church, and this forced exile from their humble homes w^as a sad fate for them. Longfellow has given a touching account of their exile in his poem, "Evangeline." AUTHORITIES.— Bancroffs History of the United States, Vol. IV. ; Hildreth's His- tory of the United States, Vol.11.; Fiske's Beginnings of : New England; Campbell's History of Virginia; Irving's Life of Washington; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. V. QUESTIONS.— 1. What was the cause of the Colonial War ? 2. Tell of Washington's embassy to the French in 1753. 3. Who was Half King? 4. When did he make his homeward ioumey ? 5. What was the result of the embassy? 6. Who took the fort at Pittsburg, and who re-took it? 7. Relate the story. 8. Tell of the defeat at Great Meadows. 9. What happened when they returned to Virginia? 10. Who now assisted the colonists ? 11. When did Braddock come to America? 13. What was the plan? 13. Which expe- dition was successful? 14. Who has told the story of the Acadians in a poem ? 15. Do not forget to find the places mentioned. EXILE OF THE ACADIANS. CHAPTER XXL COLONIAL WAR. Braddock's Journey, 1755. — Bracldock set out on his march on April 20th with some twenty-five hundred men and a great camp equipage unsuited for rough mountain travelling. Ho was accompanied hy Colonel Washington as his Aide. Braddock thought little of the provincial troops, considered the Indians as foes to be little dreaded, and would take no precaution against surprise from them. The Ambush. — By July 9th, the British force was within seven miles of Fort Duquesne. As they passed forward in gallant style, the red coats making a fair mark, and their bayonets glistening in the sun, suddenly a storm of rifle and musket shot poured upon them from an unseen foe. They had fallen into the ambush anticipated by the pro- vincial troops. The regulars halted and endeavored to return the fire, but saw nothing to shoot at. The colonial soldiers instinctively scattered among the trees and rocks where they, too, would be hidden, and where they might pick off their foes man by man. Braddock's Defeat. — Terrified by the hidden danger and by the yells of their unseen enemies, the regulars retreated. A panic ensued. The men abandoned the cannon and baggage in the hope of saving their lives. In vain their officers tried to rally them. More than seven hundred were slain, including General Braddock and three-fourths of the officers. Washington's Bravery. — Washington was conspicuous for his bravery on this disastrous day. His horses were killed under him, and his clothing riddled with shot. He assisted in bearing Braddock from the field, and, as the chaplain was wounded, buried him at Great Meadows. For his gallantry, Virginia gave him three hundred pounds and made him commander-in-chief of her forces. Victory at Lake George. — The news of Braddock's defeat stopped the advance upon Fort Niagara, and threw a gloom over all the colonies, but they were encouraged by a victory [138] Colonial War. 129 Battlerieia rEoSEaKafJ which Sir William Johnson gained over the French and their Indian allies near Lake George. Although he failed to attack Crown Point, Johnson built Fort William Henry, which defended the northern part of the Hudson against the Canadians. Seven Years' War in Europe. — This fighting in America was before a war was declared which involved nearly the whole of Europe. This was the " Seven Years' AVar," in which France, Austria, and Russia attempted to conquer Prussia. England sided with Prussia, and made preparations to press the contest vigorously in America, but at first had little success. French Successes in New York. — Mont- calm, the French commander, was a more able soldier than the English generals, and had great influence over the Indians. He captured the forts Oswego and Ontario at the mouth of the Osvv'ego River, and gained control of Lake Ontario. He captured Fort William Henry the next year, promising the garrison that they should have a safe conduct to Fort Edward on the Hudson. His Indian allies, however, attacked the prisoners and slew them in spite of the eff'orts of Montcalm and his officers to protect them. English Successes. — The great English statesman, Wil- liam Pitt, now took the head of aff'airs, and under his able administration matters soon improved. English armies and English fleets gained important victories against France, and soon the tide of success was felt in America. General Abercrombie, who was furnished with the largest and best equipped army ever seen in the colonies, failed in an attempt which he made to capture Fort Ticonderoga, which the French held on Lake Champlain, and retreated, in affright, when he found himself stoutly resisted. But this was the last important French success. General Wolfe with English troops captured and destroyed Louis- burg. General Bradstreet seized Fort Frontenac and gained control of Lake Ontario, and Colonel Washington took possession of Fort Duquesne, from which most of the garrison was withdrawn after Frontenac fell. 9 LAKE GEORGE. 130 History of the United States. SIEGE OF QUEBEC. Pittsburg. — Fort Duquesne was at once repaired and re-named Fort Pitt, The city of Pittsburg, on the same spot, also bears the name of the great Englishman. Situation of Quebec, 1759. — The events of the next year were still more important. Forts Niagara, Ticonderoga, and Crown Point all fell into the English hands. To capture Quebec was now the ardent object of desire. Standing on a small plain above the steep cliffs, the "Heights of Abraham," the fortress seemed impregnable. The enterprise was entrusted to the gallant General Wolfe. Wolfe's Efforts Against Quebec. — Montcalm had as- sembled all the soldiers he could collect, and held Que- bec Avith from seven thousand to twelve thousand men. For several months Wolfe watched and waited and made various plans by which to reach the citadel. At length he detected a narrow path leading up between two steep bluffs, and determined to attempt to gain the heights behind the fortress by means of it. Character of Wolfe. — The 12th of September was filled with preparations for the desperate attack. During the evening of that day Wolfe went from ship to ship, giving his directions and encouraging his men. He was a scholar and a poet, as well as a gallant soldier, and on the eve of this heroic undertaking his mind was filled with Grey's Elegy, that beautiful poem having just come out. The verse which he most constantly repeated was: " The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power, And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave, Await alike the inevitable hour. The paths of gloiy lead but to the grave." And he remarked to one of his friends, " I would rather have written that poem than gain the victory over the French to-morrow." This poetic fervor did not interfere with his military energy. Colonial War. 131 Climbing the Heights of Abraham. — In the darkness of the morning of September 13th, the English troops embarked in small boats and moved noiselessly to the j)oint where the landing was to be made. They were hailed by a French sentinel, ''Qui va laf" — " Who goes there? " " La France " was the reply. " De quel regi- mey«i.^" asked the sentinel. " De la Reinc," answered an English captain who knew that troops of that name were above the city. " Passe," said the sentinel. The cove was reached, a body of light infantry landed first, clambered up the cliff, and dispersed the small j^icket force at the top. The rest of the army followed, until four thousand "ol*k. five hundred enthusiastic, disciplined British soldiers stood on the Plains of Abraliam, on the north side of the citadel. They also drew up, with severe labor, one or two small cannon. First Attack. — Montcalm was greatly surprised when he learned that the English had gained the heights. At first he supposed that it was only a small party, who would burn and plunder and retreat hastily. But he was soon unde- ceived. His force was much larger than the English on the heights, but inferior in efficiency and courage. The Eng- lish were strengthening themselves, and Montcalm made desperate eff'orts to dislodge them. By Wolfe's orders, his men did not fire until the French came within forty yards. Then they mowed them down. Victory — Death of Wolfe. — The contest became desperate. Men and officers fell on both sides. Montcalm's second in command was killed, and he himself wounded, but he seemed to be everywhere cheering on his men. On the English side, Carleton, Barre, and Wolfe had all been shot. Wolfe bound up liis bleeding hand, placed himself at the head of two regiments, and led a bayonet charge. The French gave way before the shining steel, when Wolfe was struck down by a bullet through his lungs. As he lay dying on the field, the officer who was holding his head cried out, "They fly! they fly!" "Who fly?" whispered the hero. " The French ! the French ! " answered the officer. " God be praised," gasped Wolfe; "I die happy," and his spirit 132 History of the United States. passed from earth in the very moment of his victory, the greatness of which he did not know. Surrender of the City. — The Marquis de Montcalm had also received his death wound in the battle. The surgeon told him he had only a few hours to live. "So much the better," was his reply. "I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec." In a day or two, this surrender was formally made, and the French do- minion in America, "New France," came to an end. France made some ineffectual efforts to regain her power, but within a „„„ , few months surrendered the whole of MONTCALM. Canada. Monument to Wolfe and Montcalm. — There stands now upon the Heights of Abraham a granite monument sixty feet high, which bears on one face an inscription in memory of General Wolfe, and on the other, one to his gallant enemy, the Marquis de Montcalm. England Everywhere Victorious. — There was great exulta- tion in the colonies at the fall of the French power along their borders. England also rejoiced over the success of her arms, while she mourned for the gallant young Wolfe. Victory attended her everywhere. France and Spain both desired peace. Pitt and George the II. felt the same wish. But before the treaty could be arranged, the old king died suddenly, and was succeeded by his grandson, George III., whose reign was to be most memorable in the history of our country. Treaty of Paris. — It was not until three years later, in 1763, that the " Seven Years' War" came to an end by the treaty of Paris. Under this treaty England gained the Floridas from Spain, and all of North America, east of the Mississippi, held by France. France ceded to Spain, in place of Florida, her possessions west of the Mississippi, together with the island on which the city of New Orleans stood. Important Results of Colonial War. — During the continu- ance of this colonial war the colonies had suffered much and had lost thirty thousand men and eleven mil- lions of dollars, but the people had learned self-reliance. Indian Wars. 133 Their officers and soldiers had acquired a knowledge of the discipline and tactics of the British army, had found themselves often superior to the regulars, and had gained immensely in experience and ideas of self-govern- ment, which were before many years to bear important fruits. AUTHORITIES.— Bancroft's History of the United States, Vol. IV. ; Hildreth's His- tory of the United States, Vol. II.; Fiske's Beginnings of New England; Campbell's History of Virginia; Irving's Life of Washington; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. V.; Thackeray's Virginians. QUESTIONS.— 1. Describe Braddock's journey through the woods. 2. The ambush. 3. The defeat. 4. Who buried General Braddock ? 5. Where were the English victorious ? 6. What war was going on in Europe at this time ? 7. Who were successful in New York ? 8. Who now became prime minister in England ? I). For whom is Pittsburg named? 10. What is tlie situation of Quebec ? 11. Who was sent against it ? 12. Give the character of Wolfe. 18. Tell of the ascent of the Heights of Abraham. 14. Describe the first attack and the victory. 15. Who was killed ? 16. Tell of the death of Montcalm, and of the monument. 17. What did the treaty of Paris give to the English? 18. What were the results of the war? 19. Where are the forts and battle-fields of this war ? CHAPTER XXII. INDIAN WARS. The fifteen years which followed the surrender of Canada to the English were undisturbed by war, except with the Indians. Lyttleton's War on the Cherokees. — While the northern colonies were engaged in the final struggle with France, Governor Lyttleton had begun a cruel and apparently unnecessary conflict with the Cherokee Indians, on the west- ern borders of the Carolinas. They dwelt in that region among fertile valleys, sparkling streams and high mountains, had always shown themselves friendly to the whites, and had several times assisted them against other Indians. For some offence, real or imaginary, Lyttleton declared war upon them, and proceeded to attack them, killing and capturing the warriors, and burning their villages. At first the Cherokee chiefs sought for peace, but, when once their wrath was aroused, they fought with all the savage craft 134 History of the United States. and cruelty of their race. The governor of Georgia, more prudent and forbearing, made friends with the Creeks, and so protected his frontiers from outrage. Pontiac's War. — The northwestern Indians, who had always been friendly to the French, saw with dislike and indignation the French forts fall one by one into the power of the English, whom they hated. A conspiracy to destroy the English seems to have been begun among the Iroquois and Senecas, and to have spread from them throughout the west and northwest. For two years the plotting and plan- ning went on, and at last, in 1763, broke out in what is known as Pontiar-'s wnv, because the gigantic Pontiac, chief of the Ottawas, be- came the leading spirit in the great up- rising. Pontiac was greater in sagacity and intelligence, more fertile in resources, and more persevering in carrying out his plans, than the In- dians generally were. This war raged for two years. Most of the forts which the English had garri- soned in the western wilderness were cap- tured, and their de- fenders massacred with the most savage cruelty. All along the frontiers, in Pennsylvania especially, the settlers were butchered and tortured with fiendish atrocities. Bouquet's Victory, 1764. — In 1764, Colonel Henry Bouquet, a Swiss officer who had taken active part in the previous wars with Indians and understood their character and mode of fighting, being put in command, collected a sufficient force to march to the defence of western Pennsylvania and the Ohio Valley. At Bushy Run he encountered a large body of Indian warriors who were anxious to capture Fort Pitt. A bloody battle was fought, in which Bou- SETTLEB'S CABIN. Indian Wars. 135 quet won the most decisive victory ever gained over the red men. End of the War .-Their defeat broke the spirit of Pontiac's confederacy. They made treaties of peace, and gave up two hundred white captives. Pontiac would not give up the struggle at first, but find- ing further resistance hopeless, sued for peace. He was murdered a few years later in a drunken brawl at Cahokia. Emigration Beyond the AUeghanies. — For ten years after this, Sir William John- son managed aff'airs so well with the In- dians that there was peace along the bor- BooNE. ders, and a steady stream of emigration began to move beyond the Alleghany Mountains into what are now the States of Kentucky and Tennessee. V/':f the West; Campbell's History of Virginia; William Wirt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry. QUESTIONS.— 1. Where did Washington take the army? 2. What assist- ance came to America ? 3. What sort of ftghtiug did the British now do ? 4. Tell of the naval engagements and of the fall of Savannah. 5. What spe- cial troubles were the Southern States suffering ? 6. Describe the Cherokee outbreak and their attack on Watauga. 7. What battle was fought on the Holston River? 8. Tell of the defeat of the Cherokees, and the final peace. 9, Look for all the places mentioned as you come to them. CHAPTER XXXV. CLARKE' 8 TAKING OF THE NORTHWEST. Immigration to Kentucky, — Notwithstanding the difficul- ties of the journey and the danger from Indians, the prai- ries and forests of Kentucky attracted thither a continual stream of immigration, principally from Virginia. The immigrants were a sturdy, self-reliant race, who desired for their children a heritage of freedom and a strong, but inde- pendent government. Kentucky County Organized and Defended, 1776. — In 1776 the men of the settlements sent Gabriel Jones and George Rogers Clarke to the convention, then sitting in Williamsburg, Va., to represent their need of some local government, and to ask that the country beyond the moun- tains, which was still a part of Fincastle County, might be set off into the county of Kentucky, with its own courts and county officers. When Jones and Clarke reached Botetourt they learned that the convention had adjourned. Jones Taking of tlie Northwest. 197 joined Colonel Christian's expedition against the Chero- kees, but Clarke determined to go and see the governor, Patrick Henry, and try to get powder for the Kentuckians to defend themselves against the Indians, who were being urged by British agents to destroy them. Governor Henry was sick at his home, not very far from Clarke's native place in Albemarle County. His represen- tations induced Governor Henry to write and advise the council of Virginia to fur- nish Clarke with five hundred pounds of powder. The council at first declined, but Clarke said that if Virginia would not help them they would seek protection elsewhere, meaning from the Spaniards across the Mississippi River, and added that if a country was not worth protecting it was not worth claiming. The council had no intention of relinquishing so fair a portion of Virginia's possessions, and they ordered the commander at Fort Pitt, then in Virginia, to furnish Clarke with five hundred pounds of powder, to be taken down the Ohio to the Kentucky people. The legislature, which met in the fall, also set off the county of Kentucky, and gave a regular government to the people. Clarke's Plan to Take the Northwest, 1777. — The Indian attacks upon Kentucky came from north of the Ohio, and Clarke was convinced that they were stimulated, if not originated, by the British agents in that region. He, there- fore, conceived the idea that if some of the forts which governed the country were seized, the influence of the British would be destroyed. The whole territory was regu- lated from Detroit, and if that place could be captured the country would fall into American hands. When he learned that Burgoyne had been defeated and the invasion from Canada brought to an end, Clarke thought his plan might be practicable. He, therefore, went again to Virginia and laid the project before Governor Henry and three other leading Virginians — Thomas Jefferson, George Wythe, and George Mason. They were much pleased with the idea, and Clarke was empowered by the governor to raise three hun- dred and fifty men in the western counties for the purpose of capturing the forts at Kaskaskia and other points. 198 History of the United States. Clarke's Expedition Down the Ohio, 1778. — It was the spring of 1778, before Clarke set out down the Ohio carrying the one hundred and fifty men he had raised for his enter- prise, and a number of emigrants with their families and worldly goods. Some of these settlers plunged into the new country, others stopped at the Falls of the Ohio, where the city of Louisville now stands. Here Clarke, for the first time, told his men the object of his expedition. Some of them became disheartened and deserted, but their places were more than supplied by the bold Kentuckians who em- braced the enterprise eagerly. On June 24th, the boats left the shore once more, just at the time of a total eclipse of the sun, which the men took as a good omen. Drifting and rowing as far as the mouth of the Tennessee River, they landed, and were met by some hunters who had just returned from the forts. It was a great help when these men joined the expe- dition. They told Clarke that the French inhabitants were dreadfully afraid of the backwoodsmen, and would assist the English, unless he could take them by surprise. Capture of Fort Kaskaskia, 1778. — With the hunters for guides, the men now plunged into the wilderness. By Jul}'- 4th, they reached the neighborhood of Fort Kaskaskia, and captured a soldier who led them through a postern gate at night while a ball was going on. In a few moments, the fort, the men, and the commander, Rocheblane, were in Clarke's power without any blood being spilt. When the French inhabitants of the town and country learned that the Americans did not intend them any harm, and that the French king had become the ally of America, they made friends at once, and took the oath of allegiance to the States. Their militia joined Clarke and aided him in taking Caho- kia, where the people, likewise, accepted American rule. Clarke could not spare men to go to Vincennes, but the priest of Kaskaskia, Father Gibault, went up and advocated the American cause so successfully that the people there also hoisted the flag of the Continental government. Hear- ing of the wonderful success and power of the " Big Knives," the Indians, for many leagues around, came to Kaskaskia and made promises of friendship and peace. The British Garrison at Vincennes. — Hamilton, the British commander at Detroit, learned of the surrender of Vin- Taking of the Northwest. 199 cennes to the Americans, and determined to reconquer the whole country. He made preparations for seizing Vin- cennes, and went thither himself with five hundred whites and Indians. The fort was at once taken, since there was no garrison, and the French as readily submitted to King George as they had done to Congress. Clarke had only a little over a hundred men; but he had been drilling and ex- ercising them all the fall, and he now made the desperate resolve to attack and recapture Vincennes. Hamilton had five hundred soldiers well fortified and supplied, and never imagined that a handful of men would undertake a march in midwinter over a country half under water to attack him. So he let the Indians return to their villages, sent some of the militia home, and kept with him only about ninety whites and the same number of Indians. Clarke's March to Vincennes, 1779. — Information of this reduction of the garrison was brought to Clarke, and he determined to march upon Vincennes at once. He fitted up a little vessel with some small guns, and sent her with a crew of fifty men up t h e Wa- bash. With 130 other m e n Clarke began his desperate march across two hundred and forty miles of a wilderness full of swollen streams. The swamps along the Wabash were flooded with water three feet deep. Through this water they waded for days, sometimes'up to their chins. Their provisions were gone and they could do no hunting. The bateau, which was their last hope, did not come, but still they kept bravely clakke's march to vincennes. 200 History of the United States. on. But for two canoes which they picked up, and some rafts they made, many must have perished from exhaustion. The diary of one of the men kept at the time says : " Col- onel Clarke encouraged his men, which gave them great spirit. Marched on in the waters. No provisions yet. Lord, help us." Capture of the Fort, 1779. — At last they came, on the afternoon of February 23d, within hearing of the guns of the fort. The surprise was so complete that the garrison did not know an enemy was near, until a man was shot through one of the port-holes. On the next day, February 24th, after being fired upon for twenty-four hours, the fort surrendered. A party coming with supplies for Vincennes was captured the next day and a great store of provisions secured. Clarke's vessel also came up, bringing a messen- ger from Williamsburg, bearing congratulations to him from the Virginia assembly for his success at Kaskaskia. Illinois Made a County of Virginia. — It was impossible to guard all the prisoners taken, so the greater part were released on parole, but Hamilton and the other officers were sent to Governor Henry in Virginia. Clarke's great desire was to march on Detroit, but so distant an expedition was impossi- ble. The territory taken from the British by Clarke w^as at once set off as the County of Illinois, with its local govern- ment like that of the other Virginia counties, and remained in possession of Virginia until she generously presented it to the United States. The British never again possessed themselves of the forts in Illinois, and when peace was at last made, it was in consequence of Clarke's conquest and Virginia's government of it, that the northw^est was given up to the United States. Clarke's Later Life. — Clarke fought afterwards in Vir- ginia, and again in the west, was made a brigadier-general, and died in 1818 in Kentucky, with which State he had identified himself early in her history. Virginia bestowed on him a large tract of land, and afterwards gave him a pen- sion sufficient to make him comfortable in his declining years. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. III.; Winsor's Nar- rative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VI. ; Irving's Life of Washing- ton; Roosevelt's Winning of the West: Campbell's History of Virginia; William Wirt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry; Lee's Memoirs of the Campaigu in the Southern Department. Stony Point, Savannah, and Charleston. 201 QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the immigration to Kentucky. 2, Who wished to organize it into a separate covmty ? 3. Who was governor of Virginia at this time? 4. Did Clarke succeed in his request? 5. What plan did Clarke now entertain against the British? 6. Tell of his expedition down the Ohio in 1778. 7. What move did the British under Hamilton then make ? 8. Do- scribe the march of Clarke and his men to Vincennes. 9. What was the end of the march and the attack? 10. What new county was added to Vir- ginia? 11. Tell of Clarke's later life. 12. Do you know where all these places are ? CHAPTER XXXVI. STONY POINT, 8A VANNAH, AND CHARLESTON. British Raids on the Coast, 1779. — The summer of 1779 was spent by Sir Henry Clinton in marauding along the coast. Norwalk, Fairfield, and New Haven were pillaged and burned, the Chesapeake Bay was entered and Virginia ravaged. Apprehending another effort to seize the Hudson River, General Washington made special efforts to defend the principal points. A strong fortification was erected at West Point, one at Verplanck's Point, lower down, and an- other at Stony Point, just opposite. Before the latter could be completed, it was attacked in front by the vessels, and on land by a superior force of the British, who overpowered the small garrison, took the fort, and afterwards finished and made it ver}'- strong. Capture of Stony Point, 1779. — Washington was very much annoyed at his enemies holding this important defence of the river, and in July proposed to General AVayne, " Mad Anthony," as he w^as called from his daring rashness, to go with a picked force to surprise and capture Stony Point in the night. Wayne willingly under- took an exploit so much to his taste. He set out with a force of less than two hundred men, and reached the neigh- borhood of the fort just at nightfall. All the dogs in the neighborhood had been destroyed, that no barking might betray the approach of the soldiers. The men had their bayonets fixed and their guns unloaded, that no chance shot might awaken the sleeping garrison. A negro who knew the fort well guided them in. Twenty-two men 202 History of the United States. formed the "forlorn hope" which led the assault. There was sharp fighting for a little while, but the Americans scaled the walls and carried everything before them at the point of the bayonet, and the garrison surrendered at discre- tion. Of the forlorn hope seventeen men were killed or wounded. The American loss was ninet3^-eight ; that of the British six hundred and six. To hold Stony Point would require too many men, and Washington had the guns and stores removed, and the defences destroyed. Major Henry WAYNE AT STONY POINT. Lee, in an equally daring manner, attacked a British gar- rison at Pauhis Hook, not far from New York, and carried off one hundred and fifty-nine prisoners. Unsuccessful Siege of Savannah, 1779. — In the fall, Gen- eral Washington learned that the Count D'Estaing's squad- ron, flushed with victory in the West Indies, was again approaching the American coasts. He thought that, with Stony Point, Savannah, and Charleston. 203 the assistance of the French fleet, he could capture New York and destroy the British force in the north. But his hopes were again disappointed. D'Estaing was persuaded to co-operate with General Lincoln in an attempt to recover Savannah from the British. After a siege of three weeks, an unsuccessful assault was made. Both the French and Americans lost severely. D'Estaing was wounded. Count Pulaski slain. The Americans retreated towards Charleston and the French embarked and sailed away. Hearing of this reverse. General Washington dispatched the North Carolina and Virginia troops southward, and put the small remainder of his army into winter quarters at Morristown. Washington and Congress. — The sufferings of the army were even greater than they had been at Valley Forge. General Washington had striven in vain to arouse the countr}^ and Congress to a sense of the need of strong and efficient measures, in order to strengthen his ranks and provide for the soldiers. The Conti- nental money was daily growing more worthless. Forty dol- lars would not buy a dollar's worth of any- thing. Congress was so jealous of military power that they would not consent to any re- forms proposed b} General Washington for the better regu- lating and supplying of the army. There was no food for the soldiers, except what was impressed from the surrounding country, which was of course greatly exhausted. To add to Washington's troubles, there was a constant strife in Philadelphia between PULASKI MONUMENT. 204 History of the United States. the Pennsylvania authorities and General Arnold, who had been put in command of the post there. The legislature complained to Congress, and Arnold was censured by that body. Every thing seemed to be at cross purposes. Arnold at Philadelphia. — While the soldiers were starving the speculators were making money, and there was luxury and revelry in Philadelphia. During the winter Arnold 'i^M0A CHARLESTON. married Miss Shippen of Philadelphia and lived very expen- sively. Return of La Fayette to America, 1780. — It was well that Washington had sent his Southern troops home, for the main effort of the British from this time was directed against the Carolinas and Virginia. The return of La Fayette from a visit to France was the greatest comfort which Washington had at this gloomy season; especially as the marquis brought the welcome intelligence that another French fleet and a body of soldiers, under Count Rocham- beau, M^ould soon come to the assistance of the Americans. Stony Point, Savannah, and Charleston. 205 Attack on Charleston and Capture of Monk's Corner, 1780. — Sir Henry Clinton sailed in January for the coast of South Carolina, and moved cautiously upon Charleston. General Lincoln was in Charleston with all the troops he could collect, 2,000 Continentals and 1,000 North Carolina militia. With a high tide, the British war ships sailed over the bar, and then passed Fort Moultrie in spite of its guns. General Woodford brought 700 Virginia troops, who had marched five hundred miles in thirty days, to aid General Lincoln. Sir Henry Clinton also received reinforcements of 2,500 men under Lord Rawdon and was able to invest the city on all sides. He also sent his cavalry, under Colonel Tarleton and Major Ferguson, to the northward to break up the militia posts and to cut Lincoln's lines of communi- cation. Led by a negro whom they captured, the British sur- prised in the night the fortified camp at Monk's Corner. Some officers and men were killed. Huger, Washington, and most of the men escaped in the darkness to the swamps. Other smaller posts and gatherings of soldiers were sur- prised and broken up by Tarleton, who was rapid in his movements and merciless to his enemies. Surrender of Charleston, 1780. — It was impossible to con- tinue the defence of Charleston, and, on the 12th of May, General Lincoln capitulated. He surrendered 2,000 Conti- nental troops. But the British claimed all the citizens and militia as prisoners, and the whole number was 5,618. Dark Days for the Americans.— This was a heavy blow to the Americans. Their cause had never looked so hopeless before. The money troubles were growing worse daily. The Connecticut and New Jersey troops under Washington broke out into, mutiny and declared they would disband and go home if something were not done to pay for their ser- vices and provide for their necessities. Washington again made every effort to arouse Congress to more efficient ac- tion. Private aid was given to relieve the needs of the sol- diers, and some ladies of Philadelphia sent General Wash- ington seven or eight thousand dollars to lay out as he thought best for his men. Congress was as slow as ever in acting for the public relief, and, without consulting the com- mander-in-chief, sent General Gates from his home in Vir- ginia to take command of the Southern Department, 206 History of the United States. Count Rochambeau, with his forces and a fine fleet, reached New York on July 10th. As they were all to be under Washington's command, this was a most important addi- tion to his strength. He was anxious to attack New York, but the coming of a British fleet and the weakness of his own army obliged him to delay. AUTHORITIES — Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. Ill ; Winsor's Nar- rative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VI.; Irving's Life of Washing- ton ; Roosevelt's Winning of the West; Campbell's History of Virginia; William Wirt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry ; Lee's Memoirs of the Campaign in the Southern Department. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the British raids in 1779. 2. What strong point was captured by General Wayne? 3. Describe it. 4. What imsuccessful .siege was made in the south'? 5. What distinguished man was killed? (i. Tell of the dilliculties between Congress and the commander-in-chief. 7. Of Arnold's life in Philadelphia. 8. Who returned to America at this time? 9. What important port was attacked by Sir Plenry Clinton in 1780? 10. Tell of Tarleton and Monk's Corner. 11. Could Charleston resist Clin- ton's attack? 12. How did things look now for the Americans? 13. Tell some of the troubles. 14. Be aure you know where all the places are. CHAPTER XXXVn. ARNOLD'S TREACHERY— THE WAR IN THE SOUTH. Treachery of Benedict Arnold. — At this time the country was shocked to learn that General Benedict Arnold, who had been so daring and efficient an officer, had turned traitor to the American cause. He had gotten into debt in Phila- delphia, and had been censured for misconduct by the legis- lature of Pennsylvania. This made him very angry, and he determined to revenge himself and get money for paying his debts by selling some place of importance to the British. He was esteemed so highly as a soldier that when he asked to be put in command of the fort at West Point, on the Hud- son River, the place was immediately given to him. He then made an agreement with Sir Henry Clinton to deliver up AVest Point to him at a given time, if he would pay well for it. The correspondence -^^as carried on by Major Andre, Clinton's Aide. At length it was necessary that Arnold and Andre should meet to decide upon the details of the plot. The British ship in which Andre came to the vicinity of Arnold^s Treachery. 207 West Point dropped down the river again, and after ar- ranging for the transfer of the fort, he was obliged to return to New York by land. Capture and Execution of Andr^. — On his way back Andre was stopped by three patriots, Paulding, Williams, and Van Wert. They searched him and found the plan of the fort and the agreement for its surrender in his stocking. Andre tried to bribe the men to let him go, but Paulding said they would not do it for ten thousand guineas. They took him to the nearest American post, and he was, by General Wash- ington's directions, tried and hung as a spy. In vain the unfortunate young man begged that he might be shot, and Sir Henry Clinton tried to procure his release. The British had in 1776 hung Captain Nathan Hale of the American army, and it was thought best that Andre should be treated in the same way. He met his fate bravely, admired and la- mented by both enemies and friends. Arnold, unfortunately, escaped to the British, who made him a general and paid him a large sum of money, but no one ever respected him again. He showed his evil character by ravaging and ill- treating his native country, and died in obscurity, dishon- ored and unregretted. Waxhaws Disaster in South Carolina, 1780. — While these things were going on in New York, the American cause had suffered severe checks in South Carolina. On May 29th, on the banks of the Wax- haws, the patriot force under Colonel Buford suffered a severe defeat. Even the men who surrendered were cut to pieces by Tarleton's butchers. One hundred and thirteen men were killed on the spot, and one hundred and fifty butchered, mangled, and mortally wounded. Buford and Washington, with one hundred men, escaped. The whole British loss was five killed and fifteen wounded. Their slaughter of their enemies was, therefore, unprovoked cru- elty. Sumter, Marion, Pickens, Clarke, "Light-Horse Harry" Lee. — Sir Henry Clinton thought he had conqured South Carolina, and issued a proclamation calling on the people to return to their allegiance. The weak-hearted accepted 208 History of the United States. the invitation, and numbers of negroes left tlieir masters and their homes to follow the British. The great majority of the population, however, were true to the American cause. Carolina was by no means conquered. Partisan bands of soldiers, under such leaders as Sumter, Marion, Pickens, and Clarke, kept up a guerrilla warfare with great success. Every small body of British troops, every detached post, was sure to be attacked by one or another of them. Francis Ma- rion was as quick in moving and as bold in attacking as Tarle- ton, and, knowing the country better, could escape and dis- appear as suddenly as he came. So skilful were he and his men in hiding in the forests and swamps when hard pressed, that Tarleton's men called him the " Swamp Fox." Sumter, more open in his bold dashes, was known as " The Game Cock." Sumter's men were at first poorly armed with swords made from saws and with knives fastened to poles for lances. The bullets for such guns as they had were supplied by melting pewter dishes and other utensils. But their bold spirit and determined patriotism made these rude weapons effective to the de- struction of many well-armed enemies. Lieutenant-Colonel Henry Lee had also come, with his famous Legion of Light- Hoi'se, to encourage and help the South Carolina patriots. He and his men did gallant service in withstanding the British. He greatly admired the deeds of the guerrilla bands, and co-operated with them in many daring enter- prises against the enemy. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth'9 History of the United States. Vol. III.; Winsor's Nar- rative and Critical History of tlie United States. Vol. VI.; Irving's Life of Washing- ton; Roosevelt's Winning of the West; Campbell's History of Virginia; William U'irt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry; Lee's Memoirs of the Campaign in the Southern Department. QUESTIONS.— 1. Relate the story of Arnold's treachery. 2. The capture and execution of Major Andre. 3. Who were the three men who captured him ? 4. Why was he hung instead of being shot ? 5. Tell of the Waxhaws disaster in South Carolina. 6. Give an account of the guerrilla warfare of Marion, Sumter, Pickens, Clarke. 7, Who was " Light- Horse Harry" Lee? 8. Find the places mentioned. CHAPTER XXXVIII. KING'S MOUNTAIN. Battle of Camden, 1780. — General Gates reached South Carolina late in July. Fourteen hundred Maryland and Delaware soldiers under Baron De Kalb were already on the ground, which, with the Virginia and North Carolina mili- tia, made a force of about three thousand men. Gates soon showed his incompe- tence. He did not know that Cornwallis had reinforced Lord Rawdon, who was in his front, and deter- mined to fight. When he learned that Lord Cornwallis was there with his troops. Gates did not know what to do ; but it was too late to change his plan. The battle was fought near Camden, South Carolina, on August 16th. The American militia, terrified by the bayonet charge of Ss;^ the British regulars, threw down their muskets and fled panic-stricken from the field. In vain Gates and the other officers tried to rally their men and were borne off in the retreat. The brave De Kalb received several mortal wounds and died a martyr to the cause of liberty. Defeat at Fishing" Creek, 1780. — A few days after the defeat at Camden, Tarleton surprised Sumter's camp at Fishing Creek, killed and wounded 350 of the men, and captured all the arms and baggage and a number of prisoners and supplies which Sumter had taken from H [ 209 J BATTLEFIELDS IN THE SOUTH. 210 History of the United States. the British not long before. Sumter himself escaped, half dressed, on an unsaddled horse, with nearly four hun- dred of his men. Retreat of Gates. — Gates had not stopped in his retreat from Camden until he reached Hillsborough, in North Caro- lina, where he collected one thousand of his scattered force. Lord Cornwallis thought he had subjugated South Carolina and moved after Gates, intending to conquer North Caro- lina and then overcome Virginia. He kept Tarleton and his rangers to scour the country west of him, and sent Fer- guson with twelve hundred men towards the mountains to rouse the tories and put down the rebels. The men of the Watauga and Holston settlements had sent two hundred mounted riflemen, under Isaac Shelby, to aid their country- men in western North Carolina. After the American defeat at Camden, these men went home. Ferguson sent word to Shelby that he was coming over the mountains to destroy the settlements and kill their leaders. This message bore Ferguson a bloody consequence. Rendezvous at Watauga Sycamore Shoals. — When the men at Holston and Watauga learned that Ferguson had come to the foot of the mountains, they determined not to await him in their homes, but to seek and de- stroy him before he reached their valleys. Messengers were sent in all haste to Colonel Campbell, of Washington County, Virginia, praj'ing him to join them. The meet- ing-place was at the Watauga Sycamore Shoals. Here assembled, on September 25th, four hundred Virginians under Colonel Campbell, two hundred and forty from Watauga under Sevier, two hundred and forty from Holston under Shelby, and one hundred and sixty North Carolina refugees under Colonel McDowell. Before they marched the next day, Samuel Doak, " the pioneer parson," blessed them, telling them to " go forth with the sword of the Lord and of Gideon." Once over the mountains, they were joined by others until they numbered one thousand eight hundred and forty. The men were mostly well mounted and were armed with tomahawks, scalping knives, and small-bore rifles, which they used with great skill. The command of the force was given to Colonel Campbell, who had brought the largest number of men, King's Mountain. 211 Advance Against Ferguson. — Ferguson heard of their coming, and sent to Cruger, in South Carolina, for reinforce- ments, while he withdrew to King's Mountain, where he stationed himself so strongly that he boasted that "all the rebels of hell " could not drive him from it. Hearing of Ferguson's move, the mountaineer warriors were afraid he might escape them. Campbell; therefore, picked out nine hundred and ten of the best men, the best horses, and best rifles, and set out from the Cowpens for a forced march of fifty miles, leaving the rest to follow as they were able. The fifty miles were made in eighteen hours, through darkness, BATTLE OF KING'S MOUNTAIN. mud, and rain. Fifty riflemen on foot also made this tremendous march, and kept up with the horsemen. Learn- ing Ferguson's position, Campbell surrounded the hill and attacked at once. The men dismounted and tied their horses to the trees, with their blankets and coats fastened on the saddles. The order w^as given that each man should look well to the priming of his rifle, and then go into the battle and fio'ht till he died. Battle of king's Mountain, 1780. — Although the approach of the Americans had been known, their attack came sud- denly at last. The British fought stoutly, but could do lit- tle with their bayonets against a foe who took deadly aim from behind every tree and who fired upon them in front, 212 History of the United States. flank, and rear. Colonel Ferguson fell, pierced with seven balls, and his second in command soon surrendered. The whole force of 1,1-50 men was killed or captured, and a large supply of arms secured. The patriots who gained this victory had marched and fought on their own responsibility without orders from Congress, commander, or State. They held a court martial directly after the bat- tle, and tried and hung ten captured tories as enemies to their country; then gave up their prisoners and spoils to the proper authorities, and returned quietly to their homes. Effect of the Victory. — The victory at King's Mountain was the taming point in the war in the South. News of it fired the patriots everywhere to new efforts. Sumter, Marion, Lee, and the other partisan leaders again took the field. It required Tarleton's best efforts to watch and contend with them. A Visit to Marion's Camp. — A story is told of a British oflficer w h o was sent to Marion's camp under a flag of truce to arrange the exchange of some pris- on e r s . Ma- rion received ]i i m courte- ously, and in- vited him to s h a re the dinner which was nearly read3^ When the repast was served, it was some roasted sweet potatoes dished up on a shingle. "Surely, General," the Englishman inquired, "this is not your usual fare?" " Indeed it is," replied Marion, "but MARION'S DINNER TO TUB BRITISH OFFICER. Cowpens, Guilford, Eutaw Springs. 213 to-day we ha^ more than we commonly do, in honor of your company." The officer was so much impressed with the cheerful devotion of the men he saw, that he reported to his friends that the country could never be conquered as long as she had such defenders. Defeat of Tarleton at Blackstocks, 1780. — Tarleton was called off from contending with Marion to go and destroy the " Game Cock." He came up with Sumter at Black- stocks, on the Tyger River, on the 20th of November. A fierce fight took place, in which the British were severely handled, and Tarleton retreated, leaving his wounded in the enemy's hands. Finding South Carolina again alive with hostile bands and his communications threatened, Cornwal- lis was forced to retreat from North Carolina, and marched southward to Camden, instead of northward into Virginia. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. III.; Winsor's Nar- rative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VI. ; Irving's Life of Washington ; Marshall's Life of Washington; Roosevelt's Winning of the West; Lee's Memoirs of the Campaign in the Southern Department; Fiske's History of the United States; Appleton's Encyclopedia. QUESTIONS. — 1. Who now came to command the forces m the South? 2. Tell of the battle of Camden. 3. What brave foreigner was slain, "a martyr to the cause of liberty " ? 4. Tell of the surprise of Sumter's camp at Ftshing Creek. 5. Retreat of Gates and the advance of Cornwallis. 6. What message did Ferguson send to Shelby"? 7. What did the Watauga men decide to do? 8. What forces assembled, and where? 9. Where did Ferguson station himself ? 10. How did the Americans attack him ? 11. De- scribe the battle of King's Mountain. 13. How did the patriots act after it was over? 18. What was the effect of the victoi-y? 14. Tell of the Britis^^h officer's visit to IMarion's camp. 15. Where and when was Tarleton defeated ? 16. What effect did all this have on Oomwallis ? 17. Find all the places on the map. CHAPTER XXXIX. COWPENS. GUILFORD, EUTAW SPRINGS. General Greene in the South, 1780. — After Gates was de- feated at Camden, Congress ordered him from the field and requested General Washington to a]3point his successor to command the Southern Department. Washington gave the position to General Greene, who more nearly resembled himself in military capacity than any other American 214 History of the United States. general. Greene moved southward, stopping to arrange for men and supplies from the States through whi^h he passed. When he reached Charlotte, where Gates was, he found only some twenty-three hundred men, half of them militia, and all without proper equipments, ill-clothed and ill-fed — an undisciplined, disorderly mob. Greene reorganized his army and then moved it to a more healthy position, where it could be better fed. Like Washington, he did not risk his men in pitched battles, but assailed the smaller bodies of the British and wore them out by constant attack. His own force was in the northeastern part of the State, near Cheraw, and he detached General Morgan with one thou- sand men to threaten Cornwallis's other flank. Cornwallis was anxious to march again to Virginia, and sent Tarleton after Morgan with eleven hundred choice troops. Morgan learned that Tarleton was coming in pursuit of him, and that Cornwallis was also moving in his direction. He, therefore, selected what he thought a good fighting ground at " The Cowpens," where his militia could find no place to hide, and where they must fight or be killed. Battle of "The Cowpens," 1781. — Tarleton came on, marching night and day, while Morgan's men had a good rest before the British appeared. Taking position on a small hill, Morgan placed the Carolina militia in front, and told them to wait till the enemy was close up to them, then to fire two volleys with good aim and fall back. Behind them were Colonel Howard's Maryland regulars and the Virginia riflemen. The third line of cavalry was over the crest of the hill, where it was not seen. The British line rushed on with shouts. Morgan's skirmishers fired well and fell back to the militia. These, too, fired with much effect, and then fell back before the British bayonets. At the second line, there was sharp fighting. As Howard's men were thrown into some confusion, Morgan ordered them to fall back behind the cavalry and re-form. The British, seeing their foes retiring over the hill, thought the day was theirs and pursued in a disorderly mass. Their astonishment was great, when Colonel Washington's dra- goons charged furiously upon them. In a little while, a /panic seized the British, who fled in terror, and the victory was complete. Cowpens, Guilford, Eutaw Springs, 215 killed and sixty- hundred and ten. Its Results. — With a loss of twelve wounded the Americans had killed one wounded two hundred, and captured six hundred of their opponents; and had taken two cannon, eight hundred mus- kets, and one hundred horses, and all the baggage ot the enemy. The moral effects of this success were far greater than the material ones. In- stead of Morgan's destruc- tion, Cornwallis learned that Tarleton's force had been almost annihilated, and that Morgan was making his way safely northward. In a few days, General Leslie brought Cornwallis between two and three thousand re- inforcements, and he de- termined to hurry after Mor- gan and cut off his retreat, r^,^^^ General Greene also rode a hundred miles across the country to join Morgan, leaving General Huger to bring on his army more leisurely. Greene's Masterly Retreat, 1781. — Eager to come up with his enemy, Cornwallis, on January 25th, destroyed all his own baggage and stores, so that his army might be in "light marching order." The two days necessary for this gave Greene a good start. But at times the march was very close. Heavy rains swelled the rivers, and the mud made the roads almost impassable, but these difficulties impeded one army as much as the other. The Yadkin and the Dan Rivers were crossed by the Americans just as their pursuers came in sight, and it was only the lack of boats that pre- vented immediate battle. Once over the Dan River, Greene was in Virginia, where Cornwallis did not yet venture to fol- low him. The British, therefore, returned to Hillsborough, and Cornwallis issued a proclamation inviting the people to re- MOKGAN'S MONUMENT AT SPARTANBURG. 21 6 History of the United States. turn to their allegiance to the king. General Greene sent Pickens and Light-Horse Harry Lee to hover around the British, cut off their foraging parties, encourage the patriots, and dishearten the tories. Greene himself, having been joined by Stevens with six hundred Virginia militia, moved to Guilford Courthouse, near the present town of Greens- boro, North Carolina. Here he was further reinforced, until his whole army was four thousand two hundred and forty- three infantry and artillery and one hundred and sixty-one cavalry. Of these only one thousand six hundred and sev- enty were regulars, the rest raw militia. Cornwallis, who determined to fight Greene wherever he found him, had only twenty-four hundred, but they were all skilled vete- rans. The artillery of the two armies was about equal. Battle of Guilford Courthouse, 1781. — On the morning of March 15th the armies joined battle. Greene had excellent ground on the slope of a hill, and had placed his men in three lines. Cornwallis had only one line, with no reserves except some dragoons under Tarleton. In spite of the favorable position of Greene's front line, the approach of the British terrified the militia, they fired a little at random, and then fled. The second line let the fugitives through, and then checked the onslaught of the British with a de- structive fire. At the third line a fierce fight took place. The first Maryland and Washington's cavalry put the British to flight. Victory seemed assured to the Ameri- cans, when Cornwallis had a shower of grape shot hurled into the confused mass of his flying grenadiers and the Americans in pursuit of them. His officers remonstrated that their own men would be slain. " True," replied the British commander, " but it will save us from destruction." Greene's policy of saving his men caused him to withdraw them from the murderous artillery fire, which was done in good order. On the strength of this withdrawal, Cornwallis wrote home that he had gained a great victory. But the American loss was small. That of the British was over five hundred, among them many of their most efficient officers. Greene's Return to South Carolina. — Meantime Greene was moving towards his friends ; Cornwallis had none, and his communications were all unsafe from the incessant attacks of Lee and the partisan leaders. Retreat was, there- Cowpens, Guilford, Eutaw Springs. 217 fore, a necessity for him, and he moved off in the direction of Wihnington with liis half-starved men. Greene moved to assist South Carolina, where the patriot forces were active and bold, carrying post after post by assault. Greene was unable to take the very strong fort at Ninety-Six. Failing in this, he led his army to the hills of the Santee, where they rested and recruited their exhausted strength. Ride of Emily Geiger. — AVhile Greene was resting, Emily Geiger, a Carolina girl only eighteen years old, carried a message from him to General Sumter across a country so full of British and tories that no man could have passed through it safely. With a message and a letter, she mounted her horse and galloped away. When stopped by tories she swallowed the letter, then made her way to Sum- ter and delivered her message, which produced such a movement of all the American forces as compelled Rawdon to evacuate his posts up the country and retreat to Charles- ton. Battle of Eutaw Springs, 1781.— The last battle in South Carolina took place at Eutaw Springs Septerdber 8th, be- tween two armies, each about two thousand three hundred strong. The Americans attacked, and swept all before them, the militia fighting as stoutly and persistently as the regu- lars. When they penetrated to the enemy's camp, they thought the day was won, and fell to feasting on the unusual luxuries found there. The English officers rallied their men, attacked in their turn, and did great damage. Greene was unable to dislodge them from a brick house in which they had sheltered themselves, and from which they fired incessantly, and he withdrew from their camp. In this varying battle, the British lost six hundred and thirty-three. The Americans lost five hundred and thirty-five, but Colonel Campbell was killed and most of their officers wounded. The British were obliged to retire from Eutaw Springs to Charleston, and the war in the Carolinas was virtually done. Congress passed a vote of thanks to Greene and his men, and presented him with a gold medal, AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth^ History of the United States, Vol. III. ; Winsor's Narra- tive and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VI. ; Irving's Life of Washington; Marsliall's Life of Washington ; Campbell's History of Virginia; Roosevelt's Winning of the West ; William Wirt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry , Lee's Memoirs of the Cam* paign ia the Southern Department; Fiske's History of the United States. 218 History of the United States. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who now took command of the Southern army? 2. What were his plans and movements? 3. Relate the battle of the Cowpeiis. 4. Who were the two commanders? 5. What were its results? 6. Follow Greene's line of retreat. 7. Describe the battle of Guilford Courthouse. 8. Who claimed the victory? 9. Where did Greene now go? 10. Relate the story of Emily Geiger. 11. Tell of the battle of Eutaw Springs. 13. When did it occur? 13. Have you found the places on the map? CHAPTER XL. THE WAE IN VI RO INI A. Devastation in Virginia, 1781. — The current of the war now set towards Virginia, Anexpedition was sent thither, in January, 1781, to destroy the stores and shipping of the State and inflict as much injury as possible. This force of about sixteen hundred men was under command of the traitor Arnold. A number of the men were American de- serters, and both the general and his soldiers seemed anxious to show their hatred of the cause which they had betrayed. Washington had warned the Virginians of this movement against them, but little had been done to prepare for it, and Arnold went where he pleased, burning and de- stroying both public and private property. In the latter part of March, General Phillips brought a reinforcement of two thousand men from New York to Portsmouth, and took command there. Coming up James River to City Point, Phil- lips took possession of Petersburg. A great destruction of tobacco was made, and a number of vessels belonging to the Virginia navy were burned at Petersburg and other places. Stores of all kinds were hunted up and burned, and an advance was made upon Richmond by way of Manchester where twelve hundred hogsheads of tobacco were burned. La Fayette Sent to Virginia. — When Washington learned that active war was to be carried on in Virginia, he sent La Fayette to take command there. Twelve hundred regulars from the New England and New Jersey troops came with him. These soldiers were unwilling to go southward and began to desert. La Fayette made a strong appeal to them, and provided them in Baltimore, at his own expense, with clothing suitable for the summer campaign. To these regu- The War in Virginia. 219 lars were added several thousand militia collected by the exertions of General Nelson and others; and when Phillips was about to cross the river at Richmond, he found La Fayette strongly posted for its defence with a force of forty- six hundred men. He did not venture to attack the place and retired at once, going to his ships. La Fayette followed him cautiously to watch his movements. Arrival of Cornwallis. — Phillips went towards Petersburg, and died there of a fever a few days after. The command now devolved again upon Arnold, but Cornwallis with his troops arrived on May 20th and took command. Cornwallis received instructions from Clinton to cripple the resources of Virginia in every way, and proceeded vigorously to carry them out. He was anxious not only to raid and burn, but to defeat and destroy La Fayette and his command before he should be reinforced by General Wayne, who was coming to his assistance with nine hundred Pennsylvanians. There was marching and counter-marching, and Cornwallis, who pretended to despise La Fayette, said at last : " The boy cannot escape me." Virg"inia's Part in the War. — Cornwallis had more than six thousand well-armed troops, La Fayette not many more than half that number; for though a greater force of militia might have been collected, there were no arms for them. Virginia had fought and suffered and stripped herself to aid her sister States and the Continental Army, and now, in her hour of need, her resources were exhausted. We have seen Morgan and his riflemen before Boston, and from that early day the Virginians had taken part in everj^ considerable engagement at the north. At Quebec, at Boston, at Harlem, at White Plains, at Fort Washington, at Brandywine, at Ger- mantown,at Saratoga, at Monmouth, and at Stony Point, Vir- ginia blood had flowed freely. The victories at Trenton and Princeton were gained mainly by Virginia soldiers. They had starved and frozen at Valley Forge and Morristown, and some of them were still with the handful of men under Washington. Nor only so. When Georgia and South Caro- lina were invaded, Virginia moved promptly to their relief. Again and again had General Greene been reinforced by Virginians and victory been wrested by their aid from the arrogant British invaders. Lee's Legion and Campbell's 220 History of the United States. riflemen attested the patriotism and devotion of the " Ancient Dominion," wliich had to maintain all the time a force along her western borders to keep back the Indians, always ready- to swoop down upon the backwoodsmen. Virginia's Helpless Condition. — More than this, the thou- sands of British and Hessian prisoners captured at Prince- ton, at Bennington, at Saratoga, and at other points, were stationed in Virginia, and had to be fed from her fields and guarded by her sons. From 1776 she had kept from six thousand to ten thousand men in service, and at this very time she had with Greene twenty-four hundred and eighty- one soldiers, besides five thousand others fighting in the South — more than Washington had in his whole army. And now she was exposed to the ravages of her cruel foes and saw herself left to their savage destruction, without vol- untary help from the other States for wliich she had sacri- ficed so much. It is no wonder that her legislature made an eloquent and stirring appeal to Congress in her behalf. The State truly wanted everything, " men, money, arms, and military stores"; and her necessities were daily increased by Cornwallis. Cornwallis's Raids. — La Fayette avoided a battle with his stronger foe and effected a junction with Wayne and his Pennsylvanians; and Cornwallis, finding he could not catch " the boy," turned his attention to plundering the country. He stationed himself on the North Anna River and sent an infantry force under Simcoe southward to the Point of Fork, where the Rivanna flows into the James River, to destroy the stores there; and a cavalry force under Tarleton to move westward to capture the officers of state and the legislature which had removed from the low country to Charlottesville. Baron Steuben had five hundred men at the Point of Fork, and removed a large part of the stores safely to the south side of James River; but he was deceived into believing that Cornwallis himself was coming after him, and marched away, leaving the stores to be destroyed by Simcoe's men. Tarleton's Riding. — Tarleton, mounting his two hundred and fifty men on the fine horses he found in the Virginia stables, swept rapidly through the country, destroying pro- perty and capturing prisoners as he went. John Jouette rode his blooded horse at the top of its speed to Charlottes- The War in Virginia. 221 ville and warned the legislature of Tarleton's approach, so til at most of the members made good their escape. Gov- ernor Jefferson also, at his mountain home, Monticello, received information of the coming of a detachment to cap- ture him, and got safely off, his wife and family going by one road, himself by another. Monticello was unmolested, but another plantation of Mr. Jefferson was utterly devastated by Cornwallis's men. An attempt by Tarleton to destroy another deposit of valuable stores was prevented by La Fayette, and Tarleton joined Cornwallis, spreading ruin and desolation wherever he went. Among other things, he stole all the horses and cut the throats of the colts. In this campaign of Corn- wallis, the }) r o p e r t y de- troyed was estimated at ten million dollars, besides thirty thousand slaves car- ried off. Most of these poor creatures died of small- pox or camp fever, within six months. Cornwallis now moved eastward to Williamsburg, followed by La Fayette. After a stay of nine days there, the British gen- eral withdrew to Portsmouth. MONTICELLO, HOME OF JEFFERSON. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States. Vol. III.; Winsor s ^&r- rative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VI. ; Irving's Life of Washing- ton ; Marshall's Life of Washington ; Campbell's History of Virginia; Roosevi-lfs "Winning of the West; William Wirt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry; Lee's Memoirs of the Campaign in the Southern Department; Fiske's History of the United States. QUESTIONS.— 1. What infamous general was sent to Virginia ? 2. What (lid he do .'' 3. Who eanie to the defence of Virginia ? 4. Who now arrived from the South to command the British? 5. How did he fight? 0. What had been Virginia's part in the war so far ? 7. What was her condition now ? 8. Tell of Cornwallis's raids. 9. Of Tarleton's riding. 10. What dis- tinguished men had to flee before him? 11. How were the slaves treated ? 13. Where did C'ornwallis'at last go ? CHAPTER XLI. VIGTORT AT,YORKTOWN—JOHN PAUL JONES. Washington's Successful Maneuvres, 1781. — Washington had been anxious to strike a decisive blow at New York, but the defences of the city were strong, the British fleet com- manded many of the approaches, and Sir Henry Clinton had just received three thousand fresh troops from Ger- many. It was not, therefore, thought wise to risk his own small army and the French under Count Rochambeau in so desperate an enterprise. But when he learned of the fierce raiding and destruction in Virginia, the American com- mander-in-chief continued to march and maneuvre in so threatening a manner as to alarm Clinton, and make him call for three regiments from Cornwallis. It was this requi- sition which made Cornwallis take his force from Williams- burg to Portsmouth. Clinton also directed him to occupy and fortify some permanent position on the Chesapeake, where the largest war vessels might be able to protect him, while they would keep off any French ships, and destroy such small ones as belonged to the States. Cornwallis at Yorktown, 1781. — In pursuance of these instructions, Cornwallis took his men to Yorktown, only twelve miles up the broad York River, where the largest vessels could ride at anchor, and where Gloucester Point, projecting from the opposite shore, narrows the river to a mile in width. The heights at Yorktown were at once fortified, and intrenchments made also at Gloucester Point. Coming of the French Fleet. — Affairs now began to look brighter for the American cause. Not only were the Caro- linas freed^ but Colonel John Laurens from South Carolina, minister to Paris from Congress, had succeeded in borrow- ing a large amount of specie from France and Holland, and had persuaded Louis XVI. to send another powerful fleet and a strong land /orce to America. This was welcome news to Washington, who at once planned to combine with the French and drive the British from the Southern States. Just at this time he learned that the Comte de Grasse was [333] Victory at Yorktoiun — John Paul Jones. 223 coming from St. Domingo with a strong French fleet and a considerable body of French troops, and that he would sail at once into the Chesapeake Bay. Washington's March to Virginia. — This was the opportu- nity for which Washington had longed. He determined to march at once to Vir- ginia, with all Count Rochambeau's men and as many of his own army as could be spared, and, with the help of C o m t e de Grasse, to drive the enemy from Virginia. He wrote to La Fay- ette to take care that Cornwallis did not get away to North Caro- lina, and immediately began his southward move. So secretly were his plans carried out that General Clin- ton did not know where Washington was going until he had reached the Delaware River. Finding that the northern troops who were with him were unwilling to come to relieve Virginia, Washington, in passing through Philadelphia, borrowed silver money from Count Rochambeau and Mr. Robert Morris to pay them and put them in better spirits. He did this more easily because Colonel Laurens had ar- rived in Boston with part of the money borrowed in Europe. Before he reached the head of the Chesapeake Bay, Wash- ington learned that De Grasse and his fleet were really within the capes. Governor Nelson's Patriotic Generosity. — La Fayette had taken position at Williamsburg to prevent Cornwallis's moving southward from Yorktown. In June, Mr. Jeff'erson's term as governor of Virginia having expired. General Thomas Nelson had been elected his successor. He proved to be the very man for the crisis. The legislature gave him almost absolute power, which he used so judiciously that he VICINITY OF YORKTOWN. 224 History of the United States. had joined La Fayette with thirty-two hundred militia, and had secured from the despoiled State provisions to sup- ply the whole army while the campaign lasted. The money to do this was raised on his own security, and his great for- tune was given so freely for his country that his family was thereby impoverished. Siege of Yorktown, 1781. — When Washington got to Williamsburg, on September 14th, he found a large force there, which increased in a few days to sixteen thousand men — seven thousand French, three thousand five hundred Continentals, and thirty-five hundred Virginia militia. Cornwallis did not appreciate his danger, until he learned that Comte de Grasse had attacked and driven off the English fleet coming to his aid, and that he was cut off. from means of escape by land or water. A desperate attempt to cross York River in the night and cut his way through to the north, was foiled by a storm which scattered the boats, and by an American force sent against Gloucester Point. Governor Nelson's House. — When the American cannon were close enough to fire at Yorktown, Washington put the match to the first gun. Cornwallis's quarters were soon riddled with balls. Governor Nelson's house was a great protection to the British. Finding that the gunners did not wish to injure his house, the governor promised a reward of five guineas to the first man who should send a cannon shot through it. Before long one went crashing through the wall, and the mark of it is there to this day. Cornwallis's Surrender, October 19, 1781. — Cornwallis's men and provisions were both exhausted. On October 17th he sent a flag of truce to General Washington, and, on the 19th, surrendered the whole British army, with the posts held by it, and the vessels and sailors in the river ; the sol- diers to Washington, the ships and sailors to Comte de Grasse. When the time came for giving up his sword, Lord Cornwallis was so overcome by grief and mortification that he did not come himself, but sent it by General O'Hara. General Washington would not receive it in person, and deputed General Lincoln, who had been obliged to surren- der at Charleston, to do so. The number of men surren- dered was seven thousand and thirty-seven. Victory at Yorhtoion — John Paul Jones. 225 Joy of Victory. — The joy and relief experienced throughi out the States at the news of this surrender was deep and universah "Cornwallis is taken" passed from mouth to mouth and soon penetrated to every part of the country, and rejoicings were held everywhere. Washington gave high praise to the officers and men of the victorious army, released all his soldiers who were under arrest, and ordered divine service and thanksgiving to be performed through the entire camp. Congress also voted thanks to all engaged and appointed a day of thanksgiving to God for the success to the cause of freedom. The Real End of the War— Peace Signed, 1783.— The surrender at Yorktown was really the end of the war. England was tired of it, and a treaty of peace was signed at Paris, between England and the United States, in February, 1783. Until the peace was concluded, Washing- ton had to keep his army together, and prevent quarrelling and discontent among the officers and men. But when it became plain that there would be no more battles, he let the militia go home, and gave the regulars long furloughs; and all the time strove to keep alive a spirit of patriotism and unselfishness among them. The men were permitted to take with them the arms with which they had fought. Per- haps, some of you have seen the old muskets and swords which your great-grandfathers used against the British. Washington's Farewell to the Army, 1783. — On November 25, 1783, the last of the British forces left New York, and the American army marched in the next day. Shortly after this, the army was disbanded. Washington issued an elo- quent and touching farewell address to his soldiers, and on December 24tli took leave of the principal officers. Each one of them came up and shook his hand, but they were all so much moved that none of them could speak, and tears flowed over many bronzed faces. Washington stopped in Annapolis to resign his commission to Congress and settle his accounts, before proceeding to his beloved Mount Ver- non. He never received a cent of pay, but only the amount of his actual expenses, and a great deal of that went to pay messengers and special service done for the country. United States Navy in the Revolution. — Congress in 1775 had voted to form a navy for the United States. A good 15 226 History of the United States. many vessels did good service in capturing merchant ships. They also frequently captured or sank the smaller armed vessels of the enemy. But the American navy was never strong enough to offer any opposition to the hostile fleets which did so much damage along the American shores, and, one after another, each of its ships was burned or sunk. John Paul Jones. — The most famous and successful ship captain was John Paul Jones. After many disappointments, he succeeded in getting command of a clumsy war vessel, City Hall. Washington Monument. Capitol. Around the statue of Washingson are the bronze figures of Patrick Henry, Andrew Levris, Marshall, Nelson, Jefferson, and Mason. CAPITOL SQUARE AT RICHMOND. fitted out with old and indifferent guns. In compliment to Dr. Franklin, whose Poor Richard's Almanac he greatly admired, Jones called his ship Bonhomme Richard. Owing to the danger from cruisers and privateers, merchant ships did not go to sea alone, but a number of them sailed to- gether under the protection of one or more ships of war, called ''a convoy." A number of vessels were sailing out of the Baltic Sea under convoy of the Serapis and the Countess of Scarborough. Victory at Yorktoivn — John Paul Jones. 227 Battle between the Serapis and the Bonhomme Richard. — Jones had three small ships besides his own, with which he met the British squadron. A fierce battle ensued. The Serapis was a strong vessel with forty-four fine guns; the Richard old and crazy, with forty-two worn-out cannon. In the heat of the action, some of these guns burst and did great damage to the ship and the crew. The ships were so close together that the guns of each were fired into the win- dows and port-holes of the other. When the Richard had been torn and riddled with shot, the British captain, Pear- son, asked Jones if he surrendered. "I have just begun to fight," was the reply. By this time the vessels were side by side, so close that Jones lashed them together. At last the Serapis was so much disabled that she struck her colors. Jones transferred his men to her from the Richard, which was so much injured by shot and fire that she soon settled down into the sea and sank. One of the smaller vessels had, in the mean time, captured the Countess of Scarborough, and Jones took both of his prizes into the Texel, in Holland, the next day. This fight was plainly seen from the English coast and made .Jones the hero of the time. Boundary of the United States. — The treaty of peace gave to the United States the territory east of the Mississippi River from Canada southward to the parallel of the southern boundary of Georgia. The shores of the Gulf of Mexico, Florida, southern Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana all belonged to Spain, who for some years was to prove a troublesome neighbor. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. III.; Winsor's Nar- rative and Critical History of the UnitedStates, Vol. VI.; Irving's Life of Washington; Marshall's Life of Washington ; Campbell's History of Virginia; Roosevelt's Winning of the West; William Wirt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry; Lee's Memoirs of the Cam- paign in the Southern Department; Fiske's History of the United States. QUESTIONS.— 1. How did Washington in New York help the cause in Vir- ginia? 2. At what place did Cornwallis fortify himself ? 3. What good news did John Laurens bring from France ? 4. Tell of Washington's coming to the rescue of the army in Virginia. 5. Relate Governor Nelson's patriotic gene- rosity. 6. Tell of the siege of Yorktown. 7. Of Governor Nelson's attack on his own house. 8. When and how did Cornwallis smrender ? 9. Tell of the joy throughout the country. 10. Was this the real end of the war? 11. How long before the treaty of peace was signed? 13. When did Washington dis- band the army and make his farewell address to them? 13. Tell of the occa- sion and of his going home. 14. What is said of the American navy ? 15. Who was John Paul Jones ? 16. Tell of the battle between his ship and the Serapis. 17. What territory now belonged to the United States ? what to Spain ? i)j]|l|!i|)ii)iiiiii(iipr''i'i'ii'""'''' "" ""T'"i"i""ii|'iiii[fiiiinii SOME OF OUR HEROES. [233] SUMMARY FOR REVIEWS AND ESSAYS. THE REVOLUTION, 17(53-1783. Chapters 23-41. Causes of the "War : The American Revolution, the next war, 138. Colonies strenuous for their rights, 138. England's desire to tax the colonies, 138. The first cause of hostility, 139. Two-Penny Act, 139. Patrick Henry, 139. The " Parsons Cause, 1763, 140. •'Writs of assistance," 141. Higher taxes, 141. " Sous of Liberty," 141. Stamp Act, 1705^ 141. Opposition to the Stamp Act, 141. Congress of C'olonies, 1765, 142. Taxation without representation, 142. Stamp Act repealed, 143. Boston massacre, 1770, 143. Committee of correspondence, 1772,. 143. The Tea-Party, 144. llousiug of the colonies, 144. The Colonies in 1760-1775 : Condition of the colonies, 145. Education, 145. Frankliu's discoveries; newspapers, 145. Printing press, 146. Social conditions, 146. Life among the rich, 146. Life among the middle classes, 147. Non-Importation Acts, 148. Opposition to slavery, 148. Emigration to Tennessee, 148. Counties of Botetourt and Fincastle in Virginia, 149. Daniel Boone in Kentucky, 1769, 149. Settlement of Kentucky, 1771, 150. Watauga settlement, Teunessee, 1769, 150. Robertson and Sevier, 150. Friendly intercourse between the settlements, 151. Conventions in Virginia, 1769 and 1774, 151. First Continental Congress, 152. Its decisions, 153. Three distinguished members, 153. Canada invited to join the colonies, 154. The " minute men," 154. Strife in Virginia, 154. Indian war, 1774, 154. [229] 230 History of the United States. The Colonies in \lQQ-V715-~Co)itinued : Armies for defence, 155. Lord Dunmore's orders, 156. Battle of the Great Kanawha, 156. Result of the battle, 156. George Rogers Clarke, 157. Opening of the Revolution, 1775 : Virginia Convention of 1775, 157. Removal of the powder, 158. Battle of Lexington, 158. Israel Putnam and John Stark, 159. A general rising of the country, 159. Capture of Ticonderoga, 160. Second Continental Congress, 1775, 160. Extreme measures of England, 161. "The United Colonies," 161. Washington commander-in-ehief, 161. Washington's appearance and character, 162. Troops around Boston, 1775, 162. Intrenchment of Breed's Hill, 163. Landing of the British, 163. British assault repulsed, 164. Americans forced to retreat, 164. Opinions of the battle, 165. Washington takes command of the army, 165. "The Continental Line," 166. Troops from Pennsylvania, JMaiyland, and Virginia, 167. ElTorts to seize Canada, 1775, 167. Attack o\\ Quebec, 168. Virginia Assembly deposes Dunmore, 169. Convention of 1775, 169. Dunmore declares war on Virginia, 170. Battle of Great Bridge, 170. North Carolina sends aid to Virginia, 171. Action of South Carolina and Georgia, 171. Not ready for independence, 171. Acts of Congress, 172. Events of 1776: South Carolina declares herself independent, 1776, 172. North Carolina's action, 173. Virginia's recommendation to Congress, 173. Convention of 1776, 173. Committee appointed to prepare a declaration of independence, 173. Thomas Jefferson, 174. Bill of Rights and the Virginia Constitution, 174. First colonial flag, 1776, 168. Attack on Boston, 168. Washmgton takes the army to New York, 168. Defences of Charleston, 175. Attack by the British, 176. Sergeant Jasper, 176. Results of the victory, 177. Declaration of Independence, July 4th, 174. Indian attacks in the Southern States, 194. Cherokee outbreak, 1776, 194. Summary for Reviews mid Essays. 231 Events of 1776 — Conthmed: Attack on Watauga, 195. Defeat of the Cherokees; peace, 195. Immigration to Kentucky, 196. Kentucky County organized and defended, 1776, 196. The armies at New York, 177. :' Battle of Long Island, 177. Washington withdi-aws to Harlem and White Plains, 177. Surrender of Fort Washington, 178. At Lake C'hamplain, 178. Disobedience of General Charles Lee, 178. Remo%'al of Congress to Baltimore, 1776, 179. Washington crosses the Delaware, 179. Battle of Trenton, 179. Washington's determination, 180. Events of 1777: Cornwallis against Washington, 180. - Battle of Princeton, 181. Commissioners sent to France, 181. ' Decrease of the army, 181. Effort to seize the Hudson, 181. Howe enters the C!hesapeake, 183. Pulaski, De Kalb, La Fayette, 183. Battles of Brandywine and Germantown, 183. Burgoyne's advance from Canada, 184. Battle'of Oriskany, 184. ' Battle of Bennington, 185. Murder of Miss McCJrae, 185. Schuyler superseded by Gates, 186. • Battles near Saratoga, 186. Burgoyne's surrender, 187. Prisoners taken to Virginia, 188. Conspiracy against Washington, 188. Sufferings at Valley Forge, 188. Inefficiency of {^'ongress, 189. Washington at Valley Forge, 190. Events of 1778 : The United States recognized bj^ France, 190. Evacuation of Philadelphia by the British, 190. ' Battle of jVIonmouth Courthouse, 190. "Captain Molly," 191. Trial and dismissal of General Charles Lee, 191. Indian massacre at Wyoming, 191. Destruction of the Six Nations, 193. Washington returns to White Plains, 193. Coming of the French fleet, 193. British raids, 193. Fall of Savannah, 193. Clarke's plan to capture the Northwest, 197. His expedition down the Ohio, 1778, 198. Capture of Fort Kaskaskia, 198. Events of 1779 : British garrison at Vincennes, 198. (Clarke's march to Vincennes, 199. Capture of the fort, 300. Illinois made a coimty of Virginia, 300. 232 History of the United States. Events of 1779— Continued : Clarke's later life, 200. British raids on the coast, 201. (.aptin-e of Stony Point, 201. • United States Navy In the Revolution, 225. John Paul Jones, 22C. • Battle between the Sernpis and the Bonhomme Richard, 237. Unsuccessful siege of Savaimah, 202. Washington and Congress, 203. Arnold at Philadelphia, 204. Events of 1780: Return of I^a Fayette to America, 204. Attack on Charleston and capture of Monk's Corner, 205. Siu-render of C'harleston, 205. Dark daj's for the Americans, 205. Treachery of Benedict Arnold, 206. Capture and execution of Andre, 207. Waxhaws disaster in South Carolina, 207. Sumter, Marion, Pickens, Clarke, "Light-Horse Harry" Lee, 307. Battle of Camden, 209. Defeat at Fishing Creek, 209. Retreat of Gates, 210. Rendezvous at Watauga Sycamore Shoals, 210. Advance against Ferguson, 211. vBattle of King's iSlountain, 211. Effect of the victory, 212. A visit to Marion's camp, 212. Defeat of Tarleton at Blackstoeks, 213. General Greene in the South, 213. Events of 1781^1783 : Battle of " The Cowpens," 214. Its results, 215. Greene's masterly retreat, 215. Battle of Guilford Courthouse, 216. Greene's return to South Carolina, 216. Ride of Emily Geiger, 217. ' Battle of Eutaw Springs, 217. Devastation in Virginia, 218. La Fayette sent to Virginia, 218. Arrival of Cornwallis, 219. Virginia's part in the war, 219. Virginia's helpless condition, 220. Cornwallis's raids, 220. Tarleton's riding, 220. Washington's successful maneuvres, 222. Cornwallis at Yorktown, 222. Coming of i\w French fleet, 222. Washington's march to Virginia, 223. Governor Nelson's patriotic generosity, 228. Siege of Yorktown, 224. Governor Nelson's house, 224. ('omwallis's surrender, October 19, 1781, 224. Joy of victory, 225. l{eal end of the war; peace signed in 1783, 225. Washington's farewell to the army, 1783, 225. Boundary of the United States, 227. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION, 1783-1861. CHAPTER XLII. CONDITION OF THE THIRTEEN STATES IN 1783. The Country After the Revolution. — The acknowledgmeni of American independence, the withdrawal of the British troops, the disbanding of the Continental Army, were good things, but they" did not give quietness and prosperity, as most of the Americans hoped they would. The long war had drained the resources and crippled the industries of the entire country. Trade had flourished in the colonies before the Revolution, not only among themselves and to the West Indies, but American vessels had carried American produce to many European ports. The English fleets had destroyed these vessels so thoroughly that American commerce seemed dead. This bore especially hard upon New England, where sea- faring occupied a large proportion of the men. In the Middle States, where agriculture was the principal pursuit, the excitement of war had paralyzed the energies of the peo- ple. Farther south the country had been for years the tramping-ground of the hostile armies, and the British had destroyed the crops, eaten up the cattle, stolen the horses, and in many cases carried off" the negroes b}^ thousands. These evils and the poverty consequent upon them were aggravated by the fact that there was no money in the coun- try, except promissory notes issued by Congress or by the diff'erent States, which were by this time worthless. Congress Helpless. — You have seen what troubles the want of pay for the soldiers had given General Washington during the war, and how the army had more than once mutinied and threatened vengeance on Congress for not fur- nishing them with the money due them. Congress had been very inefficient and was not much respected for sev- eral years, partly because the States kept their best men at home, and partly because no attention was paid to its action when it did try to do what was for the good of the country. [ 233 ] 234 History of the United States. The calls made by it upon the several States for men and money during the war had been disregarded, especially by the New England and Middle States, and when peace came, less heed than ever was paid to its requirements. And it had no power to enforce any regulation or law it might pass. Frequently the men elected would not attend; sometimes only seven States were represented; in 1784, the thirteen members present went home in disgust, and for two months the country had no government whatever, except that of the several States within their own boundaries. Confederation of 1774. — The confederation formed in 1774 was only "a friendly league " between the thirteen colonies, by which they bestowed some powers upon Congress, and kept more for themselves. From 1774 to 1783 different States had made treaties with Indians, issued money, and done other things which they professed to have put into the hands of Congress. Most of them seemed more bent on maintaining and increasing their own importance than doing anything for the general welfare. A common danger had, indeed, united them to strive together for their inde- pendence, but there was little liking between the people of the different colonies. New York and New England could not agree; Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia were often hostile to one another; and the eastern and Mid- dle States had small care and sympathy for their sister States south of the Potomac. These animosities were now ready to break out at any moment. Generosity of Virginia. — Virginia had shown a wonderful unselfishness and an earnest desire for the good of the confederation. It had required the consent of nine of the States to make the Articles of Confederation of 1777 bind- ing upon them all. Maryland, jealous of her neighbor's great power — or wise enough to see the danger of it — had refused to sign, unless the vast country north of the Ohio should become the property of the confederation. Now Virginia had, you remember, three claims to the possession of that territory. It lay between the parallels of latitude within which all the land in America had originally been granted to her by the king; it had been sold to her by the Indians in solemn council; and it was hers by the right of conquest, since George Rogers Clarke had taken it from Condition of the Thirteen States in 1783. 2 35 the English. She had governed it from that time, and her possession of it was the ground upon which the Treaty of Peace of 1783 gave it to the United States. But when the oldest of the Colonies found that her ownership of the Northwest was a bar to the establishment of the American Confederacy in 1781, she testified her love of freedom, and the sincerity of her desire for independence, by stripping herself of the larger part of her dominions and ceding them to the general government. A condition was made that the bounties of land promised to Virginia soldiers should be given them out of this ceded territory, and that all the States should sign the Articles of Confederation. Maryland signed the compact in 1781. In 1784 Congress accepted the Virginia grant; and the other States claiming western lands, one by one, followed her example and relinquished them. How to Raise Money ? — The most vexed question of the first years of peace was how to raise money to pay the debts and meet the expenses of the confederation. Arrears of pay were due the disbanded soldiers, and money was want- ing to carry on the government from day to day. Large sums had also been borrowed from France and Holland and there was not a cent to pay the interest. To borrow more money to pay these debts was almost impossible. No nation would make a treaty with a bankrupt, if not dishonest gov- ernment, and England began to hope that before long the American States would seek to come under her rule and protection again. First Tariff, 1784. — To prevent this and other evils. Con- gress proposed an " impost" — what we call a tariff" — on certain articles, especially on luxuries, brought in from foreign coun- tries. A clamor was raised that this was unlawful taxation, and some of the States, Rhode Island, New York, Maryland, and Georgia, absolutely refused to pay any duty imposed by Congress upon anything. Virginia, the wealthiest, and therefore the greatest consumer of articles named in the impost bill, instructed her representatives to vote for it, at the very time that she gave her western lands into pos- session of the general government. Distracted Condition of the Country. — In the mean time affairs were going from bad to worse. Many of the States 236 History of the United States. did their best to restrict the commerce of their neighbors, so as to improve their own. The Pennsylvanians attacked the Connecticut settlers in the Wyoming Valley, and drove them from the State. The tories in all parts of the country were treated with so much scorn and unkindness that thou- sands of them were forced to leave their homes. The refugees who had returned when peace was made, found their property confiscated, and little prospect of reclaiming it. The value of the paper money issued by themselves was so different in the various States that it was impossible to understand it. Should a man be fortunate enough to get some Spanish or English gold, it would buy for him very diff'erent amounts of American money in the north, east, or south. Shays 's Insurrection, 1787. — The refusal of Great Britain to give up her posts in the west until the money due the British subjects was paid, and a strong insurrection in Mas- sachusetts in 1787, headed by one Shays, brought the affairs of the country to a crisis. Congress was afraid to assert its authority against Shays and his followers, and the wise men of the land began to see that unless some remedy could be found, the new nation must become a scorn and reproach on the earth, and would soon cease to exist. Annapolis Convention, 1786. — A convention of the States, to regulate trade among themselves — had been called by Virginia, and met at Annapolis in 1786. Only five States — Virginia, Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York — Avere represented, and they could do nothing; but they recommended that another convention of the States should be called to meet in Philadelphia to provide " a federal government adequate to the necessities of the union." The "Cincinnati."— The "Society of the Cincinnati" was originated by the officers of the Continental Army before their final separation. It was to be a sort of Order of Knighthood, none but officers of the Revolutionary Army could belong to it, and its honors descended to the oldest son. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. III.. IV.: Schouler's History of the United States, Vol. I.; McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Vol. I.; Irving's Life of Wasliington; Rives' Life of Madison; Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Adams, American Statesmen Series ; Madison Papers ; William Win Henry's Life of Patrick Henry ; Rowland's Memoir of George Mason ; Winsor's Narra- tive and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII. The Federal Convention of 1787. 237 QUESTIONS. — 1. In what condition was the country after the Revolution? 2. What could Congress do ? 3. What sort of compact was the confederation of 1774? 4. How did the States act towards each other? 5. Tell of Vir- ginia's right to the Northwest. 6. Iler generosity in regard to it m 1781. 7. How did the other States then act? 8. Why was it so hard to raise money ? 9. What mode did Congress take to secure a revenue ? 10. How was it received? 11. Tell of the distracted condition of the country. 13. When did Shays's Insurrection occur ? 13. When was the Annapolis Con- vention, and for what pui'pose did it meet? 14. What was the "Society of the Cincinnati " ? CHAPTER XLIII. THE FEDERAL CONVENTION OF 1787. The Federal Convention, 1787. — The call for a Federal Convention to improve the government was responded toby twelve of the States. Rhode Island refused to pay any at- tention to it. This Convention, which met in Independence Hall, Philadelphia, on the 25th of May, 1787, consisted of fifty-five of the wisest and most experienced men from their different States : From New Hampshire went John Lang- don and Nicholas Gilman : from Massachusetts, Rufus King, Nathaniel Gorham, Caleb Strong, Elbridge Gerry; from Con- necticut, Oliver Ellsworth, William S. Johnson, Roger Sher- man ; from New York, Robert Yates, Alexander Hamilton, John Lansing ; from New Jersey, David Brearley, William C. Houston, William Patterson, William Livingston, Jona- than Dayton ; from Pennsylvania, Robert Morris, Thomas Fitzsimmons, James Wilson, Gouverneur Morris, Benjamin Franklin, George Clymer, Thomas Mifflin, Jared Ingersoll ; from Delaware, George Read, Richard Bassett, Jacob Broom, Gunning Bedford, John Dickenson ; from Maryland, James McHenry, John F. Mercer, Luther Martin, Daniel Jenifer of St. Thomas, Daniel Carroll ; from Virginia, George Wash- ington, Edmund Randolph, John Blair, James Madison, George Mason, George Wythe, James McClurg ; from North Carolina, Alexander Martin, William Richardson Davie, Richard Dobbs Spaight, Hugh Williamson, William Blount ; from South Carolina, John Rutledge, Charles Cotesworth Pinckney, Charles Pinckney, Pierce Butler ; from Georgia, William Few, William Pierce, William Houston, Abraham 238 History of the United States. Baldwin. Of these, twelve were absent when the first vote was taken, and three declined to agree with their colleagues. Members of the Convention. — These men ranged from twenty-five to eighty years of age. Nearly all of them had been distinguished in the troubled years of the Revolution. As framers and signers of the Declaration of Independence; as gallant soldiers; as members of Congress; as governors of their States, they had known the difficulties and dangers which threatened the young republic, and had thought deeply how they might be remedied. Twenty-nine of them had been graduated in the universities of the Old World or the colleges of the New. Twenty-six were self-educated. The two most famous among them were George Washington and Benjamin Franklin, neither of whom was a college man. Washington was fifty-five and Franklin eighty-one years old. Washington was renowned throughout the civilized world as the purest, wisest, most unselfish of men. Frank- lin, though never a soldier, had served his country well, at home and abroad, and was one of the greatest statesmen, the wisest politicians, and most accomplished scholars of his day. The cares of public life had not prevented his un- tiring study of Natural Philosophy, in which he had made many important discoveries; and long experience and ob- servation of men and principles gave great weight to his opinions expressed in terse sentences and witty illustrations. Next to Washington and Franklin, stood James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, both youug men, Madison thirty- five and Hamilton only thirty, and both with their reputa- tion to achieve. Meeting of the Convention with Closed Doors. — On the 28th of May, delegates had assembled from eight States; the Convention met, the doors were locked, the members pledged to secrecy, and the great work began. So strictly was the in- junction of secrecy kept, that it was not until after Mr. Madison's death, fifty years later, when his journal was pub- lished, that the particulars of the debates and the diff'erent opinions and parties in the Convention were given to the world. Washington was made president of the Convention, and few of the members thought alike upon the questions they had met to decide. There were men in favor of three republics, one for New England, one for the Middle, and a The Federal Convention of 1787. 239 third for the Southern States; while others advocated three presidents for one republic. Virginia was the advocate of a new scheme of government, and brought in resolutions which would place much power in the hands of the larger States. New Jersey offered another set of resolutions, giv- ing as much authority to the smallest as to the largest State. The antagonism between these two plans brought out the " Larger and Smaller State Parties." Later on there appeared a hostile feeling between the Northern States, where negroes had ceased to form any important part of the population, and the Southern States, where they continued to increase so as to form a large proportion of it. But the strongest and deepest opposition was between those members who were in favor of intrusting great powers to the general gov- ernment — Federalists as they were called — and those who thought the principal power should be retained by the indi- vidual States themselves — the Anti-Federalists, or State Rights party. First Compromise. — The Federalists, under the leadership of James Madison and Alexander Hamilton, made a great effort for the Virginia plan; and with Virginia sided Penn- sylvania, Massachusetts, North and South Carolina, and Georgia. The smaller States, Maryland, Delaware, and Connecticut, stood by New Jersey in asserting their claim to equal power, and with them voted Ham- ilton's New York colleagues. It re- quired the assent of seven of the States to adopt propositions, and it seemed as if no decision could be reached. The Connecticut delegates proposed a com- promise by which the States should each have equal power in the Senate, while in the House of Rep- resentatives the number should be in proportion to the pop- ulation. This was agreed to in July, with the proviso that the representatives should be chosen by the people of each State, one for not less than every thirty thousand, and the senators by the legislatures. Negro Representation. — No sooner was this decided than the question broke out between the North and the South as to negro representation. This question waxed very hot. 240 History of the United States. South Carolina was determined to have her negroes counted among her popuhition or leave the Convention. New York was opposed to it, and Massachusetts very undecided. If South Carolina withdrew, Georgia and North Carolina would probably do so too, and there would not be enough States left to ratify the action of the Convention. Second Compromise. — Except George Mason and Gov- ernor Randolph, the Virginia delegation had been all the time in favor of decided measures, and Washington had made a powerful speech urging the Convention to take a firm stand and do its work thoroughly; but now, seeing the danger of driving South Carolina off, Virginia, true to her character of peace-maker, proposed a second compromise. Madison reminded the Convention how a difficulty on the same subject had been settled in Congress four years before. Then it was a question of taxation in proportion to popula- tion. Then the North had insisted that each negro should be counted as well as each white man. To avoid such an over-burden of taxation, Madison had proposed that five negroes should be counted as equal to three white men. Rutledge of South Carolina had advocated the measure and it was passed. The same proposition was now made and the North forced to consent to it. Abolition of Slave Trade Opposed. — In a third compro- mise between the North and the South, Virginia would take no part. South Carolina would not consent to an imme- diate abolition of the foreign slave trade. For years the New England ship-owners had been engaged in this traffic. To continue their great gains from it, and to secure the right to control Congress by a majority vote on commercial and navigation questions, the New England States voted with South Carolina and Georgia to continue it for twenty vears longer, by restricting the power of Congress to forbid it, until 1808. Other Regulations. — On these three compromises, the main features of the Constitution were decided. Other regulations followed. The executive power — the President; the legislative power — Congress, with its two branches, the Senate and House of Representatives ; and the judicial power — the Supreme Court and lower courts in the States; together with the modes of choosing each branch and the powers The Federal Convention of 1787. 241 conferred upon each, were decided upon. On September 17th, the Constitution was laid before the Convention and signed, first by Washington and then by the different dele- gates in the geographical order of the States, beginning with the east. Provision was made by which amendments could be proposed either by Congress or the States, and the docu- ment was ready to go before the people for their confirma- tion or dissent. Fifteen Amendments. — Fifteen amendments have been made to the original Constitution — ten of them in a few years after its inception, two early in this century, the other three nearly sixty years later. So that the Government as we have it is principally the work of the Federal Conven- tion. The Constitution has been characterized as "the most wonderful work ever struck off at a given time by the brain and purpose of man"; and on account of its importance I have been careful to give you these particulars. Ratification of Constitution. — The Continental Congress agreed to the action of the Convention, and Delaware, Penn- sylvania, and New Jersey ratified the Constitution within a few weeks. Georgia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts did the same early in 1788; Maryland in April; South Carolina in May. New Hampsliire and Virginia argued the matter until June, when they too agreed to it for the sake of peace. New York waited until July; North Carolina would not consent to sign it until late in 1789, and Rhode Island, for very shame, came into line in May, 1790. From Massachu- setts, in the order mentioned, all the States, except the last named, called for amendments to protect the rights of the States and citizens; and two years later the ten spoken of before were passed by Congress. The States which were slow in accepting the Constitution were influenced by a strong feeling that it gave too much power to the General Government, and thereby inter- fered with the inherent rights of the sovereign States. To overcome this feeling, a series of papers known as "The Federalist," written by Hamilton, Madison, and Jay, was circulated throughout the States and produced such a change in public opinion that the Constitution was accepted by all thirteen of the 16 HAMILTON. 242 History of the United States. States. From his successful work on its behalf, James Madi- son has been styled the "Father of the Constitution." AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States. Vols. III.. IV.; Sehouler's History of the United States, Vol. I. ; McMaster's History of the People of the United states, Vo). I. ; Irving's Life of Washington ; Rives's Life of Madison ; Jefferson, Madi- son, Monroe, Adams, American .Statesmen Series; Madison Papers; William Wirt Henry's Life of Patrick Henry ; Rowland's Memoir of George Mason ; Winsor's Narra- tive and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII. QUESTIONS,—!. When and where did the Federal Convention meet? 2. Give the names of some of the members. 3. What four are the most dis- tinguished ? 4. Tell about each one. 5. How did the Convention meet? 6. What differing opinions arose among the members ? 7. What was the first compromise? 8. What was the second? !). What action was taken about the slave trade ? 10. Mention som6 other regulations. 11. How many amend- ments are there ? 12. In what year did most of the States ratify the Consti- tution? 13. Which was the last one to do so? 14. What has Madison been called, and why ? CHAPTER XLIV. CONTINENTAL CONORESS. Work of the Continental Congress. — The Continental Con- gress had accomplished some work worthy of remembrance. Besides the treaty of alliance with France in 1778, and the treaty of peace with England in 1783, it had in 1785 con- cluded treaties of friendship and commerce with Holland, Sweden, and Prussia. In 1787 a similar treaty was made with Morocco. Spanish Claims. — Spain refused to make a treaty. She claimed the whole region between the Gulf of Mexico and the mouth of the Yazoo River across to the Atlantic Ocean, and unless this claim was granted and the control of the Mississippi River from the Yazoo down acknowledged to be her right, she would make no treaty at all. Now, trade with Spain was much desired by New England and the other Northern States. With Spain on friendly terms, their ships could go and come, not only to her shores, but into the Med- iterranean to its farthest eastern limits, while it was a mat- ter of indifference to them who controlled the navigation of the Mississippi. The seven Northern States were therefore in favor of the treaty, and John Jay, the United States minister to Spain, urged Congress to agree to it at least for twenty- Continental Congress. 243 five years. But the right to travel on the Mississippi was of vital importance to the Southern States. To them the Mis- sissippi was the outlet of half their territory, through which their produce was to find its market and their own wants be supplied from foreign markets. One and all of them, from Virginia down, protested against the closing of the Missis- sippi; and Mr. Madison was so strenuous in insisting that no treaty would be valid without the assent of nine States, that the question went over to a later date. Northwest Territory to be Free from Slavery. — But though Congress could not settle the Mississippi navigation, it did good, strong work with the country north of the Ohio. '_This land was entitled tlie Northwest Territory, and judicious laws and regulations were made for its government. Among other regulations it was enacted that the territory should in time be divided into four or five States, each to enjoy the same privileges and perform the same duties as the original thir- teen ; and that no slavery should be tolerated except as punishment for crime, but fugitive slaves from other States should be restored to their owners. Out of this territory Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and part of Michigan were afterwards carved. Treaties With the Indians, 1787.— The Congress of 1787 also made the mistake of treating with the Indians as if they were independent nations, and not ignorant savages whom it would be wiser and kinder to govern and protect under law. This mis- take has produced untold mischief to til is day. Settling the West. — Dissensions between neighboring States werei also adjusted and boundaries de- fined. Five million acres of land on^ -^ ^if^r' the Ohio, between the Muskingum , 165 - 0' ALASKA^ ^^-""^- ■-(X^Ngv.^ngU Adams's Administration. 257 natural increase of the American people, the number of foreigners coming into the country being very small up to 1815. French Refugees from Hayti, 1793. — The negroes in Ha3'ti, stirred up to violence by news of the Revolution in Paris, rose in insurrection against their masters, burning and destroying property, and slaying hundreds of the whites in a massacre at Cape Franyois. The terrified French people fled for their lives, and thousands of them came to America. Their condition was pitiable. Numbers of them were res- cued by their slaves at the last moment and carried to the ships without money or clothing save what they had on. Much sympathy and kindness was shown them, and clothing, food, shelter, and employment were provided for them. Yellow Fever in Philadelphia and New York. — Following closely in their track, yellow fever broke out in Philadel- phia. In four months, 4,044 people had died, one-tenth of the whole population. In 1794, the fever prevailed for a while in New York, and again in 1797 and 1798 in Phila- delphia and other nothern cities; panic, suffering, and many deaths were caused by it. Material Development. — The commerce of the country in- creased even more rapidly than the population. The de- velopment of the natural resources of the land kept pace with its other advance. Coal had been used as fuel for nearly forty years, from the mines near Richmond, Virginia, from the hills around Pittsburgh, and from Tiverton, New Jersey. Now it was found that the black stones in the Le- high Valley were anthracite coal, and a company was organ- ized to mine and sell it. The filling up of the western coun- try required good modes of communication, and the atten- tion of the State legislatures and of Congress was turned to the necessity of making roads. Turnpikes laid with stone were easy to make and keep in order in the uplands where an abundance of rock was to be found; but in the low tide- water country, a good road was an impossibility during the period of alternate freezings and thawings. The best road for a long time was the Lancaster turnpike from Philadel- phia to Lancaster and westward. The difiiculties of steam navigation which had hindered the success of Rumsey, 17 258 History of the United States. Fitch, and others, were succesfully overcome, within the next ten years, by Robert Fulton. Whitney's Cotton Gin. — Two thousand and sixty patents issued before the year 1800 show that America had started on that career of invention which has since made her famous throughout the world. One of these early contri- vances has never been surpassed in its immense effects upon the industries and destinies of a nation. Eli Whitney, a clever young man from Connecticut, had been befriended in Georgia by the widow of General Nathanael Greene, l^a- menting the labor of getting the fibre of the cotton boll from the seed, Mrs. Greene one day suggested to Mr. Whit- ney, of whose mechanical skill she had a great opinion, that he should invent some machine to simplify the work. Act- ing on this hint, Whitney set his brain and hands to work and succeeded in making the first cotton gin. A negro woman could "pick" only a pound of cotton a dsij. Whit- -^ ney's gin cleaned the seed from ; -~' three hundred pounds in the same time. It was at once received with great favor. Cotton became the staple product and the source of immense wealth in the South- ern States. Having so much ma- terial within reach also stimulated ■'•-'« % the manufacturing spirit in the ^-^.*. "i i North, and especially in New England. Cotton factories sprang up along the swiftly-flowing rivers. Slave labor to supply ^^^s^^m them with the white fibres became Eu wHiTNEv. Q^ great importance, and the out- cry against the sin committed by the Southern States in continuing to hold slaves ceased to be heard. Northern settlers at the South became slave-owners as soon as they found it to their interest. Removal of the Government to Washington, 1800. — In the summer of this year, the National Government was removed to the city of Washington. Since 1793 preparations had been making to prepare a place for it ; but the city was a straggling collection of wretched houses, with the half- Adams's Administration. 259 finished Capitol at one end and the President's house at the other. Mrs. Adams, in going thither to join the President in the fall, got lost in the woods between Baltimore and Washington, and on reaching her destination she found her new home tlioroughly uncomfortable and wanting all the luxuries as well as many of the necessities of refined life. Lotteries. — What had been accomplished towards making a National Capital had been done mainly by means of a lot- tery. So had the famous Lancaster turnpike been laid, so had numerous and valuable canals been dug. Manufac- tories, libraries, churches, schools, anything and everything, used lotteries as the surest way of raising funds to accom- plish their objects. In these days we look upon them as injurious modes of gambling, but in 1800 their evils were not so clearly seen. Education and Literature. — Education and literature had made mighty strides forward. The nine colleges before the Revolution had become twenty-three. Of these, nine were in the Southern States, six in the Middle States, six in New England, and two in the new State of Kentucky. The thirty-seven newspapers of 1776 had increased to two hun- dred, many of them dailies. These papers were published from Maine to Georgia. The rising towns in Kentucky and Tennessee and the embryo city of Cincinnati each had their rude printing-presses and their own newspapers. Of litera- ture, in the sense of book-making, there was little; but the period was fertile in able political essays and speeches. The newspapers were not carried in the mails, although the post-offices had increased to upwards of nine hundred. But the mail-riders and coaches were allowed to take them through the country in separate bags. Increase in the Churches. — Religious freedom had been guaranteed by the Constitution and by the laws of the dif- ferent States, and the churches, under this wise provision, awoke to new life. During colonial times the Church of England had steadily refused to allow bishops in America. In 1784 Dr. Seabury had been consecrated bishop for the diocese of Connecticut by Scotch bishops at Aberdeen. Three years later White of Pennsylvania and Prevost of New York received consecration at Lambeth, and in 1790 Bishop Madison of Virginia also was consecrated in England. The 260 History of the United States. American bishops then bestowed orders upon others of their brethren elected to the episcopate, so that there were now seven bishops in the American Episcopal Church. Charles and John Wesley and Whitefield had been in Georgia, but little was done to establish the Methodist Church, until their bishops. Coke and Francis Asbury, took up the work in 1797. Baptists had flourished in Rhode Island from the date of its settlement; now they were spread all over the States, but particularly in the west, and had over a thou- sand churches. Presbyterians had come in numbers from the Old Country, and were flourishing and extending their special forms of faith and worship southward and westward. All forms of Protestantism were asserting themselves forci- bly, and Sunday schools were established in many locali- ties. This is the more remarkable because, under the influ- ence of French teaching and the writings of Tom Paine, infidelity was striving to undermine Christianity, and had become quite fashionable among those who professed to be very wise and enlightened. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vols. IV., V., VI. ; Sehoul- er's History of tlie United States, Vol. II.; McMaster"s History of the People of the United States, Vols. II., Ill , IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States. Vol. VII.' Irving's Life of Washington; Rives's Life of Madison; Madison, Jefferson, Monroe, Adams, American Statesmen Series; Madison Papers ; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Appleton's En- cyclopedia; Encyclopedia of American Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. AVas Adams's administration peaceful? 3. Tell of the envoys to France and of Pinekney's famous reply ? 3. What almost brought on war ? 4. What laws were passed ? 5. How did Virginia and Kentucky regard them ? 6. How long was John Marshall chief justice of the United States ? 7. Tell of the progress of the country. 8> When was Tennessee admitted to the Union ? 9. AVhat of the increase of population ? 10. What refugees sought protection in the United States? 11. Tell of the yellow fever in Philadelphia and New York. 12. Of the material development of the country. 13. Who invented the cotton gin, and what is it? 14. When did the Government remove to Washington City ? 15. How were lotteries regarded in those days? 16. Tell of the colleges and newspapers. 17. The increase in the churches. CHAPTER XLVIII. JEFFERSOlSfS ADMINISTRA TION. Jefferson's Election, 1800. — When the electoral vote was counted in December, 1800, there was found to be a tie be- tween Thomas Jefferson of Virginia and Aaron Burr of New York. The House of Representatives was therefore called upon to decide between them. Jefferson was elected Presi- dent and Burr Vice-President, and their inauguration took place in AVashington on March 4, 1801. Jefferson was an enthusiastic Republican. He believed sincerely that the people should govern themselves and that the wishes of the majority should always prevail, but he did not think that the minority should be disregarded and trampled upon. His Republican Simplicity. — So consistent was he, that he would not countenance even the simple ceremony which had attended the inaugurations of Washington and Adams. With few attendants, he rode on horseback to the Capitol, wearing a plain citizen's dress of homespun cloth, tied his horse to a post, and entered the Senate Chamber, where the oath of ofhce was administered to him by Chief-Justice Marshall. With the same simplicity, he declined to deliver his message to Congress in person, but sent it to be read by another, which practice has been followed by every Presi- dent since. The message itself was full of kindliness to- wards all parties and classes of the people. It asserted the right of popular government and the principles on which it would prove strong and beneficent, and announced that the rights of a minority must be preserved and protected b}'^ the law equally with those of a majority. Jefferson's Cabinet. — Jefferson chose as his Cabinet, James Madison of Virginia, Secretary of State; Albert Gallatin, a Swiss resident of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury; Henry Dearborn of Massachusetts, Secretary of War; Lin- coln of the same State, Attorney-General; Robert Smith of Maryland, Secretary of the Navy; and Gideon Granger of Connecticut, Postmaster-General. Alexander Hamilton had been charged with underhand dealings while he was at the [261] 362 History of the United States. 17th, passed an Ordinance of Secession, by a large majority. The members opposed to it were principally from the west- ern part of the State where there were many Northern set- tlers, whose opinions were like those of Ohio and Pennsyl- vania. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas soon fol- lowed Virginia's example; and all four of them joined the Southern Confederacy. Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Delaware were also slave-holding States, l)ut they never seceded. The first three attempted to remain neutral, but were forcibly brought under the Federal power, though each gave many soldiers to the Southern army and had fierce bat- tles fought on its soil. Under the sanction of the governor of Maryland, many members of the legislature of the State were imprisoned by order of the Secretary of War and Gen- eral McClellan, to prevent their passing an ordinance of secession. Missouri was largely in favor of secession, but the Northern politicians were too strong to permit it, though they could not prevent her becoming a bloody battle-ground. Delaware sympathized with the North. Disparity Between the North and the South. — The open- ing of the war found both parties unprepared for a pro- longed struggle, but the North, with more than 20,000,000 of people, had a regular army, though small and scattered ; arsenals ; manufactories of arms ; powder mills ; an organized navy ; and, by its outcry against slavery and rebel- lion, soon enlisted the sympathy of almost all the world. The South, with only 9,000,000 people, more than 3,000,000 of them negroes, had neither army nor navy, neither manu- 8AMTJEL COOPER, VA. f^^^^^^^^ ^f ^rms uor powder mills. Gene- ral Floyd, Secretary of War under Buchanan, after the John Brown alarm, had given the Southern States, as their share of arms in the arsenals, a number of indifferent muskets and some cannon ; but these were nothing like enough to supply their soldiers. Confederate Soldiers. — In two respects the Confederacy was equal to the United States — the ability and character of her officers and the almost universal devotion of her people. With few exceptions, the Southern officers of the Army and Navy felt it their highest duty to devote their services to Lincoln's Administration, 1S61. 303 their native States. They were among the best in their dif- ferent lines, and proceeded at once to give discipline and efficiency to the untried and untrained soldiers put under their authority. General Samuel Cooper, the Adjutant and Inspector-General of the United States Army, resigned and accepted the same position under the Confederacy. Robert E. Lee and Joseph E. Johnston of Virginia, and Albert Sid- ney Johnston, a native of Kentucky but a citizen of Texas, were tlie acknowledged lead- ers among the numbers of officers who at once took sides with their States. Their ability and experi- ence placed them in the most responsible positions. Lee was immediately made Commander-in-chief of the Virginia forces ; Joseph E. Johnston was put in com- mand at Harper's Ferry, and Albert Sidney John- ston, who came from Cali- fornia to Richmond to offer his sword to the Confede- racy, was given the chief military authority in the West. The soldiers them- selves were of every rank and age. "The contagion of a generous patriotism " sei/.ed the whole people from the Potomac to the Rio Grande, and the lowly and the well- born, old men and beardless boys, were eager to defend their country. The women of every degree, mothers, wives, sis- ters, and sweethearts, shared in the enthusiasm, and with tears on their faces, but unfaltering courage in their hearts, prepared th(ur loved ones to join the army. Harper's Ferry and the Gosport Navy-Yard. — Thus, when the Confederate States government called for troops, it met with a quick response everywhere throughout the South. Vir- ginia made haste to take possession of the armory at Harper's LEAVING HOMK. 264 History of the United States, Alexander Hamilton was opposed to duelling, but did not think he could decline to fight. Burr was a fine marksman and practiced constantly with his pistol, so that when the duel took place on July 11th, he shot Hamilton in the side so fatally that he lived only a few hours. Hamilton fired his pistol in the air, for he had no wish to kill Burr. He fell, at the age of forty-seven, a victim to a false idea of honor, which led him to do what he wholly disapproved, but had not the moral courage to refuse. Burr's Conspiracy, 1805-7. — Burr was more restless and dissatisfied than ever, and before a great while he was believed to be getting up a conspiracy to seize on the south- western part of the country and set up another government, over which he was to be king or dictator. He was arrested and tried in Richmond, Virginia, before Chief-Justice Mar- shall, for treason, but there was so little evidence against him that his guilt could not be proved. An Irish gentle- man named Blennerhassett lived with his beautiful wife on an island in the Ohio River, near the mouth of the Little Kanawha. He had become very friendly with Burr, and preparations were making at his island for an expedition down the Mississippi River to carry out Burr's project, whatever it was. Blennerhassett was arrested as well as Burr, and, like him, was let off" for want of direct evidence against him. But his lovely home was ruined, and he died a fugitive and exile. Commercial Troubles. — Commercial troubles harassed Jefferson's second administration. War was raging in Europe, and England, France and Spain all made laws injurious to American trade. Mr. Jefferson was determined to follow Washington's policy of neutrality and not to take sides in the war. But this did not protect American vessels from attack by both France and England. The British ships were specially offensive in boarding them and taking off the sailors under pretence that they were Englishmen. The American man-of-war Chesapeake, with thirty-eight guns, was attacked in 1807 very near the American coast by the British frigate Leopard, which carried fifty guns, and four of her sailors were taken from her. In consequence of this outrage, all English ships were ordered to leave American ports, and by Mr. Jefferson's advice Congress laid an Jeffersori's Administration. 2Q>[ embargo, as Washington had done, and forbade American ships to leave the American shores. This restriction of their trade was specially unpopular in New England, and loud threats of disunion were again heard, while the law was constantly evaded. The embargo was repealed in 1809, but commercial intercourse was forbidden with England and France. Extinction of Slave Trade — Purchase of Indian Lands. — Besides the acquisition of the great Louisiana territory, Mr. Jefferson's administration is memorable for the extinction of the African slave trade, which was forbidden by law in 3 808. The policy was then first introduced of purchasing from the diminishing Indian tribes the lands which they UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA. claimed, and removing the Indians to special districts, or "reservations," set apart for them. In this way large tracts were gained from the scattered tribes both north and south of the Ohio. Madison's Election. — Mr. Jefferson was opposed to a third term of the presidency for anyone man. He was succeeded by James Madison of Virginia, who was elected in Decem- ber, 1808, and inaugurated in 1809, George Clinton being again Vice-President." Establishment of the University of Virginia. — Jefferson retired to private life at Monticello, where he spent the 266 History of the United States. remainder of his life, and where the bountiful hospitality extended to hosts of visitors brought him greatly in debt. The special object of his latter years was the establishing of the University of Virginia, which was chartered in 1819, and of which he was the first Rector. Ohio Admitted Into the Union, 1802. — Ohio had been admitted into the Union as the seventeenth State on April 30, 1802, and in February, 1809, the Indiana Territory was divided, that part west of the Wabash being known as the Territory of Illinois. Fulton's Steamboat, 1807. — In 1807 Robert Fulton put on the Hudson River the first steamboat which ever proved a complete success, and in a few years similar boats were passing up and down all the large rivers and increasing the travel and trade between the different parts of the United States. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vols. IV., V., VI.; Sehoul- er's History of the United States, Vol. II.; McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Vols. II., III., IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII.; Rives's Life of Madison; Jefferson. Madison. Monroe, Adams, American Statesmen Series; Madison Papers; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Appletou's Encyclopedia; Encyclopedia of American Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who was elected President in 1800? 3. Tell of his re- publican simplicity. 3. Who formed his Cabinet? 4. Of what charge was Hamilton cleared? 5. What caused a war with Tripoli? 6. Where is Trip- oli? 7. Tell of Decatur and t\iQ Philadelphia. 8. What great purchase was made in 1803? 9. What regions did Louisiana then embrace? 10. Tell of Lewis and Clarke's explorations. 11. Who had discovered the Columbia River? 12. What threat did England make? 13. Who was elected Presi- dent in 1804? 14. Tell of the duel between Hamilton and Burr. 15. Of Burr's conspiracy. 16. The fate of Blennerhassett. 17. What commercial troubles arose? 18. When was the slave trade forbidden? 19. How was land now obtained from the Indians? 20. Who was elected in 1808? 21. Tell of the University of Virginia. 33. When was Ohio admitted ? 23. Tell of Fulton's steamboat. CHAPTER XLIX. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION— WAR OF 1S12. Madison's Administration, 1809-1817. — Like Washington and Jeff^erson, James Madison was twice elected and was President for eight years, from 1809 to 1817. It was a time of trouble when he was first made President. The embargo TECUMSEH. War of 181^. 267 had been repealed, but trade was forbidden with France or England. Tecumseh, 1811. — Before the hostility, which had con- tinued since the outrage upon the Chesapeake in 1807, assumed an active form, there was a fierce en- counter in the west between the Indians and the United States. William Henry Harrison was the leader of the whites in this contest. The Indians were under the guidance of two Shawnee brothers, Tecumseh and Elkswatawa, the latter known as the Prophet. Tecumseh was eloquent, brave, crafty, able in con- trolling and combining his adherents, and cruel towards his enemies. He was impatient of white control, and was moreover incited to hostility against the Americans by the English in Canada. With the assistance of his brother, who professed to foresee the future and prophe- sied success to their efforts, he stirred up and organized the Indians of the Northwest. They had a meeting place on Tippecanoe Creek, which flows into the Wabash. Governor Harrison made a treaty with the Indians near him, and paid them to cede their lands on the Wabash to the United States. This made Tecumseh and the Prophet very angry. Tecumseh went from place to place, even as far south as Georgia, inciting the Indians to unite and rise up against their hated neighbors. Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811. — Outrages perpetrated in the Wabash country alarmed the settlers, and Governor Harri- son collected a force of about 1,000 men — militia, volunteers, and regulars — with which he advanced upon the Prophet's town of Tippecanoe on November 8th. Tecumseh was absent and his brother asked for a conference. This was granted. Before daylight the next morning the Indians attacked Harrison's camp, hoping to overcome him by sur- prise. The troops fought bravely until daylight and drove off the Indians with their bayonets. The whites lost 180 men, but gained a decisive victory, and the next day burned the Prophet's town, which they found completely deserted. Increase of the Army. — Before the news of this victory reached Washington, Congress had assembled. A large 268 History of the United States. majority of the members were keen for a declaration of war against England and steps were taken to prepare for it. Large additions were ordered to be made to the army. The President was authorized to accept 5U,000 volunteers and to call out what militia was necessary. Provision was also made to fit out vessels belonging to the navy and to allow all merchant ships to arm themselves. War Declared Against England, 1812. — These measures were not passed without opposition. The New England States were very earnest against war, and their representa- tives were sustained by John Randolph of Roanoke, who, though from Virginia, was the most active opponent of the war party. From his entrance into Congress, in 1799, Ran- dolph had been the strongest speaker on the floor, as far as brilliant wit, keen irony, and passionate invective could make him so. All his sarcasm, all his ridicule, poured out against the advocates of war and their measures, were met with calm logic by Calhoun and sparkling eloquence by Henry Clay. An embargo to allow time for warlike prepa- rations was passed on April 4th, and on the 8th of June war was declared with the approbation of the country. New Eng- land excepted. Engagements on Land and Sea. — On land, the plan was to attack and seize Canada; but the opening effort, in which General William Hull at Detroit surrendered that post and the whole of Michigan Territory to General Brock and Tecumseh, was not encouraging. The same inefficiency characterized all the land operations of the year. But these failures were overbalanced by brilliant successes at sea. The British frigate Guerrihre was attacked off the Gulf of St. Lawrence by the United States ship Constitution, commanded by Captain Isaac Hull, and captured after a two hours' fight on August 19th, three days after the other Hull had surren- dered Detroit. This was the first time that a British frigate had been forced to surrender, and the victory made a. great sensation. Three other naval successes followed during the year. The American Wasp captured the English Frolic; in his ship. United States, Captain Stephen Decatur, who had so bravely burnt the Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli, fought the Macedonian near the Madeira Islands and brought her as a prize to Newport; and the Constitution — " Old Iron- liar of 1812. 269 sides," as she was afterwards called — again distinguished herself late in December by destroying the British frigate Java off the coast of Brazil. The privateers, too, did gallant work, capturing 300 prizes during the year. These suc- cesses astonished England who had for many years " ruled the waves," and greatly encouraged the Americans Congress made appropriations for enlarging the navy and building large new ships. On the lakes especially the building of smaller war vessels was rapidly carried on. Raisin River, 1813. — Madison was inaugurated for his second term on March 4, 1813. Misfortune had again be- fallen the Americans in the Northwest. General Harrison's army was surprised at the Raisin River on the morning of January 22d by a body of British and Indians, and sur- rendered. Many of the prisoners were abandoned to the cruelty of the Indians, and experienced outrage and tor- ture unspeakable before being murdered and scalped. Chesapeake Captured. — At sea Captain James Lawrence, while cruising off South America, in the iJornef, attacked the British ship Peacock, February 18th, and injured her so severely that she sank before her crew and three of the sailors from the Hornet could be taken off. Lawrence was pro- moted for this exploit, and given command of the Chesa- peake at Boston Harbor. Captain Broke, of the British frigate Shannon, challenged Lawrence to a fair fight between their ships. In this encounter Lawrence was mortally wounded, and despite his last order, " Don't give up the ship," the Chesapeake w^as boarded, captured, and carried a prize to Halifax. Battle of Lake Erie, 1813. — During this time a flotilla was built at the site of the town of Erie, under the direction of Captain Oliver H. Perry. Except timber, everything for build- ing and fitting out a vessel on the lakes had to be carried hundreds of miles in wagons or flatboats, and so the difficulties of building this fleet were great. At last it was ready, and Perry sailed out into the lake and offered battle to the British squadron. The engagement took place on September perky. 10th, ten miles north of Put-in Bay. Perry's flag-ship, the 270 History of the United States. Lawrence, was so much battered and disabled that, taking his flag in his hand, he dropped into a little boat, and through the hottest of the fight pulled to his next best ship, the Ni- agara, climbed up her side, hoisted his pennant, and running to close quarters with his enemies, won the victory in eight minutes. " We have met the enemy, and they are ours — two ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop," was the message the victor wrote to General Harrison on the back of an old letter. Perry went back to the Laiurence, and there received the captains of the conquered ships. Battle of the Thames. — The way for Harrison was now opened. He had been reinforced by volunteers from Ohio and by- 3,600 mounted Kentuckians, com- manded by their governor, Shelby, in per- son, and he pressed forward with the watch- word, " Remember the River Raisin." The troops were carried to the Canada shore by Perry's fleet and the captured ships, and came up with the British and their Indian allies, strongly posted near the River Thames, on October 5th. In the fight Te- HARRisoN. cumseh was killed, report said by a pistol- shot from Colonel Johnson of Kentucky. This victory broke the Indian power in the northwest, restored Michigan to the United States, and gave General Harrison high repu- tation as a soldier, AUTHORITIES.— Hildreih's History of the United States, Vol. IV., V., VI.; Schoul- er's History of the United States, Vol.11.; McMaster's History of the People of the LTnited States, Vols. II., III., IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United Sates, Vol. VII.; Rives's Life of Madison; Jefferson, Madison, Monroe, Adams, American Statesmen Series ; Madison Papers ; Alexander Jolinston's History and Con- stitution of the United States; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Encyclopedia of American Biography; Parton's Life of Andrew Jackson. QUESTIONS.— 1. Was Madison's a peaceful administration? 2. Wtiat war arose in tlie northwest? 3. Who were the Indian leaders? 4. Tell of their character and action. 5. Describe the battle of Tippecanoe. 6. Why was the" army increased ? 7. What war was declared in 1812? 8. Who were in favor of it, and who against it ? 9. What of the war on land ? on the sea ? 10. Tell of the defeat at Raisin River. 11. The capture of the Chesapeake. 12. The battle of Lake Erie. 13. The battle of the Thames, and the death of Tecumseh. 14. When was it? 15. Find the places on the map. CHAPTER L. MADISON'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED. Fort Mimms, Ala., 1813. — Tecumseh in his tour among the southern Indians had excited the Creeks and the Semi- noles against the whites. After he left them, a comet blazing in the sky and an earthquake shock seemed to con- firm his threats and promises. The settlers along the Ala- bama River were alarmed at the hostile attitude of the Indians and fled for protection to Fort Mimms, a stockade on the river ten miles above its junction with the Tombigbee. Here they were attacked by the Creeks on August 30th. The fort was set on fire. A dreadful massacre ensued and four hundred whites were butchered or roasted to death. —Horseshoe Bend, 1813. — An army was speedily gathered from the neighboring States under command of General Andrew Jackson. The Creeks were defeated, and after the battle of the Horseshoe Bend, their half-breed leader Weathersford was captured, and their power finally broken. Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, 1814. — The battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane not^ far from Niagara were fought in July. In these engagements, the Americans were commanded by Generals Jacob Brown and Winfield Scott. Victory was on the side of the Americans but no lasting advantage ensued. The previous year, Eng- land had declared the American coast blockaded and had committed some damage along the shore. She now began a series of attacks and burnings upon the defenceless places on the coast. British in the Chesapeake Bay. — There were no ships of any size to defend the harbors or prevent the British fleet from going where it chose. Admiral Cockburn entered the Chesapeake, landed 5,000 men on the Patuxent River, and marched towards Washington. No steps had been taken to fortify the approaches to the city, and when the British had overcome the resistance of Winder and a handful of men at Bladensburg, they advanced without hindrance, [ 271 ] JACKSON. 272 ' History of the United States. Burning ofWashdngton, 1814. — The President and his Cabi- net witnessed the short resistance at Bladensburg, and then took refuge, some in one place and some in another. Mrs. Madison hastily left the White House, carrying some of her valuable things away in a cart. She took care to have a fine portrait of General Washington preserved. General Ross took possession of the city, and proceeded to burn and destroy whatever was valuable. The unfinished Capitol, with the National Library, the Treasury, the President's House, and all other Government buildings except the Patent Office, were burned, and many private residences be- sides. Star Spang-led Banner. — At Baltimore the invaders could accomplish nothing. In a skirmish General Ross was killed, and the troops became discouraged. The fleet, too, after a furious bombardment of Fort McHenry which pro- tected the water approach to the city, failed to destroy or silence the fort, and the whole attacking party sullenly withdrew and sailed down the bay. It was on this occa- sion that Francis Scott Key, of Baltimore, who being a prisoner on one of the enemy's ships witnessed the bom- bardment, wrote the spirited lines of " The Star Spangled Banner," which at once was adopted as the national anthem. McDonough's Victory, 1814. — At the same time with the attack on the Atlantic coast, a force of 12,000 men made an advance into northern New York. Under command of Pre- vost, the British advanced upon Plattsburg which was com- manded by Captain McDonough. Against his fleet of four- teen vessels, the English Captain Downie brought his com- mand of sixteen ships with more and larger guns on Sep- tember 11th. When the enemy approached, McDonough kneeled down on the deck of his ship and prayed to God to protect and give him the victory. His prayer was heard, and after a desperate fight the British fleet surrendered. Prevost then abandoned the attack on land and retreated, leaving his disabled men, guns, and stores. General Andrew Jackson Fortifies New Orleans. — The strongest eff'ort of the enemy was now to be made against the southern coast, where the vicinity of the Spanish in Florida and the disaffection of the French population in Louisiana gave them hope of success. Some time before Madisoii's Administration. 273 this, Mobile had been seized by the Americans, and General Andrew Jackson was in command there. The Secretary of War ordered Jackson to take command at New Orleans, and called upon all the neighboring States to send forward their militia and arm them in any way they could. Prompt at- tention was given to these orders, and when Sir Edward Packingham with 12,000 veteran troops approached New Orleans by way of Lake Borgne, he found himself opposed by Jackson with 7,000 militia posted behind hastily made BATTLE OV NEW ORLEANS. [General Jackson kept his musicians playing during the whole action.] breast-works of cotton bales and swamp mud, with a broad deep ditch in front. Battle of New Orleans, 1815. — Packingham made an attack in the early morning of the 8th of January, all along Jack- son's lines on both sides of the river. Jackson's army was mainly of militia and volunteers, but they were expert marksmen and had brought their guns with them ; 2,500 Kentuckians had arrived only a day or two before. The attack upon Morgan on the west side of the river was suc- cessful ; not so with Packingham's advance. His men came up carrying not only their muskets but fascines or bundles 18 274 History of the United States. of wood, by the aid of which they expected to cross the ditch and scale the earth-works. The Americans reserved their fire until the enemy came within two hundred yards, and then Tennessee and Kentucky riflemen poured a storm of bullets into them, while Jackson's nine heavy guns sent grape shot and canister crashing through their ranks. Sir Edward Packingham wasshotin thearm ; one after another his generals were killed, and at last a second ball struck him dead ; 2,000 British soldiers had fallen, and Lambert, next in command, ordered a retreat. Jackson had lost only 75 men, but he did not think it wise to pursue his stronger foe. Tidings of this successful defence of New Orleans cheered the whole country ; aTe Deum thanksgiving for their deliv- erance was chanted in the Cathedral of the city, and Jack- son became the idol of the people. The news of the victory reached Washington almost at the same time with the tidings that a treaty of peace had been signed at Ghent between the United States and Great Britain. In this war the young nation had won respect for herself among the older powers as being able to hold her own by land and sea. Her sailors had proved equal to the best on the globe, and the courage and patriotism of her sons had been fully proven. Hartford Convention, 1814. — It was time, indeed, for peace to be made. The whole country was wearied and impover- ished by the war, and New England had become more and more dissatisfied, until at last there was talk of her making a separate peace for herself if hostilities continued. A con- vention of ultra-Federalist delegates from Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New Hampshire, and Vermont met at Hartford on December 15th, to consider and promul- gate some plan of opposition to the general government. Their proceedings were looked upon with distrust and alarm by their fellow-citizens throughout the States. The Demo- cratic papers denounced them vehemently. No attention was paid to their arrogant resolutions, and the only results of the convention were disgrace to its members and destruc- tion to the Federalist party. Barbary States Chastised, 1815. — To defray the debt caused by the war, a National Bank was again set on foot, and a tariff protected the young industries, as had been Madison's Administration. 275 tried before in the days of Washington. The navy became a pet of the nation and soon vindicated its usefulness, when Commodore Decatur severely chastised the arrogant cruelty of the Barbary States. He sailed into the Straits of Gibral- tar in June, captured two Algerine frigates, and compelled Algiers, Tripoli, and Tunis, one after another, to give up their American prisoners, sign treaties of peace, and refrain from further molestation of American ships. Louisiana and Indiana Admitted to the Union, 1812 and 1816. — Louisiana had become a State in 1812, and in 1816 Indiana was also admitted to the Union. Southern Generals, — It is worthy of mention that of the four American generals who showed any military capacity 4 - '•''i^'^WRw^^l JACKSON MONUMENT AT NEW ORLEANS. during the war of 1812, Brown, Harrison, Scott, and Jack- son, the last three were Southerners, Jackson being a native of North Carolina and Harrison and Scott of Virginia. Commodore Stephen Decatur also was Southern, being from Maryland. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vols. IV.. V., VI. ; Sehoul- er's History of the United States, Vol. II.; McMaster's History of the People of the United States, Vols. II., III., IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII. ; Irving's Life of Washington ; Rives's Life of Madison ; Ameri- can Statesmen Series, Madison, Jeiferson, Monroe, Adams; Madison Papers; Alex- ander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States: Appleton's Encyclo- pedia ; Encyclopedia of American Biography ; Parton's Life of Andrew Jackson. QUESTIONS.— 1. Relate the massacre at Fort Mimins, Ala., 1813. 2. De- feat of the Creeks at Horseshoe Bend. 3. Tell of the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Laue, 4. To what bay did the British next go ? 5. Relate the bum- 276 History of the United States. ing of Washington. 6. "W hen and where was the ' ' Star Spangled Banner " written ? 7. By whom ? 8. Tell of the Victory at Plattsburg. 9. What city in the South was now fortified ? 10. By whom? 11. Describe the battle of New Orleans. 13. What were its results l* 13. What was the Hartford Con- vention, and when did it take place? 14. Tell of Commodore Decatur's chas- tising of the Barbary States. 15. When was Louisiana admitted to the Union? IG. Indiana? 17. Which generals of this war were from the South ? CHAPTER LL MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION. Monroe's Election, 1817. — James Monroe, of Virginia, was elected the fifth President of the United States, with Daniel Tompkins of New York the Vice-President. Old President Adams was put out at this and said, " My son will never have a chance until the last Virginian is laid in the graveyard." John Quincy Adams of Massachusetts was Secretary of State, Crawford of Georgia Secretary of the Treasury, Cal- houn of South Carolina Secretary of War, Wirt of Virginia Attorney-Gen- eral, and Crowninshield of New York MONROE. Secretary of the Navy. Monroe was not considered a great man, but he proved to be a wise, judicious, industrious, and successful President. "Era of Good Feeling." — The old Federalist party had been destroyed and no new one had arisen to take its place, so that harmony and good-will prevailed, and the first few years of Monroe's administration were known as the " era of good feeling." Monroe seems to have taken Washington as his model in many ways, and he constantly sought advice from Jefferson and Madison and corresponded with them on public affairs. Pirates and Indians on the Southern Border, 1818. — Spain had never forgiven the cession of Louisiana to the United States and showed herself hostile and aggressive all along the south- ern border. Nests of pirates near the coasts of Florida and Texas had to be attacked and captured. The Seminole Monroe's Administration. 277 Indians, a part of the Creek tribes which had moved into Florida, became very unfriendly at this time and committed outrages and murders in Georgia and Alabama. General Andrew Jackson was ordered to levy troops in Tennessee and the neighboring States and march against them. He raised 1,000 men, and with them and a brigade of friendly Indians, drove the Seminoles before him into the territory belonging to Spain, and pressed them until they hid in the swamps, and the war was over. Jackson was convinced that the Indians had been incited to their savage deeds by the Spaniards. He therefore seized the Spanish fort of St. Marks near Tallahassee and their post at Pensacola ; and he ordered General Gaines to march to the coast and cap- ture St. Augustine. All this was contrary to the orders from Washington, and as soon as the news reached there Gaines was forbidden to advance upon St. Augustine, and St. Marks and Pensacola were given back to the Spaniards ; by which acts of justice, Spain was prevented from going to war. Jackson's Popularity. — General Jackson was a passionate, sensitive man, and Mr. Monroe and Secretary Adams had to be very particular not to give him offence in undoing what he had done. But they could really praise him for the good he had accomplished in securing peace and protec- tion to the border, and he continued friendly to the admin- istration. He had become so popular by this time as the " Hero of New Orleans " and the " Savior of the South," that when he went north to defeat some charges brought against him, the people made almost as much of him as they had done of General Washington. Cession of Florida, 1819. — Further trouble on the south- ern frontier was averted by the cession of Florida to the United States in 1819. Mr. Jefferson had tried to purchase it when he bought Louisiana from France, but Spain had refused to sell. Now, however, she agreed to give the coun- try up, if the United States would abandon all claim to Texas and would pay to certain of her citizens 5,000,000 dollars, which was claimed by them for depredations com- mitted by Spain upon them during a series of years. Florida was then made a territory of the United States, and General Andrew Jackson was appointed its first governor. 278 History of the United States. Growth and Prosperity; Admission of Mississippi, 1817; Illinois, 1818; and Alabama, 1819. — The growth and pros- perity of the Union were wonderful. Immigration from Europe had begun, and the increase of population towards the south and in the northwest was very rapid. Louisiana and Indiana had become States during Mr. Madison's admin- istration. Mississippi was admitted to the Union in 1817, Illinois in 1818, and Alabama in 1819. To bind these dis- tant States closer together, many persons thought that the government should make great roads and canals wherever there were no large rivers to afford the communication which the increasing number of steamboats made so easy. Others thought that the general government had nothing to do with roads and canals, but that each State should regulate them within its own bounds. Henry Clay was the strong advocate of the former plan, and one great thoroughfare, the " National Road," was ^^,^ made as far as Wheeling. Clay was also strongly in favor of protecting American manufactures by so high a tariff that foreign goods would be practically kept out of American markets. These two principles of "internal improvements" and "a protective tariff" were combined into what was known as the " American System," and gave rise to the formation of new political parties. Sectional Hostility, 1820. — The application of Missouri for admission as a State into the Union developed a sec- tional hostility between the States stronger than any pre- vious exhibition of it. From colonial times there had been differences of opinions and interests. New England and Massachusetts especially had attempted to dictate to their Southern neighbors, and jealousy of their prosperity and power had from time to time manifested itself. The pur- chase of Louisiana and the increase of Southern States and southern votes in Congress had called forth threats of dis- union and secession from New England. An outburst of ill-feeling had been kept in check by the remarkable way in which, up to this time, the States had come into the Union in pairs — one from the North, another from the South; Ver- HENRY CLAY. Mo7iroe's Administration. 279 mont and Kentucky, Tennessee and Ohio, Louisiana and Indiana, Mississippi and Illinois. Alabama had come in from the South, and now, before a Northern new-comer was ready to balance her votes in Congress, Missouri presented her claim. From the time that the cotton gin had made negro labor so important in furnishing cotton for New Eng- land factories, all agitation on the question of slavery had practically ceased. Self-interest had silenced conscientious scruples, and New England ships had brought Africans to the Southern coasts, notwithstanding the abolition of the slave trade. Southern View of Slavery. — At the time of the Revolu- tion many southern people were opposed to the perpetua- tion of slavery, and would have gotten rid of it if they could have seen what to do with the negroes. France had made the experiment of setting them free in Hayti, and they had proved so degraded and idle and vicious that the Southern States naturally shrank from having such a population in their midst. A Colonization Society for settling them on the coast of Africa had been formed. This, however, never accomplished very much, and by the time of which we are now writing (1819) the greater number of the Southern slaveholders, who were an intelligent, refined, cultivated. God-fearing people, had come to be of the opinion that the holding of slaves was nowhere forbidden in the Bible. They knew that the laws of their individual States expressly sanctioned it, and that the Constitution of the United States had not interfered with it. They knew also that the negroes in bondage were the best clothed, best fed, best cared for, and happiest class of laborers in the world; and they could not see that their own sons and daughters, growing up under the surroundings of slavery, were less moral or less in- telligent than the boys and girls in the Northern States. They saw and felt that, like every other condition of life, slavery had its evils ; but they believed that these were less than the ills which would result from its sudden abolition, and they held above all things that they alone had the right to deal with the subject in their own borders, and that the non-slaveholding States had no business to control or coerce them into what was foreign to their opinions and their in- terests. 280 History of the United States. Slavery Guaranteed by the Constitution. — Congress had declared in 1793 that it had no power to interfere with slavery. When Louisiana was taken into the United States, its French, Spanish, and other inhabitants were guaranteed all the rights belonging to other citizens of the States. Slavery existed throughout the Territory, and was recog- nized as one of the guaranteed rights, and when the people of Missouri applied to become a State, they had no idea that there would be any difficulty about it. Question of Missouri. — But when the proposition for ad- mission into the Union was made, a violent opposition arose. The northern limit of Missouri was north of the Ohio River, which was the boundary between the free and slave States east of the Mississippi. But its southern limit was the latitude of 36° 30' where the new Territory of Arkansas began. This brought it on a line with Virginia and Ken- tucky, and there were the same inducements for employing negro labor as in those States. But now it was urged by the Northern representatives that Missouri should not be admitted unless slavery was done away with, and furthermore, that in none of the country west of the Mississippi should it ever be allowed. This was clearly a violation of the rights of the people of Louisiana, an overstepping of the power which Congress had hitherto claimed, and a contradiction of the Constitution. Some of the Northern statesmen were conscious of this and opposed a restriction so contrary to justice. But Abolition Societies were formed in the North which urged the congressmen from their sections to set aside the rights of the South regardless of law and justice. Missouri and Maine, 1820. — No decision of the question was reached during this Congress. When that body assem- bled again, Missouri applied anew to come into the Union and the opposition burst forth afresh. But by this time Maine had been separated from Massachusetts and applied to be admitted as a State. This restored the balance of new States, and the Senate voted that Missouri and Maine should be admitted together, the first with slavery, the second without. To this the House refused to agree, and voted to admit Maine and keep out Missouri unless slavery was pro- hibited. The Senate, wiser, juster, and freer from sectional jealousy, insisted upon the equal rights of the two new Monroe^s Administration. 281 States to come in as their citizens desired without conditions. So fierce was the contention that a peaceable settlement of the question seemed hopeless. Missouri Compromise ; Admission of Maine, 1820, and Missouri, 1821. — At the last moment the "Missouri Compro- mise " was agreed to, which permitted that State to come in wath slavery, but declared that in no territory north of its southern boundary, 36° 30', should it ever be allowed to hold slaves. Maine was at once admitted as a State, but another difficulty was raised to keep out Missouri. An arti- cle in her Constitution prohibited free negroes from settling within her borders. Some of the Northern States declared that this was contrary to the Constitution as they had negro citizens who by this clause were forbidden to exercise their right to go where they chose. It was not until the next year, 1821, that Missouri was admitted into the Union, after she amended her Constitution so as to make it declare that nothing in it was intended to limit or prevent the rights of any citizens of the United States. I have told you the story of the Missouri Compromise at some length, because it shows how the two parts of the Republic felt towards each other, and because it was believed that it had finally settled the question of slavery and that there would be only peace and good-will between the sections from that time on. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. VI ; Schouler's His- tory of the United States, Vol. III. ; McMaster's History of tlie American People, Vol. IV.; Win?or"s Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII.; Monroe, Clay, Calhoun, and Webster, American Statesmen Series; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate; Annals of Congress; Letters and Times of the Tylers; Parton's Andrew Jackson; Colton's Henry Clay; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Encyclopedia of American Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who was elected President in 1817? 3. What did John Adams say ? 3. What title was given to this administration ? 4. Tell of the troubles on the southern border ; who quieted them ? 5. What titles were given to General Jackson ? 6. Tell of the cession of Florida. 7. Who was its first governor':' 8. Describe the growth and prosperity of the country. 9. When was Mississippi admitted to the Union ? 10. Illinois? 11. Alabama? 12. What ill-feeling now burst forth? 13. What threat did New England make? 14. Give the southern view of slavery? 15. Was it guaranteed by the Constitution ? 16. How did the question of Missouri affect it ? 17. What State next applied for admission ? 18. What is the " Missouri Compromise " ? 19. When was Maine admitted? 20. Missouri? 21. AVhy should you know of the Missouri Compromise ? 22. Do you know where all the places are ? CHAPTER LII. MONROE'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED— JOHN QUINGT ADAMS'S ADMINISTRATION. Monroe Doctrine. — Monroe was elected President for a second term and inaugurated on Monday the 5th of March, 1821. Spain had discovered and colonized Mexico and South America and had owned and governed them for hun- dreds of years. Now the success with which the United States had asserted and maintained their independence, stimulated Mexico and South America to claim the right to govern themselves. Spain objected to this. The people of the United States felt much sympathy with their southern neighbors and Henry Clay was very urgent that the revolted provinces should be recognized as independent nations. This was done by Congress and the President in 1822 ; and in the next year, Mr. Monroe in his message laid down the rules which have been known as the " Monroe Doctrine," that America, having made herself free and independent, was not hereafter to be governed by any European power and that any attempt to extend the system of monarchy to the Western Continents would be regarded by the United States as dangerous to their own peace and safety. Lake and Ocean Steamers. — During this period the coun- try was increasing in population and prosperity. Long trains of emigrants were to be seen driving their lumbering wagons across the mountains and prairies to new homes in the West. Steamboats were on all the rivers and the Walk-in- the- Water had been launched on Lake Erie in 1818. The next year the first ocean steamer, the Savannah, sailed from Georgia to England and as far as St. Petersburg. Mr. Monroe did not believe that under the settler's wagons. /-, • . 1 Constitution the general government had the right to build roads and other internal improvements, and he vetoed a bill for that purpose. La Fayette's Visit, 1824.— In this year the Marquis de La Fayette came once more to America, in a government ves- [283] Monroe's Administration. 283 sel, as the guest of the United States. The people of the entire land welcomed him with great affection and respect. He showed the same good-will towards them, made a tour through each one of the twenty-four States, visited the tomb of his beloved Washington, and was greatly pleased with the growth and prosperity of the country. The Government presented him $200,000 in money and a large tract of land in Florida, and sent him home after more than a year in the ship Brandyivine. Election of John Quincy Adams, 1825. — When the electoral votes for President were counted in the spring of 1825 there were found to be four candidates, Wil- liam H. Crawford, John Quincy Adams, General Andrew Jackson, and Henry Clay. Of these General Jackson had the largest and Clay the smallest num- ber of votes, but none of them liad a sufficient majority to elect him. The House of Representatives had therefore S to choose among Crawford, Adams, and Jackson; and although Adams had fewer votes than either of the others, John quinct adams. Clay's friends combined with his and made him President. Calhoun was the Vice-President, Clay was made Secretary of State. Adams was not the choice of the people, and became more and more unpopular. Erie Canal, 1825. — During this year the first boats passed through the Erie canal from the Hudson to Lake Erie, and the event was celebrated throughout New York by the firing of cannon, the ringing of bells, and a general rejoicing. This canal proved a great meaiis of prosperity and wealth to the State, and helped to build up the Northwest by afford- ing easy and cheap communication with the lakes. Over its waters goods could be carried for $10 which cost $100 to carry over land. La Fayette made part of his journey through New York in a barge drawn along the canal by four white horses. Removal of the Cherokees, 1826. — A serious trouble arose at this time between the State of Georgia and the general government. A treaty had been made between the LTnited States and the Creek Indians, by which large tracts of land 284 History of the United States. Avithin the State of Georgia had been given up by the Indians. The Senate ratified this treaty, but many of the Indians were enraged at it, and the President then declared the treaty of no force and proceeded to make a new one. Governor Troup of Georgia insisted that the first treaty was the valid one, and he had tlie land, ceded to the State by it, surveyed and divided into sections, and intimated that he would resist any Federal interference. In the end the old treaty prevailed. The Indians yielded and were moved west to a new home across the Mississippi. To every war- rior who would go within two years there were provided a rifle, a butcher knife, a blanket, a brass kettle, a beaver trap, food for the journey, and transportation. You may think it was cruel to remove the Indians to new far-off" lands. But they had never learned civilization from the white men. Idleness, drunkenness, and other vices constantly increased among them. They did not really own the land, did nothing to improve it, and were a perpetual torment and menace to the whites, who punished their off"ences with little mercy. To remove them seemed therefore the kindest and best policy for both races. Death of Jefferson and Adams, 1826.— The 4th of July of this year was the jubilee or fiftieth anniversary of American Independence. It was even more remarkable for the death of two ex-Presidents, Thomas Jefferson and John Adams. Jefferson passed away about noon, aged eighty-three ; and Adams a few hours later, aged ninety- one. Monroe, another ex-President, also died on July 4th five years afterwards, in 1831. "Bill of Abominations." — John Quincy Adams was an upholder of the American system. A high tariff bill, passed and approved by the President, was so objectionable to the men who thought the Constitution gave power only to im- pose duties for revenue, that it was called the '•' bill of abomi- nations." AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. VI.: Schouler's His- tory of the United states, Vol. III.; McMaster's History of the American People, Vol. IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII. ; Ameri- can Statesmen Series. Monroe, Callioun, Clay, and Webster; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate; Annals of Congress ; Letters and Times of the Tylers; Parton's Andrew Jackson ; Colton's Henry Clay ; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United.States ; Appleton's Encyclopedia , Encyclopedia of American Biography. Jackson's Administration. 285 QUESTIONS.— 1. What is the " Monroe Doctrine"? 2. What were the first lake and ocean steamers ? 3. Tell of La Fayette's visit to America in 1834-'25. 4. Who was elected President in 1835 ? 5. What great canal was opened in 1835 ? 6. Toll of the trouble between Georgia and the general gov- ernment. 7. Why were the Cherokees removed to the west ? 8. When did the semi-centennial of Independence occur ? 9. What two distinguished men died on that day ? 10. What other ex- President died on the fourth of July ? 11. AVhatwasthe "Bill of Abominations"? 13. Be sure you know where the places are. CHAPTER LIII. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION. Election of Jackson, 1828. — The seventh President was elected by a very large majority and Calhoun of South Carolina again chosen Vice-President. General Jackson had recently lost his wife whom he loved tenderly, and out of respect to her memory, the ceremony of the inauguration on March 4, 1829, at the newly completed Capitol was a simple affair. General Jackson was a sincere Democrat. He believed in " the People " and was proud of being their choice. He also believed that in uphold- ing the principles and furthering the ends of his party, he was doing the best thing for the nation. While honest and fearless, i^^^-^^^^^. he was arbitrary and disliked all who opposed his will and had few scruples in exercising the power of his position. His Cabinet was composed of Van Buren of New York, Secretary of State ; Ingham of Pennsylvania, Secretary of the Treasury ; Eaton of Tennessee, Secretary of War ; Branch of North Carolina, Secretary of the Navy ; Berrien of Georgia, Attorney-General ; and Barry of Kentucky, Postmaster-General, the first admitted into the Cabinet. General Eaton was the only personal friend of the President among them. Party Conventions, 1829. — It had become a principle in New York politics that '' to the victors belong the spoils," and the administration carried out the maxim ruthlessly. 286 History of the United States. Every man in office who had opposed General Jackson or the Democratic party was turned out as speedily as possible, and his place given to some politician or editor or other citizen who had worked or voted for the new administration. Unfortunately the same policy prevailed at Washington for many succeeding years. Under its influence party "Con- ventions " sprung up and political machinery became very strong and complete. When the Senate reassembled in December, it showed its disapproval of the President's course by refusing to confirm a number of his nominations. Jackson and the " American System." — Jackson was opposed to carrying on internal improvements by the gov- ernment and protecting American industries by high duties on foreign goods. He therefore vetoed bills for internal improvements and recommended that the tariff, obnoxious to the agricultural States of the South, should be at once diminished. Nullification Debate, 1830. — The New England States had on different occasions threatened to leave the Union if measures obnoxious to them were persisted in by the gov- ernment. South Carolina now took something of the same stand, though on rather different ground. Mr. Cal- houn, her greatest states- man, being Vice-President, ,-^^^ could neither present nor ^^ ^ advocate the cause of his State. But the views held by him were poM'erfuUy ad- vocated in the Senate by Robert Y. Hayne, who de- clared that if at any time the Constitution should be violated by any law of Con- gress, each State had the right to prevent the execution of such a law within her own limits. This question of " Nullification " threatened to tear the Union asunder. The great orators of the time, the most eloquent since the days of 1776, Calhoun, Clay, Webster, Jackson's Administration. 287 Hayne, and others, argued and debated long and ably in the Senate; and still the antagonism to the tariff and the deter- mination of South Carolina to stand up for her rights grew stronger and stronger. The speeches of Mr. Hayne in defence of the doctrine of State Rights as reserved under the Constitution, and of Daniel Webster, who denied that such independent rights were possible, are among the greatest efforts of human oratory. As yet Calhoun could not meet the Massachusetts orator, but not long after, as a senator, he vindicated the opinions of his party in an argument so able, clear, and logical, that none could question his pure patriot- ism nor hit intellectual force. Troubles in the Cabinet, 1831. — Personal hostility grew up between the President and the Vice- President and Cabinet. The feeling grew so strong that in 1831 both the Vice-Presi- dent and Cabinet resigned. Before a great while Calhoun was sent to the Senate from South Carolina and Henry Clay from Ken- tucky. Ex-President John Quincy Adams *f also was elected a Representative from Massachusetts, and held the position until his death. Jackson was again elected President in 1832 by an overwhelming ma- jority, and Martin Van Buren Vice-President. The second inauguration took place on March 4, 1833. Ordinance of Nullification Passed, 1832. — The tariff of this year proving even more oppressive than that of 1828, the people of South Carolina, influenced by Mr. Calhoun and his fellow-statesmen, elected members who met in con- vention and proceeded to pass in November what was known as the " Nullification Ordinance." This Ordinance declared that the tariff acts of 1828 and 1832 were unconstitutional; that they were "null and void" within the State; that no one in the State should endeavor to enforce them ; and that if the United States Government should send land or naval forces to compel the collection of revenue, or should do any- thing to coerce the State to submission, she would consider her political connection with the United States thereby sev- ered, and would set up a separate government for herself. This was a bold declaration, and strange to say, Mr. Cal- WEBSTEE. 288 History of the United States. houn seemed to think it a peaceable measure and one likely to preserve the Union. Tariff Compromise. — General Jackson was an earnest believer in the rights of the States under the Constitution and was opposed to the tariff. But he was still more opposed to any weakening of his power and infringement of his prerogative. Had he been governor of South Caro- lina, he would doubtless have done his utmost to prevent the collecting of the obnoxious duties. But being the President he exerted the power of that office to the utmost. He issued a Proclamation December 10th against the Nulli- fiers, taking strong ground against their construction of the Constitution, and was anxious to proceed to vigorous measures against them. Congress supported him by a "Force Bill" giving him authority to use the army and navy to enforce the tariff in South Carolina, and he pre- pared to act upon it, but fortunately for the peace of the country better counsels prevailed. By the influence of Henry Clay, the tariff was reduced, South Carolina with- drew her extreme opposition, and there was no further rea- son for the President to send an armed force against her. Jackson and the United States Bank. — Jackson in his message of 1832 recommended that the government should withdraw its support from the Bank. Congress differed with him and voted to con- tinue their relations with it. But the President would brook opposition from Congress no better than from South Caro- lina, and directed all money belonging to the United States to be taken from the Bank and distributed amongotherbanks ; and, although the Senate and the political leaders of the country, Clay, Calhoun, Webster, and Adams, all took sides against him, he carried his point and was sustained by the people at large. BIETHPLACE OF WEBSTER. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. VI. ; Schouler's His- tory of the United States, Vol. III. ; McMaster's History of the American People. Vol. IV. ; Winaor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII. ; American Statesmen Series, Monroe, Calhoun Clay, and Webster; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate ; Annals of Congress ; Letters arid Times of the Tylers ; Parton's Andrew Jack- Jackson's Administration. 289 son; Colton's Henry Clay; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States ; Appleton's Encyclopedia ; Encyclopedia of American Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who was elected President in 1828? 2. Describe his character. 3. What principle now began to control politics? 4. Was Jack- son a friend to the "American System"? 5. What trouble was now arising in South Carolina ? 6. Who was the great advocate of Nullification ? 7. What is the doctrine of Nullification? 8. Who was its great opposer? 9. Why- did the Cabinet resign? 10. What stand did South Carolina take in 1832? 11. What was Jackson's action? 12. How was war prevented? 13. Who was the author of the Tariff Compromise ? 14. How did Jackson treat the United States Bank ? CHAPTER LIV. JACKSON'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED. Continued Agitation of the Slavery Question. — After the Missouri Compromise the question of slavery in the differ- ent States was thought to be settled forever. But the Abo- lition Societies at the North, and especially the Quakers, continued the agitation, and now began to send petitions to Congress to abolish slavery in the District of Columbia. This District had been given to the Government by Virginia and Maryland. The people of both those States were slave- holders and had the right to continue so guaranteed to them under the Constitution. As Washington was wholly in Maryland, that portion of the District south of the Potomac was after a while given back to Virginia. Abolition news- papers and documents were published in the Northern States, filled with false representations of the wretched con- dition of the slaves and accounts of the cruelty of their masters. Most prominent among these papers was "The Liberator," published by William Lloyd Garrison, which demanded " immediate emancipation." Garrison was a fearless fanatic. He recognized the fact that the Constitu- tion of the United States nowhere opposed slavery, and characterized it as an " agreement with death and a covenant with hell." Not many people, even in the North, were ready as yet to go so far as this, but by continued repeti- tion of the same ideas the Abolitionists gradually gained adherents. 19 290 History of the United States. Efforts for Peace. — That desperate trouble must grow out of this agitation of the slavery question, every wise man foresaw. But there were wide differences of opinion as to the best way of preventing it. Mr. Calhoun thought that Congress should refuse to receive any petitions affecting the rights of the Southern slave owners. The President in his message of 1835 was very outspoken against the Abolition Societies, and recommended that Congress should forbid the United States mails to carry documents calculated to arouse the evil passions of the slaves and produce insurrection among them. The Southern congressmen with Mr. Cal- houn at their head, and many of the Northern members, thought this would be an infringement of the rights of the States which alone ought to control such questions, and the bill was never passed. Nat Turner's Insurrection, 1831. — But the fact that insur- rections of the negroes had occurred — one especially in Vir- ginia, led by Nat Turner, in which about sixty people had been murdered— made the representatives of the South earnest to protect their section from the attacks of the Abolitionists. In 1836 Mr. Calhoun' persuaded the House of Representa- tives to pass what was called " the Gag Law," forbidding the reception of any petition concerning the abolition of slaves. The Senate, more cool and conservative, declined to pass the law. They thought the petitions should be received and laid on the table. Increase of Petitions. — The " Gag Law " was a serious mistake. Just as the continual intermeddling of the North with their domestic institutions provoked the Southern States to a more determined maintenance of slavery as one of their rights, so the attempt to prevent the acceptance of petitions by Congress only increased their number and bit- terness. Ex-President Adams became identified with the Abolition agitators by the persistence with which he presented to the House requests that slavery should be done away at once in the District of Columbia, in the Southern States, in the territories, anywhere and everywhere. The petitioners and their requests were at first sneered at by most of the North- ern people and ignored or ridiculed in the South. But their continued efforts finally succeeded although sorrow and blood- shed were necessary to the accomplishment of their purpose. Jackson* 8 Administration. 291 Opening of Railroads, 1830. — To carry on the political his- tory of Jackson's administration continuously, we have omit- ted many matters of importance which must be given here. The fact which perhaps did most to influence the growth and prosperity of the country was the opening of railroads and the introduction of steam transportation on land. At first the rail-cars were drawn by horses, but in 1830 a locomotive was used on a short road running out of Charleston, South Carolina. Then the Baltimore and Ohio road and other northern roads adopted steam engines, and from that time they have increased until they stretch through all parts of the continent. Black Hawk War, 1832. — In 1832 the anxiety occasioned in the States by the slavery agitation was increased by an Indian war in the Northwest and by the breaking out of the Asiatic cholera. The Winnebagoes and Sacs and Foxes in Illinois had become so cruel and oppres- sive to the white settlers near them that General Scott was sent to repress them. Their leader Black Hawk was a bold, crafty warrior, but at last they were overcome at the battle of Bad Axe in Illinois, July 25th. Black Hawk was captured and his forces obliged to go back west of the Mississippi. To mus- ter into the United States troops the volunteer companies offering their ser- vices for this war, General Scott sent to ^^^^^ "^^''^■ Dixon, Illinois, two young lieutenants of the regular army to administer the oath of allegiance. The two lieutenants were Jefferson Davis and Robert Anderson. Lieutenant Davis swore into service Abraham Lincoln, the tall awkward captain of an Illinois company. Cholera and Other Events, 1832-1836.— Cholera had first appeared in Montreal and Quebec a few weeks before this. It spread with alarming rapidity, and destroyed numbers of General Scott's men as they marched west. Thousands of Americans died during the summer and fall. In Novem- ber, 1833, occurred the curious [)henomenon known as "the falling stars," when the vast quantities of meteors flashing through the sky made it appear as if the heavens 292 History of the United States. were raining stars. The early winter of 1835 was the coldest ever known in the country. The mercury froze in New York. The Chesapeake Bay was frozen from its head to the ocean, and the orange and other fruit trees were killed in Florida. The year ] 835 was full of incidents. On the 30th of January an attempt was made to assassinate the President just as he was passing from the rotunda of the Capitol at Washington to his carriage. The would-be murderer proved to be a crazy man who was afterwards locked up for life in an asylum. The venerable Chief Justice Marshall died in the summer, and in June of the next year, 1836, Ex-President Madison passed away at the age of eighty-five. A great con- flagration which broke out in New York in December, 1835, destroyed in a few days $17,000,000 worth of property. Florida War, 1835. — A second Seminole war broke out late in 1835. Osceola their chief uttered threats of vengeance for wrongs he had received and was kept in irons for some days. In a rage he withdrew into the Everglades and gathered a band of followers devoted to vengeance. On December 28th a force of 110 United States soldiers under Major Dade were suddenly sur- rounded and all killed except one. The war raged after this for two years with varying success. In 1837 Osceola went with a flag of truce to hold a conference with General Jessup. Notwithstanding the pro- tection of the flag, Jessup had him seized and sent a pris- oner to Fort Moultrie at Charleston where he languished and died. The war was not ended until a year later, when Colonel Zachary Taylor defeated the Seminoles severely and they ultimately removed to the western Reser- vation. Foreign Relations. — The foreign relations of Jackson's administration were very successful. England was friendly during the whole eight years, and through her mediation a serious difficulty with France was averted. The last mes- sage of the President announced that the national debt had been entirely discharged and that there was a surplus of $37,000,000 in the Treasury. Jackson's Administration. 293 THE HERMITAGE, HOME OF ANDREW JACKSON. Jackson's Farewell. — President Jackson issued a Farewell Address to the people of the country full of patriotism and devotion to constitutional liberty. He had changed his views and his policy more than once since he entered public life and had given offence to some of his best friends, but even those most opposed to him were forced to acknowledge that he was as sincere and honest in his intentions and firm and able in executing them as any other man of his time. He died on June 8, 1845. Arkansas Admitted to the Union, 1836 ; Michigan, 1837. — The State of Arkansas was admitted into the Union late in 1836, and Michigan in January, 1837. Petitions from the Abolition Societies prayed Congress not to receive Arkansas as a slave-holding State, but no attention was paid to them. AUTHORITIES. — Hildreth's History of the United States. Vol. VI.; Schouler's His- tory of tlie United States, Vol. III.; McMaster's History of the American People, Vol. IV.; Winsor"s Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII.; Ameri- can Statesmen Series, Monroe, Calhoun, Clay, and Webster; Benton's Tliirty Years in the Senate; Annals of Congress; Letters and Times of the Tylers; Parton's Andrew Jackson; Colton's Henry Clay; Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Encyclo- pedia of American Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell about the agitation of the slavery question. 2. What efforts were made to quiet it ? 'S. Were they successful ? 4. What insurrection occurred in 1831 ? 5. AYhat law was passed? 6. Did it stop the abolition petitions ? 7. AVhere was the first railroad in America ? 8. Relate the Black Hawk War. 9. What three distinguished men took part in it? 10. What dreadful disease broke out in 1833? 11. Tell of some other remarkable events in 1832-1836. 12. Describe the Florida War. 13. Who was the Semi- nole chief? 14. Tell of the foreign relations of the United States; of the national debt. 15. Tell of Jackson's Farewell Address, and his death. 16. When was Arkansas admitted to the Union ? 17. Michigan? CHAPTER LV. VAN BUREJSf'S ADMINISTRATION. Van Buren's Election, 1836. — The popularity of General Jackson insured the election of his friend and favorite, Mar- tin Van Buren of New York, in 1836. Gen- eral Jackson accompanied his successor to the Capitol on March 4, 1837, in a phae- ton made of some of the timbers of the old frigate Constitution. Richard M. Johnson of Kentucky was elected Vice- President by the Senate. The Cabinet of the preceding administration was con- tinued in office. In his inaugural address Mr. Van Buren declared himself earnestly opposed to any attempts to abolish or interfere with slavery in the District of Columbia or else- where, and said that in his direction of public affairs he intended to "follow in the steps of his illustrious predeces- sor." Financial Crash of 1837. — You have read that General Jackson disliked the United States Bank and that the gov- ernment money was withdrawn from it and distributed among other banks in the different States. Finding them- selves so well supplied with money, these banks began to lend it out freely, and a spirit of rash speculation took pos- session of the country. New banks went into operation everywhere with little capital to sustain them, and in the haste to be rich every one seemed to spend more than he had. Shortly after the incoming of the new President, a financial storm swept over the country. From Boston to New Orleans failure after failure was announced, and amounted to hundreds of millions of dollars. Many of the banks failed and others suspended specie payment. In the summer the President was obliged to call an extra session of Congress to see how the Treasury, which in 1836 had a sur- plus of $37,000,000, could be enabled to pay the necessary expenses' of the government. Congress met and authorized [294] Van Buren's Administration. 295 the issue of $10,000,000 in treasury notes to meet the emer- gency. United States Treasury. — Mr. Van Buren was urgent that the Government should take charge of all public money and pay it out through its officers, without having any depend- ence on banks. Some years later this plan was in the main carried out and the United States Treasury established as we have it now. Canadian Insurrection, 1837. — An insurrection of some Canadians who wished to throw off English authority, excited so much sympath}^ along the border that the Presi- dent issued a proclamation ordering all citizens of the United States to observe strict neutrality. He at the same time sent an armed force under General Scott to protect the northern borders of the United States and to restrain the people from taking active part with the Canadians. State Rights Resolutions Passed, 1838. — Abolition peti- tions continued to pour into Congress, and Mr. Adams to present them. In January of 1838 Mr. Calhoun offered in the Senate six resolutions declaring that "The States in adopting the Constitution acted severally as free, indepen- dent, and sovereign States ; that they retained the exclu- sive and sole right over their own domestic institutions and police ; that it is the solemn duty of the government as far as it can to resist all attempts by one portion of the Union to use it as an instrument to attack, weaken, or destroy the domestic institutions of another portion ; that domestic slavery was one of these institutions in the Southern and Western States, inherited from their ancestors, and recog- nized by the Constitution as an important element in appor- tioning power among the States, and that no change of opinion or feeling could justify attacks upon it which were certainly a breach of faith and a violation of the most solemn obligations ; that the abolishing of slavery in the District of Columbia would be a violation of faith with Virginia and Maryland and would have a tendency to disturb and en- danger the Union ; and that for Congress to abolish slavery in a territory would also be a breach of faith with the people who were entitled to decide the question for themselves, w^hen- ever such territory should become a State." These reso- lutions were adopted by a very large majority in the Senate. 296 History of the United States. Abberton's Resolutions Passed. — When Congress met again in December, the Abolitionists in the House of Rep- resentatives renewed their attacks upon the South and its institutions in such violent and abusive terms that at one time all the Southern members were about to retire from the House. With a desire to lay the subject to rest, as had apparently been done in the Senate, Mr. Abberton of New Hampshire introduced resolutions somewhat similar to those of Mr. Calhoun. The first, which declared that under the Constitution Congress had nothing to do with slavery in the States, passed with only six adverse votes. The other resolutions asserted that the petitions for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and in the territories were part of a plan to affect the institution of slavery and indirectly to destroy it in the Southern States ; that all at- tempts on the part of Congress to abolish slavery in the Dis- trict or the territories were in violation of the Constitution ; and that every petition or paper on the subject should when presented in the House be at once laid on the table. These resolutions were passed by a two-thirds majority, and it was fondly hoped that by them the slavery agitation was finally settled. Steamships, 1838. — During this year steamships began to ply regularly between England and America. An article by the distinguished philosopher, Dr. Lardner, declaring that it was impossible to use steamships as a regular mode of transportation across the Atlantic, was brought to America in one of the very ships which proved it to be incorrect. Wilkes's Expedition, 1838. — An exploring expedition sent out in this year under Captain Charles Wilkes did much to advance the natural sciences. There were three large and three small vessels, having on them accomplished philoso- phers in various branches of science During an absence of nearly four years this expedition discovered and sailed along the Antarctic Continent, cruised in unexplored parts of the ocean, visited many islands unknown to the civilized world, and brought back many valuable specimens of plants, seeds, roots, animals, and even some savages never before seen in America. Smithsonian Institute. — At this same time the Smithson- ian Institute at Washington was established with the Van Buren's Administration. 297 bequest of $575,169 left to the'United States in trust by James Smithson of London, to be used " for the general diffusion of knowledge among men." Most of the speci- mens and curiosities collected by the Wilkes Expedition were placed in this Institute, where many of them may still be seen. Election of Harrison, 1840. — The Democratic Convention met in Baltimore in May of this year and renominated Van Buren for a second term of the Presidency. But the people of the country associated the wide-spread money troubles with his administration, and he was charged with extrava- gance while the country was suffering from want of money. Special stress was laid on the fact that "gold spoons" were used in the White House, while the people were in need of food. The Whigs chose as their candidate General William Henry Harrison, who had won the battle of Tippecanoe against Tecuraseh and had afterwards distinguished himself as a brave and skilled soldier in Canada in the war of 1812. John Tyler of Virginia was nominated for the Vice-Presi- dent. The war-cry of the Whigs was "Tippecanoe" — the pet name for General Harrison — " Tippecanoe and Tyler too." Their candidate's simple mode of life was illustrated by his having lived in a "log cabin " and drinking "hard cider" as his favorite beverage, and was brought into sharp contrast with the " gold spoons " and other luxurious expen- ditures of Mr. Van Buren. The campaign was good- humored but most active. Log cabins and cider barrels were seen everywhere, as buttons on women's dresses, as scarf pins and cane heads for men; they were everywhere popular and pointed to the result of the election which proved to be two hundred and thirty-four votes for Harri- son and Tyler, while Van Buren received only sixty. Death of Harrison, 1841. — General Harrison was sixty- eight years old when he was inaugurated on March 4, 1841, but he seemed strong and vigorous. He rode down Penn- sylvania Avenue on a white horse, in the midst of a cold, driving sleet and rain, took the oath of office in the presence of sixty thousand people, and read his inaugural adddress in a clear distinct voice. On the 17th of the month he sum- moned Congress to meet in extra session on the last day of May, but he did not live to see it assemble. The exposure 298 History of the United States. and fatigue of the inauguTation ceremonies had been too much for his strength. He became ill with pneumonia and died on the 4th of April, just one month after being made President. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. VI. ; Schouler's His- tory of the United States, Vol. III. ; McMaster's History of the American People, Vol. IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII.; American Statesmen Series, Monroe, Clay, Calhoun, and Webster; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate; Annals of Congress; Letters and Times of the Tylers; Parton's Andrew Jackson ; Colton's Henry Clay; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Encyclopedia of American Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who was elected President in 1836? 2. Wliat caused the financial crash of 1837? 3. What was the plan for the United States Treasury? 4. What excitement arose on the northern border? 5. Tell of the State Rights resolutions of Calhoun. 6. Were they passed? 7. What were the resolutions of Abberton? 8. Were they passed? 9. Tell of Dr. Lardner's opinion of steamboats. 10. Describe the expedition of Wilkes. 11. The foundation of the Smithsonian Institute. 13. Tell of the nomination of William Henry Harrison. 13. His election. 14. His inauguration and death. CHAPTER LVI. TYLERS ADMINISTRATION. Tyler Becomes President, 1841. — Vice-President Tyler was absent from Washington when President Harrison died, but he returned to the city at once, took the oath of office and became the tenth President of the United States. He issued an inaugural address and requested Harrison's Cabinet to continue in office. The Whig party, formed in 1834, which had elected Harri- son and Tyler was composed of various elements which had been brought to- gether by their common opposition to General Jackson and his arbitrary mea- sures. Mr. Tyler was a strong State Rights man and was also opposed to a National TYLER. Bank which he considered unconstitu- tional. The Whigs had adopted no platform in the canvass, and Mr. Tyler had been nominated as the most available southern man for the position. Tyler's Administration. 299 Mr. Tyler's Vetoes. — The extra session of Congress sum- moned by General Harrison met at the appointed time. Many of its leading men differed widely in opinion and it was soon seen that they were still more at variance with the President. Two bills, the first for establishing the " Fiscal Bank of the United States " and the second for the " Fiscal Corporation," were successively vetoed by Mr. Tyler as being contrary to the Constitution, and the Whig party at once showed themselves greatly displeased. The whole Cabinet, except Mr. Webster the Secretary of State, at once resigned, and the party became divided into the friends and enemies of the President, Mr. Clay being the leader of the latter. The outgoing Secretaries were replaced by Whigs who sus- tained Mr. Tyler's course. During the Congress of 1842 Mr. Tyler likewise vetoed two Tariff Bills one after the other, but finally signed a third which he considered less objec- tionable. A treaty was agreed upon during this year between Lord Ashburton on the part of Great Britain and Daniel Webster, which established the boundaries between Maine and the surrounding provinces as you now see them on the map. Dorr's Rebellion, 1842. — At this time occurred in Rhode Island what was known as " Dorr's Rebellion." The State was still governed by its original charter granted by Charles II. This charter gave the right of suffrage to a very small pro- portion of the people. Dorr agitated the question of extend- ing the suffrage, got up a convention which issued a new constitution, and proceeded to set up another government. The legal governor took strong measures against this usurpa- tion of his power, and called on the President for troops to put it down. These were granted him, but the dissensions were settled without coming to bloodshed. Dorr was tried for treason and sentenced to life-long imprisonment, but he escaped from the State. Suffrage was after a while granted to those who contended for it, and Dorr returned to Rhode Island and remained unmolested. John Quincy Adams and the Petitions. — Mr. Adams con- tinued to present Abolition and other obnoxious petitions ; but during a journey through Pennsylvania he informed a society whose petitions he had frequently presented that he was " opposed to the abolition of slavery in the District of 300 History of the United States. Columbia," not because he doubted the power of Congress to do so ; but because he regarded it as "a violation of repub- lican principles to enact laws at the petition of one people which are to operate upon another people without their con- sent. The people of the District have property in their slaves." Catastophe on the Princeton, 1844. — In February of this year the United States war vessel Princeton sailed up the Potomac and anchored below M^ashington. On the 28th, Captain Stockton invited the President with the Cabinet and other distinguished people from Washington to visit the ship. During the festivities, the " Peacemaker," one of the very largest cannon on the ship, was fired in honor of the guests. At the second discharge, the gun exploded and killed Mr. Upshur the Secretary of State, Mr. Gilmer the Secretary of the Navy, and several other prominent mem- bers of the party. Telegraph — Treaty with China, 1844. — In 1844 Professor Morse succeeded in operating successfully his magnetic tele- graph between Washington and Baltimore. The first mes- sage sent over the wire was: " What hath God wrought! " Professor Morse had been working at his invention for years in poverty, neglect, and discouragement, but his perse- verance and skill received the encouragement of this admin- istration and were at length rewarded by success. Diplomatic relations were now for the first time established with China, who had before this refused to hold any intercourse with " outside barbarians," as she called all civilized nations. Oregon Question. — The occupation and possession of Ore- gon by the British was much agitated at this time. That country had been discovered by Captain Gray in 1792. Lewis and Clarke had partially explored it during Mr. Jef- ferson's time. The first settlement was made at Astoria in 1810 by the American Fur Company, and it had been a part of the vast Louisiana Territory ceded by France to the United States. Great Britain had been allowed a joint occu- pation of Oregon and had gradually come to look upon it as partly hers, and it became important to establish the power and laws of the United States throughout the Territory. Texas Settled : The Alamo, 1836. — The most remarkable event in Mr. Tyler's time was the annexation of the Republic of Texas to the L^nited States. The first white settlement Tyler's Administration. 301 THE Al.A.Mi was made in Texas by La Salle, but it afterwards passed into the hands of Spain and was regarded as a part of Mexico. In 1820 and 1822, Moses Austin and his son Stephen, from Connecticut, obtained a large grant of land from the Spanish authorities, and carried a number of colonists from the United States to the region where the city of Austin now stands. The whole territory became free from Spanish rule when Mexico revolted and established an independent gov- ernment. Settlers from the United States continued to move into Texas, until in 1833 there were 20,000 of them. These Eng- lish-speaking peo- ple found the Mexi- can rule so oppres- sive that they de- termined to throw off the yoke and set up a republic for themselves. This they did in 1835, but not without desperate fighting and bloodshed. The fortress of the Alamo in San Antonio, in which was a force of 140 men, to whom 32 others cut their way through the Mexican army, was besieged by Santa Anna with 4,000 Mexican sol- diers. After a bombardment of eleven days the Alamo was carried by storm and the whole garrison cut to pieces. Only three persons, a woman, a child, and a servant, were spared to tell the tale. Among these defenders of the Alamo per- ished Colonel Davy Crockett. Massacre of Goliad, 1836. — A few weeks later than this, the Mexicans brutally murdered 300 prisoners who had been overpowered by a large Mexican force and had surrendered. By Santa Anna's order they were all executed at Goliad. General Sam Houston, a native of Virginia, was commander- in-chief of the Texan army. His men had become dis- heartened by the defeats at the Alamo and Goliad, and were almost panic-stricken when General Houston continued to fall back before Santa Anna, across the Colorado, across the Brazos, and at last across the San Jacinto. Such was the 302 History of the United States. dread of Mexican barbarity that the whole population tried to move on and keep Houston's army between them and Santa Anna. Battle of San Jacinto, 1836. — Having drawn Santa Anna and a detachment of his army away from reinforcements and supplies, Houston collected about 800 men and on April 21, 1836, gave battle on the field of San Jacinto to the pur- suing army, double in number. Their war-cry was " Remem- ber the Alamo! Remember Goliad! " and they soon routed the army, killing and capturing almost all of them. Among the prisoners taken was Santa Anna, the President of the Mexican Republic. Gen- eral Houston entered into negotiations with him. The Mexican troops were with- drawn, and the independence of Texas was accomplished. Houston was elected President, and the Republic of Texas was ^ m ir r' formally recognized by the United States Houston. in 1887 and by England and France two years later. By this time the population of the Republic had risen to about 200,000. Most of these were from the United States and their ardent desire was to be admitted as one of the States of the Union. As early as 1837 Texas applied to be annexed to the United States, but her proposition was rejected by President Van Buren. Mr. Tyler was much in favor of it. Annexation of Texas, 1845. — When the presidential elec- tion came on in 1844 the main issues of the contest were whether Texas should be received into the Union and Oregon retained or ceded to Great Britain. These questions were in the main supported by the Democratic party, and their candidates, .James K. Polk of Tennessee and George M. Dallas of Pennsylvania, were elected by a large majority over Clay and Frelinghuysen, the Whig candidates. Con- gress which met shortly after voted that Texas should be annexed, and Mr. Tyler signed the bill just before his term of office expired. By the conditions of annexation it was decreed that four additional States might at some future day be formed out of the immense territory thus acquired. Those south of the line of the Missouri Compromise, 36° 30^ should be free or slave-holding as their people might choose, Polk's Administration. 303 while north of that line slavery should be prohibited. Not- withstanding this just apportionment of the newly-acquired country between the free and the slave States, there was violent opposition on the part of the North to receiving Texas, because it would " extend slavery," would give more influence to the South in Congress, and increase the num- ber of votes opposed to a protective tariff. Some who argued against it took the ground that it was unconstitu- tional, but all its opponents were influenced principally by the apprehension that through it the North would lose con- trol of the government, for which she constantly contended. Admission of Florida, 1845. — Florida also was admitted into the Union as a State during the last days of Tyler's administration. AUTHORITIES.— Hildreth's History of the United States, Vol. VI.; Schouler's History of the United States. Vol. III.; McMaster's History of the American Peo- ple, Vol. IV.; Winsor's Narrative and Critical History of the United States, Vol. VII.; American Statesmen Series, Monroe, Calhoun, Clay, and Webster; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate; Annals of Congress; Letters and Time of the Tylers; Par- ton's Andrew Jackson; Colton's Henry Clay; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Alex- ander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Apyileton's Encyclo- pedia; Encyclopedia of American Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who became President in 1841, and what were his views ? 2. What bills did he veto ? 3. What troubles did he have with his Cabinet? 4. Tell of Dorr's Rebellion. 5. What opinion did John Quiney Adams express as to the abolition petitions ? 6. What terrible disaster happened on the Princeto7i ? 7. What was the first telegram , and when was it sent ? 8. What was the Oregon Question? 9. Tell of the .settlement of Texas. 10. The siege of the Alamo. 11. The massacre of Goliad. 13. The battle of San Jacinto. 13. Who was the first President of Texas? 14. Who was elected President of the United States in 1844? 15. Tell of the annexation of Texas. 16. When was Florida admitted to the Union? 17. Find all the places on the map. CHAPTER LVII. FOLK'S ADMINISTRATION— MEXICAN WAR. "Army of Occupation. "^-In his inaugural address on March 4, 1845, Mr. Polk expressed his intention to defend the claim of the United States both to the newly-acquired Texas and to Oregon, forcibly should it prove a necessity. The Con- gress of Texas adopted the proposition of the United States previously made and on December 29th she was formally 304 History of the United States. recognized as a State of the Union. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as her southwestern boundary. Mexico declared it to be the Nueces, and the country between the two rivers was thus debatable ground. Seeing that a contest must be waged for this territory, Mr. Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor with about 5,000 soldiers, called the "Army of Occupation," to take possession of and defend it. Acts of Congress, 1845. — During this session of Congress a more moderate tariff was agreed upon, the independent Trea- ''"'''^* sury system was re-enacted, and the Smith- sonian Institute finally established. The Oregon question was amicably settled the next year, when the 49° of latitude was made the dividing line and the country south of that at once passed into the possession of the United States. Beginning of the Mexican War, 1846. — In March General Taylor advanced to the Rio Grande and built Fort Brown just across from Matamoras. The Mexican General Ampu- dia notified General Taylor that he considered his advance as a commencement of hostilities, and on April 26th sixty- three men under Captain Thornton were attacked on the east side of the river by a superior Mexican force and were all killed or captured. This was the first blood shed in the Mexican war, and when the facts were communicated to Congress by the President, there was an outburst of indig- nation throughout the United States. Congress declared that ''War existed by the act of Mexico," put $10,000,000 at the President's disposal, and empowered him to call for 50,000 volunteers. Such was the enthusiasm for the war that 300,000 men oflPered their services. Two-thirds of the soldiers mustered into service were from the Southern States. This addition to the army was an absolute necessity, since the regular troops did not amount to 9,000 men of all arms. The Mexican army greatly outnumbered that of the United States and was composed of well-drilled and fairly brave troops, but its officers were indifferent and full of jealousy towardsone another. Battle of Palo Alto, 1846.— When General Taylor found that the Mexicans threatened to cut off his supplies, he left PoWs Administration. 305 a small garrison at Fort Brown and marched to Point Isabel, his provision depot, which he strengthened and garrisoned. On his return to Fort Brown with less than 3,000 men and a huge provision train, on the 8th of May, he found his way blocked on the plain of Palo Alto by a Mexican army 6,000 strong. A desperate fight of five hours ensued. The American artillery was excellent and well handled and aided greatly in securing the victory. The most dis- tinguished among the slain was Major Samuel Ringgold of the Flying Artiller}^, who was shot while directing his guns. When his friends rushed to assist him, " Leave me alone," he said, ''you are wanted in front," He lived to know that he had helped to achieve the success of his countrymen. The next day General Taylor gained another victory at Resaca de la Palma three miles from Fort Brown. The whole Mexican army was routed and by nightfall not a Mexican was to be found east of the Rio Grande. Three Armies Sent to Mexico. — It was now determined at Washington to send three different armies against Mexico. General Taylor was to lead his column into the interior from Matamoras. A force under General Kearney was to march upon California through New Mexico, and General Wool was to seize the northern provinces of Mexico. Capture of Monterey, 1846. — General Taylor moved at once, and in August with 6,500 men attacked Monterey, the capital of the province of New Leon, which was garrisoned by 10,000 men. After a few days Monterey was surrendered and evacuated, and Saltillo, Victoria, and Tampico were suc- cessively occupied by the Americans. Fremont's Capture of California, 1846. — In the mean time General Kearney had taken possession of the whole of New Mexico, had established a new government there, and late in November set out for California with about 400 men. But California had already fallen into American hands, mainly through the efforts of Colonel John C. Fremont. Fremont had in 1842 been sent out by the United States in charge of a party to explore the Rocky Mountain country. He encountered great hardships, but pushed his way with undaunted spirit, climbed the mountain ranges, ascertained where the passes lay, traced the courses of the streams, and carefully noted the aspect and peculiarities of the country 20 306 History of the United States. through which he passed. On August 15th he with four of his men climbed the highest of the Mud River Mountains now known as Fremont's Peak, and planted the United States flag amid the eternal snow^s at its summit. In a second expedition Fremont explored the great country between the Rocky Mountains and the Pacific Ocean, tra- versing the South Pass, finding and exploring the Great Salt Lake region, visiting the headwaters of the Colorado and Columbia, and passing down the latter river nearly to its mouth. He crossed the Sierra Nevada in the depth of win- ter without a guide, to save his band from starvation, and in a third expedition extended his investigations through the Great Basin and the coast region of Oregon and California. feemont's peak.. He was in California when he learned in 1846 that hostili- ties had broken out between Mexico and the United States. Therefore he proceeded to organize the American settlers into a new government, of which he was made the head. Learning that an American squadron under Commodore Sloat had seized Monterey, the Capital of the Mexican Government in California, Fremont proceeded thither with a command of mounted riflemen and put himself and his men under Commodore Stockton, who had just arrived with authority from Congress to capture California. Owing to Polk's Administration. 307 Fremont's influence this was speedily done and that valuable territory fell into possession of the United States with little opposition. This information was brought to General Kear- ney by Kit Carson, a famous trapper and hunter, who had accompanied Fremont in his most perilous and arduous journeyings. Doniphan's March. — Sending some of his men back to Santa Fe, Kearney with the rest fought his way to the Pacific coast, while Colonel Doniphan by his order took 1,000 Missouri troops and marched across the waterless plains into Mexico to join the troops under General Worth. Worth had gone another way, but Doniphan defeated the Mexican forces four times as strong as his own and captured the wealthy city of Chihuahua. Northern and northwestern Mexico was thus in the power of the United States, and it was determined to send a larger army under General Scott to land at Vera Cruz and march upon the City of Mexico. General Scott ordered General Taylor to send to him the larger part of the "Army of Occupation," thus reducing Taylor's force so much that he was obliged to retire from Saltillo to Monterey. Here he was joined by a well-drilled volunteer reinforcement under General Wool, and made another advance. Santa Anna's Return. — Santa Anna, the most able states- man and best general among the Mexicans, had been in exile in Cuba. In their hour of danger his countrymen desired his return. The authorities at Washington also wished him to come back, thinking no doubt that he would use his influ- ence to restore peace and to give up Texas. Secret orders were therefore given that his vessel should be allowed to pass unmolested through the squadron blockading the Gulf coast. But once more in his native land he proved her stoutest defender. He knew that the best part of General Taylor's army had gone to join General Scott, and having collected about 20,000 men he hurried up to crush and annihilate the reduced American army. General Taylor posted his force strongly at the mountain pass of Buena Vista not very far from Saltillo. Battle of Buena Vista, 1847. — Santa Anna came up on February 22d. After a few shots were exchanged he sent a flag of truce with a demand for immediate and uncondi- 308 History of the United States. tional surrender. " General Taylor never surrenders," was the reply of Colonel Crittenden who was sent to meet the Mexican emissaries. The next day the Mexicans attacked the Americans fiercely in the centre where the artillery and Wool's infantry drove them back. The main effort was then directed against the American left, and for a time tlie issue seemed doubtful. Troops from Arkansas and Indiana, after sustaining the onslaught of thousands, were obliged to give way. At the critical moment General Taylor ordered up to their support a regiment from Kentucky and one from Mis- sissippi under Colonel Jefferson Davis, which pressed forward and with their accurate and effective rifle firing broke the enemy's advance and forced him to retreat. The American artillery under Sherman and Bragg was splendidly served and did tremendous execution with the solid shot, grape, and canister which they poured into the crowded ranks of the enemy. It was during this fight that General Taylor rode up on his war horse, " Old Whitey," and exclaimed, " Give them a little more grape. Captain Bragg." The order was eagerly obeyed, and under the hot and destructive vol- leys poured into them, the Mexicans fell back to points out of cannon range, and the battle was over for the day. The torn and shattered American army slept on their arms. But wheu morning came the Mexican army had withdrawn and the victory was fully won. General Taylor's loss was over 700, that of the Mexicans 2,000. Twenty-eight Ameri- can officers were killed, among them Colonels Hardin, Mc- Kee, and Yell, and Lieutenant-Colonel Clay, the son of the great statesman of Kentucky. This wonderful victory, added to General Taylor's former successes, gave him great popu- larity among the American people who have always admired bravery and persistent devotion to duty. AUTHORITIES.— Schouler's History of the United States, Vols. IV., V.; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate; Annals of Congress; McMaster's History of American People, Vol. IV. ; Epochs of History ; Woodrow Wilson's Disunion and Reunion ; Alex- ander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Science; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Wilcox's History of the Mexican War; Memoir of Jefferson Davis. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who was now President of the United States? 2. Why was an army sent to Texas ? 3. What important acts were passed by Con- gress in 1845 ? 4. Tell of the beghming of the Mexican War. 5. The battle of Palo Alto. 6. Of Resaca de la Palma. 7. How many armies were next sent against Mexico? 8. Describe the capture of Monterey. 9. Who had already taken California? 10. Tell of Fremont's explorations in 'the West. Polk's Administration. 809 11. What famous hunter was with him? 12. Describe Doniphan's march. 13. Where did General Scott go ? 14. What Mexican general now returned home? 15. Where had he been, and why did he return? 16. Describe the terrible battle of Buena Vista. 17. What three regiments earned the day ? CHAPTER LVIII. POLK'S ADMINTSTRATTON—MEXWAN WAR, CONTINUED. Surrender of Vera Cruz, 1847. — General Taylor's success enabled the United States to bend all their energies to cap- ture Vera Cruz. In March General Scott landed 12,000 men and made preparations to bombard it. Before opening fire, Gen- eral Scott sent a message to the Spanish governor to surrender the town. Thinking the Castle of San Juan D'Alloa impregna- ble, the governor replied that he would general scott. defend the city. Then the American guns began a tremen- dous firing upon the castle and city. The Mexican guns replied, but did little damage to the Americans. In two days the destruction was so great that both places surren- dered ; 400 cannon were captured, and 4,000 Mexican sol- diers paroled and sent home ; and General Scott made pre- parations to advance upon Mexico. Cerro Gordo. — The pass of Cerro Gordo, about fifteen miles from Vera Cruz, was held by Santa Anna with a large force. Mexico is a country of peculiar formation. There is a region of low land along the coast. From this rises a long mountain chain with few passes and steep roads. Once up the ascent you come to a high table land, diversified by mountains, plains covered with sharp volcanic rocks and thorny cactus bushes, and everywhere difficult travelling for man and beast. Santa Anna's position was too strong to attack in front. A pathway was found around the steep mountain side, and under the direction of the skilful engi- neers, Lee, McClellan, Beauregard, and others, a road was cut for the army, which thus passed round to a point from which Santa Anna afterwards said he did not think a goat could have attacked him. On April 18th the Mexicans were driven from the Pass, with great loss. The Americans 810 History of the United States. pressed on and occuj^ied first Jalapa and then Puebla, where General Scott was obliged to stay for a while and wait for reinforcements. When these reached him, he advanced again early in August with nearly 11,000 men. Advance on the City of Mexico. — The City of Mexico lies in a basin surrounded by mountains, containing numerous lakes and much marshy ground, so that the principal roads leading to it are along causeways built in the marsh or over the water of the lakes, which were defended by forts and castles of much strength. Finding the direct road from Puebla to Mexico strongly defended. General Scott made a cir- cuit and gained a jDosition where he could advance upon the capital from the south and west. But much hard fighting had first to be done. Contreras wasthe opening battle of the series. A combined attack in front and rear of the fortifications on the morning of the 20th of August brought speedy victory to the American arms. The victors then pressed on and the enemy was again encountered at the strong position of Cherubusco on the direct road to Mexico. Fierce fighting again defeated the Mexicans. Chapultepec, 1847. — The strong fortress of Chapultepec barred the way to the city. The first of its outposts, Molinos del Rey, or the King's Mills, was attacked on the morning of September 8th and carried in two hours at the point of the bayonet. General Scott decided to storm Chapultepec and advance to the Belen gate immediately in its rear. On the 13th the infantry was ordered to storm the works, and the assaulting parties rushed up the acclivity, planted their ladders, and scaled the works of the fortress. Brave soldiers crowded into the works, and after a hand to hand fight the castle was taken. Heavy fighting went on all around the base of the fortress, and many soldiers of whom you must hear much as we go on, gained their first laurels in this Mexican campaign. For gallantry in having mounted a howitzer in the belfry of a church and using it with eff'ect against the enemy, U. S. Grant was brevetted captain and complimented by General AVorth. Capture of Mexico, 1847. — From Chapultepec the Ameri- cans pressed rapidly forward, forced the defences of the Belen gate, and entered the streets of the Capital. A South Carolina regiment had led the van, and the Palmetto flag of Polk's Administraton. 811 their State was quickly planted on an elevated scaffold. The San Cosmi gate was likewise carried, and by nightfall of September 13th, the city of Mexico was in the hands of the Americans. The taking of the Capital was really the end of the war with Mexico. There was some guerrilla fighting afterwards, and Santa Anna attempted to capture the garrison at Puebla, but was foiled. Peace, 1848. — After some months of delay, a treaty of peace was signed at Guadaloupe-Hidalgo on February 2, 1848, which guaranteed to the United States all the terri- tory claimed by Texas and the region now comprising New Mexico, Arizona, and California. For this they were to pay Mexico $15,000,000, besides a $1,500,000 debt due American citizens. The treaty was ratified by the Senate, and on July 4, 1848, President Polk issued a proclamation of peace. Five years later, there was some dispute about the bounda- ries, which, however, was settled by General James Gads- den of South Carolina, the United States commissioner, by the purchase of the Mesilla Valley, south of the Gila River. Discovery of Gold in Cali- fornia, 1848.— The value of the newly acquired territory was immensely increased by the discovery of vast quanti- ties of gold in California in February, 1848. Crowds of adventurers flocked to Cali- fornia from Europe, Asia, and America, and in eighteen months 100,000 persons went from the United States to the "gold diggings." The first emigrants were only men, who sailed round Cape Horn or undertook the weary, perilous journey across the conti- nent. Ships soon crowded into the harbor of San Francisco, which from a village rapidly grew to a flourishing city. At first the greed for gold swallowed up everything else. DISCOVERY OF GOLD. 312 History of the United States. Sailors abandoned their vessels, merchants their shops, law- yers and doctors their professions, to crowd into the mining camps and dig and delve for gold. Prices for everything were enormous, and a man could barely live on the gold he toiled for. Vigilance Committees. — Society . was disorganized and crime ran riot, until Vigilance Committees were formed to protect the weak and punish the guilty. Gradually affairs became more settled, law and order prevailed, men turned their attention to farming, fruit-growing, and sheep-raising. Homes were established, and family life took the place of the rude squatting and camping near the diggings; and California with her fine climate and fertile soil became flourishing and prosperous beyond what her gold fields alone could have accomplished. Iowa, 1846, and Wisconsin, 1848, Admitted to the Union. — Two new States were admitted during this administration, Iowa in 1846, and Wisconsin in 1848. In February of 1848 the venerable John Quincy Adams was stricken with paraly- sis while engaged at his desk in the House of Representa- tives, and died in the eighty-first year of his age. In the fall of this year the Presidential election was carried by the Whigs for General Taylor with Millard Fillmore of New York as Vice-President. AUTHORITIES.— Schouler's History of the United States, Vols. IV., V. ; Benton's Til irty Years in the Senate; Annals of Congress; McMaster's History of the Ameri- can People, Vol. II.; Epochs of History; Woodrow Wilson's Disunion and Reunion; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Lalor's Cyclo- pedia of Political Science ; Appleton's Encyclopedia ; Wilcox's History of the Mexican War; Memoir of Jefferson Davis. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who attacked Vera Cruz? 2. Describe its capture. 3. AVhat was the next fij^ht and who commanded the Mexicans ? 4. Describe the country and the battle. 5. To what city did Scott now advance ? 6. Tell of the battles on the way. 7. The taking of IMexico. 8. When was it? 9. AVhen and where was peace signed? 10. What were its provisions? 11. What great discoveiy was made in 1848 ? 12. Its effects? 13. Describe the settling of California. 14. When were Iowa and Wisconsin admitted to the Union? 15. Who was elected President in 1848? 16. Be sure to find the places mentioned. CHAPTER LIX. POLK' 8 ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED—TAYLOR'S ADMIN- ISTRATION. Progress of the Country. — Since we last took a compre- hensive view of our country, the United States have increased amazingly in extent, in population, in wealth, and in prosperity. The annexation of Texas and the great extent of territory acquired from Mexico have nearly ^fe,-. SAN FRANCISCO IN 1M',». doubled the area of the Republic, already enlarged by the purchase of Louisiana and Florida from France and Spain. Much of this country was as yet without white settlers, but under the improved conditions of transportation by steam- ships, steamboats, and railroads, it was soon to receive a host of immigrants. Population and Industries. — The population of the country had risen from about 5,000,000 in 1800, to over 23,000,000. This population was engaged in developing the agricultural and mineraj. resources of the country or in manufacturing. [313] 314 History of tJie United States. Iron and steel were produced in large quanties. Millions of yards of cotton and woollen goods ran from the looms of the great factories in New England and elsewhere. Coal to mak-e the iron, run the steam engines, and warm the houses, was mined in A^irginia, Pennsylvania, and Maryland. By the assistance of McCormick's reapers and other improved agricultural implements, farming became much less labo- rious, and many more acres were brought under cultivation. Sewing-machines had changed the character of women's work, if they had not lessened it. Schools and Churches. — Mental progress had been equally striking. Common schools were flourishing and more than two hundred colleges had been established ; 2,500 different newspapers carried information to all parts of the country. The churches and religious bodies had grown and extended their influence throughout the land, though they had scarcely kept pace with the rapid material advance, and had not shown the unselfish missionary spirit which now carries them to the farthest outposts of civilization. Moral Unrest. — The rapid increase of wealth from the gold of California was a great stimulus to the growth and development of the country. The influx of foreign immi- gration, which brought hundreds of thousands of Europeans to our shores, produced great changes in the character and opinions of the population, especially in the North and North- west. A spirit of unrest and a desire to upset the old order of things showed themselves in the originating of new religious sects, of fantastic societies, of strange proposals of all sorts to alter the habits and customs of the people, and in many instances to do away with law and order alto- gether. The Slavery Question. — Thus the outlook for the future was not all encouraging. The continued and persistent efforts and publications of the Abolitionists, under the lead of William Lloyd Garrison and the Quakers, had manu- factured and influenced a large amount of sentiment at the North. The Methodist and Baptist Churches each divided on the question into Northern and Southern Churches which were now hostile to each other, and the same separation took place later among the Presbyterians. It was asserted from the pulpits that slavery was contrary to Polk's Administration. 315 the Word of God and not possible for Christian people. The error of such statements could readily be proved by scholars who knew that in the Old Testament Hebrew and the New Testament Greek, " the manservant and maidser- vant " of the fourth and tenth commandments, and the " servants" so often mentioned in the gospels and epistles, were slaves in the absolute power of their masters ; and wdio saw that nowhere in the Scriptures was there any direct condemnation of what was now declared to be so wicked. When this w^as proved, the Abolitionists fell back on what they called the " higher law " — that there was a teaching purer and better than the Word of God. The Southern people, on the other hand, were satisfied to know that their " peculiar institution " was not directly condemned in Holy Writ and some of them considered slavery as a positive good. Difficulty of Freeing the Slaves. — We may look back now and wonder that men so noble and chivalrous and women so pure and gentle and true, as were those of the Southern States, did not see more clearly the evils inherent in their system ; while we marvel also that the North could not understand how unjust and overbearing was its conduct towards the slave-holding section. But for this interference, the Southern States would most probably have taken steps to rid themselves of slavery. Virginia had nearly done so in 1832. But their indignation was aroused. Their self- respect seemed to require that they should insist on maintain- ing a right so constantly assailed ; and the great diihculty of knowing w^hat to do with the negroes, should their masters impoverish themselves to set them free, made them more resolute to claim their constitutional right to continue and extend their domestic institutions in the southern part at least of all the new territory. Wilmot Proviso. — The North was determined not to con- sent to this. In 1846 and again in 1847 the " Wilmot Pro- viso " — that slavery should be nowhere permitted in the newly acquired territory — was passed by the House of Repre- sentatives and rejected by the calmer and still conservative Senate. This Proviso was a direct setting aside of the Mis- souri Compromise which had made 36° 30' the dividing line beyond which slavery should not go. Its practical result would be to shut up the Southern people with their 316 History of the United States. slaves to the States which they already occupied ; while the Northern States, with their population already changing in character by foreign immigration, would get all power in the government into their own hands to be used as seemed to them best. The South and the Territories. — To this the Southern States were by no means willing to yield. It was not slavery that they contended for so much as their right to an equal share in the common property of the Republic. They knew how much they had done and suffered and sacrificed to establish it. Their citizens had bled for freedom on every battle-field of the Revolution. After asserting and protect- ing her rights and those of her citizens for more than a hun- dred years, Virginia had taken the Nortliwest Territory by the valor of her sons, and had then presented it to the gen- eral government, in order to secure the ratification of the Confederation by the requisite number of States. She gave her consent when that vast portion of what had been her lawful domain was debarred from becoming a home for slave- holders. Together the Southern States had warred against the Indians and driven them out, had broken the invading power of Great Britain at New Orleans, and had furnished two-thirds of the soldiers who had conquered Mexico and thus won a vast new region for the Union. Constitutional Rights. — They knew that the Constitution, only established after concessions in which they had given up much of their power, guaranteed equal rights to all the States and to their individual citizens; that Congress had repeatedly declared that it had no power to interfere with them; and they could not see that there was now any justice in the long continued system of interference which had been carried on by the Abolitionists, or in this latest avowed effort to shut them off from any share in the vast and wealthy region lately acquired. In 1848, when the question of organizing the Territory of Oregon came up, the Wilmot Proviso was attached to it. An amendment declaring that this was done because the Territory lay north of 36° 30' was rejected. This persistent determination to take posses- sion of the whole western country gave rise to what was called the Free Soil party, which, insignificant at first, grew to have immense influence in the country. Polk's Administration. 317 Strife in Congress, 1849. — General Taylor and Mr. Fill- more were inaugurated on March 4, 1849, nnd the Cabinet was selected from among the leaders of the Whig party north and south. In the mean time, the settlers in California had assembled and formed a constitution for themselves and applied to be admitted into the Union as a State. This was an irregular mode of proceeding, as no ter- ritorial government had ever been setup there. When Congress met in Decem- ber, the difference of feeling and opinion among the members was shown by the diihculty of electing a Speaker in the House of Representa- tives. For nearly three weeks the contest lasted and in the end was decided by the election of Howell Cobb of Georgia by a simple plurality vote. From this time until the last of September, 1850, both Houses of Congress were the scenes of stormy and protracted debates. The three great states- men, Calhoun, Clay, and Webster, were still in the Senate and made their mightiest efforts to allay the spirit of strife and point their countrymen to a way of peace and harmony, but their own views were widely different. "Omnibus Bill." — Mr. Clay, who has been called "The Great Pacificator " and who had already introduced more than one compromise measure, now brought in a bill which covered so much ground that it was called the " Omnibus Bill." It proposed among other things to admit California under its new constitution which excluded slavery forever; to organize territories in Utah and New Mexico without any slave restriction; to make it imperative upon the free States to restore to their owners any fugitive slaves coming into them; and to suppress the buying and selling of slaves in the District of Columbia. This bill satisfied few of the con- gressmeiT. The North was opposed to allowing any possi- bility of slavery in the new territories, and was almost as earnest against giving up fugitive slaves; while it was eager for the total abolition of slavery in the District. The South, on the other hand, wks opposed to the admission of Califor- nia under what they thought an illegal constitution. They thought also that there could be no lawful restriction of 318 History of the United States. slavery south of 36° 30'; they insisted that the Southern people should have their right to carry their slaves into the new territories; and that the settlers in those territories should decide for or against slavery, when they were admitted as States. Debate Between Calhoun and Webster. — Mr. Clay pre- sented and defended his bill with his accustomed eloquence. Mr. Calhoun was too feeble to address the Senate, but he prepared an argument, perhaps the strongest of his life, in which he besought his countrymen to consider what they were doing. He Avent over the history of the Union and pointed out that the South had made continual concessions to preserve it, but that she could not consent to the present encroachment upon her rights, which involved her destruc- tion; and he warned his Northern brethren that, if they persisted in their hostile injustice, the Union must inevita- bly perish. This speech was read by Mr. Mason of Virginia and listened to with breathless attention. Mr. Webster, as the exponent of the better part of the Northern people, replied to Mr. Calhoun. His speech was eloquent and pow- erful. He deprecated the ground taken by the Abolition societies, and avowed that the result of their efforts had been so far to continue slavery in the South. He acknowledged that the slave-owners were as upright and honest Christians as any in the world. He expressed himself as opposed to the AVilmot Proviso, on one hand, and to any extension of slavery, on the other, claiming that the climate of the territories had fixed its bounds. He declared that the only ground of just complaint the South had was that the slaves who escaped to the North were sheltered and abetted instead of being at once returned to their owners. This speech did not touch the main point raised by the South, that their citizens had the right to go into the new territories and carry their slave property without danger of molestation. One of its utter- ances, "that peaceable secession" was impossible, was pro- phetic, as was also Calhoun's declaration, that persistence in the Northern restrictions must endanger the Union. Mr. Webster proposed that the monej' derived from the sale of public lands in the territory ceded by Virginia — $80,000,000 — should be paid to her and the other Southern States, to carry away and colonize their negroes, if they Fillmore's Administration. 319 should be set free. But neither he nor any other Northern statesman ever thought to suggest that, to procure the aboli- tion of slavery, the Northern people would be willing to take steps to pay for the negroes, as England had done in the West Indies. AUTHORITIES.— Schouler's History of the United States, Vols. IV., V.; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate; McMaster's History of tlie American People, Vol. II.; Epochs of History ; Woodrow Wilson's Disunion and Reunion ; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States, Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Sci- ence; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Congressional Record; Encyclopedia of Biography. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the progress of the country, 2. Its population and industries. 3. What of the schools and churches ? 4. The spirit of moral unrest. 5. What were the different views of the moral right of slavery? 6. What was one practical difficulty in the way of freeing the slaves ? 7. What was the Wilmot Proviso ? 8. Its result if adopted ? 9. Why could the South claim equal rights in the territories? 10. What constitutional rights had she? 11. What sort of meetings did Congress have in 1849-50? 12. Who were the great leaders? 13. Did they agree in their opinions? 14. Describe the "Omnibus Bill." 15. Tell of Calhoun's great speech. 16. Of Webster's. 17. What proposal did Webster make ? CHAPTER LX. FILLMORE'S ADMINISTRATION. Death of Calhoun and Taylor, 1850: — Mr. Calhoun died on the last day of March. The President, General Taylor, also died of malignant fever on July 9th, and was succeeded by Millard Fillmore the Vice-President. The "Irrepressible Conflict." — The death of the illus- trious statesman and of the Chief Magistrate caused a tem- porary lull in the excited debates in Congress, but the strife soon waxed hot again. What Mr. Seward later on termed " the irrepressible conflict " between the North and South had begun and was only to be settled by a great national convulsion and internecine strife. The slave-holding sec- tion knew its rights and was determined to uphold them. The abolition region was equally resolved to crush out slavery. One by one the provisions of the " Omnibus Bill " were passed, and Mr. Fillmore declared that he regarded them as a final settlement of the dangerous and exciting sub- jects which they were intended to regulate. Time showed 320 History of the United States. how greatly he was mistaken. California was admitted into the Union in August, 1850, and this time there was no Southern State to come in and balance her vote, as there had been none since Texas ; while in the Northwest a new State was admitted every few years. The Capitol. — The size of Congress grew with the num- ber of States, until the Halls of the Capitol could no longer hold it comfortably. To remedy this two new wings were planned, of which the corner stone was laid on the 4th of July, 1851. On this occasion Mr. Webster delivered one of his grand orations to an immense audience. Reduction of Postage. — During this administration, the rate of postage on letters was reduced from ten cents to three cents. Grinnell Arctic Expeditions, 1850, 1854. — Mr. Henry Grinnell, a rich merchant of New York, furnished the m^ney to fit out two vessels manned by United States oflEicers and sailors, to go in search of Sir John Franklin, an Arctic cxjdorer from Eng- land of whom noth- ing had been heard for five years. Lieu- tenant De Haven FOBT HILL— HOME OF CALHOUN. who was ni com- mand found no definite news of Franklin and his men, but acquired valuable information of the northern regions of our continent. Four years later, Mr. Grinnell sent another expedition under Dr. Elisha Kent Kane, which reached the nearest point to the North Pole which any explorers had yet attained. Expeditions which explored the vast regions of the Amazon and La Plata Rivers in South America gave accurate knowledge of those hitherto unknown valleys and plains ; and about the same time treaties were made with Brazil, Peru, and other South American governments. Perry's Expedition to Japan, 1852. — In the autumn of 1852 the United States sent to Japan an expedition under Fillmore's Administration. 321 command of Captain M. C. Perry who succeeded in begin- ning negotiations with the exclusive Japanese, and after a year or two persuaded them to admit American vessels into two of tlieir harbors. This was followed by a treaty of peace and commerce, and the two nations have since been on the most friendly terms. Lopez's Attempt to Seize Cuba. — A certain General Lopez, a discontented Cuban, conceived the idea of seizing the Island of Cuba, overthrowing the Spanish government, and selling or annexing the island to the United States. Allured by the spirit of adventure and hope of gain, several hundred hot-headed young Americans joined in this filibustering expedition, but Mr. Fillmore issued a proclamation warning them that the government would in no way countenance or protect them. The adventurers landed on the coast of Cuba but met with little success in their design. Lopez and a number of his followers were captured, the leaders were executed, and the rest sent as prisoners to Spain where they were finally released. In like manner, the President would give no official expression to his own and the nation's sympathy with Hungary in the struggle she made at this time to throw off the Austrian j^oke. Foreign Immigration. — The tide of European immigration, which lias overrun the United States, received its first great impetus from the Irish famine in 1847. The starving Irish- men came in thousands to America as the land of plenty which offered bread and homes to all. Political strife all over the Continent of Europe, added to the toil and effort necessary to make the scantiest living, brought over hordes of hardy peasants and industrious citizens, and, at the same time, an appalling crowd of the idle and vicious from the Old World. In the seven years between 1847 and 1854, two millions and a half of foreigners came into the country. Immigrants in the Northwest. — The low price at which the government sold its lands in the fertile regions of the Northwest — $25 for a hundred acres — had already tempted the farmers from New England and the old States to leave their barren over-worked homesteads and take up the unfilled and more promising " sections" in the new States and Territories. Following in their tracks, came Norwe- gians, Swedes, Germans, and others to possess themselves 21 322 History of the United States. of the homes and property so lavishly offered. The Irish remained generally near the Atlantic coast, taking the places of the natives who had moved towards the setting sun. Wicked and worthless immigrants often sought a hiding-place in the large cities where they swelled the ranks of idleness and vice. Immigrants in the South. — Few of these foreigners came into the Southern States. The people of the South did not invite them. There was no public land there to be given to any who would occupy it. The negroes were sufficient for the cultivation of the soil and far better adapted to the climate, and the whites shrank from bringing into their midst the uncongenial elements from over the sea. Their ignorance of all things American, their inability to distin- guish between one State and another, and their want of in- terest or sympathy for the traditions of the past made them undesirable neighbors to men who loved their own States with a passionate devotion, and were willing to risk every- thing to preserve and defend them. Thus the heteroge- neous mass of foreign thought and feeling took possession of the Northwest, and greatly increased the divergence of feeling and interest between the two sections of the Re- public. Deaths of Clay and Webster, 1852. — Mr. Clay's long and patriotic life closed in its seventy-sixth year, in June, 1852. Mr. Webster survived him only until October 26th. Thus the " great trio," Calhoun, Clay, and Webster, passed away within two years. Their names are identified with all that was great and important in the national life of their period, and though they differed widely in opinions and action, each entertained a high respect and regard for the others. All were true patriots and great orators and wielded immense influence in the national councils. Calhoun was the most clear-headed and far-seeing statesman and of absolute pu- rity in his personal life. Clay was the apostle of national peace, who again and again sacrificed his hope of the Presi- dency to preserve the integrity of the Union by a series of compromises ; and Webster, cool and impassioned by turns, controlled his hearers and his party by the fervor and mag- netism of his words and presence with a power never since surpassed. Fillmoi'e's Administration. 323 New Leaders. — Many of their colleagues still survived, and new men from all parts of the land were crowding into Congress. Prominent among them were Benton of Missouri, Houston of Texas, Bell of Tennessee, Hunter and Mason of Virginia, Chase of Ohio, Seward of New York, Douglas of Illinois, Sumner of Massachusetts, Toombs and Stephens of Georgia, Butler of South Carolina, C. C. Clay of Alabama, and Jefferson Davis of Mississippi. Election of Pierce, 1852. — When the presidential cam- paign came on in 1852, the " Fugitive Slave Law" — which provided for the return of a runaway slave by the State in which he was found to the State from which he came — was incorporated in the platform of both the Whig and Demo- cratic parties. This law was exceedingly obnoxious to the Northern States, where ultra Abolitionists were every day becoming stronger. General Scott was the nominee of the Whigs, but he refused to express any strong approval of the Whig platform, especially that part of it which endorsed the Fugitive Slave Law. The Democratic approval of the Com- promise measures of 1850 was not so strongly worded as that of the Whigs, but it was honest and explicit. Their candi- date, Franklin Pierce of New Hampshire, held the political opinions of the school of Jefferson, and planted himself fairly on the platform of the party. When the election came, the Democrats carried the country by an overwhelm- ing majority, with General Pierce for President and William R. King of Alabama for Vice-President. The Free Soil party also had candidates in the field, but polled fewer votes than at the preceding election four years before. AUTHORITIES— Schouler's History of the United States, Vols. IV., V.; Benton's Thirty Years in the Senate; McMaster's History of the American People, Vol. II.; Epochs of History ; Woodrow Wilson's Disunion and Reunion; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Sci- ence; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Memoir of Jefferson Davis ; Congressional Record. QUESTIONS.— 1. What two prominent men died in 1850? 2. Tell of the "irrepressible conflict." 3. When was California admitted to the Union? 4. When was the corner stone of the wings of the Capitol laid ? 5. What reduction of postage was made? 6. Describe Grinnell's two Arctic expedi- tions. 7. The expedition to South America. 8. Perry's expedition to Japan, and its results. 9. What attempt was made on Cuba about this time? 10. Describe the foreign immigration. 11. Where did most of the foreigners go? 12. Why did not some of them come to the South? 13. Tell of the three great statesmen who died in 1850 and 1852. 14. The great men still left or just coming forward. 15. Describe the campaign and election of 1852. CHAPTER LXI. PIERCE'S ADMINISTRATION. Pierce as President. — General Pierce who was inaugurated on March 4, 1853, had an earnest desire to harmonize tlie distractions of the country, and composed his Cabinet of leading statesmen from both the North and the South. During his first year of office a threatened difficulty with Mexico was settled by the purchase of the Mesilla Valley which has been mentioned before. Danger of trouble with England on account of the American fisheries was also averted by an agreement that both nations should be free to catch deep-sea fish in all American waters. Trouble With Austria. — A threatened collision with Aus- tria at this time attracted universal attention. A Hunga- gian revolutionist, Koszta by name, had escaped to America and signified his desire to become a citizen of the United States when the time necessary for him to become natural- ized should have passed. By this he placed himself under the protection of the government. He then went to Smyrna on the Mediterranean Sea, where he had some business and where he was recognized by Austrian detectives. Although he claimed the protection of the American consul at Smyrna, Koszta was seized and carried on board the Austrian war vessel Hussar, to be sent a prisoner to Austria. The Ameri- can war ship St. Louis, commanded by Captain Ingraham of South Carolina, was then in the harbor at Smyrna. Learn- ing that the Austrians paid no attention to the American protection of Koszta, Captain Ingraham demanded his re- lease and declared that, if he were not given up, the guns of the St. iom's would immediately fire upon the Austrian ves- sel. This argument of forty loaded cannon was so forcible that the Austrian commander delivered Koszta to the French consul to be kept in safety until the Austrian and United States governments should settle the matter. Austria felt much aggrieved, and her representative in Washington made a strong remonstrance against Ingraham's course, but our government sustained him. Congress gay© him a vote [324] Fillmore's Administration. 325 of thanks and a medal. The civilized world felt that Austria had been in the wrong and that the United States had shown her intention and ability to defend all who had any claim on her protection. World's Fairs, 1851 and 1853.— The first of the great exhi- bitions of the industries and arts of all nations, The World's Fair, had taken place at London in 1851 under the patron- age and encouragement of Prince Albert, the husband of Queen Victoria. This Fair was held in the first large build- ing of iron and glass that had ever been erected. It proved a great success and was especially advantageous to the United States, as it brought into notice and use the many agricultural and domestic machines invented by her citi- zens. A similar exposition was held in New York in 1853, which was formally opened by President Pierce in the " Crystal Palace" built for the occasion. Routes to California. — For a while it looked as if the Com- promise of 1850 had really brought peace to the country, for when Congress met in December, 1853, it organized at once and seemed disposed to proceed quietly with its work. It was most desirable to have quicker and more direct inter- course with the vast rich country of the Pacific slope, than the long voyage around Cape Horn, or the tedious travel over the plains. Four surveys had been ordered during the pre- vious year to see whether a route could be found practicable for a railway from ocean to ocean. Several such routes were examined, and some time later than this Congress authorized that a railroad should be constructed. Before it could be ready for use, however, years must elapse, and in the mean time a railway was built across the Isthmus of Panama, which shortened the journey to California by several months and greatly lessened its expense. Personal Liberty Laws. — Events soon showed that the hope of peace and good-will in the country was not to be realized. That part of the " Omnibus Bill " known as the Fugitive Slave Law, was especially odious to the Abolitionists. For a time after its passage, they gave up contending in Congress and directed their efforts to getting a stronger hold on the pas- sions and prejudices of the people in the Northern States. Under their influence " Personal Liberty Laws," designed to contradict and render void the laws of Congress, were 326 History of the United States. passed in many States which thus actually nullified the Con- stitution, as South Carolina had formerly attempted to do, A regular plan of assistance in the escape of slares, known as "the Underground Railroad," was organized in Penlisyl- vania and Ohio, and giving them up to their masters was resisted even to bloodshed. This was as plain a violation of the Constitution as Nullification had been. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854. — Early in this year the most violent agitation which had hitherto convulsed Congress was begun by the introduction of what was known as the " Kansas-Nebraska " Bill. Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois who advocated it, took the ground that the legislation of 1850 had done away with the restriction of slavery under the Missouri Compromise to territory south of 36° 80'; and this bill gave permission to the settlers in the territory to decide the question of slavery for themselves. Immediately a storm of indignation and abuse broke out in the North. Public meetings denouncing the bill were held in many places. Petitions and remonstrances against it were poured into Congress, and the orators and papers of the day de- clared that any destruction or dissension would be prefera- ble to its passage. In spite of all this demonstration, the House of Representatives, assured of the soundness of the bill, passed it on the 22d of May by a majority of thirteen, and the still more conservative Senate gave a vote of thirty- five in its favor to fourteen against it. You must bear in mind that at this time the Southern States were largely outnumbered in both Houses. Riot in Boston — "Kansas Bibles." — But the Northern peo- ple were resolved not to yield to laws distasteful to them, even when made by their own representatives. A few days after the passage of the hated bill, a United States marshal was shot in the streets of Boston for arresting a fugitive slave from Virginia, and' such resistance was made that United States troops had to be called out to protect the officers in executing the laws. This was only one of several similar outbreaks. Since the question of the ultimate free- dom of the new territory was to be settled by its residents, emigrants were hurried thither from all parts of the north and east, where societies were formed to furnish and send to Kansas all persons who would go prepared to resist any Fillmore's Administration. 327 introduction of slavery. Collections were taken up in the churches to buy rifles, which were termed "Kansas Bibles," and ammunition for the fight which was beforehand deter- mined upon. The citizens of Missouri, who were slave- holders, felt that they had as much right to the country near them as any other settlers ; and they also moved into Kansas where they established several towns. Every man went heavily armed, and before long a civil war broke out attended with outrage and bloodshed. Reign of Terror in Kansas, 1855. — The thirty-fourth Con- gress, which met in December, was composed of men of such opposite opinions that it took two months to elect the speaker, N. P. Banks. A reign of terror had been established in Kansas. The supporters and opposers of slavery each held a convention, elected delegates to Congress and claimed to be the lawful governing power in the Territory. A committee sent by Congress to investigate the question declared that none of the contending parties had been lawfully elected ; but Congress and the President recognized the pro-slavery government as legal. John Brown at Ossawotomie, 1856. — Among the most fanatical of the Abolitionists in Kansas was John Brown from Massachusetts, who had gone thither to push the quarrel to the bloodiest extreme. He held that it was better to rend the Union asunder than to tolerate slavery, and he fought desperately against the Missourians at Ossawotomie, where he led a night attack on his pro-slavery neighbors, in which a number were killed. Brooks and Sumner, 1856. — Unhappily this strife in Kansas excited the passions of the whole country. Per- sistent abuse of the Southern people — their character, their motives, their actions — w^as kept up in public meetings, in books, and in many of the daily papers. Even in the Halls of Congress, calumny and libels of fellow-statesmen filled up many long harangues. Senator Sumner of Massa- chusetts was very abusive of Senator Butler of South Caro- lina, then absent from the Senate. Representative Brooks of South Carolina undertook to chastise Sumner, which he did with a small gutta-percha cane, breaking it over Sum- ner's head. It was 9, most unfortunate aflfair, and stimu- lated evil passions everywhere. 328 History of the United States. Know-Nothing Party. — But there were other matters to interest the nation at this time. The rapid influx of for- eigners and the disagreements among the okl political par- ties had given rise to a new organization which called itself the American Party, but which gained the title of "Know- Nothing " from the secret oaths and passwords by which its members were admitted. Its distinctive principle was opposition to foreigners and Roman Catholics, who were not to be allowed to hold any office in the government. For a time this new party carried many of the local elections at the North. In the South, where there were few Roman Catholics or foreigners, but M'here the movement was opposed to the genius of the people, it made little headway. Republican Party. — Tlie Free Soil or Anti-Slavery Party also took a new name, becoming the Republican Party. Under this title it grew popular, especially among the for- eigners, who looked upon it as the opponent of tyranny and the advocate of freedom. This was not actually the case. Election of Buchanan, 1856. — When the election for Presi- dent came on in November there were three candidates: James Buchanan for the Democrats, Millard Fillmore for the Americans, and John C. Fremont for the Republicans. The Democrats declared that they would adhere to the Com- promise of 1850 and the legislation of 1854; the Republi- cans declared that Congress must prohibit both slavery and polygamy in the territories; while the Americans adhered to their proscription of Catholics and foreigners. Bucha- nan was elected by a very large majority, while the anti- slavery men under their new name had for the first time a respectable vote. The American ticket was very poorly sup- ported. Achievements of Science. — Before closing the record of this administration, I must tell you of some things done in the interest of science and for tlie welfare of the world at large. The sciences. Geology, Natural History, Astronomy, and Chemistry, had been much advanced by the researches of Silliman, Agassiz, Draper, and many of their co-laborers; and valuable additions had been made to the knowledge of the world. Chloroform and ether had either been dig- covered or brought into use for the relief of pain and the improvement of surgery. Fillmore's Administration. 329 Maury and His Work. — But perhaps the greatest benefit conferred upon the age had been effected by a naval officer, Matthew F. Maury, appointed to the s^^""*^-. Navy from Tennessee. In spite of the limited education acquired in his youth at an "old field" school, Maury bent all his energies to the study of Astronomy, Navigation, and whatever could improve him in his profession. Finding the sail- ing charts in use very inaccurate and the knowledge of the winds and the currents of the ocean very small, lie conceived the idea of making reliable charts of the maury. winds and currents. For this end he examined the great collection of log-books in the Naval Department, and from their Reports published his first Chart of the best route to Rio Janeiro in South America. This proved so successful that Congress took the matter up and authorized Maury to collect information from all American captains, who were requested to take notes every day in books furnished for the purpose, of the winds, the currents in the sea, and all the phenomena of the air and water, wherever they might be, and forward them all to Lieutenant Maury at Washington. They were also required to throw bottles into the sea con- taining statements of both the name and the place of their ships, and these, picked up on the shore, indicated the cur- rents. The information thus obtained was carefully collated by Maury and a corps of young officers working under him, and maps of the winds and currents were made, by which ships might sail with greater safety all over the world. These improved sailing directions were welcomed by all the maritime nations. They were estimated to save from $40,000,000 to $60,000,000 annually in the cost of commer- cial voyages, and to lessen the loss of life by thousands. Brussels Congress, 1853. — Officers of the United States are not allowed to receive presents from foreign govern- ments, but orders of knighthood, medals, and testimonials were showered upon the " Geographer of the Sea" by the crowned heads of Europe and by Scientific and Philosoph- ical Societies everywhere. In 1853 Maury attended a Sci- entific Congress assembled at Brussels in response to his 330 History of the United States. appeals, where the leading nations of Europe agreed to co- operate in carrying on the investigations which he had so successfully begun. Weather Reports. — The benefits arising from studying the winds at sea led Maury to urge that similar observations be carried on all over the land ; and out of these sugges- tions, which were also advocated by other scientific men, has grown up the great system of " weather reports " as we have it at this day. Maury and the Submarine Telegraph. — To Maury also we owe the network of submarine telegraphs which so nearly encircle the world. \ BEOOKE'S DEEP-SEA SOUNDING APPAEATUS. His investigations led him to believe that there was a plateau under the ocean be- tween Newfoundland and Ireland. Congress sent ves- sels to make soundings over the route. They could ascer- tain the comparative shal- lowness of the ocean but not the character of its bed. This difficulty was obviated by a " deep-sea sounding apparatus" invented by John Mercer Brooke of Vir- ginia, which brought up specimens of the materials lying at the bottom of the sea. The plateau was found to be cov- ered with minute shells so small and delicate that any cur- rents or moving animals would have ground them to powder. Here then was the place where a telegraphic cable could lie without danger of injury. Two years after this, in 1858, when the first submarine message had passed between Europe and America, Cyrus Field, by whose energy the cable had been laid, gave the credit where it was due. " Maury," said he at the banquet in New York, " furnished the brains, England gave the money, and I did the work." The United States, for whose commerce and scientific repu- tation he did so much, has never given proper recognition or reward to Maury's admirable and important work. Fillmore's Administration. 331 AUTHORITIES.— Schouler's History of the United States, Vols. IV., V.; Benton's Tiiirty Years in tlie Senate; MeMaster's History of tlie American People, Vol. II.; Epochs of History; Woodrow Wilson's Disunion and Reunion; Alexander Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Sci- ence; Appletou's Encyclopedia; Memoir of Matthew F. Maury by his daughter, Mrs. Corbin. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of Pierce as President. 2. What trouble arose with Austria, aud how was it settled':* 8. Describe the World's Fairs of 1851 aud 1853. 4. The different routes to (-alifornia. 5. What was the attitude of the Abolitionists at this time':' 6. What was the "Underground Railroad':"' 7. What was the Kansas-Neljraska Bill and its reception b'y the country ? 8. Describe the excitement in Boston and elsewhere. 9. What did the Missou- rians do '? 10. Tell of the " reign of terror " in Kansas and John Brown's part in it. 11. Relate the mcident of Brooks and Sumner. 12. What was the Know-Nothing Party? the Republican Party? 13. Who were candidates for the Presidency in 1856 ? 14. Mention some achievements of science. 15. Tell of Maury and his great work. 16. The Brussels Congress. 17. The weather reports. 18. The submarine telegraph. CHAPTER LXII. B UCHA NA jY ' 8 A DMINIS TR A TION. Buchanan Becomes President. — James Buchanan became the fifteenth President, on March 4, 1857. In his inaugural address he approved the principles of the Kansas-Nebraska Bill as being constitutional and as old as free government itself. His administration was one of anxiety and turmoil, arising from difficulties with the Mormons in Utah and the dissensions between the North and the South, which were daily becoming more violent. The Mormons. — The Mormons are a strange, half-heathen sect, which was founded in New York by Joseph Smith in 1830. Smith pretended to have a revelation from heaven and to have found gold plates buried in the ground on which the " Book of Mormon " was inscribed. The new pro})het and his religion attracted followers, and the Mormons, or "Latter-Day Saints" as they called themselves, grew in numbers. They settled first in Ohio, then in Missouri; but were forced to move by the hostility of their neighbors. They then went to Nauvoo in Illinois where they laid the foundations for a splendid temple and became very flourishing. The Land of the Honey Bee.— In 1843 Smith said that he had a revelation telling him that Mormon men could marry as many wives as they chose and that women had no souls until they were married. This doctrine and practice excited the surrounding people, who rose against the Mormons and drove them from Nauvoo. Smith was shot in one of the riots, and the leadership fell to Brigham Young, a strong, resolute, capable man. Finding no rest for his followers east of the Mississippi, Young led the whole band consist- ing of about 20,000 persons from place to place, until at last they fixed themselves near the Great Salt Lake. This re- gion which then belonged to Mexico was called by the new- comers " Deseret," " The Land of the Honey Bee," but is known to us as Utah. It is blessed with a fine climate and has fertile valleys interspersed with sandy desert tracts. Here [ 333 1 334 History of the United States. the Mormons, unmolested by neighbors, became once more very flourishing. Difficulty with the Mormons, 1857. — In 1850 the Territory of Utah was organized by the " Omnibus Bill," as has been told you, and Brigham Young was appointed governor. The principles and habits of the Mormons were not at all those of the other American citizens. Polygamy especially was contrary to the laws of the land and difficulties fre- quently arose between the National and Mormon authori- ties. Young took such active part in driving from Utah the United States officials, that President Buchanan removed him and sent 1,700 troops under Colonel Albert Sidney Johnston, to protect American citizens and compel the Mor- mons to yield to the United States authority. Colonel John- ston and his little army underwent great hardships and suffered many privations, but they accomplished so well the object for which they were sent that Brigham Young at one time thought of conducting his people still farther into the western wilds. Colonel Johnston advised the President to insist on the absolute submission of the Mormons, but Mr. Buchanan sent out commissioners who patched up a peace which was only observed so long as the troops remained. From that time until his death, Brigham Young was the chief authority among the Mormons, no matter who was the nominal governor. Salt Lake City is a large and handsome town. Strenuous laws have been enforced against the Mor- mons by the United States Government, which have done much to check the evils of this so-called religion, and Utah has not been permitted to become a State. Dred Scott Decision, 1856. — The political and sectional strife in the land was not, however, to be quieted. The Supreme Court, the highest legal authority under the Con- stitution, made its celebrated decision in the Dred Scott case late in 1856. Scott and his family had been carried by his master into a territory north of 36° 30' — free under the Missouri Compromise — and he had then been taken back to Missouri as a slave. He claimed his freedom on the ground that he became free by being taken to a free Territory. The Missouri Courts sustained him, but the Supreme Court reversed their decree, and declared that the Missouri Com- promise itself had been contrary to the Constitution, that Buchanan's Administration. 335 the Territories were the common property of all the States, and that the government was bound to protect slave property there as much as houses and lands. That party at the North which favored abolition was furious at thus being placed in the wrong, and threats and denunciations were heard on all sides. The Southern people were of course pleased that the opinion of their great statesman Calhoun, that Congress was bound to protect their rights in the terri- tories, was thus confirmed by the Supreme Court. But the breach was widened not healed by the decision, and sectional strife grew more violent all through Buchanan's administra- tion. Struggle Over Kansas. — The thirty-fifth Congress which met in December organized promptly with Orr of South Carolina as Speaker. The struggle still went on over the admission of Kansas as a slave-holding State. The pro- slavery party had held a convention at Lecompton, had agreed upon a constitution allowing slavery, and now applied for admission as a State. The settlement of the question was postponed for several years ; but it had already occasioned a split in the Democratic party, disastrous in its consequences. A Year of Notable Events, 1859. — This year is memora- ble for the admission of Oregon as a State ; for the death of Washington Irving, the distinguished author who wrote the first American books which ever won a European reputa- tion ; for the most virulent denunciation of the South ever yet made ; and for the first armed effort against the peace and life of her citizens. "Uncle Tom's Cabin." — One of the most potent causes for this outburst of evil passions was a book written by Mrs. Harriet Beecher Stowe of Connecticut, called " Uncle Tom's Cabin." Mrs. Stowe had never been South nor seen slavery and slave-owners as they really were, but she was a violent Abolitionist, and she wrote for an anti-slavery newspaper a story founded upon isolated cases of cruelty and crime picked up from other papers. " Uncle Tom's Cabin " supplied at once a reason and a justification of the intolerance of the Abolitionists, and seemed to give a sort of sacredness to their opposition to the Constitution, to the laws of the land, and the decrees of the Supreme Court. Passion and preju- 336 History of the United States. dice overrode allegiance to the government. In vain the South denied the slanders given broadcast to the world. " Uncle Tom " was republished in England ; it was trans- lated into the European languages, and its caricatures of Southern life were multiplied a thousand-fold by abolition energy and fanaticism. When Mrs. Stowe was pressed to give her authority for the account she gave of the Kentucky and Louisiana planters, she published "A Key" which showed among the millions of slave-holders and their negroes, how few were the instances of wickedness such as she gave to the world as the habitual daily life of the broad South. The book aroused universal indignation at the South ; but the overdrawn statements had won the ear of the civilized world, which refused to hear the South in her own defence. Helper's Manifesto.— While the public mind was thus stirred, another publication endorsed by the Speaker of the House of Representatives, and by sixty-four of the leading Republicans in the House and Senate showed what measures their party was determined to enforce against the South. This Manifesto, written by Hinton Helper of North Carolina and circulated by hundreds of thousands, threat- ened the Southern people with fierce punishment. Their noble men and women were to be visited with proscription and spoliation. None of them were to be allowed to hold office. They were not to be countenanced in society or the church, and were to receive no encouragement nor pay for any service whatever. They must be required not only to free their slaves, but, after thus beggaring themselves, must give each negro sixty dollars. And if they dared to defend themselves against such a scheme, they must pay for it with their lives. Could fifteen sovereign, independent States be expected quietly to submit to the tyranny and subjugation fore-shadowed in this publication ! And yet, the leaders of the North, Messrs. Seward, Chase, Greeley, Colfax, and their coadjutors endorsed Helper's book, John Brown's Raid, 1859. — These threats were followed in October by what is known as " John Brown's Raid." John Brown, the fanatic whom we have seen busy in the troubles in Kansas, conceived the idea that the negroes only wanted opportunity and encouragement to rise and massacre their Buchanan's Administration. 337 masters ; and he laid a plan to afford them this help. Strange to say, his purpose was known by a number of respectable Abolitionists of the North, who not only did nothing to hinder his wicked design, but actually con- tributed large sums of money to purchase arms to render it effectual. The newspapers of the day even averred that Seward, Sumner, Giddings, and Chase were aware of the existence of some such plot. Harper's Ferry where there was a large United States armory was the point chosen for attack. Brown established himself in a cabin in the Mary- land mountains, where he collected hundreds of rifles and pistols, ammunition, clothing, and 1,500 -pikes, made for him in Ohio, which he intended distributing among the slaves who should rise at his summons. His party con- sisted of himself, three sons, and thirteen other white men from the Northern States and Canada, and five negroes from the North. With this force he entered Harper's Ferry and took possession of the armory on Sunday night, October 16th, when there were no workmen in the building ; he also captured the watchman on the great railroad bridge. The plan was, after taking possession of the armory to capture prominent men ; to rouse the negroes to take up arms against their masters, and by terrifying the white Virgin- ians and getting help from sympathizing Northern men, to free the slaves first in Virginia and then throughout the South. As soon therefore as they had taken the armory, some of the party visited the large houses and plantations in the vicinity, carrying off their owners, the slaves, horses, carriages, and wagons. In a short time they had sixty prisoners. But the negroes did not come to their assistance as they had expected, and in their disappointment they began to murder helpless and unsuspecting people. Their first victim was a negro in the railroad employ whom they shot for refusing to join them. The mayor of the town and other citizens of the neighborhood were also killed. Capture and Hanging of Brown. — As soon as the news of the outrage spread, the men in the surrounding country assembled, and an attack was made upon Brown and his party. Some of them escaped to the mountains, the others shut themselves up in an engine-house which was very strong and from which they could fire at their assailants 22 338 History of the United States. without being exposed. The men outside were deterred from a forcible attack on the engine-house by the fear of injuring their fellow-citizens who were within it, as pris- oners. By nightfall about a thousand men had reached the Ferry; and Colonel Robert E. Lee, sent from Washington to put down the raid, had arrived in command of 100 United States troops. Colonel Lee surrounded the engine-house and summoned Brown to surrender. Brown refused to do so, unless he and his men were permitted to go out unharmed and carry all their prisoners into Pennsylvania. Colonel Lee then ordered the building to be carried by assault and after a short time this was done. The doors were burst open and the soldiers marched in. One of them was killed and others wounded. Brown and his sons fought like tigers. The old man was wounded; one of his sons was killed and another mortally wounded. At last the insurgents were overcome. Fifteen of them were slain in the various fights with the citizens and soldiers. Two escaped to Pennsyl- vania but were captured and sent back to Virginia; and five were taken in the engine-house and turned over to the authorities of the State of Virginia. They were put in jail at Charlestown, the county-seat, and given a fair and impar- tial trial. Two of the ablest lawyers of Virginia and one from Boston served as Brown's counsel, and the Honorable D. W. Voorhees from Indiana defended Cook, one of Brown's accomplices. But the charges brouglit against them of treason, murder, and inciting the slaves to insurrection were so absolutely proven that only death by hanging could be awarded them. Brown continued fierce and vindictive to the last. He was hanged on December 2d, and four of his accomplices met the same fate on December 16th. Sympathy with John Brown at the North. — You would suppose that this outrage upon one State would be severely blamed by all the others. On the contrary, the Abolition party of the North was full of praise and sympathy for Brown, who was compared to the Saviour dying for his peo- ple; while Governor Wise of Virginia was likened to Pon- tius Pilate, for allowing law and right to be vindicated. They clamored for the pardon of the fanatic who had striven to carry murder and outrage into thousands of homes. So many threats were made of a rescue that a large number of Buchanan's Administration, < 339 Virginia volunteers were assembled to guard the jail and the gallows until the execution was over. In some of the North- ern cities funeral guns were fired and bells tolled in honor of the murderer, churches held services in which he was extolled as a martyr, and meetings to glorify him and pro- vide aid for his family were numerous. AUTHORITIES.— Schouler's History of the United States, VoI.V. ; Memoir of Albert Sidney Johnston, by his son ; Congressional Record, Johnston's History and Consti- tution of the United States; Von Hoist's Constitutional History of Uie thiited States. Vols VI., VII.; Rhode's History of the United States, Vol. II.; S S. Cox s Tliree Decades of Constitutional LeRislation; Lalor's Cyclopedia; Appleton s Encyclo- pedia; Ridi)ath's Popular History of the United States; Stephens's War between tlie States; Woodrow Wilson's Division and Reunion. QUESTIONS.— 1. Who became President in 1857 ? 2. Relate the origin of the Mormons. 3. Their wanderings and final settlement. 4. What dithculty did the government have with them in 1857 ? 5. Has Utah been allowed to become a State ? 6. What celebrated case came up before tlie Supreme Court in 1856 ? 7. How was it decided ? 8. Tell of the struggle in Kansa-s. 9. What four events of 1859 are next mentioned ? 10. Tell of the effect produced by " Uncle Tom's Cabin." 11. AVhat was Hintou Helper's plan for the South? 12. Tell of John Brown's raid. 18. His capture and execution. 14. How did the Abolitionists consider John Brown ? 15. Look up all the places men- tioned. SUMMARY FOR REVIEWS AND ESSAYS. UNDER THE CONSTITUTION, 1783-1861. Chapters 42-62. The Couutry under the Confederation : The country after the Revohition, 233. Congress helpless, 333. Confederation of 1774, 234. Generosity of Virginia, 234. How to raise money ? 285. First tariff, 1784, 235. Distracted condition of the country, 235. Shays's insurrection 1787, 236. Annapolis convention, 1786, 236, " The Cincinnati," 236. Work of the Continental Congress, 242. Spanish claims, 242. Northwest territory to be free from slavery, 243. Treaties with the Indians, 1787, 243. Settling the West, 243. Fitch's and Rumsey's steamboats, 1787, 244. Making the Constitution : The Federal CJonvention, 1787, 237. Members of the Convention, 238. Meeting of the C'onventiou with closed doors, 238. First compromise, 239. Negro repi'esentation, 239. Second compromise, 240. Abolitk)n of the slave-trade opposed, 240. Other regulations, 240. Fifteen amendments, 241. Ratification of the Constitution, 241. Washington's Administration, 1789-1797 : Beginning of constitutional government, 1789, 244. Washington the first President, 244. Washington's inauguration, 1789, 245. First Federal Congress, 246. Providing a revenue, 247. Protective tariff, 247. Tax on slaves, 247. Thanksgiving day, 1789, 248. ^Hamilton's financial policy, 1790, 248. Petition of the Quakers to abolish slavery, 248. Site for the National Capital, 249. Cession of West North Carolina, 249. Vermont and Kentucky admitted to the Union, 1791 and 1792, 249. Tours of Washington, 249. First census of the United States, 1790, 250. St. Clair's defeat, 250. [ 340 1 Summary for Revieivs and Essays. 341 Washington's Administration, 1789-1797 — Continued: Second Congress, 1791, 351. Aaron Burr, 251. Re-election of Washington and Adams, 1793, 251. Threatened war, 851. Sympathy with France, 253. Citizen Genet, 253. American sliips stopped by the British, 253. Jay's treaty, 353. Navy; Indian war, 1794, 253. Whisliey insurrection, 1794, 253. Washington's Farewell to the People, 179G, 354. Death of Washington, 1799, 354. Adams's Administration, 1797-1801 : Election of John Adams, 354. Administration of Adams, 355. Threatened trouble with France, 355. Alien and sedition laws, 355. Progress of the country; Tennessee admitted to the Union, 179(5, 356. Increase of population, 356. French refugees from Hayti, 257. Yellow fever in Philadelphia and New York, 257. Material development, 257. Whitney's cotton gin, 358. Removal of the Government to Washington, 1800, 358. Lotteries, 259. Education and literature, 359. Increase in the churches, 359. Jefferson's Administration, 1801-1809: Jefferson's election, 1800, 361, His republican simplicity, 361. Jefferson's Cabinet, 261. War with Tripoli, 1803, 263. Decatur and the Philadelphia, 263. Purchase of Louisiana, 1803, 363. Lewis and Clarke's explorations, 1804, 263. New England opposed to the Louisiana purchase, 363. Duel of Hamilton and Burr, 363. Burr's conspiracy, 1805, 364. Commercial troubles, 264. Extinction of the slave-trade; purchase of Indian lands, 265. Ohio admitted to the Union, 1802, 366. Fulton's steamboat, 1807, 366. Madison's Administration, 1809-1817: Madison's election, 1809, 365. Madison's administration, 1809-1817, 366. Tecumseh, 1811, 367. Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811, 367. Increase of the army, 267. War declared against England, 1813, 368. Engagements on land and sea, 368. Raisin River, 1813, 369. The Chesapeake captured, 369. Battle of Lake Erie, 1813, 269. 342 History of the United States. Madison's Administration, 1809-1817 — Continued: Battle of the Tliames, 1813, 270. Fort Mimms, Alabama, 1813, 271. Horseshoe Bend, 1813, 271. Chippewa and Lundy's Lane, 1814, 271. British in Chesapeake Bay, 271. Burning of Washington, 1814, 272. " The Star Spangled Banner." 272. McDonough 3 victory, 1814, 272. General Andrew Jackson fortifies New Orleans, 272. Battle of New Orleans. 1815, 273. Hartford Convention, 1814, 274. Barbary States chastised, 1815, 274. Louisiana and Indiana admitted to the Union, 1812 and 1815, 275. Southern generals, 275. Monroe's Administration, 1817-1825- Monroe's election, 1817, 276. "Era of good feeling," 27(5. Pirates and Indians on the southern border, 276. Jackson's popularity, 277. Cession of Florida, 1819, 277. Growth and prosperity; admission of Mississippi, 1817; Illinois. 1818; Alabama, 1819, 278. Establishment of the University of Virginia, 1819, 265. Sectional hostility, 1820, 278. Southern view of slavery, 279. Slavery guaranteed by the Constitution, 280. Question of Missouri, 280. Missouri and Maine, 280. Missouri C'onipromise ; admission of Maine, 1820; Missouri, 1821, 281. Monroe Doctrine, 282. Lake and ocean steamers, 282. La Fayette's visit, 1824, 282. John Quincy Adams's Administration, 1825-1829: Election of John Quincy Adams, 1825, 283. Erie canal, 1825, 283. Removal of the Cherokees, 1826, 283. Death of Jefferson and John Adams, 1826, 284. " Bill of abominations," 284„ Jackson's Administration, 1829-1837 . Election of Jackson, 1828, 285. Party conventions, 285. Jackson and the " American System," 286. Nullification debate, 1839, 286. Troubles in the Cabinet, 287. Ordinance of Nullification passed, 1832, 287 Tariff compromise, 288. Jackson and the United States Bank, 288. Continued agitation of the slavery question, 289. Efforts for peace, 290. Nat Turner's insurrection, 1831, 290. Increase of petitions, 290. Opening of railroads. 291. Black Hawk war, 1832, 291. Summary for Rcvieios and Essays. 343 Jackson's Administration, 1829-183'? — Continued: Cholera aud other events, 1832-1836, 391. Texas settled ; the Alamo, 300. Massacre of Goliad, 183(5, 301. Battle of Sau Jacinto, 1836, 303. Florida war, 393. Foreign relations, 293. Jackson's farewell, 293. Arkansas admitted to the Union, 1836; Michigan. 1837, 293. Van Buren's Administration, 1837-1841 : Van Buren's election. 1836, 394. Financial crash of 1837, 394. United States Treasury, 295. Canadian insurrection, 395. State Rights resolutions, 1838. 295. Abberton's resolutions, 296. Steamships. 1838. 296. Wilkes's expedition, 296. Smithsonian Institute, 296. Election of Harrison, 1840, 397. Tyler's Administration, 1841-1845 : Death of llarilson, 1841, 297. Tyler becomes President, 1841, 298. Mr. Tyler's vetoes, 299. Dorr's rebellion, 299. John Quiucy Adams and the petitions. 299. C^atastrophe on the Princeton, 1844. 300. Telegraph ; treaty with China. 1844. 300. Oregon question, 300. Annexation of Texas. 1845. 303. Admission of Florida, 1845, 303. Polk's Administration, 1845-1849: "Army of Occupation," 303. Acts of Congress, 1845. 304. Beginning of the Mexican War, 1840. 304. Battle of Palo Alto. 1840, 304. Three armies sent to Mexico, 305. Capture of Monterey. 1846, 305. Fremont's capture of California. 1846. 305. Doniphan's march, 307. Santa Anna's return. 307. Battle of Buena Vista, 1847, 307. Surrender of Vera Cruz, 1847, 309. Cerro Gordo, 309. Advance on Mexico, 310. Chapultepec, 1847, 310. Capture of Mexico, 1847, 310. Peace, 1848, 311. Discovery of gold in California, 1848, 311. Vigilance committees, 313. Iowa, 1840, and Wisconsin, 1848, admitted to the Union, 313. Taylor's Administration, 1849-1850: Progress of the country, 313. Population and industries, 313. 344 History of the United States. Taylor's Administration, 1849-1850 — ConUimed: Schools and churches, 314. Moral unrest, 314. The slavery question, 314. Difficulty of freeing the slaves, 315. Wilmot Proviso, 315. The South and the Territories, 316. Constitutional rights, 316. Strife in Congress, 317. " Omnibus Bill," 317. Debate between Calhoun and Webster, 1850, 318 Death of Calhoun and Taylor, 31^). Fillmore's Administration, 1850-1853: Death of Calhoun and Taylor, 319. The " irrepressible conflict," 319. The Capitol, 330. Reduction of postage, 320. Griimell Arctic expeditions, 1850, 1854, 320. Perry's expedition to Japan, 1852, 320. Lopez's attempt to seize Cuba, 321. Foreign immigration, 321. Immigrants in the Northwest, 321. Immigrants in the South, 323. Deaths of Clay and Webster, 1852, 322. New leaders, 323. Election of Pierce, 1852, 323. Pierce's Administration, 1853-1857: Election of Pierce, 1852, 323. Pierce as President, 324. Trouble with Austria, 324. World's Fairs, 1851 and 1853, 325. Routes to California, 325. Personal liberty laws, 335. Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 1854, 326. Riot in Boston ; " Kansas Bibles," 1854, 336. Reign of terror in Kansas, 1855, 327. John Brown at Ossawotomie, 1856, 327. Brooks and Sumner, 1856, 327. Know-Nothing party, 338. Republican party, 338. Election of Buchanan, 1856, 338. Buchanan's Administration, 1857-1861 : Election of Buchanan, 1856, 338. Achievements of science, 328. Maury and his work, 329. Brussels Congress, 1853, 320. Weather reports, 330. Maury and the submarine telegraph, 330. Buchanan becomes President, 333. The Mormons, 333. The Land of the Honey Bee, 333. Difficulty with the Mormons, 1857, 334. Dred Scott decision, 334. Struggle over Kansas, 335. A year of notable events, 1859, 335. Summary for Reviews and Essays. 345 Buchanan's Administration, 1857-1861 — Continued: " Uncle Tom's Cabin," 335. Helper's manifesto, 33(5. John Brown's raid 1859, 336. Capture and lianging of Brown, 337. Sympathy witii John Brown at the North, 338. The Slavery Question under the Constitution : Negro representation, 239. Second compromise, 240. Abolition of the slave-trade opposed, 240. Northwest Territory to be free from slavery, 243. Tax on slaves, 247. Petition of the Quakers to abolish slavery, 248. Cession of West North Carolina, 249. Whitney's cotton gin, 258. Extinction of the slave-trade, 265. Sectional hostility, 278. Southern view of slaverj% 279. Slavery guaranteed by the CJonstitution, 280. Question of Missouri, 280. Missouri and Maine, 280. Missouri Compromise; admission of Maine, 1820, and of Missouri, 1821, 281. Continued agitation of the slavery question, 289. Efforts for peace, 290. Nat Turner's Insurrection, 1831, 290. Increase of petitions, 290. State Ilights resolutions, 1838, 395. Abberton's resolutions, 296. John Quincy Adams and the petitions, 299. Annexation of Texas, 1845, 302. The slavery question, 314. Dilficulty of freeing the slaves, 315. Wilmot Proviso, 315. The South and the Territories, 316. Constitutional rights, 316. Strife in Congress, 317. "Omnibus Bill," 317. Debate between CJalhouu and Webster, 318. The " irrepressible conflict," 319. Election of Pierce, 1852, 323. Personal liberty laws, 325. Kansas-Ne))raska Bill, 326. Riot in Boston ; " Kansas Bibles," 1854. 326. Reign of terror in Kansas, 1855, 327. John Brown at Ossawotomie, 1856, 327. Brooks and Sumner, 1856, 327. Republican party, 328. Dred Scott decision, 1856, 334. Struggle over Kansas, 335. A year of notable events, 1859, 335. "Uncle Tom's Cabin," 335. Helper's manifesto, 336. John Brown's raid, 1859, 336. Capture and hanging of Brown, 337. Sympathy with John Brown at the North, 338^ CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION, I86I-IS95. CHAPTER LXIII. FORMATION OF THE CONFEDERACY. EflFects of John Brown's Raid, 1859. — The secrecy with which John Brown's operations had been carried on alarmed the whole South, for none knew where he might have ac- complices at work. To defend their homes and States from similar outrage, volunteer companies of soldiers were organ- ized throughout the South, who proceeded to familiarize themselves with military discipline and the use of arms. Congress instituted an inquiry into the case. The more conservative of the Northern members condemned the raid in unqualified terms; but it was evident that very many of their colleagues had strong sympathy with Brown and his determination to do away with slaverj'^, though they would not go so far as openly to approve his methods. Davis's Resolutions, 1860. — Early in this year, Mr. Jeffer- son Davis, of Mississippi, introduced in the Senate a set of resolutions defining the views of the South. These declared that the Constitution had been adopted by the States as in- dependent sovereignties; that it recognized slavery as an important element of power at the South; that each State and its citizens had equal rights in the territories, which the Senate was bound to protect, and with which neither Con- gress nor the legislature of a territory had any power to in- terfere; that when the Territory became a State, its people should decide whether they would countenance or prohibit slavery; and that the constitutional provision for restoring fugitive slaves to their owners, which had been again and again confirmed by Congress, ought to be faitlifully observed and obeyed. These resolutions passed the Senate by a large majority, though some of the Senators maintained that the Constitution did not sanction slavery and that there were no rights in the territories for slave-owners. This last question had come to be the issue between the two sections of the country, [346] Formation of the Confederacy. 347 Election in 1860. — Another presidential election came on during the fall. The Democratic convention was held in Charleston, South Carolina. Had it been united, it might have prolonged the peace of the country for four years more. But the Northern delegates, under the lead of Stephen A. Douglas, could not agree to the Southern views, and the con- vention after much discussion divided into two bodies. The Northern Democrats nominated Douglas and Johnson; the Southern State Rights men nominated John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky and Joseph Lane of Oregon; the "American Party " nominated John Bell of Tennessee and Edward Everett of Massachusetts. Against these three sets of can- didates were the Republican nominees, Abraham Lincoln of Illinois and Hannibal Hamlin of Maine, who represented and endorsed the ultra Republican doctrines that the South had no right to carry slavery into the Territories, and that a tariff for the protection of Northern manufactures must be enacted. This Republican ticket had the majority in the Electoral College, although the popular majority was nearly a million against it. Only sixteen of the thirty-three States voted for it, and not one of these was south of Mason and Dixon's Line, or the Ohio River. For the first time since the formation of the Union, there was to be a sectional Pres- ident, representing a sectional party. Abraham Lincoln, 1860. — Abraham Lincoln was in his fifty-first year. He was of obscure parentage and had re- ceived few advantages of education. His appearance was uncouth and manners awkward, but he was a man of much ability, of strong character, and honest convictions. Shrewd and humorous, outspoken and fearless, a forcible speaker with a great store of anecdotes, he was well fitted to be the successful leader of his party. His political ambition was great. He was at first a Whig, but had been drawn into the Republican ranks by his opposition to slavery and by his doctrine that the Union was older than the States and the Constitution made by them. He had striven to remedy the defects of his education by studying a few books, mainly the Bible, Shakspeare, and Euclid. The first two gave him a use of vigorous English, while the mathematics trained him to close and logical thinking. He had served in Con- gress from niinois and had aspired to the Senate. In a 848 History of the United States. speech in 1858, he had spoken of the Union as a " house divided against itself" which could not stand, and pre- dicted that it must become all free or all slave-holding. Necessity of Secession. — The threats and denunciations against the South uttered in Congress, throughout the North, and in the publications of the day, convinced the Southern States that their only hope for retaining their rights and ABRAHAM LINCOLN. independence was to reclaim the powers they had yielded to the Federal Government in acceding to the Constitution. They saw that that Constitution had been openly and boast- ingly violated by the Northern States, and they felt it their right and their duty to withdraw from the Union. General Washington in his "Farewell Address" had warned the Formation of the Confederacy. 349 country of the evils which must ensue from sectional legis- lation, and events proved the truth of his forebodings. South Carolina Secedes, 1860. — South Carolina summoned a convention of her people as soon as the fact of Mr. Lin- coln's election was ascertained. This convention, on Decem- ber 20th, unanimously passed an " Ordinance of Seces- sion," bv which the State severed her connection with the SECESSION HALL. Union and took into her own hands the rights and pow- ers she had yielded to the Federal Government in 1788. Her example was promptly followed by the Gulf States. Mississippi seceded on January 9, 1861, Florida on January 10th, Alabama on January 11th, Georgia on January 19th, Louisiana on January 26th, and Texas on February 1st. These seven States withdrew from the Union before Mr. Lincoln was inaugurated. Each of them did this for the 350 History of the United States. plainly expressed reasons that the Northern States had again and again violated the provisions of the Constitution, and by Mr. Lincoln's election had declared their purpose to con- tinue so to do, and to refuse to permit the Southern States to exercise the rights expressly reserved to them under such provisions. Mr. Buchanan's Views. — The thirty-sixth Congress met before these acts of Secession had been concluded. Mr. Buchanan, in his message, referred to the alarming condi- tion of the country. He held that no State had the right to withdraw from the Union ; but that, if she did so, there was no power in the Federal Government to coerce her, and he urged Congress to measures of conciliation by mutual concessions. Crittenden Resolution. — In accordance with these sugges- tions, Mr. Crittenden of Kentucky offered, as a proposed amendment to the Constitution, that, since the Supreme Court had pronounced the Missouri Compromise unconsti- tutional, the line named in that compromise — 36° 30' — should be the division between the Territories, north of which they should be absolutely free, but south of which they should be open to the Southern people with their slaves, and should have the right, when formed into States, to retain or reject slavery ; that the slaves like all other jiroperty must be protected ; and that when a fugitive slave was not re- stored to his owner, the full value of such slave must be paid in money. This -proposed amendment was satisfactory to Mr. Davis and the other Southern leaders, and also to Mr. Douglas and the Northern Conservatives, but none of the Northern agitators or supporters of Lincoln would agree to it. Differing Views of the Country. — The Southern States had no desire for war, no intention to trespass on the rights of their sister States. Their only purpose was to assert and vindicate what they believed to be their own. Many of the Northern people also believed in the right of secession and the unlawfulness of coercion. Leading newspapers and prominent politicians in New York and elsewhere avowed that if a State chose to secede, there must be no attempt to force her to remain in the Union. Again and again it was maintained that coercion and strife must be avoided by " compromise or peaceable separation." The demagogues Formation of the Confederacy. 351 and anti-Southern men had determined differently. They were in favor of taking the most extreme measures, some saying tliat "a little blood-letting" would strengthen the Union ; while others affected to believe that the South had neither the courage nor the desire to persist in an indepen- dent course. All of them were resolved to jjush her to the wall. The Southern Leaders. — You are not to suppose that the States which withdrew from the Federal Union were con- rolled and taken out only by the action of hot-headed " fire- JEFFEESON DAVIS. eaters," as their opponents called the decided secessionists. Their councils were directed by the gravest and wisest of their citizens, men who loved the Union and who would gladly have remained in it at any cost, save that of the freedom 352 History of the United States. and honor of their States. They had argued and reasoned and asked for simple justice, on the floors of Congress, from the liands of the stronger half of the United States; and now they believed that there was no hope and no resource for them but in severing their connection from a Union whose predominant section was bent on crushing out their independence. If you will read the farewell speeches of the Senators and Representatives of the seceding States, as one by one they obeyed the calls of their States and took leave of their associates in Congress, you will see how deep and solemn were their feelings and how thoroughly they appreciated the importance of the step the}'' were taking. Organization of the Southern Confederacy, 1861. — Dele- gates from the seceded States met in a Congress at Mont- gomery, Alabama, on February 4th. They drew up a provi- sional constitution for the "Confederate States," and elected Jefferson Davis of Mississippi President and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia Vice-President of the new Confederacy. In proof of their desire for peace, one of their first acts was to send commissioners to Washington to establish peaceable relations with the United States Government; and to ask for a peaceable settlement, upon the basis of right and jus- tice, of all questions which must necessarily arise between the two sections of what had so lately been one Republic. Jefferson Davis. — Jefferson Davis was born in Kentucky on June 3, 1808. In 1828 he was graduated at the Military Academy at West Point and entered the United States Army. He took part in the " Black Hawk War" in the northwest. When that redoubted chief surrendered in 1832, he and his warriors were sent to St. Louis under charge of Lieutenant Davis. In 1835 young Davis resigned from the army and became a cotton planter in Mississippi. When the Mexican War came on, Mr. Davis, who was then a member of Con- gress, was elected colonel of a regiment of Mississippi Volun- teers. He and his command did gallant service especially at the battle of Buena Vista, Avhere he was severely wounded. Upon his return to Mississippi, Mr. Davis was sent to the United States Senate where he remained until the secession of Mississippi, except during President Pierce's administra- tion when he was Secretary of AVar. In this position he did good service in improving the condition of the army THE CONFEDERATE 1860. Greenwich Formation of iJie Confederacy. 353 He was a political follower of John C. Calhoun and a firm advocate of the doctrine of State Rights, but he was also a conservative man and wished and labored to maintain those rights within the Union. As an orator he had no superior. His voice was silvery and his arguments weighty. General Gushing of Massachusetts characterized him in 1858 as "eloquent among the most eloquent in debate, wise among the wisest in counsel, and brave among the bravest on the battle-field." While doing all that he thought consistent with the honor of the South to avoid a disruption of the Union, Mr. Davis considered that by the election of a sectional President the Southern States were forced to secede. His speech on taking leave of the Senate in Washington was said to have moved his opponents to tears. As President of the Southern Confederacy, Mr. Davis found himself in a position of exceeding difficulty. His loyal adherence to con- stitutional liberty prevented him from exercising the arbi- trary authority which proved so efficient in Mr. Lincoln's case. Indeed, the Southern Congress and people would hardly have sustained him in doing so. His conduct through- out the eventful four years showed him to be an earnest, unselfish, devoted patriot, against whom not even the bit- terest enemy could bring any charge to sully the purity of his character or the loftiness of his motives. His after life was one prolonged martyrdom to his country's cause. Peace Congress, 1861. — Vir- ginia, which had yielded more power and given more terri- tory to secure the Union than any other State, was most de- sirous to preserve it now. In February, 1861, an extra ses- sion of her Legislature called a " Peace Congress " from the other States, to which she sent five of her clearest headed and soundest statesmen, one of whom was the venerable Ex- President Tyler. In this assembly twenty-three States par- 22 A. H. STEPHENS. 354 History of the United States. ticipated, some of them hoping to effect an acceptable com- promise. It drew up and presented to Congress resolutions similar in purport to those of Mr. Crittenden, which, like those, were rejected by Congress. There seemed no possi- bility of coming to an amicable settlement of the differences between the disagreeing parties. The Forts in the South. — In the mean time, the necessity of self-defence required the newly organized Confederate Government to take possession of the forts within the terri- tory of the seceded States. These had been built on ground granted by them to the United States solely for their own defence. Now that they had withdrawn from the Union, they considered that this property naturally reverted to them, and they at once took possession of all of it except the de- fences of Charleston Harbor and the forts on the coast of Florida. They also made overtures to the Government at Washington, to obtain possession of the latter without strife. Fort Sumter Garrisoned by the United States. — South Carolina thought she had an assurance from President Buch- anan that no steps would be taken to reinforce the small gar- rison in Charleston Harbor, on condition that she would re- frain from interfering with it. Under orders from the Presi- dent, however, Major Anderson commanding the garrison withdrew it from Fort Moultrie into the stronger position at Fort Sumter, after destroying as far as possible the defences of Fort Moultrie. Mr. Buchanan also attempted to rein- force the garrison by troops sent from the North, but their steamer, Star of the West, was not permitted to enter the har- bor. General Cass, Buchanan's Secretary of State, had re- signed from the Cabinet because Anderson was not promptly reinforced, and now Floyd from Virginia, Secretary of War, resigned because of the attempt to do so. The garrison in Fort Sumter was all this time allowed to supply itself in the Charleston market and to communicate freely with the au- thorities at Washington ; and nothing decisive was done during the brief remainder of Buchanan's term of office. AUTHORITIES.— Schouler's History of the United States, Vol. V.; Congressional Re- cord; Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Von Hoist's Con- stitutional History of the United States, Vols. VI., VII.; Rhode's History of the United States. Vol. II.; S. S. Cox's Three Decades of Constitutional Legislation; Lalor's Cyclopedia; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Raymond's Life of Abraham Lincoln; Ridpath's Popular History of the United States; Jefferson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Bledsoe's Is Davis a Traitor? Stephens's War between the Lincoln's Administration. 355 states; E. A. Pollard'is Lost Cause; Woodrow Wilson's Division and Reunion; Curry'a Southern States; McPherson's Political History of the Rebellion. QUESTIONS.— 1. What were the effects of John Brown's raid? 2. What were Mr Davis's resolutions which were passed by the Senate in 1860 ? 3. Tell of the candidates and the election for President in 1860. 4. Give the life of Abraham Lincoln. 5. What made secession necessary? 6. What State seceded first ? 7. When ? 8. IIow many and which States soon followed her example ? 9. Tell Mr. Buchanan's views. 10. What was the Crittenden Reso- lution? 11. The different view at the North and at the South? 13. "What sort of men were the Southern leaders? 13. Tell of the formation of the "Confederate States." 14. Who were elected President and Vice-President ? in. Give the life of Jefferson Davis. 16. Tell of Virginia's efforts for peace. 17. What was done with the forts in the South ? 18. Who was in command at Fort Sumter in Charleston Harbor ? 19. Find the places on the map. CHAPTER LXIV. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION— BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WAR, Lincoln's Inaugural Address. — Mr. Lincoln was inaugu- rated on March 4, 1861. He had made the last part of the journey to Washington with haste and secrecy, because of a rumor that he would be assassinated. The same appre- hension caused the procession to the Capitol in Washington to be guarded by United States soldiers under command of General Scott, the chief officer of the Army. In his inau- gural address the new President took the strong ground that "the Union of the States is perpetual"; that "no State can lawfully get out of the Union "; that he considered the Union unbroken, and should "take care that all the laws of the Union should be faithfully executed in all the States." These and other expressions were thought to be of such a menacing tone that the Virginia Convention, still in ses- sion, sent a delegation to Mr. Lincoln to ask him to define his intentions more clearly. His reply was that he con- sidered the military posts and property in the seceded States as still belonging to the United States, and that he should use his best ability to "repossess" them. This was a plain declaration of his intention to attempt coercion, at least to a limited extent. 356 History of the United States. The Cabinet. — The Cabinet at Washington was composed of men known to be extreme in their views and feelings against the South. William H. Seward of New York, Sec- retary of State; Salmon P. Chase of Ohio, Secretary of the Treasury, Simon Cameron of Pennsylvania, Secretary of War; Gideon Welles of Connecticut, Secretary of the Navy; Caleb Smith of Indiana, Secretary of the Interior; Mont- gomery Blair of Maryland, Postmaster-General; Edward Bates of Missouri, Attorney-General. The commissioners from the Southern Confederacy made the same application for a recognition and peaceable settlement of their differ- ences to Mr. Lincoln that they had done to his predecessor. The c[uestion of reinforcing and "repossessing" the South- ern forts was attracting much attention. Mr. Douglas of Illinois who had no sympathy with secession, advocated in the Senate the withdrawal of the United States troops from all of them except those at Key West and the dry Tortugas. He did this on the ground that the forts could not be held or recaptured unless it was determined to subjugate the States in which they were situated, for whatever power con- trolled those States must necessarily have possession of the forts. He said that, however much he regretted it, a South- ern Confederacy did actually exist, and that he and his party were in favor of establishing peaceable relations with it. General Scott, Commander-in-chief of the Army, also urged the evacuation of the Southern forts, and Major Anderson commanding at Sumter advised that his garrison should be withdrawn. Plan to Reinforce Fort Sumter, 1861. — But these coun- sels were not allowed to prevail. Mr. Seward, Secretary of State, put the Southern Commissioners off from time to time ; but assurances from him were given to Judge Camp- bell from Alabama, a Justice of the Supreme Court, first, that Sumter would be evacuated; then, that "faith as to Sumter would be fully kept"; and then that he must " wait and see." While the commissioners were thus kept in suspense, news was received at Charleston that an expe- dition was fitting out at New York to bring provisions and reinforcements to Sumter. A messenger was also sent to notify the governor of South Carolina that " an attempt would be made to supply Fort Sumter with provisions, FEDERAL GENERALS. Lincobi's Administration. 357 P, G. T. BEAUREGARD, LA. peaceably if they could, forcibly if they must " ; and that if this was not resisted, there would be no effort to rein- force the garrison " without further notice." This notice was, no doubt, to be given when the armed vessels with troops on board had reached the harbor. A storm delayed the ships, and this gave time for the Confederate Govern- ment to direct the authori- ties at Charleston to demand the surrender of Fort Sum- ter. Accordingly, on the night of April 11th, General Beauregard summoned Ma- jor Anderson to surrender. This he promptly refused to do, but added that he would evacuate the fort on the 15th, if he did not before that " re- ceive instructions from his government, or additional sup- plies." Bombardment of Fort Sumter an Act of Self -Defence. — The " Relief Fleet " of eight armed vessels, with a number of cannon and several hundred sol- diers on board, was then off the coast, and was only deterred from entering the harbor by an adverse gale of wind. There was no time for delay, and Beauregard notified Anderson that his batteries would open on Sumter at half-past four o'clock on the morning of April 12th. This was done, and the bombardment con- tinued for about thirty-three hours, when the garrison surrendered. A remarkable fact attending this fierce and prolonged cannonading, was that no one was injured by it, though the fort was almost battered to pieces and set on fire. One of the garrison was killed and others were r-x fc^ FIRI.\(; ON FORT SUMTKR. 358 History of the United States. wounded by the explosion of one of their own guns. For this firing upon Sumter, the South has been charged with " beginning the War." In fact, tlie War began when the Washington government sent armed vessels and troops to enter Charleston Harbor, and the attack on Sumter was purely in self-defence. The Struggle for Southern Independence Necessary. — Be- fore we go into the story of the desperate and bloody strug- gle for Southern Independence, let us review the causes which made it necessary. The charge is usually made that it was undertaken by the South for the preservation of slavery, and that it was intended to bring about a re-open- ing of the African slave trade. This is untrue. You have seen that from the first there had been differences of opinion as to whether the States or the Union were the source of power. The Northern and Southern interests had always been opposed to each other. The protective tariffs required to foster Northern manufactures were, without exception, injurious and obnoxious to the South, which always con- tended against them. Centralization and State Rights. — Besides this, there had always been two parties under various names, one of which held that the Constitution favored " centralization " or giving the largest powers to the National Government ; the other that the States, as sovereign and independent, had abso- lute inherent rights which the Constitution recognized and which it was intended and bound to protect. The original preference of the North for a strong central government was increased, as I have before said, by the large influx of foreign population, which had no Slate attachments nor State pride, and which gloried in the National Govern- ment as being partly regulated by themselves. A large party in the Southern States had always been strong in their adherence to Mr. Jefferson's views of their rights, and never hesitated to avow and defend them. Slavery Recognized by the Constitution. — One of the rights, on the recognition of which the Constitution was founded, and which it was bound to protect, was that of holding slaves. When the Constitution was adopted in 1787, slavery existed in almost all the States. Its disappearance in New England and the other Northern States was not only a mat- LincoIn^s Administration. 359 ter of sentiment but one of interest. Negro labor did not pay there, as it did in the South, and was therefore trans- ferred to the warmer climate. Many statesmen held that slavery was inexpedient and politically injurious; but that it was morally wrong was rarely advanced against it, until William Lloyd Garrison and his followers denounced it as '* the sum of all iniquity," and at the same time, with a can- dor for which they are to be commended, acknowledged that the Constitution favored it, and was a " covenant with death, and a league with hell," and must be abandoned. After a while, the politicians thought it wise and prudent to take ad- vantage of the abolitionist doctrine of "the sin of slavery," and engrafted it into their creeds and platforms as a popular catchword to increase the opposition to the South, which was aggravated by a growing jealousy of her civilization and prosperity. Views of the Southern People. — This outcry against the sin of slavery had made the Southern people consider the subject, and they had reached the deliberate conclusion that it was not contrary to the law of God. Like all human in- stitutions, it had evils connected with it, but they believed them less than those of any other system of labor. Under its influence they saw hundreds of thousands of African savages civilized and Christianized; and many of them thought it the greatest missionary agent the world had ever known. The kindest and most affectionate relations existed between the slaves and their owners. A cruel or neglectful master or mistress was rarely found; and where an overseer on a distant plantation ill-used or over-worked the negroes under his charge, he generally proved to be a man whose treatment of wife and children would have been an equal argument for the abolition of family or parental relationship. The sense of responsibility pressed heavily on the slave- owners, and the rule among them was to do the best possible for the physical and religious welfare of their people. They did not consider the bondage in which the negroes were held a hardship or wrong to them, as they were fed, clothed, lodged, and cared for, better than any other menial class on the globe. I am not apologizing for slavery nor defending it. I am telling you how the noble-minded, patriotic, reli- gious people of the South looked on it in 1861. 360 History of the United States. Mr, Lincoln's Views. — Mr. Lincoln himself was, in the beginning, averse to having the question of slavery consid- ered as one of superior importance among the causes of the War. He admitted that the right to hold slaves was expressly guaranteed by the Constitution, which he declared himself most anxious to uphold. Later on he proclaimed that eman- cipation had become " a military necessity," on which ground he proceeded to act. Slavery Under the Confederacy. — The re-opening of the slave-trade was expressly forbidden by the Constitution of the Confederate States, which declared that no slaves should be brought into them from anywhere else. And while that Constitution gave slave-holders the express right to carry their slaves into any Territory belonging to the Confed- eracy, it also provided that when the Territory became a State it should be slave-holding or free, according to the will of its citizens. War Not to Preserve Slavery. — Not so much to preserve or extend slavery, nor to have more power to reclaim their fugitive slaves — which must be more difficult to do from a foreign country than from sister States — did the Southern States secede from the Union. They took the momentous step, because for years they had striven in vain to secure and maintain the rights assured to them under the Constitution. The Northern States had taken their stand against the equal rights of all the States in the possession of the Territories. They were not shaken in their opposition by the decision of the Supreme Court against them, and proceeded to mani- fest their utter disregard of it or anything contrary to their determination to control the government according to their own will. The election of Mr. Lincoln by a party, fornled on the ground of hostility to them, 1)rought these differences to a crisis, and the South took her affairs into her own hands and left the Union. Even her enemies are constrained to acknowledge that the rights she claimed were hers under the Constitution and to justify their own action by an appeal to what they call "the Higher Law." AUTHORITIES.— Schouler's History of the TJnitecJ States, Vol. V.; Congressional Record; Johnston's History and Constitution of the United States; Von Hol?t's Con- stitutional History of the United States, Vols. VI., VII. ; Rhode's History of the United States, Vol. II.; S. S. Cox's Three Decades of Constitutional Legislation; Lalor's Cyclopedia; Raymond's Life of .Abraham Lincoln; Ridpaths Popular History of the United States; Jefferson Pavis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Liricoln's Administration, 1861. 361 Bledsoe's Is Davis a Traitor?; Stephens's War Between the States; E. A. Pollard's Lost Cause; Woodrow Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Curry's Southern States ; Mc- Pherson's Political History of the Rebellion. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of Mr. Lincoln's inaugural address. 2. His Cabi- net. 3. "What was said about the Southern forts ? 4. What was done about Fort Sumter? 5. Who was the Federal commander? 6. AVho was the Confederate commander at Charleston? 7. "What demand did he make of Major Anderson ? 8. With what result? 9. EWd the South liegin the war? 10. Describe the firing on Fort Sumter. 11. Explain how the struggle was necessary. 12. AVhat two parties had always existed? IB. What did the Abolitionists call the Constitution because it allowed slavery ? 14. Give the views of the Southern people. 15. Mr. Lincoln's views. 16. What did the Con- federate Constitution say of slavery ? 17. Was the war fought in order to preserve slavery ? CHAPTER LXV. LINCOLN-' 8 ADMINISTRATION. CONTINUED.— 1861. Call for 75,000 Men, 1861. — Fort Sumter surrendered on April 14th; and on the 15th, President Lincohi issued a pro- clamation calling upon the several States to furnish 75,000 troops " to suppress combinations in the seceded States too powerful for the law to contend with " ; and summoning an extra session of Congress to meet on the 4th of July. The effect of this proclamation was great. The " War Govern- ors " of the Northern States were mostly men of strong char- acter and pronounced views, who shared Mr. Lincoln's opin- ions and approved his plans. Some of them had taken prompt steps to put their States in fighting trim, and readily responded to this call for troops to coerce their " erring sis- ters." On the Southern States still remaining in the Union, the effect was quite different. "Honest John Letcher," the patriotic governor of Virginia, at once replied to Mr. Lin- coln that the State would furnish no soldiers for any such purpose; and similar replies were made by the governors of Kentucky, North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas. Other States Secede. — The Virginia Convention was made up, for the most part, of Union-loving men, who had steadily refused to have the question of secession brought to a vote. But when they were forced to decide between taking up arms against their Southern sisters or withdrawing from the Undon, they chose the latter; and, on the night of April 362 History of the United States. 17th, passed an Ordinance of Secession, by a large majority. The members opposed to it were principally from the west- ern part of the State where there were many Northern set- tlers, whose opinions were like those of Ohio and Pennsyl- vania. North Carolina, Tennessee, and Arkansas soon fol- lowed Virginia's example; and all four of them joined the Southern Confederacy. Maryland, Kentucky, Missouri, and Delaware were also slave-holding States, but they never seceded. The first three attempted to remain neutral, but were forcibly brought under the Federal power, though each gave many soldiers to the Southern army and had fierce bat- tles fought on its soil. Under the sanction of the governor of Maryland, many members of the legislature of the State were imprisoned by order of the Secretary of War and Gen- eral McClellan, to prevent their passing an ordinance of secession. Missouri w^as largely in favor of secession, but the Northern politicians were too strong to permit it, though they could not prevent her becoming a bloody battle-ground. Delaware sympathized with the North. Disparity Between the North and the South. — The open- ing of the war found both parties unprepared for a pro- longed struggle, but the North, with more than 20,000,000 of people,, had a regular army, though small and scattered ; arsenals ; manufactories of arms ; powder mills ; an organized navy ; and, by its outcry against slavery and rebel- lion, soon enlisted the sympathy of almost all the world. The Soutli, with only 9,000,000 people, more than 3,000,000 of them negroes, had neither army nor navy, neither manu- SAMUEL COOPER, VA. jy , • p 1 Ml /^ lactones oi arms nor powder mills. Gene- ral Floyd, Secretary of War under Buchanan, after the John Brown alarm, had given the Southern States, as their share of arms in the arsenals, a number of indifferent muskets and some cannon ; but these were nothing like enough to supply their soldiers. Confederate Soldiers. — In two respects the Confederacy was equal to the United States — the ability and character of her officers and the almost universal devotion of her people. With few exceptions, the Southern officers of the Army and Navy felt it their highest duty to devote their services to Lincoln's Administration, 1861. 363 their native States. They were among the best in their dif- ferent lines, and proceeded at once to give discipline and efficiency to the untried and untrained soldiers put under their authorit3^ General Samuel Cooper, the Adjutant and Inspector-General of the United States Army, resigned and accepted the same position under the Confederacy. Robert E. Lee and Joseph E. Johnston of Virginia, and Albert Sid- ney Johnston, a native of Kentucky but a citizen of Texas, were the acknowledged lead- ers among the numbers of officers who at once took sides with their States. Their aEility and experi- ence placed them in the most responsible positions. Lee was immediately made Commander-in-chief of the A^irginia forces ; Joseph E. Johnston was put in com- mand at Harper's Ferry, and A11)ert Sidney John- ston, who came from Cali- fornia to Richmond to offer his sword to the Confede- racy, was given the chief military authority in the West. The soldiers them- selves were of every rank and age. "The contagion of a generous patriotism " seized the whole people from the Potomac to the Rio Grande, and the lowly and the well- born, old men and beardless boys, were eager to defend their country. The women of every degree, mothers, wives, sis- ters, and sweethearts, shared in the enthusiasm, and with tears on their faces, but unfaltering courage in their hearts, prepared their loved ones to join the army. Harper's Ferry and the Gosport Navy-Yard. — Thus, when the Confederate States government called for troops, it met with a quick response everywhere throughout the South. Vir- ginia made haste to take possession of the armory at Harper's LEAVING HOME. 364 History of the United States. Ferry, and the Gosport Navy Yard at Norfolk. But the Federal officers holding these posts set fire to them and de- stroyed a great quantity of arms, ammunition, and machin- ery, before abandoning their commands. Several ships at the Navy Yard were scuttled and sunk, but a great number of cannon and other materials were found uninjured when it was taken by the Virginians. A number of citizens had approached Governor Letcher some weeks earlier, offering to capture and hold Fortress Monroe for the State of Virginia. But the governor, like the whole State, was making every effort to preserve the Union by compromise and concilia- tion. He refused to countenance any breach of loyalty to the Government at Washington, so long as Virginia contin- ued one of the United States; and he assured the persons proposing to seize Fortress Monroe that he should consider such an attempt as treason and should punish it as such. When the State did secede, the fort had been garrisoned so strongly that it could not be taken. The First Blood Shed, 1861.— The first blood shed during the war was in Baltimore, on the 19th of April. Troops from Massachusetts and Pennsylvania were hurrying to Washing- ton in response to Mr. Lincoln's call. Citizens of Baltimore, indignant at sight of soldiers in their streets on their way to attack the Southern States, attempted to oppose their passage through the city. Unarmed, as they mostly were, they could effect very little, but the soldiers fired into the mob and several persons were killed. The bridges north of the city were then burned, and such determined opposition was shown to Mr. Lincoln's policy, that another route was chosen for bringing soldiers to Washington. But Baltimore was severely punished for the outbreak. Her civil officers were arrested and imprisoned. The right of Habeas Corpus was suspended and a military government set over the city, in defiance of the laws of Maryland. Preparation for War. — In the mean time, warlike prepara- tions went on all over the country, in the North and in the South. Virginia troops occupied Harper's Ferry on April 18th, and companies and regiments were ordered to that point as fast as they could be equipped. It was plain that Virginia, lying close to Washington, was to be the battle- ground; and, as soon as she formed an alliance with the -[gNCSTREET- CONFEDERATE GENERALS. Lincohi's Administration, 1861. 365 Southern Confederacy, Southern troops were sent forward to Harper's Ferry with all speed. Mr. Lincoln's Proclamations. — In addition to the procla- mation calling for 75,000 volunteers, Mr, Lincoln in the next few weeks issued others. The first declared that all Southern ports were blockaded, and that they would be guarded by United States war vessels to prevent any ships from entering or leaving them. One ordered an increase of the Federal Army to 64,748 soldiers, and of the Navy to 18,000 seamen; another suspended the writ of Habeas Corpus, the great protection of individual liberty, in certain military districts; and others directed that Southern privateersmen should be treated as pirates. These proclamations were all in violation of the Constitution, which gave no such authority to the President. But Mr. Lincoln had no hesitation in his methods. He had the power in his own hands, and he used it to effect his purposes, leaving it to Congress to ratify his action when it should meet. The Blockade. — His promptness added much to the Fede- ral strength. The blockade of Southern ports prevented European vessels from bringing to them, in exchange for their cotton, the supplies of all sorts so greatly needed in the Confederacy, and made it very hazardous for any ships to attempt such service. The Southern officers in command of ships on foreign service, though they came home to re- sign and share the fortunes of their States, did not suffi- ciently understand the progress of events to bring their vessels into the Southern harbors. These vessels might have been considered as rightly belonging to the South as her share of the Navy. But this view was taken too late to be of any service, and, with scores of naval officers, she had no ships for them to command. Suspending the right of Habeas Corpus put every man in the power of his enemies, especially when subordinate commanders were empowered to order such suspension. There was no redress under the law, and many a man was arrested and thrown into prison without understanding what offence was charged against him. The position with regard to privateers had to be abandoned, because England would not consent to it. Immensity of the Struggle. — It will be impossible within the limits of this book to give you a detailed account of all 366 History of the United Slates. the events of this momentous war. I shall, however, try to present a general view of the gigantic struggle, and tell of the most important and decisive battles. The frontier of the Confederacy was so extended; there were so many vul- nerable points; and the resources brought to bear against her were so enormous, that the story of the whole seems almost incredible. But though there was severe fighting in many different places which bore hard upon the people of those regions; and though the trials, privations, and sorrows of the war were felt throughout the whole South, Virginia, from the first, had to bear the brunt of the strife. On her soil were fought the most bloody battles; and over her fair fields swept continuously the storm of destruction and devastation. Confederate Capital Removed to Richmond, Virginia, 1861. In the month of May, the State of Virginia formally ratified the Ordinance of Secession, and, directly afterwards, the Government of the Confede- racy was removed from Montgomery to Richmond, which was the Capital of the New Republic until the close of the war. All the troops which could be raised and equipped and spared from home defence, were brought to Virginia as speedily as possible. The North also made tremendous prepara- tions; so that by July 1st they had 300,000 men en- rolled. These were dis- patched to different points, but the largest part were to be directed against Virginia, which was threatened on the north, the east, and the west. Greatness of the Struggle Not Realized. — But with all this enthusiasm and gather- ing of soldiers, few persons realized the magnitude or anti- cipated the length of the struggle. The North believed that EECEPTION BY PRESIDENT AND MRS. DAVIS. Lincoln's Administration, 1861. 367 the South would not fight and could not hold its own in face of the enormous odds against it; while the South thought that there were many friends to constitutional liberty among the Northern people, who would somehow jnoderate the hos- tility of their neighbors. She believed her cotton essential for the commerce and comfort of the world, and relied much upon its value to neutralize the blockade and to procure for her the recognition and support of France and England. She thought that when once her firm determination to defend herself was proved, the righteousness of her cause would be acknowledged and that she would be permitted to govern herself peaceably. A proof of this general misunder- standing of the actual condition of affairs, is the fact that most of the volunteers in the Northern army were enlisted for three months, or a hundred days only; while the South- ern soldiers entered the army for six months or " until the close of the war," which was understood to mean a shorter period. Difficulty of Equipping the Armies.* — The Federal Govern- ment with all its power, with its great manufactories of all sorts, and with the markets of the world open to it, found it difficult to prepare and equip in a short time the large bodies of men in its camps. In the South, with no manu- factories or facilities for obtaining supplies from abroad, the difficulty was far greater. The old-fashioned guns in the Southern arsenals, and those captured from the United States troops in Texas, did not provide arms for the home defences and any considerable force in tlie field. There was no supply of powder and ammunition even for these, and no equipments for cavalry and artillery. Ail these deficien- cies made the raising and preparing of armies for defence a work of great labor and anxiety. Enterprise of the South. — A large number of guns, am- munition, and military supplies were ordered from the North and from Europe, but the strict blockade prevented most of them from reaching their destination. The Confederate Government and people exerted wonderful energy and inge- nuity to supply these wants. The machinery for making guns had been little injured in the burning of Harper's Ferry. It was quickly removed to Richmond and to Fayetteville, N. C, and j^ut to work. The large iron foundry at the Trede- 368 History of the United States. gar Works in Richmond was converted into a manufactory of field artillery ; and smaller establishments for the same purpose were opened at New Orleans and at Nash- ville, Tennessee. A con- siderable supply of sul- phur, stored in New Or- leans for the use of the sugar refineries, was at once utilized for making powder. Nitre for the same purpose was ob- tained from cellars and caves, and from beds constructed to develop it in many places. Labora- t o r i e s and workshops were opened to furnish gun-caps and accoutrements of all sorts. Small powder mills were set up at different points, and a large one was established by the Government at Augusta, Georgia^ Wagon shops and harness makers were employed to make suitable transportation and harness for the artillery. Southern women met in "Aid Societies " and made tents, clothing, haversacks, and caps for the soldiers. Every one everywhere did the best possible to assist in the defence of the South. But this all took time. In the first months of the war, only the rudest appliances could be made use of; and, as materials and manufactories improved, other diffi- culties still more serious hampered and crippled the be- leagured Confederac3\ CONFEDERATE FLAG. AUTHORITIES.— Sehonler'g History of the United States, Vol. V.; Memoirs of Albert Sidney Johnston by William Preston Johnston; Congressional Record; John- ston's History and Constitution of the United States ; Von Hoist's Constitutional His* tory of the United .states. Vols. VI., VII.; Rhode's History of the United States, Vol. II.; S. S. Cox's Three Decades of Constitutional Legislation; Lalor's Cyclopedia; Raymonds Life of Abraham Lincoln ; Ridpath's Popular History of the United States ; Jellerson Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Bledsoe's Is Davis a Traitor?; Stephens's War between the States; E. A. Pollard's Lost Cause; Woodro-w Wilson's Division and Reunion ; Curry's Southern States; McPherson's Political His- tory of the Rebellion. QUESTIONS.— 1 . What was the effect of the fall of Fort Sumter ? 2. Which four States next seceded 'i 3. Tell of the great disparity in resources between the North and the South. 4. In what were they equal? 5. Mention some of the Southern militarj- leaders. 6. What of the private soldiers? 7. What foi-ts did Virginia take ? 8. Where is Fortress Monroe ? 9. Where was the Lincoln's Administration, 1861. 369 first blood shed ? 10. Tell of the preparations for war. 11. What proclama- tlous did Mr. Lincoln make ? 12. What is said of the blockade in the South ? 18. The immensity of the strng,t,'le ? 14. To what city was the Confederate Capital now moved? 15. How long did people think the war would last? 16. Was it easy to equip the armies ? 17. Tell of the enterprise of the South. CHAPTER LXVI. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1861. The Armies in Virginia. — Virginia, which was the first battle-ground, was threatened by four different armies. A large one was assembled at Wash- ington ; another under General Patterson, on the upper Potomac ; a third commanded by General Butler, around Fortress Monroe ; while a fourth under General Mc- Clellan, was to operate in the northwestern part of the State along the line of the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad; about 100,000 men in all. To meet these in- vading forces there were about 15,000 men at Harper's Ferry under General Joseph E. John- ston : 20,000 at Manassas Junc- tion, thirty miles from Washing- ton, under General Beauregard ; 8,000 near Yorktown under Gen- eral Magruder ; about the same number in western Virginia ; and a few thousand at Norfolk, and along the lower Poto- mac ; some 65,000, most of whom were indifferently armed and scantily supplied with accoutrements, clothing, and tents. First Blood Shed in Virginia. — On May 24th a detachment of Federal soldiers crossed the Potomac at Washington and encamped on Virginia soil. Colonel Elsworth, of the New York Fire Zouaves, rushed into a hotel at Alexandria and tore down a Confederate flag which was floating from the roof. For this outrage upon his house, Jackson, the pro- 23 CONFEDEKATK BATTLE FLAG. 170 History of the United States. prietor of the hotel, shot Elsworth dead, and was in return killed by the New York soldiers. This was the first blood spilled in Virginia. Big Bethel. — On June 10th a fight occurred near Big Bethel Church between Yorktown and Hampton. Butler's men, 3,000 strong, attacked 1,200 Confederates, and were repulsed and routed with a loss of seventy-six men, while Magruder had one man killed and seven wounded. Union Ascendancy in Western Virginia. — The mountainous and difficult character of western Virginia, and the Union preferences of a considerable part of the population, made it impossible for the Confederate forces sent thither to take possession of the country. General McClellan had the wealthy and populous States of Ohio and Indiana at his back, and, led by residents of the region along the shortest and easiest roads, was able with his greatly superior numbers, to outflank, surround, and force the Confederates from their fortified positions. Battle of Rich Mountain. — On July 11th General Rose- crans got in rear of the Confederate army on Rich Moun- tain, and after heavy fighting compelled it to abandon its in- trenched camp. In the retreat through the rough country where no food could be obtained, General R. S. Garnett, the com- mander, was killed; Colonel Pe- gram, second in command, was captured; and their forces were defeated and demoralized. Else- where there were some small Confederate successes; and Gen- eral H. A. Wise in the Kanawha Valley repulsed superior num- bers of Federal troops in several encounters. General Robert E. Lee Sent to Western Virginia. — After General Garnett's death. Gen- eral Robert E. Lee was sent to organize the Southern troops in western Virginia. Jealousy between subordinate com- B. 8. GABNKTT, VA. Lincoln's Administration, 1861. ' 371 manders, however, added to the inaccessible country, the unfriendly people, the difficulty of obtaining supplies, and the constantly superior numbers of the enemy, combined to render even Lee's skill and efficiency unavailing; and, at the close of the campaign, the whole of nortwestern Virginia and the Kanawha Valley remained in possession of Federal troops. General Johnston at Harper's Ferry. — General Johnston, at Harper's Ferry, made strenuous efforts to organize and discipline the new troops sent to him from all parts of the South. To supply the deficiencies of accoutrements, the " manufacture of cartridge-boxes and belts was ordered in the neighboring towns and villages. Cartridges were made of powder, furnished by Governor Letcher, and lead found at the place or procured in the neighborhood. Caps in small quantities were smuggled from Baltimore. Caissons were constructed by fixing roughly made ammunition chests on the running parts of farm wagons. Horses and harness of various kinds for the artillery, and wagons and teams for field transportation, were collected in the surrounding coun- try; and the work of removing the machinery of the armory was continued." His work there thoroughly completed, Johnston evacuated Harper's Ferry on June 15th, and moved his army further up the Potomac, where he could more effectually check the advance of General Patterson. He then marched his forces backwards and forwards, and ma- neuvred them so that he made Patterson believe them many more than they really were. Impatience of the North. — After some weeks of inactivity, the North began to clamor that some forward movements should be made. To satisfy this demand for active opera- tions, 35,000 men under General McDowell were sent from Washington to force Beauregard from his position at Manas- sas, and then march upon Richmond. When this movement was ascertained. General Johnston was ordered to bring his men with all speed from the Valle}' to reinforce Beauregard at Manassas. Slipping away without Patterson's knowledge, Johnston hastened by forced marches across the Shenan- doah River and the Blue Ridge Mountains, and joined Beau- regard with part of his command on July 20th. Battle of First Manassas, 1861. — The Southern army. lay along the heights south of Bull Run, which they had 872 History of the United States. strengthened with earthworks. Beauregard's plan, to which Johnston agreed, was to move with his right against the enemy's left, so as to turn his flank, and get between him and Washington. But on the morning of the 21st, before this movement could be executed, the Federal army advanced and had to be met. McDowell threatened Beauregard's right strongly enough to detain the forces there, while his main army was pressed forward on the left in the hope of striking the Confederates on that flank, and getting posses- sion of the Manassas Gap Railroad. This movement of the Federal army, so contrary to the plans and expectations of the Confederate commanders, made it necessary for them to effect a new and difficult disposition of their forces, by taking a defensive position at right angles with bull Run and their original line. Their force, according to General Beaure- gard's Report, consisted of nearly 22,000 men of his own army, with 29 cannon; and 6,000 of Johnston's army with 20 guns. Against these moved the Federal army of 35,000 men with 49 guns. " Stonewall" Jackson at Manassas.— As soon as it was cer- tain that a strong attack was to be made on the Confederate left, the thin line of troops stationed there was strengthened by Johnston's 6,000 soldiers and 20 cannon, mostly six-pounders, and here the battle raged fiercely throughout the hot summer day. Backwards and for- wards, upon the plateau around the Henry House, pressed and retreated the opposing brigades. The first ad- M vance of the Confederates was driven back by the superior numbers and heavier guns of the Union troops. Bee, in exhorting his weary and wounded South Carolinians to resist the oncoming columns of the enemy, pointed to some Vir- ginians under General T. J. Jackson just from the Shenan- doah Valley, with the exclamation, "There stands Jackson like a stone wall ! " Behind this living wall the retreating Caiplinians rallied bravely, but their heroic leader fell dead in their midst. Three times Rickett's splendid battery of BAKNARD Lincoln's Administration, ISOl. 373 United States artillery was captured by the Southerners and retaken by the Northern troops. From early morning until 3 P. M., the struggle for the plateau above Young's Branch continued. General Kirby Smith's Advance. — Johnston's 6,000 men with less than 8,000 of the army of the Potomac, fought for five hours and had repulsed five ineffectual efforts of their assailants to drive them from the field. At 3 o'clock fresh Federal troops made another effort to flank the Confederates "there stands JACKSON LIKE A STONE WALL!" by pushing still farther to the right. But at this moment General Kirby Smith, with 1,700 men from the Valley, ar- rived most opportunely on the field. Hearing the heavy firing, General Smith had stopped the train which was carry- ing himself and men to Manassas Junction, and had taken the shortest course towards the battle. Rushing forward, these newcomers struck the Federal advance on its flank with a destructive musketry fire. The Federals had not ex- pected to meet with any resistance, and were surprised and alarmed to find a fresh body of troops opposing them. Rout of the Federal Army. — At this same time, a forward 374 History of the United States. movement a] I along Beauregard's front succeeded in driving the Federals entirely from the plateau for which both sides had fought stoutly. A last effort to extend the Federal right was foiled by Early who came hurrying with three regiments from the other end of the Confederate lines. The assailing forces were everywhere driven back. The Confed- erates pressed hard upon them with the bayonet. Stuart and other cavalry leaders rode upon them with shouts and sabre cuts. The retreating host became panic-stricken and turned their retreat into a rout, which soon became a senseless, headlong flight. The Confederates had captured Rickett's and part of Griffin's batteries on the field. The fleeing soldiers now abandoned cannon, muskets, accoutre- ments, clothing, wagons, everything that could impede their progress. The only idea seemed to be to get away as fast as possible. At Centreville, General McDowell made a vain attempt to check the retreat, and to rally the fugitives behind the troops there held in reserve. But terror was stronger than discipline, and the fine army which had marched out from Washington with bands playing and ban- ners flying, accompanied by members of Congress and min- isters of the Gospel, eager to witness the destruction of the rebels and the capture of Richmond, poured back into the city, disorganized and demoralized. Losses in the Battle. — The losses of the Federal army m killed, wounded and missing, as taken from the Government War Records, were largely over 5,000 ; those of the Confed- erates, gathered from the same source, about 2,600. Lack of ammunition and provisions and the want of a strong cavalry force, prevented the Confederate generals from following up their victory by marching at once upon Washington before fresh soldiers could be gathered for its defence. Indeed, knowing their own weakness and want of supplies, and the immense resources of the North, the Southern leaders did not realize, until too late to take advantage of it, how com- plete and wonderful their success had been. Astonishment of the Country. — Astonishment at the result of the battle is seen in all the reports of it. General Mc- Dowell and his subordinate commanders thought that the enemy were finally repulsed at 3 o'clock, and found the panic-stricken retreat later on a strange mystery. General lAncoln's Administration, 1861. 375 Johnston wrote : " The efficiency of our infantry and cavalry might have been expected from a patriotic people accus- tomed like ours to the management of arms and horses, but that of the artillery was little less than wonderful. They were opposed to batteries far superior in the number, range and equipment of their guns, with educated officers and thoroughly instructed soldiers. We had but one educated artillerist. Colonel Pendleton, that model of a Christian sol- dier, yet they exhibited as much superiority to the enemy in skill as iii courage." President Davis, coming with all speed to Manassas, was met at the Junction by a crowd of stragglers who assured him that his countrymen were de- feated ; but in a few hours he was able to telegraph to the anxious Southern land, what a great victory God had vouchsafed to their army. Actions of the Private Soldiers. — I might fill pages with the story of the gallant deeds performed on this wonderful battle-field, where beardless boys and gray-haired men fought side by side with the valor of trained and tried veterans. There were brave men and bold fighting in both armies. The cause of the unlooked-for success of the smaller and weaker Southern army is to be found in the earnest deter- mination of each soldier to defend his rights and his home to his utmost, even to the laying down of his life. General McDowell tells that his " three-month volunteers " refused to remain in the ranks one moment after their term of enlist- ment had expired, some of them even leaving the army at the very moment when their comrades were marching for- ward to the battle-field. Results of the Battle. — The immediate results of the bat- tle were important to both of the contending parties. Indig- nation and rage at the North stirred up the advocates of the war to greater exertion and more determined hatred of the South. At the South, an overweening confidence in its prowess and an unfounded contempt for the courage and skill of its enemies, produced a laxity of discipline and a decline of the enthusiasm which had at first urged all par- ties into the army. Materially the army around Manassas profited greatly; 29 splendid cannon with thousands of mus- kets, small arms, ammunition, stores, and supplies of all sorts were gathered from the battle-field, and served greatly to 376 History of the United States. increase the efficiency of the troops, especially of the artil- lery. Acts of the United States Congress. — The United States Congress, which had met a few weeks before the battle of Manassas, ratified all President Lincoln's unconstitu- tional proclamations; authorized him to call out a half mil- lion of volunteers; provided for the great increase of the regular army and the navy; took measures for the building of ironclad ocean ships, and gun-boats for the rivers; raised the pay of the soldiers, and promised one hundred acres of land to each one at the close of the war; voted money for the purchase of arms; authorized the confiscation of pro- perty; assumed all the expenses incurred by the different States in raising and equipping troops; and, to sustain the cost of these measures, made provision for raising by taxation, imposts, and borrowing, the enormous sum of $500,000,000. Acts of the Confederate Congress. — The Confederate Con- gress, which also met in extra session in Richmond on July 20th, authorized the raising of 400,000 soldiers; provided for the issue of $100,000,000 treasury notes, to be paid six months after a declaration of peace; issued the same amount of Confederate bonds ; passed various other laws to strengthen the government; and, in return for similar acts of the Fed- eral Congress, directed that enemies of the Confederacy should be banished from her soil and their property confis- cated. General McClellan Put in Command. — The weeks after the battle of Manassas were passed in preparations on both sides to profit by the laws and regulations for the increase and efficiency of the armies. General McDowell was superseded in command of the Army of the Potomac by General McClellan. Ball's Bluff, 1861. — But with all these preparations, no fighting of any material consequence was done in Virginia during the rest of this year. Crossing the Potomac at Ball's Bluff near Leesburg on October 21st, 1,700 Federal troops under Colonel Baker, a United States Senator from Oregon, were met by about the same number of Confederates under General N. G. Evans, and driven back into the river with the loss of nearly 1 ,000 men. The Confederates lost 156. The r ,.45*MSf» ^•f^ 378 History of the United States. moral effect of this defeat to the Federal arms was serious enough to cause Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War in Washing- ton, to order General Stone, Colonel Baker's superior officer, into arrest and imprisonment. Restriction of the Press. — A general spirit of intolerance towards everything not in their favor characterized the party in power at the North, In addition to the proscription, im- prisonment, and confiscation of property exercised upon all those who were accused of favoring the " Rebellion," as the North designated the South 's effort to defend her rights, the " freedom of the press," always a great boast of Ameri- can citizens, was attacked and curtailed. On August 16th, a Grand Jury in New York requested power to indict and punish the New York " Journal of Commerce," the " News," and several other daily and weekly papers, because they spoke of the war as an " unholy war " and encouraged the " rebels to persevere in resistance " to the Government. In accordance with these views, the Postmaster-General directed that the offending papers should not be carried in the mails. Similar acts of oppression and suppression occurred during several years. General T. J. Jackson. — In the late fall. General Jack- son — Stonewall Jackson — was made a Major-General, and sent with his famous " Stonewall Brigade" and several others, to Winchester in the Valley of Virginia, which he was ordered to defend against the Federal advance from the north and west. General Jackson was a native of Clarks- burg in western Virginia. He was early left an orphan and very poor. But he worked and struggled, and finally secured a warrant to the United States Military Academy at West Point. His education had been so defective that the first year he stood at the foot of his class; but by diligence and hard study he rose so steadily that it was a saying among his class-mates, that if the course had lasted five years in- stead of four, he would have graduated head of the class. After distinguishing himself by his courage and skill in the Mexican War, where he was twice promoted on the field, he resigned from the army, and became a Professor in the Vir- ginia Military Institute at Lexington, Virginia. He was an ungraceful person of medium height and square figure, ab- rupt in manner and speech. But his peculiarities of deport- Lincoln's Administration, 1861. 879 ment and character were counterbalanced by absolute integ- rity, unflinching courage, and a sincere and devout piety. Even those who ridiculed his angular movements and straight-laced opinions, acknowledged that he was an up- right, honorable gentleman. He became a Presbyterian elder and superintendent of a negro Sunday School, and was looked upon as a good, rather odd, but useful man. He was soon to prove himself a great soldier, very like to Oliver Cromwell in his earnest piety, his skill in commanding men, and his extraordinary military ability. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Davis's? Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Pollard's Lost Cause; Johnston's Narrative; Ridpath's History of the United States; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Official Reports in Government War Records. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the armies in Virginia. 2. Where was the first blood shed ? 3. Tell of Big Bethel. 4. Of the feeling in western Virginia. 5. The battle of Rich Mountain. 6. Who was then sent to western Virginia ? 7. What did General Johnston do at Harper's Ferry? 8. What was the feel- ing at the North ? 9. Tell of the first battle of Manassas. 10. Of " Stonewall Jackson" and General Bee. 11. Of General Kirby Smith's advance. 12. Of the rout of the Federal army. 13. Of the losses on both sides. 14. What was the feeling of the country in regard to the Jiattle ? 15. Relate the actions of the private soldiers. 16. The results of the battle. 17. What acts were passed by the Union Congress ? 18. By the Confederate Congress? 19. Who wasput in command of the Federal troops? 20. Tell of Ball's Bluff. 21. What action was taken against the press in the North ? 23. Give the life of General T. J. Jackson. CHAPTER LXVII. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1861 . Civil War in Missouri. — The efforts of Missouri and Ken- tucky to continue neutral and at peace between the contend- ing States on either side of them proved unavailing. Colo- nel Lyon, commanding the United States Arsenal near St. Louis, sent the arms in his charge into Illinois, and then attacked the camp where the militia of Missouri had as- sembled for their annual drill. A number of inoffensive citizens were killed and the State troops were overpowered. Civil war now burst out at many points in Missouri. The State was largely in sympathy with the Confederate States, and the governor and many who shared his opinions made a vain attempt to place it on friendly relations with the Con- 380 History of the United States. B. M'CULLOCH, TEXAS. federacy. The power of the United States exerted against them was in the end too strong for them. But now recruit- ing for both armies was carried on, and in many small skirmishes and engage- ments, the Southern sympathizers over- came the Union troops. To assist them and prevent the invasion of Arkansas, General Benjamin McCulloch crossed the Missouri line and united his Con- k, federate command with that of General Sterling Price, consisting of Missouri State troops. In a battle at Wilson's Springs not far from Springfield, on August 10th, where the opposing armies were about equal in number, the Federals were defeated, General Lyon Avas killed, and 1,000 prisoners and a number of cannon and small arms were captured. Missouri Neutral. — Other Confederate successes followed, and Missouri might have been won for the Confederacy if any adequate quantity of arms, ammunition, and supplies could have been furnished the volunteers who flocked to the Southern leaders. But this was impossible. The Govern- ment in Richmond had no means of complying with the incessant calls upon it for muskets, rifles, powder, cartridges, cannon, clothing and all things neces- sary for an efficient army ; and most of the victories gained at this time in the West were won with old-fashioned shotguns and hunting rifles. Their want of success in Missouri was vis- ited on the Federal generals. Harney had been superseded by Lyon, Fre- mont followed Lyon, and was in his turn displaced by Hunter ; and in November, General Halleck was given command of Missouri, Among the subordinate commanders in the De- partment was Brigadier-General U. S. Grant, who showed himself more efficient and cooler-headed than most of his colleagues. Kentucky's Position. — Aff"airs in Kentucky were in the H. W. HALLECK. Lincoln's Administration, 1S61. 381 ROBERT ANDERSON. same unsettled condition. Governor Magoffin made strong efforts to keep the State entirely neutral. The sympathies of the })eople were divided between the North and the Soutli, and they would gladly have preserved peaceful relations with both sides. The Government in Richmond was anx- ious to comply Y/ith the wishes of Kentucky, and again and again declared that they would send no troops into the State, if the Federal soldiers did not enter it. But the Federal Government would re- spect no neutral or other rights of a State. Early in July, orders were is- sued for raising regiments of United States troops in Kentucky, and not long after, the State was placed under the military control of General Robert Anderson, who had conducted the do- fence of Fort Sumter. The Confede- rate authorities then found it a military necessity to establish themselves at strong points in the State, in order to protect Tennessee and Virginia. Bishop Polk. — Among the noble men who had taken active part in the Southern movement was Bishop Leonidas Polk of Louisiana. He had been graduated with high honor at West Point, but had left the army to enter the ministry of the Protestant Episcopal Church. Knowing how righteous the cause of the South was, and how much she needed the assistance of all her sons. Bishop PoKt felt it his duty to offer his services in her defence. He did this the more readily because he was convinced that " the invasion of the South by the Federal armies had brought with it a contempt for con- stitutional liberty, and the withering influences of the infi- delity of New England and of Germany combined." Bishop Polk was at once commissioned as a Major-General and assigned to duty in that part of Alabama and Tennessee west of the Tennessee River. He soon after had the west- •7 LEONIDAS POLK, LA. 382 History of the United States. ern part of Kentucky added to his command, to which east- ern Missouri and Arkansas were also joined. Columbus and Paducah. — From the movements of the Federal forces in Missouri and at Cairo, General Polk be- came convinced that it was their intention to seize and fortif^^ Columbus. To forestall this and to obtain control of the Mississippi River between Kentucky and Missouri, General Polk took possession of the town on September 3d, and pro- ceeded to strengthen his position. Columbus was a most important point. It commanded the channel of the great river and the opposite shore of Missouri. While holding it, the Confederates could prevent the passage of any hostile vessels and were in position to cross their soldiers to or from Missouri. It was also General Polk's desire to seize Paducah at the mouth of the Tennessee River. But his force was too small to move at once; and before he could increase it. Gene- ral Grant, who was in command at Cairo, took possession of Paducah on September 16th. The resources of the Federal Government had enabled them to build gunboats, and to strengthen river steamboats with iron plates and cannon, so that they had the means of defending Paducah, and of making expeditions up the Tennessee and Cumberland Rivers, against which the Confederates were unable to con- tend. East Tennessee. — Eastern Tennessee had a large number of people who were, like the residents of western Virginia, opposed to the South, and in sympathy with those who wished to coerce her. To restrain hostility on the part of this disaffected element. General Zollicoffer had been sent by the Confederate au- thorities into East Tennessee. To pre- vent an advance by Federal troops he, too, felt obliged to pass through the Cumberland Mountains into eastern Kentucky. Soldiers were brought from „ „ „ ^„ ^„„„ Indiana and Ohio to check him, and p. K. ZOLLICOFFKR, TENN. ,. i • • i • there was a good deal of skirmishing and fighting. General Simon B. Buckner was given com- mand of the Confederate forces in central Kentucky. He concentrated his forces at Bowling Green, and the line from Lincoln's Administration, 1861. 383 there to Columbus may be considered the northern line of defence of the Southern Confederacy. Battle of Belmont. — On November 7th was fought the battle of Belmont in Missouri opposite to Columbus. General Grant was ordered to make such demonstrations along the Missis- sippi River as would prevent Confederate troops from being sent to reinforce General Price in an advance from Arkansas. Grant, under cover of his gunboats, landed several thou- sand soldiers about seven miles above Belmont and marched upon the town, hoping to surprise the Confederate camp. He met with stout resistance. General Polk dispatched 2,000 men across the river, and by the aid of this reinforce- ment, the Federals were driven to their boats. The fighting was gallant and the loss nearly equal on both sides. The victory was felt to be very important to the Southern cause, since it left the control of the Mississippi in the hands of the Confederates. The Congress in Richmond published a de- claration of thanks to the officers and men by whom it was won. Arizona and New Mexico. — During the summer and au- tumn, Arizona and New Mexico fell into possession of the Confederates, by the capture or surrender of the small gar- risons at the posts scattered here and there in the hills and plains. The Indians in the Indian Territory also came into friendly relations with the South, and several thousand of them at one time joined General Sterling Price's army. Southern Lack of Resources. — In the east there were few active operations after the victory at Manassas. Both sides were engaged in preparations for renewing the struggle on a larger scale. At the North all that was needed to furnish a completely equipped army was time and energy to develop the immense resources of the Federal Government. In the South, without a navy or merchant vessels, with few manu- factories, and no money or foreign credit, the difficulties of providing even the meagerest supplies of arms, ammuni- tion, clothing and food for efficient armies, would have over- whelmed hearts less brave and patriotic. But no means were left untried to furnish what was absolutely necessary for the maintenance of the soldiers, who had given and risked everything to defend their country. 384 History of the United States. McOlellan Supersedes General Scott. — General Scott re- signed the chief command of the United States army in Octo- ber, on account of his age and infirmities, and General George B. McClellan was made Commander-in-chief. Mc- Clellan was a fine organizer and a brave soldier, but he over- estimated the strength and resources of the South, and, in- stead of advancing upon Johnston, he occupied himself in increasing and equipping a huge army, partly for the de- fence of Washington, and partly for the capture of Rich- mond. Dupont Captures Port Royal, 1861. — Along the coast, the Confederates were weakened and the blockade was made ■• ''J liOMBAKDMENT UF POKT EOYAL. more efficient by the capture of Fort Hatteras on the North Carolina coast on August 29th, and of Port Royal Harbor in South Carolina. This important harbor with its forts was held by Commodore Tatnall with a little Confederate squadron of eight vessels, so small as to be called " the mos- quito fleet." An attack was made on the forts and ships, November 7th, by Admiral Dupont, with eighteen war ves- Lincoln's Administration, 1861. 385 sels and a fleet of transports carrying 15,000 soldiers. The larger size, greater number, and heavier cannon of the Federal ships overpowered the works and the small vessels defending the entrance to the harbor, which was seized and occupied by Dupont after stout resistance. This gave the blockading ships an admirable retreat from storms, and laid the whole of the South Carolina coast, with its wealthy and productive "sea islands," open to their ravages. The Manassas at the Mouth of the Mississippi. — A few weeks before this, an effort was made to destroy or disperse the fleet blockading the mouth of the Mississippi River. A river steamer had been converted into an ironclad boat with a stout iron beak. This "ram," called the Manassas, accompanied by seven small boats towing fire-ships, steamed down to the Federal fleet, rammed a hole in the side of one big ship, turned the fire-ships loose among the others, and spread such consternation that the whole fleet stood out to sea. The Manassas itself had very poor machinery, and suffered so much in ramming the Richmond, that it was una- ble to attack the other vessels. The blockading fleet was re- inforced and returned to its former position, and nothing im- portant was accomplished by the effort. Captain Wilkes and The Trent. — England and France had acknowledged the Confederate States as " a belligerent power," and had declared themselves " neutral " in the war between them and the Federal Government. To propitiate them and secure favor and recognition as independent, the Confederate Government had sent James M. Mason of Vir- ginia and John Slidell of Louisiana as Commissioners, the first to England and the latter to France, to see what could be done for the advantage of the South. These gentlemen, accompanied by their secretaries, ran the blockade from Charleston to Havana, at the very time that Dupont was at- tacking Port Royal. At Havana they took passage for Europe on the English mail steamer Trent. By the law of nations, they were safe from molestation on a neutral vessel. But law was not of very much force at this time among Federal officers. Captain Charles Wilkes, who had com- manded an exploring expedition of which I have told yo\x, was in the neighborhood of Havana in command of the steam warship San Jacinto. He learned that the Confeder- 24 386 History of the United States. ate Commissioners would sail on the Trent, lay in wait for her, fired across her course, and stopped her. An officer and a party of men then boarded the Trent and, in spite of the protests of her commander and his officers, arrested Messrs. Mason, Slidell, McFarland, and Eustis, and took them forci- bly off the ship. Threatened Trouble With England. — For this affront to the British flag and violation of international law, Captain Wilkes was feted and toasted, and received public thanks and a gold medal from the House of Representatives. Eng- land, however, was justly indignant at this " outrage " of her neutral rights. She demanded the liberation of the prisoners and their restoration to British protection, and intimated that, if this was refused, serious difficulty between the nations would be the consequence. The people of the North were eager to uphold Wilkes. In the South, it was hoped that they would do so. A contest between England and the Government at Washington must have been to the Confederate advantage. But Mr. Lincoln and his Secretary of State, Mr. Seward, were too wise to incur a war with Eng- land at so critical a time. They would not acknowledge that Wilkes had been guilty of violating international law, but they said truly that he had acted solely on his own re- sponsibility, without orders from his Government, and they at once agreed to liberate the prisoners who had been con- fined in Fort Warren, in Boston Harbor, and to deliver them to Lord Lyons, the British Minister at Washington. This was done at the beginning of the next year. The Commis- sioners proceeded to Europe, but could efi'ect little for the Confederate States. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; General Grant's Memoirs; Life of Albert Sidney Jolmston by William Preston Johnston; Memoir of Leonidas Polk by his son; Ridpath's History of the United States; Reports and Correspondence; Offlcial Records of the War; Appleton's Encyclopedia; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the civil strife in Missouri. 2. Who were the com- manders ? ?>. What was the position of Kentucky ? 4. Tell of Bishop Polk. 5. Of his movements on the Mississippi. 6. What of East Tennessee ? 7. De- scribe the battle of Belmont. 8. What was done in Arizona and New Mexico ? 9. What were the needs of the South ? 10. Who now became Commander-in- chief of the Union army? 11. What Southern port was taken? 12. De- scribe the bombardment. 13. What attempt was made at the mouth of the Mississippi? 14. Tell of the T'rf/^i affair. 15. llow was it settled ? CHAPTER LXVIII. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1862. Mr. Lincoln's Order, 1862. — This year opened with cold stormy weather. It seemed impossible to persuade General McClellan to advance. The opponents of the administra- tion and the war began to clamor again at the immense ex- pense to which the North was subjected without results. Taking counsel of no one, Mr. Lincoln astonished his coun- try and his generals by issuing, on January 27th, an order that on the 22d of February all the Federal armies every- where should "advance against the enemy. This was an im- possibility, but in Kentucky and Tennessee the order had been forestalled. ZoUicoffer Killed at Mill Spring. — In eastern Kentucky, the Federals had become so strong and threatening that General ZoUicoffer felt it a necessity to try to defeat the force in front of him at Mill Spring, before it could receive the rein- forcements approaching. Unfortunately, he was killed early in the fight, and the Confederates, discouraged by the death of their leader, were defeated with severe loss of men and guns. ZoUicoffer was an excellent officer. His loss was a great one to the South, and the defeat of his army left eastern Tennessee open to the Union armies which were not slow to occupy it. Forts Henry and Donelson. — In west- ern Kentucky, also, affairs went badly for the Southern cause. General Polk still held control of the Mississippi River from his strong position at Columbus. General Albert Sidney Johnston, commander of all the Con- federate forces in the West, had his 1 J , i. T5 T /-< r> A. S. JOHNSTON, TEX. headquarters at Bowling Green. Be- tween him and Polk ran the Cumberland and Tennessee Rivers. The Federals held the mouths of these rivers, and [387] 388 History of tlie United States. had collected a fleet of ironclad gunboats and transports for troops, with which they hoped to penetrate the heart of the Confederacy. To prevent this, Fort Henry had been built on the eastern bank of the Tennessee River, and Fort Donelson on the western bank of the Cumberland, in Ten- nessee, just below the Kentucky line, where the rivers are not more than twelve miles apart. Both were earthworks pretty strong on the water front but weaker on the land side. Fort Henry was much the smaller, and was held by about 2,200 men with 17 cannon. Capture of Fort Henry. — On February 6th, Commodere Foote with seven gunboats steamed up the Tennessee and attacked Fort Henry. The torpedoes placed in the stream, on which the Confederates had relied to destroy the Federal fleet, proved defective. The gunboats halted at a conve- nient distance and poured a storm of cannon shot and shell into the fort. Several of the larger guns defending it burst, and General Tilghman found it impossible to continue the fight. The attacking land forces which were expected to co-operate with the gunboats could not do so on account of swollen creeks, and most of the garrison made its escape to Fort Donelson before General Tilghman lowered his flag and surrendered himself and sixty men. The opening of the Tennessee River was a tremendous blow to the South. Sev- eral of the Federal gunboats proceeded up the river as far as Florence, Alabama, destroying bridges and Confederate property, and making it clear that the way would soon be open for the advance of the Union army into the Gulf States. Position of Fort Donelson. — Nashville, Tennessee, was of vast importance to the ConfederateSj for valuable stores of all sorts had been collected there. Its capture would be disas- trous to them and of great encouragement to the Union cause. But, before that, Fort Donelson must be evercome. General Albert Sidney Johnston was therefore most anxious to hold it, and sent thither reinforcements to the number of 14,000 under Generals Buckner, Pillow, and Floyd, the last having brought his force from western Virginia, after find- ing himself unable to hold out against General Rosecrans. Donelson was much larger and stronger than Henry, and was well defended by earthworks and heavy batteries. On Lincoln's AdTninistration, 1862. 389 the land side there was also, at some distance, an encircling line of breastworks and rifle-pits, the interval between them and the fort being made diflficult with an abatis — forest trees cut down and falling one upon another with their branches pointing outward. Against this strong position General Grant moved, on February 12th, with some 17,000 men. He found it too formidable to be taken by assault, and waited during the 13th for reinforcements, and the co-operation of the gunboats, but kept up a harassing and destructive artil- lery fire in the mean time, the sharp-shooters on both sides picking off every man they could reach. Late in the day, an attempt was made to capture the batteries on the extrem- ities of the line, which was defeated by the Confederates with heavy Union loss. The weather now became very cold, and a severe storm of snow and sleet set in. The soldiers on both sides suffered greatly from exposure, and many of the wounded were frozen to death during the night. The Attack. — On the 14th, the Federal reinforcements and gunboats both reached the scene of action. The fort was invested, and an attack by the fleet was first determined upon. The Confederate water batteries were powerful and ably served, and they beat off the gun- boats in an hour and a half, striking them 150 times and severely wounding Com- modore Foote. Assaults on the breast- works were also repulsed, and General Grant seemed no nearer success than be- fore. But the Confederate commanders knew that it would be impossible for them to maintain their position long against the heavy force which could be brought to at- ^•^•^"^nt.u.s.a. tack them, both on the river and the land. Floyd, the rank- ing officer, thought it best to abandon the fort, attack the besieging army, and cut their way to Nashville. At a coun- cil of war held on the night of the 14th, this plan was una-nimously adopted. Gallant Fighting. — At early dawn of the 15th, Pillow*s men and Forrest's cavalry advanced upon McClernand, who held the Federal right and the principal road to Nash- ville. Buckner moved from their left and also attacked the Federal centre. The fi-ghting was gallant on both sides, but 390 History of the United States. LEW WALLACE, U.S.A. inch by inch, the Northern line was forced back. By nine o'clock their whole right wing was driven from its position, and the road to Nashville was cleared. Floyd, who was in com- mand, thought his success assured and so telegraphed to General Albert Sidney Johnston . But the fresh troops of Lew Wallace came to McClernand's aid, and General Grant, who had gone to consult with Foote on his vessel, returned to the field, took command and ordered an advance all along his line. In this second encounter of the troops, the superior num- bers of the besiegers proved the stronger ; Smith, on their left, carried the breastworks in his front, and the Confederates were driven back to the shelter of their works. Again night came on with intense cold. Both sides slept on their arms, and suffered from cold, hunger, and fatigue. General Grant determined to renew the as- sault on the next morning, Sunday the 16th. Surrender of Fort Donelson. — Meantime, within the fort there was anxious consultation. All urged that to maintain their position was impossible. Buckner advised surrender, to save useless loss of life. Floyd thought it necessary, but, determined to save himself and his Virginia brigade, turned over the command to Pillow, and crossing the river in the darkness, made his escape with his command. Pillow fol- lowed his example. Forrest's cavalry also moved off during the night. General Buckner, upon whom the responsibility devolved by his superior officers deserting their posts, felt that he could no longer hold his beleaguered position ; and before the Federal attack could be renewed, on the morning of the 16th, he sent a flag of truce to General Grant, asking what terms of surrender would be accorded the garrison. To this Grant replied that "unconditional surrender" alone would prevent a re-opening of the fight. Buckner was forced to submit to this demand, and Donelson, with from 10,000 Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 391 to 14,000 prisoners, all the guns, several thousand horses and considerable stores, passed into Grant's hands. Its Results. — The fall of Donelson was a great cause of rejoicing to the Northern people, who felt that b}^ this vic- tory their rout at Manassas was repaid. To the South it was a tremendous misfortune. The army occupying west- ern Kentucky had to be withdrawn, and the strong fortress at Columbus, which had been called " the Gibraltar of the West," was of necessity evacuated. Within a week after the capture of Donelson, Nashville with its accumulation of stores was occupied by General Buell, and the garrison of Columbus was removed to Island No. 10, forty miles lower down the Mississippi, where the defence of the river was maintained for one month longer. The whole of Tennessee was for a time in possession of the Federal army. At the beginning of the campaign. General Halleck had under his command about 100,000 men, while Johnston's force did not number over 55,000, scattered along his extended front ; and this smaller number had been greatly lessened by the losses in battle and captures at Donelson, and by the straggling and desertion which always weakens a discouraged and re- treating army. Battle of Pea Ridge, or Elkhorn. — Nevertheless, General Johnston and his subordinate commanders, by great exer- tion assembled, about 35,000 troops near Corinth in north- ern Mississippi, early in April. He hoped for reinforce- ments from Arkansas, but the advance of General Cur- tis into that State made it neces- sary for General Van Dorn, the Confederate commander, to con- centrate his forces to repel the in- vasion. Collecting about 16,,000 men under Generals Sterling Price and Ben McCulloch, with 4,000 In- dians from the Choctaw and Chero- kee reservations under General Albert Pike, Van Dorn marched to meet Curtis in the northwestern part of the State. On the 6th of March, in spite of severe snowy weather and rough coun- try, he succeeded in getting into the rear of Curtis's in- N. ALBEl.T 1 IKL, il k. 392 History of ilie United States. trenched j^osition on Pea Ridge, where he attacked him on the morning of the 7th. The fight was gallant on both sides. The Confederates, on the left, drove the Union troops opposed to them, forcing them back nearly a mile ; in the centre, however, they were less successful, and had the mis- fortune to lose their brave leaders Generals McCulloch and Mcintosh, while General Price was severely wounded. Both sides slept on the field, but when the battle was renewed the next morning, General Van Dorn found his troops disheart- ened by the loss of their generals, and unable to maintain their position. He therefore fell back slowly carrying all of his artillery and baggage. This battle was called Pea Ridge by the Federals, Elkhorn by the Confederates. Battle of Shiloh; Death of Albert Sidney Johnston, 1862. — By April 3rd, General Grant with 38,000 troops was well posted at Pittsburg Landing on the south bank of the Ten- nessee River, where they were protected by their gunboats. General Buell was known to be coining to join Grant with a force equal to his own. General Johnston determined to attack Grant on the early morning of the 5th. General Beauregard was second in command, while the army corps were led by Generals Bragg, Hardee, Polk, and Breckinridge. Heavy rains swelled the streams and made the marching so difficult that the attacking forces could not get into posi- tion until the night of the 5th. On the morning of the 6th, the Confederate army moved upon General Grant and his subordinate generals, Sherman, McClernand, Hurlbut, Pren- tiss, and W. H. L. Wallace, who held positions around Shiloh Church. The front line was soon carried. Prentiss with 3,000 men was captured. General W. H. L. Wallace was killed, and the Confederates everywhere pressed back the Federals, notwithstanding a stout resistance. By two o'clock the victory seemed assured, but at this important moment. General Johnston, who had exposed himself con- stantly in the hottest part of the fight, was struck in the thigh with a minie-ball while leading his troops. A great artery was cut. There was no surgeon near, and the gallant soldier was lifted from his horse and carried to the shelter of a ravine where he died in a little while. His loss was irretrievable to the army of the South. End of the Battle. — The Southern troops were kept in Lincoln's Administration, 180i 393 ignorance of the death of the commander in whom they had the greatest confidence, and General Beauregard for a while carried on the contest. But he was sick and could not press his advantage to the utmost before his enemy- could receive' reinforcements. The Federal army had been driven to the bank of the river and the shelter of their gun- boats; but there was still an hour of daylight, the Southern army was flushed with victory, and only another vigorous assault upon the demoralized enemy was necessary to drive him into the water or compel him to surrender. At this time, when absolute victory seemed within the Confederate grasp, the gunboats opened fire with cannon shot and shell. The Confederates were sheltered from this by the height of the bluff, and became less and less exposed as they neared the enemy ; but Beauregard took the impression that his men were in an exhausted condition, and exposed to mur- derous fire, and ordered them to be withdrawn from the field. They had captured most of Grant's artillery, a number of flags, and thousands of prisoners, and they occupied the camp from which the Federals had been driven. On the strength of this, Beauregard telegraphed to Richmond that he had " gained a complete victory." But during the night Buell came up with as many fresh troops as the Southern army contained, so that he outnumbered them nearly two to one. The fight was re- newed by an attack upon the Southerners, who were gradually driven from the position they had taken the day before to their original place. This was the bloodi- est battle that had yet been fought. The Con- federates lost 10,699 men, the Federals 13,573. Fall of Island No. 10.— Island No. 10, with its strong armament of guns and gar- ^ n i-rr. r\ SPIKING GtJNS AT ISLAND NO. 10. rison of 6,7 00 men, was taken on April 8th, the day after Shiloh, by Commodore Foote and his gunboats. The upper Mississippi, the Ten- 394 History of the United &t.ates. nessee, and the Cumberland Rivers were thus opened to these bearers of destruction and terror. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; General Grant's Memoirs; Life of Albert Sidney Johnston by William Preston Johnston ; Memoirs of Leonidas Polk by his son ; Ridpath's History of the United States ; Reports and Correspondence; Official Records of the War; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. QUESTIONS.— 1. What was President Lincoln's order in 1863? 2. Tell of the battle of Mill Spring, and General Zollicoffer's death. 3. AVhere were Forts Heniy and Douelson ? 4. Relate the capture of Fort IIenr}\ 5. De- scribe the position of Fort Donelson. 6. The attack upon it. 7. Who were the commanders on both sides? 8. What was the result? 9. The effect on the Confederate cause? 10. Tell of the battle of Pea Ridge, or Elkhorn. 11. The battle of Shiloh. 12. What great general was killed there ? 13. How did the battle end ? 14. What was the effect of the taking of Island No. 10? 15. Look up all the places. CHAPTER LXIX. LINCOLN'S ADMINTSTRA TION, CONTINUED.— 1862. Jackson at Bath and Romney. — In the east the year opened by the advance of Jackson from Winchester to tlie north and northwest. The weather was bitterly cold, and the rocky roads covered with snow. But, knowing that on account of the difficulty of moving an army he would not be expected, Jackson began the series of rapid marches which afterwards gave his soldiers the title of '' Foot cavalry." He first moved to the Potomac where he destroyed some dams of the Chesapeake and Ohio Canal, tore up the Balti- more and Ohio Railroad, and so frightened the people of Maryland with a threat of invasion that reinforcements were speedily sent to oppose him. Having accomplished his object, Jackson moved in the night, turned his course west- ward, and, crossing two mountain ranges, struck the Federal camp at Romney and drove all the enemy from that region, making some important captures. He then returned to Winchester wdth his soldiers in fine spirits, notwithstanding the hardships of their brief campaign, their suffering from hunger and cold, and their frost-bitten ears, fingers, and toes. Stringent Blockade. — The order for a general Federal ad- vance had been anticipated by the capture, on February 8th, Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 395 of Roanoke Island, a very important Confederate position lying between Albemarle and Pamlico Sounds, on the coast of North Carolina. To make the blockade as stringent as possible, and prevent Confederate supplies being brought in from Europe in return for Confederate cotton, immense efforts were made all along the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. With the markets of the world open to the United States; with her navy yards furnished with the best materials and ma- chinery, and an unlimited number of workmen ; with her large workshops for making arms and munitions of war, it was a necessity that she should in time overwhelm and overpower the' seceded States wherever the contest had to be waged on the water. They had no navy nor provision for building ships. The armament for such vessels as they had and for their forts, was old-fashioned, weak, and defective. Occasionally a few good guns were run into some port, and the defects of the equipment for the troops in the field were remedied after a great victory. But, to the very end, the disproportion be- tween the men and materials on the two sides continued almost incredible. Capture of Roanoke Island and Other Ports. — To capture Roanoke Island which was held by 3,000 men, a little squad- ron of eight small gunboats under Captain Lynch, and such defences as could be made by forts on the flat surface of the island and by sunken boats and piles driven into the shal- low water, a force was dispatched from Hampton Roads con- sisting of more than a hundred vessels, some ol fchem strong FUia PLLASKI, GA. war ships with heavy guns, and others transports carrying 16,000 men. It was impossible for the garrison and forts on Roanoke Island to withstand an attack from such a superior assailant. They fought gallantly but were at length overcome by sheer force of numbers, and the island and its defences fell 396 History of the United States. into the hands of Commodore Goldsborough and General Burnside. This victory gave the whole of Albemarle Sound to the Federals, and left the southeastern part of Virginia to their mercy. Other successes along the coast followed. Fort Pulaski, defending the entrance to Savannah, and Fort Ma- con at the mouth of the harbor of Beaufort, South Carolina, New Berne in North Carolina, and several harbors on tlie Florida coast, were seized by the Northern war vessels. By these captures, the places of refuge for the daring ships which still ventured to run the blockade weregreatly diminished, and tlie danger of capture from the blockading fleets was largely increased. On the South Carolina coast, there were impor- tant Confederate successes — at Secessionville where 6,000 Federal troops were beaten off, in June; and at Pocotalico in October, where an attempt to seize the railroad was defeated. The Ram Virginia. — But this gloomy prospect was pierced by a bright beam of light from the harbor at Norfolk, Va. Amongthe vessels in the Gosport Navy Yard when it was abandoned by the United States, was a fine steani frigate, the Merrimac, which was scuttled and sunk. This excellent ship was raised from the water by the Confede- rates and remodelled by them upon a new plan devised by .John Mercer Brooke, who had invented the deep-sea sounding appara- tus. Her decks were cut down so that she could be roofed over somewhat in the shape of a tortoise. This roof and her sides were covered by thick iron plates impervious to shot, she was furnished with ten heavy guns, and had a strong iron beak affixed to her bow. On the 8th of March, this ram, which was called the Virginia, accom- panied by two small gunboats, steamed out of Norfolk Har- bor into Hampton Roads, and made straight for the Federal fleet. The shot and shell hurled at the strange looking craft glanced harmlessly from her iron sides. Firing her guns, she swept down upon the large wooden frigate Cumber- land, whose side was struck with such force that, in less than an hour, she sank in fifty feet of water, with the loss of nearly half her crew. The Virginia next made for the fri- gate Congress, which escaped being "rammed" by going into shallow water, but was forced to surrender and was burned. The Minnesota and other Federal ships also sought safety in Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 397 water not deep enough for the Virginia to follow them, but they suffered severely from her heavy guns and those of the other gunboats. The Virginia and the Monitor. — This sudden onslaught and destruction of their vessels spread consternation through- out the North, where all the seaboard towns seemed to ex- pect immediate attack. The next morning, the Virginia appeared again among the Federal fleet, hoping to destroy the Minnesota first and then the rest. But this time she was met by a boat even stronger than herself. This was the Monitor, an iron structure built by Ericsson, which had come into Hampton Roads during the night. Her appearance, "YIKl.INIA ■ AXrAClvINc. TllK lEDKllAl with her revolving iron turret upon her flat top, was de- scribed as " a cheese box on a plank." But she was very strong, and, as the guns in her turret could easily be pointed in any direction, she was more manageable than the Virginia. Some injury upon the other ships was again inflicted by the heavy guns, but neither of the iron vessels could effect serious harm to the other, and the Virginia again returned to Norfolk. This was the first battle ever fought between iron- clad ships, and its results changed the mode of naval war- 398 History of the United States. fare all over the world. The Virginia had not accomplished all that the South had hoped, but her presence in the Nor- folk harbor kept James River safe from hostile vessels; while the success of the Monitor quieted the anxieties of the Northern cities. Orders were at once given that other mon- itors and iron ships should be built as fast as possible. Want of safe harbors and of materials prevented the Confederates from constructing other rams like the Virginia. McClellan Follows Johnston. — The spring of 1862 was an anxious time for the Southern military authorities. Most of the troops had enlisted only for twelve months, and their term of service had nearly expired. Every effort was made to secure abundant re-enlistment for three years or for the war. Johnston's army, at Centreville, dwindled to 30,000 men, while McClellan at Washington had collected 120,000, To secure his insufficient force against sudden attack, Gen- eral Johnston quietly withdrew his forces behind the Rappa- hannock, where he had caused strong earthworks to be thrown up. When McClellan did move forward, on March 10th, he found the Confederate camps deserted and the army beyond his reach, with the bridges over which they had passed destroyed. To follow them through the deep spring mud he declared impossible, especially as he had de- termined to attack Richmond in another direction. Battle of Kernstown. — Stonewall Jackson was in the Val- ley with a few thousand men. He left Winchester on March 5th to fall back as Johnston was doing. Being ordered to take some steps to detain Shields's and Banks's army in his front and keep it from strengthening McClellan, Jackson retraced his steps, and, on the 23d of March, with only 2,747 men attacked the Federal army, more than double his own, at Kernstown near Winchester. He was obliged to draw off his troops at nightfall and retire, but he did so much dam- age and created such alarm at Washington that reinforce- ments were sent to Banks, and the danger of his marching upon Johnston was averted. So important was this result felt to be that the Confederate Congress passed a vote of thanks to Jackson for his gallant fight at Kernstown. McClellan and Johnston about Yorktown. — For some time, it could not be seen exactly where McClellan intended to strike at Richmond. He wanted to go down to Fortress Lincoln's Administration, IS 02. 399 Monroe, while President Lincoln wished him to move by Fredericksburg. In the mean time, General Johnston marched to the neighborhood of Richmond, and as soon as it was discovered that McClellan had taken his own way and was transporting his army to Fortress Monroe, Johnston moved to Yorktown which Magruder had strongly forti- fied. These long marches under the drenching spring rains, over the heavy, muddy Virginia roads, were excessively ex- hausting to both men and horses, but the spirit of the sol- diers was fine, and they plodded on, determined to do their best to defend their rights. Fight at Williamsburg". — It took one month to move Mc- Clellan's 120,000 men from Washington in 400 vessels of all kinds to Fortress Monroe, and a good part of another to lay siege to Yorktown, which he proposed to capture before pro- ceeding to Richmond by way of the York River Railroad. For various reasons, General Johnston determined to discon- cert this plan and withdraw his forces again to Richmond. His troops quietly evacuated Yorktown, after spiking the guns they could not move, and took up their march to- wards Richmond. Their retreat was followed by the enemy, and a severe engagement took place at Williamsburg on May 5th. The Confederates held their ground long enough to allow their artillery and wagon trains to get safely away, and then drew back in good order. Federal Ships in the James. — The giving up of the penin- sula and the necessity for increasing Johnston's army, made it impossible to hold Norfolk. The troops there were ordered to Richmond. The war vessels in the Navy Yard moved up James River, the Confederate property was de- stroyed, and Norfolk was soon in possession of a Federal force. It was hoped that the Virginia could be gotten up to Richmond at high tide by the aid of tugboats, but the water proved too shallow. She grounded at Craney Island and her commander, Commodore Tatnall, blew her up on May 11th, to prevent her falling into the enemy's hands. Her destruction left James River open to the Federal gunboats, and several ironclads at once steamed up towards Rich- mond, among them the Galena and the Monitor. At Drewry's Bluff, eight miles below Richmond, they found their ad- vance stopped by obstructions in the river and heavy bat- 400 History of the United States. teries on shore. The guns from Fort Darling seriously in jured the vessels, while they in their turn, could do little damage to the fortifications on the high bluff. Finding their efforts to pass up the river unavailing, the fleet with- drew to City Point. Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks. — By the last of May, McClel- lan had brought his army by way of West Point to the neighborhood of Richmond, where they stretched for miles on both sides of the Chickahominy, and where he proceeded to throw up heavy earthworks. The season was rainy, and the Chickahominy w^as so swollen that the swamps became almost impassable. Taking advantage of this, General John- ston, on May 31st, attacked the two corps of Keyes and Heintzelman which were on the south side of the stream, hoping to destroy them before reinforcements could come to their aid. The same rains which were to cut off" his ene- mies, rendered his own advance so slow that, before his ob- ject could be effected, reinforcements had come to assist the badly beaten United States troops, and the victory was ren- dered incomplete. The loss was great on both sides, but that of the Federals was the heavier, in men, arms and stores of all sorts. About seven o'clock in the evening, General Johnston received a severe wound which disabled him for many months. This battle was known as Seven Pines b)^ the Southern, and as Fair Oaks, by the Northern army. General Robert E. Lee. — The command of the Army of Northern Virginia, as the army defending Richmond was now called, was given to General Robert E. Lee, who, from this time, became the most prominent figure in the great strife. General Lee was the youngest son of ''Light Horse Harry Lee" of Revolutionary fame. He was graduated with high honors at West Point, distinguished himself by his courage and skill during the Mexican War, and had after- wards been employed in various responsible military posi- tions. He was conceded to be the equal, if not the superior, of any other man in the service, and had been so repeatedly promoted as to make him the natural successor to General Scott as head of the United States Army. He was devoted to his country and really loved the Union. But, like most Southerners, he felt that his first and highest allegiance was to his State, and when Virginia withdrew from the Union, 0x:^^'%X ^ 402 History of the United States. Lee at once threw in his lot with her. He resigned his com- mission in the United States Army, and offered his services and his sword to his native State. The ensuing pages will show what a noble man and great soldier he proved him- self to be. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Reports and Correspondence in Official War Records ; Ridpath's History of the United States ; J. E. Johnston's Nar- rative; Dabney's Life of T.J. Jackson; Allen's Jackson's Valley Campaign; Long's Life of Robert E. Lee; Fitz Lee's Memoir of General Robert E. Lee; Pollard's Lost Cause; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Stepliens's History of the United States; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Taylor's Four Years witli Lee. QUESTIONS. — 1. What title did Jackson's soldiers acquire by their rapid marching ? 2. Tell of their exploits on the Potomac. 3. Describe the strin- gent blockade. 4. The capture of Roanoke Island. 5. Where is it? 6. What other forts were also taken? 7. What was the Virginia, and what did she do ? 8. Tell of the fight between the Virginia and the Monitor. 9. What was McClellan's move in the spring ? 10. What victory did Jackson gain in the Valley? 11. Tell of Johnston and McClellan about Yorktown. 12. The fight at Williamsburg. 13. What was the fate of the Virginia and the results of her destruction? 14. Describe the battle of Seven Pines, or Fair Oaks. 15. Who now was made eommajider of the Army of Northern Virginia? 16. Give a sketch of him. CHAPTER LXX. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 186^. Jackson in the Valley, 1862. — Before we take up the story of Lee's campaigns, we must give attention once more to Jackson in the Valley. After the fight at Kernstown, his little Confederate army was posted in Swift Run Gap in the Blue Ridge, where the business of re-enlisting and reorgan- izing his men was attended to, and whence he could, through his trusty scouts, watch the movements and divine the intentions of the enemy. He soon perceived that three armies were moving against him in differ- ent directions with the design of surround- ing and destroying him. Milroy was com- ing in on the west, along the Valley behind K. JOHNS N, . ^^^ North Mountains. Banks held Win- chester and the main Valley, while Fremont from the north- west and Shields from the east were advancing to the Valley. Lincohi's Administration, 1862. 403 Jackson had been reinforced by Ewell and Edward Johnson, and had in all about 15,000 men, while the aggregate force moving upon him was between 45,000 and 60,000. To at- tack and defeat his opponents in detail before they could concentrate upon him was his plan,, and splendidly did he carry it out. Defeat of Banks. — By a long and rapid march to the south and then due west, he confronted the advance of Milroy's army, on May 8th, at McDowell, and struck them such a blow that they retreated in haste towards the northwest. Banks had advanced as far as Harrisonburg, where he expected to be joined by Milroy. After some days' rest, Jackson recrossed the North Mountain and the main Valley, fell upon a portion of Banks's army, on the 23d, at Front Royal, and completely crushed it, and then marched upon Banks, who retreated with his men at a rapid rate. Jackson's sudden and unex- pected movements terrified them. The retreat became first a panic and then a rout. A stand was made for a time, on the 25th, behind the strong fortifications at Winchester, but the Confederate soldiers charged them with the bayonet, and the Federals were soon fieeing through the town. In glad haste the women and few aged men of the place poured into the streets to welcome their deliverers from the Northern troops. A close pursuit was kept up, and Banks's fugitives did not stop until they had crossed the Potomac into Mary- land; 3,000 prisoners were taken, with many batteries and small arms; and such immense stores of all sorts were cap- tured that Banks received the derisive title of " Jackson's Commissary." Defeat of Fremont and Shields. — An alarm spread through the North that Jackson would march upon Washington. The number of his men was greatly magnified by the fright of his opponents. To increase this alarm, Jackson took his men from Winchester almost to Harper's Ferry, and when this move had caused large Federal forces to be sent from Fredericksburg to the Valley, he suddenly retraced his steps and withdrew again, carrying safely off the prisoners, can- non, and long wagon trains captured from Banks. Fre- mont and Shields again made an effort to surround and defeat him, but by rapid marches he passed between them, and once more beat them in detail. They were marching in 404 History of the United States. parallel lines, with the Shenandoah River between them. Suddenly turning on Fremont, on June 7th, with Ewell's division, Jackson repulsed him severely at Cross Keys. He then took his men quickly across the river at Port Repub- lic, burned the bridge behind them, and fell upon Shields, to assist whom Fremont's nien were unable to cross the river. Shields's entire artillery and many prisoners were captured, and the out-witted and sorely beaten Federal army retreated down the Valley, but this time Jackson did not follow. Death of Ashby — Result of the Campaign. — This last of the brilliant series of victories was saddened by the death of General Ashby, Jackson's gallant cav- alry officer, who was killed in a charge upon the enemy. In one month, with 15,000 men, Jackson had out-generaled and out- fought three commanders, each of whom had a force larger than his own. He had marched his men five hundred miles, and had captured not only thousands of pris- TUKNER ASHBY, VA. Qucrs, but cauuon, horses, arms, clothing, provisions, and wagons worth millions of dollars. He was now to take an important part in the great struggle around Richmond. Preparations Around Richmond, 1862. — By the middle of June, Lee had increased his army near Richmond to about 65,000, and had gotten the fortifications in front of the city in a fit condition for defence. McClellan, whose force was 115,000 strong, had erected in various strong positions im- mensely heavy earthworks, containing powerful siege guns. Relying upon the reports of " intelligent contrabands," as negroes escaping into his lines were called, he greatly over- estimated the size of the army opposed to him, insisted that he had not nearly enough men to attack it, and constantly telegraphed for reinforcements. Jackson Summoned from the Valley. — When Lee was ready for the fight, he summoned Jackson to bring the vic- torious army from the Valley to his assistance. But before they moved, in order to conceal his plan from the enemy, he sent General Whiting with 10,000 men to Staunton, as if to reinforce Jackson. Great publicity was given to this Lincoln's Admiinstration, 1862. 405 movement, and the Northern people looked for another ad- vance down to Winchester on Jackson's part. Mr. Lincoln alone seemed to divine that there might be some ruse con- nected with it. It proved to be the signal for Jackson's march to Richmond. Whiting was greatly astonished at the order to carry his soldiers back as fast as the cars could move them; and the Valley army set out for Richmond with all speed. Secrecy of the Move. — Every precaution was taken to keep the move secret. The soldiers were forbidden to give any information, or answer any questions, and, more than once, mail-riders and other persons going in an opposite direction, were turned around and taken along with the army, to pre- vent their telling which way it had gone. A story went that General Jackson having ridden a little off the route to examine a side road, in endeavoring to rejoin the army, en- countered a soldier from whom he desired to obtain some information. To all his questions the man stolidly replied, " I don't know." A little out of patience, the General said, "You seem to be strangely ignorant for a soldier." "Yes," said the man, who knew perfectly well to whom he was speaking, " Old Jack said we wasn't to know nothin', and I don't know nothin'." Stuart's Ride Round McClellan. — McClellan's army lay along the north and northeast of Richmond, mostly on the north side of the Chickahominy, across <- which he had built several strong bridges, and had constructed cause- ways of logs to pass through the swamps which extended for miles. To ascertain the exact position of the troops, the roads, and bridges, General Lee sent his famous cavalry general, J. E. B. Stuart, " Jeb " as he was familiarly called, to reconnoitre, and bring him all necessary information. With 1,200 cavalry and four pieces of horse-artillery, Stuart set out on the right of McClellan's army, and passed entirely round it. He had several severe fights, captured 165 men, 260 mules and horses, destroyed several bridges and considerable stores. STUART, VA. 406 History of the United States. When he got back to the Chickahominy south of McClellan, Stuart found the bridge gone by which he expected to cross; but he tore down some buildings, laid another bridge, and brought his command safely back into the Confederate lines. J. E. B. Stuart. — Stuart was a young Virginian only twenty-seven years old, when he left the United States Army SEVEN DAYS' BATTLES. for the Confederate service. He was absolutely fearless, of a gay and joyous disposition, fond of fine horses and dogs and of lively music. He was quick in contriving and speedy in executing the most daring military movements; and, like Jackson and Lee, he was an earnest, humble-minded Chris- tian. He never uttered an oath nor permitted those around Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 407 him to do so, never drank intoxicating liquor, and always carried his mother's^ Bible with him. Seven Days' Fig-ht. — Learning what he wished to know of his adversary's position, Lee determined to take the initia- tive and not wait longer to be attacked. For this purpose Jackson was to move around the Federal right, to cut them off from their base of supplies on the York River Railroad, and attack them in the rear on June 25th; but even his foot cavalry could not accomplish the long inarch from the Val- ley in that time, and did not get into position until the next day. At three o'clock in the afternoon of the 26th, A. P. Hill, learning of Jackson's approach, opened the fight by attack- ing the Federal force at Mechanicsville, and by strong as- saults drove it from the intrenched camp at Beaver Dam Creek. But the Federals, massing their forces, caused him to retire. On the 27th, Lee, leaving Magruder and Huger with 28,000 men on the south side of the Chickahominy to defend Richmond against attack there, threw the rest of his forces under Longstreet, A. P. and D. H. Hill, to the north side, where they joined Jackson in a desperate and prolonged attack on the Federal army. The latter had drawn back in the night to the strong fortifications on the heights above Cold Harbor and Gaines's Mill. Here the bat- tle raged fiercely until nightfall, when a combined attack was made al along the line. As the Confederates, worn and exhausted by long marches and bloody fighting, rushed up the slopes with fixed bayonets, uttering their piercing " rebel yell," the Federal soldiers, who had been led to be- lieve their defences impregnable, precipitately retreated, McClellan's Retreat. — McClellan now determined to aban- don the position he had fortified with so much labor and expense, and to seek safety by retreating to James River, where his men might be sheltered under the gunboats. He, therefore, crossed his men as quickly as possible to the south side of the Chickahominy, destroying immense sup- plies and stores of all sorts and burning the bridges behind him. The sick and wounded in the hospitals were left by thousands to the mercy of the Confederates. To conceal his intention of getting away, the fortifications in front of Magruder and Huger were kept fully manned, and a suffi- cient artillery fire maintained to render it uncertain whether 408 History of the United States. the plan were not to mass the Federal army there and at- tack Richmond from that side. By the evening of the 28th, however, it became evident that McClellan and his great army were actually in retreat, and Lee's victorious though weary men took up the j^ursuit. They came up with the Federal rear near Savage's Station, where great quantities of stores had been destroyed by McClellan's order. The GEORGE B. M'CLELI.AN, V. S. A. fierce attack, made by Magruder upon the Federal corps inflicted great injury upon it but could not cutoff its retreat which was continued during the night. Malvern Hill. — Still the Federal army, so lately exultant, in its confident expectation of speedily taking Richmond, hastened farther and farther from that city, closely followed by the Confederates. On the 30th occurred the two bloody fights at White Oak Swamp and Frazier's Farm. The Union Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 409 forces suffered heavily, but pressed on during the night, and on the morning of July 1st, were once more strongly posted on the elevated plateau of Malvern Hill, where their artil- lery could sweep the open ground across which the Confede- rates must pass to drive them from their breastworks. Re- peated efforts on Lee's part, during the afternoon of this day, failed to dislodge McClellan from his strong position. His artillery was fine and could be handled with great advan- tage, while, owing to the nature of the ground, no large ar- tillery force could be efficiently used by the Confederates. They rested on their arms, expecting to renew the attack the next morning. But when morning came there was no enemy to attack. McClellan had again withdrawn his army, this time to Harrison's Landing, where it was thoroughly protected by the gunboats. After watching him for some days and finding that no more damage could be done to him. General Lee took his forces back to Richmond. Results of the Seven Days' Fight. — The results of this great struggle, known as the " Seven Days' Fight," were" not such as had been hoped for on either side. McClellan and his army had expected to destroy Lee, capture Rich- mond, and end the Confederate resistance. When the fight opened, a successful repulse of their besiegers was as much as the Southern leaders dared anticipate, but, after the first day's victory at Cold Harbor and Gaines's Mill, General Lee laid his plans to destroy his opponent in detail. Lack of prompt co-operation by the subordinate commanders and of accu- rate knowledge of the country concurred with other causes to frustrate these plans, and McClellan fled to his gunboats with more men than Lee had ever had. General Lee in his Report, written at the time, sums up the material results of the prolonged fight: " more than 10,000 prisoners including officers of rank, 52 pieces of artillery and upwards of 35,000 stand of small arms captured." The stores and supplies of every description which fell into the hands of the Confede- rates were great in amount and value, though small in com- parison with those destroyed by the retreating army. The killed and wounded on the Southern side were about 16,782. McClellan's loss is reported as 15,000. This report men- tions 5,000 prisoners, while General Lee's Report, published just after the fights, claims 10,000 prisoners. 410 History of the United States. McClellan and Lincoln. — General McClellan, from his safe covert at Harrison's Landing, issued a congratulation to his soldiers on having escaped from their enemies, and at once began to clamor for large reinforcements to enable him to capture Richmond. The tidings of his discomfiture and retreat were received with shame and anguish throughout the entire North, and President Lincoln called for 300,000 additional volunteers. There had been hard feeling for some time between Mr. Lincoln and McClellan, and the lat- ter had been removed from the position of Commander-in- chief of all the Union armies in March; he complained now that the authorities at Washington did everything to thwart him and destroy his army. To see how matters really stood, Mr. Lincoln went in person to Harrison's Landing, where he reviewed the array on July 8th, and found it 80,000 strong. Li eluding Jackson's corps, Lee had never more than 81,000 around Richmond. In consequence of this visit and McClellan's persistence that he must again attack Richmond from his present base, he and his army were or- dered from the James to the Potomac River, while another army was collected — 'Banks's, Fremont's, and McDcwell's commands being consolidated as the Army of Virginia — and placed under General John Pope. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Keports and Correspondence in Official War Records; Ridpath's History of the United States; J. E. Johnston's Narra- tive; Dabney's Life of T. J. Jackson; Allen's Jackson's Valley Campaign ; Long's Life of Robert E. Lee; Pitz Lee's Memoir of General R. E. Lee; Pollard's Lost Cause; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate (iovernraent ; Stephens's History;of theUnited States ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Taylor's Four Years with Lee. QUESTIONS.— 1. What was Jackson's position in the Valley ? 2. Tell of his success at McDovf<^11 and Winchester. .S. His defeat of Fremont and Shields. 4. What were the results of the campaign ? 5. Tell of the prepara- tions around Richmond for battle. 6. What force did Lee summon, and how did it come ? 7. Relate the anecdote of Jackson and the soldier. 8. Describe Stuart's ride. 9. Give a sketch of Stuart. 10. Tell of the fights at Mechan- iesville, at Cold Harbor, and at Gaines's Mill. 11. What was their effect on McClellan? 12. Did Lee's army follow ? 13. Where were the next encoun- ters? 14. Describe the battle of Malvern Hill. 15. What were the results of the " Seven Days' Fight"? 16. Tell of McClellan aiid Lincoln. 17. Find the various battle-fields on the map. CHAPTER LXXI. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1862. Pope's Unpopularity. — Pope, who had been fighting in the West under General Halleck, proved to be a great braggart. In one of his orders to his new army he told them, '' I have come from the West, where we have always seen the backs of our enemies — from an army whose business it has been to seek the adversary, and to beat him when found." This boasting soon made him unpopular with both men and offi- cers. General Halleck was also summoned from the West and made Commander-in-chief, and it was by him that Mc- Clellan was brought from the Peninsula back to Washington. Cedar Mountain — Pope's Army. — Pope, with 40,000 men, was moving towards Gordons ville, an important railroad junc- tion, and Lee sent Jackson and his corps to meet and drive him back. Jackson's men were moun- . — -- — ^.^^^ taineers and the Chickahominy ■ \ swamps were especially unhealthy for them. They hailed with delight the order to turn tlieir faces once more towards the hill country. On August 9th, part of them under General Ewell attacked Banks near Cedar Mountain, and after severe fighting drove him from the field. Jackson remained where he was for two days and then returned to Gor- donsville, to which point Lee was bringing up most of his troops from Richmond. Before long, Jackson's b. s. swell, va. corps moved off to the northwest, nobody knew exactly whither, while Longstreet advanced nearer the line of the rail- road which was held by Pope. Pope's army was more wantonly destructive than any which had hitherto invaded Virginia. By his express order, his men were empowered to seize and treat as a spy any man who might be found peaceably en- gaged at his home, unless the captive should at once take [411] 412 History of the United States. the oath of allegiance to the United States, Private pro- perty of all sorts was either to be taken or destroyed. Under these infamous orders, farms were laid waste, dwellings de- stroyed or dismantled, furniture cut to pieces or burned. Farm implements shared the same fate, and clothing, books, any and everything was ruthlessly stolen or rendered useless to its former owners. In one of his bold rides, Stuart struck Pope's headquarters at Catlett's Station, where he captured his baggage and official papers, containing valuable informa- tion for General Lee. Jackson's Capture of Manassas Junction. — Jackson crossed the Rappahannock at the upper fords, and took a road be- hind the Bull Run Mountains, which screened his march from the enemy; passed through the mountains at Thorough- fare Gap, on August 26th, and gained a position between Pope and his supplies and reinforcements at Washington. Jackson's first act was to capture Manassas Junction, where 300 prisoners, eight guns, ten locomotives, seven trains of cars, and immense quantities of stores were taken. What could be used was at once appropriated for the hungry and destitute Southerners, and the rest was burned. Battle of Second Manassas. — As soon as Pope found where Jackson was, he moved hastily to Manassas, hoping to defeat him before Longstreet could come up. Jackson occupied the position held by the Federal troops at the first battle of Manassas, while Pope had the advantage of the breastworks then thrown up by the Confederates. Pope ordered McDowell to move from Gainesville upon Jackson's rear, saying: " We shall bag the whole crowd." But Jackson was not easily bagged. His situation was critical. He was between the divisions of Pope's army, which greatly outnumbered his own, and Longstreet was still miles away. Yet he did not hesitate, but attacked the enemy as soon as he came within striking distance, on the evening of August 28th. Till night- fall the battle raged fiercely. Jackson's men sufi^ered heavily, and General Ewell, the second in command, lost his leg; but the advantage was everywhere in favor of the Confed- erates. Complete Victory. — The next morning the battle was re- newed, and Jackson's weary men were becoming exhausted by the fresh Federal troops, when Longstreet's corps, who An Episode in the Battle of Second Manassas. . This scene occurred on the edge of an old raihoad cut, which had been dug but never used ; the Louisiana Brigade had position behind the banl^ of earth which had been thrown out of the cut, and which formed an excellent breast- work: " Reno's men [the Federals], advancing under the fire of our artillery, fought the Louisiauians until the ammunition of the latter was exhausted , and then drove them back into the deep cut, where they were fighting with stones until relieved by our brigade. ... As my brigade advanced through the woods to retake the position, the minie-balls were rattling like hail against the trees, and, as we debouched into the field through which the railroad cut ran, nothing could be seen between us and the smoke and fire of the enemy's rifles except the tattered battle-flag of the Louisiana Brigade." — Fr(j7ri the report of an eye-witness, Colonel Robert H. Mayo, Forty-seventh Virginia Infantry. A private of Crenshaw Battery, Pegram's Artillery Battalion, says: "After leaving the Warreutou pike, we moved forward, and soon reached a position not far from the railroad cut, where the fighting of the infantry was, I believe, for the time, the severest of the war. It was here, when our battery had un- limbered — the guns having been double-shotted with canister — that the gallant A. P. Hill rode into our midst, and told our captain that the Louisiana lirigade, having run out of ammunition, was holding the enemy in check with rocks. Being anxious to see the railroad cut and the result of the battle there, . . . I started early next morning for that point, . . . where I saw the wounded enemy and heard from their lips the confirmation of General Hill's statement — the clearing on the north side of the cut and even the edge of the woods which skirted the field, being covered with the dead and wounded of both armies which had locked horns in the deadly struggle." — War Recollections in the Richmond {Va.) Star, December, 1S93, signed '■'Private,''' Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 413 in their turn had been hidden behind the mountains, came through Thoroughfare Gap to the aid of their hardly pressed comrades. Pope had telegraphed to Wash- ington that the ''enemv was driven from the field," and was " retreating towards the mountains." Deep was, therefore, the cha- grin of the North to learn that he had suf- fered a great defeat, and was himself in hasty retreat towards the Capital, leaving his dead and wounded to his enemies. A vigorous pursuit was kept up by Jackson, johni) and several severe blows delivered before his enemy was securely ensconced in the fortifications near Washington. In the last of these, at Chantilly, Major-General Kearney, of the Union army, was killed. His body, abandoned on the field, was sent to his friends by Jackson, under a flag of truce. Losses on Both Sides. — In this brief campaign, the Fed- erals lost 30,000 men, the Confederates some 12,000. Gen- eral Lee had captured 9,000 prisoners, 30 cannon, and 30,000 stand of small arms. Since the 1st of June, in three months, he had defeated two fine armies greatly superior to his own in num- bers and equipments, and had freed Vir- ginia from hostile invasion from the James River to the Potomac. In the fights at Second Manassas, the Confederate artillery, newly organized and mobilized by General Pendleton, Lee's chief of artillery, took, for the first time, the important part it performed in the subse- quent conflicts of the Army of Northern Virginia. Lee in Maryland. — Having driven Pope across the Poto- mac, Lee's army was moved to Leesburg, where it also crossed that river and marched into Maryland. The au- thorities at Washington were much alarmed at this move and considered themselves in great danger. In this emer- gency, Mr. Lincoln, General Halleck, and the Secretary of War turned again to General McClellan and besought him to take command of the Army of the Potomac once more, and save the Capital. McClellan accepted the responsi- bility, notwithstanding the bad treatment he had experi- enced. 414 History of the United States. Jackson at Harper's Ferry. — General Lee moved to Fred- erick City, and then, finding that Harper's Ferry was held by a strong garrison which barred free communication with the Valley, while McClellan was approaching him with 87,000 men, sent Jackson to capture Harper's Ferry, while he, with the rest of the army, moved westward through the gaps of the Katoctin and Blue Ridge Mountains, Unfor- tunately, an order setting forth Lee's plans was picked up in D. H. Hill's deserted camp. This revealed to McClellan the route and intentions of his adversary, and he pressed on to overtake him and save Harper's Ferry. In order to give Jackson time to capture that place, Lee made stout resist- ance at Boonsboro' and Crampton's Gaps, which detained McClellan effectually until Jackson had compelled the sur- render of the Ferry on September 15th. Leaving A. P. Hill to look after 13,000 prisoners, 73 valuable guns, and 30,000 muskets captured, Jackson hastened with his other men to join General Lee, who took up a strong position on the west side of Antietam Creek, near the village of Sharps- burg. Here McClellan opened, on the 17th, the bloody bat- tle known by both the above names. Weariness and ex- haustion had caused so much straggling in the Confederate army that they had only 35,000 to oppose their assailants, more than double that number. Battle of Sharpsburg, or Antietam. — The Federal right began the fight at day dawn, attacking Jackson's corps with great vigor. Backwards and for- wards the tide of battle swept along the line. On the Confederate left where Jackson was posted, the Fed- erals were at last driven back, but, in the centre and towards their own left, they pressed back their oppo- nents. Once and again Hood's brave Texans drove their foes before them. As the hard pressed and diminished Confederate regiments were again and again collected and thrown upon the apparently inexhaustible fresh A. p. HILL, VIRGINIA. ^^^^^^ ^f ^l^g Fcdcral army, defeat seemed at hand. D. H. Hill, McLaws, and Ewell continued Lincohi's Administration, 1862. 415 their stubborn fighting, and at 3 P. M. they had fairly re- pulsed the Federals on the left and centre. Now a heavy attack is made by Burnside's fresh troops on the Confede- rate right. The heights above Antietam Creek are crowded with artillery, and, under shelter of this, Burnside's men cross the stream and drive the Confederates rapidly before them. Just at this critical moment, A. P. Hill's division reaches the field. They have had a long march from Har- per's Ferry, but they rush to the rescue of their comrades, and, in their turn, drive the enemy back across the creek with tre- mendous slaughter. Both sides slept on their arms, but Lee held the field, and McClellan sent a flag of truce asking permission to bury his dead. Lee's Return to Virginia. — Both armies remained quiet during the 18th, and in the night Lee, learning that large re- inforcements were coming up to his enemy, crossed his army back into Virginia by one bad ford, before McClellan had divined his intention. It was impossible to move the men in the field hospitals, and, on that account, McClellan claimed a victory. But he had lost 12,469 killed and wounded, while Lee's loss was about the same, and Sharpsburg or Antietam must be pronounced a drawn battle. On the morning of the 19th, part of Porter's corps was sent across the Potomac in pursuit, but were met by A. P. Hill and driven into the river with great slaughter. For some weeks, Lee lay between Shepherdstown and Winchester, recruiting his weary men and horses, and improving the equipment of his army with the artillery and muskets captured at Harper's Ferry. It was a very hot, dry autumn, and, becoming sure that Mc- Clellan would not follow him. General Lee drew further up the Valley, where he could better subsist his army, and be in more direct communication with Richmond. While the armies lay watching each other, Stuart made another of his gallant dashes. Riding to Chambersburg in Pennsylvania, he captured and destroyed a large amount of military and railroad property. He then passed entirely round McClel- lan and recrossed the Potomac below Harper's Ferry. Burnside Supersedes McClellan. — By November 2d, Mc- Clellan had brought his army, increased to 115,000 men, once more into Virginia, and was moving southward in a line nearly parallel to the Blue Ridge. To head him off, no matter 416 History of the United States. A.E. BURNSIBE.U. S. A. in which direction he should turn, General Lee ordered part of Longstreet's corps to Loudoun County, and later on took the whole of it to Culpeper. Jackson was left in the Valley, to threaten Maryland and prevent the Federal army from moving too far away from Washington. General McClel- lari had given great dissatisfaction by his failure to follow up what the North claimed as his victory at Sharpsburg. He had twice shown himself admirable as a fine organizer of a large army, but seemed unable to exe- cute the plans he laid for handling it. He was, therefore, again removed from command, and the army of the Potomac was given to General Ambrose E. Burnside, on November 10th. " On to Richmond." — The new Federal general determined to try another " On to Richmond," this time by way of Fredericksburg. The army was in three grand divisions, commanded by Hooker, Sumner, and Franklin, and was 125,000 strong. Sumner reached the heights of Falmouth, a little village just opposite Fredericksburg, on November 17th, and wished to cross the Rappahan- nock at once and take possession of the town. This could have been accomplished without serious opposition, as the town and hills above it were held only by " one regiment of cavalry, four companies of Mississippi infantry, and a battery of light artillery," and as, for several days later, only two divisions of Longstreet's corps were in position to obstruct the ad- vance of their enemies. Burnside, how- ever, proved himself even more cautious than McClellan, and would neither suffer Sumner to cross the Rappahannock at Fredericksburg nor Hooker at the Fords some distance above, as he wished to do. At Fredericksburg. — Instead of advancing, the Federal host sat down and began fortifying all the country north of the river. Finding his foe thus inactive, Lee, on his side, did everything possible to strengthen his position by earth- works, rifle-pits, and the most powerful artillery he could JOS. HOOKER. U. S. A. Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 417 obtain. Jackson's army was brought from the Valley, and everything was prepared for a desperate resistance. As Fredericksburg lies on a plain everywhere commanded by the Falmouth Hills, there was no possibility of preventing the Federal army from crossing the river, and all the Con- federate energies were turned to driving it back after such crossing. The winter set in unusually early and with great severity, and both sides suffered much from the cold. Burn- side's men had good clothing, ample provisions, and good tents. The Confederate army was forced to supplement their inadequate supply of tents by bushes and their scanty blankets; their food consisted of a small ration of fat bacon and corn bread, and their clothing principally of ragged suits which had seen many a battle. Their long marches were especially destructive to shoes, and many soldiers were entirely barefooted. All these hardships did not diminish their spirit nor deaden their patriotism. Bombardment of Fredericksburg. — By the 1 0th of Decem- ber, Burnside had all the men and munitions he had called for, and felt ready to begin the advance for which the North was so eager. To eat his Christmas dinner in Richmond was his great desire. One hundred and fifty heavy ■cannon crowned the Falmouth Hills, and, under cover of these, a force advanced to lay across the river the pontoons — bridges laid upon boats — over which the army was to reach the southern bank. The Confederate sharp-shooters in the town so hindered the bridge-laying that a furious bom- bardment was poured into the little historic city. Many of the people had fled from their homes, alarmed by the proximity and threats of their enemies, and the few who were left hid them- selves in the cellars, expecting every house to be battered about their heads. A dense fog covered the river and plain, and it was difficult for either army to ascertain the move- ments of the other. Disparity of Forces. — By the morning of the 13th, 90,000 of the Federal army with 220 pieces of artillery had crossed 27 W. B. FRANKLIN, U. S. A. 418 History of tlie United States. into the plain, 40,000 men and 104 guns under Sumner at Fredericksburg; 50,000 and 116 guns under Franklin, at the bridges lower down. North of the river was Hooker's re- serve of 23,000 with the 150 guns of the powerful artillery on the hills. Lee had only 60,000 men to oppose to this host and about 250 pieces of artillery. Longstreet's corps held the Confederate left, opposite Sumner, Jackson the right, confronting Franklin. The fog continued so dense that the words of command could be heard while the advancing hosts were invisible. Battle of Fredericksburg. — The first attack was made, in the early morning, upon Jackson's right, under cover of a cannonade. The Confederate cannon were forbidden to fire until the Federal infantry was close upon them. At 1 P. M., a powerful attack all along Jackson's front was opened by a furious cannon- ade from the Federal guns. On the left of his line, his artillery checked the ad- vance of the enemy. Towards the right, there was an interval between two of A. P. Hill's brigades, which were sepa- rated by a marsh. The Federals pressed up into this interval, penetrated the first J. A. EAKLY, VA. jjjjg g^j^^ gained a temporary advantage. Early's gallant command rushed through the woods to the rescue, and, after desperate fighting, drove the enemy out of the woods, over the railroad, and across the plain to the cover of their batteries. Marye's Hill. — No attack was made upon Longstreet's po- sition, until 11 A. M., though a tremendous artillery fire was poured upon it from the Stafford heights. At eleven, Sum- ner advanced for an assault upon the works and men in his front. "Marye's Hill" was the highest point and the key tO' the whole position, and against it the attack was princi- pally directed. It was defended by the Washington Artil- lery from New Orleans, on its crest; by other batteries so stationed that their fire could sweep the plain in its front; by a strong infantry force concealed in a sunken road and behind a stone wall at its base, and by reserves of infantry and artillery on its slope in the rear. When Sumner's di' Lincoln's Admi7iistration, 186'2. 419 visions moved forward, the guns across the river began a heavier firing than before. Here, as on Jackson's line, the Confederate guns were bidden to remain silent until the assailants were in easy striking distance. The murderous fire from the Southern guns upon their front ranks did not deter the Federal hosts from crossing the plain. As one division was mown down, another took its place; but the sunken road with its concealed riflemen was what they had not expected, and, as its destructive fire burst into their faces, the Union lines staggered back in confusion. Hooker's Reserves Defeated. — Burnside, across the river, seeing Sumner's men melt away before the stern fury of their foes, ordered Hooker to take his reserves and carry the crest. But this effort was no more successful than the others. Six times did the blue Federal lines move up to storm the hill; and the sixth assault was as futile as the first. As it came on, the guns on the crest of the hill, exhausted by desperate work, were withdrawn to give place to fresh ones. This movement was imagined to be the beginning of a re- treat. Instead of a retiring foe, the oncoming brigades were met by reinforced guns and infantry, and were repulsed with deadly slaughter. When night came, 12,000 Federal soldiers lay dead or wounded on the cold plain; 5,000 Con- federates were lost on the other side. Knowing that the Federal army was double his own, and greatly superior in its arms. General Lee supposed the advance on the 13th was only a " reconnoissance in force," to ascertain his position and strength. He, therefore, kept his whole army ready for the real attack which he expected the next day. Sun- day and Monday passed without its renewal, and, when the 16th dawned, it was found that the whole Federal force had gone back, under cover of the darkness and fog, to its in- trenchments above Fredericksburg. Only one of Longstreet's divisions and parts of two of Jackson's had been actively engaged, and they had repulsed and demoralized the whole army in their front. Result of the Victory. — This great victory ended active operations for the winter. It was apparent that no further advance was contemplated by the Federal generals, and Lee drew his army a little farther back where it might be better fed and sheltered. The people at home in the South, though they too began to feel much of the privation resulting from 420 History of the United States. their beleaguered condition, made great exertions and many sacrifices to supply the needs of the soldiers. Women everywhere set to spinning cotton and yarn, to weaving cloth, knitting socks, making caps and gloves. Carpets were taken from the floors and cut into blankets and covering for the men at the front, and boxes of all provisions that could be spared were sent to furnish the hungry soldiers with a few good meals. Devotion of Confederate Women. — The history of every free people tells bow, in all times of danger and difficulty, the women of the nation have shared in the trials and light- ened the burdens of the men who fought and toiled for free- dom and sacred rights. In no age or country has this been more remarkable than in the Southern States, from the be- ginning to the end of the Civil War. With sorrowful but sympathizing hearts, they gave their dearest and best to what they felt was their country's cause; and, in the hour of defeat as well as of victory, they stood ready to cheer and encourage their defenders. Enduring privations and facing dangers with silent courage; nursing in the hospitals; taking charge on farms and plantations; exercising wonderful in- genuity to supply the daily increasing deficiencies in all household departments; looking after and directing the negroes left almost entirely dependent upon them; maintain- ing their trust in God and the righteousness of their cause, when their best beloved were languishing in prison, or dead upon the battle-field; the women of the Southern Confede- racy will be remembered for their patriotism and womanly fidelity, while the world lasts, AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Reports and Correspondence in OfHcial War Records; Ridpath's History of the United States; J. E, Johnston's Narra- tive; Dabney's Life of T. J. Jackson ; Allen's Jackson's Valley Campaign; Long's Life of Robert E. Lee; Fitz Lee's Memoir of General Robert E. Lee; Pollard's Lost Cause; Davis'sRise and Fall of the Confederate Government ; Stephens's History of the United states; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Taylor's Four Years With Lee. QUESTIONS. — 1. Who was now commander-in-chief of the Federal forces? 2. Tell of the battle of Cedar Mountain, and of the raids of Pope's army. 3. Who captured Manassas Junction? 4. Describe the battle of Second Manassas. 5. Who gained the victory ? 6. What is said of the losses ? 7. Tell of Lee in Maryland. 8. Of Jackson at Harper's Ferry. 9. Relate the battle of Sharps^ burg, or Antietam. 10. Which side gained the vietorj^? 11. Who now super- seded McClellau ? 13. What plan did he form ? 13. Tell of the armies at Fi-ede- ricksburg. 14. Of the bombardment of the town. 15. Were the forces equal on both sides? 10. Describe the battle of Fredericksburg and the attack on Marye's Hill. 17. Who were the commanders on both sides ? 18. What was the result of the battle ? 19. Describe the devotion of the Southern women. CHAPTER LXXII. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1862. Forces Below New Orleans. — The capture of New Orleans, three weeks after the battle of Shiloh, by Admiral Farragut, was a great disaster to the Confederacy. Seventy miles be- low the city, Forts Jackson and St. Philip had been made as strong as the limited Southern resources allowed. A raft of logs and chains stretched from one to the other to bar the passage up the river, and, under the walls of Fort Jackson, lay the little Confederate fleet of 13 small gunboats, the floa-iing batterv Louisiana, and the ram Manasms, the ma- NEW OELEAMS. chinery of which had already proved defective. Farragut had collected 7 large steam war vessels, 16 gunboats, 21 heavily-armed mortar schooners, and a transport fleet carry- ing 15,000 men under General Benjamin F. Butler. Federal Fleet at the City. — With this superior force, the overpowering of the forts was simply a question of time. The bombardment began, on April 18th, and continued in- cessantly for six days and nights. Still the forts made no sign of surrender, and Farragut determined to run by them. The river was rising rapidly and had carried away part of the raft across the channel. Farragut divided his fleet into [421] 422 History of the United States. thfee squadrons, one of which was to fight Fort St. Philip, another Fort Jackson, while the third was to effect a passage through the raft and up the river. The ships were defended against shot and shell by sand-bags piled on their decks, and great chains hung all over their sides. The effort to pass the forts was made before daylight, on the morning of April 23d. A fight ensued between the gallant little Con- federate fleet and their stronger assailants, and it was not until eleven of the gunboats and the ram Manassas were dis- abled or destroyed that Farragut could proceed up the river. His vessels had been greatly damaged, but thirteen remained unhurt to seize and hold New Orleans. Affairs in the City. — When tidings of the approach of the Federal fleet reached the city, there was universal distress and consternation. General Mansfield Lovell, commanding the troops, turned the city over to the municipal authorities and wisely withdrew his soldiers, carrying them where they might be of further use to the South. Immediate steps were taken to prevent the valuable supplies of cotton, sugar, mo- lasses, and other stores at New Orleans, from falling into the enemy's hands. For miles, the levees showed one unbroken front of fire where cotton bales and hogsheads of sugar fed the flames. The unfinished gunboats and war vessels were fired and launched into the middle of the stream, in the hope that they might do some harm to the approaching fleet. Thousands of citizens hastil}^ gathered up such efl'ects as they could and left the city, before the evening of the 25th, when Farragut anchored in its front. The maj'or re- fused to surrender, since the forts still held out. Farragut sent a party of marines on shore who hoisted the United States flag over the Mint, which flag was soon taken down by a young man named Munford. Fall of New Orleans — General B. F. Butler. — While this was going on, the forts were attacked from a bayou in their rear by Commodore Porter and on land by Butler's men. Their supplies of food and ammunition were exhausted, and there being no hope of assistance, on the 28th, the garrisons spiked their guns and surrendered. New Orleans was then taken possession of by General Butler, who exercised his power in so brutal a manner that he received the title of " Beast Butler," which never left him. One of his first acts Lincoln's Administration, 186^. 423 was to hang as a felon Munford, who had pulled down the United States flag hefore the city had surrendered. He was most insulting to the women of the city, because of their re- fusal to extend courtesy to himself and his soldiers, and issued a proclamation to his men to treat them with shameful indignity. In addition to this, he and his under- lings took from the citizens without hesitation whatever they found. Furniture, jewels, silver, pictures, books, clothing, any and everything was " confiscated," and sent to enrich the homes or please the friends of the victorious plunderers. Such was the general's own greed for silver plate that the caricatures of him at the time, in the public prints, showed him with his pockets full of spoons and ladles, and many severe jokes on the subject were in after years made at his expense. Under his rule New Orleans and the Gulf coast of Louisiana were downtrodden and devastated. In consequence of his outrages against ,, S P T n r^ 1 B. P. BUTLEB, U. S. A. the rules oi modern warfare. General Butler was outlawed by President Davis in this same year. The Federal Government found it expedient to remove him, and General Banks was placed in command of Louisiana. Great Losses of the Confederates. — By the 1st of May, the Confederates had lost, in the west and south, Kentucky with the defences at Columbus, Henry, and Donelson; and Missouri with the defences at New Madrid and Island No. 10. They had been forced to abandon middle Tennessee, had lost Nashville and New Orleans, and had suffered great losses in the important battles of Elkhorn and Shiloh. From Shiloh, General Beauregard fell back to Corinth and then to Tupelo in Mississippi. Buell followed him and occupied Corinth, sending his cavalry to destroy the railroads and bridges to the eastward, and inflict destruction upon Con- federate property everywhere. In consequence of the re- tirement of Beauregard's army, Fort Pillow above Memphis and that city itself both passed into the hands of the North- ern armies. Confederate Conscription — Beauregard Replaced by Bragg-. The same difficulties about the re-enlistment of their sol- 424 History of the United States. diers harassed the Confederate generals here, which were experienced in the east. To prevent this uncertainty as to the number of their soldiers, the Confederate Congress, early in the year, passed a conscription law, which ordered that all able-bodied men between the ages of 18 and 35 should be enrolled, and, wdien called for, should be drafted into the army for three years. Those men who had already enlisted for one year, were by this act required to serve two years longer. Van Dorn brought 17,000 men from Arkan- sas, and the army was gradually increased and made more efficient. Beauregard, who continued in ill-health, was re- lieved from the command of the Army of Mississippi on June 21st, and General Braxton Bragg appointed in his stead. Bragg had done a great deal to improve the dis- cipline and efficiency of the army, and much was expected of him. General Halleck and General Pope had both been ordered to Virginia. General Buell and General Thomas were sent with their troops to Chattanooga. General Grant was put in command of the Army of the Tennessee, having under him Sherman, McClernand, and Rosecrans, Effort to Recover Tennessee and Kentucky. — Bragg now made an effort to recover the ground lost by the Confede- rates in Tennessee and Ken- tucky. Leaving Van Dorn to confront Grant and prevent his uniting with Buell, the other Confederate troops were moved in a northeast direction to Chattanooga. To make the intended advance more practi- cable, the cavalry under Forrest swept forward through middle Tennessee, while John Morgan pressed on into Kentucky. Nathan B. Forrest. — Nathan B. Forrest was a native of Tennessee. He had had little advantage of education, and no military training, but he showed himself one of the great soldiers of his time. His powerful frame fitted him to en- N. B. FOKEEST, TENN. Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 425 dure toil and hardship, while his dauntless courage, com- bined with unusual activity and daring, and with a keen perception of the weak points in any situation, and a won- derful influence over men, made him a born leader. Col- lecting a company of cavalry at the beginning of the war, he so soon proved his aptitude for command, that he was promoted, and intrusted with a large force and most dan- gerous and responsible duty. So great was his military ca- pacity that he never met with a defeat, or failed to execute the daring achievements he undertook, although he almost always had greatly superior numbers to contend with. He was the beloved defender of the people in the Gulf States, and the terror of his foes. You remember, he had escaped with his cavalry from Fort Donelson; he now took the towns of McMinnville and Murfreesboro. At the latter place he captured the garrison commanded by General T. L. Crit- tenden and a large quantity of stores, and Nashville seemed in danger of a like fate. JohrTH. Morgan. — .John H. Morgan was a native of Ala- bama, but spent his youth and early manhood in Lexing- ton, Kentucky. He had served in the Kentucky cavalry during the Mexican War, when he was little more than a boy. Ardently Southern in his sympa- thies, he entered the Confederate service early in 1861, and at once became distin- guished as a gallant and daring cavalry officer. Collecting round him a band of soldiers as fearless and enterprising as himself, he brought his command into such discipline that he could rely upon their obedience and valor in any peril. He was greatly beloved in Kentucky, and when he now advanced into the State, hi J i? il -LI J. i? 1 J. H. MOROAN, KT. undreds oi the noblest of her sons flocked to his standard. With about 2,000 men he seized the towns of Lebanon and Cynthiana with about 1,200 prisoners. He cut the telegraph wires, burned railroad bridges, and caused great consternation by his proximity to Cincinnati. He, however, turned back into Tennessee and seized Clarksville, where there was a large supply of military stores. -426 History of the United States. Bragg's Advance Into Kentucky. — A part of Bragg's com- mand was sent to strengthen General Kirby Smith, who pushed on through East Tennessee into Kentucky, leaving a small force to watch the garrison under the Federal Gen- eral Morgan in Cumberland Gap, and prevent its leaving its intrenchments and moving on his rear. Bragg himself with 30,000 men hastened forward into central Kentucky. This advance of the Confederates forced Buell, also, to move north- ward into Kentucky. Battle of Richmond, Ky. — Kirby Smith's advance through eastern Kentucky was rapid and successful. On the 30th of August, the same day with Lee's vic- tory at Second Manassas, he with 5,000 men, attacked the Federal Generals Nel- son and Manson commanding 10,000 men near Richmond, Kentucky, and totally routed them, killing and wounding 1,000, taking 5,000, as many as his whole force, prisoners, and capturing 9 cannon and 10,000 stand of small arms. A few days after this, Bragg entered Kentucky. Capture of Louisville. — One of two courses was open to him, to attack Buell E. KIRBY SMITH, FLA. ^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^^^j^ lapldly uorthward and seize Louisville. Unfortunately, he did neither. The whole Confederate army was about 52,000 strong, but it was marching upon widely separated roads. Buell, at first, had about the same number, but he was being constantly rein- forced. He too moved towards Louisville. Bragg was tempted to deluj his advance for an attack on Munfordville, where he captured 4,133 prisoners with their artillery and small arms; and he afterwards stopped at Frankfort to aid in inaugurating a Confederate governor for Kentucky. This gave Buell the opportunity to reach Louisville, and Bragg's day of success was over. (Drrant at luka and Corinth. — Van Dorn was left in Missis- sippi to keep Grant occupied, to defeat him if possible, and then to come to Bragg's aid in Kentucky. Price's division of Van Dorn's command had, however, sustained a severe check at luka. Grant had then sent a considerable force to assist Buell, and just at the time when the Confederate ad- Lincoln's Administration., 186^. 427 S. PRICE, MO. vance most needed help, a combined attack made by Van Dorn and Price upon Rosecrans at Corinth was repulsed with very heavy loss. In this fight, the Confederate army was one-third larger than that of the Federals, but the fortifications at Corinth had been made so strong that they could not be carried even by the most desperate assaults. This defeat was a great blow to the Confederate cause in the Southwest. Bragg at Frankfort. — Buell, once in Louisville, was soon at the head of 75,000 men. There was no hope for reinforcements for Bragg. It became a necessity for him to fall back, especially if he wished to save the quantity of supplies and stores he had collected. Buell was confident of his ability to defeat the Confederates, if he could once get in their rear and cut off their line of retreat into Tennessee. Accordingly, he moved his main army towards the southeast, hoping to seize the roads and once more occupy Cumberland Gap. Bragg, however, conceived the idea that Buell was coming to give him battle in the neighborhood of Frankfort, and kept most of his troops in that vicinity. Battle of Perryville.— In consequence of this, Polk's corps 16,000 strong encountered at Perryville, on October 8th, the main part of Buell's army, 58,000 men. By stout fighting, Polk held the ground, repulsed the enemy, and captured 15 pieces of artillery and 600 prisoners, when night put a stop to the battle. The Confederate loss was 3,145 killed and wounded. That of the Federals somewhat greater. It was impossible for Polk's corps to make a longer stand against the great numbers in their front, and they withdrew in the night to Harrodsburg where the rest of the Southern forces soon collected. Bragg might possibly have met Buell with an army almost as large as his own, but apprehending a flank movement, he fell back into East Tennessee, carrying with him a large supply of provisions and stores. The re- sults of this campaign were bitterly disappointing to both 428 History of the United States. sides. The South justly felt that much more might have been accomplished, had there been more vigor and celerity in the Confederate movements; while the North believed that Buell should have surrounded and destroyed Bragg's army. Buell was, therefore, superseded by Rosecrans who had acquired a great name for his successful defence at Corinth. Van Dorn was also removed from command, his place being given to General John C. Pemberton. Result of the Campaign. — Although Bragg had misused his opportunities, he had recovered possession of East Tennes- see and a great part of the middle of the State. His army was posted at Murfreesboro, only forty miles from Nash- ville, where he fortified the naturally strong position by earthworks. While the infantry was thus quiet for a few weeks, the cavalry, of which Colonel Joseph Wheeler was the chief commander, was in constant activity, capturing sup- ply trains and detachments of the enemy's troops, and in- terfering with his communications. Morgan, on one occa- sion, surprised a camp early in the morning, and took 1,500 prisoners. President Davis Visits Bragg's Army. — To see how mat- ters stood, and in the hope of infusing fresh courage into the western army. President Davis visited Murfreesboro, and reviewed the troops there. During this visit. General Morgan's marriage took place, the ceremony being per- formed by General Polk, who for once consented to exercise his clerical functions. Battle of Murfreesboro or Stone River, 1862. — The last day of the year found Rosecrans and Bragg in the deadly grapple of battle, the former having 46,940, the latter 37,712 men, a difference of only 10,000. To encourage the North after the disappointment and defeat of Fredericksburg, Gen- eral Rosecrans took advantage of the absence of most of the Confederate cavalry, and moved from Nashville on December 26th to attack Bragg. The position held by the Confederate army a little northwest of the small town of Murfreesboro was by no means a strong one, and offered more advantage for attack than for defence. General Bragg, however, decided to make his stand there. Skirmishing with cavalry as he advanced, Rosecrans reached Stone River, beyond which Bragg's troops lay, on the evening of December 30th. He Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 429 J, HAKDEE, GA. raade his dispositions and determined to open the attack with his left wing early on the next morn- ing. Major-GeneralMcCook commanded [ the right, Major-General Thomas the '■ centre, and Major-General Crittenden the left of the Federal army. The Confederate left, opposite McCook, was composed of McCown's division sup- ported by Cleburne's division, the whole under command of Lieutenant-General , Hardee; the centre opposite Thomas '- was commanded by Lieutenant-Gene- ral Polk, having Withers's division in front with Cheatham's as support; the right was held by Major-General Breckinridge, opposite Crittenden. Stone River ran between the centre and right wing. Confederate Success. — Rosecrans's plan to attack with his left wing was foiled by an unexpected and gallant assault on his right, in the early morning of December 30th. The morning was foggy, and the sudden advance of McCown's men found McCook so unprepared that several of his guns were captured before they had been fired, a large number of prisoners was taken, and, though there was stout resistance, in a short time Hardee's force had driven two Federal divisions some distance back in great confusion, with the loss of a num- ber of cannon and several thousand pris- oners. By eleven o'clock the Federal right had been driven from its whole position; half the field had been taken, and the Con- federate cavalry under General Wharton had passed round to the rear and were cutting off the supply trains. Fight in the Centre. — The brunt of the battle was now sus- tained by Thomas in the centre. His position was a strong one, on the edge of a rocky hill covered with cedar brush, and was well defended by artillery which swept the open ground in its front. Notwithstanding the murderous fire of this artillery and of the Federal infantry in the cedar thickets, Polk's Mississippi and Alabama Brigades succeeded in car- J. A. WUARrON, TEX. 430 History of the United States. rying the line of defence at the point of the bayonet, cap- turing many guns and thousands of prisoners in their on- ward rush, and the centre joined the right wing in its rapid retreat. The two armies at this time occupied lines at right angles to those on which the fight had begun. Hell's Half- Acre. — Only the extreme right of the Federal army remained untouched. It, however, was posted in a BATTLE OF MURFREESBORO. strong position on an elevation about a hundred yards wide, between the river bluff and a deep railway cut. This narrow strip of land covered with trees was known as "The Round Forest," but received from the soldiers the name "Hell's Half-Acre." An immediate appi^oach to it was impossible save directly in front. It was held by a strong force of artil- lery and infantry, and all efforts to carry it were repulsed with terrible slaughter. Some of the attacking regiments lost more than half their men. General Bragg, at last, brought part of Breckinridge's force over the river, in another effort to dislodge his enemy in the Round Forest, but night fell and Rosecrans's left still held it. Retreat on Both Sides, — The retreating soldiers, on the Federal right and centre, had been met by fresh troops coming to their aid, and halted in their flight along a new line of defence suddenly constructed, with its left still in the " Round Forest." During the night it was drawn further back, and the whole field was left to the Confederates. All lAncoln^s Administration, 186'2. 431 day of January 1st, 1863, the armies lay close together, each too much exhausted to renew the contest. On the 2d, Rose- crans made an effort to get between Bragg and Murfreesboro. Breckinridge's troops met this advance and drove it back to the river, but were themselves compelled to fall back before the artillery massed there. As often happened after a great battle, a very heavy rain fell all day of the 3d. There was danger that Stone River would rise between Bragg's army and his supplies; Rosecrans was receiving heavy reinforce- ments; and in the night the whole Confederate army crossed the river and fell back — Polk's corps to Shelbyville, Hardee's to Tullahoma. Victory Claimed by Both Sides. — The North claimed a victory, on account of this withdrawal, but it had suffered terrible loss, 13,249 men, 30 cannon, 9 flags, and 6,000 stand of small arms being captured from them. The Con- federates lost 10,266 men, among them some of their bravest and best officers. But there were thousands and thou- sands to replenish the Federal armies, while the South was beginning to feel the strain upon her population very grievously. General Bragg telegraphed to Richmond, on the night of December 31st, that he had won a victory. Great, therefore, was the Southern disappointment to learn that his success was altogether fruitless, and that he was again falling back. The country, as well as his own offi- cers and soldiers, was fast losing confidence in a man who had again failed when success seemed within his grasp. But President Davis still believed him a capable general, and the army in Tennessee was left under his command. Burning of Holly Springs. — During the latter part of 1862, Grant was making his plans for the capture of Vicksburg. He had established a fortified camp at Holly Springs. This was an important railroad junction, and here he accumu- hited a large depot of army stores and supplies. On Decem- ber 20th, Van Dorn with his Confederate cavalry made a long raid round Grant's position, cut his communications, and at last captured Holly Springs with its garrison of 2,000 men. He then set fire to the store-houses, and destroyed them with their contents and all the railroad buildings. Millions of dollars' worth of property was burned, and Grant was forced to fall back to protect his communications, Sher- 432 History of the United States. man also suffered a defeat in his advance upon some Con- federate outposts, and lost 2,000 men. Confederate Cruisers. — On the ocean, during this year, the Confederate privateers and cruisers did immense damage to Federal commerce. Two admirable ships, the Alabama and the Florida, had been sent out as cruisers, the first built for the Confederates at Liverpool, the other purchased as a mer- chant ship. To avoid an infringement of English neutrality between the United States and the Confederacy, any such vessels had to watch their opportunity and slip out of the British waters without any armament. Guns and supplies were brought to them by other vessels. Under command of 'i5C ■ .'iLmM^lmp- ^ii. m^w m ^mi^f^ W m ^^' ■f'^'W W ■ \ li ^- ~ -,,' V f / ; 1 BUJiMINU OF HOLLY S1"KINUS. Captain Raphael Semmes, who had before been captain of the Sumter, the Alabama distinguished herself on the high seas, especially in the South Atlantic and Indian Oceans. The Florida ran the blockade into Mobile, Was there fitted out as a privateer, and, under the command of Captain -John N. Moffitt, cruised with great success in the Atlantic Ocean. Condition of the Confederacy, 1862. — The close of 1862 found the boundaries of the Confederacy much curtailed. The immense resources of the Federal Government had en- abled it to seize and hold the border States except Virginia, and to take possession of the Mississippi River, except that Lincoln's Administration, 1862. 433 part lying between Vicksburg and Grand Gulf. Nearly all the Atlantic coast, except that between Charleston and Savan- nah and one or two points in North Carolina, was held by Federal troops and gunboats. New Orleans, southern Louisi- ana, and much of the Gulf coast were in their grasp. A powerful and efficient blockade kept foreign supplies and recruits from entering the South, while Grant in Mississippi and Rosecrans in Tennessee threatened the communications so important for the support of the Southern armies. In the field the advantage was greatly in favor of the Confed- eracy. The victories of Jackson and Lee over the armies collected to crush them, excited the wonder and admiration of the world, and led their soldiers to believe that Southern prowess must ultimately gain Southern independence. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United states ; Life of Leonidas Polk by his son ; Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Pollard's Lost Cause; Raymond's Life of Lincoln; MePherson's Political History of the Rebellion; Richmond (Va.) Newspapers, 1861, 1862; S. S. Cox's Three Decades ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Recollections of a Virginian, by General Dabney H. Maury. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the forces in the Mississippi below Ne'sv Orleans. 2. Of the advance of the Federal fleet to the city. 3. What was the state of affairs in the city ? 4. Describe the taking of the city and General Butler's conduct there. 5. What great losses had the Confederates suffered ? 6. Tell of the new conscription law. 7. Who now became commander of the Armv of Mississippi? 8. What was his first plan ? 9. Tell of N. B. Forrest. 10." Of John H. Morgan. 11. Where did Bragg lead his ai-my? 12. Describe the battle of Richmond, Kentucky. 13. The capture of Louisville. 14. What two battles took place in Mississippi? 15. With what results? 16. Where was Bragg at this time ? 17. Tell of the battle of Periy ville. 18. What was the result of the campaign so far? 19. Who now visited the army in Tennes- see? 20. What great battle was fought on the last day of 1862? 21. De- scribe the three fights and give the names of the commanders. 22. What were the results on both sides ? 23. Tell of the burning of Holly Springs. 24. Of the Confederate cruisers. 25. What was the condition of the Confederacy at the close of 1862? CHAPTER LXXIII. LINCOLN' 8 ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1862. West Virginia. Formed. — Battles and marches do not com- prise the whole history of a country even in time of a great war, and we must look at the political events and the social condition of the people. Mr. Lincoln had never acknow- 28 434 History of the United States. ledged that a State could go out of the Union; and, early in 1861, that part of the State of Virginia — forty-eight coun- ties — which refused to take part in secession, was recognized as if it were the whole State, and was allowed to send repre- sentatives and senators to Congress at Washington. The governor of this pretended State was Francis H. Pierpoint. When Tennessee was occupied by the Federal troops, after the fall of Donelson, Andrew Johnson was appointed "Mili- tary Governor " of the State by the United States authori- ties, and persons sent to the Federal Congress were allowed the same privileges as members legally elected. Two Governments in Missouri and Kentucky. — Partial Conventions were held in Missouri and Kentucky which voted these States into the Confederacy, and created " pro- visional legislatures." Representatives elected by them or by the soldiers from these States, were given seats in the Confederate Congress, and so there was at the same time, a Congressional representation from Virginia, Kentucky, and Missouri, both at Washington and Richmond. Mr. Lincoln's View of Slavery in 1861. — The lack of suc- cess to the Union armies, notwithstanding their immense ^ expenditure of money and human life, seemed to call for some unusual and vigorous measures, to break down the South and strengthen the Northern cause. At first, as has been told you, Mr. Lincoln himself expressly dis- claimed that the question of slavery had anything to do with the conflict between the two sections of the coun- try. In his inaugural address, he said that he had no purpose, directly or in- directlv, to interfere with the institu- DAviD HUNTER, U.S.A. ^j^j^ ^f slavcry, aud averred that he had no inclination or lawful right to do so. In his first an- nual message he referred to and re-affirmed these senti- ments. He also repeatedly said that he should be guided by the Constitution. Congress, as we have seen, had on more than one occasion declared that it had no power to in- terfere with slavery. President Lincoln had also rebuked General Fremont in Missouri, and General Hunter in Florida, Lincobi's Administration, 1862. 435 for proclaiming the slaves free in their several military dis- tricts. Change of View. — Time and disappointed hopes of speedy victory changed all this. It was bitter to confess that the Southern leaders were better generals, and the Confederate armies, though so much smaller and badly equipped, better soldiers than the hosts they so often defeated; and some mode must be devised for striking them, more effective than in the field. The valor and prowess of the South were beginning, too, to influence the mind of Europe, and it was desirable to invoke prejudice once more to her discredit. As early as the summer of 1861, it had been proposed in the Federal Congress to confiscate and free any slaves employed by their owners in aiding the Confederate Government. In March, 1862, Mr. Lincoln urged Congress to make provision for compensating such States as should arrange for the gradual emancipation of their slaves; and also suggested that the negroes thus freed should be colonized out of the country. The border States did not favor the idea and it was believed to require too much money, so that nothing definite was done. Emancipation Proclamation, 1862. — An Act passed in Wash- ing, in the summer of 1862, confiscated all the property — slaves especially — of persons engaged in what the North called "the Rebellion." Finding that this law enlisted the sympathies and gratified the hostile sentiment of much of the North, especially of New England, Mr. Lincoln issued, on September 22d, just after the battle of Sharpsburg, a Proclamation declaring that after the 1st of January, 1863, slavery should cease to exist in any of the seceded States which should not by that time have returned to its alle- giance to the Union. Objects of the Proclamation. — This Proclamation might appear inoperative, but it had three special objects : to stir up the slaves, hitherto very peaceable and docile, to turn against their masters, and thereby weaken the South- ern armies by compelling the white men to remain at home to protect their families from the outrage and violence of the negroes; to make the people of Europe believe that the South was fighting to maintain slavery, if it did not at once throw down its arms and acquiesce in this wholesale rob- bery; and to place the Democratic party, always opposed to 436 History of the United States. meddling with the question which it believed each State must settle for itself, in antagonism to the administration, and make it appear unwilling to carry on the war. Many peo- ple believed that a meeting of the " Loyal Governors," held about this time at Altoona, Pennsylvania, had persuaded Mr. Lincoln to issue this proclamation; others averred that he did it without seeking advice from any one. If the gov- ernors did not originate they endorsed it, saying that it " struck at the root of the rebellion," and they pledged all the resources of their States to support it and the policy of the Federal Government. Effects of the Proclamation. — When the Northern elec- tions came on, in November, it was shown that the emanci- pation of the Southern slaves, and the arrests and imprison- ment of Northern citizens, were strongly condemned by the Democratic party. New York elected governor, by a large majority, Horatio Seymour, who had from the first declared that compromise measures might have avoided the war, and who opposed the Emancipation Proclamation and other arbitrary acts of the Washington Government. New Jer- sey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, also cast votes which, though not enough to defeat the party in power, showed that a large part of their citizens looked with disfa- vor and alarm upon the measures so lately sprung upon the country in violation of individual liberty and constitutional right. At the South, the Proclamation called forth a new outburst of patriotism and devotion, as it proved that in the name of " preserving the Union," the Northern Adminis- tration had resolved to trample upon all law, to defy the Constitution, and to work its will by any and every means at its command. Emancipation, January 1, 1863. — The Proclamation of September, 1862, was followed by that of Emancipation on January 1, 1863, in which President Lincoln pronounced all the slaves in the Southern States, except in the districts occupied and ruled by Federal authorities, absolutely and forever free. Of course, this could not affect any negroes who were out of the reach of the Federal armies. But, from this time, wherever those armies advanced, vast num- bers of the negroes left their homes and flocked to the Northern camps where they expected to be sheltered and Lincoln's Administratiou, 1862. 437 fed in idleness. It was the common belief among them that every man thus leaving his master would receive " forty acres and a mule/' in reward for so doing. What to do with the idle, ignorant crowds pouring into their jurisdic- tions, became a very troublesome question to the Federal commanders. Thousands of the able-bodied men were em- ployed as teamsters and camp servants, while others in large numbers were enlisted in the army and formed into companies and regiments. To feed the incompetent crowds which hung about them, often required more rations than were consumed by the armies themselves. In many places, valuable tracts and districts from which the white owners had been driven were given over by the Federal authorities to the negroes, who quickly reduced them to rank wilderness or barren deserts. War Prices. — In the North, where, although gold and sil- ver were rarely seen, paper money — "greenbacks" — was abundant, prices had risen considerably by the close of 1862. But as there was ample employment in the workshops and manufactories, and as the large bounties and the substi- tute fees paid to the soldiers made provision for their fami- lies, there was general prosperity and little want. The South had never had anything but paper money, and it had by this time become almost worthless. Cut off from the supplies for which it had de- pended upon the Northern States and Europe, the South had to pay high prices for everything scarce at $20 a pound. Tea cost even more. Kid gloves, brought in by an occasional blockade runner, ranged from $5 to $25. Paper, books, shoes, fine dress goods, pins, nee- dles, buttons, scissors, sewing materials, all the thousand little necessities of daily life, were becoming scarce and com- manded ten times their former value in the large cities. In the villages and country they could hardly be gotten at all. Sewing machines wore out and could not be repaired, and even hand sewing was difficult for want of needles. Silk fringes, Coffee was very ,^ PRICE OF A BARREL OF FLOUR. 438 Historu of the United States. homespun cotton, and flax thread, were utilized to mend the cherished old garments, or make the rare new ones. Colleges were closed, because professors and students had all gone to the army. Grammar schools were maintained in some places where a disabled teacher taught such pupils as were able to pay for tuition in money or provisions. Suffering in the South. — To carry food for the armies over- taxed the capacities of the southern railroads, and each sec- tion of country must raise enough to keep its inhabitants from starvation. When the armies swept over a district or sat down to consume its resources, the people had either to abandon their homes or suffer the pangs of hunger and destitution. And, as time went on, the n^eds and sufferings of the people increased, until they can scarcely be imagined or described. Exchange of Prisoners. — The difficulty and uncertainty as to tlie treatment of prisoners added greatly to the suffer- ings of the soldiers, and to the anxieties of their friends at home. At first, the North refused to make any arrangement for exchanging pris- oner s, though the commanders in the field frequently took the matter into their own hands, exchang- ing the captured ofii- cersand soldiers, man for man, as long as the n u m b e r s remained equal, and paroling others. Late in 1861, the Federal Congress insisted that the War Department should arrange for an imme- diate exchange of all prisoners. The South at this time held the greater number. Efiforts were made by the Federal War Department to evade an exchange, but the people insisted, and, in July, 1862, General Dix, United States Army, and General D. H. Hill, Confederate States 1>. H. HILL, N. C. Lincohi's Administratmi, 1862. 439 Army, signed a cartel for the exchange of prisoners on both sides. Sometimes this was observed, and soldiers from both armies were returned to their respective commands after a brief captivity. War Prisoners. — The Confederate Government was de- sirous that all prisoners should be released at once either by exchange or parole, and this was carried out with tolerable success until the summer of 1863, during which time the South held the excess of prisoners. After that time, the North, with ample resources to provide for its armies and its captives, rarely permitted exchanges, and congregated the Southern prisoners in various forts and prison camps, where hardship, privation, and cruelty either tortured or de- stroyed them. Compelled by this action of the Federal Gov- ernment, the South, with scanty food and comforts for its own soldiers and people, was also obliged to select places of confinement for the thousands of Northern soldiers who fell into its hands. Their food was poor and the shelters pro- vided for them rude and comfortless. But they had as much, sometimes more than did the soldiers in the field, and their huts and barracks were better than the brush arbors and dug-outs and the hard ground which formed the quarters of their hungry, ill-clad, but brave captors. West Virginia Admitted to the Union, 1863. — Late in 1862, the forty-eight counties of western Virginia, mentioned in the beginning of this chapter, organized a provisional gov- ernment and applied to the United States Congress for ad- mission into the Union as the State of " West Virginia." The Constitution provided that "no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of another State, without the consent of the Legislature concerned as well as of Congress." Virginia was never consulted on the subject. She would not have consented to such wholesale robbery of nearly one-half of the territory she had held since her gene- rous donation to the Union of the great Northwest. But, notwithstanding this, the illegal request of the unconstitu- tional State was granted, and West Virginia was admitted into the Union during the following spring. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Rldpath's History of the United States ; Life of Leonidas Polk, by his son ; Reports and Correspondence in (iovernment War Records; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government ; Pollard's Lost Cause; Raymond's Life of Lincoln; McPherson's Political History of 440 History of the United States. the Rebellion ; Richmond (Va.) newspapers, 1861, 1862; S. S. Cox's Three Decades ; Bat- tles and Leaders of the Civil War; Recollections of a Virginian, by General Dabney H. Maury. QUESTIONS.— 1. What action was taken by the United States Govern- ment with reference to forty-eight counties of Virginia ? 2. In what States were there two governments ? 3. Wliat were Mr. Lincoln's views of slavery in 1861 ? 4. What now caused a change in them ? 5. What act was passed in September, 1862? 6. What were the objects of this proclamation? 7. Its effects? 8. When did emancipation take place? 9. How did some of the negroes behave ? 10. Tell something of the war prices. 11. Of the suffer- ing at the South. 12. What was done about the exchange of prisoners? 18. What is said of the war-prisons ? 14. When was West Virginia admitted to the Union ? CHAPTER LXXIV. LINCOLN'S ABMINISTRA TION, CONTINUED.— 1863. Attack on Galveston. — Before going into the story of the great battles of this year, events on the coast claim atten- tion. The bad weather and bad roads prevented much moving of armies during the winter. But, on the coast and along the river shores, no such difficulty was found. Late in 1862, General John B. Magruder was sent from Virginia to take command in Texas. The Federal authorities had possession of Galveston and nearly the whole coast of the State. Galveston Island was held by a garrison of several hundred soldiers, and the harbor was guarded by four fine vT^ — . — .- - ., gunboats, accompanied by some armed trans- ports. General Magruder had two river steam- boats, which he covered with cotton bales to protect them from the enemy's shot and armed with a few heavy guns. He collected such field artillery as was at hand, and, with this and the cotton-clad boats, assisted by a small infantry force, he proceeded to attack the l^ederal gunboats and garrison. Ihe shore batteries opened fire on the Federal vessels. The two steamboats attacked the Harriet Lane, the strongest of the gunboats. One of them was quickly disabled, but the other closed with the Harriet Lane, boarded and captured her. The W^stfield, the flag-ship of the United States squadron, Lincoln's Administration, 1863. 441 in getting out of range of the batteries, ran aground and stuck fast. Capture of Galveston. — Magruder summoned the fleet to surrender. They ran up flags of truce to consider the mat- ter. Commodore Crenshaw refused to surrender, and made arrangements to blow up the Westfield, in order to give the other vessels time to get out of the harbor. In the explo- sion, the commodore and some fifteen persons were killed. The other ships made their escape. Seeing that the fleet had left them, the garrison surrendered, and Galveston was again in Confederate hands. In this exploit, one fine steam- ship and two barges were captured, the flagship destroyed, two other steamers driven off, 600 prisoners and a quantity of valuable stores captured; and all this was done with two river boats, manned by cavalry and artillery, with the help of land batteries and a small infantry force. Sabine Pass. — A Federal expedition of a number of gun- boats, accompanied by transports carrying 5,000 infantry and 46 cannon, was defeated at Sabine Pass on September 8th, by the guns in the small fort at that point. The water was so shallow that only four of the gunboats could enter the Pass. Two of these were soon disabled by the firing from the fort, and surrendered. The others retreated, and the whole attacking force withdrew to other places on the coast, having lost two gunboats, several hundred prisoners, and a number of cannon. Federal Advance on Charleston. — On the last day of Jan- uary, 1863, two small ironclad steamers ran out of Charles- ton Harbor before daybreak, attacked the blockading fleet and disabled and captured two large war vessels. Prepara- tions were made on a large scale to at- t a c k Charleston. The city was es- pecially disliked at ihe North, where it was looked upon as ,, T, J. FORT WAGNER. the cradle oi seces- sion, and there was a great desire that it should be captured and humbled by April 14th, the anniversary of the sur- render of Fort Sumter. To carry out this wish, a powerful 442 History of the United States. fleet of seven monitors, two ironclad steamers and a number of wooden gunboats commanded by Admiral Dupont, sailed from Port Royal and entered the outer harbor at Charles- ton on the 7th of April. Attack and Defeat. — General Beauregard had been em- ployed for some time in strengthening the defences of the harbor. By his direction the fleet was permitted to pass the batteries on Morris Island without receiving a shot. When the vessels came within gunshot of Fort Sumter, the guns of the fort opened upon them, and at once all the batteries on the islands near by joined in the cannonade. The ironclads fought fiercely, hurling shot and shell at all the batteries, but directing their principal fury against Fort Sumter. Strong iron cables, stretched from Sumter to Fort Moultrie prevented the vessels from passing through j- — -- - ^ the channel. Other waterways were I .^Bfc^. obstructed by piles. A direct attack j ^T* ^%- upon Fort Sumter was therefore un- avoidable. The firing became ter- rific, but the Southern guns proved too strong for the fleet. The monitor Keokuk, which had ventured closest to Sumter, w^as disabled and forced to creep away in a few minutes, and i^ ^^^"^ than an hour, the whole of the llll^^^^^^^flH^H powerful iron fleet was compelled to withdraw. The Keokuk sank near Q.A.GiLMOBK,u.s.A. Morrls Island, and, others of the monitors being disabled by the Southern guns. Admiral Du- pont returned to Port Royal. Other attacks upon Charles- ton later in the summer by General Gilmore were equally unsuccessful, and the brave little city continued unhurt. Hooker in Command in Virginia. — The great campaigns of 1863 opened in Virginia. After the battle of Fredericks- burg, General Burnside shared the fate of his predecessors and was superseded by General Hooker, " Fighting Joe," as he had been called, from his bravery in the field. Hooker had advised Burnside to advance against Lee by the upper fords of the Rappahannock, and, as soon as the roads and weather permitted, proceeded to make this move himself. For three months, he had been employed in increasing and Lincoln's Administration, 186$. 443 disciplining his army, whicli in April numbered 120,000 infantry and artillery, 12,000 cavalry, and more than 400 cannon. Lee's Troops. — To lessen the difficulty of feeding men and horses, General Lee had sent part of Longstreet's corps into the country south of Petersburg, and had retained about 40,000 men between Fredericksburg and Richmond to pro- tect that city and the railroads leading to it. At one time, indeed, owing to furloughs granted the soldiers and other causes, there were only 30,000 troops in the-Army of North- ern Virginia. By the latter part of April it had been in- creased to 53,000 of all arms. Hooker's Move to Chancellorsville. — To conceal his inten- tion of crossing the upper Rappahannock and attacking Lee on his left flank, Hooker sent Stoneman, with some 10,000 cavalry, to pass round and destroy the railroads between the Confederate army and Richmond. While this move was made by the upper fords, on April 29th, Sedgwick, with 37,000 men, appeared on the heights below Fredericksburg, as if another advance were intended there. Hoping that he had deceived his antagonist by these measures. Hooker pro- ceeded to execute his plan. Moving up the Rappahannock, the main army crossed that river and the Rapidan, and, by the evening of the 30th, four corps of the army had reached Chancellorsville, a plantation settlement in the midst of a large extent of young trees and undergrowth so dense and wild as to have acquired the title of " The Wilderness." Two other corps came up the next day, making 90,000 in all. Hooker established his headquarters in Mr. Chancel- lor's house, and issued an order to his troops in which he assured them that " the enemy must either ingloriously fly, or come out from behind his defences and give us battle on our own ground where certain destruction awaits him." Lee's Move. — Inglorious flight or certain destruction had not, as yet, been the experience of Lee's army. The South- ern commander understood General Hooker's intentions, and proceeded to frustrate them. Leaving Early, with 9,000 infantry and an artillery force with 45 guns, to hold Sedg- wick back, Lee moved towards Chancellorsville, with about 43,000 men, on May 1st. The advance troops of the two armies soon became engaged, on the evening of May 2d, 444 History of the United States. but, as one after another brigade of Confederates pressed forward to support its comrades, the Federal advance was driven back upon their main army which was strongly in- trenched around Chancellorsville. Judging the spirit of his enemies from th'eir falling back, and feeling that a di- rect attack upon the breastworks in front must occasion great loss of life, Lee determined again to divide his forces, and to try a detour to the flank and rear of his adversary. Jackson was, therefore, sent by a road leading to the south- west, until he sJ:iould strike another road through the Wil- derness, which would carry him to the rear of Hooker's po- sition. This movement of troops was construed by the Federal officers as "a retreat," and a force was sent to find out what it meant, but it was easily repulsed. To occupy the enemy's attention and prevent his sending a larger force after Jackson, General Lee made repeated demonstrations on the front with infantry and artillery. Jackson's Victory. — After a march of fifteen miles, the lat- ter part right through the Wilderness thickets, Jackson reached a point sufficiently in rear of the Federal army to make his attack. So near had the Confederates come without being discovered, that they could see through the trees Howard's men who held the Federal right. Upon these unsuspecting soldiers who had stacked their arms and Were preparing their supper, Jackson's men fell like a thun- derbolt from a cloudless sky. Though they had marched fast and far, the Southern troops were full of ardor, and in a few moments the 11th Federal corps, changed by the surprise into a demoralized rabble, was flying in terror to- wards Chancellorsville, abandoning everything in its flight. On swept the Southerners, crashing through the brushwood, clambering over the breastworks, driving everything before them; until shortly before nightfall, they carried the earth- works only two miles from Hooker's headquarters, and cap- tured all the guns and many of the men who held them. Had daylight lasted an hour longer, they might have cap- tured Hooker's stronghold and destroyed his whole army. Jackson's Wound. — Jackson seemed inclined to make a night attack, and, while waiting for fresh troops from the rear to take the place of the front lines which had so far done the fighting, he rode forward with a number of his Lincoln's Administratio7i, 1863. 445 staff to reconnoitre the enemy's position. In returning to the Confederate lines, his party was mistaken in the dark- ness for a squad of Federal cavalry, and was fired into by their friends. Two of them fell dead, and among those severely wounded was Jackson himself. The general was placed on a litter and taken to the rear for surgical treat- ment. One of his bearers was killed by a Federal can- nonade. The same shooting wounded General A. P. Hill, second in command. General J. E. B. Stuart was sent for by the brigadiers, and, coming from his cavalry outposts, assumed control of the corps. Renewal of the Battle. — General Lee, learning of Jack- son's wound, directed Stuart to continue the attack and sent him Anderson's division from the front. Much Confederate artillery came up and was well posted during the night. At dawn of Sunday, May 3d, the attack was renewed. The men were rested and seemed eager to avenge their wounded commander. Artillery could now be used to advantage. As the infantry charged the breastworks and swept the Federal soldiers out of them, the guns were brought forward from point to point, until at last the central position at Chancellorsville alone remained to be carried. General Lee had come from the front, and his presence and coolness added to the courage and determination of his men. The Federal troops fought stoutly and twice repulsed the on- slaught of the Southerners. But a third attack carried the foremost heights. Artillery was pushed forward to their crest. A tremendous fire opened, and by 10 A. M. Chancel- lorsville was won. In the mean time, McLaws had made such vigorous demonstrations on their front that Hancock and Couch had been unable to aid their comrades on the right. Burning of the House and Woods. — General Hooker had been stunned by the concussion of a shell, and there was no efficient head left to the Federal army, which was still more than double the number of its assailants, and of which two corps had not been engaged. Unable to hold Chancellors- ville, they fell back to a heavy line of intrenchments nearer 446 History of the United States. to the Rappahannock. The woods around Chancellorsville and the house itself were in flames from the explosion of shells. The burning house was full of Federal wounded. To rescue them and others exposed in the burning woods, was General Lee's first care. This done, he gave his atten- tion to re-forming the weary troops which had become scat- tered in the stressof battle, and prepared to attack the Fede- ral army in its new position. Sedgwick's Attack. — Before this advance, news came to General Lee that Early had fallen back from Fredericksburg, that Sedgwick had occupied the town and the Confederate works and was moving upon his rear, his march being stub- bornly contested by the small Confede- rate force opposed to him. To meet this rear attack of Sedgwick, Lee found it necessary to take some of the force \ hich had already fought for part of wo days. Wilcox, with the aid of some f these troops, repulsed Sedgwick with great slaughter from the heights around Salem church, on the night of the 3d. On the morning of the 4th, General Early moved back and recaptured Fred- ericksburg and its defences, and then R. H. ANDERSON, s. c. jj^ j^jg ^um advauccd upon Sedgwick's reat. Lee, at the same time, attacked him with McLaws's and Anderson's divisions, and drove his force back to the river, which, under the cover of night and fog, it succeeded in crossing. Lee then marched his men back to renew the attack upon Hooker. Defeat of Hooker at Chancellorsville. — That commander, on the 5th, sent a flag of truce to Lee, requesting permis- sion to send men to the battle-field to bury the dead and care for the wounded. General Lee declined to allow it, on ac- count of the " necessities of war." Hooker then took ad- vantage of a violent storm and moved off with his still large army; and when Lee's skirmish line advanced on the morn- ing of May 6th, there was no enemy to fight. Hooker had promised the "certain destruction" of his adversary; and great was the disappointment and alarm at Washington and throughout the North at his utter discomfiture: 17,000 Lincoln's Administration, 1863. 447 men, 13 pieces of artillery, 19,500 stand of arms, 17 flags, and much ammunition, is the summing up of his losses. Death of Jackson. — The Confederates bought their victory dearly by the loss of 10,281 men and 8 guns. But beyond all other losses was that of Jackson himself. His wound on the night of May 2d required that his left arm should be taken off. Fever and pneu- monia followed, and, on May 10th, one week after the victory made possible by his masterly flank movement upon Hooker, he ex- pired. On hearing of his wound, General Lee exclaimed, "Any vic- tory is a dear one which deprives us of the services of Jackson for even a short time." The justness of this feeling was proved by after events. There were other generals as brave, as devoted, as patriotic as Jackson, but there was no one of them who possessed, at the same time, his keen military in- sight, his rapidity of movement, his daring in attack, and that wonderful aptitude for victory which made both his own soldiers and the enemy believe him invincible. Well might his death be lamented throughout the Southern land he loved so well. His body was taken to Richmond, where it lay in state in the Capitol, to be visited by thousands of mourning Southerners; it was then carried to his home in Lexington, where his mortal dust now reposes. Religion in the Army of Northern Virginia. — General Lee marched his army back to the lines at Fredericksburg, re- modelled it into three corps, under Longstreet, Ewell, and A. P. Hill, and made rapid preparations for another advance across the Potomac. No record of this year would be com- plete which did not speak of the remarkable religious feel- ing and interest which prevailed throughout the army of Northern Virginia, and especially in Jackson's corps. Log chapels, where regular services might be held, were built by Jackson's men, and the general gave great attention to aid- JACKSON MONUMENT (Reared by English Admirers). 448 History of the United States. ing the religious work among them, and especially to pro- viding them with devout, faithful chaplains. General Lee shared this interest in the spiritual welfare of his soldiers; and besides his chaplains, his Chief of Artillery, the Rev. General Pendleton, was in the constant habit of holding ser- vice and preaching on every Sunday and often during the week, when the army was not marching or fighting. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States; Official Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records; Taylor's Four Years with Lee ; Long's Life of Robert E. Lee ; Fitzhugh Lee's Memoir of Robert E.Lee; Dabney's Life of General T. J. Jackson; Memoir of General Pendleton by his daughter; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government ; Pollard's Lost Cause. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the attack on Galveston. 2. Its capture by Gen- eral Magruder. 3. What was done at Sabine Pass ? 4. Where was the next naval attack ? 5. Tell of the bombardment of Fort Sumter. 0. Which side was successful ? 7. Who were the commanders ? 8. To what State was Gen- eral Hooker sent ? 9. Tell of Lee's troops. 10. Of Hooker's move to Chan- cellorsville. 11. Of Lee's movements. 12. Relate Jackson's victory. 13. His woimd. 14. When was the battle renewed, and with what re.sult? 15. What was the condition of the country around ? 16. Tell of Sedgwick's attack. 17. What became of General Hooker ? 18. What is said of the death of Jack- son ? 19. What was the religious feeling in the Army of Northern Virginia ? CHAPTER LXXV. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRA TION, C0NTINUED.~1863. Lee's Move North. — By the 3d of June, 1863, General Lee had increased his army to 68,000 men, with more than 200 cannon, and began his move first westward across the mountains, and then north. Ewell moved by Culpeper directly to the Valley. Long- street and Stuart kept on the east of the mountains, and A. P. Hill remained at Fredericksburg, confronting Hooker, whose army was about 118,000 strong. When Lee's movements were ascertained, the Fed- eral army also left Fredericksburg, keeping J. L.KEMPER, VA. -^ 1 -tTT 1 • i. /-I -^ AT? between Lee and Washington City. A. r. Hill then followed his comrades to the Valley. Ewell Takes Winchester. — On June 14th, Ewell, whose men were principally from the Valley, drove Milroy out of Lincoln's Administration, 1863. 449 Winchester, capturing 4>000 prisoners, 28 fine guns, several hundred loaded wagons and horses, and a large supply of food, clothing and other stores. With these the half-clad and ill-fed Southerners were refreshed and re-clothed. Mar- tinsburg was occupied and the Valley was cleared of Fede- MA.P OF GETTYSBURG. ral soldiers. The next day, June 15th, Swell's corps crossed the Potomac and moved to Hagerstown, where they waited for the rest of the Confederate army. From this point they advanced into Pennsylvania and occupied Chambersburg, Carlisle, and York, for a short time. 29 450 History of the United States. Orderly Conduct of Lee's Army. — General Lee had two objects in this invasion of the North. The lesser one was to obtain supplies and subsistence for his army, and by so doing to relieve Virginia of the great strain upon her re- sources, which had been well nigh exhausted. This could not be accomplished without taking possession of the food, cattle, horses, and other necessary articles. But this was to be done in an orderly and regular manner. Requisitions for such things as were found in the towns and villages were made upon the authorities by the Southern quartermasters and commissaries, and everything taken was to be paid for in Confederate money. This was, it is true, worth little in Virginia, nothing at all in Pennsylvania, but it was the only money the Southern army had. By Lee's order, the soldiers and officers were bidden to "abstain with most scrupulous care from unnecessary or wanton injury to private property"; and immediate punishment was promised to any who should violate these directions. The forbearance exercised by the troops under this order was wonderful. No violence of any sort was done to any citizen, no woman was insulted, and no gratification of private I'evenge permitted. Their mag- nanimous conduct was in singular contrast to the behavior of the Federal armies in the South, whose course was gene- rally marked by "barbarous outrages upon the innocent and defenceless, and the wanton destruction of private property." Approach to Gettysburg. — Lee's more important purpose, in invading Pennsylvania, was to draw the Federal Army from Virginia, and to such a distance from the strong fortifi- cations around Washington that it could not again take shel- ter there after the stunning blows he hoped to inflict upon it. Great was the consternation and apprehension of the North, when it learned that Lee's army was actually in Pennsylvania, and approaching the capital of the State. Washington, Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York each expected to see it marching through their streets. The governors of Ohio, Pennsylvania, New York, Maryland, and West Vir- ginia, called out the militia of their several States, and the whole country was in an agony of terror. In consequence of a disagreement between General Halleck and himself. General Hooker was relieved, at his own request, from the command of the army, which was given to General George ^ ^ ■^ 'T 4 i s ^ 1 / * i^ /^ Lincoln's Administration, 1863. 451 G. Meade, June 28, 1863. General Meade was directed to meet and fight Lee, and, at the same time, to keep between him and Washington and Baltimore. Hooker's army had crossed the Potomac east of the mountains before Meade took command. Reinforce- ments were hurried up to it, and the dif- erent corps were directed to march for Gettysburg. Lee had also recalled his scat- tered divisions to concentrate at that place. Unfortunately for the Confederate army. General Stuart was not in position to keep , T-Tf.jiT-11 1 G. G. MEADE, O. S. A. its commander advised oi the r ederal move- ments. He had been directed by General Lee to take three of his brigades of cavalry and go to protect Swell's right flank, but the route by which he should go was left to his own dis- cretion. Acting on a suggestion of General Longstreet, Stuart crossed the Potomac so far to the east that he found the whole Federal army between him and General Lee. By hard riding and fighting, inflicting much damage on the way, he reached Carlisle, and finding Ewell gone, followed him rapidly to Gettysburg, which he reached on July 2nd, after the battle had begun. On the morning of July 1st, k. P. Hill's advance struck the head of the Federal army west of Gettysburg. Sharp fighting ensued. Hill brought up more troops. The 1st and 11th corps of the Federal army moved to support their cavalry. Ewell, moving from York, pressed forward to the sound of the firing, and a battle raged for six hours, in which some 50,000 men were engaged. Battle of Gettysburg. — In the first encounter, the Federal forces were driven from the town of Gettysburg with severe loss. Their commander, General Reynolds, was killed and General Hancock was ordered to take his place. But, in withdrawing, the Federals occupied a very strong position — Cemetery Ridge — south of the town. General Lee came up towards the close of the fight, and directed Ewell to seize Cemetery Hill, if he could do so without bringing on a gen- eral engagement. The men were, however, much exhausted by hard marching and fighting, and it was thought best to wait until the next morning. In the evening hours, Gen- eral Lee and other officers examined the ground, and Lee made his plans for attacking and driving the Federals from 452 History of the United States. G. T. ANDERSON, GA. Cemetery Hill before the rest of Meade's army came up, Longstreet's corps was only four miles away, while much of the Federal force was very much farther off. General Long- street, however, was averse to delivering battle at Gettysburg, and, instead of attack- ing early on the morning of the 2d, he was not ready to do so until 4 o'clock in the afternoon. During his long delay, the Federal army had come up and occupied most of the heights south of Cemetery Hill. Hancock's 2d corps had marched thirteen miles during the night; Sykes's 5th corps, twenty-six miles since the previous morning; Sedgwick's 6th corps, thirty-two miles. The first two reached the field at seven in the morning; Sedgwick's command at 2 P. M.; their eager rapidity of movement giving a strong contrast to Longstreet's tardy appearance. Second Day's Fight. — When the Southern troops did go into action, the battle raged furiously, and Longstreet on the right drove the Federal troops from their advanced posi- tions, while Ewell on the left, at one time succeeded in reaching the crest of Cemetery Hill, but was so greatly out- numbered by his opponents that he could not hold it. Cemetery and Culp's Hills were the northern, and the Round Tops the southern extremities of the ridge running southeast of Gettysburg. Perceiving that Little Round Top was an important position. Hood's Tex- ans, who had driven Sickles back through the Peach Orchard, marched forward and swarmed up the rocky slope. Vincent's brigade of the 5th Federal corps, climbed the other side of the hill, reached the top a moment before the Texans, and a hand-to- hand fight for the summit ensued. For half an hour the struggle continued. The Federals had a firmer foothold and forced the Texans back, and when night came, although the Southern army had driven the Federal troops out of the valleys to their defences on the hills, the latter held the crests and continued to fortify and strengthen them. Thousands of brave men had fallen on both sides, and the decisive struggle had not yet taken place. D. E. SICKLES, U. S. A. Lincoln s Administration, 1863. 453 Third Day's Fight — Pickett's Charge. — The Federal losses were known to be very heavy, and it was hoped that, by a lierce and combined attack in the early morning of the 3d, their positions might be carried and a victory achieved. To this end, Longstreet was directed to attack on the right with Pickett's three brigades, who had not yet been engaged, while Ewell was ordered to assail the works in his front at the same time — at daylight. Heth's division of three brigades of North Carolina, Mississippi, Alabama, and Tennes- see troops and one from Virginia, all under command of the gallant General Pettigrew and supported by two of Pender's North Carolina brigades, were to attack on Pick- ett's left. Wilcox's Alabamians were to support him on his right. Again Longstreet was not ready to move, and the Federal right, antici- pating Ewell's attack, opened on him at 4 A. M. a heavy artillery fire with guns which had been brought up during the night It was noon before the Confederate preparations for the gen- eral battle were completed. The plan was for Longstreet's force to attack Cemetery Hill at a comparatively weak point. The Confederate artillery was concentrated towards the Hill, and at 1 P. M., 150 guns opened fire. The powerful Federal batteries replied, and for more than an hour the most furious artillery engagement ever heard on this continent ensued. The Federal guns seemed beaten into silence by the Con- federate batteries, the firing ceased, and Pickett's division advanced across the open plain to charge the breastworks on the Hill. The ammunition of the Confederates was nearly exhausted, and their artillery could not reply to the storm of shot and shell hurled into the advancing columns. Undeterred by this, the devoted command moved steadily forward, broke into a double-quick, drove everything before them, leaped into G. B. PICKETT, VA. H. HETH, VA. 454 History of the United States. the breastworks, and planted their flags, with shouts of victory, on the very crest of Cemetery Hill. Pettigrew's brigades, w i t h similar dauntless gallantry, \ passed over the broad field in their front, closed the gaps made in their lines by the enemy's artillery, and rushed upon the stone wall in spite of the terrific mus- ketry fire poured into them from behind it. Had these two devoted divisions been supported as General Lee had ordered, the key of the Federal position might have been seized and victory wrested from de- feat. But the necessary supports had not been brought up, the Federal guns were concentrated upon Pickett and Pettigrew, and after one-half of their men had been shot down, the band of heroes broke, and fell back from the position they had so gallantly gained. End of the Battle. — The repulse of this desperate charge virtually ended this, the most fierce and bloody battle ever fought in America. Lee's heavy losses — 16,000 in killed and wounded, and 5,000 prisoners — and the deficiency of ammunition, owing to his dis- tance from the upper fords of the Potomac, prevented him from again attacking Gen- eral Meade on the 4th of July. The South- ern army was neither dispirited nor dis- couraged by this, its first serious repulse, but hoped that Meade would now attack it, to be hotly received, as Pickett had been, and driven off in his turn. General Meade, however felt in no condition for such attack. He had lost 23,000 men. PETTIGREW, NOETH CAROLINA. 1 r'"' [■ 1 ;'■ -^v L. d^' M mk W. S. HANCOCK U. S. A. Lincoln^ s Administration, 1863. 455 Some of his best officers were killed. Hancock and Gibbon were wounded. He knew that Lee must either fight again or withdraw, and he remained quiet to let things take their course. After awaiting an attack all day of the 4th, Lee's army fell back during the night. The dead had been buried, the wounded who could travel were crowded into ambulances and wagons and sent back under cavalry escort. Those who could not be moved were provided for, and the whole force was withdrawn. Heavy rains swelled the streams and made the marching difficult, but Meade did little to harass his enemy's retreat. Return of the Confederate Army to Virginia. — During the absence of the Confederate forces, the pontoon bridges by which they had crossed the Potomac were destroyed by Fed- eral cavalry, and when General Lee reached Williamsport on July 7th, he found the river too much swollen to admit of fording. He then posted his army on the heights and threw up defences, in case Meade should follow him. The Federal army did come up on the 12th, but instead of at- tacking, General Meade spent two days in fortifying in his turn. By this time General Lee had a new bridge ready for crossing, the stream had fallen so that cavalry and light wagons could ford it, and on the night of the 14th and fore- noon of the 15th, the Southern army was safely moved back into Virginia. It gradually retired towards Winchester, and when Meade, about the end of the month, also crossed the Potomac east of the Blue Ridge, Lee moved once more in front of him behind the Rapidan River. Effects of Gettysburg. — The first of Lee's objects had been accomplished, for a short time; the second had failed. There was no Jackson to carry out swiftly and surely his great commander's plans, and his promptness and ability seemed not to have fallen upon any of his successors. The battle of Gettysburg was a crushing blow to the South, a great success and rejoicing to the North. It stirred up the war spirit more fiercely, silenced the party which had been clamoring for peace, and discouraged the friends of the Confederacy at home and abroad. Losses. — In this campaign the Confederate loss was about 16,000. Many of the wounded were able to return to the ranks after a few weeks. Among the killed were Major-Gen- 456 History of the United States. ARMISTBAD, MD. eral Pender, and Brigadier-Generals Armistead, Garnett, and Barksdale, all shot in Pickett's charge. The Federal loss was over 23,000. Among them were Major-General Reynolds killed, and Gene- rals Hancock, Sickles, and Gibbon severely wounded. Nearly 7,000 prisoners captured from them could not be brought off, and were paroled on the field. Not much in the way of stores could be brought out of Maryland, but the officers gladly purchased in the towns supplies of pins, needles, gloves, and other small and portable articles, which were most wel- come to such of the Virginia women as they reached. A Campaign of Strategy.— The weeks after Gettysburg were devoted to the resting and filling up of the armies. Two Federal corps were detached from Meade's command, and Lee sent Longstreet with two divisions to reinforce Bragg in Tennessee. The third division was sent south of James River to check raiding parties and collect supplies. There was some cavalry fighting and some small successes on both sides, but the preponderance lay with the Federal army. The rest of the year was employed in a " campaign of strategy," in which each commander tried to outwit the other. At last, on the 27th of November, General Meade crossed the Rapidan below Lee's position. To get between the Federal army and Rich- mond, Lee fell back to the hills above Mine Run, which he strengthened with earth- works. Here he lay for three days await- ing Meade's attack. The Federal general delivered a heavy cannonade and seemed preparing to assail the Southern position. Lee determined then to make the attack himself, but when the fourth morning came there was no enemy there. General Warren, who was to have made the first assault upon Lee's position, declined to sacrifice his men in what he believed would be a hopeless effort, and the whole army was drawn off in the night. This put an end to active operations, and both armies went into winter quarters. K. WAEEEN, U. S. A. Lincoln's Administration, 1863. 457 AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States; Official Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records; Taylor's Four Years with Lee; Long's Life of Robert E. Lee; Fitzhugh Lee's Memoir of Robert E. Lee; Dabney'sLife of General T. J. Jackson; Memoir of General Pendleton by his daughter; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Davis's Rise and Fall of the C()nf3derate Government; Pollard's Lost Cause. QUESTIONS.— 1. Where did Lee now move? 3. What city did Ewell take on the 14th of June ? 8. What were the two objects of Lee in going into Pennsylvania? 4. How did liis army behave ? 5. Tell of the feeling of the North when it was known that Lee was in Pennsylvania. 6. Where did the two armies meet ? 7. Who was the Federal commander ? 8. Tell of the first day at Gettysburg. 9. Of the si^^eond day. 10. Of the third day, and of Pickett's famous charge. 11. Of the end of the battle. 12. On which side was the victory? 13. Where did Lee's army then move? 14. What were the effects of the battle ? 15. The losses ? 16. What sort of a campaign followed ? CHAPTER LXXVI. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1863. Grant's Plan to Take Vicksburg, 1863. — We have to tell of another victory during this summer as important to the North and as crushing to the South as Get- tysburg. Federal gunboats and transports had several times succeeded in passing the batteries at Vicksburg and Port Hudson, but most of those making the perilous effort were either driven off or destroyed, and the Confederates still held the Mississippi River between those points. All communication between the trans-Mississippi country and the eastern part of the Confederacy, all possibility of pass- ing troops, cattle, or horses from one side to the other, de- pended on their continuing to hold it. General U. S. Grant bent all his energies to accomplish the capture of Vicksburg. Its defence was intrusted to General John C. Pemberton. Approach to Jackson. — After several futile efforts to ap- proach the town on the northeast, General Grant decided that it was more accessible from the south. He, therefore, drew his men northward and crossed them over to the west side of the Mississippi. Finding it impracticable to change the channel of the river or to open a waterway for his ves- sels out of the reach of the Vicksburg batteries, Grant T. J. CIU'KClilJ^L. ARK. 458 History of ike United States. T. C. HINDMAN, AKK. marched his men seventy miles around, and crossed them back to the east side of the river at Bruinsburg on April 30th. The efforts made to oppose the ad- vance of his army into the country were unavailing. Defeating the Confederates at Port Gibson and at Raymond, the Federal forces moved towards Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, mainly subsisting on the country through which they passed. Grierson's Raid. — General Joseph E. Johnston had been assigned to the com- mand of all the Confederate forces in the State. He was still enfeebled by his wounds, but he came to Jackson and endeavored to collect an army of sufficient strength to co- operate successfully with Pemberton, who was between Grant and Vicksburg. To aid his own operations and cripple those of his adversary, General Grant sent Grierson wit'h a strong cavalry force to raid through the interior of the State and destroy the railroads, bridges, cars, engines, and sup- plies of all kinds. Pemberton's Movements. — The destruction effected by Grierson made it impossible for Johnston to collect rein- forcements with rapidity. Two corps of the Federal army ap- proached Jackson. There were only some 6,000 Confederate troops there, and, after some slight resistance to give time for the removal of government effects, these withdrew to Canton. The Federal troops occupied the town. Sherman was left there to destroy the railroads, bridges, factories, workshops, and everything valu- able to the Southern army, while McClernand and McPherson moved westward to meet and de- feat Pemberton. That general had been ordered by Johnston to concentrate his forces; to make every effort to keep open the communications between himself and Johnston; and to strike Grant's rear while he was moving J. A. LOGAN, U. S. Lincoln's Admrnistration, 1863. 459 eastward. Johnston was physically unable to take com- mand of the army in person, but he ordered Pemberton to move towards Clinton so as to join him. Pemberton, how- ever, preferred to move southward, and when he began to retrace his steps, he did it so slowly that the scattered divisions of Grant's command had time to concentrate and attack him in force near Edward's Depot on May 16th. Pemberton was driven back with severe loss across Big Black River. On the next day, a still more severe engagement took place on the banks of that river, and General Pemberton drew his army within the fortifications at Vicksburg. Pemberton in Vicksburg. — General Johnston had espe- cially wished to prevent this shutting up of 34,000 men with only two months' provisions, where the Federal forces, superior in numbers and resources, must ultimately capture or destroy them. He wrote to Pemberton telling him that if he were once invested, he would be compelled to surrender, and ordered him to evacuate Vicksburg and march towards the northeast. This order w. w. LOEiNu, FLA. Qencral Pemberton received on May 18th in time to obey it. Considering the holding of Vicksburg more important than saving his army to fight elsewhere, he wrote to General Johnston that he declined to leave Vicks- burg, and shut himself up in the town. Vicksburg Besieged. — In falling back, the Confederates had destroyed the bridges over the Big Black River, but McClernand and McPherson built floating bridges; Sher- man, who by this time was marching back from Jackson, crossed on a pontoon bridge, and all three approached Vicksburg as fast as they could move; and by the morning of May* 19th, the investment of the town was complete. Hoping to gain entrance into the intrench ments. Grant or- dered an assault at 2 P. M. on the 19th, and another more vigorous one on the 22d. In both these, he was repulsed with such heavy loss that further efforts to carry the works were thought useless, and Grant began to lay a regular siege to the town. Many of the enemy's dead were left within the intrenchments, and these were buried under a 460 History of the United States. flag of truce, all their ammunition and cartridges having been previously collecterl by the Confederates. Attack From the Boats and Batteries. — The Federal fleet and mortar boats joined in the siege on the water front, and from the batteries around the city and from the vessels, an almost continuous storm of shot and shell was poured into the city. Confederate am- munition was scanty and their guns rarely re- plied. To prevent any successful attack from Johnston, General Grant also threw up strong fortifications around his rear. His army received reinforcements and numbered some 80,000 men. General Johnston was never able to collect more than 25,000, and with these could not operate against Grant so as to benefit Vicksburg in the least. Cave Life in Vicksburg. — The incessant firing rendered all parts of the city unsafe. Such of the citizens as re- mained found shelter for themselves and their families in caves and chambers hollowed out in the sides of the hills. Into these they removed the furniture from their houses, and here they dwelt in comparative safety. As the siege went on, the soldiers also resorted to similar modes of pro- tection when not actually engaged in the trenches. Occa- sional messengers from General Johnston made their way into the beleaguered town, and carried in caps for the mus- kets which were greatly needed. Notwithstanding their danger and privations, both people and army kept up cou- rageously, and the women constantly ministered to the sick and wounded. Famine. — The besieging army drew nearer to the defences by regular parallels, and dug mines in several places to blow up the fortifications and effect an entrance through the breaches. The first of these was exploded on June 25th, and a second on July 1st. Strong assaults were made on both these occasions, but they were repulsed with desperate fighting by the hard-pressed Confederates. Before this time want of food had become the most powerful ally of the besiegers. By the last of May there were only half rations of bacon, and from that day supplies of all sorts rapidly diminished. Bacon was replaced by mule meat, and of that Lincoln's Administration, I860. 461 there was not half enough. The men were constantly in the trenches. The weather was excessively hot; and heat, weariness, and hunger were exhausting the strength of the garrison. An effort to relieve them from Arkansas proved unavailing, and their condition became daily worse. In all these privations the citizens fared as hardly as did the soldiers. The End Near. — General Pemberton sent messages to Johnston urging him to attack Grant and raise the siege. Johnston replied that it was impossible for their combined armies to save A^icksburg, but that, by a simultaneous attack on some special point, it might be practicable to extricate the garrison from the toils in which it was held. Most of the division commanders thought their men too much ex- hausted to undertake the desperate work of cutting their way out, but expressed their readiness to continue the de- fence. Johnston sent word that he was prepared to attack Grant on the 7th of July, and urged that the garrison should co-operate with him, and if possible make its escape. Be- fore that time the end had come. Surrender of Vicksburg. — On July 3d, General Pemberton sent a flag of truce to General Grant and offered to capitu- late. Grant replied that only the unconditional surrender of the town and garrison would be accepted. To this Pemberton agreed, and on July 4th the capitulation was ^,.,.«r^-j«t effected : 8 1 ,600 men, thousands of them dis- abled by wounds and illness, were surren- dered, with 72 cannon and some 60,000 mus- kets. The men were paroled and allowed to return to their homes. As the paroling of so many took some time, the starving Con- federates were provided with rations by the Federal commissaries. Much kindliness of feeling was shown by the soldiers. The M. p. LowREY, MISS, u Yauks " gavc provisions and tobacco to the starving ''Johnny Rebs," and when the worn and weary Confederates marched out of the works which they had gal- lantly defended for so long a time, not a cheer of triumph was uttered by their captors. This forbearance from a natu- ral exultation was no doubt greatly due to General Grant, who, in the order for the removal of the prisoners, directed 462 History of the United States. S. KOSS, TEXAS. "the commands to be orderly and quiet as these prisoners pass," and " to make no offensive remarks." The Confederacy Cut in Two. — It was no wonder that the North should be in a delirium of delight and the South greatly depressed at the fall of Vicksburg, occurring at the same time with Lee's de- feat at Gettysburg. Port Hudson surren- dered a few days later; the Mississippi River was opened to Federal vessels from its source to the Gulf, and Louisiana, Texas, and Arkansas were cut off from the rest of the Confederacy. That they con- tinued steadfast to the Southern cause, while thus cut off and while their affairs were often sadly mismanaged by their military commanders, is a proof of their devotion to the principles for which they were contending, Sherman at Jackson, — General Johnston, who was march- ing towards Vicksburg, learned that Pemberton had surren- dered and fell back to Jackson. The works defending this place were badly situated and of little value. A portion of Grant's army under General Sherman moved up and brought powerful artillery to bear on the fortifications. A consider- able Federal force marched north- ward to turn Johnston's left flank. Knowing that he was far too weak to hold Jackson, Johnston re- moved most of the public stores collected there and all the sick and wounded who could stand it, and then evacuated the town on the night of July 16th. General Sherman did not discover this movement until it was safely com- pleted. He then occupied the town, and a work of absolute de- struction was begun. Not only were the government and railroad buildings destroyed, but nearly the whole town was burned. In writing of his work, Sherman said, " We have made fine progress to-day in the p. BLAIR, JR., tr, S, A. Lincoln s Administration, 1863. 463 work of destruction," and again, " This city is a mass of charred ruins." Wasting- of the Country. — While the siege of Vicksburg was going on, General Grant had sent Blair's division to ravage the region along the Yazoo River, to " burn and destroy " the food and forage not consumed by the men. Sherman pro- ceeded in the same way, "absolutely stripping the country of corn, cattle, hogs, sheep, poultry, everything," and throw- ing the growing corn "open as pasiture fields." Even the ruthless commander himself was forced to acknowledge that the wholesale destruction of the country was terrible to con- template; and this destruction extended for many miles round the desolated capital of the State. General Johnston had withdrawn from Sherman's front, and on July 23d, Sher- man, having completed his work of destruction, left Jackson and moved back towards Vicksburg; and the campaign was virtually over. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United states; Offleial Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records; General Grant's Pprsonal Memoirs; Sherman's Memoir; J. E. Johnston's Narrative; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Govei'nment ; Pollard's Lost Cause ; Taylor's Destruc- tion and Reconstruction ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Newspapers of the Period; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Hood's Advance and Retreat. QUESTIONS.— 1. What Wcas the condition of affairs on the Mississippi? 3. What was Grant's plan ? 3. What places did he take ? 4. Who was the Con- federate commander in Mississippi ? 5. Who was in command at Vicksburg ? 6. What were Pemberton's movements? 7. Did he obey liis superior oiiflcer ? 8. Tell of the siege of Vicksburg. 9. Of the attacks by land and by water. 10. Of the cave life of the besieged. 11. What other dreadful enemy had they? 13. What plan did .Johnston finally make? 13. Was it carried out? 14. What took place on the 3d of July? 15. Describe the surrender, and the action of the Federal soldiers. 16. What was the effect of the fall of Vicks- burg on the Confederacy? 17. Tell of Sherman at Jackson, and of Blair and Sherman throughout the country. 18. Find on the map all the places that you can. CHAPTER LXXVII. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1863. Cavalry Raids. — Two large armies were confronting each other in Tennessee, upon which the eyes of the whole country were fixed. General Bragg still held the position 464 History of the United States. which be had taken after Murfreesboro. His army was in good condition, but, except for raids and expeditions by Forrest, Morgan, and others, there had been no fighting since spring. Generals Van Dorn and Forrest had checked an advance of the Federal cavalry near Franklin in March, taking 1,300 prisoners; and Forrest in April captured a raiding party under Colonel Streight, who had moved to destroy the railroad from Rome to Chattanooga, and took 1,700 prisoners. Morgan's Raid. — Early in .Tune, General Morgan set out with 2,000 cavalry on an expedition through Kentucky. His orders were to inflict what injury he could upon the Federal army by capturing soldiers, destro3''ing military stores and government property; to burn bridges and break up the Louisville and Nashville rail- road; to recruit his command and return to his place with Bragg's army. Morgan moved rapidly through Tennessee into Ken- tucky, capturing a number of small garri- sons on his march. At Green River the- Federal commander made a successful re- sistance. In Kentucky a number of recruits were enlisted. The Confederate sympathizers were much elated and their opponents equally alarmed. On July 8th, the adventurous commander crossed the Ohio River and rode through Indiana and Ohio, capturing towns, defeating thousand of citizen soldiers, destroying railroads, bridges, depots and stores of all kinds, and, passing within seven miles of Cincinnati, completed the circuit back to the Ohio River again on July 14th. During this rapid ride, Morgan had captured and paroled 6,000 prisoners; had cut a net- work of railroads; had destroyed about $10,000,000 worth of property, besides terrifying the whole population. Morgan's Capture and Escape. — But now every effort was made to surround and head him off. The governor of Ohio called out the militia of the State. Forces were being rapidly collected. Morgan's horses and men were worn out. The roads were ambuscaded. The Ohio River was closely watched and guarded by gunboats and forces on the shore. So that while hundreds of Morgan's men succeeded in making their way back to Kentucky, hundreds were cap- Lincoln's Administration, 1863. 465 tured;, and among them their gallant commander. Scant courtesy or kindness was measured to thera. Morgan and twenty-eight officers were carried to Columbus and confined in the penitentiary, where their hgads were shaved and they were subjected to other indignities. In November, Mor- gan and six of his comrades contrived to dig a tunnel under the walls of the prison, and made their escape. Bragg at Chattanooga. — General Rosecrans had been reinforced. His army numbered 70,000 and the War De- partment was urgent for his advance upon Bragg. The Confederate army had been weakened by sending troops to Mississippi and was not more than 44,000 strong. On June 23d, Rosecrans began to move towards the east, in- tending to turn Bragg's right, get in his rear, and cut off his communication with Georgia and the east. To prevent this, Bragg withdrew his army from the lines about Tulla- homa and fell back to Chat- tanooga which he occupied the first week in July, and threw up intrenchmeuts. Federal Success in East Tennessee. — East Tennessee was still held by General Buckner who was at Knoxville with some 4,000 men. Against these General Burnside came down from Kentucky with 15,000. The Confederate force fell back. Cumber- land Gap with a Confederate garrison of 2,000 was sur- rounded and compelled to surrender to Burnside's superior strength, and East Tennessee was entirely occupied by the Federal troops. Rosecrans now moved against the left of Bragg's position, hoping to get behind him and capture or destroy his army. He crossed his force over the Tennessee River west of Chattanooga, repaired the railroads behind him as he advanced, and hoped to push on south to Georgia with- out serious hindrance. 30 S. ROSECRANS, U. S. A. 466 History of the United States. Situation of Chattanooga. — Chattanooga which is impor- tant as a railway centre, is on the south bank of the Ten- nessee River at the mouth of Chattanooga Valley, between the steep and rocky heights of Lookout Mountain on the west and the lower Missionary Ridge on the east. Through this valley runs a creek of the same name. East of Missionary Ridge, flows Chicka- mauga Creek through Chickamauga Valley. The. whole region consists of range after s.B.EucKNEK, KT. raugc of mouutalus separated by valleys. Battle of Chickamauga. — Finding that Rosecrans was moving down the valley west of Lookout Mountain, for the purpose of turning his left flank, General Bragg moved from Chattanooga and took position in Chickamauga Valley, so as to protect the railroad into Georgia. General Rose- crans occupied Chattanooga and then moved forward and confronted the Confederate army. To strengthen Bragg's force, so much weaker than that of Rosecrans, Longstreet had been sent from Virginia with 5,000 men, but all of these had not reached the field when the battle began on Septem- ber 19th. In the first day's fight, Bragg endeavored to turn his enemy's left and get between him and Chattanooga. Rosecrans however was able to bring such large numbers to his left that the Confederates could not get round it. Both armies slept on the field. During the night of the 19th, Gen- eral Longstreet came up with the rest of his men. The Confederate army was reorganized into two corps, the one holding the right commanded by Lieutenant-General Polk, that on the left by Lieutenant-General Longstreet. McCook held the Federal right opposite Longstreet; Crittenden held the centre; and the left opposite Polk was commanded by General Thomas. Second Day's Fight. — Bragg ordered an attack to be made along his whole line very early on the morning of the 20th. Morning found everything enveloped in a dense fog. The reorganizing of the army in the midst of a fierce con- test necessarily caused confusion, and the battle did not begin until ten o'clock. The fighting was gallant on both sides. Longstreet's force drove back the Federal right, where Rosecrans was in person, until both the right and Ldncoln's Administration, 1863. 467 centre broke and fled in confusion to Chattanooga. General Thomas had been busy all night in strengthening his posi- tion by cutting down trees and throwing up earthworks. There was considerable delay in getting Polk's command into action, and a want of co-operation on the part of some of his subordinates; and when the attack was made it was so stoutly resisted by Thomas that the Confederates failed to J. C, BRECKINEIDGE, KENTUCKY. drive him as they had done the right and centre. In the night, however, finding that the rest of the army had re- treated, Thomas also fell back, leaving his dead and wounded on the field. Forces and Losses.— Well might Chickamauga Creek be called the " River of Death." More than 20,000 dead and wounded had fallen in the two days' fighting. Bragg's force 468 History of the United States. engaged was about 50,000, Rosecrans's about 55,000. The loss on each side including prisoners was nearly equal, 16,000. The material results of the victory to the Confede- rates were 8,000 prisoners, many of them wounded men, 51 pieces of artillery, 15,000 small arms, together with quanti- ties of ammunition, wagons and hospital stores. General Bragg After the Battle. — Had Thomas been again attacked on the morning of the 21st, Rosecrans's whole army might have been routed and demoralized, if not destroyed. But General Bragg allowed the Federal army to withdraw unmolested into the fortifications around Chattanooga and make them even stronger than they were. His army had been disappointed, because the different corps of Rosecrans had not been attacked in detail before their concentration on September 18th. It was known that the plan of battle on the 19th and 20th had been faulty; and now that Bragg did not follow up his victory, his men lost confidence in him, and, as after Murfreesboro, begged that they might have another commander. Instead of taking the blame of any failure on himself, Bragg threw the burden of it upon his su- bordinate officers, two of whom, Generals Polk and D. H. Hill, he at once relieved of their commands. Hill had not obeyed his orders, but Polk was exonerated and transferred to an- other important command. Unfortunately for the South, General Bragg was a favorite in Richmond and was retained in his position in spite of tlie dissatisfaction of his army. Brag-g's New Position. — Though he did not pursue and attack Rosecrans, Bragg occupied the heights in front of Chattanooga, established his line from the northern crest of Lookout Mountain across the valley and upon Missionar}^ Ridge, and held the roads south of the river; he sent his calvary into Tennessee round Rosecrans's rear, to capture his wagon trains and cut the railroads, and hoped before long to starve him out. The Federal situation was critical in the extreme. The troops were on half rations and suffering for clothing and supplies of all sorts; the horses were dying of starvation and the beef-cattle were no better off. In this emergency, the authorities in Washington called to its res- cue the generals and men who had been so successful in Mississippi. General Grant was summoned to take com- mand at Chattanooga; Sherman with his corps from Vicks- Lincoln's Administration, 186$. 469 burg, and Hooker from Virginia, were hastened as fast as possible to the same point. General Grant at Chattanooga. — General Grant had been severely injured in New Orleans by a fall from his horse; but he at once repaired to Chatta- _^- ., nooga, reaching there on Octo- v^ ber 23d. Rosecrans was re- moved and Thomas appointed to command the Army of the Tennessee in his place. The most important thing was to re- lieve the wants of the starving soldiers and to provide them with ammunition. Several thousand men from Chatta- nooga were floated on pontoons down the river, past the Con- federate pickets, to Brown's Ferry, where they captured the guard. Another force moved down the north bank of the river, and a bridge was speed- ily laid across the Ferry. Hooker's men were crossed to the south side of the river and moved into Lookout Valley. The Federal troops now held the river from Bridgeport to Brown's Ferry. At the Ferry, men and provisions were taken to the north shore and car- ried safely to Chattanooga, where they were again crossed to the town. In this way the needs of the garrison were soon provided for. Federal Forces. — When Bragg discovered that arrange- ments had been made by which Chattanooga would soon be relieved, he tried to break them up. On the night of Octo- ber 28th, a strong attack was made upon the force holding the mouth of Lookout Valley. But Hooker was much stronger than the attacking party, and after three hours' fighting it proved impossible to dislodge him. Sherman was moving eastward with his corps, repairing the railroad as he came, so that it might furnish him with supplies. The work proved so slow that it was abandoned, and he pushed W. B. BATE, TENN. 470 History of the United States. O. O. HOWARD, U. on through north Alabama, and then towards Nashville, to protect the road which had to be repaired from there to the Tennessee River. Bragg's Army Weakened. — While these efforts were being made by the Federal generals to strengthen the army hold- ing Chattanooga, that of Bragg opposite the city was suddenly and seriously weakened. In the latter part of October, Presi- dent Davis made a visit to Bragg's army. Believing that Rosecrans was safely shut up in Chattannooga and ignorant of the efforts making for his relief, Mr. Davis ordered Gene- ral Longstreet, with 15,000 men and Wheeler's cavalry, to move into East Tennessee and drive Burnside out of Knoxville. When Grant learned how Bragg's force had been depleted, he determined to strike it as soon as possible. Sherman and his men reached Chat- tanooga on November 15th. Grant's army now numbered 80,000; Bragg's little over half that number. Great anxiety was felt in Washington as to Burnside's ability to hold East Tennessee, and Grant felt that he must move against Bragg as soon as possible, so that he might be able to reinforce Burnside. Movement to Flank Bragg's Position. — Bragg, as I have told you, held the north end of Lookout Mountain, the val- ley east of it, and Missionary Ridge, where he was strongly fortified. Grant determined to take most of his men to the north side of the Tennessee River, march them eastward, and then cross them back to the south side, in such a way that they could strike the Confederates on their right flank. Sherman and Howard made this movement in safety, but rains swelled the river so much that Hooker could not cross, and he had to advance on the south side. Thomas held the centre at Chattanooga. Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. — Grant's orders were that Hooker should cross the north end Lincohi's Admhtistration, 1863. 471 of Lookout Mountain, sweep across Chatanooga Valley, and take the south end of Missionary Ridge. Sherman was to seize the north end of the Ridge, and when both these points had been gained, Thomas was to attack the centre. On the 23d, Thomas seized Wood's Fort, an advanced Confeder- ate position in his front. On the 24th, Sherman, having crossed the river safely, seized the north end of Missionary Ridge where he fortified himself. Hooker, the same day, in a gallant manner scaled the steep ascent of Lookout Moun- tain and drove the Confederates from its northern end. The Confederates withdrew across Chattanooga Creek, de- stroying the bridges, and took position on Missionary Ridge. The position was a strong one and might have been held by a determined resistance. But whether the Confederate army had lost faith in its commanders or whether it was dis- couraged by the superior numbers it saw moving to hem it in, there is no question that it failed on this occasion to ex- hibit its usual courage and constancy. The artillery firing lacked spirit and concentration, and so could not check the Federal advance, and when Thomas pressed his men boldly forward up the steep acclivity and over the earthworks, the Southern soldiers gave way before them, and were soon in a panic-stricken retreat. The artillery, abandoned by its gunners, was seized by the assaulting columns and turned upon their fleeing antagonists. No efforts were able to rally the Southern army. The whole position was aban- doned, and the defeated army withdrawn as fast as possible to Ringgold, and thence to Dalton. Results of the Battle. — In this defeat, the losses were about 6,000 on both sides, but by far the larger ^^ —. — ^ part of the Southern loss was of uninjured /"''•^ j men, showing how easy their capture had f#»"t(v 1 ^ been; 40 pieces of cannon and thousands y» * \ of small arms were also taken by the Fed- >2^i. eral army. General Grant at once ordered ^Xm^^^ 20,000 men to march into East Tennessee [ .^p^ to relieve Burnside, while he maintained a ^ J .^^„„r r, = . vigorous pursuit of Bragg for some days. Longstreet was obliged to abandon the siege of Knoxville without having accomplished anything, and the whole of Tennessee was held by Federal armies Longstreet with- 472 History of tlie United States. drew to the northern part of the State, but he had a hard time in the cold hostile region. Averill from Meade's army cut the railroads in western A-^irginia, and Longstreet was for a time without communications. For their signal suc- cess in Mississippi and Tennessee, the Federal Congress passed a vote of thanks to Grant and his men and had a medal struck in his honor. President Davis was at last obliged to relieve Bragg from command of the Army of Ten- nessee, and he assigned General Joseph E. Johnston to take his place. As in Virginia, active operations now ceased, and both armies went into winter quarters for the rest they sorel}^ needed. Condition of the Armies, 1863. — The year drawing to its close had been very successful for the Northern armies and equally disastrous to the South. West of the Mississippi River, much of Arkansas and Louisiana was held by Federal troops. They had possession of the great river and had cleft the Confederacy in two. Northern Mississippi and Tennessee were occupied by them, while north Alabama and Georgia were subjected to raids and devastation. Virginia, north of the Rappahannock, was desolate and downtrodden. The limits of the Confederacy were everywhere contracted, and its resources sorely crippled and overtaxed. Thousands of soldiers had deserted from the Southern armies, especially from those of Vicksburg and Missionary Ridge, discouraged by their own ill success and the desperate condition of their families. Owing to these desertions, to the impossibility of enforcing the conscription laws, and to the great losses in the many defeats of the year, there were at its close little more than 400,000 men on the Confederate rolls, and of these fully one-third were absent from the ranks. The Federal armies, at the same period, numbered largely over 1,000,000. In spite of this disparity of numbers and of all their suffer- ings and reverses, the spirit of the people and of the Con- federate Government continued wonderfully buoyant, de- termined and hopeful of ultimate success^ The North was naturally exultant and defiant, though many hearts were saddened by the loss of their loved ones, and many right- minded people lamented the gradual increase of despotism and the decay of constitutional liberty. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-. 473 AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States; Official Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records; General Grant's Personal Memoirs; Sherman's Memoir; J. E. Johnston's Narrative; Davis's Rise and Fall of tlie Confederate Government ; Pollard's Lost Cause ; Taylor's Destruc- tion and Reconstruction; Duke's Morgan and his Men; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Newspapers of the period ; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the cavalry raids in Tennessee. 2. Of Morgan's raids in Kentticky and across the Ohio. 8. Of his capture and escape. 4. Where were Bragg and Rosecrans? 5. What was done in East Tennessee? 6. What is the situation of Chattanooga? 7. Describe the battle of Chicka- mauga. 8. The second day's fight. 9. What were the forces and losses on both sides? 10. Tell of General Bragg after the battle. 11. What new posi- tion did he take? 12. Who was now summoned to command the Fedei^,] forces? 13. Tell of Grant's movements. 14. How were the Federal forces disposed? 15. What became of apart of Bragg's army at this very time? 16. What movement did Grant make? 17. Tell of the battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge. 18. What were the results of the battle? 19. Describe the condition of the armies and of the country at the end of 1863. CHAPTER LXXVIII. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION , CONTINUED.— 186Ip. Victory at Olustee, 1864. — The opening months of this year witnessed a series of Confederate successes which sur- prised their foes, and proved that the defeats of the pre- vious year had not lessened the spirit of the diminishing Southern armies. When the expedition against Charleston Harbor failed, General Gilmore was directed to make an effort to defeat the small Confederate force holding Florida and to possess himself of B$J'%, the whole peninsula. For this purpose, a force commanded by General Seymour, numbering some 7.000 men including two y ■ 1 r-i HT > J. p. ANDERSON, FLA. negro regiments, was sent up the St. Mary s River early in February. General Finnegan, defending the district, had only some 2,500 men, and fell back slowly be- fore the Federal advance, which was as usual accompanied by great destruction of property. Colquitt's brigade joined Finnegan, and he moved with 5,000 men of the joint com- mand against the enemy. A battle was fought on February 20th, at Olustee near Ocean Pond, which resulted in a com- 474 History of the United States. A. H. (Uil.QUITT, GA. plete victory for the Confederates. Five cannon, a number of small arms, and 1,800 men were lost by the Federals. The Confederate loss was 250. The ultimate result of this battle was the expulsion of the Federal troops, and the pres- ervation of the State to the Confederacy. Sherman's Return to Vicksburg. — After relieving Knox- ville and East Tennessee from Confederate soldiers, Sher- -. man again took his army westward to Vicksburg, intending from that base to move into Alabama. His especial point . of attack was Meridian, where the prin- cipal railroads running through the Gulf States crossed each other. Sherman had at his disposal about 30,000 infantry and 1 0,000 cavalry. General Polk, command- y ing the Southern forces, had not more than 20,000 men scattered throughout Mississippi and Alabama, with some 4,000 cavalry. It was impossible to prevent Sherman's advance, and he moved on to Meridian, spreading desolation as he went. Forrest, with about 3,000 cavalry, was employed in constant skirmishing with the enemy's larger force. Sherman at Meridian. — Finding it impossible to hold Meridian, General Polk moved south of that point to pro- tect Mobile. Sherman marched in, and, on February 16th, set a force of 10,000 to work with axes, crow- bars and other implements, to destroy the rail- roads centering in the town. For five days they labored with these, and then, setting fire to whatever would burn, nearly wiped out of existence Meridian with its depots and store-houses, its hospitals, hotels, and private houses. The railroads and bridges were absolutely destroyed for many miles, and the corn and cotton which could not be carried off" were also burned In the mean time, the Federal cavalry under General Sooy Smith was ordered to move 'eastward from Meridian and destroy the railroad as they went. Forrest's Victories. — Riding hard after these devastators, Forrest, who has been termed the Stonewall Jackson of the S. D. LEE, S. C. Lincoln's Administration, 186^. 475 West, with 2,500 cavalr}^, struck them first in the prairie country near West Point, and again at Okalona. Such in- jury was inflicted upon them in these fights, that they re- treated in haste towards Memphis, leaving 6 pieces of artillery, 3 flags, 162 prisoners, and all their dead and wounded in Forrest's hands, while the Confederate loss was only 144. By this defeat of his cavalry, Sherman was forced to with- draw to Vicksburg from the country he had desolated. Capture of Fort Pillow. — Later on, Forrest moved back into western Tennessee, punished the Federal soldiers there in several encounters, and captured and destroyed Fort Pil- low, a few miles above Memphis. The fort was garrisoned by 700 men, about 500 of whom were negroes, and it was defended on the river front by gunboats. Having com- pletely invested it, General Forrest, on April 12th, sent in a flag of truce demanding its surrender. This was refused, and an assault was at once made upon the fort. The works were carried, and the garrison after a short resistance fled to- wards their gunboats on the river. As they reached the flat be- low the bluff", a mur- derous cross fire was poured into their ranks on the right and on the left, from Confederate compa- nies stationed there. The assault- ing force also followed them. Taken thus in the rear and on both flanks, some 500 of them were slain or drowned in their efforts to reach the gunboats. The negroes who escaped told frightful tales of the barbarity of their assailants, and the North rang with indignation at what was called the " mas- sacre at Fort Pillow." So far from the accounts of the murder of wounded prisoners being true, General Forrest made an eflTort to deliver them at once to the Federal trans- ports. This was effected on the next day. After a full in- vestigation of the facts, the Confederate Congress passed a vote of thanks to Forrest and his command, for their bril- CAPTUEE OF FORT PILLOW. 476 History of the United States. N. p. BANKS, V. S. A. liant and successful campaign. But the slander had power to stimulate the hatred of many enemies of the South, both in the North and in Europe. Many other daring exploits were performed by Forrest's men, in which the Federal cav- alry suffered severely. Battle of Mansfield, La. — After Sherman's Meridian cam- paign, he sent 10,000 of his men from Vicksburg across the Mississippi to assist General Banks, who intended to move up the Red River, cap- ture Shreveport, and then occupy Texas. For this expedition. Banks had some 40,000 men with gunboats and transports. Gene- ral Kirby Smith commanded the Confede- rate Department west of the Mississippi, and General Dick Taylor, son of old Gene- ral Zackary Taylor, commanded the forces in Louisiana. Not being able to prevent Banks's advance, Taylor fell slowly back before him. On April 8th, he had been reinforced so that he had 15,000 men. These he stationed in an advantageous position across Banks's road near Mans- field, and waited the attack of his enemy. Banks did not favor attacking, so Taylor took the matter into his own hands, threw his army upon the Federals, and by nightfall drove them from the field with great loss, capturing cannon, wagons, small arms, and prisoners by thousands. The pursuit was kept up as far as Pleasant Hill, where the Federals made a stand, and inflicted some punish- ment on their foes, though their loss was very much greater than that of the Con- federates, especially in prisoners. kichaed taylob, la. Banks's Retreat to New Orleans. — Banks fell back to New Orleans, revenging himself for his disasters by laying waste the country, burning and robbing everywhere as he went. His troops were said to have marched " with a torch in their right hand, plunder in their left, and their arms on their backs." When he reached New Orleans he had lost 8,000 killed and wounded, 6,000 prisoners, 35 pieces of artillery, 1,200 wagons, and 20,000 stand of small arms. Lincoln's Administration, 1864- 477 Capture of Plymouth, N. C. — On the North Carolina coast, General Hoke captured Plymouth near the mouth of the Roanoke River, taking 1,600 prisoners and 25 cannon. This would, it was hoped, increase the facilities for running the blockade, Init ultimately proved to be of little value. Kilpatrick's Raid. — In Virginia, before the opening of the spring campaign, Kilpatrick with 4,000 cavalry set out on a raid around Lee's lines to destroy the railroads between him and Richmond. They were then to dash into Richmond, release the Union prisoners there, and do all the damage possible. Stout resistance from citizen soldiers, aided by high water, bad roads, and ignorance of the country, caused the plan to fail. Part of the Federal command became separated from the rest. It was attacked at night by a small force of "home guards," and the commander. Colonel Ulric Dahlgren, was killed. When Dahlgren's pockets were ex- amined they were found to contain an ad- dress to the officers and men of his com- mand, in which they were exhorted to free the prisoners in Richmond; to burn the city; to slay Jefferson Davis and his Cabi- net; and to perpetrate other horrible deeds. " ' "' "' This paper was signed with Colonel Dahlgren's name, but the United States Government and General Meade at once declared that no such orders had been given him. Grant Made Commander-in-Chief. — Early in March, Gene- ral Grant was summoned to AVashington where he was made Lieutenant-General and head of all the forces of the United States, and thus he became second only to the Presi- dent himself. At the same time Sherman was placed over the forces between the Alleghany Mountains and the Mis- sissippi, while McPherson was given Sherman's position as head of the Army of Tennessee. Grant's Plan. — There were only two Southern armies of any strength left in the field, Lee's force upon the Rapidan, and Johnston's at Dalton, Georgia. To strike these two armies at once became Grant's plan. He, therefore, ordered Sher- man to move against Johnston, break his army up, and then to march on into the Southern States destroying as he went all property that could in any wa}' assist in carrying 478 History of the United States. on the war. Banks was ordered to move against Mobile, so as to prevent reinforcements from being sent to Johnston, and to break up the railroads as soon as he should establish himself in Alabama. Force Against Riclimond. — Grant took his own place with Meade's army as being the most iraportant position in the campaign. All the resources of the Federal Government were at his disposal. There was no murmuring nor com- U. S. GRANT, U. S. A. plaining against his measures: 125,000 men and 325 can- non were assembled on the north bank of the Rapidan. To meet this immense host Lee had only 62,000 men and 224 cannon. A considerable force under Sigel was to move up the valley of Virginia, and cut off the supplies for Lee's army from that quarter. General Butler, who had 30,000 men at Fortress Monroe, was directed to move towards Richmond so as to co-operate with Meade, and preparations were made for a speedy advance. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-. 479 Lee's Movements. — On the 4th of March, Meade's army moved across the Rapidan by the fords below Lee's position, expecting to turn it on the right. Lee was so well informed about Grant's movements that he told his officers, two days beforehand, that the Federal army would cross at Ely's and Germanna Fords. Expecting this, he moved his own men forward to intercept his antagonist, and ordered Ewell and Hill, who led the advance, to avoid a general engagement until the rest of the troops could come up. Longstreet with two divisions was at Gordonsville, more than twenty miles away. Battles of the Wilderness. — The Wilderness country, into which both armies now plunged, was a large extent of rough country covered with a thick and tan- gled growth, and crossed by a few nar- row and very bad roads. The Federal generals knew little of the country, and were unaware of the nearness of Lee's men, although Ewell's advance bivou- acked only three miles from Warren on the night of the 4th. These troops came into collision, on the morning of the 5th, and before long the woods and thickets were full of fighting. At first, Warren, on the Federal right, gained ground 171 n 1 i j.T_ 1 • 1 1 E. p. ALEXANDER, GA. upon Lwell, but was then driven back with the loss of 3,000 prisoners; and Hill, with two divi- sions, successfully repulsed a series of vigorous assaults made upon him by Hancock. When night fell, both sides slept on their arms, expecting deadly work on the morrow. "Lee to the Rear!" — It was a terrible place for a battle. The dense growth and interlacing branches hindered any one from seeing more than a few yards away. There was no possibility of maneuvering. Neither cavalry nor artil- lery could be used to much purpose. The infantry had to contend brigade against brigade, regiment against regiment, company against company, in an almost hand-to-hand strug- gle. Grant ordered an attack along his whole front, at five o'clock on the morning of the 6th. Lee also intended to attack, but was obliged to wait on his right until Longstreet and Hill's third division came up. Before they reached the 480 History of the United States. field, Hancock, with nearly 40,000 men, fell upon that end of Lee's line, carried its front, and drove the right in con- fusion. In the emergency, Longstreet arrived on the field, put his men at once into action, attacked Hancock on the front and flank, and drove him rapidly back to his line of breastworks. When his men were retreating, General Lee rode up to some of Longstreet's force who came up at a double quick, and finding that they were from Texas, ex- claimed " Hurrah for Texas! Hurrah for Texas ! " and put himself at their head with the order to "Charge!" The soldiers, anxious for the safety of their beloved commander, cried out "Lee to the rear!" and a gray-headed sergeant seized his bridle, saying, " General Lee, if you do not go backf we will not go forward." To this appeal the general yielded, the gallant Texans swept on and changed the face of the battle. End of the Battle. — Unfortunately, General Longstreet was accidentally shot, at this critical time, by a cross fire of some of his own men, and was unable to conduct the move- ment he had so well planned. His fall occasioned some con- fusion. It required time to bring a new commander to his troops; and a second attack later in the afternoon upon Han- cock's position was successfully resisted. Gordon, on Lee's left, had done much damage to Sedgwick's line, and the cav- alry had severe but indecisive combats during the day. Whatever prestige and success had been gained was on the Southern side, for Hancock's attack on the right and Burn- side's in the centre had both failed, while Warren on the left had been driven back with heavy loss in killed and cap- tured. When night fell the shadow of death hung over the Wilderness. Grant had lost 17,66(3 men in two days, Lee, half that number. Everywhere amid the gnarled trunks and thick bushes, lay the dead and wounded, and to add to the horrors, the woods caught fire from the incessant shot and shell, and many wounded men perished in the flames. The Race, for Spotsylvania. — All day of the 7th, the two armies lay still and watched each other. Lee again divined that Grant intended slipping by his right, and he ordered Anderson's division to move to Spotsylvania Court House, at three o'clock in the morning, by a new road which had been Lincoln's Administration, 186^. 481 cut for the purpose. Anderson began his march at eleven in the night, and so won the " race for Spotsylvania/' which he reached in time to assist Stuart's cavalry in checking Warren's advance. This gave Lee possession of the roads and the choice of position. Both armies came up and immediately began fortifying, and two strong lines of earth- works were soon opposed to each other. The Bloody Angle. — For twelve days, from the 8th to the 20th of May, Grant made heavy assaults on the Confede- rate works. On the early morning of the 12th of May, he succeeded in carrying a salient or projecting point in Lee's fortifications, and in capturing two generals with more than 3,000 men and 20 guns. Through the opening thus gained, the Federal troops poured in by thousands. The Confede- rates quickly rallied to the threatened point. Though they could not drive their assailants from the salient, they penned them up with such fierce fight- ing that the space was piled with dead bodies, and was known as the " Bloody Angle." From dawn until far into the night, the deadly struggle continued all along the front. The Federals could not penetrate the second line, though they still held the angle. Hundreds of cannon were fired with great effect, and the musket balls cut down stout oak trees. In one of the hottest moments of the day. General Lee again prepared to lead a column advancing into action, and had been again kept back by the eager cries of his men. Grant's Continued Attacks. — On the 18th and 19th, Grant attacked again, but could not drive the Southern array one inch. In these twelve days his loss had been 18,399 men, making nearly. 40,000 since he began the campaign — nearly two-thirds of Lee's whole force. Lee's loss was much less; General Grant knew that, if he kept on losing and slaying in the same proportion, he must ultimately destroy every man in the Southern army, while his own ranks would still be full. He had called for reinforcements. About 35,000 were sent him, and, on the night of June 20th, he again withdrew his force and made another flank movement to 31 ROUES, ALA. 482 History of the United States. the North Anna River. But his opponents were again too quick for him, and he found his road obstructed by Lee's army strongly posted on the south bank of the stream. Stuart Killed at Yellow Tavern. — In the mean time, a se- vere loss had befallen the Southern cause. Grant had started Sheridan with 10,000 horsemen, on May 9th, to pass round Lee's rear and destroy his communications. Stuart, with less than 4,000 men, followed Sheridan, and came up with him at Yellow Tavern, six miles from Richmond. A fierce but most unequal combat ensued, in which the gallant Stu- art received a wound which caused his death the next day. His loss was a greater injury to the Confederates than any they had experienced since the death of Stonewall Jackson, for he was the best cavalry officer America had ever pro- duced. The fight at Yellow Tavern gave time for an in- fantry force to be thrown into the defences at Richmond. Sheridan dared not attack them, and had to make such a long circuit that he did not return to Grant for two weeks. Move Towards RichmoDd.— The Southern position at North Anna was even stronger than it had been at Spotsyl- vania, and General Grant did not attack it. Lee had re- ceived about 7,500 reinforcements from North Carolina and Florida, and would have struck at Grant, but he was pros- trated by illness. There was severe cavalry fighting, and then Grant again sidled to the left, hoping to get between Lee's army and Richmond. But the Southern army moved on shorter lines, and when, on May 31st, Grant reached Mc- Clellan's former fighting ground, he found the Confederates again confronting him behind strong fortifications. Confederate Victories Over Sigel and Butler. — Grant's plan had been for Sigel to move up the Valley and cut Lee's communications, and then cross the mountains and come up on his rear; while Butler, from Fortress Monroe, should co- operate south of Richmond, and secure the destruction of the defending army and the capture of the city. Sigel, with 6,500 men, had been defeated at New Market, on the 15th, by Breckinridge with a somewhat smaller force. In the en- gagement, the battalion of boys from the Virginia Military Institute fought with the courage and skill of veterans, losing about 50 of their number killed and wounded. But- ler was, on the very next day. May 16th, attacked by Beau- Lincoln's Administratio7i, 186^.. 483 regard, who had been brought from South Carolina. Had Butler moved more promptly, he could have seized Peters- burg and changed the nature of the struggle. But as it was, Beauregard, with not half the number of men, shut him up so closely in the neck of land between the James and Appo- mattox Rivers, that he was unable to make any use of his 30,000 men. He was thus " bottled up," when Grant reached Cohl Harbor, but 12,500 of his men were moved by trans- ports across the James River and joined the Army of the Potomac. Unsuccessful Assault on Lee. — On June 1st, the Federal forces in frontof Richmond attacked and drove in the Confede- rate skirmish line, and, on the early morning of the 3d, they made a tremendous assault upon the breastworks all along their front. There were 113,000 of them, and they advanced in double lines six miles long. But they could accomplish nothing. Lee's 60,000 men lay behind their intrenchments and slew their assailants by thousands, receiving little injury themselves. A second assault was ordered but the soldiers refused to move forward. The great number of their com- rades, 12,737, that had fallen in less than an hour, appalled the stoutest hearts among them. The officers were forced to admit that there was no hope of success, and General Grant by midday ordered a suspension of offensive opera- tions. Losses. — In this campaign which had lasted exactly one month. General Grant had 192,160 men from first to last. He had lost 60,000, and was no nearer Richmond, for all his marching and fighting, than McClellan had been two years before. But he knew that he could replace every soldier he lost, while the Southern men and boys were being rapidly killed off, and in many months of such destruction the army must be consumed. Lee, with all the reinforcements that could be sent him, had under him only 78,400 men from the Wilderness to Cold Harbor. There is nowhere any exact statement how many of these had been killed and wounded; it is estimated at about 20,000. Hunter's March up the Valley. — General David Hunter, one of the few Virginians who had taken up arms against the State, had been put in Sigel's place after the defeat at New Market. He advanced up the Valley of Virginia with 484 History of the United States. EVANS, S. C. 10,000 men, scattering the small forces which tried to check him, burning private houses, and plundering and destroying as he went. Near Staunton he defeated a little arm}'^ of 3,000. He was then joined by Crook and Averill coming from the Kanawha Valley, and proceeded to Lexington and thence to Lynchburg. Everywhere his track was marked by fire and destruction. Much of his force were 100 days' men, who were better at plundering and burning than at fighting. Sheridan was sent from Grant's army with 10,000 cavalry, to cut the railroad from Richmond to Charlottesville, and to join Hunter at Lynchburg. Hampton, with 4,000 men, met Sheridan at Trevilian's and, after a sharp fight there, the Federals changed their course and moved back to join Grant. Hunter burnt the barracks and professors' houses at the Military Institute at Lexington, and Governor Letcher's -residence, before he crossed the mountains to Lynchburg. Here he was met by Breckinridge and Early, detached from Lee's army, with about 10,000 men. Finding this force in his front, his com- munications threatened, and his supply of ammunition small. Hunter moved rapidly off westward across the mountains to the Kanawha Valley, which he reached after much hard- ship and suffering to his men. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States; Official Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records; General Grant's Personal Memoirs, Sherman's Memoir; J.E.Johnston's Narrative; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Pollard's Lost Cause; Taylor's De- struction and Reconstruction; Long's and Lee's Memoirs of Robert E. Lee; Taylor's Four Years with Lee; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Newspapers of the Period; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Hood's Advance and Retreat. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the attack on Florida. 2. Of Sherman's return to Vi(!ksburg. 3. Of Sherman at Meridian. 4. What victories did Forrest win ? 5. Relate his capture of Fort Pillow. 6. The battle of Mansfield, La. 7. Tell of Banks's retreat to New Orleans. 8. What capture did General Hoke make in North Carolina? 9. Describe the raid of Kilpatrick. 10. Who was now made commander-in-chief of the Federal forces ? 11. What plan did he form ? 12. Tell of the force against Richmond. 13. Of Lee's movements. 14. Of the battles of the Wilderness. 15. Relate the anecdote of "Lee to the rear! " 16. What was the end of the battle? 17. Who won " the race for Spotsylvania " ? 18. Which was the most terrible of the battles of the Wilder- ness ? 19. Tell of Grant's continued attacks. 20. What great leader was killed at Yellow Tavern ? 21. How did the two armies move to Richmond ? 22. Teli of the Confederate victories over Sigel and Butler. 23. Of the assault on Lee. 24. Of the losses on both sides. 25. What were Hunter's movements in the Valley ? 26. Have you found all the places that you can on the map ? CHAPTER LXXIX. LINCOLN'S ADMINIHTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1861,.. Sherman's and Johnston's Armies. — By orders from Gen- eral Grant, Sherman began his advance on Johnston at Dal- ton on May 4th, the same day which opened the Wilderness campaign. In preparation for this move, he had collected large stores and supplies at Chattanooga. His force was nearly 100,000 strong, well furnished and equipped for the arduous work before it. His immediate objects were to reach Atlanta, Georgia, and to destroy Johnston's army on the way. This army consisted of 40,000 badly equipped men, who were reinforced by Polk's force from Mississippi, about 19,000 more. Such was the disproportion in numbers and equip- ment that it was not possible for Johnston to maintain his [485] 486 History of the United States. advanced position, much less to go forward, as he was urged to do by the authorities in Richmond. Movement of the Two Armies. — The country through which the armies had to move was mountainous, difficult, and cut up by frequent streams. It afforded excellent posi- tions for fortification and defence. Knowing this, Sherman determined to try the tactics of continually flanking the Southern army, instead of attacking its intrenched lines, and so forcing it to fall back from place to place. In this manner, threatening him in front by a large force while other corps moved to get in his rear, the Federal commander forced Johnston to fall back from his strong works at Dal- ton to Resaca, where Polk's reinforcements joined him. Some severe fighting occurred here, but the place was strong, and Sherman again moved on round the left flank, and the Southern army again fell back to check him off". Day after day and week after week, this process of pressing and flanking the Confederates went on, until each successive position was turned, and they were compelled to fall back, first behind the Oostanaula River and then behind the Etowah. This was not done without constant skirmishing and several severe encounters. In the mean time, parties from Sherman's army branched off" on different roads, seizing Rome, Georgia, and various other towns, besides bridges and ferries. Fight at New Hope Church. — The ground occupied by Johnston in defence of the important station at Alatoona on the railroad was so strong, that Sherman moved his whole army to Dallas on the west, where he intrenched himself, again intending to turn Johnston's position when his army should have rested a lit- tle. The Confederates followed and halted near New Hope Church, on May 24th. The next day and for several days after, they were assailed by Hook- er's and Howell's corps, but repulsed all attacks. Until June 4th, skirmishing and fighting continued. The Federal army, meanwhile, was constantly push- A. p. sTEWAKT, TENN. jj-^g towards tlic rallroad, throwing up intrenchments as they moved. Alatoona had to be given Lincoln's Administration, 1864.. 48*7 up by the Southern army, and positions taken to protect Marietta from capture. General Polk Killed. — On the 14th of June, while watch- ing the Federal advance from the top of a hill known as Pine Knob, General Polk was struck in the breast by a cannon ball, and instantly killed. This good brave leader was a great loss to his men, to the army of Tennessee, and to the South. During the hard marching and constant watching and fighting of the last few weeks, while active and diligent in meeting his military responsibilities, he had been espe- cially earnest and constant in the discharge of his private and religious duties. On the first night after joining General Johnston at Dalton, the Bishop-General had baptized Gene- ral Hood in his tent at midnight; and, a few evenings later, he had administered the same sacred rite to General John- ston. Johnston received his baptism kneeling in his tent with Hood and Hardee. Hood was on crutches and could not kneel, so he was allowed to receive the ordinance stand- ing on his crutches. His Last Days. — The Sunday previous to his death, Bishop Polk, after going through his private devotions, assembled his staff and all who could get within sound of his voice, and read the morning service of the Episcopal Church in his usual devout and impressive manner. In his pocket, soaked with his heart's blood, were found four religious tracts, on three of which he had written the names of his companions in responsibility and danger — Generals John- ston, Hardee, and Hood. His remains were carried to Augusta and laid in the chancel of St. Paul's Church. The whole South as well as his brother bishops North and South, testified to the nobleness, purity, and sincerity of his char- acter and life. Sherman's Advance. — The continued advance of Sher- man's army by its right flank made it necessary for John- ston to occupy a new line between Marietta and Kennesaw Mountain, on June 19th. The Federal hosts attacked him here unsuccessfully, on the 24th; and again, on the 27th, a double assault was made on different parts of the lines, resulting in heavy loss to the attacking forces. But check and foil him in detail as they might, it was impossible for the Southern army to keep back Sherman's continued ad- 488 History of the United States. WIRT ADAMS, MISS. vance. The weather was most trying from incessant rains; the roads were deep and heavy with mud; the soldiers were worn out with constant marches and expo- sure in the trenches. Worse than this, they were disheartened by the continual retreat. They could not see the whole con- dition of affairs nor understand the strategy which strove to draw the invading army so far from its base as to render it easier to handle, and many desertions were the consequence of their discouragement and disappointment. Hood Put in Command. — Before long, Johnston crossed the Chattahoochee and took position on Peach Tree Creek, ready to fight or withdraw at necessity into the fortifications around Atlanta. Sherman followed, repairing the railroad and bridges as he came, so as to bring his depots of sup- plies constantly nearer to him. Just at this crisis, on July 17th, the authorities in Richmond, becoming impatient at Johnston's incessant falling back, relieved him from the command of the army, which was confided to General Hood. Hood was a brave man, a gallant fighter, and a devoted patriot, but he lacked many qualities requisite for a success- ful commander, and events soon showed that the change of generals had not been fortunate for the South. Attack and Defeat. — After crossing the Chattahoochee, McPherson's command moved eastward to the Augusta Rail- road, which he tore up ; and then he occupied the town of Decatur. The rest of the army took position opposite the Confederate lines, stretching out to surround Atlanta as far as they could. General Hood had been put at the head of the Confederate army with the understanding that he must fight. On the afternoon of July 20th, perceiving that parts of Sherman's army were in motion, Hood made an attack on what he believed to be a weak point in the Federal line. The Confederates broke through the Federal right, and at first carried everything before them; but Hook- er's corps gave such strong support to Howard's men first at- tacked, that the Confederates could not maintain their advan- A. R. LAWTON, QA. Lincoln's Administration, 18 64-. 489 tage, and after a half hour's deadly fighting, they were forced back to their intrenchments, with the loss of several thou- sand killed and wounded who were left in the enemy's hands, McPherson Killed. — In the mean time, McPherson with his army moved from Decatur to the southeast of Atlanta. Hood swung around to meet him and attacked him with great vigor, on the 22d, while Wheeler operated in his rear along the railroad. For a time, the Confederates gained great success. General McPherson was killed, a large num- ber of his men were killed and wounded, and guns and colors were captured. But the success was again only tem- porary, and the Southern army was driven back with heavy loss. Hood now drew into the fortifications around Atlanta, and the siege of that city began. Siege of Atlanta. — Sherman did not make a direct attack on the fortifications, but intrenched himself and began to move towards the Confederate left. On the evening of the 27th, Hood again attacked the Federal line. His advance was gallant, but, after repeated assaults, proved as unsuc- cessful as the former ones. Large cavalry expeditions were sent to pass behind the army to cut its communications, and to do all the damage they could. Some of these were successful, others were met and severely handled by General Wheeler and the South- ern cavalry. In one of these raids. General Stoneman of the Federal army set out with „owell cobb ga. 5,000 horsemen, to reach Macon and free a number of Northern prisoners confined there. His plans came to grief. His command was surrounded and he himself cap- tured with 1,000 men and some guns. Evacuation of Atlanta. — Around Atlanta there was little done for nearly a month. From time to time, the city was shelled, and the besieging works gradually contracted. General Wheeler, having done much damage to the Federal cavalry, passed round Sherman's rear, cutting his commu- nications and capturing his supplies. But this was an un- fortunate move for the Southern army. Sherman sent out other cavalry raids which cut the railroad to Macon and did more damage. Finding that he could not completely invest Atlanta, he moved his whole army west and south of the 490 History of the United States. city, expecting by this process to compel its avacuation. Hood did find his communications hopelessly injured, and he was obliged to evacuate Atlanta, to avoid the fate of Pemberton in Vicksburg. Such stores and supplies as could not be moved were destroyed. Magazines and ordnance stores were exploded, and the Southern army abandoned the city during the night of September 1st. This move was made more imperative from the fact that Andersonville, where 34,000 Federal prisoners were held, was not very far away, and it was necessary to prevent the Federal cavalry from reaching the place and turning the prisoners loose on the surrounding country. Sherman in Atlanta. — Finding Atlanta in his power, Gene- ral Sherman occupied it. His men went into camp for a rest which they greatly needed. His communications north- ward were carefully repaired, and, in the mean time, he car- ried out his usual policy of destruction and devastation. The residents of the city, old and young, the sick and feeble as well as those who were well and strong, were driven from their homes and compelled to find shelter where they could. The depots, factories, and important buildings were then de- stroyed, and the whole country round it was laid waste. Its capture was a great blow to the South. So many of the railroads from Virginia to the Gulf States centered there, that its loss meant the cutting off of many of the most valuable supplies to the Southern armies and people. At the North, exultation filled the hearts of the enemies of the South who had been depressed by Grant's failure to capture Richmond. General Sherman became a favorite, and his success had a great effect on the approaching fall elections. Mobile Bay Held by the Federals. — Mobile Bay, too, had been taken by Admiral Farragut with 4 monitors, 14 steam vessels carrying 200 guns, and 2,800 men, besides a land force under General Granger. The small Confederate fleet and garrison could make little resistance to the combined effort. All blockade-running into the bay was stopped, though the city continued in Confederate possession. The thanks of the nation to General Sherman and his army, and to Admiral Farragut and his command, for their suc- cesses at Atlanta and Mobile Bay, were proclaimed by President Lincoln, and salutes of 100 guns were fired in Lincoln's Administration, 186 If. 491 honor of their victories at each arsenal and navy yard in the Federal possession. Numbers on Both Sides. — During the whole campaign from Dalton to Atlanta, and in the defence of the city, the Federal army lost from battle and sickness 47,245. The Confederates lost about 23,000. When Penn- sylvania was invaded by Lee, Mr. Lincoln called out 300,000 men for six months, and in October of 1863 he called for 300,000 volunteers to serve for three years or until the close of the war. Unless this force volunteered, men were to be drafted. Within the year 1864, a draft of 500,000 men was ordered to be executed on March 10th, another of 200,000 men for the regular army and navy on March 14th, and again, on July 18th, President Lincoln called for 500,000 more men for one year, to be drafted in case they did not volunteer before September 5th. This made the vast number of 1,200,000 called for in nine months. Nobody favored the drafting, and to avert it, the different States and cities offered very large bounties to induce men to volunteer. Only half the 500,000 ordered out on July 18th were raised, and, on December 19th, Mr. Lincoln issued a proclamation for 300,000 more to be drafted, if they did not volunteer. The whole number of men marshalled on the Confederate side from the beginning to the end of the struggle did not reach 800,000, and, of this number, not more than 250,000 were in the field in 1864. Hood's Advance Into Tennessee. — While Sherman lay quietly in Atlanta, Hood determined on the rash expedi- ent of moving westward and north into Tennessee, hoping, by thus getting into his rear and occupying his line of com- munications, to force Sherman to abandon Georgia. Hood's ADMIRAL BUCHANAN, C. S. 492 History of the United States. army, consisting of 40,000 men, moved across the Chatta- hoochee on September 29th, and taking very nearly the same route b}^ wliich Johnston had retreated, captured the smaller depots and garrisons, and passed round the stronger ones, breaking up the railroad as they P moved northward. A gallant attempt, made by General S. G. French, to carry the works at Alatoona and destroy the supplies collected there was rendered unsuccessful by the ap- proach of Federal forces which threatened to surround him ; and the army proceeded on its march. Tilton, Resaca, Dalton, and S. G, FRENCH, MISS. ~ ,, TT-n • i • i Tunnell Hill were successively occupied. Avoiding the fortifications at Chattanooga, Hood turned to- ward the southwest, and marched to Gadsden, Alabama, where he was joined by Wheeler's cavalry. Forrest in Tennessee, Mississippi, and Alabama.— His in- tention was to move northward and cross the Tennessee River at Bridgeport, which he hoped would force Sherman to fall back across that river also. He expected to be joined by Forrest at Bridgeport. But that bold cavalry leader had not received his orders. During the spring and summer he had been operating in western Tennessee, in northern Mis- sissippi, and Alabama, and had done great injury to the Federal cavalry and communications. In one engagement on Tishomingo Creek in Mississippi, on June 10th, he had defeated 10,000 Federal troops with 3,500 men, and had killed, wounded, and captured more than 2,000 of the enemy; he had taken 18 pieces of artillery, a large number of small arms and ammunition, besides all their baggage and sup- plies. His own loss was 493. A series of brilliant exploits in Mississippi, Tennessee, and Alabama followed this, all intended to cut Sherman's communications, and destroy his supplies. Forrest was especially active in destroying gun- boats and transports on the Tennessee River. In this work he was engaged, when he was ordered to report to General Hood, who, instead of crossing the Tennessee, had marched westward to Florence, Alabama. The only hope for success to Hood's forward movement was in sudden and rapid ad- vance. Instead of this, he did not reach Florence until November 1st, and did not cross into Tennessee until the 20th of that month. Lincoln's Administration, 1864- 493 Thomas Sent to Tennessee. — When Sherman found that Hood had gone off towards Tennessee and left Georgia almost undefended, he sent Thomas to Nashville to take command and make preparations for the defence of the State. He himself followed Hood with most of his army, until the Southern commander turned westward from Gadsden to Florence. He then sent the 4th and 23d army corps to Thomas, while he returned to Atlanta with the other troops and made ready to move through Georgia to Savannah. Battle of Franklin. — Hood pressed on into middle Ten- nessee with about 35,000 men. His long delays had given Thomas time to mature his plans, repair the railroads, and collect some 60,000 troops to repel his in- vasion. As the Confederate array advanced, the Federal army fell back from place to place. Schofield was ordered to hold Franklin. Here Hood attacked him on November 30th, and carried the outer lines. Orders were given to carry the in- ner fortifications at daylight the next morning, but Schofield re- treated during the night leaving his dead and wounded behind him. It was a dearly bought victory, gained with the loss of 6,000 men and five generals. Among the slain was the gal- lant Cleburne. The Federal loss in this engagement was 3,500. On De- cember 2d, Hood advanced to Nash- ville, where he took position and sent Forrest's cavalry and a division o f infantry against Murfreesboro. The infantry, however, behaved badly and the plan failed. Battle of Nashville. — Things re- mained quiet at Nashville until De- cember 15th, when the Federal army attacked the Confederate lines and got possession of the defences on its left. The next day, the 16th, the battle was renewed with little apparent effect until 3:30 P. J. M. SCHOFIELD, U. S. A. V. K. CLEBURNE, ARK. 494 History of the United States. M., when the Federal forces broke through the left centre. In a few moments the entire Confederate line gave wa}^ and the troops retreated in great confusion to- wards Franklin; and no efforts of the offi- cers could rally them to a stand. The loss in killed and wounded was small, but 54 pieces of artillery were abandoned to the enemy. Hood's army did not pause in its rapid retreat, until it recrossed the Tennes- see at Bridgeport, on December 27th. E. C. WALTHALL, MISS. ^11 1 j. ■ ■ j. ^ ± Thomas kept up a vigorous pursuit, but was prevented from inflicting more severe injuries by the courage of the rear guard under General Forrest. Effects. — On this disastrous expedition. Hood lost about 20,000 men in killed, wounded, prisoners, and deserters, and 72 guns. The Federal loss was perhaps half as great. But the loss to the South was far more than the mere loss of men and guns: it was the destruction of all hope of recovering and maintaining independence in Kentucky, Tennessee, Mississippi, and the States west of it. It was a crushing, dispiriting blow. In the North, Thomas's victory was felt to be so important that Congress passed a vote of thanks to him and his army. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States ; Official Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records ; General Grant's Personal Memoirs; Sherman's Memoir; J. E. Johnston's Narrative; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government ; Pollard's Lost Cause ; Taylor's Destruc- tion and Reconstruction; Long's and Lee's Memoirs of Robert E. Lee; Taylor's Four Years with Lee; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Newspapers of the Period; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Hood's Advance and Retreat; Memoir of General Polk. QUESTIONS. — 1. Tell of Sherman's and Johnston's armies in Georgia. 2. Their movements. 3. The fight at New Hope Church. 4. How was General Polk killed'? 5. Tell of his last days. G. Describe the marching of the two armies. 7. Who was now put in command of tlie Confederate army ? 8. Tell of his attack and defeat. 9. What success did he have near Atlanta ? 10. Tell of the siege of Atlanta. 11. Its evacuation. 12. How were the peo- ple of the city treated? 13. What bay was next taken by the Federals? 14. What numbers were engaged on both sides in this whole campaign? 15. Where did Hood now go? 16. Tell of his advance. 17. Describe Forrest's exploits in Tennessee, Mississippi, and x\labama. 18. Who was sent to Ten- nessee against Hood ? 19. Tell of the battle of Franklin. 20. Of the battle of Nashville. 21. What were the effects of this expedition ? CHAPTER LXXX. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, C0NTINUED.~186i. Attack on Petersburg. — After the ineffectual assault on the Confederate lines at Cold Harbor, on June 3d, General Grant determined to cross to the south side of James River. The railroads leading southward centered in Petersburg, and by seizing that city, Richmond would be deprived of all southern communications. The crossing of the river began on June 14th. General Beauregard, commanding at Petersburg, had sent nearly all his men to the north side to aid in defending Richmond, and had only 2,200 soldiers, most of them militia, to hold the works around Petersburg. Against these General " Baldy " Smith moved on the morning of the 15th with d. h. maury, va. 18,000 men. Why he did not press forward and seize the place cannot be known. The artillery fire was so severe and accurate that he thought there must be a large infantr}'- force supporting it. Later in the day he did advance and take possession of part of the outer line of fortifications. Hancock's corps came up, and together they might have overrun everything in front of them. The men were, how- ever, wearied with long hot marching, and the generals waited until next morning to renew the attack. Lee Reinforces Beauregard. — As soon as General Lee be- came sure that Grant was really moving against Petersburg, he sent reinforcements to Beauregard. Beauregard drew in the forces he had at Bermuda Hundred opposite Butler, also Hoke's division from Drewry's Bluff. These reached Pe- tersburg, during the evening of the 16th, and were in posi- tion behind the second line of works, hurriedly chosen, when Meade and Hancock attacked them on the same eve- ning. A great part of Grant's army was brought rapidly up to capture Petersburg before Lee's men, moving on a longer line, could prevent it. On the 17th, and again on [ 495 J 496 History of the United States. the 18th, tremendous assaults were made on the Confede- rate position, which failed to dislodge its defenders, who, when too hardly pressed at one point, withdrew to a still stronger one. Defence. — General Grant and General Lee were both pres- ent, when the final effort was made by the Federal force, on the evening of the 18th. So far, Beauregard alone had held in check the assailants, more than four times as numerous as his own force; but now the main part of Lee's army had come up, and Grant decided to desist for a while from at- tack in order to fortify his lines and give his men a needed rest. In the three days' fighting, 10,000 of his soldiers had been destroyed, as many as Beauregard had m all. Not only had Petersburg been defended, but Pickett's division had, on the 18th, recaptured the lines at Bermuda Hundred which Butler had occupied when their defenders were withdrawn to Petersburg. Intrenchments. — Both parties now busied themselves for several days in digging trenches, and making their lines of defence as strong as possible. Grant's plan was to extend his intrenchments gradually southward and then westward; to make them impregnable with earthworks, ditches, para- pets and all the resources known to modern engineering; to seize the railroads leading into Petersburg, and having cut off all supplies, to enclose the city and Lee's army with a wall of steel. Lee, also, spared no labor nor skill in de- fending the city, and built up his intrenchments as power- fully as his numbers and resources permitted. Lee's Difficult Task. — Lee's situation was from the first a most difficult one. He was obliged to defend both Peters- burg and Richmond, with lines of intrenchments thirty-five miles long, against an army more than double his own. The vast numbers of soldiers called for by Mr. Lincoln, as we have already seen, made it easy to double or treble the be- sieging army. Already the conscription at the South had called for all the men between the ages of seventeen and fifty, "robbing," as it was said, "both the cradle and the grave." The causes spoken of before prevented these con- scriptions from being enforced, and as the limits and re- sources of the Confederacy became constantly more and more restricted, there was little prospect of increase from Lincoln's Administration, 186^. 497 any source to the Army of Northern Virginia. The question of supplying the army was still more difficult. Food for the men and forage for the horses became scarcer daily. A fourth of a pound of meat and a pound of flour was all the food that could be provided for each soldier. Officers with servants had to divide this scanty ration with them. The clothing for the men was as poor as the food. The sick and wounded in the hospitals lacked the comforts and care which neither sympathy nor anxiety could provide, and the fami- lies of the soldiers, at home, suffered almost as much as the army did in the field. It took $60 of Confederate money to be worth one silver dollar. There was little to buy, and no money to pay for what there was. Supplies at the North. — The Northern government and the besieging army had everything to encourage them. Un- limited supplies of men, of food, of animals, clothing of the best, and arms of greatest efficiency, all were furnished without stint, and the nation showed such con- fidence in General Grant that it did not grumble at the great loss of life and the delay in effecting his purposes. Mahone's Attack. — In spite of want among the Southern sol- diers and anxiety on the minds of the leaders, the spirits and courage of both kept up in a won- derful manner. On June 22d, Mahone struck the Federal left, which was extending itself to oc- cupy a new position on the flank. The Confederates moved unseen through a ravine, planted their artillery where it could do dire execution, and then charging through the thick pine growth, burst T^^th a piercing yell upon the Fede- ral troops, still in motion. The surprise was complete. The Federal advance retreated in dismay, as the Southern shot and shell burst upon them. One division after another went down before the onslaught, and Gibbon's intrenchments were successfully carried. When night fell the attacking 32 WILLIA.M MAHONE, VA. 498 History of the United States. force returned to the Confederate lines with nearly 2,000 prisoners, 4 cannon, a quantity of small arms, and 8 flags. Ream's Station. — The same day, Wilson and Kautz with some 6,000 cavalry set out to destroy the Weldon, Southside, and Danville railroads. General Lee's son, AV. H. F. Lee, had not cavalry enough to prevent the injury to the roads, but he at- tacked and greatly harassed the raiders. The local militia, intrenched at Staunton River, kept them back. Hampton's cavalry drove them steadily all one day. Wilson, bewildered at so many attacks in a strange M. L. BONHAM, S. C. , j.-Jj.„11,- i.1, country, tried to make his way out by Ream's Station where he expected to find friends. Instead of this, he was met by Mahone with Confederate infantry and Pegram's artillery, and was attacked in the rear by Fitzhugh Lee's cavalry and utterly routed, 12 guns, a number of wagons, and 1,000 of his men being captured. Day of Humiliation and Prayer. — The Northern people were so much depressed at these checks to their soldiers and at Hunter's failure to capture Lynchburg, that Mr. Lincoln, complying with a request from Congress, appointed the 7tli of July as a day of humiliation and prayer for the suppres- sion of the rebellion and the success of the Federal armies. Public thanksgivings had been ordered after the victories at Shiloh, at Vicksburg, and Gettysburg, as well as on the annual Thanksgiving Day in November. In the vicissitudes of fortune in the South, Mr. Davis had repeatedly called upon the people to humble themselves and ask God for help amid reverses, and to return thanks when they were deliv- ered from threatened destruction; but this was the only time when public prayers were deemed necessary at the North. Plan to Blow up the Defences. — The two lines of intrench- ments at Petersburg were very close together, and the be- sieging guns constantly threw shells into the defences and into the city itself, endangering the lives of the citizens and bursting into churches and private houses. Finding assaults powerless to break the fortifications, a mine was dug at a point under the Confederate lines, where it was hoped an explosion would make a breach, and allow the Lincoln^ s Administration, 186^. 499 Federal troops to enter. Four days before the mine was to be sprung, Grant began crossing his men back to the north of James River, as though some important move were in- tended. It was impossible to know what the movement indicated, and Lee was obliged to carry some of his force over also, to be ready to check any advance upon Richmond. This was what Grant desired, and as soon n« the Confede- ^>> PETERSBURG CRATER. rates were well on the north side, Hancock was brought back to Petersburg on the night of the '29th. The mine was to be exploded on the morning of the 30th, and Grant hoped that his 65,000 men could easily capture Petersburg from the 13,000 remaining to defend it. Explosion of the Mine. — The digging of the mine and its exact location were known to General Lee, although he could 500 History of the United States. not know when it would be sprung. A strong line of defence had been made in its rear, while cannon and mortars were placed where they could cover the position with a heavy cross fire. The explosion occurred as had been directed, with a tremendous roar, and an upheaval of a great mass of earth which rose into the air and then burst asunder, scat- tering timber, stones, broken gun-carriages, muskets, and mutilated corpses around in hideous confusion. A breach was made in the Confederate lines 135 feet long, 90 feet wide, and 30 feet deep; 256 South Carolinians and 22 Peters- burg artillerymen were buried beneath the ruins. The Con- federates near the mine were for a moment stunned and stupefied by the shock. Those farther away could not con- jecture what was the matter. Fight at the Crater. — The assault to be made through the breach was intrusted to Burnside's corps, and it was at first ordered that a negro division should lead it. This, however, was overruled, and white troops were placed in front. They also were too much alarmed by the thunder and upheaval in front of them to advance at once. When they did clamber over their own breastworks, and over the debris thrown into the 1 30 yards of open space between them and the Crater, they found themselves on the edge of the enormous hole piled with the heap of ruins upheaved by the pow- der. Instantly, the Confederate guns and mortars opened upon them. To plunge into the hole was their only safety. To clamber up its farther side and occupy the ground in the rear, in face of the fire poured into them, was impossible. General Lee hurried up his men to the scene, and the resistance to the advance became stronger every moment. One after another the white troops were sent forward and driven back. The Crater was crowded with soldiers, the heat of the morning sun was intense, the concentrated Confederate fire became more and more gall- ing. E. BAN80M. N. C. Lincoln's Administration, 1864. 501 Negro Soldiers.— When his white soldiers had been thus exposed and mown down for two hours, Burnside ordered the negro troops to advance. They did not enter the Crater, but passed round its side and moved forward. But the deadly Confederate fire hurled upon them was more than they could face. They broke in disorder and ran for their lives, some into the Crater, some back to the lines from which they came. Another and another advance of white troops was attempted. Some of these got possession of part of the Confederate lines. Surrender and Losses. — At last, Lee had his men in proper position. They charged gallantly upon their assailants and drove them from the points they had seized. All this time, shell and shot were slaughtering the men huddled together within the Crater, and, just when their comrades had been sent flying back to their intrenchments, a white flag pro- jected above the Crater told that the men left alive there had surrendered. In this horrible aff'air the Federals lost about 4,000 men, the Confederates about as many hundreds. The scene at the Crater, where the dead and mangled lay heaped up beneath the sweltering sun, was ghastly beyond description. The valor and skill of the 13,000 men and their generals, which thus turned a well laid plan and an assault supported by 50,000 men into complete disaster, show what the spirit and ability of the Southern troops continued to be after so many months of battle, toil, and privation. Early's Move into Maryland. — Notwithstanding the great odds against him. General Lee decided to make another offensive move by which he might cause the withdrawal of some of Grant's large army. To eff'ect this, General Early, who after the battle of Cold Harbor had been ordered towards Lynchburg, was directed to move his force — about 10,000 strong — from Lynchburg to Staunton; and then, if the way proved open, to hasten northward down the Shenandoah Valley, drive out the ^ Federal forces, cross into Maryland, and i- ^ ' "">-'son,md. make demonstrations towards Washington, which might cause reinforcements to be summoned to defend that city. Early, obeying Lee's directions, moved as fast as possible 502 History of the United States. over the mountains and down the Shenandoah Valley, The cavalry under Generals Bradley T. Johnson and McCausland pressed on before the infantry. By July 2d, Early was at Winchester, and on the 6th, he crossed the Potomac at Shepherdstown, having driven Sigel with several thousand men into the fortifications at Harper's Ferry. Battle of Monocacy Bridge. — Not stopping to contend with these, Early turned eastward across the mountains, re- tracing very much the route by which Lee and McClellan had reached the battle-field of Sharpsburg. At the Monocacy Bridge near Frederick City, on July 9th, he encountered General Lew Wallace with about 7,000 men. A sharp fight took place. The Federal troops were defeated with a loss of some 2,000 men, and Early pressed on towards Washington. On the 10th, his troops marched thirty miles, and on the 11th, appeared in front of the fortifications at Washington. The excessive heat and dust, added to their long marching and fighting, had exhausted them so much that they were not fit for an attack of any kind. Their presence in Mary- land had produced alarm and anxiety throughout the North. Their numbers were asserted to be 30,000 or 40,000, and large bodies of troops were hurried to the defence of the Federal Capital. Early Before Washington. — Had Early's men been in tol- erable condition, he might perhaps have entered the outer line of defences at Washington, but the fortifications of the city were tremendously strong and defended by powerful guns, and the 10,000 Confederates could not possibly have held them against the thousands of soldiers hastening up to reinforce the 10,000 regulars and large military force already on the ground. Early, therefore, after remaining in front of the fortifications all day, and repulsing an attack of the Federal troops, withdrew his men and recrossed the Poto- mac safely at Leesburg on the 13th. Remaining quiet a few days to rest his men, he returned to the Valley, where he defeated Averill and Crook at Snicker's Ferry and on the old battle-field of Kernstown ; then he took a position below Winchester where he could either advance again or fall back up the Valley. Burning- of Chambersburg. — This campaign is remarka- ble, not so much for its success against two armies, each Lincoln's Administration, 1864- ^OS equal to the Southern forces, nor for the panic which the small force created throughout the North, as because it was the only occasion upon which the Southern authorities at- tempted any systematic retaliation for the outrages and de- vastation so widely perpetrated throughout the South. While in Maryland, railroads, trains, and bridges were de- stroyed by the cavalry, horses in large numbers were carried off, and contributions of money were levied on the towns. Blair's residence near Washington was burned. After the return of the Southern army to the Valley, the cavalry under Generals Bradley T. Johnson and McCausland were sent to Chambersburg, Pennsylvania, and Cumberland, Maryland, to collect either $100,000 in gold or $500,000 United States currency, to reimburse the citizens of the lower Valley whose homes had been burned by General Hun- ter, In case this demand was not complied with, Cham- bersburg was to be burned. Chambersburg did not furnish the money and was fired by McCausland. The denuncia- tions of the Northern officers and newspapers against the inhuman and savage barbarity of this burning of a single town, were in singular contrast to the complacency with which they described and illustrated the hundreds of con- flagrations throughout the South. Early and Sheridan. — As Early continued to threaten and alarm the North by remaining in the vicinity of the Poto- mac River, General Sheridan was sent to command the forces opposed to him. An army of 55,000 men was placed at his dis- posal, 12,000 of whom were cavalry under Averill, Custer, and Torbert. Lee reinforced Early by sending to him Anderson of Longstreet's corps with one division of in- fantry and one of cavalry. This raised T^ 1 J _p X -I ^ n.r\r\ T ±1 ±- GEO. A. CUSTER, U. S. A. Early s force to 14,000. In tlie mean time. Grant made another demonstration upon the north side of James River, and Lee was obliged to call Anderson back from the Valley, to hold part of the long lines of defence. As soon as Early was thus weakened, Sheridan attacked him at Winchester on September 19th. Sheridan's force was as numerous as Lee's army at Petersburg, and with his 50,000 men, by hard fighting, he overcame the 14,000 Conr 504 History of the United States. J. K. KERSHAW, S. C. federates, although his loss exceeded theirs by 1,000 men. Another severe blow was given Early on the 22d, which forced him to fall back fifty miles up the A^'alley. Victory and Defeat at Cedar Creek. — Lee sent Ker- shaw back to Early, and they attacked Sheridan's in- trenched camp near Cedar Creek, before daylight on the morning of October 19th. The Federal force was completely taken by surprise and driven panic- stricken for miles, leaving the camp and its stores and a number of guns in Early's hands. The temptation presented to the soldiers by the comforts and luxuries of the captured camp was more than Early's half starved men could resist, and believing their foes to be routed, numbers of them stopped to jDlunder and refresh themselves; and so the pur- suit was not vigorously pressed. In the mean time, Sheri- dan, who was at Winchester, learning that his men were fleeing in disorder, rode rapidly forward, met and rallied many of the fugitives, and encouraged them to return with him to the battle-field. His presence revived the spirit of the troops who had not become disor- ganized. His available force and espe- pecially his cavalry still largely outnum- bered Early's army. He re-formed his lines, and late in the day attacked and ut- terly routed the Confederates, capturing their guns, their wagons and hundreds of their men, besides regaining what his army had lost in the morning. Sheridan's Devastation of the Valley. — Early's small army, wasted by the severe fights of the campaign, was almost de- stroyed by this last disastrous defeat; and there was no ade- quate force left to prevent Sheridan's progress through the Valley, which was marked by fire and devastation. De- scribing it, he wrote, " The whole country from the Blue Ridge to North Mountain has been made untenable for a rebel army. I have destroyed over 2,000 barns filled with wheat, hay, and farming implements; over 70 mills filled with flour and wheat; have driven in front of the army over T. L. CLINGMAN, N. C. Lincoln's Administration, 1864.. 505 4,000 head of stock, and have killed and issued to the troops over 3,000 sheep." It was the same ruthless policy which Sherman had pursued in Mississippi, and which he was about to make still more destructive in Georgia. Grant on the James. — Grant continued to extend his lines both north and south of James River. Part of the Weldon Railroad was seized, and his advance troops captured new positions, and from time to time injured the other railroads. In the repeated encounters with the cavalry and infantry opposing his efforts, he suffered severely, and lost double, sometimes treble, what the Southern army did. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States ; Grant's Personal Memoirs ; Ollicial Reports and Correspondence in Government War Records; Sherman's Memoir; Stephens s History of the United States ; Fitzhugh Lee's Memoir of Robert E.Lee; Taylor's Four Years with Lee: Raymond's Life of Lin- coln ; Memoir of General Pendleton; Semmes's Service AHoat ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Pollard's Lost Cause; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia ; Newspapers of the Period; Humphrey's Virginia Campaigns. QUESTIONS.— 1 . Tell of the attaek on Petersburg in June. 2. Who "svas in command there? 3. Tell of the defence. 4. "What was the next move of Grant? 5. Describe the difficult task that Lee had. 6. What great contrast to this -was the condition of the North ? 7. Describe Mahone's attack. 8. The battle at Ream's Station. 9. What effect had all this on the North ? 10. What plan did Grant now adopt ? 11. Tell of the explosion of the mine. 13. Of the fight at the Crater. 13. Of the negro soldiers. 14. Of the siu-render and the losses. 15. What move was now made into Maryland? 16. Describe the bat- tle at Monocacy Bridge. 17. Early's march to Washington and back to the Valley. 18. The burning of Chambersburg. 19. Tell of Early and Sheridan in the Vallej'-. 20. Of the victory and defeat at Cedar Creek. 21. Sheridan's devastation in the Valley. 22. What were Grant's movements on the James ? CHAPTER LXXXI. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— ISBIp. Sherman's March to the Sea. — Sherman set out from At- lanta, November 15th, with 60,000 infantry, 5,500 cavalry, and a considerable artillery force, all well supplied with wagons and provisions. Knowing that his movements would be through a fertile country and that there was no army to resist his advance, he gave orders to his men to subsist as much as possible on the country. The army was divided into several parts which moved upon different roads, some going southward to Macon, and others directly to Mil- 506 History of the United States. ledgeville. There was little restriction as to pillage and destruction in the towns and districts through which they P passed, and all were to direct their ^BEgftf^ course after a certain time towards ^ " m^^^^^^k Savannah. Wheeler's cavalry hung ^ ^B^ around the advancing Federals, ha- ' ifflf I8pi^ bP^ rassing them somewhat, though un- i ^T ■ ^^^^^ ^^ cause them serious trouble. ■ HMUnk. v«»/ '^^^ weather and roads were good; •HPM|^|( the men fed luxuriously upon the ^Ug^^M \ abundant corn, sweet potatoes, poul- ^^^■J^BL^ : try, and cattle of the region, and in- j£^H|^^^H^pi^ dulged, without restraint from their ^ — ^^^^^^■^^^^«*^ officers, in plunder and destruction. A, PLKASANTON, U, S. A. rpi I. J A J • i32 1 j. • 1 Ihey had lew dimculties or dangers to encounter, and pressed rapidly on. Milledgeville, the State capital, was occupied. All railroads were torn up. The "Bummers." — The "bummers," as the stragglers going out to forage and devastate were called, stole every- thing they could lay their hands on, carrying off what was portable, and wantonly destroying all they could not take away. Their doings are thus described by a Northern eye- witness: " Such little freaks as taking the last chicken, the last pound of meal, the last bit of bacon, and the only re- maining scraggy cow, from a poor woman and her flock of children, black or white not considered, came under the order of legitimate business. Even crockery, bed-covering, or clothes, were fair spoils. As for plate, or jewelry, or watches, these were things rebels had no use for. Men with pockets plethoric with silver and gold coin; soldiers sinking under the weight of plate and fine bedding materials; lean mules and horses, with the richest trappings of Brussels carpets, and hangings of fine chenille; negro wenches, par- ticularly good-looking ones, decked in satin and silks, and sporting diamond ornaments; officers with sparkling rings, that would set Tiffany in raptures — gave color to the stories of hanging up or fleshing an ' old cuss ' to make him shell out. A planter's house was overrun in a jiffy; boxes, draw- ers, and escritoires were ransacked with laudable zeal and emptied of their contents. If the spoils were ample, the depredators were satisfied, and went off in peace; if not, Lincoln's Administration, 1861. 507 everything was torn and destroyed, and most likely the owner was tickled with sharp bayonets into a confession where he had his treasures hid. If he escaped and was hiding in a thicket, this was 'prima facie evidence that he was a skulking rebel; and most likely some ruffian, in his zeal to get rid of such vipers, gave him a dose of lead which cured him of his Secesh tendencies. Sorghum barrels were knocked open, bee-hives rifled, while their angry swarms rushed frantically about. Indeed, I have seen a soldier knock a planter down because a bee stung him. Should the house be deserted, the furniture is smashed in pieces, music is pounded out of four hundred dollar pianos with the ends of muskets. Mirrors were wonderfully multiplied, and rich cushions and carpets carried off to adorn teams and war- steeds. After all was cleared out, most likely some set of stragglers wanted to enjoy a good fire, and set the house, debris of furniture, and all the surroundings, in a blaze. This is the way Sherman's army lived on the country." Nearing Savannah. — At Millen, between Milledgeville and Savannah, there was a prison camp. Kilpatrick's cavalry were sent forward to set the prisoners free, but found them gone, and he received a severe handling from Wheeler's men. The different parts of the invading hosts were di- rected to meet at Millen, from which point they moved for Savannah. The Confederate Government could not collect a force of any strength to defend Savannah. The country, for ten miles around the city, is flat and swampy, and the rice plantations are cut up by great ditches full of water for flood- ing the rice fields. Efforts were made to obstruct the causeways which crossed this marshy district and to defend them with artillery. In spite of this slight oppo- sition, Sherman reached the immediate vicinity of Savannah on December 10th. Strong earthworks and heavy guns de- fended the roads which entered the place. One of these. Fort McAlister, was carried g- w. smith, ky. by assault on the 13th, but the Federal commander decided not to attack the city itself until he had opened communica- tions with the Federal fleet lying not far from it, and had mounted powerful cannon to bombard it. 508 History of the United States. Fall of Savannah. — By the 17th of the month, his pre- parations were finished, and he sent a demand for tlie surrender of Savannah, adding that if it was not com- plied with, he would assault the city, would resort to the harshest measures, and would allow his men to wreak their vengeance upon it. General Hardee, commanding the Confederate forces in Savannah, had too few men to make a successful resistance, and the city was in no condition to stand a siege. But he de- clined to surrender the place, withdrew his army during the night of the 18th, and MCBUTLERSC moved it northward towards Charleston. Sherman's army occupied the place on the 21st, and on the next day, he wrote to Mr. Lincoln presenting him Savannah with 150 heavy guns and 25,000 bales of cotton, as a Christ- mas gift. Wholesale Destruction in Georgia. — This success, follow- ing so close upon Thomas's defeat of Hood at Nashville, filled the North with joy and exultation. Congratulations poured in upon General Sherman from all parts of the Union; from President Lincoln and General Grant, as well as votes of thanks from different legislatures and from the United States Congress. In their rejoicing at the result of the campaign, all seemed to lose sight of the inhuman means by which much of it had been accomplished. In reporting the march of his army, Sherman told that, besides destroy- ing 265 miles of railroad, they had consumed all the forage and food throughout a belt sixty miles wide from Atlanta to Savannah, and carried off 10,000 mules and horses, and a countless number of slaves; he added that they had done damage to the amount of $100,000,000 to the State of Geor- gia, $20,000,000 of which had been for the benefit of his army, the rest being simple waste and destruction. This vandalism he justified by saying, "We are not only fighting hostile armies, but a hostile people, and must make old and young, rich and poor, feel the hard hand of war." Hard it was, indeed, as he laid it on the defenceless women and children of Georgia. Price's Invasion of Missouri. — Some other occurrences of the year must be narrated before we close its eventful story. Lincoln's Administration, 1861,.. 509 J. O. SHELBY, About the middle of September, General Sterling Price in- vaded Missouri witli 10,000 men. He declared that he was not making a raid, but that he intended to occupy and hold the State. For a while, he moved almost unmolested through a large part of it, doing considerable damage to Federal property, and raising the hopes of the Confederates. But troops were gath- ered to oppose him. Numbers of his men who had not seen their homes for several years, deserted him to return to their fami- lies. He was attacked and defeated on October 23d, and again on the next day, and he had to retreat into Arkansas, his army having been badly cut up and demoralized. Morgan's Last Raid and Death. — At the time that Hunter was advancing up the Valley of Virginia, General John Mor gan was employed with his cavalry in East Tennessee and Southwest Virginia. The infantry with which he was co-operating, was carried to oppose Hunter, and Mor- gan, hoping to avert a Federal expedition into Southwest Virginia, determined to make another bold incursion into Ken- tucky. With little over 2,000 cavalry, he dashed into that State and captured Cyn- thiana and the garrison there, June 11th. The Federal troops intended for Virginia came up with him the next' day. He was attacked by a largely outnumbering force. His command was routed and forced to retreat into Tennessee. Here he collected his scattered men and ope- rated as he had done before, though on a smaller scale. Early in September, he was in the village of Greenville with only a small detachment of soldiers. The daughter-in- law of the woman at whose house he lodged, rode at night to a Federal camp some miles off and told where the gal- lant Confederate could be captured. Four companies of Federal cavalry dashed into the town and surrounded the house where he slept. His staff were captured, but Morgan escaped into the garden. He was unarmed. There was no possibility of his getting away from the surrounding soldiers, so he came out from his place of concealment, and surren- M. J. WRIGHT, TENN. 510 History of the United States. B. SEMMES, C. S. N. dered himself to the Federal captain. After this, a cavalry- man rode uj) within two feet of him, and notwithstanding Morgan's assurances that he was a prisoner, shot and killed him, and afterwards inflicted indignities upon his dead body. Confederate Cruisers. — You have read before of the injury to Federal commerce by the few Confederate privateers. Of these the Alabama, built at Birkenhead in England in 1862, and equipped on one of the Azores Islands, fr- was the most famous. She had cruised round the world under command of Captain Raphael Semmes, and had destroyed -nearly $10,000,000 worth of American vessels and cargoes; and together with her sister cruisers, the Sumter, the Florida, and the Shenandoah, she had nearly driven American merchant vessels from the ocean. After a long and successful cruise through the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, the Alabama went into the har- bor of Cherbourg, France, June 11th, for much needed re- pairs. The Alabama and the Kearsarge. — The United States war vessel Kearsarge, commanded by Captain Winslow, which was cruising near the French coast, came up and took its station off the breakwater at Cherbourg. The Alabama was much damaged by her long voyages, still it might have been pos- sible for her to steal out and get aw^y with- out risking a fight. Captain Semmes did not know that the sides of the Kearsarge were protected by a thick defence of iron chains so covered by planking as to be hid- den from sight. He believed that his vessel, though not so large nor so heavily armed as the Kearsarge, could safely contend with her in a fair fight, and he sent Captain Winslow word to wait until he got some coal for the Alabama and she would come out and give him battle. Destruction of the Alabama. — On the 19th, accordingl}^, the Confederate cruiser steamed out of the harbor, and the fight began. To make the combat lawful, the ships were obliged to be more than a marine league from the land, but they were close enough for the battle to be witnessed by J. TATNALL, C. S. N. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-. 511 spectators on shore as well as by the crews of an English yacht, Deerhoundy and of two French pilot boats not far off. The chain-clad hull of the Kearsarge suffered little injury from the shot and shell of the Alabama, the powder of which was very defective; while that gallant little cruiser was torn to pieces and in a sinking condition after about an hour and ten minutes. Finding that his ship was going down, Cap- tain Semmes lowered his colors in token of surrender. Even after this, the Kearsarge fired five times upon its sinking antagonist. The boats could save only a part of the crew. The rest jumped into the water before the ship sank, and most of them were picked up by the Deerhound and the pilot boats. Destruction of the Florida. — Not long after the destruc- tion of the Alabama, the Florida was captured by a Federal war vessel, while she was lying at anchor in the harbor of Bahia, a neutral Brazilian port. Mr. Seward apologized for the outrage to Brazil, but the Florida was held as a prize and was sunk. The Shenandoah was surrendered to the Federal government after the close of the war. Re-election of Mr. Lincoln, 1864. — This was a presidential election year at the North, and party politics ran high. One faction of the Republican party thought Mr. Lincoln too mild in his dealings towards the Southern " rebels " and too slow in abolishing slavery. This faction nominated John C. Fremont as its candidate for the Presidency, while the Re- publicans opposed to them renominated Abraham Lincoln. All this time, there had been great differences of opinion with regard to the war among the Northern Democrats. But even those known as '' War Democrats," could not ap- prove of the arbitrary and unconstitutional measures by which the Government carried it on. The Peace Demo- crats — or " copper-heads " as their enemies termed them— gained great strength, by the Confederate success which had occurred early in the year, by General Grant's inability to destroy General Lee's army and seize Richmond, and by the enormous drafts of men and money called for to carry on the struggle. Their convention which met in Chicago in August, nominated General McClellan, after having de- nounced the measures of the Government as unconstitu- tional, having declared the war a failure, and having urged 512 History of the United States. that hostilites should cease and negotiations for peace be immediately begun. McClellan, in accepting the nomina- tion, said emphatically that the war was not a failure. Sherman's cap- ture of Atlanta and Far- ragut's success in Mobile Bay contradicted the as- sertion of failure and strengthened the attach- ment of the Northern people to the Govern- ment. Fremont with- drew from the contest and Mr. Lincoln was re- elected by an enormous majority. Peace Negotiations. — Some informal and un- official efforts had been made by a few prominent Southerners, in July, when the Northern mind was depressed, to pave the way for negotiations for peace between the contending sections. To these, Mr. Lincoln signified that no negotiations for peace would be entertained which did not include the restoration of the Union and the abandonment of slavery. The South- ern men had no authority to settle anything. The Federal successes now raised the spirits of the North, and the whole effort came to nothing. Condition of the Confederacy. — The close of 1864 found the Southern Confederacy in desperate straits. Most of her territory was cut to pieces and overrun by her enemies. She was at the end of her resources. Her money was worthless. What soldiers she still had in the field were half naked and half starved, while the people at home were little better off. There were no means of repairing the railroads so inces- santly and thoroughly broken up by Sherman, Sheridan, and other Federal generals, and so it was impossible to bring men and food to important points, even if they could have been collected. But the constant slaughter of bat- J. C. FREMONT, U. S. A. Lincoln's Administration, 1864-. 513 tie, the detention of thousands of her bravest and best in Northern prisons, and the loss of life from sickness and ex- posure, had killed or disabled the majority of the white men in the South. Taking off the horses and mules for army purposes, and the absence of the farmers and planters from their homes, added to the devastation of in- vading armies, prevented the proper culti- vation of the soil, and famine bade fair to destroy what the sword had left. The Fede- ral power, on the other hand, had gained 1 T . .1 , T l^ m H. 1>. CLAYTON, ALA. immensely during the twelve months. Ten- nessee, Missouri, and most of Mississippi and Alabama had been seized; Georgia and the Valley of Virginia were laid waste; Hood's and Early's and Price's armies had been beaten and broken up. The only formidable force still to be overcome was in the trenches at Petersburg, and Grant and Sherman were preparing to bring 200,000 men to crush it. It was plain to any observant eye that the end of the contest could not be far off. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States; Grant's Personal Memoirs; Official Reports and Correspondence in Govern- ment War Records; Sherman's Memoir; Stephens's History of the United States; f itz- hugh Lee's Memoir of Robert E.Lee; Taylor's Four Years vrith Lee; Raymond's Life of Lincoln ; Memoir of General Pendleton; Semmes's Service Afloat; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Pol- lard's Lost Cause; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Newspapersof the Period. QUESTIONS.— 1. Describe Sherman's march to the sea. 2. The work of the "bummers." 3. Who has given us this description? 4. What hap- pened as the army neared Savannah ? 5. What caused the fall of Savannah ? (i. What was Sherman's message to Mr. Lincoln ? 7. Tell of the devasta- tion in Georgia made by the army of Sherman. 8. What of Price in Mis- souri ? 9. Tell of Morgan's last raid and death. 10. What was the Alabama ? 11. Tell of her battle with the Kearsarge. 12. Of the destruction of the Alabama a.nd.t\xe Florida. 13. Who was elected President in 1804 ? 14. Tell of the peace negotiations. 15. What was now the condition of the Confede- racy? 33 CHAPTER LXXXII. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1865. Condition of Petersburg.- — The extreme severity of the weather kept both armies at Petersburg comparatively quiet, during the opening weeks of the year. The intense cold added to the sufferings of the soldiers. Water was scarcely to be gotten anywhere. The difficulty of procuring fuel was far greater for Lee's army. On more than one occasion, a Southern soldier was found frozen dead at his post Only the artillery firing continued almost uninterrupted, and parts of Petersburg were so riddled v/ith shot and shell as to be uninhabitable. The people became strangely accus- tomed to their danger, and timid women walked about the streets or drove from place to place within the Confederate lines, undeterred by the thunder of cannon or the shriek of shells v/hizzing above their heads. Butler at Fort Fisher. — The hard winter did not, however, prevent active operations elsewhere. In December, Gene- ral Grant had sent an expedition under General Butler to capture Fort Fisher, which had accomplished nothing. Wil- mington was the only port left open to the Confederate blockade runners, and Fort Fisher, on the peninsula between the mouth of Cape Fear River and the ocean, was its main defence. European powers had threatened to disregard the blockade entirely, unless the Washington Government could enforce it in North Carolina; and, therefore, it seemed doubly ne- cessary to capture Fort Fisher. It had been agreed between Grant and Sherman that the latter should march northward from Savannah to A^irginia, laying the Carolinas waste as he went. But Grant determined to reduce Fort Fisher before any of Sherman's force approached it. Terry Against Fort Fisher. — On January 6th, another ex- pedition, commanded by General Terry, was sent from Fortress Monroe against Fort Fisher. Admiral Porter's fleet of 59 vessels, five of them ironclads, was to co-operate [514] B.r. CHEATHAM, TENN. Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 515 with the infantry force — about 20,000 strong. General Bragg was ordered to take charge of the defences at Wilmington. He had been so unsuccessful in his former commands, that the country felt little confidence in his ability, although his bravery was undoubted. One of the Richmond papers gave voice to the general sentiment by announcing, " General Bragg has been appointed to command at Wilmington. Good-bye, Wilmington." This foreboding was soon to be justified, though it is questionable whether any military skill could have held the fort against the enormous odds brought to capture it. Capture of Fort Fisher. — On January 15th, after a bom- bardment of three days, an attack was made by the fleet and the land forces. The vessels, ranging in a curved line from a half mile to a mile and a half from the fort, opened a concentric fire from their 413 guns. Such a storm of shot and shell has scarcely ever been equalled. The walls of the fort were much injured, some of the cannon were dis- mounted, powder exploded, and the interior was made so hot by the incessant shower of missiles that the moB could not stand to their guns. A first assault of the infantry was repulsed with severe loss, and after the outer works had been car- ried, a fierce struggle went on within the inner defences. Notwithstanding the greatly outnumbering force of the assailants and the stunning and exhausting effect of the prolonged cannonade, the garrison of 2,500 1 , 1 1 , 1 1 f» 1 , , -1 W. H.C. WHITING, MISS. men kept up a hand-to-hand right until after midnight. General Whiting was mortally wounded ; Colonel Lamb, commanding the fort, was entirely disabled. Further resistance was hopeless, and the general surren- dered himself and some 1,800 men. The rest of his heroic command had been killed or wounded. The Federal loss was nearly 700. After the fall of Fort Fisher, the lesser defences of Wilmington had to be abandoned, and Federal troops occupied the town. Sherman's March from the Sea. — General Sherman left Savannah on February 1st, with 60,000 infantry, 5,000 cavalry, and a large artillery force. To oppose these, the Confederates had an inconsiderable army, part of them the 516 History of the United States. remnant of Hood's force brought from Mississippi, part the men with whom Hardee had evacuated Savannah, and part the militia of the State. Wheeler's cavalry obstructed the roads and destroyed the bridges, but could do nothing to check materially the oncoming hosts. South Carolina was not fertile enough to furnish supplies for the army as Georgia had done, but every- thing in it was dedicated to plunder and destruction. There had been some slight attempts to restrain outrages upon the people and their property in Georgia. These ceased in South Carolina. Gen- — — — * eral Sherman himself said that he saw JOSEPH WHEELER, ALA. ^^^ f^^^ <.J^^|^ ^^ ^^g j^q^ poSSiblO tO TC- strain the soldiers, as had been done in Georgia. Destruction in South Carolina. — All that the armies had done in Mississippi, Louisiana, Georgia, and even in the Valley of Virginia, was merciful, compared to the outrages perpetrated in South Carolina. The course of the invading army could be marked afar off by the wide spreading col- umns of smoke which rose wherever it went. Dwelling houses, granaries, negro cabins, resin factories, the pine forests themselves, were all set on fire. The sun was obscured by clouds of smoke and the night made light by the wide- spread conflagration. Before burning, the houses were rifled of their contents. What took the fancy of the thieves was carried off, the rest was destroyed. Costly furniture and pianos were hewn to pieces; rich carpets, curtains, and libraries were dragged through the dust and mud, or scattered to the winds. Plate, watches, jewelry, and clothing were taken; rings and ear-rings were torn from the fingers and ears of the helpless, terrified women. Resist- ance and remonstrance were met with oaths and threats of still worse treatment. Old men were tortured to make them tell where money or silver was hidden. The negroes were plundered as quickly as the whites. The gardens were dug up with bayonets to probe for concealed treasures. One party followed another, until the defenceless people were M. W. GAKY, S. C. Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 517 left without shelter or food. And these things were seen not only without hindrance by the officers, but were con- sidered as "comical." One of General Sherman's aides, after describing the scenes of plunder, said, "It was all fair spoil in war, and the search made one of the excitements of the march." When Sherman's army marched in triumph through the streets of Washington some months later, a special feature of the procession was the " bummers " and their mules laden with stolen goods. Fall of Charleston. — For a time it could not be told whe- ther Sherman would march for Charleston or Augusta where the largest powder mills in the South and other im- portant factories were situated, and detachments of troops were sent for the defence of each city. Instead of turning aside to either, he moved directly for Columbia, the capital of the State. This move made it necessary for Hardee to evacuate Charleston, which he did on February 17th. Be- fore leaving, he burned the cotton warehouses and arsenals and destroyed other public property. An accidental explo- sion of a large quantity of powder killed several hundred people, and kindled a conflagration which consumed a con- siderable portion of the city and threatened the destruction of the whole of it. When General Gilmore took possession of Charleston, on the 21st, he found its beauty gone and its once fair streets scarred and mutilated. For four years, it had made a heroic defence, and it bore in every part of it the marks of the shot and shell which had riddled the houses, or of the flames which had consumed them. Burning of Columbia. — The Federal army reached Colum- bia on the 17th of February. The small Confederate force had withdrawn, and the mayor surrendered the place. Gen- eral Sherman promised that only public property should be injured, and that not a finger's breadth of the town should be burned. But the promise was not kept, for the soldiers began their accustomed work of pillage and destruction, as soon as they entered the streets. The stores were broken open and sacked, private houses were entered with demands for food which was at once taken. Watches were snatched from the pockets and rings from the fingers of their owners. In- sults and indignities of every kind were heaped upon the citizens, especially upon the women, and as a climax to all. 518 History of the United States. the town was burned, if not actually by the order of Gene- ral Sherman, certainly without hindrance from him. The flames broke out in twenty places at once, and spread rap- idly from street to street. AVhen the fire engines came to do what was possible to check the fire, the soldiers cut the hose and rendered them useless. The Roman Catholic Con- vent shared the fate of the city, although a special protec- tion had been promised it, and the terrified nuns and their sixty pupils had to spend the night in the open park, not knowing where they could find another shelter. When morning came, the most beautiful part of Columbia was a heap of smoking ruins. Churches/banks, srlmols, private DKBTBUCTION OF COLUMBIA. residences, and shops had disappeared; only their chim- neys remained standing; and homeless people, with such small remnants of their possessions as they had saved from theft and burning, were huddled in groups in the streets and gardens, gazing hopelessly at the ruin everywhere around them. Sherman's Charge Against Hampton. — General Sherman tried to throw the blame of this cruel conflagration on Gen- eral Hampton, by saying that Hampton had set fire to cot- ton bales in the streets before evacuating the town. This General Hampton denied, and hundreds of citizens bore witness that it was only after the entrance of Sherman's men that any fires broke out, and that they prevented any efforts Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 519 WADE HAMPTON, for the extinguishing of the flames. All were not equally inhuman, and some of the officers and men showed sympathy - for the frightened and helpless peo- j ' pie, assisting them to move their household goods, and extending little kindnesses to them. Even with these alleviations, the picture is black and shocking enough. In his Memoir, General Sherman declares that the fire was " accidental," and that he charged it on Hampton to " shake the faith of the South Caro- linians in him." Peace Conference. — Napoleon III. of France had, in 1863, interfered in the aff"airs of Mexico. He went so far as to persuade the Archduke Maximilian of Austria to be made the Emperor of Mexico, and gave him a French army to put down opposition. This bringing of European forms of government and a European sove- reign into America was entirely con- trary to the. Monroe Doctrine. Many people thought that by uniting on that ground, to expel the French from Mexico, a stop might be put to the strife between tlie United and Confederate States, which would be honorable to both parties. On Feb- ruary 3d, an informal " Peace Con- ference" took place between Presi- dent Lincoln and Mr. Seward on one side, and Vice-President Stephens, Mr. Hunter of Virginia and .Judge Campbell of Louisiana on the other. ^* '"• h-*^'''^' ^*- Mr. Lincoln would not agree to any armistice, or cessation of hostilities, during which some terms of peace might be settled. The only conditions on which he would encourage any hope for peace were the absolute submission of the South, her immediate return to the Union, and the complete aboli- tion of slavery. The Southern Commissioners had no defi- nite instructions beyond the recognition of the Confede- 520 History of the United States. racy, and so the conference accomplished nothing. The fact that no peace honorable to the South could be hoped for, aroused the patriotism and zeal of the army and people anew. But there were no means of filling up their depleted ranks, or of relieving the wants of the starving soldiers in the field and their families at home. Want and Privation in the South. — It is difficult to under- stand how people managed to live. Flour was $300 a bar- rel, and in the far South, could not be had at any price. Corn meal was $50 a bushel, corn was $40, and oats $25 a bushel, peas $40 a bushel. Brown sugar was $15, coffee $30, and tea $50 a pound. Sorghum molasses was $35 a gallon; butter $30 a pound. Dry goods could scarcely be had at any price. Ladies wore their old finery made up over and over again, or dressed in homespun cotton, woven in hand looms. Hats and bonnets were plaited out of wheat- straw or palmetto, and trimmed with flowers and tassels of the same materials, or of feathers. Old silk stockings and bits of old cloth were made into gloves for the ladies and their soldier friends. The same dextrous hands fashioned the upper parts of gaiter boots from scraps of homespun cloth, or old woolen materials found in garrets; and then paid $200 for having them soled. The pay of a general was only $301 per month, of other officers proportionately less; the soldiers' pay was scarcely anything. At the prices of the scanty supplies in the country, it all seemed equally worthless. Lee Made Commander-in-Chief. — General Lee had been made commander-in-chief of the Confederate armies early in February, and had issued orders exhorting all the South- ern soldiers to be firm and constant in opposing their ene- mies, and offering pardon to all deserters who would return to their commands. His own men, at this very time, were in the trenches, half frozen and half starved, but presenting a bold front to their enemies. On February 5th, Lee's posi- tion on Hatcher's Run, on his extreme right, was seized by the Federal troops. Desperate efforts were made to dislodge them, but without success. In this fight the gallant General Pegram was killed. Lee's Plan to Leave Petersburg. — Meantime, General Sher- man was pressing rapidly northward. Beauregard and Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 521 Hardee had done nothing effectual to oppose his progress, and General Johnston was again called to take charge of the Confederate forces in North Carolina, and check, if he could not prevent, his advance. John- ston could collect only 18,000 men, while Sherman, reinforced by Schofield from Wil- mington, had about 70,000. General Lee had seen for some time that, if ho remained in the trenches at Petersburg, his army must gradually be hemmed in by its foes, cut otl' from all supplies, and eventually captured. If he abandoned his fortified lines and moved into tlie open country, Richmond, the Confederate Capital, the prize for which the Federal commanders had spent so much blood and money, must fall into their hands with its important workshops and foundries, and its thousands of refugee citizens from all parts of the South. His desire to leave Petersburg was, therefore, so distasteful to the authori- ties at Richmond that he had been obliged to give it up at an earlier period. Now, however, the necessity for such a move was becoming imperative; and, if he could move so as to join Johnston where together they might strike Sherman before Grant could come to his aid, something important might be accomplished, and the struggle for Southern inde- pendence go on to a hopeful conclusion. The Gathering- of the Federal Forces in Virginia. — This seemed the best thing possible. The question was discussed with President Davis, and it was agreed that supplies should be collected at Danville, so that Lee might move rapidly thither, join Johnston, and fall upon Sherman. But, worn and exhausted as his men and horses were, it was impossi- ble for him to make a move, until the weather became less severe and the roads more fit for travelling. General Grant seemed to divine his adversary's intention to give him the slip, and made his plans to render such a move impossible. Coming from the Valley, Sheridan joined him with 12,000 cavalry, having destroyed the railroads and laid waste the country as he came. Thomas was directed to move into southwestern Virginia and destro}^ the railroads in that di- rection. Sherman, as we have seen, was moving towards Petersburg, and Grant gave orders for another sweep around J. U. GOEDON, GA. 622 History of the United States. Lee's right by the Federal infantry and cavalry on March 29th. Assault on Fort Steadman. — The massing of troops in that direction weakened the Federal lines at one point. This Lee perceived, and made arrangements for an attack there before day, on the morning of March 25th. The hostile lines were onl}^ 200 yards apart and the pickets close enough to talk with each other. Gene- ral Gordon, who commanded the haz- ardous assault, succeeded in capturing Fort Steadman on Hare's Hill, and he pressed forward with some 4,000 men, hoping to seize the farther line of for- tifications, and thus to cut Grant's line in two, get into his rear, and turn the Federal guns upon their own trenches. But the guides, either through igno- rance'or treachery, failed to lead the way where a successful attack might have been made; the supporting column did not come up promptly, the Federal guns were quickly turned upon the attacking force, and Gordon was compelled to retire, having lost more than 3,000 killed, wounded, and prisoners. The Federal loss was 2,000. Comparison of the Forces. — The Confederate lines were now about thirty-seven miles long. To watch and defend these long fortifications, Lee had only some 35,000 men^ not 1,000 to a mile, and these were being constantly lessened by battle, starvation, and exposure. Grant had more than 120,000; more than three to one of his enemies. With this great host, he could keep his trenches well defended, and throw a force equal to Lee's whole army upon the Southern flank and rear; and this he proceeded to do. Sheridan's Victory at Five Forks. — Sheridan, with his cav- alry and two corps of infantry, was directed to move to the left, to occupy the country west of Petersburg, and to de- stroy the Southside and Danville railroads. To prevent the severing of his only communications with the South, Lee sent his cavalry under Fitzhugh Lee and an infantry force under Pickett, to check Sheridan's progress, while he him- self, with 17,000 men, all that he could spare from the forti- Lincoln's Administration, ISO.S. ;23 KITZHUGH LEE, VA. fications, passed rapidly to the Federal left on the 31st, and boldly struck their advancing column on the flank. The foremost divisions gave way under his sud- den and heavy attack, but the greatly supe- rior number of the men behind them, massed in a strong position, made it impossible for the Confederate leader to assault them suc- cessfully, and he had to fall back again to his trenches. On the same day, Fitzhugh Lee attacked Sheridan near Five Forks, and drove him some distance with considerable loss. Sheridan was reinforced by two infantry corps, the next day, and, in his turn, assailed the Confederates at Five Forks, and defeated them, causing them the loss of about 3,500 men, and some of their artillery and colors. It was the beginning of the end. Attack on Petersburg. — When Grant, after nightfall, learned of Sheridan's success, he ordered an attack to be made all along the lines at daybreak the next morning, April 2d. Longstreet, who was still on the north side of the James, was ordered to join Lee at Petersburg with all speed, but he did not get up in time to assist in holding the trenches. The thin line of defenders, though fighting bravely, was driven out by the overwhelming assault of the enemy, and fell back behind the inner line of breastworks where the guns from Fort Alexander and Fort Gregg checked the Federal pursuit. In this struggle. General A. P. Hill, one of the corps commanders, was killed. Evacuation of Petersburg- and. Richmond. — To hold Peters- burg was an impossibility. The only thing was to withdraw the army, if possible, to some point where it could be fed and rested and could avoid capture. It was Sunday morn- ing. Mr. Davis was in his pew in St. Paul's Church, Rich- mond, when he received a telegram from General Lee tell- ing him that Petersburg must be evacuated that night. He rose and left the church. Immediate steps were taken to remove the Government papers and such property as could be taken. The Government officials left the city, and all the soldiers north of the James were ordered to cross the A A HUMPHREYS, U S A. 524 History of the United States. river and join Lee. The suddenness of the crisis and the scarcity of transportation made it very difficult to get things out of the city, and vehicles of every sort were piled with boxes from the Departments, and driven to the depots. Distress and Riot in Richmond. — The news that they must be abandoned by the army which for three years had in- sured their safety, spread rapidly, and filled the hearts of the people in Richmond with anguish. The streets were full of anxious women who saw with despair all the men, who could bear arms, hurrying away to escape capture. It was rumored that, when no more of the Government sup- plies could be carried away, the remainder would be dis- tributed to the people, and crowds collected round the Com- missary stores. In the emergency, the City Council gave orders to destroy all the liquor in the place, that idlers, stragglers, and negroes, as well as the expected Federal soldiers, might have no means of getting drunk and in- creasing the disorder of the day. Committees of citizens lent their aid to roll the barrels of whiskey into the streets and knock in their heads. The gutters were soon filled with spirit, the fumes of which filled the air. Straggling soldiers and the mob which had collected got hold of the liquor, and soon all law and order were at an end. Stores were broken open and pillaged, and the streets rang with yells and shouts of drunken men and women, and the cries of others in terror and distress. Fire. — Fire added to the horrors of the night. General Ewell, before leaving the city, caused the tobacco ware- houses standing in the southern part of the city to be set on fire, so that the stored tobacco might not be captured. When the last soldier had crossed the river, the three great bridges were also burned, as were the vessels in the river. Unfortunately, the fire from the tobacco warehouses spread to the adjacent buildings. There were no means of extin- guishing it, and soon the whole business part of the city was wrapped in flames. Through Sunday night and all day Monday, the fire burned, and the riotous, pillaging mob took advantage of it to continue their uproar and thieving. So great was the confusion, that a detachment of 40 Massa- chusetts cavalry sent by General Weitzel, commanding the Federal troops below Richmond, to ascertain how things Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 525 were going, rode unmolested into the heart of the city and planted their colors in the Capitol Square. A few hours afterward Weitzel's whole command marched in, and Rich- mond was in the hands of her captors. Mr. Lincoln's Visit to Petersburg and Richmond. — At Pe- tersburg, there were no similar horrors, only the dull agony of despair, as General Grant and his soldiers moved into the battle-torn little town. Mr. Lincoln was at City Point and he immediately came to Petersburg and then to Richmond, where he visited with especial curiosity the house which President Davis had occupied, and seemed to take pleasure in sitting down in Mr. Davis's chair. Exultation at the North. — The fall of Richmond, full of disappointment and sorrow to the South, occasioned a wild delirium of joy at the North. As the telegraph spread the news from city to city, bells were rung, cannon fired, the people swarmed to the public squares with huzzas of exulta- tion, hymns and doxologies were chanted in the streets, and United States flags hung from every house and vehicle. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War ; Ridpath'g History of the United States ; Grant's Personal Memoirs ; Official Reports and Correspondence In Government War Records; Sherman's Memoir ; Stephens's History of the United States ; Fitzhugh Lee's Memoir of Robert E. Lee ; Taylor's Four Years with Lee ; Raymond's Life of Lin- coln ; Memoir of General Pendleton ; Semmes'S Service Afloat ; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War; Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Pollard's Lost Cause; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Newspapers of the Period ; Memoir of Jeffer- son Davis, by his widow; Humphrey's Virginia Campaigns. QUESTIONS.— 1. AVhat was the condition of Petersburg? 2. Tell of Gen- eral Butler's attack on Fort Fisher. 3. Of Bragg at Fort Fisher. 4. Of its capture. 5. Relate Sherman's march from the sea through South Carolina. 6. Who opposed him ? 7. Tell of the wanton destruction in South Carolina. 8. Of the fall of Charleston. 9. Of the burning of Columbia. 10. What was Sherman's charge against Hampton? 11. Tell of the affairs in Mexico and of the " Peace Conference." 12. Describe the want and privation in the South. 13. What was the condition of the army ? 14. What plan did Lee form ? 15. What did Grant do in anticipation of Lee's movements ? 16. Describe the assault on Fort Steadman. 17. How did the forces of the two armies com- pare ? 18. Tell of the battle at Five Forks. 19. Of the attack on Peters- burg. 20. What was its result as to both Petersburg and Richmond ? 21. De- scribe the condition of affairs in Richmond. 22. The fire there. 23. Mr. Lin- coln's visit. CHAPTER LXXXIII. LINCOLN'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— 1865. Lee's Retreat. — During the night of April 2d, Lee's army was quietly withdrawn from the trenches at Petersburg, and moved to the north side of the Appomattox River. The crossing was safely accomplished, and almost all the field artillery was brought away. The route of retreat was to Amelia Court House, where Lee had ordered provisions for his men and forage for his horses to be in readiness. The relief of getting away from the confined, dangerous trenches, and of being in the open country, fresh and green with the verdure of spring, was such, that for a time the men and / — --. CONFE "— Federal advance KOADS ,eaAP-9th FBOM PETBESBURQ TO APPOMATTOX. officers were in good spirits and moved rapidly. They had repeatedly fallen back before a superior enemy only to strike him a telling blow on the first good opportunity. They had unbounded confidence in their commander, and they were buoyed up by the hope of finding food at Amelia Court House. The roads were deep in mud; the long wagon trains, drawn by jaded teams, hindered the progress of the columns; and when Amelia Court House was reached, on the morning of the 4th, there were no supplies there. Delay at Amelia Court House. — Through some strange neglect of orders, the food, which General Lee had directed [526] Lincoln's Administration , 1865. 527 J.H. LANE, N.C. should be brought from Danville, had been carried on to Richmond, to be destroyed or to fall into the hands of the rioters. It was a dire disappointment. Men and horses were starving. For nearly two days and nights, they had had no rest. The scanty rations brought from Petersburg had been consuxned, and further progress was impossible, until they were in some way rested and fed. Foraging parties were sent out at once, to collect whatever the coun- try round could supply, and twenty-four hours were con- sumed in this hunt for subsistence. The delay was fatal. Grant in Pursuit. — As soon as General Grant learned that Lee's army was in retreat, he ordered his army forward in pursuit. A confidential dispatch telling of Lee's plans had been cap- tured in Richmond, so that the Federal gen- eral knew exactly where to go to foil them. His army moved in two columns, on the roads parallel to the line of retreat, though south of the Appomattox, and pressed on rapidly so as to get possession of the rail- road and cut Lee off from Danville. The delay at Amelia Court House rendered this speedily practicable. Attack at Sailor's Creek. — When the retreat was resumed, on the evening of the 5th, hunger, weariness, and disappoint- ment had lessened the spirit of the 20,000 soldiers remain- ing to the Army of Northern Virginia. A little parched corn was all they had to sustain life, and scores of them sank exhausted by the wayside. Sheridan, with 18,000 men, struck the railroad at Jetersville, only seven miles from Amelia Court House, while Lee was still there, and intrenched himself to wait for Meade to come up. On the 6th, there was not only skirmishing in front and on the flank of the retreat, but the rear half of Lee's army, under Ewell's command, was at- tacked at Sailor's Creek, by a greatly out- numbering force; the weary, exhausted corps were surrounded, and, with the ex- ception of 250 men, all of the 10,000 were either killed, wounded, or captured. Lee, in person, tried to avert this disaster, and when he returned to his other troops, J. L. HOGG, TEXAS. 528 History of the United States. he told one of his officers, " That half of our army is destroyed." It was hopeless to move towards Danville, and Lee, with the forces remaining to him, pressed on westward in the direc- tion of Lynchburg. Some of the caissons had been destroyed at Amelia Court House, and a large part of the artillery was sent by a road farther to the west, so that the army could move more rapidly. The marching had to be mostly at night, because the days were taken up in skirmishes, and in forming in line of battle to protect the guns and wagon trains. At Farmville. — On the morning of the 7th, the retreating army reached Farmville, and here, for the first time since leaving Petersburg, they found a good supply of provisions, and were able to satisfy their hunger. To reach Amelia Court House they had crossed to the south side of the Ap- pomattox. At Farmville they had to re-cross to the north side, and they burned the bridges to check the pursuit of their enemies. By this time, Lee's principal officers felt certain that further resistance was hopeless, and could pro- duce nothing but a useless loss of life. This opinion was conveyed to General Lee by his chief of artillery. But the Confederate com- mander could not yet be- lieve that their cause was so desperate, and declared that death was preferable to uncondi- tional surrender. At Appomattox, April 8, 1865. — Lee had some hope that he might reach Appomattox Court House and obtain sup- plies there, and then push on behind the Staunton River, where he could maintain his position until he could unite with Johnston; and he pressed on all day during the 8th of April. But the Federal army, strong, well fed, and possessing ample J. T. MOKGAN, ALA. Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 529 transportation, having seized the railroad, moved faster than he did. The Confederates reached the neighborhood of Ap- pomattox Court House, on the evening of the 8th. But Sheri- dan's cavalry got there first, captured the trains with Lee's supplies, and obstructed his advance. By the morning of the 9th, there were more than 40,000 Federal sol- diers in front, and 25,000 directly behind Lee's 10,000 men. A spirited attack by Gordon and Fitz Lee who led the retreat, drove back the Federals immediately in their front, but such hosts appeared behind the skirmish lines, that, unless reinforcements could be brought up, further resistance was useless. First Steps Towards Surrender. — General Grant had, on the night of the 7th, sent a note to General Lee asking for his surrender. Lee, in reply, inquired the terms which General Grant would offer. General Grant informed him that the only condition he should insist upon would be, that the officers and men surrendered should not take up arms against the United States until properly exchanged. He also offered to meet General Lee at any time, with a view to putting an end to the fighting. To this, Lee responded that he did not think the time for such surrender had yet come. On the morning of the 9th, however, when he found it impossible for his gallant little band to cut its way through and escape from the toils with which the Northern army had surrounded it, he saw what his duty to his sol- diers demanded, and sent a flag of truce to General Grant, asking for an interview. It was the first move of surrender, and the war in Virginia was ended from that moment. Meeting of Grant and Lee, April 9, 1865. — The meeting between the two commanders took place at the house of Mr. Wilmer McLean in the village of Appomattox Court House. Grant was attended by Generals Sheridan and Ord and by some of his staff, Lee only by his aide. Colonel Marshall, and a courier. The contrast between the two men was striking. Grant was at the time forty-two years old. He was a man of medium height, not imposing in appearance; he was dressed in dark blue flannel, with his trousers tucked in his boots; he had neither sword nor spurs, and bore no marks of his rank except a general's shoulder straps. Lee was fifty-eight years old, six feet tall, with hair and beard 34 530 History of the United States. silvery gray. He was at all times a remarkably fine-looking man. He wore a uniform of Confederate grey, with the three stars of a general on the collar, cavalry boots with handsome spurs, and from his belt hung a splendid sword presented to him two years before by a Marylander. It seemed as if he wished to do all the honor he could, in this supreme mo- ment, to the cause and the army he represented. The Terms of Surrender. — Without delay, the terms of surrender were submitted to writing. The men and officers were to be paroled on a pledge not to take up arms again until properly exchanged. The officers were to retain their side-arms, private horses, and baggage; and all other prop- erty and arms were to be turned over to Federal officers; M'LEAN HOUSE. after which the army would be disbanded and allowed to re- turn home. General Lee told General Grant that the cav- alry and artillery horses in his army almost all belonged to private individuals, and asked if their owners would be per- mitted to retain them. To this General Grant assented, saying that he supposed most of the men were farmers who would need their horses to raise food for their families. The articles were then signed by both commanders. The story that Lee handed his sword to Grant, who returned it to him Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 531 is without foundation. General Grant declared that the sword was not thought of nor mentioned. Before taking leave, General Lee said he had more than 1,000 Federal prisoners whom he would be glad to send back as he had no food for them, and added that his own men had been living for days on parched corn. General Grant asked how many rations would be sufficient to relieve his wants, and gave him an order for 25,000, to be taken from the supply trains which Sheridan had captured. This done, the commanders separated; and the particulars of the surrender were ar- ranged by three officers from each army, Generals Gibbon, Griffin, and Merritt on the Federal side, Longstreet, Gordon, and Pendleton for the Confederates. LEE LEAVING APPOMATTOX. Departure of Lee and Grant. — By the time General Lee returned to his troops, they had learned the truth of their surrender. To most of them it brought an anguish like death, and, as they crowded around their beloved leader to touch him or his horse, the strongest and bravest wept like women. Tears flowed freely down Lee's face, as in a broken voice, he bade adieu to them. The next day, April 10th, he issued a brief parting address to his army, rode 532 History of the United States. through their weeping ranks with his head uncovered, and set out for Richmond to join his family. General Grant showed much magnanimity towards General Lee and his army. As at Vicksburg, he allowed no salutes to be fired, no joyful playing of bands, and no display of exultation over the sad fortunes of his fallen foes. After arranging that the details should be carried out quietly and with no outrage to the feelings of the brave men who had so often held his hosts at bay, he too left Appomattox, and went to Washing- ton to stop further conscription and spending of money. The Soldiers After the Surrender. — There were surren- dered at Appomattox 10,000 men with arms in their hands, nearly 8,000 being infantry, the rest cavalry and artillery; the broken down men and stragglers without arms brought up the number paroled to 28,356 of all arms and vocations. It required several days to parole this number, and then, in groups and squads or one by one, the depressed and de- feated men dispersed to reach their homes as best they might. Thousands of them were penniless. Many had hundreds of miles to travel without money or means of transportation, but there was no rioting or outrage as they moved through the land, everywhere desolated and de- spoiled, to find their homes in many cases laid waste and destroyed. The same constancy and devotion to their country which had sustained them amid battle and strife unparalleled, nerved them to face courageously this dark time of defeat and disappointment, and to do their best to retrieve the widespread ruin of their beloved South. End of the War — Numbers Engaged. — Universal joy and exultation filled the Northern people, when tidings of Lee's surrender were received. A salute of 200 guns was fired at all Government posts, and every demonstra- tion of rejoicing was made all over the North. It was looked upon as the end of the war, as it really proved to be. In the course of a few weeks, Johnston surrendered to Sher- man all the Confederate troops east of the Mississippi, on the terms made between Lee and Grant, and, a little later, Kirby Smith sissippi. In round numbers there were about 267,000. Lincoln^s Administration, 1865. 533 When all need for their services was over, more than 1,200,000 men were mustered out of the Federal service; 1,000,000 more had lost their lives from battle or disease. The Confederate Government, from first to last, had never been able to put even as many as 800,000 in the field. Mr. Lincoln's Proclamation. — When President Lincoln went to Richmond after its evacuation, the question arose as to how the conquered people should be treated, where- upon Mr. Lincoln exclaimed: " Let 'em up easy, let 'em up easy." In his inaugural address delivered two months be- fore this time, he had declared that he should act "with malice towards none, with charity for all," and in spite of his many unconstitutional acts, and his almost reckless exercise of power, he was known to be a really kind-hearted man, who was likely after the surrender of the Southern armies, to deal as kindly as he could with the Southern peo- ple. In December, 1863, he had issued a proclamation which declared that whenever one-tenth of the voters in any one of the seceded States should take the oath of allegiance to the United States, and re-establish a State Government, such a State should be received again into the Union. Under this proclamation, Louisiana and Arkansas had already or- ganized governments, and it seemed likely that, as soon as it could be arranged, they and the other Southern States would, by some such process, be taken again into the Union. Assassination of President Lincoln.— -Whatever hope of a liberal policy on Mr. Lincoln's part had been entertained, was frustrated by his assassination on Good Friday night, April 14, 1865. Mr. Lincoln and his wife with several friends were in a box at Ford's Theatre in Washington, when John Wilkes Booth, an actor by profession, entered the box and shot the President in the head. He then struck him with a dagger, and shouting '^8ic semper tyrannis," sprang on the stage, whence he made his escape to the rear of the building, mounted his horse, and rode off. In an in- stant, all was confusion in the theatre. Surgeons were sum- moned to do what they could for the President, while others ran to arrest the murderer. The murdered man was taken to a house close by. The ball had entered his brain; he never recovered consciousness, and at seven o'clock the next morning, breathed his last. At the time of the assassina- 534 History of the United States. tion of the President, Powell, one of Booth's accomplices, entered Secretary Seward's house and went to the room where Mr. Seward was confined to his bed with several broken bones. Overcoming the resistance of Mr. Seward's son, Powell made his way into the chamber and struck seve- ral violent blows with a dagger at Mr. Seward, but failed to inflict a mortal wound. An alarm was raised, but Powell also got away. Effect of the Assassination. — Mr. Lincoln's murder excited horror throughout the civilized world. At the North, rage was mingled with the horror, and many believed that the crime was instigated and planned by the South- ern people. Mr. Stanton, Secretary of War, went so far as to charge it upon the Southern leaders, and to put a price upon the head of Mr. Davis and Southern gentlemen in Canada, $100,000 for Mr. Davis and $25,000 apiece for four other per- sons, as having been principally con- cerned in it. This was preposterous. The character of Jefferson Davis should have placed him above sus- picion of anything cowardly or cruel; and the gentlemen alleged to have acted under his influence would have scorned to contrive or assist in so dastardly a deed. The closest scrutiny of facts failed to implicate any persons in the assassination save Booth himself and the man Powell. A lad named Harold and one Atzerott were close friends of Booth, but took no part in the killing. They, however, and Mrs. Mary Surratt, at whose house in Wash- ington, Booth and other parties were accustomed to meet, were arrested, imprisoned, and treated with inhuman sever- ity; they were tried by a military commission instead of a civil court, and at last hanged on July 4, 1865. Fate of Booth. — Booth broke his ankle as he sprang on the stage from Mr. Lincoln's box, and with pain and diffi- culty made his way to the lower part of Maryland and thence into Virginia. The boy Harold accompanied him. Pur- suit was too eager and vigilant to be eluded. The fugitives ROBERT TOOMBS, GA. Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 535 4^^l lf!^-T were discovered in a barn and Booth was shot through a crevice in the door and killed by Sergeant Corbett. The dead body was subjected to indignities unworthy of a civil- ized age and people. Lincoln's Funeral Honors. — Mr. Lincoln's remains were embalmed and carried to Baltimore, Philadelphia, New York, Albany, and round by Buffalo, Cleveland, and Chicago to his former home in Springfield, Illinois. They were received with funeral honors everywhere, and in the larger cities lay in state, and were viewed by many hundred thousands of peo- ple. It was not until the 5th of May that they were laid to rest in the Cemetery at Springfield. Mr. Davis After the Sur- render. — Before proceeding to what is called the " Re- construction Period," I must tell you of President Davis. He left Richmond for Dan- ville, sanguine that a junc- tion would be effected be- tween Lee and Johnston, and a successful stand made by them. Lee's surrender destroyed this hope, and the Confederate President determined to go, as fast as possible, west of the Mississippi, believing that a stand could be made there, long enough at least to secure some favorable terms from the United States. He pushed on, therefore, through the Carolinas into Georgia. His Capture. — On his journey through Georgia, he learned that his wife and family, who with a small escort were try- ing to reach the Florida coast by another road, were in dan- ger from marauders, and he rode a long distance to join and protect them. He travelled with them for some days, but decided to leave them and hasten west. The night before CAPTURE OF MR. DAVIS. 536 History of the United States. his intended departure, their little camp was surrounded by Federal soldiers, and nearly all the party were taken pris- oners. Mr. Davis, of course, tried to get to his horse which was standing saddled a little way off. In going out of the tent he picked up, by mistake, his wife's water-proof cloak instead of his own light overcoat, and his wife threw a shawl over his shoulder. He was captured before he reached his horse. Imprisonment of Mr. Davis. — Vice-President Andrew John- son succeeded Mr. Lincoln. The proclamation, accusing Mr. Davis of having caused President Lincoln's murder, and offering $100,000 for his capture, had just reached Georgia, and the distin- guished prisoner was sub- jected to insults and ill treat- ment hard to bear. He was taken at once to Fortress Monroe, w^here the vile charge against him w^as made the pretext for inhu- man cruelty. He was con- fined in a damp stone cell with iron barred windows, into which the sun never shone; four armed sentinels paced up and down day and night; and a bright light was always kept shining in his eyes. Heavy irons were chained on his ankles. His coarse and miserable food was served in a dirty, disgusting manner, and neither knife nor fork w^ere allowed him. He was forbidden to have any books or papers to read, or any to- bacco, and the clothing allowed him was of the poorest and scantiest. All his own possessions were seized. Outsiders were allowed to come and gaze at him as at a wild beast in a cage. He was never a robust man, and the privations and indignities heaped upon him, in addition to the mental an- guish occasioned by the downfall of the Confederacy he loved so well, and by his anxieties about bis family, brought Up: ME. DAVIS AT FORTRESS MONROE. Lincoln's Administration, 1865. 537 him to the verge of the grave. Even then, the representa- tions and remonstrances of the Federal surgeon who minis- tered to him, could scarcely procure the alleviations neces- sary to preserve him from death. Dr. Craven's kindness in providing his delicate patient with meals likely to be pala- table, and in ordering for him a warm overcoat when winter came on, subjected the humane surgeon to a severe reprimand, and he was forbidden to speak to Mr. Davis except on strictly professional subjects. Suffered for the Whole South. — The charge of murder was seen to be a malignant slander, and the Southern Ex-Presi- dent was then accused, with equal want of truth, of being the author of all the sufferings of Northern prisoners in Southern prisons. The Attorney-General and other emi- nent lawyers gave it as their opinion that he could not be tried for treason by any competent tribunal, because the whole South had participated in the resistance to the Fede- ral Government. But the majority of the Northern people considered him the arch-traitor, and wished to visit dire vengeance on his head. Mr. Lincoln, shortly before his death, intimated that he w^ould be very glad if all the South- ern leaders could get out of the country before he knew it. Mr. Johnson, on the contrary, accused Mr. Davis of horri- ble crimes, and would gladly have inflicted the heaviest punishment upon him. His Later Life. — But wiser men, even among the strongest Republicans, saw how unjust and how injurious to their party the continued persecution of Mr. Davis was; and, after languishing in confinement for two j^ears, he w^as ar- raigned for treason and brought to Richmond, Virginia, for trial. The trial never came off, and the illustrious and en- feebled prisoner was released from confinement on a bail of $100,000, for part of which Horace Greeley and Gerrit Smith, two of the original Abolitionist party, pledged them- selves. Finally, the charges against him were withdrawn, and Mr. Davis passed the rest of his life quietly in a South- ern home, more beloved and honored by the Southern peo- ple in his days of retirement and misfortune, than when he was directing the affairs of the short-lived Confederacy. Death and Interment of Mr. Davis. — Mr. Davis died in New Orleans on December 6, 1889. In May, 1893, his re- 538 History of the United States. mains were removed to Richmond and laid to rest in Holly- wood Cemetery. Large crowds assembled to honor his memory, at all the stations where the train halted; and a grand procession of citizens and old soldiers, several miles long, escorted the funeral car through the streets of Rich- mond to its final resting place. AUTHORITIES.— Draper's History of the Civil War; Ridpath's History of the United States; Grant's Personal Memoirs; Official Reports and Correspondence in Govern- ment War Records; Sherman's Memoir; Stephens's History of the United States ; Fitz- hugh Lee's Memoir of Robert E.Lee; Taylor's Four Years with Lee ; Raymond's Life of Lincoln; Memoir of General Pendleton, Semmes's Service Afloat; Battles and Leaders of the Civil War, Davis's Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government; Pollard s Lost Cause; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Newspapers of the Period; Me- moir of Jefferson Davis, by his widow; Dr. Craven's Prison Life of Jefferson Davis; Humphreys's Virginia Campaigns. QUESTIONS.— 1. When did Lee retreat from Petersburg ? 2. Tell of the route. 3. What misfortune occurred at Amelia Court House? 4. Tell of Grant's pursuit and the battle at Sailor's Creek. 5. Whithei did Lee now turn? 6. Tell of the array at Farmville. 7. At Appomattox, and the attack there. 8. What were the first steps toward surrender ? 9. Describe the meet- ing of Grant and Lee. 10. What were the terms of surrender and what spirit did Grant show ? 11. Tell of the departure of Lee and Grant. 13. What was the condition of the soldiers after the surrender ? 13. What was done with the armies In North Carolina and west of the Mississippi? 14. Tell of the numbers engaged in the war on both sides. 15. What proclamation had Mr. Lincoln made at his second inauguration? 16. Tell of the assassination of President Lincoln. 17. Its effects. 18. What was the fate of Booth? 19. Where was Mr. Lincoln buried? 20. What did Mr. Davis do after the surrender? 21. Tell of his capture. 22. Of his imprisonment and his suffer- ings. 28. Of what was he accused by his enemies ? 24. Tell of his later life. 25. Of his death and of the honors paid to his memoi-y. 26. Where is he buried ? CHAPTER LXXXIV. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION. Condition of the Country. — Although the Civil War was formally over when Lee surrendered at Appomattox, both the North and South had been so shaken and upturned by the fierce struggle, that real peace and harmony were slow to follow the cessation of battle. The great Federal armies were quietly disbanded and returned to their homes within a few months. The reckless exercise of authority and the ty- rannizing over the minority, which had followed the disre^ gard of the Constitution and the laws prevalent throughout the whole North for four years, were habits not so easily put aside. They held sway for years longer, with other evil in- ► 1 1 f^ Pi fl *c PHILIP COOK, (iA. .1. E. CHALMERS, MISS. W. H. PAYNE, VA . r ■^ J. A. WALKEK, VA. a. BUFORD, KY. F. M. COCKRELL, MO. T. R. R. COBB, GA. I. M'licjWKLL. I. s. A. J. A. RAWLINS, U. S. A. J. K. HAWLEY. U. S. A. J. K. BARNES, U. S. A. J p. PAGAN, A};K .T. S.MARMADUKE.MO. m. C. MEIGS, U.S.A. I- l^i- FOSTER, U. S. A. t/f> /? "' M. ;* ■■>.'''■ a ■ ■ r •.■•r:^-'*- iiU: . ■ ^_,_ . .^^ lf?w* il M^ G. W. BAJSDOLPU, VA. (J. B. W i^SiJJ:.!!, MD. I, K. TEIMBLE, MD. J- ^- Ji■El^^EDY, S. C. CONFEDERATE GENERALS MARKED BY STATES, UNION BY U. S. A. Johnson's Administration. 539 A RUINED HOME AFTER THE WAR. fluences arising from the rashness and license of war. At the South everything was in a state of chaos. The railroads were almost disa- bled and unfit for use. There were no mails except to the Federal camps. There was no money and no currency. The banks were all destroyed. In im- mense sections of the country the lands were laid waste, the cattle were all killed or carried away, t h e fences had disappeared, the mills and many of the dwelling- houses were burned. There were no manufactories nor or- ganized industries left. The whole system of labor was de- stroyed. The negroes, who, in the main, had been loyal to their masters and faithful to their duties while the war lasted, were almost all of them utterly demoralized and for a time, at least, rendered worthless by their sudden and vio- lent emancipation. That emancipation had also robbed the South of $2,000,000,000 worth of property, in addition to the immense loss caused by the universal destruction every- where seen. Courage of the Southerners in Defeat. — When the de- feated Southern soldiers returned to their bereaved and deso- lated homes, ruin and impoverishment stared them in the face. Undismayed by the devastation and discouragements of their surroundings, they brought the same brave hearts to encounter them which had so often nerved their arms against heavy odds on the battle-field. To gather up the shattered fragments which remained to them; to exercise their abilities for the comfort and support of those who lovingly welcomed them home and who rejoiced in their re- turn while weeping over their defeat, this became at once the first duty, the sole interest of almost each surviving Southerner. With the horses left to them by General 540 History of the United States. Grant, men who had commanded thousands, as well as those who had served in the ranks, set themselves to ploughing and planting, that hunger and want might not again torment their wives and children. Others turned their hands to whatever offered means of livelihood. As draymen, street-car drivers, workmen in the shops, axemen in the forests, in every department of labor, the most culti- vated and elegant men of the South took hold, with a will, of whatever they found to do. General Lee a College President. — During the four years of war, colleges and schools had languished almost unto death. One of the first cares of the Southern States, was to revive their educational institutions. General Lee himself became a college president, devoting himself to teaching and training his young countrymen to become patriotic, useful citizens. Around him gathered, as professors and students, numbers of those who had followed him to battle and who now sought, under his example and guidance, to fit themselves for the duties of peace. Submission to the Laws of the Union. — To devote them- selves thus to the immediate demands of home work was all that was left to them; for it soon became evident that the political issues of the hour were by no means settled, and that they were to have no voice in deciding them. Though as firmly convinced as ever that their cause had been just, their principles founded on law and right, they acquiesced in the fate which had come to them by the arbitrament of the sword, and showed themselves determined to abide by their paroles and obey the laws of the Government at Wash- ington. In that Government itself, there was great uncer- tainty as to what those laws were to be. Mr. Lincoln had al- ways held that a State could not get out of the Union by any process. He had, as we have seen, recognized the pro- visional governments of Virginia and Tennessee early in the war, and also those of Louisiana and Arkansas, organ- ized under his proclamation of amnesty and reconstruction issued in December, 1863. Had he lived, he would, no doubt, have proceeded at once to organize a provisional government for each one of the Southern States. Andrew Johnson's Position. — Andrew Johnson held with Mr. Lincoln that the States had never been out of the W. B. TALIAFERRO, VA W. H. F. LEE, VA. S. B. MAXKy, TKXA^ "\, ■WM. SMITH, VA. J. M. WITHERS, ALA. GENERALS OF THE CIVIL WAR. CONFEDERATE MARKED BY STATES, UNION BY U. S. A. Johnson's Administration. 541 Union, and that the sole object of the war had been to com- pel the seceding States to return to their allegiance to that Union. In his horror at Mr. Lincoln's assassination or his fear least he, as the only person benefited by it, might be suspected of some complicity in the crime, he now broke out into abuse of the Southern people, and uttered fierce threats against their leaders. By the conditions of the pa- roles given by General Grant and other Federal generals, the persons and lives of the officers and men who surrendered to them, were held in regard. Had it not been for this, it is probable that General Lee and others of the most prominent and influential Southern officers and statesmen would have suffered grievous penalties. His Amnesty Proclamation. — Influenced by this feeling, Mr. Johnson issued an amnesty proclamation much more stringent in its restrictions than Mr. Lincoln's had been. He then proceeded to organize provisional governments and to order mail facilities and other Federal functions to be set to work throughout the South. Thirteenth Amendment. — Before Mr. Lincoln's second in- auguration, the Congress at Washington had voted the Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitution, abolishing slavery throughout the United States. To make it actually a part of the Constitution, it was necessary that three- fourths of the States should ratify the amendment. This vote could not be secured without the co-operation of the Southern States. The provisional governors, therefore, sum- moned the legislatures of those States to meet and take ac- tion on the amendment. Mr. Johnson's amnesty proclama- tion excluded every man who had held office under the Con- federate States; who had held the rank of general in their army or lieutenant in their navy; who had been educated at West Point, or been a member of the United States Con- gress, or a governor of a State; and every Confederate citi- zen who was worth $20,000. By his directions to the pro- visional governors, no member of the excluded classes could hold office or be allowed to vote. This narrowed down the voters and left out most of the wisest and best men in the South. The legislatures elected by the limited number per- mitted to vote, acquiesced in the terms prescribed to them. They ratified the Thirteenth Amendment which was, in con- 542 History of the United States. sequence, proclaimed the law of the land on the 18th of De- cember in this same year — 18G5. Laws to Regulate Labor. — Knowing the character of the negroes, and dreading the evils which were apt to result from their sudden freedom and release from all restraint, most of the legislatures enacted strict regulations as to va- grants; and also as to contracts for labor, and other rela- tions between employers and those employed. In some of the States, these regulations were equally applicable to white and colored people; in others they were expressly prepared for the negroes and mulattoes. AH guaranteed protection to the negroes in their rights, but felt bound to extend some protection likewise to the whites. Committee on Reconstruction Appointed. — They also elected members to the next United States Congress. When that Congress met, it was evident that the South was to ex- pect no toleration at its hands. The names of Southern members were omitted from the roll-call, and both houses at once appointed a "Joint Committee on Reconstruction," of fifteen members, which was to inquire into the condition of the Southern States, and report whether any of them were entitled to be represented in Congress. Difference Between Congress and the President. — The Radical Republicans in Congress and out of it, although for four years they had declared that no State could get out of the Union, and had urged on the war to enforce that opin- ion; and although the Thirteenth Amendment had just been declared valid by the ratification of the Southern States, now averred that those States by their secession had broken their relation to the Union; that they were to be looked on and treated as conquered provinces. This was contrary to President Johnson's views, and a struggle at once began be- tween him and Congress. On April 2d, the President is- sued a proclamation declaring that the " insurrection " in the South was at an end, and the war over; but Congress seemed filled with a fiercer animosity towards them than ever. Freedmen's Bureau.— -The previous Congress, in its closing days, had established the "Freedmen's Bureau," "for the relief of freedmen and refugees." Under its care, food, clothing, and homes were to be provided by the War Depart- ment for the needy negroes. The confiscated or abandoned Johnson's Administration. 543 lands of the white Southerners were to be parcelled out among them at the rate of forty acres to each man, if the commissioners thought it advisable; and they were to be assisted in other ways. This law was to be effective during the war, and for one year after its close. But now it was not considered forcible enough. The Southern legislatures had given great offence by their attempts to control the negroes in any way, and a second bill was passed giving more authority to the Bureau, and ordering homes, lands, food, clothing, schools, and asylums to be provided for the negroes, and guaranteeing to them all the privileges allowed to the whites. All violations of this bill or offences against the colored people, were to be tried and punished by the officers of the Bureau, Presidential Vetoes. — Mr. Johnson declared this bill to be contrary to the Constitution, and promptly vetoed it. The "Civil Rights Bill," for conferring rights on the negroes equal to those of the whites, and the bill for the admission of the State of Colorado were also vetoed by the President, on the same ground, that they were unconstitutional and ill-advised. By this time, the opposition to the President had become so strong that another and stricter " Freedmen's Bureau Bill" and both the other bills above named, were passed over his veto by more than a two-thirds vote in Congress. Fourteenth Amendment. — To obviate the Constitutional objections to measures which they were resolved to carry through, the ultra Republicans now brought in and passed a Fourteenth Amendment to the Constitution which con- tained five separate clauses. The first declared all persons, native or naturalized in the United States, citizens thereof, and of the States in which they resided, and forbade any State to abridge their privileges in any way. The second limited the representation of any State according to the proportion which the number of those allowed to vote bore to the male population over twenty-one years old. The third declared that no person should be a member of Con- gress, or an elector for President, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States or any State, who, after having taken an oath to support the Constitution, had participated in the secession movement — "insurrection or 544 History of the United States. rebellion" as it was termed — or had given aid to others engaged in such movement. The fourth guaranteed the payment of the United States' debt, including pensions and bounties, and prohibited any settlement of the Confederate debts. The fifth gave Congress power to enforce all the pro- visions of the Amendment. Reception of the Fourteenth Amendment. — Ratification of this amendment was afterwards made a condition for the re-admission of the Southern States into the Union. They were unwilling to accept it, especially the third clause, and all rejected it, except Tennessee. The President has no power to veto a constitutional amendment; but Mr. Johnson sent a mes- sage to Congress expressing his disapproval of this one, and declaring it illegal and invalid, because eleven States of the Union were not represented in the body framing it. Even in the States known as " loyal," the assent to the provisions of the Fourteenth Amendment was slow and unwilling. Its whole tenor was so contrary to the free spirit of the original Constitution, that it was justly characterized as "revolu- tionary." Strife between Congress and the President, 1866. — Mr. Johnson was not intimidated by the opposition of Congress, but he became very much incensed at its proceedings. He was a man of violent temper and of little self-control. Du- ring the summer, he made a tour through the North and West accompanied by General Grant and several members of his Cabinet. During this tour, he made undignified and violent speeches, in which he denounced Congress as a body assuming to represent the whole Union, while it only repre- sented a part of it; and spoke of the Radical leaders as " Northern dis-unionists," mentioning Thaddeus Stevens, Charles Sumner, and Wendell Phillips by name. All this, of course, widened the breach between the two branches of the Government, and the strife between the President and Congress became constantly more bitter. Reconstruction Committee, 1866. — From the day that it was appointed, the Reconstruction Committee was busy making investigations and collecting such information as would appear to justify the most severe legislation against the Southern States. It summoned and questioned any one whose testimony might perhaps make the " disloyalty " of Johnson's Administration. 546 those States more apparent. General Lee and other Southern leaders were subjected to strict examination. It was not pos- sible that the Southern people, in the midst of all the ruin and desolation surrounding them, should love those who, not sat- isfied with seeing them defeated, were now endeavoring to subjugate and humiliate them; but they had accepted the issue of the war in good faith, and had no intention of vio- lating the paroles taken at the time when their armies sur- rendered. The declarations of such men as General Lee and General Grant on these points did not, however, change the determination of the Reconstruction Committee. In its first report, that committee declared that the Southern States had " forfeited all civil and political rights and privileges under the Constitution." Tennessee, which had always had a con- siderable Union population, was excepted from this proscrip- tion, and had been restored to the Union during the sum- mer, four days before the adjournment of Congress. South Divided Into Military Districts. — The fall elections increased the Republican strength of Congress, and it met in December more determined than ever to carry out its policy against the South, and force a ratification of the Fourteenth Amendment. The Reconstruction Act set aside the provisional governments instituted by the President as having no authority, and divided the South into five mili- tary districts to be governed by generals appointed by the President. These military governors were entrusted with almost absolute power, and were required to take steps for a reorganization of the State governments. Bills Passed, 1867. — This bill was vetoed by the President, as were several others — two of which were framed for the purpose of taking from him the powers conferred upon him by the Constitution. One forbade his removing any gov- ernment official without the consent of the Senate, and an- other placed such authority in the hands of the General of the Army as to make him superior to the President, although the latter is, in the Constitution, declared to be the Commander-in-chief of the Army, by virtue of his office. Congress passed, over the veto, all these and several other obnoxious and arbitrary measures; and then, to prevent the President from going contrary to their will, it decided to convene the new Congress on the 4th of March, imme- 35 546 History of the United States. diately at the close of the short session, instead of waiting until December, as was customary. The "Ironclad Oath." — Shortly after Congress met in March, it passed over the President's veto, a stricter and more prescriptive Reconstruction Act, defining the powers of the military governors and prescribing the modes by which new State governments were to be instituted in the South. A " test oath," so stringent as to be called the " ironclad oath," was to be exacted from every man over twenty-one years old. It affirmed that the person taking it had never borne arms against the United States, nor given any aid or encouragement to those who had done so, and had yielded no voluntary allegiance to any authority hostile to the Union. All males above twenty-one who took this oath might vote; none others were allowed to do so. Not many whites in the South of any character and influence could truthfully subscribe to this " test," and the elections for State conventions and legislatures passed at once into the hands of the negroes and the soldiers in the Federal garri- sons stationed in many parts of the South. Carpet-Baggers and Scalawags. — As soon as this Act be- came a law, a crowd of lawless unprincipled adventurers from the North swarmed down into the Southern States for the purpose of plunder and self-aggrandizement. Upon these, the epithet " carpet-bagger " was at once bestowed, and that of "scalawag" upon the native whites who en- tered into friendship and alliance with them. Pretending great love and sympathy for the negroes, the " carpet-bag- gers " soon worked themselves into the most important and best paying places in the " Reconstructed " Southern States. Some of these men were low camp followers — the dregs of the Federal Army; some were fugitives from Northern jus- tice; few were of character which would shrink from any oppression or dishonesty by which the}^ could enrich them- selves. Power of the Military Governors. — Bad as they were, they gained ascendency over the ignorant, inexperienced, credu- lous negroes by flattery and cajolement, and got themselves elected to all the best offices; while the Radical Congress backed them up as the best tools to harry and insult the hated white Southerners. The years, during which they Johnson's Administration. 547 held sway, were a period of misrule and mismanagement almost beyond belief. For a time, there seemed no hope of redress. The "carpet-baggers" were to be found every- where. They had themselves elected governors of States, mayors of towns, judges of the courts. AUTHORITIES.— Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Science; Elections, Impeachments, Reconstruction, Ku Klux, Carpet-bag Governments, &c. ; McPherson's History of Re- construction ; Memoirs of Charles Sumner; Thurlow Weed's Autobiography; Seward's Autobiography ; S. S. Cox's Three Decades, Union, Disunion, Reunion ; Memoir of Jef- ferson Davis by his widow; Bishop Wilmer's Recent Past from a Southern Standpoint; Memoir of General Pendleton; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Newspapers of the Period. QUESTIONS. — 1. What was the condition of the countrj^ especially at the South, after the vpar? 2. What spirit did the Southern soldiers show ? 3. What position did General Lee take ? 4. What opinion was held by Mr. Lincoln and President Johnson as to the seceded States ? 5. "Wliat stand did the President now take ? 6. What was his amnesty proclamation ? 7. Tell of the Thirteenth Amendment. 8. Of the laws to regulate labor in the South. 9. How were the Southern members of Congress treated ? 10. What difference arose between the President and Congress ? 11. Tell of the " Freed- men's Bureau." 12. Of the bills passed over the President's veto. 13. What was the Fourteenth Amendment? 14. How was it received? 15. Tell of the President's tour and speeches in 186G. 16. Describe the work of the Recon- struction Committee. 17. What sort of powei' was set up in the South? 18. What bills were passed in 1867? 19. What was the "ironclad oath"? 20. Who were the carpet-baggens and scalawags? 21. Tell of the power of the military governors. CHAPTER LXXXV. JOHNSON'S ADMINISTRATION, CONTINUED.— GEANT'S AD- MINIS TRA TION. Impeachment of the President, 1868. — The hostility be- tween the President and Congress came to a crisis in Feb- ruary, 1868, when Congress, incited to such a step mainly by the influence of Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, im- peached Mr. Johnson for " high crimes and misdemeanors." Only the House of Representatives has power to impeach; only the Senate to try an impeached person. On February 25th, Mr. Thaddeus Stevens and Mr. John A. Bingham ap- peared at the bar of the Senate, and in the name of the House, impeached the President, and demanded that the Senate should try the case. The charges against Mr. Johnson 548 History of the United States. were that he had removed Secretary Stanton ; had issued orders directly to General Emory; and had attacked and abused Congress in his public speeches. As we read them now, these charges seem frivolous. Although Mr. Johnson's acts and words had been passonate and undignified, unworthy of the high position he held, there was nothing in them which was unconstitutional or which merited so strong measures as trial and removal from office. His Acquittal. — The trial was begun on the 5th of March. On May 16th, the case was brought to a vote. Of the fifty- four Senators, thirty-five voted for conviction, nineteen for acquittal. The two-thirds necessary for conviction could not be mustered against the President. The Chief Justice entered judgment of acquittal, and the Court dissolved. Secretary Stanton resigned, and Mr. Johnson won the fight, though he had never ceased his passionate denunciations of Congress. Re-Admission of States, 1868. — By the end of June, the Reconstructed governments had been completed in Arkansas, the Carolinas, Florida, Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana. Made up as they were of negroes, carpet-baggers and Fede- ral officers, there was little difficulty in getting the mongrel legislatures to ratify the Fourteenth Amendment, which W' as proclaimed a law on July 28th. The constitutions adopted by the States above named having been approved by Con- gress, they were re-admitted to representation in that body. Virginia, Mississippi, and Texas would not accept the con- stitutions which Reconstructing conventions prepared for them, and were held under military governors for several years longer. Election of General Grant. — In 1868, General Grant, the Republican candidate, was elected President over Horatio Seymour, the Democratic candidate. The newly admitted Southern States were in possession of negro voters led like sheep by Republican emissaries, and so the electoral col- lege gave a majority for Grant of 134, although the votes for Seymour among the 6,000,000 voters who took part in the election, were only some 300,000 less than those cast for General Grant. Fifteenth Amendment. — Before the new President was in- augurated in the next spring, 1869, Congress prepared the Johnson's Administration. 549 Fifteenth Amendment which conferred tlie right of suf- rage on the negroes, and gave Congress power to enforce it. This amendment was ratified by the requisite number of States, and became a law in the following year. Its acceptance, as well as that of the Fourteenth, was made a necessary condition for the admission of the three Southern States still left out of the Union. During the next year, these States, also, under the strong hand of military rule, were declared to be " reconstructed," and were once more counted among the States represented in Congress. Oppression of the Reconstructed Governments. — The States might nominally be represented there, the people certainly were not. The military power had been oppressive and dicta- torial. Some of the generals who ruled in the five districts had been, it is true, more prudent and more considerate of the white population, than others, and discharged their respon- sibilities in a more conscientious and humane spirit; but the government had never professed to be anything but military. There had been nowhere any pretence of freedom; no mockery of a representative government like this under Reconstruc- tion, which ignored the whole of the intelligent white popu- lation, while oppressing and robbing them without mercy. Under this Reconstruction policy, the Southern States be- came, to use the language of one of the strongest Northern writers, "a political hell." Offices Filled by Carpet-baggers and Negroes. — In South Carolina, the governor, lieutenant-governor and all the State officers were carpet-baggers or negroes. In other States, officers of the army which had laid them desolate shared the government with negroes and with other North- ern adventurers. Many of the negroes in the legislatures, in the courts of justice, and in the magistrate's chair could neither read nor write, and were unable to understand any of the important questions of the troublous times. Govern- ment administered by such irresponsible hands, became every day more unjust and corrupt. The first object of the unprincipled whites who moulded to their will the ignorant negroes elated at their fancied equality with white officials, was to enrich themselves; and, for this object, they used all base devices. Taxes were imposed on the impoverished States far heavier than the most prosperous times would 550 History of the United States. warrant, and these taxes had to be paid by the white popu- lation which was allowed no part in the government. Railroads and other schemes were chartered, which paid enor- mous bribes to the State officials "putting them through." Private citizens and corporations were fleeced without mercy. In South Carolina, the debt of the State was in- creased under this iniquitous rule from $5,000,000 at the close of the war to $30,000,000 in the next ten years. A similar condition of things prevailed elsewhere. Missis- sippi and Louisiana, especially, suffered as deeply as South Carolina. Evils Increased by Freedmen's Bureau.— The hard lot of the intelligent, cultivated white population who saw the States they loved so well thus ruined and degraded, was in- creased by the officious interference of the Freedmen's Bureau into all departments of social and domestic life. Any story, carried by an idle, vindictive negro, of real or im- aginary wrong done by a white employer, was eagerl}'^ heard by some Bureau official, from whom the party accused was certain to receive some offensive reproof or admonition, while the negroes were encouraged in idleness and insubor- dination. One of the exhibitions of independence in which the colored people most delighted, was to take possession of the whole sidewalk in the towns and force the whites into the gutters or the mud. To avoid unpleasant collisions, white women and children, and the more peaceable among the men stepped aside into the mud or dust, and quietly passed by. If, as sometimes happened, a white man as- serted his right to a part of the pavement, and thereby jostled against the negroes, he was liable to be summoned to answer a charge of " assault" before the Bureau officer. The Loyal Leagues. — One way in which these crafty white leaders influenced the colored people for evil, was by the introduction among them of secret societies known as "Loyal Leagues," or "Lincoln Leagues." These leagues seem to have been partly religious and partly political. The members were bound by solemn oaths to carry out the ob- jects of the society, which were intended to strengthen the Northern adventurers, and to work all the harm possible to the Southern whites. Their meetings were held at night, when violent harangues incited the negroes to manifestations Johnson's AdTninistration. 551 of hostility, and under their influence outrages were com- mitted too horrible to be described. The Freedmen's Bu- reau greatly encouraged these pernicious leagues. Patient Submission Impossible. — It was impossible for a high-spirited, courageous people to submit patiently to such a course of outrages and indignities from the negroes, whom they knew to be wholly unfit for governing, and from white men, often below the negroes in a moral point of view. The Southern whites were pledged, however, to refrain from a resort to arms, and had to devise some other means to lighten the yoke which became daily more galling. Secret Societies for Protection. — As has frequently hap- pened under oppressive and iniquitous government, where open resistance was impossible, recourse was had to secret organizations. These were, at first, entirely local, and were intended only for self-protection against the barn-burnings and worse outrages which were perpetrated by the negroes. In different places they were known by different names, as " The Pale Faces," "The Invisible Empire," '' Knights of the White Camellia," and other fantastic epithets. In the be- ginning, the best men of the South seem to have taken part in these societies. They wrought upon the fears and superstitions of the negroes, by appearing suddenly at night, with masked faces and flowing white robes, and sometimes giving, in sepulchral tones, startling accounts of themselves as ghosts and evil spirits, and threatening terrible penalties upon all who resisted their will. " Ku Klux Klan." — The different societies were after a while known by the one name of the " Ku Klux Klan," which became quite powerful and influential; though there does not appear to have been any general and widespread organization. The methods resorted to for intimidating the " Loyal Leagues," and protecting white women and defence- less families, had proved so efficacious, that they were now employed for political purposes. The enormous negro ma- jorities in the Southern States were seen to be the potent weapon of all the misrule and dishonesty everywhere preva- lent, and the " Ku Klux" devoted its efforts to keep the ne- groes from voting. Sometimes severe whippings were ad- ministered to negroes and to Northern whites who encouraged others to deeds of violence against the already harassed and 552 History oj the United States. exasperated Southerners. Outrages and indignities, perpe- trated by negroes under the influence of the Leagues, were paid back by the Ku Klux. Often, no doubt, private vengeance, severely executed, was unjustly imputed to that mysterious body. The best men at the South did not ap- prove these extreme measures, but the control of the Klans passed out of their hands into those of more hot-headed and unscrupulous leaders. Oppression and Tyranny. — The Democratic party at the North which had cast so large a vote for Seymour, was en- tirely opposed to the tyranny and oppression practiced at the South, but it was powerless to prevent it. The Republi- cans had the power, and were determined to keep it; and the surest way to do so was to maintain its supremacy in the Southern States, no matter how corrupt its agents and the modes they employed might be. Whenever the white men in any part of the South became too strong to be con- trolled by the negroes and carpet-baggers, loud complaints were made to the government in Washington, and United States troops were sent to assist the Reconstruction govern- ors in their despotic rule. This added another element of strife and confusion to the already distracted and down- trodden South. It is impossible to give you a clear idea of the condition of affairs where all was turmoil and agitation. The history of the South from 1865 to 1876 is a history of military oppression and civil tyranny. Affairs in Louisiana. — In Louisiana, South Carolina, Mis- sissippi, and Arkansas, there was, if possible, more misrule and more exercise of despotic power than in the other States. As early as the summer of 1866, there had been bloody riots in Louisiana between the partisans of the pro- visional governor recognized by Mr. Lincoln, and the one appointed by Mr. Johnson. General Sheridan, the military governor who superseded both contending parties, proved so arbitrary that he was ordered elsewhere. The Republi- can rule was so oppressive that most of the whites and a number of the negro voters favored Mr. Seymour's election in 1868, and there were large Democratic majorities. But the party in power would not yield, and bloody riots oc- curred all over the State. In New Orleans, colored Demo- crats were mobbed and one of their orators murdered in the Johnson's Administration. 553 street. At last the Republicans began quarrelling among themselves, especially over the offices. Twice, two different governors claimed to be elected. In one of these contests, in 1870, General Grant recognized a negro, one Pinchbeck, as governor. In another contest, between the Republicans and Democrats, when there were two returning boards, two governors, and two legislatures, each claiming to be the lawful one, the President allowed the Democratic legislature to assemble, and declared Kellogg, the Republican, the lawful governor. The best of the negroes co-operated with the white residents in resisting Kellogg's authority. Again there were riots and bloodshed in different places. The people in New Orleans rose up and deposed Kellogg. United States troops were sent to uphold him, and military rule was re-established. Whoever exercised the governing power, the plundering and impoverishment of the State went on without mercy. The confiscation of property was immense and widespread, and all the profits went to enrich the carpet-baggers. The government officials stole unblush- ingly. Warmouth, the Republican governor before Kellogg, a Northerner who came into the State a very pooi man, amassed a large fortune while in office. The Force Bill. — The indignation and opposition to the whole system of proscription and robbery, became so strong in Louisiana and the other oppressed and plundered States, that, whenever the troops were withdrawn, the whites gained the upper hand ; and, in conjunction with some of the negroes, who were partly frightened and partly persuaded to side with them, they showed their States to be in favor of the Demo- crats. This, the Republican Congress had no mind to allow, and in 1871, a Force Bill was passed which gave control of all Federal elections to United States' officials and soldiers. The Returning Boards established by the corrupt legisla- tures to count and decide the votes, and the protection granted to them under this bill, made nearly all the election difficulties and contests to which we have alluded. These measures held the people of the South in thralldom a few years longer; but such tyranny could not maintain itself for- ever. When Mississippi, in 1875, cast a strong Democratic vote, Revels, the negro Senator from the State, wrote to Gen- eral Grant, " My people as they grow older grow wiser. They 654 History of the United States. have learned that they were being used as tools, and cast their ballots against unprincipled adventurers to overthrow them." Effects of Reconstruction Rule. — I have not told you half that might be written of the horrors and iniquities of the " Re- construction Period." Except in loss of life, the South suf- fered far more than during the four years of actual war. The evil consequences to the whole Union of the lawless ex- ercise of despotic power, the disregard of moral obligations, and the greed for wealth which trampled upon all honor and honesty, have been long and lasting. Little by little, after years of mingled endurance and resistance, oppression and plundering fell into disgrace in the South. Slowly and grudgingly. Congress doled out amnesty to the proscribed Southerners, and the States gathered up the reins of self-gov- ernment into their own hands. Native patriots once more filled the stations for which their abilities and experience fitted them, and the long reign of terror and proscription came to an end. The last act of the Reconstruction gov- ernments belongs to the story of a later period. AUTHORITIES. — Lalor's Cyclopedia of Political Science; Elections. Impeachments, Reconstruction, Ku Klux, Carpet-bag Governments, &c. ; McPherson's History of Recon- struction; Memoirs of Cliarles Sumner; Tliurlow Weed's Autobiography; Seward's Autobiography; S. S. Cox's Three Decades, Union, Disunion, Reunion; Memoirs of JeSerson Davis by liis widow; Bishop Wilmer's Recent Past from a Southern Stand- point ; Memoir of General Pendleton; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Newspapers of the Period ; Curry's Southern States. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the impeachment of President Johnson. 2. Of his acquittal. 3. What States were re-admitted to the Union in 1868? 4. Which three States were still able to resist the Reconstruction rule ? 5. Who was elected President in 1868 ? <3. What is the Fifteenth Amendment to the Constitution ? 7. Tell of the oppression of the South. 8. Who filled all the State offices, and how were they elected? 9. Tell of the evils of the " Freed- men's Bureau." 10. What were the Loyal Leagues? 11. Was patient sub- mission possible? 12. What did the white men organize? 18. Tell of the " Ku Klux Klan,"and of its measures, and its subsequent abuse. 14. What is the story of the South from 1865 to 1876 ? 15. Tell of affairs in Louisi- ana, of the two governments there, and of the robbery and abuse of power. 16. What was the Force Bill? 17. Were its results all that the Republicans desired ? 18. What were the effects of Reconstruction rule ? CHAPTER LXXXVI. GRANT' 8 ADMINISTRATION. Atlantic Telegraph, 1866. — In giving you the story of Re- construction, I have passed over a period of ten years, and we must now go back and take up the account of the pro- gress of other events in the United States during that time. Two notable occurrences, during Andrew Johnson's term as President, were the laying of a new Atlantic telegraph line and the purchase of Alaska from the Russians. The first telegraph line laid in 1858 had. become useless after trans- mitting several messages. For eight years longer Mr. Cyrus W. Field labored to have a new one constructed; and at last, after spending $6,000,000 on it, he saw his efforts crowned with success in 1866 and the sub-marine cable in operation. There are now five of these ocean lines between us and Europe, and one to Brazil. Purchase of Alaska, 1867. — In 1867, the Russian territory in America, now known as Alaska, was bought by the United States for a little over $7,000,000. It is a vast region, lying far north, but its climate is tempered by the warm Pacific Current, somewhat as that of Great Britain is by the Gulf Stream, and it has great tracts of fine cedar and pine tim- ber, valuable fisheries, and furs — especially seal skins, — and important minerals, among which gold is said to be found in considerable quantities. Execution of Maximilian, 1867. — In this same year, the attempt to place a European sovereign on the throne of Mexico, already mentioned^ culminated in the capture and execution of the unfortunate Emperor Maximilian at Que- retaro. The United States had, from the first, protested against the effort made by Napoleon III. of France to estab- lish a monarchy so near her republican boundaries. As soon as the civil war was ended, United States troops were sent out to the Mexican frontier. Napoleon withdrew the French force which alone maintained Maximilian in his authority, and his overthrow and destruction soon followed. Chinese Embassy, 1868. — In 1868, China sent to the United States the first embassy she had ever commissioned to any [ 555] 656 History of the United States. foi'eign nation. Since that time friendly relations have been kept up between the two governments, although the United States has felt it necessary to restrict the continuous immi- gration of Chinese into this country. Completion of First Pacific Railroad, 1869. — The same year in which General Grant w^as inaugurated, w^itnessed the completion of the first Pacific Railroad which connected the eastern and western shores of the United States. Four other great railroads now cross the continent, and the journey is made in fewer days than it formerly took months; so that the quickest route from England to China is across North America. Price of Gold, 1869.— The immense amount of paper money issued during the w^ar had made it decline in value. At one time it took 286 cents in " greenbacks " — United States paper money — to buy 100 cents in gold. By 1869, greenbacks had risen in value so that a gold dollar was worth only 130 cents in paper. Some bankers in New York determined to make gold go up in such a w^ay as to reap a great fortune for themselves. All foreign trade has to be carried on in gold, so that merchants and bankers are obliged to have it at almost any price. There were $15,000,000 in the New York banks and $100,000,000 in the United States Treasury in Washington. Fiske and Gould, two men of great shrewdness and large fortune, quietly be- gan buying gold in New York, constantly paying a little more and asking a still higher price for it, and determined that they would raise the value of one gold dollar to tw^o paper dollars. " Black Friday " in Wall Street, 1869.— On the morning of September 24th there was the greatest excitement ever known in the Gold-room on Wall Street, New York. The conspirators held nearly all the gold in the market, and would let no one have it except at such a price as was ruin- ous to the purchasers. Just as they and their colleagues seemed to hold the business of the nation paralyzed in their grasp, a telegram from Washington announced that the Secretary of the Treasury offered $4,000,000 in gold for sale. In a second the price began to fall, and in twenty minutes went down twenty per cent. There w^as a great panic. It is said that some men were crushed to death in the rush Granfs Administration. 557 and pressure to bid for the gold at the falling prices, and that others died from the shock of losing where they expected to make enormous gains. The principal actors in specula- tion pocketed $11,000,000, before their game was checked. The business of the country was injured for months by the evil doings on that "Black Friday," as the day was called. Internal Revenue.— The year 1870 saw Virginia, Missis- sippi, and Texas reconstructed, and the next year their so- called representatives were admitted to Congress. The cen- sus of this year showed that, notwithstanding the ravages of war, the population of the country had increased in ten years from 31,000,000 to 38,000,000 and the wealth of the nation in almost as large a proportion. The enormous war debt was being lessened, principally by a system of taxation upon everything produced in the country, which was known as " Internal Revenue." As the South, with its crops of cotton, tobacco, sugar, and rice, was still a great agricultural sec- tion, this system added to the burdens of her already over- taxed people. Death of General Robert E. Lee, 1870.— On October 12, 1870, General Robert E. Lee died at his home in Lexington, Virginia, where, as President of Washington College, he had devoted himself to training and influencing for good the young men of the South. His death was sincerely mourned by friend and foe, and his memory is cherished as one of the noblest and purest of Christian patriots. Settlement of the Alabama Claims. — The United States had, as we have seen, taken great offence against England on account of a few vessels procured in her ports for service under the Confederate flag; and in 1871, the injury done by the Alabama especially to American commerce, was made a ground of complaint, and large claims were made for the payment of such damage. After much agitation of the question, Great Britain agreed to pay the United States $15,500,000 for the injuries done by Confederate cruisers, while the United States had to pay $5,500,000 for the privi- lege of fishing in Canadian waters. Great Fires in 1871 and 1872.— The year 1871 and the next were saddened by disastrous conflagrations. A great fire in Chicago, kindled, it was said, by a lamp which a cow kicked over in a shed partly filled with straw, burned for 558 History of the United States. days and consumed $200,000,000 worth of property. Forest fires in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota caused immense destruction of timber and great loss of life. In 1872, a fire in Boston caused a loss of $80,000,000. " Rings " in the Large Cities. — In New York City, it was found that " Boss " Tweed, a commissioner of public works, in connection with other city officers, had gotten up what was known as a " Ring," which had contrived to rob the city of millions of dollars. The ring was at last broken up, and Tweed died in jail. Similar corruptions were found to exist in other large cities; and before long, the evil lesson learned by fraudulent Government contracts during the war, and in the school of Southern Reconstruction, that there were easier ways of making money than by honest industry, affected the National Government itself. Credit Mobilier. — Two Pacific railways, the Central and the Union, had been built by the aid of enormous grants from the Government. A corporation, known as the " Credit Mobilier," had been chartered in Pennsylvania to build the Union Pacific Road. Members of Congress were believed to have received bribes from this corporation. Among these were the Vice-President and his successor; the Secretary of the Treasury; the Speaker of the House of Representatives; and other prominent and influential men. Although only two of these were actually proven guilty, the others were never cleared of suspicion; and as this very Congress passed what was known as the " Salary Grab Act," which gave to each of the members increased pay for their past as well as their present term of office, it may justly be considered as a dishonest and dishonored body. Congress in the next ses- sion repealed the " Grab Act." Financial Crash of 1873. — The discovery of the Credit Mobilier operations was instrumental in bringing on one of the worst money panics which has ever affected the country. The Northern Pacific Railroad was being made. Its busi- ness was in the hands of a great bank in Philadelphia. This house was considered to be enormously rich, and ad- vanced money for making the road, expecting to be sus- tained and repaid by assistance and grants from Congress. The exposure of the Credit Mobilier had such an effect upon the public mind, that Congress did not dare to vote money Grant's Administration. 559 to any railroad. Jay Cooke's bank found the bonds of the road, which were its securities, unsalable. It could get no more money and failed for $15,000,000, carrying down in its fall a number of smaller banks and business houses. A great financial crash followed. Other railroad companies failed, and their stockholders lost everything. There were distress and "hard times" everywhere, which bore more heavily on the poorer working people than any others. Business was paralyzed, and it was several years before con- fidence was restored and trade and work became at all pros- perous. Re-election of Grant, 1872. — General Grant was re-elected in the fall of 1872 for another term. His opponent, Horace Greeley of New York, who ran as a " Liberal Republican," could not be heartily endorsed by the Democrats who had no candidate of their own, and consequently suffered a large defeat. During Grant's second term, the corruption of gov- ernment officers was more marked than ever. A spirit of wild speculation took possession of the moneyed classes which was doubtless the result, in large measure, of the upheaval of law and justice caused by the war and the Re- construction period. Whiskey Frauds. — One of the most productive articles of internal revenue was whiskey. Great quantities were manu- factured in diff'erent parts of the country, and it was dis- covered that United States' officials had combined with dis- tillers of whiskey in the West to defraud the Government of very large sums of money~$l,200,000 in a few months. Even the President's Cabinet was infected with dishonesty. General Belknap, the Secretary of War, was impeached by Congress for taking bribes and selling the patronage of his office. His guilt was very manifest, but he was permitted to resign and thereby escaped paying its penalty. Civil Service Reform, 1871 — Weather Bureau. — The eight years of General Grant's administration were not all given up to the evils of Reconstruction at the South and demor- alization in the North. A desire to improve the public ser- vice, induced Congress in 1871 to give the President power to establish a Commission to regulate admission to what is known as the "civil service." The object of this move was to give offices only to persons fit for them, and not to make 560 History of the United States. them prizes for successful politicians. The first Commis- sion was only supported by Congress until 1874; but it has since been re-established, and its rules and examinations now regulate the bestowal of most of the Federal offices. The Weather Bureau was also established in 1872. The Modoc War, 1873.— General Grant, who had lived in the West and knew a good deal about the Indians, was de- sirous to civilize them and induce them to live peaceably with the whites. To effect this, he put the control of Indian affairs principally in the hands of the Quakers or "Friends," hoping that their influence might persuade the Red Men to THE CAPITOL (AVEST FEONT). give up their wild life and become farmers and cattle raisers. This humane policy could not induce the Modoc Indians to abandon their lands in Oregon and remove quietly to the Indian Territory. They refused to go, and defied the United States troops to compel them. Their leader, " Captain Jack," hated the whites, because his father had been killed by the order of an army officer while under a flag of truce. To avoid needless bloodshed, a truce with the Modocs was agreed upon, and General Canby and other commissioners met them in council. The Indians could not resist such an opportunity to avenge their wrongs. General Canby and a clergyman with him, were murdered in the council, and an- other commissioner was wounded. In the fierce war which fol- Grant's Administration. 561 lowed, the Modocs were at last forced to surrender their whole band, and their chiefs were court-martialed and executed. The Sioux War, 1876. — Another bloody struggle took place three years later. The Sioux Indians, instead of re- maining peaceably on their reservation in Dakota, roved into Montana and Wyoming, committing robberies and murders among the white settlers. A force was sent to subdue them. General Custer, commanding a body of cavalry, in- creased the exasperation of the Indians by burning their towns and inflicting punishment upon their women and children. On June 2oth, while scouting near the Big Horn River, the cavalry suddenly encountered the Indians in large force. In the battle which ensued, General Custer and all his men w^ere killed. For months after this, the war raged murderously. The Indians were defeated again and again, and, at last, the remnant of them took refuge in Canada to avoid extermination. Centennial Exposition, 1876. — This was the Centennial year of the Republic, and it was resolved to celebrate it by a Great International Exposition to be held in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. More than two hundred buildings were erected — several of them entirely of iron and glass — in which there was a grand display of the products of the whole world, and an exhibit of many of the finest speci- mens of manufactures and arts. Millions of people from abroad and from all parts of the United States visited the Exposition, and learned for the first time to appreciate the resources and wealth of the Republic. Electric lights and telephones, now so common, were first exhibited at this Exposition. Colorado Admitted to the Union, 1876. — Colorado is called the " Centennial State," because she was admitted to the Union in this year. The building of the Pacific Rail- roads, by making transportation easy, had greatly contri- buted to settling the wide region between the old States and the Sierra Nevada. At the close of the war, thousands of men returned home to find their former places filled and their work done by others. Soldiering had given them un- settled habits and they moved in crowds to the newly opened western Territories, out of which new States were soon organized. Nebraska had been the first of these, in 36 662 History of the United States. 1867; Colorado, the thirty-eighth State, the second. West Virginia and Nevada had been admitted during the war. Tilden and Hayes, 1876.— In the fall of the Centennial year, another presidential election took place. Rutherford B. Hayes of Ohio became the Republican candidate, Samuel J. Tilden of New York, the Democratic candidate. The evils of the long continued Republican rule had greatly strengthened their opponents, and a large majority of the popular vote was known to be in Tilden's favor, but, to se- cure election, there must also be a majority in the Electoral College. The whole number of electors was 369, and 185 votes were necessary for the success of either candidate. Both sides claimed the victory, but Tilden had 184 of the electoral votes undisputed. Twenty others were disputed. " Joint Rule." — In its determination to control the South, Congress had, in 1865, passed a " Joint Rule," that any vote for President to which objection was offered should be thrown out of the count, unless both houses of Congress concurred in accepting it. Under this rule, all the votes of Louisiana and Arkansas, with three in Georgia — all of them in favor of Greeley against Grant — had been rejected in 1873. In June, 1876, this " Joint Rule " was repealed by the House of Representatives, which had become largely Democratic by the change of public opinion throughout the country. The Senate, however, had still a considerable Republican majority. Neither house would concur with the other in accepting votes contrary to their political preferences. Two Governments in Louisiana and South Carolina. — There were, at this time, two governors, each claiming to be the law- ful one, in Louisiana and in South Carolina; and both these States sent two sets of electors, one certified by the return- ing boards and the usurping Republican governors, and another certified by the lawfully elected Democratic gover- nors. From Florida, also, there were two sets of presidential electors, one endorsed by the Republican governor, and the other by a Democratic member of the returning board and the Democratic governor elect. On examiningthe cases, it was found that in South Carolina, part of which was by General Grant declared to be under martial law, there had been so much interference by the United States soldiers at the polls, that no legal vote had been possible. Whatever right there was, was plainly on the Democratic side. Grant's Administration. 5g3 Electoral Votes Dispnted.-In Louisiana, the returning board appointed by tl,e illegal legislature, had no Democrati? member, and had thrown out over 12,000 Democratic vote^ in the strong Democratic districts. To maTe this annenr plausible, tliey Iiad also thrown out 2,000 Repub lican ^o^te' but not enough to injure the false majority they had thus manufactured for their party. In Florida, thereVas inter ferenee at the polls, as in South Carolina, ;nd throwing out of lawful votes as in Louisiana. In Orcffon too thJtT a difficulty. Republican electors had thfm'a or°'ty'but T UntT^rf ""'ffl '''■■'t^ ^^ '"^"g'"^ because he held a United States office The governor, therefore, gave certifi- cates to wo Republicans, and the third to the Democrat lTAjf""\f-^''' number of votes. As Tilden had aTready 184 votes, this one from Oregon would have elected him without any from the disputed ^Southern Statls. Electoral Oommission.-To decide between the contending parties without the long and fierce debate which would per haps arise over them in Congress, that body appointed wS was known as the "Electoral Commission,'^compo7ed of fit teen members-five from the Senate, five fronAhe House of Representatives, and five Judges of the Supreme Court The Senate chose two Democrats and three Republicans the House two Republicans and three Democrats. FourTudws were then appointed, two belonging to each partv ThS ;:cTed tlTT"" '"T "'^^ "^' - ^'-'- '-- ™ - pected Judge Davis, who was a non-party man, matters fTom ™™-^°"';"'^''^''""j- ^"' ^^^'^ waLleeted "nato from Illinois and resigned the judgeship The onlv two Democratic Judges were already ^n tLco'mmi^sion Jifdth: fifth one chosen. Judge Bradley, was necessarily a Republi! Election of Hayes— When the Commission assembled the ablest lawyers in the land were employed on both sides' but Its decision was determined by the strict party voteof eigh^ Republicans to seven Democrats. The evidence! brought for ward by Judge Black of Pennsylvania, and Mr.- Charles O'Con- nor of New York, of fraud and the suppression of Demo- cratic votes in South Carolina, Louisiana, and Florida an- pears to be unanswerable. It was shown plainly, that' the Democratic majority was large in those States. To avoid 564 History of the United States. being influenced by this, the liepublican majority of the Commission decided that they would not go behind the cer- tificates signed by the Republican governors, and that all evidence of fraud in obtaining these certificates was aliunde, or outside the question. This, of course, gave South Caro- lina, Florida, and Louisiana to Hayes, although their people were strongly in favor of Tilden. The latter needed, as I have told you, only one vote to assure his election, and the Oregon Democratic certificate signed by the governor gave him that one. But here the majority of the Commission changed its ground. Only facts in favor of the Democrats were aliunde. It admitted evidence that the Republican thrown out by the governor of Oregon had resigned his United States office, declared him eligible in spite of the gov- ernor's certificate, and counted 185 votes for Hayes. AUTHORITIES.— Grant's Personal Memoirs; Fiske'S History of the United States; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Contemporary Peri- odicals and Newspapers; T. N. Page's Old South; Curry's Southern States. QUESTIONS.— 1. When was the second Atlantic Telegraph laid ? 2. Tell of the purchase of Alaska. 3. The story of Maximilian in Mexico. 4. Friendly relations with China. 5. Tell of the Pacific railroads. 6. Tell of the price of gold and of "Black Friday." 7. What is Internal Revenue? 8. Tell of the death of General Lee. 9. How were the Alabama claims settled? 10. What great fires occurred in 1871 and 1873 ? 11. Tell of the " Rings" in the large cities. 12. Of the Credit Mobilier. 13. Of the financial crash of 1873. 14. Who was elected President in 1872? 15. Tell of the whiskey frauds. 16. Of the Civil Service Reform, and the Weather Bureau. 17. Re- late the Modoc War. 18. The Sioux War. 19. Describe Centennial Exposi- tion of 1876. 20. What was it intended to celebrate? 21. When was Colo- rado admitted to the Union ? 22. Nebraska ? 23. West Virginia and Nevada ? 34. Tell of the Presidential election in 1876. 25. What was the "Joint Rule " ? 26. Tell of the double elections in Louisiana and South Carolina. 27. Which votes were disputed ? 28. What was the Electoral Commission ? 29. What was the final result of the election ? 30. AVho became President in 1876? CHAPTER LXXXVII. HA YBS'8 ADMINI8TRA TION. The seventeen years since Mr. Hayes came into office, are too close to us to allow any real history of them; but a glance can be taken at the principal events of his and the succeeding administrations. Hayes's Administration. 565 The South After Hayes's Election. — Mr. Hayes, though made President by fraudulent votes from the South, proved a friend to that section of the Union. Shortly after his in- auguration, he ordered that all the United States troops should be removed from the Southern States. As soon as the soldiers were withdrawn, the carpet-bag rulers disap- peared. The Republican governors by whose certificates Mr. Hayes had been elected, quietly gave way to the Demo- crats who had claimed to be chosen by the people. The ease with which they took possession of the State Govern- ments, when once released from Federal interference, showed how just that claim had been. From that time to this, the South, under the guidance and control of her own sons, has moved steadily forward. She has presented a solid oppo- sition to the party which stands for all that was so oppres- sive and unfriendly to her in the dark days of Reconstruc- tion, and which has, in every political contest since that time, revived dead issues, and striven to awaken the hostility and rekindle the fires of sectional hatred — the process described as "Avaving the bloody shirt." Strife Between Labor and Capital. — The immense accumu- lation of wealth in the hands of a small number of indi- viduals or a few great corporations, bears hardly on people of smaller means, and especially upon those who labor for daily wages. To resist oppression from their employers, and to obtain for themselves a larger proportion of the money made by their work has been the aim of the employed; and the strife between capital and labor has occasioned danger- ous troubles and outbreaks in various parts of the United States. Railroad Strikes, 1877. — The first important exhibition of this spirit occurred in the summer of 1877, when the workmen on the great railroads in Maryland, Pennsylvania and New York became dissatisfied with their wages. The trouble began on the Baltimore and Ohio Road. It lowered its wages, and the train hands quit work and stopped the business of the road. The "strike" spread to other rail- roads, and then the miners in Pennsylvania joined in it. If the roads hired fresh hands to run their trains, the strikers burned the cars and depots. So high did their spirit of re- sistance rise, that the State militia and United States troops 566 History of the United States. RAILROAD STRIKE. had to be employed to put down the uprising. Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, was the scene of the greatest violence. There a mob of 20,000 men held control of the city for days. There was great destruction of property, and one hundred lives were lost. Chi- cago and St. Louis had similar though less violent riots. The Mississippi Jetties. — T h e deepening of the mouth of the Mississippi River was another im- portant event of Mr. Hayes's ad- ministration. The mud and sand brought down by the great river, year by year, were gradually filling up the mouths of the stream, and making the channels so shallow as to prevent large vessels from entering them. Much money and labor had been expended in vain eiTorts to prevent this. Captain Eads, of St, Louis, devised a plan by which the Mississippi could be compelled to clear out its own channel. He con- trived to build "jetties " at the mouth of the river so as to contract the space through which the water could pass to the Gulf. The current, thus partially damned up, pressed with great force through the narrow outlet left for it, and swept the sand and mud onward into the Gulf of Mexico, instead of depositing it on the bar. Now, large vessels can come up to New Orleans, and the commerce of that city is greatly increased. Resumption of Specie Payment, 1879. — On January 1, 1879, occurred the "resumption of specie payment": that is, the United States Treasury and the National Banks were then, for the first time since 1861, able to pay all the claims upon them in gold instead of " greenbacks." Before this resumption, the Government had been obliged to pay a very high rate for money borrowed to pay its debts; but, after it, the national credit was so much improved that money could be had at a low interest. Garfield Elected President. — The four years of Mr. Hayes's term were a period of peace and prosperity very welcome to the country after the turmoil which preceded them. Abun- dant harvests yielded a great quantity of grain for the Euro- Garfield's Administration. 667 pean markets. Immigrants flocked to our shores in larger numbers than ever, so that by the year 1880 the population of the country had risen to more than 50,000,000. In the fall elec- tion of this year, the Republicans nominated General James A. Gar- field and Chester A. Arthur, and the Democrats, General Winfield S. Hancock of the United States Army and William H. English, for President and Vice-President. Both Garfield and Hancock had been gen- erals during the war. Hancock had made a brilliant record. His swift- ness of march and promptness on the field had done much to secure the Federal victory at Gettysburg. As military governor of Louisiana after Sheridan's removal, he had shown himself just and humane, and opposed to the system of oppression and fraud in vogue at the South. General Garfield was, however, the choice of the stronger party, and became Presi- dent on March 4, 1881. Shot by Guiteau, 1881. — On July 2d, as he was about to leave Washington for a brief holiday, to attend the com- mencement at Williams College, where he had been a stu- dent, General Garfield was shot, in the railroad depot in Washington, by a disappointed officer-seeker, named Guiteau. For two months and a half the President lingered in great suff'ering, and died from the wound on September 19th, at Long Branch. Guiteau, who tried to prove himself insane, was rightly hanged. Immediately after General Garfield's death, Vice-President Arthur was sworn into office as Presi- dent. Garfield's murder called the attention of the country to the evils in the political system of bestowing offices, and a new Civil Service Act was passed by Congress, which still continues in force. Centennial Celebration at Yorktown, 1881. — This being the hundredth anniversary of the surrender of Cornwallis, a celebration was held at Yorktown, Virginia. There was a great assemblage of United States soldiers and war vessels. Representatiyes of France and Germany, and descendants 568 History of the United States. of the French and German officers who had been present in Washington's army, a hundred years before, came to join in doing honor to the occasion, and reviews on land and water took place during six successive days. Events of 1882 and 1883.— In 1882 and again in 1883, disastrous floods occurred in the Mississippi, Ohio, and other rivers which caused great destruction of property. In Louisiana especially, the overflow did immense injury to the cotton and sugar plantations, and food had to be sent by Congress to thousands of people thus rendered home- less and destitute. This ability to help others in distress, was one proof of the prosperity of the country. Another more lasting monument of it was the building in 1883 of the suspension bridge between Brooklyn and New York at a cost of $15,000,000. In this same year, the postage on letters to any part of the United States was reduced to two cents, as we now have it. Grover Cleveland's Election, 1884. — In the fall election of 1884, Grover Cleveland, the Democratic candidate, was chosen President by thirty-seven elec- toral majority over James G. Blaine, the Republican candidate. He was the first Democratic President since James Buchanan, a period of twenty- four years. The death of Mr. Hen- dricks, the A-'^ice-President, induced Congress to regulate the succession to the President's office. In case both he and the Vice-President should die, the Secretary of State is to become President, and then the other Secretaries in a regular order. Provision was also made for counting the electoral votes ac- cording to certain rules, so that an Electoral Commission shall not again be able to seat a candidate contrary to the will of the majority of the people. Labor Troubles. — The four years of Mr. Cleveland's ad- ministration were marked by some very important events. Most of these arose from the discontent of the working men with the conditions under which they found themselves. The year 1886 was especially noted for labor "strikes." Be- ginning with street-car drivers in New York they spread CLEVELAND. Cleveland's Administration. 569 through many parts of the country, and into almost all de- partments of labor. Railroad hands in the North and West became very active in this strike, and the moving of freight became a difficult matter, although passenger trains were seldom interfered with. In Chicago, the strike assumed a most alarming aspect. The northwestern States have a very large proportion of foreign immigrants among their popu- lation — some of them of most objectionable character — and these now exerted a baleful influence. In May, 40,000 men in Chicago quit work and marched through the streets, de- manding an increase of wages and a reduction of working time to eight hours a day. There were meetings in public squares and rioting in the streets. The mobs were addressed by leaders, who uttered the most threatening language, and urged their hearers to deeds of violence. Anarchists, 1886. — On May 4th, the city police endeavored to disperse the mob. The crowd attacked the police with dynamite bombs, killing six and wounding more than sixty. The rest of the police charged into the mob, and after kill- ing some and wounding others, captured a number of the ringleaders, and dispersed the rioters. The leaders, all but one, were foreigners. They avowed themselves to be "An- archists," or enemies to all government, which they believed should be destroyed, even by the use of murder and all sorts of violence. Four of them were hanged, as they deserved to be, and others imprisoned for life. Earthquake in Charleston, 1886. — In addition to these labor troubles, this year was memorable for a severe earth- quake in and around Charleston, South Carolina, which overthrew houses, and shook the city so severely as to threaten it with total destruction. Violent storms also raged in the northwest, and along the Gulf of Mexico. The years 1888 and 1889 were marked by destructive storms and cy- clones in which hundreds of people lost their lives. Election of Benjamin Harrison, 1888. — Benjamin Harri- son of Indiana, grandson of President Harrison of 1841, was elected over Grover Cleveland and inaugurated Presi- dent on March 4, 1889. This was the hundredth year since George Washington was inaugurated the first Pres- ident of the young Republic, and ceremonies commemo- rating that event took place in New York City. Later on in HARRISON. 570 History of the United States. the year, six new States, North and South Dakota, Montana and Washington, Wyoming and Idaho were admitted into the Union. The Territory of Oklahoma was also formed out of a part of the Indian Territory. The TarifiF and the Currency. — The main political questions of this and the previous administration were concerning the tariff and the currency. Both of these subjects are difficult of comprehen- „ sion. The Northern and Middle States ' ^^ desire a high tariff to protect their manu- facturing interests. The agricultural States are generally opposed to such protection, because it forces them to buy manufactured goods at high prices from their sister States, who do not give them corre- sponding payments for their raw ma'terials. The Silver bills, and other questions concerning finance are too perplexing and too much disputed for me to attempt to make them clear and interesting to you. They belong to another department of study. Second Election of Cleveland, 1892. — Grover Cleveland was elected President a second time, in 1892. Several new parties have arisen in the country — the " Populists," " Pro- hibitionists, '' &c., but they have not gained strength to con- tend with the Republicans and Democrats who still repre- sent most of the voters of the Republic. Columbian Exposition, 1893. — In 1893, the Great Colum- bian Exposition or World's Fair, was held in Chicago, to celebrate the four hundredth anniversary of Columbus's Dis- covery of America. It should rightly have taken place in 1892, but the preparations for it could not be completed in time. This error in the exact time was the only fault which could be found with this magnificent and complete exhibit of all that science and the arts had been able to accomplish. The architectural splendor of the immense buildings, the exceeding grace of the mythological and emblematic groups which adorned them; the admirable way in which the blue waters of Lake Michigan were made to enhance the wonder- ful beauty of the external display, were, if possible, more striking than the exhibits within the buildings. No one Cleveland's Second Administration. 571 who visited Jackson Park in 1893 will ever forget the beauty of the scene by day, or its splendor by night. Strike in Chicago. — Such a display, so well conducted, and the many millions of dollars expended upon it, would seem both a proof and a guarantee of the wealth and prosperity of the country. The city, likewise, which was chosen as the fittest place for such an exhibition, might well have been expected to show the same order and har- mony in its regulations and among its citizens as had pre- vailed throughout the eight months of the great Fair, among the millions of people who flocked to it from all parts of the globe. Unfortunately, in less than a year from the close of the Exposition, and even before all the foreign exhibits had been removed, there broke out in Chicago the most dis- astrous labor strike ever known in this country. Railroads Stopped. — Beginning with the employees of the Pullman Car Company, the strike extended to all branches of railroad business throughout the North and West. Trade was interrupted; the mails were stopped; no trains were allowed to run. If the railroad companies employed other hands, the strikers used violence and even resorted to murder to prevent the work from going on. A wholesale destruction of property went on for days. It was only the resolute au- thority exercised by President Cleveland in sending United States soldiers to the scene of the trouble that, at last, put an end to the strife. The amount of loss sustained has never been ascertained, but it reached many millions. One im- portant fact connected with this, as with the other great strikes, is that the South had no part in it. While soldiers had to be ordered to many points in the North and West, absolute peace and security prevailed throughout the law- abiding South. Her homogeneous people, with the same general interests, and with a just regard for their own rights and the rights of others, are to-day, as they have always been, singularly free from that spirit of discontent which is tlie bane of all governments, unless it resort to legitimate means to effect the redress of grievances, and to promote the general welfare. AUTHORITIES.— Grant's Personal Memoirs: Piske's History of the United States; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Contemporary Peri- odicals and Newspapers; T. N. Page's Old South; Curry's Southern States. 572 History of the United States. QUESTIONS.— 1. What did President Hayes do for the South? 2. Tejl of the strife between labor and capital. 3. Of the railroad strike. 4. Of the Mississippi jetties. 5. When did the Government resume the payment of its debts in gold? 6. Who was next elected President ? 7. Tell of his sad death. 8. When was the Yorktown celebration ? 9. What events of 1883 and 1883 are mentioned? 10. Who was elected President in 1884? 11. Describe the labor troubles of this administration, and tell about the anarchists. 12. What disasters happened in 1886? 13. Who:svas elected President in 1888 and what new States were admitted in 1889 ? 14. Tell what you can of the tariff and the currency. 15. Who was the next President? 16. What great Fair took place in 1893 ? 17. Tell of the great labor strikes of 1893 and 1894. CHAPTER LXXXVIII. PROGRESS SINCE 1850. Development of the Country. — We must not close this His- tory of our country without taking a comprehensive view of its development in material wealth, in art and literature, and in the many appliances unknown forty years ago, which have so much increased the comfort of living, and opened so many new employments, especially to women. We have not paused to do this since 1850, and we find great changes and improvements in many directions. Material develop- ment first claims attention. Great finds of gold in Colorado and Nevada in 1852 increased the quantity of the precious metal. Coal and iron mining, salt making, and manufac- tures also increased largely from 1850 to 1860. The Civil War put a stop to all progress south of the Potomac, and diverted Northern industries into those channels more par- ticularly adapted to the prosecution of the war. The pro- ducing of war materials, building of gunboats, manufac- turing of clothing, shoes, and all appliances required by the large Federal armies, supplied work and pay in abundance to Northern workmen and contractors from 1861 to 1865. Wonderful Recuperation of the South. — The close of the war found the Northern States and people prosperous and wealthy, while the South for ten years later became con- stantly more impoverished. The recovery of this crushed and devastated section, within twenty years, has been most remarkable. The recovery of France from the losses and reverses of the Franco-Prussian War in 1872 amazed the NEW INVENTIONS CONTRASTED WITH THE OLD. 1.— Old stage coach. 2. Interior of a drawing-room car. 3. The telephone. 4. The phono- graph. 5. The telegraph. 6. The first printing press. 7. Hoe perfecting press. 8. Bob-tail mule car. 9. Electric street car. 10. Harvesting with scythe and sickle. H. Combined reaper and blndet. Progress Since 1850. 573 world. The Southern States suffered far*more than France, and have recuperated still more wonderfully. The fortitude and patience with which they bore up under their manifold calamities, and the capacity they have shown for restoring their shattered fortunes and re-establishing their State gov- ernments, must command the respect even of those most hostile to them. Rid of the burden of caring for and sup- porting the negroes incapable of work during childhood, sickness, and old age, the southern whites were at liberty to devote the proceeds of their efforts to the building up of their fortunes, and developing the resources of their country. The results of their labors are the best evidence of their suc- cess. The attention of the whole Republic was first drawn to this Southern development by Industrial Exhibitions held at Louisville and Atlanta in 1881, but more especially by a great Exposition at New Orleans in 1884, where the display of Southern minerals, manufactures, and agricultural pro- ducts astonished the crowds of visitors. Population and Industry. — The population of the South has increased from 9 to 40 per cent, between 1880 and 1890, and cities and towns have sprung up like magic. In 1890, almost as much iron was produced in the South as in the whole United States in 1870, and more than twice as much bituminous coal was mined as all the States produced in 1860. Three-fourths of the cotton used in the world is grown in the Southern States, where mills for manufactur- ing it are gradually but constantly increasing in number. The timber resources of the section challenge admiration for their vastness and variety, more than half the merchant- able timbers in the Union being now in the southern forests. The railroads of the South have nearly doubled: and the assessed property has increased $342,193,583 in ten years. Much of this increase is due to the fact that, not confining their industry to the greater crops and wide plantations, the people have wisely turned their attention to smaller things, and have gone to raising fruits, vegetables, flowers, and live stock for the city markets. Railroads. — The principal factors which have promoted these changes and developments, are steam, which had begun to do wonders sixty years ago, and electricity, the use of which belongs almost entirely to the last twenty-five years. 574 History of the United States. In 1850 there were not quite 9,000 miles of railroads in the United States: in 1890 there were more than 130,000 miles. These extended roads are built and operated not by limited, local companies, but by corporations which run and control thousands of miles under one system. This is, in some re- spects, an advantage; it makes travel and transportation more rapid, and sometimes, when different railroad com- panies fall out, cheaper. But it has also great disadvan- tages, as it enormously increases the wealth and power of the few owners and officers of the roads. This monopoly of money and authority excites discontent and envy in the hard-worked and often under-paid employees, and leads to the disastrous railroad strikes of which you have read. Steam. — The use of steam in running mills and fire en- gines and in operating all sorts of farming and manufac- turing machines, and even in the homely departments of cooking and laundry work, has lessened the toil and added to the profits of many different handicrafts. This is espe- cially true in the department of printing. The steam print- ing presses invented by Richard Hoe of New York are now used in all the great publishing houses and newspaper offices in this country, and are widely employed in Europe. One of these presses can turn out more printed pages in an hour than scores of hand presses could in a day. And this facility of work has made possible the huge daily and Sun- day newspapers and the multitude of cheap books. There are to-day more than twelve thousand newspapers and maga- zines published in the United States, and some of the lead- ing daily papers contain as much reading as a good sized book. Electricity. — The wonders accomplished by electricity began with the magnetic telegraph, and have extended into various departments of industry. With the telephone we talk to people many miles away: with the phonograph we store up, to examine at leisure, speeches, songs, concerts, any and every sound we desire to reproduce at a moment's notice. The lighting of houses and streets by gas has been greatly superseded by electric lights, which resemble the brilliancy of the sun more than any other artificial illumi- nation. It is to be hoped that flooding the alleys and slums of the great cities with this penetrating light may lessen KEW INVENTIONS CONTRASTED WITH THE OLD. 1. The first passenger train. 2. The fast express. 3. The coming air-ship. 4. Balloon 5. Three-deck wooden war-ship. 6. The latest Ironclad. 7. A passenger steamer. S.Fulton's first steamboat. 9. Wooden cannon of the 15th century. 10. Modern gun that throws a 400- pound projectile twelve miles. U. Flint-lock rifle. 12. Sectional view of magazine rifle 13. The anvil and sledge. 14. The steam trip-hammer. Progress Since 1850. 575 crime and evil deeds done by those who love darkness rather than light. In the physician's office and the hos- pital, electricity is found to be a powerful and beneficent agent for relieving suffering. As a motive power for cars and boats, it bids fair to take the place of steam, in all cases where the greater cost of using it can be borne. Our gas jets are lighted, our bells rung, our organs played, our sew- ing machines kept running, all by this wonderful power unknown to our grandparents, who thought a lucifer match a marvel of scientific achievement, and a Franklin stove an admirable producer of heat. Increase of Schools and Colleges. — These various results of patient investigation and inventive genius are both the result and the cause of increased educational facilities throughout the country. To the historic and time-honored Harvard, William and Mary, Yale, Princeton, and the half dozen more colleges of Colonial and Revolutionary times, others have been added, until there are now more than 360 colleges and universities. Some of these are intended more especially to teach the sciences, some for electrical training alone. Others give a broad range of studies from which a student may select a particular course. Some are entirely for women. Some admit men and women to the same clases: whilst others have established what are known as "Annexes " where young women may follow the same course of study as the male students, and receive the college degrees, if they pass the required examinations. Preparatory education in private and public schools has of necessity progressed in much the same proportion. There is now no part of the United States where any one, white, negro, or Indian, may not receive the rudiments of a good English education, if he will only take the trouble to go to the public school, and learn the lessons there taught. In this direction, also, the Southern States have shown great activity. In thirteen years, up to 1890, the school fund of the South increased nearly $12,000,000, almost a million a year, and it is worthy of notice that while the negroes pay only about one-thirtieth of this tax they receive nearly one-half the schooling which it provides. The South in Early Literature. — From the first the South- ern people wrote and published less than their countrymen 576 History of the United States. at the North. While they gave to the Republic many of its greatest statesmen, and the documents which shaped its destiny— "The Bill of Rights," "The Declaration of Inde- pendence," and " The Constitution" — they produced, out- side of the region of politics, only a few distinguished writers in the early part of this century. American Authors from 1820 to 1860. — In the North, from 1820 to 1860, there had come into notice Bancroft, Prescott, and Morley — historians; Bryant, Longfellow, and Lowell — poets; Emerson and Holmes — essayists; Irving, Cooper, Hawthorne, and Mrs. Stowe — novelists; who, with many other writers in the different departments of author- ship, have become distinguished throughout America and Europe. Though not so widely known as these, there were, contemporary with them at the South, men and women equally worthy of honor and fame. Edgar A. Poe is ranked as the greatest American poet. Francis Scott Key, of Mary- land, gave to the country the " Star Spangled Banner." Ken- nedy, of Maryland; the Tuckers, of Virginia, William Gil- more Simms, of South Carolina, Mrs. Caroline Gilman, Ma- rion Harland, and John Easton Cooke of Virginia wrote ro- mances; and Augustus Longstreet of Georgia and J. P. Baldwin of Mississippi wrote racy sketches, which preserve to us the most vivid pictures of life at the South from Revolutionary times to the breaking out of the Civil War. Others there were, as Bledsoe of Virginia, Maury of Tennessee, and Gayarre of Louisiana, who showed what Southern intellect could produce in philosophy, science, and history. Many of the most brilliant minds still concentrated their efforts upon politics, and lavished, in newspaper editorials and politi- cal speeches, intellectual force which, if devoted to book- making, would have won for them enduring literary renown. Writings About the Civil War. — The war changed all this, at the South. At first, in the struggle for subsistence, amidst the general poverty, there seemed no leisure nor hope for any revival of Southern literature. But, even during the restrictions of the Reconstruction period, there appeared personal memoirs, historical writing, and other books worthy of the men who had so stoutly maintained the unequal contest from 1861 to 1865. Mr. Davis's " Rise and Fall of the Confederate Government," Alexander Ste- Progress Since 1850. 577 phens's " War between the States," Pollard's " Lost Cause," with the personal narratives of Generals J. E. Johnston, Hood, Taylor, and other soldiers, preserve the story of the Civil War and the causes which led to it, in volumes which rank equally with the memoirs of Grant, Sherman, and other Federal generals, as valuable history of those times. A Few Southern Authors Since the War. — Debarred from taking active part in the national politics. Southern genius spread its wings for other flights. Paul Hayne of South Carolina, Mrs. Margaret Preston of Virginia, and Sidney Lanier of Georgia — perhaps the greatest American poet after Poe — have enriched our literature with melodious verse: Cable, with his powerful but partial stories of Creole life; Miss Murfree with her vivid pictures of the dwellers amid the Tennessee Mountains; Thomas Nelson Page with his pa- thetic and humorous stories and sketches of life in Old Vir- ginia and at the present day; Joel Chandler Harris with his delightful " Uncle Remus," along with the female novelists Frances Courtenay Baylor, M. G. McClelland, Christian Reid, Am61ie Rives and others, have placed Southern fiction well abreast of Howells, Miss Woolson, and the leading ro- mance writers at the North. Mrs. Diana Corbin in the me- moir of her distinguished father, Matthew F. Maury, and Mrs. Smedes in the tale of her father's life as depicted in her " Memoir of A Southern Planter," have made biography as charming and more instructive than romance. The "Me- moirs of Patrick Henry and George Mason," with the '' Let- ters and Times of the Tylers " by their respective descend- ants, are most valuable contributions to the correct history of our country. Time and space fail to tell you of all the valuable books and admirable writers who have come to the front during the last ten years. The principal magazines and periodicals show in their list of contents many South- ern contributors. In all departments of life and literature. Southern men and women are showing themselves worthy of their country and their race. Farewell Words. — In taking leave of you, my young countrymen and countrywomen, I must express the hope that each one of you will realize your responsibility towards the whole country, and especially to that section of it to which you more immediately belong; that you will perform 37 578 History of the United States. your duties faithfully as boys and girls, and make the best use of the opportunities and privileges which are given you at home and at school. If you do this now, you will in a few years, as men and women, exhibit the virtues and abili- ties of those who have so much adorned and exalted the history of the nation, and will show to the world that our country is to-day, as she has ever been since Captain John Smith established his colony at Jamestown in 1607, the home of brave, patriotic, upright men and women, who, walking in the fear of God and upholding the true princi- ples of free government, will be to all ages an honor and a safeguard to humanity. AUTHORITIES.— Grant's Personal Memoirs; Fiske's History of tlie United States; Appleton's Annual Cyclopedia; Wilson's Division and Reunion; Contemporary Pe- riodicals and Newspapers; T. N. Page's Old South; Curry's Southern States. QUESTIONS.— 1. Tell of the material development of the countrj-. 2. Of the wonderful recuperation of the South. 3. Its population and industi-y. 4. Mention the effects of steam and electricity : the railroads ; the printing presses ; the telegraph ; the telephone ; the electric lights and other appliances of electricity. 5. What has been the increase in schools and colleges ? 6. In the primary and public schools ? 7. What stand did the South take in the early literature of our country ? 8. Mention the chief American writers from 1820 to 1860. 9. The writings about the C^ivil War. 10. A few of the South- ern writers since the war. 11. What parting counsel is given? SUMMARY FOR REVIEWS AND ESSAYS. CIVIL WAR AND RECONSTRUCTION, 1861-1895. Chapters 63-88. Events Preceding the War : Effects of the John Brown raid, 1859, 346. Davis's resolutions, 340. Election in 18(50, 347. Abraham Lincoln in 1860, 347. Necessity of secession, 348. South Carolina secedes in 1860, 349. Mr. Buchanan's views, 350. Crittenden resolution, 350. Differing views of tlie country, 350. The Southern leaders, 351. Organization of the Southern Confederacy, 1861, 353. Jefferson Davis, 352. Peace Congress, 1861, 353. The forts in the South, 354. Fort Sumter garrisoned by the United States, 354. Lincoln's inaugural address, 355. The Cabinet, 356. Plan to reinforce Fort Sumter, 1861, 356. Bombardment of Fort Sumter an act of self-defence, 357. The struggle for Southern independence necessaiy. 358. Centralization and State Rights, 358. Slaveiy recognized by the Constitution, 358. Views of the Southern people, 359. Mr. Lincoln's views, 360. Slavery under the C'onfederacy, 360. The war not to preserve slaveiy, 360. Preparations and Beginning of War : Call for 75,000 men, 1861, 361. " Other States secede. 361. Disparity between the North and the South, 363. Confederate .soldiers, 362. Harper's Ferry and Gosport Navy Yard, 363. The first blood shed, 1861, 364. Preparations for war, 364. Mr. Lincoln's proclamations, 365. The blockade, 365. Immensity of the struggle, 365. Confederate Capital removed to Richmond, Va., 1861, 366. Greatness of the struggle not realized, 366. Difficulty of equipping the armies, 367. Enterprise of the South, 367. Events of 1861 in Virginia : The armies in Virginia, 369. First blood shed in Virginia, 369. Big Betliel, 370. [579 1 580 History of the United States. Events of 1801 in Virginia — Continued: Union ascendancy in western Virginia, 370. ■ Battle of llieli Mountain, 370. General Robert E. Lee sent to western Virginia, 370. General Johnston at Harper's Feri-y, 371. Impatience of the North, 371. •^ Battle of First Manassas, 1861, 371. " Stonewall " Jackson at Manassas, 372. General Kirby Smith's advance, 373. Rcnit of the Federal army, 373. Losses in the battle, 374. Astonishment of the Country, 374. Actions of the private soldiers, 375. Results of the battle, 375. Acts of the United States Congress, 376. Acts of the Confederate Congress, 376. General McClellan put in command, 376. Ball's Bluff, 370. Restriction of the press, 378. General T. J. Jackson, 378. Events of 1861 in the West and elsewhere: Civil war in Mis.souri, 379. Missouii neutral, 380. Kentucky's position, 380. Bishop Polk, 381. Columbus and Paducah, 383. East Tennessee, 382. * Battle of Belmont, 383. Arizona and New Mexico, 383. Southern task of resources, 383. McClellan supersedes General Scott, 384. Dupont captures Port Royal , 384. The Manmms at the mouth of the Mississippi, 385. Captain Wilkes and the Trent, 385. Threatened trouble with England , 386. Events of 1862 in the West: Mr. Lincoln's order, 387, Zollicoffer killed at Mill Spring, 387. Forts Henry and Donelson, 387. Capture of Fort Hemy, 388. Position of Fort Donelson, 388. The attack, 389. Gallant fighting, 389. Surrender of Fort Donelson, 390. Its results. 391. Battle of Pea Ridge, orElkhorn, Arkansas, 391. •Battle of Shiloh ; death of Albert Sidney Johnston, 392. End of the battle, 392. Fall of Island No. 10, 393. Forces below New Orleans. 421. .Federal fleet at the city, 421. Affairs in the city, 422. Fall of New Orleans ; General B. F. Butler, 422. Great losses of the Confederates, 423. Confederate conscription; Beauregard replaced by Bragg, 423. Summary for ttevieivs and Essays. 581 Events of 1862 in the West— Continued : Effort to recover Tennessee and Kentucky, 424. Nathan B. Forrest, 424. John H. Morgan, 425. Bragg's advance into Kentucky, 426. • Battle of Richmond, Kentucky, 426. Capture of Louisville, 426. Grant at luka and Corinth, Mississippi, 426. Bragg at Frankfort, Kentucky, 427. ' Battle of Perryville, 427. Result of the campaign, 428. l^resideut Davis visits Bragg's army, 428. ' Battle of Murfreesboro, or Stone River, 428. Confederate success, 429. Fight in the centre, 429. Hell's Half-Acre, 480. Reti'eat on both sides, 430. Victory claimed by both sides, 431. Burning of Holly Springs, 431. Events of 1862 in Virginia: Jackson at Bath and Romney, 394. McClellan follows Johnston, 398. ''Battle of Kerustown, 398. McClellan and Johnston about Yorktowii, 398. Fight at Williamsburg. 399. /-Seven Pines or Fair Oaks, 400. General Robert E. Lee, 400. Jackson in the Valley, 402. Defeat of Banks, 403. Defeat of Fremont and Shields, 403. Death of Ashby ; result of the campaign, 404. Preparations around Richmond, 404. Jackson summoned from the Valley, 404. Secrecy of the move, 405. Stuart's ride round McClellan, 405. J. E. B. Stuart, 406. Seven Days' Fight, 407. McClellan's retreat, 407. Malvern Hill, 408. Results of the Seven Days' Fight, 409. McClellan and Lincoln. 410, Pope's unpopularity, 411. Cedar Mountain ; Pope's army, 411. Jackson's capture of Manassas Junction, 412. ^'Battle of Second Manassas, 412. Complete victory, 412. Losses on both sides, 413. Buruside supersedes McClellan, 415. "Onto Richmond," 416. At Fredericksburg, 416. 13ombardment of Fredericksburg, 417, Disparity of forces, 417. ^ Battle ot Fredericksburg, 418. Marye's Hill, 418. Hooker's reserves defeated, 419. Result of the victory, 419. 582 History of the United States. On the Coast and in Maryland, 1862 : Stringent blockade, 394. Capture of Roanoke Island and other ports, 395. The ram Virginia. 396. The Virginia and the Monitor, 397. Federal ships in the James, 399. Confederate cruisers, 432. Lee in Maiyland, 413. Jackson at Harper's Feriy, 414. vBattle of Sharpsburg, or Antietam, 414. Lee's return to Virginia, 415. General View of the Situation in 1862 : Devotion of Confederate women, 420. Condition of the Confederacy in 1862, 432. West Virginia formed, 433. Two governments in Kentucky and Missouri, 434. Mr. Lincoln's view of slavery in 1861, 434. Change of view, 435. Emancipation Proclamation in 1862, 435. Objects of the Proclamation, 435. Effects of the Proclamation, 436. Emancipation, January 1, 1863, 436. War prices, 437. Suffering in the South, 438. Exchange of prisoners, 438. War prisons, 439. West Virginia admitted to the Union, 1863. 439. Events of 1863 in Virginia and Pennsylvania: Hooker in command in Virginia, 442. Lee's troops, 443. Hooker's move to Chancellorsville , 443. Lee's move, 443. Jackson's victory, 444. Jackson's wound, 444. Renewal of the battle, 445. Burning of the house and woods, 445. Sedgwick's attack, 446. Defeat of Hooker at Chancellorsville, 446. Death of Jackson, 447. Religion in the Army of Northern Virginia, 447. Lee's move north, 448. Ewell takes Winchester, 448. Orderly conduct of Lee's army, 450. Approach to Gettysburg, 450. I Battle of Gettysburg, 451. Second day's fight, 452. Third day's fight ; Pickett's charge, 453. End of the battle, 454. Return of the Confederate army to Virginia, 455. Effects of Gettysburg, 455. Losses, 455. A campaign of strategy, 456. Events of 1863 on the Coast and in the West: Attack on Galveston, 440. Capture of Galveston, 441. Sabiue Pass, 441. Summary for Reviews and Essays. 58$ Events of 1863 on the Coast and in the West — Continued: Federal advance on Charleston, 441. Attack and defeat, 443. Grant's plan to take Vicksburg in 1863, 457. Approach to Jackson, 457. Grierson's raid, 458. Pembeiton's movements, 458. Pemberton in Vicksburg, 459. Vicksburg besieged, 459. Attack from the boats and batteries, 460. Cave life in VicJisburg, 460. Famine, 460. The end near, 461. Surrender of Vicksburg, 461. The Confederacy cut in two, 462. Sherman at Jackson, 462. Wasting of the country, 462. Cavalry raids, 463. Morgan's raid, 464. Morgan's capture and escape, 464. Bragg at Chattanooga, 465. Federal success in East Tennessee, 465. Situation of Chattanooga, 466. \ Battle of Chiekamauga, 466. Second day's fight, 466. Forces and losses, 467. General Bragg after the battle, 468. Bragg's new position, 468. General Grant at Chattanooga, 469. Federal forces, 469. Bragg's army weakened, 470. Movement to flank Bragg's position, 470. •^Battle of Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge, 470. Results of the battle, 471. Condition of the armies in 1863, 472. Events of 1864 in the West : Sherman's return to Vicksburg, 474. Sherman at Meridian, 474. Forrest's victories, 474. Capture of Fort Pillow, 475. Battle of Mansfield, Louisiana, 476. Banks's retreat to New Orleans, 476. Sherman's and Johnston's armies, 485. Movement of the two armies, 486. Fight at New Hope Church, 486. General Polk killed, 487. His last days, 487. Sherman's advance, 487. Hood put in command, 488. Attack and defeat, 488. McPherson killed, 489. Siege of Atlanta, 489. Evacuation of Atlanta, 489. Sherman in Atlanta, 490. Mobile Bay held by the Federals, 490. Numbers on both sides, 491. 584 History of the United States. Events of 1864 in the West — Continued: Hood's advance into Tennessee, 491. Forrest in Tennessee, IVIississippi, and Alabama, 492. Thomas sent to Tennessee, 493. " Battle of Franklin, 493. ^ Battle of Nashville, 493. Effects, 494. Sherman's march to the sea, 505. The " Bmnmers," 506. Nearing Savannah, 507. Fall of Savannah, 508. Wholesale destruction in Georgia, 508. Price's invasion of Missouri, 508. Morgan's last raid and death, 509. Events of 1864 in Virginia : Kilpatrick's raid, 477. Grant made commander-in-chief, 477. Grant's plan, 477. Force against Richmond, 478. Lee's movements, 479. -Battles of the Wilderness, 479. "Lee to the rear!" 479. End of the battle, 480. The race for Spotsylvania, 480. The bloody angle, 481. Grant's continued attack, 481. Stuart killed at Yellow Tavern, 483. Move toward Richmond , 482. Confederate victories over Sigel and Butler, 482. Unsuccessful assault on Lee, 483. Losses, 483. Hunter's march up the Valley, 483. Attack on Petersburg, 495. Lee reinforces Beauregard, 495. Defence, 496. Intrenchments, 496. Lee's difficult task, 496. Supplies at the North, 497. Mahone's attack, 497. Ream's Station, 498. Day of humiliation and prayer, 498. Plan to blow up the defences, 498. Explosion of the mine, 499. Fight at the Crater, 500. Negro soldiers, 501. Surrender and losses, 501. Early and Sheridan, 503. Victory and defeat at Cedar Creek, 504. Sheridan's devastation of the Valley , 504. Grant on the James, 505. Events of 1864 in other places : Victory at Olustee, 473. Capture of Plymouth, North Carolina, 477. Confederate cruisers, 510. The Alabama and the Kearsarge, 510. Destruction of the Alabama, 510. Summary for Reviews and Essays. 585 Events of 1864 in other places — Continued: Destruction of the Flm-ida, 511. Early's move into Maryland, 501. Battle of Monocacy Bridge, 502. Early before Washington, 502. Burning of Chambersburg, 502. Ke-election of Mr. Lincoln, 1864, 511. Peace negotiations, 512. Condition of the Confederacy, 512. Events of 1865 in North and South Carolina : Butler at Fort Fisher, 514. Teriy at Fort Fisher, 514. Capture of Fort Fisher, 515. Sherman's march from the sea, 515. Destraction in South Carolina, 516. Fall of Charleston, 517. Burning of Columbia, 517. Sherman's charge against Hampton, 518. Peace Conference, 519. Want and privation in the Soutli, 520. Events of 1865 in "Virginia : Condition of Petersburg, 514. Lee made commander-in-chief, 520. Lee's plan to leave Petersburg, 520. Gathering of the Federal forces in Virginia, 521. Assault on Fort Steadman, 522. Comparison of the forces, 522. Sheridan's victory at Five Forks, 522. Attack on Petei'sburg, 523. Evacuation of Petersburg and Richmond, 523. Distress and riot in Richmond, 524. Fire, 524. Mr. Lincoln's visit to Petersburg and Richmond, 525. Exultation at the North, 525. Lee's retreat, 526. Delay at Amelia Court House, 526. Grant in pursuit, 527. Attack at Sailor's Creek, 527. At Fai-mville, 528. At Appomattox, April 8, 1865, 528. Fii-st steps towards surrender, 529. Meeting of Grant and Lee. April 9, 1865, 529. The terms of surrender, 530. Departure of Lee and Grant, 531. The soldiers after the surrender, 532. End of the war; numbers engaged, 532. Mr. Lincoln's proclamation, 533. Assassination of President Lincoln , 533. Effect of the Assassination, 534. Fate of Booth, 534. Lincoln's funeral honors, 535. Mr. Davis after the surrender, 535. His capture, 535. Imprisonment of Mr. Davis, 536. Suffered for the whole South, 537. 586 History of the United States. Events of 1865 in Virginia — Continued : His later life, 537. Death and interment of Mr. Davis, 537 Reconstruction in the South, 1865-1876 : Condition of the country, 538. Courage of the Southerners in defeat, 539. General Lee a College President, 540. Submission to the laws of the Union, 540. Andrew Johnson's position, 540. The amnesty proclamation, 541. The Thirteenth Amendment, 541. Laws to regulate labor, 542. C'ommittee on Reconstruction appointed, 542. Diffea-ence between Congress and the President. 543. Freedmen's Bureau, 542. Presidential vetoes, 543. The Fourteenth Amendment, 543. Reception of the amendment, 544. Strife between Congress and the President, 1866, 544 Reconstraetion Committee in 1866. 544. The South divided into military districts, 545. Bills passed in 1867, 545. The "ironclad oath," 546. Carpet-baggers and scalawags, 546. Power of the military governors, 546. Impeachment of the President in 1868, 547. His acquittal, 548. Re-admission of States in 1868, 548. Election of General Grant, 548. The Fifteenth Amendment, 548. Oppression of the Reconstiuction governments, 549. Offices filled by carpet-baggers and negroes, 549. Evils increased by the Freedmen's Bureau, 550. The Loyal Leagues, 550. Patient submission impossible, 551. Secret societies for protection, 551. The"KuKlux Klau," 551. Oppression and tyranny, 552. Affairs in Louisiana, 552. The Force Bill, 553. Effects of the Reconstruction rule, 554. Principal Events in the Country since the War : Atlantic telegraph, 1866, 555. Purchase of Alaska in 1867, 555. Execution of Maximilian in 1867, 555. Chinese embassy in 1868, 555. Completion of the first Pacific railroad in 1869, 556. Price of gold in 1869, 556. " Black Friday" in Wall street, 1869, 550. Internal Revenue, 557. Death of General Robert E. Lee in 1870, 557. Settlement of the Alabama claims, 557. Great fires in 1871 and 1872, 557. " Rings" in the large cities, 558. Credit mobilier, 558. Summary for Reviews and Essays. 587 Principal Events in the Country since the War — Continued: Financial crash of 1873, 558. Re-election of Grant in 1872, 559. Whiskey frauds, 559. Civil Service Reform, 1871 ; Weather Bureau, 559. Modoc War in 1873, 560. Sioux War in 1876, 561. Centennial Exposition in 1876, 561. Colorado admitted to the Union in 1876, 561. Tilden and Hayes in 1876, 562. "Joint Rule," 562. Two governments in Louisiana and South Carolina, 562. Electoral votes disputed, 563. Electoral Commission, 563. Election of Hayes, 1876, 563. The South after Hayes's election, 565. Strife between labor and capital, 565. Railroad strilies in 1877, 565. The Mississippi jetties, 566. Resumption of specie payment in 1879, 566. Garfield elected President, 566. Shot by Guiteau in 1881, 567. Centennial celebration at Yorktown in 1881, 567. Events of 1882 and 1883, 568. Grover Cleveland's election in 1884, 568. Labor troubles, 568. Anarchists in 1886, 569. Earthquake at Charleston in 1886, 569. Election of Benjamin Harrison in 1888, 569. The tariff and the currency, 570. Death and interment of Jefferson Davis, 537 Second election of Cleveland in 1892, 570. Columbian Exposition in 1893, 570. Strike in Cliicago, 571. Railroads stopped, 571. General View of the Country : Development of the country, 572. Wonderful recuperation of the South, 572. Population and industry, 573. Railroads, 573. Steam, 574. Electricity, 574. Inci'ease of schools and colleges, 575. The South in early literature, 575. American authors from 1820 to 1860, 576. Writings about the Civil War, 576. A few Southern authors since the War, 577. Farewell words, 577. THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE IN CONGRESS, JULY 4, 1776. The Unanimous Declaration of the Thirteen United States of America. When, in the course of human events, it becomes necessary for one people to dissolve the political bands which have connected them with anotlier, and to assume, among the powers of the earth, the separate and equal station to which the laws of nature and of nature's God entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. We hold these truths to be self-evident ; that all men are created equal ; that they are endowed by their Creator with cei'tain unalienable rights ; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness. That, to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed. That, whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizmg its powers in such form as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness. Prudence, indeed, wll dictate, that governments long established should not be changed for light and transient causes; and, accordingly, all experience hath shown that mankind are more disposed to suffer, while evils are sufferable, than to right themselves by abol- ishing the forms to which they are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, pursuing invariably the same object, evinces a design to reduce them under absolute despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off such government, and to provide new guards for their future secu- rity. Such has been the patient sufferance of these colonies, and such is now the necessity which constrains them to alter their former systems of govern- ment. The histoi-y of the present King of Great Britain is a history of re- peated injuries and usui-pations, all having in direct object the establishment of an absolute tyranny over these States. To prove this, let facts be submitted to a candid world : He has refused his assent to laws the most wholesome and necessary for the public good. He has forbidden his governors to pass laws of immediate and pressing im- portance, unless suspended in their operations till his assent should be ob- tained; and when so suspended, he has utterly neglected to attend to them. He has refused to pass other laws for the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people would relinquish the right of representation in the legislature — a right inestimable to them, and formidable to tyrants only. He has called together legislative bodies at places unusual, uncomfortable, and distant from the depository of their public records, for the sole purpose of fatiguing them mto compliance with his measures. He has dissolved representative houses repeatedly for opposing, with manly firmness, his invasions on the rights of the people. He has refused, for a longtime after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected, whereby the legislative powers, incapable of annihilation, have re- turned to the people at large for their exercise; the State remaining, in the mean time, exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without and convul- sions within. [588] Declaration of Independence. 589 He has endoavored to prevent the population of these States ; for that pur- pose obstructing the laws for naturalization of foreignei's ; refusing to pass others to encourage their migrations hither, and raising the CKjnditions of new appropriations of lands. He has obstructed the administration of justice by refusing his assent to laws for establishing the jucUciary powers. He has made judges dependent on his will alone for the tenure of their offices, and tlie amount and payment of their salaries. He has erected a multitude of new offices, and sent hither swarms of officers to harass our people* and eat out their substance. He has kept among us, in times of peace, standing armies, without the con- sent of our legislatures. He has affected to render the military independent of, and superior to, the civil power. He has combined with others to subject us to a jurisdiction foreign to our Constitution, and unacknowledged by our laws; giving his assent to their acts of pretended legislation: For (piailiMing large bodies of armed troops among us; For protecting them, by a mock trial, from punishment for any murders which they should commit on the inhabitants of these States; For cutting off our ti'ade with all parts of the world , For imposing taxes on us without our consent ; For depriving us, in many eases, of the benefits of trial by jury ; For transporting us beyond seas to be tried for pretended offences; For abolishing the free system of English laws in a neighboring province, establishing therein an arbitrary government, and enlarging its boundaries, so as to render it at once an example and fit instrument for introducing che same absolute rule into these colonies ; For taking away our charters, abolishing our most valuable laws, and alter- uig, fundamentallj', the forms of our governments ; For suspending our own legislatures, and declaring themselves inve.stedwith power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. He has abdicated govermnent here by declaring us out of his protection, and waging war against us. He has plundered our seas, ravaged our coasts, burnt our towns, and de- stroj'ed the lives of our people. He is at this time transporting large armies of foreign mercenaries to com- plete the works of death, desolation, and tyranny, already begun with circum- stances of cruelty and perfidy, scarcely paralleled in the most barbarous ages, and totally imworthy the head of a civilized nation. He has constrained our fellow-citizens, taken captive on the high seas, to bear arms against their country, to become the executioners of their friends and brethren, or to fall themselves by their hands. He has excited domestic insm-rections amongst us, and has endeavored to bring on the inhabitants of our frontiers the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions. In every stage of these oppressions we have petitioned for redress in the most humble terms ; our repeated petitions have been answered only by re- peated iujuiy. A prince whoso character is thus marked by every act which may define a tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free people. Nor havciwe been wanting in attentions to our British brethren. AVe have warned them, from time to time, of attempts by their legislature to extend an imwarrantable jurisdiction over us. We have reminded them of the circum- stances of our emigration and settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and magnanimity, and we have conjured them, bj-the ties of our gommon kindred, to disavow these usurpations, which would inevitably inter- 590 History of the United States. rupt our connections and correspondence. They, too, have been deaf to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, acquissce in the ne- cessity which denovmces our separation, and hold them, as we hold the rest of mankind — enemies in war; in peace, friends. We, therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in General Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by authority of the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare. That these united colo- nies are, and of right ought to be. Free and Independent States; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown, and that all political con- nection between them and the State of Great Britain is, and ought to be, to- tally dissolved; and that, as Free and Independent States, they have full power to le^'y war, conclude peace, contract alliances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which Independent States may of right do. And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of Divine Pkovidence, we mutually pledge to each other oui- lives, our fortunes, and our sacred honor. JOHN HANCOCK. New Hampshire. — Josiah Bartlett, William Whipple, Matthew Thornton. Massachusetts Bay. — Samuel Adams, John Adams, Robert Treat Paine, Elbridge Gerry. Rhode Island, Etc. — Stephen Hopkins, William Ellery. Connecticut. — Roger Sherman, Samuel Huntington, William Williams, Oliver Wolcott. New York. — William Floyd, Philip Livingston, Francis Lewis, Lewis Morris. New Jersey. — Richard Stockton, John Witherspoon, Francis Hopkinson, John Hart, Abraham Clark. Pennsylvania. — Robert Morris, Benjamin Rush, Benjamin Franklin, John Moiton, George Clymer, James Smith, George Taylor, James Wilson, George Ross. Delaware. — Csesar Rodney, George Read, Thomas M'Kean. Maryland.— Samuel Chase, William Paca, Thomas Stone, Charles Carroll of CarroUton. Virginia. — George Wythe, Richard Henry Lee, Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Harrison, Thomas Nelson, Jr., Francis Lightfoot Lee, Carter Braxton. North Carolina. — William Hooper, Joseph Hewes, John Penn. South Carolina. — Edward Rutledge, Thomas Heyward, Jr., Thomas Lynch, Jr., Arthur Middleton. Geokgla. — Button Gwinnett, Lymaji Hall, George Walton. CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. "We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the common defence, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America. ARTICLE I. Section 1. — 7\.ll legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States ; which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives. Section 2. — 1. The House of Representatives shall be composed of mem- bers chosen every second year by the people of the several States ; and the electors in each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State legislature. 2. No person shall be a Representative who shall not have attained to the age of twenty-flve years, and been seven years a citizen of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State in which he shall be chosen. 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apijortioned among the several States which may be included within this Union, according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law direct. The number of Representatives shall not exceed one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one Repre- sentative ; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of New Hamp- shire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; New York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; Maryland, six; Virginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, five; and Georgia, three. 4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any State, the execu- tive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such vacancies. 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker and other offi- cers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. Section 3. — 1. The Senate of the United States shall be composed of two Senators from each State, chosen by the legislature thereof, for six years ; and each Senator shall have one vote. 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the first elec- tion, they shall be divided as equally as may be, into three classes. The seats of the Senators of the first class shall be vacated at the expiration of the second year, of the second class at the expiration of the fourth year, and of the third class at the expiration of the sixth year, so that one-third may be chosen every second year; and if vacancies happen, by resignation or otherwise, during the recess of the legislature of any State, the Executive thereof may make tem- porary appointments vmtil the next meeting of the legislature, which shall then fill such vacancies. 3. No person shall be a Senator who shall not have attained to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, and who shaU not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State for which he shall be chosen. [591 J 592 History of the United States. 4. The Vice-President of the United States shall be President of the Sen- ate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice-President, or when he shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. When sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirmation. When the Presi- dent of the United States is tried, the Chief Justice shall preside ; and no per- son shall be convicted without the concurrence of two-thirds of the members present. •» 7. Judgment in eases of impeachment shall not extend further than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office of honor, trust, or profit, mider the United States ; but the party convicted shall never- theless be liable and subject to indictment, trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. Section 4. — 1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for Sen- ators and Representatives shall be prescribed in each State by the legislatm-e thereof ; but the Congress may, at any time, by law, make or alter such regu- lation, except as to the places of choosing Senators. 3. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such meet- ing shall be on the flxst JMonday in December, unless they shall by law appoint a different day. Section 5. — 1. Each House shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and qualifications of its ovni members, and a majority of each shall constitute a quorum to do business ; but a smaller number may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent members in such manner and under such penalties as each House may provide. 2. Each House may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish its mem- bers for disorderly behavior, and, with tlie concurrence of two-thirds, expel a member. 3. Each House shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their judgment require secrecy ; and the yeas and nays of the members of either House, on any question, shall, at the desire of one-fifth of those present, be entered on the journal. 4. Neither House, during the session of Congress, shall, without the con- sent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other place than that in which the two Houses shall be sitting. Section G. — 1. The Senators and Representatives shall receive a compensa- tion for their services, to be ascertamed by law, and paid out of the Treasury of the United States. They shall, in all cases except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attendance at the session of their respective Houses, and in going to and returning from the same ; and for any speech or debate in either House, they shall not be ques- tioned in any other place. 2. No Senator or Representative shall, during the time for which he was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authoritj' of the United States which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof shall have been in- creased, during such time ; and no person holding any office under the United States shall be a member of either House during his continuance in office. Section 7. — 1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the House of Representatives ; but the Senate may propose or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 2. Every bill which shall have passed the House of Representatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be presented to the President of the United States ; if he approve he shall sign it, but if not he shall return it with his objections to that House in which it shall have originated, who shall enter Constitution of the United States. 593 the objectiona at large on their journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If, after such recoiLsidt'idtion, two-thirds of that House shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objections, to the other House, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and if approved by two-thirds of that House, it shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both Houses shall be det^^r- miued by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each House respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like man- ner as if he had signed it, unless the Congress, by their adjournment, prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 3. Eveiy order, resolution, or vote, to which the concurrence of the Senat<3 and House of Representatives may be necessary (except on a question of ad- jomiiment) shall be presented to the President of the United States, and be- fore the same shall take effect shall be approved by him, or, being disapproved by him, shall be re-passed by two-thirds of the Senate and House of Repre- sentatives, according to the rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. Section 8. — The Congress shall have power — I. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and provide for the common defence and general welfare of the United States ; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform throughout the United States ; 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States ; 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian tribes ; 4. To establish a uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws on the subject of bankruptcy throughout the United States ; 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof and of foreign coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures ; 6. To provide for the pmiishment of counterfeiting the securities and cur- rent coin of the United States ; 7. To establish post-offices and post-roads ; 8. To promote the progress of science and iiseful arts, by securing for lim- ited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their respective writings and discoveries ; 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court ; 10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the high seas, and offences against the law of nations ; II. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make rules concerning captures on land and water ; 12. To raise and suppoit armies; but no appropriation of money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years ; 13. To provide and maintain a navy ; 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land and naval forces ; 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the Union, suppress insurrection, and repel invasions ; 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service of the United States, reserving to the States respectively the appointment of the officers and the authority of training the militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress ; 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever over such dis- trict (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular States and the acceptance of Congress, become the seat of the government of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places purchased by the 38 594 History of the United States. consent of the legislature of the State in which the same shall be, for the erec- tion of forts, magazines, arsenals, docli-yards, and other needful buildings ; and, 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitu- tion iu the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof. Section 9. — 1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 1^ the Congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 2. The privilege of the writ of habeai^ carpus shall not be suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may require it. 3. No bill of attainder or ex jMJfit facto law shall be passed. 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, luiless in proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any State. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or revenue to the ports of one State over those of another ; nor shall vessels bound to or from one State be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in another. 6. No money 'shall be drawn from the treasury but in consequence of appro- priations made by law 5 and a regular statement and accoimt of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from time to time. 7. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States ; and no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, (emolument, office, or title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. Section 10. — 1. No State shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confedera- tion ; grant letters of marque and reprisal ; coin money ; emit bills of credit ; make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts ; pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obligation of con- tracts, or grant any title of nobility. 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay any imposts or duties on imports or exports except what may be absolutely necessary for exe- cuting its inspection laws ; and the net produce of all duties and imposts laid by any State on imports or exports, shall be for the use of the Treasury of the United States ; and all such laws shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congiess. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any duty of tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any agreement or compact with another State or with a foreign power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as will not admit of delay. ARTICLE II. Section 1. — 1. The executive power shall be vested in a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice-President, chosen for the same term, be elected as follows : 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature thereof may dire(^t, a number of Electors equal to the whole number of Senators and Rep- resentatives to which the State may be entitled in the Congress ; but no Sen- ator or Representative, or person holding an office of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an Elector. Clause 3 has been superceded by the 12th Article of Amendments. 4. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the Electors, and the day on which they shall give their votes ; which day shall be the same through- out the United States. 5. No per.son, except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall be eligible to the office Constitution of the United States. 595 of President, neither shall any person be eligible to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 6. In case of the removal of the President from office, or of his death, resig- nation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice-President ; and the Congress may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inability, both of the President and Viee-President, declaring what officer shall then act as President, and such officer shall act accordingly, until the disability be removed or a President shall be elected. 7. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his services a compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished durmg the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any of them. 8. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall take the following oath cr affirmation : ' I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of the United States." Section 2. — 1. The President shall be commander-in-chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several States when called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in y law vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in the President alone, in the Courts of law, or in the heads of Departments. 8. The President shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commissions which shall expire at the end of their next session. Section 8. — He shall, from time to time, give to the Congress information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient ; ho may, on extraordinary occasions, convene both Houses, or either of them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper, he shall receive Embassadors and other public Ministers ; he shall take care that the laws be faithfully execjuted, and shall commission all the officers of the United States. Section 4. — The President, Vice-President, and all civil officers of the United States, shall he removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction of, treason, l)ribeiy, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. ARTICLE III. Section 1.— The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior Courts as the CJongress may from time to time ordain and establish. The Judges, both of the Supreme and inferior Courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compensation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. Section 2.— 1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases in law and equity arising under this Constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties 596 History of tJie United States. made, or which shall be made, under their authority ; to all cases affecting Embassadors, other public Ministers, and Consuls; to all cases of admiralty and maritime jurisdiction ; to controversies to which the United States shall be a party ; to controversies between two or more States ; between a State and citizens of anotlier State : between citizens of different States ; between citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different States ; and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, citizens, or subjects. 2. In all cases affecting Embassadors, other public Ministers, and Consuls, and those in which a State shall ))e a party, the Supreme Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioneil, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the C^ongress shall make. 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be by jury; and such trial shall be held in the State where the said crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may l)y law have directed. Section 3. — 1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levy- ing war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open court. 2. The Congress shall have power to declare the punishment of treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. ARTICLE IV. Section 1.— Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State. And the Congress may, by general laws, prescribe the manner in which such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. Seotion 2. — 1. The citizens of each State shall be entitled to all privileges and immunities of citizens of tlie several States. 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felonj-, or other crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, shall, on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he fled, Ix) delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of the crime. 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, undei' the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regulation therein, be discharged from such sei-vice or laljor, but shall be delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may be due. Section 3.^ — 1. New States may be admitted by the Congress into this Union ; but no new State shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent of the legislatures of the States concerned as well as of the Congress. 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make all needful rules and regulations, respecting the territoiy or other property belonging to the United States; and nothing in this Constitution shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of any jiarticular State. Section 4. — The United States shall guarantee to every State in this Union a republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against inva- sion; and, on application of the legislature, or of the Executive (when the legis- lature cannot bo convened) against domestic violence. ARTICLE v.— The Congress, whenever two-thirds of both Houses shall deem it necessaiy, shall propose Amendments to this Constitution, or, on the application of the legislatures of two-thirds of the several States, shall call a convention for proposing Amendments, which, in either case, shall be valid to all intents and purposes as part of this Constitution, when ratified hy the legis- latures of three-fourths of the several States, or by conventions in three-fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of ratification may be proposed by the Constitution of the United States. 597 Congress ; provided that uo Amendiiieut whifh may be made prior to the year one thou'sand eight hundred and eight shall in any manner aflfeet the first and fourth clauses in the ninth section of thfl first article ; and that no State, with- out its consent, shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the iSeuate. ARTICLE VI. — 1. All debts eontracte^I and engagements entered into, be- fore the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the United States under this Constitution as under the Confederation. 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme law of the land: and the judges in every State shall be boimd thereby, anything in the Constitution or laws of any State to the contrary notwithstanding. 3. The Senators and Representatives before mentioned, and the members of the several State legislatures, and all executive and judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several Stiites, shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this C'onstitutiou ; but no religious test shall ever be required as a qualification to any office or public trust under the United States. ARTICLE VII. — The ratification of the C'onventions of nine States shall be sufficient for the establishment of this C^onstitution between the States so rati- fying the same, AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION. ARTICLE 1. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof ; or abridging the freedom of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances. ARTICLE II. — A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. ARTICLE III. — No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law. ARTICLE IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, sup- ported by oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. ARTICLE V.^ — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia when in actual ser- vice in time of war or public danger ; nor shall any person be subject for the same offence to be twice put in jeopardy of life or limb ; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against himself; nor be deprived of life, lib- erty, or property, without due process of law ; nor shall private property be taken for public use without just compensation. ARTICLE VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have been previously ascei^tained by law, and to be informed of the nature and cause of the accusation ; to be confronted with the witn