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 PUBLISHERS TO THE UNIVERSITY OF 
 
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€lRxm'^on It^ss S^rus 
 
 THE MODERN 
 
 GREEK LANGUAGE 
 
 IN ITS 
 
 RELATION TO ANCIENT GREEK 
 
 BY 
 
 E. M. GELDART, B.A. 
 
 Formerly Scholar of Balliol College, Oxford ; 
 Modern Language Master at the Manchester Free Gra?nniar School. 
 
 
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 AT THE CLARENDON PRESS 
 
 M DCCC LXX 
 
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PREFACE 
 
 In sending out into the world the present volume, I have 
 little else to say by way of prefatory remark than to express 
 the sense of the obligations I am under to those who have 
 .helped and encouraged me. Foremost among these must 
 stand the name of F. W. Walker, Esq., late Fellow of Corpus 
 Christi College, and Head Master of the Manchester Free 
 Grammar School, my kind friend and instructor, who is the 
 cause, in a sense which he will sufficiently understand, of 
 the publication of this work. 
 
 My best thanks are also due to Professor Jowett for 
 looking over a portion of the same while it was yet in 
 embryo, and for most valuable suggestions which I have 
 attempted to follov/ out; and to my friends S. Verses and 
 A. Pantazides for the loan c^ various works which have been 
 of indispensable service to me in the preparation of the final 
 chapter of this book. Nor can I refrain from expressing 
 my indebtedness to the learned lectures, and ever-ready 
 willingness to communicate information with which all who 
 have attended the public instructions of the Professor of 
 Comparative Philology are so well acquainted, and which 
 have had no unimportant influence in moulding the views 
 hereinafter set forth. From Professor Gandell, and Dr. 
 
 h 
 
VI PREFACE. 
 
 Hessey, Grinfield Lecturer on the Septuagint, I have also 
 obtained valuable information. 
 
 To Professor Blackie of Edinburgh my thanks are due i 
 for very kind and unexpected encouragement. He will 
 easily discover where I have derived help from his interesting » 
 treatise on Greek Pronunciation. 
 
 Last, but not least, I must tender my warmest thanks to 
 the Rev. Hermann Eduard Marotsky, Minister of the Ger- J 
 man Church, Wright Street, Manchester, without the encou- | 
 ragement and confirmation afforded by whose critical know- - 
 ledge, my concluding essay on the dangerous domain of 
 theology would hardly have been hazarded. 
 
 I have no right however to be silent on other obligations 
 of a less personal nature in themselves, though in one case 
 at least proceeding from a personal and esteemed friend, the 
 Rev. George Perkins, M. A., author of the lucid and able 
 article in the Cambridge Journal of Philology for December, 
 1869, entitled ^Rhythm versus Metre,' to which I am much 
 indebted. 
 
 Other works which I have advantageously consulted are 
 Schleicher's ^ Compendium der Vergleichenden Grammatik,' 
 Renan's * Eclaircissements tires des Langues semitiques sur 
 quelques points de la Prononciation grecque,' Mullach's 
 ' Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache,' Liidemann's 
 ^ Lehrbuch der Neugr. Sprache,' Prof. Telfy's ^ Studien iiber 
 Alt- und Neugriechen und die Lautgeschichte der Griechi- 
 schen Sprache,' Sophocles' ^ Modern Greek Grammar' and 
 ' Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek.' 
 
 Finally, I would take this opportunity of thanking the 
 Curators of the Taylorian Institution at Oxford for their 
 great kindness in granting me the use of the room in which 
 
PREFACE. Vll 
 
 I delivered a course of lectures which form the foundation of 
 the present treatise. 
 
 If I have passed over any in silence I hope it will be 
 understood that such silence is unintentional. 
 
 In conclusion, I will give some account of the best 
 books to be used in the study of modern Greek, especially 
 in its relations with ancient Greek. The most instructive 
 works on the subject with which I am acquainted are Pro- 
 fessor Mullach's ' Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgar- 
 sprache,' Sophocles' * Modern Greek Grammar,' and his 
 ^ Glossary of Later and Byzantine Greek.' All three of these 
 works contain some account of the development of modern 
 from ancient Greek; and each supplies in some measure 
 the deficiencies of the others. Professor Mullach's work is, 
 on the whole, the most scholarly and exhaustive. His account 
 of the Greek dialects, ancient and modern, is specially valu- 
 able. All would have been better for a larger and wider 
 recognition of the discoveries of modern philology in the 
 region of comparative grammar. Sophocles' w^orks, espe- 
 cially his Grammar, require to be used with caution. For 
 the headings * Ancient' and * Modern' which he places over 
 his various paradigms, should be read, in nearly every case, 
 ^ Language of PoHte Society' and ' Language of the Common 
 People,' or 'Cultivated' and Vernacular;' for the so-called 
 ancient forms never died out, but may nearly all be found 
 in the more cultivated modern Greek of the middle ages. 
 Where, however, the so-called modern form has completely 
 supplanted the classical, as in iypd^pcao for iypdcpov, ypd(p€(TaL 
 for ypci(ji€L or ypcKpj], the fact should be noticed. Again, in 
 other ways truth is sacrificed by Mr. Sophocles to system, 
 as when he gives tov irarepa, Tov civbpa, as the modern Greek 
 
 d 2 
 
Vlll PREFACE, 
 
 for rov TTarpos, rod dv^pos. These forms occur no doubt, but 
 the classical forms are more common even in the vernacular, 
 in which however the metaplastic nominatives Trnrepas and 
 ai/dpas have supplanted TraTrjp and dvqp. For the study of the 
 popular language as contained in the Klephtic ballads, &c., 
 Passow's ' Carmina popularia Greciae recentioris' renders 
 all other collections superfluous. For the history of modern 
 Greek literature Peucker's ' Neugriechische Grammatik ' con- 
 tains some valuable contributions, which may be further 
 supplemented from the NeoeXXy/yt/ci) ^tXoXoyta, a work lately 
 published in Athens, and forming a biographical history of 
 mediaeval and modern Greek literature^ 
 
CONTENTS, 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 Causes for the neglect of the study of modern Greek. Antiquarian 
 prejudice; counteracted by utilitarianism. Political insignificance 
 of Greece : hopeful signs. Obscurity of modern Greek literature : 
 actual but unmerited. Direct practical utility of an acquaintance 
 with the language. Reasons why it should be studied by scholars 
 and theologians. The^iDbstacle presented by the Erasmian system 
 of pronunciation, pp. 1-7. 
 
 CHAPTER n. 
 
 On the Pronunciation of Greek. 
 
 The opinion of Schleicher. What is meant by the general identity of 
 modern and ancient pronunciation. Modern pronunciation either 
 barbarized or legitimately developed. Difficulties of the former 
 alternative. Examination of evidence regarding the original pro- 
 nunciation of each letter. I. Vowels. H. Consonants. III. The 
 aspirate. General conclusion, pp. 8-40. 
 
 CHAPTER HI. 
 
 Accent and Quantity. 
 
 Their connection in the law of accentuation. All modern Greek 
 vowels not isochronous. Syllables not necessarily lengthened by 
 stress. Real explanation of the supposed conflict between accent 
 and quantity traced to our use of the Latin accent in Greek. 
 Erasmus and the bear. Insular character of our prejudice. Stress 
 brings out, but does not obscure quantity. How is emphasis 
 
X CONTENTS. 
 
 given? View of Mr. W. G. Clark. Dominant importance of 
 rhythm in poetry. Opposition of accent and quantity as the 
 foundation of verse not absolute. Importance of quantity in 
 accentual verse. Accent heard in quantitative poetry. Musical 
 rhythm. Error of ignoring the importance of ictus. Significance 
 of accent in ancient poetry. The rhythm of ancient Greek prose 
 destroyed by ignoring the accent, pp. 41-67. 
 
 CHAPTER IV. 
 
 On the Origin and Development of Modern Greek 
 Accidence. 
 
 Origin not one, but various. Connection of grammar, logic, and meta- 
 physic. No rigid line of demarcation. Mere accidence indepen- 
 dent in a sense of the progress of thought. Levelling tendency. 
 Tendency to metaplastic formations : common to ancient and 
 modern Greek. Many apparent metaplasms not simply such. 
 The preservation of archaisms in the vulgar language. Analogies 
 in English. The Grinfield lecturer on the Septuagint. The prin- 
 ciple of extended analogy. Phrynichus and modern Greek forms. 
 The mixed declensions. Dialectic influences. Archaisms and 
 dialectic forms of the Septuagint not artificial. The Macedonian 
 dynasty and the kolvtj didXe/cTos. The disappearance of the dative 
 case, pp. 68-84. 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Origin and Development of Modern Greek 
 Syntax. 
 
 Difference in modes of expression between modern and ancient Greek. 
 Compound tenses. Tendency to waste words, pp. 85-90. 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 Modern Greek Phraseology. 
 
 Euphemism. The influence of philosophy; the Ionic philosophers. 
 The Eleatics, Sophists, and Rhetoricians. Modern Greek particles 
 more explicit but less expressive than ancient. Socrates. The 
 Cyrenaics. The Cynics. Plato. The Stoics, pp. 91-100. 
 
CONTENTS. XI 
 
 CHAPTER VIL 
 
 The Historical Development of Modern from 
 Ancient Greek. 
 
 Hellenistic Greek. The Macedonian age. The language of the 
 Septuagint and the New Testament not simply Hebraistic. Mo- 
 dernism of the Septuagint : of Polybius : and of the New Testa- 
 ment. New religious meaning of certain words. The age of 
 Diocletian. Nubian inscriptions. The Byzantine period. Apo- 
 phthegmata Patrum. Theophanes. Malalas. Leo the philoso- 
 pher. Porphyrogenitus. Theophanes Continuatus. Specimens of 
 popular language in Scylitzes and Anna Comnena. Close of 
 the mediaeval period. Theodorus Prodromus the first modern 
 Greek writer, pp. 101-113. 
 
 CHAPTER VIII. 
 
 Dialects of Modern Greece. 
 
 Asiatic. Chiotic. Cretan. Cyprian. Peloponnesian. Dialect of the 
 Ionian Islands. The Tsakonian dialect. Its Doricisms. Its de- 
 clension : and conjugation. Traces of Semitic elements. Tsako- 
 nian probably a lingua franca. Specimens of Tsakonian. Albanian 
 considered as modern Graeco-italic. Its alphabet partly Greek 
 and partly Latin. The infinitive mood. Conjugation. Pronouns. 
 -Prepositions. Numerals, pp. 1 14-137. 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 Modern Greek Literature. 
 
 Ptochoprodromus. Sethos. The Book of the Conquest. Belthandros 
 and Chrysantza. Gorgilas. Chortakes. Scuphos. Kornaros. 
 Rhegas. Cumas. Coraes. Oekonomos. Nerulos. Angelica 
 Palle. Christopulos. Klephtic ballads. Belief in genii. Analo- 
 gies in the Old Testament. Cultivated Literature of the present 
 day. Tricupes. Roides. Asopios. Rangabes. Zalacostas. Va- 
 laorites. Conclusion, pp. 138-177. 
 
Xil CONTENTS. 
 
 APPENDIX I. 
 
 On the Greek of the G-ospels of St. John and 
 St. Luke. 
 
 Preliminary considerations. Greek of the New Testament popular, 
 but not vernacular. Luke and the Acts somewhat artificial. 
 Frequency of modernisms in St. John. List of striking modern- 
 isms. The Revelation. The Gospel according to St. Luke. His 
 modernisms. The Acts, Agreement with the results of German 
 criticism, pp. 179-188. 
 
 APPENDIX II. 
 A Short Lexilogus, pp. 189-208. 
 
 Index of Greek and Albanian Words, pp. 209-216. 
 
 CORRIGENDA. 
 
 Page 33, line 9, /or ^fiepdaMos read ^/xepdakios, 
 .» 35» " "J^forriveareadriveov, 
 „ 130, „ 26, and elsewhere, /or 'ihe read kdi, 
 „ 141, „ i/i^, for TT€pi(3o7jTov read Trepi(3or)7ov, 
 
CHAPTER I. 
 
 Introduction. 
 
 The present spoken and written language of Greece is 
 one of the most remarkable phenomena in the whole field of 
 philology, and none the less remarkable, perhaps, is the 
 small amount of notice^which it has met with. 
 
 It is a strange and unparalleled fact, that one of the oldest 
 known languages in the world, a language in which the! 
 loftiest and deepest thoughts of the greatest poets, the 
 wisest thinkers, the noblest, holiest and best of teachers, i 
 have directly or indirectly found their utterance in the far-j 
 off ages of a hoar antiquity, should at this day be thel 
 living speech of millions throughout the East of Europe ' 
 and various parts of Asia Minor and Africa ; that it should 
 have survived the fall of empires, and risen again and again 
 from the ruins of beleaguered cities, deluged but never 
 drowned by floods of invading barbarians, Romans, Celts, 
 Slaves, Goths and Vandals, Avars, Huns, Franks and Turks ; 
 often the language of the vanquished, yet never of the dead ; 
 with features seared by years and service, yet still essentially 
 the same ; instinct with the fire of life, and beautiful with the 
 memory of the past. 
 
 Yet it is perhaps still stranger, that while the records of 
 its youth and manhood form the Hfelong study of thousands 
 
 B 
 
2 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in England, France, Germany, and the rest of Europe; 
 nevertheless, almost the first symptoms of sickness and 
 decay were the signals for us all to forsake it, few of us 
 waiting to see whether its natural vigour had carried it on 
 to a green old age, or whether, as most of us too easily 
 assumed, it was buried in a quiet grave, and had given place 
 to a degenerate scion, or had at best sunk into the dotage 
 of a second childhood. 
 
 It seems hardly too much to say that our conduct in this 
 regard shows a kind of literary ingratitude which ought to 
 shock our moral sense. Greece has in .various ages preserved 
 to us the succession of culture when the rest of the earth was 
 overrun with savages. For us it has held the citadel of 
 civilization against the barbarism of the world, and now 
 the danger is over we have forgotten our benefactor, and 
 trouble ourselves little how it fares with him. The case 
 reminds us of the words of the Preacher, ^ There was a little 
 city, and few men within it ; and there came a great king 
 against it, and besieged it, and built great bulwarks against it. 
 Now there was found in it a poor wise man, and he by 
 his wisdom delivered the city ; yet no man remembered that 
 same poor man.' 
 
 The reasons for this neglect are many and various. With 
 learned men of the old school it is due to a certain anti- 
 quarian bent of mind, amounting to a positive prejudice 
 against everything modern. The manner of life which 
 such persons lead is not inaptly expressed in the words 
 of Southey:— 
 
 'My days among the dead are passed, 
 
 Around me I behold. 
 Where'er these casual eyes are cast, 
 
 The mighty minds of old. 
 My never-failing friends are they, 
 With whom I converse night and day.' 
 
INTRODUCTION. 3 
 
 To those extreme devotees of the 'good old times' to 
 whom Aristotle is the last of philosophers and Augustine 
 the last of theologians, and with whom the fact that 
 a language is dead is of itself almost the best reason for 
 studying it, the discovery that the elder and nobler of the 
 two sister tongues Greek and Latin is as really alive as it was 
 in the days of Homer, can hardly be expected to prove 
 welcome. This is, however, less and less the spirit of the 
 learned in our own day. The study of Sanscrit and Com- 
 parative Grammar has opened a new field and awakened 
 a new interest. Now all languages, new or old, have at 
 least a certain value, even though they be as barbarous and 
 destitute of Hterature as most persons suppose the language 
 of modern Greece to be. 
 
 Again, from quite a different quarter a reaction has arisen 
 against the exclusiveness of the old school; a reaction 
 which forms part of the great utiKtarian movement of this 
 nineteenth century. The voice of the middle class, which 
 has found a powerful spokesman in one of our most distin- 
 guished statesmen, himself a scholar of no mean attainm.ents, 
 has been heard to declare, in the words of a Wise Man of old, 
 that ' A live dog is better than a dead Hon/ 
 
 The remaining reasons for the general neglect of the 
 language of modern Greece may be briefly summed up as 
 follows : — the political insignificance of the nation ; the ob- 
 scurity of its literature; the small practical use of the 
 language; and last, but perhaps not least, the prevalence, 
 in our own land especially, of the Erasmian system of pro- 
 nunciation. With reference to the first point, a few words 
 may not be out of place. 
 
 The political insignificance of Greece cannot be of very 
 long duration. A people which has made such rapid strides 
 in education as the Greek nation, since its independence 
 was estabhshed, must be worth something after all. The 
 
 B 2 
 
4 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 evils of place-hunting, national bankruptcy, squandered 
 resources, and party strife, are inseparable for the present 
 from a nation so suddenly called into existence, and com- 
 posed of such very raw materials as was the Greek nation 
 in 1828. They are evils deeply felt by the large majority 
 of the people, and there are many signs that they are on 
 the way to removal. As a hopeful symptom, I would refer 
 to the appearance of a very ably edited illustrated periodical, 
 now issued monthly in Paris, and supported by influential 
 Greeks wherever the Greek language is read and under- 
 stood. It is entitled '"ESviKr) 'Y.7n6€co preens,' or 'National 
 Review,' and contains articles, both original and translated, * 
 on every branch of Science, Literature, and Art. But the 
 great importance and significance of the work appears to me 
 to be the wholesome truth which it desires, as the chief 
 object of its publication, to inculcate on the Greek mind. 
 The 'Revue de ITnstruction Publique' for the 4th of 
 November, 1869, thus comments on the periodical in 
 question : — 
 
 ' Les redacteurs de Y^'E^Ovlkti 'ETnOecup-qcns se proposent de faire penetrer 
 dans leur pays les notions scientifiques dont I'absence nuit, en Grece, 
 au developpement de ragriculture, du commerce et de Tindustrie. . . . 
 Persuades que la principale cause de Tabaissement de la Grece est dans 
 le manque de routes publiques, ils feront tous leurs efforts pour 
 combattre I'institution ruineuse d'une armee inutile, qui, depuis la 
 restauration de la nation hellenique, a devore plus de trois cents millions 
 (de drachmes), et pour tacher de faire couler dans le domaine de I'agri- 
 culture et de I'industrie ces flots d'or et d'argent depenses sans raison.' 
 
 With regard to modern Greek literature, that it is obscure 
 must be admitted, but that its obscurity is well merited is 
 by no means so certain. To begin with the Epic poetry 
 of modern Greece, ' Belthandros and Chrysantza ' is without 
 question a far more imaginative poem than the ' Niebelun- 
 genhed,' and I have little doubt that any one who would 
 compare the two, would feel that the former is the work 
 
INTRODUCTION. 5 
 
 of a far superior genius. The popular songs of the Greek 
 mountaineers are acknowledged by every one who knows 
 them to be quite without parallel. 
 
 In lyric poetry there are few writers, ancient or modern, 
 with whom Christopulos w^ould compare unfavourably. The 
 present polite literature of Greece has scarcely had time 
 to ripen, but one poet at least, Zalacostas, has certainly the 
 marks of genius ; and the prose productions of Greece are 
 already of sufficient importance to attract the notice of 
 our best Reviews. 
 
 With respect to the practical usefulness of the language, 
 I may remind those who are accessible to no other argu- 
 ment than that of direct utility, that a competent acquaint- 
 ance with modern Greek will obviate the necessity of 
 engaging an interpreter when travelling in Greece, Turkey, 
 Egypt, and Asia Minor. Greek, as the language of the 
 most thriving mercantile race, is the medium of communica- 
 tion between many of the various nations of the East. 
 
 The real importance of modern Greek is, however, 
 rather a matter for the attention of the scholar, than the 
 man of business or pleasure. I will briefly point out what 
 I conceive to be the real advantages derivable from the 
 study of modern Greek. 
 
 I. First, I will mention what scholars like Ross and 
 Passow have already noticed, that great light may be 
 thrown on the meaning of classical authors from the study 
 of the modern Greek language. But this is of course 
 especially to be looked for in proportion as the usage of 
 the writers departs from the recognized classical standard. 
 Hence the knowledge of modern Greek is of chief signi- 
 ficance in the verbal criticism of the New Testament and 
 Septuagint. 
 
 II. But this is not all. I believe, and I hope to be able 
 to show, that the idioms of modern Greek may be employed 
 
6 INTRODUCTION. 
 
 in a manner hitherto quite unlocked for, in the criticism 
 of documents of doubtful age, as for example the Gospel 
 of St. John, with a view to determining the period at which 
 they were written. 
 
 III. Comparative philology derives no unimportant light 
 from modern Greek, because it preserves many archaic 
 forms, which are postulated by philologers, but not actually 
 to be found in any known ancient dialect. 
 
 IV. The relation between accent and quantity in poetry 
 can never be fully nor fairly judged by any one who is 
 not familiar with the sound of Greek read accentually, a 
 familiarity which can hardly be acquired apart from a 
 practical acquaintance with Greek as a living spoken 
 language. 
 
 V. The pronunciation of Greek and the interchange of 
 certain letters within the limits of the Greek language is a 
 sealed mystery to those who are ignorant of the sounds 
 which the Greeks of the present day give to the letters of 
 their alphabet and their several combinations. 
 
 To prove and illustrate the propositions here advanced 
 will be the main object of the following work. 
 
 The attention of the reader will be directed first of all 
 to the question of the original pronunciation of Greek, 
 partly on account of its philological importance, and partly 
 because the prevalence of the Erasmian system of pronun- 
 ciation in the West of Europe, and in England especially, 
 where it may be said to have accomplished its own reductio 
 ad absurduMy has built up a wall of partition between the 
 Greeks themselves and those who make the Greek lan- 
 guage their study, which completely severs us from one 
 another. 
 
 How sm^all the resemblance between our pronunciation 
 of <pvT€vcrapT€s and the Greek! How can we wonder that 
 in our jyootyoosdntes, he should fail to recognize his phiteph-- 
 
INTRODUCTION. 7 
 
 sandes ? Mutual disgust is the natural result of so great 
 a disparity. When we hear Greek spoken by Greeks, we 
 find it hard to believe that this jargon, as it seems to us, 
 has any relation with the language we used to learn at 
 school. On the other hand, the Greek who is not well 
 acquainted with the origin and history of the controversy 
 on Greek pronunciation, is liable to the mistake that a 
 deliberate insult is intended by those who substitute for 
 what are to him, at any rate, the harmonious sounds of 
 his mother-tongue, a pronunciation which, however eupho- 
 nious in itself, must sound to him at best like the hideous 
 distortion, the ghastly caricature, of a familiar voice^ 
 
CHAPTER II 
 
 On the Pronunciation of Greek. 
 
 ^Eav ovv /Jirj etScD t^v dvyafxiv rrjs (pojvrjs, eaojxai tS KaXovvTL Pdp^apos" 
 
 Kal 6 \a\wv ky kixol /Bdppapos. — St. Paul. 
 Das Altgriechische nach Art des Neugriechischen auszusprechen ist ein 
 
 Fehler, der auf vollstandiger Unkenntniss der Sprachengeschichte 
 
 imd der Lautlehre iiberhaupt beruht. — Schleicher, Compendium der 
 
 Vergleichenden Grammatik. 
 
 The avTos e(l>a of SO distinguished a philologist as Schlei- 
 cher, to the effect that to pronounce ancient Greek like 
 modern Greek is a mistake founded upon complete igno- 
 rance of the history of languages and of the whole doctrine 
 of pronunciation, will probably be enough to set this question 
 at rest in the minds of most people. The writer of these 
 pages ventures to dissent from this conclusion, which Pro- 
 fessor Schleicher arrives at entirely on a priori grounds, 
 betraying at the same time a very insufficient acquaintance 
 with modern Greek pronunciation. It must however be 
 acknowledged that the theory of pronunciation which Pro- 
 fessor Schleicher rather leaves to be inferred, than states as 
 the one to which he incHnes, has the striking merit of con- 
 sistency, and is far superior to any form of the Erasmian 
 system. 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 9 
 
 Nor would we be misunderstood when we say that we 
 favour the opinion of the general identity between the 
 modern Greek pronunciation and that of ancient times. 
 We do not mean to say, for example, that the diphthongs 
 so called were never diphthongs in reality, or that ^ was 
 never pronounced like ph in haphazard. But all that com- 
 parative philology can prove, all that a priori reasoning re- 
 quires, and, as I think we shall see, all that a posteriori 
 evidence for the most part allows us to believe, is, that the 
 above letters were so pronounced in some pre-historic period 
 of language, when Greek was forming, when the elements of 
 which it consists were in a state of fusion. This, however, 
 has nothing to do with the question. How is it most reason- 
 able to pronounce Greek as we find it for the first time in 
 the pages of Homer ? 
 
 From that time, and we know not for how many centuries 
 earlier, the language, notwithstanding the changes which 
 have passed over it, remained in all its essential features 
 stereotyped and fixed, especially as regards the forms of 
 words and the manner in which they are written. Now, 
 how does it stand with the a priori argument ? Is it most 
 likely that the forms have been preserved, but the pronun- 
 ciation utterly corrupted, or that both have been handed 
 down to us together.? To believe the first is to believe 
 what is contrary to the whole analogy of what we know of 
 other languages. Since Sanscrit was Sanscrit, who doubts 
 that the pronunciation has been in the main preserved.? 
 Since German was German, who questions the fact that it 
 was sounded as it now is ? Or how can we believe that 
 Chaucer, whose English differs from our own as regards the 
 grammatical forms more than Homer from Romaic, if read 
 by us in the present day, would be perfectly unintelligible 
 to himself.? 
 
 Again, the following argument must commend itself to 
 
lO ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 every one's understanding. If the modern Greek pronun- 
 ciation be not the same with that known to the ancients, it 
 must either be a legitimate development from it, unaffected 
 by external influence, or it must be a corruption, the result 
 of foreign admixture. If a legitimate development, then no 
 one can fix a priori the limits of its first appearance ; and it 
 may just as well be as old as Homer as not. If it be the 
 result of contact with foreign influences, then it will be 
 possible to explain the peculiarities of modern Greek pro- 
 nunciation from such external causes. Here we may at 
 once eliminate Turkish, because we know that at the first 
 appearance of the Turkish supremacy in Greece, hundreds 
 of families fled to the West of Europe, bearing with them 
 that very system of pronunciation which not only the Greeks 
 still use, but which learned Europe universally allowed until 
 the time of Erasmus. What then is left us ? French, Teu- 
 tonic, Slavonic, Roman. But none of these throw any light 
 ou the peculiarities of Greek pronunciation, as the sounds 
 given to y, /3, S, jli/3, ^tt, vh^ vr, oi, ci, rj, i, which receive illus- 
 tration mainly, and indeed almost exclusively, from Greek 
 itself. Again, the general, though by no means complete 
 uniformity of modern Greek pronunciation wherever the 
 language is spoken, is another very strong argument for its 
 antiquity, and against its being a corruption resulting from 
 contact with other languages. The fate of Latin has been 
 very different. In the Spanish dialect of modern Latin we 
 clearly trace the influence of Arabic, in Italian of Teutonic, 
 in France of Celtic sounds. In Greek, on the other hand, 
 though the countries where it is spoken are as widely distant, 
 and the foreign influences to which it has been subject as 
 diverse, we find, with very trifling dialectic variations, the 
 same universal traditional pronunciation among learned and 
 unlearned alike. In Egypt, in Asia Minor, on the shores of 
 the Euxine, in Constantinople, in Athens, in Crete, in the 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. I J 
 
 Aegean, the pronunciation presents the greatest harmony 
 just in respect of those letters on which the whole contro- 
 versy turns. 
 
 We shall now proceed to notice, one by one, the peculiar 
 features of Greek pronunciation, and collect the evidence on 
 the subject suppHed by MSS., ancient inscriptions, the notices 
 of grammarians, transcriptions into Latin and the Semitic 
 languages of Greek words, &c., as it bears upon each par- 
 ticular sound. At the same time we shall endeavour to 
 show what we hold to be in itself the strongest proof of the 
 general identity of modern and ancient Greek pronunciation, 
 namely, that exactly the same letters appear to be inter- 
 changeable in ancient as in modern Greek. Had the letters 
 in question altogether changed their force, this extraordinary 
 coincidence, which would then have to be regarded as the 
 result of mere accident, would be positively inexplicable. 
 In order that this part of the evidence may present a more 
 complete appearance, the corresponding changes in modern 
 and ancient Greek will be given, even where there is no 
 controversy with respect to the sound of the letters. We 
 will begin with 
 
 Vowel Sounds. 
 
 A. 
 
 This letter is pronotmced by the Greeks as a in most 
 languages, or as ak, or the a in father in English. It has 
 never been doubted that this was the original sound of a. 
 Schleicher, however, points out that besides the first intensifi- 
 cation of a into o, a, and 77, and its further intensification into ©, 
 an original a is often frequently represented by e or o. Thus, 
 
 besides the dialectic forms ^epeOpov eparjv for pdpaOpov apo-r]v, 
 
 we have Kkios for Kkdfas, from grdvas, TrXefco or TrXeco from 
 pldvdmiy psfcD from srdvdmz) (pepeaai answering to hhdrase^ &c. 
 So too in modern Greek we get Tiirora for rtTrore, as in 
 
12 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 Aeolic, Kpe^jBaTLOv for Kpa^^arwv, piTrdvi for pa<j)dvLOVy evrov for 
 avTOVj dyyi^co for ^yyl-C^^, from eyyvs. 
 
 As examples of a interchanged with o, we have in ancient 
 
 Greek the Aeolic o-rpoTos ovco ovex^PW^ ~ o-rparos avco dvex^pV^^9 
 rjfjLppoTov for rjfx^paTOV, i. e. fjfxapTov, ojjlcos and afxa^ oyKog and ayKOs^ 
 
 oppcodeci) and dppcodeco. In modern Greek we have, in like 
 manner, Kara^oSpa for Kara^dBpa, dpixaOid for oppLadid, Com- 
 pare the classical ^66pos with ^dSpov, i-m^dOpa, 
 
 Schleicher observes that the three terminations of contract 
 verbs, ao), eo), and ow, were all originally but one, viz. a«. So 
 in modern Greek ew is always represented by d(D, at least 
 in the language of the common people. As Cl^du for fT/reT, 
 
 TTepLTrardTe for TrepiTraTelrej (po^dcraL for (j^ajSelo-aL, i.e. (polSfj or 
 (po^eT. 
 
 A in ancient Greek is seldom weakened into v, yet this 
 appears to have been the case in vv^, 6Wf, kvkKos, fxvKos, and 
 a few other words, as p-vo-ra^y which also appears in the form 
 fido-raf, and PvSosy which is found side by side with pd6os. 
 In modern Greek we get o-Kixpos for (TKd<j)os or o-Kdcprj. So, 
 again, we have the diminutive appellation d<pioVy as in x«p«- 
 <pLov, frequently represented by vcpiov, as C^vcpiov. 
 
 In ancient Greek a is often weakened into l, as io-Oi for 
 ds-d/ii] TiBrjpi for dddhdmi. Compare in modern Greek ^t- 
 X^^^ i/iX^^^C^h with the classical yj/aKas, -^aKd^ei. In modern, 
 as in ancient Greek, we have rj for a, piKprj for puKpd, TnKprj for 
 wiKpd, and a for ?;, as jSeXova for ^eXovT}. A in Homeric Greek 
 becomes at, as aleros, aUl, dial, Trapai. So in modern Greek 
 
 KaraL^alvcOy dvaifBaivcOj Tnaivco for TTidvco, KaBicTTaLvco for Ka6L(ndv(o, 
 
 Aiara, a covenant, may be another form of Smtra, and pro- 
 bably an older one. 
 
 A is prefixed to many words more or less perhaps for the 
 
 sake of euphony, as dlSXTjxpdsy do-TepoTrr], do-TraipcOy d(Tra(pls, in 
 classical ; ^A^pvov, dlBporavov, dIBdeWa, d^pdpvkov for ^pd^vkov, 
 
 daraxv, and many others, in modern Greek. 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 1 3 
 
 E. 
 
 Pronounced like e in de/fer, only a little broader, more 
 like the German a in Manner. This sound has never been 
 made the subject of dispute. As a representative of an ori- 
 ginal a, of which o is another, it is interchangeable with that 
 letter, as ox^^os for exBpos, in ancient ; 6xOp6s for ix'^pos, o^co 
 for 6^0), in modern Greek. Conversely, eSoVes for odopres, 
 *A7reXX6)i/ for 'AttoXXcovj in ancient ; and "EXvpLiros for "oXvimos, 
 i^e for o^/^/, in modern Greek. It is also prefixed, as kcIvos, 
 
 6K€lvos, fJL6, ifxe, lu ancient ; tovto, irovroy (T€, €(T€, (TV, ecrvj in 
 
 modern Greek. 
 
 H. 
 
 This letter is pronounced by the Greeks like t, that is like 
 ee in see, or e in 6e; ^hile the followers of Erasmus pro- 
 nounced it, and still pronounce it, as the Italian e long, i.e. 
 as e_y in //lej^. Hence in the early days of the controversy 
 concerning the original sounds of the Greek letters, Reuchlin 
 and his adherents, who favoured the modern Greek pro- 
 nunciation, were called the Itacists or lotacists, while the 
 Erasmians received the title of Etacists. The name is un- 
 fortunate, because just the one point in which the advocates 
 of the modern pronunciation would be most inclined to 
 make a concession to their adversaries, is with regard to the 
 sound of the letter 77. 
 
 That 77 was originally the representative of a sound dis- 
 tinct from t is etymologically certain, inasmuch as in the 
 Ionic dialect, and in certain cases in Attic, rj stands for the 
 doubly strengthened a, whereas t is a weakened a, in the 
 few cases where it represents it. At the same time there 
 are cases where 77 represents a short a, as in Teo-aapTjKovray 
 BlttXtjo-los, In these instances 77 may perhaps stand for 
 short L, 
 
14 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 E. Sophocles, in his Introduction to the ^ Glossary of Later 
 and Byzantine Greek/ London, 1868, adduces the authority 
 of Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Aelianus Herodianus, Teren- 
 tianus Maurus, and Sextus, to prove that the sound of 77 
 differed in their day from t, and was like the long Italian e, 
 Dionysius says, in pronouncing r) the breath strikes the roots 
 of the tongue, in sounding l the back of the teeth. This, 
 though a very vague distinction, is not altogether inappUcable 
 to the difference between the sounds of ay and ee, Hero- 
 dian simply says people are mistaken in saying" vrjo-rrjs for 
 vPjo-TLs, Here the difference implied may be very well one 
 of quantity only. Terentianus Maurus says, distinguishing 
 between e and 77, ' Temporum momenta distant, non soni 
 nati vitas ;' and Sextus says much the same thing, viz. ' Kal 
 
 (Tva-raXiv [xev to t] ylveraL c, eKTaSev de to € yiveTai -qj That is, 
 
 Jong e = ?7 ; short ?? = e. This would seem to a casual reader 
 to prove the point for which the Erasmians contend, viz. 
 that 77 was sounded ay, A little consideration will serve 
 greatly to modify the value to be attached to their testimony. 
 In the first place, it should be remembered they are all more 
 or less Romanized Greeks, in as far as they are Greeks at 
 all, and they would therefore readily imagine that the r) 
 must or ought to be pronounced like the letter which they 
 used to represent it ; and as to them ^ = e, they naturally con- 
 cluded 77 = ^. Again, etymologically they were right : 77 is 
 not only the strengthening or lengthening of a, but also of e. 
 
 As ipcoTco r}p(ji)TTj(Ta, eveyKco rjvcyKov, evpco rjvpov. 
 
 Again, if 77 was considered by the ancients as a long e, so 
 was ei, for the old name of e was el, according to the prin- 
 ciple which governed the original nomenclature of the Greek 
 alphabet, and which was that each letter should be named 
 by its long sound. So o was called ov, yet no one supposes 
 that ov was really the long sound of o, because we know that 
 ov was always transcribed in Latin by u. Equally certain is 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 1 5 
 
 it that ei was almost invariably represented by the simple 
 vowel z in Latin. Consequently we are led to the conclu- 
 sion that ov and ei would be respectively the representatives 
 of the English 00 and ee, which are their exact phonetic 
 parallels. For 01; actually stands for 00 in Greek, and et for 
 €6 : e. g. xp^^^o^ = xp'^^^^^f (t)op€€T€ = (^opeire. In other words, 
 as in English so in Greek it is plain, that certain long sounds 
 corresponded actually to certain short ones, of which, ac- 
 cording to a priori phonetic rules, they could not have been 
 the representatives. An approximation to the English long e 
 may be seen in the Dutch double e, and in the Hungarian /. 
 That T) and ei were very similar in sound is rendered highly 
 probable both by the fact that they were each held to be the 
 representatives of a long e, and that they were interchange- 
 able even within the limits of the same dialect. So we have 
 not only kyivos and ttjvos for Kfivos, but also pov\€i and ^ovKrj^ 
 kKtjs or Kkelsj k\€lt6s and Kkrjros. Nor does the Latin tran- 
 scription of 77 by ^ prove that it was sounded ay : for the 
 Latin e represented very often an ei, and on the other hand 
 tended to become, and therefore probably closely resembled 
 in sound, the simple I. So we have frisfes from tristeis, 
 written tristis; Vergilius written Virgilius, &c. : and not only 
 so, but in the Byzantine period designatus is transcribed in 
 Greek Sto-tyvaro? : while, on the other hand, Plutarch writes 
 Palilia^ iLaXrjXia : where plainly rj = long /. So that the tran- 
 scription of t] by e in Latin inclines us to beHeve, not that rj 
 was sounded ay, but that e in Latin was hard to distinguish 
 from I, When shortened, rj tends to become e, not only in 
 ancient but also in modern Greek, as for example, ISepos, 
 Ionic for f??/3os, dvaSejia for dvddrjfxa; and in modern Greek, 
 
 ^€p6s for ^rjposy Sepiop for S-qplov, fieplov for P'Tjpiov, Keplov for 
 
 KrjpLOV. 
 
 Of the very close resemblance between i and tj in the time 
 of Homer, that is between the sounds represented in later 
 
1 6 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 times by t and t) respectively, we have, Professor MuUach 
 thinks, instances in the parallel forms tjkco and Iko), eVt/SoXos 
 and inrj^oXos (where rj seems to be simply i lengthened by 
 the combined force of the accent and the ictus), ylyas and 
 yr)y^vris, which two forms we have together in the Batra- 
 chomyomachia, — 
 
 Tr]y€Pea>v dvdpcov fiinovfievoi epya yiydvTcovy — * 
 
 TTL^a^ from Trrj^dco, rjde and Ide. In many of these cases i 
 stands for long rj, in others for a shortened 77. Ross gives 
 an inscription found at Carpathus in which Ipo^ccv stands for 
 ypoicov. The significance of this would depend greatly on the 
 antiquity of the inscription. In the Cratylus of Plato, the 
 obviously false etymology of Ar]p,7}Tr]p from dldcofxi and ftiyrTyp, 
 derives all its little plausibility from the resemblance between 
 drj' and di-. So in Aristophanes' Pax, 925, the point of a 
 pun depends upon the resemblance in sound between ^ot 
 and ^oTjBelv, and again, 928, between it and vr^via. Nor 
 should the later parallel forms Trplo-rrjs and Trprjo-ns, crKrjTrcov and 
 cTKLTTcov, wlth thc Latlu Scipio, which Plutarch writes ^Krjmcov, 
 be forgotten. 
 
 All the Semitic transcriptions, of whatever age, agree in 
 representing 77 by /, according to M. Renan, in his very 
 learned and interesting pamphlet, ' Eclaircissements tir^s des 
 Langues semitiques sur quelques points de la Prononciation 
 grecque/ Thus in the Syrian Peschito Krjcpds = Ki/b, KvprjvTj 
 = Kourini, 
 
 In Hebrew we have Tarschisch for Taprrjao-os, hima for 
 
 /3^/xa, diathiki for diadrjKrj, listis for Xrjarrjs. 
 
 In Aethiopian, paracliios = TrapaKkrjTos, mestir for fjLvcrTrjpiop, 
 In Arabian, Dimas for Arjfxas, 
 
 In the eighth century after Christ, Theophilus of Edessa, 
 a Syrian astronomer who enriched his literature by transla- 
 tions from the Iliad and Odyssee, introduced a system of 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 1 7 
 
 vocalization, which M. Renan thinks must have represented 
 a pronunciation reaching back to a very early age, and in 
 which the letter i appears as an H turned on its side. 
 
 In the New Testament, KafiiXos for KdfjLrjXos, eXaKTijac for 
 iXaKTLo-e, are no doubt errors in spelling, but they show the 
 early prevalence of the confusion of r] with t : so too e^vTrvlo-co 
 
 for e^virvqaco. 
 
 It is not of much importance that rj represents in Alexan- 
 drine and Hellenistic Greek the Hebrew ^., as in 'EfXfjiavovrjX, 
 2aXa0Lr)X : because r] w^as the only letter left for this purpose, 
 all the rest having been appropriated to the Hebrew sounds 
 which they most resembled. 
 
 There is another passage in Plato's Cratylus, 418 c, bear- 
 ing on the sound of the letter 77, to the consideration of 
 which we must devote a few Hues, as it has been claimed 
 both by the Itacists and Etacists respectively in support of 
 their views» It is this : — 
 
 Ol TTaXaLol ol r]iJ.€TepoL roo Icora kol tm deXra ev fidXa €Xp(t^VTO, kol 
 ovx r]KL(TTa al yvvaiKes, ainep fidXicTTa tyjv apxaiav (pcovrjv aoo^ovai. 
 Nvv dprl fiev tov *Ia)ra rj Ei fj 'Hra peTao-rpeCJ^ovo-L. . . . Otoi^ ol 
 fiev dp^atoTaTOL Ipepav ttjv rjp^epav eKaXovp, ol de ipepav, ol de vvv 
 
 TjfX€paV, 
 
 Here it seems we must read, instead of fj "^Hra, simply 'Hra, 
 the former fj connecting 'Icora fj El 
 
 The Erasmians are so far right in their interpretation of 
 the passage, that we must agree with them in thinking that if 
 Plato had not recognized a difference between t and 77, he 
 would scarcely have distinguished the two as he has done ; 
 but if we are really to believe that he meant rj to represent 
 the sound ay in day, then the result is most alarming for the 
 defenders of the Erasmian system, inasmuch as we have it 
 on the authority of Plato that the pronunciation of ^ra as 
 4WTa, so far from being an innovation as the Erasmians con- 
 
 c 
 
1 8 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 tend, was the most ancient sound of that letter. The truth 
 appears to be that Plato is thinking merely of the quantity of 
 the respective sounds which he distinguishes. He speaks of 
 ?/ as a grander sound than i or e, fieyaXoTrpcTrea-Tepov : by which 
 he can only mean that it is longer or fuller. 
 
 In any case he must have been wrong, at least as regards 
 the general principle : for neither can we believe that the 
 tendency to lotacism was an archaism which has been 
 revived quite lately in modern Greek, inasmuch as we can 
 trace the tendency throughout the historical period of the 
 Greek language, and find it more and more strongly marked , 
 as the language grows older; nor, on the other hand, can we '^i 
 believe that long vowels like v Were originally represented by i' 
 
 short ones like e. ^ 
 
 I 
 
 Plato knew of course nothing whatever of the now ascer- 
 tained principles of philology, and he was led to his conclu- 
 sions probably by the knowledge of the fact that rjfxcpa was '^ 
 found in ancient documents and inscriptions written, in de- ' 
 fault of the letter r;, — which was not used as a vowel until t 
 the Archonship of EucHdes, 403 B.C.,— ipepn or Ipepa. If 
 this view be correct, we may appeal to Plato in proof ; 
 that the most ancient way of representing the letter rj \ 
 was by t. 
 
 The Scholiast on Eurip. Phoen. 685 tells us expressly that 
 before the time of Euclides i was used for 77, o for co^ueya. 
 Theodosius the Grammarian, who lived in the fourth century 
 after Christ (?), assures us that rj was formed by joining two 
 t's together. This is of course impossible, inasmuch as rj 
 was originally used as the sign of the aspirate, but it shows ' 
 at a!ny rate that by Theodosius t) was considered as equiva- '■ 
 lent to a long or double t. 
 
 The well-known line of Cratinus still remains to be 
 noticed : — 
 
 ^ *0 6' tjXlOlos o>(T7T€p TTpQ^aTOU ^Tj j3rj Xeycou ^abi^ci/ 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 1 9 
 
 Everybody feels, it is argued, that to represent the bleating 
 of a sheep by a sound equivalent to iSI, /3r, the vowel being 
 sounded as ee in see, would be inadmissible. 
 
 After all, we must confess that the attempts to render the 
 noises of animals by the articulate sounds of jjiepoTTcov dvdpo)- 
 TTODv, are very diverse and very unsatisfactory. We do not 
 understand their language, and it is hopeless for us to at- 
 tempt to reduce it to writing. The German peasant hears 
 his frogs say achf, ach/, the Greek ear seemed to distinguish 
 the mysterious syllables (3peKeK€K€^. In English the very word 
 bkaf shows the possibility of associating an ee sound with the 
 noise of the sheep. Yet we think our sheep say dah, hah, 
 and I confess the Greek sheep seemed to me to say so too. 
 But this may have been a Doricism. 
 
 As however the letter t] could hardly have been in use as a 
 vowel when Cratinus wTOte, it is nearly certain that he must 
 have written ^ee, /Sec?, or perhaps simply /Se, /3e. This being 
 so, the whole argument of the Erasmians falls to the ground 
 as a ' demonstration in unreal matter.' 
 
 I. 
 
 Pronounced unquestionably as ee in see. The letters with 
 which it is interchangeable have been, or will be, noticed 
 under their respective heads. 
 
 O and a. 
 
 Both sounded nearly like in core, gore, shorn, or like aw 
 in saw. The distinction in quantity is rather felt than heard, 
 and indeed w at the beginning of a syllable sounds short, and 
 o at the end of a syllable, long. Aoyos sounds Xco-yos; it pay- 
 fiariKois, TTpayfiaTLKos, That this was SO in ancient Greek 
 seems likely from the accent in irokcois, fiovoKcpcos, Sec. It is 
 almost impossible to preserve the pure sound of when 
 
 c 2 
 
20 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 much lengthened. Our o in no/e is not strictly the o in nof | 
 lengthened, but the sound o rapidly followed by oOy as in doof. 
 Double sounds in English as it did in Greek, simply oo, I 
 Ov was one form of long o, and w/xeya was another, the latter 
 used no doubt in those cases where the o sound v/as still i 
 preserved. Thus it is that we have ov as a strengthened 
 form for o : e. g. /xoDz/os*, ouXo/iei/o?, ixoxOrjpos, fjiovxr€p6?, modern 
 Greek ; fxovpya for dfxopyrj, modern Greek, and many others. 
 
 Oi; stands more frequently for co, as yovv, ovv for yw?/, «y : so 
 in modern Greek, Ki^ovpi for ki^coplov^ Kovipbs for Kcocjyos^ \j/ovvL(a} 
 
 for o\/^(i>z/t{'a), &C. 
 
 T as a vowel 
 
 The modern Greeks generally pronounce this letter 
 simply as a long /. Schleicher says it was originally 
 sounded like the German or ItaHan u, but soon acquired | 
 the sound of the German zl, or French u. The old sound ' 
 is preserved in numberless modern Greek words, which ^ 
 may all be regarded as Boeotic forms, like yovvrj for yvj^rj, f 
 Here follow a few examples, taken for the most part from '^ 
 Sophocles' ^Modern Greek Grammar:'— 
 
 'AyKvXos, dyKOvXa, ayKvpa, ayKovpa^ rvKavrj, hovKavr) (cf. in Homer 
 
 boVTTOS for TVTTOs), (TTOVpCLKLOV fOT (TTVpClKlOV^ KoXXoVpa foV KoXXvpa, 
 
 rpovTTa for TpvTTa^ (TKovXos for ctkvXos, kovXXos for kvXXos, povKovq [ 
 
 for pvKavr),—to which we may add kovtoXlov, undoubtedly a 
 Doric or Boeotic form for KVTdXiov, i. e. (TKvraXiov^ — jiovpnovpl^cc^ 
 
 for fxvpfJLVpL^co, jJLOvpfxlyyL from l^'VpfJ-r]^. 
 
 In Chios, Thessaly, and Macedonia, according to Pro- 
 fessor Mullach, the il sound is still heard. i 
 
 The Tsakones at present inhabiting the ancient Cynuria, ; 
 whose name Professor Mullach thinks may be a corruption 
 of the ancient KavKovesy have preserved to us another pecu- 
 liarity of the pronunciation of v, namely, its tendency to 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 21 
 
 be sounded like the English u, viz. j'oo. Thus in Tsakonian 
 we have viovrra for vvktoj i. e. vv^. 
 
 So in old Boeotian inscriptions we have Atoviovo-tos, Aiovo-lasj 
 'OXlovvttlcovos. I suspect however, from the examples ad- 
 duced, that both in the case of Tsakonian and Boeotian 
 the L represents the liquid sound of X and p before v, as in 
 modern Greek generally is the case whenever these letters 
 stand before v, i, -q and similar sounds. 
 
 In Syrian transcriptions v is generally represented by ou 
 (English oo), as kindounos oksoufafon for Ktvdwos 6^v^a(pov, 
 Similarly in the Chaldaean of Daniel, Soumphonia = 2viJL(pcovLa, 
 
 I may here remark, by the way, that to propose a Semitic 
 origin for this and other Greek words in Daniel, is what 
 no one could do, el ijlj] Beo-lv dLa<pv\dTT(Dv, And not only 
 so, but the words in question, both as regards their form 
 and signification, are evidently 7tof earlier than the Macca- 
 baean period. ririJpQ -^avreptu for -^akTr^piov is a natural 
 form enough for the koivt] didXcKros which arose after the 
 Macedonian conquests, but would be inexplicable before 
 that time. 
 
 Coptic and Aethiopian transcriptions agree with the 
 earHer Syrian in transcribing v as ov, following, as M. Renan 
 thinks, the Boeotic and Aeolic pronunciation which, it seems, 
 largely prevailed among the Greek-speaking populations of 
 the East. 
 
 In later Syriac however, as in the Peschito version of 
 the New Testament, we find z as the representative of v, ac- 
 cording to the prevailing^ though not universal, modern Greek 
 usage : as Evroclidon = EvpoKXvdcoj/, Didivios = Aidvfxos, clamis = 
 X^ajivs, /iih'=vXrj, In Sountico for ^vvrv^o^ the accented 
 syllable preserves the oo sound, while the unaccented has 
 lost it. That the unaccented v was the first to become i 
 we may infer from the common occurrence of such words as 
 
 \kokv^ho^ and /^tdXt/Sos", (ptrvco and (pvTevco, Pap^Lkos and PpdjSvXoSj 
 
22 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 and such endings as -rjpos, -vp6s, -vXos, -lX6sj -tjXos, used 
 indififerendy, and apparently without any distinction in 
 
 meaning, as avo-T-qpos, Xiyvpos, dyKvXos, ttoikIXoSj i^irrjkos, 
 
 (TTpo^iKos, alavXos, v\j/t]\6s. Neither accent nor quantity seem 
 to be very fixed in such words ; yet vXos seems most often 
 paroxytone; when the accent is removed the tendency to 
 become rjXo^ or ikos would seem to increase. In Latin a 
 short unaccented u also becomes easily i] as in ?naximus, 
 optimuSy for maxumus, optumus^ another instance of the way 
 in which the lotacizing tendency in Greek is paralleled in 
 Latin. There are many instances, however, of an accented 
 V becoming t : witness l3vlSXos and /3//3Xos', ^pl-Soy and ^apvSco, 
 ppvco, (pLTpoVj (pvTpa^ pvyxos and piSj pvTTTio and pLTTTCD I probably 
 also TTvB- and mS-j uvo-tl^ and TrlarLs, jivo-os (perhaps }jlv(tos) and 
 fjuaosj yj/iOios and yj/vBios, ohvviq and coStV, y^nixp-vBiov and ^iiJijxi- 
 Slop, e and V are also interchangeable, as in fivKaofxat and 
 
 fi-qKaofxaLj kXvtos and kXtjtos^ also KXciroSy arvXos and CTTrjXrjj 
 arrjpiy^ and crrvpa^ from ar-qpi^oy^ (pXijuos from <pXv(iL> ~ (pXvvos. 
 
 In Arabic, Aethiopian, and Persian transcriptions v is 
 nearly always represented as /; Kipros, asicriton^ sizi'ge, pilaSy 
 
 and so on, for Kwpos-, aavyKpirov, av^vye, jrvXas. The Septua- 
 
 gint follows here, as in other cases, the lotacist pronunciation. 
 In the Aeolic dialect ov sometimes stands for v, as 
 SovydT7]p ; but more often 6, as I'^Z/^o^, lirep. 
 
 The same three gradations are found in German : as 
 /unfy fiinfy in the South pronounced as finf; so miizitch, 
 nilizlichy and nitzlich. Uber stands in Martin Opitz, the- 
 founder of what is called the first Silesian School in German 
 literature in the seventeenth century, for iibe7', which in the 
 South sounds as iher. Even in the written language, Geburge 
 and Gebirge, gultig and giliig^ Hulfe and Hilfe^ Spriichwort 
 and Sprichwort are used indifferently according to the taste 
 and fancy of the writer. 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 23 
 
 AT and ET 
 
 are pronounced in modern Greek as aw and ew in 
 German when the v stands between two vowels or before 
 a medial; in other cases as a(j) or etp respectively. The 
 English letters v and/" are only approximations to the Ger- 
 man w = /3, and the Greek ^. F and v in English, and in 
 most European languages, are made by means of the upper 
 teeth and the under lip, (f), 13, and w in German, are formed 
 by the contact of both lips. Any one who compares the 
 two sets of sounds by pronouncing A/3 or Au-, and Av, Ac^, 
 or Av and A/, in rapid succession, will see how much nearer 
 the Greek 13, or v consonantal, and <p, are to the vowel 
 sound 00, or even u (French), than the EngUsh approxima- 
 tions. The transition from 00 (/^Italian) to w (German) 
 is marked by the English w. 
 
 It is worthy of observation that v never stands at the 
 beginning of a word of Saxon origin; while in the middle 
 of a word it generally represents either d or /; but very 
 seldom, if ever, the German or Saxon w. 
 
 That av and ev were sounded as a/3 and 6/3, if followed by 
 a vowel, is generally admitted, and this is according to the 
 analogy of Sanscrit. 
 
 In these cases the v represents the digamma, which in 
 its turn represents the Sanscrit or old Indian v, so-called, 
 but what in reality is the consonantal sound of ^ = 00, into 
 which the vowel sound is changed if followed by another 
 vowel, as in grdvas, pidvdmi, srdvdmi = KXefos, TrXefo), peFco, 
 The modern Greek forms nXevco, pevco preserve the f, as v 
 consonantal. 
 
 But there are signs that at a very early period the 
 consonantal sound of i; was heard even before a consonant. 
 
 In Syriac, av and €v are rendered av and ev, as Evroclidon, 
 Pavlos, Avgoustos; evkaristia = evxaptcrTia, ev tikis - evrvxrjs* 
 
^4 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 It is true that av in Syriac represents also ©, as lavseph = 
 'laxTTjcf), Bariavna for BapLcova : and M. Renan suggests that 
 av in Syriac was pronounced au (German), which is possible ; 
 but in any case there is the ev = ev remaining. Kv and o), 
 as well as the Latin au and o^ are plainly nearly related, 
 whatever may have been their pronunciation : as rpav^ay 
 rpcofjia, Oavfxa, Bcofxa, lautus, loius, Claudius, ClodtuSj aut, Oy 
 amavit, amavt^ amb. So in modern Greek fxavpos, Mcoposy avriov, 
 
 In modern Greek ev also sometimes becomes w, as 
 
 ^cvixara, yj/i>fxaTa, with which WC may compare evXaKa, a 
 
 Laconian form of avXa^, and the form wXaf, also Doric. 
 In MSS. we have the double forms Xavpos and Xd^pos^ Xavpa 
 and Xd^paj KaXavpcdylr and KaXdIBpcoy}/. In Homer a\//- is, I 
 cannot doubt, for av + s = avs ; s being added, as in ovtccs, 
 €vSvs, and other adverbs. Compare de\jra) and e-^co, the sig- 
 mated ^evco and evco, and in modern Greek eTrLo-rexj/a, Kdyj^is, 
 Sec, for €7rL(TT€V(ra, Kavais. The Homeric word '[(pOtfios is 
 derived by Liddell and Scott in a procrustean manner from 
 lcj)L, Olfios, notwithstanding the long i and the 6, being a mere 
 ending, while the last t of Icj^l is violently, and contrary to 
 all analogy, elided between cj) and 0. 
 
 ' KaL77€p ov pdbiov op tolovtol? dv^pdoTLV aTTLa-Tclv,^ I must 
 
 submit, first, that there is no such ending as OTfios; and, 
 secondly, if there is one thing certain about (pO, it is that 
 no vowel has been dropt between the two letters. Let us, 
 however, admit the identity of the Homeric and modern 
 pronunciation, and we see at once that 'i(j)OLfxos is but another 
 way of writing r]v6vpos, the Epic form of evSvpLos. Here 
 every single letter is accounted for, and the accent and 
 quantity as well. In IBv^ for evBvs it appears that the (p 
 has been lost. Probably ^eVo), ^eiW, Olva are connected 
 with (pSivco : as well as ^eo, ^oafco, S6os, Sclttov^ Sanscrit 
 
 dhdvdmiy with ^Odvoa, (pOecopei/, (pOeaxTi, 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 25 
 
 AI. 
 
 This combination as pronounced by the Greeks is not to 
 be distinguished from e. So we get in the grammarians 
 yjreKas and yJAaUas, v/hile ye- in the compounds seems to 
 represent yat-. Alnvs, high^ lofiy, seems (cf. vTraro^^ v\Jal(ttos, 
 and v-^TjXos, from vnep) to be connected with irri 
 
 Al-av becomes idv. $eyya> is from (palvo), and probably 
 stands for (jyalyyco. Kal and re for K€ are, according to 
 Curtius, but two forms of the same word. The interjec= 
 tions € and at suggest the same. K^dvos for Katdubs, related to 
 
 KaLPVfJLL, icopa and aloipa, iia'ivoyLai and jJLevos, fjiaifjidco for fxefxaco, 
 diJLatfxdK€Tos for djLtaAceros- = dfidxriros, instead of afxefidx^ros, X^'-'^l 
 
 from x^^j implying the verbal adjective x^'^^s or x^'^os-, are 
 sufficient to show how often at stands for e. It invariably 
 stands for the Sanscrit e in the verbal termination at, as 
 (^epeo-ai, (pep^rni, for d/idrase, hhdrate. 
 
 At the end of a word at is short as a rule, both in 
 prosody, as also before a following vowel in scansion, which 
 renders it absolutely certain, that, in such cases at least, 
 it could not have been sounded as a diphthong. Schleicher 
 considers the termination of the second person plural pas- 
 sive -o-^e, to stand for -aBf^^ which is short for -o-Spat = 
 'Sdhvai, The diphthongal sound of at, as of the other so- 
 called diphthongs, was probably heard only when it was 
 written with a diaeresis, as is the case at present in modern 
 Greek. 
 
 In Latin at was represented by ae^ as Aeacus, Aeneas, 
 Maenades, and ae was most undoubtedly a monophthong, 
 so much so that if the metre required it to be diphthongal, 
 its archaic representative ai was used, as terrai frugiferai. 
 
 In Greek inscriptions belonging to the Roman period 
 we find e representing ai^ and vice ve?'sd. When Plato, 
 Crat. 412 d, is quoted as proof that dUaLov was pronounced 
 
26 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 diKdiov, because he derives it from didlov, it may be sufficient 
 to reply that Plato knew how to spell. In Callimachus, 
 250 B.C., we have the following epigram: — 
 
 Avo-avLTjy (TV de vai-)(i koXos, koXos, dWa irplv elirclv 
 'Q.d€ (Tacj)cos, Tjx^ (pijcTL TLs oXXos ^X^'" 
 
 Where e^et aXkos is supposed to be the echo of mt^i Ka\6s, 
 the initial consonants disappearing, as we know they 
 actually do in an echo. 
 
 EL 
 
 This combination written without the diaeresis is, and 
 no doubt was, sounded as t. Na/x' rhymes, as we have seen, 
 to €X€i. In Latin, et regularly appears as z] and in Greek 
 itself we have 'Iprjv and eLprjv, tXXco and etXo), 'iXrj and clXrj, 
 Semitic transcriptions all point the same way, as well as 
 the pun on akX IfxaTLov and aXeiiiixaTiov in Diogenes Laertius. 
 In the Scythian patois, Aristoph. Thesm., i stands for short et, 
 as o for o). Herodian, M. Victorinus, Choeroboscus, and 
 Theognostus identify et with t, while Sextus says it had a 
 sound peculiar to itself 
 
 OL 
 
 Now sounded like €t, r;, t, or v, that is, equivalent to ee 
 in see. Originally it was sounded apparently more like 
 
 V than any of the other letters or combinations, inasmuch 
 as the name vyj/iXov was given it to distinguish it from 
 
 V dL(p6oyyos or v dca hc^iBoyyov by the later grammarians. 
 So in Boeotic we get tvs for roh. In the same way e-^Ckov 
 was so called to distinguish it from at or e bia bL(l>66yyov. 
 Thus John Lydus, a Byzantine grammarian, tells us, ZT^rfJo-at 
 be d^Lokoyov vopLi^co tl jxkv cn^paLveL [Kvatorcop] dta rrjs bt(j)B6yyov 
 ypa(j)6fjL€Vov, TL de -^ikrjs \ KvaLcrTcop tolvvv 6 Cr]Tr)Tr]S otto rov 
 quaerere olov ipewdv, "On de pij dL<j)Boyyos iu npooLfjiLOLS rj Xe^ts, 
 dXXa yl/ikfj ypd<peTaL^ ovderepov fxeu rcov elprjjieviov crrjjJLaiveL tov de 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 27 
 
 fie/Jiyj/L^OLpov KOL ^\d(T(j)rjiJLOv dia rrjs ypacj^rj^ imbei^cL, on queror 
 IJL€fx(poixaL, 
 
 Hence it is evident that the word yj/t\6v^ which means 
 simple as opposed to double, is falsely explained unaspirated 
 by Kriiger and Buttmann, to say nothing of the inappro- 
 priateness, amounting to absurdity, of calling e unaspirated, 
 as though it had formerly been one sign of the aspirate, 
 which it was not, as far as I know ; or applying this designa- 
 tion to V, the peculiarity of which is, that except in a few 
 dialectic forms it is invariably aspirated at the beginning 
 of a word. 
 
 The Semitic transcriptions of 01 are very various : some- 
 times it appears as /, as kirogrellios for x^'^P^yp'^^^^^^ • i^ 
 Aethiopian sometimes as 0, as Phonix for ^olvl^, probably 
 a mere mistake; and most commonly by ou, i.e. u or 00, 
 proving the similarity of the sound of ol to u, which, as we 
 have seen, is also represented by ou. 
 
 The Aeolians changed ov to ot, as MoTo-a for Movaa, which 
 was probably very much the same thing as if they had written 
 
 it Mvcra, 
 
 Ol is short (as a rule) in prosody, and often in scansion, 
 and that not only at the end of a word : witness II. xiii. 275 
 (quoted by Mullach), old^ dperrjv olos eo-ai : and again, Tolos 
 i^v olos ovTLs. It was then plainly no diphthong. Oeconomos, 
 a Greek writer of the present century, thinks it was sounded 
 in some dialects as ou = ^/ Italian, and in some as v passing 
 into t. This appears to us highly probable. In modern Greek 
 
 we find TTpovKa for TrpolKa, (p^ovdiov for (pXoddioi' or (pXoLdtoVy 
 
 drfjLOTrXovu for drfjiOTrXoLov, as well as the ordinary i sound. 
 The Germans generally prefer o ( = eu French) as the re- 
 presentative of OL, and compare oe which invariably tran- 
 scribes it in Latin, but we do not know how the Latin oe 
 was sounded, although we do know that it was, like the 
 Greek ot, monosyllabic, and, like it too, easily passed both 
 
28 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 into u and z : compare foedus with fidus^ moenia with mimire. 
 If 01 and oe were really like the German o, then we may also 
 compare such forms as sohnen, siihnen, and (according 
 to Southern pronunciation) sihnen. 
 
 The account of the ambiguous oracle in Thucydides, ii. 54, 
 clearly proves at least the close resemblance in sound between 
 Xoi/xos- and \i\k6s. The sense which Mr. Sophocles obtains 
 from the words is precisely the reverse; but he obtains it 
 by sundry glaring mistranslations. He draws our attention 
 
 to the fact that adecrOaL, o)vofxd(r6aL, clprjcrOaLj and acrovraL all bear 
 
 reference to the sound of the word, which is partly not the 
 case, and partly nothing to the point. 
 
 He renders as follows : ' A dispute arose among men, 
 some maintaining that the calamity mentioned had not been 
 called {uyvofjLao-Oai) Xol[jl6s but Xifiosi' whereas Thucydides 
 says simply ' that it was not plague that was spoken of, but 
 famine/ ' Again, the opinion prevailed at this time that the 
 word said was Xotfxos:' whereas all that the words will bear 
 is, * the thing spoken of was Xoifxos.^ Again, ttju fivrjfxrjv eVot- 
 ovvTo could not mean ' adapted their recollections,' but simply 
 ' gave the account/ By such ingenious distortions does Mr. 
 Sophocles adapt a passage, which is clearly a stumbling- 
 block to his theory, into a bulwark of defence. 
 
 TI 
 
 sounds in modern Greek as t simply. Homer nearly always 
 makes vlos two short syllables. In Syriac ows occurs for 
 6 vlo^, which is the more remarkable as the usual Syriac 
 representative of v alone is ou. 
 
 Passing on to the consonants, we begin with 
 
 B ~ German w. 
 
 Liddell and Scott admit that it was softer than our 5. 
 It frequently stood for the digamma in dialectic forms, i.e^ 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 29 
 
 in those words where the digamma was still sounded; as 
 PeUaTL, ^akcKios, for e^Uocn, tjXlklos. So in modern Greek we 
 have l^ayya^ a hollow, compare ayKo^ and ayyo?, &c. ; jSpifa, as 
 in ancient Greek for pi^a, in the sense of jye; ^ovpKos, etymo- 
 logically the same with SpKos, Ppdxos, and paxov\a. 
 
 It stands for the consonantal sound of v in such tran- 
 scriptions as Aa/5/o, ^e^rjpos, probably in the proper name 
 AyajBos for dyavos ; and the word diroXavcD is only another 
 way of writing aTroXdlBco. So in modern Greek we get dm^oi 
 from dvdTTTO), of which it is the root, in the sense of to burn ; 
 compare the ancient Greek avco, ivavco. In the middle of a 
 word it thus preserves the digamma in modern Greek, and 
 in such positions may be equally well written as t;; e.g. 
 
 If (T€^as come from the Sanscrit sev, then it should properly 
 be written a€va£; but it is possible that ae^opai meant ori- 
 ginally ^ I move for a person/ the ancient sign of respect ; 
 and in that case it stands for o-evopiai, of which o-o^eco is 
 certainly the causative, written with /3 instead of v, to 
 preserve the sound of the last consonant in the root. Compare 
 
 (j)o^eci>, (pepopatj (pevyco, i.e. (pe^yco. 
 
 As a rule, however, /3 stands for the Sanscrit g, and thus 
 in Greek it is interchangeable with y, as (Becpvpa, yecpvpa; 
 ^K€(papov, yXecpapov, So in modern Greek we have yXicpapov, 
 
 yXeTTO), yovTTa for ^ovira, yovyovpas for ^op^opos (?) : cf. ydpyvpa, 
 yapyaXeeov. 
 
 Before £, pronounced as y, it becomes, like y and §, ( : 
 as vlC(*> for viIBloj- ; Xd(op,ai for Xd^LOfxaL. I can find no instance 
 of such a change in modern Greek, but even in ancient 
 Greek it is very rare, and probably arose from the fact that 
 a y was heard in such cases after the /3. Thus rplCco and 
 rpi^o) are probably from the same root, rplCo) expressing the 
 grating squeaking noise caused by rpl^co. The intermediate 
 form would be rpl^yco, which occurs in modern Greek, as 
 
30 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 well as both rplCco and rpi/Sco. So vl^co and vl^yco, for i/ifw, 
 
 are modern Greek forms. Cf. (pe^ofiac and cj^e^yco, i.e. (pevyoa. 
 
 The hard unaspirated sound of 5 is preserved when /3 
 
 follows jLt, as efxlBaivco, €jit/3dXtjLtos'. 
 
 B is interchangeable with fx, as fiefxlBpas for ^efxlSpa? (ancient 
 Greek) ; /xv^aw, 3i^C«« ; x^/^^» ax^/3a8a (modern Greek) ; with 
 (/), as BiXtTrTro?, Macedonian for ^lXittttos (ancient Greek) ; 
 
 cf. modern Greek ^i\apds,Bi\apds; aXee/So), dXetc/)© ; fi^Tja-Kovvi, 
 CJ)\t](TKovvl (modern Greek) ; with tt, as ^areh, iraTelv, nvTivrj, 
 
 BvTLVT] (ancient Greek) ; 'Apama for 'ApaSla (modern Greek). 
 
 B, A are interchanged, as jSeXc^iV, pXrjp for SeX^iV, deXedp 
 (ancient Greek) ; Kowd^c for Kowddiy from Kivados (modern 
 Greek). 
 
 r. 
 
 This letter is a guttural semivowel, like the German g 
 in Tag: before t and e, however, it sounds like a very strong 
 jy ; in other words, it sounds more palatal. The sound of the 
 Hebrew y, as preserved according to the most probable 
 tradition, and most faithfully rendered by the Arabian g 
 soft, as Professor Gandel informs me, corresponds exactly 
 to the Greek y. Thus we find in the Septuagint Td^a, 
 Topoppa, for njy^ i^^'OV: which proves almost to demonstration 
 that the present pronunciation of y must have prevailed in 
 the time of the translators of the Septuagint. Only if we 
 assume that y was a soft semivowel, can we understand its 
 evanescence, not only as a transcription of y before an un- 
 accented vowel, as 'AjLtaXe/c, 'hXi, but also in Greek words, 
 especially before palatal vowels, as ala for yala, Iwos for yiwo^ ; 
 and in the middle of a word between two vowels, as I6iv^ Xlos 
 for iyoovy oXlyos', OT before fjL, as rprjpa for Tprjypay as Well 
 as before o- in aorists of verbs, -afcD for -aytw, aorist -aaa for 
 -a^a. So in modern Greek we get the dialectic forms X/oy 
 for oXlyoSy la>p for €yd)Vj Xeco for Xeyo), TTpafia for Trpdyp-a^ &C, 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 3 1 
 
 With ala for yma we may compare lalvco for vytaLV(o. In 
 ancient Greek vyialvw, vyid^co, lao^at are no doubt all con- 
 nected; and in modern Greek it is hard to say in such 
 forms as yiarpos, yalfxa for larpos, alfxa, whether the y is to 
 be considered as prefixed to the one form or omitted from 
 the other. In yovXta for ovXia it may stand for t, cf. ovXos 
 and 'lovXos, as in dypeco, alpeco. In modern Greek, as in 
 ancient, y is often prefixed to X, as yXvKocfieyyeL for Xuko- 
 
 (j)eyy€i, cf. XvKotpcos, Xaico), yXaKcj, XapoSy yXdpog '^ as well aS 
 before v, as yveOco for vr}6co, yX€L(p(o for X6t;^a). 
 
 Here we may compare yXava-acOj yXr^ixr], yvocjyos, for Xevcra-co, 
 
 XrjiJLTj, v6(f>os, i.e. v€(pos: Xevao-co is probably but a sigmated 
 form of (3X€(j)co or (BXeTrco, standing for yXccjxrco : compare yXe- 
 (f>apovy and in modern Greek yXeVw, also the modern Greek 
 
 (TVVV€(j)OV, (TVyV€(pOV, 
 
 The letter y in modern Greek is often of etymological 
 significance, in cases where it has disappeared from the 
 classical form. Avyov or 'A/SyoV, for woV, preserves the ori- 
 ginal az^'dn far more truly than even the form given by 
 Hesychius, viz. a>^€ov, or the Latin ovum ; as does p-vya for 
 \xvia^ than the Attic \xva. Where two y's come together the 
 first is nasal. That this was so in ancient Greek, we know 
 from the fact that dvy-, ivy-, &c. were always written dyy-, iyy-. 
 In this position the second 7 retains its hard sound, as is the 
 case with /S after /x. 
 
 The nasal y is sometimes prefixed to a guttural in order 
 to strengthen a syllable, as in Sanscrit so in ancient and 
 modern Greek. Examples : Ak\ aitk'ami, Siyydvco from root 
 Biy-j dyKaOi from aKavBa (modern Greek), and bayKavco for 
 
 A 
 
 = Spanish d, or th in then, except after v, where it sounds 
 harder. Thus a lisped C = ^, becomes S. Accordingly we 
 
 have Aeus' and Zevs, dpl^rjXos for dpidrjXos, (op^ for dopKas. In 
 
32 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 
 
 modern Greek, (opKabiov for bopKahiov^ V«r* for o/^aSer. Most 
 often this is the case when a palatal vowel has been ab- 
 sorbed, as TTe^os for irehios, and in modern Greek Mirov^owas 
 for llobecov. Only on the assumption that b = thin then, can 
 we understand how o-b came to represent C in Doric, as 
 jjieXlcrdco, rcoSdcrdco, Oavfido-^co, Or how f was accounted by the 
 grammarians a double letter, compounded of S and o-, 
 whereas etymologically it is extremely doubtful whether fever 
 stands for §$•, and certain that it never stands for o-S, the fact 
 being that o-d and ds are ways of approximating the sound of C 
 The sound of d being so soft, it easily passes into y before 
 the half consonantal t, so we have yta for Sta, &c. Thus we 
 have reason to suspect that y€(j)vpa was originally 3Lai<j>vpa, 
 perhaps Aeohc for diaiOvpa, although the accent and the 
 earlier quantity are against this derivation. More certain 
 
 is it that tco/co) stands for ytw/c©, from dioyKco ; taiVo) for yLalvay^ 
 
 from dialvo); the modern Greek yepos or ytepos for diepos, 
 another form of vyi-qpo^. So we have too in modern Greek 
 laKLov, dtaKiov, yiciKtov, for a rudder. If Upos means originally 
 strongs as some philologers think, hi^pos^ vyicpos, yepos, and 
 Upos are all different forms of the same word; vypos is 
 probably the result of metathesis. So we see little reason 
 to doubt the identity of va\os, glass, and yvaXov, yvakai from 
 yvaXos, hollow. The earliest meaning of vakov was a hollow 
 transparent stone in which mummies were enclosed among 
 the Egyptians (Herod. 3. 24). So aWepia yvaka, used of the 
 heavens; not the ^ vault of heaven,' as Liddell and Scott 
 render it, so much as the hollows of heaven, i. e. the spheres 
 in which the stars were supposed to be embedded, like so 
 many flies in amber. The modern Greek for vaXov is 
 yvaXov, 
 
 Z=:z in English. 
 Schleicher himself completely discards the notion of pro- 
 nouncing C as ds or sd, Etymologically, it stands for yt, di, 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 33 
 
 or (3l followed by another vowel, as vLJSyco, vllBuoy vlCco ; Tpl^co, 
 
 rpi^ycOf TpL[3ioy, rpl^co j Zevs for Atevs, dppo^co for dpp,6yL(j). So in 
 
 modern Greek we get dtaraCco from ^iarayto), yaXd^tos for 
 yakdyLos Or yXayioy, Taov^co from rcrovyio), from the Latin sugo ; 
 Zd^aXrjs for Ata^oXo?, faXoz/ = 'tx^os, from yvakov, shortened to 
 yLokov, i. e. the hollow print of the foot ; Cc^plcj^rjs, better written 
 ^applcfyrj^, an extravagant dresser, from ^LappLirTco. The change 
 of cr into f, mentioned by Liddell and Scott, is almost always 
 
 before the letter /x, as Zpvpva, ^piKpos, Cf^epddXeos, (prjypa, ^pivvT). 
 
 In modern Greek, a- before /x always sounds as f. This fact 
 is of itself enough to prove the identity of the sound of C in 
 ancient and modern times. 
 
 = /^ in thin^ somewhat more forcibly pronounced 
 than in English. 
 
 e originally stood for the Sanscrit dh, and it appears to be 
 Schleicher's opinion that it was anciently sounded as th in 
 hothouse. But this must have been in the pre-historic 
 period of the language. Perhaps such forms as dTSiKYj for 
 aTTLKT} may be relics of such a sound. In modern Greek we 
 have VotBol for the Goths. But that 6 was very Hke the 
 English th may be inferred from the fact that the Laconian 
 dialect changes 6 into a-, as o-dXao-o-a, a-elo^, 'Ao-am. In modern 
 Greek we get aKavTo-oxoipos for dfcavOoxoipos. In Aeolic 6 be- 
 comes (j), as (j^tJp, (pXi^o), (pXdco. So in modern Greek we have 
 
 (pXij^co, (jykLpepop for BXl^cOj BXt^epov, (prjKdpiov for SrjKapiov. In 
 
 Doric X sometimes stands for 0, as opvixos for opviBos, so in 
 modern Greek opvLxa for opviBa, and, vice versa, aBprj for axvr]. 
 
 K. 
 
 Like the English k before the guttural vowels; before the 
 palatals more nearly approaching the Italian c in a'vi'ta, and 
 with a very close resemblance to a palatal /. The best idea 
 
 D 
 
34 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 I can give of this sound on paper is perhaps /k, as mws, | 
 Kevrpov, KiTpivov, /cat, pronounced approximately ikeenos, tken- , 
 dron, /keefreenon, tkeh ; not that a / sound is actually heard, 
 but that after forming a palatal / (and our English / is mostly 
 palatal) the tongue is in the right position for forming k. In 
 Crete, k palatal sounds just like the Italian c before e or ?*, 
 or our ch in chin. In the same way the Sanscrit ch was 
 formed from k, through the influence of contiguous palatal 
 sounds. It is therefore probable that the Italian c palatal is 
 also legitimately developed from the old Roman sound given 
 to c before e and i, as in cecidi ; while the French c dental 
 and ch palatal, the Spanish z and c palatal = th^ the German z 
 and c palatal = ts^ are more or less unsuccessful attempts to 
 approximate the true pronunciation. The palatal sound of /c 
 evidently represents the intermediate stage through which 
 the guttural k must pass, and must always have passed, in 
 order to become the palatal ch. In pronouncing k palatal 
 the tip of the tongue may be seen in a Greek's mouth 
 coming right up to the epm^ o5oVra)i/ ; not that the tip of the 
 tongue is actually used in pronouncing the /c, but the upper 
 part of the tongue is brought so far forward that the ex- 
 tremity necessarily reaches the teeth, and indeed protrudes a 
 little beyond them. K palatal being thus so nearly allied to 
 r, we shall not be surprised to find them interchanged. 
 
 So we have in ancient Greek tIs for aci?, re for /cat, rvpawos 
 for KOLpavos (for V and ot see above, as well as for at and e), 
 
 Kljicdv for Tifjicov, Trjvos for Kelvos, nore for TTOKe from ttokg, So 
 
 in modern Greek, especially in the Tsakonian dialect, /ct/ito 
 
 for ri/JLco, or/ctX/3oa) for crTtXp6(0j (f>Kvdpiov for (pTvdpiov, (pKeidva) for 
 ^retat'o), i. e. evSeid^co or evOeLauco, Conversely, repLOS or ralpLOS, 
 
 meaning suitable, or similar, is possibly for Kalpios, Tti/cfoj 
 and rtmo-o-o), the latter form common to modern and ancient 
 Greek, are clearly connected with /cti/eo). 
 
 n and K are also found interchanged in Greek. The 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 35 
 
 original form of tnTros was lkkos. So in modern Greek we 
 have KOTveka and KOKojvrj, a girl ; Ko^Ka, an indentation con- 
 nected with KOTT-Tco, KOTTTjvaL. I much doubt whether d-KcoKr] 
 be not also connected with the root acott-, instead of being 
 a lengthened form for clkt} : and whether dioKcox-q, &c., ought 
 not also to be written diaKcoKr], standing for dLaKonrj, 
 
 A. ^^ 
 
 Interchangeable with p, as in Doric ^v6a for ^\6a. So, in 
 modern Greek, dvvct)avTos becomes d\vcl)avT6s, while civOe in 
 Tsakonian stands for aXcj^i. 
 
 A is also interchangeable with p : afxeXyco and afxepyay are 
 originally the same word. 'Afxepyco is the older form, and is 
 preserved in modern Greek for djieXyco. Here we must say 
 a word on wktos dfiokyco. Buttmann is quite right in re- 
 jecting the translation ^ milking time,' but plainly wrong in 
 rejecting the derivation from dfxeXyco or ajxepyco. The form 
 of the word is such that no other derivation is possible. 
 Eustathius may also be right in saying that dfioXybs is an 
 old Achaean word for d/c/x^. A similar sense for dKfxrj is 
 suggested by the word iKfidco, io hridse out^ and tK/xas-. But 
 the sense and derivation are quite plain and natural. 
 NvKTos d\xoky(h means in the dj^egs of night, — a most 
 fitting and poetical expression for the dead of night. 
 'k\L6pyr] or dpovpya, from dfxepyco, means, in both modern 
 and ancient Greek, neither more nor less than dregs or 
 ieeSy the squeezings out ; that is, what is left after the 
 squeezing out of wine or oil. This is plainly the sense in 
 which it is used to express clotted blood in Eur. Phaeth. 
 
 2. 2. 6, ovK djJLokyov €^0fx6p^€T€^ e'lTTOV TLS icFTiV aiyiaTOS ')(apiaL TvecrSvy 
 
 where the cognate i^opLopywiii, only another form of i^afiepyay, 
 seems plainly used with a poetic sense of its identity in root. 
 No more exact comparison could be used than the lees of 
 
 D 2 
 
36 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 wine for clotted blood. Compare Isaiah's well-known apo- 
 strophe, Ixiii. 1-3, beginning, ' Who is this that cometh from 
 Edom?' The modern Greek form for ddeXcj^bs is dSepc^oy, 
 more archaic than the classical, inasmuch as it is derived 
 from the Sanscrit sagarhhjas. In modern Greek the common 
 form for r]K6ov is ripBav ; and epxofJLai appears also as epSofxat, 
 leading to the conclusion that eXdcd and epxofiai are not 1 
 distinct but identical roots. For x and 6, see above. 
 
 So, too, aXcfytTov, avSos, and apros are probably all identical, 
 and are verbal participles formed from aXeo or dXedco, standing 
 respectively for dX-O-Tov and oXtos with paragogic l inserted 
 in the first case, as in doXixos in ancient, Kamvos in modern 
 Greek. The B in dXeBco seems to stand for <^, which repre- 
 sents the digamma: cf. aXevpa or aXefpa. I cannot doubt 
 that dXdeco and dvOsco, dXbalvco and aphoD, are all cognate words. 
 
 M. 
 
 With regard to the pronunciation of this letter there is no 
 dispute : and the same may be said of 
 
 N. 
 
 When, however, the letters M and N are combined with 
 77 and r respectively, /xtt, vt, these consonants become medials, 
 instead of tenues, epLiropog = emboros, evrepa = endera. In the 
 same way the guttural nasal 7, when placed before ac, converts 
 the fc into its corresponding medial, oy/<o? = oyyo^. Moreover, 
 /3, §, and y after /Lt, v, and y nasal, become simple medials 
 instead of semi-vowels. With /3 and h however this is not 
 recognized by the educated, although it is universally pre- 
 valent in the mouths of the common people. This phonetic 
 law may be most shortly expressed as follows : — /x, v^ and y 
 nasal take after them the corresponding unaspirated medial. 
 
 Exception : If y be followed by x, the latter preserves its 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 37 
 
 sound, and the same may be said of (^, after fi and v : so 
 that we may say, ft, v, and 7 are followed by their corre- 
 sponding unaspirated medial, or aspirated tenuis. 
 
 In modern Greek therefore, as far as the sound is con- 
 cerned, we may write indifferently, at least according to the 
 popular pronunciation, eft/3atVa) or ifxiraivai = emheno^ avrpa or 
 
 avbpa = andra, avrpov or avhpov = andron, ayKos or ayyos = dngos, 
 
 ivbvvco or ivTvvco = endyno. No one can doubt that this was 
 the case in ancient Greek from time immemorial, who will 
 consider such forms as Trareo) and ifilSaTeo), 'AfxppaKia and 
 
 'AfiTrpaKLa^ evTvvco and ivdvcOy ivreKex^ia and ivbekex^ia, ayKos 
 and ayyos, Bplyyos and OptyKOSj €vbov and ivTos, ivhoddia and 
 ipTocrdia, pwraKi^s and pvvhaKr). 
 
 Between p. and p, and v and p, pX and v\, /3 (or tt), 5, or r 
 respectively are inserted^ 
 
 So we have in ancient Greek, p^eo-TjpjSplay dv^pos, dp^XaKLo-Kco 
 or dp7rXaKL(TK(t)j TJplBXaKov or rjpTrXaKov. In modern Greek, x^A'" 
 
 ttKos for xaprjkos^ Kopop^nXo for KopoprjXo, p^Trpe, p^pe, OX ^pe for 
 /xcope. 
 
 P = r. 
 
 2 = X. 
 
 2 is often prefixed, as (rpiKpos, ancient Greek; crplyco, modern 
 Greek. 
 
 Double (7 in the later Attic dialect became tt, as in 
 Koo-o-vcjyos, k6ttv(J)os; the intermediate stage must have been 
 KOTo-vcjios, which is preserved in modern Greek. 
 
 So- in terminations like -dao-co in cf)v\d(T(Tco, Kopvo-aco, Sec, 
 stood originally for kJ, or 6j\ but afterwards apparently also 
 for yj instead of f, as in rda-crco and Trpda-o-co. Schleicher 
 imagines that in these cases ray- and npay- are softened from 
 TaK. and TTpaK, So we get in modern Greek cpvXdyco, ^v\d((o, 
 
 but (pvXaKTj. 
 
38 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK, 
 
 Before this letter n and k are sounded by the common 
 people as ^ and x I while, on the other hand, after ^ and x, 
 d has more the sound of r. This explains in ancient Greek 
 the forms oxSn and dKrrj, otttos and icpSos, avOts = a^Bis and 
 avTLs = a(pTLs, ivrevOcv and ivOevrev = ivreipBev and €if6€cj)T€v, re- 
 spectively. 
 
 Has no exact representative in any European language 
 that I know ; but is like a labial /^ and answers to /3 and the 
 German w, as their corresponding sharp sound. 
 
 X. 
 
 X is like the German ck in Back, but with this difference, 
 that the German ck becomes palatal by the influence of the 
 preceding vowel, while x is affected only by the vowel that 
 follows it. The same thing applies to g and 7. Thus the 
 Greek says '^-x^) "-X^? ra-x^Sj the German ex-co, ax-rj, raxvs. 
 
 Where the Greek says e-ycb the German says ey-o), dividing 
 the syllables differently. Thus to the Greek ear the German 
 pronunciation of these Greek words sounds like exto), a;^-?/, 
 rax'vs, iyTw, In the same way the German words lack-en, 
 mack-en, would naturally be read by Greeks Xd-x^v, f^d-x^v, 
 while irag-en would become rpa-yez/. 
 
 The prehistoric pronunciation of and x as pk, and kk in 
 haphazard and inkkorn, has left but the obsolescent relics, 
 laKxr], 2aTrcl)co^ oTr^iV, ^poKxos, and these for the most part only 
 when required by the exigencies of metre. In modern 
 Greek Kkurdistan is written Y^x^vhidTdv, 
 
 X and K are often interchanged, as Se^ojuat deKOfxat, cr^fXl? 
 
ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 39 
 
 (tk€\l9 ; SO in modern Greek especially after o-, as o-kl^co, 
 
 (TKoXacrfia, (TKoXeLo for o'x^C'^) crxoXao-fia, (T)(o\€loi> * but also 
 KapK€(7L for Kapxrjcnov, 
 
 as the representative of tto-, cj) (v consonantal) a, jSa, requires 
 no further comment. 
 
 The Aspirate. 
 
 This is no longer heard in modern Greek, and we do not 
 know that it was ever sounded as /i, though it is not easy to 
 conceive of its having been sounded otherwise. The fact 
 is, the so-called rough breathing stood properly for some 
 letter which had been left out at the beginning of a word, 
 more especially for 0-. Often too it was written where it had 
 no etymological meaning, and often omitted where we 
 should expect to find it. If it had any sound it was most 
 likely that of k, and like that letter in Latin, extremely evan- 
 escent. The Latin /^ is a mere sign in all the modern Latin 
 dialects, except in French, where a distinction is made be- 
 tween an aspirated and an unaspirated k. But even in French 
 neither the one nor the other is sounded (at any rate so far 
 as the English ear can detect) ; and the only difference 
 between the h in /ladzf and the k in /larpe is, that it is the 
 custom to cut off the vowel of the article before the one and 
 not before the other. So, too, in ancient Greek the only 
 difference between the rough and the smooth breathing may 
 have been that it was the custom to turn k, n, r into x, </>» ^ 
 before words which had the rough breathing, whereas before 
 the smooth breathing they remained unaltered; while even 
 this characteristic was effaced in the Ionic dialect. 
 
 In modern Greek, though the rough breathing is not 
 heard, it affects the pronunciation of a preceding tenuis ; and 
 
40 ON THE PRONUNCIATION OF GREEK. 
 
 several compounds, as icfy^ros for eneros, fxeSavpiov for fi€TavpL0Vj 
 
 show that the people have exercised their instinct in this 
 matter quite independently of, because occasionally at va- 
 riance with, grammatical traditions. They say too, dcj) ov, 
 
 d<j)*6T0V, but KOTi, dnoXovs, 
 
 The law of compensation with regard to aspirated con- 
 sonants, as seen in such forms as x^'^P«> Kvdpa, x^'^^^y klOcov, 
 &c., also holds good in modern Greek; e.g. Kox^^dpiov, 
 losing its x? becomes x^^^^^P^-^^- 
 
 The result of our comparison of modern Greek pronun- 
 ciation with what appears to have been the pronunciation of 
 classical times, is that even in the minutest particulars, so far 
 as we can trace them, the same phonetic laws were at work 
 in the time of Homer and of Thucydides as are at work 
 now, and that they produced the same results. Can any one 
 believe that anything short of a miracle could have pro- 
 duced so exact a coincidence, except upon the assumption 
 that the pronunciation now prevailing is in the main at least 
 identical with that of ancient times ? 
 
 The consideration of the question is, however, incomplete 
 until we have discussed, as we propose doing in the next 
 chapter, the kindred subject of Accent and Quantity. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 
 Accent and Quantity. 
 
 Quantity, ixlyeOos, was the foundation of ancient Greek 
 verse, though, as we shall see, by no means its Only regulating 
 principle. In modern Greek, quantitative verse no longer 
 exists, and therefore the quantity of syllables has lost the chief 
 significance which it once possessed. That quantity was 
 ever recognized in pronunciation apart from metrical con- 
 siderations there is but small evidence to show ; whereas we 
 know that accents were introduced by Aristophanes of By- 
 zantium about two hundred years before Christ, in order to 
 preserve the true pronunciation of Greek at the time when it 
 was becoming the vernacular of many Oriental races. The 
 apparent influence which quantity had on accent is to a 
 great extent, if not altogether, imaginary — the result of an 
 artificial theory. The reason that avOpanrov is not written 
 avSpcoTTov, is by no means that ov is a long syllable, but simply 
 because avOpayirov Stands for avBpdoTroa-'Lo, dvdpa>7roiOj and the 
 accent did not admit of being put further back than the last 
 syllable but one. In ttoXccos, cos is no contraction, but 
 simply stands for os ; consequently the accent is not drawn 
 forward. 
 
 With regard to modern Greek, it is neither correct to say, 
 
4^ ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 with Sophocles, that all vowel sounds are isochronous, nor 
 with Mr. W. G. Clark (^Journal of Philology/ p. 105), 'that 
 the stress in modern Greek is exactly like our own, and is 
 given by prolonging the sound as well as raising the voice. 
 Thus \6yos^ ovosy ap0p(O7TO9 are pronounced Xcoyoy, Svos, aV- 
 dpoTTos/ The examples which Mr. Clark adduces are correct 
 as regards the fact, while they sufficiently refute the assertion 
 of Sophocles that all vowel sounds in Greek are isochronous. 
 But Mr. Clark has been misled with respect to the true 
 explanation of the lengthening of the syllables in question, 
 and that not only as regards Greek, but equally as regards 
 English. 
 
 Neither in Greek, nor in English, has the accent or stress 
 any power to lengthen a vowel sound, although the absence 
 of accent may in certain cases, and especially in EngHsh, 
 tend to obliterate the sound of a" vowel. In English as in 
 Greek, and in almost all languages, when a syllable ends in 
 a consonant, the preceding vowel is short; when in a 
 vov/el, that vowel is mostly long ; a very simple and intel- 
 ligible law of compensation, which in Hebrew is an estab- 
 Hshed rule. 
 
 It is surely a strange thing that most scholars should have 
 concurred in regarding the combination or simultaneous 
 recognition in pronunciation of accent and quantity, as an 
 insoluble problem ; for we ourselves solve the problem 
 practically in every sentence we utter. The accent con- 
 tinually falls on a short syllable, as getting, picking, impossible^ 
 critical; while a long syllable, whether long by virtue of the 
 number of consonants heard, or by the long or diphthongal 
 sound of the vowel, is perpetually found without the accent : 
 abnormal^/lnancial, fertile, perfume, perfect, a priori, which is 
 nearly always so pronounced, in spite of the fact that the 
 first i is short in Latin. So that we may say of this, as of 
 many an other imaginary difficulty, solvitur amhulando. 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 43 
 
 Nobody will any longer believe in the reality of the 
 supposed conflict between accent and quantity, who con- 
 siders for one moment its origin, which is nothing but our 
 application to Greek of the principles of Latin accentuation. 
 In Latin it is a rule that the accent always falls upon the 
 penultimate when long, and in words of more than two 
 syllables, never w^hen short. So that one may say that, 
 wherever it is possible, the long syllables receive an accent^ 
 and the short ones are unaccented. Every language has 
 its own law of accentuation, and this was the Latin law, 
 as far as we know it from Quinctilian, and a very simple 
 and natural law it was; but perhaps there is scarcely any 
 other language on the face of the globe whose system of 
 stress is so uniform and monotonous. Now, just because 
 the Latin accent, however fallaciously applied to Greek, does 
 in a remarkable manner tend to preserve to a great extent 
 (though by no means completely) the quantity of syllables, 
 the notion has arisen that it could not be otherwise pre- 
 served. That this notion is completely false is practically 
 shown, first in our own language, secondly in Latin, in 
 which we have to recognise, and do recognise, the length 
 of the many long syllables which it is impossible even 
 according to the Latin system to accent, and lastly in 
 Greek as spoken in the present day, in which not only, 
 as in every other language, are syllables containing several 
 contiguous consonants long by the very nature of the 
 case, but of the vowels some are always long, as v, i, ot, et, 
 and others common, as e, at, w, ou, the latter being long 
 or short according as they stand at the end of a syllable 
 or are followed by a consonant. Besides this, it is to be 
 observed that all the common vowels sound short before p. 
 The accent, so far from altering the quantity, only tends 
 to make it more distinctly heard. For instance, ovp has 
 the ov always short, but this is far more distinctly heard 
 
44 ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 
 
 in <l)ayovpa than in ovpd] so, too, atp is always short, but 
 this is far more plainly heard in i^alpeais = e^epeats, than 
 in alpeTLKos. liy, OS, when belonging to one syllable, are 
 always short, but this strikes us more forcibly in the pro- 
 nunciation of TrpaynaTLKcos, than in that of 6cnrr]TL0v, 
 
 Erasmus himself never recommended the disuse of the 
 Greek accent in pronunciation, and very well draws out the 
 distinction between accent and quantity as follows. He puts 
 his lesson into the mouth of a bear, who is made to say : — 
 ' There are some men so dense as to confound stress with 
 length of sound, while the two things are as different as 
 possible. A sharp sound is one thing, a long sound is another, 
 Intensiveness is not the same thing as extensiveness. And 
 yet 1 have known learned men, who, in sounding the words 
 avexov kol dnexovy lengthened the middle syllable with all 
 their might and main, just because it has the acute accent, 
 though it is short by nature, in fact as short as a syllable 
 could be. Why, the very donkeys might teach us the 
 difference between accent and quantity, for they, when they 
 bray, make the sharp sound short, and the deep one long.' 
 Yet Erasmus is wrong in maintaining that the syllable 
 formed by the v€ in dvexov is as short as a syllable can be, 
 if by that he means that the € has the shortest possible 
 sound, inasmuch as standing, as it does, at the end of 
 a syllable, it is inevitably lengthened more or less. The 
 followers of Erasmus in Germany, however vicious their 
 pronunciation in other respects, invariably read Greek so 
 that the accent shall be heard, and never dream that they 
 are sacrificing quantity. 
 
 Our prejudice, then, against accents is for the most part 
 insular, and deepened moreover by the insular peculiarities 
 of our pronunciation. This is especially the case with 
 respect to long and short v, which we ordinarily pronounce 
 in exactly the same manner, namely as you. The result 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 45 
 
 of this is, that when we want to show the difference between 
 long and short v^ we have no other means open to us than 
 that of laying a stress on the long v and leaving the short 
 unaccented. In tjvtvx^I' and virevSwos we pronounce the 
 V as yot^, i. e. really long, and we only distinguish between 
 the long V in the one case and the short v in the other 
 by flying in the face of the Greek accent, and reading 
 the words respectively rjvTvx^t and vTrevdvvos. In this case, 
 so far from preserving the true quantity by the use of the 
 Latin accent, we are only covering a false one. 
 
 The foregoing considerations must have made it plain 
 to every one who has followed them, that the Latin accent 
 is neither an indispensable nor an infallible means of 
 marking the right quantity of Greek syllables. Such dif- 
 ference of quantity as is still recognised in modern Greek and 
 other modern languages, so far from being obscured or 
 altered, is only more strongly brought out by the accent. 
 And although, as a matter of fact, the quantities of Greek 
 vowel sounds at the present day no longer exactly cor- 
 respond to the ancient quantities, yet it would be very easy 
 to preserve and recognise the ancient quantities if there 
 were any object in so doing. It is inconceivable that the 
 difl"erence between a long and a short a or t in ancient 
 Greek was ever anything but a very subtle and evanescent 
 one, to a great extent artificial and based upon the usage 
 of scansion; and one, as w^e know, singularly inconstant 
 and varying. 
 
 The lengthening of o, however, seems plainly to have 
 occurred subject to the very same conditions as in the 
 present day. '"oXos- and ovXo^, /3oXo/xat and ISovXojiaL, fiovos and 
 fjLovvo9, ov\oiJL€vr]v^ Alokov, vocros and vovaos, all present us with 
 cases of o lengthened by position, that is, because it stands 
 before but one consonant. Why do we never find novaos and 
 rovaos, but always Troao-os and ToVcros, when the metre requires 
 
46 ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 
 
 it? Simply because at that early period of the Greek 
 language the o- was felt to be, as it etymologically is, really 
 double; ttqctos and t6(to9 standing respectively for ttoVo-o? 
 and TOG-GTos^ i. e. (originally) ttoo-los and t6o-los ; of which the 
 & being consonantal, the a- belongs to the preceding syllable, 
 making it impossible to lengthen the vowel. Thus we see 
 that the greater the consonantal fxeyeOos of a syllable, the 
 less the ^eyedos of the vowel, and vice versa. It is therefore 
 incorrect to speak of the a in ^\a^ being long by position; 
 it is short by position, and that just because the syllable is 
 consonantally long. In AioXoi;, on the other hand, the o is 
 long by position, or at least has a tendency to become so, 
 though short by nature. 
 
 Having established, then, the variable and uncertain nature 
 of quantity among the ancient Greeks, and, except so 
 far as it was of etymological significance or depended on 
 syllabification, its arbitrary and artificial character, we will 
 proceed to enquire what was meant respectively by accent, 
 Trpoo-co^ia, emphasis, or stress in Greek, and how it was related 
 to quantity and quantitative rhythm. 
 
 Mr. W. G. Clark, in his Essay on ^ English Pronunciation 
 of Greek,' quotes in answer to the question how emphasis 
 is given, the words of Priscian : ^ Vox tripartite dividitur, 
 scilicet altitudine,latitudine, longitudine,' and remarks thereon: 
 ' Thus a syllable may be emphasized in three w^ays — 
 
 1 . by raising the note ; 
 
 2. by increasing the amount of sound ; 
 
 3. by prolonging the sound.' 
 
 ^Emphasis,' he observes, 'may be given by employing 
 each of these methods, or any two of them, or all three 
 together.' 
 
 On this we have only to remark, that i and 2 usually 
 go together. By raising the note we necessarily, if we 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 47 
 
 employ the same quantity of breath, also increase the sound, 
 inasmuch as we economize breath. So the shriller whistle 
 of a steam-engine, ceteris paribus, is always the louder. 
 
 Emphasis by prolongation, though possible, is certainly 
 very rare, if it ever occurs. 
 
 ' What we blend,' Mr. Clark proceeds, ' both Greeks and 
 Latins kept distinct,' meaning i and 3. This is not quite 
 accurate. We, that is Englishmen, and certainly the speakers 
 of most modern languages, do not, as we have seen, blend 
 together i and 3, whereas the Latins did so far blend them, 
 that while they never lengthened a syllable because it was 
 accented, they did as far as possible accent it where it was 
 long. 
 
 ' In modern Greek the ancient tradition is so far preserved 
 that the stress, as a rule, falls upon the syllable which in 
 ancient Greek received^e accent and in pronouncing which 
 the voice was raised/ 'But,' continues Mr. Clark in the words 
 already quoted and called in question, * the stress in modern 
 Greek is exactly like our own,' which is so far correct.. 
 * and is given by prolonging the sound as well as by raising 
 the note.' Even w^ere it true that the accent sometimes con- 
 tributes to lengthen the sound of a vowel, it would be ob- 
 viously only an accident of the emphasis and not part of 
 it. The many cases (and they are the majority) in which 
 a syllable is accented without any lengthening of the vowel, 
 were sufficient to show that emphasis is given in modern 
 as in ancient Greek simply by raising the musical or quasi- 
 musical note, and not by prolonging the sound. But Pro- 
 fessor Max Mliller, in one of his (I believe unpublished) 
 lectures, has discovered an entirely new difference between 
 ancient and modern accentuation, which, though nearer the 
 truth on the whole than Mr. Clark's, is also very much 
 at variance with what I am compelled to regard as the fact. 
 He says that the ancient accent indicated a musical elevation 
 
48 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 of the tone, while the modern accent indicates simply stress. 
 But what is 'stress?' Is it not an elevation of the tone? 
 Mr. Clark and every one else has allowed that, whatever 
 else they may suppose it to imply. Now the only difference 
 between a musical and an unmusical intonation is this, that 
 a musical tone consists of regular waves of sound, while 
 an unmusical tone is a jarring irregular succession of un- 
 equal vibrations. That the ancients spoke more musically 
 than we do, especially the ancient Greeks, may be readily 
 admitted, but that they absolutely sang all their words will 
 not be easily believed by any one, and would render com- 
 pletely nugatory the distinction between singing and speaking, 
 which is as old at least as the literature and records of any 
 known people. It is then, therefore, merely a question of 
 degree as to the regularity, that is the music, of ancient 
 and modern intonation. Of all cultivated languages, English 
 is perhaps the least musical, except possibly Dutch. Then 
 comes German as spoken in the north, after that German 
 as spoken in the south. More musical are French, Welsh, 
 especially in the pulpit, Spanish, and Italian. But the 
 Greeks, especially when excited in preaching or public speak- 
 ing, intone so melodiously, that something very like a tune is 
 heard, of which the higher notes are always the more em- 
 phatic syllables. So that if musical intonation really was 
 characteristic of ancient Greek accentuation, this feature 
 has been most faithfully preserved. The written signs for 
 Greek accents, as we have them, are attributed to Aristo- 
 phanes of Byzantium, but some kind of notation for marking 
 stress must have existed before his time. Not only does 
 Aristoxenus, Aristotle's scholar, treat of accents, but a verse 
 of Euripides has been discovered with accentual marks 
 written on the walls of Herculaneum; and Plato himself 
 used the word Trpoo-cobla, the grammarian's term for a written 
 accent. It is just possible that Trpodcodla may mean in Plato 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 49 
 
 only the accent as heard, and not also as written, but this 
 is not very likely. The Greek system of accentuation bears 
 a close affinity to that of Sanscrit. 
 
 Excepting isolated dialectic divergences, as koXos for koXos, 
 which for the most part have survived in various modern 
 dialects of Greece, the general system of accentuation was, 
 as its high antiquity would lead us to expect, everywhere 
 the same, and there cannot be the smallest doubt that the 
 Homeric poems were accented in the main as we have them. 
 
 Now in what relation did accent stand to quantity ? 
 
 The usual reply is^ that it had nothing whatever to do 
 with it, and just in this very point is said to lie the difference 
 between modern and ancient versification. 
 
 But this is not the case, for, in the first place, the w^ord 
 'accent,' although the foundation of modern scansion, as 
 the quantity of syllableT^was the foundation of ancient Greek 
 versification, yet is by no means sufficient of itself to account 
 for the run of a line. Both in ancient and modern poetry 
 the apxtreKTovLKT], or sovereign science, as the Rev. G. Perkins 
 well points out in the 'Journal of Philology' (vol. i. 253-263), 
 is not metre, nor quantity, nor accent, but rhythm, to which 
 the former are merely subsidiary. 
 
 The recognition of the dominant importance of rhythm 
 is due mainly to Bock, and the verification and development 
 of the theory to Rossbach and Westphal, who are followed 
 with some modifications by Dr. Heinrich Schmidt in his work 
 entitled ' Die Eurhythmie,' of which only the first part, 'Die 
 Eurhythmie in den Chorgesangen der Griechen,' has at pre- 
 sent appeared. The relation of rhythm to metre and quantity 
 are so well expressed by Mr. Perkins in his essay above 
 alluded to, that I can hardly do better than quote his 
 words : — 
 
 * The master-science, that to which metric is subsidiary, and for which 
 alone it exists, is the science of rhythm. The facts and details of the 
 
 E 
 
50 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 mere metrician are to rhythmic what shaped stones and carved timbers 
 are to architecture, not dictating the character of the structm'e, but 
 themselves liable to be altered in subordination to the builder's thought. 
 And when we consider how strong and self-willed is the rhythmical 
 faculty, how we can make a clock tick to almost any time, it would be 
 strange indeed if man's own creation, language, refused obedience to 
 this plastic energy. Well, one way, and a most important way, in which 
 rhythm asserts its dominion over metre is, that while recognizing and 
 dealing with the metrical feet, it strips them of their independent cha- 
 racter and individual ictus, and makes them parts of new and larger 
 groups (to which the old rhythmic still gives the name oi feet), held 
 together by one dominant ictus. Take for instance Tennyson's Locksley 
 Hall. Assuming as we must that accent not quantity determines the 
 relation of the syllables in English verse, the metre is trochaic tetra- 
 meter catalectic. Yet no one would think of reading it by single 
 trochees, with an equal stress on the first syllable of each. There may 
 be some arbitrariness, more or less diversity in our modes of grouping 
 and accenting, but group them we do. Most readers probably break 
 the line into two rhythmical feet, each of four trochees, allowing for 
 the catalexis in the last half; though they might not be equally agreed 
 about the syllables on which to place the ictus. The scanning of some 
 of the classical metres by dipodiae instead of single feet, which is gene- 
 rally recognized as essential to the beauty of the verse, is itself a 
 rhythmical rather than a metrical process. 
 
 ' But rhythm does more than combine a succession of metrical feet 
 into a larger rhythmical foot with a single ictus. It takes liberties 
 with metrical quantity, and declares that under certain circumstances 
 a spondee or a dactyl shall be delivered as a trochee, that the 2 : 2 
 relation shall for the time cease, and become, if not precisely 2:1, 
 something sufficiently near to pass for it.' 
 
 The proof that the modern rhythmicians are right in their 
 principle is, that they have reduced the seeming anarchy 
 of Choric and Pindaric verse to order, law, and rhythmical 
 harmony, appreciable even by our modern ears. What 
 before was mere prose they have rendered into poetry. 
 Quantity, then, is not all in all in ancient Greek poetry, 
 neither is accent all in all in modern verse. 
 
 Here at once the absolute opposition between accent 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 51 
 
 and quantity is somewhat softened as soon as they appear 
 but subordinate parts of a higher unity, namely rhythm. 
 Again, the quantity of syllables is not wholly disregarded 
 in modern poetry; it is impossible that it should be so. 
 Glanced must be felt to be a longer syllable than met; the 
 tongue cannot possibly get over the one in the same time 
 that it gets over the other : and English verses in which the 
 strongest ictus always fell upon the shortest syllables would 
 be felt to be intolerably bad. If any one will compare Lord 
 Derby's translation of the Iliad with that of Cowper, he must 
 see that just in this respect the rhythm of the former is far 
 superior to that of the latter. To illustrate the difference 
 by an extreme and, as regards Cowper, merely fictitious case, 
 let us suppose that where Lord Derby translates 
 
 ' Prone in the dust he gnashed the brazen point/ 
 which (rhythmically) would have sounded still better had 
 it been 
 
 ' Prone on the ground he gnashed the brazen point/ 
 
 Cowper had rendered 
 
 * Upon a sod he bit a metal head/ 
 
 which is rather worse in point of rhythmical grandeur than 
 
 * Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled pepper.* 
 
 But how much worse still may the rhythm be made, by 
 lengthening every syllable which has no ictus, thus (the 
 reader must excuse the time-honoured practice of nonsense 
 verses), — 
 
 * Stretched thiis each bit each other's leg and head.* 
 
 And yet the ictus falls far more regularly (in as far as ictus 
 and word-accent may be regarded as identical) than in Lord 
 Derby's noble line. Not only then is accent not everything 
 in modern poetry, but quantity is plainly something. If we 
 can now show that accent too was something in ancient 
 Greek poetry, then the difference between quantitative and 
 
 E 2 
 
5^ ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 accentual rhythm will resolve itself into one of degree, and 
 rhythm will appear the one great unifying principle, the all 
 in all of both modern and ancient verse. Now, as Mr. 
 Clark remarks, 'We may infer from Aristotle (De Soph. 
 Elenchis, c. iv.) that the accent was heard in the recitation 
 of Homer, and from the famous story of the mistake m^ade 
 by the actor Hegelochus in line 279 of the Orestes of Euri- 
 pides, we may infer that it was heard also in stage dialogue/ 
 Again, in Plato's Republic (399 a), Socrates, who is dis- 
 cussing with Adimantus which are the best kinds of music 
 for educating the warrior classes in his ideal city, says, Ovk 
 
 olba TCLS dpiMOVias' aXKa KaraXeLTTe yioi eKcivrjv ttjv dpfiovlap, rj ev re 
 TroXefiLKTJ 7rpd^€L ovtos dvbpetov kol iv Trdarj IBtaico ipyacria 7rp€7T6vT(09 
 av [XifJirjo-aLTO (pdoyyovs re kol Trpoo-co^tas. 
 
 This not only proves that in lyric poetry the accents had 
 some significance, but it shows moreover that there were 
 certain tunes, or classes of tunes, in which the rhythmical, 
 which as rhythmicians tell us, must have been also the 
 musical, beat, coincided more or less with the natural emin" 
 ciaiion and the accentual stress. 
 
 On the other hand Aristoxenus, a pupil of Aristotle, tells 
 
 us, Aei TTjv (pcovTjv iv ro) fieXo^de'LV rag pev iTnTaaets kol dvio-ets 
 
 d(pave2s iroLeioSai, Now there are two ways in which the 
 natural or accentual stress of words may be obscured, either 
 by the musical beat (time) running counter to it, or by the 
 musical note rising just where in the natural stress the voice 
 would be depressed. 
 
 In modern verse some account is nearly always taken of 
 the accent, but at the same time we often have two distinct 
 rhythms, a musical one, and a metrical or accentual one ; 
 or indeed we may say, that every accentual or metrical 
 rhythm is capable of being accommodated (and in the pro- 
 cess of accommodation, more or less sacrificed) to very 
 various musical rhythms. The musical rhythm modifies or 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ^'^ 
 
 disturbs the natural or accentual, both by the non-coincidence 
 of its ictus, and by the lengthening (or rovr^ as the Greeks 
 called it) of certain syllables. Thus in a popular modern 
 Greek song the lines 
 
 Apeyjrare ttoKlv ipao-rai ev^aLfiovas vapKL(r(TOVs, 
 'n6 Tov Malov Tovs Teprrvovs kol cvoideis Trapadeicrovs' 
 Kai TTjv TTapdevov (rrey^are -qris cos avSos kXlvcl' 
 *Eya) dev kotttco 8t* e/xe* dneSavev €K€Lprj . . . 
 
 becomes, when sung, 
 
 Apeyf/d-a-a-Te 7rd | Xlv e-e-i-paa-rat 
 
 "Evdalai-aifJLOvds | vapKL-i-l-Lcro-ovs 
 
 'n6 Tov-ov-ov fxat I ov tov-ovs repTTVOvs 
 
 Kal cvcoheis ira- | kcll evcadeis ira | -pabel-CL-el-eLcrovs 
 
 Kai Tr)v napSe-e-evov areyj/a-d-aTe I tjtls cos a-a-dvSos Kkivcicieiei 
 
 'Eyo) hev kotttco bi ipe, | aTreSavev €K€L-eL-€L-€L-vr], 
 
 For the most part, however, we may say that the musical 
 rhythm, in English, must bear a very close relation to the 
 accentual. Still closer, may we infer, was the relation be- 
 tween musical time and rhythm with ancient Greeks, inas- 
 much as all their quantitative measures seem to have been 
 formed with a direct view to music, whereas much of our 
 own verse is only accidentally accommodated to a tune by 
 an after-thought, or vice versa, the composer and the poet 
 being usually two different persons. 
 
 The difference then between a recited and a sung verse 
 would be found in Greek neither in the metre nor in the 
 rhythm, but only in the tone, that is, the ^ elevation,' of the 
 voice. In other words, in recitation the accent was heard ; 
 in singing it might certainly be felt, as with us, but as far 
 as sound goes it was swallowed up in the music. This is 
 the view of Dr. Heinrich Schmidt (Eurhythmie, p. 13), ac- 
 cording to whom the verse ictus = a louder sound, the word 
 
54 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. . 
 
 accent = musical elevation of tone, Mr. Clark, in the Essay 
 above referred to, propounds a view exactly the opposite, 
 supposing that the accent was heard in recitation only by 
 means of an increase in the amount of sound, i. e. by the 
 accented syllables being sounded louder than the rest. But 
 if this were so, what, according to Mr. Clark's theory, be- 
 came of the ictus and the rhythm ? For he says, ^ When 
 the rhapsodists recited epic poems in the open air to the 
 assembled multitudes at Olympia or Crissa, they must have 
 chanted in monotone or nearly so, else they could not have 
 been heard by the vast audience. So also in the theatres, 
 the players who had to make themselves audible to thirty 
 thousand spectators, must have chanted the dialogue in a 
 kind of ad libitum recitative.' How then, one naturally asks, 
 was the ictus of the verse represented 1 Not by raoit forcible 
 or louder utterance, for that, according to Mr. Clark, was the 
 way in which the word-accent was shown. Not by elevation 
 in the pitch, because that is excluded by monotone. The 
 fact is, ictus, which is the very essence of rhythm, has been 
 overlooked by Mr. Clark altogether. He supposes that 
 quantity constitutes the essence of rhythm. A more complete 
 mistake could not be made. A number of long and short 
 syllables may lie together in the order in which they stand in 
 a hexameter verse, but ictus alone can separate them into 
 bars, and, as by a magician's touch, clothe the dead skeleton 
 of syllables with the life and vigour of a rhythmical succes- 
 sion. Mr. Perkins, in his Essay above quoted, well remarks 
 that we can make a clock tick to any time ; and we may 
 add, a railway train often seems, by the rattling of its wheels 
 over the regular intervals made by the joining of the rails, 
 to beat time to a great variety of tunes, according as our 
 fancy, or perhaps an occasional jolt, causes us to place the 
 ictus here or there. Now this would be just the result with 
 the hexameter, if the ictus had not been distinctly given: 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. ^^ 
 
 the pause at the end of the line, and the quantity, would have 
 done something, but very litde, towards leading the ear 
 towards the right ictus, and the general rhythmical effect 
 would have been as uncertain, or nearly so, as the ticking of 
 a clock or the jolting of a railway train. The main thing 
 must then have been to show the tc/us. If the reciter 
 took care of the ic/us, the accent would take care of itself. 
 Certainly the accent would only be heard in as far as the 
 recitative departed from the completeness of monotone. 
 And some such slight departure did, I doubt not, occur; 
 for to chant in perfect monotone is all but as impossible 
 of execution, as it is wearisome to the ear. Yet, I must 
 confess the great difficulty here is a practical one. It is 
 very hard to realize the distinction between a high and a 
 loud note, not indeed in theory, but in practice. It is hard 
 to say whether in the language of ordinary life syllables are 
 emphasized by being pronounced in a louder tone or in a 
 higher key ; the two seem always to go hand in hand. And 
 this is really the difficulty to the modern reciter of quantita- 
 tive verse : not how to combine quantity with accent, that 
 is a very simple thing, and is a problem which we solve 
 practically in every sentence we utter ; but how to combine, 
 and at the same time distinguish, the accent of the word, 
 and the ictus or beat of the verse. Yet, after all, the difficulty 
 is one of small significance. As we have before observed, 
 the accent would be always felt, whether heard or not, and 
 could be no more mentally ignored than it is in a modern 
 song, where very frequently it is in direct opposition to the 
 musical beat. 
 
 That notice was taken of the accent in writing verses will 
 appear from the following considerations. First, we cannot 
 ignore the accent even in modern song, w^here the musical 
 beat by no means necessarily coincides with the accentual. 
 Here, if the coincidence is too marked and constant, we get 
 
^6 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 a jingling and monotonous effect. If, on the other hand, the 
 musical beat is always at variance with the accentual, then 
 we feel at once that the tune was never made for the words. 
 
 Precisely the same relation should we a priori suspect to 
 subsist between the rhythm ( = scansion = musical beat) of a 
 Greek verse and its accentual emphasis. In other words, 
 we should expect the accent as a rule neither wholly to 
 coincide nor wholly to clash with the scansion, and this 
 is precisely the case. Those lines in the ancient poets in 
 which accent and rhythmical ictus exactly coincide, as well as 
 those in which they are exactly opposed, are the exceptions, 
 occasionally introduced no doubt by way of variety, but 
 avoided as a rule. 
 
 Of lines in which the accentual and quantitative rhythm 
 coincide, I borrow the following examples from Mr. Sophocles' 
 ' Modern Greek Grammar,' and * Glossary of Later and 
 Byzantine Greek,' pp. 21 and 50 respectively. 
 
 Iliad, ii. 188:— 
 
 ' OvTiva [Jiiv ^aacXrja kol e^oxov avbpa Ki')(€Lr]. 
 
 Odyssee, ii. 121 : — 
 
 Tdciiv ovTLs oyioia vo-qfjiara Hi^vekoTT^ir}, 
 
 lb. ii. 225 : — 
 
 MevTcop 69 p* 'Odvarjos dfxvjJLOvos r)€V iraipog, 
 
 Aristophanes, Ach. 682 : — 
 
 "Avbpa TlScovov aTrapdrrcov kol TapdrTOiv kol kvicwv^ 
 lb. Eq. 317:— 
 
 Tots' dypoLKOKTiv TTavovpycd^ coorre (patvecrOaL 7ra-)(y, 
 
 lb. Vesp. 38 :— 
 
 T^9 dpTOTTcoKibos \a66vT eKki-^ajxev tov oXfxoi/, 
 
 lb. Lys. 310 : — 
 
 Kap [XT] KoXovvTOiV TOV? po^ovs ;(aXa)0"tz^ al yvvoLK^?. 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 57 
 
 Mr. Sophocles gives many more instances, which might no 
 doubt be considerably multiplied. 
 
 He also adduces, among others, the following examples 
 of a double rhythm, the one accentual, the other quantitative. 
 
 Quantitative Trochaics, 
 Aeschylus, Pers. 157-159: — 
 
 '£1 ^adv^ayvcDV apao-cra Xlepo-iScDv VTrepTaTTj 
 MrjTTjp T] ISep^ov yepaia, ;^alp6, Aaptlov yvvai, 
 GeoG pev cvvdreipa Hepacov, Seov be kol pr]T7]p ecpvSy 
 'Hv tl pr) dalpcov TraXaio? 
 
 Aristophanes, Ach. 676, 712, 718; Nub. 576, 585:— 
 
 Ol yipovT€9 ol TToXatol p€p(j)6p€(rSa rfj ttoXcl, 
 To7s veoLCTL §* evpvTrpcoKTOs kol \akos x^ KXetvlov^ 
 Tov yepovTa T(o~~yepovTiy top veov bi tcj veco, 
 HdtKTjpevaL yap vplv pepcpopeaff ivavrlov, 
 Trju OpvaWid^ els eavTov evdeoas ^vve\Kvaas, 
 
 Accentual iambic tetrameters, or (ttIxoi ttoXltlkoI, the same 
 as all the modern Greek popular ballads. 
 
 Accentual Trochaics. 
 lb. Nub. 1045; Vesp. 241, 244; Lys. 313, 365:— 
 
 Ka/rot Tiva yvayprjv excav yf/eyeis to. Seppa \ovTpa ; 
 '2lpI3\ov de (pao-t ;^p77/xara)i/ exeLV dnavTes avrou, 
 'Ett' avTov cos Kokovpevovs hv rj^iK-qo-ev' dX\d. 
 Tls ^vXXdlSoiT av tov ^vkov tcou ev 'Edpco CTTpaTrjyayv ; 
 ' Atttov povov ^Tp(iTvK\lbos rw baKTiiXco TrpoaekScov. 
 
 Quantitatively scanned, these have the rhythm of the (ttIxos 
 TToXiTiKos, more usually found as an accentual measure. 
 
 Rare as such exceptions are, we cannot attribute them to 
 accident. Their comparatively frequent occurrence in Aris- 
 tophanes is in itself suggestive. Is it not extremely probable 
 that such lines were inserted by the poet, that it might be 
 
58 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 optional to the actor, as he judged best for comic effect, 
 either to say or sing them, that is, to say them according 
 to the accent, or to sing them according to the quantity? 
 That accentual rhythm was perfectly well understood by 
 the ancients, and was in fact among some nations at least 
 much older than quantitative, is almost certain. The Satur- 
 nian measure among the Romans, the epic metre of the 
 old German poetry, as the ' NiebelungenUed,' are essentially 
 the same as the English popular measure, so often found 
 in nursery rhymes, and ballads. Byron compares, 
 
 ' A captain bold of Halifax, who lived in country quarters,' 
 
 with 
 
 EtTTe [xas a> (piXeXkijva ttcos (p€p€LS rrjv CTKXa^iav 
 Kat Tr]v drrapayoprjTou rcov TovpKcov rvpavviav. 
 
 We have just seen the same metre, both accentual and 
 quantitative, in Aristophanes. 
 
 In Latin and German it occurs in a somewhat mutilated 
 form : as indeed not unfrequently in English, e. g. 
 
 ' The king was in his counting house, | counting out his money, 
 The queen was in her parlour, | eating bread and honey.' 
 
 In the first line, if we divide it into two fcwXa, to use the 
 language of the rhythmicians, we get an external catalexis, 
 which we must remedy either by pause or by tovt] : in the 
 second line we have both internal and external catalexis, 
 which we must remedy, the first by rovq, and the second 
 by TOVT] or pause. 
 
 Compare the Saturnian verse :— 
 
 Quod re siia difeidens aspere afleicta 
 Parens timens heic vovit voto hoc soliito 
 Decuma facta poloiicta leibereis lubentes. 
 
 More uncouth and truncated still is the old German epic 
 metre : — 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 59 
 
 ' Gunther und Hagen die Recken wohl gethan. 
 Beriethen mit Untreuen ein'n Birschen in den Tann : 
 Mit ihren scharfen Spiessen wollten sie jagen gehn 
 Baren, Schwein und Biiffel ; was konnte kiihnres g'schehn.* 
 
 ' How such lines/ observes Mr. Clark, referring to the 
 (jTLxoL ttoXltlkoI above quoted, ' would have puzzled Aristoxe- 
 nus or Dionysius ! ' 
 
 I think Dionysius himself gives us a pretty clear answer 
 to the question what he would have thought of the ac- 
 centual modern heroic measure, when he gives as accentual 
 (Trpoacp^LKovs) the following lines which scan precisely in the 
 same way : — 
 
 Ov jBs^rfKo^ cos Xeyerat rov veov Aiovvaov 
 
 Kayo) b' i^epya(Tir}s [reading corrupt] o^pyiao-fjievos ^K(d, 
 
 Hephaestion's Enchiridion completes the triplet thus : — 
 
 'Odevcou HeXovaLttKov KPecfyaios irapa TsXjjLa. 
 
 We will now once more return to the question, What was 
 the value of the accent in quantitative rhythm ? To answer 
 that question it will be necessary to remind the reader once 
 more that rhythm is the apxireKTovLKr] of all verse, and 
 quantity and accent only the subordinate means of which 
 rhythm is the end. But rhythm would inevitably degenerate 
 into jingle if it were not for some counteracting tendency. 
 A verse which scans too easily runs away with the reader, 
 and rattles off with ever-increasing speed like a railway train. 
 Now there are two available means of checking this jingling or 
 rattling tendency. The one is quantity, the other is accent. 
 Both are available, whether in quantitative or in accentual 
 rhythm. Accentual rhythm is perhaps more Hable than 
 quantitative to degenerate into jingle, because the natural 
 accent of each word gives at once the rhythmical ictus ; the 
 verse consequently tends to scan itself. This tendency may 
 be remedied partly by the inherent quantity of certain long 
 
6o ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 
 
 syllables upon which no accent falls ; partly by introducing 
 an occasional variation between that rhythmical ictus which 
 is given by the general or pervading accentual scansion, and 
 the actual stress on particular words; so that the word- 
 accent shall only generally, and not in every case, represent 
 the rhythmical beat. Both means are needed, because, firstly, 
 in accentual rhythm, quantity is of so litde account, that 
 its retarding tendency is not sufficient of itself to prevent 
 a verse from becoming jingling and monotonous; and 
 secondly, the variation in accent must be restrained within 
 narrow limits, or it would spoil the music of the rhythm. 
 
 Compare the somewhat monotonous and jingling rhythm 
 of the ordinary modern Greek (ttIxos ttoXltlkos — 
 
 KaXa TO e^ovv ra ^ovva, Kokofioip eiv ol KafJiTTOL^ 
 
 liov Xdpov ^6u 7ravT€)(ovv€y Xdpov dev KapTepovve' 
 
 To KaXoKGipL rrpopara, kol tov xeipo^va ;;(ioz/ta. 
 
 Tpeis dvdpoofjLevoL fioukovrai tov adr) va TcraKiaovv^ 
 
 *0 evas Xeyee, tov Mat va (Byfj, aWos to KokoKaipiy 
 
 K' 6 TpiTos TO x.^voTTCopo^ 770V TTeipTovve TO. CJ)vXka. 
 
 Kopr] ^av6r] tovs ixlXyjaev avTOV 's tov KaTco KocrpLO' 
 
 ^ IldpT£ fjL€, dvdpcofievoi jjlov^ k ifxe '$• tov irdvco Kocrpio, 
 
 ' Koprjy jBpovTovv TO. pov^d o'ov, (pvcovv koX to. p.aWid aov^ 
 
 KTVTrdeL kol to Koklyi crov^ kol pas voydet 6 XdposJ 
 
 ' Eyo) TO, pov^a Pydvco Ta, Kal to, paWid to, ko^oh, 
 
 Kat TCi KakLyoTrdnovTcra *$• Trjv aKdXa t aTridovco. 
 
 UdpTe p€, dvdpcopevoi p,ov, k epe *s top Trdvoa Koapov, 
 
 Na Tvdco, va Idco ttj pdvva pov, ttcos ^Xt/Serat yia peva, 
 
 Na TrdcOy va iSw t dd€p(pLa pov, ttods KXatovv yia epeva. 
 
 * KopT], (T€va T dbep(pia aov els tov x^P^ x^P^^^^^? 
 
 Koprj, criva rj pdvva aov 's ttjv povya Kov^evvLd^ei, — • 
 
 with the lines quoted above :— 
 
 Ape\j/aT€ rrdXiv ipacrTai evBalpovas vapKLcrcrovs 
 
 'n6 TOV Matov T0V9 TepTTVovs Ka\ €v6)b€Ls 7rapabeL(TOV9* 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 6 1 
 
 Kat Tr]v TvapSevov aTe-yjrare, ^tl^ cos avSos kXlv€L' 
 'Eya> dev kotttcd bC e/xe* aiTeOavcv iKeivrj. 
 Aev KOTTTet, 6 avkpaaros jxvpcrivrjs KKdbov ttXcov' 
 XXevd^ei ttjv obvvqv tov to avBos to (jopalov. 
 AvvaTttL fjioi/ou TTevOijia^ Kvirdpio-crov, va bpeyfrrj 
 Be^aprjpevrjs K€(j)aXrjs to peTcoTTOv va a-Teyj/rj. 
 K' eyo) -qyaTVYjcra noTe, k iyco dvTrjya7Tr]6rjV' 
 'AXXa bev iXrjo-povrjo-a ttXtjv (pev ! eXrjo-povqdrjv. 
 Aeu etVafc 6 jStos Maios aloovios' bev eivai' 
 MapalpovTttL at dvdrjpal tov epcoTos pvp(TLvai' 
 Kat (f)€vy€L Tj veoTTjS pas, cos do-TpaTrrj Tax^la, 
 ^€ls opKOL (TTaOepoTrjTos els (ttyjOt] yvvaLKela. 
 
 Here it will be observed bpe^aTe stands as regards the 
 
 metre for bpeyj/^aTe, epacTTal for epaaTai, -^tis for tjtls, bvvaTai 
 for dvvaTai, dvSrjpal iov^JivSrjpai, d(TTpa7rrj for cio-TpaTrr], and SO 
 
 on : the word-accent sometimes clashing with the ictus, as 
 in bpeyf/aTe, bvvaTat, sometimes standing in the place of the 
 fainter ictus, as in do-TpaTrrj, PejBaprjpei^rjs, K€<pa\ris. The quantity 
 of certain syllables has also a retarding influence, as in 
 
 dvTrjyanrjSrjv, which Stands irrationallter for dvT7]ya7Tr}dr]v. I 
 
 consider the above one of the most perfect examples I have 
 met in any language, of melody without monotony, and 
 rhythm reHeved from jingle. 
 
 In quantitative verse the same principles may be seen 
 at work, but as accent is here the secondary element, and 
 one rather felt than heard, the influence of quantity as a 
 retarding force comes more prominently forward. The 
 hexameter, according to its original rhythmical intention, 
 consisted of dactyls, as 
 
 ^Avdpd poL evvene Mouora TrGKvTpoTTOv os pdXa TToWd, 
 
 with one spondee at the end to indicate, as it were, that 
 the rhythm had run itself out of breath, and must pause, 
 before beginning again. Here the long syllables, with the 
 
62 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 exception of the final syllaha anceps, all receive the ictus. 
 Spondees were then substituted for dactyls, in the hexameter 
 verse : — 
 
 *Tardior ut paullo graviorque rediret ad aures.' 
 
 It is true that, metrically, the long syllable is regarded 
 as equal to two short syllables, but the rhythmical effect 
 is different, because, now, long syllables occur without the 
 ictus. No one doubts that the spondaic hexameter is slower 
 and more majestic than the dactylic. A stronger measure 
 was adopted to restrain the impetuosity of the iambic tragic 
 verse, in accordance with the principle that Rest is the 
 chief characteristic of Greek tragedy. Here in alternate 
 feet long syllables were substituted for short at the discretion 
 of the poet. The ear tells us at once why the long syllables 
 were only allowed in the first half of each fierpov: that is, 
 before the second, and not before the fourth syllable. These 
 second syllables received the stronger ictus; therefore the 
 effect of the long syllable immediately preceding was par- 
 tially neutralized : had a long syllable stood before the 
 weaker ictus, it would have overpowered it, and spoilt 
 the rhythm. 
 
 So much for the influence of quantity considered as a 
 check to the rapidity of rhythm. 
 
 We shall now proceed to show that accent had also a real 
 though a secondary importance in this respect. The verses 
 of Virgil are acknowledged to run more smoothly than 
 those of Lucretius. Why.? Mainly, without a doubt, 
 because Virgil's scan accentually as well as quantitatively, 
 not indeed completely, or they would be mere jingle, but 
 comparatively. 
 
 Compare, for instance— 
 
 * Tityre, tii patulae recubans sub tegmine fagi 
 Silvestrem, tenui Musam meditaris avena,' 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 6^ 
 
 with . 
 
 * Quorum Agrigentinus cum primis Empedocles est.' 
 
 The fact is, Virgil seems to have exquisitely struck the 
 mean between lines that scan themselves and lines that can 
 hardly be scanned. None read like mere prose, none are 
 mere jingle. 
 
 Lucretius mostly fell into one of the two opposite extremes. 
 Either his lines read accentually, are mere prose, or they 
 scan themselves, which, though with him a rarer, is a yet 
 greater defect. E.g. — 
 
 ' Hie est vasta Charybdis et hie Aetnaea minantur.' 
 
 Such lines are great favourites with schoolboys, and are 
 proportionately rare in Virgil. 
 
 If we compare the Latin hexameter with the Greek, we 
 shall find the main difference to consist in this : that in 
 Latin, accent and ictus nearly always coincide at the end 
 of the verse, the contrary being only possible when the last 
 word is a monosyllable, as in 
 
 * Empedocles est ; odora canum vis : ' 
 
 inasmuch as the last syllable but one in Latin, if long, 
 invariably receives the stress. In Greek, on the other hand, 
 such endings as 
 
 akye* edrjKe^ AavaoicriP dprjyoiv 
 
 are common. 
 
 Greek verse has thus the advantage of very great variety 
 as compared with Latin. At the same time, the relation 
 of accent and ictus is so nicely observed, that there is hardly 
 in all Homer a line which, accentually read, sounds like 
 mere prose. 
 
 The same holds good of iambic verse, while in the choric 
 measures there is nearly always an accentual rhythm, which, 
 
64 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 though it does not exactly coincide with the quantitative j 
 is generally sufficient to indicate it : for example— 
 
 'icb y^veal ppor&u, 
 
 &)S vfJias icra kol to fjLrjbev ^o^o-as ivapiBfJico, 
 
 TLS yapj TLS avTjp TrKeov 
 
 ras evdaifjLovlas (pepei 
 
 f} TOaGVTOU OdOV doK€lu 
 
 Kol bo^avT arroKklvai ^ 
 
 To (TOP TOL TTapdbeLyjjL e^cov^ 
 
 TOP (TOP daijjiopay top abv, o) rXaficop OlbtTTodaj ^poToyp 
 
 oldep ixaK.api^(0. 
 
 Or again— 
 
 T poxohiP^lTai b op^iaO^ eklyb-qPy 
 €^(0 Se dpopov (j}€pofAaL Xvacrrjs 
 7rv€vpaTi pidpyco yXcocrcnqs CLKpaTi]?, 
 
 Here the last line gives the clue to the quantitative scansion, 
 but a regular accentual rhythm runs through the first two. 
 
 In the iambic trimeter the Greeks seem specially to have 
 avoided the regular coincidence of ictus and accent at the 
 end of a linCo The immense majority of verses, whether in 
 Aeschylus, Euripides, Sophocles, or Aristophanes, have no 
 accent on the last syllable, and at least thirty out of every 
 fifty will be found to have the accent on the last syllable 
 but one. The later imitators observed this, and it finally 
 became a rule that the end of every iambic verse should be 
 accented on the penultimate. The same desire to check the 
 too rapid run of the iambic trimeter was the origin of the 
 choliambic verse. All the choliambics of Babrius are ac- 
 cented on the last syllable but one. Thus, in the desire to 
 avoid jingle, the later poets fell into the opposite extreme 
 of harsh monotony, which the fine taste of the great originals 
 enabled them to avoid. There is, then, a law in the very 
 lawlessness of the Ancients — ^ Ars est celare artem.' 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY, 6^ 
 
 What has been called the clashing of the accentual with the 
 quantitative beat constitutes the real beauty of quantitative 
 measure. 
 
 It is this TVTTos avTLTVTTos which makes the charm and 
 melody of the old heroic verse. The accent and quantity 
 of these two words as well as the thought expressed in them 
 seem to me exactly to embody the idea of beauty in quanti- 
 tative versification^ which is, as beauty always is, the harmony 
 of contrasts. Where both coincide, as very rarely in Epic 
 poetry, — 
 
 ' Indignor quandoque bonus dormitat Homerus,' — 
 
 then the other part of the line (in which, happily for my 
 illustration, this coincidence takes place) is realized : — 
 
 The rhythm of Greek prose was, no doubt, wholly ac- 
 centual, and is to my mind completely destroyed if read 
 according to the Latin accent, as is done in our schools 
 and universities. I will give as an example the concluding 
 words of Aeschines' oration against Ctesiphon : — 
 
 'Eyo) fjLev ovv a) yrj koI rjXie Ka\ dperr] koI avveais Kol TraLdela, fj 
 diayLvaxTKOfxep to. KaXa Koi ra alaxpd, (3€porj6T]Ka Kol e'iprjKa. Kai 
 el [i€V KoXcos KOL (1^1(09 Tov ddLKijiiaTOs KaTTjyoprjKay eiirov o)s i^ov- 
 \6prjv el be evbeecTTepcoSf cds edvvdprjv. 'Ypels de kol €K tcov 
 elprjpevcov Xoycav koI eK tcov TrapakeXetppevav avTol ra diKaia kul rclt 
 (TVfKpepovTa vTvep rrjs noXecos \l/rj(j)L(TaaSe. 
 
 Compare the following words from the conclusion of a 
 modern Greek funeral oration on Lord Byron : — 
 
 2u §e, vneprjCJiavov 20YAI, eprjpov kol eyK.aToXeXeifxp.evov, eva 
 (jiplao'eLs arjpepov dnb tovs r})(ovs tov noXepov, tov^ Oopv^ovvTas 
 TO ebacfios croVj Krjbevopev rjpels rjcrvx^^ TeKvov crov 7rpoa(pLXes, 
 TOV OTTolov ol 6(j)6aXpoLy did TravTos KXeiaOevTe?, dev Sd ere tdcocnv 
 eXevOepov. 
 
 F 
 
66 ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 
 
 In conclusion, with regard to the practical question, how 
 we are to pronounce Greek, I can only state, from my per- 
 sonal experience and that of others similarly circumstanced, 
 my unalterable conviction, that the man who has once 
 learned to read Greek fluently, with accent and intonation 
 as the Greeks read it, will never be able to tolerate either 
 Homer or Xenophon or Sophocles read with the Latin 
 accent and the miscalled Erasmian pronunciation. 
 
 Any one who has followed the arguments and evidence 
 adduced in the preceding chapter, must, I am sure, be 
 convinced that the way in which the ancient Greeks pro- 
 nounced their language was at least far more like the present 
 Greek pronunciation, handed down as it has been by an 
 unbroken line of tradition, than the wholly arbitrary system 
 which the followers of Erasmus have invented : while few 
 have ever questioned, I may say among continental scholars ' 
 no one has ever doubted, the propriety of reading Greek 
 according to the accent. 
 
 If, moreover, the Greek accent alone preserves the true 
 rhythm of the noble orations of Demosthenes ; if a practical 
 familiar sense of it is absolutely necessary, as I have tried 
 to show it is, in order to distinguish a bad verse from a 
 good one, is it not time we abandoned, once and for ever, 
 a barbarous method, whose only justification is that it 
 enables Englishmen to speak Greek so that, in the words 
 of Fuller, they can understand one another, which nobody 
 else can? I subjoin a short sentence, with an interlinear 
 EngUsh transcription embodying the chief peculiarities of 
 modern Greek pronunciation : — 
 
 'O ovpavos Koi rj yr) ovk iTiKdaOrjaav €v6vs, dWa dveTT- 
 O ooranos tkeh ee yee ook eplastheessan ephtheess alia anep- 
 
 Tvx^V^CL^ oKlyov Kar oXlyov ovd\ ol civSpcoTTOL ol viol 
 teekhtheessan oleeghon kat' oleeghon oodh, ee anthropee ee ee-ee 
 
ACCENT AND QUANTITY. 67 
 
 rov Occiv Tjvpedrjcrav €^aL(j)i^7]<f reXeioi, cos kol vvv, ovb^ 
 
 too theoo eebhr^theessan exephneess telee-ee oas tkeh neen oodh' 
 
 €K Tov PdSovs rod (tkotovs Ka\ ^aoTLKJJs (Tvy)(y(J€(os 
 
 ek too bhahthooss too skoa-tooss tkeh khaoteekeess seengkheessSoss 
 
 dyyeXojv (TaXiny^LV 7rpo€K\rj6T](Tav, ovde rov TToXepov (pvaeL 
 angelloan salpeengxeen proekleetheessan oodhe ton-bolemon feessee 
 
 dyaTTcbcrtj oX\a nepl rrjs iavrocn/ (TCOTrjptas (ppov- 
 
 ah-gh-ah-poassee ahlah. peri -tees eh-ahphtoan soateereeahss phron- 
 
 Tl(0VT€Sj (j)€VyOV(TL TTjV CLOTrXiaV, KCLL ip^TTLTTTOVCnV 
 
 deezondess phebhghoossee teen ah-oa-plee-ahn tkeh embeeptoosseen 
 
 eptcrt KOL pidx^aLS, kol ttju avdrjv tov ^'Ap€OS 
 
 erreessee tkeh mahkhehss tkeh teen ah-bhdheen too 'Ahreos 
 
 (fiSeyyeo-BaL pLavSavovai. 
 
 phthenggestheh mahnthahnoossi. 
 
 N.B. — The circumftex accent sounds as the acute, and 
 there is no reason to think that this was ever otherwise; 
 the circumflex being simply a way of recording the fact 
 that an oxytone syllable had swallowed up a barytone by 
 means of contraction : the acute accent, therefore, is plainly 
 the predominating one, while the grave would be felt just 
 in proportion as the uncontracted form was present to the 
 mind. When dyaTrd-el becomes ayaTra, there is no reason 
 to think that the ' is heard any more than the Icora suhscrip- 
 ium, which is swallowed up by the a, just as the grave accent 
 is by the acute. As to the written grave accent, it indicates 
 that the syllable on which it stands receives a slight stress 
 as compared with the unaccented syllables, but one which 
 is almost lost by comparison with the accent of the word 
 which follows it ; so that a word accented on the last syllable 
 reads almost as if it were part of the next. 
 
 F 2 
 
CHAPTER IV. 
 
 On the Origin and Development of Modern 
 Greek Accidence. 
 
 If the question were asked, what is the origin of the 
 Greek of the present day ? is it the offshoot of Byzantine 
 Hterature, the creation of Church fathers, or of philosophers, 
 sophists, and rhetoricians, or is its source to be looked for 
 in the common dialect of the Ptolemaic era, in the idioms of 
 Dorians, Aeolians, and Boeotians, or the vulgarisms of the 
 Athenian market-place ? the true answer, perhaps, would be, 
 it had its beginning in none of these and in all of them : in 
 none of them alone, and in all of them together. 
 
 In speaking of the history of a language we should bear 
 in mind the distinction between its outer and inner part, the 
 form and the matter, the skeleton of grammar, and the life 
 which makes that skeleton a living body with a living souL 
 These two parts of language should never be confounded, 
 and yet it is sometimes hard to keep them separate. For 
 there is an essential, as well as an actual connection between 
 them, which may be set forth as follows. 
 
 The mere shapes and changes of words in a language 
 may be called its grammar, while the thought of which these 
 shapes and changes are the expression may be spoken of as 
 
ON MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 6g 
 
 the metaphysic of the age to which it belongs. But be- 
 tween this outer part — the grammar, and this inner part- — 
 the thought, comes a third something, which is neither 
 altogether outward nor altogether inward, and which, for 
 want of a better name, we may call the logic of a lan- 
 guage, or the way in which the thought finds utterance 
 in words. 
 
 Now, just as the metaphysic of one age will tend to be- 
 come the logic of the next, so logic will in its turn become 
 petrified into grammar, as we shall soon see by examples in 
 the language before us. Hence the difficulty of drawing a 
 rigid line of demarcation between the mere vehicle of thought 
 and the thought itself. Grammar and thought, linked as 
 they are in the nature of the case by logic, which is the way 
 in which the one finds utterance in the other, merge together 
 by scarcely felt degrees, like the waves of the stream of time 
 which bears them along, so that it is often hard to say 
 whether we are treading in the domain of philosophy 
 or of grammar, or lingering on the border-land between 
 the two. 
 
 The combination of causes in producing phenomena is 
 however no excuse for confusing them, when those phe- 
 nomena are to be explained ; and when we are attempting to 
 write the history of a language, w^e must beware of attri- 
 buting every change and development to one source. We 
 should begin by inquiring whether there be any part of 
 language which is quite independent of the progress of 
 human thought. If there be, we may then proceed to in- 
 quire what are the causes which may have affected its de- 
 velopment. Then we can go on to consider the influence 
 of intellectual progress on such part of language as must 
 be considered liable to be affected by it. 
 
 Nor can we be long in admitting that there is that in 
 language which may be changed independently of the ad. 
 
70 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 vance of thought, or remain unchanged in spite of it ; and 
 this is the mere form which words or inflections assume, 
 which is a very different thing, it must be remembered, from 
 changes in their usage and meaning ; or, again, from their 
 disuse or introduction. To make this clear by an example. 
 It is plainly, as regards the history of thought, a matter of 
 indifference whether the word ohos be written with or without 
 a digamma, whether we write eVrl as in Doric, eVrt as in 
 Attic, or ehe as in modern Greek, whether icovrov as in 
 Herodotus, iavrov or avTov. It is very different when the 
 Homeric demonstrative 6, 77, t6 becomes the simple article, 
 or when the infinitive mood in later Greek is supplanced by 
 the subjunctive with tva. 
 
 In accordance with the above remarks it is proposed in 
 the following pages, first, to consider the mere forms of 
 w^ords and inflections, or the purely outward part of the 
 Greek language ; then the structure, in which the movement 
 of thought already begins to play a part ; finally, the use 
 and formation of words, in which the inner life of the lan- 
 guage attains its greatest significance. 
 
 First, then, as to mere grammatical forms ; or, 
 
 I. The Accidence of Modeen Greek. 
 
 It must not be supposed that every form discussed under 
 this head is in common use in the language of literature and 
 of educated men. The cultivated language for the most 
 part preserves the grammatical forms of the age of Thucy- 
 dides, avoiding, as a rule, all the extremities of the later 
 Attic dialect, as, for instance, OdXarra for OdXao-aa, or x^p- 
 povrjoros for x^P^o^^^-oy. In the language of the common 
 people, however, the following peculiarities may be briefly 
 noticed. 
 
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 7 1 
 
 a. ^o^ay and words like it, make in the genitive Trjs ^6^as, 
 
 in the plural ^ do^ms, ace. raU dS^ats = ras do^a^, 
 
 b. A host of nouns belonging to different declensions are 
 
 made to follow one. Thus raixlas, ''AXvs, Mdpns, or Mapr???, 
 
 contracted from MdpTLos, ''ApT^?, ndpLs, K€<pa\as, are, in the 
 singular number, all decHned alike, namely, by cutting off 
 the sign of the nominative -?, in the genitive and vocative, 
 and changing it to v for the accusative. 
 
 This V is dropped in pronunciation where the phonetic 
 laws of the language admit it. 
 
 c. The plural of many words, especially of foreign origin, 
 is formed by adding -des to the stem, as Trao-ddes from Trao-a?, 
 pashas ; fiaifiovdes from rj fjLa'ifjLov, monkeys ; fiavuddes, from rj 
 fjidvpa, mothers. 
 
 These plurals are ahvays paroxytone, whatever the accent 
 of the word in the singular. 
 
 d. Many feminines, whose root vowel is « or ov, take 
 s in the genitive singular, as 77 fidijxov, ttjs iidiixovs, 17 Kco, rris 
 Kajs (exactly the reverse of the classical form, which in this 
 
 case is 17 Koos-, r^s Ko5). 
 
 e. There are a few irregular nouns of a compound de- 
 clension, especially verbals, in iiiov, as t6 ypd^ifiov, genitive 
 
 Tov ypa-^lparosy plural to. ypayj/Lp^ara. 
 
 y. Metaplastic nouns or secondary formations are com- 
 mon, as Tj alya, 6 rrarepas, 6 ^acnXeas. 
 
 g. Of the pronouns, e/xe often appears as ipha, and (T€ as 
 eVe and ideva, r)p,€2s becomes often ipels, and in the accusative 
 both ifxas and pa<;. The latter, used as an encHtic, supplies 
 the place both of rjpas and r]pci)v, 
 
 vfjLels becomes a-els and eaels, ace. and enclitic possessive 
 aas, a-a^. The article, as enclitic and procHtic, is used for 
 the personal pronoun in oblique cases. 
 
 In the verbs : 
 
 h. Xeyovai becomes \eyovv Or Xeyovve. For eXeyvv we have 
 
"]% ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 eXeya ; for eXe^ay, eXe^es ; for iXe^are, eXef ere. In the paSSive, 
 instead of Xeyu or Xeyet, we find Xeyeo-at, for Xcyofxcda, Xeyo- 
 
 fieo-re, Xcyofiaarav, and various Other forms down to the tragic 
 Xey6jJL€(TSa. 
 
 For iXexBrjv we get iXexOrjKa. In the imperative aorist act. 
 
 Xe^e for Xegoz/, and do. passive Xe^ov for XexOrjri. 
 
 2. In the present tense of contracted verbs in dco, w, the 
 third person is often uncontracted, as dyandeL for dyana, 
 'kyarrcodi appears sometimes as dyairovv or -ouve, sometimes 
 
 as dyairdv^, 'Ayajrovficv is written for dyajrcojjLev, whereaS voeei, 
 
 voel, and the Hke generally become vodei, &c. ; erlfxcov is in- 
 liovo-Qj '€s, '€ ; '00 becomes -dz/o), on the analogy of djvco for 
 dvco, ivTvv(o for ivTvoi ; SO bkcD becomes Uvco. In ancient 
 Greek we may regard alvco (pronounced evco) as a strength- 
 ening of eo), and dvoi as a strengthening of ao). 
 
 j. The verb el}x\ presents all the appearance of a verb in 
 the middle voice, being conjugated thus : et/xat, eldai, uv€, 
 
 e'lfxeSay eiaOe, clve ; impf. fjixovv, rjo-o, rjTOy fjp.e6a, rfcrS^^ rjrov ; inf 
 elo-Sm; imper. eao. 
 
 k. The present participle active often appears as an inde- 
 clinable metaplastic in as : ovras, Xeyovras, &c. The feminine 
 Xeyovo-a is however by no means disused. The only other 
 participles in use among the uneducated are the present 
 passive and perfect passive, the latter minus the redupli- 
 cation, as ypafifihos, OXifjifxevoi, Spafxfxhos, The present par- 
 ticiple sometimes appears as though formed from the con- 
 jugation in -fjLLj e.g. epxdfxevos, Xeydfievos, The termination -/xt, 
 however, is never found in the common language of the 
 people. 
 
 Such are the main features of modern Greek accidence. 
 Let us attempt to account for them and to trace their develop- 
 ment. We will begin by inquiring what causes remain to us, 
 when we have eliminated those which belong to the intellectual 
 movements of the Greek mind, and, of course, could explain 
 
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 73 
 
 nothing so merely external as the bare accidence of a lan- 
 guage. 
 
 First amongst the influences which would remain to be 
 considered is the levelling tendency common to all lan- 
 guages, or, in other words, the ever-increasing desire to do 
 away with irregularities in grammar. 
 
 It may be said that all language is originally regular in 
 intention, but in the first formation of words, the stubborn- 
 ness of matter, that is, the difficulty of pronouncing certain 
 combinations of sounds, causes irregularities in the result. 
 These irregularities are then transmitted from race to race, 
 and the reason of them being forgotten, their exist- 
 ence becomes an inconvenience, and a levelling tendency 
 sets in\ 
 
 So in English we now say, he climbed, he helped, for he 
 clomh, he holp, and in Spanish the participle apreso has almost 
 given way to aprendido. Here then at once we see the 
 explanation of such form.s as tov ''Apr), rod ^'A\v, &c. The 
 first instance of the latter form, so far as I am aware, is to 
 be found in an anonymous writer of the tenth century, 
 known as Theophanes Continuatus. 
 
 In Constantine Porphyrogenitus, also an author of the 
 tenth century (905 — 959), we get ixopoyevrj as the vocative of 
 fjLovoyevrjs, Porphyrogenitus, as he tells us himself, used 
 frequently the current forms of the vulgar Greek of his day, 
 excepting in his Life of St. Basil, which is written in an 
 artificial language in imitation of classical writers. His 
 numerous modernisms will be noticed in their place. The 
 very same tendency made the ancient Greeks say ttjv epiv 
 instead of ttjv cpida, tov yeXcDv for TOV yeXoora, and the like. 
 
 ^ Accordingly Sanscrit is more irregular than Greek, and Greek 
 than Latin ; that is, the older a language is, the less regular is its 
 grammar. 
 
74 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 We have also in Homer epos, epov for 'ipcos, epcuTa, Another 
 similar influence is the tendency to metaplasms or secondary 
 formations. From one point of view this may be regarded 
 as one of the forms of the tendency to simplification above 
 noticed, for it is plain if we turn ^ao-ikcvs, yepcov^ ''Apa\jr, ^^hpj 
 into ^aaiXeas, yepovras, "Apa^ag, civbpas, and decline them all 
 like Tapias, we have got one scheme of declension instead of 
 five. But still it remains to be explained how such a form 
 
 as avdpas COuld arise from dvrjp, or pao-tXeas from ^ao-iXevs, 
 
 If we turn to the Septuagint we shall find our answer. 
 There such forms as r6v jBaonXeav, Tr)v alyav are of frequent 
 occurrence, and it is plain that such forms postulate the 
 nominatives 6 jBao-iXeas, r] alya. Yet such forms are nowhere 
 found till we enter the confines of modern Greek (if we 
 except a few names of animals and birds occurring in Aris- 
 totle's Natural History, as, for instance, daKakodiras from do-- 
 KaKdi\jr), These metaplastic accusatives may have first existed 
 alone, and the nominatives and other cases may have been 
 formed from them. Yet the fact that the original form of 
 yepcov, K.r.X. was yepovTs, may explain why yepovras, which is 
 only yepovTs made pronounceable, is the vulgar equivalent of 
 the classical yepcov. For were yepovras simply metaplastic, we 
 should expect always to find only yepovra as the genitive, but 
 yepovTos, dvdpos, narpos, &c. are the more usual forms even in 
 the vernacular. In all likelihood the v was added to the old 
 accusative merely from euphonic reasons to avoid the hiatus. 
 It may be that it was almost silent, or seemed so to a Greek 
 ear, when followed by a consonant, even when it formed an 
 essential part of the word. This is the case in the present 
 day, and the explanation of it is to be found in the pecu- 
 liarity of Greek pronunciation. All consonants are pro- 
 nounced by the Greeks with the utmost force and distinct- 
 ness of which they admit; and v, being incapable of emphatic 
 utterance, is by comparison scarcely heard except when 
 
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 75 
 
 followed either by a vowel or some consonant, the pro- 
 nunciation of which it affects and thereby preserves its own 
 existence. Thus in tt^v Klyv7TTo{v) the v of Tr]v is never lost, 
 whereas in tt]{v) '2dp,o{v) it is completely evanescent ; while 
 in rr]v TTokiv (pronounced rT^/it-bolin) it is preserved. 
 
 Now where the v is so evanescent a letter, its presence is 
 naturally imagined wherever it would facilitate pronunciation, 
 and it would soon be liable to be written, though not 
 sounded, even where there were no such reason for its 
 introduction. There may however have been a special 
 reason for accusatives like alyav and (Baaikeav, Comparative 
 philology teaches us that a v has been lost in these accusa- 
 tives, as also in the pronouns ae and €fi€. What wonder then 
 if this same v should have lived on in the mouth of the 
 common people, and 5p>peared in the Septuagint, the lan- 
 guage of which is so evidently, as far as it departs from the 
 classical standard (a few Hebraisms of course excepted), the 
 vulgar Greek of the period. This consideration suggests a 
 further explanation of the grammatical phenomena of later 
 and modern Greek. This is nothing else than the simple 
 and well-known fact that archaisms are constantly per- 
 petuated in the language of the vulgar which have long 
 since been lost to literature. Our own dialects are sufficient 
 proof of this, to go no further. Witness / can-na, hes no 
 rechi, kie, we ddn, for / cannot, hes not right, cows, we do — 
 where we have sounds or grammatical forms preserved to 
 us which cultivated English ignores. Now to speak first of 
 the language of the Septuagint, no mistake could be greater 
 than to imagine that it was an artificial dialect, the results of 
 an indiscriminate reading-up of the language. According to 
 this theory, as recently enunciated by the Grinfield lecturer 
 on the Septuagint at Oxford (Michaelmas Term, 1868), the 
 Greek of the Septuagint is a farrago of words culled at 
 random from Epic poetry, Attic Prose, and every conceivable 
 
76 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 dialect, and with a grammar, we are left to suppose, invented 
 by the writers themselves. With the utmost respect for the I 
 learned lecturer, I would submit that such a theory is im- 
 probable in itself, and does not explain the phenomena of 
 the Septuagint. First, it is inconceivable that there should 
 not have been found, even at the time when the earliest parts 
 of the translation were made, Jews at Alexandria perfectly 
 familiar with Greek as a spoken language. Again, if the 
 translators had not been familiar with the language, it is 
 impossible that they could have escaped grammatical slips 
 such as using an imperfect for an aorist. Finally, the pe- 
 culiar forms and usages which are found are easily explained 
 by a reference to modern Greek and other unclassical Greek 
 writers. For example, TndCco is not peculiar to Doric, but 
 occurs in the Revelation of St. John, and is common in 
 modern Greek. 'EdoXiovo-av is an imperfect from boXioat 
 (3rd person plural), and is explained by the consonantal 
 form iXeyoaav, a Septuagint form, &c., and further illustrated 
 by the modern Greek forms edoXiovo-a, enfiovo-a, of which the 
 3rd person plural is respectively edoXiovo-av and hi^ovcrav. 
 We may say if we like that such a form as i^okLova-av or eXe- 
 yocrav for eXeyoz/ follows the conjugation in iiL, but we must 
 not forget that there was originally no other conjugation, 
 and that the a- in the 3rd person of e^oXiovo-av is, etymolo- 
 gically speaking, just as much in its right place as in ibiboaav^ 
 laraaav, erlOeaav. What the o" does in this position is indeed 
 a mystery, as it has no place in Sanscrit, and as far as I 
 know its presence has not been explained. But if it was 
 found, as it seems to have been, convenient to insert it for 
 phonetic reasons here, we can see that it would be especially 
 so if the usage of the language at any period required the 
 imperfect to end in a instead of ov. Such a form as edoXLova 
 would plainly clamour for a sigma. It is true that a- is in 
 Greek more often left out than inserted ; but the tendency 
 
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE. 77 
 
 to do the one, implies, as a general rule, the tendency to do 
 the other. It is a moot point whether 9 and v in such cases 
 as €v6v-Sy ovTco-s, aZey, aUv are ephelcystic or etymologic, i.e. 
 added when found, or omitted when absent. With aUs might 
 be compared in modern Greek tl7tot€s. In such cases the 
 force of analogy must be taken into account. Now that a 
 was, for the termination of the imperfect, at least as old as 
 ov, is just as likely as not. Originally, as we see from 
 Sanscrit, the termination of the ist aorist and of the 2nd 
 aorist and imperfect were the same. In Homer we have 
 §a, €ov, and rja ; in Ionic both er^v and ea for ?v, ' I was.' In 
 order to account for the diphthong ov, however, we should 
 have to suppose either that v was changed to a after the 
 contraction ihoXlovv from edoXloou had taken place, in which 
 case the accent in such a word as idoXiovaa would be a 
 mystery, or else, as appears to me to have been the fact, 
 there was a paragogic vowel slipped in between the o and 
 the a. This seems to have been so in the case of rja for 
 ea, €r)Vy and ^ev for €€v, and rjijv, which would appear to 
 present us with a pair of paragogic e"s (e-c-e-cp). However 
 that may be, we have the termination -aa for the imperfect 
 of contracted verbs in modern Greek, and of contracted 
 verbs only. In the Septuagint we have the termination 
 'O-av in the 3rd person plural of many verbs, but as far as 
 I know no trace of the o- in any other person. Yet the 
 o- has just as much right (pace grammaticorum) to exist in 
 any other person as in the 3rd, and it is my belief that in 
 inany parts of Greece where in the first person a was the 
 favourite termination (etSa for eldov^ (ha for dnov, which we 
 have in the Septuagint and New Testament), idokLovaa, efii- 
 (rovo-tty &c. would inevitably arise. 
 
 At any rate, it is important to remember that all the Greek 
 that was spoken from Homer's day to the era of the Pto- 
 lemies is not to be found in books, still less in Grammars, 
 
78 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 and, above all, that vulgar dialects both of ancient and 
 modern times should be expected to contain far more 
 archaisms than innovations. 
 
 Let us see whether this principle will carry us further in 
 the explanation of modern Greek forms. First then as to 
 the nominative do^ais for do^a. How are we to account for 
 the i ? Schleicher, in his ' Comparative Grammar/ following 
 as I believe in the steps of Bopp, postulates do^a-t~as or some 
 such form as the original plural of do^a. It is but right to 
 state that Professor Max Miiller differs from this view, but at 
 any rate it is remarkable that the modern Greek form sup- 
 plies exactly one of the stages of transition that the theory 
 of Bopp and Schleicher demands. As to the accusative raTs 
 do^ai^, that is the Aeolic form, and as such an acknowledged 
 archaism. Tals do^ats is ascertained to be a representative of 
 ravs do^avs, the modification of the vowel indicating the loss 
 of the V. 
 
 Turning next to the pronouns, we have already observed 
 that efjieva and eaeva for efxe and (T€ preserve the original p 
 (in Sanscrit m, mdm^ and tvdm) of the accusative. ^E/xely is 
 referred to by Plato (Crat. 418 c) as an older form for 
 ry/xely. As to the enclitic and proclitic use of the article, 
 it is (except for the accent in the latter case) the same 
 as the Homeric usage, e.g. t6z^ io-KOTcoae, ^ he killed him ;' 
 dTrecrvXrjcre rovs, ' he spoiled them.' Passing to the verbs, we 
 find in Keyovp or Xeyovue the traces of the old form Xeyovri 
 {exovi is quoted, I believe, by Hesychius as a Cretan form). 
 In the passive the forms XiyccraL, 2nd person present, Xeyo- 
 /uaore or XeyofieaOa as well as KeyofxeO^v, are SO plainly archaic 
 forms that they need no explanation. In St. Paul's Epistle 
 to the Romans we have already Kavxacrai, * thou boastest/ 
 In the imperative aorist active Xe^e for Xk^ov is Homeric. 
 As to the imp, aorist passive Xe^ov, I cannot but agree with 
 Dr. Mullach that it is the classical middle i aor. imper. of 
 
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 79 
 
 verbs in /xi used as a passive, there being no middle voice 
 in modern Greek, as there was none in the kolvt) hak^KTos. 
 Few who compare such forms as o-raa-o with the corre- 
 sponding modern oradov, be^ov will be able to doubt this. 
 
 The verb elyLai (elfil), so far as it presents us really with 
 a middle form, has the precedent of the Homeric eVo, which 
 is precisely the modern Greek imperative, not to speak of the 
 future €(To^ai. But nearer examination shows us that elfxai is 
 not conjugated throughout as a middle. The third person 
 singular and plural elvai, or elve, the latter being more correct 
 in writing, while in pronunciation the two forms are the 
 same, is plainly not for elrat and elprac. Now the formation 
 of this word we are able to trace through its various stages. 
 The oldest shape in which it appears is eWi, which in the 
 Doric dialect was the same for both numbers. This eWi 
 appears already in classical Greek as em in such phrases 
 as ovK €VL, 'ivLoi for io-TLv ot It Is not unlikely that it was the 
 vulgar word in regular use for evrl or eVrl, though known to 
 literature only in such short phrases as the above. In the 
 Acts of the Council of Constantinople (536 a.d.), we find 
 €VL used simply for eVrt, 'Tls evi l<le(rr6pLos.'' In Ptochopro- 
 dromus, the first Romaic writer, we get eW, and soon after- 
 wards the present form elvai or elve. 
 
 One other principle which seems to have been at work in 
 the development of modern from ancient Greek is the prin- 
 ciple of extended analogy. From this point of view modern 
 Greek may be called the logical result of ancient Greek. In 
 ancient Greek the dual number was disappearing ; in modern 
 Greek, as already in the kolvt) ^laXeKTos, it is gone. The 
 middle voice as a separate formation was on the wane. In 
 the New Testament we have aTvcKpiOr] for dncKplvaTo, much 
 earlier idexOrj for ede^aro ; in modern Greek the only relic of 
 the ancient middle appears in the passive imperative aorist. 
 In later Greek we have many instances of a tendency to 
 
8o ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 dispense with a separate form for the perfect, using the aorist 
 instead. In modern Greek the perfect has disappeared, 
 leaving perhaps a trace of its former existence in such an 
 aorist as evprjKa for €vpr}Ka. Already in the Septuagint we get 
 
 €vprjKav and iuipaKav, for evprjKao-t and ecopaKacru Verbs in fit 
 
 have entirely disappeared in modern Greek, leaving behind 
 them only such remnants as the participles Xeyafxevos, ipxd- 
 jji€vos above noticed. The termination rjKa in i\€xOr]Ka, iypd- 
 (prjKa, &c., seems but a following out of the analogy of edcDKa 
 for €d(ov, Wr)Ka for Wrjv, and so forth. Mr. Walker, High 
 Master of the Manchester Grammar School, has called my 
 attention to the fact that the termination Ka for perfects is 
 almost unknown to Homer. 
 
 Under the head of extensions of analogy we may place 
 the double or mixed declensions, as to ypa-^Lfiov, ra ypayJAipara, 
 with which we may compare t6 ovcipov, ra oveipara, Sec. It is 
 worthy of notice that the plural ra ovelpara is the only one 
 known to the common people (in Athens at any rate), and 
 I have been corrected myself by my landlord in that city, a 
 man who barely knew how to read, for saying ra ovetpa. 
 
 Phrynichus, the grammarian, notices the increasing use 
 of this termination -ipov, and complains particularly of the 
 employment of t6 yeXdo-ifiov for to yeXolov. One cannot but 
 be glad that the forms prevailed in spite of Phrynichus, for 
 they are a real gain to the Greek language. They consti- 
 tute a class of verbal substantives with a shade of meaning 
 not accurately expressed by any other word. Certainly 
 there is no adequate ancient Greek translation of ukovco 
 ap,i^tfjiov o-TraOi^v, ' I hear the clash of mingled swords.' The 
 force of the termination -tjnoi/ is that it places the word to 
 which it is added midway between concrete and abstract; 
 e. g. K6y\n9 would mean cutting, /coV/xa a cut ; but to Ko^ip-ov a 
 number of cuttings or stabbings, and is used to describe, as 
 no other word could, an internal pain ; German Leibschnei- 
 
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 8 1 
 
 den. In the plural, as well as in the oblique cases of the 
 singular, it is rather the concrete side of the meaning which 
 comes into prominence. Hence we have the endings appro- 
 priate to a concrete meaning — ypayJAlfxaros, ypa-^Lixara. The 
 same explanation no doubt holds good with regard to ovetpov, 
 which may mean either dreaming in the abstract, or a dream ; 
 while ovelpara means always paj'iicular dreams. 
 
 It remains that we should notice the influence of dialects 
 in the forms of modern Greek. The Koivr] dtdXeicTos was 
 probably so called quite as much from the fact that it was 
 no dialect in particular but a mixture of all, as that it was 
 generally understood. Pindar's language was called by gram- 
 marians KOLVT], because they regarded it as a mixture of more 
 than one dialect. 
 
 Now the fact that the Greek of the Septuagint presents us 
 with forms belonging to different dialects is one reason for 
 the false notion above referred to, that the translators took 
 their words at random from the several dialects, much as an 
 indiscriminating schoolboy might do in our own day. We 
 are apt to forget that the Greek language was just as familiar 
 to the Hebrews who wrote the Septuagint, as their own 
 tongue. Just as they adopted the language of ' stammer- 
 ing lips ' in Babylon, so they spoke Greek under the Ptole- 
 mies; and, in all likelihood, both spoke and wrote that 
 language with greater ease than their sacred tongue. The 
 only natural explanation of the appearance of Doric forms 
 like mdCco and rare Homeric words like dyepcoxos in the 
 Septuagint, is that they were current in the vernacular of the 
 period. Ilta^a) is to this day the modern Greek for 'to 
 catch/ and in this sense it is that it is used in the Bible (cf. 
 Latin opprimere), while dy^pi^x^s is actually found in the 
 Romaic popular ballads collected by Passow. We are con- 
 tinually reminded of the existence throughout the history of 
 the Greek language (at any rate beginning with the time of 
 
 G 
 
8;^ ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Aristophanes), of a common spoken dialect quite distinct 
 from the cultivated language of literature, but seldom coming 
 to the surface. As often as it strove to raise its head, some 
 tyrant grammarian, a Phrynichus, a Dionysius, or a Choe- 
 roboscus beat it down, till at last a poor monk, nicknamed 
 Ptochoprodromus, in the eleventh century^ by his example 
 liberated Greek for ever from the shackles of the gram- 
 marians, and showed that a language has neither power nor 
 beauty except it be free. 
 
 Meanwhile, of course, the language of literature, of the 
 schools, and of the law-courts was comparatively stationary, 
 while that of the people was continually developing and 
 changing, as must ever be the case with a living spoken lan- 
 guage. No doubt one of the first changes that came over 
 the popular dialects was that they became mixed and merged 
 in one. Probably it was only a very old Megarian who, even 
 in the days of Aristophanes, would be heard in the Athenian 
 market-place expressing himself thus, — 
 
 afi^are ttottclv fxdddap al )( evprjre ira. 
 
 Constant intercourse with men from other parts would 
 soon soften down dialectic distinctions, especially when all 
 political divisions were lost in the Macedonian monarchy. 
 Doubdess the Attic dialect, as that of the most cultivated 
 portion of the nation, would give the leading tone to the 
 KOLVT} diaXeKTo^, but at the same time we should quite expect 
 isolated provincialisms to survive. This is actually the case 
 not only in the language of the Septuagint, but also in the 
 modern language of Greece. The modern Greek, when 
 speaking in the vernacular of his country, says jJUKprj with the 
 lonians of old, do^as with the Dorians, rais TifMOLs for ras rifxas 
 with the Aeolians, eao and ^eO^e for- 1o-6l and (l^ev^op with the 
 Epic poets. Yet we may be well assured that the shepherd 
 or vine-dresser who speaks in this way is as ignorant of the 
 
OF MODERN GREEK ACCIDENCE, 83 
 
 language of Dorians, lonians, or Epic poets, as a South- Sea 
 islander. As peculiarly characteristic of the Boeotian variety 
 of Doric Greek we may notice the preference of ov for v. So 
 too in modern Greek we have kovtoXlov for kvtoXlov from 
 kvtolXt], Tpovira for rpvira. Sometimes this ov represents an 77, 
 
 as (Tov(rdfjLL for (rrjcrdfxiov, (rovTnals for orrjTrLai ] compare Kpovvos 
 and Kprjvrj, 
 
 With reference to such forms as vodco for voeco, we may 
 remind the reader, that, as we have seen above in the chapter 
 on pronunciation, aw and eco were originally one. So too 
 cXe^ey for eXe^as is Only another instance of the equivalent 
 value of short a and e. This again we see in IBeXrepos, /SeX- 
 Ticov, from ^eXros, which means that which may be put, placed, 
 or thrown; IBeXros standing for ^aXrosy the regular verbal 
 adjective of IBdXXco : (for the change of a and e under similar 
 circumstances compare-^aXra andTreXr?;?;) for the etymology 
 
 of ^eXrepos &C. Compare (pepraros, (peprepos, from (pepros, i. C. 
 
 what is bearable; hence in the comparative degree more 
 bearable or preferable. The forms IBaXros and (pepros are 
 common verbal adjectives in modern Greek. 
 
 The paragogic e in such words as iXXoyeo), &c., had a 
 tendency to become t; so 6tarafa), the modern Greek and 
 most ancient form, as I believe, of Starao-cra), must have 
 passed through the following stages : hiarayico = (I am a ha- 
 
 Tayos,) ^LaTayLcOj dLardyjcOy Starafo), dLardacrco, Tayeco is found in 
 
 Aesch. Persae, 764. 
 
 The disappearance of the dative case from the common 
 vernacular of Greece belongs rather to the head of Accidence 
 than Syntax, as I believe it is mainly attributable to pronun- 
 ciation. We have seen already, that in the vulgar dialect 
 both CO and ol tend to become ov. This will account for the 
 fact that TO) €1776 becomes in modern Greek tov che, and /not 
 ehe, fiov cine. Add to this the fact that the Greek idiom, 
 especially the later Greek idiom, often places the genitive as 
 
 G 2 
 
84 ON THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC. 
 
 a kind of gen. commodi, in which position it really stands 
 for the dative, as 'EdepaTrevo-ev avTov TTjv Ovyarepa, a mode of 
 expression which meets us in almost every page of the New 
 Testament,— and the wonder will rather be how the dative 
 should so long have maintained its rights, than that it should 
 have finally disappeared. 
 
CHAPTER V. 
 
 The Origin and Development of Modern G-reek 
 
 Syntax. 
 
 Having now, as far as our time and space allow, dis» 
 posed of the mere grammatical forms of the modern Greek 
 language, let us go on to examine 
 
 The Syntax of Modern Greek. 
 
 Here we have left the region of archaisms and dialectic 
 forms, and enter the territory of the history of the human 
 mind. To the mere philologer the former part of the 
 inquiry may seem the more interesting; for the philosopher 
 the succeeding portion will present the greater attraction. 
 That we may obtain in the outset a general view of the 
 difference in structure and expression, we will compare part 
 of the eighth chapter of Plutarch's Life of Caesar, as trans- 
 lated by Mr. Rangabes, with the original as written by 
 Plutarch. 
 
 H yvay^rj Xolttov avrrj €(pdvrj Ovtco de rrjs yvcofxrjs (piXav- 
 
 (pikavSpcoTTos, KOL lo-xvpos 6 \6yo9 6po)7rov (pav€L(rr]s kol tov \6yov 
 ooTis eppedr} nepl avTrjs. At* 6 ^vvarcos eV* avrfj prjSevros ov 
 
86 
 
 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 ov fjLovov ol jLter* avrov iyepdevres 
 7Tap€be-)(0VT0 ttjv Trporacriv avrov, 
 
 dWa KOL TToXXot T(OV TTpOOflfXr]- 
 
 (rdvTcov, dpvovfX€voL ras Idlas tcov 
 yvcofias, Trapebixovro ti]v ediKrjv 
 rovy €cos oTov rfkOev rj crcLpa rov 
 Kdrcovos kol tov KarXou. Ovtol 
 S' rjvavTLSOrjcrav fJLeO^ opfXTjs, kol 
 o)S 6 Kdrcov yLera tov \6yov ep- 
 pLyj/€ KOi vTTovoiav Kar^ avrov, 
 Ka\ €^av€(Trr] /car' avrov ^ialays, 
 ol fjL^v avbp€s jrapeboOriCTav ottcos 
 SavarcoOcoo'L' Kara de rov Kat- 
 aapos, iv co e^rjpx^ro rrjs jBov- 
 XtJs", TToXXot rS)v v€(ov rcov (f)pov- 
 povvrcov rov KiKepcova rore, opfxr]- 
 o-avreSy eo-rp^yfrav yvfJLvd rd ^L(f)r] 
 Kar^ avrov. 'AXXa \eycrai on 
 6 KovpL(t)v, TrepLKokvyj/a'^ rore av- 
 rov did rrjs rrj^evvov rov, rov 
 e^rjyaye' Ka\ 6 KiKcpcov, orav ol 
 vioi TTpOG-e^Xe^av els avrov, ore 
 evevaev aTrocjyartKcos, (po^rjdels rov 
 drjfxov, T] rov (povov oXcos dbiKov 
 /cat TrapdvofjLov 6€copS)v. Tovro 
 6fJi(os ^€v Tj^evpco TTcos 6 KiKcpcov, 
 dv eivaL d\r]6e9, SeV ro eypayj/ev 
 els rov rrepl rrjs vnarelas \6yov 
 TOV' Karrjyope^ro d^ varepov on 
 bev o)(pe\r]dr] rore ck rrjs evKaipias 
 7]ns aplarrj Trapovaid^ero els av- 
 rov Kard rov Kalo-apos, aXX' edei- 
 Xlaaev evcoinov rov drjp^ov, ocrns 
 VTreprdrcos rjvvoei rov Kaicrapa, 
 
 fJLovov ol fierd rovrov dvia-rdpLevoi 
 TTpocreriSevro, ttoXXoI be kcll roav 
 Trpd avrov rds elprjfjLevas yvatfias 
 aTreLTrdjjLevoL rrpos rrjv eKeivov fie- 
 rearrjaav, ecos cttI 'Kdrcova to 
 TTpdyjxa KOL KarXoi/ rrepLrjXOe. 
 Tovrcov be veavLKcos evavncoOev- 
 T(ov, Kdrcovos be Ka\ rr)v virovoiav 
 dfia r(0 \6yoi crvveTTepeiaavros 
 avrco KOL (TvyKare^avao-ravTos ep- 
 pcofxevcos, ol fxev dvbpes dnoOa- 
 vovfievoi napebodrjo-av, KalcapL 
 be rrjs jSovXrjs e^iovri ttoWol roav 
 KtKepodva (ppovpovvrcov rore vecov 
 yvfwd rd ^L(prj crvvbpap^ovres eire- 
 (TXpv, 'AXXa Kovpi(ov re Xeyerai 
 rfj rrj^evvcp TrepLJBaXcov vTre^aya- 
 yelv, avros re 6 KiKepcov, 6)s ol 
 veavLO-KOL Trpoae^Xeyj/av, dvavev- 
 crai, <j)oP7]6els rov brjpov, rj rov 
 (povov oXcos dbiKov KOL napdvofjiov 
 rjyovpevos. Tovro pev ovv ovk 
 olba oTTcos 6 KiKepcov, e'tnep rjv 
 dXrjOes, (V ro) nepl rrjs vrrarelas 
 OVK eypa^ev' air lav be el^ev 
 vorrepov o)? dpurra rw Katpco rore 
 TTapaaxovn Kard rov Kalo-apos 
 pr] xpV^^H'^^^^i dXX' dTrobeLXcdo-as 
 rov brjpov virepcpvcos Trepiexope- 
 vov rov Kaio-apos, 
 
OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX. 87 
 
 Here the words are all ancient Greek; but there is a 
 strange departure from the old simplicity of expression, 
 combined with a sort of effort to say a great deal, and a 
 certain indescribable insincerity of language which is in itself 
 a history. The mere words, the outer shell, are still the 
 same as Plutarch himself, or even Thucydides, might in 
 certain connections have employed ; but a change has 
 passed over the spirit of the whole. It is as though a new 
 soul had taken up its abode in an old body, or as if, to take 
 a simile from an ancient story of Sacred Writ, the rough, 
 out-spoken, stalwart elder brother were being counterfeited 
 and supplanted by a wily younger one. ' The hands are 
 the hands of Esau, but the voice is the voice of Jacob.' 
 
 We will now proceed to consider the syntax of modern 
 Greek somewhat more particularly, and that we may follow 
 a definite order we will begin with that part of syntax which 
 seems most nearly to enter into the accidence of the lan- 
 guage. 
 
 The compound tenses of the verbs may fairly claim our 
 first attention. In modern Greek the future is formed in 
 three ways. By the particle Sa wdth the subjunctive ; by the 
 verb 6e\a) used personally, and followed by the infinitive; 
 and, thirdly, by the same verb used impersonally, followed 
 by the subjunctive. Thus ypay\r(x) becomes Sa ypdyj/(o, SeXco 
 
 ypdyj/€L{v) for ypd\lrai(?) or 6e\€i (Va) ypd\j/co. Qa ypdyp'co is 
 
 usually regarded as a contraction for SeXet va = Se va = 6a 
 ypayco ; but such a contraction would be quite without 
 analogy, and I am much disposed to look upon 6a as a mere 
 particle, to speculate on the etymology of which would be 
 hazardous, though it may be either a part or a fragment of 
 raxa, a possible dialectic form of which would be 6a-Ka ; cp. 
 klScov and x^'^'^^'j €v6€vr€v, ivT€v6€v. I cannot but think we 
 have this very particle 6€ or 6a in the optative interjection 
 eiSe and cliSe : eWe e\6oi is in modern Greek ^We va €\6rj, which 
 
88 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 might be also written el 6e va e\6r^. That 6a is equivalent in 
 force to 'iacos, Tcixa, k€, ttcos, ciif, &c., is evident from the fact 
 that, in modern Greek, rax eXdrj and to-coy eXdrj may be used 
 without Ba. In ancient Greek el-Be eXSot is plainly equivalent 
 to eiTTCDs eXSoL. I am the more inclined to regard Sa as a 
 simple particle because its use with the subjunctive corre- 
 sponds to the use of Ke in Homer, with the same mood, while 
 its employment with the imperfect, as Sa eireBvfiovv (vulg. 6a 
 eTreBvfjiovcra), answers precisely to the classical eTreOvjjLovv civ; 
 only that this usage is more exact in modern Greek, it being 
 impossible to say Sa e7TeSvfxi]aa in the same sense. This 
 would mean, not, ^ I should have wished,' but, ' I probably 
 did wish/ It is worth consideration whether av with the 
 aorist indicative in ancient Greek has not sometimes the 
 same meaning. However that may be, with Sa, if it be a 
 simple particle, we have nothing at present to do. ea TroXe- 
 fjirjcrco is just as much in the spirit of ancient Greek as Ke 
 
 7roXefjLr](TCL>. 
 
 But with SeXco ypd\lreL and SeXet ypayj/co the case is different. 
 eeXco ypayj/eL explains itself But what induced the Greeks 
 to grow discontented with their simple future ypd\l/co? It 
 seems to have been nothing else than a certain wastefulness 
 of speech always observable in the Greek language, as in 
 such phrases as ervxev iov, fieXXet TToielv (which latter is after all 
 but another kind of compound future) ; but this tendency 
 to waste words always increases in proportion as solidity 
 of character and depth of thought begin to wane. Inanity 
 always vents itself in expletives: and it is no wonder that 
 we cannot write Cicero's Latin without swearing Cicero's 
 oaths. Now every needlessly forcible expression is only 
 another kind of expletive ; it fills up a proportionate void in 
 the mind of the speaker and the hearer, and may be com- 
 pared to a still more feeble resource of m^odern times, the 
 printer's trick of italicising. The Nemesis of waste is want ; 
 
OF MODERN GREEK SYNTAX. 89 
 
 and so we find in the present case. GeXco ypay\reL having 
 come to mean, ' I shall write ; ' the need arises of a separate 
 phrase for ' I will write.' This accordingly is expressed by 
 the still more explicit mode of speech OeXod Iva ypdylrcoy BiXco 
 Va ypd\j/co. This use of tva begins in the New Testament, 
 where it is extremely common. But this leads again to a 
 further need ; if tva ypd\j/cd in this and other cases is to be 
 equivalent to ypd\(/aL, what are we to do if we want to say 
 iva ypd\l/(o in good earnest? We must have recourse to a 
 further periphrasis, and say dia 'm (di' tva) ypdyj^co. This 
 process is like the career of a perpetually insolvent debtor 
 borrowing money at compound interest. The same prin- 
 ciple may be seen at work in a vast number of words and 
 expressions. To notice a few. The preposition did, through^ 
 becomes diafxecrov, dm grOWS into dvdfji€(TOv, iiera is felt to be 
 too weak to express the relation with, and accordingly oixahrj 
 {'fjLa^T)) is pressed into the ranks of the prepositions. Tls 
 becomes ttoTos ; rls, kqtls, Kavels, or KafXTToaos = respectively some 
 one, any one, and some, Tcopa (rrj &pa) supplants the simple 
 vuv; iras and eKao-ros become Kadels, first, as most frequently 
 in the New Testament, used only in the accusative KaS' em, 
 but soon regarded and declined as one word, as already in 
 the epistles of St. Paul : 6^ and oan^ become 6 ottoIos (cp. z'l 
 quale, el cual, le quel, in Italian, Spanish, French, as also 
 TToToy with quel, &c.). For the old ttoTo? the Greeks often say 
 TToTos rts-, and the common people rt \oyr\^ ; (the r'l being used 
 indeclinably, like wasfur in German). Tt \oyr]s must have 
 meant originally, ^ of what vintage or gathering V 
 
 Examples of this kind might be multiplied without end ; 
 but the limits of our space warn us not to linger too long on 
 any one subject, however full of interest. We would rather 
 point the way and draw the outlines which we think, with 
 Aristotle, ' any one may fill up for himself.' 
 
 The third or impersonal form of the future, ^eXei ypdyj/co, we 
 
90 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC, 
 
 prefer to consider a little later on when we come to examine 
 the influence of Greek systems of thought upon the develop- 
 ment of the language. We will say now a very few words 
 on the compound perfects. Of these there are two, e^o) (ye) 
 ypajjLfievov, which is simply a more explicit way of saying 
 y€ypa(pa, and will be quite familiar to the classical scholar, 
 and exco ypa\lreL from €x^ ypayj/at, which is difficult to explain, 
 rather from the want of illustration and analogy in ancient 
 Greek or other languages, than from any inherent unreason- 
 ableness in the thing itself : yet we may compare the use of 
 the German infinitive for the participle in phrases like tck 
 hahe ihn sprechen wollen, Sec, Perhaps the idea present to 
 the minds of those who first used it may have been, that as 
 TO ypd(p€Lv, and even if the case required it t6 ypd\j/at, might 
 mean ^ the writing,' so ex&) ypd\j/ac might be used for ^ I have 
 a writing/ of anything as a deed done, ycypap^p^epov poi icm. 
 At any rate, he who is not scandalized at iKoav etvai need not 
 be offended at exco ypd-^ai. 
 
 It might be worth some one's while to see whether in 
 
 certain cases ovk exco ypdyJAm, ovK. e^co elire^Vy ovK e^^^ cLTTode'l^aty 
 
 and the like, may not admit of a perfect sense, as used by 
 Herodotus and other classical authors. With reference to 
 both the future and perfect tenses in modern Greek, it is to 
 be observed that being duplicate, according as the infinitive 
 aorist or imperfect is employed, they give a greater precision 
 of meaning than the simple forms ypdyj/^co or yeypacjya are 
 capable of expressing. Tpdyj/o) in ancient Greek might mean 
 either ^ I v^/ill write' (e. g. a letter), or, ^I will be an author.' 
 In the one case it would be in modern Greek, Oa ypdyJAco, 
 
 OeXco ypdyj/€L, or SeXei ypd-^ro) ; in the Other, 6a ypddxOy OeXoi 
 ypd(p€i, or OeXei ypd(pco. 
 
CHAPTER VI. 
 
 The Origin and Development of Modern Greek 
 Phraseology. 
 
 Leaving for the present the subject of syntax, let us notice 
 some changes in the meaning of words. 
 
 In the language of Greece as it is in our ovm day, we 
 shall be surprised and interested to find the eminently Greek 
 tendency to euphemism carried out to a still further extent 
 than in ancient Greek. KvOivrr]^ means no longer ^murderer' 
 but ' master.' Possibly during the period of Turkish supre- 
 macy the Greeks thought it came to much the same thing. 
 This I have put under the head of euphemisms, though it 
 appears to be a kind of inversion of the euphemistic ten- 
 dency, inasmuch as a bad meaning has given place to a 
 better one. But in all probability it is a real euphemism. 
 AvSevTTjs in the sense of murderer probably stands as a 
 separate idiom from avdhrrjs, master. AvOivrrj^, meaning 
 according to its derivation 'the very doer,' was employed 
 to denote the doer of a particular crime. This etymological 
 sense ' real doer ' was most likely never lost among the 
 common people, and when, as especially under the Turkish 
 dominion, deo-Trorrjs was felt to be an odious term, avBivrr^s 
 would be applied to the master, half to soften down the 
 bitterness of the relation in the mind of the slave, half 
 
92 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 flatteringly and fawningly towards the master, as though the 
 meaning were ' he is the real doer of all that is done, we 
 are nothing but the tools/ A more palpable instance of 
 euphemism may be found in such words as o-kotoVo), *I 
 darken,' for kill, yj/o(pd€L of an animal dying; compare the 
 French crever, and the German crepiren. The meaning is 
 literally of course ' to make a noise/ Death is still called 
 Xapo)!/ in the popular dialect, Xapo? or XapcDz/ra?, etymolo- 
 gically(?) 'the joyful God/ Bao-fcXeuet 6 T^Xtoy means 'the 
 sun sets/ Such euphemisms are quite in the spirit of the 
 Greek language in all ages. Who does not remember at 
 the sound of g-kotovco the grand Homeric periphrasis for 
 death, o-kotos oo-o-e KoXvyj/ev? and who that gazes on the 
 setting sun, as the Greek shepherd has so often done, from 
 some commanding height, but feels the majesty of the great 
 Ruler of the skies more sensibly as he lights up with his last 
 golden rays, ocean, islands, clouds and mountain tops, and 
 owns the fitness of the words put by Campbell into the 
 mouth of the ' Last Man' who sees the sun set never to rise 
 again : — 
 
 * Yet mourn I not thy parted sway, 
 Thou dim discrowned king of day'? 
 
 If there is a difference between the euphemisms of ancient 
 and modern Greece, it is perhaps that the modern ones are 
 more stereotyped and fixed ; that the language of poetry has 
 become the language of life. 
 
 Thus much of the euphemisms in the Greek of our own 
 day. There is however many a word which bears the 
 impress of a deeper and harder kind of thought than that 
 which is content with softening stubborn facts into gentle 
 metaphors. 
 
 The biography of a new word and expression would often 
 be a page from the history of philosophy. 
 
OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY, 93 
 
 The whole language in its vocabulary, as well as in its 
 structure, appears to have undergone a change from truth to 
 fiction, from Nature to Art. If it be asked, When did this 
 change begin ? the answer is, With the beginning of specu- 
 lative thought ; an answer perhaps none the less true because 
 it is indefinite. 
 
 What has philosophy done for language generally, and 
 what for Greek in particular ? might prove no uninstructive 
 enquiry. The most comprehensive reply to the question 
 would seem to be, that it gave terms for thoughts as well as 
 for things. The main feature of a language before the 
 beginning of speculative thought, is a kind of honest sim- 
 plicity. Men call a spade a spade, not an agricultural 
 implement. 
 
 Before philosophy, human research is a mere registration 
 of given phenomena. It asks only what is there } Philo- 
 sophy asks, why is it there ? then, how is it there 1 and lastly, 
 is it there at all .? 
 
 When new questions are asked, new answers must be 
 given ; and new answers require new words, or at least 
 words with new meanings. 
 
 Even the Ionic philosophers have handed down a host of 
 words to the colloquial language of to-day. Such are <i)vo-Ls^ 
 
 apxrj, (TTOLx^lou, i^drfjiLcns, dvaOvfiLaais, dvaXvaLs, Koo-fxos, ciTretpos, 
 
 TTVKvcoo-is, dpalaxTis. Could any of these words write its own 
 biography, what a strange history that would be ! Had any 
 of them been gifted with the tongue of a prophet, how it 
 would have amazed the sages of old ! 
 
 The unlettered Athenian in the Cafe de la Belle Grece, as 
 he melts a lump of sugar in a cup of coffee, little dreams 
 that the name by which he calls the process (dvdXvo-is) meant, 
 in the mouths of the old Ionic philosophers, the dissolution 
 of the elements of created things in decay or death ; and 
 scarcely could Heraclitus, with all his admiration of anti- 
 
94 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 pathies, have divined that Koo-fios, the divine order of nature, 
 and aireipov, the formless void, should ever be wedded 
 together in one expression, koo-^os aneLpos, and mean a 
 ' countless multitude,' perhaps a disorderly rabble. Could 
 Anaxagoras have foreboded that koo-jxos^ which expressed to 
 him divine beauty and perfection of arrangement — Travra 
 
 XprjfJLara rjv ofiov, eira vovs iXSchv avra dLeKoo-fxrjae — should in a 
 
 very few hundred years become the subject of the Christian 
 lament, ' the whole world lieth in wickedness ' ? Who could 
 foresee that t6 aXoyov, which would mean in the mouth 
 of Heraclitus so much of matter as was untouched by the 
 heavenly fire of reason, should come to signify in our own 
 day a horse ; or that cttolx^Iov, an element, should presently 
 become a ghost, the dalfjLcov of the ancient Greeks, haunting 
 murmuring rills or whispering groves, and terrifying the 
 simple shepherd as he tends his flocks upon the lonely 
 mountain side ? Scarcely could Democritus and Leucippus 
 have guessed, that of their philosophical terms o-xw^, Oeo-is, 
 and rd^ts, the first should mean in the present day, ' a monk's 
 habit,' the second, * a place in a coach,' and the third, ^ a 
 class' in a steam-packet or a railway train, any more than 
 Pythagoras could have foreseen that his doctrine of the 
 Pilgrimage of Souls should have taken such firm root in 
 popular superstition and popular poetry, that those lines of 
 Xenophanes, 
 
 Kal TTOT€ fjLLV (TTVCpeXL^ofxevov (TKvXaKos TvapLovra 
 ^aaiv iTTOLKTCLpaL KOi Tode (pdcrBaL eTTOs' 
 
 Ilavorai, fxrjde pd7ri^\ eTTCir} (plXov dvepos earl 
 ^^X^ r^i/ eyvcov (pOey^ajjLevrjs aicov' 
 
 should have found their echo in such words as these, uttered 
 by the hero Tsamados in the person of a bird of the air :— 
 
 'Eycb TTOvXi (Tov (paluop^ai dWd ttovW dev eip^aC 
 Etff TO vrjal ttov dyvavria elvai tcop ^a^apivojv^ 
 
OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY, 95 
 
 EaccI Tr]v vcrreprjv ttpoyjv acprjcra iroKcyLcovTas. 
 *0 ^Tcrajjiados elfxai eyo) koI rfkBa els top Koafiov. 
 '2 Tovs ovpavovs irov KaBopaL KaSdpia eras ^avolyco' 
 Ma va aas ^dco aTTO kovto. eivai rj ^TnBvjJLLa fiov. 
 
 To take another instance, how has the common language 
 of modern Greece reversed the judgment of the Eleatics, 
 when TO ov no longer means the most abstract but the most 
 
 concrete Being, as 6 avOpconos ovtos dvai to dvo-Tvx^o-TaTov ou 
 
 TOV KOafJLOV ! 
 
 Even the Sophists have a claim, and not the least, to our 
 attention. If these thinkers, or as some would perhaps be 
 inclined to call them, talkers, have little right to the name of 
 philosophers, it should still be remembered that they more 
 than any philosopher, not excepting Plato, who owed more 
 to them than he was -aware, left their mark upon the Greek 
 language, a mark which has never since been effaced. Be- 
 fore their time men wxre in the habit of saying what they 
 thought ; since they have rather inclined to think what they 
 should say, a tendency from which even genius cannot now 
 wholly shake itself free. Before the Sophists, thought was 
 everything and expression as an end nothing ; hence while 
 it was often laborious, it was always unstudied. Since their 
 age, expression has been too often either everything or 
 more than half the whole. Antithesis, emphasis, precision 
 of language, nice distinctions, well-balanced sentences and 
 smoothly-rounded periods, these are the work of the Sophist 
 and the delight of the Rhetorician. We can mark this 
 leaven working already in the speeches reported by Thucy- 
 dides, not so much as they were but rather as they ought 
 to have been spoken: we can trace it in the orations of 
 Demosthenes, it is the paramount feature in Isocrates and 
 the later orators of Greece, and reaches a kind of climax in 
 the discourses of Chrysostom. What a gulf is fixed between 
 
g6 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 a Chrysostom and a Nestor ! And if we listen to any ser- 
 mon or public address in Athens at this day, our ears are 
 struck by the same balancing of epithets, the same rounding 
 of sentences, which constituted in so great measure the art and 
 the power of the early Rhetoricians. Here is a brief extract 
 from a funeral oration on Lord Byron : — 
 
 Tt avekTTKTTOv (TVfi^ePijKos ! Tt d^LoSprjvrjTov bvarvx'^y^o. \ oklyos 
 KaLp09 eluat, dcj} ov 6 Xaos rod TroXvTraSovs 'EWddos oXos X^P^ ^"' 
 dyaXKlaaLS ide^Or] els tovs koXttovs tov tov iTrio-qyiOV tovtov av^pa, 
 Koi drjjjLepov oXos SXlyj/is kol KaTrj(f)€ia Kara^pi^^i to veKpiKov tov 
 Kpej^lBdri fxe TTiKpoTaTa daKpya^ kol odvpeTai d7rapr]y6pT]Ta. 6 yXvKv- 
 Taros ;)(atp€rtcr/xos XPI2T02 'ANE2TH eyecvei/ a)(apLS ttjp rjpspav tov 
 
 UdaxcL els to. x^^^ "^^^ ''E\\r}V(ov ;j^pto-7£ai/a)i/, AeKTa ^e^aia, 
 
 dyairrjTOL fiov "EXXrives, ttoXv deKTO, elvai els ttjv aKidv tov tcl baKpvd 
 fxas dtoTt elvai baKpva tcov kXt] povo hcov ttjs dyaTrrjs tov' dXXd ttoXv 
 deKTGTepa SeXei rjuai to. epya jxas 6ta ttjv naTpida' avTr]v kol p^ovrjv 
 TTjv €vyv(x>iJioo-vvrjv ^r^ret drro rjjJLcis els Tas evepyecrias tov, avTrjv ttjp 
 dfxoilBrjv els ttjv Trpos rjjjids dydnrjv tov, avTVjv ttjv iXd<ppco(np els Tas 
 TaXaiTTcoptas tov, avT^v ttjv TrXrjpcofjiTjv dia tov x^H'^^ '"^^ TToXvTLfJLOv 
 
 ^COTJS TOV, 
 
 For the purpose of Sophists and Rhetoricians, which was 
 ^ not to convince but to persuade,' new words were needed. 
 Such words, for example, as tS ovtl — indeed, literally in 
 being, in the world of real existence (no bad comment on 
 the consistency of a school whose leading axiom was that 
 there was no such thing as Truth) — TovXdxio-Tov, kut dXr]6ei,av, 
 drjXa^, rjyovv, are the true children of the Sophists and 
 have survived to this day ; in fact, without them it would be 
 impossible to carry on a connected conversation, or pen an 
 article for a newspaper. On the other hand, the simpler and 
 less explicit particles, such as ixr]v, ye, ovv, toI, ydp, have in 
 modern Greek either received a restricted sense, and thus 
 
OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY. 97 
 
 been made as explicit as was required, or have been sup- 
 planted by others. So yap and ovv, which are very expres- 
 sive but not at all explicit, have been entirely displaced by 
 diOTL and \oltt6v, which are very explicit but not at all ex- 
 pressive. As the first stage of the displacement of yap by 
 bioTL and ovv by \0n76v, we may observe the frequent use of 
 OTL for yap in the New Testament, which is I believe much 
 more frequent than is the case in the Septuagint, and the 
 constant occurrence of Xonrov for ovv in Polybius, wherever 
 rather an emphatic ovv is required. 
 
 To Socrates may perhaps be traced, or at any rate with 
 his teaching may be closely connected, the modern meaning 
 of such words as KaSoKov, dioAov, 6\cos (often emphatically 
 joined for the sake of greater force — okcos KadoXov, 6\cos dto- 
 
 \ov), dp€Tr], elpcopeia, tjOlkos, iTnarrjfxr], dtopicrpos. 
 
 The Cyrenaics appear to have invented the word fxepiKos, 
 particular (as in the phrase fxeptKal r]bom\), which in modern 
 Greek survives in the sense of certain, some, having degene- 
 rated from a philosophical term to a mere part of grammar. 
 So true is the remark above quoted that the metaphysics of 
 one age will become the logic and finally the grammar of 
 succeeding generations. A like fate has befallen some terms 
 of the Platonic philosophy; as eldiKos from cldos, specific, 
 which is now nothing more than part of the possessive 
 pronoun 6 dhiK.6^ /xov, to dhiKov TTjs, &c., mine, hers, and so on. 
 A curious and interesting instance of a som.ewhat compli- 
 cated metaphysical significance in certain grammatical forms 
 is presented by the history of the pronoun avTos, This word 
 expressed originally what may be called the feeling of sub- 
 jectivity rather than the idea : for the subject as an idea had 
 as yet no existence. Nevertheless the subject appeared in 
 the world very often in an objective light, and in Homer this 
 is expressed by putting together the objective particle I with 
 the subjective avro^ in the oblique cases, as I avrov, ol avr^, eo 
 
 H 
 
98 THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT 
 
 avTov, but it had never yet occurred to the Greeks actually to 
 join the two together as subject-object. This by a kind of 
 anticipation of philosophy occurs first in the more thoughtful 
 age of Attic and Ionic literature, where we get iavrov. But 
 both in the Homeric and Attic age there was as yet nothing 
 but a kind of unconscious registration of metaphysical facts. 
 The subject never till the time of the Sophists, and probably 
 not until long afterwards, got so clear of itself that it could 
 be spoken of as an objective reality, as a thing. Yet such 
 must have been the case to a great extent before the modern 
 Greek substitute for iavrov, ifxavTov, Sec. could arise; before 
 men could say t6v iavrou fxov, t6v iavrov rov, &c. There may 
 come a time perhaps when this tendency to objectivity in the 
 subject may go farther still, and men will find no difliculty 
 in contemplating the subject as an object, not only in its 
 objective relations (as in the oblique cases), but even in its 
 most subjective state, as the nominative. In this respect, 
 the English language is ahead of the Greek, for we can say 
 * himself in the nominative, though we almost require a 
 ^ he ' to help it out ; whereas 6 iavros rov in Greek would be 
 a barbarism ; — 6 Uws being used in such cases instead of the 
 
 classical avros. 
 
 In passing from Socrates and the Cyrenaics to Plato, we 
 must not forget the Cynics, who have left their stamp on the 
 
 language in such words as avTapKrjs, avrapKeia. 
 
 If the Sophists gave a new direction to language, to Plato 
 belongs the credit of having not inconsiderably increased its 
 power of utterance. In truth the Sophists and Plato to- 
 gether seem in great measure to have conquered the diffi- 
 culties of expression, and by so doing to have given to 
 Greek one of the characteristics of a modern language. As 
 a mere matter of style Plato comes nearer to a modern 
 Greek writer than Polybius, or any Hellenistic or eccle- 
 siastical writer. We seldom reflect what labour and art were 
 
OF MODERN GREEK PHRASEOLOGY, 99 
 
 once employed in beating out those convenient expressions, 
 those ways of turning a sentence, which make the flow of a 
 modern language so easy and its sense so clear and precise. 
 Here indeed other men have laboured and we have entered 
 into their labours. 
 
 Besides words to which the Platonic philosophy gave a 
 new sense, as drjfXLovpyos, * creator,' with all its derivatives, 
 one is struck by the fact that many of his commonest 
 phrases and words have established themselves in the col- 
 loquial language of the present day. 
 
 TLpos TOVTOLSj OTTcos drj7roT€, lacos, (f)aLV€Tac, iravTaiTacTLV^ apd ye, 
 
 fiakicTTa, Tolyap, common and necessary helps to conversation 
 in modern Greek, are the very hinges of the Platonic dia- 
 logues, and when one hears a common peasant say p^aXio-Ta 
 for _yes, or ncos ^iv elda = TTOds ovK cidov ; in emphatic affirma-^ 
 tion, one cannot but^i^ struck by such modernisms of Plato, 
 or if the reader will, such Platonisms in modern Greek. 
 
 But while modern Greek is indebted largely to Plato for 
 its form, to Aristotle it owes much of its vocabulary. If we 
 would understand how such words as vXv, vTroKelpievov, wapd- 
 
 Sety/xa, v7rdp)(^€LV, npoTacTLs, ope^i?, ovcncodrjs, ev^ex^raij xoprjye'iv 
 
 came to have their present meaning, it is almost necessary 
 to go to Aristotle for the explanation. And yet how 
 Aristotle himself would wonder at their modern employ- 
 ment. Tpa<pLKrj vXrj, 'writing materials;' ovcnoidrjf dcacj^opa 
 
 vnapxei, * an essential difference exists;' aol evxofjLca KaXrjv 
 ope^Lv, ' I wish you a good appetite ; ' afxeo-os Tvporaats^ ' an 
 
 immediate proposal ; ' VTroKelfxevov dTrapabeLyfiaTLO-Tov ivepyelasj 
 
 * a subject of unexampled activity.' He would either think 
 that every fool was his disciple, or that all his disciples were 
 fools. 
 
 The Stoics were not much of independent speculators, 
 but perhaps there is one idiom in modern Greek which may 
 be an echo of Stoic resignation, namely ^he third form of the 
 
 H 2 
 
lOO THE ORIGIN AND DEVELOPMENT ETC. 
 
 compound future already noticed, SeKcL v dnoOdvo) for otto- 
 SavovfjLaL, as though it were, ' It wills that I should die,' that 
 is, it is the will of that great unknown impersonal necessity, 
 whom we sometimes worship with the name of God. 
 
 As regards the philosophers, the history of innovations 
 may almost be said to close with Aristotle and the Stoics. 
 
 Succeeding schools having lost the grain, continued to 
 thrash out the straw of Aristotle or of Plato, until words 
 had little meaning left, and men had little hope of anything 
 better. 
 
 Yet in spite of the deadness of philosophers, and the 
 active opposition of grammarians and pedants, the Greek 
 language did not stand still. The conquests of Alexander 
 and the consolidation of Greece gave rise to what was called 
 
 the KOLvrj dioKeKTOs^ 
 
CHAPTER VIL 
 
 The Historical Development of Modern from 
 Ancient Greek. 
 
 Hitherto we have sketched the outlines of what may be 
 called the basis of modern Greek, of which the principal 
 elements seem to have been first as regards its accidence, 
 archaisms, preserved in the vulgar dialect from generation 
 to generation, a tendency to simplification or regularity both 
 in declension and conjugation, and the mixture of dialects 
 previously distinct; secondly, as regards its syntax, and the 
 use and meaning of words, a change in the mode of thought 
 and expression. 
 
 Having now considered the origin of modern Greek, let 
 us proceed briefly to trace its development, beginning with 
 the so-called Hellenistic Greek. 
 
 To the first or Macedonian age of the Koivrj diak^KTos be- 
 longs the Greek of the Septuagint, though there is every 
 reason to believe that this translation was made at various 
 times, and by persons very variously qualified to fulfil their 
 task. And here I may be allowed to remark, how very im- 
 portant is a knowledge of modern Greek for the study of the 
 Septuagint ; and I need not add of the New Testament also. 
 So much the more in the latter case as we have there to deal 
 with the meaning of an original instead of only with a trans- 
 
I02 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 lation. It is a mistake to think that classical Greek -f Hebrew 
 will give us the Greek of the Septuagint. 
 
 It is very easy to explain everything as a Hebraism, and 
 the less our knowledge of Hebrew the more readily does 
 the explanation suggest itself. Now there are Hebraisms in 
 the Septuagint, and, though in a less degree, in the New 
 Testament ; but all unusual phrases are not Hebraisms. 
 Polybius, certainly a contemporary of many of the trans- 
 lators of the Septuagint, may have many Latinisms in his 
 writings, but all his peculiarities are not Latinisms. What- 
 ever light may be thrown on the Septuagint and on Polybius 
 by Hebrew and by Latin, infinitely more may be gained both 
 for the one and the other from a study of modern Greek. 
 And what perhaps sounds still stranger, the Greek of the 
 present day affords a better commentary on the language of 
 Polybius, of the Septuagint, and of the New Testament, than 
 either the writings of contemporary historians, rhetoricians, 
 grammarians, and philosophers, who for the most part wrote 
 a purely artificial Greek — or than from the many thousand 
 ponderous tomes which encumber the threshold of verbal 
 criticism. 
 
 To speak first of the Septuagint. We have already 
 shown how the grammatical peculiarities of its authors 
 are the first appearance of the same forms which are 
 familiar to us in modern Greek. But more than this, 
 the phraseology of the Septuagint is modern to an extent 
 which is quite marvellous, when compared with that of 
 contemporary writers, and only explicable by the assump- 
 tion that the writers are using the common vernacular, which 
 had already become in its spirit and essence much what 
 modern Greek now is. For example, ''Ef eX^e iK rrjs yrj9 o-ovy 
 
 Koi €K rrjS o-vyyeveias crov . . .ttclvtcs e^eKkivav, ajxa r)Xp€ico6rj(rav,,., 
 
 Td(l>os dv€(oyfjLevos 6 Xdpvy^ avrcov, sound just like modern Greek 
 familiar phrases. Let us mention a few well-known words. 
 
OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. [O3 
 
 common to the Septuagint and modern Greek. "Emo-KeTr- 
 TOfiacj'l visit;' dnoKpLvofiai (passive), ^I answer;' iTno-rpecl^Q), 
 ' I return ; ' rjyovp,€vos, ^ a leader ' (in modern Greek the supe- 
 rior of a monastery) ; irpoG-Kvvw, ' to worship ' or ^ salute ; ' 
 €Toifid^(D, ^ make ready;' ivo^mov, ^in the presence of;' irpoar- 
 KOTTTco and TTpoa-Kopixaj TTeLpoL^coj ' to tcmpt ; ' cLKoXovSoi) iu prcfcr- 
 ence to enop^ai ; Kotix(op.at in preference to evdco ; 6Xos for Trds ; 
 €Q)s €p6s, ^ as many as one ; ' KaroiKM, for ' to dwell ; ' KaOi^opiai 
 and KaSlCco, for *to sit;' ra IfxaTLa, for 'the clothes;' vnayco for 
 elfii. Besides words of this kind, there are others, the pre- 
 sent usage of which dates from the Septuagint, words to 
 which Jewish ideas have given a new and higher meaning. 
 
 Ovpavos is no longer the mere blue sky, or a mythical 
 name for one of many deities, but the habitation of the 
 Ancient of Days. 'Afxapria no longer a mistake, but the 
 fundamental error oLmankind, estrangement from God, and 
 the breaking of his perfect law. Ulcttls becomes the trusting 
 obedience of faithful Abraham, and of all the saints. Ao|a is 
 the glory, or sometimes the honour of the Almighty. 'O Kvpios 
 is no longer the man in authority, but the name of the Lord 
 of lords, and the King of kings. 
 
 Before going on to the New Testament the order of time 
 demands a few words for Polybius. It cannot be said that 
 the general run of his sentences is so modern as the Septua- 
 gint or the New Testament. Many of the novelties of this 
 author are equally found in the New Testament. For ex- 
 ample, he uses TrXrjv for akXd, orav and av for ore and ^l. 
 Other modern usages are dKpr]v for eVt, as already Theocritus, 
 iv. 60. Cf. Anthologia, P. vii. 141. "ihov frequently for 
 iavTov^ far more so than is the case in classical authors. 
 "ibiov in one place in the sense of same, the most usual 
 meaning in modern Greek : Ihov koI TrapanXrjcnov toIs rroXeai 
 (Tvpe^T]. Here, however, the translation is doubtful. 'Atto in 
 the sense of worth or weight, as drro deKa raXdvTiDv, weighing 
 
I04 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 lo talents. So the Greeks of to-day say bos /xot airo SeKa 
 
 XeTTTci, dno jila deKapa. Ety rovs KaB^ rjfjias Katpovs, which is com- 
 pletely modern Greek, for eV roh Kaff rjpas xP^^^^^- This use 
 of els, as well as of Kaipos, belongs equally to the New Testa- 
 ment. I will now add one or two examples of the modern 
 
 phraseology of Polybius. 'O tPjs TrpaypLaTiKrjs laTopias rponos I 
 i. e. the method of actual history. UpayfxaTtKcds dievorjOrjaav, 
 
 ii. 50. 5. AiKaioboala, jurisdiction, XX. 6. 2; xxxii. 17. ig. 
 Tpa>yofX€v for io-Slopievj uscd, howcver, only in a proverbial 
 
 expression. Aolttov avdyK-q avyxcopelv ras apxcis Koi ras vTTodeo-eis 
 elvai ^evbelsj i. 1 5- E19 d\r}6ivas ivvoias ayeiv. '2v!i(b(i)VQvvT€s, lU. 
 
 the sense of bargaining, already used in this sense by 
 Xenophon, Hell. i. 3. 8, Kara tcis irepirrTa^us, according to 
 
 circumstances, Kara ras avrQ)v T^poatpiaeis, 'AvrlcTTracrfJLa, a 
 diversion, xi. 18, 'E/c rov (tip i^exooprjo-ap dio. rov xpdi^ov. Id. 
 2 2, 17 yap Xe^is avrrj rovro a7]fJLaLV€L Kvplcos, 'Els (pG(3ovs avvexf^'is 
 
 Kol rapaxas, into Continual fear and distress. 
 
 In the New Testament, among many others, we may 
 notice the following modernisms : — Els for eV, as els tov koXttov 
 rov 7raTp6<s, St. John i. 18. ^'iva with the subjunctive is used 
 continually for the infinitive, as Matthew iv. 3, elne Iva ol XIOoi 
 
 OVTOL cipTOi yevcovraL. "Kva peaov, for among : a(f)€S eKJSdXo}, the 
 modern as eV/3aXco. Bpexei for veij Matth. v. 45. '''Evoxos els 
 TTjv yeevvav for tt] yeevvr]. 'ETraz^o) opovs. UepiaaoTepov for TrXeov^ 
 
 as TTepiaa-QTepov Kpljxa^ ' greater damnation.* d^va-Kokods for jioyis 
 or xct^^^^s", ' with difficulty,' Luke xviii. 24, Kvros for os or 
 ovros passim. 'Eo-Tadrjv for €(TTr]v passim. The genitive for 
 the dative as in modern Greek, o^ eyo) ovk diiai a^ws Iva Xvo-ay 
 ai'Tov rov Ipdvra rov vTTodrjiJ.aTos. ^idov for ^ here,' the modern 
 
 edoo : Acts ii. 7? ^'^^ ^^^^ Trdvr^s ovroi elaiv ol \akovvT€s VaXiKaloi] 
 
 EvxapKTTcx) for x«pi^ eldevat, Cf. Lob. in Phryn. on the w^ord. 
 Ka6e\s for eKaaros in Rom.ans xii. 5. Such forms as yefil^co, 
 ' to fill,' eyyl^co, ' to approach,' are mostly Hellenistic and 
 modern. 
 
OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. 105 
 
 In Romans the phrase t<ov ttjv aX-fjOeLav Iv d^iKia Karexovroiv 
 
 receives considerable light when it is known that Karexco in 
 many dialects of modern Greek is used for the more general 
 T]^€vp(D, ' I know/ formed from the aorist of i^evpio-Kco, rj^cvpov. 
 Many another phrase, which to the mere classical scholar 
 appears dark and strange, and in which critics of the school 
 of Bengel think they hear the unearthly utterances of an 
 oracle, would appear simple and natural to one versed in 
 the vernacular of the modern Greeks. In leaving the New 
 Testament we may remark finally how many words there 
 are to which it has given a peculiar micaning which has now 
 become the prevalent one, as dtdlBoXos, KoXacrt?, SXlyj/is, fieravoeco, 
 alo)VL09. Above all is it interesting to observe how the bibHcal 
 word dyaTrr} has replaced the old expression epws-. The word is 
 Hellenistic, and hardly occurs, I believe, in classical Greek, 
 although the verb dyair^ does. Now the verb dyaTrcb implies 
 the noun dydTrrj, which must therefore have existed in the 
 mouth of the common people long before it came to the 
 surface in the Greek Bible. 'AyaTrrj being derived from the 
 root dyav-, as in dyafos, &;c., is a far better word for Christian 
 purposes than epcos, and indeed it would have served even 
 Plato better in his more religious moments. Compare the 
 Platonic epcos with the Pauline dydnr] in i Cor. xiii., and 
 observe how this * love ' is with Paul, as the €p<os with Plato, 
 not only the religious sentiment, but more generally still, a 
 certain upward and outward longing of the soul, a divine 
 principle of development, which is at once the only eternal 
 element in, as it is the common substratum of all belief and 
 all knowledge ahke, mounting ever upward, according to 
 St. Paul, from that which is in part to that which is perfect, 
 as in Plato, from beautiful sounds to beautiful forms, from 
 beautiful forms to beautiful thoughts, from beautiful thoughts 
 to that idea of good which mortal eye of man never but in 
 part beheld. 
 
lo6 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 With Polybius and the New Testament we pass within 
 the Roman period. If any one desires to form an idea as 
 to the state of the spoken language about i8o years after 
 Christ, no book will be more useful than Lobeck's edition 
 of Phrynichus' ^ Eclogae' and Epitome. It is really astonish- 
 ing to see how nearly every un-Attic form, against which 
 Phrynichus protests, has established itself in the language 
 of our own day. One may instance such forms as ^ayas 
 
 and (f>aKas, vrjpoVj nOW vepop, for vdcDp, (pXcvdiov for (Photos, Kpv^co 
 
 for KpvTTTcoj cLTTo fiQKpodev^ a commou New Testament and 
 
 modern pleonasm, XtSdpiou^ o-raOepos, ^ao-LkLO-aa^ yeXdo-Lfiov, 
 
 ^ayvcpiov (and similar derivatives), ^eviTevav^ Kopdo-cov, evxapio-TO), 
 
 po'Cbiov for polbiov. 
 
 Passing on to the age of Diocletian let us stop for a few 
 moments to read a Nubian inscription by a king Silco, 
 Corpus Insc. iii. p. 486, which may serve as a type of the 
 Greek spoken at that time in Aethiopia :— 
 
 'Eyo) SiXkco ^aaLktcTKos "Nov^adcov kol oXcov tcdv AWlottcov rjKSov 
 els TeXfJLLv kol Td(piv, liira^ bvo €7ToXepr]a-a p,€Td twv BXep^p.vcov^ kol 6 
 deos €da)K€P fxot to VLKrjpa p^erci rcov i)(6p(ov aTra^, evLKrjcra ttoXlv kol 
 iKparrjcra rds TToXets avTcoVy eKaBea^rjv p^erci tcov oxXcov fxov' to p.iv 
 TTpcoTov aira^ eviKijo-a avToyv kol avTol rj^Lco(rdv fxe, iiroliqG'a elprjvqv 
 
 /X€t' aVTCOP KOL COpOCTCW jXOi TCI (tdcoXa aVTCOVf Kol ilTL(TT€V(Ta TOP OpKOV 
 
 avTOdv hs KoXoL elfTLV avSpcoTTOC dvaxcoprjdrjv els tol avco peprj p,ov, 
 ore iyeyovopTjv ^acriXlo-KOs ovk aTrrjXBov oXcos OTTLdOd tcov aXXcov ^a(TL' 
 Xecov dXXd aKprjV epTTpoadev avTcov. ol yap (piXoveLKOvcnv p€T e/xoO 
 
 OVK dcl)co (cf. dipecovTat in Ncw Testament) avTovs fls x^P^^ "^- 
 
 Tcov el fjLT) Karrj^LCi>a-di> p€ kol TrapaKaXovcnv KaSeaBrjvm, 'Eya> yap els 
 Kara) peprj Xecov elpl Kal els avoi peprj at^ elpl, eTroXefjirjcra p^crd twv 
 BXeppLvcov Kal UplfjiecDS eoos TeX[/u]6cos ep drra^ Kal ol aXXoL ^ov^adcop 
 dv(j3T€p(o €7r6p6r}aa x^p^s avTcop^ eneibr} e<pLXop€LKr]arap p,€T ipov. ovk 
 d(po) avTuvs K(iBecrOr}Pai els ttjp (tklclp elp^rj vTroKXlpovcn [xoi Kal ovk 
 eTTcoKap PTjpop eVo) els ttjp olKiap avTcop. ol yap (piXopeiKovai fxoL 
 dpnd^co Toyp yvpaiKcop Kal to. Traibla avToop. For wildneSS of 
 
OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. 107 
 
 grammar this inscription is not equalled even by the Re- 
 velation of St. John, while for childishness of expression it 
 stands unrivalled. The chief modernisms are okoav for rrdv- 
 Tcov, enoXefiTjaa fxera as passim in the Revelation, and inoLrjo-a 
 
 elprjvqu iJL€T avTcov, d(j)a) for dc^irjyn, €7T(0Kav, a hybrid aorist- 
 
 perfect like evprjKav and edypaKav in the Septuagint, evprjKa and 
 efirjKa in modern Greek, and eW eh for eV, in modern Greek 
 
 fxecra els. 
 
 Other Nubian inscriptions give, as in Romaic, such 
 forms as '1ov\ls for 'lovXtos, with genitive touXt, tov as enclitic 
 for avTov, besides every possible extravagance in grammar 
 and every conceivable error in spelling, the latter class of 
 mistakes, however, invariably pointing to the identity of the 
 pronunciation of that age with that of the present day; as 
 
 ^XKvcre for elXKVO-e, reKvvs for T€Kvols, 'Ucoo-i for e'cKcocn, apx^cos for 
 apxaiois, clepeos for Upeos^ 
 
 From the age of Diocletian to the Byzantine Period is but 
 a step, and the history of the development of modern Greek 
 from that time is shortly told. Until the time of Ptochopro- 
 dromus, in the eleventh century after Christ, artificial Attic 
 was still the language of literature ; but the popular dialect, 
 often referred to by authors, keeps coming from time to time 
 to the surface ; especially in such works as the ' Gospel of 
 Nicodemus' (end of fourth century), the ' Apophthegmata 
 Patrum,' *Acts of the Council of Constantinople,' 536, 
 'Theophilus Antecessor and Joannes Moschus,' 620, Jus- 
 tinian's ' Constitutiones Novellae/ 565. In the ' Gospel of 
 Nicodemus' and in Justinian we have a number of Latin 
 words, not many of which, however, have survived. One of 
 them, however, dpfiara for arma, is a curious instance of 
 Greek ingenuity in disguising barbarisms ; for an ' armed 
 man' is in modern Greek dpfiaTcoXos = oTrXtV?;?, on the analogy 
 of dfxaprcoXos. See Sophocles' * Glossary of Later and Byzan- 
 tine Greek,' p. 59 of the Introduction. 
 
IC8 THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 The chief modernisms of this period are 6 d^^as, rod df^jBa, 
 pi. ol dlBjBddes, KOTrddtv for KOTrdbiov, the modern KOTrdhi (a piece); 
 TToXXa ra err)^ as a form of salutation ; afjLJBcov for ^jjfia, €vi for 
 60-rt : and the combination rf, as rCovfids, T^ayydpia, At the 
 beginning of a word this is found only in barbarisms ; but 
 in all probability the combination existed in certain words 
 even in classical times, as a necessary intermediate stage 
 between the old Attic double or as in K6a(rv(pos, and the later 
 Attic TT as in k6ttv(J)09. It is interesting to know that the 
 vulgar Greek of the present day gives us K6Tav(j)os, or K6T^vcf)os, 
 sometimes pronounced almost K6c/ivcf}os. 
 
 I subjoin a short specimen of the popular style adopted in 
 this period from the ' Apophthegmata Patrum : ' — 
 
 ^HA^oV 7T0T€ 7TaT€p€S els ^ A\e^dvbp€LaV KKvfieVT€S VTTO Q€o(p[Kov TOV 
 
 dp^icTTia-KOTTOv Iva 7roLr](T7) cv^^jv kol KaOeKj] ra Upd. Kal icrSiovroop 
 avTcov nap" avrov TrapsTeSrj Kpeas pLOCTxiov. Kai rjcrOiov p.7]bev diaKpL- 
 
 v6}l£V0l KCLL \aj3u)V 6 i7rl(TKOTrOS €V KOTrd^LV ^^dcOK€ TCa 7rXr}(TL0V aVTOV 
 
 yepovTL Xeycov, ^Idov tovto koXov Korrdbiu icFTiv, (pdye a/3/3a. Ol de 
 aTTOKpLdevres elnov, ^HfieTs ecos apri Xd^ava rjO-OlofUP el de Kpeas icrri 
 ov TpcoyojX€v. Kai ovk€tl npoaedero ovde els e^ avToav yevcraaOai 
 
 avTov. A Strange improvement on the ApostoHc precept, 
 'ask no questions, for conscience' sake/ The meanness of 
 the language is in striking harmony with the moral degrada- 
 tion of a religion of meats and drinks usurping the name of 
 Christianity. 
 
 The next period in the history of the Greek language may 
 be reckoned from 622, the date of the Hegira, to 1099. We 
 have here before our eyes the transition in literature from 
 the language of the grammarians to the language of the 
 people. 
 
 Theophanes (758-806) gives us -ddes as the plural of 
 
 nouns in -as,'^As Xahrjo-coixev for XaXrjo-cofxev, and as elo-eXOcocn for 
 
 slcreXSovTcov, The perfect participle without reduplication, as 
 crLdrjpcoiJLevos, KacFTeXXoojievos, TrvpTToXrjjjievos \ diro with the acCU- 
 
OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. IC9 
 
 sative, <tvv with the genitive, as well as dixa with gen. Malalas^ 
 whose age cannot be determined with certainty, gives us in 
 addition -es for -at, as Hepo-es for lit-pcrai, rats nXaKais, meta- 
 plastic from T) TrXa^, as though it were rj irXaKa; Kav in its 
 modern Greek usage, olai Kav rjo-av, * whatsoever they were 
 like/ Mera with the accusative in the sense of wz/k, as the 
 mutilated modern fie (?). The nameless biographer of Leo 
 Armenius uses the ending -ovp for -ovo-l ; €k with the 
 accusative, and evyevos for evyevrjs. Leo the Philosopher, 
 886-91 1, has IBlkos =proprzu7n, as in Romaic, and the ending 
 -eo-ai for -€L (second pers. sing, passive). Constantine Por- 
 phyrogenitus, who wrote all his works, with the exception 
 of the Life of St. Basil, in a style purposely popular, gives 
 us dXXd^LjjLou, g^^' okXa^LfxaTos I cf. the form TO yekdaiixov, con- 
 demned by Phrynichus : fxovoyevr) for the vocative of fiovo- 
 yevrjs; the ending -t/coy, ^roparoxytone (possibly a Latinism) ; 
 (Tcis for vfjLoop, T(ov for avTcoVy €va for eV, etVe for et : etcre is prob- 
 ably from i(T(T\ just as elve is from ivrl : o-ov for croi, as koXt] 
 o-ov TjfjLepa, 'good moming to you:' va for iva, and ecos with 
 the accusative. 
 
 An anonymous writer, known as Theophanes Con- 
 tinuatus, gives us ^A\v gen. of 'kXvs, xp^^^^ for xP^^-oOs : 
 Cedrenus, a.d. 1057, the numeral adverb eTTTai for iTrrdKLs, 
 This would appear to be a reHc of an old instrumental 
 ending. Scylitzes gives us the following specimen of the 
 
 common dialect, €a> o-e cKno-a (povpvey €co Iva ai xa^ao^o) = in 
 
 modern Greek iyd) o-e etcTio-a <povpv€, eyw o-e vd (sometimes 
 used for 6a) ere xaXao-w- *Ea) occurs in modern Greek as a 
 dialectic form, as well as ico, Iwv. Cf. Boeotian lo)v, Icovya, 
 Anna Comnena, who wrote a history of the Byzantine war 
 about the year iioo, gives another example in the following 
 verse : — 
 
 To ad^^aTOV rrjs Tvpii/rjs, 
 Xapfjs 'AXe^te^ ivorjcres to^ 
 
no THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Kat Tr]V devT€pav to Trpcoi 
 EtTTf, KaXcos y^pcLKiv fjLOV. 
 
 Here we have t6 o-a^Parov for rw o-ajB^dTcp, iporjo-es for 
 €p6T](Tas, the enclitic to, x^pfl^ for x^P^^^^ used optatively, ttiv 
 d€VT€pav for TTj devTepa, KaXa)s as a form of Salutation, still 
 common in Greece, and the diminutive yepaKiv for yepovTtov, 
 on the analogy probably of (TKvkaKiov, diminutive of (tkv\o9, 
 or, properly speaking, of o-KvXa^. TepaKLv is contracted for 
 yepaKLou, and, in modern Romaic, would appear as yepaKL, 
 
 This closes the mediaeval period of Greek literature. 
 The first writer who can be said to have used the po- 
 pular dialect in its entirety was Theodorus Prodromus, 
 nicknamed Ptochoprodromus ; a monk who lived in the 
 reign of the emperor Manuel Comnenus, and addressed 
 to him a series of popular verses, o-tIxol ttoXltikoI, preserved 
 to us by the grammarian Coray in the first volume of his 
 ^Atacta/ The burden of these verses appears to be the 
 poverty of learned men. They are written with great spirit, 
 and remind us of Juvenal. The Greek language is now 
 emancipated, and begins again to show its native power. 
 We subjoin an extract taken from Mr. Sophocles' book 
 above-mentioned :— 
 
 Tr}v K€(j)akT)v crou, ^acrikev, ds tovto tl fxe XeycLS ; 
 
 ^Av exco yeiTOvav Tivav kexV TratSii' dyopiv, 
 
 Na TOP cItto) Vt, MaOe to ypajxpiaTLKov va (r](Trj ; 
 
 Uapa KpauiapoKecpaXov iravTcs va fi ovopLacrovv, 
 
 Na Tov elnS) Vt, MaBe to T^ayyaprjv to Traibiv aov* 
 
 VcLTOvav €XG> TreT^coTTjv, TaxcL ylrevboT^ayydprjv' 
 
 Il\r)V €V€ KoKo'^ovvLO-Tris, eW Ka\ ;(apofco7ros'. 
 
 "OTav yap idrj ttjv avyrjv Trepixapo.cro'OfjieprjVj 
 
 Aeyet as ^pdarj to Kpacrlv Ka\ ^aXe to iTVTTcpLV' 
 
 "EvOvs TO jSpdaeiv to depfxov Xeyet irpos to Tvaibiv tov 
 
 Na TOj TTaiblv fxov, dyopaare x^P^^'^^''^^ (TTaixevov, 
 
OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. Ill 
 
 ^€p€ KOL B\a)(LK0V TVpiv aXkr)j/ CTTa/ievapeaVy 
 
 Km dos fJL€ va 7rpoy€V(Tco[iaLj kol t6t€ va Trerfovo). 
 
 'A^* ov be (pddcTTj TO Tvpiv Koi TO. ;(op§oicotXtVfta, 
 
 Kav T€cr(repa top dL8ov(Tip els to rpavov p-ovxpovrLV 
 
 Kal Trap€v6vs virodrjfiav cTralpei kol Trcr^oveL, 
 Orav 6e ttoXlv, /SaciXei), yefiaros copa (pddcrrjy 
 PtWet TO KoKaTTodtv tov, piTrTet kol to cravtdiv, 
 
 Kal Xeyet ttjv yvvaiKCL tov, Kvpa kol Oes Tpaire^iv' 
 
 Kal TTpCOTOV jJLLO-CrOU (Lat. missus) €K^€(Tt6v, dcVTepOV TO 
 
 (r(povyydTov, 
 
 Kal TplTOV TO CLKpLOiraO-TOV 6(p66v aTTO JJLCpLOV. 
 
 Kal T€TapTou fxovoKvdpov, ttXtju jSXeTre va prj fipd^rj. 
 'A0* ov de TTapaSeaovcnv kclI viy\reTai kol KaTO-rj, 
 AvaBefxa pe IBacrikev kol Tpco-avdBepd /xe, 
 ' OvTav (TTpa<pa> Kal 4bco tov Xolttov to ttcos KaBi^ei, 
 To TTCJS dvaKopTTovcTaL va Trido-r) to KovToXiVy 
 Kal ovbev Tpe\ovv to, (Takia pov, o)s Tpi-^ei to TTOTdpiv, 
 Kal eyco vTrdyco k ep^opai rrodas pteTpcov tcov (ttlx^^V 
 ^v6vs (r)TSi TOV 'lap^oVj yvpevco tov (nrovbelov' 
 
 TvpeVCO TOV TTVppLXtOV Kal TO. XoLTTCl TO, pL€Tpa. 
 
 AXXa Ta peTpa ttov ^(I)€\ovv ^s ttjv ap€Tp6v pov Treivav ] 
 Ilore yap €K tov tap^ov va (pdyco KoapoKpdTop ^ 
 
 H TTCOS €K TOV TTVppLXLOV 77076 p.OV VCL ^OpTaaCO * 
 
 E^e T€xvLTr]s (roc[)io-Trjs cKeTvos 6 T^ayydprjs. 
 EtVe TO KvpL€ \er](TOV, rjp^aTO povKavl^eiv. 
 
 The language here is essentially modern Greek, though 
 the middle voice appears not quite extinct, as we have Trpo- 
 y€vo'cop,ai, rjp^aTOy &c.; and v sometimes etymologic, sometimes 
 ephelcystic, is written after a number of words where it is 
 now left out, as vnodrjpav, Traihlv, ''eSc for i5e Strengthens the 
 etymology of ihco from Ibov, OvBev is written for the modern 
 dev. The form eW we have referred to on p. 79. 
 
Il:^ THE HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 For the subjoined translation I am responsible : — 
 
 * By your own head, O king, I swear, I do not know your 
 meaning : 
 Suppose I have a neighbour now, blessed with a boy in breeches. 
 Shall I go tell him, "Teach your son his letters for his living"? 
 Sure all the world would dub me then a most consummate block- 
 head. 
 Nay, I should say, " Go, teach your son a bootmaker's profes- 
 sion." 
 One of my neighbours cobbles shoes, perhaps pretends to make 
 
 them; 
 Now there's a famous manager, who understands good living. 
 No sooner does he see the dawn streaking the sky to eastward. 
 Than straight he cries, " Let boil my wine, and sprinkle in some 
 
 pepper." 
 Scarce has the hot potation boiled, when thus he hails his servant : 
 " Here boy ! a shilling's worth of tripe go bring me from the 
 
 market : 
 A shilling's worth of cheese besides, Thessalian cheese, remember. 
 If I'm to cobble shoes to-day, I first must have my breakfast," 
 And when the cheese comes with the tripe in dainty little clusters, 
 Four times they fill him to the brim a mug of vast dimensions. 
 And then he takes a shoe in hand and cobbles at his leisure. 
 But when the dinner-time comes round, why then, my lord and 
 
 master, 
 Away with last and cobbling-board, the time has come for eating. 
 " Good wife," he cries, " come lay the cloth, and get the dinner 
 
 ready. 
 Bring me the broth, that's the first course, the second is an 
 
 omelette, 
 The third a haunch of venison pie, browned nicely in the oven, 
 A mess of hotch-potch for the fourth ; take care it don't boil 
 
 over." 
 When all is served and he has washed, and seats himself at 
 
 table, 
 Curse me, your gracious majesty, not once, but three times over 
 If — as I look and contemplate the way he sits at dinner. 
 Unbuttoning his waistcoat first, to hold his spoon the easier — 
 It does not fill my hungry mouth with water like a river. 
 And I; I go and come again, and measure feet for verses, 
 
OF MODERN FROM ANCIENT GREEK. II3 
 
 Now hunting for a short and long, now for two longs together ; 
 And now for two short syllables, with all the other measures. 
 Alas ! what help the measures my unmeasurable hunger ? 
 When, mighty prince, will shorts and longs provide me with a 
 
 dinner ? 
 Or how with two short syllables am I to fill my belly? 
 Behold a shoemaker indeed, a skilful craftsman truly; 
 A blessing asked, he straight proceeds to polish off the victuals.* 
 
CHAPTER VIIL 
 Dialects of Modern Greece^ 
 
 Professor Mullach divides the existing dialects of modem 
 Greece into six main varieties, besides Tsakonian and Al- 
 banian, whose claim to be considered Greek dialects will 
 be separately considered. These six varieties he designates 
 as follows:— -I, That of Asia Minor, dvaroXiKr} hakeKTos. 2, 
 Chiotic. 3. Cretan. 4. Cyprian, 5, Peloponnesian. 6. 
 That of the Ionian Islands. 
 
 I. Dialect op Asia Minor. 
 
 The chief feature of this dialect is the substitution of r for 
 0, as reXo) for ^eXo), and k for x ; in general a preference for 
 unaspirated tenues. The dialect of Trapezus seems to 
 have preserved us several Homeric forms, as a6e = eOev, and 
 afjLov = rjjjLos I for the substitution of v for s we may compare 
 €xofjL€s, exo^ev, &c., where the ? is first dropt, and then its 
 place filled up by v €(p€\KV(rTiK6v, 
 
 In the same dialect, i. e. of Trapezus, dUXorros for aTrarrjXos 
 has a very archaic sound. ''Evl and eV still stand for eVr/, i. e. 
 
 eWt. "EXXej/oy = robustus, 'E^€Trdyr] appears as €XTrdy€v, Svyd- 
 
 Trjp as 6ayaT€pa. 'K stands for ovK instead of the modern 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. II5 
 
 Greek 'dev. Ka = Kara). Ma^iXay = pcLTncriia, perhaps a blow 
 
 on the mouth, possibly connected with maxilla^ of which, 
 however, the common modern Greek form is \iayo\)kov, Olviapiv, 
 from of?, is in place of the modern Kpea? irpo^iov^ or Tzpo^arivov. 
 
 Ov^ stands for ecoy. Jlodnv = depfia, cf. TrecrKOS. To TrpojSav = ro 
 TTpo^arov, Tiohebi^co = deop^ai, cf. yovari^co. 
 
 2. The Chian Dialect 
 
 is said to preserve the Homeric Ke, which appears also in 
 Pontus as k€s, but I have never been able to discover an 
 example in any of the Chian poems which I have read. 
 'ASam is explained by Mullach ^'drj vvv. Aa certainly stands 
 for drj in modern Greek, as eXa da = exactly aye §77, eXa being 
 imperative present from iXdco or iXdfco, the root form of iXdfvco 
 
 = iXavvco. So too Kafjie^dd, o-)(l ^a, (for ovxi S77). 
 
 3. The Cretan Dialect 
 
 abounds in peculiar forms and archaic usages. In the 
 pronunciation the most marked feature is the sound of k as 
 ch in cherry before e and i sounds. 'Yo-eTy is said to stand 
 for the modern o-et?, eVeT? = v\ifi^. The omission of the aug- 
 ment and the use of 6, 37, to as a relative strongly remind us 
 of the Epic and Ionic dialects : e. g. 
 
 TCi Kdfiav Kol TO. (pepav. 
 
 In Epic, TO, KdjJLOV KOL TO, (p€pOV, 
 
 In Cretan we also get the dialectic form povSe for firjTe. 
 
 4. The Cypeian Dialect 
 
 appears, in common with that of Rhodes, to leave cut in 
 many instances the semivowels d and 7, as (xeaXos = iieyaXos 
 
 I 2 
 
Il6 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 for fieyas, to) ev to aXXd(r(TCd for iycb dev to aXXao-cro). MuUach 
 
 well compares oXlos Sicilian for oXlyos, lo)v, Icovya Boeotic for 
 eycoye, a/3a) Epic for Xei/So), and Tot, rat for Tob\ and Ta^\ in the 
 Elian Rhetra. 'Corpus Inscript.' ii. Klos for okiyos is a 
 Cyprian form. We have also the Pindaric opvix^^ ^r opviOa, 
 
 and also ^ax^s for Pddos, In Meo-afovpla, or MecralBovpLa, the 
 
 digamma is preserved, r stands for the consonantal tcora, 
 
 as X^Py^ fo^ X^P^"' crapavrapya for [Tecr]a-apa[Ko]r^rapta. The 
 
 termination /oz/ of diminutives appears as tV, as in Ptocho- 
 prodromus and later Roman period (whereas in the common 
 dialect of Greece it appears as /) ; e. g. l3ovpiv, Traiblv, fieXlo-o-Lv: 
 also TovTov for TovTo ; cf in Attic TavTov for TavTo^ and tolovtov 
 for TOLovTo : the latter form belonging also to Herodotus 
 and the Odyssee. Adfivco stands for iXavvco, as aepvbs for 
 ae^vos : IT and p seem also interchangeable, as we get pXolov 
 
 for nXolov and Trvrjpa for fJLVTJpa, JJov va pi^opev Tcopa j whlther 
 
 shall we now tend? pe^opeu being connected with opeyopai. 
 We get also the metathesis ddpKva, Tp€7rv6s, for ddKpva, TepTrms. 
 Tp67rop,aL and TepTTopat are possibly the same root, in which 
 case Tpecpco alone would be referable to the Sanscrit Irt'p, 
 tripdydmi. This metathesis leads us to connect Tdp^os, Tap- 
 /Seca, Tap^v^co with the modern Greek rpaSeco, eTpd^i^a, to turn 
 or /^ go away, which doubtless was the original significa- 
 tion of Tap^eco, In Cyprus as well as in Crete the enclitic 
 seems to be preferred to the proclitic construction, cldd tov to 
 
 Tov elda. 
 
 5. The Peloponnesia^ Dialect 
 
 in general seems to prefer verbs in an uncontracted form, 
 as Tipdco, TLpdeis, TLpdec. It appears to use the nominative for 
 the accusative in such words as €(prjp€p\s for ecj^rjpepida, but 
 this may be a matter of pronunciation only. By a curious 
 metathesis To-rj stands for ttjs as well as for tovs. This is 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, ri7 
 
 also found, I believe, in the dialect of the Ionian Islands, and 
 certainly in that of Crete. 
 
 In addition to these general divisions, MuUach notices 
 especially the dialect of Thera as peculiarly harsh and sing- 
 ing, and draws attention to the archaism ttcos aKoveis for nuis 
 ovofid^co-ai. A/Soo/xt, in modern Greek dldco or StSoVco, appears 
 
 as dovo), Ta TTpcLTT) = ra npayfJiaTay from to irpdros. This muSt 
 
 Stand for rb irpdicos, and strengthens the theory of philologers 
 that TTpay-, TO TTpdyos &c. are weakened for rrpdK-. Xp-q^aTdo) 
 = x/377ftarea), which in the common dialect means only, * I 
 employ myself, spend my time,' &c., as ixp^fJidTrjo-a dvo eTrj els 
 TO ypa(f)€26v Tov, ^ I was employed two years at his office,' — is 
 idiomatically used, according to Mullach, for xPW^i^^^^, among 
 the Theraeans. 
 
 In Cythnus, Psyra, and Chios, elvTas, elvTa is used for r/s, 
 TL, which appears to b^ a transposition for TLvas, metaplastic 
 from Tis (compare ovTa[s'] or ovTa[v] for oTau) ; and as such 
 should be written 'IpTas, Ivra, Yet ovTav looks very like 6We dv 
 [xpoVoj/], especially when we remember that ovre = ore occurs, 
 as well as ovTav for otqv. In Cythnus too the termination ve 
 seems to be added on to certain words with no meaning at 
 
 all, as XVP^'^^ yLV€-V€j [lavpa (popeOrj-pe, i. e. XI P^ iyiv€TO, p.avpa 
 
 icjyopedrj, where it would seem we have the archaism of a 
 neuter plural being used with a singular verb. In Cythnus 
 epxoixaL makes rjpxa, instead of rjpSa or rjXda, an additional 
 ground for connecting in one root epOovpLai, epxopai, rj\6ov, 
 TjvOov, and rjpOa, 
 
 In Siphnos, Naxos, and Thera, the forms exovo-t, et;^ao-t are 
 preferred to exovv and elxav. They are also common in 
 Crete. 
 
 ^ In Amorgos, Calymnos, and Astypalaea, x palatal is pro- 
 nounced as sh, e. g. e^et esht. The augment is lengthened, 
 
 as rjypa(j)a for €ypa<pov : cf. the COmmon form ^ma for einov. 
 
 The same thing occurs in ancient Greek in SeXco, fjO^kov ; and 
 
Il8 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 as rjOeXov implies a form eWXo), so probably eVtVo), €ypd<l)(o are 
 obsolete forms from which rjypaipa and ^ma have arisen. In 
 these islands oTOLfxos and oXevSepos occur for eroLp^os and eXev- 
 ^epoy. Compare the common form op,op(j)os for epopcpos, i. e. 
 
 In Patmos the Aeolic accent, dXrjSrjs, Kolpos, vepov, kovtu, 
 KoXoSf ^poxn^ obtains. 
 
 In Rhodes, Carpathos, and Calymnos, etx^®; ^ei^ev, ovXevco 
 
 stand for d€Lxi^(o (i. e. deLKvvit)^, edei^eu, dovXevco, Also yvcoplco 
 
 and (Tvpcico for yvcopl^co and o-ui^a^o), implying the forms yvcopi^-oy 
 and o-i;my« : afterwards, by the insertion of Icora =y, made 
 
 into yvcoplfyo, (TVvdyyOy and hence yvcopL^cOj avud^co. 
 
 Here too, as in Asia, k appears to supplant x, as e/cco, o-to- 
 Ka^opm, epKopai, reKuiTrjs. Here k may sometimes be the 
 earher sound. Te^^^ is really aspirated from reKvr}, compare 
 T6KTCOV, TLKTco, €T€Kop, So in modcm Grcck deUvco becomes 
 8€Lxvco ; diodKvco, bicaxvoa, and in ancient Greek i^amvrjs is con- 
 tracted to i^alcbprjs. N appears to have an aspirating influ- 
 ence on a preceding tenuis. At the beginning of a word x 
 sounds like k, as kdpis for x^P''^- 
 
 In Carpathos we get rercrapes for rio-aapes, an intermediate 
 form between reo-crap^s and rerrapes, as KOTo-vcpos is between 
 K6(T(rv<pos and Korrvcpos : and I cannot doubt the feminine ter- 
 mination tVo-a, common in modern Greek, to be intermediate 
 between lo-o-a and trra, as seen in peXto-a-a, piXirra, notwith- 
 standing the accent, which may arise in modern Greek from 
 a Doricized lonicism, i. e. iVo-t;, Iro-a. 
 
 In Rhodes, a is often weakened to e, as cnrepiv, (T(j>oyy€piv 
 for o-LTopiov, (Trroyydpiov (here too notice the termination lv), 
 euoL^e for civoL^e ; yeXavrjs appears in ancient Greek for yaXrjvds ; 
 yaXT]VT] plainly means ^ the smile of the sea.' Compare too 
 veXos, TTveXov, ttUCo), and their corresponding forms vaXos^ 
 
 TTvaXov, TTld^CO. 
 
 In Carpathos, similarly, we have nevTiKos and KadiXov for 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, II9 
 
 TTovTiKos and KadoXov. "oXvfjLTTos Is callcd '^EXvfjLTTos at the pre- 
 sent day. 
 
 Professor Mullach observes that fewer diminutives are 
 found on the islands than on the mainland : the old forms 
 Tpdyos, (TKvXos, and KpLos, have not yielded to rpayly aKvXlj and 
 
 Kpidpi. 
 
 We have now to consider a very singular phenomenon in 
 the shape of the Tsakonian dialect, the language of the inha- 
 bitants of the ancient Cynuria. We can at present do little 
 more than state a few pecuHar forms and grammatical 
 ■vagaries on the authority of Professor Mullach. First, then, 
 we have undeniable Doricisms and antique forms which 
 seem to carry us back to that period when Greek had 
 scarcely parted from Latin. As Doricisms (partly Boeotic) 
 
 let us notice (pcova for (pcovr}, ktovttS} for ktvttcOj cf. ydovTTOS, 
 
 ydovTTG) in Homer. An apparent tendency to use the voca- 
 tive for the nominative, as ^oro-xv for ^orpvs, hevovfx^ve for 
 
 dvmpevos, Kanve, dere, x^P^y which in the formS vopo^ (T0(p6 
 
 seems to explain itself partly as a dislike to s as a termina- 
 tion, is paralleled by certain forms in Homeric Greek. 
 
 Compare iVTroVa, ve(^eXr)y^peTa with the Tsakonian TroXira, 
 
 vavra, €pipj]Ta, T^xvira, Trpocjyrjra. Other peculiar forms are as 
 follows : — KpU = Kpeas, eKavov = iKavca, an Undoubted archaism ; 
 
 yovvoLKa = yvvri, kov€ = kvcov, viovra = vvKra^ i. e. vv^, vvxo- = ovvx-^, 
 cf. vvcrcTcOy i. e. vvxycOy Trao-xa = Trdaa, evBcrx^ = evdev (another 
 
 archaism), To-xi = tI : cj)oCovp€vos = (polSovpevos, and (pv^ovpev — 
 (pvy(op€v, cf. (pvC^. Zeioy Stands, according to Mullach, for ^aoy, 
 but he does not inform us for which Selos, whether in the sense 
 of uncle, or in the sense of divine. If it stand for the latter, 
 I should derive it not from 6fio^, but from Kio^, and write 
 Cio^y which might be compared with dplCrjXo^ and dpldrjXos, &c. 
 Z stands in Tsakonian instead of k before e and t sounds, 
 which is only to be explained, so far as I see, by assuming 
 
120 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 that K was first softened to y. Thus /cm, yal = yie = fe. K is 
 found for tt, as klclvco for 7riaz/oa. P for \, as ypouo-o-a for 
 
 yXaxraa. AaicrvXos becomeS darvXo, npof^ara Trpovara, the semi- 
 VOWel changing to a vowel, irodo, nova; SeXco, 6eov and rax^ov] 
 
 didoy-fjiLy diov ( observe the tendency, noticed elsewhere in 
 Greek, to drop 8 and X) ; kvv€s becomes kovf, K^cfyaXr] (ovcj^aKa, 
 
 SvfJLovco OvyiOVKoVj dyanovcra dyarrova ; apovpa (another archaism) 
 appears as ayovpa * avOpconos aBpcoTTOy orKid fta, dpTrd^co = af'ipdycu, 
 i. e. dpTrayo) : ya is for yaXa, like /cpt, bSa^ epi, I3p7, aK<pL. "AvQe 
 
 is for apT09j which I have above connected with dXSeco, dXeBco, 
 aX(j)iTou, dXevpov, &c. I therefore dissent from Professor 
 Mullach in regarding duOe as a word unknown elsewhere in 
 the Greek language. Uop^axe ( = vvv), to which Dr. Mullach 
 can assign no etymology, appears to me to be evidently 
 noppccSev, i. e. henceforth, further, as the Greeks say rcopa 
 ttX^ov in the common dialect, and the Germans nunmehr. 
 "EvBev becomes evScrx^i and OeXco to-x^ov, therefore 'noppcoBev 
 would naturally become TvoppcoSax^i^, while « and o, as we 
 have seen, readily become e, as in Kove, Kairvi, We thus get 
 iToppeOcrx^v, the v of which may of course be dropped at 
 pleasure ; and this is quite near enough to rropecrx^ to leave 
 no doubt in my mind as to the derivation. The declension 
 of the pronouns presents us with some very extraordinary 
 phenomena : — 
 
 > v 
 
 eyo) = eaov r]fJL€LS = €vv, €fJLV 
 
 e/xoi/ /Lit r)p.cDV vdfjLOV 
 
 ip.6i pX rjpuv vdpov 
 
 ipe ivLOV Tjpds ipovvave 
 
 (TV — €KLOV, G. Tly D. VL, A. KLOV. 
 
 PL ipov, G. VLOvpoVy D. viovpov, A. epov. 
 
 Of the third person only the following cases are known 
 
 G. cr/, D. Tij A. crt. 
 
 PL, G. and D. aov. 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 121 
 
 Here iKiov is plainly for i-nov = tlov = rv. Cf. the Boeotian 
 
 Alovo-lus for Avo-ias^ &C. ; for the k, klijlco, &c. 
 
 "EkcIvos is declined as follows : — 
 
 N. €T€LP€p€, €T€LVaij €K€LVl, 
 
 G. €T€LVOVf €T€LPapt, ereivov. 
 
 D. wanting. 
 
 A. €T€LV€Vl, ^T€LVaVL, €K€LVL, 
 
 It is difficult to conceive how these words can be accented 
 as Professor Mullach writes them. No less extraordinary is 
 the change from r to k in the Nom. and Ace. neuter. 
 
 The formation of this declension, so far as it can be traced^ 
 is evidently barbarous, and proves to my mind that the 
 Tsakonian is no pure dialect, but a jargon or lingua franca ; 
 and I think we shall be able to trace certain Semitic elements 
 in the structure of the conjugation. Here ireiv^pe seems to 
 me to stand barbarously enough for kKelvos 6, in broad La- 
 conian cKelvop 6 eTeivdi for €K€Lva rjy and €T€LpapL still more bar- 
 barously for €K€Lvap T]. Yet the t may be in all these cases 
 merely the well-known demonstrative termination ; and per- 
 haps in that case irelvepe should be ireLvepi, 
 
 For ovTos we get the inexplicable form : — 
 
 N. evrepi^ evrdi, XyyL, 
 G. evTov, evrapij evTov, 
 
 D. wanting. 
 
 A. €VT€VLj evravL, eyyt. 
 
 PI. N. eWeV for all genders. 
 A. Masc. €VTov. 
 
 TLs and Ti = respectively t(\ and r^ey or rcrxi "O?, ^, 6, is oTrovf , 
 oTTova, €T€LV€pi; whcrc we have a clear case of barbarism, 
 inasmuch as the masculine and feminine endings e (^for os) 
 and a are added on to the modern Greek indeclinable relative 
 
 OTTOV, 
 
I2!Z DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 Et/xt is conjugated thus in the present, €vi, eo-a-i, eVi^t ; e/ut/xe, 
 
 ere, hvL ; and in the imperfect, e/xa, eVa, e/ct ; efJLfJLa'lj erdl, XyKidi. 
 
 These forms are hopelessly barbarous, but it is pretty 
 plain that e-zct is formed by adding a fragment of iKcivos, ku 
 on to the prevailing vowel of the root, while in Ki-di we have 
 two suffixes, one to show the third person, the other to mark 
 the plural, viz. t, which runs all through the imperfect plural, 
 and is probably nothing else than the article ol added on. 
 This again is just what we should expect from a Semitic 
 race trying to learn Greek. The further formation of tenses 
 is equally remarkable : iyafirjica and e/x7roka are formed as a 
 kind of aorist-perfects in Greek fashion, but the present and 
 imperfect are expressed by the participle and the substantive 
 verb joined by the letter p, which perhaps stands for a-, in 
 which case we must assume that to simplify matters ypdcj)(&v 
 became ypdcjyos, Laconian ypd(f>op, and that p was written by 
 analogy after a, where however, agreeably to our theory, it 
 may be optionally left out. What is plain is, that these 
 foreigners who were trying to learn Greek looked at each 
 termination as a separate word, and probably regarded the 
 root ypa(p- as in itself the participle, in accordance with 
 Semitic principles of grammar. However that may be, 
 ypd(pco is in Tsakonian ypa(p-ov-p-€VL or ypa(p'a-p-€vi, accord- 
 ing as the subject is masculine or feminine, and so forth. 
 The substantive verb may also be prefixed, evt ypd(j>ov, evi 
 
 ypd(})a, &C. So, too, the imperfect, ep^a ypd<pov, or ypa<j)ov- 
 p/fta, &C. 
 
 The present passive is similarly formed : ypacjyovpevepevi, &c., 
 
 or €i'L ypa(f)ovpev€, &C., i. C. ypa(p6pev6s icTTij SlC. 
 
 The future is thus expressed : Seov vd eVt ypa<pT€, i.e. BeXco 
 va Tjpai instead of Se\(£> eladai ypajTros ; the verbal adjective 
 supplying the place of the perfect participle. 
 
 With the periphrastic present and imperfect we cannot avoid 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 1 23 
 
 comparing the Spanish esfqy escridiendo, and drawing atten- 
 tion to the fact that Spanish and Portuguese, the only Neo- 
 Latin languages which were subjected to Semitic influences, 
 are likewise the only ones in which this idiom is found. In 
 Hebrew there is no present tense, and, properly speaking, 
 no imperfect, but the meaning is given by the participle and 
 the pronoun, which are in force exactly equivalent to the 
 participle -f substantive verb in an Indo-Germanic language. 
 It is plain that the Tsakonian language did not develope, 
 like other dialects of Greece, in a natural way. It is the 
 language of a foreign race, adopting and adapting the 
 materials of the Greek language, not once and for all, but 
 gradually, partly during the time that Greek was still ancient 
 Greek, and partly after it had become modern. The old 
 Doric forms iVTroVa, a, &c., show that this foreign, as I think 
 Semitic, tribe was settled in Cynuria before dialectic distinc- 
 tions had been obliterated by the koivtj didXeKTos : yet as we 
 cannot with certainty assert that they ever were quite oblite- 
 rated, it is hard to say how early or how late the settlement 
 may have been formed. Again, iVTroVa, &c. may not be so 
 old as Homer, for it may only be mutilated for tTTTroVas-, as 
 all words ending in s are. But at any rate, the Tsakonian 
 dialect has preserved many ancient Greek words, as ojpam 
 for eldov, iyLTTOLKa for eKafia, 'opdco and Troieco are not found 
 in the language of the common people in the present day. 
 Again, the distinction between dative and accusative is still 
 partially preserved. The word eKavov = kduco seems to take 
 us back nearly to Homer. To KcoXe for t6 ^iXov and ayovpa 
 = apovpa point back to a time far anterior to the later period 
 of ancient Greek, certainly as far back as heathen times. 
 On the other hand, many of the forms and constructions 
 are plainly corruptions of modern Greek. 
 
 That there has been then from time immemorial settled 
 in Cynuria a foreign tribe which has mangled the Greek 
 
124 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 
 
 language, and clung to it in its mangled form with a tenacity 
 which is astounding, I think I may assume has been made 
 out. But what was this foreign tribe ? I know of but one 
 people who are capable of doing what the Tsakonians have 
 done, and that people is the Jewish race. They alone 
 choose by a natural instinct the very broadest and harshest 
 dialect of the people among whom they settle ; they alone 
 seem capable of giving to each word the most barbarous and 
 mutilated form which the imagination can conceive ; they 
 are the only race which, though they live for centuries among 
 strangers, will never learn to speak their adopted tongue 
 correctly. Some Semitic element must certainly be at the 
 bottom of the Tsakonian dialect, and what Semitic race so 
 likely to have founded inland colonies but the Jews ? In the 
 Tsakonian words for brother and sister^ a6\ and a6ia, I cannot 
 but recognise a genuine Hebrew formation. Brother in 
 Hebrew is ""H^ (in the construct form), and »7''D.^ seems a 
 possible, though not in classical Hebrew an actual form, for 
 the feminine of T'^? i. e. sister. In the plural of the first per- 
 sonal pronoun we see, I think, a grotesque attempt to com- 
 bine the vowels and consonants of the Hebrew and Greek. 
 In the nominative ^^^. anu, we have the two forms Ivv and 
 €/Ltv, of which the first form is Httle more than an iotacized 
 transcription of the Hebrew; while the other has a little 
 more resemblance to the Greek form. The genitive and 
 dative vd-fxov, seem to be made up of the Hebrew frag- 
 mentary suSix ^^, and a similar fragment of the Greek 
 TjfioiP, We have already seen by various examples, as ypdcj^ov 
 = ypdcf)cDv, KLiJLov = TLiJLcoVj &c., that ov stauds for 'cov, and 
 knowing that a = ov, e.g. e/xa = ^'^ow, we have no difficulty in 
 writing vufiov into the required form vov-yLCDv, at once. In the 
 accusative ifxovvave, which could scarcely have attained so 
 extraordinary a length except on some such theory as that 
 here advanced, we seem to have the elements iyL-dvaxvov = e/x- 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 125 
 
 ''^n?^ softened first into i^avavov, and then, the final ov 
 becoming weakened into t, and compensated in the second 
 syllable, ifiovvavi, and hence ifiovpave^ the t being weakened 
 in its turn into e, as in Xeyowe, elve, &c., &c. The accusative 
 singular ivlov is evidently ''^^ = ivl and the fragment ou, 
 which is either a part of io-ov = in Tsakonian eyco, i.e. eyj/d) 
 = icrcroi}, or morc probably is simply the ending of the 
 first person of verbs in co which in Tsakonian = ou, and 
 would of course by a Semitic race be regarded as a pro- 
 nominal suffix, as indeed, in its original form, it really 
 was. The foreigners whose settlement in Cynuria we were 
 supposing, seem to have been rather puzzled by the fact 
 that with the slight difi'erence, unheard perhaps among the 
 Greeks even in very early times, as now, and in any case 
 barely distinguishable to the Semitic ear, between 17 and v, 
 the first and second- persons plural were the same, i.e. v/jlhs 
 and Tjfxels, Having formed ijiovvave = rjfjias, they left out the 
 vdv€, which seemed to them the part of the word most clearly 
 indicative of the first person, and used the mutilated ijiov for 
 both the nominative and accusative of rjidels, the more so as 
 ifjLov came nearer their pronominal fragment D^ than did eW. 
 
 The genitive and dative vlov/jlov, seem to be for lovfuv and 
 lovf.i(ov = vijuv and vfjLcoVj but with some prefix, probably t^ and 
 U=X€ and fjn : /xt regularly becomes v in Tsakonian, e.g. i^la 
 = fila, &c. ; while X might very well become so. In any 
 case the analogy of modernizing Greek would soon make 
 the dative take the same form as the genitive. 
 
 The way in which a ( = H) is added as a feminine termina- 
 tion on to an indeclinable base, as in onova, as well as perhaps 
 ''H in cTCLvdl, the correspondence of the frequently recur- 
 -ring masculine termination e with nt and ov with '^n^ all 
 point to a complete confusion of Greek and Hebrew gram- 
 mar ; a phenomenon the more interesting, as I believe it is 
 held by Professor Max Miiller to be an impossibility. 
 
126 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 I copy out for the perusal of the reader one or two short 
 specimens of the Tsakonian dialect, given by Professor 
 MuUach in his 'Grammatik der Griechischen Vulgarsprache/ 
 taking the liberty to emend his text, where such emendation 
 appears obvious. 
 
 I. 
 
 Nia yovvalKa exa via Korra orrova KadafJL€pa Zki yevvova 
 
 Mia yvvrj ^ ct^e fJilav Korrav (opvtv) rjTis KaOrjjjLepav iyevva 
 
 €va avyo, €kl vojxi^a av vcbl rav Korra rrao-x^ Kpicri 6a y^vvdci 
 ev avyov, ivofiL^e av dcoarj rfj opviOi ttoXv KpiOiov 6a yevva 
 
 dv^oXal Kar dfxepa ^e v\ i/jLTrol^e, 'AXXa d Korra, dno 
 
 Bvo ^oXas Ka6* rjfjiepav Ka\ rfj (to) eKafie. *AXXa tj opvcSj dno 
 
 Trdcrxov iraxov dev ifiTTOpt^e Trkla vd yevvdrj Kaveva avyo, 
 
 TToWov Trdxovs dev rjfjLTropeo-e irkeov vd yevva Kavev avyo. 
 
 The translation underneath is in modern Greek, Note 
 
 that e/XTTOtfe = iTTOiKCj as Koi — fe« 
 
 Hepov eva Kove aTTo to TTOTafxo fie to KpU V to Tovpa 
 JJepoyv €LS KvoDV drro tov TroTafiov fxe to Kpeas els to G-Topux 
 
 {*€ opov Tdcrov (Heb. Tdxa6 ?) to vo to [tt] ?] vaK66-' 
 
 Ka\ 6pa>v VTTOKdTco TOV vdaTos rrjv aTTO- 
 
 crxcLcn eKC vofil^ov nov to KdT<o Spovfxeve eKi aXXe 
 
 (TKLacnv = TTjV elKova evofxi^e ttcos to fcdro) opoofievov ^to aXXos 
 
 Kove TV eKL exov Kple o* to Tovfjia, TOTe d(prj(e to dXT]6Lv6 did 
 Kvcov oTTov €LX^ Kpeas els TO (TTOfxa, TOTe dcprJKe to dXrj6iv6v did 
 
 vd rrdpe to Spovpeve^ /cat eKL fe dno Td dovo crTepovTe. 
 
 vd Trdpr) TO opSpevoVj Ka\ earTeprj6rj Ka\ tcov dvo. 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. T27 
 
 3. The Lord's Prayer. 
 
 *A(l)eyya \_Av6evTa ?] va^ov^ it eVt ^arbv ovpave, va evi ayiadre to 
 ovvofidv Ti, va va6fj to OeXrjfxdv tl, va jJioXj] a jBaaiXcLav tl ^arav V 
 Tov ovpav€, €^pov fe es Tav lyrj' tov av6e tov iinovcrLov b\ vd/jLOv vi 
 [vLv ?] a-dfjL€p€' (e o(p€ vdfjLOv TO, p^pTe vd^ov KaOov fe €vv ififiacfjlvTe 
 TOV p^peou^tXtre vdfjLOVy ^e fxrj va (pepi^epe ifiovvave V KeLpacrpo, dWa 
 
 iXevOepov vdfxov dno to KaKo, Notice the archaism poXr]. I 
 remember seeing the form lyrjv or 'lyiv as a Jvidaeo-Greek 
 form in a specimen of Hebraistic modern Greek, but where 
 I saw it I cannot now recall to mind. I cannot think of any 
 Greek derivation for e^pov : the first part may be the Hebrew 
 Tijt. Comparing e^pov with Ka6ov, we see that it stands for 
 eCpcos: cf. also above, ttov for 7Ta)s, ''E^pm would be the 
 Greek writing of b^^^"i""ti^ = then first ; dann erst German, turn 
 demum'L'dX,; the sense being, * as in heaven, so afterwards on 
 earth.' The omission of o- in Tovp.a for dTopLa is also Hebra- 
 istic, the combination (tt at the beginning of a word not 
 being tolerated. Observe no Spanish word begins with st 
 or sp. 
 
 On a review of all the evidence, we find ourselves quite 
 unable to say with Dr. Mullach, ' Die Sprache der Zakonen 
 ist fur uns ein noch unentwickelter Zweig der altesten Ges- 
 taltung des Hellenismus (!) und ein Schliissel zu verschie- 
 denen Erscheinungen sowohl der alten und heutigen Dia- 
 lecte, als der verwandten Sprachen.' 
 
 It is true that some light may be thrown on other lan- 
 guages, especially those in a transition state or in a process 
 of amalgamation, by means of the Tsakonian dialect. For 
 the rest we are sure that it can be no primitive or unde- 
 veloped form of Greek, because we know that the greater 
 part of Greek accidence was ready made before ever the 
 Greek nation rose into existence. 
 
128 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 I cannot agree with the derivation To-aKcaves from KavKcoves : 
 K might become ra, pronounced almost as ck in church, 
 before palatal vowels ; but I know no instance in Greek of 
 such a change before a guttural vowel. The other deriva- 
 tion, Adfccoi/e?, is yet more improbable. 
 
 In conclusion, I must leave the question to Semitic scholars. 
 I feel confident that the more the matter is investigated, the 
 more clear it will become that Tsakonian is a hybrid pro- 
 duction of Greek and some Semitic language ; whether 
 Hebrew or not I will leave to others to determine. 
 
 I will pass on to consider as briefly as possible the Al- 
 banian language in relation to Greek. The popular notion 
 of the Greeks themselves that the Albanians are the ancient 
 Pelasgians, may be after all not very far from the truth. 
 Certain it is, that in Albanian, in spite of its corrupt or 
 modernized state, as seen in the poverty of its case endings, 
 &c., we do undoubtedly find the meeting point of Greek and 
 Latin. Albanian is neither more nor less than modern 
 Graeco-ItaUc ; and no greater service could be rendered to 
 Comparative Grammar than an ideal reconstruction of an- 
 cient Albanian. 
 
 I can now do no more than barely indicate a few instances 
 of the connection of Albanian with Greek on the one hand, 
 and Latin on the other. First, then, the very alphabet is 
 mixed in Albanian. We have both d and h as well as / and 
 6 ; we have again both e and ^, and b as well as /3. Besides 
 this we have, as in Sanscrit, a palatal v written h^ and a palatal 
 r = r, like ri in Sanscrit. Again, the palatal y and /c, which 
 in modern Greek are used only before palatal vowels, have 
 in Albanian an independent existence, like ja and chd in 
 Sanscrit, which are only modifications of palatal g and k. 
 In a word, there is a far greater wealth of both vowel and 
 consonantal sounds in Albanian than in Latin and Greek j 
 and it is plain that when Graeco-Latin separated into Latin 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 1 29 
 
 and Greek, the Greeks took along with them C ^ and S, &c., 
 the Latins 3 and d, &c., while many sounds, as for example 
 sk, zk, they left behind them as far as we know altogether. 
 
 The fact that we find in Albanian the Greek and Latin 
 sounds combined, proves the general identity of the modern 
 with the ancient Greek pronunciation to something very Hke 
 demonstration. 
 
 To proceed to the grammar. The first thing that strikes 
 us is the preservation in Albanian of the infinitive endings 
 €vai, dvai, and €^ev-ai, corresponding to the Latin substantive 
 terminations e7t-i or e?t-e, and men-z or men-e : cf. pec/en-e, 
 no?7ien-e, spedmen-e, &c. In Albanian we have these sub- 
 stantive endings, as in Greek, but the infinitive mood is 
 expressed not by a case-ending or suffix, but a separate 
 
 word prefixed ; e.g. (pdv-ai - jxe Bdvow, Xvo-e^ev-ai = /xe \v(Tovfiovv. 
 
 The termination -ovfiew slightly varied actually appears in 
 Albanian as a substantive ending, e. g. apde^ev = eXevo-is, 
 TrpedLKLfjLLv = praedicatio. Albanian gives us again the transition 
 between -\xi and «, in the form o/x, (/)r7/xi = 66\x, 
 
 Albanian preserves the ablative termination /, which it uses 
 for the genitive case ; e. g. 
 
 vde dlTT te fJippeTLT kpodlt. 
 
 Explanation : — in[de) diehus tov impWdtov = imperatoris He- 
 ro dis, with Greek termination r^-9 for -or, 
 
 T as the sign of the third person singular in verbs is like- 
 wise preserved in Albanian, as 6a>T = (^arl = ^t^o-/. But this / 
 is often weakened into v, both in the third person singular 
 and the second plural. 
 
 I will give a few paradigms illustrating the relation between 
 the verbal terminations in Albanian and Greek. 
 
 Present. 
 
 Oop. -- (papl = (p7]p\ Bova = (l)ap€v 
 
 6ov€ = (^aal = ^779 Sovi = (f>dT€ 
 
 Scot = (jiarl = (prjcrl Bwv = (paalv, i.e. (pai'Ti. 
 
 K 
 
130 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 Aorist. 
 Bdv = €cl)acrav. 
 
 Imperfect, 
 
 SaxTLV = eipacTKOv, 
 
 eSo-tp in form is to be compared with rjaav, Albanian ^6-ip. 
 
 With Ood-re = €cl)acrKe compare tore = eWe. 
 
 '"EpSa = modern Greek ^pOa^ classical rjXdov; root, per- 
 haps Sanscrit ard- 'to come;' epdefj. = rfkSoiJLcv, rjpSafie; apBr = 
 iXOero); apdow =^ iXBelv, le. iXOefxev. 
 
 i^ip-i, <KC. = ta/ij te^ aoTj tej/a, t€i/t^ lav, 
 
 Albanian explains to us the meaning of the termination 
 ^«, which is so common in Greek both as an aorist and 
 perfect termination, as we see in €-6r]-Ka, e-^w-m, de-dco-Ka, and 
 in modern Greek in evprjKa, oapaKa (Tsakonian), iypdc[)riKa, &c. 
 In Albanian Kap. = €X(o, of which one form seems to have 
 been €kco. 
 
 Now the perfect in Albanian is thus formed :— 
 
 KapL ddvovp Keva bdvovVo 
 
 K€ Mpovv KevL ddvovVo 
 
 KCL Sdvovp KGLV ddvovv» 
 
 Literally exco bovvai^ Sec, as in modern Greek cx^) bodo-ei. 
 In de-dcoKa, and e-dcoKa, the root of the verb is put for the 
 infinitive, and m = exQ> is used as a suffix. 
 
 The Albanian for and is ed/, plainly the Homeric Ide and 
 
 Uov and TTov are in Albanian kov^ the original form : rls 
 and tI are kI and kq; Sanscrit kak^ kd^ kim^ Latin qui. 
 qms^ &c. 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. I31 
 
 I will now illustrate the language further by a few sen- 
 tences and words : — 
 
 *^Epb€ iibe T6 (TOyaT, e6e re croyaT vovk. i TTpiriv, 
 ^HX^€ cifKJA TCL sua 7]d€ fa sua vr]-ovK i TTapeXajBov, 
 
 or Sa. 
 Ot €<pa, 
 
 'AroT = avTa. Cf. avrap and drdp^ modern Greek dros 
 and avTos. 
 
 OvdoVK, 
 
 'E-doK-et 
 
 Ovd€L(j)TOV€» 
 
 St ep^ev, 
 
 Sz = 0T€, rjpOav. 
 
 N^e d-T€7rr), 
 
 Inde o-K67r7]v ~ ore rfKBov els rrjv ohlav, N^e appears tO be 
 the Latin zndu-, indi-, or inde-^ and phk ahove^ the 
 Latin amhi^ Greek dp.^i ; \kh\ ( = eVi) is probably only 
 another form of the same word. 
 
 \0UTiv, €-<pOLTT]'(raV. 
 
 Y6p(j)€P, i. e. Fop(j)ev = 6p(j)av6s, 
 l^di€KLP^ dta)Kovv • vdoKev^ idlcDK-crav, 
 BerOrfer=f€(9ez/(?). 
 
 Kovpfima = TTopvela^ and would suggest an older form, 
 
 KGp^uela or Kopfvela, 
 
 MdaXa(pdK€ = eV tw ^av€p^. The etymology is plainly in 
 
 paid facie (palus = open^ implied in palani). 
 Mlkov = amicus ; vefiUow, inimicum, 
 
 Koi)\ovT€ = dnokvTOL quasi qkoXovtol (?). 
 
 Mcbj ddrjSj {JLTJ TTOlfjS, 
 
 K 2 
 
J ^2 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 
 
 "AaTraK, dira^ (?). 
 Ov'dd<pT, TTOirjSrjTCi). 
 Aeou = yala^ 6ala, yrj. 
 Arte, 6/cet. 
 
 Biediv, IBid^ovaLv, ^id^ovu. 
 Kpzle, Kapa. 
 
 UovX = iyevvr](Te, In modern Greek ttovKos is a patro- 
 nymic termination. Cf. Latin pullus, Greek ircokos, 
 also -pulus in disci-pulus^ Albanian dLo-errovXi. 
 
 The word for God in Albanian is liipvdia Uepvdi, gen. 
 JJepvdLe or Ueppdiare, acc. Uepvdtve, Does this word contain 
 the same elements as Diespiier, reversed ? 
 
 The view that beiktvov and r^Xios are connected is some- 
 what strengthened by the Albanian for tjXlos, which is diki. 
 ''Eroff is in Albanian Fir, cf. Latin veius^ Sanscrit vatsas. Fit 
 becomes in the plural Aer^. 
 
 It is interesting to find in the modern Greek icperos, i. e. 
 im eros, the relic of the F in the form of the aspirate. In 
 'Evtafros, dfros is probably only transposed for Faros, and this 
 helps us to understand Fekrev, the Albanian for avrov in 
 eavTov, i Fekrev being equal to e- avrov, I have written (3 here 
 and elsewhere as F, because it seems almost always to re- 
 present that letter. But the literal changes in Albanian seem 
 by no means regular : /i for instance represents sometimes 
 X, and sometimes (f), though it must be borne in mind that 
 these letters are interchangeable in Greek. Thus we have 
 
 hip, X^P^^f /l€pe, (popd'j dre-hepe = avrfj (popq, i.e. vvv, du hepe dvo 
 
 ct)opd9, modern Greek for dU. Also /la rpwyo), connected 
 with root (j^dy- ; kdvypow, (payelv, (Is hunger connected with 
 this form 1) 
 
 Two Latin particles receive great light from Albanian, viz. 
 re and se. 'Pi in Albanian means 7iew, and (j\ in composition 
 ere, means not, e.g. o-*p.ovvder, ov dvvaraL, crefxovvdi = ddvparoi, i.e. 
 daOevels, appcoaroiy voaovures. 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. 1 33 
 
 A passive verb is changed into an active in Albanian by 
 
 prefixing the syllable ov^ e. g. bavow = bovvai, ovbdvow = boOrjvai, 
 
 The future tense is formed, like the perfect, by means of 
 KaiJL ( = exco) and the infinitive, but in the future the preposi- 
 tion fxe is inserted : examples, m^ jue Trepytatrovv, Sjioioiorco, Kc^i 
 TrepyLaLTOvv cojxolcdKa, kq/jl fJL€ 0V7T€pyLaLT0vv, ofjLOLcoBrjcreTai. 
 
 The pronouns in Albanian present some very remarkable 
 phenomena : — 
 
 Greek. 
 
 Albanian. 
 
 N. iycov, Icbv 
 
 ovv. 
 
 A. fxe 
 
 fii encHtic, fiove emphatic. 
 
 G. fjiov, fielo 
 
 fieye, fxejyeL 
 
 D. fJLol 
 
 ^6, fxeye. 
 
 With the plural it is better to compare the Latin :■ — 
 
 N. nos vd. 
 
 A. nos, Sanscrit nah vd, emphatic ve. 
 
 G. Sanscrit nah veL 
 
 D. nobis, Sanscrit ?iah vefe, enclitic vd. 
 
 In this vefe, written also with the ablative termination vefer, 
 we have the Latin &is or bus, the Sanscrit dkz'h, the Greek 
 <^t; or rather we have the Sanscrit dh] the common element 
 in -5/iih, -hhyam, -bhyah, &c., for ve- has not only a dative, 
 but more often an ablative, i. e. genitive force, as in drvvefe = 
 
 €K€iv<ov, re TiovdefeT, rcov ^lovdaicop. 
 
 Greek. Albanian. Sanscrit. Albanian. 
 
 N. 2u, TV t\ yuyam yov. 
 
 A. 2e rl yushmdn yov, 
 
 G. relo Teye, reyer Gen. y US /imdkam yovs. 
 
 D. TO, and reye V>2X.yushmahhy-am yov-fe. 
 
 AvTTjs is in Albanian da-dL, which in signification is as 
 often dative as genitive. This comes very near the San- 
 
134 DIALECTS OF M^jljili^N GREECE. 
 
 scrit asydk (gen.), asyaz (dat.)« The nominative is ayo, cL 
 Sanscrit lyam, Kere, tovto may be compared with haec-c^^ 
 a-tra. 
 
 The possessive pronouns are extremely puzzling, "^pa Ific 
 ( = aypa ifjirj) seems Straightforward enough ; but when we come 
 to ''ATijyovi, of which the genitive is "Atlt rom, we see that the 
 possessive pronouns have the peculiarity of taking the case- 
 endings as prefixes, instead of suffixes. This same case- 
 ending r appears in the possessive pronouns to be accusative^ 
 as well as genitive or ablative in force. Is not this so also 
 in the Latin personal pronouns fe/e, nosm-ef, vosm-ei? Ex- 
 amples in Albanian are, f eXa iir, d^eXcf)6s o-ovy TUr-feXd dd€\(f)S 
 o-ov, dde\(p6v (tov. But this is not all : not only are the case- 
 endings prefixed, but sometimes, at least, the differentiating 
 signs of gender also ; so that nothing remains of the original 
 pronoun but a single consonant. Thus ^V = aos, yote = o-?). 
 ThatjK^ is a feminine termination we have seen in ayo^ she, 
 il we have in mi = ovros. Fore seems moreover to have 
 a double feminine termination, if we regard e/xe as = e/x?;. Vona 
 is plural, and, so far as I can see, for all genders. 
 
 'Efirjv is T€fX€ ; vfxerepav, Tovyen and Tovi \ ifJid, ijJLLa ] r}fA6T€pos^ 
 vp and vve ; rjixerepav, rSv or rove ; rjfierepa, rova ; T}fX€T€pa}V, T(ov. 
 
 Internal changes of the vowel sound also take place, as 
 
 \\x,-aT TraTTjp {jlov, re rt/x-er tov rrarpos /xou, Tepi-aT Trarepa poVo 
 
 When, however, the possessive pronoun is used substantively, 
 it has a much simpler form, as 
 
 ylBe re plar lav re riar 
 
 > \ 
 
 navra ra €/xa €L(riv ra era. 
 
 For the oblique cases of o-os, one form used is rdvd and 
 rdvds, of which Tavde appears to be the feminine. The 
 difference between rdvde and tut seems to be that the one is 
 used with a preposition, the other with a verb, as pe TUT-feXd 
 (a€ TOV db€\(j)6v (jov in modern Greek), but Dom f^Kivi Tavd, €§€ 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 1 35 
 
 kl fjievT aveyLiKovv ravd, i.e. Ames vicinum iuum etoderis inimicum 
 tuum. 
 
 We will conclude this account of the Albanian language 
 with a few prepositions and numerals : — 
 
 Me = with, modern Greek /xe and /Lta, ancient Greek jxa, 
 
 fia Tov Ala, 
 Upi'i =from, Greek rrapa. 
 
 Hip = through, Latin per, 
 
 Kovvdep = contra. 
 
 Kde = in, Latin indu-, indo-, Greek 'ivho- and e^/ro-. 
 
 M<5e and \ih\ = on, Latin ambi Q)^ Greek dfKpL 
 
 SiVep = super, 
 
 1. v\ f. vu 
 
 2. dii, 
 
 3. rpe, f. rpu 
 
 4. Karep, 
 
 5. 7r€(T€o 
 
 6. yiaorrf. 
 
 7. (jrare (Sanscrit sdpta). 
 
 8. rere. 
 
 9. vavdiT^ 
 
 10. Sere. 
 
 11. vipbehir^, i. e, 64? k^t.X, eTTidsKa. 
 
 12. dupiederL 
 20. i^ffer. 
 
 30, Tplderi^ 
 40. Karepbere, 
 50. TreaeSeVe, &;c. 
 
 100. /cW, Latin centum, 
 1000. /it^. 
 
 It is observable here that Latins, Greeks, and Albanians 
 count together as far as 10, although the form vavd^r pre- 
 sents some difficulty. Afterwards, however, the agreement 
 
J 36 DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE, 
 
 ceases. Latin and Greek coincide in 11 and 12, but the 
 exact coincidence goes no further. Where the ancient 
 Greeks said rpetsKatdeKa the Romans said iri-decem. The 
 agreement between Latin and Greek is, however, resumed 
 in vigintij uKoac = eUovn or feiKovTL ; while in Albanian, 
 vl-C^T is plainly a different formation, and seems to be 
 compounded of vl-, one, and (er, which must mean a score^ 
 whatever its derivation. Afterwards, TfyldcTe, &c. = not rpt-h 
 Sere, but rpt x Sere, and SO on. Yet the coincidence is again 
 resumed in KLpd = ce/i/um, and ply = ?m7k. The fact is, 
 numerals after 10 afford no historical evidence as to the 
 independence of different races, though their agreement, 
 however occasional, does supply most indubitable proof 
 of their having sprung from one stock. 
 
 The same race may have two modes of counting beyond 
 10, and one may be more fashionable than the other, or 
 both may meet with equal favour. The ancient Greeks 
 themselves said deKanevre as well as TrevTeKaibeKa, and the 
 modern Greeks say not only dcKanevre^ but deKarpels, Se/ca- 
 recraapes, Se/caeTrra, Se/caoKro), benaevvea. In the Teutonic lan- 
 guages II and 12 exhibit a similar divergence, while in 
 English we say twenty-three, three and twenty, sixty or 
 three score. Sec, French, ItaKan, and Spanish count to- 
 gether as far as 60, after which they diverge, though only 
 to coincide again afterwards. The numerals, therefore^ 
 give us no grounds for doubting our original hypothesis, 
 that Albanian presents us, in a mutilated shape, with the 
 Graeco-Italic language before it had split into Greek and 
 Italic. 
 
 With regard to vdvde or vdvder, I question whether we 
 have not the same word in the Latin nundinae, -inae being 
 simply a termination. With regard to the derivation of 
 puvdety I would suggest that as unavimsati in Sanscrit means 
 Uss than twenty^ i. e, nineteen^ so unadasa might be another 
 
DIALECTS OF MODERN GREECE. i^J 
 
 form for mne, of which avdere or apber might be a contracted 
 form. The influence of the u would naturally convert d into 
 d, and we should then get civder^ lo, rendered more definite 
 in Albanian by the prefix 1^1= i, hence viavder, vavd^r. 
 
 We have already seen that Albanian preserves many of 
 the Sanscrit forms which Latin and Greek have lost, and 
 we will conclude this rapid sketch with one more ex- 
 ample. 
 
 In Sanscrit, the two words anya and ifara are used 
 respectively in the sense of 'the one' and 'the other,' 
 being combined in the compound anyatara, ' either.' Now 
 in Greek we have erepos, and in Latin cae/erus, both of which 
 words may contain the same root as z/ara. But in Albanian 
 we have both, opposed to each other, in vL-dvi^ 'the one,' 
 and Tt'€Tpi, 'the other;' the prefix being in one case the 
 indefinite, in the other the definite article. Here, too, we 
 find VI actually added to aVt, just as we have supposed it to 
 be added to avd^r. 
 
CHAPTER IX, 
 
 Modern Greek Literature. 
 
 We must distinguish, in the outset, between modern 
 Greek literature and the literature of the modern Greeks. 
 The name of modern Greek literati is legion, but the 
 names of those who wrote anything worthy of record in 
 modern Greek before the present century are very few. 
 It is with the latter alone that we are at present con- 
 cerned. 
 
 The first modern Greek writer was Theodorus Ptocho- 
 prodromus, 'the heaven-sent poor forerunner' of modern 
 Greek literature, a satirist of no mean power, whose 
 happiest verses were extorted by the pangs of hunger. 
 A specimen of his style concludes Chapter VII. His date 
 is given by Mr. Sophocles as 1143 — 'nSo. 
 
 Almost contemporary with him was Simon Sethos, a 
 chronicler, who is the fivst prose writer in modern Greek. 
 
 Next in order comes the 'Book of the Conquest of 
 Romania and the Morea,' or To iras ol ^pajKoi cKepdrjo-av tov 
 TOTTov TOV Mcopecos, supposed by Buchon (in the second volume 
 of his 'Recherches Historiques') to be a translation from a 
 French account of the same events. Elissen ably controverts 
 this opinion by a comparison of the two works, in which he 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 39 
 
 fully justifies the superior reputation of German over French 
 criticism. The ^Book of the Conquest' may be best 
 described as a rhyming chronicle, which might deserve the 
 name of poor verse were it not so prosaic, or of bad 
 prose were it not written in metre. It belongs to the 
 foruteenth century. 
 
 To the same period probably belongs the poem entitled 
 ^ Belthandros and Chrysantza,' a romance of knight-errantry, 
 in which we can plainly trace the effects of the cru- 
 sades in Greece. The heroes of Greece are henceforth 
 knights-errant, but the Greek of the age is so far true 
 to himself as to be more susceptible of chivalrous than 
 religious enthusiasm. The mistress of his heart is very 
 prominent, while Mother Churdi is kept quite in the 
 background. The plot of ' Belthandros and Chrysantza' is 
 simple but imaginative. The hero is Belthandros (a Graec- 
 ism for Bertram), the son of Rhodophilus, king of Romania, 
 who has two sons, Bertram and Philarmus, one of whom 
 he loves, and the other of whom of course he hates. 
 Belthandros, the unfortunate object of his father's dis- 
 pleasure, accordingly takes a journey eastward, and after 
 heroic exploits performed at the expense and on the per- 
 sons of his father's men-at-arms, who are dispatched to bring 
 him back, he reaches Armenia, and the fortress of Tarsus. 
 Riding by the side of a small stream, he espies a gleam 
 of light in the running waters, and follows up the course 
 of the rivulet a ten days' journey. It leads him to a magic 
 building called the Castle of Love, built of precious stones, 
 and surrounded and filled with every imaginable form of 
 wonder in the way of automaton birds and beasts of gold, 
 reminding us of Vulcan's workmanship. Then follows an 
 introduction to the King of the Loves, the owner of the 
 enchanted palace, who gives him the task of choosing the 
 most beautiful out of forty women. He first selects three, 
 
140 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 
 
 and having thus equalized the problem to that which Paris 
 had solved of old, he proceeds to award the palm to 
 Chrysantza, who turns out to be the daughter of the King 
 of Antiochia, and whose subsequent appearance at the 
 Court of Rhodophilus reconciles the father, and terminates 
 the story with the slaying of the fatted calf. 
 
 The following is an attempt to render the metre and the 
 meaning of some of the most beautiful lines in this un- 
 equalled poem : — 
 
 * Thus then together journeying, they reached the Turkish border : 
 This passed anon, they entered next upon Armenia's frontier; 
 And last of all approached the town of Tarsus, and its strong- 
 hold. 
 And while Belthandros wandered through the country with his 
 
 followers, 
 He found a rivulet, and lo ! beheld among its waters 
 A sheen as of a falling star that leaves its track in heaven. 
 There in the water's midst it gleams, and he in haste pursues it : 
 Stream-upwards he betakes him, if perchance he may discover 
 Whence erst was born that liquid flame that glitters in the 
 
 streamlet. 
 Ten days' full space he wandered on, and when the tenth was 
 
 ended, 
 He found a castle large and high, and goodly was the vision, 
 Of pure sardonyx well hewn out, most cunningly proportioned. 
 And high upon the summit of that fair and shining building, 
 In place of catapults were ranged a marvellous assemblage 
 Of heads of griffins carved in gold, full curiously fashioned. 
 Wrought by a cunning master's hand, with great and wondrous 
 
 wisdom : 
 And from their open jaws amain, most direfully resounded 
 Furious and terrible and shrill a grimsome noise of roaring; 
 And thou wouldst say they moved as though the breath of life 
 were in them.' 
 
 The imaginative power and mastery of language which 
 the author shows, bespeak a genius of the highest order. 
 Like many another genius, he is among the nameless dead. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. I4I 
 
 His creative power reminds us sometimes of the ^Divina 
 Comedia/ sometimes of the second part of ^ Faust/ Even 
 his sesquipedalia verba, or, as the Greeks call them, Xe^fts 
 (TxoLvorevehy rather excite our admiration by the boldness and 
 the beauty of their composition, than our impatience by their 
 
 length. ^'Po^oKOKKLVos, (rTpoyyvXo[jLop(f)07rTjyovvos, fiOLpoypa(f)r]fJLa, 
 (TiDfxaTovpyTjae^, SXocrcofjiaTcoiJLevr] , ovpavo^pofxos, Kpv<poKap>cop,a, how- 
 ever they might raise the bile of a Phrynichus, have a power 
 of harmony and a perfection of taste for which that poor 
 pedant had neither eyes nor ears. 
 
 Did the modern Greek language possess but this single 
 Epic, to say that it is destitute of literature were a calumny 
 indeed. 
 
 The next writer we shall notice is Emmanuel Gorgilas, 
 who forms the bridge between the Byzantine and the Turkish 
 period of modern Greek literature. He was a native of 
 Rhodes, and lived at the time of Constantinople's fall. 
 
 The following works are attributed to him : — 
 
 1. ALr]yr](TLS eh Tas npa^eis rod Trepi^orjTov (TTpaTT]yov tcov 
 'FcofxaLcov fxeyakov BeXicrapiov (i^edoBrj iv Beverta ro) 1554 ^^^ 
 
 ^payKL(TKov 'FapLTraT(T€Tov els 4 rofiovs), in which Belisarius ap- 
 pears as an almost mythical character, a kind of Alexander 
 redivivus, upon whom every kind of possible and impossible 
 exploit is fathered. The work is metrical. 
 
 2. To SavariKov rrj^ ^Fodov (aviicboTov iv rfj Hapio'Lavfj )3t/3Xio- 
 
 3. The celebrated Qpijvos rrjs Kcovo-TavrLvoTroXecos, which has 
 been compared by its admirers to the Iliad ; whether from 
 its length or from its merits, I am unable to say. The latter, 
 and fortunately the former also, fall far short of that great 
 original. A certain well sustained glow of patriotism, and a 
 prophetic yearning of hope, are its only claims to be con- 
 sidered in any sense a poem, and even these features are 
 not sufficient to redeem it from wearisomeness. For curio- 
 
14^ MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. | 
 
 sity's sake I will give two short extracts, the one from the 
 
 Qprivos, and the other from the QavanKov rrjs 'Fobov, 
 
 I. 
 
 Top TovpKov av d(pr]Ker€ ttju ttoXlv va KpaTrjcrrjy 
 GeXet yap ttolXlv to Sepiov kol OeXcL dvvap,a>(T€i, 
 Kai SiXet KaraTrru noXkovs 6 aKvkos ooo-av dpaKOs' 
 AoiTTov Ttavv^rjkoraTOL avBevrcs fJLOV p-qyddes, 
 "AydiTrjv oKot Kdp.€T€ va ttcltc ^arovs ix^povs (ras, 
 Kol Tov aravpov (rrjKaxreTe crrjpddL (tt app^ara eras, 
 "Navev eprrpos Kal ^7rLo-(o aas crrjfjiddL ^o-rd Koppid eras' 
 Na jSyaXXere rovs dae^els dno ra yoi/iKd cras^ 
 Meaa drrb to, crTTiria eras, k diro rot yoviKd cras^ 
 
 II. 
 
 At 7nKpap.os, at avpcpopd nocrove to KaKo poV 
 
 ^A<j)r]K€ p€ TOV TecopyiXdv Kal TeSpyi tov vlov pov, 
 
 K' eirtvoVy ttlvq), Kal va ttlco oXovcov ( = oXcov) Tals TTiKpddais* 
 
 Kal dvo Kal Tpia 6p(pavd dirb Kopr^v kcll pavdhes^ 
 
 liaihtd diTo Ta peXrj pov, Kal ajro Tals d^eXcpddes. 
 
 Kal /cXatcD ttcos iyhi^pyvTai prjves Kal e^dopdbes, 
 
 TeroLats (roias) dev SeXovv va diovv (va tScDcrt) aXX* aide va 
 
 yevSovcrLy 
 AioTL ScrT€ va XvtttjSovv^ rroXXd va inKpaOovcn, 
 
 One scarcely knows whom most to commiserate, the man 
 or the poeto 
 
 In the sixteenth century we have no poet of eminence, 
 Jakobos Triboles is a writer of most wretched doggerel 
 
 There were always plenty of preachers, like Cyrillus 
 Lucaris, Meletius, &c., but their works have not for the most 
 part come down to us. Almost the only examples of 
 modern Greek in the sixteenth century consist of letters and 
 fragments of speeches, chiefly the utterances of ecclesiastics. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 43 
 
 The great work of the seventeenth century is one which 
 is almost unknown : the work of one Chortakes, a Cretan ; 
 entitled ' Erophile/ and written in the Cretan dialect. It is a 
 tragedy, and opens with a monologue of Charon, the imper- 
 sonation of Death, who speaks as follows : — 
 
 H aypia k rj dveXvTTrjTT) k rj crKOTCLvrj dcopid fiov, 
 Kai TO dpendv ottov jSacTTcOy kol ravra rd yvfjLvd fxov 
 KoKKoka, K rj TToWais ^povTois, k fj do-Tpairais ofiddt, 
 
 Ottov ttjv yrjv dvol^acTL, k e^yrjic dnov top ''ASt;, 
 Holos elfjLaL fiova^d rcoi/e^ dL)(cos p^Lkid [XTTopovo-t 
 Na (papepoDaovv (Trjfjiepov V 6(rovs /xe o-vvTrjpov(n^, 
 
 ^ 4f ^ -K- -Jf -Jf 
 
 'Eyw/iai Kehos to Xolttov air okoi fie pLicrovcri^ 
 Kai (TKvKoKdphr) kcll* TV(pX6 k clttovov jxe XaXovcri. 
 *E'ya)jLt* aTTOv T^rj ^acriXevs^, T^rj ^finopefxevovs ovXovs, 
 Tf7 ttXovo-lovs k dvfjfjLnopovSy rf' d(j)6VTaLs kol t^tj dovXovs, 
 T(r] veovs kol t^t] yepoPTas, fiiKpovs kol t0] fxeydXovs, 
 
 T^T) (ppOPLfJLOVS Kol T^T) XcoXoVS, K oXoVS dpOpODTTOVS T^' oXXoVS^ 
 
 Fta/xa, yiap,d 6pt€^ p.ov (pap^ plx^co kol dapaTOPco, 
 
 K* eh TOP dOo^ t^tj plottjs tov9 t^tj -^popovs tovs reXeioj/o). 
 
 Avopco T^r) do^ais kol Tifxals Ta ^pofiaTa pLavpl^co" 
 
 T^rj diKLOo-vpais dtao-KopTrco, kol t^t) (piXLais x^P''C^9 
 
 Tf aypiais Kap^Lois KaTaTTOPO), T^rj Xoyio-fJLOvs dXXdacrco, 
 
 Tf* oXTTides pix^co 's /xta fiepid, kol rf eypoLais^ KaTaTacrcra}'' 
 
 K' eKel TTOv fjii ttoXv 6v[jl6 Ta ^fidTLa jxov ijTpa(pov(TL, 
 
 XoypaLs x^^oOj* dXaKaipais^, Koap^oi ttoXXoI ^ovXoixtl, 
 
 ^ /jLovaxd Tcuve, by themselves: so Trore fxav, in my life; p.6vos f^ov, by 
 myself; further down Trore tovs : a peculiar modem Greek idiom. 
 
 ^ avvTTjpovai, observe, for the more common Traparripovai. 
 - ^ T^Ti I3a(n\evs, i. e. tovs ^aaiXefs, contracted for tovs ^aaiXefas. 
 
 ^ Tiajjid, yiafjid opTe, as soon as; etymology h' d/xa oPTe (xpovov). 
 
 ^ 'A96, the ancient derjp with a different termination. 
 
 ^ eyvoiaLS = evvoiai. 
 
 ^ dxdfcaipais, Cretan for oXoKXrjpat. Italian and Albanian both offer 
 
144 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 
 
 liov Tcov EWtjvco 7] jSaaiXcLaLS J ttov rco 'VcofiLwv fj roaais 
 UXovcTLaLS Kol fJL7rop€^6fJi€vaLs xofpais y TTOV Too'aLS yvcocrais l 
 
 ^ -Sf Jj: -Jf ^ -^ 
 
 ^Tco)(o\ o-TO XaKKO KaTOLKovv, j8o7;j3ot fjLe dix^^s^ CTOjjia 
 '^vxais ydvfJLvals^ dev ^evpco ttov crrr} yrj XiyaKi x^l^^' 
 12 TrXrjcna^^ KaKoppi^iKOL kol yiavra de Ooapovcn 
 T^rj fiepaLs ttcos \iyaLVOV(Tt, t^tj xP^^^'^s ^^^ Tzepvovcri ] 
 To yjres^^ ididj^r], to TrpoxOes ttXtjo dev dvia-roparai^ 
 ^TTiSa fxiKpr) TO arjfjiepo (ttcl aKOTdva XoyaTat, 
 '2* €uap dvoLyo(T<pakicFfxa^'^ tojv dfxixaTL d7roo'd>vco 
 Kai dixcos XvTTTjcn Kapia 770.(7 avOpcono g-kotcovco' 
 Ta KoXXr) o-^vvoa, k ofxop(po TTpoo-coiro Se^^ XvTrovfjLm, 
 
 some analogy, e. g. fcXaioj, nXd-fiev, Albanian Kidixovv^ Latin cla-mare^ 
 Italian chiamare. 
 
 ^ fjie bixcos, the fjie is pleonastic; compare the English without, and 
 the vulgar German heard only in London, mitaus, e. g. ' Ich gehe 
 aus, mitaus Sie zu mir kommen,' instead of ' ohne dass Sie zu mir kom- 
 men.' 
 
 ^ ybu/jivais, for yvfjLvais, If this be the oldest form of the word, it 
 points to the derivation ySvoj, vulgar modern Greek for kfcdvo}, being, in 
 fact, a participial adjective : for the accent, compare de^afxevrj (a reser- 
 voir), which is nothing but a participle used as a substantive. With 
 ybvcxj for 'kBvoj one may compare yboviros for Kdovnos, i. e. ktovttos — 
 
 KTVTtOS. 
 
 ^^ Tr\T)aia = fxd\a, same root as TTi/jLTrXrjfjLL, &c. KafCKoppi^iKoi, ill-fated. 
 TO pi^iKo is modern Greek for Fate, generally derived from rischio Italian ; 
 but neither the accent, the form, nor the sense, agree with this deriva- 
 tion. The idea seems rather to be the same as in Treirpou/jLivov, elp/jLap- 
 fjiivr], ' that which is deep fixed like a root in the ground,' pi^a. 
 
 ^^ TO \pU, yesterday evening ; formed on the analogy of x^^'^j the root 
 being -^€, as in o^e, diroipe, dipifiaOTjs, &c. 
 
 ^2 dvoLyoacpdXiaijLa, from dvoiyco and acpaKi^w, i. e. do'cpaXi^w, to make 
 fast, hence to shut. 
 
 i^ jrdcra, for TraVra, as -act for -avTi, -ovctl for -ovti, &c. 
 
 ^^ §6, for d€v = ov ; either contracted for ovdiv, or the word Bev (neuter 
 of dels) used negatively, as is the case in modern Greek with TiwoTe, 
 TTOTi, Kaviv, dioKov, and in French with, jamais, du tout, &c. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, I45 
 
 Tovs raTTeivovs ^e Xerjixovcb, tovs aypiovs de (po^ovfxaL. 
 Tovs (p€vyovv^^ (prdv oyXrjyopay tovs jue (tjtovv fiaKpaLVCo, 
 Kal Si^cioy va jxe Kpa^ovai. (rvx^a t^t) ydpdDVs */x7raiVa). 
 
 •5f 4«- -K- -Jf :^ -K- 
 
 ^Ta>xoi T apTrare cfyevyovaij to, (r(j)Lyy€Te TrerovcrL, 
 
 Ta 7r€pfxa^6v€T€ crKopTrovv, ra ktl^€T€ x^^^^^^" 
 
 2a (TTrlSa a^vv rj do^a (ras, to. ttXovtt] aras era (TKOvrj 
 
 ^KOp7rov(rr]ve kol xapovrat, koI Tovofid eras \v6vei 
 
 2a ^^ voLTOv fxe to x^P^ ^^^ ypafipevo els irepLyioKi 
 
 ^TT] diaKpio-L T^T] OaXacrcras, yrj^'^ ;(d/xat^^ CTTrjp 7ra(rnd\rj. 
 
 His apostrophe to Joannes Murmures, a celebrated lawyer 
 and a friend of the poet, is quite in the spirit of Dante or 
 of Lucretius : — 
 
 2' ibidXe^a evyepecrTaTe Movppiovp vyfrrjkoTdTe, 
 'FrjTOpa V oXais r^* dpeTois kol t^tj Tipais ye/xare, 
 Me Tovofxd (Tov tovto pov tov kottov va (tto\l(tco, 
 Kai X^P^ ^^^ "^Cl X^P^^^ ^^^ 7r\rj(ra va crov ;^apta-oj. 
 Fiarl o(TO (re Ocopco -^rjXoy ere ^Xenco koXXo tocto 
 Me (TTrXdyxvos dve^UaKOj Kciperpr) KaXocvvr], 
 Kelcrat V Trjv ^7repr}(l)dvr](Ti paKpdv tov Kocrpov Kelvr) 
 Trj (TKOTeivrj, ttov de yevva XdjBpay ovde (f)S)s X'^p'^C^'- 
 Ma T^LKva povo Ka\ Kairvb tcl Tpiyvpa yepl^ei. 
 
 ^^ Tovs (pevyovv, i.e. ovs cpevyovcri, for ot cpevyovai. A curious instance 
 of attraction, rare in ancient Greek, from the nominative to the accusa- 
 tive. 
 
 16 :5(i = Vai/, i.e. wadv. 
 
 1^ 717, Cretan (also Chian) for rf. 
 
 ^^ xdpai, Cretan for the modem x^A*ov, the ancient x^A^a*'- The accent 
 need not perplex us, as the reader will perceive the accentuation in Crete 
 is .extremely variable and uncertain, and often diverges from the usual 
 system. A little further down we have dvepoi. for dvepot. 
 
 *^ T^LKva, a curious corruption and metathesis for Kvl^a. Yivl^a itself, 
 however, seems to be a mere onomatopoeic form, like sniff, snuff, 
 schnupfen (Germ.), &c., and rf/z^i/a may be the same. 
 
 L 
 
146 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 
 
 ■^ 4f •?(■ -X- -H- 4f 
 
 Vlv ob-qyos T^rj crTparas fJiov, va (pvy(o rov x^Lfiooi'a 
 Tf dv€fxiKals^ K COS TTeSvfxct) v dpct^a) aro Xifjucoua, 
 Tiarl ocrais SeKovv rapaxnis, k dvefiot va yepdovcrt, 
 K oaa (j^ovo-Kcacrovv KvjJLara, aro ISpd^os deu jjuropovcn 
 ITore Tovs va jie pL^ovcn, y aXXotco? va fxe ^T^fjuaxrov, 
 QcopicovTas fJLov o)s "Kcrrpo p,ov \afJLTrp6 to TrpocrcoTro (rov, 
 Kav dvai Kdnotcorrjcra'^^ x^P^'^H'^ ^^ ^^^ Soxro), 
 ' A.^LO, KaScos irvxatvc, AcaXa^^ dev elvai t6(to^ 
 T0) Tvx^s dos TO (pTaLorifJio, koxI' tov SeXrjfjidTOV' 
 Ftari \j/r}Xa\s t^tj TreOvfitals Trdo-a Kaipbv eKpaTov, 
 Ma Kelvrj x^P-^^ "^C '^PP^^^i K^^f^ t^ (pT€pd ttov crcova 
 '2' opos va fi dvai^ddovG-i sj/rjXo ttov t ^EXiKcova 
 Mov KOKJr ovTCL dpxr]o-acn Ka\ ;^a/;tr;Xo7r6ro{}cra, 
 K77 ope^L fjL aTTOfji^Lve fiovo, aav irpodTas TrXovo'a. 
 
 KdvTLS TCI 6dpp€L€ K €\7n^€, K €^€tXV€j K €Ta(TCr€ fJbOV, 
 
 Ketff T^ ovpavovs avxvoTaTa to vovv dvai^a^e /xou, 
 Mov ktl^cl TTvpyovs 'o-To yiaXo Trep^oXia (ttov depa 
 K 6, Ti TTjv vvKTa iJL€pLfJLva), ;(ai/erat tyjv rjfxepa. 
 
 The following is an almost literal translation, in which, 
 however, I have taken the liberty of shortening the metre by 
 one syllable, except in one or two cases :- — 
 
 * My visage fierce and pitiless, my dark and ghastly stare ; 
 The sickle which I carry; my fleshless bones and bare; 
 The lightning, with the thunder claps that shake the air around, 
 Forth bursting from the jaws of hell, and rending all the ground, 
 These things may tell you who I am ; it needs no words of mine : 
 Whoso but looks on me to-day, my name may soon divine. 
 
 ^^ aTrofcoTTjo'a = €t\t]v : €T6Xjji7]G'a, cf. fcoTeoj, KOTiofjiai, kotos. The 
 notions of wrath and daring are not far removed from each other. 
 Compare ^ivos with its cognate words, and kindred varieties of mean- 
 ing : fJLCvT in Albanian means hatred. 
 
 ^* Ka\d = rdxcii 'i(TOJs : so dyfcaXd, dv Kokd = d /cat : cf. German wol, 
 ' perhaps ; ' ohwol, ' although.' 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. I47 
 
 Yes, I am he whom all men hate, and call with one consent 
 Hound-hearted, blind, and pitiless, whose soul can ne'er relent. 
 I spare nor kings, nor potentates, the mighty of the earth. 
 The master and the slave alike ; in plenty or in dearth ; 
 The young, the old, the great, the small, the simple and the 
 
 wise, 
 Whene'er I please I lay them low, never again to rise. 
 Even in the flower of their youth their fleeting years I number ; 
 Glory and praise and fame I whelm in dark eternal slumber; 
 The memory of righteous deeds swift to the winds I scatter; 
 The closest bonds that friendship knits, I sunder and I shatter ; 
 The fiercest heart I quickly tame, sage counsels I confound ; 
 Fair hopes I bhght, and lofty thoughts lay even with the 
 
 ground. 
 And wheresoe'er my eyes are turned with fell destructive power, 
 Whole countries sink, whole worlds decay, and vanish in an hour. 
 Where is the sovereignty of Greece ; where is the wealth of 
 
 Rome ; 
 Of mighty realms whilome the nurse, of wit the chosen home? 
 
 ' How poor they dwell within the tomb, the dumb and voiceless 
 
 dead, 
 In some small corner of the earth, a sod above their head. 
 Mere naked shades ! Thrice wretched men ! why do they not 
 
 behold 
 How day is dwindling after day, how soon their years are told? 
 Yestreen is passed, the day before has left no trace in sight; 
 To-day is reckoned but a span in yonder realms of night. 
 Swift as the twinkling of an eye, I come and drag away 
 My victim to the grave, and all without compassion slay. 
 Beauty I quench, nor lovely face can draw from me a tear ; 
 To the meek I show no mercy, and the proud I do not fear. 
 WTio shun me, them I overtake; who seek me, them I fly: 
 Unbidden at the wedding feast a frequent guest am I. 
 Wretches ! what ye would snatch escapes, and flies while scarce 
 
 embraced ; 
 Your gathered wealth is scattered soon, and what ye build effaced; 
 Your glory in a moment quenched, your riches like the dust 
 Dispersed and gone; quick perishes the name for which ye lust; 
 Left to the mercy of the sea, as 'twere with idle hand 
 Inscribed upon the sounding shore, or in the drifting sand.' 
 
 L 2 
 
148 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 ' Thee have I chosen, Murmures, noblest and worthiest, 
 Of orators most skilled and famed, of virtuous men the best ; 
 Thee have I chosen, that thy name my labours might adorn. 
 And to thy ears full echo of thy own deserts be borne. 
 For howsoe'er exalted, thou dost rise before my view. 
 By so much do I know thee kind, and good and patient too. 
 Far, far art thou from haughty mien, the proud world's atmo- 
 sphere. 
 That gloom from whence no warmth is born, nor light is sent to 
 
 cheer, 
 But smoke and vapour dank and thick fill all the region drear. 
 Be thou the guide of all my way, that I may 'scape the blast 
 Of wintry storm, and safely reach the longed-for bourne at last. 
 Let tempest rage, let winds arise, let billows roar and swell. 
 Yet while I keep before my eyes, that face I love so well, 
 My one, my guiding star, no rocks shall ever work me harm ; 
 No breakers then shall touch me, nor stormy waves alarm. 
 But if the greeting which I bring shall haply chance to be 
 More worthy of my rash resolve than it is worthy thee. 
 Oh, blame my fortune for the fault, and not my will, I pray. 
 My heart would ever fain be borne on soaring wings away. 
 But Fortune casts it to the ground, and clips the pinions spread 
 To raise me high as Helicon to some tall mountain's head; 
 Even as they begin their flight and skim above the ground ; 
 Barren desire remains, as when I first was outward bound. 
 And now in place of all she weened and hoped and showed and 
 
 taught. 
 Moving my soul to lofty flight upon the wings of thought, 
 She builds me castles in the sand, and gardens in the air; 
 And what by night I meditate, day finds no longer there.' 
 
 This last line seems suggested by the Sophoclean verse — 
 
 The next writer we shall notice is Franciscus Scuphos, 
 born in Cydon in Crete, and educated in Italy, in 1669 pro- 
 fessor at the Greek school in Venice, author of a work on 
 Rhetoric 168 1, from which we quote the following example 
 to show how completely the rhetoric of the ancients con- 
 tinues to live in the oratory of modern Greece :— 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 749 
 
 Me TO O'x^fJ'Ci Trj9 ^e-qaecos SeXco TrapaKoXecret tov iXcvSepcorrjv rov 
 KocrfJLOv XptdTov, va eXevOepaxri] fiiav <j)opav to iXXrjj/LKov yevos diro 
 TY]V dovXclav Tcov ^Ayaprjvcov, Kal cltto tcls x^lpas tov *0T0iiavLK0v 
 BpLapecos. ^6dv€L, KpLTci diKataiTaTc, (f)ddv€L ! "Ecoy Trore ol Tpto-dBXiOL 
 '*'EXXr)V€s e^ovai va cvpLcrKcovTaL et? rot deafid. ttJs SouXe/a?, kol fxe 
 vTT€pr)(j)avov noda vd tovs TraTrj tov Xaifiov 6 ^dp(3apos OpdKrjs * €C09 
 TTOTe yevos too'ov evdo^ov kol cvyeviKov vd npoo'Kvva errdva) els /3ao"tXt- 
 Kov Opovov €va ciSeov TOvKovTrdvL, kol fj xa)paLs €K€LvaLS els tols oirolaLS 
 dvaTcXkei, 6 opaTos 17X10?, kol els dvSpconivrjv fxopcjyrjv dveTeCkas Ka\ 
 i(Tv 6 dopaTOSy dnb rjfJLLO-v (peyydpi vd ^acrtkevcovTaL I 'A, €vSvfxr}(roVf 
 (T€ TrapaKoXci), ttcos eiaai o^f' p-ovov KpLTrjSy dprj kol TraTrjpj kol 7ra)s 
 Trai^eveis, dp,r) dev OavaToveis tu TeKva aov' oSev av icrcos- kcil rj dfiap- 
 TLais TCdv *EXX^z/6)i/ €7rapaKLvr](Tav ttjv hiKaiav opyqv aov, av \(tcds kol 
 €LS TTJV Kdpivov TVS Idlas TCOV dvojjLLas crou €-)(aKK€vcrav Ta da-r poire- 
 XeKta, did vd tovs d(l)avL(T7]s otto to irpoacoTTOv ttJs olKOLfjLevrjs^ eo-v 
 OTTOv elaai oXos evcnrXayxvia^ avyx^o prjcrai Ka\ o-^vo-ai eKelva els to 
 TveXayos Trjs dnetpov aov eXerip.o(Jvvr]s, ^EvSvp,T]croVy BedvSpcoTre 
 *lr)o-ov, TTCOS TO eXXrjvLKov yevos ecrTaOrj to irpcoTOV^ ottov dvoi^e Ta\s 
 dyKoXais, 8id vd de^drj to Belov crov evayyeXXiov' to 77pa)Tov ottov 
 eppL^e ^apal Ta e'lbcoXa, Ka\ Kpefxdpevov els eva ^vXov ere enpocrKv- 
 VTjcrev a>s SeoV to irpcoTOVy ottov avTidTdSr) tcov Tvpdvvcov, ottov fie 
 Tocra Kal Tocra ^dcrava eyvpevav vd ^eppi^cocrovv diTo tov Koapov ttjv 
 TTiCTTiv, Kca dno TOLS Kap^tais tcov ■^(pKTTLavcov TO Selov crov ovop,a' 
 fte TOVS IbpSiTas tcov ^EXX-qvcov rjv^ave^ XpLO-Te pov, els oXrjv ttjv oIkov^ 
 pLevTjv T] eKKX-qo-la crov' ol ^^EXXr]ves ttjv enXovTrjo-av p,e tovs 6r](ravpovs 
 TTJS (TQC^las^ TOVTOC Kal pe TT]v yXcjcorav, Kal pe tov KdXap,ov, pe ttjv 
 Iblav (corjv ttjv dia(pevTeva-av \defenderunt\ Tpe^ovTes /xe cmeipov 
 peyaXoyj/vxiCLV Kal els Tals (pvXaKals, Kal els Tals p-da-TiyaiSy Kal els 
 TOVS Tpoxovs Kal els Tals e^opiatSy Kal els Tals (pXoyais Kal els Tals 
 TTLCTcraiSy povov hid vd cr^vaovv ttjv TrXdvrjV, did vd ^aTTXcoo-ovv ttjv 
 TTLCTTLVy hid vd (Te K-qpv^ovv OedvBpcoTTOV, Kal bid vd Xdp,\j/i] ottov Xdp^ 
 TTet 6 tJXlos, tov (TTavpov T) do^a Kal to pvcTT-qpiov' o6ev, cos ev- 
 (TTrXayxyoSy /xe Tr]v Se'Urjv crov TTavTodwap-iav Kdp,e vd (pvyovv tov 
 (vyov TeToias fiap^apLKrjs alxP'oXcocrlas' ©P (piXobcopos Kal ttXovctio^ 
 
T50 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 
 
 7rdpo)(OS avTairodoTriSj dvocyovras tovs Orjcravpovs rcop Beicitv (tov xapi- 
 rcov, vyf/coaaL ttoKlv (Is rrjv irpoT^pav do^av to yivos, Koi^ dirh ttjp 
 KOTTplav, €i9 Tr]v OTTOLav KaSeraij dos tov to crKrJTTTpov koX to ^acr'i- 
 \€Lov. Na), ai TrapaKaXco /jlci to x^^P^ eKelvo, ottov €(f)€pe ttjv x^P^^ 
 
 els TOP KOCTfJLOP' pCL TTjP delaP (TOV €K€lPr}P ipadpKCOO'tP, els TTjP OTTOLaP 
 
 oPTas Qeos, iyivrjKes apOpoonos, 6ia pa (papfjs pe tovs dpOpcdiTovs (ptXdp- 
 6pco7ros' pa to ^dTTTLO-fxa, ottov pas €TrXvP€ utto ttjp apapTiap' pa top 
 Q-Tavpop ottov pas cipot^e top TTapddetcrop, pa top BdpaTOP ottgv pas 
 ^'dcDK€ Tr)P ^ooTjP, Ka\ pa ttjp epdo^op €K€LP7]p eyepaip, ottov pas dpi^aae 
 us TCI ovpdpia. Ka\ av Xaoys Kai rj cbcopais TovTais dep ae TrapaKivovcnp 
 (Is orTr\dyxi''os, as (re rrapaKiprjo-ovp to. daKpva, ottov pov Tpixovp aTTo to. 
 oppaTa, Ka\ iap hep <p6dpovp Ka\ TavTa, rj (pcopals, fj TTapaKaXeaais Tap 
 dylodP croVy ottov otto oka to. pipr] ttjs TpiaaOXlas 'EXXaSof cj)oipd^ovat. 
 ^copd^ei aTTo tyjp Kpr]Tr]P 6 'ApdpeaSy Ka\ ae TTapaKokel pa i^oXoOpevarjs 
 TOVS ^ AyapT]Povs Xvkovs qtt* e/cat-o to BacriXeiop, els to ottoIqp cttol- 
 pape TTjs ;^^iO'Tcoz/Ujuou aov TTOtpprjs to. TTpojBaTa' (pcopd^ei otto ttjp 
 UoXlp epas XpvaoaTopos, Ka\ (re rrapaKoXel va prjp KvpieveTat aTTo tovs 
 ixOpovs TOV Ylov eKeiPT] rj x^P^^ ottov piap (popdp dcpLepcodr] Trjs Mt]- 
 Tpos Ka\ Uapdepov fpcopd^et rj AlKaTepipa, Ka\ belxvoPTa aov top Tpo~ 
 Xop, els TOP oTTolop €papTvpr](jey ae TTapaKoXel 6 Tpoxos ttoXl pd yvpLcr) 
 Trjs Tvx^s hid TTJP ^AXe^dpdpetap' (jycopa^ovaip ol 'lypaTioi aTTO ttjp 
 
 ^APTLOX^taP, ol HoXvKapTTOL aTTO TYjP 2pVpP7)Py OL Aiopvaiot aTTO Tds 
 
 ^A6r]vas, ol 'ETTVpihcopes utto ttjp KvTTpop, Ka\ delx^'OPTas cov tovs 
 XeopTas OTTOV tovs e^eaxs-o'cip^ Ta)s (pXoyats ottov tovs eKavo^ap, 
 Ta aldepa ottov tovs eOepLcrap, eXTTL^ovat otto ttjp aKpap aov 
 evcTTTXayxvlap tS)p eXXrjPiKO)P TioXecop Kal oXr]s Trjs ^EXXddos ttjp 
 aTToXvTpcadiP, 
 
 Vincentius Kornaros, author of a popular poem in the 
 Cretan dialect, entitled ^ Erotocritus/ is generally reckoned 
 as an author of the eighteenth century, for his work was first 
 published at Venice in 1756. It appears, however, that he 
 was born in Sitia in Crete in the year 1620. The opening 
 lines of his ' Erotocritus' are well worth quoting > — 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 151 
 
 Tov kvkXov to. yvpiafxara nov dvaL[3oKaraL^aLVovv, 
 
 Kal Tov Tpoxov TT vopais ^//TyXa, k copais ara jBddr] nrjaivovv, 
 
 Kai TOV Kaipov ra TrpdyfxaTa^ ttov dvairavpio SeV exovv 
 
 Ma (TTO KoXb Kels ro KaKo TreptTrarovv koI Tpe)(ovv. 
 
 Kat roov dpfxarcov 77 rapa^als, at XPV'^^^^ i^^f- ^d ^dprj, 
 
 Tov epcoTOs 11 efjiTTopeaes kol tiJs (ptKids r) x^P^> 
 
 KvTCLva fx €KLvr]o-aaL rrjv arjixepov TjjjLepav 
 
 N' dvadrj^aXco kol vairo) rd Kap^av kol rd (j)€pav. 
 
 ' The ups and downs of fortune's wheel, whose ceaseless circling 
 
 motion 
 Now scales the heights of heaven above, now sounds the depths 
 
 of ocean, 
 With all the changing things of time, whose current resting never, 
 For worse, for better, fast or slow, is stealing on for ever : 
 The troublous din of armed hosts, war's train of want and sadness, 
 The ways and means_of desperate love, the charm of friendship's 
 
 gladness : 
 These things have moved me to recount, and publish as I may. 
 The fortunes and the deeds of men while it is called to-day.' 
 
 In the eighteenth century we are met by the names of 
 Kosmas the Aetolian, an educational and religious mission- 
 ary, who founded schools throughout the length and breadth 
 of Greece, and Rhegas of Pherae, the great forerunner of 
 Greek independence. Countenanced by Pasbanoglus, the 
 Bey of Venidi, whose friendship he had gained by saving his 
 life when threatened by Mavrogenes, governor of Wallachia, 
 he did all he could to incite the Greeks to rebellion, and 
 addressed appeals to the European Courts to obtain a 
 promise of their assistance in case of insurrection. He 
 was finally betrayed to the Turks at Belgrade by the 
 Austrian Government, and put to death by them on the 
 spot. His two war-songs, beginning A^vre TratSe? ro)v 'EXX77- 
 
 vcov and '^y 7t6t€ TraXXrjKdpLa vd ^ovp€v Vra arevdj contributed 
 
 in no small degree to fire the Greeks with that enthusiasm 
 
152 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 for liberty which soon resulted in the insurrection : but 
 though full of spirit and fervour, they are remarkably want- 
 ing in a sense of poetic fitness, and abound with sudden 
 bursts of prosaic bathos which destroy in great measure 
 their effect : e. g., — 
 
 'O vofios eras Trpodrd^^L 
 Na IBaXere (pcoTia 
 Na Kayj/^T€ Tr}v apfiaha 
 Tov KaTTLTav-Traaa. (!) 
 
 Rhegas is honourably distinguished, among the many 
 glorious patriots of modern Greece, as being the only 
 one who seemed to understand that the faith of Islam 
 was entitled to any respect. Religious bigotry mars 
 the patriotism of almost every other Greek, and of the 
 larger number of Philhellenes with whom I have come in 
 contact. 
 
 In illustration of Rhegas' religious tolerance I quote 
 Perrhaebus, who represents him as thus addressing Pas- 
 banoglus : — 
 
 ^Eav eyo), /Ser;, eawcra tyjv (co-qy crov airo tov Odvarov^ tovto tjto 
 XP^^s poVj dioTL do^d^co OTL ivas Qebs eTrXaorev okov tov KOGfjiov^ 
 a)(rT€ clfxeOa TrXdapara kol T€Kva ivos rrarpos, kol iTTOfjLevcos ddeXcpor 
 (f)epco ccts TrapddeLyfia to i^rjs' oTav els TraTTjp yewtjar] KaO^ vnoBeaiv 
 TToWovs VLOvs, KOL 6 p.€v €^ civTcov y^vj] dcpjSLarjs, ahXos TTpayfxaT€v~ 
 Trjs, aXkos '^(OjjLOTToaXrjs, Kal aWoL fieTax^iptdSiJcxTtv aXka iirayyek- 
 fjaTtty bvvavTai ovtol vdpvrjdcocn tov iraTepa tcov, kol ttjv dhe\(^ocrvvriv 
 TCDV, €V€Ka TTjs dtacpopds TOiv iiTayyikjjidTCiiV ; ^iKmovvTai cipa ivconiov 
 tov Oeoi) bia tovto vet d7roo-Tp6(j)€TaL kol KaTaTpexj} o els tov aWov, 
 iv(d 6 TraTTjp avTcbv dyana oXovs iirLO-qs ; ^Eciv av Kavxaaai on t) 
 ^OdcofjiavLKrj TrlaTis elvai KaXXiTepa d<^* oXas, Ka\ c-yo) ndXtv (ppovco 
 OTi T) ibiKT] pov v7V€ppaLV€L oXas, KaTct TOVTO acj^dXXopev Kal ol dvo 
 (f>LXov€LKovvT€s, dioTi 6 0fo>, COS KOLVos TTaTYjpy pds diaTdTT€l vct fjpeda 
 elXiKpLvels, ^LKaioL, (jyiXdvOpcoTTOiy Ka\ vd dyarrcopev tovs VTrrjKoovs, 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. T53 
 
 KCLL va jjir) KaTabiKd((i)iJL€v avrovs dvoficos cos to. aXoya (coa, Ka6* oaov 
 be d(f)opa els to. SprjcrKevTiKa^ rjfjLels dev e^ofxev i^ovcrlav va e^erd- 
 C(JL>fJL€v Koi bLa(j)LXov€LKa)fxev o(Ta dvijKovu els rov Qeov' rifiels ovre 
 e'ldofjiev^ ovre rjKovcrafJiev, ovre els Kavev ^ifSXlov evpofxev yeypafipcevov, 
 on 6 Qeos eTraldevae rov belva dion rjro TovpKOs^ t] tov delva bcori 
 rjro )(pL(TTLav6sy rj rov delva ^lotl rjro rjXioo'eXTjvoXdTprjs k.t.X. jSKe- 
 TTOjxev ofjLcos Ka\ aKovopev, kcll els rd ^ilBXla evplo'Kopev yeypafxpevov, 
 on 6 Qeos eTraidevcre kol Trmhevei ndvTore rovs rvpavvovvras to 
 irKdcrpa tov^ tovs dbe\cj)ovs tcov. 
 
 Speaking of the Sultan he uses the remarkable expression, 
 
 e^eKkive ajro tov bpopov tov Oeov^ kol (aS if Synonymous) tqs 
 evToXds TOV KopavLov. 
 
 That we may see side by side with this religious large- 
 heartedness its natural counterpart, a deadly intolerance of 
 tyranny, we will here^give the oath which was administered 
 by Rhegas to all his confederates : — 
 
 'i2 jSaaiXev tov Kocrpov, opKi^opat els ere, 
 '^TYjv yvoaprjv tcov Tvpdvv(ov vd prjv eXSco ttote' 
 Mr]Te vd tovs dov\evo-co, prjTe vd nXavedio, 
 'Els Td Ta^lpaTa tcov vd prj napadoBco' 
 Evoacp ^co *s TOV Kocrpov, 6 povos pov ckottos 
 Tov vd TOVS d<pavLO-co vd rjvnt CTTaBepos' 
 Ulcttos els TTjv iraTpiba o-vvTpl^co tov C'^^yov, 
 Kt d^aypLc-TOs vd (tjctcd diTO tov aTpaT-qyov. 
 K dv Trapa^co tov opKov, v dciTpd-^r] 6 ovpavos, 
 Kat vd pe KaTaKavcrrj^ vd yev wtrai/ Kairvos. 
 
 In 1777 was born at Larissa, in Thessaly, Constantine 
 Cumas, author of a great number of geographical, mathe- 
 matical, and philosophical works : for the sake of its 
 Platonic spirit I give the following extract : — 
 
 AX\ eivai^ irpos Atoy, (ppovipos TeKTcov octtls dyopd^ei (TKeirapviov 
 KCLL TTpiovLov Td oTTola epTTobl^ovTaL czTTo Tr]v ^pvcrcocnv KOL TOVS dXXovs 
 
154 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 CTToktcTfiovs va eKTrXrjpoicrcocn ra \dia avrcav ^pyciy fjyovv to ev va 
 TveXeKa, to de CTcpov va irpiovi^rj ; cLTrapaKkaKTa Trdo-x^h ^o/xt^o), octtls 
 dia va o-toXlo-j] ttjv yXatccrav fxe yevLKas clttoXvtovs K.ai doTiKas kol 
 ;^a)pis' dvdyKTjv Xe^eis dcrvveiOlcrTovs, KLvdvvevet, pa ttjv KaTaarTrjar] 
 dKaTdXrjTTTOv els tovs dKovovTas ^ dvayivaxTKOVTas. 
 
 The greatest name that appears at the end of the 
 eighteenth century is that of Adamantios Coraes, the great 
 patriot and iinguistic reformer, and one of the most 
 celebrated literati of Europe. 
 
 It is quite a mistake to suppose that Coraes produced 
 any revolution in the language of modern Greece, or that 
 it is an artificial dialect resuscitated from the grave. The 
 modern Greek of newspapers, novels, sermons, &c., is not 
 half so artificial or pedantic as the writings of the Atticists 
 of the paracme, or even as the Greek of Chrysostom and 
 other fathers of the Eastern Church. All that Coraes did 
 was to set an example to his countrymen in regard to style 
 and the choice of words, which they were not slow to follow. 
 His reform was a very simple one : he proposed to use the 
 classical terminations, wherever these were not altogether 
 obsolete, in preference to those which prevailed in the 
 mouths of the common people; and in addition to this, 
 to banish as far as possible all the foreign words which 
 had crept into the language, and substitute Greek words, 
 often new compounds, in their place. 
 
 Coraes was born in Smyrna on April 27, 1748, studied 
 in Amsterdam for six years, and for another six in France, 
 at Montpellier, where he received the degree of Doctor of 
 Medicine. In 1788 he came to Paris, and was there during 
 the Revolution. Here he spent the greater part of his Hfe. 
 Here he wrote letters to his countrymen, encouraging them 
 in the struggle for freedom, to which Rhegas was already 
 instigating them ; and here he pursued those literary 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 155 
 
 Studies which have established his fame as an European 
 scholar. 
 
 His published works are as follows : — 
 
 La Medecine Clinique. Montpellier, 1787 {ficTdcj^pacns 
 
 €K Tov yepfxavLKOv tov Selle). 
 
 Introduction a Tetude de la Nature et de la Medecine. 
 Ibid. 
 
 Catechisme Orthodoxe Russe (from the German of 
 Plato, Archbishop of Moscow). 
 
 Vade-mecum du Medecin. Montpellier (from the Eng- 
 lish). 
 
 Esquisse d'une Histoire de la Medecine. Paris, 1767 
 (from the EngHsh). 
 
 Pyretologiae Synopsis. Montpellier, 1786. 
 
 ^AdeXcpLKT) dtdaa-KaXla, an answer to UaTpiKT] diKacrKaXiaj a 
 
 forgery of the Turkish Government, published under 
 the name of Anthimus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, for 
 the purpose of allaying the tumultuary tendencies of 
 the Greek subjects of the Porte. 
 
 Les Caracteres de Theophraste. 1799. 
 
 Traite d'Hippocrate, des airs, des eaux et des lieux. 
 Paris, 1806. 
 
 Ibid., second edition, with Greek Title. 18 16. 
 
 "BeKKapLov 7T€p\ ddLKrjjjLaTCdV kol ttolvcov. Paris, 1802, 1823. 
 
 '2aXm(Tfia TroXejjLLaTTjpLov. Paris, 1 803. (On the death of 
 
 Rhegas.) 
 'HXiodcopov AWtoTTiKa ^L^Xta deKa. Paris, 1 804. In two 
 
 volumes. 
 
 Lettre du Docteur Coray sur le testament secret des 
 
 Atheniens, dont parle Dinarque dans la harangue 
 
 contre Demosthenes. 
 
 Aiokoyos ^vo TpaLKccv kutolkcop rrjS Beverias, 1805. ^"^ ^^ 
 
 'Ydpa, 1825. 
 IlpodpOfJLOs 'EXXr]viKi]S ^L^XLo6r]Kr]s. 1809-1827. 
 
156 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 'eWtjvlkt] l3L^\Lo0r)Kr}. Paris, 1807-1835. 15 vols, (con- 
 sisting of editions of classical authors, with notes). 
 
 JJdpepya'EW, ^iPXwdrjKrjs. 1809-1827. 9 vols. 
 'iXtaSos" pa-^odblai A. 1811— 1820. 
 
 AiarpL^T} avTocrx^^ios nepl rod TreptlBorjTov boyfiaros tcov o-kctt- 
 TLKwv (j^iKocrocpcov Nd/ica koXov, Nd/iO) kukov. 
 
 ''KraKTa, Paris, 181 8- 1825. 2 vols. 
 
 2vv€K^r)fjL0S UpaTLKos. 1 83 1. 
 '2vvo'\j/is lepas KaTr])(r](T€a)s. 
 AvTo^Loypacj) la. 1 8 3 3 . 
 
 Besides numberiess articles in the ^ Logios Hermes,' a Greek 
 periodical published in Vienna, on philological and political 
 subjects. 
 
 On his death he left his library and MSS. to the Gym- 
 nasium at Chios, the birthplace of his ancestors. His 
 unpublished works are more numerous, if not more volumi- 
 nous, than those which have been given to the world. 
 Besides this, the margins of many of his books are crowded 
 with notes in his handwriting. 
 
 Few countries, none certainly save Germany, can show 
 such a literary Hercules as Adamantios Coraes, the second 
 Leo Allatius of Greece. Would that some enterprising 
 compatriot would undertake the complete publication of 
 all his works. 
 
 As contemporaries of Coraes we may mention, out of 
 many literary men of no mean deserts, Constantine Oeko- 
 nomos, whose turgid style formed as striking a contrast to 
 the simphcity of Coraes as did, on the other hand, the 
 abandoned vernacular of Jakobos Rhizos Nerulos, the 
 unsparing satirist of the ' Logios Hermes ' and its promul- 
 gators. 
 
 I give three short extracts to illustrate the above remark, 
 taken respectively from the Avro^ioypacfyLa of Coraes, the 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 157 
 
 treatise nept 7rpo(l)opas of Oekonomos, and the KopaKio-TLKa, a 
 satirical comedy of Nerulos, in which I need hardly say the 
 KopaKes are the follDwers of Coraes : — 
 
 ''OcTTLS IcTTopel Tov IStov ^Lov ;(peQ)o-r€t va (rrjfxeLoxrTj Koi ra Karop- 
 Bd)fxaTa KOL to. dfJLapTr]fxaTa rrjs C^rjs tov, fie Tocrrjv aKpl^eiav loorrc 
 jxr]T€ ra irpoiTa va fjLcyaXvvr], prjTe ra devrepa va (rp.iKpvvrj ^ va crtcoTra 
 7ravTd7ra(rL' Trpdy\xa dvaKok(DTaTOV 6ta rrjv €fjL(f)VTov els oXovs rjfids 
 (jyikavTiav, "^Octtls dfjLCJ)L^aXk€L irepl tovtov, as Kafirj rrjv irclpav vd 
 X^P^^U ^^o P'OVov (TTLxovs TTjs jStoypacfiLas tov /cat ^eXei KaraXd/3et 
 Tr}V dvaKoKlav, — Coraes, AvToj3ioypa(pLa. 
 
 To 7T€p\ yvrjacas tcov iWrjvLKuiv ypapfjidrcov 7rpo(j)opds irokvKpoTOV 
 Trpo^XrjjjLa irpb rplcov rjdrj aldovcov els ttjv EvpcoTrrjv dva(pveVf VTrrjp^e 
 TToWaKis els TToXXovs TToXkoiv Ka\ p.eyd\cov crv^rjTrjo-ecov vTToOecns, — 
 Oekonomos^ Ilep\ 7rpo(popds. 
 
 The studied rhythm and inflated style is worthy of a 
 Prodikus. 
 
 EtVat dvo ;!^pwta rcopa orrov 6 narepas pov appcDcrrel qtt' ev aKKo- 
 KOTO irdOos TO vd 6p,L\^ KopaKLCTLKa, Ka\ dXKo dev Kdp,veL irapd vd 
 dKoki^r] Xe^iKd, vd TrXaTTTj Xe^ais dvrjKovcrTaLS ica\ irapd^evaLSy vd 
 bia^d^i] KciTi dLa^oX6)(apra Tvircopeva, ottov rd 6vop,d^ovv Aoyiov 
 Epprj Ka\ vd ypd(j)r) Kal vd XaXfj pid yXcoo'aa, ottov ttjv drjpiovpyel, 
 6 Idios, Tt vd Kap^co ; yid vd tov vnoxpeotaco, jBid^co tov eavTov 
 p,ov vd p.d6(o avTals Tals drjdeaTaTats (pXvapias, Ka\ /x' oXov ottov 
 dev yvpva rj yXcoo-o'd pov V avrd rd Karapapeva KopaKLcrTiKa, 
 fJL oXov TOVTO, eTTetdr) kol rd XaTpevei, ^id^opiaL Keyoi vd tov 
 opiXo) TT) yXcoacrd tov, Ka\ els KaOe Xe^i ^diKrjTov ottov rjOeXa TTpo- 
 (jyepec, pe dlbet ttjv ev^^ tov. — Nerulos, KopaKicrriKd. 
 
 - Modern Greece has produced but few authoresses : of 
 these Angelica Palle, chiefly known by her ode on the 
 ^ Death of Lord Byron/ which I shall here quote, belongs to 
 the beginning of the nineteenth century. 
 
J 58 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 I. 
 
 TOVS XajJLTTpOVS VjJLVOVS T7]S VLKTJS d(pLV(OV 
 
 K\av6iJLa>u rjx^t' r^pcooav 6 cTpaTos' 
 
 IlLKpms \v7r0vvT at yf/vxal tcov ^EWtjvcov, ^ 
 
 T' cLKovei fxaKpoSev kol ^atp^i o i-)(6p6s, 
 
 2. 
 O (plXos ^XSe' ttXtjv p^oXis rov sl^ov 
 
 ^KaTTTOVV K\aL0VT€9 TOP Tacpov aVTOV, 
 
 Idov TO reXos ivdo^cov iXTrldoiv, 
 Kal TO TpOTvaiov SavaTOV aKX-qpov, 
 
 'HX^e va ifXTTvevo-rj ©y aXXos TvpTolos 
 El? Kade aTTjdos TToXefjLcov 6pjjL7]v' 
 HXrjV^ (p€v, 6 Bdpdos iXTflcras ixaTaL(OS 
 Idov p€V€L els alcoviov ctcoTrrjv, 
 
 4- 
 
 *Qs bivhpov K€It on eKoafJiet peydXcos 
 
 Ttjv Kopvcprjv fJLOvaiKOv Hapvacrcrov' 
 
 "Nvv irpb TTobcov (p6eLpovad tov to kolXXos 
 
 JJvorj TO epptyj/ dvefiov (T<po8pov 
 
 5- 
 
 EXXas 1 iav to acop^a tov rj AyyXia 
 Na (p€pr] els pvrjpa (r]Ta iraTpiKov' 
 EtTre, Movo-QdV qd prjTepa yXvKela, 
 'Elvat TeKvov pov 6 vlos tcop Movacov, 
 6. 
 
 KaTa(ppovcov tg>v ipcDTCov tovs 6pr]VOV9, 
 
 "i^hovris prjV aKovcov ttjv <j)(0V7]V, 
 
 E^TjTei edcb rjpcocov tovs KLubvvovSf 
 Tdcpov as exu rjpoocov '$• ttjv yrjv, 
 
 Angelica Palle compares very favourably indeed with Felicia 
 Hemans. 
 
 The metre is one peculiarly liable to run into jingle, from 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. I59 
 
 which it is only preserved by the retarding eflfect of a 
 judicious irregularity in the word accent, and the frequent 
 substitution of single syllables lengthened by rovr] for the 
 trochees which form the first part of the dactyls. 
 
 The great lyrical poet of Greece is, however, Athanasios 
 Christopulos, who was born at Kastoria, in Macedonia, in 
 1772, and who died in Moldavia, where he held the office of 
 judge, in 1847. He is sometimes called the modern 
 Anacreon, but is too original a poet to need any such 
 metonym. Unfortunately, his undoubted genius was con- 
 secrated chiefly to the glory of the wine-bottle, yet he wrote 
 some love-songs of exquisite tenderness and beauty, which 
 have been copied without acknowledgment by various 
 modern poets. Consciously or unconsciously, the ^ Night- 
 ingale ' of Christopulos is certainly at the foundation of the 
 ' Svv^allow ' of Tennyson. Inasmuch as the nightingale 
 sings, and the swallow only twitters, I confess I prefer the 
 Greek to the English poet in this particular case. 
 
 For four of the following examples I am indebted to 
 C. C. Felton's ' Selections from Modern Greek Writers.' 
 
 OLD AGE. 
 
 Na Tf] Tplx^s (Tov apx^i^ovVy 
 AOavd(TL€ V dcTTrpL^ovv ! 
 
 Na daKpvcov iirox'^ I 
 Na ere Xeyet kol 6 "Epcos, 
 $iXe Trkeov elcraL yipos, 
 
 2 TO i^rjs KoXr) "^vx^* 
 Trj veoTrjra ;j^atpeVa, 
 Ta (jyikrjiJiaT a<fir](T€ ra, 
 
 Sexacre ra napevdvs, 
 Kal dpxLva /xe vyeia 
 Ta TTLKpa TO. yepareia 
 
 2 TO i^rjs va to, yevBfjs. 
 
l6o MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 Aev ae indvovv ra XovXovdiaj 
 Aev ere TTpiirovv ra rpayovbia, 
 
 Yiriy €K€ivos o Kaipos' 
 Tdypa rdcpos 7rKrjcrid^€iy 
 To)pa Odvaros cfxovd^eL, 
 
 T<apa Xdpos Xv7rr]p6s ! 
 "OBev irkeov €TOLfjLd(TOVj 
 *P^^e oXa ra KaXd crov, 
 
 He TOP Koa-fJLOV EXE TEIA ! 
 Kat TO, ddKpva ^dara fxovov 
 Ety rrjv XvTrrjv k els top ttovov 
 
 Mta p^iKpT} TrapTjyopLd ! 
 
 ANSWER TO THE PRECEDING. 
 
 Ha 1 17 rplx^s fJL av d(nrpL^ovv 
 Mt^tto)? rdxarc TriKpl^ovv ) 
 
 T, if J t n a I f 
 
 L €X V acnrpr) tovs pa<pTj ^ 
 
 Toiydp T acTTTpo Oavaropei ; 
 
 'H (piXcdVTas dyicvXovei, 
 
 Ta ;(6tXaKta *$■ tyjv d(prj * 
 To TpavrdcpvXXo fiay, Tvpcorop, 
 To XovXovdt Ta)P ^Epdtrcov 
 
 EipaL aanpo KaOapo' 
 Kai TO KOKKCPo Tj (pvais 
 To crvyKepaaep eTrlcrrjs 
 
 M' €pa XP^P- daiTpovbepo, 
 'H pvpTLCL rrjs \\cf)pobLTT]s 
 "Els TO TrpdaiPO KXadi ttjs, 
 
 M€(r* 's* ra (pvXXa to, x^cod 
 '^OXa KdTacTTTpa, cdp ;^toi/i, 
 Ta XovXovbia ttjs (pVTpopet. 
 
 T* dpdrjpd, KOL Tpvcj)€pd. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. l6l 
 
 Kat 6 Ata? 6 /xeyaXos 
 
 Fta TTjs Arjdas tov to koXXos 
 
 KvKVos yivK€ jiLCL (j)opd, 
 N* dnodeL^ els KaSe fiepos, 
 "kdwpais rpixoLis OeX* 6 '^Epcos, 
 2av TOV KVKVOV TO. (pT€pd, 
 
 To \onrov Key ocro OeKci, 
 \s do-Trpl^o) dev /xe /xeXet, 
 
 IlavrcXcos dev fie XvTra* 
 Otl ooro TvavT dcTTrpl^co, 
 
 T6(T0 IvXeOV VO(TTip.L^(x), 
 
 Too-' 6 epoas jjl dyaTra, 
 
 LOVER'S LONGING. 
 
 As yevovfxovv Kadp€<pTr]s I 
 
 Na ^XeTTearaL '$• efieva, 
 K eyo) pa ^Xeirco iravTa 
 
 To KoKkos (TOV, K io-iva. 
 As yevovfiovu ^TevaKi ! 
 
 ziya (Tiya v ap^iQa 
 ^^ ^X^C^ '^^ P'oXXtd crov, 
 
 Na <T TO, crvxvoxT€VL^(o ! 
 As rjjxovv depaKrjs ! 
 
 Kal oXos va KivrjcroD 
 S TO. o-TTjOrj (TOV va Trecro), 
 
 TXvkcl va TO, (j)V(Tr}(Tco, 
 
 ""As fjjJiOVV TeXos VTTVOS ! 
 
 Na €px(OfiaL to ^pddv, 
 Na Sei^o) TO. yXvKa (tov 
 
 MaTaKia *s to (TKOTadi, 
 
1 6 2; MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 THE NIGHTINGALE, 
 
 KtV ar)bovaKL jjlov KaXo^ 
 KiVa Koi Trdye ^(tto jloXo 
 
 TrjV aKpL^Tj TTOV ^€Vp€lSy 
 
 Na Tras va fxi rrjv evpjjs' 
 Kat (Tap TTjV ^pfjs koX ttjp Idrjs 
 Ap^iva Kel va KeXad^s, 
 
 TXvkcl yXvKO, fx€ X^P^ 
 Na o-Kv\jr7] pa (re Trdprj 
 Av (T epcoTijcrrj tl cr ecrv * 
 Kal TTOLOS (T6 (TTeXpei cm to p-qcrll 
 EiTTfj TTcos elfxaL doopo 
 UovXl (rrepayfjLocjyopo I 
 Uws 6 d(p€PTr]s fjiov edcj 
 Me (TTeXpei pa (re rpayovdci)' 
 Ta Trddr] pov pa Kkaiyco 
 Me peXos pa (r ret Xeyo). 
 '^'Ycrrepa crKvy\re raireLpd 
 Kai XdXijcre Tr)P (riyapd, 
 
 Kal opKia TT]v \ ra koXXt] 
 2t6p K6p<po pa (re l3dXj]' 
 A)( dijdopaKL p bep (Baara) 
 0a ae ro ttco, EtVat ttlctto j 
 ^EttI^ovXo prj yeP7]S 
 "Etop KrJTTOP TTOV ipTTalpeis. 
 
 TRANSLATION OF 'THE NIGHTINGALE.' 
 
 ' Fly, nightingale, to yonder shore ; 
 Fly, fly, what need I tell thee more : 
 Go find me out my dearest, 
 Go, if my prayer thou hearest. 
 And when my dearest thou hast found, 
 Begin to sing thy sweetest sound. 
 
 That she may stoop and take thee, 
 And her companion make thee. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 63 
 
 And if she then shall make demand, 
 Who sent thee from the island strand, 
 
 Say, " Hither cx)me I flying, 
 
 A bird of saddest sighing; 
 My master sends me for a gift. 
 That I in song my voice may lift 
 
 To tell how he doth languish, 
 
 And warble all his anguish.'* 
 Then like a suppliant appear, 
 And whisper softly in her ear. 
 
 And plight thy master's duty^ 
 
 Swearing by all h^r beauty. 
 Placed in the garden of her breast— 
 Ah nightingale, I cannot rest, 
 
 Uneasy fears dismay me, 
 
 Lest there thou shouldst betray me.' 
 
 EACCHI LAUDES. 
 
 Orav TTtVo) TO KpaaaKi 
 ''2t6 xP^^^ /^ou TTOTrjpaKi 
 Kal 6 vovs fJLov ^aXioSfj' 
 Tor apxi^co koI ;^op6U6), 
 Kal yeXo) /cat )(copaT€voi), 
 K?7 ((OT) p! evxapiCTTei. 
 Tore iravovv fj (ppovTtdes 
 Tore (T^vvovv rj eXnldeg 
 Tore cj)evyovu ol KarrvoL 
 Kr] Kapdid pov yaXrjvL^ec^ 
 Km TO cTTTJdos pov apxL^€L 
 N' avadalvrj^ v dvaTTufj' 
 Tlo, tov Koapov bev pe peXei, 
 'Aff yvptCr), OTTCDS OeXcL, 
 To Kpaa-CLKL pov va ^fj, 
 
 H Kavara va prj arvxlrrjy 
 Att to TrXdyL va pr} Xely^rj^ 
 N cLTToOdvcDpe pa^i. 
 M 2 
 
164 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 'OcrO €XOy TOVTOVy TOVTOV 
 
 Tbv cLKevcdTov fiov ttKovtov^ 
 
 KocrO TTLVCO Kol pOV(pCi)' 
 
 'OXa (TKv^aXa ra e^cOj 
 Eis Kaveva dev Trpocrep^a)^ 
 Kai KCLviva bev ^//'T/^a). 
 
 From these examples it will be seen that Christopulos 
 adopted the language of the common people in literary com- 
 position. He had a theory that the vernacular was nothing 
 but Aeolo- Doric, and that it ought so to be called, and, as 
 Mr. Sophocles emphatically observes, 'it was called Aeolo- 
 Doric/ After which I think nothing further can be said on the 
 subject ; except it be that Christopulos was the author of an 
 ' Aeolo-Doric ' Grammar, and several other works, trans- 
 lations, &c., in the same dialect. 
 
 Before proceeding to our contemporaries in Greek litera- 
 ture I will say a few words on the popular poetry, the name- 
 less and numberless ballads, which after all are the pride of 
 modem as of ancient Greece. 
 
 However glorious and unparalleled the Iliad and the 
 Odyssee may be, as works of genius, yet the mind that 
 brought them forth remains a great unknown, and in their 
 origin and first publication they were just as much ballads 
 as the popular poetry of Greece. 
 
 It has been already frequently remarked how curiously the 
 old mythology of Greece survives in the popular superstitions^ 
 and yet at the same time how strangely it is modifiedo 
 Charon for example, as in the following poem, appears 
 rather as the Hermes Pompeios than the genuine Charon 
 of the ancients. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 1 65 
 
 CHARON AND THE GHOSTS. 
 
 Tt €ivaL fiavpa ra ^ovvd^ Koi ^orreKQW ^ovpKco^eva J 
 M.r]v av€fjiOS to. iroXefia \ firjva ^pox^j to. dcpvet ] 
 K' ovb^ aj/€fJLOS TO. 7ro\€fj,a, k ovde ^po^r) ra d€pv€i 
 Moi/6 hia^aiv 6 Xapovras fxe tovs CLTT^Sajxpevov^' 
 "Eepvet TOVS viovs dno ifXTrpoG-rd, tovs yipovTas KaToni^ 
 Ta Tpv(p€pa TraidoTTovXa 's ttju creXX' appadiaa-fjieva. 
 UapaKoXovv ol yepovTcs, k ol vioi yovaTL^ovV 
 ^Xdp€ jjLOVy Koveyjr^ els X^P*^> Koveyj/ ds Kpva ^pvo-i, 
 Na TTLovv ol y€povT€s V€p6j K ol vtol va XiBapLG-ovv^ 
 Kat TCL piKpd TTaidoTTOvXa va pdcrovv \ov\ovhdKia. — 
 
 K ovo €is X^P^^ Kovevco yco^ k ovOe €Ls Kpva ppvai 
 ^'EpxovT T) pdvves yid V€p6, yvapi^ovv tcl TratSid tcdv' 
 TvoapL^ovTai t dvbpoyvva, koI ;^ci)pfco-fto div exovpj 
 
 Of the so-called Klephtic Ballads, the finest with which I 
 am acquainted is 
 
 THE BURIAL OF DEMOS. 
 
 *0 rj^Los elBaalXcve, k 6 Arjfjios BiaTd^eu' 
 
 '2vpT€, TTaibid pov, 's to vepov, \j/€op\ va (pdT aTToyj/e. 
 
 Kat o-Vy AafjLwpdKrj jLt* dv€yj/i€, KdQov idco Kovrd poV 
 
 Nd ! r' appard pov (f)6p€cr€, va ^crat KarriTdvos' 
 
 Kat (tUs, Traidcd pov, 7rdpeT€ to ep-qpo G-iraBl pov, 
 
 Updo'tva k6\J/-€T€ /cXaStd, (TTpoyaTe pov va KaSiO'cOf 
 
 Kat (^€pT€ Tov TTvevpaTLKo va p i^opoXoyr)a-T]' 
 
 Na TOP etTTcj to. KplpaTa ttov e^cy Kapcopeva^ 
 
 TptdvTa XP^^^' dpapTcoXos, k eiKocn 7T£vt€ KXecjyTrjs' 
 
 Kal Toypa p rjpSe OdvaTos, Ka\ 6eX(D v diraLOdvcOs 
 
 Kdp€T€ TO KL^ovpi pov TrXaTV , 1^7^X6 va yevrj^ 
 
 Na aTe< opOhs va iroXepch^ Kal diTrXa vd yepi^ta, 
 
 K* aTTO TO pepos to d€^\ d(j)rj(TT€ TrapaBvpL, 
 
 Td ;^€XiSdi^ia vd ^pxcovTot, ttjv avoi^iv vd (pepovv^ 
 
 Km t dydoma top koXop Mai vd pe paBalpovp/ 
 
I 66 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 I offer the following as a nearly literal translation : — 
 
 The sun was falling from his throne when Demos thus commanded : 
 ' Oh ! children, get you to the stream, to eat your bread at even ; 
 And thou, Lambrakes, kinsman mine, come near and sit beside me ; 
 There, take the armour which was mine, and be like me a captain. 
 And ye, my children, take in charge the sword by me forsaken; 
 Cut branches from the greenwood tree, and spread a couch to rest 
 
 me. 
 Go fetch me now the priest of God, that he may come and 
 
 shrive me, 
 For I would tell him all the sins that I have ere committed, 
 While thirty years a man-at-arms, one score and five a robber. 
 And now to take me death has come, and I for death am ready. 
 Then make my tomb on every side right broad, and high above me., 
 That I may upright stand to fight, and stoop to load my musket : 
 And on the right hand side, I piay, leave me a little window, 
 Where swallows in the early year may bring the springtime with 
 
 them. 
 And of the merry month of May the nightingales may tell me.' 
 
 As a fitting accompaniment to this I would cite another 
 beautiful ballad, entitled 
 
 'H BOH TOY MNHMATO^. 
 
 '2a^^aTov okov TTivafJiey ttjp KvpiaK oXrjfjiepap^ 
 
 Kal Tj]v devrepav to TTOVpvov \_7Tpo)L] i(T&)07) to Kpao-l pas. 
 
 *0 KaueTavos p^ €o-T€i\€ va Trdo) Kpaal va (pepco, 
 
 Bepos eyoy Kal apados tip rj^svpa top dpopop^ 
 
 KirTTJpa arpaTcus ^coarpaTais kol ^epa popoiraTta, 
 
 To popoTTCiTi ^ e/SyaXe (T€ piap -ip'rjXrjp pa^ovXav" 
 
 'Htqp y^pcLTT) piVYjiiaTa oX* aTTo TroXXrjKdpia. 
 
 "YiV ppyjpa r^rap popa)(hy ^e^copop Vo to, aXXa" 
 
 Asp etSa, Kal to TraTrjo-a GTrdpio ^0-to K€CJ)d\t" 
 
 BOT^P aKOVCO KOL PpOPTTjP OTTO TOP mr6) KOCTflOP. 
 
 Tt €)(sis pvrjpci Kal ^oyyas Kal j^apvapaCTepd^dS I 
 Mrjpa TO x^}^^ ^^^ iSapet. prjpa y] pavpij jfkdKa I 
 Ovdi TO ^a>fia p.ov (Bap€lj ovdi r] pLavpi] likaKa^ 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 1 67 
 
 yiov TO)(co fxapav k ivTpoirrjV k euav Kavfxou jxeyakov 
 To 7ra)s fie KaTa(j)p6vr)(T€s, fxi TrdrrjcTes V to KecpaXi' 
 Ta;^a deu rjfxovv k iyo) veos j div Tjfiovu TraXKrjKapL * 
 Aev eTTCpTraTTjora iyca rrjv vvKra pe (peyydpi ' 
 
 The following is given to show how the notion of the 
 consciousness and, as it were^, suppressed vitality of the dead 
 is further connected with the old superstition of daemons or 
 genii, which belongs not only to Greece, but to Eastern 
 behef generally, as we see in the 'Arabian Nights/ In 
 modern Greece the o-tolx^'lov seems always of a malevolent 
 disposition ; and that that was the case in the early ages of 
 Christianity we may infer from the use of haipoviov in the 
 New Testament. Sad to say, this superstition has been 
 known to result in human sacrifice, as in the case of the 
 Bridge of Arta, which, according to the popular ballad, could 
 not be built securely until the little daughter of the master- 
 builder had been sacrificed to the genius of the place, by 
 being thrown down and buried in the stones, which were to 
 form the foundation of the structure. 
 
 Do we not find traces of this dark superstition, which, like 
 other dark superstitions, the Greeks seem to have borrowed 
 from the East, in Joshua's curse pronounced over Jericho 
 (Josh. vi. 26)? 'Cursed be the man before the Lord, that 
 riseth up and buildeth this city Jericho : he shall lay the 
 foundation thereof in his firstborn, and in his youngest son 
 shall he set up the gates thereof.' See the fulfilment of this 
 curse in i Kings xvi. 34. And is it not a significant fact 
 that the story of the 'temptation' of Abraham to offer up 
 Isaac is associated with Mount Moriah, one of the hills upon 
 which, according to tradition, Jerusalem was built ? 
 
 TOY M0Y2IK0Y KAI TOY STOIXEIOY. 
 
 'E'vl/'es" x^ovL 'v^t;(aSt(7e k 6 ^idvvqs irpayovba, 
 Tocrov Tpayovbu yXvKci kol vocrTtpa Koikadety 
 
1 68 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 Tov irrfp depas ttjv (pcovrjv V rod ApaKovros Trjv (pepei, 
 
 ^E^yrjK 6 ApaKos k ftTre tov, ^Idvvrj, Be va crk (pdyoHf 
 
 Tiarl ApdKOf yLori Oepio, yiari Od fie (tkotqixttjs I 
 
 Tiarl diajBaLveis Trdpcopa kol rpayovdels Trapovpya' 
 
 SvTTvds T drjbovL air rals (j)co\(,als kol to, TTOvkid tt rovs 
 
 KdyLTTOVS. 
 
 SvTTvds K ifii Tov ApdKovTa jii Trjv ApaKovricro-d pov, 
 Acjyes /xe ApdKo va StajSw^ ci(j)€s fie vd nepdaay* 
 Tpdne^av e^ 6 ^aaiKcds Kol p! €)(^ei Kokecrpivov' 
 M' €^€4 yta TrpcoTov povcriKov irpoiTov Tpayovbio-Triv tov. 
 
 The forms ApaKos nom., dpdKovros gen., and dpdKo voc, seem 
 to show that dpdKos is not a metaplastic form, but rather a 
 relic of the original form bpdKovrs, of which another modern 
 form is dpdKovras, obtained by the insertion of a vowel to 
 facilitate pronunciation. 
 
 We will conclude these examples of the popular poetry 
 of Greece with two more pieces, the first illustrative of the 
 personification of Death as Xdpos : — 
 
 Ae^evTTjS ipo^oXaeu dwo rd Kopcfyo^ovvia,, 
 
 ^Ix^ TO (peai TOV o-Tpa^d kol ra paWid KKoacrpiva^ 
 
 Kai Xdpos tov dyvdvT^vev cxtto '^lXtju paxovXav^ 
 
 Kal els (TT€vbv KaT€^7JK€ K €Ket TOV KapT€pOVO-€' 
 
 Ac^evTT] TToBev epx^o-ai. ; XelSevTrj ttov TrrjymveLs ; 
 *A7r6 ra TTpaTa epxopai^ cr to o-TrrJTi pov Trrjyalvoa' 
 lidyoa vd Trdpco to -v/rw/xt, k oTTLaco vd yvpiorco. 
 YLipeva p^ eaTeiy 6 Geos vd jrapco ttjv "^vx^v crov^ 
 "^A^o-e pe Xdp€, acfiae pe, TrapaKaXS) vd Cw^» 
 ^E;(a) yvvoLKa irdpa veav kol div Trjs TrpeTTCi. XW^' 
 *Ai/ 7r€p7raTr]0-7j yXlycopa^ Xeyovv 7rS>s OeXei avdpa^ 
 Kav TTcpTraTTjo-r] ^crvxa, Xeyovv ttcos Kapapovei, 
 E;(Q) TTaibid dvrjXiKa kol opipav* aTTopvYjaKovV 
 K6 Xdpos ^€v TOV {JKovaef Koi rjOeXe vd tov ndpr^' 
 Xdpe adv aTro^acrtdes kol BeXeis vd pe Trdprjs 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 69 
 
 Via Tka va 7raXe\^a)/xe ere jxapixapev akcovi* 
 YAv fJie viKT)cr7]s Xdpe {jlov, p.ov iraipveis ttjv yjrvxrjv fiov^ 
 Kav (T€ vifCTjCTco TToX cyo) TrrjyaLve \ to koKov (TOV, 
 ^'Eirrjyav kcll iiraXey^fav air to Trpcot cos to yevp^a, 
 KavTOv KovTCL ^(T TO deiXivop TOV KaTajBdv 6 Xapos. 
 
 The following lines, sung from house to house at the 
 approach of spring, by children, are plainly a remnant of 
 the x^^f'^^vLo-p.a of the ancients : — 
 
 XcXidova epx^rat 
 
 *A7r* TTjv acTTTpav OaXacrcrav, 
 
 Kd0r]O'€ Kol XdXrjo-e' 
 
 MdpTL, p.dpTL pOV KoXCy 
 
 Ka\ (pXe^dprj (pXi^epe* 
 
 KaV XLOvi^€LS, KCLV TTOVTL^eiS, 
 
 Uake avoL^LV pvpl^eLs. 
 
 Before closing this chapter, a few words are due to our 
 contemporaries. The writings of many modern Greek prose 
 
 authors, as for instance the 'lo-Topla Trjs 'EXXtjvlktjs eTravao-Tdo-ecos 
 
 by Spyridon Tricupes, and the udnLo-o-a *lcodvva of Roi'des, 
 are well known in England, and have been reviewed in some 
 of our leading journals. Professor Asopios is well known 
 by his Elo-aycoyr] els ulvdapov, and Professor Damalas by his 
 Uepl dpx(ov. Papparregopulos' history of Greece is remark- 
 able for its clear and simple style, and the unstudied purity 
 of its language. I shall content myself with laying before 
 the reader a few specimens of verse from the pens of living 
 or but lately deceased poets. 
 
 A. R. Rangabes, late Greek Ambassador in Paris, is 
 known not only as a scholar and archaeologist, but also as 
 a poet. In his lighter moods, as a satirist, he recalls to our 
 minds something of the great Greek comedian whom it is 
 not unfair to suppose he imitates : — 
 
170 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE, 
 
 Kai Ta-)(a noiovs \6yovs Icrxvpovs, (ro(f)ovs^ 
 TTpoTelvere * V avTov rbv dvefiofjLvXop 
 
 TTOV Pdcj)€T€j d(T7rpL^€T€, KTeVL(€T€y 
 
 o-yovpatvere kol XdSos ovoyid^eTe 
 
 creis al yvvoLK^s K€CJ)a\r)Vy vd pdOcofjiev 
 
 bev r]jX7TOpov[JL€v TTolos civ€jJL0S (pvaa * 
 
 Tou KocTfxov Tov vTTOvpyLKov Tov ' hrkavTa 
 
 as yjrdXrj ndv o-TOfxa' 
 
 TTjV evyevrj tov Kopv(pr)v (j)i\6do^os 
 
 avdirrei (j)ayovpa. 
 Tis olde dd(pvai av <j)VTp6vovv els avTr]v ^ 
 
 rj €VTOfXa iSocTKovv • 
 EtV A'lTva Tj Kap^la Krj KOtXla rov 
 
 (pojBov rds iKprj^€LS. 
 
 A. Au KaTopBcofrrjs vd pi Kdprjs virovpyov 
 Xp^td^erai TraibeLa lo-cjs j dv avTO, 
 opokoycb TTcos dev Tr)v e;(a). — B. o;(t dd I 
 Kaipos bep eivai ottov (Ida vrrovpyou, 
 K €Kpdr€i TO KovdvXt TOV COS dUcXXav 
 K eaKGTTTep VTToypacjyrjv, Kat aypoia^av 
 Ttt ypdppaTd tov KaKoriOeiai pvicov. 
 
 So much for the politics of Athens. The newspaper 
 editor Sphecias describes himself as the editor of the ^Eatan- 
 swill Gazette' might have done :— 
 
 Ucos elvai ttXtjv ivopL^a 
 els Tas ^ASrjvas (pvXXa TrepLcrcroTepa 
 €<pi]p€pLd(ov Tvapd (pvXXa Trpdcrtva. 
 A. 'Edve TToXXd, dXX ovk iv tco ttoXX^ to ev. 
 To (pvXXov pov elve KavTTjpiov o^v, .... 
 KT) v^pLS pov elve yvpvrj kol avatbrjs, 
 elv e^i^ua, elv ipTTprjo-TrjpLos davXos. 
 pL avTov (patTL^dO TOU 'EXXtjvlkov Xabv 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 17I 
 
 \ t 
 
 oioaaKcov Ta prjTa Kai ra aTTopprjra 
 
 Ety rrjs opy^s p-ov, av6pco7r€j ro (jjV(Tr]pa 
 ^€ppi^(Dp€vr} Si va TreV r] vea crov 
 VTToXrjyj/^LSy avTY] ttov KaTCKparr^ircs. 
 
 The power of Russia is thus finely described :— 
 
 'O ylyas rrjs lorxvos pas €)((dv arpcopinjv tovs nayerovs^ 
 rr]v bvdLV kol dvaroXrjv o-vve)l et? ras ayKoXas tov. 
 *Addpas els to crreppa tov tov UoXov \ap7r€i 6 darrjp' 
 Trara k vtto to ^rjpa tov (t^l^ovt ol Trdyot tov OvpdX' 
 K etV T) TTVOT] TOV aTTjSovs TOV v7T€p^p€La SveXka, 
 
 The following appear from the headings to be founded on 
 German originals : — 
 
 -t[. nEPI2TEPA. 
 
 2K0770S5 Sag' an lieber Vogel mein. 
 
 Ylov \k aTrkcopeva to, TTTepa 
 Treras \cvKr} Trepicrrepa, 
 
 OT €(p TJp:COV 
 
 TOVS Tfdyovs (pepSL tov Poppa I 
 
 ^'^Ottov rj avoL^Ls yikd, 
 KCii avpai Trveovv diroXa 
 
 eKel TTCTcb 
 
 TO (j^CdS Ol'^cb 
 
 ^TjTco TO. avBrj Ta jroWd.^ 
 
 Uttjvov prj <p€vyrjSj deiXtwv 
 
 7ra>s pas KaTcXa^e )((Eip6iV, 
 
 Qeppov, Beppov 
 
 eVTOS 7]pOdV 
 
 OdXireL TO TTvp tcov KapbiSiv, 
 
l^^ MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 ' GepjjLrf Kaphia ^lKikj] 
 
 TToKKeL rravTov. Aip fJLol dpKei/ 
 
 f^as diravTa, 
 
 yopyr) Trera 
 Kels ^€vas (TTeyas /xerotfcet, 
 
 IL NYKTEPINON. 
 
 2K07rosy Leise fliehe^i meine Lieder, 
 
 \dfji7rei dpyvpd, 
 
 Koi TTjV KOfXTjV TT]S eKT^lvCl 
 
 els (TTiKiTva vepd, 
 
 EjBya* va Idrjs' els CJ)vXka 
 
 €h TO (f>a)s XP^^^ 
 Xapvyyi^^ r} ^ikofirps^a 
 
 dcTfia cos TO, (rd, 
 
 "^Akovo-op tl '^oKK rj yXcoo-cra 
 
 rj pLayevTiKrj^ 
 '2v TO ([)o)s, KOI aif rj (axra 
 clcrai fiovcTiKT], 
 
 To TTciv nXrjpes dpjxovlas 
 
 KCLL SepfXCOV TToKpCJV, 
 
 ^EXdij KevQovv eK Kapblas 
 eyetpov "yj/aXfiov. 
 
 Avoi^ov copala x^'^Vy 
 
 va (TKLpTY](T rj yrj' 
 K.aL ivTos fJLOV V dvaTeikrj 
 
 TrdfJLCpcoTos avyr). 
 
 At '\jrvxiil' fJ'CLs §€, cos Tovos 
 
 fieXovs o-viJL(pcovc^v, 
 *^Ac[)€s V dva^ovv avyxpovcos 
 
 els TOP ovpavov. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 73 
 
 A very popular poet in Greece is Zaiacostas, who has 
 been dead some ten years or more, a voluminous translator 
 from Italian poets, and as an original writer full of power 
 and imagination, though rather unequal in felicity. He has 
 the merit, if merit it be, of introducing a vast variety of new 
 metres into modern Greek versification. He would appear 
 to have passed the greater part of his life in conversation 
 with the manes of Greek heroes and martyrs, indignant at 
 the degradation of their country. 
 
 The following may serve as an example : — 
 
 EtS TOV TVfxlBoP €K€lvOV TtXtJCTLOV, 
 
 riveoa^Br] fxe Trarayov xdo-yia' 
 
 KCLL rrjs yrjs eK tcov (nrXdy^voov tcop Kpycav 
 
 iTivd)(6r] deKanrix'^ (pdafia. 
 
 A ! deu fJTO^ TOV VOX) jjlov dndTT], 
 
 fiTjTe (ppovdop TOV (po^ov iiov TrXdo-fxa, 
 
 BXoCrVpOV Tre pL€(TTp€(p€ ^p^dTiy 
 
 4 Kai XafiTrdda (jyXoycov diaTTvpcov 
 
 fX€ TTjV ciaapKa x^^P^ eKpaTei, 
 
 ^EBepfidvOrj iir afxcTpov yvpov 
 6 aWrjp Kol rj yrj kol ol XlOoi, 
 KOL rj KOVLS avTTj TCOV fJLapTvpcov. i 
 
 ^ ^ *n ?jC ^ 
 
 Tovs yevvaiovs fxas p,dpTvpas elda 
 
 0(701 €7r€0-0V TTLO-TeCOS (j)tXoL 
 
 dia jjLLav 6av6vT€s naTpida. 
 KaTr)(f)€lsj (TKvOpcoTTol KOL opyiXoL 
 KaTeheUvvov peXr) BXacrpiva 
 Kai 7rXr]ya)v diaxalvovra X^^^V* 
 
 Aristoteles Valaorites writes for the common people in 
 vernacular Romaic. 
 
 *0 BpvKoXaKasy * The Vampire,' is thus described, or rather 
 
174 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 addressed by the widow of the deceased Thanases Vagias, a 
 notorious wretch : — 
 
 JQeff iiov ri CFTeKeo-ai Qavdarrjy 6p66s, 
 BovlSos (TO, XeL\l/-avo ^(ttcl yLoria iyLirpos ] 
 VtaTLy QavdcTT] fiov, jByaiveis to ^pddv j 
 "^Yttvos yia aevave bev elv ^cttov ''^8rj j 
 
 Twpa 7r€pd(rav€ ;(poi/ot rroXkoi' 
 Ba^eta (reppt^ave /zecra Vr^ yrj, 
 ^€vya (TTrXaxvi'O'ov fie, 0a KOLprjOco^ 
 \(j)€s pe rjdvxf} vdvaiTav6co 
 
 ^rda-ov paKpvrepa ..... , TiaTL pe aKid^ets y 
 Qavdcrr] ri €Kapa kol pe rpopd^eis j 
 Ila>s elcraL TTpdaivos ! pvpi^eis X^M"* 
 lies pov, bep eXv(ocr€9, Savdo-rj, aKopa * 
 
 Notice here the imperative Trey for elires, and compare a^ey, 
 &c. This is another relic of the verbs in pi. 
 
 I will conclude this chapter with two anonymous frag- 
 ments of Greek popular songs. For the German ren- 
 dering of the first, which is more successful than the 
 English, I am indebted to my friend Herr Julius Henning, 
 of Athens :— 
 
 UdvTa vd 'peOa pa^v, 
 Tt peyaXrj €VTV)(La 1 
 
 Tt TTLKpOS 6 )(COpLO'p6Sy 
 
 Tt p^yakrj bvcrrvx^o, ! 
 
 paKpdv Vo ere, '^vxhj 
 
 Tt TTiv 6e\o> j Tt Tr]v BeXco Tr}V ^(orj j 
 
 AaKTvXtd* dno pakXia 
 p6v dvdpvrjo-is pov pevet. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 75 
 
 "KhXo bev TTaprjyopel., 
 
 AvTo fxivei Koi jiapaivei 
 
 MaKpav aiTo ae, yj^vxv» 
 
 Tt TTjv SeXco • dep rrju BeXco ttjv ^cot] ! 
 
 * Ever to abide with thee 
 Were the height of purest bliss ; 
 But the bitter, cruel parting, 
 Where is grief to match with this? 
 When I am far from thee, 
 What is life, ah, what is life to me ? 
 
 ' One memorial still is left, 
 A ring from thy fair tresses braided; 
 Nothing else my soul can cheer. 
 This remains, but I am faded : 
 And thus forsaken here, 
 How can I, nay, I cannot live a life so drear.' 
 
 ' Stets vereint mit dir zu sein 
 Ware Himmelsseligkeit : 
 Ach du bitteres boses Scheiden ! 
 Ewig flieht das Gliick mich weit : 
 Was, Geliebte, fern von dir 
 Frommet wohl, ja frommet wohl das Leben mir? 
 
 ' Nur aus Locken noch ein Ring 
 Bleibet als Erinnerung mir: 
 Andrer Trost ist nicht zu finden ; 
 Dieser bleibt, ich bleiche schier. 
 Was, Geliebte, fern von dir 
 Frommet, nein es frommet nicht das Leben mir.' 
 
 I know nothing in any language more beautiful of its 
 kind than the following, with which I gladly close a long 
 and laborious but not ungrateful task : — 
 
 Els TO pevpa Trjs C^rjs p.ov 
 Aia Tt va (J aTTavrrjo-co * 
 At* e/xe a(^* ov dev rjcro 
 AiaTL va (re iSw * 
 
176 MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 
 
 Kat )Lte cKafjLCs dnavcrTcos 
 '2Tepayfxovs va v7ro<j)€pQ)f 
 Kai ycXds Stort /cXato), 
 Aia (T€ Koi 6pr]vcodoo, 
 
 '2T€p^€y Kajjie tj pa ^rjcrco 
 H VOL iravcrr] tj ttvoy) fxov* 
 Icrcos, ^LcrcoSf arrjv Bavrjv jjlov 
 HXeov ix€TaixiKr]6fjs . 
 ^ ^ -^ -^ 
 
 Acv fr/Tw, ol (TTevayfiol fxov 
 Trjv Kapbiav crov v iXKvcrovv' 
 GeXo) p,6vov, orav o-jSixrovv 
 Trjs fco^s pov at cmypaL, 
 'E'Va (TTcvaypov Bp-qvoab-q 
 €lg ^^atpertor/ioi/ v d(prjcrr]9, 
 Kels TOP Td(pov pov pa X^^V^ 
 Ei^ crov bcLKpv bC ipii, 
 
 I have attempted the following German translation, find- 
 ing it beyond my powers to render the sense and metre in 
 English :~ 
 
 An dem Strome meines Lebens 
 Ach wozu dir noch begegnen? 
 Da ich liebe dich vergebens 
 O warum dich wiedersehn ? 
 
 Dir, Erbarmungslose, gelten 
 Unaufhorlich meine Seufzer, 
 Und du lachest, weil ich weine, 
 Und verhohnst mein bitt'res Flehn. 
 
 Ach, genug! nun lass mich leben, 
 Oder sterben doch im Frieden; 
 Ja vielleicht wenn ich geschieden, 
 Wirst du deinen Hohn bereun. 
 
MODERN GREEK LITERATURE. 1 77 
 
 Nicht will ich dass meine Seufzer 
 
 Ein so kaltes Herz bewegen ; 
 
 Nur dass wenn sich nicht mehr regen 
 
 Meines Odems matte Ziig', 
 
 Eine jammervoUe Klage 
 
 Du zum Abschied nach mir sendest, 
 
 Und an meinem Grabe spendest 
 
 Eine Thrane noch fiir mich. 
 
 N 
 
APPENDIX L 
 
 On the G-reek of the Gospels of St. John and 
 
 St. Luke. 
 
 I MUST now hastenJ;o redeem a promise, made at the 
 commencement of this work, by indicating, in however brief 
 and cursory a manner, what kind of light may be derived 
 from the study of modern Greek with regard to the respec- 
 tive ages of documents of disputed authenticity. I shall 
 confine my remarks principally to the Gospels of St. John 
 and St. Luke, only premising that the following is thrown 
 out merely as a kind of forerunner to a work which I hope 
 one day to accomplish, and which, if its ideal is ever realized, 
 will consist of a comparison of the Greek of the various 
 books of the Septuagint, apocryphal or otherwise, and of 
 those of the New Testament, with a view to determining 
 how far the evidence of language confirms or weakens, and 
 how far it is an adequate criterion of, the results of modern 
 research. 
 
 For the present, I' would remark in the outset that several 
 cautions must be borne in mind in attempting to weigh 
 evidence of this kind. In the first place, it is obviously not 
 enough to count up a number of modernisms in two docu- 
 
 N 2 ■ * 
 
l8o APPENDIX I, 
 
 merits, and balancing the number found in the one against 
 the number found in the other, at once draw the hasty 
 conclusion that a majority of modernisms proves a later 
 origin. For many other questions have to be taken into 
 consideration, and above all that most important one, is the 
 style of the authors such that they admit of this simple 
 comparison? Is there evidence of artifice and pedantry, 
 such as would lead us to expect the avoidance of modernisms ? 
 are there signs, as in most of the Fathers, of a straining after 
 archaic expressions ? And if so, in what degree ? For there 
 are degrees of pedantry on the one hand, and degrees of 
 familiarity on the other. Plato is more popular in his 
 phraseology than Thucydides, Aristotle often more so than 
 Plato. 
 
 Then, again, the frequent occurrence of a single mo- 
 dernism is more significant than the occasional occurrence 
 of many; and again, there are some modernisms which are 
 far more striking and unquestionable instances than others. 
 
 Such are some of the considerations to be borne in mind 
 in applying the test of language as an evidence of the 
 antiquity of documents ; to which we may add another and 
 very obvious one — namely, the limits which the slow growth 
 of language sets to any accuracy in determining the age of 
 any writing by the light of style and diction alone. Thirty 
 years is a scarcely appreciable interval, but a hundred years, 
 or even two generations, may make a very marked dif- 
 ference. 
 
 Let us now approach the subject a little more in the 
 concrete. 
 
 The first thing that strikes us is that the Greek of the 
 New Testament, however popular, familiar, and simple, is 
 by no means so vulgar, so nearly a vernacular, as that of the 
 Septuagint. We miss with few exceptions, and those to be 
 found chiefly in the Apocalypse, forms like dba, iXeyoaav, iXd- 
 
APPENDIX I. -1 8 1 
 
 Poo-av, 7760-6 for TTea-ov, &c., all of which we know must have 
 existed in the age of the New Testament, just because they 
 have been preserved in modern Greek, sometimes in a 
 slightly altered shape, up to the present day. What then 
 may we generally conclude with respect to the Greek of the 
 New Testament as a whole ? We answer, that while it was 
 familiar and popular it was not vernacular; it adopted the 
 homely expressions, but did not as a rule let itself down 
 to the grammatical level of the common people, in which 
 respect it may be compared to the style of a popular 
 modern Greek newspaper, which is familiar enough to be 
 readily intelligible, but not enough so to be vulgar ; neither 
 altogether the spoken language of the common people, nor 
 yet by a long way the book-language of the learned. 
 
 But when we come to compare the books of the New 
 Testament among themselves, w^e do not find them exactly 
 the same in style; there is a certain striving after semi- 
 classical words and expressions in Luke and the Acts which 
 we miss in other parts, while the Epistles may be looked 
 upon, for the most part, as such simple utterances of the 
 feelings called forth by the occasions on which they were 
 written, that, a priori^ we should expect the use of more 
 familiar expressions in them than in other writings of the 
 New Testament. If therefore we find TravTore for ad^ and 
 KaQfis for €Ka(TTos, in St. Paul's Epistles, this does not argue 
 their late date with anything like the force that the occur- 
 rence of the same words possesses in St. John, where the 
 theological speculative style would naturally lead us to look 
 for an avoidance of too familiar expressions ; and therefore 
 their presence in St. John's Gospel argues that, in the time 
 when it was written, these same familiar expressions had 
 risen to the level of book -language, and were no longer 
 confined to conversation. 
 
 Now let us notice briefly what are the most striking 
 
l8a APPENDIX 1. 
 
 modernisms in the fourth Gospel, and see whether they 
 can be reasonably accounted for except on the hypothesis 
 of a very much later origin than that of the first two 
 Gospels. 
 
 The most significant fact which lies on the surface of St. 
 John's Gospel is the immense frequency of certain modern- 
 isms. For example, Trtafco (modern Greek Trtai^o), eViao-a) occurs, 
 not sometimes but invariably, for o-vXXafx^dvco, Now there 
 is no doubt that Trta^'a) occurs in the Septuagint in the 
 modern Greek sense, but then the Septuagint was much 
 nearer the vernacular of the time ; but il's^ frequent occurrence 
 in the fourth Gospel shows it must have been written at a 
 time when Trtaf^ had become the recognized word for o-uX- 
 XafjL(3av(o, and that moreover in a more cultivated style than 
 that which the Septuagint represents. And who can help 
 noticing that where the fourth Gospel says Tna^co, those of 
 Matthew and Mark say KparS) or o-vWafx^avcD ? And yet the 
 style of Matthew and Mark is not more refined or elevated, 
 but less so, than that of St. John. Again, St. John says 
 6\lrapiop for IxOvii compare John vi, 9 with Matthew xiv. 15, 
 Mark vi. 35. Now no one denies that o^dpiov is as old as 
 Aristophanes, but he uses it as intentionally quoting the 
 vernacular, while the fourth Evangelist employs it as the 
 natural word. But more striking still is the use of rpSyco for 
 eo-Oico, not in a colloquial, but in the most solemn and mys- 
 terious connection possible : 6 Tpcoycav jxov ttjv o-dpKa^ koI nlvav 
 jJLOV TO alfjia, e^et C^rjv alcoviov^ 6 rpcoycov /xe, KCLKelvos ^r](TeTaL hi cfxe^ 
 6 Tp(x>ycov pov TTjv (rdpKa Koi ttlvcov p.ov to alpa^ iv ijxoX pevet koI 
 eyco iv avTco, 6 Tpcoyutv tovtov tov apTOV ^r](T6Tat els tov alcova. 
 
 Here rpwyo) is invariably, and eo-Olco not once, used as the 
 present, answering to (pdyco. In modern Greek rpcoyo) is the 
 only present of cjxiycD in use. In Polybius, indeed, we have 
 bvo Tpcoyopev d^eXcj^ot, but this is quoted as a proverb, a 
 familiar colloquial expression, just as fressen and sau/en are 
 
APPENDIX I. 183 
 
 vulgarly used in German for essen and trinken. It is there- 
 fore an exceptional usage, which goes to prove the point 
 which we desire to settle, namely, that rpcoyo) as appHed 
 to a human being in the sense of simply eating, did not 
 establish itself in the written language until the time of St. 
 John. But I shall perhaps be told that in chap. xiii. St, 
 John quotes the Septuagint, Psalm xli. 9, thus, 6 rpcoywz/ /xer' 
 
 e/xoO Tov apTOv, eTrfjpev eV e/xe ttjv ivripvav avTOv. Let US See 
 
 whether this is a quotation. Let us turn to the passage in 
 question, and what do we find .^ That St. John has actually 
 been at the pains of translating iaOlcov into rpcaycov, thereby 
 proving beyond the possibility of a doubt that he deUberately 
 preferred Tpa)ycov to io-Oioyv, as more familiar and more intelli- 
 gible. Again, how constantly, and indeed almost invariably, 
 does St. John use vTraycj for clfii where St. Matthew and 
 Mark frequently use jSatVo), iropevop.ai^ &c., and with whom 
 virayco is of comparatively rare occurrence. Again, the use 
 of Oecopo), the modern Greek ScopS), as simply equivalent to 
 /SXeVo), is characteristic of St. John, and to some extent of St. 
 Luke. Notice too the continued recurrence of Tno-revco els in 
 St. John instead of mcTTevca with the dative. 
 
 We will now give a brief view of the remaining modern- 
 isms in St. John, and challenge any one to produce a like 
 array from either St. Mark or St. Matthew :— 
 
 'Els TOV KoKtTOV tov TTCtTpOS '. OV €yCO OVK cljJLL Cl^lOS LVa Xv(TCO avTov 
 
 TOV IfxavTu TOV vTTo^paTosj where one of these genitives must 
 stand for a dative ; observe that Matthew says a^ios fiao-Too-ai, 
 not Iva ^aa-Tao-co. UpSyros fxav rjv, compare in modern Greek 
 fiovos /xou, TTOTE fxov, whcrcas in classical Greek this kind of 
 relation is expressed by the dative, e. g. Idla avTco dLa(l)€p€L 
 in Thucydides ; wo-el for wy, modern Greek oio-av ; rrov /xeVet ?, 
 tI fi€ depeiSj both familiar modern Greek phrases ; vttokcWco 
 TTjs o-vKrjs; (l)€p€T€ lu au aorlst sense, as in modern Greek, 
 where the present is (pepvco ; the continual use of apTi for 
 
184 APPENDIX /. 
 
 vvv; the frequency of diminutives, as (t^payeXKtov, o^dpiou^^ 
 ^j/cofitov (modern Greek equivalent of apros), GiTLou, &c. ; nod 
 vTrdyei for irol clcn ; the frequent use of periphrastic perfect 
 
 passives, yv dTroa-roKfievog^ eyevero dn^cTTdX^evo^^ dTrecTaXiJLepos 
 elfiLj rjv ^€l3\rjfJL€V0Sj &C. ; iTrdvcD Trdvrcov for em rrdcn, iiTL with the 
 
 accusative implying rest; a(/)^Kf t7]v 'louSaW, in the modern 
 
 sense, instead of dvexoyprjo-ev dnb ; €KaSe^€TO ; 7rpo(TKVva), USed nOW 
 
 with the dative, now with the accusative; o-wdyei Kapirovy 
 modern Greek G-vvd^ei Kapirov; the frequent use of kottos, a 
 common modern Greek word ; the frequency of such forms 
 as Xakid, dvOpaKid ; vernacular forms, as the accent itself 
 shows, though with some analogy (e. g, o-rpaTid) in classical 
 Greek. In modern Greek as spoken by the common 
 people the termination la regularly appears as id ; the fourth 
 Evangelist says also o-Korla for g-kotos, preferring the form in la 
 with the modern Greeks, who say o-Korid, dpoo-id, (pcondj for aKo- 
 To?, bpocros, (pcos ;— 0A09 frequently for nds, as in modern Greek ; 
 d(p' iavTov for e^)' ^avTov ; the far more frequent use of ha with 
 the subjunctive ; the comparative rareness of the aorist parti- 
 ciple, and frequency of the copulative Kal ; for example (one 
 instance out of many), iy^pOeh apov aov rrji/ KklvrjVy Matthew ; 
 €y€Lpat apov, St. John. Here too observe St. John uses the 
 modern Kpd^^arov (Kp^fi^drLov) ; St. Matthew says iyepOeh 
 
 dTTrjXde, St. John Tjpe top Kpd^^arov avrov Ka\ TTepLeirdreL ;—dn 
 ifiavTov for €TT ijjLavTOv ; eh ov rjXTTLKaTe, TraibdpLov eV, for Traidlop 
 without €P ; TTkoidpiov for TrXolov, and t^XoIov for vavs ; exoprd- 
 
 adrjre, a common modern Greek word ; the frequent repeti- 
 tion of avTov, avTov, and the loss of all distinction between 
 
 avTov and avrov ; ttcos ovtos ypdjxpiaTa olde, modern Greek 7ra>s 
 
 ovTos ypap^fiar r]^€vp€L ; eh KaBeh., one by One ; rjvoi^e side by side 
 
 with dv€(o^€ ; p.Tj'deva for ovheva ; et? rd dnlaco ; oTricrco ifxov for 
 pL€Td ep.6 ; Kocrp^os for ox^os ; did fxecrov avrcov for dc avrcov ; 
 eyvcoKav for iyvatKaai, cf. modern Greek €vpr]Kav'j (TKopirl^cDy 
 diacKopTrl^cOy 7Tpos(pdyiov^ jBaa-Td^co, passim for (pepco, vnayeLS cKel 
 
APPENDIX L 185 
 
 for iKU(T€ ; i^vnviorco, ye/jLi^co^ iyyi^oa ; eiT€(T€V eh rovs tto^qs avrov 
 instead of eiTecrev avTcp TTpo tto^cov ; irdpa^ev eavrov, icpavepcoaev 
 
 iavTou, showing that the middle voice is on the wane ; evx^- 
 
 pta-TG) for X^P'-^ °''^" ' ovapioVy ra Ipdria ; ottov VTrdyco for ottol elp,i ; 
 
 pLoval TToXkalj many dwelling-places (povrj is modern and Byzan- 
 tine Greek for a monastery;) ipcpavl^eiv] koI avrol eXajBou for 
 ot de eXa(3ou ; (3aXe in the sense of ' put / yj^vxos rjv^ in modern 
 Greek "^vxos rjTo] ea-ri (rvv-qdeta vpuv for clcodare, in modern 
 
 Greek a-vv-qSeLa o-as eivai ; ocpelXei divoOavelv ; TrapacrKevr] without 
 
 the article as a proper name, so in modern Greek irapa- 
 crK€vrj = Friday ; rfj pna rcov (Tal^tBdrcDv, SO in modern Greek rfj 
 
 pia Tov ^ATrpiXlov l els to. de^ia p^prj tov ttXolov. 
 
 Many of these modernisms occur in the other Gospels ; 
 but it is the frequency of their occurrence, the comparative 
 regularity and consistency in the usage, and above all the 
 presence of certain special modernisms of a very marked 
 character, which make it impossible, I think, for any dispas- 
 sionate reader to avoid the conclusion that the fourth 
 Gospel must have been composed at least two, or perhaps 
 three, generations later than either the first or the second. 
 
 As to the Revelation of St. John, it can scarcely be com- 
 pared with the Gospel, for it approaches much nearer the 
 vernacular, and is so wild and barbarous in its grammar, 
 that it is hard to believe it was written by one perfectly at 
 home in the Greek language. Therefore the very striking 
 modernisms in it, as KoXXovpiov eyxpLcov tovs otpdaXp^ovs o-ov, in 
 modern Greek KoXXovpiov eyxpio-e tovs 6(p6aXfjLoi)s a-ov^ in ancient 
 
 KoXXvpLov eyxpicrop rots 6<pSaXiJLols aov, OT, better, KoXXvptco eyxpi- 
 (TUL TOVS 6cj)daXpovs ; C^CTTOs for Sepp^os, bcoo-Tf) for do), ^oacrova-L for 
 
 dcoo-wo-i, and that for ^wo-i, eo-TaBr] for eVrr;, &c., do not enable 
 us to assert on philological grounds the later origin of the 
 Apocalypse, while the matter and spirit of the book point 
 rather to an earKer period. 
 
 The Epistles of John, at least the first Epistle, which alone 
 
l86 APPENDIX I. 
 
 gives fair scope for judging, closely resembles the Gospel in 
 phraseology, but it is a kind of resemblance that looks like 
 imitation. 
 
 A few words on the Gospel according to St. Luke. This, 
 we have already observed, betrays a certain pedantry of style. 
 There is a would-be classical ring about such phrases as 
 
 dvaTa^acrdai hiriyqcnv, iva imyvSys irepX hv KaTr])(rjSr]s ttjv d(T(paX€Lav, 
 cdo^€ KCLfxcl TraprjKoXovBrjKOTL avodSev Trdariv aKpL^m, which showS 
 
 an effort to struggle against the common familiar style of 
 writing prevailing among the early Christians, who were 
 mostly, as St, Paul says, IhcoraL tS \6yco. All the more 
 striking therefore are the modernisms in St. Luke, which are 
 continually cropping up in the midst of his most ambitious 
 attempts, even when the effort is most sustained, as in the in- 
 troduction to the Gospel. For example, rav 7T€7rXr]po<poprjpi€V(i)v^ 
 which probably means ' those things of which information 
 has been given,' 7r\rjpo(l)opa> meaning in modern Greek like 
 el^oTTOLO), to inform. Again, e^ eipijixeplas 'AjSia is an extremely 
 modern expression, and hardly intelligible till we know that 
 in modern Greek ecprjiiepios means a priest. Notwithstanding 
 all his Atticizing tendencies, Luke exceeds all but St. John 
 in modernisms, and some of these are of a very startling 
 character. For instance, iv avrfj rfj copa^ in that hour ; in 
 modern Greek d^ avrtju ttjv copav, 
 
 St. Matthew, St. Mark, St. John, all have avros used with- 
 out the article as equivalent to ovtos or eKelvos, but only 
 St. Luke, as far as I have discovered, uses it with the article 
 and a noun in this sense. Nor does any other use even 
 avTos, especially with /cat, so persistently as a simple demon- 
 strative or personal pronoun. Other remarkable modernisms 
 are evXa^rjs for e^o-^/STyy, iJLTjdep for ovd^v, ttXtjv for dWa passim, 
 7rpo(T€pp7]^€u for 7rpoo-€7r€(Te ; cf. modern Greek p^x^^ = pltttco ; 
 
 TO priyp-CL rrjs oIklus for 17 Trraxrf? ; a(jy€s e/c/3aXa) he shares with 
 St. Matthew ; 6 fiiKporepos for 6 iXaxiC-TOs, TTcpLo-aoTepov for 
 
APPENDIX 7. 187 
 
 TrXeoz/, are modern Greek ; so too are /xT^re — /xT^re for ovt€ — 
 ovT€] lfjiaTL(TjjL€vov I the Very frequent use of okos for nas; the 
 employment of virripx^, vnapxet (common to St. Luke and 
 St. John) as simply equivalent to ^v, eWt; iropevov ety dprjvr^v 
 for iv €LpT}V7j ; SeXcLs ciTToo/xei^ ; Kara crvyKvpiav (in modern Greek 
 
 also Kara (TVVTVXLap) ; eCJ^Baaev for arrived simply; orrrao-La for 
 
 vi'swn. Ets eV?^ TToXXa, xii. 19, is a regular form of congratula- 
 tion in Greece at the present day. The phrase ' rich toward 
 God ' is hard ; we should rather say ' rich in God/ taking els as 
 equivalent to iv. Uola ^pa for rm &pa is modern Greek. 'O 
 Kavo-cov is also modern Greek. 'Ev(l)paivopaL, of ^ festive enjoy- 
 ment/ is used in exactly the same connection in three places 
 in St. Luke as in the modern Greek drinking-song : — 
 
 E x^^ i\a(TT€j 
 ^epre Kepaare' 
 BaXre m TTioO/xf, 
 Na €v<j)pavdoviJLe. 
 
 The phrase €v(j>paLv6p.evos KaO' r^pipav XafiTTpcos has a modern 
 ring in it which is quite astounding to one familiar with col- 
 loquial Greek. We have, again, els ttjv kolttjv for iv rfj Kotrfj. 
 ^OdvvaaaL, (pdyeaat Ka\ rrUcraL are Startling modern forms, com- 
 ing as they do so close together. 'AvaTreo-ai is clearly a false 
 spelling for dvdirea-e, chap. xvii. 7, as there could be no 
 
 meaning in the middle. Am fxeo-ov ^afiapelas kuI TaXiXaias, p^era 
 7rapaTr}prj(T€(0Sj With observation^ a singularly modern phrase, 
 
 (jTaQeis for (Trds^ Sucr^oXcos' for ;)(aXe7rc5s', rpvpaXidsy cf. dvOpaKLa, 
 &C., Kaipos for xpovo^y iyyl^^iVj iTrdvco for im, Traidevcrco = castigabo^ 
 l(rxy(o passim for ^vvapai, rb Tvoas napadS, cvKaipiav, xpelav exojJLCv, 
 diicrxvpi'C^TO, ivdoinov avrov, copiKovv for iXdXovv, (TvCrjTelVj evXoyoo, 
 
 yj/rjXacpcb = simple ^avo), are other modernisms of St. Luke. 
 "EKpviBe is an interesting form because condemned by Phryni- 
 chus, who, if the German critics be right, was almost a con- 
 temporary of the writer of this Gospel. 
 
1 88 APPENDIX J. 
 
 There can be little doubt that the Acts of the Apostles j 
 belongs to an age as late as the Gospel according to St. 
 Luke, if not later. There is much general similarity in the 
 language, notwithstanding the difference in the spirit and 
 tendency of the whole ; but one phrase claims our especial 
 notice, as a very decided modernism not found elsewhere 
 in the New Testament. This is the word yevaao-Oai used in 
 the sense not of 'to taste,' but 'to eat,' in fact 'to dine;' 
 
 iyevero irpodiTeivos kol rjBeke y^vcracrOai. In modern Greek 
 yeO/xa is dinner, yevofxai, to dine ; Trpoyevofxai,, to breakfast ; to 
 aTToyevfjia^ the afternoon, 
 
 I need not remind those who are acquainted with the 
 critical investigations of Baur, Schwegler, and Hilgenfeld, 
 that the conclusions to which a purely philological exami- 
 nation seems hkely to lead us are the same to which they 
 have arrived on other grounds, grounds quite strong enough 
 in themselves, but still not so readily admitted by most, 
 that they can altogether afford to dispense with even such 
 evidence as the present, which, while not altogether as con- 
 clusive as some might desire, is yet, as I think even this 
 meagre sketch has shown, not mere fancy or guess-work, but 
 subject to definite rules ; and capable of leading to definite 
 results. Above all, I think it is an advantage when a ques- 
 tion of this kind can be removed for a moment from the 
 heated arena of theological strife, and looked upon in the 
 clear ' dry light' of the passionless science of philology. 
 
APPENDIX II. 
 
 A Short LexiloguSy coritaining a few of such words in 
 modern and ancient Greek as seem to derive addi- 
 tional light by comparison. 
 
 ''A/^aXf, or a jSaXe, Callim. Fr. 455, Anth. P. '7. 699, and 
 ,-3aXe, Alcman. Fr. 2, is^aid to be equivalent in meaning to 
 elOe, dff axpeXe, &€., and seems to be an imperative from 
 jSaXXo). That ^aXe, or /3aXe, should mean ' grant' is not at all 
 unnatural, but what an abundant confirmation of this theory 
 is it to find in modern Greek the derivative form (BoXel ^ 
 licet, 
 
 'Kyairri, ayavos, "Aya^os. The probable radical identity of 
 these words has been noticed above. The modern Greek 
 dyavTLKosj Or dya<pri.<6s = ipccriKosy seems to make this etymo- 
 logy still more likely. 
 
 'AyyeXXo). The derivation of this word can hardly be any 
 other than dva-KeXKco; k^XXco being used in the sense of 
 KeXofiai, and possibly identical in root with reXXco in eVtreXXo). 
 At any rate the root of the second half of the word is (as 
 Professor Max Mtiller informs me) gar-, which appears in 
 KeKofiai, KeXabo^j and KaXeco ; and as the form yeX- is not found 
 elsewhere in Greek, I think we must assume that the y is the 
 result of the contact of k with the nasal. 
 
190 APPENDIX II. 
 
 "Kyovpos. This is the modern Greek form of aoapos. The 
 
 interest attaching to it consists in the fact that it implies a 
 
 form yoapa for wpa, which is precisely what the cognate forms 
 
 ydre in Zend, jahr in German, &c., would lead us to 
 
 expect. 
 
 'AypoLKG), This word would mean, if found in ancient 
 Greek, ' to be boorish, rude, or ignorant;' in modern Greek, 
 on the other hand, it means to know, e. g. 
 
 Kat 6<T0L Tov TToXefiov Tr]V Te)(yr]V dypoiKovv. 
 
 War Song of Rhegas. 
 
 Here the signification which usage has sanctioned seems to 
 be the very reverse of the original. Perhaps we ha.ve an 
 intermediate stage in the dypaKoaocbo^, * coarsely wise,' of 
 Philo, and the aypoiKos o-ocjyla of Plato's Phaedrus, 299 E. 
 We too talk of being ' rough and ready.' What if we should 
 have in the history of this word the record of the popular 
 prejudice against philosophy, as a useless unpractical study 
 which we have described in the Republic of Plato ? 
 
 Is it not as though the honest farmer said, vpiels fxev (piXo- 
 (To(f)€'lT€, iycb de dypoLKcb, i. e. * while you are star-gazing I am 
 working in my farm.' To such a man (pLkoaocfyla is ^ the 
 would-be-wisdom,' dypoiKla ' useful knowledge.' 
 
 This accords very well with the usage of dypoLKco, which 
 means to know an art, rather than a science; as in the 
 example quoted above. There was, moreover, very likely a 
 sense of irony in this use of dypoLKO), as though it were, ' I am 
 the boor, as you philosophers call me.' With regard to the 
 transitive use of dypoLKco in the example cited above, I thank- 
 fully adopt Professor Max Miiller's suggestion, that it may 
 originally have meant ^ to cultivate,' comparing olKovofico. 
 
 'AXeVpt is modern Greek for aporpov. Does not this go far 
 to establish the original identity of the roots dpo- and aXe- or 
 d\€?-l Petavius, Uranolog. p. 258, calls the constellation 
 
APPENDIX II. 191 
 
 Orion aXerpoTrodLov, In modem Greek oKeTpoTrobiov is neither 
 more nor less than a ploughshare. Its aptitude as applied to 
 the constellation in question is striking. 
 
 *A/xj7, a modern Greek word for ' but/ ' however/ should I 
 think be written a/z^ or d/x^, which in classical Greek is 
 hardly found save in the compound dfirj-yenrj = Sttoxtovv. The 
 meanings, ^ in some way or another/ and ' anyhow/ ' how- 
 ever/ are very nearly allied. 
 
 "A^ios is from aycoy according to Liddell and Scott ; whether 
 in the sense of 'that which weighs' or Hhat which is esteemed.' 
 
 This derivation prepares us to recognise in ixova^id, modern 
 Greek for 'solitude/ i. e. ^ova^la (cLo-rparia for o-rpaTia, Sec), the 
 etymology fjLovay-o-La; in jiovd^ or iiowd^, Od. ii. 417, fMovdy-s; 
 and in /nomfo), ^ovdyuo = ' I live lonely/ ' I lead a lonely hfe.' 
 It seems very likely tha^the termination -d(co is often to be 
 thus explained, as standing for an original -dyco. So we have 
 Treiprtfo), ' to lead an attempt/ i. e. to attack, tempt, or tease, 
 of which the aorist is in modern Greek iirclpa^a ; pointing to 
 an original Treipdyo), just as o-wdyco is in modern Greek o-wdCco, 
 
 aor. icrvva^a, 
 
 'Apddtty metaplastic for dpds. This word throws light on 
 dpabeco - klv€co, cited by Hesychius. The word dpdda in 
 modern Greek means ' turn,' ' order,' ' row/ 
 
 Bdp^apos, probably connected with the Sanscrit Idrharas, 
 vdrvarasy which according to Bopp = stultus, and with the 
 Latin halhus, lalhutio. The modern Greek (Bep^epos, ' stam- 
 mering,' peplSepi^coy ' to Stammer,' is a striking and obvious 
 confirm. ation of this etymology. 
 
 BaardCco, This ^s a very interesting word, because its 
 etymology involves so many others; and also because, while 
 it occurs in almost every Greek writer from the age of 
 
igZ APPENDIX II. 
 
 Homer to that of the New Testament, we only find its deri- 
 vation in modern Greek. Bao-rafo) is plainly a compound 
 standing for /3ao-ra ayco, as we may see from jBdo-rayfjia, ^a- 
 (TTaKTos, and the modern (really most ancient) Greek aorist 
 i^dorra^a. Baora ayco can mean nothing else than 'I bear 
 burdens.' But what is the etymology of ^a(rTd ? We have 
 the answer in modern Greek, in which /3af&) means ^ I put,' 
 and in sense = jSaXXco. l^aara means^ accordingly, burdens, 
 loads, things placed on the back of the horse, mule, or ass. 
 A word of cognate meaning is iSaVo), which leads us to 
 connect iSatVco, /SaW, /Sa^w, and i8t/3a^a). 
 
 Assuming, as I think we may, that this is the radical sig- 
 nification of the ancient /Sa^w in the Homeric, dvefMcoXia ^d^eLs, 
 TreTrvvfjiepa jSd^eiSj &c., we have a Striking analogy in the 
 word Xeyo), which originally meant ' to put,' the English /ay 
 and the German kgen being doubtless from the same root. 
 Here belong einrd^ofxai, modern Greek ifiTrdCofxat or cfijBdCofiai, 
 with the simple verb (3dCofxat els n = curae mihi est, i. e. ^ I put 
 
 myself into it.' With ^d^o\iai, l[md^o\iai^ cf. Trareo)^ efjLJSareci), 
 
 and in modern Greek jBalvco, efXTralvo. For the phonetic law 
 on which such changes depend, see p. 37. 
 
 B^aXXo) means, in ancient Greek, ' to milk.' I more than 
 suspect this is a vulgar corruption, taken from the mouth of 
 the common people, of eK^dXkco, the modern Greek iSyaXXo), 
 which is by metathesis for ey^dXXco. BydXkco at^ia means ' I 
 bleed,' and jBydWofxat alfia, ^ I am bled.' So /SyoXXo) yd\a, ' I 
 milk,' and ^yaXkofiaL ydXa, 'I yield milk.' Compare ^oes 
 ^bdXkovraL yd\a, Arist. H. A. 3, 21, 2. The etymology of 
 /3Sea) from eK-^eco, ^ I put forth,' jSeo) being the transitive of 
 ^eoiJLac, ' I go ;' ^deWa, i. e. ' the vomiter,' from /S^eXX©, i. e. 
 efc^eXXo) for eKjSaXXco, whence also IBdeXvao-co, is more than 
 probable. 
 
 BeKos, or fieKKos, which Herodotus says is Phrygian, Hip- 
 
APPENDIX IT. 193 
 
 ponax Cyprian, for 'bread/ should be compared with the 
 Albanian dovKo^ which also means ' bread/ Here too belong, 
 as Professor Max Miiller reminds me, the German backen, 
 Gebdck, the English bake, 
 
 TeXaurjs and yoLKr]vr] are said to be connected. The Doric 
 form yakavos means, in ancient Greek, ' calm,' of the sea, in 
 modern, ^ blue,' of the sky. 
 
 Tipivos is another form for yvpivos) compare in modern 
 
 Greek yvpvoi and yepvoa - yupw. 
 
 Viephavi for yi^phaviov means, according to Passow, in the 
 Glossary appended to his ' Carmina popularia Graeciae recen- 
 tioris,' aquatile. He rightly connects it with dpbalvco. Are 
 the names Jordan (supposing it be Indogermanic) and 
 ^idp^avos not connected with the same root ? This seems 
 likely. We must not, however, forget that the yi- in yi^pMvi 
 may stand for §t-, i, e. Eia^ 
 
 TXrjyopaj yprjyopa, eyprjyopa OV oyXrjyopa ; a neuter plural, 
 
 used adverbially from yprjyopos (connected with iyelpco, iyprj- 
 yopa). The word yprjyopo^, though found only in modern 
 Greek, plainly existed in the age of the Septuagint, as is 
 proved by the word yprjyopco, which is equivalent in force to 
 
 yprjyopos €lfiL, 
 
 TXia-xpos, 6Xi(T6aLV(o, oXioSTjpos. That these words are con- 
 nected seems probable from the modern Greek yXiarpdcD, 
 
 yXicrrpeco, ' tO slide,' yXLarepos = 6Xt(r6r}p6s. 
 
 Topyo), This word is explained by Liddell and Scott to 
 mean ' the Grim One.' The mediaeval and modern mean- 
 ing of yopyos is simply ' swift.' Xenophon uses yopyos of 
 ' spirited horses,' and Eustathius of ' a concise style.' Is not 
 yopyos connected with iyelpco, standing for yopios? See on 
 p. 1 1 6 x^py^ f^^ x^P^^' 
 
 Aidcfiopov in modern Greek = Kepdos, ra didcfyopa = TOKOS : com- 
 pare Thuc. iv. 86, 
 
 o 
 
194 APPENDIX II. 
 
 'EKTTa6aLvofxai, Clem. AI. 23 1, recdves abundant illustration 
 from the modern formations, Tradaivco for irdo-xo, ^laOaivcd for 
 
 fiavQavoiy Tvxalvco for TvyxducOj aTToOalvco for aTToOvrjcTKcOy fc. r. X. 
 
 Evpti>€i9, €vpa)s. Are not these words connected with the 
 modern Greek /Spw/x?;, IBpcoixdco, stench, stink? If apcofxa be, 
 as Pott suspects, connected with the Sanscrit gkrd, ' to smell,' 
 that too must stand for an original ypcofia or l3pcop.a. 
 
 zdjBa, lonca, a modern Greek word. Does not this mean, 
 
 ' that which goes across,' i. e. AialSa, To dvdlSa, t6 Kard^a 
 
 occur in the sense of dvd^ao-ts and Kard^aa-Ls, So too Zafibs 
 seems to be formed from hia^d-, and to mean that which 
 ^slants' or ^goes across,' as a diagonal. Its derivative 
 meaning, ' silly,' ' strange,' ' foolish,' may well be illustrated 
 by the English ^ queer,' compared with the German quer, 
 A similar etymology is suggested for (dpos, C^pov, (apovco = 
 ^ wrinkle,' ^ furrow,' ^ to wrinkle,' ^ to furrow,' where we can 
 hardly fail to detect the etymology di-dpos, dt-dpop, di.apoco, 
 
 Oavrj is modern Greek for Odvaros, which is, however, 
 equally common. eavr) is plainly a more primitive form, 
 and is implied in rjfiiBavos, Oaveiv, &c. ; Sdvaros, like KdfiaTos, 
 being a derivative, and adjectival or participial rather than 
 substantival in form, as we see in dOdvaros; cL Kafxaros^ 
 
 dKdfJiaTOs, 
 
 "1. This, the nominative of i, Iv, or iV, appears in modern 
 Greek as the masculine article. ' In some parts of Greece,' 
 says Mr. Sophocles (Modern Greek Grammar, p. 65), ' the 
 uneducated use 77 for 6, as 77 ddo-KaXos, rj dv8pas,^ But he adds, 
 ^ This peculiarity does not extend beyond the nominative 
 singular.' Surely that is a most significant fact, and proves 
 beyond dispute that this rj (or t as I should write it) is cer- 
 tainly not the feminine article used ignorantly for the mascu- 
 line. Add to this the fact that in Albanian t or t appears 
 
APPENDIX IT. 
 
 195 
 
 as the masculine nominative of the definite article, and there 
 is scarcely any room for doubt as to the identity of the 
 modern and ancient 1, 
 
 'ivarl is common in the New Testament and Septuagint for 
 Siari; we have no example of this in modern Greek, but Iva- 
 Ttafo) means ^ to be obstinate ;' which, if the word be of Greek 
 derivation at all, must mean ' to keep asking why?' 
 
 Kdpcrto^. Hesychius and Suidas give this form, but we 
 only find the forms iympo-ios, emKapcnos in classical writers. It 
 is therefore interesting in modern Greek to meet with 
 
 Kapcrl = ivavTLOv, 
 
 KKatco, Is not this connected with Kpd^co? The modern 
 Greek Kkavco, KXavyco, Cretan Kpavco, compared with Kpavyrj, 
 seem to render this moxa likely than not. We should think 
 too of the German klagen and our cry, 
 
 KoKKoXos means ' the kernel of a pine-cone,' KOKKoXia, ^ land- 
 snails.' In modern Greek to, KOKKoka stands for to. oo-tcl. 
 With regard to the association of ideas, compare oo-tovv^ 
 
 bo-TpaKov, and dcTTpaKLS = KOKKokos, 
 
 KoXa|. Does not this word mean ^ one who sucks like a 
 leech,' perhaps connected with KoWa, KoWdco? The com- 
 pound ^pov-Koka^, PpvKoka^, in modern Greek means ' a 
 blood-sucker/ ^ a vampire.' Bpovs, according to Hesychius, 
 = TTLelv ; and ^pvv elnfiv, Ar. Nub. 1382 = 'to cry for drink.' 
 The flatterer is called Koka^ because he is a parasite. 
 
 Koi/ra in modern Greek means 'near.' What is its deriva- 
 tion? If Donaldson (New Cratylus, p. 349, 3rd edit.) is 
 right in regarding Ka-ra as a compound of Ka = k€v and the 
 suffix ra, then, as he points out, there must have been a form 
 K€VTd, In this case kovto. may very well be another form of 
 K€VTd, the change of o and e being, as we have seen, almost 
 
 02 
 
jg6 APPENDIX II. 
 
 a matter of course in Greek. From KovTa = *by/ or ^near/ 
 we get the adjective koptos, short, which occurs already in 
 Byzantine Greek, and kovt^vw, 'to approach;' also KovraKiov, 
 * a breviary/ 
 
 Kpvos, KpvcTTaXXos, Kpvepos. In modern Greek Kpvo9, Kpva^ 
 Kpvov is the common word for ylrvxpos. 
 
 Avk6(1)(os, dfi(j}L\vKr], Xeuo-o-o), yXavcrcra). With these should be 
 
 compared the modern Greek ykvKocjyeyyeL, yXvKoxapdCeL, *it 
 dawns/ 
 
 Ma. In modern Greek this word is used both in a nega- 
 tive and positive sense : as in the formulas /xa t6v u-Tavpovj 
 and fid TO vat, which latter form of affirmation or negation 
 appears to be a relic of heathen times, the obvious derivation 
 being pd t6 vatov, vatov being a diminutive for vaov. Ma is 
 also used in formulas of supplication, as o-e irapaKaka) pd 
 Tov Oedv for TTpbs tov Oeov. Donaldson considers pd as another 
 form of prj, and connects both with /xe, ipe, considering mere 
 subjectivity to be the primary notion. He also connects pj] 
 with pr\v, and the whole series with jue in p^-rd. Now it is 
 certainly interesting, and seems to be significant, that in 
 modern Greek we have pr]v for /X77, and pk in the sense of 
 ' with,' for perd. This leads us to the further inference that 
 py]v is really for pr]-va, just as r]v appears to be for ena^ Sans- 
 crit. Now pr^va is actually found in modern Greek as an 
 interrogative particle. 
 
 This leads us to consider the force of va, which Donaldson 
 everywhere regards as denoting remoteness from the speaker. 
 As a termination he finds it in dvd, tm, and ^V, but nowhere 
 as a separate word. But in modern Greek we have vd 
 as an independent word in what, if Donaldson be right, is 
 its most primary form and signification. Na means ' see 
 there,' voilh, vd to, le voila. It is also used (like vt] in Tvvr{) 
 
APPENDIX II. 197 
 
 as a strengthening demonstrative suffix, e. g. avrdva ; and 
 once, if not twice, though modified in the second place, in 
 
 the forms ifxevave, icrivavc. 
 
 In the vulgar, but we cannot doubt extremely ancient, 
 
 forms avTTJvos, avTovvos, avTOVos = avTos, avT-qvrj = avrr], avTovcov = 
 
 avTcov, &c., we find this objective particle v- inserted in the 
 middle of a word. 'Am occurs in modern as in ancient 
 Greek for the shorter a privative, e. g. dvd^aSos, dvafxeXco, for 
 
 MaXovco means, in modern Greek, ' to fight/ The root is 
 a very common one, which, according to Professor Max 
 Miiller. we have under a great variety of forms ; which may 
 be referred however to two main heads, namely ?2iar- or mal- 
 as their respective starting-points. The original sense is to 
 grind or crush. FromJt we get, among other words, mri- 
 ndmi Sanscrit, \idpva\iai Greek, and I suspect also ficoKos, 
 as well as the modern Greek fxaXovco^ and /xaXepo?, which 
 means 'quarrelsome/ 3fola and {ivXos are from the same 
 root ; and, it need hardly be added, the English ' mill,' which 
 in its secondary and vulgar employment bears the same 
 sense as fiaXouco. 
 
 Mr}yapr}j TLyapr]^ rlyap, i. e. firj yap rj, rl yap fj, Ttyap, equiva- 
 lent in sense to ficov, fxrj. The force of the several particles 
 is very plain, and is preserved intact, although the particles 
 themselves are for the most part obsolete in m^odern Greek. 
 Tap = ye ap is equivalent to ' why then,' pr) has the force of 
 ^ do not imagine,' and fj = ' or,' introducing the following 
 verb : so prjyaprj epx^rai = ^ surely then he is not coming — 
 [or] is he?' In German the form of expression is very 
 common, and prjyaprj epx^rai might be almost literally trans- 
 lated thus, jEt wird ja denn nicht komnien, oder ? Similarly 
 Tiyapr] would mean ' What then ? ' or ' Is it really so ?' The 
 forms i^vy^prj, Tiyaprj are interesting, inasmuch as they 
 
J 98 APPENDIX II. 
 
 preserve the old conjunction yap which is elsewhere sup- 
 planted by bioTi. 
 
 Mvrjo-Kco and fxvaLo-Kco are modern Greek forms for /xeVo). 
 Compare Butjo-kco and the Doric 6vai(TK(o in ancient Greek. 
 
 'Opouo-e, opovo-e. Perhaps both ways of accenting this word 
 are allowable. 'Opovae would then be an imperfect from the 
 root opo', as in modern Greek ixpvcrovare from xp^^^^ (xp^- 
 o-oVo)), while opovo-e would be a first aorist from opovco. In 
 modern Greek we seem to have a derivative form opovco in 
 
 yiQvpovo-Lov, i. e. bLopovcriov — opjJLrjfia^ * a sally.' 
 
 UediXov and irerakov. These appear to be but different forms 
 of the same word, when we know that TriToKov in modern 
 Greek is the regular word for a horse-shoe. We may com- 
 pare Tredavpos and Treravpos, The lonic form of TvirdXov is 
 TreT-qkov, for which nerLXov, irediXov, would be a natural 
 iotacism. 
 
 Uepvj^pi, Tvepaod, I am inclined to connect both these 
 words by means of the modern Greek irepvacoj which has the 
 sense of the latter. 
 
 Uov, TTov, This word is always written as a proclitic ttov, 
 never as an enclitic ttou, in modern Greek; but this can 
 hardly be more than a matter of wridng, for its use as a 
 qualifying particle is very similar to its classical employment, 
 though more restricted. It is chiefly used in such exclama- 
 tions as the following : 8v<TTvxr)s nod dvai^ i. e. ' unhappy man 
 that he is,' or ri dv(TTvxr)s TTov clvaL, * how unhappy is he.' 
 Here it seems a connecting particle, like the French ^ue, as 
 * que paresseux que vous etes.' And is it not also a connect- 
 ing particle in ancient Greek, e. g. in rdxa nov, Ick^s ttov, 
 €L TTov^ idv TTOV, 0T€ TTOV ? Just SO wc say * If that ' in old 
 English. Does not this help us to understand how nov has 
 come to be used in modern Greek as an indeclinable rela- 
 
APPENDIX II, 199 
 
 tive ? Let us see whether we have not at least something 
 which looks very like this vulgar usage in the colloquial 
 language of Aristophanes. In the ' Knights,' Hne 203, the 
 aWavTOTTcokr^s puts the question — 
 
 to which the answer is — 
 
 aVTO TTOV \€y€lj 
 
 OTL dyKifXais tols ;(€po"ii' dpTrd^cov (pepet. 
 
 Here Adolph von Velsen (Aristophanis Equites, Leipzig, 1869) 
 reads tovto ttov Xey«, being offended at avTos used apparently as 
 a simple demonstrative. Mr. W.G.Clark (Journal of Philology, 
 vol. ii. p. 314) retains the reading of the MSS., but trans- 
 lates ' The thing speaks for itself;' in which case, I presume, 
 the TTOV must be translated ' I take it.' But surely this is a 
 very stilted expression for so colloquial a style. With regard 
 to the meaning of avro, there are innumerable instances 
 where it plainly means simply ' that,' even in classical Greek ; 
 
 as, for example, avro ovk eipr^raL, o paXio-ra e^et, Plat. Rep. 
 
 362 d; and avro av €(j)r) TO hiov c'lrj, Xen. An. 4. 7, 7; where 
 to say with Liddell and Scott that tovto or eKelm is under- 
 stood, is very like begging the question. In the New Testa- 
 ment avTos meets us at every turn in the sense of ovto9 or 
 eKelvos, and indeed it is almost a necessary demonstrative, 
 inasmuch as it holds a middle position between ovtos and 
 €Ke7vos, just as avTov, in modern and ancient Greek, holds a 
 middle place between Me and eWI. 
 
 Now in modern Greek the sense of avTo ttov Xey«, or, as we 
 should prefer to write it, avTo ttov Xeyei, would be very simple 
 indeed, and suit the passage exactly. 
 
 The question is, 'What does dyKvXoxy^rjs mean.?' and the 
 answer is, * Just what it says;' avTo ttov Xeyet. Surely this is 
 better than, ' I imagine it speaks for itself.' 
 
 Alto ttov Xeyfis is a very common phrase in modern Greek ; 
 
200 APPENDIX II. 
 
 SO common, that I have known and conversed with people 
 who invariably prefaced their remarks by this singular ex- 
 pression. It means ' as you say/ and implies either that the 
 speaker's words have been suggested by some remark which 
 the person addressed has let fall, or that he reckons at any 
 rate on your agreement with what he says. 
 
 '^TOLx^iov, This word means, as stated on page 94, a ghost 
 or demon among the modern Greeks. Yet that is hardly a 
 sufficient definition of the word, ^tqix'^lov is, according to 
 the popular belief, the principle of life or spiritual power 
 which lies concealed in every natural object, animate or 
 inanimate. For a very striking and singularly felicitous 
 explanation of the origin of this superstition, see an essay 
 ' On the Origin of Animal Worship ' &c., in the ' Fortnightly 
 Review' for May i, 1870, by Mr. Herbert Spencer, who, 
 regarding the belief in the continued existence of an active 
 personality after death as the origin of all religious be- 
 lief, supposes that the names of natural objects, as ' moun- 
 tain,' ^bear,' lion,' &c., were first applied to the living in 
 default of abstract names, in order to indicate height, shag- 
 giness, fierceness, and so forth ; that such metaphors were 
 perpetuated in patronymics; that succeeding generations^ 
 ignorant of the origin of the metaphor, interpreted it as 
 literal fact, and supposed that they w^ere really descended 
 from mountains, bears, or lions : hence arose the belief that 
 that other self, which continued to exist when the body 
 was dead, and needed to be propitiated, was to be looked 
 for in animate or inanimate natural objects. The belief in 
 monsters would arise from compound patronymics, such as 
 would be formed when, for instance, ' a chief, nicknamed 
 the Wolf, carries away from an adjacent tribe a wife who is 
 remembered either under the animal name of her tribe, or as 
 a woman.' 
 
APPENDIX II, 20I 
 
 Unite with this once universally prevalent superstition, the 
 preserving power of the Greek's poetic and vivid imagina- 
 tion, and we seem at once to understand the secret of Greek 
 mythology and of Greek superstition. The Christian dogma 
 has succeeded to a great extent in supplanting the first, but 
 it has left the second almost untouched. 
 
 The prfpetdes, Or water nymphs, still survive as vapatdes or 
 vepatdes among the modern Greeks ; while Xdpcov^ though de- 
 prived of his boat and his office of ferryman, conducts the 
 souls of the dead to ^'Adrjs on horseback. But in no respect 
 is the belief of ancient Greece more faithfully preserved than 
 in regard to the balp.ov£s or o-Toix^la, the personified powers of 
 Nature. According to the Greek belief, anything may be- 
 come a G-Toix'fiov, from a rock or a river to a bird or a beast. 
 Often this (TToixfiov is conceived of, like the ancient daifxccvj as 
 the spirit of some departed hero, with whose actions during 
 life this or that natural object has been especially associated. 
 Sometimes, on the other hand, and this is still more com- 
 mon, the powers of nature are personified without being 
 identified with any particular human being. Achilles con- 
 versing with his horses, or with the river Scamander, is 
 exactly the kind of thing which meets us at every turn in 
 popular modern Greek poetry. The question which we 
 have now to ask is. How old is the signification which the 
 modern Greeks give to o-tolxcIov, and how did it arise ? What 
 is really the force of o-toix^Iov ? In the first place, we must 
 most decidedly difi'er from Liddell and Scott, who regard it 
 as a diminutive of o-to^xos, ^ a row,' and leave us to infer that 
 because o-toIxos means ^ a row of poles' (or indeed of anything 
 else), that therefore the so-called diminutive (ttoix'^Iov might 
 mean ^ a little pole ; ' hence they give as the original meaning 
 of a-TOLx^iov, the upright rod which throws its shadow on the 
 sundial. But (ttolxos would not give us (ttoix^Iov as a diminu- 
 tive, but (TToixlov, just as Tolxoy gives us tolxIov ; -^lov is never 
 
0,02, APPENDIX II. 
 
 used as a diminutive termination. It may cause surprise 
 that, believing as we do in the general identity of the modern 
 and ancient pronunciation of the Greek language, we should 
 have so much difficulty in accepting an etymology which 
 would simply require us to regard et as another way of 
 writing / ; but here the modern Greek language itself enters 
 a most emphatic protest against confusing a short t with the 
 diphthongal el, or even with t. Had o-TOLxelov stood for o-roc' 
 Xtoi^, it is a matter of absolute certainty, which no one 
 acquainted with the principles of modern Greek etymology 
 could doubt for a moment, that its Romaic form would have 
 been o-roixi But this is not the case. It appears as o-TOLxeiOj 
 just as fjLVTjfjLelov appears as fjLvrjfxcLo, and the final o is never lost ; 
 €lov and LOU regularly preserve the o, Xov as regularly loses it 
 in modern Greek. 2tolx^Iov then is no diminutive form of 
 cTTolxos, as it cannot stand for (ttolxIov, Nor, if it were, could 
 it mean a litde rod ; it would rather mean a little row. 
 
 There is no doubt about the derivation of aTOLx^lov, it must 
 come, like g-toIxos^ from o-retx«, which although only found in 
 the derivative sense of 'directing one's steps,' 'proceeding,' may 
 have meant originally ' to arrange.' Hence we see its con- 
 nection with (jTixos and o-ToxdCoixm, Bearing in mind the 
 force of the termination, we see that as t6 fivrjixelov means 
 * that which reminds,' 'memorial;' so o-Totxelov might mean 'that 
 which arranges,' ' marks out,' ' points.' The o-roLxelov of the 
 sundial was the intelligent part of it, compared to a human 
 being who observes the progress of the sun in the heavens, 
 and hence called also yv^fxcov. Or, to get the meaning still 
 more simply from orTelxco, may not o-tolx^Iov have signified 
 'that which moves?' referring of course to the shadow 
 of the upright rod, rather than the rod itself. That 
 (TTOix^hv really had this meaning appears from the phrase 
 d^KaTTovv G-TOLx^lov, \. c. supper time when the shadow was 
 ten feet long. In any case, the idea of regular, in- 
 
APPENDIX II. ^03 
 
 tentional, intelligent motion indicative of intelligence is 
 contained in the word o-T-et'xco and a-Toixfiov] and it was of 
 course the shadow to which life and intelligence were attri- 
 buted. There must have been something awfully mysterious 
 in the regular progression of that shadow across the dial, 
 even to the inventor who had some dim perception of 
 natural cause and effect ; but how much more to the ordi- 
 XidiTy man who had none. That little upright rod, he ob- 
 served with amazement, had a shadow like his own, a second 
 self; and this second self was far more knowing (yvuiyLOiv) 
 than the little rod which always stood still in the same place. 
 
 Then he would soon observe that rocks and trees and 
 animals had also their (rroix^la ; and (rroLxe'lov would naturally 
 become with him a name for that living or moving person- 
 ahty which he seemed to find connected with, and hidden 
 behind all natural objects. Do we not now understand why 
 (TKia is used of the spirits of the departed ? and, what is still 
 more remarkable, how it is that we have inherited the w^ord 
 gnome, plainly connected with yvSjxcov, in the sense of spirit 
 or genie ? SKtafw, aKidCofiai, meaning in modern Greek re- 
 spectively ' to frighten,' ' to fear,' and the masculine derivative 
 (TKios or 'iaKLO£, from o-klu^ are sufficient indications of the ap- 
 palling sense of personality with which the Greeks still con- 
 tinue to regard shadows. 
 
 But now, how are we to connect this meaning of (ttolx^^ov 
 with the Platonic and subsequent philosophic usage of the 
 word in the sense of ' element?' This is not very difficult. 
 The shadow, the o-tolx^Iou, was the mysterious hidden self, the 
 inner personality of all things, shrinking away almost to 
 nothing in broad noonday, and slowly but regularly creeping 
 out as the sun approached the horizon. Therefore to the 
 popular mind, and more or less even to themselves, the 
 inquiry of the physical philosophers after the beginnings of 
 all things was a kind of necromancy, a search for ghosts. 
 
^04 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Hence it is that for a long time the Ionic philosophers had 
 no difficulty in enduing their crroixfia ox apxal with life and 
 motion, or rather they were unable to conceive of them as 
 divested of these attributes of personality. It belonged 
 naturally to Plato, the great popularizer of philosophy, to 
 adopt the people's word (ttoix^Iov, and give it a philosophical 
 meaning, thus combating in friendly guise the evepoi Ka\ aXi- 
 ^avT€s (Rep. 387 c) of the popular superstition. What a 
 fine conception do we here obtain of the struggle between 
 Greek enlightenment and Greek superstition. To get at the 
 bottom of these o-TOixela, these dreadful phantoms, to pene- 
 trate to their pi^oifiaTa with Empedocles, and show, as he 
 thought he could, that there were but four of them after all ; 
 this was, as the physical philosophers vainly hoped, to ' rob 
 the grave of victory, and take the sting from death.' 
 
 The word crrotxaa, as applied by Plato to the letters of the 
 alphabet, indicated originally not the signs, but the 'living 
 voices,' the souls, so to speak, of the letters, just as Utterae 
 and elementa litterarum were distinguished by the Latin 
 grammarians. That this word (TToix<^'iov would inevitably con- 
 nect itself in Plato's mind with his doctrine of ideas, is seen 
 at once, and the full force of his polemical attitude towards 
 the popular belief appears when we consider that the 
 (TToixfia of the common people were the antipodes of his 
 own. Shadows were with him the least real, with them 
 the most real, of all appearances. His aroix^la were ideas, 
 theirs were shadows and reflections. 
 
 It was the very essence of the popular notion of (jtoix^Iov 
 that it should exist independently of the object which first 
 suggested it. So bears and rams were soon found in the 
 sky among the stars, where their outlines were fancifully 
 traced. Hence we have the signs of the Zodiac also called 
 (TToix'fici (Diog. L. vi. 102). Hence, too, (jToix^la is used by 
 ecclesiastical writers, and by Manetho especially, of the 
 
APPENDIX II. rjo5 
 
 heavenly bodies. Most striking and conclusive is St. Paul's 
 use of the word o-Totx^la in phrases like to. o-TOLx^'ia tov Koo-fiov 
 (Gal. iv. 3, &c. ; Col. ii. 8, 20). Baur (Christenthum der 
 drei ersten Jahrhunderte, p. 49) and Hilgenfeld (Galater- 
 brief, p. 66, Das Urchristenthum und seine neuesten Bear- 
 beitungen : Zeitschrift fiir wissenschaftliche Theologie, erster 
 Jahrgang, Heft i. p. 99) expressly attribute this sense to 
 St. Paul's words, and Hilgenfeld quotes Philo Judaeus (De 
 Humanitate, § 3, p. 387 ; De Parentibus Colendis, § 9, ed. 
 Tauchn. v. p. 62; De Vita Contemplativa, § i, p. 472), the 
 Clementine Homilies (x. 9. 25), and even a Sibylline frag- 
 ment anterior to the time of Christ (Orac. Sibyll. iii. 80, ed. 
 FriedL), in support of this view. How too, he pertinently 
 asks, could St. Paul speak of the o-TOLx^la tov Koo-fiov as the 
 guardians or tutors of mankind before Christ, and of their 
 being enslaved or in bondage under them, and how could 
 he so directly oppose them to Christ unless he attributed 
 to them a real personality ? That St. Paul means especially 
 the heavenly powers by o-TOLxela rod Kocrfxov is plain from the 
 connection in which he places them with the observance of 
 'days and months and times and years.' How vivid his 
 realization of the conflict between Christ and the o-roLx^'ia 
 TOV KOdfjLov may be seen from Ephesians vi. 12: "Ori ovk eanv 
 
 Tjf.ui' rj ttoXt} Trpos aljia kol crdpKa, aXXa Trpos ras dpxas (observe 
 that dpxT} is a synonym for aroLx^lov), npos ras i^ovo-ias, Trpos 
 Tovs KoapoKparopas tov (TKotovs tov alcovos tovtov, npos to, rrvev- 
 fjLaTLKct Tr)s TTOvrjpLas iv to2s inovpavLOLS, 
 
 We are now in a position to understand how o-toix^loco 
 in Byzantine Greek comes to mean ' to enchant,' and o-tqix^l- 
 ovco, ' to haunt,' o-rotxetdC^, ^ to be haunted,' in modern Greek. 
 
 TvTdos and tltStj. There is every reason to believe, with 
 Liddell and Scott, that these two forms are etymologically 
 connected. The change of v and t, as well as the change of 
 
206 APPENDIX II. 
 
 accent, is perfectly regular. An exact analogy as regards 
 the meaning is supplied by tfie modern Greek /3aia, ' nurse/ 
 which we cannot but regard as connected with fimos, ' little/ 
 
 ^^ai/o). In modern Greek, (pBavoa means simply * I arrive/ 
 ' I come / TO (pSdo-LiJLovj ' the arrival/ It means, however, also 
 ^ to be in time for,' as ecj^dacra t6 aTfioTrXowv^ * I caught the 
 steamer / this is, however, its transitive sense. The ordinary, 
 absolute employment of (pBdvco in classical Greek is represented 
 in modern Greek by the compound Trpocj^ddvco. The modern 
 usage of (p6dvco approaches most nearly to the ancient in the 
 phrase 0^ai/et, ' it is enough.' Yet the fact that the compound 
 TTpocjyddvco is used by Aeschylus, Aristophanes, and Euripides, 
 is proof enough that (pOdvco might mean in ancient Greek 
 simply ' I arrive/ T come,' T reach' (i. e. my destination), other- 
 wise 7rpo(p6dva) would be a pleonasm. The non-recognition 
 of this, in modern Greek the common, and, as we believe, 
 even in ancient Greek the original meaning of cj^Odvco, has 
 caused much difficulty to the commentators on Thuc. 
 
 III. 49. 3, Koi rpLr)p7] evSvs akXrjv dnecTTeWoy Kara cmovdijv, 
 OTTcos fxr], (pSaadcrrjs Trjs devTepas, evpcoaL dL€cf)6apii€pr]v Tr]v ttoXlv : 
 
 where we have only to disabuse our minds of the prejudice 
 that cl)6a(Td(Tr}s must mean ^ having Jirs/ arrived,' translating 
 simply, ' lest, on the arrival of the second, they should find 
 the city destroyed,' and all is clear. 
 
 Xaoo. This root appears in the modern x«^^> *to lose,' 
 
 and in XOTr]pi (from xarecxi) = tto^o?. 
 
 "^rjXacjyco, Liddell and Scott derive this word from 'yj/dco^ 
 ^dXXo), yl/a6dX\a), ylraXdaaco, the -a<pdco being a mere termina- 
 tion.' But even mere terminations must have some meaning, 
 and we will endeavour to suggest a more plausible and 
 complete etymology for ^/^r;Aa</)co than one which barely ex- 
 plains one half of the word. 
 
 To begin with what is most obvious: d<pdco, II. vi, 322, 
 
APPENDIX II, 207 
 
 Sa)pr)m Ka\ dyKvXa t6^' dcjyocovra, is derived simply enough from 
 d(f)r], and means ^ to touch/ or * to feel : ' therefore \j/r]X-a(pdco 
 means plainly, to touch or feel in a particular manner, and 
 implies an adjective ^rjXosj with a corresponding adverb 
 ylrr}\a)s Or yj/rjXd. But yj/r]\6sj SO written, is not found. We 
 know, however, by the derivation of ylriXos from yj/dcoj that 
 this word is merely an iotacism for yl^rjXos, and ought so to be 
 written : cf. drraTrjXos, from dnaTdco. Now what does yl/tkos 
 or yj/7]\6s according to its derivation mean ? One significa- 
 tion is no doubt ' rubbed bare,' but an equally natural one, 
 and the prevailing one in modern Greek, is ' rubbed fine,' 
 used, for instance, of tobacco that has become powdery from 
 keeping, or of small coin. To distinguish this meaning 
 from the classical, as preserving most faithfully the ety- 
 mology from yj/dcoj we may, if we like, write the word yj/r]\69 
 when used in this sense. Hence we have, as a matter of 
 course, ^rjkoKoiTco, ' to split hairs,' ' to mince matters ; ' i//-7;Xo- 
 o-o<^co, ' to be over-subtle,' no doubt a play upon </)iXoo-o^a) ; 
 -^rjkoypdcfxo, * to write fine;' \j^r}XoTpayovd<o, * to sing gently;' 
 and an infinite number besides, for the modern Greek 
 language has an unlimited Hcence in multiplying such 
 compounds. Who, then, can resist the conclusion that 
 •sj/r]Xa<pda) means ' to touch lightly,' ' to feel about one,' like 
 the German herumtappen. Its usage in ancient Greek bears 
 out this etymology most strikingly. Xenophon, Eq. 2. 4, 
 uses it in the sense of ^ stroking,' Latin palpare. In Aris- 
 tophanes, Pax 691, we have iv o-kotco yfArjXa<pdv TCL TrpciyfiuTa: 
 
 comp. Eccl. 315, and Plato, Phaed. 99 b. In Odyssee 
 ix. 416, we have it used of the blind Cyclops : — 
 
 KvKXcoyfr de arevaxcov re kol aydivcov obvvrjcriv, 
 Xepo-l "^riXacjiocoVy drrb p,€P Xidov eVXe 6vpdcou, 
 AvTos S' ehl Bvprjcn KaSi^ero x^^^P^ TTcrdo-o-as 
 "El Tivd TTOV per oecrcrt XdjSoL (rrelxovTa Svpa^e. 
 
208 APPENDIX II. 
 
 Compare also Acts xvii. 27, ir^Tclv t6v Kvpiovy d apa -^rjka^j]- 
 
 <T€LaV aVTOV KOL €VpOl€V, 
 
 s^rji\a(j)rj(rLs is used by Plutarch in the sense of * tickling/ 
 and the essential condition of tickling is, as we know, a light 
 touch. 
 
 This is one of those cases where a knowledge of modern 
 Greek enables us to pronounce with certainty for a deriva- 
 tion which it would seem has not so much as suggested itself 
 to philologers who have not made modern Greek their study. 
 It is one of those extremely simple and obvious etymologies 
 which, when once observed, make us wonder how they could 
 have so long lain hidden. 
 
 ^rjipL^a, In modern Greek, \l/r](f)d(o means not * to vote,' 
 but * to care for ' or * regard ; ' apparently from ylrrjcj^os, in the 
 sense of cipher^ as we say, ^ to reck not,' ' reckless/ &c. 
 
INDEX 
 
 OF 
 
 GREEK AND ALBANIAN WORDS. 
 
 '6.^a\€, p. 189. 
 ajSjSas, 107. 
 ai85e\Aa, 12. 
 
 a^pdyco, 119. 
 a^pdfxvXov, 12. 
 a^pSravoVf 12. 
 a^pvou^ 12. 
 ayairdei, 72. 
 
 iSos, ayaubs, 29, 1 04, 
 
 189. 
 ayyeWw, 1 89. 
 a77iX<W5 12. 
 a770Sj a7Kos, 29. 
 d7epa)X0S, Si. 
 a7/ca0^ 31. 
 ayKovXa, 20. 
 ^yKQvpa, 20. 
 &yovpa, 122. 
 ^7oupos, 189. 
 ay poLKu, 190. 
 dSara, 1I4. 
 d56p(^bs, 36. 
 2i5€(r0ai, 28. 
 dere, 1 1 8. 
 aae, 113. 
 d0ia, del, 123. 
 ai dz/, 25. 
 
 oT7a, alyavj 71, 74, 75. 
 aiel, 12. 
 atej/, aies, 7/* 
 aierbs, 12. 
 
 AioAou, 45. 
 aiVi/s, 25. 
 aidiVLos, 105. 
 aldopa, 25. 
 CLKoKovdco, 103. 
 d/c^^, dK|U^i/, 35, 102. 
 aKoveis, 116. 
 aXdKaipais, 143' 
 a\46oo, 36. 
 aKei^ct)^ 30. 
 a\€ijjLiJ.drioVy 26, 
 aXerpi, 1 90. 
 a\€rpoTT6diov, I90. 
 
 ax-fjO-ns, 117. 
 
 aXXd^ifjLou, -aroSf 1 08. 
 dW' tfxdTLov, 26. 
 6,Xoyou, 93. 
 ''AAu, 108. 
 aXvcpavros, 35. 
 aXcpLTOVf 36. 
 a^ua, 12. 
 
 a/jLaLfidKeros, 25. 
 ^AjuaXeK, 30. 
 auapria, I02. 
 ajUL^XaKiaKo), 37. 
 'Afi^paKia, 37. 
 
 aix^Xyw, 35. 
 afi€pyw, 35. 
 oLfiecTos irpSracrLS, 99. 
 dyUT;, d^77, 190. 
 d^oA7a5, 35. 
 d/io>7?7, 20, 35. 
 
 P 
 
 ^/^oi/, 113. 
 avd^ados, 196. 
 avdOe/iia, 1 5. 
 avaOv^iacis, 93* 
 avai^aipo}, 12. 
 di/aA.uo'is, 93. 
 avdfjL€(rov, 89. 
 ^i^56Te, 136. 
 av€Xvirr]r7j, 144* 
 ^z/0€, 36, 120. 
 ^i/i, 137. ^ 
 
 avoiyo(T(pdXL(Tfxa., 1 44' 
 avTiaira(TiJLa, 1 03. 
 gt^/oy, 191. 
 oLireipov, 93. 
 a7r€Kpi6rj, 79. 
 'AtteXXccu, 24. 
 dTTo, 102, 104. 
 aTroKSrrjcra, 1 46. 
 dTT?) fiaKpSOev, 1O5. 
 "ApoL^as, 74. 
 apc{ 76, 99, 
 apd^a, 19 T. 
 apaicccris, 93. 
 'ApttTTid, 30. 
 6,pd€fi€P, 129. 
 ap€r^, 96. 
 *'Ap77, 71. 
 ^p0T, 130. 
 apL^nXos, 118. 
 apfiaOia, 12, 
 apfxara, 1 06. 
 ap/JLarcoXhs, I06. 
 
2,10 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ap6co, 191. 
 'apri,^ 183. 
 apx^ojs, 107. 
 
 apX^, 93. 
 ^pufia, 193. 
 as, 103, 107. 
 ao-di, 133. 
 a(TKa\coTras, 74. 
 c«o-7ra/c, 132. 
 ao-raxw, 12. 
 a(TTa<pls, J 2. 
 d(rrepo7r^, 12. 
 arao, 131. 
 aTi-h€p€, 132. 
 arte, 132. 
 
 ^27. 
 
 avyhy, 31. 
 avTOLva, 196. 
 avriov, 24. 
 auTis, 38. 
 avTovuos, 196. 
 avToSi foLrhs, 1 32, 
 auto, 29. 
 
 ^4)65, 103, 186. 
 
 a0' o§, 40. 
 a^f/, 24. 
 el^'O, 134. 
 
 ^dyya, 24. 
 /3a(c^, 192. 
 /Bdi'a, iSai^s, 205. 
 i8c£A6, 185. 
 ^aXiKios, 29. 
 PaXrhs, 83. 
 ^dv(a, 192. 
 ^dp^apos, 191. 
 Bapicoj/a, 24. 
 ^a(n\4av, 74. 
 ^acriXeas, 'J I, 74* 
 Paai?K€vei, 92. 
 iSao-iAefs, 1 43. 
 fiaaiXicraa, 106. 
 ^aard^w, ^aara, 1 84, 
 
 192. 
 i8aT€?z/, 30. 
 ^avKaMov, 24. 
 
 ^axoy, 115- 
 ^ydWco, 192. 
 fibdWw, 192. 
 
 )35eAAa, /85eAi;0'o'«, 192, 
 iSSew, 192. 
 ^eiKari, 29. 
 ^eKhs, ^€KKOSi 192. 
 ^e\6va, 12. 
 ySeArepos, /SeAr^s, 83. 
 ^^jx^pas, 30. 
 
 ^ip^QpOV, lie 
 
 ^er, 131. 
 ^i(pvpa^ 29. 
 iSew, 192. 
 )8^, /3^, 18. 
 ^77^a, 16. 
 ^i^dCcv, 192. 
 ^ledii/, 132. 
 BiAapas, 30. 
 BtAiTTTTos, 30. 
 ;8A6>a),^3I. 
 /BArjaKovyi, 30. 
 ^oOpos, 12. 
 /8oi, ^or)6e7v, 16, 
 fio\e7, 189. 
 ^oKofxai, 45. 
 fioTO-xv, 118. 
 fiov\€L, l3ou\r], 15. 
 ^ovvh, 115. 
 
 ^OVpKOSi 29. 
 
 fipdxos, 29. 
 
 ^P^, 37- ^ 
 /Spe/ce/fe/cel, 19. 
 ^p€X€i, 103. 
 ^pifa, 29. ^ 
 ^pidco, ^CLpvQca, 2 2. 
 ;3poX7?, 117. 
 jBpvKoXa^, 195. 
 /8pc^,u77, 193. 
 l3v^Kos, (ii^Xos, 22. 
 ^yCao?, 30. 
 /3i;0os, 12. 
 ^VTLVT], 30. 
 ^uoKaXiov, 24. 
 
 7a, 119. 
 7afa, 30. 
 7af, 118. 
 7ara, 30. 
 7a7/ia, 31. 
 7aAaf<os, 33. 
 7aAaj/bs, 33. 
 7a/), 96, 197. 
 
 yapyaXicav, 29. 
 ydpyvpa, 29. 
 75o£'7ros, 187. 
 75uftz/ais-, 75i;co, 1 44. 
 7€Aai/'^s, 117. 
 yeXda-ifxov, 80, 105, 108. 
 yeXXcio, 1 89. 
 7eAa)z/, 73. 
 
 76^iX<^» I05- 
 y^paKiP, 109, 
 yeptpos, 193. 
 7€p?/ft;, 193. 
 yepGPTSi 74- 
 7€pb5, 32. 
 yevaaadai, 188. 
 yi(pvpa, 32. 
 
 7^» 145. 
 77776 v^s, 16. 
 7ta, 32. 
 7iaiz/w, 32. 
 ytaKioy, 32. 
 7ia^a, 145. 
 yidarr^, 1 35. 
 yiarphs, 31. 
 7i7as, 16. 
 yivvost 30. 
 yiovpovcTLov, 198. 
 yiccKw, 32. 
 yXuKw, 31. 
 7Aapos, 31. 
 yXeiTw, 29. 
 yX4(papov, 29. 
 yX4(p(Tw, Xevacrca, 31. 
 yX-nyopa, 193. 
 yXiarpaipco, 1 93. 
 yXia-xpos, 193. 
 yXvKO(p^yy€i, 31. 
 yviQo), 31. 
 yvcaijioiv, 202. 
 ypoopico, 117. 
 Tofjioppa, 30. 
 7op7^s, 193. 
 yovXia, 31. 
 70UJ/, 20. 
 7ou?'a?ft:a, 1 18. 
 7oG7ra, 29. 
 yovpyovpas, 29. 
 ypdfjL/jLara oide, 1 84. 
 ypdc^op, 121. 
 ypa<povjjLev€, 121. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 211 
 
 ypa(povp^ui, 121. 
 ypacpre, 121. 
 ypaipLniara, 8 1. 
 ypd\pL/j,0Uj 8i. 
 yprjyopos, 193. 
 ypoiKTcra, 1 19. 
 7/3 w^a, 193. 
 yvaXov, 32. 
 
 7(£;/, 20. 
 
 5a, 114. 
 AaiSiS, 29. 
 oa7/caj^w, 31. 
 dai/mu>v, 94, 20I. 
 5az/ouj/, 130. 
 BdpKva, 31. 
 ddrvXo, 119. 
 §e, 5ej/, 144. 
 Seix^o?, 118. 
 
 h€VOV/JL€P€, 118. 
 
 deucoy 72. 
 d4^ov, 79- 
 5eoi', 132. 
 Bepcis, 183. 
 
 s^H 135. 
 
 A6^5, 31. ^ 
 
 Seuoj, 24. 
 
 d€xofJLai, deKOfxai, 38. 
 SevJ/oj, 24. 
 Arjfias, 16. 
 A-nfirjT-npj 16. 
 dijfjLiovpyos, 98. 
 Sia^Ba, 194. 
 SiajSoAos, 105. 
 diaQrjKT], 16. 
 ^Laipo}, 32. 
 dLaL(pvpa, 32. 
 5ia«:iOJ/, 32. 
 didXsKros kolv)], 1 1 5. 
 diafMeaov, 184. 
 5ia j'a, 89. 
 Smpos, 194. 
 Siara, 12. 
 Siara^co^ 83. 
 Sia^ei/Teuo-ai^, 149. 
 Bidcpopop, 193. 
 AiSu^uos, 16. 
 SiSo), 8i5oz/co, 116. 
 Siepbs^ 32. 
 diLO'xyp'-C^To, 187. 
 
 dtKaiobocria, 1 03. 
 
 5i/caio2/, Sza'ibj/, 26. 
 
 SiKAoTTOS, 113. 
 
 JiAz, 132. 
 
 diopter iiios, 97. 
 
 Siof, 119. 
 
 5i(ri7z/aTos, 1 5. 
 
 Jirr, 129. 
 
 SicaKcc, 32. 
 
 Sfci);^i/a), 118. 
 
 5Jz^&>, 116. 
 
 5o|as, So^aty, 71, 78, 82. 
 
 hoVKduT], 20. 
 
 dpaKos, 168. 
 
 dpOGlCLy 184. 
 
 ^ii, 132, 135. 
 
 5wa>, 72. 
 Swo-t;, 185. 
 
 eav, 25. 
 
 lauT^j/, 97, 132. 
 iyajULT^Ka, 122. 
 €77iX<^, 103, 185. 
 eyvoiais, 143. 
 eyvcioKav, 184. 
 e7cbi/, 30. 
 eSe, 1 10, 130. 
 6^56x0^^, 79- 
 iboXiov(Ta, ^6. 
 id6vT€s^ 13. 
 eSci), 103. 
 eSoDKa, 80. 
 
 €€€€»/, 77' 
 
 e6i|6z/, 118. 
 e^pov, 127. 
 edrjKa, 80. 
 er^e, 87. 
 e'/ySw, 116. 
 
 €iSi/cbs, 97. 
 
 elepeos, 1 06. 
 €iAa>, 26. 
 el^ai, 71, 108. 
 efr/ai, eTz/e, 79, I08. 
 e^uras, eJvra, 1 1 7. 
 eipy^r, 26. 
 eipcvueta, g*j. 
 
 €is, 103, 187. 
 
 eTo-at, 71, 108. 
 
 e'/x^o), 118. 
 
 P 2 
 
 eKavov, 1 10, 123. 
 l/cerj/os, 13. 
 e/cf, 122. 
 
 iKiradaipoiLLai, 1 93. 
 €Kpv0€, 187. 
 
 6KCU, 118. 
 
 eAa, 115. 
 
 €\dKrL(r€, 17. 
 
 eA67a, 72, 83. 
 
 lAe|es, 72, 83. 
 
 iXexOrjKa, 72, 80. 
 
 eAA€i/os, 113. 
 
 "^EAfjUTTos, 24. 
 
 e/^a, 12 2. 
 
 i/JLUSi 71. 
 
 ifi^areo}, 37. 
 
 i/j,fi6\iiJLOS, 30. 
 
 e^e, 134. 
 
 e>ez/a, 71, 78. 
 
 €iu€pa, 18. 
 
 'E|ayUavou)/A, 1 7. 
 
 kfiwd^o/jLai, fid^ofiaif I92. 
 
 ilLLTraij/co, 37. 
 
 kfiTToTKa, 12 2, 123. 
 
 ifjLiropos, ^6. 
 
 4lJ,(pavi(eiv, 1 85. 
 
 €uavct}, 28. 
 
 eVSeAexeia, 37. 
 
 6r/5o?/, 37. 
 
 6r^S(^a'0ia, 37. 
 
 iudevrey, 38. 
 
 €vd(Tx^, 119. 
 
 iy 07} ares, 1 1 9. 
 
 6P0L^€, 118. 
 
 evrepa, 36. 
 
 evrepi, 127. 
 
 ivrevOep, 38. 
 
 ej/rbs, 37. 
 
 iprvpcc, 37, 72. 
 
 epdoTTiop, 187. 
 
 i^airipTjs, i^aicpprjs, 1 1 8. 
 
 E^drfiLa-is, 93. 
 
 e|o/iop7z^i;^i, 35. 
 
 i^vTrpidO), 93. 
 
 iTrai^&j, 103, 184, 187. 
 
 €7r7}^o\os, 16. 
 
 iirKTTrjfjLrj, g*J. 
 
 iiriaTexpa, 24. 
 
 67rrdl\ 109. 
 
 eirooKaP, 1 06. 
 
2^Ii2 
 
 INDEX, 
 
 130. 
 ipi/jiriTa, 19. 
 spiVy 74. 
 epKOfiai, 118. 
 epos, €pou, 74. 
 
 €p(T7)Vj II. 
 
 cpojs, 104. 
 ^aa, 12 2. 
 eVe^ 13. 
 eVeTs, 71. 
 IcTEva, 71, 78. 
 
 €Sy?»f, 117. 
 
 e(To, 79, 82, 107, 
 iaovy 120, 125. 
 €(TTddr], 185. 
 iarddny, 1 03. 
 eo-i/, 13. 
 
 eT€LV€pe, 121. 
 
 Iroi/uafcu, 1 03. 
 eros-, 29, 132, 
 €L>76?/c)y, 104. 
 6i/5cy, 102. 
 evdv/JLOs^ 24, 
 6U01/S, 24. 
 evKaipiav, 1 8 7. 
 €v\a^r)s, 186. 
 €v\oy(v, 187. 
 €vpr)KaVy 106. 
 EvpoK\v5ot}j^y 21. 
 €UTuxr;s, 23. 
 €V(ppaip6jjLevoSj 1 8 7. 
 evxapi'O'ria, 23. 
 6uxapio-T(5, 103, 106. 
 €>' eros, 39, 132. 
 €(^0^s, 37. 
 
 #^. 13. 
 
 e^'Ci', 24, 
 
 €ftJ, 107. 
 
 IciJpa, 25. 
 iwpcLKav, 106, 
 
 fa)3a, 194. 
 Zd^aArjs, 33. 
 fa^by, 194. 
 CaAo^, 33. 
 Capi(p7]s, 33. 
 Capos, 194. 
 
 C^, 119. 
 
 fe?os, 119. 
 
 Ceo-rbs, 185. 
 Zeus, 33. 
 Cnrdei, 12. 
 ^?a, 120. 
 C?os, 119. 
 
 C^i€pha\4os, Cfiriyixa, (fii- 
 KphSf (fLLiyvrj, Zfivpi/a, 
 
 33. 
 fop/ca5zo*', 31. 
 
 C^pl»3i. 
 ^ov(f)d\a, 120. 
 (wv(pioPf 12, 106. 
 
 ??» 71. 
 ^^, 197. 
 rjyovjULepos, 1 03. 
 i]ypa(f)a, 1 1 7. 
 f/5e, 16, 130. 
 'HAl, 30. 
 TJAfcufre, 1 07. 
 riix^XaKoVj 37. 
 
 T]lii^paTOV, 12. 
 
 rjfxovv, ^2. 
 ¥i}jLTr\aKou, 37. 
 ^^^0^ 35. 
 r]^evpcc, 105, 184. 
 ^TTza, 117. 
 ^p^a, 36. 
 fjp^aro. III. 
 ^pxa, 116. 
 
 7]p(i3TT)(Ta, 14. 
 
 r}vdufJLos, 24. 
 rjupov, 14. 
 -nvrvxei, 45. 
 
 0^,87,88,90, 130. 
 dayarepa, II 4. 
 ^ai', 130. 
 0az/77, 194, 175. 
 0ds, 130. 
 ^6, 87. 
 0e?os, 119. 
 0eA6t ya, 87. 
 
 d4\€lS €^ir(DIJ.€P, 187. 
 
 06 A CO z/a, 87. 
 
 ^eVoj, Beipco, 67va, 24. 
 
 0€ou, 120, 12 2. 
 
 QidLS, 94. 
 
 6ea?, 24. 
 
 dewpoQ, 183. 
 
 OrjKdpiov, 32. 
 0i77aj/aj, 31. 
 QKijxixivos, 72. 
 ^Aiif/is, 105. 
 0b^, 129. 
 0(Jz/a, 129. 
 0oVt, 129. 
 doarre, 130. 
 dpafifjievos, 72. 
 dpiyyos, 87. 
 dvfjLOVKOVj 120. 
 0ft)^a, 24. 
 0c«;y, 129. 
 dapia, 143. 
 0wpft), 144, 183. 
 OcaaiVj 130. 
 0WT, 129. 
 
 r, 194. 
 laipco, 32. 
 IdKLov, 32. 
 
 farp^s, 31. 
 
 £77t, 12 r. 
 
 477), £7(j/, 127. 
 
 '/7/cmi*, 121. 
 
 iSe, 16. 
 
 ^5tov, 103. 
 
 fSot;, 104. 
 
 i^P^^? 32. 
 
 Idhs, 24. 
 
 Udyco, 119. 
 
 iK/iidajy iKfjLaSf 35. 
 
 f'/cajo-f, 107. 
 
 ^At;, 26. 
 
 ^AAcy, 26. 
 
 IfjidrLa, 103. 
 
 l/jLEpa, 18. 
 
 '/z/a, 89, 104, 109. 
 
 iVari^ Ij/arid^cDy 194. 
 
 fz/J/i, 122. 
 
 '/yvos, 30. 
 
 fz/ras, Xptu, 117. 
 
 lovfuVy LOVfjLwv, 125. 
 
 tVep, 2 2. 
 
 '/pT^z/, 26. 
 
 1<pQLfX0S, 4. 
 il//OS, 22. 
 
 lob, iojz^, loovya^ 109, 
 116. 
 
INDEX, 
 
 213 
 
 'k, 114. 
 Ka, 115, 130, 
 KaBeXsy 104. 
 KaOeXov, 1 1 8. 
 Ka6i((a, 103. 
 KadLCTTahco, 12. 
 Kad6\ov, 97, 118. 
 /cat, re, 25. 
 Kai5z/os, 25. 
 Kaipios, 34. 
 Katpos, 109. 
 KuTpos, 118. 
 
 KaKOppL^lKOL, 144. 
 
 KuXa, 1 46. 
 Ka\avpoi}\p, 24. 
 KoKos, 118. 
 Ka\a>Sf no. 
 Ka;U, 130. 
 
 Kd/J.L\0S, 17. 
 
 Kd/jLTToaos, 89. 
 
 K&J/, 109. 
 
 Kttveis, 99. 
 
 KaTTPEy 119. 
 
 KapKEai, 39. 
 ^apo'i? 195.^ 
 Kaar€\\Q)iuL€Vos, 1 08. 
 Karafiodpa^ 12. 
 Karai^aij/oo, I2. 
 ^a^^ep, 135. 
 /carexw, 105. 
 KaroLKoo, 103. 
 Kau/ccc?/eSj 20. 
 /cauxScratj 78. 
 /caij/is, 24. 
 /ce, 25, 88, 115. 
 Kcri/os, 34. 
 
 K€\OjULaL, 189. 
 
 /cepioz/, 15. 
 /ces, 115. 
 
 K6T6, 134. 
 
 K6<pa\as, 71. 
 ic?, 130. 
 KidfJiovVy 144. 
 KLavcc, 199. 
 
 KL^OVpLf 20. 
 
 Ki9a)v, 40. 
 
 KIHOV, 124. 
 KiVoJ^, 34. 
 
 Khdvi^os, 21. 
 /CfJ/eoj, 34. 
 
 KiS, 34. 
 
 KXaiw, Kpd^oo, I95. 
 KXefos, 23. 
 KXeis, kX^s, 15. 
 KX^Lrhs, KXvrhs, KXrjrhs, 
 
 IB, 2 2. 
 Kv7cra, r^Kva, 1 45. 
 KOL/jLco/jiaL, 103. 
 /cotJ^T) SictAe/cTOs, 21, 10 1. 
 Koipavos, 34. 
 kSkkuXos, KOKKaXtty 195. 
 
 KOKdiVT], 35. 
 
 kSXu^, 195. 
 KoXacTLSj 105. 
 KoXXovpa, 20. 
 
 KoXXoVpLOl/, 185. 
 
 Kovra, 195, KOfra, 118. 
 KOTiddij 108. 
 KOTviXa, 35. 
 
 KOpaKKTTLKdj 1 5 7. 
 KOpdcLOVj 106. 
 
 Kovpp^VLa, 131. 
 Ko^ofxriXo, KopdfxirXo, 37. 
 
 KOpvCCCO, 37. 
 
 Koravcpos^ 37, 1 18. 
 /cove, 119. 
 KovXXhs, 20. 
 KovvBep, 138. 
 KovrdXtov, 20, 83. 
 Kovcpos, 15. 
 Kpe^Pdriov, 12. 
 Kpidpi, 118. 
 /cpie, 199. 
 /cpowbs, /cpTJi'T?, 33. 
 Kpv{3co, 106, 187. 
 /cpuos, 195. 
 
 KpVCpVKd/iLiC/Xa, I4I. 
 
 /cpite, 132. 
 KTovirco, 119. 
 Kvdpa, 40. 
 kvkXos, 12. 
 
 KvTTpOS, 21, 
 KVpLOS, 103. 
 
 Kxoz/Sio-ray, 38. 
 ft^^/^^a? 35. 
 /cwAe, 123. 
 Kcos, 71. 
 
 XdCo/mai, 29. 
 Xd/jLp(v, 116. 
 
 Acipos, 31. 
 
 Xavpos, Xd^pos, 24. 
 
 Xeydfievos, 72. 
 A€760-ai, 72. 
 Aeyovras, 72* 
 Ae7oui/, Xeyovv€j 72. 
 A€|6, 72, 78. 
 Aelou, 72; 78. 
 XevaacOf 31, 
 Aew, 30. 
 X7]cn7]s, 16, 
 Xiyvphs, 22. 
 XiddpioUy 106. 
 Aios, 30, 116. 
 Aiovo-ms, 21, 121. 
 Aoy^s, 89. 
 XoL/jihs, XL/j,hs, 28. 
 Xoiirhu, 97, 104. 
 XvK6(p(MS, 31, 196. 
 Xv(r€/j,€vaLy XvaovfjLovv, 
 129. 
 
 jUa, 196. 
 fidyovXou, 1 75. 
 /^a^, 89. 
 fMaifido), 25. 
 fxatfjiov, 7* 
 fiaXephs, 1 9 7. 
 fjidXicrra, 99. 
 /j.aX6pcDy 197. 
 fia^iXas, 1 15. 
 Mdpr7]s, 71. 
 ^^pe, ^TT-pe, 37. 
 fibaXacpdKey 131. 
 ^&e, ^61, 135. 
 Ate, 109, 133, 196. 
 fM€,^fj.€ye, f^eyer, 133. 
 (JLedXos, 115. 
 fx4yeBos, 41, 46. 
 /jieOavpiou, 39. 
 /meXLcro-a, 1 18. 
 /j.eXi(T^oo, 32. 
 fieXio-CLy, 116. 
 ^lefx^pds, 30. 
 /xepLKOs, 97. 
 Atep/ov, 15. 
 Mecrapovpia, 116. 
 ^ueVa ets, io6. 
 ^era, 107. 
 fd.eTaP0L€cc, 105. 
 
214 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 ix-nyapl, 197. 
 
 mVj P^va, 96;, 196. 
 
 IMa, 185. 
 
 IjlIkov, 131. 
 
 /niKprj, 12. 
 
 M%^i35, 136. 
 
 ,a\o7oVf 116. 
 
 fxoLpQypdcpVijJLa, 146. 
 
 jnoXv^doSj jjl6m^os^ 21. 
 
 fiova^ia, 191. 
 
 fx6vcLxd TcoP€y 143. 
 
 /uo?'')/, 185. 
 
 ^oz/o7ej/% 73. 
 
 Moi5, )UOi, 83, 
 
 fiovde, 215. 
 
 fiovi/a^, 191. 
 
 MojJ^'os, 45. 
 
 p.ovpya, 20. 
 
 fio g/LLTyjL, 20. 
 
 fJMVpsxovpi^ca, 20. 
 
 MoGcra, fiolaa^ 27. 
 
 fiovXTepos^ 20. 
 
 fXTTov^ovvas, 33. 
 
 M^7«. 31. 
 
 ^ly^ao;, 30. 
 
 fj.VKdofj.ai., iJL7]Kdo}Jiaif 2 2. 
 
 jJLVaOS^ fM(TOS, 22. 
 
 fiva-ra^, fj^dara^, 12. 
 
 Mc^^P^. 37. ^ 
 Moijpos", fxavpos, 24. 
 Mcoj ?>a7?s, 131, 
 
 z/a, 87, 196. 
 vdvder, 135, 136. 
 rapa/§6S, i^€p€"/'§es, 200. 
 pdieKLV, 131. 
 
 ^t' ,^^'r^j ^°^' ^33- 
 veixLKovv, 131. 
 
 vepov, I'epoy, v'opoV} lo6, 
 
 118. 
 
 V 4(^08 y yuicpos, 31. 
 
 v7]Q(io, jpeOo), 31. 
 
 i/?)(7Ti3; vr}arr}s, 14. 
 
 y), 120, 126, 135, 136. 
 
 j/mj/z, 137. 
 
 z//'i87&j, 33. 
 
 ^iC^'^5 ^35- 
 j/ioCra, 119. 
 ?/oaw, 83. 
 j/Juo, 119. 
 
 i/f/CTos afjioXy^, 35. 
 z/uva, T19. 
 
 ^ei/LTeveip, 106. 
 lepbs, |?7pos, 15. 
 
 07/^os, 0770s, 36. 
 oSomo^at, 187. 
 odvPTj, codiVf 2 2. 
 
 oi; 97. 
 
 olvdpiv, 115. 
 
 ofos, 27. 
 
 okevOepos, 1 18. 
 
 oAioSf 116. 
 
 oAos, '6Xooy, 103, 184, 
 
 187. 
 oAa?s, 97. 
 
 dkoaaTfMarcoiiJiev'rj, 14I. 
 ofxade?, 31. 
 o ^iKporepos, 186. 
 6ixop(pos, 118. 
 ovdpioVi 185. 
 opeipara^ 80, 81. 
 
 6pexd>pV^^f 12. 
 oVra, c^j^re, 1 17. 
 ovTas, 72. 
 oz/uf, 12. 
 oVco, 12. 
 o^vfiacpov, 21. 
 «>, 13- 
 
 OTToy, 185. 
 
 OTTTOS, 38. 
 OTTCpls, 38. 
 
 opefis, 99. 
 
 ^P^iXa, opvixos, 33. 
 
 opoGo'6, 197. 
 
 OTf, 97. 
 
 broLfjioSf 118. 
 ovhd<pr, 132. 
 oh^d.vow, 133. 
 ovdcicfyrove, 13 1. 
 ovdovK, 131. 
 
 OVXOfJi^VOS, 20. 
 o5i/, 20. 
 
 ovTrepyiairovv, 133. 
 ovpapoBpo/jLos, 141. 
 ovpavhsy 103. 
 ovcTLcvBrjs, 99. 
 6'xe77, 38. 
 oxi 5a, 115. 
 
 TratSii/, 116. 
 TrduTore^ 18 1. 
 7rapa56i7|Ua, 99. 
 irapat, 12. 
 TrapdKXrjToSy 1 6. 
 7rapaTr\7](nov, 1 03. 
 II apis, 71- 
 Traca, I44. 
 Traorxa, 1 1 9. 
 warepas, 71. 
 tteBiXgp, TreraXov, 1 98, 
 irevTLKos, 118. 
 
 ^^f>j 135- 
 irepyiaiTovVf 1 33. 
 TrepiTrarare, 12. 
 TrepKTo-orepov, I04, 1 86. 
 TrepfCTao'eiy, 1 04. 
 Jlepcres, 1 09. 
 TreVe, 135, 181. 
 TTiai/ft), TTitti^cii?, Trm^&j, 12, 
 
 81. 
 TTieYoj, Trmfco, 1 18. 
 irUaai, 187. 
 TTLarevca els, 1 83. 
 irlaTLS, irvaris, 22. 
 irL(TTis, 103. 
 TrAa/ca, 1 09. 
 irX^fw, II, 23, 29. 
 ttXtjp, 103. 
 7rXr}po(popco, 1 86. 
 irXiicria, 1 44. 
 irp^jiia, 116. 
 
 TroSeSiX*^^ 1 1 5* 
 TToros, 89. 
 TTfJ/ce, iroKa, 34. 
 TTopecrx^, 120. 
 ttScttlp, 115. 
 7roT6 jitoi;, 183. 
 
 TTOV, TTOU, 184, 198. 
 TTOl/a, 120. 
 
 irovX, TTovXos, ttojAos, 
 
 132. 
 
 TTOO lJi4v€lS, 183. 
 
 "^^0^7-, 37.^ 
 TrpayfjLaTiKOtJS) 1 04. 
 7rpa/Lia, 30. 
 TTpdrr], 117. 
 
 ^f>^% 135- 
 
 Trpri(TTis, 7rpi(Trr,s, 16. 
 
 irpoareppri^ep, 1 86. 
 
INDEX. 
 
 315 
 
 TTpO(TKOj.t,}Xa, 113. 
 
 TrpSraCLSi 99. 
 Trpovara, 1 20. 
 npovKa, 27. 
 TTuaAov, TTueAor, 1 1 8. 
 Triy/cj/cocis, 93. 
 TTvKas, 22. 
 
 TTVpTTO\Vtfx4vOS, lo8. 
 
 Trvrivri, 30. 
 
 TTcDs 06J/, 99. 
 
 paxov\a, 29. 
 
 P^, 132. 
 
 pefo;, II, 23, 29. 
 p€^ofj,eu, 116. 
 peTToiuL, pacpduLoy, 12. 
 P^TAta, pT7X^w» 186. 
 piC«> ^P'(aj 29. 
 pL^Khv, 144. 
 
 podoKOKKlUOS, 141. 
 
 P^7X^^j pTs, 22. 
 
 pUTTTCC, pilTTCa, 22. 
 
 po)^, 129. 
 
 o-a, 131, 145. 
 crdfjLepe, 12 J. 
 (Tapavrapyd, II 6. 
 eras, 71^ 109* 
 
 (re, V, <T€/jLowdeT, 132. 
 ae^aSi 29. 
 :§ei877pos-, 29. 
 tje^o/jLai, a€Vo/jLai, 29. 
 cefs, 7l' 
 (TLTepiv, 118. 
 
 (TKCL<pOS, 12. 
 
 0-KeAis, o-xeAls, 39. 
 
 JSfCT^TTiCOl/, (TKLTVOOV, 1 6. 
 
 (T/cia^co, 203. 
 
 o-KiCa', 39- 
 
 (TKLK^oct}, 34. 
 (TKoKadfxa, 29. 
 crKo\€Lh, 39. 
 (TKoria, 184. 
 (7/coTO^'aJ, 92. 
 (TKvKaKLOv, 116. 
 
 (TKV(pOS, 12. 
 
 crixi^L^ov, 80. 
 (TolBeco, 29. 
 (Tou7ria?s, 83. 
 
 (TovcrdiJLi, 83. 
 o-ra06iF, 187. 
 (TradephSy 1 06. 
 ardrrov, 79. 
 o-rare, 1 35. 
 o-T67r77, 131. 
 arepl^, l'j6. 
 crT7]\7], crrvAos, 2 2. 
 (TT7]pLy^y (TTvpa^, 22. 
 
 (TTLXOl TTOXlTLKoI, IIO. 
 O-TOiX^^OZ/, 93, 99, 200. 
 
 (TTpoyyvAojULopcpo'jrrjyov- 
 
 i/os, 141. 
 crvyKvpiav, 187. 
 av^rjreTv, 187. 
 av^vye, 22. 
 (TvuT7]pov(n, 143. 
 (T<poyy4pLV, 118. 
 o-X^/Wa^ 94. 
 (TCDfjLaTovpyr](T€Sj 141. 
 
 ra, I33, = a, I15, I45. 
 rai^g, 134. 
 ra^is, 94. 
 rap^v^oo^rap^ioo^Tpa^iiio, 
 
 116. 
 Tapr7](X(Tos, 1 6. 
 rd(J(T(a, 37. 
 ravrhp, 1 16. 
 re, 129, 133. 
 reKPT), 118. 
 reKvvs, 107. 
 T€jx-dr, 134. 
 
 Tf>e, 134- 
 rero'apes, 1 18. 
 T6^e, reVer, 133. 
 T^ayydpia, 108. 
 "^C^ tC^^. 121. 
 r^LKua^ Kv7aa, 145. 
 T^ou/xas, 108. 
 T77, rV, 75- 
 
 T7)l/0S, 34. 
 Ti, 120, 133. 
 
 Ti Ao77)s, 89. 
 
 Ti€Tpi, 137. 
 
 TijU-er, 134. 
 
 TfOl/, 121. 
 
 Tii/as, 117. 
 TLTTora, II. 
 T^7)^a, Tfj.v,yfia, 30. 
 
 Toiyapy 99. 
 to;/, 116. 
 To^f, 134. 
 Tovfia, 126, 127. 
 Tous^oyy, I45. 
 Tovrop, 116. 
 To%eV, 134. 
 Tpayi, 118. 
 
 '^P^? 135- 
 
 Tpeiri/bs, repiTvos, II6. 
 
 Tpovira, 83. 
 
 Tpdoyo), 182. 
 
 T-O-OU^W, 33. 
 TO-Xf, 119, 121. 
 
 rvKdurj, hovKo.vr], 20. 
 Tupaj/z/os-, KOLpapoSy 34. 
 Tuy, 27. 
 
 TVT, 134. 
 
 Tco;/, 109. 
 
 TWf'^ ToVe, ToVa, 134. 
 
 Tcopa, 89. 
 
 Twpa it\4ov, 120. 
 
 uaAos, 32. 
 
 ^'I^, V7jp(a, 16. 
 
 uios, 28. 
 
 uAt;, 21, 99. 
 
 uo, 126. 
 
 v-rrdyd), 103, 183. 
 
 virdpxc^, gg, 187. 
 
 uTTaros, 25. 
 vTrevOupos, 45. 
 ifTTodrjinap, III. 
 viroKei/iiepoUj 99. 
 vo-eTs, 115. 
 ^6r, 134. ^ 
 {/;//i(7ros, v^rjXos, 25. 
 
 (pdyeaai, 187. 
 
 (paiperai, 99, 
 
 (paipoo, (piyyco^ 25. 
 
 (pe^ofxat, (pe/Bycc, 29. 
 
 <pep€(Ta,L, 25. 
 
 (pepiCc-pe, 127. 
 
 (pepros, (peprepos, (pipra- 
 
 Tos, 83. 
 (/)6i'|e, 82. 
 
 ^I^V' 33- 
 
 (p7]KdpL0P, 33. 
 
 (pOdpu, 24, 187. 
 
2l6 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 (})6ivcaf 24. 
 (})iKo(ro(pia, 196. 
 (pirpov, (pyrpttf 22. 
 (pKeidvia^ <pT€idvQ}, 34. 
 (pKvdpLoVj (pTvdpiov, 34. 
 (pXrjvds, (pXvvds, 22. 
 (pXTlffKOvvi, 30. 
 <pKi^(a, (pXi^Epou, 33. 
 (pKov^LOV, 27. 
 (pofBacrai, 12. 
 (po^idj, 29. 
 <po(ovix€vos, 119. 
 ^o/z/i{, 27, 
 (^op|, 132. 
 (pop4€T€, (popeTre^ 15^ 
 ^opedf]if€f 117. 
 (pv^ovjjL^Vi (pv^co, 119. 
 ^uAayco, 37. 
 (pvcis, 21. 
 
 (jyvTevci), (piTvw, 29. 
 
 Aa, 132. 
 
 Xa/iaz, xa^ov, 145. 
 XttM-n-A^j, xct-f^V^os, 37. 
 hdvypovu, 132. 
 xduoi}, x^^j 206. 
 xdpis, hdpis, 118. 
 Xdpos, XdpotiVTaSi 92. 
 Zi^epe^ 132. 
 X-fipa-v^, 117. 
 Ai>5 132. 
 
 XiTOJJ/, 40. 
 
 XAa^us, 21. 
 XovXidpioVy 40. 
 XPVf^o.Tdwj 117. 
 Xpvo'<^oi/j XpvcrovVi 15. 
 X^rpa, 40. 
 
 Xwp7^, 116. 
 
 i//aKas, ipLxdKa, 12. 
 
 rpavrepLV, 21. 
 
 #s, 144. 
 
 rprjKacpSj, 206. 
 
 t(/?7Aos, ;|/i\3s, if/tA^r, 27^ 
 
 206. 
 ^rjcpcoj 208. 
 
 \f/ilJifivdLOV, xf/LfiixiOiov, 22. 
 ;f/o(^(iet, 92. 
 
 &^€ov, 21. 
 ^Aaf, 24. 
 wvofidffQai, 28. 
 (ior, 21. 
 wpa, 189. 
 ajpa/ca, 1 28. 
 WTiop, 24. 
 
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12 Clarendon Press Series, 
 
 X. AKT, &c. 
 
 A Handbook of Pictorial Art. By R. St. J. Tyrwhitt, 
 
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 Out of the vast number of authors set before him in books 
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 he thinks he must read a little of all ; he soon abandons so hope- 
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Clarendon Press Series, 1 3 
 
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14 Clarendon Press Series, 
 
 age, the larger part by far must be excluded from our list. 
 Common sense tells us that if young persons, who have but a 
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 popular estimation is a safe guide — the student v/ill find the fol- 
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 Pope, Johnson, Burke, and Cowper. In other words, Chaucer is 
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 Reformation and the Tudors ; Hooker of the latter years of 
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 useful, some of the masterpieces of the authors just mentioned 
 may be added to the list. 
 
 The task of selection is not yet finished. For purposes of 
 education, it would neither be possible, nor, if possible, desirable, 
 to place in the hands of students the whole of the works of the 
 authors we have chosen. We must set before them only the 
 masterpieces of literature, and their studies must be directed, not 
 only to the greatest minds, but to their choicest productions. 
 These are to be read again and again, separately and in combina- 
 tion. Their purport, form, language, bearing on the times, must 
 
Clarendon Press Series. ig 
 
 be minutely studied, till the student begins to recognise the full 
 value of each work both in itself and in its relations to those that 
 go before and those that follow it. 
 
 It is especially hoped that this Series may prove useful to 
 Ladies' Schools and Middle Class Schools ; in which English 
 Literature must always be a leading subject of instruction. 
 
 A General Introduction to the Series. By Professor 
 
 Brewer, M.A. 
 
 1. Chaucer. The Prologue to the Canterbury Tales : The 
 
 Knightes Tale ; The Nonne Prest his Tale. Edited by R. Morris, Editor for 
 the "Early English Text Society, &c., See. Second Ediiion. Extra fcap. 8vo. 
 cloth, 2s. 6d. 
 
 2. Spenser's Faery Queene. Books I and XL Designed 
 
 chiefly for the use of Schools. With Introduction, Notes, and Glossary. By 
 G. W. Kitchin, M.A., formerly Censor of Christ Church. Extra fcap. 8vo. 
 cloth, 2S. 6d. each. 
 
 3. Hooker. Ecclesiastical Polity, Book I. Edited by R. W. 
 
 Church, M.A., Rector of Whatley ; formerly Fellow of Oriel College, Oxford. 
 Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, "zs. 
 
 4. Shakespeare. Select Plays. Edited by W. G. Clark, 
 
 M.A., Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, and Public Orator ; and W. Aldis 
 Wright, M.A., Librarian of Trinity College, Cambridge. 
 
 I. The Merchant of Venice. Extra fcap. 8vo. slipcovers, zs. 
 
 II. Richard the Second. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiffcovers, \s. 6d. 
 
 III. Macbeth. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, xs. 6d. 
 
 5. Bacon. Advancement of Learning. Edited by W. Aldis 
 
 Wright, M.A. Extra fcap. 8vo. cloth, 4s. 6d. 
 
 6. Milton. Poems. Edited by R. C. Browne, MA., and 
 
 Associate of King's College, London. 2 vols. Ext. fcap. 8vo. cloth, 6s. 6d. 
 Just published. 
 
 7. Dry den. Stanzas on the Death of Oliver Cromwell ; 
 
 Astraea Redux; Annus Mirabilis; Absalom and Achitophel ; Religio Laici ; 
 Tlie Hind and Panther, Edited by W. D. Christie, M.A., Trinity College, 
 Cambridge. In the Press. 
 
 8. Bunyan. Grace Abounding; The Pilgrim's Progress. 
 
 Edited by E. Venables, M.A., Canon of Lincoln. 
 
1 6 Clarendon Press Series, 
 
 9. Pope. With Introduction and Notes. By Mark Pattison, 
 
 B.D., Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. 
 
 I. Essay on Man. Extra fcap. 8vo. stiff covers, \s. 6d. 
 II. Epistles and Satires. 
 
 10. Johnson. Rasselas; Lives of Pope and Dryden. Edited 
 
 by C. H. O. Daniel, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Worcester College, Oxford. 
 
 11. Burke. Thoughts on the Present Discontents; the Two 
 
 Speeches on America ; Reflections on the French Revolution. By Mark Patti- 
 son, B.D., Rector of Lincoln College, Oxford. 
 
 12. CoTTTper. The Task, and some of his minor Poems. 
 
 Edited by J. C. Shairp, M.A., Principal of the United Colleges, St. Andrews. 
 
 Published for the University by 
 MACMILLAlSr AND CO., LONDON. 
 
 The Delegates of the Press invite suggestions and advice 
 from all persons interested in education; and will be thankful 
 for hints, &c., addressed to either the Rev. G. W. Kitchin, 
 
 St. Giles's Road East, Oxford, or the Secretary to the 
 
 Delegates, Clarendon Press, Oxford. 
 
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