'c 0' c^. .<^" -\^^"-- 0^ .\\ , '^ c ST."- .^^ •%.. ■V ^^ '''^^ %. v^^ vO< ■J-- .\ >^> .^x fU- S^~ ..^^ c°^ vV ■=t. a5 ,0 o ""^,. .-i^ >^ ^^. i> ^, ^^^ • ^-f %. \- .<^' % .^"^^ vOO, x^'' ■^>^., A' .r- A' .^^^ a"! 'X" ■"^f-, t'i .^" "'^-.- '^^ V^' <- A^ O 0' / "•f' „--^^ » .^'" -% 57th CoNGRKSSfl 1st Session. ) SENATE. Document No. 84. MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES. TEANSMITTING A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. December 19, 1901. — Eead, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. 57th Congress, ) SENATE. j Doctjment 1st Session. f ( No. 84. MESSAGE FROM THE PRESIDENT OF THE UNITED STATES, TRANSMITTING A REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE IN RELATION TO THE FORESTS, RIVERS, AND MOUNTAINS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. December 19, 1901. — Read, referred to the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, and ordered to be printed. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1902. LETTER OF TRAI^SMITT AL. To the Senate and House of Rejnesentatives: I transmit herewith a report of the Secretary of Agriculture, pre- pared in collaboration with the Department of the Interior, upon the forests, rivers, and mountains of the Southern Appalachian region, and upon its agricultural situation as affected by them. The report of the Secretary presents the final results of an investigation authorized by the last Congress. Its conclusions point unmistakably, in the judg- ment of the Secretarj^ and in my own, to the creation of a national forest reserve in certain parts of the Southern States. The facts ascer- tained and here presented deserve the careful consideration of the Congress; they have already received the full attention of the scientist and the lumberman. They set forth an economic need of prime impor- tance to the welfare of the South, and hence to that of the nation as a whole, and they point to the necessity of protecting through wise use a mountain region whose influence flows far bej^ond its borders with the waters of the rivers to which it gives rise. Among the elevations of the eastern half of the United States the Southern Appalachians are of paramount interest for geographic, hydrographic, and forest reasons, and, as a consequence, for economic reasons as well. These great mountains are old in the history of the continent which has grown up about them. The hard-wood forests were born on their slopes and have spread thence over the eastern half of the continent. More than once in the remote geologic past they have disappeared before the sea on the east, south, and west, and before the ice on the north; but here in this Southern Appalachian region they have lived on to the present day. Under the varying conditions of soil, elevation, and climate many of the Appalachian tree species have developed. Hence it is that in this region occur that marvelous variety and richness of plant growth which have Jed our ablest business men and scientists to ask for its pi'esei'va- tion by the Government for the advancement of science and for the instruction and pleasure of the people of our own and of future genera- tions. And it is the concentration here of so many valuable species with such favorable conditions of growth which has led forest experts and lumbermen alike to assert that of all the continent this region is 3 4 LETTEB OF TRANSMITTAL. bebt suited to the purposes and plans of a national forest reserve in the hard-wood region. The conclusions of the Secretarj- of Agriculture are summarized as follows in his report: " i. The Southern Appalachian region embraces the highest peaks and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. It is the great physiographic feature of the eastern half of the continent, and no such lofty mountains are covered with hard-wood forests in all North America. "2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall of the United States, except that of the North Pacific coast. It is often of extreme violence, as much as 8 inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31 Inches in one month, and 105 inches in a year. "3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by torrential rains, rapidlj^ loses first its humus, then its rich upper strata, and finally is washed in enormous volume into the streams, to bury such of the fertile lowlands as are not eroded bj' the floods, to obstruct the rivers, and to fill up the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now washed from these cleared mountain-side fields during a single heavj^rain than during centuries under forest cover. "4. The rivers which originate in the Southern Appalachians flow into or along the edges of every State from Ohio to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Along their courses are agricultural, water-power, and navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely essential to the well-being of the nation. "5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be accomplished only by the conservation of the forests. "6. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard-wood forests of the continent. In them species from east and west, from north and south, mingle in a growth of unparalleled richness and variety. They contain many species of the first commercial value, and furnish impor- tant supplies which can not be obtained from any other region. ' ' 7. For economic reasons the preservation of these forests is impera- tive. Their existence in good condition is essential to the prosperity of the lowlands through which their waters run. Maintained in pro- ductive condition they will supply indispensable materials, which must fail without them. Their management under practical and conserva- tive forestry" will sustain and increase the resources of this region and of the nation at large, will serve as an invaluable object lesson in the advantages and practicability of forest preservation by use, and will soon be self-supporting from the sale of timber. "8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appalachian region must be protected and preserved. To that end the preservation of the forests is an indispensable condition, which will lead not to the reduction but to the increase of the yield of agricultural products. LETTER OF TRANSMITTAL. 5 " 9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this forest destruc tion continues, will increase in frequency and violence and in the extent of their damages, both within this region and across the bor- dering States. The extent of these damages, like those from the wash- ing of the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with perfect accuracy, but during the present j^ear alone the total has approximated $10,000,000, a sum suflicient to purchase the entire area recom- mended for the proposed reserve. But this loss can not be estimated in money value alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of conditions most valuable to the nation, and which neither skill nor wealth can restore. "10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and of the agricultural interests here described can be successfully accomplished only by the purchase and creation of a national forest reserve. The States of the Southern Appalachian region own little or no land, and their revenues are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action is obviously necessary, is fully justified by reasons of public necessity, and may be expected to have most fortunate results." With these conclusions I fully agree; and I heartily commend this measure to the favorable consideration of the Congress. Theodoke Koosevelt. White House, Dece))iber 19, 1901. CONTENTS. Page. Report of the Secretary of Agriculture 13 Nature and extent of this investigation 14 The Appalachian region 16 The Soutliern Appalachian region 17 The Southern Appalachian Mountains " 18 The forests 21 Forest clearing and agriculture in the Southern Appalachians 25 Forest clearings, the rivers, and floods 28 The climate of the Southern Appalachians 33 How can these forests be preserved 34 Conditions of purchase and management 36 Conclusions 38 Appendix A. — Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern Appalachians 41 Description of the forests and forest conditions by mountain groups 46 Forests of the Blue Ridge 46 Forests of the White Top Moimtain region 47 Forests of Roan, Grandfather, and the Black mountains 49 Forests of the central interior mountain ridges 51 Forests of the Great Smoky Mountains 53 Forests of the southern end of the Appalachians 54 Changes in forest conditions of the Southeri Appalachians 55 Forests cleared for farming purposes 57 Forests injured by fires 55 Lumbering in the Southern Appalachians now and under Government ownership and supervision 61 Application of conservative forest methods to -this region by the Govern- ment practicable and profitable 62 Some evils of the present system of lumbering 63 Recent lumbering methods more profitable, but also destructive 64 Objects and policy of forest management under Government ownership.. 65 Improvement in general forest policy necessary 66 Considerations that should govern in the management of the proposed forest reserve 67 Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins 69 New River Basin 69 South Fork of Holston River Basin 70 Watauga River Basin 72 Nolichucky River Basin 74 French Broad River Basin 76 Big Pigeon River Basin 78 Northwestern slope of Smoky Mountains 79 Little Tennessee River Basin 80 7 O CONTENTS. Page. Appendix A. — Report on the forests and forest conditions in the Southern Appalachians — Cmilinued. Description of the Southern Appalachian forests by river basins — Conlinued. Hiwassee River Basin 82 Tallulah-Chattooga River Basin 84 Toxaway River Basin 85 Saluda River Basin 87 First and Second Broad River Basin 87 Catawba River Basin 88 Yadkin River Basin 90 Trees of the Southern Appalachians 93 List of shrubs growing in the Southern Appalachians 107 Appendix B. — Topography and geology of the Southern Appalachians Ill The mountain systems 113 The river systems 115 Climatic features in the mountains 117 The geologic formations 119 Relation of rocks to surface 120 Protection of the soils 121 Appendix C. — Report on the hydrography of the Southern Appalachians 123 Physiographic features of the region 125 The rainfall and run-off in this region 128 Stream flow in the region and its measurement 135 ■ Value of these mountain streams for water-power purposes 137 Appendix D. — Report on the climate of the Southern Appalachians 143 Appendix E. — Report on the present status of the movement for the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve 155 Memorials and resolutions favoring the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve 158 Memorial of the Appalachian Mountain Club 158 Memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association 159 Resolution of the American Association for the Advancement of Science 165 Resolution of the American Forestry Association 165 Resolution of National Board of Trade 165 Resolutions passed by other boards of trade 165 Preliminary report of the Secretary of Agriculture on the forests of the Southern Appalachian region, January 3, 1901 166 Report on the creation of the Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve by the Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, February 12, 1901 168 Resolutions and acts by the legislatures of States whose territory extends into the region of the proposed forest reserve 172 Virginia 172 North Carolina ". 173 Tennessee 174 South Carolina 176 Georgia 178 The press and the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve 180 ILLUSTRATIONS. Page. Plate I. (a) Land erosion on the cleared slopes of the Southern Appa- lachian Mountains, (b) Flood destruction of an Appalachian mountain valley 14 II. Relief map of the United States, showing location of the national forest reserves 14 •III. (a) Valley of Virginia, (b) Piedmont Plateau in Virginia 16 • IV. Relief maj) of the Southern Appalachian region, showing the dis- tribution of the mountains 16 > V. Doe River Gorge, Tennessee 18 / VI. Panorama from Grandfather Mountain, typical of Appalachian ' jNIountains 18 VII. Grandfather Mountain, showing sharp, rugged peak surrounded by hard-wood forests 20 vVIIl. (a) Bald of Big Yellow Mountain, (b) Welchs Bald in the Great Smoky Mountains 20 1 IX, (a) The southern end of the Appalachian Mountains near Car- '" tersville, Ga. (b) A mountain valley, northern Georgia 22 V X. Ccesars Head, South Carolina 22 ' XI. Whiteside Mountain, southeast profile 22 ■XII. Map of the Southern Appalachian region, showing forest area under consideration and hydrographic gaging stations 24 XIII. An original Appalachian Mountain forest 24 , XIV. Mixed hard- wood and pine forest 24 • XV. Spruce forests at high elevations 24 'XVI. Thetopsof the Black Mountains (colored) 26 XVII. Panorama showing the unbroken forest of the Great Smoky Mountains 26 XVIII. Forest clearings for farming on the Southern Appalachian Moun- tains 26 '' XIX. Stone Mountain, near Atlanta, Ga 26 ■' XX. (a) Newly cleared mountain field planted in corn, (b) Recently cleared field i nipo verished and abandoned 26 XXI. (a) Badly washed mountain field, (b) Mountain field com- pletely ruined , 28 XXII. (a) Washing of grass-covered soil, top of Roan Mountain. (b) Washing of abandoned pasture field 28 XXIII. (a) Unwashed valley lands surrounded by forest-covered moun- tains, (b) Badly washed mountain valley lands 28 ' XXIV. (a) Valley lands badly washed by recent floods and abandoned. (b) Valley lands completely ruined by floods 28 9 10 ILLUSTEATIOJSrS. Plate XXV. Water-power development and cotton mills at Columbus, Ga.. 30 XXVI. (a) Water power at Pelzer, S. C. ( b) Water power at Colum- bia, S. C 30 XXVII. Cascades near head of Catawba River _ 30 XXVIII. Tallulah Falls. Georgia 30 XXIX. Forest-covered slopes of Linville Gorge 32 XXX. Forest regulating the flow of streams 32 y XXXI. (a) A spring on southern slope of Mount Mitchell, (b) A mountain brook 32 XXXII. (a) Landslide stopped by the forest, north slope of Roan Mountain, (b) Small landslide at a spot where no large trees were growing 32 '■' XXXIII. Large tree growing in mountain ravine 34 XXXIV. Flood damages on Catawba River: (a) Soil removed and white sand spread over the surface, (b) Layer of sand spread over the soil by a flood 34 XXXV. (a) Flood damages in West Virginia, (b) Debris from floods on Nolichucky River, East Tennessee 34 XXXVI. (a) Flood damages to railway on Doe River, Tennessee, (b) Flood damages to railway on Nolichucky River, East Ten- nessee 34 -/ XXXVII. Original forest, northwest slope of the Great Smoky Moun- tains 46 ' XXXVIII. (a) Slightly culled mixed forest, (b) White pine forest ex- cessively culled 46 , XXXIX. (a) Wagon loaded with logs en route for the sawmill, (b) Wagon loaded with lumber en route for the railway station. 48 ^ XL. Spruce forest near summit of White Top, Virginia 48 XLI. Forests on the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge, about Mount Toxaway 52 ^ XLII. Foi-ests on the walls of Nantahala Gorge 52 V XLIII. Forests about the southeastern slopes of the Great Smoky Mountains, between cross ridges 52 XLIV. Big chestnut trees, from the base of the Great Smoky Moun- tains 54 XLV. Forests on the southern end of the Appalachian Mountains, Table Rock, South Carolina 54 • XLVI. Damages from forest fires in killing trees and undergrowth 56 XLVII. Damages from forest fires: (a) Injured base of pine tree. ( b) Sprouts from base of a fire-killed oak 56 '' XLVIII. (a) Granite knob from which the forest, and later the soil, has been removed, (b) Humus and undergrowth destroyed by fire; soil washed from rock by rain 56 '' XLIX. (a) Destruction of forest on mountain ridges for pasturing pur- poses, (b) Corn planted between girdled trees on the mountain ridges 56 L. (a) Mill in the mountains; waste in sawing, (b) Tops left among the trees in logging 62 LI. (a) Sawing large timbei' at a small mill in the woods, (b) Binding poplar lumber for export 62 " LII. Timber which should have been culled long ago 64 ■■■ LIII. Forest destruction along the snaking trail 64 ILLUSTRATIONS. 11 ' Page. Plate LIV. Reproduction of hard-wood forest 64 LV. Reproduction of white-pine forest 68 LVI. Panorama of the Blue Ridge and southern end of the Black Moun- tains : 80 ■' LVII. Grandfather Mountain, with types of summits 88 •^ LVIII. The Blue Ridge Plateau and Grandfather Mountain 114 - LIX. Front of the Blue Ridge in Virginia 114 LX. The narrows of the Little Tennessee River 116 ■ LXI. Balsam and Pisgah mountains 116 ^ LXII. (a) French Broad River, (b) Ocoee River 116 ■' LXIII. ElkFalls 116 ' LXIV. Forest-covered slope of Hawksbill 118 •' LXV. West foothills of the Unakas and valley of East Tennessee 120 < LXVI. Rock weathering and decay in the Southern Appalachians 122 . LX VII. Land erosion in the Southern Appalachians 122 ' LXVIII. Yonahlossee road on Grandfather Mountain 122 LXIX. (a) Rhododendron undergrowth holding the soil and the water. (b) Seams in the rock, facilitating the storage of water 126 LXX. Whitewater Falls 126 V LXXL Lower Cullasaja Falls 126 LXXIL Linville Gorge 128 - LXXIIl. Swannanoa River 128 ■ LXXIV. (a) Sawmill wrecked by flood, (b) Logs lost by breaking of boom 130 • LXXV. (a) Highway bridge washed away by floods, (b) Pulslic road ruined by floods 130 •J LXXVI. (a) Flood damages to settlements, (b) Flood damages to railroad and mining settlements 130 ' LXXVIL Toccoa Falls, Georgia 130 LXX VIII. Improved water power, Augusta, Ga 138 EEPOET ON THE FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION. To the President: An interest in pi'actical forestry, notable and commend- able, has grown up among the American people during the past few j^ears. There is an evident determination that our countrjr shall profit from its own and the experience of other countries by beginning the preservation of our forest remnants before it is altogether too late. The most important practical outcome of this awakening has been the setting aside by the Government, out of the public domain, in the several Western States and Terri- tories, of some 70,000 square miles of forest-covered lands about the mountains in these regions, to protect the streams and perpetuate the timber supplies. A more recent result is the movement, which has met with the general approval of business and scientific organizations and the unanimous support of the press, toward the preservation by the Gov- ernment of the hard-wood forests on the slopes of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. The proposal that the Government shall protect these Appalachian forests by purchasing the lands and making of them a great national forest reserve was first brought directly to the attention of Congress in January, 1900, when a memorial to that efl:ect was presented by the Appa- lachian Mountain Club of New England and the Appala- chian National Park Association of the South Atlantic States. In response to this memorial and in I'ecognition of the importance of the movement, the act making the appropriation for the Department of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, provided that a "sum not to exceed 15,000 may, in the discretion of the Secre- tary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the forest con- ditions in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region of western North Carolina and adjacent States." 13 14 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. NATURE AND EXTENT OF THIS INVESTIGATION. Acting under this authority I conducted such an investi- gation during the field season of 1900, and continued it again during the present year. The conclusions to which the results of this investigation have led me will be found at the end of this report (p. 38). Departments of gy ^he liberal Cooperation of the Department of the Agriculture and j l it of the Interior Xnterior, through the United States Geological Survey, I cooperate in the ^ & g j •> investigation, -^y^s enabled to make these investigations much broader and more thorovigh than would otherwise have been possible. The Geological Survey, in timely recognition of tlae impor- tance of this movement, has, during the past two years, studied the topographic features and the water supplies of the region in relation to its forest development, and has also" cooperated in the examination of the forests themselves. The investigations along the several lines have been par- ticipated in bjr the best men available in the Government service. I have myself twice visited this region, and have seen at first hand the desti'uction of the forests and the consequent enormous damage by floods; have examined some of its largest mountain masses, and have climbed its highest peak. The conclusions reached from this personal experience, as well as from the extensive expert investi- gations just mentioned, will be found briefly summarized at another place in this report (p. 38). invest'i'^ation"^*^ ^^^ experts in charge of this work examined not only the forests and the general forest conditions as the}^ exist to-day, but also the causes which have led up to these con- ditions and the possibility of improving them either with or without Government ownership and supervision. They studied the influences of the forests on the preservation of the streams and soils of these mountains and on the preservation of the water powers and the farm lands along these streams, both within the mountain areas and across the bordering lowlands. In particular the region was studied as to its relative adaptabilit}^ to future develop- ment along the lines of practical forestrj' and practical agriculture. Forest and The forests were carefully mapped as to their distri- agricultural eon- . n i . n i i • • i ii ditions. bution and densitj^ and the relative proportion or the forest-covered and cleared lands. The investigation also included a study of the general character and distribution of all the available species of trees and shrubs of the Senate Doc. No. 84 Plate I. 1^1 LAND EROSION ON THE CLEARED SLOPES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS, (titt pp. 26--1S.I These steep lands have been cleared, cultivated, abandoned, and ruined, all in a few years. Their reforestalion will soon be impossible. (■B) FLOOD DESTRUCTION OF AN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN VALLEY. (See pp. 32, 130.) The floods have "washed away the farm and the home, leaving only the hillside barn. The aggregate damages from floods along these Southern Appalachian streams from April', 1901, to April, 1902. reached the large sum of Sl.8.000.000. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 15 region, the stand of timber, the extent to which the timbei" has been and is now being cut or damaged by fire, the nature of the present holdings, and the prices at which these lands can be purchased. The agricultural investiga- tion included the stud}^ of the cleared lands, methods of their clearing, the crops which they J'ield, and the extent to which these lands deteriorate by erosion and bj^ the leach- ing out of their fertilitj' both on the mountain slopes and in the valle3's. The officers of the Geological Survej^ meanwhile made a careful study of the quantity' of water flowing out through the various streams having their sources in this region, and of the effect of forest clearings on the regularity of their flow at different seasons. Fiftj'-four regular stations were maintained, covering everv large stream which rises in these mountains. These streams flow through West investigation Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina," es reams. Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee, and rank among the important rivers of the country. At each station daily records of stream heights were kept, and measurements of the volume of flow were made from time to time. In addition to this, more than 1,000 miscellaneous gagings were made on the tributaries of the James, Roanoke, Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Savannah, Chattahoochee, Coosa, Hiwassee, Tennessee, French Broad, Nolichucky , Watauga, Holston, and New (Kanawha) rivers. (See PI. XII). A brief preliminary report embodying the more salient results of this investigation during the year 1900 was sent to Congress by the President in January, 1901. It was accomjianied by a letter from President McKinW com- mendatorj" of the plan for an Appalachian forest reserve here suggested anew. The present report will be found to Mature of tws ■ , . , . report. contain the results of the investigations carried on during the past two years, together with some conclusions based upon them. The general statement is followed by a series of supplemental papers, each containing a moi'e detailed account of the results of the examinations and inquiries along some one single line. ' The region examined during this investigation embraces The region ex- that part of the Appalachian Mountain system which begins in southern Virginia and includes portions of that State, of southeastern West Virginia, western North Carolina, east- ' ern Tennessee, northwestern South Carolina, and northern Georgia, and especially that portion of this region usually 16 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. , designated as the Southern Appalachian Mountains. Its general character and relations can be more easily de- scribed and better understood after a brief discussion of the Apj)alachian region as a whole. THE APPALACHIAN REGION. The map accompanying this report (PI. 11) shows the Appalachian Mountain sj^stem extending along the eastern portion of the continent from New York to Alabama, for a distance of 1,000 miles, and having a maximum width approaching 150 miles. These Appalachians constitute, not a single ridge or chain, but a zone or belt of mountains, the maximum development of which is reached south- MounteSis'^'"" southwest of Washington. Along the southeastern front, the Blue Ridge Mountains in New Jersey and Pennsylvania are rather poorlj' defined, and reach an elevation in the lat- ter State, at South Mountain, of about 2,000 feet. South- southwestward they become a more prominent and regular feature in the landscape, the highest peaks reaching an elevation of a little more than 4,000 feet in Virginia (see PL XII), and about 6,000 feet in North Carolina. Along the northwestern front of this belt the Allegheny Moun- tains, starting with the Catskills in New Yoi'k, cross Penn- sylvania and Marjdand is a series of well-defined parallel ridges, with a general elevation of 2,000 feet. The maxi- mum development of the Alleghenies, however, is reached along the line between Virginia, West Virginia, and Ken- tuck3% where the elevations range from 3,000 feet to nearly 4,500 feet above the sea. Southward from this point they become less and less prominent, rising but little above the adjacent plateau surface. Between the Blue Ridge Mountains and the Alleghenies lies a great mountain valley, or succession of valleys, sep- arated laterally by more or less subordinate ridges, parallel to the general mountain courses, and with their ends sep- arated by lovr divides. This is called bj' the geographers v^Fe^'"''^^''" the Great Appalachian Valley. The more or less separate vallej's have local names, such as the Lehigh, Lebanon, and Cumberland valleys, in Pennsylvania; the Shenandoah, or Valley of Virginia (see PI. Ill a), and the Valley of East Tennessee. (See PI. LXV.) The floor of this great val- le3^ region has an elevation above the sea of from less than 500 to 800 feet in Pennsvlvania, and thence, like the moun- tains, rises southward to its maximum elevation of about 1,700 feet in southwest Virginia. (PI. III.) Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate III. l.-ll VALLEY OF VIRGINIA. (Seep. ]().) This is a part of tlie great Appalaeliian Valley lying west of the Southern Appalachian Mountains. (B) PIEDMONT PLATEAU IN VIRGINIA. (Seep. 17.) This plateau region lies east and south of the Appalacaiian mountains from Virginia into Alabama. SENATE DOC. No 84 FIFTr-SEVENTH CONGRESS. FIRST SESSION RELIEF MAP OF THK SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION Showing Uie dislribuiion of Uie mountains Sc nle 874 360 MOUNTAIN PEAKS AND THEIR ALTITUDES IN FEtT ■fS i^i . - Sh..i.». «k "^^95 *\ ■ -St- 5-+^^ iAi..-*iii7K) \ iji" ■" ^■- V .>" 2$:^' K'.^^ y\ .._../ ; y-- • \^ ( ,.t„ifi ^,^,- ,**'^^ «gl,l„Si™, . A Al it> ^., 1/ ^..1, Vt-/ ^ S>> ly- J',. ^1^. ^-5. -/ j/i53^' '^ ^4[( ^y"?- -^ { 1,!^ ><^' , 1 ",1 . A y^tN.. I I T" '■"' l>(,l'MlItA \ '^^^ ^ \f" Wi y'-^-^ _i —v ^ V ^ y ^i^ ?. \ ^^^^^4^ ''y>.|ii,.||,„i ^["■"f T•■l■«^ ' PL«Tt VI, Part 1. Lt.mli M..iiiilnl. ■-JHAM.\ i-^fsl ,\,\io SUUTH ..T r„„,., o„..o...„,„ „„„,,,„^ ,,„,.^ ^„^^^^^^ ..P.,..c„.. „o„,,.„3, ,,,„ -4DFATHER MOUNTAIN : TYPICAL SO Pl*te VI, Part 2. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 19 Virginia the Unakas approach the Blue Ridge and prac- ticallj' merge with the latter into one iri'egular mountain range; southward, the two diverge. The Unaka range has 18 peaks rising above 5,000 feet, and 8 of these above 6,000 feet. The Roan, toward its northern end, Mount Guyot and Clingman's Dome, farther south in the Great Smoky Mountains, reach altitudes, respectively, of 6,313, 6,636, and 6,619 feet. Southwest of the North Carolina line these bordering mountain chains lose both in elevation and regularity. In northern Georgia thej" break up into several minor ridges, diminishing in size as they extend southwestward, sepa- rated b}' widening, irregular valleys. Near Cartersville, o/^'e^AppSa- Ga., between the two principal tributaries of the Coosa '''"'^"^• River, the Southern Appalachians merge into the Pied- mont Plateau, with its low, isolated hills and ridges, rem- nants of former mountains. (See Pis. IX a and XLV.) They rise again, however, in eastern central Alabama into the short, irregular ridge of the Talladega Mountains, which reach an elevation of 2,500 feet. The slopes of these ridges in north Georgia are still largely forest cov- ered, and along them are the countless springs which, with notable constancy, feed the great rivers of that State and Alabama. The scenery of much of this region is exceedingly picturesque, and its attractiveness is increased by the many cascades and waterfalls along the courses of these mountain streams, such as Tallulah Falls (see PI. XXVIII), with a descent of 335 feet, and the Dukes Creek, Minnehaha, and Ruby falls, with each a descent of nearly 300 f^et in short distances. Extending out from the two great irregular mountain borders, the Blue Ridge and the Unakas, into the elevated region between them, and connecting them in places, are a series of more or less interrupted cross ridges, which jjj™^^™*|^j^^sea have altitudes comparable to, and in one case (the Black Mountains) greater than, those of either the Blue Ridge or the Unakas. And these interior ridges are separated by high, but deep and generally nari'ow, irregular valle3's. Standing on any of these elevated mountains, one maj^ see stretching out in either of several directions an endless succession of mountain ridges and mountain peaks. A remarkable succession of these ridges and peaks is seen from the Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina, looking southwest, as shown in the accompanying panoramic view (PI. VI). Plundreds of such vistas, from as many peaks, 20 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. open out before the traveler through this region. In every direction the splendid hard-wood fores-ts cover and protect the mountain slopes and the countless springs of water which flow from them as the sources of great rivers. There is but one discordant fact — the calamitous destruction of the forests on these mountain slopes. Some of these ridg-es, like the Black Mountains, are short, but high and massive and terminate abruptly. Others ai-e longer and lower and slope gradually'- down to the adjacent A'alley or rise from a lower gap to another still higher lidge. All are more or less irregular both in their courses and their elevation. Most of them have peaks rising from their tops; but not a few have faii'ly uniform crests. (See peaSndVidges^ PI- XVII.) Some of these peaks, like the Grandfather (PL VII), are sharp, rugged, and rockj^; others, like the Roan or the "Balds" (PI. Villa), are rounded domes whose tops are covered only with g-rass and I'hododendron, while still others, equally tall and massive, like the Blacks and the Great Smokies, are heavity forest covered to the summit. (See PI. VIII 5.) The haziness of the atmosphere, which has found expres- sion in the names "Blue Eidge" and "Smoky Mountain," often limits the distance of distinct vision, but it combines with the forest cover to soften the details and to render this Southern Apj^alachian landscape attractive bej^ond comparison. This succession of ridges and peaks, seen through it from an eminence, rising one above and beyond these mountain's^ f^iiother for 50 or 100 miles or more, impresses upon the observer in a manner not to be forgotten the vastness of this region of mountains. It has 46 peaks, a mile or more apart, and 41 miles of dividing ridges, which rise above 6,000 feet; 288 additional peaks and 300 miles of divide rise more than 5,000 feet above the sea. These are not onl\^ the greatest masses of mountains east of the Rockies; they are the highest mountains covered with hard-wood forests in America. tures^'^"' ^''^' This region, thus unicjue in its position, in its mountain features, in its forests, and in its climate, stands grandly out as the greatest physiographic feature in the eastei'n half of the continent. (See Pis. II and VI.) ieys°""*'^"^"' Between these groups of mountains and far below them, though still at an elevation of 2,000 feet or more above the sea, are the numerous narrow valleys of this region. Thej' border the numberless streams and ai'e generally more extensive nearer the sources of these streams, and Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate VII. B *■ BS ri T O a-a * prfp p: P P- 05 o ^ X 3 JO 3) C F:::'ej- BO. £- n Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate VIII. (-il "BALD" OF BIG YELLOW MOUNTAIN, MITCHELL COUNTY, N. C. (See pp. 18, 20.) The.'ie bald mountain tops arc i-overed with grass, the tree line often being fairly sharp. ;See also PI. XXIIo.) (£) A COMMON TYPE OF SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN PEAK IN THE uREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (Seep.'JO.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 21 hence nearer to the Bhie Ridgfe than to the Unakas. (PI. IX.) As a rule, they vary in width from a few hundred feet to a.s many yards. Some of the most notable of these vallej's. reaching- a width of 2 to .5 miles in places, are those on New River in Virginia, on the French Broad above Asheville, on the Tennessee River in southwestern North Carolina, and about the headwater.s of the Coosa and other rivers in Georgia. As these streams approach and cu* through the mountain borders of this region they riHi In deep gorges, the full width of which is often occu- pied by the streams. (See PI. XXIX.) The slopes of these mountains vary considerably'' in their steepness. The northwestern slopes of the Bhie Ridge are usually gentle and in many places cleared. The south- eastern slopes are generally much steeper and usuallj^ forest covered. In a few places these southeastern slopes ai-e rocky and precipitous. Especiall3' is this the case along the South Carolina border, as seen in Caesars Head, Whiteside, and Table Rock mountains (see Pis. X, XI, and XLV), where the bare rock walls rise 600 to 1,000 ^jSte^PJis^j^^^^o^f feet in height. The slopes of the Unakas, like those oi''^°P^^- manv of the interior ridges, are fairly steep on both sides, ranging generall}' from 20 to 50 degTees. About the inte- rior ridges there is still greater variation. Some of the rock}' faces are precipitous, while elsewhere the slopes are gentle, ranging from 5 to 20 degrees. But taking the mountains and the vallej's together, the land surface with a slope of less than 10 degrees is not more than 10 per cent of the whole. THE FORESTS. It is the forest covering of these great mountain slopes — a covering that should never be removed — about which interest centers in the present investigation. The re- sults of this examination during the past two j'ears are given at length in a paper published as Appendix A (p. 41). They are stated separate!}- for each of the larger river su|fg*°^the\'^s- basins, following a somewhat general discussion of the ''™°''*''°°' forest conditions in the region as thej' exist to-day and of how the forests may be economical!}- protected and im- proved under Government control. These forests have been carefully studied and classified, and over much the larger portion of the area their density and distribution have been indicated on the excellent topo- graphic maps furnished for this jjurpose by the Depart- ^o^^st maps. 22 SOUTHERK APPALACHIAN REGION. ment of the Interior. The length of time required for engraving- these detailed forest maps makes it impossible to issue them as a part of the present report, but copies of them in manuscript form are meanwhile available for examination at the Department of Agriculture and the Geological Survey. The distribution of these forests and the approximate relative proportion of the forest-covered and the cleared lands are indicated by the generalized map (PI. XII). The scattered cleared fields on the mountain slopes are so small that it is impossible to indicate them on a map of this scale, and hence only the larger clearings, mainl}^ those along the valleys, are shov^n. Considering the forests of the region as a whole, there is a striking uniformity about their general features, espe- cially in the valleys and along the lower slopes, and j^et ever3'where there is variety. This fact is well illustrated b}^ the list (on p. 93) of 137 species of ti-ees and a still longer list of shrubs growing in this mountain region. The forests on the southeasterly slopes are usually less striking, both in size of trees and density of growth, than those on the northwest, and they are usuallj' more damaged bj' forest fires, because the slopes are steeper and ai'e kept Variations in di'ier bv their more direct exposure to the sun. The forests on south- .,,*.. , , i ernaud northern neighbormg lorests On the northern and western slopes and in the westerty facing coves exhibit a greater variety of vegetation, a denser growth, and finer specimens of individual trees, because thej' have not only greater mois- ture, but greater depth and fertilit^^ of soil. Both are pro- tected hy the humus which covers the surface and which contributes directh' to the luxuriance of this growth. It is in such situations that we find the best examples of the superb hard-wood forests which abound in this region — the -finest on the continent. (See PL XIII.) xo7esS^'dSI to ^"* ^^^ greatest variations in these mountain forests elevation. ^^.q observed in connection with the differences in eleva- tion. Thus along the southern foothills of the Appala- chians in Georgia one finds occasionallj^ scattered colonies ^ of the loblolly and long-leaf pines, trees which are charac- teristic of the South Atlantic and Gulf coast region, inter- mingling with the tjqjical hard-wood forests of the Pied- mont Plateau and of the lower mountain slopes. (See PI. XIV.) At the eastern foot of the Blue Ridge, in North Carolina, the typical flora of the Piedmont Plateau abounds, and follows up the river gorges into the mountain val- lej's, where it associates with more characteristicallj- Ap- Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate IX a. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate IX B. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate X FhotoKraplifil \>y Limisiiy, ) C/ESARS HEAD, SOUTH CAROLINA. (Seep. 21.) The fires aiul tlie axe are destroying the forest growth on these steep, rocky inniinlain sides. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XI. (Photographed by Seadin.) WHITESIDE MOUNTAIN, SOUTHEAST PROFILE, NORTH CAROLINA. (See p. 21.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 23 palachian species. Thence up to the tops of the higher pealis there is a constant succession of changes — an inter- mingling and overlapping of the lower species with those which belong to greater elevations or more northern latitudes. Thus in ascending any of the higher mountains, as jjJ^^^^j'^jlJj^^g'Jj" Mount Mitchell, which, with its elevation of 6,711 feet, is the loftiest of them all, one ma}^ penetrate, in the rich and fertile coves about its base, a forest of oaks, hickories, maples, chestnuts, and tulip poplars, some of them large enough to be suggestive of the giant trees on the Pacific coast. (See PI. XLIV.) Higher up one rides through forests of great hemlocks, chestnut oaks, beeches, and birches, and higher yet through groves of spruce and balsam. Covering the soil between these trees is a spongy mass of humus sometimes a foot and more in thickness, and over this in turn a luxuriant growth of shrubs and flowers and ferns. At last, as the top is reached, even the balsams become dwarfed, and there give place largely to clusters of rhododendron and patches of grass fringed with flowers, many of them such as are commonly seen about the hills and valleys of New England and southern Canada. In such an ascent one passes thi'ough, as it were, the wfufeiCTation^ " changing of the seasons. Half wa}' up the slopes one may see, with fruit just ripening, the shrubs and plants the matured fruit of which was seen two or three weeks before on the Piedmont Plateau, 3,000 feet below; while 3,000 feet higher up the same species have now just opened wide their flowers. Fully a month divides the seasons above and below, separated by this nearly 6,000 feet of altitude. Remote from the railroads the forest on these moun- General forest tains is generally unbroken from the tops of ridge and peak down to the brook in the valley below, and to-day it is in much the .same condition as for centuries past. (See PI. XVII.) In the more settled portions of the region, how- ever, a difl'erent picture presents itself. Along the nar- row mountain valleys are the cultivated fields about the settlements, where thev ought to be. When the vallevs , unwise forest " * clearings for ag- were practically all cleared the increasing demands for "culture. lands to cultivate led to clearings .successively higher and higher up the mountain slopes, with a pitch of '20 and 30 and even -10 degrees. From some of the peaks one may count these cleared mountain-side patches bj^ the score. They have multiplied the more rapidly because their fer- 24 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. tility is short lived, limited to two, three, or five crops at most. The^' are cleared, cultivated, and abandoned in rapid succession. Out of twent}' such cleared fields, per- haps two or three are in corn, planted between the recently girdled trees; one or two ma}- be in grain; two or four in grass, and the remainder — more than half of them — in various stages of abandonment and ruin, perhaps even before the deadened trees have fallen to the ground. (See PL XVIII.) Lumberingop- xhe lumberman attacked this forest several decades ago eratious. . . i ,. i j when he began to penetrate it m search of the rarer and more valuable trees, such as the walnut and cherry. Later, as the railroads entered the region to some extent, he added to his list of trees for cutting the mountain birch, locust, and tulip poplar, and successively other valuable species. During the past few years he has cut everything merchant- able. He is now beginning to extend his operations to considerable distances beyond the main lines of transpor- tation by the construction of tramways and even cheap, short railways. Meanwhile his search for the more valu- able trees has extended in advance to most of the more remote mountain coves, lumbering op°e? ^^ these operations there has naturally been no thought atious. -Jqj. ^jjg future. Trees have been cut so as to fall along ^ the line of least resistance regardless of what they crush. Their tops and branches, instead of being piled in such way and burned at such time as would do the least harm, are left scattered among the adjacent growth to burn when driest, and thus destroy or injure everything within reach. The home and permanent interests of the lumberman are generally in another State or region, and his interest in these mountains begins and ends with the hope of profit. There is, however, no evidence that the native lumberman has in the past exhibited anj' different spirit. work^ of" forest Forest fires have been one of the great curses of this ^^^- country. From the days of Indian occupation down to the present time these Appalachian Mountain forests have been swept through by fires. Some of these have preceded the lumberman, others have accompanied him, and still others have followed in his wake, and the last have been far more destructive because of the tops and other rubbish which he has left behind him scattered among the remain- ing growth. (See PI. L b). The aggregate damage from these fires is great. Over some limited areas they have entirely destroyed the forests. Everywhere on the south I SCNAie DOC Ho 84 FIf TY-SEVEWTH CONGRESS FIRST SESSION MAP OV Till': SOITIIHHX A!M»ALA('HIAX HKCIIOX Showing forest area uii(l(-'rf-oiiHi(l<*f'a(ion and gu^inj^ stations oCthc (liviHioii oriiydrogniphy I' S. Geological Sun'e\' Scale 1fir4.ii&T OugtniJ HtiiUoiiH inr'-it Fort*»i amuH iiiijn'i'i Th* ■hki'iwv (if itw ^jwiirulur iliniaiim inilirstvthv ■fa**rr« (if rb rri*!*, &«*•)■ li>vin^la*i>ruinuw4ut(ltIt*irdi«>nl>uUon Senate Doc, No. 84. Plate XIII. 1 Photographed by ScadinO AN ORIGINAL SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN FOREST, TRANSYLVANIA COUNTY, N. C. (.See pp. 21-23, 45.) Senate Doc. No, 84. Plate XIV. ^^jiMMsi^i Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XV. SPRUCE FORESTS AT HIGH ELEVATIONS; ON WHITETOP MOUNTAIN, VIRQINdA, (See pp. 23. 47.) Seedlings of this black spruce abound in the moss under the trees. These and the humus and the roots hold the soils and help store the rains. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 25 ward slopes the damages have exceeded those on slopes toward the north or west. Trees have been burned near the roots, making their bases defective (see PI. XLVll); the 3"oung growth has been burned down (see PI. XLVI); the grasses and other wild foi'age plants have been tem- porarily exterminated, so that instead of pasturage being improved, as some have believed it would be, in the end it has been seriously damaged. This destruction of the . injuries resuit- ^ o ^ ing from tlie humus has always resulted seriously both to the forests burning of the -' •' humus. and to the soils. In some cases, where the forests covering the steep, rocky slopes were thin, the loss of the humus has resulted in the washing and leaching away of the soils to such an extent as to destroy the forests entirely; and in all cases where the humus is thus removed the work of land erosion among the trees goes on as surely as though the forest itself were gone, though of course the process is far less rapid. Furthermore, the storage of water (in soils from which this humus has been removed) is far less perfect than in the original perfect forest. The rapid rate at which these lumbering operations have extended during the past few years and the still more rapid rate at which thej^ are being extended at the present time, considered in connection with the destructive work of the fires and the clearing for agriculture, indicates that within less than a decade every mountain cove will have been invaded and robbed of its finest timber, and the last of the remnants of these grand primeval Appalachian forests will have been destroyed. Hence the very possi- bility of securing a forest reserve such as now contem- plated is a possibility of the present, not of the future. This great activitj^ indicates, furthermore, in the most striking way possible, the growing anxietj' as to the future supply of hard-wood timber. And indeed the time is now imperative at hand when the great interests involved make it impera- est pouey. five that the Government take hold of this problem and inaugurate here in these great broad-leaved forests of the East a new conservative forest policy, as it is already doing for the pine forests of the West. FOKEST CLEARING AND AGBICULTUKE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. Ordinary farming on these mountain slopes can not exist permanently and should nev^er exist at all. As stated above, not more than 10 per cent of the land of this region has a surface slope of less than 10 degrees (approxi- short lived in its ^q jg„ vears and another must be cleared to take its place. . Ill a- "^ -^ nent in tiie re- ^ foj-gg^ -j^hich is the growth of Several centuries perishes 26 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. mately 2 feet in 10), while 24 per cent (see PI. XII) of it has been cleared. In this region land with slopes exceeding this can not be successfully cultivated for any considerable time, because its surface is rapidlj!- washed into the rivers below by the heavy rains, and the same agency rapidly leaches out and carries to the sea its more soluble and fertile ingredients. The valley lands have already been largely cleared, and the farmers are now following up the mountain slopes. In many cases their cleared patches have well nigh reached the mountain sum- mits. This process is going on with greater rapidity, because each short-lived hillside field must soon be aban- doned. The underbrush is destroyed, the trees are girdled, and for one, two, or three years such a field is planted in corn, then a 3^ear in grain, then one or two 3^earsin grass; then the grass gives place to weeds, and the weeds to gul- lies. (See Pis. XX and XXI.) Agriculture on gudj ^ field has usuallv passcd through its cvole in five mountain slopes .J- & . short lived in it benefits; perma nent in the re suiting injuries. in less than a decade; a soil which is the accumulation or a thousand j^ears has been cleared, cultivated, abandoned, and is on the downward road to the sea within less than a decade. Such is the brief life history of many thousands of small mountain fields in this Southern Appalachian region. But even the native farmer is beginning to real- ize that the clearing of these mountain slopes is producing floods that wash away the valley farms, and that the time must come when he will have successively cleared and destroved all his available mountain land. (See PI. xxxiv). Some serious Fortunately the intelligence of the country is awaken- results from this . , , , , , x- n "^^ j_i * i forest clearing, mg to other and larger results that are lollowing tnis pol- icy. The soil thus removed ma_v stop long enough on its way to the sea to silt up the streams as they cross the low- lands or may fill up the harbors as the streams reach the coast. Every acre of mountain slope thus cleared is a step in the more rapid destruction of the forests, of the soils, of the rivers, and of the "eternal mountains" themselves — the destruction of conditions which the combined wealth, intelligence, and time of man can not restore in a region which now possesses infinite possibilities for the benefit of the whole nation. N COUNTY. N. C. PLiTE XVII. '•■•- -n r- Y !• kt iiita M '- ''•^^^ ' ">>.* ,S..,W,.„ r„c „Me„OKtN F^.ST Of ,„. o„E.r SMOKV MOUNT, INS: FROM ANDREWS BALD " LD." SWAIN COUNTY, N. C. J^ \ • '■'• ^vi^^i.-^'-' r 'c^_ ■ — (^) WASHING OF GRASS-COVERED SOIL, TOP OF ROAN MOUNTAIN, (iii-i; p. 27.) About the tops of the.se higher Southern mountains the grasses grow more vigorously than at lower levels; but even there the sod is not strong enough to prevent the \vashing away of the soil. {B) WASHING OF AN ABANDONED PASTURE FIELD. ^Seep. 27.) This is a good illustration of the process by which these mountain slopes are going to ruin. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXIII. (.1) UNWASHED VALLEY LANDS SURROUNDED BY FOREST-COVERED MOUNTAINS. (See p. LiV.) (See, also, PL IX ft, p. 21.) {S) BADLY WASHED MOUNTAIN VALLEY LANDS, BAKERSVILLE, N. C. (Scf p. 27.) The liiwer slopes of the mountains bordering this valley are largely cleared. Senate Doc. No. 84, Plate XXIV. (^) VALLEY LANDS BADLY WASHED BY FLOODS. (Seep. 27.) These fertile valley lands in the Southern .ippalachipns will all be .vashed away in a few decades unless the forests on the mountain slopes are protected. "eLaues unless tne (i'l VALLEY LANDS RUINED BY RECENT FLOODS AND ABANDONED. (Seep. 1^7.) As long as the forests remain on the mountain the valleys can be cultivated. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 29 decades have begun to suffer seriously from river floods. Each one of these streams along its course through the^J^^'J|j°^j,^'^.'=^'= mountains and across the hill countrj' beyond by its water ?™,fs'"iOT'^^vater power is already a contributor to the manufacturing in- power- terests of the country (PL- XXV), and with improvement in the electrical transmission of power the possibilities of manufacturing developments in this direction are increas- ing rapidh' ever}- j-ear. The measurements and estimates recently made by the Government hj'^di-ographer show the aggregate available undeveloped water power on the streams rising in this region to be more than a million horsepower. On these streams water-power developments are constantly in progress, but their value in the future will diminish as the forests disappear. In the mountains themselves these streams have their sources at elevations from .3,000 to 6,000 feet, and before reaching a level of 2,000 feet manj" of them have reached considerable proportions. They subsequently flow across the mountain region for distances of from 20 to .50 miles before breaking thi-ough the border ranges onto the sur- rounding lowlands at elevations ranging from 1,000 to 1,200 feet. Along their courses stretches of smooth water are never long, and the descent is often accomplished b}' numerous rapids, cascades, and fails. (See PI. XXVII; also Pis. LXX and LXXI.) Such cascades, with descent Beauty of the ' ^ mountain in short distances of from V) to 50 feet, are abundant, streams. while in some of the smaller tributaries beautiful falls of from 100 to 300 feet are to be found. I can not adequate!}' describe the beauty and infinite variety of these mountain brooks and larger streams. Always clear, except immediately after the harder I'ains — for the forests hold back the soil — fed regularh- from per- petual springs, the}^ are among the important assets of the South. No gorges in eastern America can equal in depth and TheriTergorges '=''=> ^ *■ of the region. wildness those carved across the Blue Ridge and the Unakas by these streams in making their way through the marginal ranges of the Southern Appalachians. About the headwaters of the Catawba, the Linville River, after flowing for some miles parallel with the Blue Ridge, at an elevation of 3,800 feet, rushes down its eastern slope with a fall of 1,000 feet in less than 3 miles, through a gorge 1,500 to 2,000 feet in depth, a dozeu miles in length, and with wall so steep and bottom so narrow and rugged that few persons have succeeded in following its course. 30 ' SOrTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. (See PI. LXXn. ) Almost the same language might be used in describing the gorge cut by the Pigeon River across the Unaka Mountains southwest of Asheville; and there are a number of others cutting the Blue Ridge and Unakas at different points that are worthj' of comparison with these. The same maj^ be said of the gorges of the Tallulah and other streams in northern Georgia. But notwithstanding the steepness of the slopes of these gorges, even where the descent is almost precipitous, they are forest-covered except where the trees and shrubs have been destroyed bj' tire and the soil has been removed by the storms. " (See Pis. XXIX and XLII.) irreguJarity of The perpetuation of the streams and the maintenance of gions'iargeiy their regular flow, so as to prevent floods and maintain cleared. . their water powers, are among the prime objects of forest preservation in the Southern Appalachians. Nothing illus- trates the need of this more fully than the fact that on the neighboring streams, Ij'ing wholly within the Piedmont plateau, where the forests have been cleared from areas aggregating from 60 to 80 per cent of the whole, floods are frequent and excessive. During the seasons of pro- tracted drought some of the smaller streams almost disap- pear, and the use of water power along their course is - either abandoned or largely supplemented by steam power. To-day the larger yaluable water powers in the South Atlantic region are mainly limited to the streams which have their sources among the Southern Appalachian Mountains; and the waters of these streams show a striking unif ormitj^ of flow as compared with the streams lying wholly within the adjacent lowland country, where forest clearing has been excessive. While the rainfall is somewhat greater in the mountain I'egion, it is a question of the regularity rather than the volume of flow, and this depends upon the water storage. The soil in the one region is as deep as in the other, and the slopes being gentler in the low country, other things being equal, the water would soak into it the ]ate°'tte^flo\v^of more easily. In the mountain region itself the flow of the s reams. streams along which proportionately large clearings have been made has become decidedlj' more irregular, and the flood damages have greatl}^ exceeded those along other streams where the forests have not been disturbed. The problem resolves itself into one of a forest cover for the soil. This is just what one would expect who has been, during a rainy season, in the heart of a mountain i'egion where Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXV. = « •c o ~ 2 •a J □ a.-- g -■ H 3 ? o 5>. o ss as ^ ~-3 9 ox o T rt -T- Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXVI. (-■ii WATER POWER ON SALUDA RIVER. AT PELZER, S. C. I, See l.p. 1^9, 1-11. l/'i WATER PuvVER ON BROAD RIVER, AT COLUMBIA, S. C. (See pp. 29. 1-11.) These streams have their sources within the limits of the proposed Appalachian forest reserve; niid the perpetuation, of these valuable water powers depends on the preservation of these mo\intain forests. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXVII. CASCADES NEAR HEAD OF CATAWBA RIVER. (Sc-f pp. liU, UC. ) There nre hundred.s of oascarlea as beautiful as this in the Soutlierii Appalachians. As long as these mountain forests are preserved these streams have a regular flow; united tliey furnish the water powers whieh operate the factories valued at increasing millions. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXVIII. TALLULAH FALLS, GEORGIA. (See pp. 19, 2S, 139. l'h..to;.-ni].lu-.i l.y Hillers.) There is here a sucee.'isioii of beautiful cascades which have within a short distance au aggregate descent of 335 feet. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 31 the lands have not been cleared nor have forest lires de- stroyed the humus cover from their surface. The rain- " drops are battered to pieces and their force broken by the leaves and twigs of the trees, and when their spray reaches the ferns, the grass, and the flowers below, instead of running away down the surface slope it passes into the spongj' humus, and thence into the soil and the crevices among the rocks below. As much of this supply as is not subsequently used by the growing plants emerges from this storehouse weeks or months later in numberless springs. (See PI. XXXI.) The rain must be extremely abundant or long protracted to produce anj^ excessive increase in the flow of the adjacent brooks. The rainfall in this Southern Appalachian region, as shown in Appendix D (p. 143), ranges from GO inches for the year in Georgia to 71 inches in North Carolina. Heavv Heavy rainfaii , " renders forest rainfalls during short periods are common. Even in an "O'fer necessary, arid or semiarid region, where the rainfall for the year maj' be 10 inches or less, the absence of the forest cover results in a slow but sure removal of the soil from the mountain slopes. Much more in a region of heavv rain- fall, like that of these southern mountains, when the forest cover has been destroyed, will the soil removal be certainly and I'apidly accomplished. In studying the streams of the more northern States it ana^'j,,^™j^*'Jto° is seen that the numerous lakes and the deposits of sand ffre^t%?oWem? and gra^'el spread over the hills and valle3's of that region bj^ the glaciers serve to store the water and to preserve the uniformity in the flow of the streams, and would ac- complish much in this direction even were the forests in that region entirely removed. In this southern region the preservation of the soil and the streams is a task which the forests alone must accomplish, and to that end the}' must be eft'ectivel}' protected. The proportion of cleared and forest-covered land in ^.jgare "find in each of the great I'iver drainage basins of the region is APpa'acMan re- c b i? gion increasing. given on page 69, and as will be seen there, this proportion, though generally small, varies considerablj' in the diflerent basins. Taking the region as a whole, at the present time about 21: per cent of the area has been cleared. (See PI. XII. ) This proportion is an ever-increasing one — increas- ing the more swiftly for the reason that new fields are constantly being cleared and the abandoned fields are being- eroded so rapidly that thev are seldom reforested. (See PL XXI.) 32 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. di^a5n'"'^hea'°v Here and there among the Southern Appalachians a land- n''°essit^'o£'fOT-®^^'^^ extending over an acre, or several acres, has started, est cover. bearing on its surface a section of the forest, but the larger trees below have blocked its course within a few feet or a few yards of its original position. (See PI. XXXII.) The trees on its surface were tilted, but the subsequent upward bending of their tops shows that the slip took place ten, fif t}", or more than one hundred years ago. The abundance of such evidence shows that these rain storms among the primeval forests have been both frequent and heavy, but during the centuries these densely forest-covered slopes have not lost their soils nor the soils their fertility, nor Erosion of the j^.^^^ .^ f urrow been washed. Trees of four centuries stand forest-covered mountains e.x-^Q.flfjy j^ ^jjg yerv bottom of shallow raVines and minor ceedmgly slow. depressions (see PI. XXXIII), eroded before these forests covered the mountains. Had these forests been removed a few of these great rains that started these landslides would have cleaned the mountain slope of its recentlj^ formed soil, and would have swept the valley below. Thefuturemii Thcse mountains will continue to be the home of storms. liave Its storms. ForestsaionecanXheir heavv rains will continue to drench the slopes, if protect moun- ■ _ _ _ ^ -r tains. cleared of their forests, with increasing violence. Whether in the future these rains shall be caught by fern and grass and hunms, and received b}' a deep, porous soil, to be given out as needed to the vegetation above and the perpetual springs below, or whether it shall rush down bare, rocky slopes to iill the gorges and carry destruction through the vallej's beyond, depends upon whether or not these forests are preserved. Damages from xhe terriblv destructive work of the heavv rains in wash- recent floods m "lis region. i,]g- away the farm lands on the mountain slopes and in the valleys of this region, especiallj' where the clearings have been greatest, has alread}' been described. It should be under.stood clearly, however, that the dangers from these iioods are not limited to the region about the mountains. The floods from the Ma}' storm of the present year on the Blue Ridge, about the sources of the Catawba, swept the best of the farm lands along the course of that stream for upward of 200 miles, and cost the farmers more than a million and a half of dollars. An August storm in the same region added a loss of half a mill'on more b}' further destruction on the Catawba lowlands. (See PL XXXIV.) Similarly, the same May floods swept the valleys of the Yadkin in North Carolina, the New (Kana- wha) in Virginia and West Virginia, and the upper tribu- Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXIX. FOREST-COVERED SLOPES OF LINVILLE GORGE SEEN FROM BYNUMS BLUFF. If the forests on these steep slopes are once destroyed they can not be restored, as the soils will be quickly removed by the heavy rains. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXX. FORESTS REGULATING THE FLOW OF STREAMS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (.See p|j. '29-31; ]a7-lJ2.) The leaves aiifl Vjranches ahnve break the foree of the raiiKlrtirw; the shrubs, ferns, and humus below catch the water anfl pass it .slowlv downward into the soil anrl rock crevices: and from this great natural reservoir, weeks or even months later, this water emerges in the numberless springs about the lower mountain slopes, and feeds the great rivers that cross the hill country below. Senate Dnc. No. 84. Plate XXXI. (-1) A SPRING ON SOUTHERN SLOPE OF MOUNT MITCHELL. These perennial spring.? are ferl by water stored in tlie forest-covered slopes of these moinitains. They maintain the regiihir flo^v of the many mountain streams of this region. I«l A MOUNTAIN BROOK IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. In the beaiitiful Sapphire eo\nitry of North Carolina. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXXII. (-■ll LANDSLIDE STOPPED BY THE FOREST, NORTH SLOPE OF ROAN MOUNTAIN. (See p. 32.) '''■) SMALL LANDSLIDE AT A SPOT WHERE NO LARGE TREES WERE GROWING. If it were not fur this forest growth the soils on many steep mountain slope.s, when siiturated from heavy rains, would either slide down like avalanches, or be washed down by the rushing water. SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN EEaiON. 33 taries of the Tennessee with resultino- devastation, which, wlien added to that on the Catawba, sums up to more than ^7,000,000 damage. Add to this the damages fi'om floods on other streams rising in difl'erent parts of this region dur- ing the spring and summer, and the total this j'ear approxi- mates $10,000,000. (See Pis. XXXV and XXXVI.) Such has been the story, on a smaller scale, of other similar but less violent floods about the sources of these mountain-born rivers during the past few years. If we are to continue the destruction of these mountain forests, this story will have to be repeated in successively larger editions in the future. THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. As shown in the accompanying paper by Professor Henry, of the Weather Bureau (p. 143), the climate of the Southern Appalachian region possesses distinctive fea- tures of its own, although it partakes somewhat of the main features of the climatic zones both to the west and to the east. Its distinctive features, due to higher alti- tudes, are a lower temperature, both summer and win- ter, a drier atmosphere, and at the same time a greater rainfall and snowfall, and higher wind velocity. There are of coui'se local variations in the climatic conditions of the region, owing to its extremely varied topography, but the limited number of stations where observations have been made in this region makes it impossible to dis- cuss these local variations at the present time. It is in temperature that we might expect the greatest jn'^^^P|^on not variations, but, unfortunately, with the exception of a few 6^*™'^<=- months' observation on Mount Mitchell (elevation 6,711 feet), no observations are available at elevations greater than 4,000 feet. The highest temperature observed on Mount Mitchell during May, June, July, and August in 1873 was 72° in July; the lowest, 41° in June. At High- lands, N. C. (elevation 3,817 feet), the mean temperature of the summer is given by the Weather Bureau records as 65.7°, and the mean winter temperature as 35.4°. The extremes during a period of eight years (1893 to 1900) were 19° below zero in February'' and 86° above zero in June. The rainfall along the southern slopes of the Blue Ridge . Rainfaii heav- o f b lestm the East- is the heaviest in the United States, with the exception of <=™ states. that on the northern Pacific coast, ranging from 60 inches 3-i SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. in northern Georgia to 71 inches in western North Caro- lina. The precipitation for the 3'ear 1S9S in western North Carolina at Highlands was 10,5.24: inches; at Horse Cove, 99.97 inches; Flat Rock, 78.-39 inches, and Linville, 71.05 inches. The rainfall in the warm seasons is often torrential, while in the spring and autumn the rains often continue over several days in succession. During May 21, 1901, the rainfall in twenty-four hours was, at Highlands, N. C, 4.03 inches; at Henderson ville, N. C, 4.91 inches; at Flat Rock, N. C, 6.13 inches; at Marion, N. C, 7.25 inches; and at Patterson, N. C. 8.3 inches. Near Roan Mountain, North Carolina, a rainfall of 8 inches in eleven hours has been recorded. In August of 1901 the total rain- fall for the month at Highlands, N. C. , was 30.74 inches, icleatire?™'^' '^'^® tables which accompany Professor Henr}'"s paper show the temperatures, rainfall, and other weather condi- tions at practicall}^ all of the stations established within this region. The}' emphasize two facts of special impor- tance in connection with the present discussion, namely, that the climate is such as to permit travel and lumbering- operations in all portions of this region throughout the entire year, while the rainfall, being heavy in the aggre- gate and often excessive within short periods, renders it necessary- to protect the forests in order to limit floods and prevent the washing awaj- of the land. HOW CAN THESE FORESTS BE PRESERVED? contof th™on"y Having given what I believe to be a fair statement of Sm.'''^"^ ^°'"" the conditions existing in the Southern Appalachian region, and considered the danger growing out of the policy and practice now in force, I pass on to inquire through what agency these forests can be preserved. After carefixl considei'ation I am able to suggest but one way to solve the problem, and that is for the Federal Government to purchase these forest-covered mountain slopes and make them into a national forest resei've. these'foreste be- Certainly, the lumbermen and the native farmers, who oT^priv-ate^tad?- 'ii'c '^ow pushing the destruction of these forests, can not viduais. ijg expected of themselves to bring about their preserva tion. Nor can the perpetuation of forest conditions, upon which depend so many national interests, be left to the caprice of private capital, which has no interest beyond the profits in the lumber industry. The restoration of forests already mjui-ed, and the reforesting of the steep Senate Dog. No. 84. Plate XXXlll. LARGE POPLAR TREE GROWING IN MOUNTAIN RAVINE, ON THE WEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT SMOKIES. tSeep. 32.) Senate Doc. No. 84, Plate XXXIV. (-1) SOIL REMOVED AND WHITE SAND SPREAD OVER THE SURFACE OF THE CATAWBA RIVER LOWLANDS. (See pp. 32, 130.) The damnges along this river from the floods o£ May and AugiLst, 1901, aggregated ahout fl, 500,000. •*?" {JU LAYER OF SAND SPREAD OVER THE FERTILE LOWLANDS BORDERING THE CATAWBA RIVER BY A FLOOD IN MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32, 130.) Senile Doc. No. 84. Plate XXXV. X-K -'.■■^S?*ia,.- I--1I FLOOD DAMAGES ON ELKHORN CREEK, IN WEST VIRGINIA, JUNE, 1901. The damages from floods along stream.s rising in this Southern Appalachian region, from April 30, to December 1, 1901, reached $10,000,000. Between Decemberl, 1901, and April 1, 1902, they reached J8, 000,000 additional. (Bl DEBRIS FROM FLOODS ON NOLICHUCKY RIVER, EAST TENNESSEE, MAY 21, 1901. This di^bris consit^ting of the wreck of farmhouses, furniture, lumber yards, bridges, cattle, and probably several human bodies, covered 6 acres of fertile farm larid near Erwin, Tenn. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXXVI. ffB '"^ rro — ' OCns o'c o SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. 35 mountain slopes already cleared, are here properly national functions, for their results will be national in importance and extent. Furthermore, it is perfectly safe to assert that any satisfactory protection and development of these forests for the objects here contemplated is wholly beyond the agency of private individuals ; and such persons would have no direct interest whatever in the protection and perpetuation of water-power, agriculture, and navi- gation along the lower courses of the streams whose head- waters the_y control. Nor can the States within whose territorv these lands ownership and control by the now lie be expected to convert them into a forest reserve, ^l^^ "°' praoti- The land is not owned b^- the States, but by private indi- viduals. It is true that some of the wealthier States, like New York and Pennsylvania, are showing an intelligent and commendable interest in purchasing forest lands and establishing forest reserves for the protection of the sources of streams lying within their own boundaries and for the conservation of the forests. But the case is wholly different in the Southern Appalachian region. North Carolina can not, for example, fairly be expected to establish a forest reserve at great expense for the protec- tion of streams which though rising within her borders lie mainly in other States. Nor could Alabama be expected to purchase lands in the State of Georgia for the protection of her great river which reaches the Gulf in Mobile Bay. Nor could West Virginia be expected to purchase lands in North Carolina for the protection of the sources of the Kanawha Eiver, the largest lateral tributary of the Ohio. Furthermore, even were these States willing to enter ,P"rc,ii«se ot ' => these lorests too upon such a plan, their financial condition is not such as SfHy f""' Jj^e to make the undertaking possible. The combined income states wiiiingfor p ^ _ Federal control. for a year of all the States within whose borders these lands lie would hardly be sufficient for their purchase. As shown, however, in the Appendix (p. 17:2), each of the States within whose borders these mountain lands are located has by legislative act expressed its heartj' approval of this measure and its willingness to cede the control of these lands to the Federal Government. This is a national problem. The people of a number of tijg™'''fore°ts °i States are directly interested. The dangers growing out j^^'J^'o"''' p™^- of the polic}' now in force are national in their character, as are also the benefits to be obtained b_v the policy now advised. This proposal for a national forest reserve has alread}' been discussed and commended by our ablest men 36 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. of science, hj practical lumbermen, b}' the forestry asso- ciations, by many of the business organizations of the country, and hj both the technical and the general press. I earnesth' hope that it will meet with favorable action at the hands of Congress during its present session. National forest Congress has wiselv provided for the setting aside out reserves m the ^ . *■ . West. of the public domain, and thus withdrawing from sale, man}^ thousands of square miles of valuable forest lands, with a view to protecting the streams and perpetuating the timber supply about the mountains in our western States and Territories. (See PI. II.) And while the meas- ure now proposed involves a purchase instead of a with- drawal from sale of forest lands formerh' pm'chased, the principle and purpose are the same. In both cases, even if judged simph' as a question of finance, the Government's investment will ultimatelj' prove a good one. mraded n^t"a ^^ further illustrating the fact that the proposed pur- GoTcmment ^^^ ^hase will not be a new policy or precedent on the part of the Government, attention maj^ be called to the numerous purchases of lands for military parks, and to the purchase from the Blackfoot Indians in 1896 of more than half a million acres of forest lands at a cost of 81,500,000, which area was subsequently added to the Flathead Forest Reserve in Montana. mrae'^'^iL'^ortant "^^ '''■ Stated in oiv preliminary report of January last, than a park but ^jjg earlv movement for the purchase and control of a large the two not an- J r- b tagonistic. ^pea of forcst land in the East by the Government chiefly contemplated a national park, but the idea of a national park is conservation, not use; that of a forest reserve is conservation by use, and I therefore recommend the estab- lishment of a forest reserve instead of a park. If, how- ever, the present proposal for the establishment of a national forest reserve is favorably acted upon by Con- gress, and at some future time it should prove desirable that some considerable portion of this region be set aside and opened up more especially for use as a national park, I can see in advance no objection whatever to the carrying out of such a plan. CONDITIONS OF PURCHASE AND MANAGEMENT. Cost of the I stated in the preliminary report just referred to that lands. *'° "^"^ lands in this region suitable for a forest reserve are now generally held in large bodies of from 50,000 to 100,000 acres, and that they can be purchased at prices ranging SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 37 from §2 to §5 per acre. Further investigations during the present 3'ear confirm the correctness of this statement. There are also man}' additional tracts of forest lands rang- ing from 1,000 to 60,000 acres each that are for sale at reasonable prices. Within the present year a few tracts of from 10,000 to 30,000 acres sold at less than f2 per acre. Within the past decade the larger portion of this area could have been purchased in large tracts at prices ranging from $1 to $2 an acre; but in view of the grow- ing demand for forest lands, prices have already advanced, and the}' may be expected to advance still more within the next few years. Within the past two decades the titles to many of tliej J^'^^^^^'o^j^^e large tracts of land in this region have been much in*°'^y. dispute, and the efforts to adjust them involved tedious processes in court; but I am informed by competent judges that iu practical^ all of these cases adjustments have finally been reached. Anj' appropriation for the purchase of these lands should provide ample time for the searching of titles, although no serious difficulty is anticipated from this soui'ce. Referring again to my preliminary report, I may quote gg^f^l^st^fn^i^™ a statement which has been further confirmed b}' the re- mateiy^yieid^a suits of the present year that "it is fully shown bj^ the?™'''- investigation that such a reserve would be self-supporting from the sale of timber under a wisely directed, conserva- tive polic}'." In the case of many of the European forests under government supervision a net annual income is derived from the sale of timber and other forest products of from Si to more than $5 per acre. I do net, of course, suppose that under the different conditions existing in this countrj' a national forest reserve such as proposed would yield such a result, j^et I confidentl}- expect that the reserve now i^roposed in the Southern Appalachians will in the course of a few j'ears be self-suijporting, and that subse- quenth", as the hard- wood timber supplies in other por- tions of the country become more scarce, the lumbering- operations will yield a considerable net return to the Government. Meanwhile, the establishment of such a reserve wilL i*?, indirect ' benefits great. remedy many of the evils now threatened in this region, and under the efficient management of the practical for- esters now being trained in this Department its working will serve as a test and demonstration of the wisdom and forest reserve aa .. i- 1 ,■ J . • 1 , 1 an object lesson success 01 practical forest operations on a large scale; and win be great. 38 SOUTHERN' APPALACHIAN REGION. this will encourage both individuals and States to adopt such methods of forest management on their own lands as will not onh' protect the forests in existence, but also re- store them on lands which should never have been cleared. Mineral devei- J r^^-, informed bv the geologists who are familiar with opments not in- J to to terfered with, ^jjjg gouthern Appalachian region that the development of its mineral deposits would neither interfere with nor be interfered with by the creation and proper handling of such a forest j'eserve. Existingsettie- '£]^q settlements now existing within the limits of the ments not inter- to feredwith. proposed rcservc would not be interfered with, nor would their existence there, nor their legitimate enlargement, intei"fere with the purposes to be accomplished in the establishment of the reserve. boundafy "n o w ^^ would not be wisc at the present time to make public given. ^]jg exact location of lands which may be thought best adapted for incorporation in such a forest reserve, but the general boundaries of the region within which it is pro- posed to purchase these lands are indicated on the accom- panying maps (see Pis. II, IV, and XII). I am of the opinion that the reserve should ultimatelj^ include not less than i,000,000 acres. CONCLUSIONS. The results of these investigations of the forests and forest conditions of the Southern Appalachian region lead unmistakablj' to the following conclusions: 1 . The Southern Appalachian region embraces the high- est peaks and largest mountain masses east of the Rockies. It is the great physiographic feature of the eastern half of the continent, and no such lofty mountains are covered with hard-wood forests in all North America. 2. Upon these mountains descends the heaviest rainfall of the United States, except that of the North Pacific coast. It is often of extreme violence, as much as 8 inches having fallen in eleven hours, 31 inches in one month, and 105 inches in a year. 3. The soil, once denuded of its forests and swept by torrential rains, rapidlj" loses first its humus, then its rich upper strata, and finallj^ is washed in enormous volume into the streams, to bury such of the fertile lowlands as are not eroded b}- the floods, to obstruct the rivers, and to fill up the harbors on the coast. More good soil is now washed from these cleared mountain-side fields during a single heavy rain than during centuries under forest cover. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 39 i. The I'ivers which originate in the Southern Appala- chians flow into or along- the edges of every State from Ohio to the Gulf and from the Atlantic to the Mississippi. Along their courses are agricultural, water-power, and navigation interests whose preservation is absolutely essen ■ tial to the well-being of the nation. 5. The regulation of the flow of these rivers can be accomplished only by the conservation of the forests. 6. These are the heaviest and most beautiful hard^wood forests of the continent. In them species from east and west, from north and south, mingle in a growth of unpar- alleled richness and variety. They contain many species of the first commercial value and furnish important sup- plies which can not be obtained from any other region. 7. For economic reasons the preservation of these for- ests is imperative. Their existence in good condition is essential to the prosperity of the lowlands through which their waters run. jNIaintained in productive condition they will supplv indispensable materials which must fail without them. Their management under practical and conservative forestry will sustain and increase the resources of this region and of the nation at large, will serve as an invaluable object lesson in the advantages and practica- bility of forest preservation hj use, and will soon be self- supporting from the sale of timber. 8. The agricultural resources of the Southern Appala- chian region must be protected and preserved. To that end the preservation of the forests is an indispensable con- dition which will lead not to the reduction but to the increase of the yield of agricultural products. 9. The floods in these mountain-born streams, if this forest destruction continues, will increase in frequency and violence and in the extent of their damages, both within this region and across the bordering States. The extent of these damages, like those from the washing of the mountain fields and roads, can not be estimated with perfect accuracy, but during the present year alone the total has approximated $10,000,000, a sum sulBcient to purchase the entire area recommended for the proposed reserve. But this loss can not be estimated in money value alone. Its continuance means the early destruction of con- ditions most valuable to the nation and which neither skill nor wealth can restore. 10. The preservation of the forests, of the streams, and of the agricultural interests here described can be success- 40 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. fullj' accomplished onlj' by the purchase and creation of a national forest reserve. The States of the Southern Ap- palachian region own little or no land, and their revenues are inadequate to carry out this plan. Federal action is obviously necessarj', is full}' justified by reasons of public necessitjr, and may be expected to have most fortunate results. James Wilson, Seo'etary of Agriculture. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, December 16, 1901. ^FFEjN^DIX ^. FOBESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ashe. LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By O. W. Pkice. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS, BY RIVER BASINS. By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ashe. TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By AV. W. Ashe and H. B. Ayees. LIST OF SHRUBS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By W. W. Ashe. 41 LETTEE OF TEAIN^SMITTAL. United States Department of Agricxjlture, Bureau of Forestry, Waskington, D. C. , December 18, 1901. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a report on the forests and forest conditions of the Southern Appalachians, including a descrip- tion of them by mountain groups, an account of lumbering in the South- ern Appalachians, and a description of their forests by river basins, together with an annotated account of the trees of the region and a list of the shrubs. Very respectfully, Gifford Pinchot, J^oreste^'. The Secretary of Agriculture. 43 FORESTS AND FOREST CONDITIONS IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. Bv H. B. Ayres and W. ^\'. Ashe. The Southern Appalachian Mountains extend from Vir- ginia southwestward into Alabama, and lie between the Piedmont Plateau on the southeast and the lowlands of East Tennessee on the northwest. That this is preemi- nently a region of mountains is well illustrated by the fact that the mountain slopes occupy 90 f)er cent of the total area; and probably the combined area of the valle3-s and gentler slopes (of less than 10 degrees — about 2 feet in 10) will not aggregate more than 1.5 per cent of the whole. Before the advent of man the entire region, save the tops ^|j?°j*gg?p^°"i}: of a few high mountains — the grassy "balds" — was eov-°^"^"^°'''^^' ''°^" ered with forest, mainly hard wood. (See PI. XXXVIl. ) Then, as now, the forest varied as to density and vigor of growth, but a far larger portion of that existing then is resembled b}* the best of to-daj'' on such tracts as are found in the most favored situations and have been pro- tected from fire and severe culling. A total area of 5,400,000 acres has been examined in connection with this investigation, and of this 4,050,000 acres, or 75 per cent of the whole, are still in forest. Of this total area in forest about 7.4 per cent, or 303,000 acres, is still in primeval condition, i. e., has never been culled at all. The remainder of this wooded area has been culled to a varying extent. (See PI. XXXVIII.) A limited ^ Natureandex- *^ " ^ ' ^ tent of the clear- portion of that near the railway lines has been robbed of i°gs. nearly everything of commercial value, while the remote areas have had only the walnut, cherry, and figured woods cut. From the intervening areas, far the larger part of the whole, a varying proportion of the most valuable trees have been removed, but large amounts of commer- cial timber still remain. The clearing and culling of a century have made considerable inroads into these forests. The woodland connected with the farms has been largely 45 46 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. culled and is in part covered with trees of second o-rowth. In inanj' places, where transportation facilities are avail- able, the mills have gone into the heart of the mountain region and much of the choicest timber has been sawed there and hauled on wagons to the railroad. (See PI. XXXIX.) '^^"f^tiiefor- ^'^■'' ^° composition, generall^v speaking, it ma_v be said ests. that the forest below the 2,000-foot elevation consists of oaks, hickories, and pines; above that elevation are many hard woods, or hard woods associated with hemlock and white pine. Some spruce and balsam occur on the cold north slopes and around the tops of the larger and higher mountains. DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST AND FOREST CONDI- TIONS, BY MOUNTAIN GROUPS. Subdivision oi For the sake of convenience in description the forest forest area. , i i- • i i en area may be subdivided as follows: (1) The forests of the Blue Ridge. (2) The forests of the White Top Mountain group. (3) The forests of Roan, Grandfather, and Black moun- tains. (4) The forests of the central interior mountain ridges. (5) The forests of the Great Smoky Mountains. (6) The forests of the southern end of the Appalachians. FORESTS OF THE BLUE RIDGE. The Blue Ridge from Virginia to Georgia is, on the dryer slopes and crests, lighth' timbered with small oaks, chestnut, and pines, while in the hollows mixed hard woods — oaks, chestnut, hickories, etc. — form heavy tim- ber. The forests are on the ridges and steeper slopes. The narrow alluvial bottoms and often portions of the adjoining slopes have been cleared and are under cultiva- tion or have been abandoned. But excepting these cleared vallej^s and hillsides, the forests are almostcontinuous from Virginia to Georgia. While the hardwood forests have been culled along nearl}' the entire east slope, onh' the choicest trees of the lighter woods, among which are white pine, have been cut. (See PI. XXXVIII a.) Before any of it was cut the white pine on the Linville River was probably the finest in the Southern mountains. A great part of this has been removed. It is being transported on a narrow-gauge rail- way via Cranberiy to Johnson City. Mills at Hickoiy and Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXXVII. ORIGINAL FOREST, NORTHWEST SLOPE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 23. 4-5, .53.) There are no hikes or glacial gravels in tliis .Southern Appalachian region, such as abound in the Northern States. Here the forest and the soil alone must catch the heavy rains and regulate the flow of the streams. If theforest-s are destroyed the soils will be rapidly washed down into the river channel.s; and the terrible floods will destroy everything along the great river valleys. (See also pp. .56, 133.) Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXXVIII. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 47 Lenoir are cutting the pine in the Johns River Valley. The other smaller bodies of white pine have been culled of their finest trees. FOREST OF THE WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN REGION. This region embraces the northwestern corner of North Carolina, the northeastern corner of Tennessee, and the adjacent portion of southwestern Virginia. In this portion oi the Appalachians, the Unaka (here represented bj Iron Mountain) and the Blue Kidge ranges approach nearer each other, and the intermediate land retains more of its original character as a plateau lying between the great Appalachian Valley, drained bj' the Tennessee. Eiver, on the northwest, and the Piedmont Plateau on the southeast. The White Top group comprises the mountains along the northern rim of the elevated mountain region. To the irregular mountain ridge which in this more Topographic northern region forms the boundary line between North Carolina and Tennessee, the name of Stone Mountain is applied. Here and there this ridge rises into peaks of prominence. On one of these. Pond Mountain, which has an elevation of 5,100 feet, the boundary lines between North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia corner. Another of these. White Top Mountain, some 5 miles to the north- east, and a far more massive and imposing mountain, rises to an elevation of 5,678 feet. Still another. Mount Eogers, on the Balsam Ridge, about 5 miles a little north of east from the White Top, rises to an elevation of 5,719 feet. The general course of this Stone Mountain ridge is to the northeast as far as Mount Rogers and then continues eastward as Iron Mountain to New River Gap. North- west of it, in Tennessee, is another less regular and less prominent ridge known as the Ii'on Mountains, reaching an elevation at intervals of from 3,000 to i,000 feet; and 6 to 8 miles to the west of this latter, in Tennessee, is the Holston Mountain ridge, reaching a still higher elevation. These ridges are all approximately parallel, having in East Tennessee a general northeasterlj^ course. To the northwest of these mountains lies the broad, fertile valley of the South Holston; to the southeast is the more elevated valley of New River, broken into an endless series of steep, round-crested hills, mostl}' cleared, and producing well in both grass arid grain. Broad agricul- tural valleJ^s lie between the Iron and Stone mountains 48 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION- and between the Iron and the Holston mountains. There are many farms on the southeastern slope of the Stone Mountain, and its northwestern slope is dotted with clear- ings. Extensive clearings cover the southern foot hills of both White Top and the Balsam mountains. There is, how- evei', in this group an almost unbroken forest, at least 6 miles in width, extending along the mountains f I'om Eliza- ' bethton east to Mount Ewing, a distance of more than 60 miles, mouuteiif Vo^r*^ "^^^ portion of this forest to the southwest of Damascus ^^'*- covers the slopes of the Iron and Holston mountains and much of Shady Valley, between them. It is largely com- posed of hard wood, with which white pine and hemlock are associated. For 8 miles east of Damascus the forest covers both slopes of Iron Mountain. It has been slightly culled, but much burned. It is lightlj- timbered with oak, chestnut, hemlock, and some white pine. A large area l3ang east of White Top Mountain, on the upper slope of the Balsam Mountains, is heavilj' timbered with spruce (see PI. XL) on and near the summits, while hard woods, with some hemlock intermixed, occup}^ the lower elevations. From the eastern end of the Balsam Mountains the Iron Mountain extends almost eastward to Mount Ewing, a distance of 40 miles. Its summit is dotted with a few farms and pastures, but the forest on the slopes is almost unbroken. It is lightly timbered with small oaks, chestnut, hickories, and black pine. The forest has been severely burned over large areas. A railroad has been built from Damascus southwestward through Shadj^ Valley, and some of the finest white-pine timber in the United States is now being cut there. (See PI. XXXVIII b.) South of this large belt of forest are a few isolated mountains in the midst of the agricultural valley of New River which have their slopes well timbered. The largest of these are Phoenix, Three Top, and Elk mountains, which lie between the north and south forks of New River. Nearly 40,000 acres of this forest is uncuUed. Thei'e are six holdings of 10,000 to 50,000 acres each; the remainder is held in small areas of a few hundred acres. The farming region of both the New and Holston river valleys is dotted with wood lots sufEoient to supply the needs of the resident population. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XXXIX. (A) HAULING LOGS TO THE MOUNTAIN SAWMILL. (See p. 46.) (B) HAULING MOUNTAIN LUMBER TO THE RAILWAY STATION. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XL. SPRUCE FOREST NEAR SUMMIT OF WHITE TOP MOUNTAIN, VIRGINIA. (SfL- pp. 23, 48.) Protected by a dense forest growth and covered by 8 dense growth of moss, flowers, and shrubs the soils on the steep mountain slopes catch and store the heavy rains for use during dry seasons. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 49 rOKESTS OF ROAN, GRANDFATHER, AND THE BLACK MOUNTAINS. Eoan Mountain stands as a prominent figure in this (^^'^°Pf°fJg*^P^gy: group of four similar large, isolated mountain masses — '"'''^^■ Beech, Grandfather, Roan, and Black mountains — in a region which is largely devoted to agriculture. These mountains are alike in the general character of the forests on their slopes, and the agricultural lands about their foothills and intervening valleys. They are all heavily timbered, and, though much of their forest has been par- tialh' lumbered, onlj- occasional choice trees have been cut, causing 'no break in the forest and little change in its condition. Mixed hardwoods form the dominant element, and associated with theni are small areas of hemlock. Limited areas of spruce are found on or near their tops. Beech Mountain is the lowest of these four. It has few coniferous trees about it except hemlock and white pine on its northern slope, while large areas on the sum- mits of Grandfather, Roan, Black, and Craggy mountains are occupied by spruce and balsam forests. These forests are virtuallj' primeval, and trees of all sizes and ages are found intermingled, showing abundant reproduction and an undisturbed forest equilibrium. Along the drier por- tions of the summits and the ridges leading up to them, especialh' on the south slopes, fires have in some places done considerable damage. But areas entirely' fire killed are small. (1) The Beech Mountain group, including Sugar Moun- ^ Jpo| ra^pMe tain and other smaller peaks near it, lies between Watauga BeeSountaln! River and Banners Elk Creek and is the most northerly group. It has an area of about 70,000 acres (110 square miles), 20,000 acres (32 square miles) or about 30 per cent of which are cleared. It is the lowest of the four groups, having an altitude of only 6,522 feet. It is separated from Grandfather Mountain, which is about 15 miles southeast of its summit, bj- the valle}^ of the Watauga River and from Roan Mountain, which is about the same distance to the southwest, by the vallej' of Elk Creek, which is partly cleared. Although the south slope of the mountain is steep, the soil is deep and mellow and grass farms extend nearlj' to the summit. There are also a few farms on the northern slopes. The original forests of Beech Mountain are now largely confined to the deep hollows on the northern slopes. The *S. Doc. 84 ± 50 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. greater part of them have been culled in degrees varying with their ease of access. topo|?ipMc tt (2) The Grandfather Mountain group, including (Jrand- ^"^fr,^^°?^l,'^r father and Grandmother mountains, lies on the Blue Eido-e, Mountain. ^nd is the highest point in that range, having an altitude of 5,964 feet. While it is situated on the Blue Ridge, its affinities, so far as its forests are concerned, are with the interior mountain areas and not with the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge. The agricultural lands of this region lie to the north of the Grandfather along New and Watauga rivers, to the west in the valley of North "Toe River, and on the low mountains and round hills, dotted with clearings, lying be- tween the Grandfather and Roan groups. This mountain group contains an area of more than 100,000 acres, only a small portion of which is cleared. The cleai'ed land is located chiefl}' among the headwaters of Linville and Watauga riA^ers. The topography of the entire group is rough, with steep and often rook}' slopes. Many of the farms are on land which is too steep for profitable agricultural use. The eastern and southern slopes of the mountains are lightly timbered. The western and noiihern slopes have been somewhat culled, but are still heavily wooded. A dense mixed forest covers the northern slope and extends across the vallej' of Boone Fork of Watauga River, which is j'et uncleared for a distance of more than 5 miles from its head. (3) The Roan Mountain group, including Roan Moun- tain, Yellow Mountain, and Spear Top, lies on the bound- da.vY line between North Carolina and Tennessee, between Doe and Toe rivers. It rises from a base of 2,000 feet to a height of 6,313 feet. The area of this group is about 120,000 acres, over one-fourth of which, or 36,000 acres, is cleared. The slopes are slight!}' more gentle than on an}^ other of the large mountains, and are well w'ooded, though dotted with clearings. The entire wooded portion of this area is well timbered. The north slope, being- nearest to the railroad, has been more culled, but some timber has also been cut on the south slopes at the heads of Big and Little Rock creeks. pog?rhrabout (^^ The Black Mountains, which lie just west of the Blue the Black Maun- Jii(lp-e, a few miles north of where the latter range is tains and the ^ ' ^ craggies. crossed by the Southern Railwa}', are a series of short ridges. The most massive of these is that of Black Moun- tain proper, which diverges from the Blue Ridge and extends SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. northward 10 milas to a rather abrupt ending. The larger part of this ridge rises above 6,000 feet, and Mount Mitchell, the highest of half a dozen grand peaks, reaches an elevation of 6,711 feet. From near the southern end of the Blacks the Craggy Mountain ridge extends south- westward for a distance of nearly 10 miles, and from this same point the Yates Knob ridge extends northwestward in a less regular form toward the Unaka range. These mountains lie between Toe River on the north and the Swannanoa on the south. At the southern end of the Blacks they touch the Blue Ridge. They are from 15 to 30 miles south of Roan Mountain and 30 miles southwest of the Grandfather. The group has an area of more than 170,000 acres, alDout 20,000 acres of which are cleared. Forests cover nearly the entire area of the Craggy Moun- tains, though they are not so dense, nor so nearly in their original condition as are those on the Black Mountains, as more or less lumbering has beeii done along both the eastern and the western slopes. Some of these slopes, too, have suffered much from fire and are almost destitute of young trees and undergrowth. The densest and most primitive forests of the region lie on the west slope of the Black Mountains about the headwaters of Caney River. (See PI. Xlll.) Those on the east slope of the Blacks are much lighter and have suffered more from fires. 51 FORESTS OF THE CENTRAL INTERIOR MOUNTAIN RIDGES. The Balsam Mountains make up the longest of the cross Topography. ridges in the Southern Appalachians, extending from Mount Guyot, the highest of the Unakas, on the Ten- nessee line, in a general southeasterly course to Mount Toxawajf (Hogback) on the Blue Ridge, near the South Carolina line, a distance of 40 miles. Thej^ reach their highest point in Richland Balsam — 6,640 feet Northeast of and less prominent than the Balsams are the Newfound Mountains, which form another and shorter cross ridge, extending from Mount Pisgah northward to the Unakas. South of the Balsams, the Cowee and Nan- tahala mountains each form short cross ridges, rising to less than 5,500 feet, which extend from the Blue Ridge on the Georgia State line northwesterly to the Great Smokies of the Unaka Range. These cross ridges are in their general features all much Agriculture. alike, with frequent steep rock}^ slopes and sharp crests. Thei'e is very little land on them suited to agriculture, 52 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. except in the narrow valleys and coves. (See PI. XLIII.) The soils are generally thin and light, in some places sandy, rarel}'' clayey. These mountains, however, are surrounded by agricultural valleys, except near the north- west ends of the Balsam and Newfound mountains, where these join the Unakas. The forests on the northwestern portion of the Balsam Mountains are reallj" a continuation of those of the Great Smokies, and resemble them in the General forest specics represented and in the general forest conditions. conditions. tr f » The forests on the east side of the Balsams and on the Newfound, Cowee, and Nantahala mountains ai'e much alike, but the Balsam Mountains are much more heavily wooded than the others, especiall}' on their northern slopes, and have more of the softer woods, like linn, buckeye, and ash. The southern slopes of all are lightly wooded and have been injured by fire to some extent, so that in places the forest is open and young timber trees are scant. Much of the best timber has been culled from the Newfound and Nantahala mountains. The larger part of the forest land on the eastern spur of the Balsams (about Mount Pisgab) is under forest protection. Forests about 'pj^g forests of the Newfound Mountains are formed of the Newiouna Mountains. jjjjj.jj woods, largely oak and chestnut, associated with white pine. As they lie nearer the main line of the Southern Railway, and on account of the topography were easily lumbered, they have been more culled than those of the other cross chains. Some genei'al lumbering has been done on Wolf and Shut-in creeks, and an attempt has been made to remove all the merchantable timber from some large tracts. At most, however, it amounts to only severe culling. The forests of the Cowee and Nantahala moun- tains are very nmch alike. They consist of hard woods, in which oak, chestnut, hickory, and maple form the largest element. There is almost an entire absence of coniferous growth, the hemlock, which is associated with the hard woods elsewhere, being almost wanting here. Much culling has been done in the forests at the north ends of these mountains, where they are nearer the Murphy branch of the Southern Railway. Forests about xhe Balsam Mountains are more heavilv timbered than tneBalsam Mountains. {ijg other cross ridgcs. On both northern and southern slopes there are deep, cool hollows, or coves, with fertile soil, producing vigorous growth, and as there has been very little culling these forests are very nearly primeval. They consist of typical Southern Appalachian harp Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XLI. Senate Doc. No, 64, Plate XLII S « Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XLIII. £ > SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 53 woods, associated with hemlock and spruce. On the north- ern slopes the softer of the hard woods form the dom- inant element, as linn, ash, buckeye, and yellow poplar, while the proportion of oak and chestnut is smaller. The hemlock is associated with these in the deep hollows, while spruce crowns the summits of the northern slopes. On the southern slope oak and che.stnut form the larger proportion of the timber, and there are less of the lighter woods and of hemlock and almost no spruce. The eastern, or French Bi'oad River slope about Mount Pisgah, is lightly timbered with oak and chestnut and has been much damaged by tire. At present, however, it is under forest protection, and a vigorous 3'oung growth is springing up. Railroads are now being built into the forests on both the north and south slopes in order to exploit the timber. The almost precipitous walls of the beaiitif ul Nantahala Gorge, nearlj' 2,000 feet deep, are forest covered through- out their entire extent. (See PI. XLIl.) FORESTS OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. This segment of the Unakas is the largest mountain Topography *=' * and forest con- mass in the Southern Appalachians, and it contains the<^'"o"s- largest area of continuous forest (see PI. XVII), with the smallest number of clearings. It includes the Smoky Mountains from the Big Pigeon River on the northeast to McDaniel Bald on the southwest, and that part of the Balsam Mountains which lies west of Soco Gap, with their numerous spurs and subsidiary ridges. The region is rough and rugged on both north and south slopes, and rises from a low vallej^ level of about 1,500 feet at the larger streams to more than 6,000 feet along the crests of the highest mountains. The wooded area begins on the western foothills of the Smokj' Mountains in Tennessee, covers the northwestern and southeastern slopes of the Great Smokies (see PI. XLIII) and the slopes of the Cataloochee Mountain. The broad agricultural vallej's of East Tennessee lie against these mountains on the northwest, but elsewhere they are surrounded by a rough country of lower moun- tains, with narrow, intervening agricultural vallej's. Less than 10 per cent of this area is cleared. The clearings are few and small, and lie chiefl}' some miles distant from the crest of the ridge. The forests are chiefly of hard woods, with a large amount , Nature and cs- of coniferous growth around the higher summits and in '^^ts. 54 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. the deep, cool hollows. On the drier slopes, and especially on the south sides, oak and chestnut form the o-rcater part of the timber, with some black and yellow pine on the ridges. The timber in the hollows is more varied and the stand is heavier, poplar, birch, linn, and buckeye being associated with the oak and chestnut. The tinest and largest bodies of spruce in the Southern Appalachians occur here, along the crest of the ridge and the north slope of both the Cataloochee and Smokj' mountains. There are about 20,000 acres of spruce and nearly as much hemlock. There is no spruce on the Smoky Mountains southwest of Silers Meadow. The forests of the north slope of the Smok}' Mountains have been much culled and injured b}' burning and pas- turage. There is j'et a great deal of fine timber, however. Fires have also done much injur}' on the south slope, especially to hard woods, and the growth is often very open on account of the suppression of young trees by burning for a great number of j'ears. The valleys of Cataloochee and Big Creeks are heavily timbered, though they have been culled to some extent, and the ridges have often been burned. A railroad is now being built up Big Pigeon River in order to exploit the timber on these streams. A railroad is also under construction up Oconalufty River to remove a part of the timber from the east prong of that stream. FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN END OF THE -APPALACHIANS. Topography. South of the Nantahala cross ridge the Appalachian Mountains no longer consist of two well-defined parallel ranges with prominent cross ridges, but break up into a number of small, low mountains, or small ridges, with broad, alluvial valleys or low hills between them, or in some places there are a series of low ridges which are separated by deep, narrow, gorge-like vallevs. In north- western Georgia their identity is entirely lost, and they pass into the hills of the Piedmont Plateau. While only a few of these mountains have an altitude of more than 4,500 feet, the topography is rough, as the stream level is much lower than it is further northeastward, not being more than 1,000 feet. The resisting char- acter of the rock — quartzite, sandstones, and slates — which forms these mountains, which have eroded into sharp-pointed ridges with deep, narrow intervening val- Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XLIV. I la Haywood County, N. C. In East Tennessee. BIG CHESTNUT TREES. FROM THE BASE OF THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. (See pp. 23, 54.) Se;ia*e Doc. No, 84. Plate XLV. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 55 lej'S, has added to the ruggedness of the region and its picturesqueness. Some of the largest of these mountains are the Bhie. Flat Top, Shooting Creek, and Valley River mountains. The northern slopes and hollows are often well wooded ^.^orest cou- with hard woods, chiefly with oaks, chestnut, maples, and hickories. The southern slopes are lightly wooded with oaks, hickories, and black and j^ellow pines, which also form the forests on the spurs and foothills. In very man}^ places the forest is open and thin, and many trees are defective. The undergrowth is often dense, consisting of numerous sprouts from young trees which have been killed by fires, and many shrubs which grow in the partial shade of the thin forest cover. In other places there is almost no underwood and no j'oung growth. Repeated fires have injured much of the timber on the southern slopes and greatlj^ unpaired the general forest condition. These fires are far more frequent and severe than in the hard-wood forests northward, on account of the drj-er climate and soil and the large amount of inflammable pine, and the resultant injury to the timber is more evident. On account of the thin, drj^ soil the trees are smaller and less vigorous than farther north, and the constant destruc- tion of the humus by the fires still further lessens their growth and keeps them small. The soils of the mountains are generally thin and sandy and not at all productive agriculturally. In manjr places thej- are ver}' rocky, so that tillage would be impossible. The altitude is too low for grass. About three-fourths of the area is at present in forest. Some of it is second growth, but onl3r a small part of it is such. There are occasional clearings, how- ever, around the base of the mountains and in the hollows. Lumbering has been in progress in man}' places and some of the choicest timber has been removed, especiall}' along and near the Marietta and North Georgia Railroad. CHANGES IN FOKEST CONDITIONS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. The three agencies that have wrought changes in the forests of the- Southern Appalachians are the fires, the lumbermen, and the clearer of lands for farming purposes. Fire has come as an oft-repeated scourge since the days est'J^res!' ^^ '" of early Indian occupation. More than 78,000 acres of the region examined have, Extentandna- ' ^ _ ture of their recently been so severely burned as to kill the greater por- "^^'^^s'^s- 56 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. tion of the timber, but the greater aggregate damage has been done b}' lighter fires creeping through the woods j-ear after j'ear, scorching the butts and roots of timber trees, destroying seedlings and forage plants, consuming forest litter and humus, and reducing that thatch of leaves which breaks the fall of raindrops. Evidence of such tires is found over approximate!}^ -t, 500, 000 acres, or SO per cent of the entire area. (See PL XLVI.) The effect of forest fires is seldom appreciated, espe- cially in this region, where so few timber trees are killed. The killing of mature timber trees is, in fact, from the nation's point of view, the least damage of all; for were onl}^ the mature trees killed a dozen saplings would stand ready to fill the place of each, but the fires afl'ect the sap- lings much more than the large, thick-barked trees, and, too, where spring fires are habitual seedlings can not grow, j.^eproauctionj^g ^jjgy g^j.g ijiUed when very small. A forest under such conditions can not reproduce itself. The timber trees die out and are replaced b}- brush that sprouts from the roots. One who studies these effects can see everj'where the dam- age bj^ fire in dead trees, scorched butts, hollow trees, dead saplings and seedlings, in clumps of sprouts from roots of fire-killed trees, in the openings, the half-forested land, and in the annual weeds that occupj- the burned areas, nature using their humble efforts to cover the nakedness of the misused land. Fires increase The damage by fire causing a loss of the earth cover violence of ^ J » floods. does j^ot end with erosion, for it also prevents water from penetrating and being stored in the earth. The roots of trees penetrate deeply into the subsoil, and as they decay leave a network of underground water pipes. The mulch of f orestleaves encourages numerous ground-boring worms and beetles that keep the soil of an unburned forest por- ous, not only favoring the absorption of water, but also retarding the capillary rise of moisture to the surface and its loss by evaporation. The mosses and humus of a well- conditioned forest form wet blankets, often a foot thick, the function of which is so evident that it need not be Fires impover- explained here. The dissipation of the chemical elements ish the soil. ,^ , , t . ^ . i ^ n ' i ii -j of plant food into the atmosphere by fire and the rapid leaching away of the slight residue contained in the ashes is another injurious effect of the forest fires. Fires in this The experience of the older countries .should serve us region best pre- „-..,■,, , i • • ■ i • i i £ vented by Gov- Sufficiently to prevent our making a similar mistake ot ernment super- ,. . ^ • i i rpi < .1 vision. policj' concerning our mountain lands, inat tne same Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XLVI. DAMAGES FROM FOREST FIRES IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. (See pp. 24, 55.) The lires do inealeulable daiiiHge to I he forests ou the slopes of these Diuuntains, injuring and often killing both tlic trees and the undergrowth. Ssnate Doc. No. 84, Plate XLVIt. ^i^fSH'^fl W^% Bs:f^|^i'i^ ,:,;V"'gVW^'^ ^^■""^i^,'^'!''' •:f?p ^^^*3fe^"-^^ 1 . . ;" A' ' .';-. ' ^-y .-^ •'i.ii •* .'t'W t^ V- ''■ ' !*i ■ ^■^-■ ■;.- m ^ o E*tS-iL-' K ^ H (-il BASE OF PINE TREE BURNED BY FOREST FIRES. (See pp. 24, .5.5.) (B) SPROUTS FROM BASE OF AN OAK KILLED BY FOREST FIRES. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XLVIII. (^) GRANITE KNOB FROM WHICH THE FOREST, AND LATER THE SOIL, HAS BEEN LARGELY REMOVED. l,Sef pp. -lb, 26, .50, 133, and PI. XIX,) (J3) HUMUS AND UNDERGROWTH DESTROYED BY FIRE; SOIL BEING WASHED FROM ROCK BY RAIN. When the fires destroy the undergrowth and the humus the soil loses its spongy covering, and the water from the heavy rains rushes down to the streams and causes floods, instead of being stored in the soil for dry-season supply. (See pp. 25, 56, 133.) Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate XLIX. (-11 DESTRUCTION OF FOREST ON MOUNTAIN RIDGES FOR PASTURING PURPOSES, l^i'v pp. -'i., .jT-j'J.J {B) CORN PLANTED BETWEEN GIRDLED TREES ON APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN RIDGES. (Sec pp. 'JG, 67-.5y.) Many of tlifsc steep mountain li'jlds are "cleared," cultiratcd, badly washed, and abandoned, all within less than a decade, and before the girdled trees have fallen to the ground. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 57 effects follow the careless policj' of burning- mountain land in this countrj' as in Europe is proved by the alreadj- des- olate condition of large areas in the Rockj' Mountains and the plainly legible signs of the coming consequences in the Appalachian region. The lumberman has been increasing his activities at a The effect of ... , . . , . lumbering. somewhat rapid rate, and be is ^'earl}^ going farther into the forests. The damages he causes come not so much from the trees he cuts in culling the forest as from the additional trees and seedlings of valuable species which he destroj'S in his lumbering operations, and the greater destruction from forest tires which follow him, fed by the tops and other brush he leaves scattered through the forest. Bj' his irregular cutting, reducing forest condi- tions, he renders impracticable the inauguration of eco- nomic, conservative forest management. Following in the wake of the lire and the lumbering, ,™? '?*™' "* >^ , f clearing steep and surpassing them both in the completeness and peruia- mountain sides. nency of the damage done, is the man who clears for ordi- nary agricultural purposes mountain lands which should forever remain in forest. The clearing of lands in this region for agricultural purposes has progressed slowlj^ but steadilj' during the past century as the population increased, until at the present time there are 1,200,000 Percentage of acres (24 per cent) cleared out of a total of 5,400,000 acres cleared. examined. (See PI. XII.) When it is considered that the settlement of this region has been in progress for more than a centuiy the extent of the area devoted to agriculture is small. The reason for this is found in the unprofitableness of cultivating lands with such steep slopes. The cleared lands are mostly limited to the allu- vial bottoms along the streams, the rounded valley hills, the lower mountain spurs, and the lower slopes of the larger mountains themselves below 4,000 feet elevation. In some localities, especialh' in the region around Roan Mountain and on the Blue Ridge north of Gillespie Gap, there are large areas of cleared land at an elevation of from 3,500 to 5,000 feet; but these are mostly grass farms, are not subject to continuous tillage, as are the corn lands below, and hence do not deteriorate so rapidly. Some of the slopes that are cultivated are very steep — from 30 to 40 degrees — some of them too steep even for the mountain steei and bull-tongue plow, and must be cultivated entirely bv hand. 58 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. The staple grain produced throughout this region is corn, which jnelds more heavih' than small grain and is ciearln''"'^ °^more casilj^ managed on the steep slopes. On clearing the land for cultivation the standing trees are girdled to kill them, so that neither their shade nor their growing roots will injure the crops. Some of the trees thus killed are used for fencing and fuel, but the greater number of them fall in a few j^ears and are then rolled into heaps and burned. Corn or buckwheat is usuallj^ grown on these newly cleared fields, between the girdled trees during the first season (see PL XLIX.) Following this corn may be planted one or two years more; then small grain, either wheat, rye, or oats, for one or two years; then grass for a few years; then follow worthless weeds, and then the gul- lies. When first cleared most of this mountain-side land is covered with a layei' of humus several inches thick, and the soil below is black and porous, owing to the large percent- The process of affe of vegetable matter it contains; but on cultivation and erosion. ° ° i i • • i exposure to the sun and washing rams this organic matter is rapidly dissipated. In this process most of the soil is washed awaj"; the remainder shrinks and consolidates, thus losing much of its power to absorb water rapidly, and loses its fertility by the continued eroding and dissolving action of the rains. Hence these cleared mountain lands have a short-lived usefulness, and new clearings are made to replace the fields which from 3'ear to year are abandoned because they cease to be productive. A few years of cultivation for fields on these steeper mountain slopes usualh' brings them to the end of their usefulness for agricultural purposes. This may be followed hy a few years of pasturage, and then donment ^a ri '^^'^i^ abandonment and ruin. (See Pis. I, XX, and XXI.) cleared" moun? Over the eroded foothills, along the eastern base of the tain slopes. Blue Ridge and western base of the Unakas, young pines may slowly cover again the eroded surface of the moun- tain slope, but over the more elevated portion of the Appalachian Mountain region the erosion, whether it be in gullies, visible for miles, or in the more common form in which the whole surface moves downward, is so rapid that the hard-wood forests, slower to reproduce, do not readiljr regain their footing, and hence the work of land destruction continues. The limited alluvial or bottom lands in this region being the most productive and easiest cultivated, were naturally the first to be cleared, and these are now nearlv all in cul- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 59 tivation; but with an increasing population tiie demand for additional fields to cultivate has led to the clearing of these mountain-side patches successively higher up the slopes, until now the area of these clearings considerably exceeds the area of the bottom lands. This process has gone on the more rapidly because of the rapidity with which these steep lands have been worn out and abandoned. There are yet many places where the gentler slopes might perhaps be cleared to meet the agricultural demands of the region, but unquestionably the steeper areas already cleared should be at once reforested in order to prevent their eai'lj^ ruin, abalidon^e*" All lands in this region remaining cleared for farming Isted.'^ ^^ ^^^°^ purposes should be kept in the highest state of cultivation, and those of even the gentler slopes should be carefully' terraced, and as far as possible kept in grass or orchards. The effect of exposing mountain lands to the full power of rain, running water, and frost is not generallj^ appreci- ated. The greater part of our population lives on level land and does not see how the hills erode, and even in the hills nearh' all the people go indoors when it rains and therefore do not half understand what is going on. In the dashing, cutting rains of these mountains the earth of freshly burned or freshly plowed land melts away like sugar. The streams from such lands are often more than half earth and the amount of best soil thus eroded every year is enormous. The individual owners are to a great extent helpless in gested preventing these unwise cuttings, clearings, and forest fires. Some of them can care for their own lands, but they can not, owing to their small holdings and small incomes, regulate the policy which controls adjacent areas. Only cooperation on a great scale, such as Government owner- ship could provide, can stop these forest fires, check this reckless clearing, and preserve these resources to the best advantage. The two great needs of this mountain region are: 1. The use of the land for the purpose to which it is best adapted, which would require the keeping of SO to 90 per cent of it in forest, while the cleared land should be kept in the highest state of cultivation for farm products. 2. Efficient and cheap transportation for the forest products. LUMBERING IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS NOW AND UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP AND SUPERVISION. Bv Overton W. Price. The protection of the headwaters of important streams in order to prevent floods and perpetuate water powers, the preservation of a great natural health resort and of impor- tant agricultural resources, are perhaps the most valuable results tha'^ would follow the creation and management of the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve. The applica- tion of practical forestr}- in this region by the Federal Government would bear fruit also in the maintenance of a sustained supplj' of hard-wood timber, in the production of a steady and increasing income therefrom, and in pro- viding a forcible object lesson to show the advantages of careful and conservative forest management. Lumbering is one of the principal industries of the j^^j^^^^J^^^^PJ^' Southern Appalachians. The agricultural resources of the ana their results. region must remain limited because of its ruggedness antl the low percentage of arable land. Its development as a grazing countr}^ is hampered by the lack of winter forage and the temporary life of the grass covering in the lower slopes. Its maui resource of the future will be its hard- wood forests, upon whose maintenance depends very largeh' the best and most pei'manent development of west- ern North Carolina and eastern Tennessee. The existing supply of merchantable timber has already been seriouslj- reduced, while repeated fires and unregulated grazing have in many localities greatl}' impaired the quality and health of the forest, as well as the chance of its successful repro- duction. Although there is still enough wood left to fill the local demand, the cost of logging it is constantl}" growing with the increasing distance between the market and the source of supplj'. Around each settlement there is a rapidl}' widening ai'ea which has been .stripped' of all merchantable timber under methods which too often render 61 62 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. it practically valueless for the production of a second crop. In manj' localities serious harm has already been done, which onlj"^ time and care can remove. A continu- ance of such methods will within the near future destroy this great natural resource of the Southern Appalachians — the lumbering of its valuable hard woods to supply a steady and growing demand. APPLICATION OF CONSERVATIVE FOKEST METHODS TO THIS REGION BY THE GOVERNMENT PRACTICA- BLE AND PROFITABLE. The application of practical forestry to the proposed reserve would not only preserve the productive capacity of the forest within its boundaries, but it would also pro- vide a proof of the results of conservative forest manage- ment which would be of value in inducing private owners of forest land in this region to adopt the same measures. There is no surer or quicker way of convincing the lum- berman of the Southern Appalachians that conservative lumbering pays better than ordinary lumbering than by an experiment on the ground, based upon a thorough study and effectively carried out. maiTagement The question of direct returns from the proposed proffl^ ^^^^ ^ reserve is, from the point of view of the Federal Govern- ment, a secondary one. Its highest benefit will lie in those indirect returns which are of so vital an importance to the best development of this region and its resources. However, that the forests of the Southern Appalachians can under systematic and conservative measures be made to yield a profit from their management is certain. Although local stumpage values are not sufficiently good to warrant the application of an elaboi-ate system of forest management, they are high enough to make conservative lumbering a sound business measure. The pecuniary advantage of practical forestrj- depends naturally upon whether it offers better returns than those to be had from ordinary lumbering. Since it reduces present profits slightl}' in order to insure a second crop of timber upon the lumbered area, its superiority from a business point of view rests upon the safety and value of the second crop. Serious danger from fires, a poor market, excessive diffi- culties to overcome in logging, or anj' other adverse con- dition which seriously impairs stumpage values, may render'the probable future returns from a forest insuffi- cient to justify conservative measures in lumbering it. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate L. l.-l) WASTE IN SAWING AT A SMALL MILL IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS. (S(jep. IB.) ill) TOPS LEFT AMONG THE TREES IN LOGGING. (See pp. 24, fi7.) These feed the forest fires so effectively that they sometimes destroy everything in their patli. Senate Doc. Nc. 84. Plate LI. (.1) SAWINQ LARGE TIMBER AT A SMALL MILL IN THE MOUNTAIN FOREST. ^ Sue pp. 62-64.) {Ji) BINDING POPLAR LUMBER FOR EXPORT, FROM THE GREAT SMOKY MOUNTAINS. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 63 Not onl}^ is there no unfavorable condition in the South- th?sreglon'{avo° ern Appalachians which is suiEcient to render practical ^]^\?g''^^j^°J'j.^f'"^" forestrj^ inadvisable as a business measure, but the oppor- tunity' oifered for good returns from careful and conserv- ative forest management is a peculiarl}^ favorable one. The forest contains valuable timber trees, which not onlj' command a high price at present, but are rapidlj^ increas- ing in value for the lack of satisfactory substitutes, notably in the case of Black Walnut, Cherrj^ Hickory, Yellow Pop- lar, and White Oak. The transport of timber presents some difficulties, as in all mountain countries. These are, how- ever, seldom suiBcient to impair seriously the profits from lumbering. Efl'ective protection from fire is practicable without prohibitive expense, while in its rate of growth, readiness of repi'oduction, and responsiveness to good treatment the forest offers silvicultural opportunities which are seldom excelled in this countrv. SOME EVILS OF THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF liUMBERING. Practical forestry in the Southern Appalachians must comprise those modifications of the present methods of lumbering which will not only insure a fair profit upon present operations, but will prefeerve the productiA^e capacity of the forest and provide for the desired repro- duction of the timber trees. Unnecessary damage to the forest and total lack of provision for a future crop is characteristic of the lumbering now carried on in this region. Logging operations have generallj^ shown an inexcusable slovenliness, as foreign to good lumbering as to practical forestrj'. A clean lumber job is seldom seen. There is great waste wasteful meth J ^ ^ ^ ods lollowed. of good timber through poor judgment in gauging the log- lengths and in cutting stumps much higher than is neces- sary. Butting off unsound portions of trees is not always done; trees not wholly perfect are sometimes left to rot where thej^ fall. Care is seldom taken to throw trees where they will do the least harm to themselves and to others, and in consequence lodged and smashed trees are veiy common. Overlooked sound trees are also numerous. However, criticism of lumbering in the Southern Appa- lachians must take into consideration the circumstances which led to it. Almost all of the work has been done by the farmers of the region in order to supply their fuel and other household material and to add to the poor living 64 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. afforded them by their farms. These men are often ham- pered b}^ lack of capital, are generallj' wanting in the knowledge requisite to good lumbering, and have had always to contend with the difficulty of obtaining expert loggers to carry out the work. Nevertheless, the near- ness of large bodies of merchantable timber, among which are valuable kinds, such as Cherry, Black Walnut, Hickory, and Yellow Poplar, has usually made a fair profit possi- ble under even the most thriftless logging methods. This desultory cutting has been going on for years, and although the individual efforts have been small, they have removed the merchantable timber from the larger portion of the accessible forests. RECENT LTTMBERING METHODS MORE PROFITABLE, BUT ALSO DESTRUCTIVE. When the waning supplies of timber in the North and East some fifteen j-ears ago forced the loggers of those regions to the South, the application of skillful and systematic methods of lumbering began in the Southern Appalachians. The newcomers, through the investment of commensurate capital in logging outfits, the thorough repair and extension of logging roads, and the generall}^ businesslike mode of attack characteristic of the trained lumberman, have reaped a profit from their operations entirely impossible under the slipshod, desultory lumbering- methods of the settler. Nature oi the The harm done to the forest in both cases is verv great damages. . . . , , mi • " • i m proportion to the quantity ot lumber cut. Ihis is due largely to the size of the trees and the fact that little care is taken in the fellings. The damage to young growth is increased by the absence of snow and by the fact that trees are often cut when thej^ are in full leaf. The breaking down and wounding of seedlings and j'oung trees by the snaking of logs to the roadside or the river is • in some degree unavoidable; but the damage is often much in excess of what is necessary. (See PI. LIII.) There are often, however, many more snakewaj-s, or skidwaj's, than are necessaiy , and the application of a little system in laying them out would save time and young growth on a lumber job. On the higher and steeper slopes it is often the habit — and one which can not be criticized too strongly, except in those rare cases where it is absolutely necessaiy on account of the gradient — to roll the logs from top to Senate Doc. No. 84, Plate LII. TIMBER NEAR MOUNT ROGERS, VIRGINIA, WHICH SHOULD HAVE BEEN CULLED LONG AGO. (See pp. (U-67. 1 Under every system of forest management the mature timber should be cut and used. Otherwise it interferes* with the proper development of the younger growth; and when it decays and falls it may feed fires so as to destroy the forest. Senate Doc. No. 84 Plate Llll. UNNECESSARY FOREST DESTRUCTION ALONG THE SNAKING TRAIL. (See p. 64.) Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LIV. REPRODUCTION OF HARD-WOOD FOREST IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. ' f-^L' PI'. I''. '^>'-) The largu trees Imve supplied the seeds from which the smaller ones have grown. SOUTHERN APPALACniAN REGION. 65 bottom, merely starting them with the canthook. A 16- foot log, 3 feet or more in diameter, can gain momentum enough in this way to smash even fair-sized trees in its path, and when it passes through dense young growth it leaves a track like that of a miniature tornado. The prac- tice is in line with others to be observed in the Southern Appalachians, such as the common habit, for example, of leaving to rot the "deadened" trees which stand over clearings. There are cases in which these clearings have been inclosed with fences built of rails split from prime black walnut, with no other excuse than that the walnut happened to be within easier reach than either oak or pine. Under such methods, in which there is not only an abso- lute lack of provision for a future crop but often a marked absence of that forethought, skill, and aversion to waste which go to make clean lumbering, most of the logged- over areas in the southern Appalachians are only saved from entire destruction of the standing trees bj^ the gen- ei'ally scattered distribution of the merchantable timber. OBJECTS AND POLICY OF FOREST MANAGEMENT UNDER GOVERNMENT OWNERSHIP. In the aj^plication of conservative forest management to that portion of the foi'ests of the Southern Appalachi- ans included within the proposed reserve, the first aim should be to protect them from. fire. The safety of the forest from fire must form the foundation of any system of practical forestry which is to be permanently success- ful. Fire has done and continues to do enormous damage in this region. The chief cause lies not in malice or in carelessness of campers or of lumbermen, but in the ancient local practice of burning over the forest in the autumn, under the belief that better pasturage is thus obtained the following y^ear. The fires are started bv the settlers upon the area which Proteotion - '^ against forest IS to serve as a sheep or cattle range the following season, fi^s. and are permitted to burn unchecked. The result is that, except where confined by roads, streams, or clearings, they often spread from the wood lots of the foothills, in which they are set, to the forests of the higher mountains, there to burn unmolested imtil rain, snow, or lack of inflammable material puts them out. *S. Doc. 84 5 66 SOUTHERN- APPALACHIAN REGION. The hard-wood forests of .the Southern Appalachians are by no means so intlammable as the coniferous forests of the North and West. Forest fires in this region are seldom more than ground fires, and onlj' under the influ- ence of exceedingl}' high winds in a dry season become uncontrollable. With an active and adequate force of ran- gers and a thorough system of trails, the protection of the proposed reserve would be practicable. The good results of its preservation from fire would be twofold. In addition to the evident benefits of efficient fire protection upon the forest would be the forcible example provided to prove that the forest untouched b}' fire j'ields in the long run better and more plentiful pasturage than if it be annually burned over. The modification of present methods of grazing in the Southern Appalachians, like the modifica- tion of present lumbei'ing methods, will follow proof of its advantages much more rapidly than it would follow propaganda. The one is no less impoi-tant to the best development of this region than the other. The advan- tages of both could in no way be bettei established than by their practical illustration in the proposed reserve. The mountain forests of the Southern Appalachians are silviculturally the most complex in the United States. The}' contain manj' kinds of trees, varying widely in habit and also in merchantable value, and the forest type is constantly changing with the differences in elevation, gradient, and soil. Their best management is difficult, because the lack of uniformitj' in the forest renders it necessary constantly to vary the severity of the cutting and to discriminate in the kinds of trees which are cut, instead of following onh' those general rules which suffice where there are fewer species represented and the forest conforms more closely to a single type. IMPROVEMENT IN GENERAL FOREST POLICY NECESSARY. Improvement Jn order to reproduce these forests successfully and to m method of ' ■' lumbering. minimize the damage done by lumbering, first of all it will be necessary to have a radical improvement in the fellings. Such an improvement is entirely practicable without additional cost per 1,000 feet B. M. of timber felled. It often requires no more labor to fell a ti-ee up a slope than down it, or upon an open space rather than into a clump of young growth; and it is in just such cases as these that unreasoning disregard for the future of the SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 67 forest is commonly manifested in the Southern Appa- lachians. In the selection of trees to be felled the small farmers, forest under Si who for a long time were the only lumbermen in the^^^'®™- Southern Appalachians, have been governed b}' the same considerations that govern lumbei'men elsewhere. They have taken the best trees and left uncut those of doubtful - value rather than run the risk of loss in felling them. Furthermore, the fact that the_v have lumbered generally on a very small scale and have often had great difficulties with which to contend in the transport of logs has led them to extremes in this respect. The result is that they have reduced the general quality of the forests in a meas- ure entirel}' disproportionate to the amount of timber cut. As a rule, only prime trees have been taken, and those showing even slight unsoundness have been left uncut, except where the stand of fii-st-class timber was insufficient. Diseased and deteriorating trees remain to offset the growth of the forest bv their deeaj' and to reduce its productive capacit3' still further by suppressing the 3'ounger trees beneath them, while in the blanks made by the lumbering worthless species often contend with tie young growth of the valuable kinds. In other words, the lumbering has closely followed the selection system, but the principles governing the selection have usually been at variance with the needs of the forest. CONSIDERATIONS THAT SHOULD GOVERN IN THE MANAGEMENT OF THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE. In order to bring about successful reproduction of the desirable species and to maintain the quality and density of the stand, lumbering in the mountain forests of the Southern Appalachians must be governed by the following main considerations: (1) Remove all diseased, overripe, or otherwise faultv Removal of j_ ■! 1 1 • 11 .1 /v."" faulty trees. trees of a merchantable size where there is already suffi- cient 3'oung growth upon the ground to protect the soil and serve as a basis for a second crop of timber. (See PI. LIV.) In extreme cases, where the condition of the forest is seriousl}' impaired by the presence of a large number of such trees or where they overshadow and serioush' retard promising young growth, their removal may be financially advisable when the sale of product no more than pays the cost of the logging. (2) So direct the cuttings that the reproduction of the ^ourlle 1ro°nh timber trees may be encouraged in opposition to those of ef J'^'"'''''* ^''*'' 68 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. less valuable kinds. This can not be successfully accom- plished in the Southern Appalachians bj^ cutting a diameter limit merely. A limit will by all means be advisable for each species, based upon a study of its rate of growth and the proportion which different diameters bear to its con- tents in board feet. It will be frequenth' necessary, how- ever, to leave trees of a merchantable diameter where their removal would seriously impair the density' or where seed trees are necessary. In the leaving of seed trees many considerations are involved, onlj' a few of which can be mentioned here. tio'^of se'edSls: The Oaks, Hickories, Walnuts, and Chestnut should be favored, since their seed is too heavy to be carried by. the wind, and much of it is eaten b}^ animals. The marked tendency of the pines (see PI. LV), Hemlock, and Yellow Poplar to reproduce by groups must be encouraged-. On south slopes and in dr^^ localities generallv, where Dog- wood, Sourwood, and Scrub Oak contend with the timber trees, great care must be taken not to disturb the balance between them. The rich, moist soil of the Poplar coves is particularh' likely to produce a luxuriant growth of weeds and brambles instead of tree seedlings if too much light is admitted to the soil, while the Ash, Cherry, and Basswood, which are only sparselj' represented in the mature stand and are fui-ther handicapped among the 3'oung growth by their strong demands upon the light, will require an exceedinglj- conservative method of management. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LV, l^t£^^i i^*-?? --3J3t»5rr4J?/^S%'3!JJ! B iA^Cft«.>mH?=4iB>b^ L£al v'. • 1 ' 'j ■■ 'r '^7; ^1 w^* j^--'P*s' iJ-^iiJPwSM^MSc m. «v-- .. ** i » . -t^ •"-■';• 1 ^?^ ^S'r'."/ l.^H^C' ij ' *-•• ?^^ B' ^." .v?J 'j £ *• '-■•■ ' ■'if ap^ vm-^llj^t^;? ! ■■- *^. '■ w*i^ ^^j i!% ^'^ wfi*^ '*M • i^ ' Sj ' i ,1^ i-> Vi J s ^P* SB ^^■PM^B ^ ^Jfe«.*^ -'^K^ '' ■if? e Sm^'?: =>^ 1 ;■»■ '^a!. js *iia»:.-^ faifi,7!|-'?aiS 4 - ' VTipt-" jfet.- ^H -^SHr^ '*>: f V'Ol 1 {?* *LjM ^v^^s^k^ejmkw - yj^^'TjK^iM |Av >.-. SH. IC^IkSF^,'/ ^ ^fei:i "1 ¥fim -'^^^^^btR* ^Bi^^S^^--' V V "i ^, ■• p^rrasttrx ff. i*^ 1 ft "i t ^ 1 ST s \m^Mi .;*i^ %:_^ 4;r^*i^B? €^"^*itl W 1 ■ia%- i* •-?■' >V' ' "V ~ Si SnlB^Bk"* m -J3 :---( ^^flB ,\v«' .i" Kr^^t^yEI ■ »? f*!"' ^>:|'. ;'':^#^ ■■■:. * r:-CT.v^.k'^ ^M P^M: m^iHc ^l^ii^ m ^K ^^1 i ^H ^Pp gf^ 'r ■. ■ J :r;5ii'WP B ■ a .^ S'^^>^ %i iyji. ^ Ow^^^r^ jfc ^^' ^^^_s'' !^;ii"v"''''* 4'- * • ■ 1'^^^ ■ri"? J"'V '^ ift? jKW ^ pyBr ^^^eA {Cl^ §1 . a'jtgBJ^^^^ ^ ! J^'^vA .V'A.^ —• >;l=ii-"v ? If i 'Vi*' gjS P^R^Ii3^9MB^^r^ v^ r.««^ l^^wKii^ V { i^'* '^^ ^ ! ''*'''* I- » -V '. ■• *-!•.■.'■ i'f' I'.'fe l^^ffi-i" ii't >S( ■*Tt3 3S8-tr' ,'|9 5" w^. r^y. ^.! ^^99^^ 'S^H^-'a''- ^'ii :'|-^ y!lii mm SH^/ ^11^ n y ij KHi^^^^H ^Wffc' T-lS:'^- f|, i'^V :|ll ,;r^?,^(|-|\t^^^ ./v •% SI t?| '.k^^T j^: Mf mBeSi. "^f ;s''' . J J^Si^"" '^ «:;;:■ :-^i-i^^ ;r'-vk'^- ? > " \M l'^5»-^.^ MS^M. i 'A i^^svS' § =»>,.'-?^'«^^ 'i'- .§'^,;l':-'i ■-•.»- i^is^^f Oi ^^ Mm^mpMMt ■ 1 l^& IM m ^^^|MM ^■^lIS j^^: V'i'^Si* - '. m ^P^isir, 1 . ,' s-^.:;: - ^ f * ^ -jf ^^$ &S;'.f!| 3^-- S 1^ w ^ ^fei^^^'^^ SfclPlc-^ ■ >*;■: ***^' - ^ «^£^ |T?"^ fr_j..^ ^'"^^ - ^^'v^SJ m"^^^^ fc^< -'.".-M 1 ^ Hj ' fT^^ ^F- n M^^ ' ^^ ^ ■-. ^^L^ P !^ f^ W ^M ^W^P*. iZ^M< REPRODUCTION OF WHITE-PINE FOREST. (See pp. G7, OS.) Wliite-pine saplings on cut-over land, Graham County. N. C. DESCRIPTION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FORESTS BY RIVER BASINS. By H. B. Ayres and W. W. Ashe. In order to present in more convenient form detailed information about the forest conditions in the Southern Appalachians, the following descriptions have been arranged b}^ drainage basins, beginning at the northeast and moving around the mountains to the place of begin- ning, in the order given below. This arrangement will serve an important purpose in the consideration of water flow and also the question of transportation. The region has for this purpose been divided into the following fourteen drainage areas: New River, South Fork of Holston River, Watauga River, Nolichucky River, French Broad River, Big Pigeon River, Northwestern Slope of Smok}' Mountains, Little Tennessee River, Hiwassee River, Tallulah and Chattooga rivers^ Toxaway River, Saluda River and First and Second Broad rivers, Catawba River, Yadkin River. NEW BIVEB BASIN. [712,000 acres: 50 per cent wooded.] New River, a feeder of the Ohio through the Kanawha, Topography. drains the eastern portion of the Appalachian Plateau lying between the Blue Ridge on the southeast and Iron Mountain on the northwest. The sources of the tributa- ries are high, from 3,000 to 5,000 feet, but the river valley below the junction of the North and South forks has been eroded down to an altitude of 2,500 to 2,000 feet. The resulting topogi'aphy is a system of deep, narrow valleys and ravines, among which area few isolated peaks (having an altitude of 5.000 feet and upwai'd) and occasional flats, which are of two classes — (1) in high altitudes remnants of the old plateau, and (2) along the larger streams, nar- row, sedimentary fiats. 69 70 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Agriculture. Erosion. The forest. The greater portion of this area ha.s been cleared, although mostl}^ too steep to be arable. The hills are cleared for grazing, to which industry this land is better adapted than to agriculture, in view of the great erosion and the difficulty of maintaining roads in this remote and hilly region. Excellent crops of hay and grass are the rule on new land, and the custom is to crop and graze a clearing until it wears out, then clear a new field. Many of the old hill fields are now worn out by close pasturing and bj^ the erosion of unprotected humus, and are being gullied to the underlj'ing rock by every shower. The forests of large area are limited to the higher alti- tudes on the isolated peaks between the North and South forks, and on Balsam and Iron mountains which form the northwestern rim of the plateau. On the southeastern slope of Balsam Mountain is an almost unbroken forest, approximately 5 miles square; but the long, narrow strip of woodland on Iron Mountain is considerably broken by clearings and burns, while the portions of Pond Mountain and White Top draining into New River have on them only remnants of the old forest. Scattered among the clearings of the valley are wood lots, left usual!}' on ridges and north slopes. Ccnivposition. — The trees of these forests are principall}' oaks and chestnut, with a mixture of white pine, hemlock, black spruce, black gum, cherrv, poplar, ash, cucumber, buckej'e, linn, maple, birch, and man}" unimportant species. Altogether there are about SO species of trees. Condition. — All the forest is inferior in condition, being either culled, fire scarred, or full of old and defective trees, while a dense undergrowth usually covers the steep slopes. The condition of these neglected forests would improve readily under forestry, as valuable species are abundant and reproduce easily and grow rapidly wherever they have an opportunit}-. The outlying isolated wood lots, sur- rounded by cleared land and held bj' thoughtful fai-mers. are noticeably in better condition than the larger wild areas in the remote mountains. SOUTH FORK OF HOLSTON BIVER ( SOUTHERN TRIBU- TARY BASINS ONLY). [238,000 acres; 80 per cent wooded.] Topography. xhis area comprises the northern slope of the mountains between Watauga and New rivers, and is principally a long, narrow strip of steep mountain side, having- a north- SOUTHERN' APPALACHIAN REGION. 71 Soil. ward exposure and an altitude of 2,50() to nearly 6,000 feet. In addition to this uniform tract, this drainage sys- tem comprises the semicircular interrupted basin drained by Beaver. Tennessee Laurel, Green Cove, and White Top Laurel creeks, which join and cut through the moun- tains near Damascus. In this area are two distinct classes of land — mountain slopes and alluvial or sedimentary basins. The mountain slopes, steep and principally underlaid b)^ quartzite, have light soil, with thorough drainage both on surface and underground, while the sedimentarj^ valleys — as Holston River bottoms, Shadj^ Valley, Laurel Bloomery, and others — have deep, loamy soils, remarkably fertile. On the Tennessee Laurel substantially all the arable Agriculture land is under cultivation, but along Shady Valle}^ and White Top Laurel on'iy a small portion of the arable land is cleared. The Holston River bottom is cleared to the foothills of the mountain. This land is well adapted to diversified fai-ming, but is now devoted principally to corn and grazing. Erosion is less marked in this area than in most others, Erosion. a fact which is probably due to the larger proportion of wooded area. The Tennessee Laurel is, however, subject to sudden rises, endangering the narrow bottom lands and even the lives of travelers who must cross the numerous fords in the gorge. There is also much erosion of soil localh' on the older neglected fields of the tributaries of the Tennes- see Laurel and on the poor portions of the foothills of Holston Mountain. Excepting a few mountain pastures, all the mountain The forest. ridges are wooded, and both east and west of Damascus are large areas of unbroken forest, covering both mountain and valley. The north slope of Holston Mountain also remains entirelj' wooded. The forest of this drainage varies, naturally, with the soil, altitude, and exposure, and has also been seriously modified b}' fires. The northward slopes of Holston and Iron mountains are lightl}^ timbered with oaks, black pine, chestnut, gum, etc., with some hemlock and white pine in ravines, nearl}^ all culled. The .southward slopes of the same mountains, and especially the lower portions of these slopes, are better wooded, except as cleared or deadened for grazing, and have some heavy stands of hemlock and white pinie, among which hardwoods are freelj' distributed. 72 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. The steep .slopes west of Damascus and east of Como Gap are in a very inferior forest condition, owing largely to the long-continued prevalence of tires, which have not onlj' prevented a vigoi'ous growth, but have even driven out the niost valuable species. The trees of the ridges and north slopes are short and crooked, and as a rule the land is very imperfectly stocked and also very brushy. The forests of some of the tribu- tary basins are in excellent condition, having more mois- ture and better soil and having been less injured by fire. Except on the driest portions, lands cut or burned over are quickly restocked with valuable species, while the dry ridges and summits are soon occupied by chestnut and oak sprouts or by black pine, gum, sourwood, or trees of similar value. Prevention of fire and judicious thinning would soon develop a valuable forest on these northern slopes, where now there is very little material that is marketable. ■WATAUGA BIVEE BASIN. [441,000 acres: 66 per cent wooded.") Topography. T^aig basin, tributary to the Holston, lies almost entirely within the Appalachian mountain region. The main source of the river is on Grandfather Mountain, a promi- nent peak of the Blue Ridge, while the last mountain gorge is passed near Elizabethton, Tenn., where the river leaves the mountains. The highest points of this basin are Hol- ston Mountain, 4,300 feet; Snake Mountain, 5,594 feet; Rich Mountain, 5,369 feet; Grandfather Mountain, 5,964 feet; Beech Mountain, 5,222 feet; Yellow Mountain. 5.600 feet; Roan Mountain, 6,313 feet, and Ripshin Mountain, 4,800 feet. These are on the borders. The interior por- tion is broken into many subordinate ridges, reaching an altitude of 3,000 to 4,000 feet, with deep, narrow vallej^s eroded down to an altitude of 3,000 to 2,000 feet. Derived directly from granite, gneiss, and schist, by decomposition, the .soil of the mountains and ridges has been fertile, much of it very fertile loam of excellent phj'sical as well as chemical composition. Washing, how- ever, has carried much of the desirable material down to the valleys and left the soil of the ridges inferior, espe- cially on .southward slopes. The valley soil is of two general classes, (1) the red cla3'ey loam of the lower foot- hills and (2) alluvial bottom land, some of which is too Soil SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 73 Erosion. porous or too stony, but mostlj' excellent farm land. Alto- gether, the newly cleared soil is very good, but many burned ridges and old washed fields are in a very poor condition, notably in the valley of Little Doe. Along Stony, Cove, and Roane creeks, Doe Eiver, the Agriculture. main Watauga, and many minor vallej^s are excellent large farms, growing corn, wheat, rye, oats, grass, and vegetables. On almost everj^ creek and in man}- of the mountain coves are families depending upon the farm for the gTeater portion or all of their living. While much has been cleared that would be better adapted to timber growing if a timber market were within reach, there is altogether a large area that is best adapted to farming. It is safe to saj' that a broad economic policy would have little or no more forest land cleared than is now under cultivation, and that attention should be given to keeping what land is cleared in good condition rather than to clear- ing more to be exhausted and washed until worthless. In this basin it is estimated that the average damage by erosion during the season of 1901 to farm land has been not less than %1 per acre. This amounts to over $200,000 for the whole basin. Damages to railroads amounted to $250,000, 19 bridges and about 25 miles of track being washed out. The damage to wagon roads can hardly be estimated. In manj^ places entirely new roads were necessary. The damage was probably $500,000 altogether. Buildings and pei-sonal propertj' destroyed swell the total loss to something like $2,000,000. Distribution. — The remaining forests are on the ridges and mountain ranges and spurs. These are somewhat dotted with clearings, especially in the granitic region south of the Iron Mountain Gorge and along the north slope of Beech Mountain and the Elk Creek Basin. The lowlands have been almost entirel}' cleared. Composition. — The hard woods, in which the oaks and chestnut predominate, form a mixed forest on most of the area; some ravines carry hemlock almost exclusively, and on some of the ridges white pine is one of the prin- cipal timber trees. Spruce is found almost exclusively in some high mountain groups, while beech rules in zones on high mountains and on the crests of some ridges. Condition. — Nearh^ all of the forest has been or is being culled of its most valuable timber, and is rapidlj^ becom- ing inferior b}' the predominance of old and defective The forest. 74 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. trees and undesirable species. Fires are j^reventing a good growth on large portions, although they are seldom so severe as to kill much timber. The few areas that are in good forest condition are merely enough to illustrate what forestrj^ might do. Reproduction. — Vigorous sprouts, seedlings, and sap- lings abound on old cuttings and burns, and prevention of fire and some judicious thinning would soon develop a forest that would justify transportation companies in building railroads to haul its products to market. NOLICHUCKY RIVER BASIN. [»69,920 acres; 76 per cent wooded.] Topography. A large portion of this basin lies within the mountain region. Its three principal tributaries. North Toe, South Toe. and Canej' rivers, as well as several creeks of large size, are entirelj' between the rims. Mount Mitchell, the highest peak east of the Rocky Mountains, and Roan Mountain, well known by "Cloudland," the highest hotel of the East, are both on the borders of this basin. In the central part is a large portion of hilly agricultural land, and along creeks are many narrow strips of flat, alluvial bottom. In cutting through the northwestern rim of the plateau, however, the streams have worn long, deep gorges through the Unicoi and parallel mountain ranges, and the narrow tributary valleys of this portion of the basin have rapid torrential streams, very little bottom land, or none, and very steep and rocky mountain slopes. Soil. The soil is in general very good, especially that of the lower portion of the interior basin, which was evident^ deposited as a sediment before the gorge was cut to its present depth. The mountain coves also contain deep, dark loam, which is very fertile. Some of the ridges, however, have a light, shallow soil, owing to erosion of humus and loose earth. Agriculture. Twenty-four per cent of this basin is cleared land, most of which is grazed, although much of it is well adapted to diversified farming, which is unprofitable now because of distance from market. Erosion A great drawback to agriculture is found in the cutting away of uncovered hill fields by the dasning rains and the deposition of the eroded material on other fields in the bottoms. The floods of the Nolichucky are well known., Thej^ may be partly due to the topographic configuration SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 75 of the area, by reason of which a rise of the three main tributaries at one time ma}' cause a flood in the river. There is no room for doubt, liowever, that • the large amount of cleared land in this basin greatly increases the floods. Every resident who has known the river ten years or more states very positively that the volume of water is now much less constant than in former years. In Yancey County many of the steep slopes in the basins of Caney River, Bald Creek, and in the vicinity of Burnsville, which have for many successive years been planted in corn or small grain, are deeplj^ eroded, and some such fields have been abandoned. The same statement will apply to much steep land in Mitchell County, on the watei'S of Cane and Big Rock creeks, and in the vicinit}' of Red Hill. The lands at higher elevations, which have been retained in grass, are less damaged. The alluvial lands of the Nolichucky were severely washed by several freshets during the spring and summer of 1901, the most severe being that of May 20 to May 23, which caused damage to land and other propertj' in Mitchell Countj' to the amount of $500,000 or more. All of the soil on the flood plain of Cane Creek, 9 miles in length, was removed, leaving only the large stones and rocks, and many tine farms on North Toe River were destroyed. More than twenty dwellings, several mills and dams, and man}' million feet of saw logs are known to have been washed away. In addition, the damage to the public highways was $50 or more per mile, aggregating f50,000, while the railroad sustained an equal loss in the injury to roadbed, bridges, and culverts. (See PI. XXXV (b) showing wreckage from Mitchell County, lodged near Erwin, Tenn.) Although greatly broken by clearings, large areas of Th« forest. woodland remain on the Unicoi and parallel ranges on the northwestern border, on Roan Mountain, the Blue Ridge, the Black Mountain group, and the western tributaries of Caney River. In composition there is great variet}-. Spruce and balsam prevail on the highest portions of the Black, Roan, and Sampson mountain groups. Hemlock, birch, maple, cucumber, ash, buckeye, linn, and other moisture-loving trees line the ravines, while oak, chestnut, gum, and other hard woods cover the ridges of the higher altitudes. Oak and pine form a less dense cover, usually very brush}', on the ridges of lower altitude. 76 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN BEGION. In forest conditions there is also great variety, dependent largely upon the prevalence of fire. Fires are freely set during autumn, winter, and spring, and great injury to timber, forest seedlings, and soil results. A large propor- tion of the timber trees are defective, and much of the woodland area is imperfectly stocked. The reproduction of trees is remarkably vigorous on cuttings, burns, and old fields, and growth is rapid. The prevention of fire and the application of improvement cuttings would wonderfully increase the value of the for- est, which is the great natural resource of the mountainous portion of this basin. Topography. Soil. Agriculture. FRENCH BROAD RIVER BASIN (NORTH OF SKYLAND). [555,840 acres; 51 per cent in forest, besides wood lots.''] This long and wide crescent-shaped valley heads on the Blue Ridge, whi(-h it drains from Swannanoa Gap to Panther Tail Mountain (62 mile.s) and reaches entirely across the highlands, which it leaves near the Tennessee line, about 80 miles from its source. Around the borders of this basin are the Craggy Mountains, Swannanoa Mountains, and Estatoe, Panther Tail, Pizgah, and Max Patch peaks, all high, fore.st-covered mountains. In Madison County, where the river has cut through the northwestern rim of the region, is a large area of broken, mountainous ridges, with verj^ steep and rockj^ slopes. A great portion of the interior basin, however, is smooth enough and fertile enough for grazing or farming. The soil is extremely variable, though in general very good. That of the lower hills is a red clay, a fine sedimentary deposit. It is fertile and recuperates readily, but erodes rapidly when uncovered. The ridge land, as usual, is well adapted to grass, but if closel}' pastured erodes rapidly and soon becomes worthless. The best soil is found in the coves and on the broad alluvial bottoms which border the river and its larger tributaries from the Blue Ridge in the southeast to the head of the gorge near Marshall. Substantially all the lowland is occupied by farmers, and many of the plantations are very productive and well adapted to mixed farming. This is, in lact, one of the best agricultural valleys to be found in the East. The principal difiiculties to be met are erosion of surface soil "These wood lots are small and scattered so as to make it difficult to estimate their aggregate area. SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 77 Erosion. on the hills and destructive floods on the bottoms. Much of the mountain region is also under cultivation. The cove lands are mostly cleared, and cleared mountain-side pas- tures dot the landscape, as viewed from every high point. This basin is no exception to the rule for the region. Tobacco-growing on the lighter soils of the hills exhausted field after field, and finally the whole industry was aban- doned, leaving large areas of desolate land exposed to the cutting action of raindrops and to gullj'ing b}' running water. The same pi'ocess has been in operation on old farm land and pastures, until on many small tracts, as on the southward slopes of Povert}' Hollow, near Barnards- ville, there is but little soil left. There is hardly a farm in the entire basin that is not more or less gullied, although much care is taken bj- a few of the more thoughtful farmers to keep the earth covered by a vigorous crop. The inun- dations of the bottom lands are also seriously damaging, and the general testimonj^ is that thej- increase as more land is cleared. There is evident need of every protection against ero- sion in this valle}', where so manj^ people and so much valuable property are concerned, and where sudden heavy downpoui's of rain are common. DiKtrihution. — The higher mountains are still forested. The forest. and the ridges and slopes above 3,000 feet are mostly covered, although some of the ridges, as Elk, Spring Creek, and New Found ridges have on them large proportions of cleared land, and the mountain sides are often dotted with clearings. Com,2X)sition. — In this region we have a mixed forest, in which the oaks and chestnuts predominate, with a sprink- ling of white pine, hemlock, linn, gum, beech, birch, maple, ash, hickory, Shortleaf pine, poplar, cherry, wal nut, and many other species of less importance. Condition.— ^&siAes the usual inferior condition of the natural forest, fires, grazing, and culling have greatly reduced its original qualit3\ Bordering the farms are many fine stands of sapling second growth, but the remote mountains are full of defective trees and brush. ReprodMction. — Sprouts and seedlings spring up readil3^ White pine, shortleaf pine, poplar, ash, walnut, and cherry all abound in the forests in the form of promi.sing young trees. Sumac and locust here reproduce rapidlj^ and are well adapted to cover and prevent erosion on the old fields. 78 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. The farmers need to be taught that to recuperate their lands, instead of letting them stand bare and idle '"to rest," they should grow clover and cowpeas on them, and always keep them covered as much as possible. BIG PIGEON RIVER BASIN. [346,-140 acres; ?9 per cent wooded.] Topography. Bjg Pigeon River rises among the Balsam and Pizgah mountains, cuts its way through the Unaka Mountains, and join^ the French Broad on the Tennessee Plain. It drains an interior agricultural basin which is oval in out- line, the longer axis northwest, parallel to the general course of the stream, and almost entirely within the Apjya- lachian Mountain region. It is circumscribed by lofty mountains, with many peaks more than 6,000 feet in alti- tude. Many minor ranges, springing from the surround- ing mountains, converge toward the middle of the basin, dividing it into deep, narrow valleys, except near its upper end between the towns of Canton and Waynesville, where there is a broad, open valley of alluvial plains and rolling hills, dotted with low mountains. Soil. The soils are loams and sandy loams, mosth' fine grained in texture, derived from gneiss and schists, though in the mountains thej^ are more siliceous and coarser — there the product of decomposed sandstones, quartzite, and con- glomerates. This basin is eminently adapted to grass, except where very sandj^, and grass is the chief product of the region. Corn ranks next in importance; while the cultivation of wheat is largeh' confined to the broad valley of the Pigeon, between Canton and Ferguson, and to the Richland and Fines Creek valleys. Apples are extensive^ raised and have a wide reputation for their quality, and truck farm- ing is yearly assuming greater importance. The alluvial valley lands have been little injured by freshets, and the soils of the uplands, with few exceptions, have not sufiered severely from erosion, though a few badly gullied slopes, due to the continuous cultivation of corn, are to be seen in the older settlements. Tbe forest. The scarlet, black, and white oaks, associated with black pine, formed at one time an extensive forest on the hills between Canton and Waynesville, but this land, where not under cultivation, is now in second-growth forest. The forests of the mountains are of typical mixed Appalachian Agriculture. Erosion. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. hard woods, with, in the Balsam and Pizgah i-idges, a small amount of black spruce at high elevations, and some white pine in the lower part of the basin. These forests have been culled only of the most valuable timbers. Ail species reproduce excellently under the proper light conditions; and with exclusion of fire and a judi- cious system of lumbering there would be no difficulty in perpetuating this forest and increasing the proportion of valuable species in its composition. 79 NORTHWESTERN SLOPE OF SMOKY MOUNTAINS. [254,720 acreg; 91 per cent wooded. J This tract is a mountain side between altitudes of 1,600 Topography. and 6.700 feet, and is drained by Little Pigeon and Little rivers into Holston River, and b}^ Abrams Creek into Little Tennessee River. The surface is eroded into fan- shaped basins, very steep, and often precipitous near the summit, with high, narrow ridges dividing the main drainage basins. There is no alluvial land of consequence except at Briar Cove, Gatlinburg, Tuckaleechee Cove and Cades Cove. In general the soil is light-colored and shallow, espe- son. ciallj^ on the ridges and steep slopes. In the coves, how- ever, and along the foot of the ridges where the slope is more gentle, humus has accumulated and the soil is fer- tile. In general physical quality the soil is loam or clay loam. Corn is the principal farm crop, and 50 bushels per acre Agriculture. are sometimes grown on the best lowlands. This land can not compete with the alluvial river bottoms, however. Most of it is farmed only because it is cheap land and affords a chance for a poor man to make a living (by hard work.) The higher altitudes are favorable to fruit, grass, and vegetables, and also to stock raising in a limited de- gree, as cattle ma3=' roam in the woods and subsist on seed- lings, shrubs, and weeds, and hogs in occasional years find abundant mast. In general, the earth is fairly well covered, and thus pro- Erosion. tected from erosion, but the few old pastures are worn and gullied here, as elsewhere on hilh' land. In this region streams heading in unbroken forest are notablj^ clear and their banks show little fluctuation in volume of water, while those from cleared lands are muddy and inconstant. 80 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. While present erosion is limited, there is evidence that it would be very great if large areas of the earth were uncovered. The forest. Distrihutio7i.^-Ys\th. the exception of a few "balds," or grassy areas on the higher summits, and the alluvial lands of the lower coves and creek valleys, the forest of this great mountain side is practicallj^ unbroken. Com2Wsition. —The species of trees growing here nuin- ber over 100, an unusuallj^ large number for one locality. Northern and southern trees are close neighbors, and all may be studied in travei'sing the different zones of altitude from 1,500 to 6,700 feet, instead of the necessary 1,000 miles of latitude at an altitude of 1,000 feet. Almost ever}' tree enumerated in the accompanying list (p. 93) grows here. Condition. — While some remarkably fine timber trees are here, the general average is far inferior to what might be grown with so favorable a soil and climate. Fire, graz- ing, and culling have reduced this forest considerably below its natural condition. Imperfect trees and inferior species are abundant, while some of the burns and cattle ranges are very deficient in stand. Reproduction. — Hardly any other forest in the country would respond so readilj' to the forester's care and demon- strate so plainly that nearly all of this tract is best adapted to timber growing. LITTLE TENNESSEE RIVER BASIN. Topography. [1,018,054 acres; 91 per cent wooded.] Little Tennessee River with its tributaries drains a large area, extending from the Blue Ridge on the south to the Great Smoky Mountains on the north, including all of the territory between the basins of Big Pigeon and Hiwas- see rivers. Its larger tributaries are the Tuckasegee from the east, the Oconalufty from the northeast, the Cheoah from the southwest, and the Nantahala from the south, while the upper portion of the Tennessee drains the extreme southern portion, heading on top of the Blue Ridge. These waters pass through the Tennessee into the Ohio River. The upper or southern part of the basin lying on the northwest slope of the Blue Ridge is an elevated plateau region, having an altitude of more than 3,000 feet, with low, rounded granite knobs and few high summits, and broad alluvial flats, the deposit of the slow streams. The Balsam, Great Smoky, and Unaka mountains, with many Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LVl. V !» fcx«. \ ^^ ^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^H^^i^ ' c -If '% ■ \ 1 in HB:'"'''' \ ^s^ M. 1 , , ■ a^M^BBip^ bHIk 1 IgP^^ ^S 1 1^ Ir ■H % 9 ^^^^^^1^ s^^^^^^l '^^^^^^IH 1^' nnK^K dridUKj^^^^K? »'■■ 1 r^^&'^iHHi V'v ^^^Ir SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 81 crests moi'e than 6,000 feet high, form the watershed on the north and west, and from thesedescend into the northern portion of the basin many swift streams, wliich have carved deep narrow valleys, leaving high intervening ridges with steep and rugged slopes. The watersheds between several of these streanas are high and rough mountains, especially in the Cheoah, Nantahala, and Cowee ranges. The lower part of the basin includes some of the most rugged land in the southern Appalachians, with only a ver}' small part suited for tillage, and few alluvial bottoms; but in the upper part much of the mountain land is not steep, and there are several large and fertile valleys. The soils in the upper part of the basin are sandy, sou. derived from granite, or in the Little Tennessee River, around and above Franklin, where most of the good farms are located, from schists, and are deep and fertile red loams. In the narrow valley's around the high mountains, where sandstones, c[uartzite, and conglomerates prevail, the soils are generalh' thin and sandy, and poor agricul- turally", but on north slopes and in hollows are well suited to forests. The alluvial bottom lands along many of the streams are also light and sandy, though those of the Little Tennessee are silts of the finest texture. All of the land available for tillage has been cleared. Agriculture. Corn is the staple crop on both alluvium and upland, the yield of small grain, grass, and apples being much smaller than in other mountain counties farther north. At high altitudes and on some of the stiffer soils grass thrives, but on the whole the soils are too light and too subject to drought for either grazing or forage grasses. Orchards have been planted, but are much neglected, and only a few apples are produced for market. ]\Iuch of the best ^■alle^' land has been badly washed. Erosion. especially on Tuckasegee River and Scott Creek. There are also man}' badly worn steep slopes on these streams and elsewhere. In general, the mountain ranges and spurs, and also the The forest, ridge lands of the valley's, are still principally wooded, although many clearings are found in mountain coves and on mountain slopes. The principal clearings, however, are on and about the alluvial lands, which appear on the map like broken chains along the larger tributaries. The lai'gest unbroken forest areas lie on Oconalufty, *S. Doc. 8i 6 8 '2 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Cheoah, and Tuckasegee rivers, in the northern, north- western, and northeastern parts of the basin, though thei'e are some areas of fine forest at the head of Nantahala and Little Tennessee rivers, in the southern part of the basin. At lower elevations the forests are of oaks and hickories, associated with black pine. On the thin soil of the slopes along the Blue Ridge small scarlet and white oaks, with occasional bodies of hemlock, form the forest, while else- where in the mountains typical Appalachian hardwoods prevail, with some few thousand acres of black spruce capping the highest summits of the Smoky and Balsam mountains. The best timber has been much culled for 20 miles from the Southern Railway, which crosses the middle of the basin. Repeated forest fires, started with a view to improve the pasturage, have destroj^ed much tim- ber on drj' south slopes , and by continued su]3pression of the young growth have greatly reduced the densit}'. Repi'oduction, however, is good, and if the open woods were protected there would soon be a fine j'oung growth beneath the old trees. Proper distribution of species could easily be secured by judicious cutting while logging. HIWASSEE RIVER BASIN. [223,456 acres; 71 per cent wooded.] Topography. rpj^jg drainage is tributary to the Tennessee River, which the Hiwassee joins above Chattanooga, and comprises the eastern tributaries of Hiwassee River above Murphy, equivalent to the western slope of the mountainous divide between Little Tennessee and Hiwassee rivers, which divide is a cross range between the Blue Ridge and the Smoky Mountains. The altitude of this tract ranges be- tween 1,.500 and 5,000 feet. Spurs from 5 to 20 miles long reach from the divide toward the river, while deep valleys extend from the river far into the mountains. The mountain sides are steep and often rocky, while the creek valleys, of which there are six prominent ones, have considerable areas of alluvial flats and rolling foothills. Soil- Even the alluvial flats along the rivers and creeks have a large proportion of claj^, and the foothills are almost entirely clay. The mountain sides are loamy, the coves very fertile, and the soils of the ridges light, often stony. Agriculture. Corn is the principal grain crop. Grass does well on low alluvial lands and in mountain coves, but burns out SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 83 on the foothills. There are some fine farms on Valley River, Peach Tree, Tusquitee, Shooting-, Tiger, and High- tower creeks, but large areas of hill land are worn out and abandoned to broom grass. This basin, or part of it; seems unusually liable to floods, as is shown by the cutting of banks and the washing of fields. About the head of Peach Tree Creek, in 1900, several "waterspouts" are said to have occurred at one time, and the water from these joining formed a torrent that swept across fields and roads, doing great damage. Evidences of similar floods and of great erosion on old fields are to be found in almost every mile of travel. The uselessness of clearing the ridge lands has been dis- covered by the farmers, and no advances of cleared land have recently been made toward the mountains, but many old fields lie wasted and wearing away, scantily patched with broom grass, persimmon, and sassafras. Distribution. — The mountains and spurs are principally forest -covered, although here and there clearings have been made in coves and along the tributarj^ creeks. The larger creek valleys and the river A'allej^ are principally cleared. Comj)ositioii. — In this region is found a suggestion of the difl'erence between the forest of the cool highlands and that of the southern slope of the Blue Ridge. In passing from the highlands we are leaving the region of most vigorous tree growth and approaching the piny regions. Oaks and hickories are more numerous, but shorter and smaller; hemlock and white pine are less abundant; the birches and hard maples become rare, and the southern red maple, pitch pine, and shortleaf pine more abundant. Condition. — In condition, too, there is a noticeable con- trast. Fires have been more prevalent and have kept decaying vegetation prettj^ thoroughly consumed. Fires have killed less timber, but have done no less damage by preventing that new growth which perpetuates the natural forest. On isolated wood lots and near clearings are many tracts of thrift}^ saplings, but the general forest condition, owing to fire and grazing, is inferior to that of the plateau. Reproduction. — The first and essential step toward the improvement of this forest would be the prevention of fire. Much of the stand is now so thin that thinnings need not be made at once. The forest. 84 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Sprouts and .seedlings will start freely, and the forest would grow well as soon as the forest soil reached natural condition again. But few cattle are ranged in the mountains now, as the grazing has been too much reduced b}' repeated tires. TALLXJLAH-CHATTOOGA RIVER BASIN. [S4S,oSS acres; S9 per cent wooded.] Topography. xhis tract covcrs the entire basin of these rivers above their junction and drains ioto„the Atlantic through Savan- nah River. Lying on the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge, the altitude varies from 5,500 feet on Standing- Indian, 5.100 feet on Ridgepole, 4,769 on Scal_v Mountain, and 4,931 feet on White Sides to 1,000 feet at the junc- tion of the Tallulah and Chattooga rivers. Many of the peaks and spurs are exti'emeh' bold, and there are numer- ous deep gorges and canyons. Along the creeks, espe-. cially along the Upper Tallulah and its tributaries, are alluvial bottoms of considerable area. Nearly all of the cleared land (11 per cent of entire tract) of this system is on creek bottoms. ^°''' Derived from gneiss and granite, the soil is generally of good physical composition, except in the foothills, where a stiff red claj- predominates, which erodes readily and is hard to cultivate. The bottom lands are loamj' and fairly fertile, but the ridges have been so much burned and washed that on them the soil is light colored, thin, and poor. Agriculture. Corn is the principle crop. Grass, except in the higher altitudes, does not hold. Sweet potatoes, cane, and cotton are grown along the southern limit of this tract. Peaches do well in the lower altitudes, and apples are grown on the mountains. Erosion. -pj^g impervious clays of the foothills are frequently found barren and gullied, because left uncovered. The mountain ridges, having many stones and pebbles in their soil, resist erosion much better than the claj's, but this advantage is counteracted In' the steepness of their slopes, and the Ijed of every rivulet is eroded to the underlying- rock. The creek bottoms are hardly less liable to damage. Sudden downpours of rain (11 inches have been known to fall in forty-eight hours) often cau.se such rises in the creeks as to cover the fields with gravel or cut them awaj^. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 85 Distribution. — AH this tract is forest land except the creek bottoms and a few mountain coves, which have been cleared and together amount to 11 per cent of the area. The denser portions are in the coves at the higher altitudes. Composition. — There is a noticeable contrast between the forests of the interior mountain region and of those of this region about the headwaters of the Tallulah and Chattooga rivers. Here the oaks are in greater predomi- nance, and the hickories and Southern pines are more abundant, while beech, birch, maple, buckej^e, and other lovers of oool air and abundant moisture are notably less. White pine and hemlock hold to the higher altitude, but are noticeablj^ rare along the foothills. Condition. — In condition, also, the forest is inferior to that of the highlands. The injuries bj' tire are greater. The rate of growth is further retarded by drought, and probabl}^ b}' occasional spring frosts killing buds and young leaves. The greater portion is in the condition of natural forest, with many old, crooked, fire-scarred, and otherwise defective trees and inferior species, and with subordinate saplings, crooked and retarded. Because of prevalent fires the stand is imperfect, many spaces being covered with mere brush where a stand of good timber is possible. Along the line of the old railroad grade from Walhalla to Rabun Gap much burning was done at the time of grading, and now the portion then severeh' burned is covered with a dense stand of saplings, principallj' oaks and hickory. Rej)7'oduction. — The absence of protection from fire on its drj^ slopes would be the main difiicult}^ in bringing this forest into good condition, as sprouts and seedlings spring up quickly where fire can be prevented. The efl'ect of the no-fence law is plainly noticeable south of the Chattooga River, where the forest is more severely injured by fires, which are there fiercer because of more combustible material. The iorest. TOXAWAY RIVEB BASIN. [52,243 acres; 95 per cent wooded ] This basin drains into the Atlantic through Savannah Topography. River. The headwaters rise far back in and in fact have, by erosion, almost worked their way through the Blue Ridge. The principal peaks about the headwaters are: Sheep Cliff, i,653feet; Double Knob, 4, -117 feet; Great Hogback, 4,700 feet, and Cold Mountain, i,500 feet. The descent 86 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. Soil. Agriculture. Erosion. The forest. from these peaks is rapid and amounts to 3,500 feet in 6 miles on the Toxawa}-. There are few prominent points within the basin, but the canj-ons are deeply eroded, and cascades are almost continuous along the Whitewater, Horsepasture, and other tributaries. Derived from gnei.ss, and in general well forested, the soil is fertile. It is usuallj' a loam of good ph3'sical qual- ity. The ridge land is, of course, less fertile, yet is capable of sfrowing valuable timber. The few clearings that have been made yield good crops of grass and corn, but the roughness and steepness of the surface will prevent any extensive farming in this portion of this drainage. So little of the land has been cleared that eroded fields are not a prominent feature of the landscape, as in many other localities, but enough has been cleared to show what the effect would be. The soil, having numerous pebbles in it, does not erode by rainfall as readily as clay or sand, but, on the other hand, the slopes are so steep and the torrents so fierce that it would be unwise to uncover any but the gentlest slopes and the most fertile soil. The forest of this tract is but slightly broken, only .5 per cent being cleared. The northern portion, lying well up on the Blue Ridge, has substantially the same species as the foi-est of the highlands. The oaks, hemlock, and white pine predominate. Chestnut, ash, hickory and gum are also abundant. Lower on the slopes the oaks, hickories, and black and yellow pines become more prominent. The forests of this region are variable. The\' have been seriously injured bj- fires, and as a result have some large openings on the ridges. Rhododendron and kalmia con- stitute a dense undergrowth in the hollows. Defective trees are abundant throughout, but the stand of valuable species is poor. Improvement in forest condition maj^ be rather more difficult here than elsewhere,, owing to abundance of brush and the liability to fire. White and shortleaf pine are the most promising species for a future forest. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 87 SALUDA RIVER BASIN. [30,796 acres; 94 per cent wooded.] ANT) FIRST AND SECOND BROAD RIVER BASIN. [54,400 acres; 80 per cent wooded.] The small portion.s of these two drainage systems exam- ined are so similar they may be described together. Both lie on the southeastern slope of the Blue Ridge, and both drain into the Atlantic through Santee River. The Blue Ridge at the heads of these basins is low — Topography, about 3,000 feet — and the lowest land covered bj' these descriptions is about 1,200 feet. The slopes drained by the Saluda are steep and often precipitous, and include Table Rock and Cfesars Head, both bold rocky points, affording two of the grandest views in the whole region. The cascades and falls through the glens of South Saluda and other creeks ai'e very pretty. There is very little alluvial land on the creeks until they reach the plain at the foot of the Blue Ridge. The slojaes drained bj' the Broad rivers are more moderate. The spurs here reach out long distances toward the plains, while between these spurs are rapid but seldom cascading creeks, with somewhat inter- rupted alluvial bottom lands. In both regions the soils are derived from granite. Son. gneiss, and schi.sts, which, vA^hen they remain in place, make excellent land, but when washed and the finer .sedi- ments left in one place, the coarser in another, become less desirable, as the clays thus formed are too stiff', too impervious to water, and too hard to work, while the gravels are too porous and too light. Corn and cane are the principal crops of this region. Agriculture. Some grass is grown on the small clearings in the higher altitudes, and some inferior orchards are seen. Sweet potatoes are grown on everj^ plantation, and a few small cotton fields were found on the edge of the plain. The lack of grass on most of this area leaves the siir- Erosion. face exposed to the cutting action of falling rain, and the eroding effect is so severe and so evident that, in the foot- hills, no one attempts agriculture upon the ridges. Even the gentler slopes on the border of the alluvial bottoms are often gullied until they have become not onlj' worth- less themselves, but are a source of damage to the bottom 88 The forest. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. lands below, which receive the material washed from them. (See PI. LXVll.) The slight protection furnished by the frequently burned forests does not prevent the washing away of the humus from the woods, and being so light, it is carried far down the stream to still waters before it finds a lodging place. Substantiallj- all the ridges and steeper slopes are for- ested more or less densely, while the creek bottoms are cleared. The cleared area on the Saluda comprises 6 per cent of that basin, while 20 per cent of the area of the Broad basins is cleared. In composition these forests are principally oaks and hickory, with a sprinkling of nearh' all other species men- tioned in the accompanying list (p. 93). In condition these forests are very inferior. There is very little log timber. Many of the trees are fire-scarred; many, though old, are small because fire and erosion of humus have retarded growth. Much of the area has a deficient stand, because fires have killed seedlings. To improve this forest it would be necessary to prevent fire and possibly to thin out defective trees and undesir- able species. The species to be favored here are poplar, ash, walnut, shortleaf pine, post oak, and white oak, and, in the higher altitudes, white pine. CATAWBA RIVER BASIN. [321,440 acres; 82 per cent wooded.] Topography. This area, as here limited, includes the eastern or south- ern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its numerous spurs, from Blowing Rock southward to Edmondson Mountain, and is drained by the headwaters of the Catawba River, including Johns and Linville rivers, and the north and south forks of the Catawba, directly- through the Catawba River into the Atlantic. The elevated crest of the Blue Ridge, with few points on it at a lower elevation than 1,000 feet, and rising at Grandfather Mountain and Pinnacle to an elevation of more than 5,000 feet, forms the western and northern limits of the area; and from it extend steep, rugged spurs with a general north and south trend, grad- ually diminishing in altitude as thej' recede from the pa- rent range, dividing the region into numerous parallel, narrow, often gorge-like, valleys. This type of vallej' reaches its culmination in the gorge of the Linville River, the wildest and most picturesque stream of the southern Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LVII. fv«S'-"-s-.<5.. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 89 Soil. Appalachians, in its descent of 2,-iOOfeet in 20 miles, from the Linville Falls to thd foothills. The alluvial lands in the valle}rs, except those along- the Catawba for a few miles above Marion, are limited to narrow strips bordering the streams, or, as on the' lower Linville and many tribu- taries of the Johns River, are altogether lacking-. The soils of the uplands, derived from the decaA^ in place of quartzite, slates, sandstone, and gneiss, are sandj', or sand}' loams, and are thin and poor, with few exceptions. Along the larger streams the alluvia are siltj' and fertile; along the smaller they are sandj^ and often less productive. In the lower valleys corn and small grain are the com- Agriculture. mon crops on the alluvia; corn the exclusive crop of the steeper slopes. Corn, oats, grass, and apples form the staple crops in the elevated valleys and on slopes at high altitudes. The alluvial lands of the Johns River and the Catawbas ^rosiou. have been severely damaged by recent freshets, which have in manj^ places washed away the soil to a depth of several feet, leaving only the rock and gravel, while in other places the agricultural value has been destroj'ed by the deposition of beds of pure sand or coarse gravel above the alluvium. Soils on steep slopes which have been under tillage, especialh' those in corn, have also been badly dam- aged. The forests, except those of a few limited valleys at high elevation, are confined to the slopes, neai-ljr all of the allu- vial bottoms having been cleared. Comjxisition. — They are formed of hardwoods, chiefly ihe forest. oaks, associated with pines, white or black; or of mixed hard woods — oaks, chestnut, maple, birch, linn, ash, and poplar — associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and on some northern slopes. Condition. — Nearlj' all south and east slopes, especially' at a low elevation, have been damaged by fires to some ex- tent. The best hard woods have been culled from much of the area, and the best white pine from the lower part of the valle}' of the Johns River and from a portion of the Upper Linville. There is yet much hard wood, largely oak, on the headwaters of the Catawbas, Johns, and Upper Linville rivers. Reproduction. — Reproduction of hard woods is free b^^ stool shoots and seed, and of pine b}' seed. Protection from fire is greath' needed. This, with improvement cut- tings, would soon develop a valuable forest. 90 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. YADKIN RIVER BASIN. [253,120 acres; 54 per cent wooded.] Topography. The poi'tion of the basin of this river examined includes the eastern slope of the Blue Ridge, with its outh^ers from Bullhead Mountain southward to Blowing Rock, and is drained bj^ the head streams of the Yadkin and all of its northern tributaries eastward to and including Roaring River. The crest of the Blue Ridge, with an average elevation of more than 3,500 feet, limits the area on the north; and from this numerous sharp and steep spurs penetrate the area, dividing it into a series of nar- row parallel northwest-and-southeast trending basins, from the southern ends of which the streams emerge and unite to form the Yadkin, at an elevation of about 1,000 feet. The topography is rough, the slopes of the ridges steep, and the intervening valley's narrow, showing unchecked natural erosion f i-om a high plateau region to a lower base level, in a country with rock of varjang hardness and an abundant rainfall. ^™'- The alluvial lands in the valleys are narrow strips or small bodies, seldom more than a few acres in extent, of dark, sandj'-loam soils, rich in humus, and fertile, or occa- sionally of coarse sand and poor. The soils of the uplands, produced by the decomposition of slates, sandstones, and gneiss, are highlj- silicious and often coarse and poor. On north slopes and in the hollows accumulated mold adds to the fertility and checks the removal of the finer cla3'ey particles, while the povertj^ of the naturally infertile south slopes is augmented b}- repeated fires which destroy the litter and "facilitate the removal of the finer particles of the soil by the heavj^ rains. Agriculture. Com is the Staple crop, both on the alluvial lands and on the slopes at lower elevations; while corn, grass, and some apples are cultivated on the shady north slopes at high elevations and in the deep, cool hollows that indent the face of the mountain. Some of the alluvial bottoms have been damaged by being washed and gullied by freshets, or bj- the deposit of coarse sand and gravel brought down from the mountains. Erosion. Manj^ of the steep slopes, exposed to erosion by the naked cultivation required for corn, have been gullied to the bed rock, and their agricultural value is temporarily destroj'ed. Man}' such abandoned fields are being colonized by wind- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 91 80wn pine seedlings, which check further erosion and rebuild the soil. The forests, which ai'e confined to the slojaes, are formed of hard woods, chiefly oaks, associated with pine (black, rarely with white) on the drier south and east slopes; and of mixed hard woods — oaks, chestnut, maple, poplar, linn, Tbe forest. and ash — associated with hemlock in the deep hollows and on noi'th slopes. The better forests lie to the south of Mulberry Gap. East of this gap the oaks and pines are smaller and of poorer quality, and have sufl'ered more from fires; but fires have also done much damage to the pines and oaks growing on the southward slopes. Culling has been carried on for many years, and much of the choicest timber has been removed from the bordering lands, even to the ver}- sources of the streams; but much oak and some pine yet remain. The hardwoods reproduce freeh^ from both stool shoots and seed, and the pines from seed. To prevent further deterioration of the forest and improve its condition, pro- tection from fire is necessary, while improvement cuttings are required in many places to x'emove woi'thless stock and to free young timber. TREES OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By W. W. Ashe and H. B. Atoes. The following is a list of the trees growing in the Southern Appala- chians, with notes concerning their distribution, size, uses, and repro- duction. Accompanj^ing this is a list of shi-ubs indigenous to that region. White Pine {Pim/s strphus) reaches a height of 160 feet and a diameter of 40 inches and forms neai-ly pure groves, or is associated with smaller hard woods. It prefers sandy or gravelly soils on northwest slopes lying between 1.700 and i.OOO feet elevation. It is the most important timber tree in the Eastern States, for its wood is light, strong, and durable, and is applied to nearly all uses. It makes rapid growth and reproduces freely. It is most abundant, attains its maxi- mum size, and makes most I'apid accretion on the western slopes of the Smok}' and Iron mountains, especially in Shady Valley. Loblolly Pine {Pimm taecla) in the Appalachians reaches a height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, and is found oni}^ in the southern- most part of the area, below an elevation of 1,200 feet. It occurs chiefl}' as a second growth in old fields, and is of great value in restock- ing them and preventing erosion. Nearer the coast it is a timber tree of the first importance. ShortJeaf Pine {Pintis ec/iinata), reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 36 inches, is frequent on well-drained soil below 2,000 feet elevation, becoming more common as the altitude decreases. The wood is yellow, strong, and verv durable, and takes a fine finish. It seeds freely and reproduces abundantly under full light, often restock- ing old fields and waste places. It is one of the most valuable of the yellow pines, and forms the chief building material over much of this region. Blach Pine {Pin (w rigida) reaches a height of 90 feet and a diam- eter of 28 inches. It is associated with the shortleaf pine, but it is the more abundant at higher elevations. Like that tree, it seeds freely and often, and restocks waste lands. It is not so large nor so valuable a tree, however, and the wood is coarser, more resinous, and not so free from knots. It is much used as a building material. 93 94 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Tahle-Mountain Pine {Plnus jmngens) is a medium-sized tree, wbicK reaches a height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It occurs on dry, rocky ridges between 1,500 and 3,000 feet elevation, and is most common along the Blue Ridge and on the Chilhowee and Holston mountains. It reaches its greatest size in the mountains of western North Carolina. It is not so large nor so valuable a tree as the short- leaf and black pines. Its wood is coarse and sappj'. It will grow, however, on dry, rocky soil where the black pine does not. It seeds freelj' and makes rapid growtn, at least when young. Scrul) Pine {Pinus virginiana) is a slender tree, seldom more than 80 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, which is common on dry, sandy, or gravellj^ land below 2,000 feet elevation. It propagates freely and makes rapid growth. It is not large enough to be of importance as a timber tree, though it is occasionalh' sawn. Blacl: Sj>ruce {Picea mariana) is a slender tree reaching a heiglit of 150 feet and a diameter of 30 inches. It is seldom found below 4.000 feet elevation, and only around a few of the highest mountains, where it forms dense forests of pure growth, or is associated with hemlock on cold northern slopes or along cold streams. It seeds at intervals of several j^ears and reproduces freel}' if afforded the proper light and soil conditions, which are generally not produced in lumbering. The wood is light, but strong, and is largely used for lumber. It is the chief source of wood pulp for paper. It is one of the most A'aluable trees, and reaches its greatest individual development on the slopes of the Smokjr Mountains. Red Spruce {Picea ruhxi) is here a small tree, seldom 30 feet in height, and unimportant. It occurs only in a few mountain swamps. Hemlock {Tsuga canadensis) is one of the largest of east American trees, attaining a height of more than 140 feet and a diameter of 5 feet, which is reached in the Southern Appalachians. It is common along streams and on cold, wet northern slopes above 1,500 feet eleva- tion. The bark is extensiveh' used in tanning, and the trunk supplies much rough lumber. Seeds are borne frequently, but reproduction is poor, as good reproduction requii'es a delicate adjustment of light and moisture conditions, which ai'e seldom furnished in lumbering. Carolina Ilendocl: (Tsuga caroliniana) is a smaller tree than the pre- ceding, and its distribution is limited to a few localities in the Southern Appalachians. The greatest size is attained in the mountains of North Carolina. It is one of the most statel}' of American conifers. Bahani {Abies f reiser i) attains a height of 60 feet and a diameter of 2 feet. It is exclusively a Southern Appalachian tree, being confined to the summits of the highest mountains from Clingmans Dome north- eastward. The maximum development is attained on the high peaks of the Black Mountains. The wood is soft and brittle and of little value. A medicinal resin balsam is obtained from its bark. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 95 Arhor vitce {Thuja occidentalii) is a small tree which occurs in the Southern Appalachians at only a few places, as on Cripple Creek and Linville River, on moist soil. Red Cedar {Juniperus virginiana) is a small tree, seldom more than 50 feet in height, which is frequent below 1,500 feet elevation in old fields and along roadsides, especially on limestone soil at the foot of the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is soft, but durable and valuable. It repi'oduces freely, but the rate of growth is slow. Butternut {Juglans cinerea) is a short-stemmed tree reaching a height of 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It is frequent on rocky soil along streams between 1,500 and 4:,000 feet elevation. It yields a valuable light-brown cabinet wood. Seed is borne at frequent and regular intervals, and reproduction is good. Black' Walnut {Juglans nigra) reaches a height of 110 feet and a diameter of -10 inches, attaining its greatest size in the deep hollows of the mountains of North Carolina, where it occurs mixed with oaks and chestnut. The larger and most valuable trees have generally been removed. It seeds regularly and reproduces freeh'. The black, fine-grained wood takes a good polish, and is largely used in Europe for furniture. Bltternut {Hicoria minima) is one of the largest and most valuable of the hickories, often attaining a height of 110 feet and a diameter of 30 inches. It is frequent on lower moist slopes and along streams. Seed is boi-ne in abundance at frequent intervals, and reproduction is good. The rate of g'rowth is raj^id. The wood is hard, heav}', and tough, and is much used for the handles of tools and in wagon manu- facture. ShagharJc. {Hicoria ovata) is frequent along streams and on moist, rich slopes, where it attains a large size. It reproduces freel3' by seed, and small trees sprout from the stump. The tough, elastic wood is regarded as being second in qualitj' among all the hickories. The large, edible nuts are extensively gathered and sold. Carolina Shaghark {Hicoria carolinm-septentrionalis) is a smaller tree than the preceding, but its wood is of the same quality, and is used for the same purposes. It occurs on .sand}- soil at the south- western end of the Appalachians, below 1,200 feet elevation. Shellhark Hickory {Hicoria laciniosa) is a large and valuable tree which is found at only a very few places. It grows on alluvial lands at a low elevation. White Hickory {Hicoria cdba) is the most common hickory. It is frequent on rich, warm soil at a low elevation, where it becomes a large tree, sometimes 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. The hard, tough wood is preferred to that of the other species for mechanical uses. It seeds and reproduces freel}', and young trees are common in 96 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAX REGION. culled woods at low altitudes. This and the other species are largely used for fuel. Red-heart Hickory {Hicoria odoratd) becomes 120 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter, and is one of the most common species. In the Southern Appalachians it is second in value and importance onl}^ to the White Hickory. It prefers rich, warm soil at low elevations. Seed are borne often and in abundance, and reproduction is good. Pignut {Hicoria glahra) is a slender tree, exceptionally 100 feet in height, generally growing on dry soil, but is not common. The timber is inferior to that of the red-heart hickory. Hainj Pignut {Hicoria glahra hirsufa) is like the preceding in size and in the character of its timber, but is not so common. Sand Hicliory {Hicoria viUom) is a small, uncommon tree, yielding a wood similar to that of the pignut. It grows on sandj- soil along streams and on dry ridges at low elevations. Black Willcnv {Salix nigra) is a small tree reaching a height of 50 feet, and is common along streams below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is not used, but the tree is important, as its tough roots serve to protect from erosion the banks of the streams along which the trees grow. Sill-y Willmr {Salix sericea) is a small tree 20 to 30 feet in height, with straight stems, which is common along streams and in wet mead- ows below -±,000 feet in altitude. It is too small to furnish useful wood, but as a protection against the erosion of the banks of small streams it is of more importance than the preceding. It seeds abun- dantlj' and reproduces f reeh'. Zargetooth Aspen {Populus grandidentata) is a slender tree reaching a height of 50 feet. It is not common and the wood is not used. Balm of Gilead {Pojjidus laUamifera candicans) has been exten- sively planted along streams, where it makes an excellent soil binder and protects the banks against washing. It is also useful in building up low areas along streams which are subject to flooding, as the deposit of earth around its stems during freshets does not injure the health of the tree. The collection and sale of the large resinous buds, which are used medicinalh", is an industry of some importance. It is a tree of rapid growth, and soon reaches a height of 50 feet. • The wood is light, soft, and not durable. Biver Birch {Betula nigra) reaches a height of 70 feet and a diame- ter of 30 inches, and occurs only along the banks of the larger streams. Seeds are borne abundantly and reproduction is good. The wood is coarse and hard. It is chiefly valuable in protecting the banks of streams. Svxet Birch {Betula lenta) is found along cold mountain streams on northern slopes, where it reaches a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 3 feet. The timber is used to some extent in the manufacture of fur- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 97 niture. Birch oil is obtained by distillation from the bark. It seeds often and reproduces freel}-. Yelloiv Birch {Betula luted) reaches a height of 80 feet and a diame- ter of 36 inches, and is common in cold ravines and on northern slopes, especiallj' at high- elevations. Many of the trees are curlj^ and yield a valuable cabinet wood. It seeds freely and reproduces well on moist land among laurel brush. IIoj) Hornbeam ( Ostrya virginiana) reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 12 inches, and is common along streams. The wood is very hard and firm. IronvMod {Carpin%i,s caroUniana) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter. It occurs sparingly on moist-soiled, shady slopes. The wood is verj' hard and tough. Beech {Fagus americana) reaches a height of 100 feet and a diam- eter of 30 inches. It is common on moist lands along streams and in hollows, where it attains its greatest size, and on cold slopes at high elevations, where it forms dense groves of small trees. It seeds fre- quently and reproduces freely. The wood is hard, tough, and fine grained. Chestnut (Castanea dentata) is a large tree, which attains a height of 120 feet and a diameter 7 feet. It is common on nearly all soils above 2,000 feet elevation, but decreases in abundance below that, reaching its greatest development in deep hollows at about 3,000 feet eleva- tion. The wood is rather soft, but valuable and durable, is exten- sivelj^ used locally for building and fencing, and is largely sawn for shipment. The collection of the nuts forms an important industry. It regenerates well from stool shoots and from seeds, which are borne regularlj' and in abundance. The rate of growth is very rapid, being greater than that of any other hard wood of the region. ChinqvMpin {Castanea pumila) is a small tree, seldom more than 40 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is frequent on dry soil below 3,000 feet deviation. The wood is similar to that of the chestnut. White Oak {Qxiercxis alba), reaching a height of 120 feet and a diam- eter of 5 feet, is common below 4, 500 feet elevation, especially on rocky soil. The timber is regarded as superior to that of the other oaks and is largely used in the manufacture of farm implements and wagons, for furniture, and for interior finish. The bark is rich in tannin. Seed is borne abundantly and often, and reproduction is good. The rate of growth is rapid, though not so rapid as that of the red oaks. PcM Oak (Quet'cus m.inw) is a small tree, seldom more than 60 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. It is especially valued for wagon hubs. It occurs only on dry soils, generally associated with the yellow pine and black oak, and is uncommon except at low elevations, especially toward the southwestern end of the mountams. It seeds freely and reproduces well. The rate of growth is fair. *S. Doc. 84 7 98 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. Swavvp White Oak {Quercus 2}l('-tanoides) becomes a large tree, 100 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. It is found along streams, but is infrequent. The wood has the same qualities and uses as that of the white oak, though it is coarser and more brittle. Chestnut OaJc {Queixus prinus)^ reaching a height of 90 feet and a diameter of -10 inches, is common on dr}' and especiallj^ sandy slopes. The wood is harder and more durable than that of the other oaks of this region and is largelj^ used for posts, railwaj'^ ties, and insulator pins. The bark, which is rich in tannin, is extensively used in the manufacture of white leathers, thousands of trees being j^earl}- stripped to supplj' the demand. It seeds frequently and in abundance, and reproduces freely. The rate of growth is slow, the large trees often being 250 years old. Yellow Oak {Quercus acmninatd), reaching a height of 90 feet and a diameter of 24 inches, occurs rarely along the largei' streams. The wood has much the same quality' and uses as that of the white oak. Red Oak {Quercim ritira) is the largest oak in the Southern Appa- lachians, frequent^ reaching a height of 130 feet and a diameter of more than 5 feet. It is common above 1,500 feet, but attains its greatest size in deep, cool hollows, on fertile soil, where it grows with chestnut, linn, birch, and j^ellow poplar. It is extensiveh' sawn, and the wood is largely' used in the manufacture of furniture, for interior finish, staves, and in construction. It is a tree of rapid growth, seeds frequently and freely, and reproduces well. Pin Oal- {Quercm palustris) is a small tree, seldom more than 50 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter. It is found only at a low elevation, along streams flowing from the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is coarse and porous, and even were the tree more common would be little used. Spotted Oak {Quercus texana) is a tall, slender tree, often 110 feet high and 30 inches in diaixieter, growing in the larger valleys below 1,200 feet elevation. It is not common, but reproduces well and makes rapid growth. Scarlet Oak {Qiiei'cus coccinea), reaching a height of 100 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, but generallj^ much smaller, is very common on dry soil, especially if stifl', below -1,000 feet elevation. The timber is not so valuable as that of the red oak, but is much used. It repro- duces freely and makes good growth. Black Oak {Quercus velutina), reaching a height of 100 feet and a diametei- of 30 inches, is frequent on good soil on well-drained slopes below 2,500 feet elevation. The timber has about the same uses as that of the red oak. It is a tree of rapid growth and reproduces well. The bark is rich in tannin. Southern Red Oak {Quercus digltata), reaching in the mountains a height of 80 feet and a diameter of 30 inches, is common only below SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 99 2,000 feet elevation, where it occurs on dry soils generally with the shortleaf pine. It is a tree of rapid growth and seeds abundantly every few years. The bark is rich in tannin. Bear Oak (Quercics pum'da) is generally a large shrub, sometimes becoming a small tree. It is unimportant as a timber tree, and not at all common except northeastward. Black Jack {Quercus marilandica) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height. It is found only on poor, dry soil below 2,000 feet elevation, and is infrequent except on the southern slope of the Blue Eidge. The wood makes an excellent fuel, but is valueless as timber. Water Oak {Quei'cus nigra) is a small tree, reaching a height of 50 feet and a diameter seldom greater than 20 inches. It is found occa- sionally along the larger streams around the southern base of the mountains. It is not sufficiently abundant to have any specific use in this region. The wood is similar to that of the shingle oak. described below. Shingle Oak {Quercus imhricarla) is a small tree, seldom more tnan 60 feet in height, which occurs in the valleys below 2,500 feet elevation. The wood is used for no specific purpose, but is coarse-grained and porous like that of the black and scarlet oaks, and is adapted to similar uses. It seeds freely, reproduces well, and makes rapid growth. White Elm (Ulonus americana), reaching a height of 80 feet and a diameter of .30 inches, occurs only along the larger streams. It is not abundant enough to be generally used. The wood is hard and tough. Winged Elm {Ulnvus alata) occurs ou\j along the larger streams, especially toward the southern end of the Appalachians. It is seldom more than 60 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, and is unimport- ant as a timber tree. The wood is hard and tough. Slippery Elm ( TJlmus pubescens), reaching a height of more than 100 feet and a diameter of more than 30 inches, is occasionally found in rich hollows. It is too infrequent to have any commercial uses. Late Elm ( Ulmus setxttina) is a small tree occurring on the larger streams at the southern end of the Appalachian Plateau. Its timber is similar to that of the other species, but is not used. IIacM>erry ( Celtis occidentalis) is a slender tree, sometimes 90 feet feet high and 24 inches in diameter, which occurs along the larger streams. The wood is tough and strong, but is not used. It seeds f reelj' and reproduces well. Mississippi Hackherry {Celtis mississippiensis) is a tree similar in size and in the character of its wood to the preceding. It occurs along the larger streams, but is not common. Bough Hackherry { Celtis crassifolici) is a smaller tree than the above, seldom more than 30 feet in height and 12 inches in diameter. The wood is tough and strong, but is not used. 100 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. .Midhei'ry {Moms riihrd) is a small tree with a ver^' short stem, sel- dom more than 25 feet in height and 24 inches in diameter. The wood is tough and ver3^ durable, and is used for posts, etc. It is found in rich hollows at low elevations, but is in general cultivation for the fruit. It seeds regularly and abundantly, and makes rapid growth. Cucumier-tree {Magnolia acuminata) is a large tree, becoming 120 feet high and 5 feet in diameter. It frequents the base of the moun- tains, generally above 1,500 feet altitude. The wood is rather soft and yellow, and is largely used in the manufacture of furniture, being marketed with that of the yellow poplar. Seed are not abundant and reproduction is scant}'. The rate of growth is slow. Yellow-flowered Cucumher-tree {Magnolia acuminata cordata) is a smaller tree than the preceding and is confined to the lower elevations at the southern end of the Appalachians. As a timber tree it is unimportant. Largeleaf Umhrella-tree {Magnolia macrophylla) is a small tree, seldom more than 25 feet in height, which occurs at only a few places along streams or on shad}' slopes. It is often planted as an orna- mental tree, but the wood has no uses. Umhrella-tree {Magnolia tripetala) is a small tree very similar to the preceding, but more common. Mountain Magnolia {Magnolia fraseri) is a tree 40 to 60 feet in height, growing along cool sti'eams. The wood is soft and white, and is put to no uses. The bark is gathered and used medicinally. Yellow Poplar {Liriodendron tulipifera) is the largest tree of the Appalachians, attaining a height of 110 feet and a diameter of 8 feet. It is common below 3,500 feet elevation, but is most abundant and reaches its largest size in cool, sheltered hollows on rich soil. The wood is soft and yellow, and is extensively used in the manufacture of furniture and for wood pulp. It seeds frequentl}' and abundantly, but young trees are not very common, as a delicate adjustment of light and moisture condition is required for regeneration. It repro- duces freely on the partlj^ shaded portions of old pastures. It is a tree of only medium rapiditj^ of growth. Papaio {Asimina triloha) is a small tree, seldom more ihan 30 feet in height, growing on rich, moist soil at low elevations. It is uncommon. Sassafras {Sassafras sassafras), reaching a height of not more than 40 feet and a diameter of 24 inches, is common on dr}', sandj' soil. The red wood is hard and fine grained, and takes a beautiful polish. It is sometimes used in the manufacture of furniture. It reproduces freely in old fields on stiif soil by seed and suckers. Witch Hazel {Hamamelis virginianci) is a small tree, about 15 feet in height, or generallj' a slender shrub, common on moist soils up to 4,000 feet elevation. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. Extract of witch hazel is distilled from its bark. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. 101 Sweet Gtim {Liquidamhar styraciflua) is found in this area only along the larger streams at a low elevation. It becomes a tree 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter. The wood is red, hard, and fine grained, and is used for ci-ates, shipping boxes, tobacco boxes, etc., and for flooring and furniture. It seeds regularly, and seedlings are not uncom- mon near old tx"ees. | Sycamore {Platanus Occident alis) is a large tree, often 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, common along the larger streams. The wood is hard and firm, with a beautiful grain, and is used for tobacco boxes, and to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. It seeds often and reproduces freely. Grab Apple {Pyrus coronaria) is a small tree, 15 to 20 feet in height, common in old fields and open woods. The wood is hard and tough, and is used to some extent in turnery. It seeds abundant^ and repro- duces freely. Narroideaf Crah Apple {Pyrus angustifolia) occurs with the preced- ing and is verj^ similar to it in its wood. Mountain Ash {Sorbus americand) is a small tree, seldom more than 30 feet in height, which is found around the summits of the higher mountains. The timber is not used. Service-tree {Amelanchier canadensis) is a small ti'ee, seldom more than 15 feet in height and 20 inches in diameter, which is common above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard and fine grained, and is sometimes used in turnery. It seeds abundantly, aad young trees are common. Small-flowered Service {ATnelanchier hotryapium) is a tree with the same distribution and uses as the preceding. CocJcspur Thorn {Crataegiis cnis-gcdli) is a small tree, seldom more than 25 feet in height, frequent along roadsides and in fields. The wood is not used. Blue Ridge Thorn ( C'ratcegtos -mtdtispina), becoming 25 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter, is frequent in fields and on roadsides along the Blue Ridge. It is unimportant as a timber tree. BlacJc Thorn ( Cratcegtis tomentosa) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in height, which occurs along streams. It is unimportant as a tim ^er tree. Chajjman, Thorn ( CWitcegus chapviani) is very similar to the preced ■ ing in size and distribution. I^ew River Thorn ( Oratmgus neo-flv/oialis) occurs along streams in the northern part of the plateau. It is not common and is unimportant as a forest tree. Washington Thorn ( Cratcegus cordata) is very frequent on dry soU at low elevations. Unassuming in size, it is a most beautiful orna- mental tree. 102 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. S2Mtulate Thorn ( Cratcegxcs yxithidafa) is frequent at low elevations around the base of the plateau on dr}' soil. Pai'sley Thorn ( Cratwgus apifolia) is an infrequent tree, about 20 feet in height, occurring on dry soil around the base of the plateau. Tree Thorn {Cratmgus viridis), becoming 35 feet in height and 15 inches in diameter, occurs along the larger streams below 1.500 feet elevation. Dotted Th-wn {Cratmgus punctata) is common along cold streams and around the summits of the high mountains. Golden Thorn ( Crataegus crocata) is verjr much like the preceding, and has the same distribution. Hill Thorn ( Oratrngus collina), becoming 25 feet high and 12 inches in diameter, is frequent in fields and in open, dry woods to the south of Asheville. Buckley Th/yrn {Cratoegus huckleyi)h a slender tree, sometimes 30 feet in height, which occurs along streams at low elevations, especially in the vallej- of the French Broad River. Catawba Thorn ( Cratcegus catawbien^is) is a small, bush}' tree occur- ring along streams on the east slope of the Blue Ridge. Pruinose Thorn [Cratcegus lyrulnosa) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in height, with a short trunk. It occui's on dry hills, especialty along the Blue Ridge. Boynton Thorn {Cratcegus hoyntoni) is seldom 20 feet in height. It is common on dry hills, especially in the French Broad Valley. Wild, Phmi {Prunus ccmericana) is a small tree which is common in open woods and fields below 4,000 feet elevation. Its edible fruit is borne' often and in abundance. The wood has no uses. It is the parent stock of man}' of the cultivated plums. Chickascttv Plum {Prunus angustlfolici) is a small tree much like the above, and also the parent of man\' cultivated varieties. Fire Cherry {Prun us pennsylvanica) becomes 40 feet in height and more than 12 inches in diameter. It occurs in cold, damp woods around the high mountains, and often forms extensive groves of pure growth on burned spruce lands, where it prepares the soil for another growth of spruce. The wood is soft and brittle. Seeds are borne abundantlv and fi-equentiy. The growth is rapid. Wild Cherry {Prunus serotina) along streams at a low elevation is a small tree, but on moist land at high elevations becomes a tree 100 feet or more in height and 3 feet in diameter. The red wood is hard and takes a fine polish and is extensively used for interior finish, and was used for furniture until it became too rare. The rate of growth is rather slow. It seeds often, but young growth at high elevations is uncommon. The best trees have generally been removed. Redbud {Ceixis canadensis) is a small tree about 15 feet in height. It occurs along the edges of woods or on rocky banks of streams, seldom above 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is not used. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 103 Honey Locust (Gleditschia triacanthos) is a tree reaching a height of 60 or 70 feet and a diameter of 24 inches. It was introduced into this region from middle Tennessee, but is thoroughl}^ naturalized and propagates freely in old fields and waste places. The wood is not used, though it is tough, stroiig, and durable. Coffee Tree ( Gymnocladus diocus) is a small tree, seldom more than 40 feet in height. It occurs in fertile valleys at the foot of the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is not much used. It repro- duces well. Yellow-wood {Gladrastis lutea) is seldom more than 30 feet in height and a foot in diameter. It occurs in rich hollows at a low elevation at the southwestern end of the Appalachians. The hard, yellow wood takes a fine polish. Locust {Rohinia pseudacacia) is a slender tree sometimes 100 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. It is frequent below 4,000 feet elevation on rather dry, yet shaded and deep soil. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freel}^ bv sprouts, suckers, and seeds. The hard, yel low wood is very durable in contact with the soil or on exposure, and is extensivelj^ used for fence posts, sills, bridge timber, and insulator and ship pins. A most valuable tree, but it is often attacked by a fungus which destroys the heartwood. Clammy Locust {Rohinia viscosa) is a small tree, 20 to 30 feet in height, with a short stem, or generally a large shrub found wild in this area only in its southeastern part. It is highW prized as an orna- mental plant on account of the beauty of its flowers, and is extensively cultivated. Its wood has no uses. It seeds frequently and reproduces freely both by seed and suckers. Prickly Ash {Xanthoxylum clava-herculis), becoming 25 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, is frequent along streams. The wood is not used. An extract from the bark is used medicinally. It seeds abun- dantly and reproduces freely. Ailanthus (Ailanthus glandulosa) is an introduced Asiatic tree which reaches a height of 40 feet and a diameter of 10 feet. It is extensively naturalized along some of the streams, where it propagates freely by means of suckers, and forms dense thickets. The wood is hard, dura- ble, and valuable, but is not used. The growth is rapid. Staghorn Sumach {Rhus hirta) is a small tree, seldom 30 feet in height, growing along streams or in waste places, especially at high elevations. The bark 3delds a superior tannin for kids, but is not used locally. Holly {Ilex opaca) is a small evergreen tree, rarely more than 50 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, which grows chiefly in sandy flats along streams below 2,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard, white, and fine grained, and is used to some extent in cabinetmaking. It seeds often and abundantly, and reproduces well. It is much prized as an ornamental tree. 104 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN- REGION. Deciduous Holly {Flex decidiia) is a small tree, seldom 25 feet in height, with a short trunk and large, spreading crown, growing along streams below 1,500 feet elev'ation. The wood is hard and tough, but is not used. Mountain Holly [Ilex monticola)^ becoming 25 feet in height and 10 inches in diameter, is common on cold slopes at high elevations. The wood is not used. Mountain Majyle {Ace?' spicatum) is a small tree, seldom 20 feet in height, often with several stems from the same root, which grows in cold, wet soil at high altitudes. It has no uses. Striped Maple {Acer pennsylvanicuin), becoming 50 feet in height and 14 inches in diameter, is found frequently along cold streams above 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is put to no use. 8uga/r Maple {Acer saccha/rum), reaching a height of 120 feet and a diameter of 40 inches, is common north of the Cowee Mountains, above 2,000 feet elevation, on cold, moist soil. The hard, fine-grained wood is sawn for iiooring; the figured wood for furniture stock. A small quantity of maple sugar is made from the sap. Seed is borne frequently and abundantly, and young trees are common in damp woods. The rate of growth is slow. Black Maple {Acer nigrum) is a tree similar in size to the preced- ing, but much less common, being largelj^ confined to the western slope of the Smokj^ Mountains. Bed Maple {Acer ruirum), becoming 110 feet in height and 36 inches in diameter, is common on moist soil, and the young growth in culled woods. The wood is softer than that of the preceding, and inferior to it. It seeds freely and reproduces well. The rate of growth is slow. Biver Maple {Acer ruhrwm drummondii) is a smaller tree than the preceding, seldom more than 80 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, which is common along the banks of the larger streams. The wood is soft and white, and is not used. It seeds freely and }^oung trees are common. Box Elder {Acer negundo), becoming 40 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, is frequent along the large streams at a low elevation. The wood is not used. Buckeye {^scidus octandra) becomes a tree 120 feet in height and 4 feet in diameter. It is common in cold hollows, especially above 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is light and soft, but is not generally used. It reproduces freelj^. The rate of growth is good. Purple Buclteye {JEsculus octandra hybrida) is a smaller and less common tree than the preceding, and is confined to the western slope of the Smoky Mountains. The wood is similar to that of the preceding. Buckthorn {Bhanius caroliniand) is a small tree, seldom more than 25 feet in height, found on open slopes near the larger streams. The wood is not used. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 105 Linn {Tilia heterophylla), becoming a tree 120 feet in height and 4 feet in diameter, is common along streams and in cool hollows. The wood is white, light, and soft, and is extensively sawn for lumber. It seeds freely, but seedlings are not common. It sprouts freely from the stump. Blue Ridge Linn {Tilia ehurnea) is a tree similar to the preceding in size and quality of wood. It is confined to the Blue Ridge Mountains, or the region near them. Basstvood {Tilia americana), reaching a height of more than 100 feet and a diameter of 3 feet, is confined to streams at the base of the western slope of the Smoky Mountains, but is by no means common. The wood is used with that of the linn without distinction. Dogwood {Cornus florida) is a small tree, seldom 30 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, common beneath the shade of other trees on fertile soil below 3,000 feet elevation. The wood is hard, heavj', and strong, and is used for shuttle blocks and a variety of mechanical purposes. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freel3^ The rate of growth is slow. Blue Cornel {Cornus alternifolia), a slender tree 25 feet in height, is common along cold mountain streams. Swamj) Cornel {Cornus sericea), a bushy tree 20 feet in height, is common along the larger streams. Black Gum {Nyssa sylvatica) is a tree sometimes 110 feet in height and 3 feet in diameter, but generally much smaller, which is common along streams at low elevations and on dry slopes at high elevations. The wood is hard and tough, but not durable, and is little used except as rails for tramways in logging. It seeds abundantly and reproduces freely. The rate of growth is good. Sourioood {Oxydendrum arioreum), a tree 80 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, is common on dry soil below 4,000 feet elevation. The red wood is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish. It is used to some extent in the manufacture of furniture. The seed are borne in abundance and reproduction is prolific. The rate of growth is fair. Persimmon {Biospyros virginianui), a tree 40 feet in height and 18 inches in diameter, is found in fields and waste places. The hard, tough wood is used for shuttle blocks, shoe lasts, insulator pins, etc. It seeds freely and reproduces well, especially on old fields. Sweetleaf {Symplocos tinctoria) is a small tree, seldom more than 20 feet in height, which grows on dry soil. The bark yields a yellow dye. Peawood or Bell-tree {Mohrodendron caroUn-um) is common along streams, where it is a small tree, seldom 70 feet in height, but becom- ing in the rich, damp hollows of the Black and Smoky mountains a tree 100 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. The reddish wood is hard and fine grained and takes a good polish, and on the western 106 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAKT REGION. slopes of the Smoky Mountains is sawn and sold as cherry. It seeds frequently and freely and reproduces well. The rate of growth is fair. Black Ash [Fraxintis nigra), a small tree not more than 30 feet in height and 1 foot in diameter, grows in cold mountain swamps. It is found only in a few places, and is unimportant as a timber tree. White Ash {Fraxinus americana), becoming 130 feet in height and 40 inches in diameter, is one of the most common and important trees. The light brown, elastic wood is largely used in furniture, for handles of agricultural implements, etc. It seeds freely and reproduces well if proper soil and light conditions are affoi'ded. The growth is good. Red Ash {Fraxinus pennsylvanica) is a slender tree, seldom more than 110 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, which is frequent along the banks of the larger streams. The wood is similar to that of the White Ash, and is put to the same uses. Green Ash {Fraxinus lanceolata) is a tree with the same size and distribution as the above, but more common. Biltmore Ash {Fraxinus hiltvioi'eana) is a tree 20 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, growing on the larger streams of the plateau. It is not common. Catawba Ash {Fraxinus catawbiensis) is a slender tree, 110 feet in height and 30 inches in diameter. It occurs only on the banks of the larger streams at the foot of the Blue Ridge. Its growth is rapid and it reproduces freely. Fringetree {Chionanthus virginica), becoming 25 feet in height and 8 inches in diameter, is common along streams at lower elevations. Oatalpa {Catalpa eatalpa) \s a.n introduced tree which has become naturalized along some of the larger streams. It becomes 40 feet in height and 2 feet in diameter, and is a tree of rapid growth. The wood is durable and makes excellent posts. Black Saw ( Viburnum prunifoMum) is a small tree, 15 feet in height, frequent in fields and along small streams at low elevations. An extract from the bark is used medicinally. LIST OF SHRUBS AND SOME PLANTS WHICH ONLY UNDER THE MOST FAVORABLE CONDITIONS ASSUME ARBORESCENT FORM. By W. W. Ashe. Cane ( Arundinaria tecta). Wild Sarsaparilla (Smilax glauca). Greenbiier (Smilax rotundifolia). Hispid Greenbrier (Smilax hispida). Bristly Greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox). Juniper (Juniperus communis). Dwarf AVillow (Salix humilis). Gray Willow (Salix tristis). Hazel (Corylus americana). Beaked Hazel (Corylus rostrata). Mountain Alder (Alnus alnobetula). Common Alder (Alnus rugosa). Dwarf Oak (Quercus prinoides). Mistletoe (Phoradendron flavescens). Sweet Fern (Comptonia peregrina). Oil Nut (Pyrularia pubera). Buckle3'a (Buckleya distichophylla). Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia macro- phylla). Barberry (Berberis canadensis). Moonseed ( Menispermum canadense) . Sweet Shrub (Butnera fertilis). Spicewood (Benzoin benzoin). Mountain Hydrangea (Hydrangea arbo- rescens). Showy Hydrangea (Hydrangea radiata). Syringa (Philadelphus inodorus). Itea (Itea virginica). Hop Trefoil (Ptelea trifoliata). False Indigo (Amorpha virgata). False Indigo (Amorpha fruticosa). Rose Locust (Kobinia hispida). • Boynton Locust (Robinia boyntoni). Wistaria (Wistaria frutescens). Red Root (Ceanothus americana). Northern Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca). Summer Grape (Vitis aestivalis). Le Conte Grape (Vitis bicolor). Riverside Grape (Vitis vulpina). Frost Grape (Vitis cordifolia). Bailey Grape (Vitis baileyaua). Muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia). Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus quin- quefolia). Sumach (Rhus copallina). Smooth Sumach (Rhus glabra). Poison Sumach (Rhus vernix). Poison Ivy (Rhus radicans). Poison Oak (Rhus toxicodendron). Beadle Winterberry (Ilex beadlei). Winterberry (Ilex verticillata). Southern Winterberry (Ilex longipes). Strawberry Bush (Euonymus ameri- canus). Burning Bush (Euonymus atropurpu- reus) . Wax Work (Celastrus scandens). Bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia). Gooseberry ( Ribes cynosbati) . Mountain Gooseberry (Ribes rotundi- folia). Slender Gooseberry (Ribes gracile). Mountain Currant (Ribes prostratum). Fothergilla (Fothergilla monticola). Ninebarks (Opulaster opulifolius). Meadow-sweet (Spiraea salicifolia). Hardback (Spiraea tomentosa). Mountain Spirsea (Spirrea corymbosa). Virginia Spirtea (Spiraea virginiana). Flowering Raspberry (Rubus odoratus). Red Raspberry (Rubus strigosus). Black Raspberry (Rubus occidentalis). Mountain Blackberry (Rubus alleghani- ensis). Northern Blackberry (Rubus nigrobac- cus). Low-bush Blackberry (Rubus cuneifo- lius). 107 108 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Thornless Blackberry (Rubus canaden- sis). Hispid Bramble (Rubus hispidus). Boj'nton Bramble (Rubus boyntoni). Great Bramble (Rubus clava-herculis). Watauga Bramble (Rubus wataugje). Appalachian Blackberry (Rubus argutoi- des). Common Blackberry (Rubus argutus). Wild Rose (Rosa Carolina). Dwarf Rose (Rosa humilis). Red Choke-berry (Aronia arbutif olia) . Black Choke-berry (Aronia nigra). Dreaded Thorn (Cratsegus crux). White-anthered Thorn (Cratsegus ebur- nea). Edible Thorn (Crataegus cibilis). Thick Thorn (Cratsegus densa). Prolific Thorn (Cratsegus farcta) . Discoid Thorn (Crataegus discoidea). Light-green Thorn (CratEegus chlorina). Pendent Thorn (Cratsegus pendulina). Particolored Thorn (Crataegus bicolor). Fleshy Thorn (Cratsegus carnosa). Three-angled Thorn (Cratsegus prismat- ica). Bloody Thorn (Cratsegus cruenta). Three-seeded Thorn (Cratsegus tris- perma). Curtis Thorn (Cratsegus curtisi). Bractless Thorn (Crataegus elracteata). Brown Thorn ( Cratsegus addisoni) . Roan Thorn (Cratsegus roanensis). Thin-leaved Thorn ( Cratsegus tenuif olia). Biltmore Thorn (Cratsegus biltmoreana). Small-flowered Thorn (Cratsegus uni- flora). Vail Thorn (Cratsegus vailiae). Lookout-mountain Thorn (Cratsegus ma- crosperma). Oconaluftee Thorn (Cratsegus roribacca). Wrinkled Thorn (Crataegus rugosa). Yellow-flesh Thorn (Cratsegus flavo-car- nis). Rosy Thorn (Cratsegus rubella). Red-flesh Thorn (Cratsegus hsemacarpa). Cullasagee Thorn (Crataegus callasa- gensis). Forest Thorn (Cratsegus silvicala). Thorn (Cratsegus sororia). Dwarf Cherry (Prunus cuneata). Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana). Mountain Stuartia (Stuartia pentagyna). St. Andrew's Cross (Ascycrum hyperi- coides). Shrubby St. John's- wort (Hypericum prolificum). Bushy St. John's-wort (Hypericum densi- florum ) . Doubtful St. John's-wort (Hypericum ambiguum) . Riverside St. John's-wort (Hypericum nudiflorum). Buckley St. John's-wort (Hypericum buckleyi). Table-rock Hudsonia (Hudsonia mon- tana). Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) . Spikenard (Aralia spinosa). Pepperbush (Clethra acuminata). Early Azalea (Azalea nudiflora). Down)' Azalea (Azalea canescens). Yellow Azalea (Azalea lutea). Fragrant Azalea ( Azalea arborescens ) . White Azalea (Azalea viscosa) Vasey Azalea (Azalea vaseyi). Winterberry (Gaultheria procumbens). Mountain Laurel (Rhododendron maxi- mum). Purple Laurel (Rhododendron cataw- biense). Small Laurel (Rhododendron puncta- tum) . Menziesia (Menziesia pilosa). Leather-leaf (Chamsedaphne calyculata). Mountaini\Iyrtle (Dendrium prostratum). Blue-ridge Myrtle (Dendrium hugeri). Sheep Wicky (Kalmia angustifolia). Kalmia (Kalmia latif olia). Dog Hobble (Leucothoe catesbsei). Common Leucothoe (Leucothoe race- mosa). Buckley Leucothoe (Leucothoe recurva). Fetter-bush (Pieris floribunda). Stagger-bush (Xolisma ligustrina). Tangle-berry (Gaylussaccia frondosa). Northern High-bush Huckleberry (Gay- lussaccia resinosa). Dwarf Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia du- mosa). Buckberry (Gaylussaccia ursina). Box Huckleberry (Gaylussaccia hrachy- cera). High-bush Huckleberry (Vaccinium vir- gatum). 80UTHEKN APPALACHIAN REGION. 109 Common Blueberry (Vaccinium corym- bosum). Mountain Huckleberry (Vaccinium pal- lidum). Dwarf Blueberry (Vaccinium vaccilans). Black Huckleberry (Vaccinium atro- coccum). Pale Deerberry (Vaccinium glaucumj. Deerberry (Vaccinium stamineum). Sparkleberry ( Vaccinium arboreum ) . Hairy Huckleberry (Vaccinium hir- sutum ) . Cranberry (Oxy coccus macrocarpus). Bearberry (Oxycoccua erythrocarpus). Styrax (Styrax americana). Common Elder (Sambucus canadensis). Eed-berried Elder (Sambucus pubens). Pubescent Arrow-wood (Vilurimm alni- folium). Arrow- wood (Viburnum acerifolium). Swamp Arrow-wood (Viburnum molle) . Hobble-bush (Viburnum lentago). Swamp Haw (Viburnum cassinoides). Swamp Haw (Viburnum nudum). Black Haw (Viburnum rufomentosum). Coral-berry (Sympboricarpos symphori- carpos) . Yellow Honeysuckle (Lonicera flava). Mountai n Hone}'Suckle (Lonicera glauca ) . Woodbine (Lonicera sempervirens). LETFER OF TRANSMITl^AL. Department of the Inteeiok, Washington, Decetriber 13, 1901. Sir: I have the honor to transmit herewith a letter from the Director of the Geological Survey, submitting brief reports on the topogra- phy and geology of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, by Ai'thur Keith, and on the hydrography' of the same region, by H. A. Pressey and E. W. Myers, of the Geological Survey, for use in connection with 3'our report on the forest conditions of the region. Very respectfully, E. A. Hitchcock, Secretary. The Secretary of Agriculture. LETTER OF SUBMITTAL. Department of the Interior, United States Geological Survey, Washington, D. C, December 12, 1901. Sir: I send herewith for submittal to the Secretary of Agriculture, short reports on the topography and geology of the Southern Appala- chian Mountains, by Arthur Keith, and on the hydrography of the same region, by H. A. Pressey and E. W. Myers, of the Geological Survey. These special reports, embodying the results of investigations in this region, extending over several years, have been prepared at the request of the Secretary of Agriculture, and will accompany his re- port to Congress on the forest conditions in the Southern Appalachian region. The results of the investigations made in this region show that the destruction of the mountain forests now in progress there is being- followed by a consequent erosion of the mountain slopes and valleys, an increasing irregularity in the flow of streams, and a silting up of the river channels across the lowlands of the bordering States, which if continued will seriously and permanently injure the industrial con- ditions over considerable portions of these States. Yours, respectful 1}% Chas. D. Walcott, Director. The Secretary of the Interior. 110 ^PP»EI«^DIX B. TOPOGEAPHY Al^D GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHEPihT APPALACHIAI^rS. ARTHUR KEITPI, TJnited. Stales G-eological Survey. Ill TOPOGRAPHY AND GEOLOGY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. Bv Arthur Keith. That portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains in which it is proposed to make a national park lies mainly in North Carolina, but comprises also small portions of South Carolina, Georgia, Tennessee, and Virginia. The area, as a whole, covers about 12,000 square miles, large portions of which are specially adapted to the purposes of a park. This region can be reached within a day's jour- ney from the large cities east of the Mississippi, a measure of accessibility possessed by no other similar district in the United States. It is also nearer the center of popula- tion than any other mountain district. THE MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS. Although this region contains many large rivers and im- the^mountafns"* portant valleys, it is preeminently a region of mountains. It includes the largest areas of land over 5,000 feet in height east of the Mississippi. In all, 46 peaks a mile or more apart and 41 miles of divide rise above 6,000 feet, while 2S8 peaks and 300 miles of divide are 5,000 feet or more in height. From the southeastern foot of this mass the Piedmont Plateau stretches southeastward with small interruptions, finally merging into the coastal plain which borders the Atlantic. Past its northwestern foot sweep the vallej's of Tennessee and Virginia, with their included ridges and smaller mountains. The great mountain mass thus limited is composed of a number of large and many lesser chains, forming a belt over 300 miles long. Between the chains are extensive plateaus, which are themselves mountains when compared with the lower valleys that dis- sect them. The Blue Ridge forms the southeastei'n and the Unaka Mountains the northwestern front of the moun- *S. Doc. 8-± 8 113 114 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. tains. Seventj' miles apai-t in North Cai-olina. they inclose many other extensive ranges between them. In Georgia they approach within 30 miles of each other, and in lower Virginia they coalesce. (Pi. LXV.) Bkie Eidge. 'j^]^q southeastern portion of the mountainous area is the Blue Ridge, a sinuous divide which parts the waters of the Atlantic and the Mississippi. The Blue Ridge stands above 3,000 feet in height, except in a number of deep gaps and a short stretch at the head of Broad River. The northern part of the Blue Ridge consists of ancient pla- teaus, whose summits are broad and gentlj' rolling and rise to similar heights for long distances. From place to place these vaiy between 3,100 and 3,800 feet. Less regularity prevails in the southern part of the chain, upon which are situated a few individual peaks and ridges of commanding height. Chief of these are Grandfather Mountain, 5,964 feet. Pinnacle, 6,693 feet, and Standing Indian, 5,562 feet. Four other points exceed 5,000 feet in height. South of the Little Tennessee Basin the Blue Ridge becomes exceedingly irregular, both in height and direction, and finally merges into the Piedmont Plateau. The one feature which distin- guishes the Blue Ridge from other Appalachian Mountains is its steep slope on the southeast. This is so extreme as to be, in places, precipitous, and it fronts the adjoining foothills and the Piedmont Plateau like a rampart. (Pis. LVIII. LIX.) The unaka Roughlv parallel to the Blue Ridge and bordering the Mountains. c . i n to Great Valley of Tennessee and Virginia lie asei'ies of high mountains which have many features in common and arise from the same causes, although they have separate names. These begin at the southwest with the Unaka Mountains and are continued in the Great Smoky, the Bald, the Unaka, and the Iron mountains. This northwestern front of the mountain mass is termed, collectively, the "Unaka Mountains," a name which is also applied to two of its parts. In the Smoky Mountains several points are but a few feet less in altitude than Mount Mitchell — for instance. Mount Guyot, 6,636 feet, and Clingmans Dome, 6,619 feet. From this maximum in the Smokies the Unakas have pi"ogressively lower summits in all directions. Cut apart as the segments of the chain are by the rivers, no average elevations can be stated. South of Big Pigeon River most of the summits are above 5,000 feet. North of that river few exceed 5,000 feet, but many are over 4,000. In all, 125 of its summits rise above 5,000 feet, and 10 exceed 6,000 feet. The body of high land in the Smoky Mountains is the greatest in the Appalachians. Senate Doc, No. 84. Plate LVin. Senate Doc. No, 84. Plate LIX. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 115 Connecting the Unaka Mountains with the Blue Ridge are a series of more or less interrupted chains, most of^'^ses. which have a northwest direction. Chief of these are Tus- quitee, Cheoah, Nantahala, Cowee, Balsam, Pisgah, New Found, Black, Yellow, Roan, Beech, and Stone mountains. Supporting and extending these are scores of smaller peaks and ridges. Here and there on these separate chains are many high points comparable with or exceeding those of the Unaka Mountains — for instance, Roan Mountain, 6,313 feet; Richland Balsam, 6,5-iO feet, and Mount Mitchell, 6,712 feet, the highest point east of the Rockies. As a whole the}^ are much higher than the Blue Ridge, although they exceed the Unakas but little. One hundred and fifty- six summits are over .5,000 feet, and 86 rise over 6,000 feet. The Balsam and Pisgah mountains are the highest of the transverse ranges and form a maximum correspond- ing to the Smoky Mountains. (PI. LXI.) Thus, although the Blue Ridge is the watershed of this area, the highest points, excepting Mount Mitchell, are situated in the Unaka Mountains, where are also located the largest bodies of high ground. Accordingh' the rivers flow northwest from the Blue Ridge in deeper and deeper channels, until their gorges are overshadowed by the peaks of the Unakas, a mile in height above them. Certain t3'pes of surface prevail throughout the moun- tain district. The mountains rest upon a low base, which varies from 1.500 to 2. .500 feet in elevation. The rise of 2,000-5,000 feet up to the summits is made between nar- row limits, so that the slopes are steep for the most part. Narrow valleys follow the rivers, in places from 2 to 5 miles in width, and with moderate eminences. From their borders rise the mountains, with slopes abruptly chang- ing 20 degrees or more. These have a marked similarity throughout the mountains, whether high or low. The summits are usually rounded, and cliffs only here and there mar the smoothness of the slopes. The general aspect of these mountains is one of flowuig curves, and their gran- deur is impressed on the observer b}^ their mass rather than bv outline. Transve rse mouii tain Surface forma. THE RIVER SYSTEMS. Probablj' no region in the United Stat-es is better watered or better drained than this. Most of the water passes into the Mississippi, through Tennessee River and its tributa- ries. Chief of these are the Ocoee, Hiwassee, Little Direction o f 3ow in rivers. agL' 116 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Tennessee. Tuckaseegee, Big Pigeon, French Broad. Noli- chuck}-, AVatauga, and Holston rivers. These all flow from the Blue Ridge northwestward through the Unaka Mountains and separate that chain into portions which have received individual names. In the northeastern por- tion of this region the New River, a branch of the Ohio. rises and flows northeastward. Southeastward from the Blue Ridge a large number of rivers flow into the Atlantic. These are the Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Saluda, and Cha- tooga rivers. In the northeastern corner of Georgia rises the Chattahoochee, flowing southwestward into the Gulf of Mexico. Thus this region distributes its waters in all directions and is practically the apex of the di-ainage of Radial drain- j^iany t^Qugaud Square miles. From the Blue Ridare near Blowing Rock the waters ma}- run through Watauga River into the Tennessee, through New River into the Ohio, or through the Catawba and the Yadkin into the Atlantic. From the Blue Ridge near the head of Hiwassee River they may flow through Chatooga River into the Atlantic, through the Chattahoochee into the Gulf of Mexico, or through the Hiwassee into the Mississippi. Into these large rivers flow hundreds of lesser rivers and creeks, which cover the country with a most intricate network. They are fed bj^ m3'riads of springs which run from year to year with unceasing flow. (Pis. LX, LXII, LXIII.) rirefsl''^^'* '" Starting southeastward from heights of 3,000 feet or more, the streams tumble rapidly from the Blue Ridge and reach the Piedmont Plateau at heights from 1,000 to 1,500 feet. Rivers running in the opposite direction emerge upon the Appalachian Valle}' at heights from 1,000 to 2,000 feet, the highest points being at the northeast. Few of these rivers flow as far as 100 miles in the moun- tains, so that this fall of 1,000 or 2,000 feet makes a very high average grade. The stretches of smooth water are seldom long, and the descent is mainly accomplished by countless rapids and minor falls. On the larger rivers few falls exceed 10 feet. Falls of 25 and 30 feet can be found here and there upon the smaller rivers, while in places the creeks and branches have direct plunges as great as 300 feet. That the scenerj^ along the streams is picturesque scarcely needs to be said. From rapid to fall, and then a stretch of placid depth, the courses of the streams are pictures of kaleidoscopic variety. Come to them where j^ou may, the charm is there, and fresh beauties are viewed at everj' bend. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LX. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXI. Senate Doc. No, Plate LXII l-ii FRENCH BROAD RIVER, AT PAINT ROCK, N. C. I^^e^■l>• Hi'.; (i'l OCOEE RIVER, IN UNAKA MOUNTAINS, TENNESSEE. (Seep. 116.) Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXIII. SOUTHEBN APPALACHIAK REGION. 117 Volume of flow in rivers. From season to season the rivers vary in flow. Their least volume is in the early fall, when they have been reduced by the droughts and heat of summer. Only the smallest branches are ever entirely dried, however, and the severest droughts fail to stop any considerable stream. The greatest volumes are attained in the spring, when the snows melt rapidly and the winter's accumulation of water is leaving the soil. The freshets are not limited altogether to the spring, however; a cloud-burst, for example, may swell a lesser stream tenfold, or a hard rain of four ox five days maj^ flood even the largest river. In the upper courses of the streams, where the grades are highest, floods produce exceedingly swift currents, which are able ^p'^'"' °* ^°^' to destroy obstmctions and barriers which at ordinar}^ stages would seem insurmountable. The rapid delivery of the waters from the stream heads make a sudden con- centration where the branches have united and the grades are less, causing deep water and overflow. Thus, four days of hard rain recently raised Catawba River 30 feet and overflowed miles of bottom lands. The power of the upper and steeper streams at such times is almost incred- ible; bowlders tons in weight become mere playthings. On the lower reaches in deeper waters and slackened cur- rents no fragments larger than cobblestones are moved, but wholesale changes in the shapes of the bottom lands are often accomplished. The same steep grades which cause the rapid floods are equally efl'ective when the rains have ceased, so that the waters subside about as quickly as they rise. Aside from these temporary changes in vol- ume the flow of the rivers is very steady, dependent as it is upon the discharge of countless springs and the seepage of waters from the soils. CLIMATIC FEATURES IN THE MOUNTAINS. The region covered by this mountain mass possesses a Temperature. climate which differs greatly from that of the surrounding regions. This is manifest first in lower temperatures and is due directly to the greater altitudes. The peaks, of course, are colder than the intermountain valleys, and both are colder than the adjoining Great Valley or the Piedmont Plateau. The differences in temperature are greater in summer than in winter, so that the climate of the higher portions is more equable than that- of the vallevs. 118 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Kainfall. Forest cover. lu addition to the cold which it directlj- produces, the altitude also affects the climate of this region very decid- edly through the precipitation. The prevailing winds of the region are southwesterly and are heavily laden with moisture derived from the Gulf of Mexico. As these winds rise over the mountain slopes they become colder and less able to retain moisture, which comes within the mountain's grasp as rain or snow. The birth of shreds of cloud in the uprising wind and their union into masses that shroud the mountains can be seen on every hand. Through them come glimpses of peak and forest, in a soft- ness and beautj^ far beyond words. The direct effect of altitude in chilling the winds is assisted by the cooling effect of the almost universal forests. The forests in turn are fostered by the rainfall and humiditj-, and the two processes go hand in hand. In the winter mv^ch of the precipitation is in the form of snow. This is protected from melting by the forest cover and accumulates so as to mantle the ground for weeks, or even months. In this way a great stoi'e of moisture is retained and finds its way into the soil, to be absorbed in part by the forests when growth begins in the spring. Snow sometimes falls on the higher mountains by the first of October, and the last snow may remain until the middle of ]March. Between the temperature of the highest tops and that of the larger and lower valleys included in the mountam region there is a great difference. This is expx"essed in nature most prominently by the great variety of trees, shrubs, and plants. There is probablj' no region in the United States containing more species than this, which is appropriately termed the "botanist's paradise." During May and June it becomes a vast flower garden of unrivaled rarit}' and beauty. Rhododendron and azalea bloom mile on mile, or a score of blossoms ai-e trodden at a step. In autumn the purple haze and the blaze of color in the foliage form a panorama that can not be surpassed. The amount of the forest is quite as striking as its variety, and is one of the most impressive features of the mountains. Owing to the warmth and humidity of the atmosphere the individ- ual trees attain great size. White pines reach heights of 200 feet and poplars are 25 feet in girth. Thus, the exist- ence of the forest cover as a whole and of the individual species that are favored by colder climates is dependent upon the altitude, which cools the air and brings moisture to the surface of the earth. Its favorable situation with Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXIV. STEEP FOREST-COVERED SLOPE OF HAWKSBILL MOUNTAIN, SEEN ACROSS THE GORGE OF LINVILLE RIVER. (.See p. lis iind Pis. XXIX. LXXII.) SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 119 regard to the moist, warm winds from the Gulf combines with a general altitude unequaled east of the Mississippi to pro- duce a unique and remarkable vegetation. (PI. LXIV.) THE GEOLOGIC FORMATIONS. The sreoloo-ic formations which underlie this mountain district maj^ be divided into four large groups. Each dif- fers widely from the others in age, and has very distinct features of its own. These broad differences have ex- pressed themselves in such major topographic features as the Appalachian Valley, the Appalachian Mountains, and the Piedmont Plateau. These differences are also largely responsible for the principal variations in the character of the surface in the mountain district itself. The Appalachian Valley is underlain by a series of lime- Li me stone jroup. stones, shales, and sandstones, mainly of late Cambrian and Silurian age. forming the youngest of the four groups in this region. Small outliers of these formations are in- cluded within the area of the mountains near the border of the Appalachian Valley. The second group occupies the northwestern border of g^ Jup.'' " ^ ' ' ® the mountain district, chieflj- northeast of the French Broad River. It consists of a series of quartzites, sand- stones, conglomerates, and shales of Lower Cambrian age. A second large area of these rocks occupies the Blue Ridge and adjacent territory, nearly in the center of this district. The third group is of Cambrian age. It occupies the g,j;j™si°°^"''te northwest border of the mountain mass, corresjaonding in position to the previous group but best developed south- west of the French Broad River in the Smoky and Unaka mountains. The group consists of conglomerates, graj-- wackes, sandstones, schists, and slates, and is called the Ocoee group. This and the preceding two groups were composed of the waste from older rocks, which was de- posited under water. The thickness of the strata is ap- proximatelj' the same in the Ocoee group and the formations of the Appalachian Valley. The Lower Cambrian quartz- ites and shales of the second group have only from one- fourth to one-third of the thickness of either of the preceding groups. The fourth group is much the largest of all, both in actual ""^'^ group. bulk and area. It consists in the main of formations of 120 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. the Archean, or oldest known age. The different rocks include several kinds of granite, diorite, mica-gneiss, hornblende-gneiss, and various schists. A large number of these are of igneous origin, but the original nature of many of the gneisses and schists is unknown. Formations also included in this group are the ancient volcanic rocks. These are developed most prominently in connection with the Cambrian quartzites in the northeastern part of the mountain district. KEIiATION OF KOCKS TO STJEFACE. rocks" '"" ° Much of the surface of the Appalachian Mountains is exceedingly ancient. During the later geologic periods it has been subjected to the various natural agencies of destruction and has been worn down according as the rocks presented at the surface were susceptible to these influences. The materials composing these formations are attacked in varying degrees by solution and bj' chem- ical processes connected with atmospheric and under- ground water. Certain minerals — for instance, carbonate of lime — are readily dissolved bj- natural waters, and the rock in wasting away leaves behind onl}^ the less soluble portions in forms of cIslj. To this capability is directly due the reduction of the Great Valley below the mountain mass. Other minerals — for instance, feldspar — are in part dissolved and in part chemically altered and decomposed by natural waters, so that the coherence of the rock- which contains them is largelj^ destroyed. Two groups in this region have a large proportion of feldspar in their makeup, and their surfaces have been gradually lowered b}' its breaking down. These are the Ocoee group and the Archean group. A third mineral — quartz — is compara- tively little changed bj^ solution or chemical action near the surface. Formations made up in large part of this mineral retain their altitudes most persistenth^ and are usually the last to be reduced. This composition is most pronounced in the Lower Cambrian group, but is shared also by the Ocoee group and the Archean group. Although the thickness of the Lower Cambrian quartzites is so much less than that of the other groups, their resistance to solu- tion has caused them to remain upheld in very high ridges and peaks. To this are due the cliff's of Chilhowee, Camp Creek, and Iron mountains and the rugged crags of Grand- father. In the case of the Ocoee and Archean groups their immense thickness and the amount of quartz which Senate Doc. No, 84. Plate LXV. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 121 thej' contain have maintained the greatest elevations pre- sented in this region. Of this the might}' domes of the Smokies, the Balsams, and the Roan, and the loftj'' peaks of the Blacks, are witnesses. (PI. LXVI.) The moist atmosphere is conducive to the rapid decaj^ ^ration. "^^"'^ of the rocks, which break up chieflj' under the attack of rain, fi'ost, the roots of the trees, the underground waters, and organic acids. At first decay works in along the vari- ous partings, resulting in the loosening of large masses, which gradually become smaller, until finally nothing is left of them except claj' and the more obdurate bits of rock. The rocks reach the surface only over very small patches, while in places the disintegration attains a depth as great as 50 feet. On sloping surfaces the loose material is maintained in its place solely by friction. When this is lessened or overconae from anj^ cause, the residual mat- ter, be it clay or rock fragments, slides down the slopes until the friction is again sufficient to retain it in one posi- tion. Thus are formed immense thicknesses of loose mate- rial washed down from steep slopes and accumulated in the hollows and flatter places. This material gradually works its waj' downhill as it is pushed along by the freez- ing of the water which it contains, or is rendered more unstable as the water transforms it into mud. Eventually it finds its way into the streams aud is carried by slow stages into the sea. (PL LXVII.) PROTECTION or THE SOILS. The chief agent which checks this process of removal is the forest cover, even though the penetrating roots and the acids due to vegetation induce rock decomposition. These same roots, however, hold the loose material in place and hinder its tendency to slide downhill. With this Roots and , , , , leaves protect assistance loose soils are upheld on slopes at angles f lilly the son. double those which they could maintain unaided. Besides this direct check to the waste of slopes by increased fric- tion, -the action of the forests is as great in another way. Loose materials are washed downhill during rainstorms b}' even the tiniest rivulets. In open fields these gather in a few minutes and form deeper and deeper channels with each succeeding storm, finally removing the loose material down to the bare rock. This process is almost wholly pre- vented by the network of roots and the cover of leaves, both living and dead, and the water concentrates into rivulets by seeping through the soils so slowly that it carries no 122 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. sediment. The waters drain off in the hollows and small streams whose channels have been fitted hy long use to withstand the attacks of rushing water. Soil stripped Countless illustrations of this pi'ocess can be seen dur- ing anj rainstorm. Streams which drain consideral)le areas of cleared land rise fast and become turbid with nuid. Those which drain areas protected by forests rise much more slowly, and by comparison the water could be called clear, except in the most violent storms. This result is of course most striking at the very headwaters, the little streams rising in the fields and in the woods. The effects of this work are seen in the innumerable gullies which gash fields left to the elements for a,nj time. In fact, un- less checked bj^ the most constant attention, these gullies soon strip off the soil and clay and ruin the fields. In the forests, on the other hand, one rarely sees a slope of soil not covered bj^ vegetation, and it is onh' along the immediate banks of the streams that raw slopes of loose material are exposed. In short, in this region of deep residual soils the influence of the forest is paramount. It is a fact well known among the mountaineers that the soils are far more fertile when first cleared of timber than ever again. It is equally well known among the farmers along the river bottoms that the same crops have been planted with the same suceess for scores of years. These latter soils, however, are refreshed from time to time by the overflowing waters, which have swept off fertile mate- rials f I'om the steeper slopes above. The natural fertility of these mountain soils is very great, as is abundantly shown by the tremendous forest growth. The pristine strength of the soil soon wanes in the clearings, and there ensues a loss which is permanent for at least a generation. To convince one's self of the existence of this condition it is only necessary to visit the region. storage of wa- In addition to the loss inflicted by forest cutting upon ter reduced. •' i i the steep slopes themselves great damage also results to the lands lying farther down the streams. The deep clays and underlying rocks form a kind of gigantic sponge, which stores up water when it is abundant. When the forests are stripped away the water collects and rufts off' with vastly greater speed, and much evaporates, so that not only is less stored up, but the discharge is more iri-egular and tem- porary. Destructive floods result and droughts are wider spread. Thus, viewed from the standpoint either of util- ity or beauty, these unrivaled forests are the keystone of the arch. Senate Doc, No. 84. Plate LXVI. ~. S 5- ^ : I - O S c — H S I 2 ^ 2 > -• o — 5 ^ O Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXVII. LAND EROSION, NEAR MARION, N. C, SHOWING RAPID REMOVAL OF THE SOILS BY HEAVY RAINS WHEN THE FOREST COVER IS REDUCED OR DESTROYED. (See pp. 26-28, 122.) Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXVIIl. YONAHLOSSEE ROAD ON THE SOUTHERN SLOPE OF GRANDFATHER MOUNTAIN. ^P»r»ENDIX c. HYDRO GRAPH Y OF THE SOUTHERI^ APPALAOHIAI^S. H. A. PRESSBY, Hydrographer, and E. W. MYERS, Resident Hydrographer, United States Oeologieal Su.rvey. 123 THE HYDROGRAPHY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. PHYSIOGRAPHIC FEATXIKES OF THE REGION. The Southern Appalachian Mountains, located in the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Ten- nessee, Georgia, and Alabama, stand out from and above the surrounding country as an elevated phJ^siographic unit. They rise above the Piedmont Plateau, which borders them on the east and south, and above the vallev of East Tennessee, which lies on their western flanks, to a height of from 2,000 to nearh' 6,000 feet above sea level. This is preeminently a region of mountains. (See PI. IV.) ^.^.-^^j^^" "'*'«'''^<* The slopes are mostly covered with deep soil, which is kept in an open, porous condition b}' the humus that enters into its composition and is spread over the surface, and which is held in place b}^ the myriads of roots of trees and shrubs and grasses growing upon it. (See PI. LXIX a.) In this region the raindrops are battered to pieces by the twigs and leaves and the water is caught by the grasses, shrubs, and ferns below and soaks through the covering humus into the soil and rock fissures underneath. (See PI. LXIX h.) The portion that is neither used by the vegeta- tion nor evaporated from the surface emerges about the mountain slopes weeks or months after its fall in countless springs that feed with striking regularity the many brooks, creeks, and rivers which thus have their sources here. These conditions combine to make this one of the best watered regions on the continent. This region embraces an irregular, mountainous table- land, lying between the steep and well-defined escarpment of the Blue Ridge on the southeast and the less rugged, but higher and more massive Unaka chain on the north- west. Numerous cross ridges separated by narrow valleys and river gorges connect these two ranges or extend out between them. The region, taken as a whole, has an average elevation of more than 2,500 feet, but there are many peaks that rise to about 5,000 feet, and a considerable 125 126 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. numbex' to over 6,000 feet. The mountain slopes, though usually steep, are forest- covered, and have a deep, fertile soil of varying physical character, which is very readily eroded and washed away when the forest covering is re- moved. The Bkie Ridge, though not so high as the moun- tains to the west, is an older range and constitutes the divide between the waters flowing to the east and those flowing to the west, the streams flowing in either direction having their head springs in or near the gaps of this ■divide. (Pis. LXIX, LXX.) The Blue Ridge jn considering' the Blue Ridge as the great divide of the great divide. -,,, '^ . ° • n this, regioii .two portions of it are especiall}^' notable. (See PI. XII.7 /i^ear Grandfather Mountain, the highest point on the Blue iRidge, the New or Kanawha River rises and flows iioithward through Virginia and thence north- westward into the''ibhfo; the Yadkin rises a few yards dis- tant on the eastr and' ftows northeast and then southeast into the Atlaiitict the'Dinville, a branch of the Catawba, rises on the west side and flows south-southeast, cutting across the Blue Ridge in a deep gorge, while a few miles farther west the Watauga and Nolichucky flow northwest and southwest, respectively, into the Tennessee and the Gulf. One hundred and fifty miles farther southwest, where the Blue Ridge is somewhat broken up near its junction with the Balsam cross ridge, the French Broad rises and flows eastward; the Saluda flows southeast; the Savannah south, and, the Tuckasegee west-southwest, into the Tennessee. (PL LXXl.) The most striking characteristic of the Blue Ridge is the great apparent difi'erence in height when viewed from its two sides, the streams flowing toward the east plung- ing down its sides in narrow V-shaped gorges for a thou- sand feet or more in a distance of a few miles until they reach the gentle slopes of the Piedmont Plain. (See PI. XXVlI). Those flowing westward have a much easier descent. The river ^his is well shown by the great falls on the Linville gorg^es. * "^ River, which, rising on the western slopes of Grand- father Mountain, in Mitchell County, flows in a general southerly course to its junction with the Catawba River, near the southern end of the Linville Mountains. The falls proper, which are located about 3 miles below the Mitchell-Burke County line, have a perpendicular plunge of 40 feet, and the cascades above are about 50 feet in height, this fall of 90 feet occurring in a linear distance Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXIX. (-•1) RHODODENDRON UNDERGROWTH HOLDING THE SOIL AND THE WATER; Undergrowth liki- this liolds in phicu imU'linituly thu deep. k-rtiU- stn\ oi the stet'i) Aripiihu-hijin mountain slopes. {B) SEAMS IN THE ROCK FACILITATE THE STORAGE OF WATER FROM HEAVY RAIN. These supplement the work of the soil on the mountain slopes in storinis the ext-essive rains and giving out this water during the drier seasons of the year. But when the forests are de>^troyed, both the soils and the half- fleeayed rocks are rapidly carried away, and the mountain rains rush into the streams below, causing floods of increasing violence. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXX. (Photoj^raphed b.v Scadin.) UPPER FALLS, WHITEWATER RIVER. (See pp. 29, 12S.) The Whitewater i.s one of the several streams rising on these mountain slopes which unite in the hill eountrv below to form the Savannah River, and to operate the large manufacturing establishments at Augusta, Ga. " Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXXI. (.Photogruplieii by Liiuisuy.) LOWER CULLASAJA FALLS, MACON COUNTY. N. C. (See pp. 29, 12(1.) On one of the stmrces t>f the Little Tennessee Kivor. ■ ijini-- SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 127 of about 100 feet. For a distance of about 10 miles be- low the falls the river flows in a series of cascades through a narrow gorge, whose sides are from 500 to nearly 2,000 feet high, the walls being cut down through the eroded Lin- ville quartzites into thegrt.. ' e below. (See PI. LXXII.) In the first 6 miles below the falls the descent averages 208 feet to the mile, and the total descent from the head of the falls to the lower end of the gorge, a distance of about 10 miles, is 1,800 feet, as determined by a line of levels. Along the upper 6 or 7 miles of this distance the bottom of the gorge is scarcely wider than the stream. The total fall of the stream from its source in Linville Gap to its mouth is about 3,030 feet in a distance of about 36^ miles, the average fall per mile being about 83 feet. The Watauga Ri^'er also rises near Linville Gap, and flows first in a northeasterly and then in a northwesterly direction, its length from its source to Butler, Tenn., where it leaves the mountainous region, being about 38 miles. The total fall in this distance is about 2,000 feet, and the average slope, therefore, about 61 feet per mile. Of this 2,000 feet, between 900 and 1,000 feet are found in the first 6 miles, where the stream rushes down the slopes of Grandfather Mountain. As is the case with most of the other streams rising on the westei'n slope and flowing westward across the elevated plateau, this stream has its channel for a part of its course in a rather broad and smooth valley before entering the steep and rocW gorge of its middle course. Here it cuts its wa}^ through the Unaka mountains in a deep canyon, about 8 miles in length, where the fall averages about 65 feet per mile, but is very much greater at numerous places, the channel being extremely rough and )>roken. The depth of the gorge through the Unakas is nearly 2,000 feet, but the walls slope down much more gently than those of the Linville just described, though they often show precipitous rock cliffs several hundred feet in height. The Unaka range on the western edge of this plateau, tiil^un^as"^""' unlike the Blue Ridge, has slopes equally steep on both sides, descending often some 4,000 feet from the crest of the mountains to the stream beds. In the upper part of their courses all of the rivers of the Unakas par- take of the nature of mountain torrents, with the greatest fall near their sources, and in their lower courses they flow in vallevs where there has been much clearing, the amount 128 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. of water increasing rapidh' at the time of rain on the moun- tain sides. In manj' parts the stream valleys are simply mountain gorges, with steep, vertical sides, and with verj'^ small flood plains. Water powers could be developed at many places along these rivers, the fall in the upper part reaching, in some cases, 100 feet in an almost vertical drop, though the quantity of water at these points is com- paratively small. When the rivers reach the plains lying at the edge of the mountain system their fall is very much less, yet at frequent intervals decided drops occur, and the flow is so increased by the numerous tributaries that water powers of considerable magnitude and value can be developed. THE RAINFALL AND RUN-OFF IN THIS REGION. In this region the influence of elevation on climate is supreme; the summers are colder, the winters more severe, and the climate is drier and more salubrious than at points not far distant, but outside of the high mountain area. The trend of the mountains to the southwest influ- ences the prevailing winds, while the great diversity in topographic features give rise to many interesting climatic peculiarities. On the mountains near the southern end of the Appala- chian system the rainfall is very heavy, but, on the other hand, in many central valleys the rainfall is as light and. the climate as mild as at many points east of the Blue Ridge. Climate de- The area embraced in the proposed reserve belongs to that ther Bureau pa- portion of the eastern United States characterized bv the per ^ greatest annual rainfall, there being places along the south- eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge which receive an annual precipitation not exceeded elsewhere in the United States, except along the northwest Pacific coast. The average I'ainfall for a period of more than ten years at various places in the southern i^ppalachian Mountains in northern Georgia and western North Carolina and South Carolina has been nearly 73 inches, while at times the precipitation for a single month has been between 20 and 30 inches, the greatest amount falling in the three summer months and the least in autumn, the amounts in winter and spring being about the same. It is worthy of remark that the average pi-ecipitation at Asheville is onlj' about 42 inches — the smallest rainfall record made at any station in the region. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXXII. ll'llotiiKiiiiihocl by J.liLilva, THE GORGE OF THE LINNVILLE RIVER ACROSS THE BLUE RIDGE. (See pp. 29, 126.) On these steep, rocky walls are forests which should forever be preserved. Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXXIII. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 129 These and other facts concerning the general climatic conditions of this region are brought out in the accom- panying paper by Professor Henrj^ of the United States Weather Bureau, showing the records of temperature, I'ainfall, and humidity at the stations of the Weather Bureau between Lj^nchburg. Va., on the north, and Mont- gomery, Ala., on the south, and fi'om Salisbury, on the east, to Knoxville, on the west. The entire region is characterized by extremely heavy j^^eavy rain- rainfall in very short periods of time, and owing to the steep slopes and the absence of lakes, ponds, or marshes, which could act as reservoirs and hold back the storm waters, protracted heavy precipitation is followed by a rather rapid increase in the flow of the streams, the rise lasting generally for only a few hours, and the stream soon assuming its normal stage of flow. This is more especially the case where there are forest clearings. Con- sequently these violent rains, under certain conditions — i. e., where rains are excessive and clearings extensive, or where forest areas are burned over so as to destroy the humus and undergrowth — give rise to floods which are very destructive to property and which cause occasionally the loss of human life. To a certain extent the forest acts as a reservoir, for it keeps the soil porous, allows it to absorb and hold the water for a time, and gradually gives it forth in the form of springs and rivulets. Where the areas have been deforested, however, the rain water forms small but swift-flowing torrents down the sides of the mountains, and quickly reaches the streams below. Deep channels are cut in the mountain sides, and all of the top fertile soil is carried off, leaving only the underljdng clays, which are of poor quality and do not yield to cultivation. After a storm the streams rising in the deforested areas are extremely turbid with mud from the mountain sides, while those from the forest areas are comparatively clear. This ei"osion can be noted by the most casual observer, and it forms one of the greatest menaces to the region. The soil is deep and fertile, as is shown by the splendid growth of forest trees and by its jdeld under the first cultivation, but it is only a question of time, if the forests are wantonly cut, when all of the soil and vegetation will be washed from the mountain sides and nothing will remain but the bare rock. These floods, due to protracted rains, are also destruc- tive in strips of valle}' lands bordering the streams in the *S. Doc. 84 9 130 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. mountain region and in the wider valleys along their courses across the lowlands beyond. Bridges, mills, set- tlements, public roads, dams for developing water power, indeed, everj^thing in the course of such a mountain stream is liable to be swept away by its rapidly increasing force. g^Damages from During the spring of 1901 this region was visited by the most severe rain storm of its recent history. Many of the streams rose to unprecedented heights, and the flood damages to the farms, bridges, and dwellings on or near practicalhr all of the streams flowing from these southern Appalachian Mountains were enormous. During the sum- mer season later floods added largelj^ to this destruction. Along the valle}' of the Catawba River in its course across the two Carolinas these flood damages to farms, bridges, highways, buildings, etc., during the high-water season of 1901, aggregated nearly two million dollars. The storm damages during the same season along the tributaries of the James, the Roanoke, the Yadkin, and the Broad, in Virginia and North Carolina, added a million dollars: and those on the tributaries of other streams rising about the Blue Ridge in South Carolina and Georgia add still another million, making four million in all for the streams flowing from the Blue Ridge across the Piedmont Plateau. Add to this the damages along the streams flow- ing out of the southern Appalachian Mountains to the north, west, and southwest, and we have another and a larger story of destruction: On the New (Kanawha) and other smaUei adjacent streams in Virginia and West Virginia $1,000,000 On the Watauga, in North Carolina and Tennessee 2, 000, 000 On the Nolichucli)', in North Carolina and Tennessee 1, 500, 000 On the French Broad and Pigeon, in North Carolina and Tennessee 500,000 On the Tucliasegee, Little Tennessee, and Hiwassee, in North Carolina and Tennessee 500, 000 On the tributaries of western Georgia and Alabama streams rising in this region 500, 000 This aggregate of $10,000,000 tells a story of destruc- tion never before equaled in this region. Bridges were swept away by the score; houses b}^ the hundred; thou- sands of miles of public roads were washed away almost beyond the possibility of repair. (See Pi. LXXVI.) The soil in the narrow, irregular, fringing vallej' lands in the mountain region was in many cases partially and in other cases completely washed awa}'. In the lowlands beyond, Senate Doc, No. 84. Plate LXXIV. (-i) SAWMILL WRECKED BY THE FLOODS ON THE NOLICHUCKY RIVER, EAST TENNESSEE, MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32, 130.) (i') DEBRIS FROM WRECK OF SAWMILL AND LOG BOOM ON LINNVILLE RIVER BY FLOODS, IN WESTERN" NORTH CAROLINA, MAY, 1901. (See pp. 32, 130.) Senate Doc, No. Plate LXXV. ^.S^r- (.1) HIGHWAY BRIDGE WASHED AWAY BY FLOODS. (See pp. 32, 130.) JIan5' bridges on these Southern mountain .streams, even when built on successively higher piers, have been washed away several times by floods during the past few years. {B) PUBLIC ROAD RUINED BY FLOODS, MITCHELL COUNTY, N. C. The clearing of the mountain slopes and the destruction of humus and undergrowth by forest fires cause the water Irom heavy rams to rush down the mountain sides on the public roads, and to wash the latter away The damages to the public highways in the mountain counties of western North Carolina from this cause ' during the past tew years are estimated to have reached several million dollars Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXXVI. v-l. FLOOD DAMAGES TO MINING SETTLEMENT, NORWOOD, W. VA., 1901. ^ ^■■^- (11) FLOOD DAMAGES TO RAILROAD AND MINING SETTLEMENT, KEYSTONE, W. VA., 1901. The diimages from floods in streams rising in tliese Southern Appalachian mountains during the spring and summer of 1901 aggregated 810,000,000; and during the follomng December, January, Fobruarv, and March they reached 88,000,000 additional, making a total of 818,000,000. Senate Doc, No. 84. Plate LXXVII. TOOCOA FALLS, HABERSHAM COUNTY, GA. (See pp. 29, 138, 139.) SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. 131 the broader bordering valleys were damaged beyond recu- peration. Some areas were denuded of soil, while others were covered with desert-like, almost barren white sand extending for miles along the course of a stream. (See PL XXXIV.) But while the damage from the storm of 1901 exceeds that of any preceding year, it is common knowledge among the mountaineers that annually the floods have risen irreg- ularly but steadily higher, and that their destructive work has been increasing in proportion as the forest clearings and the forest burnings have proceeded. We ma}' confidently expect that floods of the future will exceed those of the past. Manj' of these streams have fine water powers along their and""^^!**^'*^"'"^ courses, the value of which is limited by their low- water flow. '^'■^• Deforestation means the destruction of the only source of natural storage in the region, and that the rainfall will reach the stream almost as soon as it falls, so that in the dry season there will be no reserve supply to augment the low-water flow, which is drawn principally from subsurface sources. These water powers are a potential source of prosperity to the region in which thej^ are found, and since their value depends entirely upon the water available, any- thing tending to reduce its amount or to change its distri- bution by increasing the violence of the floods and at the same time diminishing the low-water flow, will work injury in precise proportion to the change produced. This result is inevitable upon the deforestation of the drainage basin, and on many of the streams has already become evident. It is the general testimony of the older inhabitants of the region that the streams are now much more irregular than they were before active and widespread clearing operations had been begun. And while the evidence of the "oldest inhabitant," as an individual, may not be quite all that can be desired, collectively it is entitled to large credence. Already 24: per cent of the total area of this region has been cleared of its forests. Lumbering operations are at present rather widespread, tio^if'bf ?i^™?- and the forests in many regions already begin to show' evidence of their efl^ect. The large mills are usually steam sawmills, to which the logs are either transported by a system of tramroads radiating from the site of the mill, or, where the mill is located near a stream of sufficient size, the logs are brought down by splashing. A number of small sawmills have been erected which make use of the , men. 132 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. abundant water power furnished by the various streams. These are, as a rule, of small capacitj-, from 500 to 1,000 feet per day, and do mainly the custom sawing for the region near by. In addition to these there are numerous small sawmills, owned for the most part b3' some iii'm holduig extensive tracts of forest, and these are moved from place to place as the near-bj' timber becomes nearlj- exhausted. In anj' case the effect of the sawmill on the forests is the same. All the trees available for use in anj' manner are cut into plank, and the careless methods destroy the greater part of the young growth, which would otherwise in course of time replenish the supply. The logs when cut are "snaked " downhill by mule team, soon cutting a deep channel in the earth, which the waters from the finst rain storm turn into a yawning gully that rapidly spreads in extent. (See PI. LIII.) The tops and those parts of the trunk unsuitable for lumber are left on the ground to furnish fuel for the first fire or a breeding place for insects destructive to tree life. Forest destmc- In addition to the lumbering operations, the tan-bark tion for tan- , _ . bark. industrj' is making great inroads on forest growth. Every j^ear thousands of cords of bark are stripped in these mountains, and each load means that some giant of the forest has been felled and lies useless, for the trunks are rarely used for timber, the expense of transporting them to the mills from the high mountain slopes being in most cases prohibitive. Destructive But great as is the work of the lumberman in this forest work of forest ... i • i j i n i Hres. destruction, his part has in the past been small when com- pared with that of the forest fire and that of the farmer in clearing land for agricultural purposes. Forest fires have been one of the great curses in the southern Appalachians as truly as elsewhere in the country. They were common in the da3^s of Indian occupation. Thus, thev have preceded the lumberman, but the}' have also accompanied him and followed in his wake. Their work has been rendered far more destructive because the lumberman has left his brush scattered among the remaining growth in such way that in the burning it has fed the fire. In some regions these fires have destroj^ed the foi'ests entirely. Especially has this been the case where the soil has been thin and composed largely of humus. The fire has destroyed this humus and the remaining soil has soon washed away, leaving the trees on the bare surface of rock. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 133 to dry out and die. (SeePl. XLVIII5.) Even under more favorable conditions these fires have destroj'ed the under- growth, and the larger trees have been burned near their roots in such a waj'^ as to cause their destruction. (See PI. XLVI.) The repeated fires have frequently exter- minated the grasses and other forage plants, so that instead of improving the pasturage, which has often been the object in starting the forest fire, the result has been, in the course of years, its almost total destruction. This burning of the humus and the undergrowth in the ^.g^^^J^^^^j, Jg'J,|^ forests alwaj's seriousl}^ affects the flow of the streams. ^"^^ '° ^"'^'*''™^- No one who has ever been in a forest during a heavy rain storm can fail to realize this fact. In the virgin forests the raindrops are caught by the underbrush and pass down- ward through the humus into the less porous soil and the rock fissures beneath, to reappear weeks and months later in the form of numberless springs. But where this under- brush and humus have been burned away, one can not fail to see that during a heavy rain storm much less of the water soaks directh' into the soil, and the remainder flows down the surface with a velocity varying with the slope, some- times washing the soil into small furrows and gullies. Hence, the burning of this humus decreases the storage of water in the soil and causes the more rapid accumulation of this water in the brooks, and results in floods in the larger streams below. Following in the wake of the forest fire in this connec-o„°J^oun^"ff tion is the farmer who is continually clearing the moun- ^g°Pfj|j'^'^go,^ Yn tain slopes for agricultural purposes. Instead of trying streams. to improve his soil in the valle}' and on the adjacent slopes he has for 3'eai's followed the policy of clearing additional patches on the mountain side as rapidly as others are worn out and abandoned. Each one of these hillside fields must be abandoned in from thi-ee to five years, as their productiveness is short lived. After the trees have been girdled and the underbrush has been desti'oyed, such a field may be planted in corn for one or two years, then in grain for a year, and one or two years in grass. Then it may be pastured for a year or two until with increased barrenness the grass gives place to weeds and the weeds to gullies. (See PI. XLIX.) Within two or three vears after these mountain-side . ^°'^^i SiL¥" mgs and liooas. fields have been cleared the soil loses its color, changing from dark gray or black to red. as the organic matter dis- appears. Meanwhile it is losing more and more its porous 134 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. nature, and hence its capacity for absorbing water; and the rains being unable to soak into it wash it away. Thus, the lumberman, the forest fire, and the farmer cooperate in the work of forest destruction and the consequent disturbance of the regularitj^ of the flow of the streams. This increases the floods which destroj^ the valley lands below, and as the irregularity of their flow increases the streams lose their value for water powers during the dry season, and during the season of rain the floods wash awa}^ the farming lands in the valleys and carry destruction along their courses across the lowlands. As the rains wash awa}' the cleared fields on the moun- tain slopes and the farming lands in the valleys, these soils on their way toward the sea incidentally silt up the river channels and the harboi's. Hence, it is strictly true that in destroying forests these agencies are removing the soils, ruining the rivers, and destrojang the mountains them- selves; and along the lower courses of these streams thej^ are thus destroying agricultural and manufacturing inter- ests, and incidentally seriously afl'ecting important naviga- tion facilities. tJu'^'oFTheTe I" '^^'^ England and many of the Northern States the streams"a' forest "^'^®^"°^® ^^'^^^ ^""^ glacial deposits of sand and gravel, prob-em. spread out over the hills and valleys, serve as storehouses for the water and help matei'ially to preserve uniformity in the flow of the streams. In this respect thej^ cooperate largely with the forest cover in that region; and indeed they would accomplish much in that direction were the forest cover entirely removed. But in the southern Appa- lachian region there are no lakes and no glacial gravels and sands; the forest and the soil ax'e the factors upon which the solution of the problem of water storage de- pends. And that the problem i-esolves itself largelj^ into one of forest cover, with its undergrowth and humus, is seen by the fact that in the streams of the Piedmont Plain of the South Atlantic States the irregularit^v in flow, as observed for a number of 3'ears, has been almost directly proportional to the extent of forest clearings. Observa- tions and measurements of the southern Appalachian mountain streams made during the last few j^ears show that the same is true in that region. Hence, here the water problem is a forest problem. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 135 STREAM FLOW IN THE REGION AND ITS MEASURE- MENT. The region is well watered, and from it several of the palacMa^egkfn largest rivers of the country receive their supplj'. (See ^^g^'®""^™"^''*^'^ PI. XII.) The chief rivers in the States of Virginia, North Carolina, South Cai'olina, Georgia, Alabama, Tennessee, and West Virginia rise in these mountains. One of the principal tributaries of the Ohio and one of the largest feeders of the Mississippi head here also. So that this region may justly be considered one of the important watersheds of the United States. The Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Saluda, and Chattooga iiow into the Atlantic. The Chattahoochet and the Coosa flow into the Gulf. New River flows to the north and enters the Kanawha, whose waters finally reach the Mississippi through the Ohio, while the Tennessee, with its large tributaries, the Hol- ston, the Nolichucky, and the French Broad, flow to the west through the State of Tennessee, finally entering the Mississippi. The Cheoah, the Nantahala, the Oconalufty, and the Tuckasegee, all large streams from 50 to 100 yards wide, join their waters to the Tennessee and flow in a narrow and rockj' gorge through the Great Smoky Moun- tains, while the Hiwassee unites with that river in the State of Tennessee beyond the mountains. An examination of the watersheds and a general inves- tigation of the streams in this mountain region were made by the United States Geological Survey during the sum- mer of 1900, the detailed results of which will be pub- lished in a series of Water-Supply and Irrigation Papers of the Surve3^ The following general facts are, however, presented for publication in this paper. During the hydrographic investigation of this region, uremente. ™^' extending through 1900 and 1901, measurements of flow were made on the larger streams and more than one thou- sand of their upper tributaries, and 51 gauging stations were established. At each station a gauge was perma- nently placed, upon which the height of the water surface was read and recorded daily by a local observer, and to which were referred the current-meter measurements, which were made about every sixty days, or oftener, as circumstances demanded or permitted. From these data a curve was platted, according to the method usually fol- lowed by the Survey. From this curve, the mean of the dail}' gauge readings being known, the approximate daily discharge has been calculated. The great diiiicult}^ en- countered at these stations was to obtain measurements 136 SOUTHEBN APPALACHIAN REGION. at the time of high water, for after a rain the livers rise rapidly and fall as quickly. Hence, unless the observer is on hand at the time, the high water passes before he can reach the point of measurement. A list of the gauging stations in this region from which data have been obtained is given in the following tables (see PI. XII): Special gauging stations cslahlislied by_the United States Geological Surveij on streams of the southern Appalachian region. Stream. 1 Station. Date estab- li-shed. New River OldtnwTi Va. Aug. 5, 1900 .Inlv 29 1900 South Fork of New River Nortli Forli of New River New River, N. C - Do. Siloam.N.C Aug. 3, 1900 do Do. Linville River Bridgewater, N. C July 3,1900 Xng. 30.1900 Bluff Citv, Tenn Julv 17,1900 Watauga River Butler, Tenn Aug. 11,1900 Do. do Elli Ureek Aug. 5, 1900 Sept. 20, 1900 Sept. 4, 190O Nolichuckv River Chuck y Valley, Teun Newport, Teun Pigeon River Oldtown Tenn Do Besides the foregoing stations, which were established during the summer of 1900, the following gauging stations have been maintained for several j^ears upon streams flow- ing from the southern Appalachian Mountains: Regular gauging stations on streams floiving from the Southern Apjialarhian Mountains. River. Station. River. Station. Radford, Va. Fayette, W. Va. Oconee Chattahoochee ... Oakdale and West- point, Ga. Carters, Ga. Cartersville, and Coosawattee Holcomb Rock, Va. Oostanaula Resaca, Ga. Roanoke Roanoke, Va. Coosa Rome, Ga. Neal,N.C. Riverside, and Locks Dan South Boston, Va. Nos. 4 and 5, Ala. Randolph, Va, Salisbury and Nor- wood, N.C. Near Blueridge, Ga. Ranger, N. C. Yadkin Nottely... Hiwassee Charleston and Reli- ance, Tenn. RockhilI,S.C. Murphy, N.C. Broad (of theCaro- Alston, S.C. Tennessee Chattanooga and linas) . Knoxville.Teuu. Saluda Waterloo, S. C. Little Tennessee.. Judson,N.C. Tallulnh Tallulah Falls, Ga. Tuckasegee Bryson. N. C. French Broad Ashcvillc, S. C. Calho\ui Falls, S.C. Augusta, Ga. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 137 These stations cover every stream rising in the south- ern Appalachian Mountain area. Besides measurements at the foregoing- regular stations miscellaneous measurements were made in the watersheds of all of the larger rivers, on both the main streams and on their principal tributaries. The following large rivers were measured: Yadkin, Catawba, Broad (of the two Carolinas), Saluda. Tugaloo, Broad (of Georgia), Savan- nah, Oconee, Ocraulgee, Chattahoochee, Etowah, Coosawat- tee, Conasauga, Coosa, Tallapoosa, New, French Broad, Nolichucky, Holston, Watauga, Tennessee, Hiwassee, and Toccoa (or Okoee). A complete list of the measure- ments made, showing the discharge of the various rivers and their tributaries, has been published in Water Sup- ph^ and Irrigation Paper of the United States Geological Surve}' No. 49. In some respects the summer of 1900 was a peculiar one tionfiii'igo^o'and in the Appalachian region. Rain was abundant during ^^*'^- June, and the streams were moderately high during the earh' part of the sunimer, but later very little rain fell, and most of the rivers and their tributaries were at an extremeh^ low stage, as low as the^' have been for a num- ber of years. During the spring of 1901, however, the rivers were at a higher stage, and a number of high-water measurements were obtained, the results of which will be published in a later number of the Water-Supply Papers by the United States Geological Survey. With a view to making more than one measurement at the same place on each stream a bench mark was established at the time the first measurement was made, and the relative height of the water surface was noted at each succeeding gauging, so that in this waj^ the relation between the rise of the stream and the discharge could be ascertained. Examina- tions were also made for the watermarks at the time of previous floods, and when the yearly fluctuations of the streams could be obtained they also were noted. With the numerous gauge heights, and measurements of flow that have now been made, fairlj' complete data of the flow from the various drainage basins ai'e available. VALUE OF THESE MOUNTAIN STREAMS FOB WATER- POWER PURPOSES. The greater part of this region is occupied by gneissicj^^°j,?j'^'*^j,°j^j.^ rocks, having for the most part a characteristic northeast- po"';'' deveiop- to-southwest strike, the irregular rock layers dipping 138 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. beneath the surface at varying but generally steep angles. The southern half of the region has along its western border an irregular belt of bedded slates, limestones, quartzites, and conglomerates. These rocks, which make up the great bulk of the surface, have a general north- easterly strike and a steep but varying dip; while near the eastern border there is another, but narrow and more irreg- ular, belt of rock of somewhat similar character, which follows approximately the general position of the Blue Kidge, and dips steeply southeastward. As stated above, the important streams rising in Virginia, the Carolinas, and Geoi-gia have their origin on the slopes of the Blue Ridge. Those rising on the eastern slope, such as the James, Roanoke, Yadkin, Catawba, Broad, Savannah, and Chattahoochee, flow generally toward the southeast, their head streams plunging down the moun- tain slopes manj^ hundreds of feet in short distances and soon reaching the gentle slope of the Piedmont Plain. (See Pis. XXVII and LXX.) The streams rising on the west- ern slopes of the Blue Ridge — the Watauga, Nolichuckj--, French Broad, Pigeon, Little Tennessee, Tuckasegee, and Hiwassee rivers — flow in the general characteristic north- westerW direction across the upturned ridges of the gneiss and more recent bedded rocks, with frequent falls, into the great valley of East Tennessee. (See PI. LXXI.) The Holston River, which flows along this vallej' from its upper end to its junction with the Tennessee system, forms an exception to the general direction of flow in this region, for its course lies toward the southwest; and the Coosa River, of Alabama, which has its headwaters on the south- eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge, takes a similar direc- tion. The New River, also, which rises in the cross ranges connecting the Unakas and the Blue Ridge, flows toward the northwest into the Ohio. The elevation of the coun- try is so great and the descent of the stream is so rapid that the general course of the principal rivers has been but little modified by the geologic structure of the region, though they lie directlj' across the sti-ike of the rocks. The resulting conditions produce occasional falls and cas- cades in the streams (see PI. LXX VII); but the larger part of the courses of these streams consists of a succession of rapids (see PI. LXXIII), furnishing ample opportuni- ties for water-power development by the building of dams at intervals across the deep, narrow gorges. A number of the smaller tributary streams in North Carolina and in Senate Doc. No. 84. Plate LXXVIII. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 139 Virginia flow in either a northeaat or southwest direction along the strike of the rocks, and at places give rise to con- ditions favorable to water-power development. This is the case for the most part where a change in the direction of flow causes a change in the character of the rock in the stream bed. In northern Georgia different conditions seem prevalent; cal^^*(fef'^in ''the the general course of the stream is southeast or southwest, of°ife''souTherii and many shoals and cascades are to be found. Some of the Appaiachiaus,. cascades are of great height, and large water powers could be easilj' and cheaplj' developed. Notable among these are Tallulah Falls (see PI. XXVIII), where the descent is 335 in about 4,000 feet: Duke's Creek Falls, Minnehaha Falls, and Annie Ruby Falls, whei'e the descent in each case is about 300 feet within a short distance. These are found on rather small streams, but illustrate the difference in the prevalent condition. As before stated, this part of northern Georgia embraces of^'^manutT" tur- the headwaters of three great drainage sj'stems, the Coosa, *"§; enterprises. the Chattahoochee, and the Savannah. At various points along their courses all of these streams possess magnificent water powers which present conditions favorable to devel- opment, and which at some future time will be made to supplj^ the varied and growing industries of the nearbj^ region with the power necessary for their continuance and growth. An}' impairment of these powers by diminution of the low-water flow of these streams will most assuredly work great injuiy in future years to the industrial welfare of the region. The States through which flow the streams rising in the region of the proposed Appalachian Forest Reserve have for many years past been devoted mainly to agricultural pursuits; but within recent years a great awakening has come, and a tendency to manufacture the raw material at home has become manifest. Already the results are to be seen in the increased prosperity ot the region, resulting from the development of diversified industries. This tendency is growing with great rapidity, and while its beneficial effects will be felt most in the section where it has appeared, it can not fail to have a considerable influ- ence on the prosperity of the entire country, for pros- perity comes to those who produce sooner than to those who consume— to the seller who can supph' the commer- cial needs of the world, rather than those who feel the want. 140 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. waTer'^-'p'owe'r Water powei' is universally I'ecognizecl as the cheapest preservation. power to be Secured for any species of manufacture, for when once the constructional development is at an end the attendant expenses become very small, since, through the operation of the laws of nature, the water flows with- out cost by day and night, while every ton of coal that passes in at the furnace door represents a certain expendi- ture, and in plants requiring great power this fuel cost may come to represent a large proportion of the cost of manufacture. In the past the chief advantage of steam power over water power was the mobility of the former, for steam could be generated wherever fuel could be obtained and mills could be built and where the transportation facilities were such as to insure the quick disposal of the finished product. By reason of the great improvements in elec- trical transmission of power, steam has lost its advantage, for water power can now be brought to a mill for dis- tances of many miles more cheaply than power can be obtained from coal at most points. The water powers, therefore, in the not far distant future, may become as valuable as coal mines, and as the local coal supplv becomes more costlj^ b}^ reason of deeper mining, the water powers will increase in value. This wealth should not be wantonly wasted. Its present value can be conserved and its future value increased by the preservation of the forests about the headwaters of the streams; and this preservation would seem desirable, therefore, if for no other reason than this, entirely apart from the wealth-producing capabilities of the forests themselves. Aggregate j^ jg impossible at this time to give an accurate statement water power in ^^^ ® ... southern Appa- gf tjjg total power available on all the streams rising in lacbian region. ^ o and flowing from this area, for the reason that the power on anj^ stream can not be determined accui'ately without a survey of the entire course of the stream with this object in view, and an}' discussion of this, based on the total fall from source to mouth and the average quantity of water carried by the stream, would be worse than mislead- ing; for the mere fact that there is on any stream a certain fall within a certain distance, over which flows a certain amount of water, does not mean that this localitj' constitutes an available water power. Theoretically the power is there, but practically it is nonexistent unless it can be developed and brought to use for a sum which is SOTTTHEEN APPALACHIAN KEGIOTST. 141 not prohibitive. In other words, the availabilit}' of a water power depends entirely on the economic situation at the point considered, and every location must be viewed by itself in such detei-mination. It is, however, certain' that on all of these streams large amoviuts of power can be easily and cheaply developed when the demand for it is sufficient, for the average fall in the streams is great, and is noticeablj^ high at great num- bers of points, while the low-water flow is fairly large on account of the large annual rainfall and the storage efl'ect of the great forests. Furthermore, at manj' points, the conditions favorable for easy and cheap development are present; and on some of the sti'eams surve}'^ have been made which render approximate estimates easy. The more important of these are given below. In regard to the power actually utilized conditions are water power . .... -, Til available and more favorable, since such information can be readily ob-that already de- . . ' veloped on these tained by letter and inquiry from the owners and users streams. thereof, and such has been obtained and is 23resented below. The aggregate amount is very small, for the reasons that the entire region is largely agricultural in its pursuits and that manufacturing is only beginning. On the New (Kanawha) River and its tributaries, where, the available horsepower amounts to 60,000, the amount actuallj^ reported as used is 8,700 horsepower, of which amount 2,500 is used b}' a single plant recently built. On the James River the amount of available power is estimated as 45,000 horsepower, the amount actually used being 14,000. On the Roanoke River the available horse- power is estimated as about 50,000, of which not more than 17,000 is actually in use. On the Yadkin River the availa- ble horsepower is estimated at 60,000, the amount actually used being about 2,500. The available power on the Ca- tawba River is estimated at 57,000 horsepower, the amount in use being 4,000 horsepower. On Broad and Saluda rivers the available power is e.stimated at 43,000 horse- power, the amount actually used being about 25,000 horse- power. The available power on the Savannah River is estimated to be about 77,000 horsepower, the amount used being about 1,000 horsepower. Near the fall line the city of Augusta has developed about 11,000 horsepower. On the Chattahoochee River. the available power is esti- mated by Mr. B. M. Hall to be 115,000 horsepower, the 142 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. amount utilized being only about 10,000, while the availa- ble power on the Coosa River is about liO,000 horsepower, the amount in use being approximatelj' 13,000. On the Tennessee River, in Alabama, there is available 100,000 horsepower, while on the tributaries of the Ten- nessee, in North Carolina and Tennessee, large amounts of power are available, as shown in the following paragraphs: On the Hiwassee and its tributaries the available power is estimated to be 75,000 horsepower, though the amount used is ver}^ small, the onlj^ users of power in the basin being some small plants. On the Little Tennessee sj'stem, including the Little Tennessee, Cheoah, Tuckasegee, Nantahala, Oconalufty, Tellico, Ellijay, and Little Pigeon rivers, the available power is 100,000, while the amount utilized is only 1,700. On the French Broad River and tributaries, rising in the southern Appalachian Mountains, the aggregate horse- power available is 50,000, while that used is about .3,500, though more than this will come into use in the near future when some developments which are now under way are con:pleted. Others in this basin are projected. In the Nolichucky Basin about 700 horsepower is in use, and 35,000 is available. On the Watauga the amount of power available is 20,000, while only a few small powers have been developed, aggre- gating 150 horsepower. In the Holston Basin 4,700 horse- power has been utilized, and 40,000 remain undeveloped. It would be entirely safe to estimate the available but undeveloped water power on the streams rising among the southern Appalachian Mountains as equivalent to not less than 1,067,000 horsepower, and the developed power is 117,750. It would also be entirely correct to state that the future value, of these water powers, as indeed the future value of almost everything of value about these mountains, depends largely upon the future preservation of the forests. APPENDIX D. CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHEEl^ APPALAOHIAl«fS. ALFRED J. HENRY, Professor of Meteorology, TjTiitecl States "^kVeather Bxireau.. 143 LETTER OF TRAI^SMITTAL. U. S. Department of Ageioui,ture, Weather Btjreau, Washington, D. 6'., Deceniber 12, 1901. Sir: I be^ to transmit herewith, in response to your request of a few daj's since, a short report on the climate of the southern Appa- lachian region, bj^ Prof. Alfred J. Henry of this Bureau. Tables of monthl}^ means and extremes of temperature, average rain- fall, and relative humidity accompany the paper. Ver}' respectfully, Willis L. Moore, Chief, United States Weather Bv/reoM. Hon. James Wilson, Secretary of Agriculture, Washington, 1). C. *S. Doc. 84 10 145 THE CLIMATE OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. By Alfred J. Henry, Professor of Meteorology, Vnited States Weather Bureau. The climate of the southern Appalachian region pos- sesses some distinctive features, yet, on the whole, it is rather closely related to the great continental type of the middle latitudes. The pure type of continental climate — cold winters and hot summers — is found immediately to the westward in the Mississippi Valley and the plains region beyond, up to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains. The Atlantic slope has a climate somewhat less severe than that of the interior valleys, being oftener under the in- fluence of warm southerly winds in winter and cooling oceanic winds in summer. Intermediate in geographic position between the two^.ciimatic con- c> o r r ^ ditions vary with great areas just mentioned the southern Appalachian topographic tea- region naturally possesses a climate that partakes some- what of the main features of the climatic zones both to the westward and the eastward. Its distinctive features are lower temperature, both summer and winter, a drier atmosphere, greater rainfall and snowfall, higher wind velocity, and a greater intensity of the direct solar rays. These characteristics are due for the most part to the greater altitude of the Appalachian region as compared with surrounding levels. In a region of such extremely varied topography there must naturally be limited areas in which, owing to some natural advantage of position or exposure, the climatic conditions are materially different from those which obtain over the greater part of the region. Thus, for example, a mountain slope or a valley facing southward would naturalh^ possess a higher tem- perature and an immunitj' from frost not to be found in similar orographic conditions with a northern exposure. 147 148 SOUTHERN" APPALACHIAN REGION. Temperature. 'pjjg temperature of the region as a whole can not well be stated, since it is in general proportional to the altitude and is alwaj' s higher on southern than on northern slopes. Few meteorological observations of any character whatso- ever have been made except in the valleys and lower levels; indeed, with the exception of a few months' obser- vations on the summit of Mount Mitchell, no meteorologi- cal observations are available for the •l:,000-foot level and but two series of observations for the level between 3,000 and 4,000 feet. The monthly means and extremes of temperature, to which reference will again be made, are given for a num- ber of stations in the tables which accompanj- this paper. weather tj'pts! The wind system of the southern Appalachians in spring, fall, and winter is large!}' conditioned by the movement in latitude of cvclonic and anticyclonic storms. In the sum- mer season these distui-bances mo\e across the country so far to the northward that their influence upon the weather of the southern Appalachians is almost inappreciable. The winds of summer will depend very largeh' upon the con- tour of the countrj^ being upward from the valleys along the mountain side during the day and downward at night, with a general westerl}^ drift over the mountain summits. In the more boisterous circulation of spring, late fall, and winter the winds are almost wholly controlled by the atmospheric disturbances passing eastward over the lake region or northeastward from the Gulf of Mexico. The movement of cyclonic storms eastward across the lake region produces a type of weatlier in the southern Appalachians which, for convenience, may be called the southwest type. The chief characteristics of this type are southwesterly winds with rising temperature and increas- ing cloudiness. The velocity of the wind generally in- creases for a day or so, and finally shifts to the west and northwest, with lower temperature, but not much rain. The southwest is the most common type experienced, and is often associated with long periods of fair, dry weather. Next in point of frequency to the southwest t_Ype is what may be called the west gulf tj'pe, from the fact that the weather with which it is associated is produced by storms which approach from the west Gulf States. In this type fresh to brisk southeast to east winds are experienced with generally heavy rain throughout the entire region. As soon as the stoi'm passes the winds shift to a westerly SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN" REGION. 149 quarter, with markedly cooler weather and frequently snow on the higher summits in winter. A third type of weather may be mentioned, viz, a type produced by storms which move from the Gulf of Mexico or the West Indies northeastward along the Atlantic coast. In this type strong northeast to north winds pre- vail. The rainfall, especiallj' in the warm season, is often torrential, and in spring and autumn may continue for several days in succession. In winter such storms are at- tended by heavy snow and followed by verj^ cold weather. In 1873 a party of Signal Service observers spent the c,i^o*'n|''at ugh month.s of May, June, July, and August on the summit of ^'^■^®'^- Mount Mitchell. North Carolina, carefully observing the temperature, rainfall, barometric pressui'e, and other fea- tures of the weather. The highest temperature observed on the summit of the mountain during the four months was 72° in July; the lowest, il^ in June. The monthly mean temperatures for the four months were as follows: May, 49.3°; June, 54.1°; July, 56.4°, and August, 55.3°. The rainfall was very heavy, 36.8 inches being recorded while the observers were on the summit. Rain fell on 21 days in May, 22 in June, 15 in July, and 21 in August. There was a great abundance of foggy and cloudy weather, the fog and clouds being f req uently below the summit. The prevailing winds were from a westerly quarter. A summary of meteorological observations in the south- ern Appalachian region appears in the tables which accom- pany this paper. The highest point at which observations have been made is at Highlands, N. C, elevation 3,817 feet. The mean temperature of summer at that station is 65.7°, of winter, 35.4°. The extremes reached during a period of eight years, 1893-1900, were 19° below zero in February, 1899, and 86° above zero in June, 1895. The temperature has not reached 90° at that station or at Linville, N. C, the next highest station, altitude 3,800 feet, during the period of observations. The precipitation on the southern slopes of the Blue Rainfall. Ridge and connecting spurs is the heaviest in the United States with the exception of the north Pacific coast. It ranges from about 60 inches in northern Georgia to 70 inches in western North Carolina, whence it diminishes northward, falling as low as 40 inches in the southwestern part of Virginia and to almost that figure locally in sev- eral portions of the intermediate region. The rainfall of 150 SOUTHERN- APPALACHIAN REGION. the western slope of the Appalachians in considerably less than on the summits and along the eastern and southern flanks of the mountains, though it generally averages from 40 to 50 inches annually on the lower levels. As previously stated, the rainfall in the southern Ap- palachian region is occasionally torrential in character. The mountain ranges of western North Carolina and northern Georgia are so situated with respect to the rain- bearing winds as to greatly facilitate the rapid condensa- tion of moisture, whether borne by the winds fi'om the Gulf of Mexico or the Atlantic Ocean. The indraft of warm, moist air from these great storehouses of moisture and the subsequent cooling as it is forced up the mountain sides give downpours of rain seldom experienced in the adjacent lowlands. On September 22, 1898, 7.57 inches of rain fell within 24 hours at Linville, 6 inches at Lenoir, 8.30 inches at Paterson, 6.75 inches at Marion, and 5.75 inches at Flat Rock. During August, 1901, the total rainfall for the month at Flat Rock was 30 inches; at Highlands, 30 inches; at Hendersonville, 26 inches; at Horse Cove, 26 inches; at Paterson, 24 inches, and at Marion, 21 inches. The precipitation for the j^ear 1898 in western North Carolina at Highlands was 105.25 inches; at Horse Cove, 99.97 inches; Flat Rock, 78.89 inches, and Linville, 71.05 inches. These heavy downpours naturally cause destructive floods in the streams whose headwaters penetrate the mountain region. The severity of the floods is in a large measure mitigated by the fact that a large proportion of the rainfall is conserved by the forest cover- ing, which abounds on the greater part of the area, and is thus prevented from reaching the streams quickly and in great volume, as would be the case were the mountain sides and the summits bare. It is a mistake to suppose the forests pei' se tend to increase precipitation. The precipitation would be equallj^ heavy, forest or no forest. In the latter case it would run off more quickly and the regimen of the streams would be much more irregular than in the case of a forested area. Not much can be said of the relative humidity of the higher elevations, since no observations have been made. Along the western edge of the Piedmont Plateau the air is considerably drier than on the coastal plain. Tables of monthly mean relative humidity for Atlanta, Ga., Char- lotte and Asheville, N. C, and Chattanooga and Knoxville, SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 151 Tenn., accompany this report, and there have been added, for the sake of comparison, similar data for Savannah, Wilmington, and Raleigh on the east, Montgomery on the south, and Memphis, Nashville, and Cincinnati on the west. The data for Asheville are not directly comparable with those of the remaining stations, since the Asheville observations were made three times daily, viz, at 7 a. m., 2 and 9 p. m., whereas observations at the remaining stations were made but twice daily, viz, at 8 a. m. and 8 p. m. The omission of an observation during the driest part of the day tends to give mean values somewhat above the true figures. Nevertheless, the observations at Ashe- ville confirm the local belief that the relative humidity of the mountain region is less than that of lower levels. Table 1. — Normal monthly mean temperature {in degrees Fahrenheit, ) compiled in the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture, from observations extending over a series of years. stations. Si a s a. 2 o O s a a o o o o 69.1 57.2 48.2 41.2 69.0 56.7 48.4 41.9 69.9 60.9 48.1 39.5 64.9 53.2 45.2 38.9 60.2 51.0 42.2 36.0 69.7 47.3 41.4 34.8 67.7 55.4 45.4 36.0 70.7 60.5 49.9 43.6 69.1 56.9 46.5 39.5 69.3 57.6 46.6 39.9 68.2 55.9 46.2 38.2 66.2 53.8 43.5 34.5 69.0 57.1 46.3 39.3 65.7 63.8 43.7 35.5 Georgia: Clayton Diamond North Carolina: Abshers » Asheville Highlands Linville Tennessee: Bristol Chattanooga . . Greeneville... Knoxville Rogersville . . . Virginia: Bigstone Gap . Lynchburg ... Wytheville ... Feel. 2,100 2,020 2,250 3,817 3,800 1,757 762 1,581 1,004 1,212 1,966 681 2,370 38.0 37,8 33.5 31.0 33.9 41.0 36.6 37.7 35.8 32.7 36. 31.5 39.1 41,4 35.8 39.8 36.6 31.0 33.5 45.5 40.1 42.3 39.3 33.8 40.0 33.2 49. 47.6 47.2 45.7 41.6 40.5 45.3 50.5 46.3 47.6 45.9 45.6 45.2 43.3 56.5 .57.5 53.7 54.8 50.6 46.7 54.1 60.9 57.0 58.2 56.5 53.5 55.9 52.5 66.6 65.2 65.2 62.6 57.5 57.6 64.6 67.7 64.6 66.2 64.3 62.5 66.0 63.2 73.1 72.3 73.2 69.6 64.7 62.4 71.7 75.2 72.2 73.6 71.9 70.1 74.2 69.0 74.4 74.8 74.0' 73.1 76.7 75.9 72.0 70.6 67.1 65.4 66.1 64.9 73.8 72.2 77.8 75.9 74.7 73.3 76.4 74.8 74.4 78.5 72.0 71.2 77.6 75.3 72.0 71.0 ■57.5 57.1 57.1 54.6 50.5 48.6 .56.4 57.2 6.5.8 53.3 56.9 62.9 "Record for 4 years and 6 months only. 152 SOUTKEEN APPALACHIAN EEGION. Table 2. — Highest temperatures observed daring the eight years 1S93 to 1900, at the points named ;°- compiled in the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture. Stations. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May. o o 91 94 91 94 89 93 90 91 81 84 79 83 June, July. Aug. Sept. Oct. o o - 96 96 93 89 98 94 94 86 99 100 98 92 94 95 95 87 85 85 84 77 84 85 82 74 96 94 92 86 101 100 98 91 96 97 96 89 100 100 99 94 93 96 95 88 97 95 96 88 102 100 99 92 97 97 99 86 Nov. Dec. Georgia: Clayton Diamond . . . North Carolina: Abshers'5 Aslieville^" .. Highlands . . Linville Tennessee: Bristol d Chattanooga Greeneville . Knoxville . . Rogersville . Virginia: BigstoneGap Lynchburg. VVytheville.. 88 89 90 93 88 91 90 94 90 89 90 92 95 97 87 91 95 99 96 96 98 92 69 67 72 68 60 59 77 66 79 73 77 68 81 75 74 67 77 68 81 73 80 70 « From 1893 to 1900, inolu.sive, except Chattanooga from 1879 to 1900, Knoxville from 1871 to 1900, and Lynchburg from 1873 to 1900, inclusive. 'Record from April, 1897, to September, 1901, inclusive. = From May, 1898 to 1900, inclusive, record from Biltmore, N. C. ''Record from 1894 to 1900, inclusive. Table .3. — Lowest temperatures observed during the eight years 1893 to 1900, at the points named; '^ compiled in the Weather Bureau, United States Department of Agriculture. [Minus signs indicate temperatures below zero F.] Georgia; Clayton Diamond North Carolina; Alishers*^ Ashevillec .. Highlands .. Linville Tennessee; Bristol • 5 I.. < •-I 3 be < a CO o 8 XI a > o ■3 3 C C < si p. a. P.d. F.ci. P.ct. p.ct. P.d. P.ct. P.ct. P.ct. p.ct. P.ct. p.ct. Per cent. rears. Atlanta, Ga 76.4 73.9 68.6 62.4 65.8 71.1 76.3 77.9 75.2 68.4 73.3 75.6 72.1 9 Charlotte, N. C 72.3 72.4 68.1 62.9 67.1 72.0 75.8 78.2 77.7 69.8 72.0 72.6 71.7 9 Chattanooga, Tenn . 78.2 73.8 69.0 65.6 72.8 75.4 76.6 78.1 78.8 73.1 73.0 75.9 74.2 9 Knoxville, Tenn 76.0 70.9 68.0 62 7 71.4 74.3 77.3 78.9 76.9 72.6 73.3 75.3 73.1 9 Asheville, N.C 63.7 65.4 63.6 59.2 65.6 67.1 72.9 73.0 73.5 66.3 62.5 65.0 66.5 9 Savannah, Ga 77.2 78.3 74.1 74.4 74.3 78.6 81.3 83.4 84.1 78.2 80.6 80.0 78.7 9 Wilmington, N. C... 79.1 80.1 78.7 76.7 78.9 81.8 84.0 84.6 83.2 79.3 80.7 78.6 80.5 9 Raleigh, N.C 74.4 74.3 70.1 66.9 71.9 73.3 77.6 80.4 79.0 73.6 76.1 72.9 74.2 9 Montgomery, Ala... 75.3 74.7 68.8 64.8 66.8 70.1 76.0 78.1 74.0 69.0 72.7 75.6 72.2 9 Memphis, Teuu 75.9 73.2 70.7 66.3 69.8 72.9 75.3 75.3 75.0 70.6 74.0 75.6 72.9 9 Nashville, Tenn 76.6 74.2 68.4 63.7 67.6 70.7 71.9 72.3 74.0 68.7 72.8 74.6 71.3 9 Cincinnati, Ohio.... 76.7 74.0 68.8 61.0 63.6 64.6 64.6 65.3 69.1 68.8 73.1 74.7 68.7 9 ^PPEI^DIX E. THE PRESEITT STATUS OF THE MOVEMEI^T FOR THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE HT THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN'S. MEMORIALS AND RESOLUTIONS FAVORING THE PROPOSED APPALA- CHIAN FOREST RESERVE. Memorial of the Appalachian Mountain Club. Memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association. Resolution of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. Resolution of the American Forestry Association. Resolution of the National Board of Trade. Resolutions passed by other boards of trade. PRELIMINARY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE ON THE FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION, JAN- UARY 1, 1901. REPORT ON THE CREATION OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN FOR- EST RESERVE BY THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON FOREST RESER- VATIONS AND THE PROTECTION OF GAME, FEBRUARY 12, 1901. , RESOLUTIONS AND ACTS BY THE LEGISLATORS OF STATES WHOSE TERRITORY EXTENDS INTO THE REGION OF THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE. Virginia. North Carolina. Tennessee. South Carolina. Georgia. EXTRACTS FROM THE PRESS. 155 THE PRESENT STATUS OF THE MOVEMENT FOR THE PROPOSED FOREST RESERVE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS. The necessit}' for the preservation of the forests in the Southern Appalacliian region in order to prevent the washing away of the moun- tain lands and the destruction of the mountains themselves has for many years been advocated by the geologists worlting in that region. Their position in this has met with the hearty approval of the forestry experts and even the lumbermen who have gone into that region. The growing prominence and recognized suitabilitj' of nuich of this region as a health and pleasure resort has added this element also to the movement for the preservation of these forests and rivers. The increasing violence and destructiveness of the floods during the past few years, and the gen- eral recognition of the fact that the continued clearing of these moun- tain slopes would soon result in the absolute ruin of all the interests of this region and of the adjacent lowlands in the several States — this has combined and strengthened this movement in the countiy at large, and has brought it to its present position before Congress. On November 22, 1899, the Appalachian National Park Association was organized at Asheville, N. C, with a large membership, including citizens from Northern, Southern, and Western States. On January 2, 1900, memorials from this Appalachian National Park Association and the Appalachian Mountain Club of New England were presented to Congress, asking that measures be taken looking to the preservation of the Southern Appalachian forests. In response to these memorials, supported by the unanimously favorable press of the countiy, Congress incorporated in the bill carrying the appropriation for the Depart- ment of Agriculture for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1901, a pro- vision that a " sum not to exceed $5,000 may, in the discretion of the Secretary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the conditions of the Southern Appalachian mountain region of Western North Carolina and adjacent States.-' The United States Geological Survey of the Department of the interior cooperated with the Department of Agriculture in this investi- gation so as to have it include a study of the geology and topography and rivers of the region. In Januaiy, 1901, the Secretarj'^ of Agriculture submitted a short preliminary report" setting forth the result of these investigations up "See pp. 166-168. 157 158 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. to that time. This report was transmitted to Congress by President McKinley in a brief commendatory message on Januarj' 16, 1901. On January 10, 1901, a bill was introduced in the Senate by Mr. Pritchard, of North Carolina, which provided an appropriation of $5,000,000, to be expended under the Secretary of Agriculture in the purchase of not less than 2,000,000 acres of mountain lands in the States of Vii'ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee, Georgia, and Alabama. This bill was favorabl}' reported to the Senate bj^ the Com- mittee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, February 12, 1901.*^ This movement has from its beginning received the active support of both the general and the technical press of the country, and it may be said that this agency has done more than all othei's to awaken the American people to the importance of preserving the remnants of our forests before it is too late, and of educating them to a knowledge of the fact that these forests are for this generation to legitimately use, but not to destroy. The list of papers and periodical publications that have contained articles favoring the proposed Appalachian forest reserve is too long to be enumerated here, but it may not be improper to mention espe- cially two such articles which have recentlj' appeared, viz, one by Prof. W JMcGee, of Washington, D. C, in the World's Work for November, 1901, and another by Prof. N. S. Shaler, in the North American Review for December, 1901. On page 180 will be found brief extracts relative to the proposed forest reserve from a few papers and magazines. The following papers, arranged somewhat in the order of their adoption, are here reproduced so as to make them more accessible to those who may have occasion to refer to them : BIEMORIAI, OF THE APPAIiACHIAN MOUNTAIN CLUB. To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America: The petition of the Appalachian Mountain Club respectfully shows. That your petitioner is an organization of about 1,200 members, com- posed principall}' of residents of Boston, Mass., and New England, with scattering members throughout the Union, organized in January, 1876, and reorganized and chartered as a corporation by the Common- wealth of Massachusetts in April, 1878. That its object is to bring together for cooperation all those inter- ested in the mountains of New England and adjacent regions. * * * To combine the energies of all those who are interested in eflorts not only to preserve the present beauty and attractiveness of our mountain resorts — and in particular their forests — but also to render them more "Seep. 168. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. 159 attractive hv building paths, camps, and other conveniences, construct- ing and publishing accurate maps, and bj- collecting all available infor- mation concerning the mountain regions. * * * In short, the club may be considered the repi'esentative in this part of the country of the interests of all lovers of the mountains, in addition to which it has made such substantial contributions to various departments of geography as to gain recognition as a repre- sentative of general geographical science. It having come to the knowledge of this club that there is now on foot a movement for the establishment of a national forest and moun- tain preserve in the southern Alleghenies, to be known as the National Appalachian Park; and further, that there is now before the Congress a petition from an organization known as the Appalachian National Park Association, "praying for such action as will result in causing to be forthwith made such examination and surveys as may be necessary to determine the best possible location and the proper area for a national park in the southern Appalachian region, to the end that upon the coming in of the report of the forester, or of such reports as the Congress may desire, appropriate steps may be taken to acquire the title to the land to be comprised within the limits of the park; or that the Congress may take such other action as it may deem proper." Your petitioners therefore state that they believe the movement is inaugurated at a most opportune time, being well aware of the increased difScultj' that will attend the securing of suitable land for this pur- pose at a later date, when land values increase and timber and land interests combine against such a movement; that they are deeply inter- ested in this movement, which they believe, if carried out, will result in untold health and recreation for future generations, and heartily concur in the above-mentioned petition; and thej' respectfully praj' that the said petition of the Appalachian National Park Association may receive favorable consideration with the Congress. Albion A. Perry, President. RosEWELL B. Lawrence, Becoi'ding Secretary. John Ritchie, Jr., Corresjjondiny Secretary. MEMORIAL FROM THE APPALACHIAN NATIONAL PARK ASSOCIATION. To the Senate and House of Representatives of the United States of America: The petition of the Appalachian National Park Association respect- fulh" shows: That your petitioner is an organization composed of citizens from many States in the Union, and was formed for the purpose of bringing 160 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. to the attention of the Congress of the United States the desirability of establishing a national park at some place in the southern Appa- lachian region. That the facts which led to the organization of your petitioner, and which are presented as reasons for the establishment of such a national park, are as follows: KARE NATURAL BEAUTY OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. In western North Carolina and eastern Tennessee (or, more definitely, in the heart of the Great Smoky Mountains, the Balsam Mountains, and the Black and Craggy Mountains) is found not only the culmina- tion of the Appalachian system, but the most beautiful as well as the highest mountains east of the lofty western ranges. Forty-three mountains of 6,000 feet and upward in altitude, as well as a great number of inferior height, all clothed with virgin forests and inter- sected bjr deep valleys abounding in brooks, rivers, and waterfalls, combine to make this a i-egion of unsurpassed attractiveness. Standing upon the summit of one of these sublime heights the eye often seeks in vain for the bare mountain side — the evidence of the devastating ax — and before one stretches out a view magnificently beautiful. If the national parks already established have been chosen for their unusual natural beaut}', here is a national park conspicuously fine, awaiting oflicial recognition as an addition to the number. SUPERB FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN SYSTEM. No other portion of our country displays a richness of sylva equal to that found in the high mountains of the Southern Appalachian region in the variety of its hard woods and conifers. Professor Giw, the eminent botanist, is authority for the statement that he encountered a greater number of indigenous trees in a trip of 30 miles through western North Carolina than can be observed in a trip from Turkey to England, through Europe, or from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountain plateau. Here is the home of the rhododendron and the kalmia; here is the meeting place of the mountain fiora of the North and of the South, and the only place where distinctive Southern moun- tain trees may be found side bj- side with those of the North. Here, too, are found trees of from 5 to 7 feet, and even more, in diameter, which tower to a height of 140 feet, and, occasionally, much higher, and these patriarchal trees, though innumerable, are but the greatest in a dense forest composed of manj- other large, beautiful, and valuable varieties. In fine, here is the largest area of virgin forest in the South Atlantic region, and the finest example of mixed forest (by which is meant a forest of deciduous and evergreen trees) in America. SOUTHERN APPAL ACHIAN EEGION. 161 There is but one such forest in America, and neg'lect of the oppor- tunitj' now presented of saving- it may work irretrievable loss. The forest once destroj^ed can not be restored. Reforestation is a slow process; it is for subsequent generations. The experience of the old countries in this matter, stands as a warning-. The increasing scarcity of timber is causing the large areas of forest in this part of our country to be rapidly acquired by those whose one thought will be immediate returns from a system of himbering utterly reckless and ruinous from any other point of view, and in a few years this forest will be a thing of the past. The National Government, and it alone, can prevent this destruction, and, by the application of the methods of scientific forestry, preserve the forest as a heritage and blessing to unborn generations. NECESSITY OF PRESERVING THE HEADWATERS OF MANY RIVERS RISING IN THESE MOUNTAINS. At this late date the calamities of flood and drought resulting- from the wanton destruction of forests are well known. The forest acts as a storehouse of moisture for the dry season, and tends to prevent floods. Many rivers rise in these mountains, and the same causes which will destroy the forests will work irreparable injuiy to the sources of the water supply. It is the duty of the National Government, as the guardian of the national interests, not the least among which are the rivers, to protect their sources and the water supply of the country. HEALTHFULNESS OF THE REGION. It is a well-recognized fact that the jjlateau lying between the Great Smoky Mountains and the Blue Ridge is one of the most deservedly popular health resorts of the world. The geographical location and the geological formation are peculiarly adapted to the production of those conditions which make for health in general. Malaria is unknown. It rivals Arizona as a sanitarium for those sutt'ering from pulmonary troubles. No better place could be found for the establishment of a sanitarium for the soldiers and sailors of our country. CLIMATE IS FINE THE WHOLE YEAR. By reason of its considerable altitude its summer climate is more agreeable than that of regions farther north. Those living in the South, but in regions of less altitude, and in increasing numbers others from the North and West, are learning to appreciate the advantages *S. Doc. 84 11 162 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. of its summer climate. For manj^ years to those wishing to escape the rigors of a Northern winter this plateau has been a place of favorite resort. It has one of the best all-year climates in the world. The existing national parks can only be visited in summer ; snow and ice bar the way at all other times. If a national park were created in this favored mountain region it could be visited and enjoyed at all seasons of the year. LOCATION IS CENTRAL. This part of the Appalachian Range is but twent3r-four hours from New York, Chicago, St. Louis, Toledo, and the Gulf States. It is, therefore, within easy reach of millions of people, and a park there could be in fact, as in name, a national park. EASTERN STATES ARE ENTITLED TO A NATIONAL PARK. There is no national park of the character of the one suggested east of the Yellowstone, which is considerably more than 2,000 miles from the Altantic coast, nor is there even a forest reserve east of western Dakota, which is but a few hundred miles nearer. The Chickamauga battlefield, though called, it is believed, a "national park," possesses none of the characteristics of such a park as is now under consideration, and was created because of the historical interest investing its locality and is of ver}- limited area. PARK WOULD PAT AS A FOREST RESERVE. It is confident]}' asserted that no forest reserve of the country, with possiblj' one exception, would yield a larger return to the Government. The forests are very dense: the timber of valuable species, such as tulip (poplar), oa;k, chesthiit, hemlock, and pine, and of great size. The undergrowth is still to a large extent uninjured \.)y fire, and the forest, when made accessible by Government roads and managed in a scientific manner, would yield an immediate, a constant, and a comparatively large revenue. The Government is now about to institute methods of scientific for- estry. No better place in the United States can be found for the insti- tution on a governmental scale of forestry operations, and because of the fine climate, summer and winter alike, it would be the only forest reserve of the country where such operations could be carried on unin- terruptedly throughout the year. The forests and the climate, both incomparable, ordain this as the place for the commencement of forestry opei'ations, and, perhaps, as the location eventually of a national school of forestry. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 163 THE TITLE TO THE LAND CAN BE EASILY ACQUIRED. A site for the park can easih^ be chosen where the land is held in large areas and where the settlers are few. The land now sells for about $2 an acre, so that a comparatively large park could be secured at what would be greatl}^ less than its value to the nation. SUGGESTIONS REGARDING LOCATION OF PARK. ^ That the foregoing are the considerations which your petitioner deems of the most imperative nature and which it respectfully suggests should have the early attention of the Congress. That your petitioner does not consider that it would be proper for it to suggest in anything more than a general way what should be the area or the boundary lines of a park in the Southern Appalachian region. In the opinion of your petitioner, this is a matter which could well be left to the decision of the forester of the Government. Your petitioner is, however, of the opinion that it would be proper to express its conviction that whatever may be the decision respecting the area or exact location of such a national park, it should contain the highest mountains and the finest scenery in the whole Appalachian system, and this is found in the heart of the Great Smoky and Black mountains; and that the park should also embrace the largest area of virgin forest and the finest example of mixed forest in America, and this is found in the heart of the Balsam Mountains, and all of these are embraced within the limits of the tract hereinafter described. The tract of land will be found to comprise two areas of land, each lying partly in Tennessee and partly in North Carolina, connected by a narrow strip extending along the line dividing those States and embracing land in each of them. In the eastern end of this tract will be found, with others, the following-named mountains: Altitude in feet. Mount Mitchell 6, 711 Balsam Cone 6,671 Deer Mountain 6' 233 Roan Mountain 6, 313 Big Craggy 6, 068 Potato Top 6, 393 Black Brother _ 6, 619 Altitude in feet. Cat Tail Peak 6, 611 Black Dome g^ 502 Mount Gibbs 6* 591 Mount Hallback g^ 043 Hairy Bear e^ 691 Long Eidge 6, 259 In the -svestern part of said tract will be found Mount Guyot (alti- tude 6,636 feet), Clingman's Dome (altitude 6,650 feet). Bald Mountain (altitude 6,220 feet), and many other high mountains, as well as the untouched tract of virgin forest hereinbefore referred to. Your petitioner therefore states that, in its opinion, by far the best land for the Appalachian national park lie.s between parallels 35 and 37 of north latitude, and between the lines 82 and 85 of west longitude, and within the tract described as follows: Beginning at Joanna Bald Mountain, in the State of North Carolina, on the line dividing the county of Graham from Cherokee and Macon 164 SOUTHERN^ APPALACHIAN REGION. counties, and running thence easterly along said line and the line between eastern Graham Count}^ and Swain Countj^ to a point on the Tuckasegee River near Bushnell; thence up the Tuckasegee River to a point 2 miles west of Bryson City; thence due north 4 miles; thence east about 13 miles to the line dividing Swain and Jackson counties; thence south to the Tuckasegee River; thence east to the Plott Balsam Ridge; then along said ridge, crossing the line between Haywood and Jackson counties, to a point 2 miles west of Waynesville; thence north- eastwardly to Pigeon River; thence down Pigeon River to Fines Creek; thence in a northwestwardly direction to French Broad River, at the mouth of Big Laurel Creek; thence due east to the line dividing Madi- son and Yancey counties; thence due south to a point 2 miles north of the Swannanoa River; thence easterly along a line parallel with and 2 miles north of the line of the Southern Railway Company to a point due north of Old Fort; thence due north to North Toe River; thence down North Toe River to the line dividing the State of Tennessee from the State of North Carolina; thence westwardly in the State of Ten- nessee to Big Butte, at the corner of Washington, Green, and Unicoi counties, in Tennessee, and of Madison County, in North Carolina; thence southwestwardlj^ along the line dividing the State of Tennes- see from the State of North Cai'olina to Rocky Ridge; thence south- westwardly in a straight line to the French Broad River, at the mouth of Paint Creek; thence down the French Broad river to the mouth of Rock Creek; thence westwardly to the southeast corner of Jefferson County, Tenn. ; thence southwestwardly to Round Top, at a corner in the east- erly line of Blount County, Tenn. ; thence in a southwestwardly dii-ec- tion to the Tennessee line at the mouth of Abram or Panther Creek; thence south to the line dividing Cherokee and Graham counties, in North Carolina, and thence along said dividing line eastwardly to Joanna Bald Mountain, the place of beginning. Your petitioner therefore praj's that the Congress will take under consideration the matter herein set forth and cause the same to be examined into, and will take such action as will result in causing to be forthwith made such examination and surve3's as maj' be necessary to determine the best possible location and the proper area for a national park in the Southern Appalachian region, to the end that upon the coming in of the report of the forester, or of such other reports as the Congress msLj desire, appropriate steps ma}' be taken to acquire the title to land to be comprised within the limits of such park; or that the Congress will take such other action as it maj' deem proper. And your petitioners will ever praj', etc. Geo. S. Powell, President Appalachian National Parh Association. Dr. C. P. Amblee, Secretary. AsHEViLLE, N. C, December 19., 1899. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 165 RESOLUTIONS. [American Association for the Advancement of Science, June 23, 1900, New Yorli City.] Resolved^ That the American As.sociation for the Advancement of Science, recog-nizing the importance of the preservation in its original condition of some portion of the hard-wood forests of the Southern Appalachian region, respectful! j' petitions Congress to provide for the establishment in that region of a national forest reserve. [American Forestry Association, December 13, 1900, Washington, D. C] ResoJmed, That the action of Congress in making an appropriation to investigate the forest conditions of the Southern Appalachian Mountains meets with our cordial approval, and that we recommend that further steps be taken for the creation by purchase of a national Appalachian park in the high mountain region of the States of North and South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee. [National Board of Trade, January 23, 1901, Washington, D. C] Resolved, That the National Board of Trade respectfully urges upon Congress the establishment of the proposed Minnesota National Park and of the proposed Southern Appalachian Forest Reserve as a just and necessary measure of forest protection to those portions of our countrjr which at present contain no national forest reserves. [Memphis (Tenn.) Board of Trade.] Whereas there is a widespread movement in this counti-y looking to the establishment by the General Government in the high forest- covered mountain portions of Tennessee, North Carolina, Virginia, and South Carolina of a national forest reserve, which will perpet- uate the forest of this region, forever protect the headwaters of many important streams in these States, and serve as a pleasure and health resort at all seasons for a large portion of the laeople of this country; and whereas the proposal that the Government establish such a forest reserve has been approved by the leading scientific societies and for- estry associations of this countr}', and b\' the general press: Resolved, That the Board of Trade of Memphis, Tenn., also heartily approves of the establishment of such a forest reserve, and respect- fully asks the Senators and Kepresentatives at Washington from this State to urge upon Congress the favorable and prompt consideration of this measure. Similar resolutions favoring the establishment of the proposed for- est reserve or park by the Government have been passed by the com- mercial organizations in Richmond, Raleigh, Wilmington. Charleston, Columbia, Savannah, Augu,sta, Atlanta, Mobile, Knoxville, Chatta- nooga, Nashville, Memphis, and in many other of the larger cities of the countrv. 166 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN KEGION. PRELIMINABY REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF AGRICULTURE ON THE FORESTS OF THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. To the Senate and House of Representatives: I transmit herewith, for the information of the Congress, a letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, in which he presents a preliminary report of the investigations upon the forests of the Southern Appala- chian Mountain region. Upon the basis of the facts established by this investigation the Secretary of Agriculture recommends the pur- chase of land for a national forest reserve in western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and adjacent States. I commend to the favorable consideration of the Congress the reasons upon which the recommend- ation rests. William McKinley. Executive Mansion, January 16, 1901. United States Department of Agriculture, Office of the Secretary, Washington, !>■ C, January 3, 1901. The Presideni : The bill making appropriations for the Department of Agriculture for the tiscal year ending June 30, 1901, provides that a "sum not to exceed $5,000 may, in the discretion of the Secretary of Agriculture, be used to investigate the forest conditions in the Southern Appala- chian Mountain region of western North Carolina and adjacent States." In accordance with this provision 1 have made a thorough investiga- tion of the forests in a portion of the Southern Appalachian Mountains, as directed above, including an estimate of the amount and condition of the standing timber, an inquiry as to the suitability of this region for a national park, as proposed by the Appalachian National Park Association, and an examination of the validity of the reasons advanced by its advocates for the crea^^ion of such a park. In this task I have received generous and effective cooperation and assistance, through the United States Geological Survey, from the Department of the Inte- rior, which recognized in this way the deeji and widely diffused public interest in the plan. The forest investigation was made to include a stud}' of the charac- ter and distribution of the species of timber trees, the density and value of forest growth, the extent to which the timber has been cut or damaged by fire, the size and nature of the present holdings, the prices at which these forest lands can now be purchased, and the gene- ral and special conditions that affect the prosecution of conservative forestr}' on a large scale. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 167 The hydrographic survey of the region, conducted by the United States Geological Survey, includes a general study of its topographic features; of the relation of the soils, forest cover, and I'ainfall; of the quantity of water flowing out of it through the various streams during different seasons, and of the influence exerted on the regularity of this flow by forest clearings. More than 750 stream measurements have already been made and much additional data of special value has been secured. In addition to these investigations I have given thorough attention to the arguments advanced by the movers for the proposed park and to those of their opponents, and as a result I am strongly of the opinion that this matter is worthy of careful consideration. I have the honor to transmit herewith a mounted original copy of a large map, which shows in detail the mapping of forests accomplished during the past summer over an area of nearly 8,000 square miles. A full report of the work and its results is now in preparation and will be submitted for your consideration at an earljr date. The following preliminary statement is made to bring before you without dela}' a summarj^ of the facts sufficient to set forth clearly the principal features of the region and the plan. The movement for the purchase and control of a large area of forest land in the East bjr the Government has chiefly contemplated a national park. The idea of a national park is conservation, not use; that of a forest reserve, conservation by use. I have, therefore, to recommend a forest reserve instead of a park. It is fully shown by the investiga- tion that such a reser\'e would be self-supporting from the sale of tim- ber under wisely directed conservative forestry. Extensive areas of hard-wood forests within the region colored on the accompanj'ing map are still in their primitive condition, and these are among the very best and richest hard-wood forests of the United States. The region in general is better adapted for forestry than for agricidtural purposes. It is located about the headwaters of numer- ous streams, such as the Ohio, Tennessee, Savannah, Yadkin, and Roanoke, which are important both for water power and for naviga- tion. The genei-al conditions within the region are exceptionally favorable for the carrying on of large operations in practical forestry, and the weather is suitable for lumbering operations at all seasons of the year. It contains a greater variety of hard-wood trees than any other region of the United States, since the Northern and Southern i species here meet. It is a region of exceptional beauty and pictur- esqneness, and, although it would not be easih' accessible to visitors in all parts at all seasons of the year, by far the greater portion of its area would be easily reached and climatically pleasant throughout the year. 168 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. It contains within the forest-covered areas no large settlements or large mining operations which would interfere with the management of such a forest reserve, and yet there is a sufficient population for the working and protection of the forests. Large lumber companies are rapidly invading the region, and the early destruction of the more valuable timber is imminent. Lands in this region suitable for such a forest reserve are now generally held in large bodies of from 50,000 to 100,000 acres, and they can be purchased at jirices ranging from $2 to |5 per acre. It is probable that the average price would not exceed $3 per acre. In explanation of the widespread and urgent demand for the establishment in this southern Appalachian region of a national park or forest reserve, it may be added that it contains the highest and largest mountain masses, and perhaps the wildest and most picturesque scenery, east of the Mississippi River; that it is a region of perfect healthfulness, already largely used as a health resort both summer and winter, and that it lies within a little more than a day's travel of the larger portion of the population of this country. The rapid consumption of our timber supplies, the extensive destruc- tion of our forests b}' fire, and the resulting increase in the irregularity of the flow of water in important streams have served to develop among the people of this country an interest in forest problems which is one of the marked features of the close of the centurj^ In response to this growing interest the Government has set aside in the Western forest reserves an area of more than 70,000 square miles. There is not a single forest reserve in the East. 1 have the honor to be, very respectfully, James Wilson, Secretary. REPORT OF THE SENATE COMMITTEE ON FOREST RESERVATIONS AND THE PROTECTION OF GAME. [Fifty-sixth Congress, second session. Senate Calendar No. 2227. Report No. 2221.] FOREST RESERVE IN THE SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN MOUNTAIN REGION. [February 12. 1901.— Report by Mr. Beveridge, from the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, to accompany S. 5518.] A majority of the Committee on Forest Reservations and the Pro- tection of Game, having had under consideration the bill (S. 5518) to provide for the establishment of a national forest reserve in the South- ern Appalachian Mountain region, reports the bill with the recommen- dation that it do pass and submits the following report: An investigation of the forests of this region, authorized by Con- gress at its last session, has been conducted during the past year by the Department of Agriculture, with the cooperation of the United SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 169 States Geological Survey. A preliminary report from the Secretary of Agriculture, transmitted to Congress with a brief commendatory message bj^ the President, is herewith included. It is preceded by a letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, which declares his full approval of this bill. The plan to purchase a foi'est reserve or park in the Southern Appalachian Mountains has been favorably considered and is advocated by the National Board of Trade, by the American Association for the Advancement of Science, by the American Forestry Association, and b}' numerous similar organizations throughout the United States. Resolutions from the bodies named are presented in the appendix as showing that the movement for the establishment of this forest reserve is based not upon local or selfish interests, but upon the widespread, intelligent national appi'eciation of the impor- tance of prompt and favorable action by Congress. That such a forest reserve should be established in the hard-wood regions of the East is the general conviction of men of science, experts in forestry, intelligent lumbermen, and of men connected with the great business interests of the countr}'; and this view tinds frequent and emphatic expression in the technical and general press. Reckless cutting and the forest fires which follow are now destroying these hard-wood forests at a rate and to an extent which is already having serious results over wide areas. In addition to its probable effect on climate, it is causing irregularities in the flow of the streams, which are destrojang their value for water power and navigation during the dry seasons, and during the rainy seasons are washing away the soils on the steeper hillsides and mountain slopes, filling up the stream beds with sediment, and destroying the agricultural value of the lowlands along the streams. Both the diminishing flow of water during the dry season and the deposit of sediment in the stream beds and harbors during periods of flood are becoming yearly more dangerous to navi- gation and are leading directly to increased annual appropriations for rivei's and harbors. The establishment of the proposed national forest reserve will tend to remedy these serious and growing evils, will protect the sources of man}' important streams, and, under the management of trained forest experts, will serve as a demonstration of the method of perpetuating forests and yet making them pay. Such an example will lead both States and individuals to encourage and practice forest management and restoration on all lands which are better suited to forest growth than for agricultural purposes. The pioposed national reserve for the protection and use of hard- wood forests should be located in the Southern Appalachian Mountains for several reasons. That region contains the greatest variety of hard woods to be found anywhere on this continent, because the northern and southern forest 170 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. flora intermingle there. A list of the trees native to the region of the proposed reserve is given hereafter. We find there the largest remaining bodies of these forests in their virgin condition, the largest and highest mountains east of Colorado, and the largest mountain masses covered with hard-wood forests in the United States. The slopes of these mountains contain the sources of the Tennessee, the Savannah, the Broad, the Catawba, and other rivers, and important tributaries of the Ohio. This fact is doubty significant because this region has none of the extensive glacial gravel deposits which serve in the more northern States as storage reservoirs for water, and so aid the forests to maintain uniformity of flow in the streams. Hence this measure stands on a basis of its own, and need not be regarded as cre- ating a precedent for similar action in other cases. This should be a national forest reserve, for the reason that the problems and dangers which it is intended to meet are national. It is true that a few States are now establishing State forest reserves, and it is believed that the measure now proposed will encourage such a movement on the part of other States. In New York large expendi- tures are being made to purchase reserve forest lands Ij'ing entirely within that State, about the headwaters of important streams which also lie within the limits of the State. But the great mountain masses of this proposed national forest reserve lie in several States, and the streams which rise among them flow thi'ough and are of importance to more than as many others. The combined annual income of the sev- eral States grouped about this region is but little greater than the appropriation carried by this bill. It may be urged against this measure that it is a new departure for the Government. But the Western forest reserves have been set aside out of the public domain which was purchased bj' the Government at a time when the nation was composed largelj^ of the Eastern States. Out of the lands so purchased nearh^ 50,000.000 of acres of forest-covered lands have been set aside as national forest reserves and parks for the purpose of perpetuating a timber supply in the Western States and Territories and for preserving forever the sources of their more impor- tant streams. Furthermore, the Govei-nment has recentlj' been pur- chasing lands in the East for militaiy parks and reservations and for other purposes. Hence it ma}^ be asserted in all fairness that what is now proposed is new neither in principle nor practice. In view of the importance of the measure now proposed in behalf of the hard-wood forests of the countrj^, and considering the fact that there are no pub- lic lands covered with hard-wood forests, and that neitner individuals nor the States adjacent to this region can reasonablj' oe expected to establish such foi'est reserves as are absolutel}^ essential, it is evidently the duty of the General Government to take the present step. It will be asked how far the management and care of such a forest reserve will prove an annual expense to the Government. Attention SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 171 is called, in reply, to the accompanying letter from the Secretary of Agriculture, in which he sa3's: "I am entirely confident that verj^ soon after its creation the proposed reserve would, under conservative forestry, be self-supporting fi'om the sale of timber." Further, it may be said that many European forests, under government supervi- sion, 3'ield a net annual income from the sale of timber and otlier products of from $1 to $2 per acre or more. While no such income is expected to result from the proposed reserve. in the immediate future, yet it is confidently expected that in the course of a few years this reserve will be self-supporting; and that subsequently, as the hard- wood forests of other regions ai'e cut awaj' and the country more thickh' settled, the sale of timber and other products from this reserve will 3'ield a considerable net profit. Other important questions connected with this measure which have been considered by the committee are fulh^ answered in the statement which follows from the Secretary of Agriculture. The memorial of the Appalachian National Park Association and other documents are added. The legislatures of the several States within which the proposed forest reserve ma3' be located, with a single exception, have already conferred upon Congress the necessarj- authoritj' to acquire lands within their boundaries. In the case of the exception a resolution which indorses the plan has passed both houses of the legislature, and further action maj' confidentl}' be expected in due time. This is a measure which has every consideration in its favor; and, in view of its importance and the beneficent results which will cer- tainly' flow from its adoption, it should commend itself to the wisdom of Congress, as it must appeal to the patriotism of every citizen. APPENDIX. February 9, 1901. My Dear Senator: I am in receipt of your letter of tliis date, in which you ask for an expression of my opinion regarding Senate bill 5518, which provides for the purchase of a forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian Mountains. After a thor- ough investigation of the forest conditions of this region, 1 am heartily in favor of the creation of the proposed reserve and of Mr. Pritchard's bill. The region in which it is proposed to locate this reserve contains the finest hard-wood forests yet remaining in the United States; it is admirably adapted to the purpose.s of a public resort for health and recreation; the land may be purchased at a reasonable price; the preser- vation of the forest is essential not only to the well-being of the region itself, but to that of great rivers which flow from it and to the interests they subserve; and I am entirely confident that very soon after its creation the proposed reserve would, under conservative forestry, be self-supporting from the sale of timber. Very respectfully, James Wilson, Secretary. Hon. Albert J. Beveridge, United States Senate. You will find a more detailed statement of my position in my letter to the President, transmitted by him to the Congress January 16. (See p. 166. ) 172 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN EEGION. LEGISLATIVE RESOLUTIONS AND ACTS IN THE SEVERAL STATES WHOSE TERRITORY EXTENDS INTO THE REGION OF THE PRO- POSED FOREST RESERVE. VIRGINIA. AN ACT to give consent by the State of Virginia to acquisition bj' the United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest reserve in the said State. [Approved Febnmry 15, 1901.] Whei"ea.s it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the high mountain regions of Virginia and adjacent States a national forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests forever and pre- serve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and Whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress pro viding for the purchase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore, Be it enacted by the c/eneral assemhly of Virginia, That the consent of the State of Virginia be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition bj^ the United States, by purchase or gift, or by condemnation according to law, of such lands in Virginia as in the opinion of the Federal Gov- ernment may be needed for the establishment of such a national forest reserve in that region: Provided^ That the State shall retain a concur- rent jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue under the authoritA' of the State against any person charged with the commission of anj' crime without or within said jurisdiction, may be executed thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed. And provided. That in all condemnation proceedings the rights of the Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth by the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition, as hereinbefore provided, for incorporation in .said national forest reserve such fore.st-covered lands lying in Virginia as in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for this purpose. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws and to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment for violation thereof, as in its judgment may be necessary for the management, control, and protection of such lands as luay be from time to time acquired by the United States under the provisions of this act. 4. This act shall be in force from its passage. [For resolution of March 21, 1903, see p. 190.] SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 173 NORTH CAROLINA. A RESOLUTION favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region. Resolved hy the house of representatmes^ the senate concurrwig : The general assembly of North Carolina hereby expresses its approval of the movement looking- to the establishment by the Federal Govern- ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appa- lachian Mountain reoion as a wise and beneficent measure, such as manj^ other nations have already' adopted, and which this country should adopt before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its forests and the protection of the sources of important streams; and Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry associations of this country, and by the general press; and Whereas this general assembly has passed an act granting its consent to the acquisition of lands in western North Carolina by the Federal Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, believing the reserve to be one of great importance to the people of this State; and Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for the purchase of lands for this purpose: Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from this State are herebj' requested to ui'ge iipon Congress the importance of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure. In the general assembly, read three times, and ratified this the 18th day of January, A. D. 1901. W. D. Turner, President of Seriate. Walter E. Moore, Speaker of the House of Representatives. AN ACT to give consent by the State of North Carolina to the acquisition by the United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest reserve in said State. Whereas it is proposed that the Fedei-al Government purchase lands in the high mountain regions of western North Carolina and adjacent States for the purpose of establishing there a national forest reserve which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the head- waters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress providing for the pur- chase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore, the general assembly of North Carolina do enact: Sec. 1. That the consent of the general assembly of North Carolina be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by pur- 174 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. chase or by condemnation, with adequate compensation except as he -e- inafter provided, of such lands in western North Carolina as in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establish- ment of such a national forest reserve in that region : Provided^ That the State of North Carolina shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far that ci\41 process in all cases and such criminal process as may issue under the authoritj- of the State of North Carolina against any person charged with the com- mission of anv crime without or within said jurisdiction may be exe- cuted thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed. Sec. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessarjr to the acquisition as hereinafter pro- vided for incorporation in said national forest reserve such forest- covered lands lying in western North Carolina as in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for this puipose: Provided^ That as much as 200 acres of any tract of land occupied as a home by bona fide residents in this State at the date of the ratificatioii of this act shall be exempt from the provisions of this section. Sec. 3. Power is hereb}" conferred upon Congress to pass such laws and to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment therefor, as in its judgment may be deemed necessary for the management, con- trol, and protection of such lands as may be from time to time acquired bj' the United States under the provisions of this act. Sec. i. This act shall be in force from and after its ratification. In the general assembly, read three times, and ratified this the 18th day of Januarv, A. D. 1901. W. D. Turner, President of the Senate. Walter E. Moore, Speaker of the House of Repi^esentatives. TENNESSEE. A RESOLUTION' favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian Jlountain region. Resolved hy the house of representatives., the senate concurring: The general assembl}' of Tennessee hereby expresses its approval of the movement looking to the establishment b_y the Federal Govern- ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appa- lachian Mountain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as many other nations have alreadj^ adopted, and which this countrj^ has already adopted in the West and should adopt in the East before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its forests and the protection of the sources of important streams; and SOUTHERN APPAL ACHIAJSr REGION. 175 Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved and urged by the leading scientitic societies and forestry associations of this country and by the general press; and Whereas this general assembly has before it a bill granting the State's consent to the acquisition of lands in eastern Tennessee by the Federal Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, believ- ing the reserve to be one of great importance to the people of this State; and Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for the purchase of lands for this pui'pose: Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure. Adopted February 1, 1901. E. B. Wilson, SjMaker of House of Representatives. Newton H. White, Speaker of Senate. AN ACT to give consent by the State of Tennessee to the acquisition by the United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest reserve in the said State. Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the high mountain regions of eastern Tennessee and adjacent States a national forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State. And whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress providing for the purchase of such lands for said purpose: Therefore, Be it enacted hy the General Assembly of the State of Tennessee, Section 1. That the consent of the State of Tennessee be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase, gift, or condemnation according to law, of such land in this State as in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establish- ment of such a national forest reserve in that region: Provided, That the State shall retain the concurrent jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue under the authority of the State against any person charged with the commission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction, maj^ be executed thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed: Provided further , That this act shall apply to lands in Tennessee lying within 20 miles of the North Carolina State line; that all con- demnation proceedings herein provided shall be limited to lands now 176 SOUTHEEN APPALACHIAN REGION. foxiest covered, and that in all such condemnation proceedings the right of the Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth in this act and in the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves. Sec. 2. Be it further enacted. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition, as hereinbefore provided, for incorporation in said national forest reserve such forest-covered lands lying in the State as in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for this purpose. Sec. 3. Be it further enacted^ That power is herebj' conferred upon Congress to pass such laws and to make or provide for the making of such rules and regulations of both civil and criminal nature, and pro- vide punishment for violation thereof, as in its judgment maj' be necessary for the management, control, and protection of such lands as nia}^ be from time to time acquired by the United States under the provisions of this act. Sec. 4. Be it further enacted. That this act take effect f ron.i and after its passage, the public welfare requiring it. Passed April 16, 1901. E. B. Wilson, Speaker of the HoufiC of Representatives. Newton H. White, Speaker of tlie Senate. Approved April 23, 1901. Benton McMillan, Governor. SOUTH CAROLINA. A RESOLUTION favoring the establishment of a national forest reserve in the Southern Appalachian Mountain region. Resolved hy the House of Representatives, the Senate concurring: The general assembly of South Carolina hereby expresses its approval of the movement looking to the establishment by the Federal Govern- ment of an extensive national forest reserve in the Southern Appala- chian Mountain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as many other nations have alread}' adopted, and which this country should adopt before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its forests and the protection of the sources of important streams; and whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry associations of this country, and by the general press; and whereas this general a.ssembly has passed an act granting its consent to the acquisition of lands in northern South Carolina by the Federal Government for SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN BEGION. 177 incorporation in such a forest reserve, believing the measure to be one of great importance to the people of this State; and whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for the p>irchase of lands for this purpose: Sesolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress fi'om this State are herebj^ requested to urge upon Congress the importance of prompt and favoi'able action in behalf of this measure. Ratified. AN" ACT to give consent by the State of South Carolina to the acquisition by the United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national forest reserve in said State. Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the high, mountain region of South Carolina and adjacent States a national forest reserve which will perpetuate these forests and forever pre- serve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress pro- viding for the purchase of said lands for such purpose: Therefore, Be it enacted hythe ge)ieral assembly of the State of South Carolina: Section 1. That the consent of the State of South Carolina be, and is hereb}', given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase, gift, or condemnation according to law, of such lands in this State as in the opinion of the Federal Government may be needed for the establishment of such national forest reserve in that region : Provided, That the State shall retain a concurrent jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue under the authority of the State against any person charged with the commission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction, may be executed thereon in like manner as if this act had not been passed. Sec. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinbefore pro- vided, for incorporation in said national forest reserve, of such forest-covered land lying in the State as in the opinion of the Federal Government maj' be needed for this purpose. Sec. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws and to make, and provide for the making, of such rules and regu- lations, of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment for violation thereof, as in its judgment may be necessary for the man- agement, control, and protection of such lands as ma}' be from time to time acciuired by the United States under the provisions of this act. Sec. i. That this act shall be in force from and after its ratification. *S. Doc. 84 12 178 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. GEORGIA. A RESOLUTION' concerning the ceding of the jurisdiction over certain lands in the State of Georgia to the United States of America for the purpose of establishing a national forest reserve or park. Whereas there is a widespread movement in this country asking that the Federal Government purchase from the present owners certain forest-covered lands lying within the high mountain regions of the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, about the headwaters of the larger streams flowing through these and adjacent States, for the purpose of establishing in this region a national forest reserve, which will forever protect the sources of the rivers that furnish our water powers and navigation facilities, which will demon- strate to the people of the country how such forest-covered areas can be managed and perpetuated to the best advantage, and which will become a great national resort within easy reach, at all seasons, of much of the larger portion of the population of this country; and whereas this general assembly desires to place on record its interest in, and encouragement of, a movement which promises such great and lasting benefits to the people of Georgia and the neighboring States: Be it resolved hy the general assembly of the State of Georgia, That this general assembly' hereby expresses its willingness to cede to the United States of America the jurisdiction of the State of Georgia in and over such of the forest-covered mountain lands in this State as may be needed for the purpose of establishing such national forest reserve or national park, when the land areas of such tract or tracts have been designated, and a plat or plats of the same deposited with the secretary of state in Atlanta: Provided, That the State shall retain concurrent jurisdiction with the United States in and over said tract or tracts so far that all civil and criminal processes issued under the authority of the State may be executed thereon in like manner as if this act were not in force: And 2)rovided further. That said cession of jurisdiction shall not take effect until the United States shall have acquired title to said tract or tracts. The general assembly respectfully asks the favorable consideration of this measure by Congress. Clark Howell, President of the Senate. Chas. S. Northen, Secretary of the Senate. John D. Little, Speaker of the House of Representatives. Jno. T. Boifeuillet, Clerk of tJte House of Representatives. Approved December 18, 1900. A. D. Candler, Governor. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 179 AN ACT to give consent by the State of Georgia to the acquisition by the United States of such lands as may be needed for the establishment of a national fores reserve in said State. Whereas it is proposed that the Federal Government establish in the high mountain regions Of Georgia and adjacent States a national forest reserve, which will perpetuate these forests and forever preserve the headwaters of many important streams, and which will thus prove of great and permanent benefit to the people of this State; and whereas a bill has been introduced in the Federal Congress providing for the pui-chase of such lands for said purpose, the general assemblj' of Georgia do enact: Section 1. That the consent of the State of Georgia be, and is hereby, given to the acquisition by the United States, by purchase or gift, or bj' condemnation according to the law, of such lands in the mountain region of Georgia as in the opinion of the Federal Govern ment may be needed for the establishment of such a national forest reserve in that region: Provided^ That the State shall retain a con- current jurisdiction with the United States in and over such lands so far that civil process in all cases, and such criminal process as may issue under the authority of the State against an}^ person charged with the commission of any crime without or within said jurisdiction, may be executed in like manner as if this act had not been passed: And provided^ That in all condemnation proceedings the rights of the Federal Government shall be limited to the specific objects set forth by the laws of the United States in regard to forest reserves. Sec. 2. That power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws as it may deem necessary to the acquisition as hereinbefore pro- vided, for incorporation in said national forest reserve, of such moun- tain lands lying in Georgia as in the opinion of the Federal Govern- ment ma}^ be needed for this purpose. Sec. 3. Power is hereby conferred upon Congress to pass such laws and to make, or provide for the making, of such rules and regulations, of both civil and criminal nature, and provide punishment therefor, as in its judgment may be necessary for the management, control, and protection of such land as may be from time to time acquired by the United States under the provisions of this act. This act shall be in force from its passage. Passed December 13, 1901. 180 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN EEGION. EXTRACTS FROM THE PRESS. The few extracts from the press given below will serve as an illus- tration of the extent to which the proposal that the Government estab- lish a forest reserve or park in the southern Appalachian region has met with public approval: [New York (N. Y.) Tribune.l If no steps by the Government of the United States are taken, the entire tree system of these States will be obliterated, leaving the peaks and valleys of six great States of the Union divested of timber and foliage. [Hartford (Conn.) Courant.] The Appalachian Park ought in a dozen j^ears from now to be one of the chief attractions of the United States. The decisions in its favor would be unanimous if the matter was left to those who knew the coun- try and its possibilities. [Boston (Mass.) Transcript.] We hope the plan will fructify, for it would give us benefit and bring us credit as a people. * * * It is most sincerely to be hoped that this admirable scheme will be quickly and cordially taken up by Congress and carried to success. It is a case of now or never. [Buffalo (N. Y.) Commercial.] The United States Government has gone into the forestrj' business on an extensive scale, and it is believed that the future returns will more than justify the liberal policy adopted in this respect. [New Y'ork (N. Y.) Times.] The receipts from the French national forests altogether were about twice their expenses in the last year for which the returns are accessible. The urgency in this case is greater than it was in the case of the Yellowstone Park, when it was laid out. Certainly no American citizen now grudges the expense of that public possession. [Baltimore (Md.) Sun.] Among the manj^ measures that have come before Congress none merits more thoughtful consideration or commends itself more impress- ively to the consideration and approval of the two Houses. [Providence (R. I.) Journal.] As a mere measure of protection to the material intei'ests which may be affected bv the cutting of the timber and the drying up of streams. Congress ought to do something about this as a Fedei'al question. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 181 [Logiinsport (Ind.) Reporter.] The General Government ought to step in before it is too late. * * * If the timber is all stripped from these hills the streams will dry up and the ultimate loss will be serious and widespread. [Springlield (111.) Journal.] It is certainly true that there have been few park projects that have had more to recommend them. [Cleveland (Ohio) Leader.] It is claimed with reason that such a park would not only be more accessible to the great majority of the American people than the Yellowstone Park ever can be, but it would also be available as a place of resort all through the year. * * * It is true, further, that the proposed Appalachian Park would contain far better speci- mens of typical American forest life than any which can be found in the Yellowstone Park. That is an important item to be taken into account. [Providence (R. I.) Journal.] There is but one such forest in America, and neglect of the opportu- nity now presented of saving it may work irretrievable loss. The forests once destroyed can not be replaced. [New York Lumber Trade Journal.] The Journal is heartily in favor of such a park and hopes that Con- gress will give it favorable attention. [Louisville (Ky.) Courier-Journal.] I can not believe that the next Congress will fail to allow an appro- priation to carry forward this great work. The Government has already set aside in Western reserves an area of more than 70,000 square miles, while there is not a single Government foi'est reserve in the East. [Forest and Stream.] The Appalachian Forest Eeserve measure must go over to another Congress. We believe, however, that this is simply a postponement, not a defeat, of the scheme. The reserve, there is abundant confi- dence for believing, will ultimately be established. [Forester, Washington, D. C] It is safe to say that onlj^ the great pressure of other business pre- vented the House from voting in its favor this j^ear. Some ground will have to be gone over again, but it needs no prophet to see that, though its friends failed of success this year, this reserve will in time • be established. 182 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. [Farmer Advocate, Topeka, Kans.] Everyone interested in having this beautiful region preserved from wanton destruction by fire and timber thieves should write at once to their Congressmen to vote for the passage of the bill establishing the park. [The Medical Dial, Minneapolis, Minn.] The therapeutical uses of such a national park are exceedingly great. The salubrity of the climate in this .section of the country, amid the everlasting hills and the giant trees, has no parallel in the world. [St. Louis (Mo.) Star.] It is to be hoped Congress will act favorabty upon the petition. Such a park would be a proper twin for the Yellowstone. [Davenport (Iowa) Democrat.] There are very many reasons for it — none worth counting on the other side. [American Field, New York City.] The American Field urges ever}^ public-spirited citizen of this coun- try to " put his shoulder to the wheel" and to work upon his repre- sentatives in both halls of Congress to obtain during the next session of Congress decisive action toward the creation of the Appalachian and Minnesota national parks. [Harrisburg (Pa.) Telegraph.] This country is gradually waking up to the destruction of its timber, and the Secretary of Agriculture does wisely when he advocates forest preservation and forest reservation. [Pittsburg (Pa.) Commercial-Gazette.] Such a forest reservation ought to prove a good investment of national money. [Brooklyn (N. Y.) Citizen.] Measures to stop the destruction of mountain forests which protect the water sources in the Appalachians and elsewhere will need to be taken some day, and they ought to begin now when the Government is in pecuniary condition to make the cost of condemnation and care a trifling matter. [New York Herald, January 12, 1900.] The efforts of the Appalachian Park Association are to be com- mended. Its promoters are moved only for the public good, and should this movement finally succeed, the thanks of the entire com- munity will be due to them for their earnest efforts. SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN BEGION". 183 [Albany (N. Y.) Argus, January 7, 1900.] It is sincerely hoped Congress will immediately take up the matter and establish the park. [The Tradesmen, Chattanooga, Tenn.] The movement to establish a national park in the Southern Appa- lachian Mountains deserves a general and heartj' support. [Knoxville (Tenn.) Times.] If the Government wants to make an appropriation to encourage both the aesthetic and the useful, it could not easily do a better thing than to establish this Appalachian National Park. [New Orleans (La. ) Picayune.] The Appalachian region is accessible to a greater number of the citizens of the United States than an3^ other section where there is any likelihood of a national park reserve being established. [Parkersburg (W. Va.) Sentinel.] That such a forest reserve should be established in the hardwood regions of the East is the opinion of men of science, experts in forestry, intelligent lumbermen and men connected with the business interests of the country. [Lynchburg (Va.) Advance.] The merits of this scheme should commend it to the judgment of Congress and insure the speedy passage of the bill. [Montgomery (Ala ) Advertiser.] The Appalachian Park will offer manj^ substantial advantages which the Yellowstone lacks, and we hope the matter will not be allowed to rest until all steps are taken and all the laws passed necessary to carry the project to a successful termination. [Hartford (Conn.) Courant.] No part of the United States offers more attractions to the sight-seer. It is ideally fitted for a park and the Government will miss a great opportunity if it fails to avail itself of the present conditions and to secure the lands which can still be had for reasonable prices. [Toledo (Ohio) Journal.] This part of the Blue Ridge is recognized as the most salubrious, combining a dry and equal climate, attracting thousands of people from the North during the winter months, and drawing large numbers from the South during the warm season. It enjoys the best properties of a winter park and a summer resort. The climate is healthy, equa- ble, balmy, yet exhilarating. , 184 SOUTHEKN APPALACHIAN EEGION. [Indianapolis (Ind.) News.] The preservation of forests is a subject to which too little attention has been paid in the past and to which should be given u:uch thought. Already the country is experiencing the bad effects of indifference. [Tallahassee (Fla.) Tallahassian.] The wildest and most naturally beautiful part of this countr}' east of the Rocky Mountains is that region where North Carolina, Tennes- see, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia approach each other. [Chicago Times-Herald, December 24, 1899.] The Blue Ridge has a climate that is delightful at anj' season of the year, and as it is only twenty-four hours travel from Chicago, New York, or New Orleans, the mass of the population in the east, even those in moderate circumstances, could readih^ avail themselves of the advan- tages it offers as a health and pleasure resort. [Cincinnati Volks Freund, February 1, 1900.] We wish the undertaking complete success. [Newport (R. I.) News.] The central location of the proposed park is undoubtedly a strong point in its favor. It is within easy reach of most of the great cities of the middle Western States and the Eastern and Southern States. Apart f rooi these natural reasons, the Eastern States are entitled to a • national park. [St. Louis (Mo.) Globe-Democrat.] There is every reason why the movement for the establishment of the Appalachian Park in North Carolina should succeed. [The Hartford Courant.] The wildest and mo.st natural!}' beautiful part of this country east of the Rocky Mountains is that region where North Carolina, Tennes- see, Virginia, South Carolina, and Georgia approach each other. It is a movmtain country with an average elevation of 4.000 feet and peaks running up to thousands of feet higher. The tallest mountain east of the Rockies is in North Carolina. This wild region abounds in timber, and is still a natural and unbroken wilderness except as the lumbermen invade its quiet. They have come. Already traffic in forest land is on and the railroads of the vicinity are loaded with lumber for the market. Let the American people sit by with their accustomed optimistic apathy and before long the forests will be gone, the water courses left to dry up, the bears, deer, and other wild animals killed off, and nothing but a fading- memory remain of what now is a great natural park. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 185 The General Government ought to step in, before it is too late, and take possession of the whole region. The Yellowstone Park, far away and to all but a few inaccessible, should be supplemented by this nat- ural reservation, which is easily reached by the great majority of the people of the United States. Take your map and j'ou will iind that from Boston on the east around by Buffalo, Cleveland, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis to New Orleans, Jacksonville, and so on up to Washington every cit}^ on the imaginarj' circuit has railroad facilities bringing it within not more at most than one night's ride of Asheville, the central point in the Blue Ridge and Great Smoky country. Estab- lish a park there and people from every large cit}' this side of the Mississippi would be visiting it in large numbers at all seasons of the year. As an opportunity for conferring on the citizens of the country a means of great enjo}^ment, this chance for Congressional action is unique. But that i-eally would be only an incident of the work. In this elevated land are multitudes of clear, sweet streams delivering water to the Atlantic coast and to the Mississippi River. The divide is in the possible park. If the timber is all stripped from these hills, the streams will drj' up and the ultimate loss will be serious and wide- spread. Leading citizens of North Carolina and other States adjoining- have recenth' held a meeting and formed themselves into the Appala- chian National Park Association to push the project. It ought to go without much pushing. All that is needed is to set people thinking about it. Look at what the Government might do, and at what, on the con- trai'y, will be done if the National Government does not come in and protect nature there. Once done the mischief could never be undone. The loss would not be local, but national. Everybody who fails to see the North Carolina mountains suffers a direct loss, whether he knows it or not. Open the region to the whole country and let these sights be assured and available at all times, and the park would be one of the most popular resorts in the United States. Congress ought to jump at the chance to get possession of the great tract, at least 500,000 acres, said to be purchaseable now at hardly more than nominal figures. The cost of a single battle ship would give us this park available for future generations as well as for our- selves. It is to be hoped the committee will set the work going early and carry it to the success that the American people will wish for it and for themselves. [The Scientific .\raerican.] Within about a day's travel of New York, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Washington, and most of the Atlantic seaboard, and quite as accessible to Pittsburg, Cincinnati, Louisville, Indianapolis, and St. Louis there are vast stretches of virgin forests — along the line of the Great Smoky 186 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. Mountains, on the border between Tennessee and North Carolina — that are thoroughl}' suited to the purposes of a great game and forest preserve. Going up from the lowlands of Walhalla, S. C, to the high plateau surrounding Highlands, N. C, a stage trip of about 30 miles, the late Professor Gray, the eminent botanist of Harvard, tells us that he encountered a greater number of species of indigenous trees than could be observed in a trip from Turkej^^ to England through Europe, or from the Atlantic coast to the Rocky Mountain plateau. The region surrounding that described by Professor Gray, especiallj^ to the west, with the headwaters of the Tennessee, the French Broad, and the Savannah rivers, all within a few miles of each other, with fertile valleys and mountain elevations of 6,000 feet or more, and a density of verdure unapproached elsewhere, is an ideal spot for a pre- serve, where every sort of North American animal or fish would thrive, and where almost every tree or plant found within our borders, from the Atlantic to the Pacific, would grow uncared for. [The New York Sun.] A national forest reserve in the Appalachian belt can be established onh' by the purchase of land, for there is no public domain in that region. The bill now before Congress directs the Secretary of Agri- culture to purchase not more than 2,000,000 acres of forest in the Southern Appalachians and appropriates $5,000,000 for that purpose. The lands must be situated within the States of Virginia, Noi'th and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Tennessee. The purpose of establishing the proposed reserve is to introduce scientific forestry methods, conserve the forests, and at the same time permit lumbering in this large area of hard woods. No one now doubts that it was wise policy to set apart the forest reserves which have been established since 1896 in eleven of our West- ern States and Territories. The idea was at first strongl}'^ opposed on the gi'ound that the withdrawal of so much public land from purchase would retard the development of the States concerned and delaj^ the discovery of new sources of mineral wealth. These misgivings, how- ever, were not justified bj^ our policy with regard to the reserves. The Geological Survey has been engaged since the summer of 1897 in studying the timber, mineral, and agricultural resources of these regions. All of them maj^ be developed as fast as capital and labor seek emploj'ment there. In some of the reserves, as in the Black Hills, for example, large industries have long been established. But these large areas can no longer be stripped of all their timber without a thought of tree replanting. The propagation of timber must here- after go hand in hand with its utilization; and destruction bj^ forest fires that have swept large areas will at least be diminished by proper regulations. SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 187 But in our forest reserves the hard woods that have so prominent a place in our lumber industry and agricultural implement, furniture, and cabinet manufactures are scarcely represented. The cedar, tamarack, canon live oak, and tan-bark oak are the only hard woods of commer- cial importance found .on the reserves. Our walnut, maple, ash, locust, hickory, cherry, and beech timber are as yet dei'ived almost wholh' from the Central States, mainly east of the Mississippi. Tim- ber planting has not kept pace with timber cutting, and the supply is diminishing. Furniture makers already complain of the scai'city of black walnut. The only other source of these hard woods is the Appalachian belt from the southern part of New York to Alabama. Thej grow in larg- est numbers on the slopes of the southern half of these mountain ranges. On the neighboring lowlands spread awa}' the forests of long- leaf, short-leaf, and loblolly pines, which make "the great lumber industry of our South Atlantic States. The hard woods above them have as yet scarcely been touched, but with the diminishing supply of hard woods on the central plain from the Mississippi eastward, lum- bermen are beginning to look to the mountains. The question is whether this large source of suppty shall also be depleted or whether, by the methods of scientific forestry, the timber shall be renewed, so that later generations, as well as ourselves, may have the benefit of it. These forests can be protected only bj' Govern- ment regulation, and if the States do not take steps to conserve these large sources of wealth the question whether the National Government should not acqu.ire the right to do so at a time when it is asserted it may be cheaplj' acquired is certainlj" worth}' of serious consideration. [The New York Times.] One of the most interesting matters now before Congress, and one which should attract general attention, is the proposition for the estab- lishment of the Appalachian forest I'eserve, for which a bill was intro- duced in Congress a few days ago. This proposed measure directs the Secretary of Agriculture to purchase not to exceed 2,000,000 acres. [The Wilmington (Del.) Star.] The efforts of the Appalachian National Park Association are suc- ceeding far beyond the anticipation of the most urgent supporters of this great movement. * * * Prominent and influential men in every part of the country have given their aid, numerous newspapers have advocated the project, and as yet no adverse or unfavorable crit- icism has been heard or written, and it seems practicallj^ certain that with a united movement the park can be secured. * * * 188 SOUTHERN AFPALACHIAN REGION. [Washington Post, January 3, 1900.] The location in western North Carolina of a great national park would be a cause of more pleasure and benefit to more people than any other public institution we can think of at this moment. [Brooklyn Eagle, January 14, 1900.] It ought to go without much pushing. All that is needed is to set the people thinking about it. [Prof. N. S. Shaler, in The Xorth American Review, December, 1901.] It may be charged that the legislation which established these reser- vations is, in its tendencies, socialistic, but the most inveterate enemy of that political theory, if he be open to i-eason, will not be disposed to contend against "such action. He will have to acknowledge that these gifts to the community are very helpful to its best interests, and that they could not have been secured by private or corporate endeavor or even by the action of individual States. They can be obtained by national action alone. * * * Although a national reservation in the southern upland will, per- haps, most commend itself to the people from their interests in the noble forests which it will permanently preserve, there are economic considerations that would of themselves warrant the undertaking. The effect of such a forested area on the streams which have their headwaters in this mountain district would be con.siderable and most advantageous. Properly located, this park would include the tribu- taries of rivers which flow to the Ohio, as well as streams that course to the Atlantic. It is evident that, in the future, these water courses, like all others in settled countries, are to be extensively utilized as sources of electric power. Owing to the form of the country, it will not be possible, as it is in New England, to hold back the stream water in reservoirs for use in the dry season of the year; the only econom- ical method will be to have the water stored in the spongy mat which naturally forms in an unbroken forest, and which to a great extent pre- vents the water courses from becoming beds of torrents in rainy sea- sons and in other times dry channels. In proportion to its area and rainfall, in relation to the whole of the drainage of the rivers flowing from it, such a forest reservation would serve to diminish the floods which, year by year, become more destructive to the tilled grounds and towns along the lower reaches of our great waterways, and more inju- rious to their value for navigation. This evil, already great, is con- stantly becoming a more serious menace, as the steep sides of the mountains are further stripped of tueir woods. * * * SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 189 It is, or should be. an accepted principle that the Government is to provide for public needs when private enterprise, for anj- reason, can not be induced to make adequate provisions. * * * Such truly imperial gifts have greatly enriched a part of this countrj^; it will be well, before the remnants of primeval nature have vanished, that the other parts of our realm should have like share in them. fProf. \V J McGee in the Worlds Work, November, 1901. J The geographer in studying the Appalachian region perceives that in the wooded wilderness nature provides a vast reservoir sj'stem for the storage of storm waters — a system at once so perfect and so eco- nomical that all the 3^ear's rainfall (and light snoM' fall as well) is first appropriated to the uses of plant life, then conserved for a time in the subsoil against drought, and finally carried by subterranean seepage to the lower levels, where only the excess above local plant needs and animal demands is allowed to flow through spring and stream and ri\'er down the long- waj^ to the distant ocean. * * * Now he may turn another leaf to the closing lines of his lesson and read of that delicate interrelation of natural conditions which has resulted thixjughout the Appalachian region in the development of a floral mantle to stay the storms, and thus at once to sustain the flora itself and to estop destructive erosion. These final lines run deep into earth science and into plant science and need not be followed save by the specialist. Yet the ultimate axiom is simple, so simple that he who runs might read, so simple as to make it a marvel that observant men did not grasp it at the beginning of knowledge rather than wait until the end — it is the simple axiom that life prevails over death, that plant power is stronger than rock power. Nor can the geographer in the Appalachian region fail to applj' the axiom. He may call the application theory, ai-gument, policy, cause; he may whisper it in private council, may announce it in scientific conclave, may proclaim it in legislative halls, may send it ringing through the world and up the corridors of future time to benefit all mankind; he raay smother it cravenly in coward breast, or he may sacrifice it to paltry greed, yet if he is honest with his facts and with himself he can not fail to realize that the forests must be preserved, else the mountains will be destroyed. Only a generation ago science plodded wearily along one side of the pathw^a}' of human progress, while statecraft flitted airily along the other side of the straight and narrow path, both led in part by hered- itary' theories. But within the work time of men now living science and statecraft have drawn well into the main pathway of pj-actical humanity, and in this country at least, they have joined hands firmly; to dav science stands in the Federal Cabinet in all the dignitv of an 190 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. executive departmeut, while tlie leading statesmen are grasping that modern -g-eograph}' which seeks to assimilate science. So it is but natural that the mountaineers of the Appalachian region, a virile and farseeing race, and various representatives of jjublic interests have come to read alike the public lesson of conservation, the conservation of forests, in order that the very mountains may be conserved. Naturally, too, the applications of the lesson first came home to the hearts of the mountaineers amid their beloved ranges and rivers. They first noted the gullying of hillsides, with the accompanying- loss of soil and clogging of valley's and polluting of streams, when clearings were pushed too far up the valley sides. They first observed that the carelessly set forest fire produced, although more slowly, efl'ects as disastrous as those of injudicious clearing. They first noticed that reckless lumbering robbed the land not merely of trees but of soil, of welling springs, and of the trout-filled brook, which were converted into muddy, freshet-ridden streams, -running diy in mid- summer. They first realized that the stripping of the chestnut oaks for tan bark was but the first step in a cumulative desolation. They wei'e the first to realize the gradual change of brook and river from crj'stal streams flowing steadily all the season round to dirt}' danger lines mapped out by disastrous wrecks with every storm, onlj^ to lose themselves in mud between storms. Naturally, then, the agitation of a policy began among the mountaineers, and their voices were heard fii'st in local conventions, then in the legislative halls of sevei'al States, and finally before Federal Congress and Cabinet. Such, in brief, is the history of the movement toward an Appalachian forest reserve, a movement which maj^ lag or lunge according to the firmness of the alliance between science and statecraft, but which is manifestly des- tined for ultimate success, to the immeasurable benefit of mankind. RESOLUTION OF THE LEGISLATURE OF VIRGINIA. ResoVoed iy the senate of Yirginia, the house of delegates concurring. That the general assembly of Virginia, herebj' expresses its approval of the movement looking to the establishment bj^ the Federal Govern- ment of an extensive national forest in the Southern Appalachian Moun- tain region as a wise and beneficent measure, such as man}' other nations have already adopted, and which this country has alreadj' adopted in the West and should adopt in the East before it is too late, looking to the conservation of its forests and the protection of the sources of important streams; and Whereas the proposal to establish this forest reserve has been approved and urged by the leading scientific societies and forestry associations of this country' and by both the general and technical press; and SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. 191 Whereas the general assembly of Virginia has alread}^ passed an act granting the State's consent to the acquisition of lands in Virginia by the Federal Government for incorporation in such a forest reserve, believing the reserve to be one of great importance to the people of this State; and Whereas a bill is now before the Federal Congress providing for the purchase of lands for this purpose: Resolved, That the Senators and Representatives in Congress from this State are hereby requested to urge upon Congress the importance of prompt and favorable action in behalf of this measure; and that copies of this resolution be sent to the Senators and Representatives from Virginia. Passed unanimously by the legislature of Virginia, March 21, 1902. 192 SOUTHERN APPALACHIAN REGION. PAETIAL LIST OF PAPERS THAT HAVE MADE FAVORABLE COMMENT ON PROPOSED APPALACHIAN FOREST RESERVE. Boston Herald. Boston Tran.script. Hartford Conrant. New York Times. New York Sun. New York Herald. New Yoik Lumber Trade Journal. New York Mail and Express. Great Round AVorld, New York City. New York Tribune. New York Evening Post. Engineering .lournal, New York City. Ithaca Journal. Albany Times. Albany Argus. Buffalo Commercial. Turf, Field, and Farm, New York City. Jamestown (N. Y.) Journal. Brooklyn Eagle. Brooklyn Citizen. Times Union, Albany, N. Y. Outing, New York. Recreation, New York. Brooklyn (N. Y.) Standard-Union. AVasliington Star. Washington Post. AVashington Times. Forest and Stream. American Gardening. Southern Field. Detroit Free Press. Baltimore Sun. Baltimore Herald. Baltimore American. Philadelphia Call. Harrisburg Telegraph. Philadelphia American. Philadelphia Inquirer. Pittsburg Dispatch. Pittsburg Post. Pittsburg Press. American Field. The Forester. Country Gentleman. Field and Stream. Chattanooga Times. Memphis Herald. Savannah (Ga. ) Press. Parkersburg (W. Va. ) Sentinel. Roanoke (Va. ) World. New Orleans Picayune. Louisville Dispatch. Louisville Courier-Journal. Citizen, Berea, Ky. Birmingham (Ala.) Age-Herald. Montgomery (Ala.) Advertiser. Newport (R. I.) News. Providence (R. I.) Journal. Indianapolis News. Indianapolis Sentinel. Logansport (Iiid.) Reporter. Terre Haute Gazette. St. Louis Globe-Democrat. The Taxpayer (St. Louis, Mo.). Lynchburg (Va. ) Advance. Inland Printer. Engineering News (New York). Nashville American. Asheville Gazette. Atlanta Constitution. Atlanta Journal. Richmond Dispatch. Knoxville Sentinel. Knoxville Times. The Observer (Charlotte, N. C). Raleigh (N. C.) Observer. News and Courier (Charleston, S. C). Journal (Daytona, Fla. ). Tallahassee ( Fla. ) Tallahassian. Standard (Bridgeport, Conn.). Cincinnati Enquirer. Cleveland Leader. Toledo Journal. Chicago Times-Herald. Springfield (111.) Journal. Joliet (111.) News. Chronicle (Chicago, 111.). Tradesman (Chattanooga, Tenn.). American Israelite (Cincinnati, Ohio). Forest Leaves (Philadelphia), Pa.. Il^DEX A. Page. Acts of State Legislatures concerning proposed forest reserve 172 Agricultural Department. (See Department.) settlements not disturbed by proposed reserve 38 Agriculture in Southern Appalachians in general 14, 23, 24, 25, 26 how affected by forests, water flow, etc . . . : 39, 134 in detail, by river basins. . . 70, 71, 73, 74, 76, 78, 79, 81, 82, 84, 86, 87, 89, 90 short-lived 26 Ailanthus, size, distribution, etc 103 Allegheny Mountains 16 Altitude of peaks and mountains 19, 20, 29, 114, 115 effect of, on climate 23, 118, 128 forests 22, 118 Appalachian Mountains, region and valley 16 Appendix A — The Southern Appalachians 41-110 Forests and forest conditions of 45 Forests of, by river basins 69 Lumbering in 61 Shrubs, list of 107 Trees of 93 B — Topography and Geology 111-123 C— Hydrography 123-143 D— Climate 143-155 E — Present Status of movement for forest reserve 155-192 Appropriation by Congress for investigation 13, 157 Arbor vit«, size, distribution, etc 95 Archsean rocks 120 Area of cleared land 45, 69 forest land 45, 69 proposed reserve 38, 113 region examined 45 Ash, size, distribution, etc 101 species of 103, 106 Ashe, W. W. : Forest and Forest Conditions 45 Forests by River Basins 69 Shrubs, list of 107 Trees, descriptive list of 93 Azalea, size, distribution, etc 118 B. Bald Mountains 18, 114 Balm of Gilead, size, distribution, etc 96 *S. Doc. 84 13 193 194 INDEX. Page. Balsam, size, distribution, etc 94 on Roan and other mountains 49 Mountains 51, 115, 121 topography, agriculture, forests, etc 52 Bidge - J 47 Basswood, size, distribution, etc 105 Beech, size, distribution, etc 97 Mountain 49, 115 topography, forests, burns 49 Bell-tree. (See Peawood.) Beveridge, Senator A. J. , report of committee by 168 Big Pigeon River, description of 53, 114, 116 Basin, topography, agriculture, etc 78 forests of 79 Birch, size, distribution, etc 96, 97 Bitternut. ( See Hickory. ) Blackjack. (See Oak.) Black Mountains, description 19, 49, 50, 115 topography, forests, burns 50 Black Walnut, size, distribution, etc 95 Blue Mountains, description 55 Ridge, description 16, 18 elevation and topography 114 forests and topography of 46 watershed 126 Boundaries of proposed reserve 38 suggestions concerning 163 Box Elder, size, distribution, etc 104 Broad River location and description i 114, 116 floods in 1901., 130 gaging stations on 136 water power 141 Basin. ( See Saluda River Masin. ) Buckeye, size, distribution, etc .._ 104 Buckthorn, size, distribution, etc 104 Burns. (See Fires.) Butternut, size, distribution, etc 95 0. Cambrian Age, rocks of the - 119 Caney River, forests of the 51 Carolina Hemlock. (See Hemlock.) Shagbark. ( See Hickory. ) Cascades. (See Waterfalls.) Cataloochee Mountains, timber of 53, 54 Catalpa, size, distribution, etc 106 Catawba River 116 floods in 1901 126,130,135 gaging stations on 136 power on 141 Basin, forests of the 89 toi^ography, etc 88 Cedar ( Red ) , size, distriljution, etc 95 INDEX. 195 Page. Central interior, forests of the 51 ridges, agriculture of the 51, 52 Chattahoochee River, tiow, water power, etc 116, 135, 139, 141 Chattooga Kiver, flow of 116, 135 Cheoah Mountains ■ 115 River, flowof 135 water power on 142 Cherry, size, distribution, etc 102 species of 1 02 Chestnut, on Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 52, 54, 55 size, distribution, etc. 97 Chestnut Oak. (See Oak.) Chinquapin, size, distribution, etc 97 Clearings, effect of, on floods, water powers, etc 26, 28, 30, 131, 133 elevation, slope, etc ' 23, 57 erosion and impoverishment of 57, 58, 122 management of, by Government 59 method of making and cropping 58 number, extent, percentage of ■. 23, 25, 26, 31, 45, 47, 48, 57, 69, 131 reforestation of 58, 59 short-lived usefulness of _ 24, 26, 58 Cliffs, variety, location, description of 120 Climate of middle latitudes ; 147 Southern Appalachians 33, 117, 128 Appendix D 143 effect of altitude on 128 healthfulness of 161 meteorological tables 151, 152, 153 rainfall 33, 128, 129, 149 temperature 33, 148 types of 147,148 wind - 148 Climatic features, special 34, 117, 147 Clingman's Dome 19, 114 Cloudbursts 117 Coastal plain 113 Coffee tree 103 Comments of press on proposed reserve 180 Committee on Forest Reservations and the Protection of Game, report of the. 168 Conasauga River, measurement of 137 Conclusions of Secretary of Agriculture 38, 39 Conglomerate group of rocks, description, distribution, etc 119, 138 Congress, message to, from President McKinley 166 President Roosevelt 3 Fifty -sixth, bill in Senate of 158 appropriation by, for investigations .' 13, 157 Conifers on Great Smoky Mountains. 53 (See also f^priice, Pine, etc.) Contents of this report, table of '. 7 Contributors to this report — President Mclvinley 166 President Roosevelt 3 Secretary of Agriculture 13 Secretarv of Interior 110 196 INDEX. Page. Contributors to this report — Gifford Piiichot 43 Charles D. Wolcott 110 O. W. Price 61 H. B. Ayres 45, 69, 93 W. W. Ashe 45, 69, 93, 107 Arthur Keith Ill H. A. Pressey 123 E. W. Myers 123 Alfred J. Henry 143 Willis L. Moore 145 Control of Southern Appalachians by Government. (See GoiKmrnent mnnar/e- ment. ) Coosa River, course and tiow 19, 135, 137, 139 water power on 142 Coosawattee River, measurement of 137 Cornel, species and description 105 Cost of mountain forest lands 36, 37 Cowee Mountains, forests of 51, 52, 115 Crab Apple, species and description 101 Cragg}' Mountains (see also Black Moimtains) 49, 51 Crops. (See under Agriculture; also names of particular localities.) Cucumber Tree, size, description, etc 100 (See also Yelloic-flowered Cucmnber; Largeleaf Umbrella-tree; Umbrella-tree; Mountain Magnolia. ) Culling of forests in the past - 67 (See also under Forests. ) Cumberland Plateau and Valley 16,18 Currents, river, swiftness and measurements of 117, 135 D. Damages from fires 24 floods .- 32,117,130 lumbering 24, 63, 64 Damascus, forests and railroad at 48 Dan River, gaging station 136 Deforestation (see also under Clearings) 129 Department of Agriculture, Secretary's reports 13, 166 appropriation for investigation by 13 Interior, Secretary's letter 110 cooperation in investigation 14 Descent of rivers ( see also Current.?; Waterfalls) 126 Description of the Southern Appalachian forests 21 by mountain groups -. 46 by river basins 69 Diameter limit in cutting timber 68 Director of Geological Survey, letter accompanying report ' 110 Diseased trees, removal of 67 Disintegration of rocks 121 Doe River 50 Dogwood, size, distribution, etc 105 Drainage of Southern Appalachian region 15, 1 7, 116 basins, waterflow from ( see also River basins) 137 systems of Coosa, Chattahoochee, and Savannah rivers 139 Dukes Creek Falls 19,139 INDEX. 197 E. . Page. East Tennessee Yalley, farms and water power 16, 17, 18 Elevation of Southern Appalachian ilountaina 19, 20, 113, 125 effect on climate 23, 128 forest species 22, 118 Elk Creek, gaging stations 136 Mountains 48 Ellijay River, water power on l-t2 Elm, size, distribution, species, etc 99 Erosion of mountain lands, burned or cleared - - - 27, 59, 1 22 forest covered 32 grass covered 27 valley lands 27, 38 effects of 26,129 extent of, in detail 69 prevention of, by Government control 28, 59 Etowah River, measurement of 137 Evaporation from soil increased by denudation 122 Ewing Mountain 48 Extent of proposed reserve 38, 113 F. Falls. (See Waterfalls.) Farmers, clearing and cultivation by ^ 24, 26, 58, 133 Farms, existing, not to be disturbed 38 (See also CTeann(;.s.) Faulty trees, removal of 67 Federal Government, necessity for action by 34 Felling trees, careless methods in 24, 57, 64, 65, 66, 131, 132 Fertility of soil (see also under Soil) 122, 133 Fires, area recently injured by -' 56 causes of 65 damages from 24, 55, 65 in Europe 56 Eocky Mountains 57 danger from, increased by lumbering 57 effects of, on forests, reproduction, humus 24, 55, 56, 133 soil, floods, water storage 25, 56, 132, 133 surface and pasture - 25, 65, 66 prevention of, under Government forestry 56, 59, 65 First Broad River Basin. (See Saluda River Basin. ) Flathead National Forest Reserve, purchase of Indian lands 36 Flat Top Mountain 55 Floods, caused by excessive rainfall, clearings, etc 28, 122, 129, 133 damages from, in spring of 1901 130 recent 32 erosion of lands by 27 increasing frequency of 131 Flow of streams. (See Stream-flow. ) Forage plants destroyed by fires 25, 133 Forest area, examined 21, 45, 46 extent of - 26, 31, 45 by river basins 69 clearing, method and effects of 23, 24, 28, 31, 45, 47, 57, 69, 122, 131, 133 198 INDEX. Page. Forest conditions, general - — 23 by mountain groups 1-1,23,46 changes in 55 cover, necessity for -' 31, 118 fires. ( See F^res. ) lands, cost of 36 management, ditficulty of 66 by Government 62, 65 maps 21 policy, necessity for changes in 25, 28, 66 protection, a national problem 34, 35, 65 trees, species of 93 Forests, complexity 66 composition 69 culling 67 description by mountain groups 46 river basins 69 destruction by lumbermen 24, 63, 64, 131, 132 for tanbark 132 distribution of 69 effect on erosion 32 floods 30,150 water-power 142 winds 118 general character of 46 of particular localities (see under name of Mountain or River basins) - 46, 69 reproduction of 69 species contained in the 69, 93 variations in the 22 Forest reserve, acts of State legislatures concerning 172 benefits anticipated from 37 boundaries of proposed 38 extent of proposed 38 extracts from press concerning 180 Government purchase of land for a 37 management of proposed 67 memorials and resolutions concerning 13, 158 movement for, present status of 157 profit anticipated from 37, 62, 162 reserves, value as examples 62 Western 13,36 Forestry, conditions favorable for 63 French Broad River 116,126 Basin, topography and soil .■ 76 erosion and agriculture 76, 77 forests, distribution, etc 77 floods ill 1901 130 flow and gaging of 135, 136 water power on 142 Freshets. (See Floods.) Fringe tree, size, distribution, etc 106 INDEX. 199 ^- Page. Gaging stations 135 data obtained at 136 list and location of 136 Geological Survey, report on hydrography 125 topography and geology 113 cooperation of, in investigations 14, 157 methods of, in gaging streams 135 of Appalachian watershed, 1900 135 results of, where published 135 Geologic formation of Southern Appalachians 119 effect of, on surface 119 Geology of Southern Appalachians (Appendix B) Ill Georgia, act consenting to acquisition of land by National Government 179 resolution of legislature favoring Reserve 178 Gillespie Gap 57 Glacial deposits, effect of, in New England 134 Cineiss group, size and composition 119, 120 Gorges 29, 126 Government management of forests, fire protection 56, 65 methods and objects 28, 34, 36, 59, 65, 67 profits from 37, 62 Grades of rivers, effect of 116, 117, 126, 138 Grandfather Mountain, location, height, etc 18, 19, 46, 114, 126 topography, forests, burns, etc 50 Granite 120 Grazing, extent of 70, 74, 77, 78, 79, 81 not improved by burning 25, 66, 133 Great Smoky ^Mountains, cutting, burning, and grazing the forests 54 extent of 18,53,114 topography and forests 46, 53, 121 Gum, Sweet, size, distribution, etc 101 Black, size, distribution, etc 105 Guyot Mountain 19, 51 H. Hackberry, size, species, distriVjution, eti^ 99 Hairy Pignut. (See Hickori/. ) Hardwoods, finest on continent 20, 38, 39 main resource of region 61 cover of Appalachians 45 on Roan and other mountains 49, .53 (See also Birch, Cherry, Oalc, etc., under the individual names.) Haw, Black 106 Hemlock, Carolina 94 on Iron, Roan, and other mountains 48, 49, 52, .54 size, distribution, etc 94 ^yanting on Co wee and Nantahala mountains 52 Henry, Alfred J., report on c'imate of region (Appendix D) 143 Hickories of the Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 52 Hickory, size, species, distribution, etc 95 High water mark on the streams.. 137 Hitchcock, E. A., Secretary of Interior, letter to Secretary of Agriculture 110 200 INDEX. Page. Hiwassee River 115 Basin, topography and soil 82 agriculture and erosion 82 forests, distribution, etc 83 floods of 1901 130 flow and measurement of 137 water power of 142 Holly, species of 103,104' Holston, Mountain Eidge 47 River, flow, measurement, and power 116, 135, 136, 142 Basin (southern tributarj' basins only) topography and soil .. 71 agriculture and erosion 71 forests, composition, etc 72 Hop Hornbeam, size, distribution, etc 97 Humidity of Southern Appalachians (Table 5) 153 at various cities 150 Humus, damaged by fire 24, 25 Hydrography of Southern Appalachians (Appendix C) 125 I. Illustrations, list of 9 Interior Department. (See Sea'etary of Interior; Deparlmenl of the Tnterior; Geological Survey.) Interior mountain ridges, forests of 19, 46, 51 Investigation of Appalachians, appropriation for 13 cooperation of Interior Department in 14 extent and location of area 15 scope of - 14 Iron Mountains 18, 47, 114 Iron wood, size, distribution, etc 97 Irregularities of streams. (See Streain-flow.) J. James River and tributaries, floods 1901 130 gaging stations on 136 water power on 141 John River, gaging stations on 136 K. Kanawha River (see also Ne^v Rii-er) 126 floodsof 1901 130 water power on , 141 Keith, Arthur, Report on Topography and Geology of Region Ill L. Lakes, lack of 129 Land, cost of 36 Land slides 32 titles 37 Large-leaf Umbrella tree 100 Large-tooth Aspen. (See A»pen.) Late Elm. {See Ehn.) Legislatures, resolutions and acts of (see names of the several States) 172,190 INDEX. 201 Page. Letter, President McKinley to Congress 166 President Roosevelt to Congress 3 Secretary of Agriculture to President McKinley 166 Secretary of Agriculture to President Roosevelt 13 Mr. Gifford Pinchot, Forester, to Secretary of Agriculture 43 Secretary of Interior to Secretary of Agriculture 110 Mr. Charles D. Walcott, Director of Geological Survey, to Secretary of Interior 110 Mr. Willis L. IMoore, Chief of Weather Bureau, to Secretary of Agri- culture 115 Limestone, distribution of 119 group, shales, sandstones, etc 119 Linn, size, distribution, etc 105 Blue Ridge (see also Basswood) 105 Linville Gap 127 Mountains 126 River, falls of 126 gaging stations 136 List of shrubs of Southern Appalachians 107 Little Pigeon River, water power on 142 Little Rock Creek 50 Little Tennessee River, drainage of 116 floodsinl901 130 water i:)Ower on 142 Basin, topography and soil 80, 81 agriculture and erosion 81 forest, distribution, etc 82 Loblolly Pine. (See Pine.) Locust, species, size, distribution, etc 103 Logging. ( See Lumbering. ) Lower Cambrian formation 119 Lumbering, culling 57, 67 damages in, by felling, rolling, etc 24, 57, 64, 65, 131, 132 extent and increase 24, 57 fires caused by 57 Government control of 61, 68 improvement in, necessary 66 in Southern Appalachians generally 52, 53, 61 methods, early and present 24, 61, 63, 64 selection of trees in 67 M. McDaniel Bald 53 McGee, Prof. W. J., article by, on forest reserve 158 extract 189 McKinley, President, message to Congress 158, 166 Management of forests by Government. (See GoKernment management.) Manuf?.cturing affected by stream flow 134 importance of 139 increasing tendency toward 139 on lower streams 139 Maple, size, distribution, species, etc 104 on Co wee and Nantahala Mountains 52 202 INDEX. Page. Maps of forests 21 Marshes, lack of 129 Mature trees, removal of 67 Measurement of stream flow 135 gaging stations for 135, 137 tables, where published 137 Memorials and resolutions favoring reserve 155, 190 Meteorological report on Southern Appalachians 147' Military national parks, purchase of land for 36 Mills, where established -6,47 Mineral deposits may still be worked 38 Minnehaha Falls 19, 139 Mississippi Hackberry. (See Hackherry.) River, drainage to 115 Mitchell County 126 Mountain, forests of 23, 51, 114 seasons vary with elevation 28 Moore, AVillis L. , letter to Secretary of Agriculture 145 Mountain groups, description of forests by 46 lands. (See Erosion. ) Magnolia 100 peaks. {See Peaks.) ranges 18, 113, 1 15 systems 113 Mountains of Southern Appalachians 16, 20, 114, 115 Mount Mitchell 23,114 Mulberry, size, distribution, etc ^ , 100 Myers, E. AV., report on hydrography of region 123 N. Nantahala Gorge, timber in 53 Mountains, culled land and forests 51, 52, 115 River, flow and water jiower 135, 142 Narrowleaf Crabapple. (See CrabapjAe.) National Board of Trade, resolution of 165 National control of land in the several States. (See names of States.) forest reser\'es, only means of preserving forests 40 in the West 36 forests, importance of preserving 35 ow^lership, not new policy 36 Park r. Forest Reserve : 36 accessibility and size of proposed 113 Navigation of lower streams, affected by flow 39, 134 Needs of Southern .Appalachian region 59 Newfound Mountains, forests and culled lands 51, 52, 115 New River (see also Kanawha ) flow and gaging stations 116, 126, 135, 136 Basin, topography and agriculture 69, 70 forests, composition, etc 70 Gap and Valley 47 Newspapers commenting on proposed reserve, list of 192 Nolichucky River Basin, topography and soil 74 agriculture and erosion 74 forests, composition, etc 75 INDEX. , 203 Page. Nolichucky River, flow of 116, 126, 135 floods of 1901 'iSO gaging stations 136 water power on 142 North American Review, article by Prof. N. S. Shaler 188 North Carolina, resolution favoring reserve 173 act of legislature consenting to national ownership 173 North Foe River 50 Northwestern slope Smoky Mountains, agriculture and erosion 79 forests, distribution, etc 80 topography and soil 79 O. Oak, size, distribution, etc 97 species of 97, 98, 99 Oaks on Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 52, 54, 55 Object lesson, forest reserve as 37 Observations of stream flow. (See Stream-flmo.) Ocmulgee River, measurement of 137 Ocoee Group (see Conglomerate group) 119 River, measurement of 115, 137 Oconalufty River, railroad along ■_ .54 flow of, and water power 135, 142 Oconee River, measurement of '. 137 Okoee River. (See Ocoee. ) Ownership of land, in New River region 48 size of holdings 36 P. Papaw, size, distribution, etc 100 Park. {See National Park.) Peaks, character of 18 19 20 description of 113 114 forest-covered 20 38 height of 20, 1 14 Peawood, size, distribution, etc 105 Persimmon, size, distribution, etc 105 Phoenix Mountain 48 Physiographic features of Southern Appalachians 125 Piedmont Plateau 17,45,47,54,113,114,117,119, 125,126,138,150 floods in 1901 130 flow depends on clearings 134 Pigeon River, floods of 1901 130 gaging stations 136 Pignut. {See Hickory.) Pinchot, Gifford, letter of transmittal to Secretary of Agriculture 43 Pine, on Blue Ridge and other mountains 46, 48, 54, 55 size, distribution, etc 93 species of 93, 94 Pinnacle Peak 114 Pin Oak. {See Oak.) Pisgah Mountains 51, 115 Plants, list of 107 204 . INDEX. Pagre. Plum, wild 102 Chickasaw 102 Ponds, lack of 129 Pond Mountains, height of 47 Poplar, Yellow, size, distribution, etc 100 Post Oak. (See Oak. ) Power. (See TT^o^er power. ) Precipitation, affected by altitude and season 118 average and discussion 128 effects on streams 117 heaviest, except on Pacific Coast , . 31, 33, 38, 128, 149 in 1900, 1901 137 mean monthlj^ and annual (Table 4) ; 153 on Mount Mitchell in summer of 1873 149 torrential 150 Preliminary report of Secretary of Agriculture 166 Preservation of forests by National Government 34 beyond field of individual 34 power of States 35 President, the. {See McKinley ; Roosevelt.) Press, extracts from the 180 Pressey, H. A., report on hydrography of region 123 Price, Overton W. , report on lumbering in the region 61 Primeval forests, area of 45 Pritchard, Senator J. C, bill in Congress presented by 158 Private protection of forests impracticable 34 Profit from forest reserve 37, 162 conservative lumbering 62 Protection of forests a national problem 35 Purchase of forests by Government, how effected 35, 36 Q. Quartzite group, location, thickness, etc ,, 119 Quartzites, distribution of 119 R. Railways in Balsam Mountains 53 in Shady Valley 48 Marietta and North Georgia 55 via Cranberry to Johnson City 46 (See also Transportation.) Rainfall (see Precipitation). necessitates forest cover 31, 33, 129, 149 Raleigh (N. C), humidity at 153 Rapidity of stream flow 117 Rapids, number and use 138, 139 Redbud 102 Red Cedar. (See Cedar. ) Redheart Hickory. (See Hickory.) Red Oak. (See Oak.) Red Spruce. ( See Spruce. ) Reforestation of abandoned fields 59 Region, the Appalachian 16 INDEX. 205 Page. Region, the Southern Appalacliian 17 essential!}- mountainous 113 source of rivers 28 Report of the Secretary of Agriculture, preliminary 166 present 13 scope of 15 Bureau of Forestry 43 Geological Survey 110 Senate Committee on Forest Reservations and Protection of Game. . 168 Weather Bureau 145 Reproduction of forests 69 to be considered in lumbering 68 Reserve. ( See Forest Reserve. ) Reservoirs, lack of i 129 Resolutions. (See Memorials.) Rhododendron 118 Richland Balsam 51, 115 Rivers of Southern Appalachians, drainage of 28, 116 falls of. (See Waterfalls.) floods in. (See Floods.) gorges of 29, 126 grades in 116 importance of, for agriculture, power, navi- gation 28, 29, 38 velocity and volume 117 (See particular names.) River Basins, description of forests by 69 (See also under Forests, description of. ) Birch. (See Birch.) flow, direction of 1 15 gorges, depths, and beauty 1 26 grades ; 116, 117 systems -. 115 Roan Creek Mountains, gaging stations on 136 description 18,46,115,121 topography, forests, burns 49 Roanoke River, floods in 1901 130 gaging stations 136 water power on 141 Rocks. (See Granite, Quartz, Gtieiss, Limestone, etc.) relation of, to surface 120 solution and disintegration of 120 strike, dip, distribution, etc 119 Rogers Mountain, height 47 Roosevelt, President, message to Congress 3 Rough Hackberry. (See Hackherry.) Ruby Falls 19,139 Run-off of water, regulated by forests 128, 131, 150 recent changes in 137 S. Saluda River, drains to Atlantic 116, 126 gaging stations on 135, 136 206 INDEX. Page- Saluda River Basin (and First ami Second Broad) topography, agriculture, etc 87 forests, distribution, etc 88 Sand and gravel as water reservoirs 134 Sand Hickor\'. (See Hick-orj/.) Sassafras, size, distribution, etc 100 Savannah River 1 26 gaging stations 136 water power 141 Sawmills, location, capacity, methods 46, 131, 132 Scarlet Oak. (SeeOai-.) Scenery 19,29,116,160 Scrub Pine. (SeePme. ) Seasons of 1900 and 1901 137 vary with altitude on Mount Mitchell 23 Second Broad River Basin (see Saluda River BaMn). 87 Secretary of Agriculture, conclusions of, from report 38 letter to Hon. A. J. Beveridge 171 reports to President 13, 166 Interior, cooperation in investigation 14 letter of transmittal to Secretary of Agriculture. 110 Seed trees, selection of 68 Selection system in lumbering. 67 Senate of United States, reserve bill reported to 158 bill 5518, Fifty-sixth Congress, second session 168 Committee on Forest Reservations and Protection of Game, report of 168 Service tree 101 Settlements not to be disturbed 38 Shady Valley, forests of ., 48 railway in 48 Shagbark. {See Hickory. ] Shaler, Prof. N. S., extract from article in North American Review 158, 188 Shellbark. {See Hickory.) Shingle Oak. (SeeOai-.) Shooting Creek Mountain 55 Shortleaf Pine. {See Pine.) Shrubs in Southern Appalachians, list of 107 Silky Willow. (See Willow.) Silt, formation and movement of 26, 121,134 Slates, distribution of 119 Slippery Elm. (See Elm.) Slopes of mountains, agriculture on, short lived ■ 26 clearings on 57 forest-covered 21, 126 grass-covered 27 soil on the : 125 steepness of the - 21, 25, 115, 126 Smoky Mountains. ( See Great Smoky Mountains. ) Snow, earliest and latest 118 stored in forests 118 Soco Gap 53 Soil, affected by forests 31,121 LB '06 INDEX. 207 Soil, affected by firea 25,26 clearings 26,38,121,122 leeching, etc 133, 134 described by river basins 69 formation of 121 natural fertility of ' 122, 133 storage of water by the 31, 134 Solution of rooks, effects of 120 Sourwood 105 South Holston River , _ 47 South Carolina, resolution of legislature favoring reserve 176 act consenting to national control of reserve 1 77 Southern Appalachians, clearings and agriculture 25, 28 climate 143 forests 45, 69 geology ; 113 hydrography 123 lumbering 24, 61 movement for reserve in 157 mountains in 16, 20, 114 needs of 59 region 17 rivers 17 scenery 19 stream-flow 135 water power 29, 38 (See under above headings for details.) Southern end of Appalachians 19 topography and forests 46, 54, 55 Southern Red Oak. (See Oak). South fork of Holston River. (See Holston River. ) Spotted Oak. (See Oa/t.) Springs 19,116,125,133 Spruce, species, size, distribution, etc 94 on Balsam and other mountains 48, 49, 52 Staghorn Sumach. (See Sumach. ) Standing Indian Peak 114 State ownership of reserves 35 States, action by, concerning proposed reserve 172 common corner of Virginia, North Carohna, and Tennessee 47 Staunton River, gaging station on 136 Stone Mountains 47, 115 Storage of water, aided by humus, forests, porous soil 25, 31 , 122, 131 Stream conditions in 1900, 1901 137 Stream-flow, about the Unakas. 127 affected by springs, seepage, fires, forests, clearings, etc 30, 117, 122, 133, 134 condition of, in 1900, 1901 137 data of Geological Survey 137 in mountains and plateaus 134, 135 investigation of, scope 15 measurement of 135 modified by geological structure 138 208 INDEX. Page. Stream-flow, regulates floods, droughts, power 117 uniformity essential 30, 117 volume and velocity of 117, 137, 138 (See also Rivers, Floods, Water power). Sugar Mountain 49 Sumach, Staghorn 103 Surface affected by solution and disintegration of rocks 120 types of 115 Swamp White Oak. (See Oak.) Swannanoa River 51 Sweet Birch. {Bee Birch.) Gum. (See Gum.) Sweetleaf 105 Sj'camore, size, distribution, etc 101 Tables. (See Temperaiure, Humidity, Precipitation.) Table Mountain Pine. (See Pine.) Tallapoosa River, measurement of - 137 Tallulah Falls 19,139 River, gaging station 136 Chattooga River Basin, topography and soil 84 agriculture and erosion 84 forests, distribution, etc 85 Tan liark, forest destruction for 132 Tellico River, water power on 142 Temperature, general, in region ,. 33, 117, 128 Tiighest monthly (Table 2) ..". 152 lowest monthly (Table 3) 152 normal, mean, monthly (Table 1) 151 on Mount Mitchell in summer, 1873 33, 149 proportional to altitude 148 Tennessee River, drainage and measurement of 115, 126, 135, 137 water power on 142 resolution of legislature favoring reserve 174 act of legislature consenting to Government ownership of land 175 Thorn, size, distribution, species, etc 101, 102 Three Top Mountain 48 Timber, future supply of 25 kinds of 63 Title to lands (see Ownership) 37 Toccoa River. (See Ocoee River. ) Toe River 50, 51 Topographic features of mountain groups 46, 47, 49, 51, 53, 54 Topography by river basins 69 of Southern Appalachians generally Ill, 113 Toxaway Mountains 51 River Basin, agriculture and erosion 86 forests, composition, etc 86 topography and soil 85, 86 Tram roads 131 Transportation (see also Raihoays) 59 T rees of Southern A ppalach ians -. 93 INDEX. 209 Page. Tuckaseegee River, floods of 1901 130 flow-andsize 116,126,136 water power on 142 Tugaloo River, gaging station on 136 Tusquitee Mountains 115 Types of weather. (See TFrattcr. ) u. Umbrella tree 100 large-leaf 100 Unaka Mountains, description and topography ; 18, 19, 113, 114 Range, slopes, description 51, 53, 127 streams of 127 TJnculled forests, area of 45 in New River Vallej' 48 United States Geological Survej'. (See Geological Suney. ) V. Valley lands cleared 26 washed by floods 27 Valley, Great Appalachian, and others 16, 17, 114 Valleys, character of 20, 21 affected by floods 27, 129 Valley River Mountains 55 Virginia, act of legislature consenting to Government ownership of reserve 172 resolution of legislature favoring reserve 190 Volume and velocity of rivers 117 W. WaJcott, Charles D., letter of submittal to Secretary of Interior 110 Walnut. (See Black Walnut.) Watauga River, description 1 16, 126, 127 floods in 1901 130 gaging stations 136 water power on 142 Basin, topography and soil 72 agriculture and erosion 73 forests, distribution, etc 73 Water, abundance of , 125 falls, list of principal _ 19, 116, 126, 139 value for power 29, 139 flow depends on forests 30, 39 gaging stations 15, 136 measurement of 15,. 135 ( See Stream-flow. ) Water Oak. (See Oak.) Water power, abundance of 29, 39, 131 availability of 30, 141 depends on flow at low water 131 importance of 140 streams adapted to 128, 137, 139 total amount used and unused 141 (See also individual rivers b}' names.) *S. Doc. 84 l-t 210 INDEX. Paffe. AVatershed of ai-ea, Blue Ridge 115 examination of 135 Water storage in soil, affected by forests 25, 31, 122 Supply and Irrigation Paper No. 49, Report of Geological Survey 137 Weather Bureau, Report of, on Southern Appalachians 143 conditions at high levels 149 observations on Mount Mitchell, 1873 149 tables ,. 151,152,153 types 148 White Elm. {See Elm.) Hickory. (See Hickory.) Oak. (See OaTc.) Pine. (See PiiiR.) in Shady Valley 48 on Liuville River 46 on Newfound Mountain 52 size of 118 Top Mountain group, forests of the 46, 47, 48 region, forests and topography of 47 Willow, size, distribution, etc 96 species of 96 Wilson, Hon. James. (See Secretary of Agriculture.) Winds prevailing 118 moist, effect on vegetation ^ 119 determined by cj'clonic storms 148 day and niglit, in summer 148 Winged Elm. (See Elm.) Witch Hazel, size, distribution, etc 100 Wolf Creek, lumbering on 52 AVooded lands, percentage of. (See Forests hy river basins.) World's Work, article in, by Prof. W J McGee 189 Y. Yadkin River, flow to Atlantic 116,126 floods in 1901 130 gaging stations 135, 136 water power on 141 Isasin, agriculture and erosion 90 forests, composition, etc 91 topography and soil 90 Yates Knob Ridge 51 Yellow Birch. (See Birch.) flowered Cucumber-tree. (See Oucumbei'-tree.) Mountains , 50, 115 Oak. (See Oak.) Poplar. (See Pop to'. ) wood 103 O '" "-c- , » \V :; -. , V - ■'bo'* >^> =.•< -r^ O 0^ ^^. \f. '.^ : ■o ^ <■ ".*> ' IP ■:'■ J- -^ ^OQ' .5 ^._ >■ — ^ -- •^. c^- -'■>■ ,vV ,x^' .■-V .\i- X^" '<:p,<;v .'v'^' '-?> ^r ^^ ' <^ ". 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